LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 i^Hp. -^J- ^mtiti^ I0 
 
 Shelf ....5.&. 3 
 
 UNITED STATES OF yifllERICA. 
 
/ 
 
TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FORELEG. 
 
 -•" A. Flexor pedis perforatus. 
 -B B. " " perforans. 
 
 C C. Metacarpal or check lig- 
 ament. 
 ..•D) D. Superior suspensorj^ lig- 
 ament. 
 
 At fork between two D's. 
 Insertion of check liga- 
 ment into perforans. 
 
 D. Superior suspensory lig- 
 ament. 
 
 ^0 
 
 ■-0 
 
 B B. Flexor perforans. 
 
 A A. Flexor perforatus. 
 
 -^ d. Bifurcation of the su- 
 perior suspensory liga- 
 ment. 
 
 y. Branch of the superior 
 suspensory, which is 
 called the inferior sus- 
 pensory ligament, of 
 which there are two — 
 one inside and one out- 
 side. 
 
 Insertion at the ujjper end 
 of the lower pastern. 
 Insertion of the perfor- 
 atus. 
 
 B. Continuation of perfor- 
 g ans, afterwards becom- 
 
 ing inserted into tho 
 lower back part of the 
 pedal-bone. 
 
 S. Splint bone. 
 
 E. Extensor tendon. 
 
 M. Great metacarpol or can- 
 non or splint bone. 
 
 E. Extensor tendon. 
 
 ^From Col, Fitzuygram's " Horses and Stables."] 
 
THE 
 
 FOOT OF THE HORSE 
 
 OR 
 
 Lameness and all Diseases of the Feet 
 
 TRACED TO AN 
 
 UNBALANCED FOOT BONE 
 
 Prevented or Cured by Balancing the Foot 
 
 DAVID ROBERGE 
 
 ;'>|V!AR201894") 
 
 NEW YORK 
 WILLIAM R. JENKINS 
 
 VETERINARY PUBLISHER AND BOOKSELLER 
 
 851 AND 853 Sixth Avenue 
 
 1894 
 
Copyright, 1894, 
 DAVID ROBERGE. 
 
 r^. 
 
 ^"^i 
 
De&ication. 
 
 ROBERT BONNER, 
 
 W/wsc name is synonymous Tiuth ctierything that is of good report 
 in the realm of horses; who has been my encourager in a very im- 
 portant but little-known field of investigation; who shares equally 
 with me the desire to abolish or mitigate the sufferings of horses 
 whieh we know to be preventaule and therefore unnecessary, by the 
 diffusion of a better knowledge of the principles of horseshoeing than 
 what prevails at the present time; who recognizes with me the im- 
 portance of the art of horseshoeing to the general welfare of society; 
 and would aid in doing all that is possible to promote the highest 
 degree of technical and practical education among horseshoers at- 
 tainable; and furthermore, as a small but fust and ho?test tribute of 
 Personal esteem and gratitude, arising out of an almost constant 
 companionship in study during the past twenty-five years; 
 
 AND WITH THE UTMOST RESPECT, 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 
 
 BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This work will be found to be entirely new, and on 
 a different plan from anything of the kind which has 
 yet been presented. The writers upon the subject of 
 shoeing and the management of horses' feet are very 
 numerous, but an analysis of their writings shows that 
 the work of one is often merely a repetition of that of 
 another. The author proposes to lay down a rule for 
 every practitioner or operator upon the foot of the horse. 
 The cuts and drawings are entirely new, differing from 
 any others that have so far been presented to the public. 
 They are the harvest or fruits of the seeds sown over 
 forty-five years ago. 
 
 This work on shoeing will show that from one cen- 
 tury to another, no science — either medical or mechani- 
 cal — has yet arrived at the root of the causes from which 
 result the daily ailments and lamenesses. It will cast 
 a new light before the eyes of the veterinary profession, 
 and prove clearly that, instead of the medical science 
 which men have studied from one generation to an- 
 other, their works have brought forth no recompense. 
 Had they spent their allotted time in the study of 
 mechanical science in reference to the horse's hoof, no 
 doubt they would have found a specific for each and 
 every ailment centuries ago. 
 
Vi PREFACE. 
 
 The following illustrations of improved methods of 
 shoeing horses — whether for the purpose of preventing 
 diseases and lamenesses or for removing or ameliorat- 
 ing those abnormal conditions when they present them- 
 selves — are so simple that any one endowed with ordinary 
 intellect may readily perceive from the various drawings, 
 each suitable to its own disease, how accurately he mighi 
 arrive at the precise point and make a correct diagnosis, 
 thereby enabling him to prescribe a specific for each case 
 that presents itself. 
 
 The accompanying drawings of various postures will 
 enable the operator to form a correct prognosis, as well 
 as an accurate diagnosis, and without being capable of 
 complying with the latter it will be an utter impossi- 
 bility to assent to the former. 
 
 The following mechanical appliances are composed — 
 
 1 . Of any device which may tend to change the bear- 
 ing or maintain the equilibrium, such as a shoe formed 
 or constructed in such a manner as the case may require. 
 
 2. The hoof itself so modified by paring or rasping 
 as to arrive at the required form. 
 
 3. Of any appliance for expanding the hoof, so as to 
 symmetrize the foot proper. 
 
 4. The surface on which the horse stands constructed 
 as the case may require, having an ascent or descent, to 
 change the pathological conditions or postures into a 
 physiological stature or attitude. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Regarding the introduction of a new theory concern- 
 ing the foot of the horse, I presume the person claiming 
 its paternal relationship will be expected to make some 
 introductory remarks appropriate to the occasion. 
 
 To the best of my knowledge and belief, the theory 
 or system of horseshoeing which I am now about to pre- 
 sent to the readers of this book has been in existence 
 about forty-five years. 
 
 It is by no means young and crude ; it has been in 
 practice for these forty-five years ; and now in the full 
 vigor of its ripe maturity I have the honor to present 
 it to all who take any interest whatever in 
 
 " That wondrous link in being's chain," 
 
 the horse. 
 
 That inexhaustible subject, the foot of the horse, has 
 furnished texts for many a laboriously learned disserta- 
 tion as well as supplied themes for the pens of ready 
 writers of briefer treatises, both professional and ama- 
 teur, and yet I have an impression that " the half hath 
 not been told" that may yet be revealed concerning it. 
 
 The importance of the horse 4s a factor in the vari- 
 ous civilizations and the different stages of all civiliza- 
 tions, I think has never yet been sufficiently estimated. 
 
 Notwithstanding the progress of the equine race in 
 the development of its capacities and possibilities, I deem 
 
2 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 it a reasonable inference that when the full requirements 
 of his whole nature from an educational as well as d, phys- 
 ical standpoint are fully appreciated and carried out in 
 practice, not only will there be greater individual achieve- 
 ments in speed and endurance which will shed lustre 
 upon the race, but there will be a great general improve- 
 ment all along the line, very much for the benefit and ad- 
 vantage of the horse as well as of his human proprietor 
 from every point of view. 
 
 At the present time, speaking broadly, there seems to 
 be such an inscrutable mystery concerning the foot of 
 the horse and the origin of its diseases that it constitutes 
 a fatal inheritance to the whole equine race in domesti- 
 cated circumstances, that fatal inheritance being the 
 eternal tendency of his feet to destroy his natural balance, 
 combined with the lack of knowledge of how to preserve 
 it on the part of his guardians. 
 
 From an economic standpoint the horse-raising in- 
 dustry has attained enormous proportions, the census of 
 1880 showing the existence of eleven millions of horses 
 at that time, and doubtless the last census has shown a 
 great increase in the number, but as it is not at hand I 
 will not risk any misstatement, I merely want to em- 
 phasize the magnitude of this industry to show the im- 
 portance of correct knowledge of the absolute require- 
 ments of horses from the earliest period of their eolthood 
 to the latest day of their horsehood. 
 
 I have an impression that it will be many a day, if 
 ever, before the various utilities of the horse in the 
 armies of the world and in the greater and lesser cen- 
 tres of commerce and population can or will be super- 
 seded to any great extent by electricity, steam, or any 
 other force whatever. 
 
 Some medical discoveries beneficial to the human 
 race are found to benefit incidentally the equine species, 
 and the comparative pathologist finds so much in common 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 3 
 
 between the two that he can readily become the efficient 
 medical attendant of both. 
 
 It is a regrettable circumstance, however, that while 
 the general progress of human and veterinary medical 
 science has been found to be mutually beneficial, there 
 is one branch of what is called veterinary science in 
 which progress appears to have been fatally arrested. 
 Need I say that this is the branch which relates to the 
 hygienic treatment of, as well as to the diseases and 
 their remedies of, the locomotory system of the horse? 
 
 Without going further back than toward the close of 
 the last century, it will be interesting to cite a few facts 
 from a reliable authority upon the state of the knowl- 
 edge of horseshoeing in England, and to learn if any 
 and what progress has been made therein during the 
 past one hundred years. 
 
 Professor Gamgee, in his historical sketch concerning 
 horseshoeing, informs us that toward the close of the 
 last century, " the ablest men at that time who had 
 studied the subject were deeply impressed with the im- 
 portance of the art of horseshoeing as essential to the 
 state, to agriculture and to commerce, to the efficiency 
 of an army and to the general wants of society." 
 
 This was the leading idea that caused the founding 
 of colleges and schools first in France and then in Eng- 
 land. The main object was the improvement of the art 
 of horseshoeing; the medical treatment was secondary 
 and incidental. These men regarded the foot as the 
 essential part of the horse ; they were observant enough 
 to know that the shoe was an instrument of good or ill, 
 of life or death to the horse, and the great desideratum 
 then was felt to be, doubtless what it is to-day, a better 
 knowledge of the art of shoeing horses. 
 
 This art must have been in a very unsatisfactory 
 state at that time to have called forth so much of organ- 
 ized effort to place it upon a more satisfactory footing. 
 
4 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Glancing at the first college founded in England, its 
 founders were dominated by the same convictions of the 
 necessity that existed for a system of shoeing whereby 
 the enormous destruction of horse property and values 
 then going on could be arrested. 
 
 Professor Coleman, virtually the first principal and 
 professor of the English college, himself declared that 
 " a proper method of shoeing horses was of more impor- 
 tance than the treatment of any, or perhaps all, diseases 
 incidental to the horse." 
 
 All through the century this statement or declaration 
 has been repeated and emphasized by every writer of 
 note on the foot diseases of the horse, but notwithstand- 
 ing all their efforts and their hopes and expectations 
 they were doomed to disappointment, and the waste and 
 destruction of horses, according to Professor Gamgee, 
 was as rife seventy-five years later as the day the first 
 college was established. 
 
 The opinion has been often expressed, and I think is 
 very likely to be true, that the destruction of horses and 
 consequently of their value is many times greater from 
 diseases of the feet than from all other causes combined. 
 
 The two latest writers of any note upon the subject 
 of horseshoeing have both deplored in similar terms the 
 absence as well as the need of a theory or system that 
 would throw light upon the origin of the diseases of 
 horses' feet, and from the tenor of their observations 
 would have hailed the advent of such a theory as a boon 
 of great importance both to society and to horses. 
 
 Professor Gamgee and Mr. Fleming used language 
 very similar to the following : A theory or system of 
 shoeing horses of uniform and universal application that 
 would throw light upon the origin of diseases and put 
 an end forever to ceaseless and useless controversies, 
 which would harmonize conflicting opinions and show 
 the true sequence of the originating cause or causes and 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 5 
 
 the final effects of disorders of the locomotory machin- 
 ery of the horse — such a theory or system had not then 
 appeared in either the earlier or the later times. 
 
 By some the present century is said to have been the 
 greatest century of progress in the various arts of which 
 we have any historical record, in view of which we might 
 well ask what has been the progress, if any, in the 
 science or art of horseshoeing during that period? 
 
 I prefer that this question should be answered by 
 Professor Gamgee, himself a horseshoer and the histo- 
 rian of horseshoeing in the present century. 
 
 When he wrote his famous work, as he deemed it, on 
 lameness of horses some twenty years ago, we are in- 
 formed that he attended the lectures of Professor Cole- 
 man at the London college nearly seventy-five years 
 before that time, which must have been shortly after 
 the opening of the college. Professor Coleman had no 
 special fitness for the appointments he held as teacher of 
 veterinary medicine and horseshoeing, having no prac- 
 tical acquaintance whatever v/ith horses, yet this young 
 man of twenty-four years of age was invested with 
 authority to dictate the style or system of shoeing horses 
 to every farrier in the British army and to every horse- 
 shoer outside of it. The pupil became a favorite of the 
 teacher, we are told, but this was a poor makcivcight for 
 the small quantity and the poor quality of the teach- 
 ing. Further, Mr. Gamgee says that the small amount 
 of the teaching was the lesser evil of the two. What 
 he had been taught to believe in and to rely upon 
 as scientific knowledge, when reduced to practice turned 
 out to be mere "verbose trash" or "the expression of 
 crude hobbies," 
 
 I commend Mr, Gamgee's observations to the horse- 
 shoers of this country. As one of their class he regarded 
 the craft in his day, and probably does so still if he is 
 living, as "a degraded and disbanded craft, a body of 
 
6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 men the victims of bad instruction, and in want of in- 
 telligent leadership," 
 
 I think I but express the truth when I say the great 
 need of the time to horseshoers, as a body, is higher 
 trained skill in their art, and the "spirit of progress" 
 should inspire them to make efforts to acquire a higher 
 standard of technical education, and that would elevate 
 them as a body in the estimation of the community as 
 much higher than that of the mere veterinary surgeon 
 as the art, or science rather, of shoeing horses transcends 
 in importance to society that of the merely medical re- 
 quirements of the horse. 
 
 As showing what was considered advanced knowledge 
 about the middle of the century, a veterinary surgeon 
 named James Turner wrote an essay on one disease or 
 lesion of the foot and gave it a name, navicular disease. 
 No light was thrown upon the primary causes of the 
 disease, and no remedy suggested beyond the usual firing, 
 blistering, and rest at grass, and, as a last resort, neurot- 
 omy. From recent works on lameness I don't think 
 much advance has been made beyond this treatment up 
 to the present time. 
 
 I had almost forgotten to mention that Mr. Turner 
 recommended one-sided nailing in this disease, and this is 
 spoken of as the unilateral plan of nailing. Mr. Tur- 
 ner, however, is to be credited with the following esti- 
 mate of the status of the veterinary profession in his 
 day. He writes : " It has been seized with apathy ; no 
 weighty facts of the enduring kind have been chronicled. 
 The remedy and grand requirement of the present crisis 
 is an infusion of fresh vigor and an energetic spirit for 
 research." As horseshoeing was then considered a 
 branch of veterinary science, it seems to me that Mr. 
 Turner must have regarded it, as a dead branch, as no 
 reference is made to it, though coming clearly within 
 the scope of his remarks. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 7 
 
 Twenty-five or thirty years later Mr. Gamgee could 
 review his experience of seventy-five years, and he can- 
 didly informs us that he had " oscillated from one set of 
 errors to another during that time," and he describes the 
 system in vogue as an evil of incalculable magnitude. 
 Said he, " Look in our streets, consult owners of horses, 
 and what is the result?" Lameness, the common effect, 
 which damages and destroys more horses than all the 
 other diseases put together to which they are liable. 
 The cause is bad shoeing — the remedy must be good 
 shoeing. 
 
 I wish now to say a little about my theory or system 
 and its outcome, the centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 I glean from Mr. Gamgee 's writings more than from 
 any other that the great desideratum in the art of horse- 
 shoeing to have been considered by all the founders of 
 the French and English colleges, a theory or system, 
 the fundamental facts or principles of which shall be in 
 absolute consonance with the structural fact or principles 
 of the organs of locomotion — a theory or system which 
 shall be of universal application — that is to say, to all 
 horses of whatever kind or description ; that it shall 
 throw light upon the origin of departures from normally 
 healthy conditions, and be instrumental in the restora- 
 tion of those conditions when they have been departed 
 from; which shall, moreover, be easy to understand and 
 acquire, easy of practical application, shall be compara- 
 tively inexpensive as to cost, and shall be easily de- 
 monstrable. 
 
 If this be the theory or system they have been search- 
 ing for, let them desist from any further search, for it 
 has been found. I claim to have found it many years 
 ago, and I claim also the above theory will be found 
 fully elucidated in these pages. 
 
 I have always regarded the horse as a locomotive en- 
 gine on legs, instead of one on wheels, one being driven 
 
8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 by nerve-force and the other by steam. I never watched 
 a horse's movements without associating with them the 
 ideas of the lever, the level, and the plumb-line at first, 
 and later on of axes of motion, of centres of bearing, 
 centres of gravity, centres of rotation, and so on. A 
 perfect balance was soon suggested as the one thing ?ieed- 
 ful to keep the horse in perpetual working order. 
 
 The idea or principle of perfect balance, therefore, 
 is the master key of my theory. 
 
 / regard a perfect balance of the pedal bone essentially 
 and absolutely necessary to attain or maintain the normal 
 condition of the foot and leg to tvhich it belongs. 
 
 This work will show, as well as the language at my 
 command will permit, that not less than fifty-four forms 
 of disease or diseased action which affect the various 
 tissues of which the limb is composed can all be traced 
 clearly and unmistakably to one cause, and that one 
 
 cause AN UNBALANCED PEDAL BONE. 
 
 The discovery of this principle alone would have 
 been one of considerable importance, but I consider the 
 value of this discovery is immeasurably enhanced by 
 the discovery of the centre-bearing shoe, since there is 
 scarcely a lameness of any kind or degree which may 
 not be ijnmediately relieved by the application of this 
 shoe, and not only so, but this shoe will facilitate the 
 cure of all curable ailments in a shorter time and with- 
 out turning the horse out to grass, than by an)" other 
 means that I have ever heard or read of. 
 
 Another brief reference to Mr. Gamgee may be per- 
 mitted. In his work upon " Horseshoeing and the 
 Lameness of Horses " I find this passage, which shows 
 how closely he verged toward my theory without having 
 touched its mainspring. He writes: "It is perfectly 
 obvious that it would be hopeless to attempt to describe 
 the structures of the whole limb of the horse, or to prove 
 in a detailed manner how the condition of the foot nee- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 9 
 
 essarily reacts upon all the joints of the limb above it." 
 My theory was almost within his grasp at that time, al- 
 though for twenty years before that it had been revealed 
 to me, and later on I had been teaching it to many per- 
 sons in Canada and the United States. Mr. Gamgee 
 had studied well the anatomy and physiology of the 
 horse's leg, but had left the study of its purely mechani- 
 cal functions to others. It has been my task to describe 
 the structures which he believed would have been a 
 hopeless attevipt within the limits of his treatise, and I 
 think I have shown in a detailed manner and conclu- 
 sively how the condition of the foot — in other words, the 
 unbalanced condition of the pedal bone — necessarily 
 acts and reacts viccJianically upon all the joints of the 
 limb above it. 
 
 Honor to Whom Honor is Due. 
 
 I suppose I shall find no more fitting opportunity 
 than the present one for the expression of my very deep 
 sense of obligation and gratitude to a gentleman whose 
 name is as familiar as " household words" throughout 
 our broad country, and I have no doubt in regions be- 
 yond, to every admirer and lover of the horse. The 
 name of that gentleman is Robert Bonner. If this effort 
 to improve the art of horseshoeing and thereby to bene- 
 fit society shall eventuate in the success that is hoped 
 for it and believed that it should do, I could not say \.o\ 
 whom the horse and his oivner will be the most indebted,] 
 Mr. Bonner or myself. 
 
 It has been a severe labor to me to learn a language 
 and write a book of this nature in the " sere and yellow 
 leaf" of my age, and though I long cherished the idea 
 of publishing this theory to the world, yet I verily be- 
 lieve that had I not been reminded from time to time by 
 that gentleman to zvork ivJiile it ivas yet day, the execution 
 
iO THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of this purpose might easily have been postponed until 
 it was too late. Shortly after my first arrival in this city 
 from Canada twenty-five years ago I formed the acquaint- 
 ance of Mr. Robert Bonner, who took an immediate in- 
 terest in my theory and my mechanical devices for va- 
 rious purposes in connection with the feet of horses. 
 AI)' material prosperity ivas ass2ircd from that very day. 
 
 I found Mr. Bonner in possession of important facts 
 in relation to the foot of the horse not generally known, 
 and I soon found that I had in him a shrewd and com- 
 petent critic of my theories and devices. 
 
 Thereafter much of that gentleman's time was spent 
 with me in his extensive and valuable library, where it 
 has been his particular pains and I suppose his peculiar 
 pleasure to gather together every publication, of what- 
 ever class or kind of books or periodicals of the earlier 
 or the later times, having any near or remote reference 
 to the horse, regardless of merit or cost, and where much 
 " midnight oil" has been consumed in the discussion of 
 our favorite topics. His library was our debating ground 
 and his farm our convincing ground. 
 
 So well posted was he in horse literature that he 
 could lay his hand on any book and his finger on any 
 citation that he wanted in a few moments. 
 
 Without having any idea of such a purpose, we might 
 have been said to have constituted a club of two, which 
 might have been called the Equine Foot Club, or the Per- 
 fect Balance Club, or the Horseshoe Club, for all our dis- 
 cussions had reference to those questions, and for many 
 years our meetings averaged three more than once in 
 each week. "As iron sharpeneth iron," etc., might 
 have been the motto of our club, for it was in very fre- 
 quent requisition to remind us of the purposes for which 
 we came together. 
 
 Any feasible idea that could be practically tested 
 Mr. Bonner was always willing to test upon his own 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. It 
 
 horses, which for the last nineteen years have numbered 
 not less than one hundred as an average. 
 
 Some explanation is due for the unusual length and 
 the peculiar arrangement of the topics of discussion con- 
 stituting the first article, which includes our observation 
 on the navicular disease. After considering this matter 
 I concluded to leave them just as they were written, I 
 bespeak a little indulgence in this matter on the part of 
 the reader. 
 
 It will be seen that my literary acquirements are not 
 of the highest order; literature is not my forte. 
 
 As said before, I have had to learn a language in order 
 to be able to write this book such as it is. I hope, how- 
 ever, and believe that the importance and value of the 
 new information it conveys will abundantly atone for 
 every lack of excellence discernible in its arrangement 
 or composition. It will be found that some secrets 
 which the foot has carried within it have been yielded 
 up to a close investigation of its mecJianical construction 
 and arrangement.' It will be seen that mccJianical as 
 well as physiological causes are always in operation, tend- 
 ing to produce a derangement of the working parts of 
 the machine, and, further, that mechanical remedies are 
 ever at hand which will infallibly counteract derange- 
 ment of this machinery, or when deranged restore it 
 again to working order. 
 
 A Suggestion to Horseshoers. 
 
 There are several very good reasons why every horse- 
 shoer w^ho carries on business for himself should pos- 
 sess a creditable collection of specimens of healthy and 
 diseased bone, of legs of horses below the knee, and 
 hoofs variously mounted and prepared to show the dif- 
 ferent tissues composing the foot and leg, the attach- 
 ments and insertions of the tendons and ligaments, and, 
 
12 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 I repeat, healthy and diseased specimens of hoofs and 
 bones. 
 
 The first reason is the actual and positive knowledge 
 that may be acquired upon the structures composing the 
 leg with their various purposes and functions, and the 
 readiness with which, in case of an argument arising 
 thereon, an appeal can be carried to the specimens them- 
 selves. 
 
 Another reason, that such a collection would cost very 
 little besides a little time and labor and in a year's time 
 w;ould be worth a good deal more than it cost. Besides, 
 a collection of this nature affords fair presumable evi- 
 dence that the man owning it has made a study of such 
 matters which have an important bearing upon the ques- 
 tion of shoeing either the sound or the lame horse, and 
 he will be regarded as a better authority on such matters 
 than he who owns no such collection. Such a collection 
 would repay in enhanced reputation and increased busi- 
 ness many times the value of its cost. 
 
 Set a barrel filled with water in the back yard or in a 
 corner of the shop and place in it everything from which 
 you wish to detach the bones and hoofs. In a month's 
 time or less everything will slip easily from the bones, 
 when they can be placed for a few days in cJiloridc of 
 lime water, which will give them a better smell and whiten 
 them besides. The hoofs should be cleaned up and 
 trimmed up and be filed up ship-shape for polishing, if 
 you wish to polish them. Before they dry and shrink 
 they should be filled with plaster-of-Paris in any case. 
 
 If you wish to polish them nail a strip of thin wood 
 across the bottom of the foot to serve for a handle while 
 doing so. Three grades of fine emery cloth, using the 
 coarsest first and the finest last, should be got. The 
 final rubbing should be given with putty powder and 
 sweet oil, well rubbed on with a flannel rag. 
 
 Legs should be got up in cool weather and should be 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 3 
 
 fresh. I would recommend you to get a scalpel and for- 
 ceps and do the thing right. " If at first you don't suc- 
 ceed, try, try again." You will soon get proud of your 
 achievements in that line, and I hardly need tell you 
 such a collection kept in a glass cupboard or cabinet would 
 be as good as gold in both pockets from the increased busi- 
 ness it would bring you, all other things being equal. 
 
 I should have added that after separating the tendons 
 and ligaments of the leg with small bits of wood the 
 specimens should be allowed to dry in a cool, airy place 
 such as an open shed, and they should be hung near the 
 roof. 
 
 Foot Anatomy of the Horse. 
 
 1, The most obvious fact about the horse's foot is 
 that its external portion, the hoof, is a very hard and 
 comparatively unyielding substance, and that it forms 
 a complete envelope or inclosure for the protection of 
 the sensitive, living portion of the foot within it. 
 
 The next noticeable fact is that within this horny 
 inclosure there is a bone, a very peculiarly shaped bone, 
 which is called the pedal bone, though sometimes it is 
 called the foot bone or the coffin bone. I shall always 
 refer to it as the pedal bone. This bone has three prin- 
 cipal surfaces, one which corresponds exactly with the 
 inner surface of the hoof, one that rests upon the horny 
 sole, and the other surface is called articulatory, because 
 two other bones are in conjunction with it to form a 
 joint. The other two bones are the small pastern or 
 coronary bone and a very small bone called the navicu- 
 lar or sesamoid bone. 
 
 The Pedal Joint. 
 
 2. The joint formed by the three last-named bones 
 is called the pedal articulation or joint. The pedal bone 
 has what may be called a vital union with the internal 
 
14 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 surface of the horny wall of the foot, by means of a 
 large number, nearly five hundred, of thin strips of tis- 
 sue running from above downward and interleaving a 
 similar arrangement upon the internal surface of the 
 hoof. These little strijjs are called lamina for the sin- 
 gular and laminae for the plural. 
 
 The Foot Constantly Enlarged by Growth. 
 
 3. I wish early to emphasize the fact that the foot is 
 constantly enlarging by growth, and that this fact has a 
 paramount bearing upon the theory to be enunciated in 
 this book. 
 
 Points on Pointing. 
 
 4. The union of the hoof and the pedal bone is of so 
 vital and essential a character that it is impossible to in- 
 terfere with the functions of one without affecting those 
 of the other. 
 
 The foot which enjoys perfect equilibrium to-day 
 will have lost a portion of that equilibrium by to-mor- 
 row, and this law goes on increasing every day until the 
 overgrowth of horn has destroyed the horse's due balance 
 so that he can neither stand nor travel at ease; thus 
 showing that this extra growth of horn requires trimming 
 and paring very frequently in order to preserve the bal- 
 ance which results from the maintenance of the proper 
 size and proportions of the hoof. 
 
 Any increase or surplus growth of the hoof, whether 
 at the toe or the lie eh or the sieles of the foot, will cause 
 the horse to point with his foot in the direction of the ele- 
 vated portion of the foot. Whether it be with the toe of 
 the hoof or the toe of the shoe, he will invariably point 
 in that direction. 
 
 Correspondingly, if the heels of the fore foot or of the 
 shoe be too high he will just as invariably point or stand 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 5 
 
 back under himself, which is pointing in the direction of 
 the high heels. 
 
 Again, if too high on the outside of the hoof, whether 
 it be from the foot or the shoe, or from both combined, 
 he will extend his limb out sideways in order to gain 
 relief from pain caused by his unbalanced foot, always 
 remembering that he points in the direction of the ele- 
 vated part of the foot. 
 
 Similarly undue height of the hoof or of the shoe, 
 or of both combined, on the inside portion of the foot will 
 cause the horse to cross his legs, by putting one foot in 
 front of or behind the other. These various positions 
 of standing are all symptoms of loss of balance, and if 
 not rectified in time are conducive to further troubles, 
 and lameness is the usual result. 
 
 This of itself should be proof enough of the impor- 
 tance of knowing what is^^^^//<?r;// for a horse's foot, and 
 also of restoring this good form. These deviations are 
 the first causes of the multitude of infirmities to which 
 the foot and leg of the horse are perpetually liable from 
 an unbalanced hoof. A perfectly balanced foot means 
 perfect rest while standing and perfectly free and easy 
 movements while in motion. 
 
 Equilibrium Essential. 
 
 5. The equilibrium of the horse is solely dependent 
 upon the condition of his feet. If his feet are in such a 
 shape as to compel him to point in any direction for re- 
 lief, either with one or more feet, he must certainly be 
 off Jiis physical balance, in proportion to the degree or the 
 intensity of the primary cause. 
 
 Horny Feet and Fleshy Feet. 
 
 6. It has often occurred to me that fleshy-footed ani- 
 mals, that is to say, those whose feet mature with the 
 growth of their bodies, such as the elephant, the camel, 
 
l6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and the dog, seem to enjoy an absolute immunity from 
 diseases of the foot and leg except those which arise from 
 accidental circumstances, while the feet of the horse are 
 the very fountain-head of his miseries. The reasons 
 for this can be easily understood when we remember 
 that the feet of fleshy-footed animals, as I said before, 
 mature with the growth of their bodies, and therefore 
 are not subject to changes by growth as are the feet of 
 horses 
 
 Why Fleshy-Footed Animals Do Not Point. 
 
 7. These feet grow to a size in proportion to the 
 body of the animal and no larger, and they undergo no 
 change in formation or symmetry from their birth until 
 death. Their weight is carried on lines of bearing which 
 are terminated by a cushion in the shape of a hemisphere 
 or half -ball. This form of the cushion enables it to rock 
 over easily, and its elastic properties cause its adapta- 
 tion to every inequality of surface it has to travel upon. 
 This accounts for their not pointing or resting first on 
 one foot and then another, and for their standing always, 
 unlike the horse, with the axes of their legs parallel to 
 each other. There is an apparent but not real exception 
 to this rule in the pointer dog; he points, but his point- 
 ing has nothing to do with the structure of his limbs. 
 
 More Points on Pointing. 
 
 8. I have described four different positions in which 
 the horse may find relief, by extending his limb, from 
 pain produced by an unbalanced hoof or foot. Those 
 four positions would form four right angles, but as this 
 does not describe all the positions in which he can stand 
 to gain relief, I will supplement them with four more. 
 These eight points will describe an octagon, each angle 
 being one of 22 ^^ degrees. The rule is to be con- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 7 
 
 stantly borne in mind and it will be frequently repeated 
 that when there is an undue elevation of the foot at 
 any one of these eight points, the foot will invariably 
 be pointed in the same direction as that of the undue 
 elevation itself. Thus the horse himself always points 
 to the seat of the trouble with his own finger as it 
 were, and enables you to locate it with ease and abso- 
 lute certainty. 
 
 Explanation of the Chart on Pointing. 
 
 9. A fuller explanation of pointing will now be given 
 (see the chart on pointing). 
 
 It may be observed that a horse may point with his 
 foot in any direction of the mariner's compass, but for 
 all practical purposes they can be reduced to eight. 
 
 1. The inside heel of the hoof or the shoe, or both 
 combined, being too high, the leg will be pointed back- 
 ward and inward (see Cut 9, Fig. i). 
 
 2. Both heels of foot or shoe, or both combined, 
 being too high will cause the leg to be pointed directly 
 backward (see Cut 9, Fig. 8). 
 
 3. Outside heel being too high will cause the leg to 
 be pointed backward and outward toward Fig. 7, Cut 9. 
 
 4. Midway outside being too high, the pointing will 
 be straight outwardly toward Fig. 6. 
 
 5. Outside toe being too high, the pointing will be 
 forward and outward toward Fig. 5. 
 
 6. Middle of the toe being too high will cause the 
 pointing to be directly forward toward Fig. 4. 
 
 7. Inside toe being too high, the pointing will be for- 
 ward and inward toward Fig. 3. 
 
 8. High midway inside will cause the pointing in- 
 ward toward Fig. 2, but as there may not be space 
 enough between the two limbs, he may have, as said be- 
 fore, to cross his legs, by placing one foot either behind 
 
1 8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 or before the other to find relief. This completes the 
 octagonal circuit of the foot. These eight points will 
 be sufficient to explain the rule that I wish to enforce 
 very strongly, namely, tJiat the horse always points to the 
 exact location or scat of his trouble. 
 
 More About Pointing. 
 
 10. These various positions do not apply to one foot 
 alone, as we frequently see horses pointing with both 
 fore feet simultaneously in any of these various direc- 
 tions and with the hind feet as well. 
 
 Horses with both fore feet elevated at the toes will 
 stretch or point forward with both feet in order to gain 
 relief, and in stretching forward with the fore feet they 
 are compelled to stretch backward with the hind ones in 
 order to brace themselves against falling backward. On 
 the other hand, when both fore feet are too high at the 
 heels, they will get into a position the exact opposite of 
 that in which they stand when their toes are too high ; 
 that is to say, they will place their fore legs backward 
 and their hind legs forward in order to prevent them- 
 selves from falling forward. Some sapient horsemen 
 regard this position as '' speedy sign,'' r\o\.\inoyNm^ that 
 the poor animal, prompted by natural instinct, finds 
 that position its only relief from pain. 
 
 Toeing In and Toeing Out. 
 
 11. When JiigJi at both outside heels, the heels are 
 turned outwardly and the toes inwardly ; this is termed 
 toeing in; when JiigJi at the inside heels, the heels will be 
 drawn toward each other, causing an outward direction 
 to the toes; and this is called toeing out. This will also 
 cause him to point with his hind foot forward of a verti- 
 cal line at an angle the opposite of that of the forward 
 feet,, in order to balance himself. If he were to stand 
 
HIE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I9 
 
 back with his fore feet and naturally upon his hind ones 
 he would fall forward upon his head. High midway out- 
 side with both feet will cause him to point straight out- 
 wardly with both feet at the same time, a position called 
 straddling. This position leaves a space between the 
 limbs in proportion to the elevation of the outside por- 
 tion of the foot. When too high at the outside toes he 
 will point in an outward direction with both feet. Some- 
 times he will rest them alternately in all these various 
 positions. Too high at both inside toes, he will point 
 inward and forward, bringing his toes together and 
 leaving a space between the heels. This also produces 
 the condition toeing in. 
 
 When too high midway inside he will bring both 
 feet together, and in order to brace himself he will stand 
 with his hind feet and limbs wide apart. 
 
 Results of Overgrowth of Hoof. 
 
 12. We have now described all the various positions 
 in which a horse can stand or travel, caused by an ab- 
 normal growth of hoof. 
 
 It may be asked why the Jiorse should be so easily 
 affected by the inequalities of bearing upon the bottom 
 surface of his foot. This question may be suggested 
 by the fact that he may go apparently sound while in 
 motion, the action of his limbs being perfectly uniform, 
 and nothing be observable to indicate any serious trouble, 
 and yet after a drive or when standing he may assume 
 one or more of those positions we have described. The 
 answer to this question will soon appear. 
 
 A Perfect Balance Important. 
 
 13. I am perfectly convinced that when a horse en- 
 joys his proper balance he will stand well and stand at 
 ease all the time. He will not stretch out nor assume 
 
20 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 any of those positions, nor persist in maintaining them 
 if he should assume any of them temporarily. He may 
 after a hard drive rest one hind foot and one forward 
 foot alternately, with the other two feet well under him ; 
 but when this is the result of mere fatigue it soon passes 
 away. 
 
 Occasionally a horse may be observed standing in the 
 stable, resting diagonally upon one fore and one hind 
 foot ; this is done to relieve a pain in the back from a tzvist 
 which is occasioned by the weight of one quarter being 
 unsupported when he points but one affected leg. 
 
 A Little More Anatomy. 
 
 14. A horse constantly standing in one of the posi- 
 tions referred to gives evidence of some obscure trouble. 
 In paragraph 2 I made mention of three bones, the 
 pedal, the coronary, and the navicular bones. As al- 
 ready stated, the pedal bone is suspended by laminae to 
 the interior surface of the hoof. Resting upon the pedal 
 bone is the coronary bone, and in conjunction with the 
 navicular bone those bones form a joint called the pedal 
 joint. 
 
 The Pyramid of the Pedal Bone. 
 
 1 5 . The part which the pedal bone plays in the econ- 
 omy of the foot justifies this brief description of its pe- 
 culiar construction. There is no other bone like it in 
 the whole system of the horse. Notice the peculiar ele- 
 vation of its highest part, which is called its pyramidal 
 process, from its resemblance to a pyramid. Its highest 
 point will often be referred to as the apex of the pedal 
 bone. This bone has a remarkably large extent of ar- 
 ticulating surface which admits of a sweep of movement 
 extending through nearly half a circle. It should be 
 noted also that this joint is formed on the principle of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 21 
 
 the common hinge, which admits of motion only in two 
 directions, and that therefore it has no lateral or one- 
 sided motion. The importance of these points of con- 
 struction will be seen later on. 
 
 i6. We will now refer to Cut i, a, to show what con- 
 stitutes a sound horse with perfectly balanced feet where- 
 in the horny fibres at the /icc/s grow in the same ratio as 
 at the fo^s; that is to say, where the growth of the entire 
 hoof is eq,ually distributed as shown by the parallel lines 
 of the outer fibrous structure running from the coronet 
 to the base of the foot, //, /i. 
 
 Above the lines/, / is shown a foot of just propor- 
 tions,- just as nature designed it. 
 
 The lines £-, g show that the heels by mere grozuth 
 are advancing toward the centre of the column; and the 
 lines//, //indicate that this natural and necessary growth 
 has carried the toe, and therefore its bearing point, consid- 
 erably beyond the true point of bearing. 
 
 Ridges Upon the Hoof. 
 
 17. Still refer to Cut i. The lines /, / determine 
 the natural height of the hoof. The vertical line at let- 
 ter e divides the length of the foot into two equal parts 
 when of the proper height. 
 
 The ridges circumscribing the hoof should be at an 
 equal distance apart all round, or in lines parallel with 
 each other as shown in Cut 7. 
 
 The highest part of the foot is indicated by the wid- 
 est space between those ridges. 
 
 Letters /, / and line e indicate a uniform foot, what- 
 ever may be its particular formation. 
 
 Now that we have a perfect hoof in its different 
 phases, the pedal bone within it, attached by laminas in 
 its proper position, will also be perfectly balanced, as it 
 is nothing more nor less than a duplicate of the hoof in 
 
22 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a miniature form. Having a well-balanced foundation 
 the next bone above it will be in its proper place at its 
 natural angle, so that the axes of both bones will come 
 together as shown in Cut i , letter /. 
 
 This conjunction of bones forms the basis of all the 
 movements of the limbs, which will be fully explained 
 hereafter, but is referred to here to show that while 
 these bones preserve their just relation to each other, 
 that is, that their axes of bearing perfectly coincide, the 
 horse will not place his leg forward or backward of the 
 vertical line. 
 
 Perfect Equilibrium Necessary. 
 
 1 8, We frequently see feet on which the hoof has 
 been allowed to grow to the length of two inches or 
 more. Now, suppose a case in which the point of bearing 
 from growth is two inches beyond its natural point of 
 bearing, then a vertical line e, c from the true centre at 
 the bottom of the coronary bone will fall close to the 
 point of bearing near the heels, instead of falling to the 
 centre of. the foot, and the toe would be correspondingly 
 forward of the same vertical line (see Cut i, letter c). 
 
 It is a necessary inference from these considerations 
 that in proportion to the change of base, be it little or 
 much, whether by growth of hoof or the application of 
 a shoe, so will be the danger to the structures carried 
 upon that base. In other words, the normal conditions 
 of the foot and leg and harmony of movement while in 
 motion depend absolutely upon the perfect equilibrium 
 of the foot. 
 
 How Long Will a Perfect Foot Keep Perfect ? 
 
 19. Now that we have described a perfect balanced 
 foot and in what it consists, the question may arise, 
 how long will it remain in this condition? I answer, 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 23 
 
 just as long as it undergoes no changes either laterally, 
 lengthwise, or in height from the coronet to the base of 
 the foot. To demonstrate this view, take a column, say 
 of wood, and four feet long, about the length of a horse's 
 leg. Bevel one end of it at an angle of fifteen degrees 
 and stand it upon the bevelled end, and the column will 
 adapt itself to this bevel orarfgle by the upper end lean- 
 ing over in any direction corresponding to the angle of 
 its bevel (see Cuts 14, 15, and 16). In the horse the 
 upper end of the column is fixed, and the lower end be- 
 ing movable it is swung in the direction of the highest 
 part of the bevel, in order to find if possible an even 
 bearing upon the ground, and by that means to keep the 
 bones of the pedal joint in their just relations to each 
 other. This action of the horse is called pointing. We 
 may further remark that if the outside half of the hoof 
 be higher than the inside half, or vice versa, the horse, 
 in order to keep his limb in a vertical line, would have 
 to carry his weight upon one side or the other, as there 
 is no sideway action of the pedal joint. 
 
 The Leg a Pendulum. 
 
 20. In a well-balanced foot the articulation of the 
 pedal joint is limited to a given space which is equally 
 divided anteriorly and posteriorly, so that when the limb 
 is in motion it can reach as far one way as the other, like 
 the pendulum of a clock that swings to an equal distance 
 both ways. Now ' 
 
 Unbalancing the Pedal Bone 
 
 21. By raising the toe or the heels would have the 
 effect of limiting or blocking the forward or backward 
 movements of the limb. For example, if we elevate the 
 toe unduly the apex of the pedal bone will press against 
 
24 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the anterior surface of the coronary bone, which is fol- 
 lowed or accompanied by the end of the coronary bone, 
 pressing with undue force upon the navicular bone and 
 the perforans tendon which lies immediately at the back 
 of it, and a shock 2CDid. limited action are the result. This 
 will prevent the horse from getting- the foot back under 
 his body while progressing. When the heels are raised 
 the tendency of this condition is to throw undue strain 
 upon the extensor pedis at the apex of the pedal bone, 
 thereby overtaxing the suspensory ligaments from the 
 opposite direction. 
 
 The Pedal Joint a Common Hinge Joint. 
 
 22, In order to emphasize an important fact in this 
 connection I will again briefly describe this joint. It 
 works exactly like a common hinge, having no side mo- 
 tion whatever. It follows from this that if any undue 
 elevation at any part of the //^^/ takes place by abnormal 
 growth of horn or any other cause, there will be a dis- 
 tortion of the pedal joint, and in order to ease the pain 
 occasioned by the distortion the horse would try to get 
 an even bearing of the joint by pointing with his foot in 
 the direction of the most elevated part, and thus distrib- 
 ute the bearing evenly upon the surfaces of the joint by 
 bringing the axes of bearing of the coronary and pedal 
 bones together, as seen in Cut i, letter/. Hence, the 
 primary cause of pointing is an unbalanced pedal joint, 
 which may proceed from the elevation of any other part 
 of the foot as well as from a raised toe, for the reason 
 that there is no other limit to the rotation of the coro- 
 nary bone posteriorly than the resistance afforded by the 
 extensor tendon at the apex of the pedal bone. In both 
 cases supposed we should have sJiock and limited action 
 while the animal is in motion. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 2$ 
 
 Pointing During Motion. 
 
 23. The incidence or fall of the foot while the horse 
 is progressing forward will also be directed toward the 
 various positions that the foot assumes while standing. 
 When too high at the toe he will travel short and in 
 advance of his chest, not bringing his limbs back past a 
 perpendicular line, as it would separate the axis of the 
 coronary bone posteriorly from the axis of the pedal 
 bone and throw the apex of the last-named bone against 
 the coronary bone (see Cut 4, letter a) to such an ex- 
 tent as to cause pain to the animal, and, vice versa, too 
 high an elevation of the heels would have the opposite 
 effect, which is to separate the axis of the coronary bone 
 from that of the pedal bone anteriorly as seen at Cut 3, 
 letter a, thus blocking the articulation backward. In 
 this case the horse will not extend his limb forw^ard of 
 his chest while progressing slowl}^ and still less when 
 moving with greater speed, as the incidence of the foot 
 will be forced in a more vertical direction, being more 
 directly under the shoulder, and the step will be finished 
 too far back under the body. 
 
 Wrenching the Pedal Joint, 
 
 24. When high outside the inclination of the fall of 
 the foot will be outwardly, as there is no lateral motion 
 or action of the pedal joint. If the limb were thrown! 
 straight forward, the whole weight of the animal would 
 be thrown upon the highest part of the hoof, causing a 
 great distortion or wrcncJiing of the pedal joint, and also 
 a straining of the ligaments w^hich surround that joint. 
 The same effects would be observed if the undue eleva- 
 tion of the foot were upon the opposite side. 
 
26 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Essential Kno-wledge. 
 
 25. Notwithstanding that I have given the causes of 
 horses' pointing in various directions and also how they 
 adapt their gaits correspondingly, it is very essential to 
 know the cause of the elevation or the increased growth 
 at these eight different points. It has already been 
 mentioned that the fibrous structure of the hoof from 
 the coronet down to the base of the foot, as seen in Cut 
 I, and also the ridges circumscribing the hoof as seen 
 in Cut 7, should be uniform in growth, that is to say, 
 that the fibres should grow at an even distance apart in 
 lines parallel to each other, as far as they extend, in 
 order to constitute a sound and well-balanced foot. It 
 is nothing unusual to find horses with those ridges devi- 
 ating at various points all around the hoof, coming close 
 together in places, then running apart, leaving quite a 
 space between themselves at another point, the latter 
 indicating a surplus and the former a deficiency of 
 growth. At the point where the lines are farthest apart 
 the hoof always grows faster, and therefore always the 
 higJicst, and where the ridges come close together the 
 hoof is invariably the lowest. So it is very evident that 
 without the knowledge of this peculiarity in the growth 
 of feet it will be impossible to pare them so as to prop- 
 erly balance the pedal bone and the pedal joint. 
 
 Great Irregularities of Growth. 
 
 26. I may remark that I have treated horses with 
 such vast irregularities of growth as to necessitate an 
 artificial appliance in order to balance the foot, and to 
 give the joint which may be distorted by an abnormal 
 growth of hoof a free and natural articulation. This 
 will be referred to again later on. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 27 
 
 Different Forms of Feet. 
 
 27. The cuts will represent different forms of horses' 
 feet, as well as the various shapes they are liable to ac- 
 quire under different circumstances. These drawings 
 will show that when the feet resemble any of these eight 
 cuts they are liable to acquire ailments peculiar to their 
 formation. In other words, all feet of the same forma- 
 tion are subject to the same class of ailments, and there- 
 fore can be submitted to the same remedial measures of 
 treatment, and when in motion their articulations will 
 be affected in the same way. 
 
 Objects Made Alike Perform Alike. 
 
 28. I have frequently observed that all objects in 
 creation which are made alike perform alike. It is cer- 
 tainly so with machinery ; when of the same construction 
 it works alike. It is equally true, I think, of living be- 
 ings. Take for example the different species of animals 
 in a profile view, and any one will arrive at the same con- 
 clusion that all animals of the same formation will act 
 alike. To prove this theory to be correct, compare the 
 build of the Newfoundland dog with that of the grey- 
 hound; the former's build is best adapted for slowness, 
 and the latter' s for speed. So that when this rule fails 
 to work among certain animals we must not condemn 
 the rule. In machinery when a certain part gives way,. 
 by restoring the duplicate of what gives way the work 
 goes on just the same as before. 
 
 The Missing Link. 
 
 29. In like manner when the mechanical construc- 
 tion of the horse's foot is fully understood there will be 
 very little difficulty in the application of the remedy. 
 
2 8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 It is when we fail to discover the part of the machine 
 that is missing, or when we make the wrong appliance, 
 that the living machinery of the horse's leg fails to 
 work. The principle, however, is right, for when, after 
 making different trials, I supply just what is wanted, 
 the horse tells me in his own language, improved action, 
 that the missing link has been found. 
 
 Intimate Connections of Pedal Bone and Hoof. 
 
 30. As said before but cannot be too strongly en- 
 forced, the pedal bone and hoof are so intimately con- 
 nected that the effect of any disproportion of the hoof 
 miist be transmitted to the pedal bone. 
 
 The column of bone constituting the leg has been 
 described as braced by a number of tendons and liga- 
 ments, the most powerful of which have their termina- 
 tion in the small pastern and pedal bones, which with 
 the navicular bone form this important joint, so that it 
 is manifest that any effects transmitted to the pedal bone, 
 by any form or changes in form of the hoof, are also 
 transmitted to the pedal joint and to the tendons and 
 ligaments with which it is connected. 
 
 Chart of the Foot. 
 
 31. It will be remembered that all the deformities 
 of the foot, as far as perceivable, have been traced to 
 eight different parts around the circumference of the 
 foot as seen in Cut 9. I wish to state now most em- 
 phatically that to those eight points of division, whether 
 they be too high or too low at either point — as also that 
 the lower circumference of the foot being out of just 
 proportion, by which I mean that the foot may be out 
 of just proportion in length as well as width — I repeat 
 that to these eight points of division of inequalities of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 29 
 
 height and to that unequal circumference I attribute the 
 primary causes of all the ailments incidental to horses' 
 feet which are referred to in this book. 
 
 Professor Williams and Navicular Disease. 
 
 32. In our discussions as to the cause or causes of 
 navicular disease I feel sure that it is perfectly allowa- 
 ble to refer to the views which have been expressed by 
 the most recent writers upon this subject. Professor 
 Williams' work on the " Principles and Practice of Vet- 
 erinary Surgery " I presume may be considered to be 
 the best work of its kind at the present time, as it is used 
 as a text-book, I am informed, in several veterinary col- 
 leges in this country. 
 
 '* Rheumatoid Diathesis." 
 
 33. This means an inherited tendency to a disease 
 resembling rheumatism. On page 337 of the work just 
 referred to, the author assigns as the chief cause of na- 
 vicular disease a rheumatoid diathesis, and concussion as a 
 secondary or proximate cause. The author also informs 
 us that many able writers held widely different views as 
 to its primary causes. What they held to be primary 
 causes I deem to be but secondary. 
 
 Sprain and Compression. 
 
 34. We regret having to take issue with so distin- 
 guished a writer as Professor Williams, but in the in- 
 terests of truth and progress in correct veterinary knowl- 
 edge and science as regards foot diseases, we enter the 
 lists with confidence. We dissent from the opinion that 
 the rhcumatoid-diathesis-concussion theory affords a suffi- 
 cient explanation of the origin of navicular disease. We 
 have treated all kinds of obscure ailments of the pedal 
 
30 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 joint during the last forty-five years, and our earliest the- 
 ory as to its cause or causes — that is, that naviailar disease 
 is due to SPRAIN AND COMPRESSION, sprains of ligaments 
 and tendons and compression of bones, and during that 
 time we have never seen any reason to modify that view ; 
 on the contrary our experience has been such as to con- 
 firm it in the highest degree. Robert Bonner agrees 
 with me. 
 
 "Facts are Stubborn Things." 
 
 35. When you know how to counteract or prevent a 
 certain disease in every instance, and when you know 
 also how to cure it where it exists, and to prevent its 
 return, I think you are not very far from knowing some- 
 thing about its cause. I deem that I am justified in 
 saying that my theory as to sprains and concussion being 
 the main and common causes of foot diseases of the 
 horse can be sustained by the strongest evidence that I 
 know of — facts of observation, facts of practice, and facts 
 of demonstration, and if there is any other criterion by 
 which the truth of my theory can be judged, I should 
 like to be informed of it. A fuller explanation of my 
 theory will be given as we proceed. If 
 
 The Rheumatoid Theory 
 
 36. Of Professor Williams is a correct one, why is it 
 the hind limbs are not affected as well as the fore ones, 
 since rheumatism and presumably rheumatoid diseases 
 are shifting in their character, and in human experience 
 are not partial as to which extremity they attack? 
 
 Relative Advantages of Position of Fore and 
 Hind Limbs. 
 
 37. As helping to throw light upon the causes of 
 navicular disease, it will be instructive to review Pro- 
 fessor Williams' position on the above interesting ques- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 3 1 
 
 tion. It was stated by that gentleman himself, and as 
 he could not answer it to his own satisfaction I will en- 
 deavor to answer it, not doubting that in doing so I shall 
 convey instruction to my readers, and that the professor 
 will return thanks for the information at the earliest 
 opportunity. 
 
 The following are the two positions the professor has 
 taken upon this matter : 
 
 1 . That the hind limbs are less favorably placed than 
 the fore ones ; and that therefore 
 
 2. The hind limbs are more exposed to diseases than 
 the fore ones, which means that the fore limbs are more 
 favorably placed than the hind ones, and that in conse- 
 quence the fore limbs are less exposed to disease than the 
 hind ones. 
 
 Disadvantages of Position of the Fore Legs. ' 
 
 38. I hold the exact opposite of the professor's propo- 
 sitions to be the truth, for the following reasons: 
 
 I . The fore limbs have to carry about two-thirds of 
 the weight of the whole body, while the hind ones have 
 to carry but about one-third of that weight, and I would 
 remark in passing that one consequence of this is the 
 increased danger that arises from knuckling in the fore 
 extremities over that from the hind ones. 
 
 2.. There is a lack of flexibility in the fore legs be- 
 tween the body and the fetlock which has no existence 
 in the hind extremities. 
 
 Observe that when the fore limbs are unfolded, they 
 form a rigid and inflexible column from the elbow to the 
 fetlock. Now two-thirds of the weight of the animal 
 having to be sustained and carried forward by these two 
 rigid columns, the joints below the knee in these columns 
 must receive a greater amount of strain and pressure 
 than the hind ones, which not only have to carry but one- 
 
32 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 third of that weight but which enjoy a high degree of 
 flexibility as well. I will now leave these considera- 
 tions to be ivcighcd by the reader, and will return to the 
 subject at a convenient opportunity. 
 
 Causes of Navicular Disease. 
 
 39. It has been acknowledged by different authors 
 that height and length of the toe is one of the causes of 
 navicular disease, and it has been seen that this cause 
 will produce strain and sprain of the perforans tendon 
 on account of its attachment to the pedal bone in its un- 
 der and back part, and though recognizing a mechanical 
 origin for this disease to this extent, no one seems to 
 have suggested a mechanical remedy except the stereo- 
 typed recommendation, lower the toes and pay attention to 
 the shoeing. 
 
 A Natural Gauge. 
 
 40. If a shoe with a toe calk is attached to the hoof, 
 the calk becomes an instrument, or gauge, by which we 
 can determine by its length and height the degree of 
 strain or rigidity this tendon receives at each finishing 
 of the step. It will be found that the shorter and lower 
 the toe is the less strain there will be, and the longer 
 and higher the toe there will be the most strain, and 
 all will be in exact proportion to the height and length 
 of the hoof or of the shoe, or of both combined, when 
 a shoe is affixed to the foot. 
 
 Weight Must be Carried. 
 
 41. It should be remembered that when the fore ex- 
 tremities of a horse become diseased he is not relieved 
 from the necessity of carrying weight. His /.^////z';/^^ en- 
 ables him to relax the strain upon his tendons and liga- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 33 
 
 ments, but his weight has to be sustained by the other 
 tissues just as much as if his feet enjoyed their perfect 
 balance. 
 
 Ulceration of the Navicular Bone. 
 
 42. When the abnormality of a horse's foot is such 
 that relief is only obtainable with his fore feet back un- 
 der the centre of his body, or by pointing backward, he 
 will have to carry more weight while in that position 
 than before, so that w^hile relieving the existing pain 
 he overtaxes other parts of the pedal joint, and fever 
 being usually present in lameness, the synovial fluid of 
 the joint becomes absorbed, dryness and friction of the 
 articulating surfaces necessarily result, and these con- 
 ditions I have no doubt will account in some degree for 
 the condition met with in severe cavSes of navicular dis- 
 ease called caries, or ulceration of the navicular bone. 
 
 The Relative Advantages of Position of Fore 
 and Hind Limbs. 
 
 43. We will now proceed to the consideration of a 
 few more facts relative to the above question, which 
 throw much light upon the origin of diseases in that 
 obscure region of the economy of the horse. 
 
 It will be seen that the fore feet are subject to pecul- 
 iar difficulties in formation and position, considered in 
 their relation to the hinder ones. One of these difficul- 
 ties is due to the difference between the inclinations of 
 the fetlocks of both fore and hind \imbs from the vertical 
 line 2d. the instant each step is finished. As said before, 
 the knee when unfolded, and the foot is planted upon 
 the ground, becomes inflexible while carrying weight, 
 causing more strain upon the pedal joints of the fore 
 feet than upon the same joints of the hind feet, where 
 the hock and pastern joints are so formed as to bend and 
 3 
 
34 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 straighten alternately at each flexion of the hock and 
 fetlock joint, and unlike the fore pasterns are favored 
 by being allowed to retain more of their obliquity at the 
 finishing of the step, which obliquity exempts them 
 from many troubles to which the fore feet are liable from 
 the much greater flexion of their pasterns ; in other words, 
 the greater flexion of the hock calls for less flexion of the 
 hind pasterns, while the lesser flexion of the knee re- 
 quires the greater flexion of the fetlock. 
 
 Relaxation of Tendons. 
 
 44. The relaxation of tendons is produced in this 
 manner : At the time that the hinder legs are inclined 
 backward, and the toe is about leaving the ground, the 
 hock suddenly straightens and relaxes the back tendons, 
 thus preserving the due obliquity of the pastern. This 
 relaxation of the tendons of the hind pastern allows them 
 to remain more oblique to the finishing of the step than 
 the pastern of the fore legs ; and for that reason the 
 former are less liable to navicular or any other disease 
 than the latter. • 
 
 Mobility of the Hock Joint. 
 
 45. We may further observe that there are no two 
 bones of the Jiinder limbs which form a vertical and in- 
 flexible line by their union ; it is otherwise in the fore 
 limbs. The mobility of the hock joint is constant, and 
 it is due to that mobility, and to not having to carry so 
 much weight besides, that diseases and disabilities are so 
 much less frequent in hind legs than in fore ones. 
 
 Hind Limbs Have Greater Facility for Rest. 
 
 46. My reasons for believing that the fore limbs are 
 not more favorably placed than the hind ones are not 
 yet exhausted. Note the greater facility which the horse 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 35 
 
 enjoys for rest when the hinder limbs become lame, 
 as they can be so easily disburdened from weight by 
 simply pointing forward, thus throwing a greater amount 
 of weight upon the fore legs. 
 
 A Lame Horse at Grass. 
 
 47. Let us glance at the horse after being turned out 
 to pick up his own living. 
 
 Many horses have a short neck, and when his natural 
 formation is such he reaches the ground with difficulty 
 while grazing. Observe how the fore extremities will 
 be overtaxed by the extra weight thrown upon them, 
 which otherwise would have been borne by the hind 
 feet. The fore limbs become a pivot, almost a turning- 
 point, over which his body has to be balanced while 
 grazing. 
 
 Straddling and its Consequences. 
 
 48. Sometimes the horse straddles to accommodate 
 himself to circumstances ; at other times he will keep 
 one foot far back, midway under his body, and while in 
 that position that foot has a backward angle, and is car- 
 rying more than its due share of weight, and the strain 
 upon the perforans tendon is increased always in pro- 
 portion to the distance of the leg backward. That strain 
 has to be resisted mainly at the pedal joint, and in a 
 lesser degree by the large pastern joint. None of these 
 conditions occur in the hind feet, where, though the leg 
 may be at the same angle backward as the forward one, 
 the pastern remains more oblique, thus exerting little 
 or no pressure upon the navicular bone. It is well to 
 remember that the superincumbent weight thrown on 
 the pedal joint of the fore feet is not the only factor to 
 be considered, it is the lack of balance and due propor- 
 tion of the hoof itself while carrying weight, which, 
 
36 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 owing to its construction, may add to or take from an 
 equal amount of strain imposed by the weight of the 
 animal upon these joints. 
 
 More About the Pedal Joint. 
 
 49. The pedal joint has many aspects from which it 
 may be considered. We are now able to study its rela- 
 tions to the question of the leverage pressure which the 
 navicular bone and the perforans tendon receive under 
 certain conditions. 
 
 A La-w of Nature. 
 
 50. Nature has laws which forbid transgression, and 
 never was it better demonstrated than when the harmony 
 of the parts composing the pedal joint has been dis- 
 turbed. The horse can enjoy neither peace nor rest if 
 the balance of his foot cannot be maintained. The sym- 
 metry of the foot is represented in Cut i , at and above 
 the line /, /, where the foot has been supposed to be 
 reduced to its designed height. 
 
 When this reduction of hoof is to its due lines of 
 proportion, either by the natural wearing away of the 
 hoof or by the judicious use of the knife and rasp, then, 
 as seen in the same cut at the vertical line e, e, the col- 
 umns of the limbs are placed where they should be and 
 remain, midway between the heel and toe. 
 
 An Interesting Problem. 
 
 5 1 . Here we may explain why it is that horses cannot 
 exert their full power when called upon to start a heavy 
 load, if their toes are too long. They are forced to place 
 their legs at such an angle backward that the heels can- 
 not touch the ground, and as a consequence they get up 
 on their toes, and they appear to exert their full powers 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 37 
 
 when in reality they do not. The perforans is not in a 
 position to exert its full power, having no support under 
 the heels. Such a support is necessary in their great 
 efforts to start the load, for the combined action and the 
 exertion of the full pO¥/ers of the perforans, the perfo- 
 ratus, and the suspensory ligament, and this power can- 
 not be supplied for such occasions, and raising the heels 
 would be a disadvantage as soon as the load was started, 
 or the animal drawing a lighter load. All that can be 
 done in such a case is to keep the toe as short as possible 
 and the heels reasonably high. 
 
 An Adverse Force. 
 
 52. A clear idea of the amount of force which a horse 
 has to overcome when in progression, through undue 
 extension of the toe — and let it be remembered that the 
 force he has to overcome from this cause is the exact 
 equivalent of the power he has lost in overcoming that 
 force — may be gained by studying the following little 
 problem in mechanics. 
 
 Suppose we were to disarticulate a well-balanced foot 
 at the pedal joint and divide it equally through the cen- 
 tre from toe to heel. Three points on that section would 
 enable you to construct a wedge-shaped triangle. The 
 point of the wedge would be at the toe ; the other two 
 points, one would be at the centre of bearing on the 
 highest point of the apex (Cut 10, letter a), and the 
 other would be at the bottom of a vertical line from 
 that centre of bearing to where the foot touches the 
 ground at letter k. Now suppose that the distance be- 
 tween the too /owrr points was three inches : it will be 
 readily seen that if we extend the line at the toe one 
 inch, we shall have created a resisting force equal to 
 one-fourth of the length of the supposed line, and this 
 being a resisting that^has to be overcome, it will be the 
 
38 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 equivalent of the power which the horse has lost in the 
 act of progression. 
 
 Leverage Power. 
 
 53. From this it will be readily perceived how by- 
 mere extension of the toe, either by growth or by the 
 application of a shoe, or by both combined, the leverage 
 can be increased, and injurious influences exerted upon 
 the pedal joint and its connections the navicular bone 
 and the perforans immediately, and through those tissues 
 to the other component of the leg remotely. It will be 
 evident that undue height as well as mere extension of 
 the toe will produce an adverse leverage pressure upon 
 the perforans and navicular bone, particularly in a ratio 
 proportionate to the elevation and length of the toe. 
 The least idea we can gain of this undue length and ex- 
 tension is furnished by the horse himself, who always 
 places his leg or legs at an angle proportionate to the 
 elevation or extension. 
 
 Difference Between Level Extension and 
 Elevation. 
 
 54. It is worthy of remark that a horse knows the 
 difference between a level extension of the toe and an 
 elevation at the same part of the foot. With a perfectly 
 level foot, although the toe be longer he can stand at 
 ease without pointing; he only feels the effects of a long 
 toe while in progression. With an elevated ioQ standing 
 or moving, he is incommoded in proportion to the degree 
 of the elevation, and he shows it by pointing his foot. 
 
 Soft Roads and Hard Roads. 
 
 55. It has just been stated that height of toe is more 
 injurious than mere length of toe, for the reason that 
 mere length of toe does not materially change the bal- 
 ance of the foot while standing. The axis of the joint 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 3^ 
 
 is not displaced as by height of toe, unless it is by stand- 
 ing or travelling on soft ground, like sandy roads into 
 which the heels would sink, and the toe would turn up 
 and cause strain to the perforans tendon. A horse hav- 
 ing extra high toes is always placed at a disadvantage 
 on hard or soft roads, and can find no rest for the sole 
 of his foot until the bearings of his feet have been re- 
 adjusted. 
 
 A Question Answered, 
 
 56. Many persons wonder why it is that after a three 
 or six months' run at grass horses are often worse than 
 when they were turned out. This has been partly ex- 
 plained already (see paragraphs 47 and 48), but will bear 
 a little further explanation. The chief reason is that 
 many horses while feeding on grass have not the time 
 to relieve themselves by pointing- and pick up their living 
 too. To relieve themselves from pain they must stop 
 eating, and eating only aggravates their misery. When 
 both feet are affected he cannot reach the ground with- 
 out serious inconvenience. In such cases they are com- 
 pelled to straddle, and such a position produces se- 
 vere strains upon the perforans tendon and the navicular 
 bone. 
 
 A Suggestion to Professor Williams. 
 
 57. I think I have shown conclusively that Professor 
 Williams has need to revise his observations on the 
 causes of navicular disease; and I hope that he will 
 glean a little information from my observations on the 
 relative advantages of position of the hind and fore limbs 
 as regards their liability to diseases. 
 
 The Reason Why. 
 
 58. I think it is clearly due to the disadvantages of 
 position that the navicular disease is so much more fre- 
 quent in the fore than in the hind feet. 
 
40 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 When we consider the numerous deformities of the 
 fore feet as compared with the hinder ones, and the 
 consequences in sprains of tendons and compression of 
 bones, and various peculiar manifestations of disease, 
 there can be little difficulty in arriving at a just conclu- 
 sion as to relative advantages of position of the fore and 
 hind feet, and that the latter escape many ills which the 
 fore ones endure. 
 
 Causes of Navicular Disease. 
 
 59. At one time this disease was supposed to exist 
 in the shoulder, as the horse so afflicted would move in a 
 manner indicating stiffness in those parts. That was 
 only the usual error of mistaking effects for causes. 
 Even now I believe not only in England but in this 
 country the same error is in constant repetition, and 
 setons are inserted into the shoulder when the lameness 
 has its origin in the foot. 
 
 Professor Williams and English Notions. 
 
 60. By reading the causes and remedies for navicu- 
 lar disease, it will be noticed that they disagree very 
 widely in their theories as to its causes and the proper 
 treatment. 
 
 We believe that all the proximate causes of this dis- 
 ease are traceable to one principal cause, and that is an 
 unbalanced foot in some form or other, of which pointing 
 is an infallible sign. 
 
 Pointing or extending the limb in advance of the 
 chest is admitted universally by veterinary writers to 
 be one of the symptoms accompanying navicular dis- 
 ease. Constitutional or hereditary causes seem, how- 
 ever, to be more in favor than mechanical ones. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 4I 
 
 Blocking the Pedal Joint. 
 
 61. In referring to a Jiigh toe as the principal cause 
 of this disease, and remembering, as it has been previ- 
 ously mentioned, that the pedal bone and hoof by their 
 union constitute the foot, the toe of the hoof or shoe 
 being unduly elevated the pedal bone becomes elevated 
 correspondingly, and this causes a blocking or pressing 
 the apex of the pedal bone against the lower pastern 
 bone as seen at Cut 4, letter a, causing strains of the 
 tendon and ligaments of the pedal joint at the junction 
 of the perforans with the pedal bone (letter d). 
 
 Many Ailments, One Remedy. 
 
 62. It has been already mentioned that one remedy 
 could be applied for different ailments, and the occasion 
 for proving the truth of this statement presents itself 
 right here. The proof is simple and convincing when 
 the different diseases are enumerated and their causes 
 explained. 
 
 Diseases Produced by a Too High Toe. 
 
 63. We will take direct height of toe for illustration, 
 and follow the many localities in the leg which can be 
 affected by a too high toe. 
 
 1. We find for one injured part the joint nearest the 
 deformed hoof, that is to sa5^ the pedal joint, which is 
 subject to navicular disease. 
 
 2. The lower pastern joint, which is subject to ring- 
 bone from the same cause. 
 
 3. A morbid enlargement of the soft tissues often 
 seen between the cavities of the heels, caused mainly by 
 sprains of the inferior suspensory ligament. 
 
42 
 
 THE FOOT OF THE HORS ^^ 
 
 4. Knuckling of the pastern. 
 
 5. Windgall above the fetlock, 
 
 6. Sprain of the perforans. 
 
 7. Knee sprung, or curvature of th 
 
 8. Thoroughpin above the knee, c< 
 blood spavin in appearance and texture 
 ing usually a little above and behind t 
 cases appearing on the inside rather 
 hind. 
 
 g. A bony enlargement often to bt 
 large pastern in front and inclining to tl 
 JiigJi ringbone. 
 
 These nine ailments are all produceo 
 cause, namely, undue height of toe. 
 
 'hi 
 om^ 
 
 IS o 
 
 ^ . 
 a iu 
 
 .)f th 
 
 iing to a 
 .tion be- 
 4^jg , in some 
 I xactly be- 
 
 ipon the 
 le, called 
 
 ne simple 
 
 Ho"w One Cause Produces Many Diseases. 
 
 64. Undue height or length of toe, or both combined, 
 I consider the primary cause of many distinctly diseased 
 conditions, such as sprains and enlargements of the va- 
 rious ligaments and tendons of the leg, bony and other 
 enlargements connected with joints, atrophy or wasting 
 of various tissues, such as the muscular tissues of the 
 shoulders and other parts. You may ask, how can sprains 
 of tendons and bony and bursal enlargements be pro- 
 duced by one simple cause such as you have mentioned? 
 Because the perforans tendon when subject to abnormal 
 tension by undue height or length of toe, or by both 
 combined, and also through accidental or false stepping, 
 causes a compression of the joints directly over the ele- 
 vated part right down or up the front of the leg, as well 
 as sprains of the tendon itself. Any prolonged abnor- 
 mal pressure or compression of the joints caused by an 
 unbalanced foot must inevitably change healthy into 
 diseased conditions. Hence, diseased action in bones- 
 produces splints,' spavins, and ringbones, and small or 
 
TE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 43 
 
 ■lywhere wherever diseased action may 
 TN rule they occur on or near the joints. 
 
 ie Different Localities. 
 
 ->c;. - 
 
 65. There -at least nine different localities on the 
 limb of a hor ' here diseases of various tissues can be 
 producer" by indue elevation of the toe. Simply 
 lowering .iie^ is the remedy for all those diseases. 
 Keeping tb th at its normal level and balance is also 
 a preven - well as a curative measure for the ail- 
 ments of J iifferent localities, which have yet to be 
 referred tc- : ^ at length separately. 
 
 One Disease at a Time. 
 
 66. It is worthy of note that when a horse is aflflicted 
 as above mentioned, he is seldom affected in more than 
 one of those localities at the same time, notwithstanding 
 that he may be liable to all of them. The reason for 
 this is that when a painful sensation exists due to any 
 mechanical cause, the implicated member is used so 
 sparingly as not to tax it any more than possible, and 
 not until the existing ailment has ceased will, as a rule, 
 another appear, although exposed to the same exciting 
 causes. These last ailments are no exception to the 
 general rule, namely, that in all injuries to which the 
 horse is subject in his feet, when they have a mechani- 
 cal origin, the existing disease becomes a preventive of j 
 others. 
 
 Pointing Locates the Deformity. 
 
 6y. It has already been stated that pointing of the 
 feet is a symptom indicating some deformity of the feet, 
 and also that this pointing locates the deformity. In 
 treating of the anatomy of the extremities of the leg, 
 
44 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE.' 
 
 it has been shown that the extensor in front of an-'" ^ 
 flexors at the back of the leg bind together and d' 
 the movements of the last two bones, the coronary s 
 the pedal bones. It may now be added that those ten- 
 dons, the flexors and extensor, may be seen to serve as 
 braces by which ih.eJomted column of bones is kept in its 
 proper position. This use of the tendons will be read- 
 ily recognized, and serves to strengthen my theory as 
 to the chief cause of navicular disease. At every step 
 by the horse when going perfectly sound, these tendons 
 are exerted nearly to their full extremity, but when an 
 abnormal elevation of the toe occurs, as it is perpetually 
 by the growth of horn, these tendons, especially the back 
 ones, must be taxed beyond their normal strength. 
 From whatever point of view taken, when you have the 
 key of the question, but one conclusion can be arrived at 
 as to the cause of navicular disease, and that is an un- 
 due elevation of the toe. 
 
 My First Case. 
 
 68. It may not be altogether uninstructive to make 
 some reference to the first case that engaged my atten- 
 tion, and to the circumstances which led me to the study 
 of horses' feet and their maladies, as well as mechanical 
 devices intended to cure or alleviate those maladies. It 
 was that of a horse with feet resembling those of a mule, 
 and who pointed with both fore feet. The symptoms were 
 those of a pronounced case of navicular disease. Stand- 
 ing without pointing, as he would sometimes, having 
 all toe and no heel, his weight was supported by the toes 
 only, his heels not coming near the ground. His feet 
 were narrow and circumscribed by deep ridges and fur- 
 rows. The front part of the hoof bulged out like that 
 shown in Cut 5. In order to obtain support from his 
 heels he would point his feet so as to form an angle of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 45 
 
 V, forty-five degrees. When at that angle the heels 
 id reach the ground, and assist in bearing weight. 
 ,. i'n in progression his steps were almost a continued 
 series of tumblings and trippings. The animal was pur- 
 chased to tread a horse-power machine. 
 
 While in the ascending position a still greater space 
 was left between his heels and the slats than when 
 standing on the ground. Under these conditions he 
 travelled still more upon his toes than he did while 
 walking on a level floor. His feet were very long, so I 
 cut them down cautiously and tried him again. Find- 
 ing no benefit I cut them still more and put on a shoe 
 with raised heels. This improved matters a little, but 
 the calks would slip in between the slats, so I had the 
 calks made long enough to cover the space between the 
 slats when put on sideways, and I then found a remark- 
 able improvement in the horse's way of going. This 
 took place in the fall and winter, and in the spring fol- 
 lowing he travelled perfectly sound on flat shoes, noth- 
 ing having been done to him but to keep his feet pared 
 down and in a well-balanced condition. 
 
 Column and Base. 
 
 69. My success with my first case inclined me to take 
 a mechanical view of all forms of lameness that I met 
 with after that time, and I bought horses for experimen- 
 tal purposes, and my neighbors considered me very lucky 
 in my purchases. One of the first mechanical ideas I 
 had about the foot and leg of the horse was that of a 
 column and a base of support, such as the following: 
 Suppose four inches for the base of a column about the 
 same length and breadth as a horse's foot, and a column 
 about four feet high to represent a horse's leg; two of 
 these will represent a horse's fore legs. Let one of these 
 columns be standing perpendicularly. If one-fourth 
 
46 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 inch of elevation be placed under one side of the base of 
 the said column (see Fig. 15), it would throw its high- 
 est portion, the top of the column, one-sixteenth part of 
 its length from the vertical point (see Fig. 14). One- 
 half inch would throw it one-eighth from a vertical point 
 and one inch would incline it one-fourth from the vertical 
 point, which would be an angle of 22}^ degrees. This 
 is strictly applicable to the foot and leg of a horse. The 
 same degrees of elevation by growth of horn or by artifi- 
 cial appliances will produce exactly the same degrees of 
 inclination in the limbs of the horse, if they zvere free to 
 move at the top. As they cannot move at the top, the 
 horse points with his feet at the same angle of inclina- 
 tion as if they were free to move at the top, in order 
 to adapt himself to circumstances. 
 
 Judgment and Discrimination 
 
 70. Are therefore necessary as to the amount of ele- 
 vation or depression required to produce an equalization 
 and levelling of the treading surface best represented 
 by the term balance. These are easy to acquire by those 
 who will take the trouble to understand the reason why 
 for everything they do. Horseshoers should therefore 
 be familiar with the following considerations. When 
 a horse points he may do so because his toe is too high, 
 which is the general cause of his pointing, but occasion- 
 ally it is because his toe is too long rather than too high. 
 It may be remarked that the navicular bone becomes 
 more compressed by the perforans tendon following the 
 fetlock as the pastern approaches the vertical line. The 
 reason for this is that the tendon necessarily follows 
 the angle of the pastern, and when the pastern is verti- 
 cal it causes the tendon to press or to pry the navicular 
 bone against the coronary bone (Cut 4, letter X'), while 
 if the pastern be very oblique the perforans tendon runs 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 47 
 
 in a straight line to its point of insertion into the pedal 
 bone (Cut ii, from k to/), and therefore does not press 
 so heavily against the navicular bone while in that ob- 
 lique position (Cut 1 1 , letters O and E). Many writ- 
 ers have noted the fact that horses with marked obliquity 
 of pastern are not predisposed to navicular disease, but 
 I am not aware that any one has before explained the 
 reason. 
 
 Oblique Pasterns. 
 
 71. It will be well to bear in mind that the different 
 obliquities of the pastern can also be produced to a great 
 extent by artificial devices, such as by paring the hoof 
 at heel or toe, or by means of a shoe high at heel or toe. 
 In this way we can produce or prevent the navicular 
 disease to a great extent. 
 
 A Mechanical Problem. 
 
 72. I want now to trouble the reader and especially 
 the horseshoer with a little problem that I wish them to 
 understand, because it throws much light on the move- 
 ments of that remarkable bone, the pedal bone, and how 
 the pedal joint is made to act and react upon all the 
 joints above it. It is and must be very clear that upon 
 the elevation or depression of the toe at the moment it 
 leaves the ground depends the elevation or depression 
 of the heels. The movements of the toe and heels will 
 produce a tightening and a slackening alternately of the 
 perforans tendon, and a correspondingly oblique or up- 
 right pastern, just as surely as night follows day and 
 day follows night, and with the same certainty that the 
 turning of a peg would have upon the string of a violin. 
 A correct appreciation of these movements will enable 
 one to locate the various injuries that affect the liga- 
 ments and tendons of the leg with more certainty than 
 where there is a lack of that understanding. 
 
48 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 To Lessen the Tension Upon the Perforans. 
 
 73. There are lesions of the per for at us and of the 
 suspensory ligament where a high-heeled shoe, no matter 
 how high or of what form, will effect no immediate re- 
 lief to the horse, but any injury to the perforans, from its 
 intimate and direct connection with the pedal bone, may 
 be ahvays and instantly relieved by an appliance that will 
 lessen the tension of that tendon. 
 
 Navicular Disease and the Form of the Pasterns. 
 
 74. We have not quite finished our observations on 
 the form of the pasterns in relation to the causes of navic- 
 ular disease. Two facts of observation have been made 
 that have been too obvious to pass over, I suppose, but 
 no explanation of those facts has been ventured upon 
 that I have seen or heard. Now as I agree to consider 
 them as facts, I wish to give my reasons for that agree- 
 ment. The facts referred to are that navicular disease 
 is usually associated with upright pasterns, and rarely 
 met with in oblique pasterns. These facts, I think, are 
 susceptible of proof from merely mechanical considera- 
 tions, and ought, I think, to be sufficient to dissipate the 
 notion that the " rheumatoid-diathesis''' theory has got the 
 smallest particle of a leg to support it. 
 
 Analysis of Pasterns. 
 
 75. I will analyze three examples of pasterns: one 
 extremely oblique, one extremely vertical, and one I 
 will call the happy-medium pastern (refer to Cut 11). 
 I want to show how the obliquity or uprightness of the 
 pastern joint alters the position of the pedal bone in its 
 relations to the line of bearing, by throwing the weight 
 of the animal off or on to the navicular bone. We shall 
 find that an oblique pastern throws the weight off and 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 49 
 
 an upright pastern throws it o)i, a proposition denied by- 
 Professor Williams, but which I will prove if there be 
 any virtue in mechanical principles. 
 
 An Oblique Pastern. 
 
 76. An oblique pastern is represented at Cut 1 1 . This 
 will enable you to understand the mechanism of the 
 pastern and pedal joints in a few minutes. The move- 
 ments of these two joints are correlated and reciprocal ; 
 they have no separate action. Starting with the large 
 cannon bone, this bone with its burden of weight presses 
 upon the large pastern bone. I need hardly remind you 
 that the pastern joint is formed by the apposition of 
 these two bones. The pressure of this weight causes 
 the pastern to become more oblique, and in consequence 
 of this obliquity the horse is not quite so tall as he was, 
 the sharper angle having somewhat reduced his height. 
 Now observe the movement effected by bending the 
 sharper angle of the pastern joint. The lower end of 
 the small pastern has been raised toward the apex of the 
 pedal bone. This movement is aided by the strain put 
 upon the back tendons, the principal share of this strain 
 being borne by the perforans, which has drawn down- 
 ward and backward the pedal bone, and has altogether 
 removed the pressure from the navicular bone. The 
 force of the perforans is exerted in a straight line from 
 the sesamoids to its insertion into the pedal bone. 
 Clearly these two joints, the pastern and the pedal, form 
 angles the opposite of each other; and what closes the 
 angle of one opens the angle of the other. 
 
 The Upright Pastern. 
 
 ']'] . We will now consider the upright pastern and 
 its influences in the production of navicular disease. In 
 this case the conditions producing obliquity are com- 
 
50 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 pletely changed. The angle of the pastern joint is less 
 acute, and there is less strain upon the back tendons at 
 the pastern joint. The large and small pastern bones 
 assume an upiight position, and instead of the lower end 
 of the small pastern bone pointing toward the apex of 
 the pedal bone, it points downward toward the navicu- 
 lar bone, and very often presses severely upon it; so 
 that that bone, the navicular, has to sustain the com- 
 bined pressure of the tension exerted by the perforans 
 tendon, and that of direct weight downward, upon, and 
 through the pastern bones. Plainly the more curvature 
 of the perforans at the pastern joint the less we shall 
 have at the pedal joint, and as a matter of course the 
 converse of this must be true, the more curvature at the 
 pedal joint the less at the pastern. 
 
 The Happy-Medium Pastern 
 
 78. Is neither too oblique nor too upright; it implies 
 a well-balanced foot and limb. Everything else being 
 equal there is harmonious movement in every step. The 
 various forces antagonize each other so equally and 
 smoothly that when any disturbing force, such as an 
 undue elevation of the heel or toe, commences to act on 
 these movements, we can easily imagine such a balance 
 of forces as to make it uncertain which of the two joints 
 will be affected the most — if the pedal joint, it will be 
 navicular disease; if the pastern joint, we shall have in- 
 juries of the tissues surrounding it and in intimate con- 
 nection with it. Now if the reader will refer again to 
 Cut 1 1 , he will perceive that by the elevation of the toe 
 from the point c to a this movement will be followed by 
 a corresponding movement of the point of insertion into 
 the pedal bone k to the point indicated by the letter <?, 
 and this movement will be followed by the straightening 
 of the pastern joint until it coincides with the dotted 
 line h. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 5 1 
 
 Eespectfully Submitted. 
 
 79. I most respectfully submit considerations as to 
 the causes of navicular disease and on the rationale of 
 the obliquity of pasterns, to Professor Williams, whose 
 views are so widely different from my own. 
 
 About Overgrowth of Horn. 
 
 80. A lack of discretion founded on correct knowl- 
 edge in disposing of the extra growth of hoof, when the 
 foot grows narrow and high, accounts in my opinion for 
 the fact that so many thoroughbred horses are affected 
 with navicular disease as well as many other forms of 
 lameness. Our successful practice for over forty years 
 has made us firm in this view of the matter. Twenty- 
 five years ago I found Mr. Robert Bonner practising ac- 
 cording to this view, and his theory and practice, like 
 my own, have never changed from that day to this. If 
 the 
 
 Sacrifice of Much Valuable Time 
 
 81. And twenty-five years of close study and experi- 
 ment should entitle any one's opinions to some weight 
 on any given subject, whether professional or otherwise, 
 then Mr. Bonner's opinions on the theory and practice 
 of horseshoeing should be eminently so, for that is what 
 might truly be said of him. 
 
 In the present status of the horseshoeing art he would 
 not do otherwise than superintend and direct the shoe- 
 ing of his horses, and doubtless it pays to do so, for no 
 man in the country having such valuable stock has less 
 doctor's bills to pay on account of his horses than he 
 has. 
 
 But to return to the subject of overgrowth of horn 
 
52 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 and foot-paring. A hoof appears in such good shape 
 sometimes that all it needs is to be lowered all round 
 equally (see Cut i, line /, f). Lameness appears in 
 such feet sometimes, and when the wall has been lowered 
 even with the sole the lameness has passed away. My 
 inference has been in such cases that a little projection 
 of the wall at the toe had set up just so much leverage 
 and strain upon the laminae at the toe, and that as soon 
 as this leverage was removed the strain ceased and the 
 soreness or tenderness passed away. 
 
 Leverage Upon the Laminae. 
 
 82, This question, too, has been examined from a 
 mechanical point of view, and is susceptible of the fol- 
 lowing explanation : When the foot is allowed to grow 
 too high or too long, that causes the column or line of 
 bearing to recede from the centre of the foot backward, 
 on account of the toe and heel growing at the same for- 
 ward angle. Under these conditions, when the foot 
 lands upon the ground, the laminae at the quarters and 
 heels are forced to carry more than their share of weight, 
 while the toe by its extension forward has created a 
 leverage force and a straining effect upon the laminae in 
 the region of the toe, which is felt most at each finish- 
 ing of the step, and in addition to this there will be a 
 corresponding strain upon the perforans tendon always 
 predisposing to navicular disease. 
 
 Size, Proportion, and Symmetry 
 
 83. Are questions with which he who would under- 
 take to trim and pare a horse's foot should be perfectly 
 familiar. These should always be considered in relation 
 to the power of that organ. It always seemed to me that 
 nature must have made some provision whereby that 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 5? 
 
 great constantly growing toe-nail of the horse, his hoof, 
 should be kept within due limits, since overgrowth is 
 productive of so many injuries to the horse. It has also 
 appeared to me that a certain size and proportion would 
 be more in harmon}' with the power or capacity of the 
 mechanism of the foot than any hap-hazard size or form 
 that suited the mere fancy of the shoer. 
 
 Passing Strange 
 
 84. It has seemed to me, in view of the importance of 
 preserving the natural size, symmetry, and proportions 
 of the horse's foot in order to be able to command all 
 his full services, that these questions have received so 
 little consideration by veterinar}^ writers, the discussion 
 of which ought to throw some light upon the subjects 
 of horseshoes and horseshoeing. 
 
 The Natural Size of Every Foot. 
 
 85, Before la5'ing down the rule implicitly to be fol- 
 lowed in every case, whether the animal be sound or 
 lame, I wish to make a few preliminary observations. 
 In all cases of lameness, of whatever kind or degree of 
 intensity, excepting those produced by accident, which 
 I am not considering, the first thing to be done is to re- 
 duce the foot to its natural size. What that natural size 
 is we shall come to presently. The horse running wild 
 over his native plains doubtless could fulfil nature's in- 
 tention as regards the size of the feet. But the circum- 
 stances of the horse being altered, it alters his case. 
 His foot has ceased to enjoy nature's guardianship, and 
 has become an object of the deepest solicitude as to its 
 management and conservation under its present circum- 
 stances. 
 
54 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The Pedal Joint of the Horse and the Wrist 
 of a Man. 
 
 86. A comparison may be made between these which 
 will serve to emphasize a fact of some importance in the 
 shoeing of horses. The wrist is the nearest large joint 
 to a man's hand, as the pedal joint is the nearest to his 
 foot. If a hammer weighing four pounds be held in a 
 man's hand, we all know that in proportion to the length 
 of the handle will be the loss of power in the wrist. 
 Now, I think it is equally true that the farther the weight 
 of the foot extends beyond the pedal joint, whether it 
 has a shoe attached to it or not, but particularly if a shoe 
 be attached, the greater will be the loss of power in that 
 joint. This prepares us for the statement that the 
 smaller the foot is the greater the power will be, all 
 else being equal. And this brings us to the question 
 of what is the exact or proper size of the foot? 
 
 Nature's Footmark. 
 
 87. Happily nature has placed a mark in every per- 
 fectly form'ed foot of every kind and degree of the horse 
 species, like Cut i. At the point of union of the wall 
 with the sole, there is a line of whitish horn which 
 might be called the line of safety. The rule then is that 
 every horse' s foot should be cut doivii to this line of safety 
 before having a shoe applied to it. All horn beyond 
 this is an excrescence, a redundancy, and a constantly 
 accumulating force which diminishes the pozver of the 
 horse in proportion to the surplus growth, and is the 
 source of innumerable troubles to the horse. All horn 
 whether of sole or wall beyond this white line can be 
 removed with as much safety to the horse as the paring 
 of the human finger-nail that projects beyond the skin 
 at the end of the finger. When this rule comes into 
 
.i-lE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 55 
 
 practical operation and its wonderful results become 
 manifest, there will not be two opinions as to its benefi- 
 cent effects upon the horse. Writers on the foot have 
 been wishing for a theory that would harmonize. 
 
 Conflicting Opinions. 
 
 88. But this rule or law will do more than harmon- 
 ize conflicting opinions, it will unify them. Our best 
 writers cannot agre6 as to how a foot should be pared. 
 One wants radical cutting, another no cutting at all, and 
 others want every intermediate kind or style of cutting. 
 One would lower the heels, another the toe, and the 
 same with the sole; one wants it cut until it yields to 
 the pressure of the thumb, another would not allow a 
 single particle to be removed. 
 
 I have found this rule to be an absolutely safe one 
 in all cases, whether the horse be sound or lame. To 
 the horseshoer I would say that this fact is one of the 
 series of facts which will aid, I believe, in establishing 
 horseshoeing upon a 
 
 Basis of Facts 
 
 89. That shall be solid and enduring. This can be 
 the only sure foundation upon which horseshoeing can 
 be improved as a scientific profession, for such it ought 
 to be, if ever it takes its rightful place in social recog- 
 nition commensurate with its importance to the whole 
 community. Upon this foundation of facts, which can 
 be verified in every horseshoer's practice, my own prac- 
 tice has been built for over forty years, and my success 
 has been all that a horseshoer could reasonably hope for. 
 
 Examine Thoroughly. 
 
 90. I have a little more to say upon the subject of 
 trimming and paring a horse's foot, and as an excuse 
 for some repetitions which I feel it necessary to make I 
 
$6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 plead my particular desire to make myself perfectly un- 
 derstood. The nature of the subject will not permit of 
 very condensed remarks, if you wish to do it justice. 
 I repeat that t/ic wJiitc line that marks the junction of the 
 sole and the wall shoivs precisely the sisc each horse' s foot 
 ought to be, other things being equal. I deem it a mis- 
 taken idea that the size of the foot can be best ascertained 
 by taking a sight of the wall while the foot is on the 
 ground, for there is more to judge of by the condition 
 of the sole, and of the extra quantity of the crust or 
 wall, than by merely looking at the external wall of the 
 foot. It is common enough to see the hoof projecting 
 an inch beyond its proper line of demarcation, the white 
 line referred to. 
 
 A Surplus of Hoof 
 
 91. Is always a detriment to the foot, and was never, 
 I believe, intended by nature to accumulate or project 
 beyond the sole, but was intended to be kept down by 
 continuous wear; the feet being kept moist and mellow 
 by the moisture from the earth, the crust beyond the 
 terminations of the laminae easily crumbles or wears off 
 while in that condition even with the junction of sole 
 and wall (see Cut i, line/,/). By this provision of 
 nature the foot retains its natural size and symmetry, 
 and I feel assured that but for this provision of nature 
 horses could not perpetuate their kind as do the fleshy- 
 footed animals. As said before these animals never lose 
 the symmetry of their feet, as they mature with the 
 growth and maturity of their bodies. Again I repeat 
 that the size of the foot can be best understood by ex- 
 amining the sole instead of the outside of the foot only, 
 for when a horse runs barefooted the sole never super- 
 abounds with excrescence ; the overgrowth scales off or 
 is pulverized by friction with the ground during pro- 
 gression. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE* HORSE. 57 
 
 The White Line of Union. 
 
 92. The sole becomes denuded of all surplus growth, 
 and is plainly seen to imbed its margin into the crust 
 just where the size of the foot is marked by the union 
 of the sole and wall. This line of union, so plainly to 
 be seen while holding the foot in the hand, cannot be 
 seen while the foot is upon the ground, and therefore 
 the only way to be sure about the size of the foot is to 
 examine the sole first. 
 
 Excrescence of Sole. 
 
 93. When the horse has been kept in a stable, the 
 excrescence of the sole does not always scale off, for 
 when kept dry it becomes hard, dense, and tenacious to 
 the sound horn, and has to be cut away like the solid 
 part of the sole down to its proper thickness, and this is 
 where many get deceived. 
 
 The Solid Sole. 
 
 94. After a horse has been kept in a stall the wall 
 and sole may grow together for an inch or more beyond 
 its proper limits, both in height and length, and some- 
 times the sole will have grown even with the wall, fill- 
 ing the hollow of the foot, and be mistaken for sound 
 horn, or even the true horny sole, when it is only an 
 excrescence. 
 
 The true horny sole is about three-eighths of an inch 
 thick, a little more or less according to the size of the 
 horse, and when the excresceyit hoof is cut away is seen 
 to shine where it is cut, and the shavings are very tough 
 like leather, the fibres adhering to each other, while the 
 surplus hoof is gray in color and very brittle. 
 
58 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The Surplus Sole 
 
 95. In heavy horses with large feet is often removed 
 by a wedge driven between the scales to cause their sep- 
 aration. The true solid sole could not be split in this 
 manner. Shoes have a great deal to do with preventing 
 the scaling off and the pulverizing of the surplus sole. 
 Viewing the surplus of the sole when a wide-webbed 
 shoe is upon the foot would be apt to deceive any one ; 
 therefore when a horse is to be shod, in order to ascer- 
 tain the exact size of his feet, the shoe should be taken 
 off, and the sole rid of all its excrescences. I repeat, all 
 horn projecting beyond the line of nnion of sole and tvall 
 should be removed. The same accumulation of surplus 
 hoof will take place when a horse is barefooted if he is 
 constantly kept in a stable. The .same care has to be 
 taken of the feet in such a case as when the horse is kept 
 shod. To avoid the chances of lameness the feet must 
 be kept down to their natural size — there is no other way 
 to do it than that indicated. 
 
 Thoroughbred Horses. 
 
 96. Thoroughbred horses are great sufferers from 
 overgrowth of hoof, although the form of his foot is 
 preferable to that of the fiat foot or the convex form. 
 But not only the high-bred horse is a sufferer, but all 
 breeds which have high cup-feet are great sufferers from 
 navicular and other diseases. 
 
 Flat Feet and Cup-Feet. 
 
 97. The reason why navicular disease is more fre- 
 quent with cup than with flat feet is that while the wall 
 of the cup'foot is growing at an angle that raises the 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 59 
 
 foot from the ground, sometimes an inch or more, it 
 rarely grows level, and it cannot therefore support evenly 
 the weight it has to carry. 
 
 Level as Still Water, 
 
 98. It will readily be seen how and why a foot of 
 this kind should become unbalanced. 
 
 Firstly, owners of horses generally are not aware of 
 the great importance, and therefore are not usually im- 
 pressed with the necessity, of keeping the pedal bone 
 balanced under all circumstances by keeping the foot 
 level, level as still water, for bones so frail and so nar- 
 row are forced to carry more weight on one side of the 
 foot than upon the other when the wall projects unevenly. 
 
 Secondly, when the wall or crust gets too high it is 
 not capable of so much resistance under weight as when 
 it is even with the margin of the sole, and therefore will 
 2varp at its weakest part when that weakest part gets a 
 little more weight to carry than its usual share. 
 
 Two Sticks of Whalebone. 
 
 99. If the foregoing statement is not perfectly clear 
 I think the following simple illustration ought to make 
 it so : Suppose two sticks of whalebone of any given 
 diameter, but one of them double the length of the other, 
 standing vertically, and an equal amount of weight placed 
 on the ends of both. I don't think it will be questioned 
 that the shortest will sustain more weight than the long- 
 est zvithoiit bending; and this is what happens when the 
 foot grows too high — it must warp and bend under the 
 same weight that the shorter foot would carry without 
 warping (refer to Cut i). 
 
 The last paragraph relates to the lateral disturbance 
 of the balance by mere growth ; we would now refer to 
 
6o THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the loss of the fore-and-aft balance produced by the same 
 cause. The angle at which the heels are constantly 
 growing, as seen in Cut i , whereby from mere healthy 
 growth the heels approach toward the centre of the foot, 
 is a perpetual source of danger. This angle causes one 
 or both heels to zvarp under the extra weight thrown 
 upon them by their advance toward the centre of bear- 
 ing. This advance not only tvarps the heels, but causes 
 a displacement of the pedal bone, by making it higher 
 at the toe than at the wings or heels. 
 
 The Causes of Navicular Disease. 
 
 I GO, Various have been the causes assigned as the 
 origin of this disease by different authors, one of which 
 is heredity; but my opinion is that if heredity has anything 
 to do with it, it is only as far as the form and texture of 
 the hoof are concerned, for I have often seen two full 
 brothers, one with cup-feet troubled with navicular dis- 
 ease, and the other with flat feet entirely free from that 
 disease, this being the rule. I think the true cause may 
 be stated to be that imperfect knowledge of the require- 
 ments of the horse's feet in relation to shoeing is not 
 only the cause of navicular disease, but of all other dis- 
 eases of the foot and leg of the horse. 
 
 Professor Zundel. 
 
 10 1. The difference in the form of feet as producing 
 different effects has been apparent to some veterinary 
 writers, and they have observed the absence of navicular 
 disease among flat-footed animals. Professor Zundel, a 
 distinofuished French veterinarian, in his treatise on 
 " Lameness of Horses," refers to the general absence of 
 navicular disease among flat-footed horses, and notices 
 its very common appearance among well-bred horses, 
 especially those of English breed. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 6l 
 
 Professor Williams 
 
 102. Considers navicular disease the most fertile 
 cause of lameness that he knows of in the best-bred 
 horses, and reiterates an oft-made remark that this dis- 
 ease is "the bane of good horseflesh." 
 
 Only One Exception to the Rule. 
 
 103. All authors who have written upon the subject 
 of lameness of horses have associated the narrow cup-foot 
 with navicular disease, and only one writer is on record 
 who has observed a case of that nature in a flat foot. 
 
 A New Theory. 
 
 104. So little is known of the true causes of the na- 
 vicular disease, as is apparent from all the books I have 
 read on lameness, that I shall deem it both a pleasure 
 and a duty to demonstrate as fully as possible the truth 
 of what I cannot help believing will be found to be es- 
 sentially a neiv theory. 
 
 Silent Demonstration. 
 
 105. If it were possible I should like to give a silent 
 deiiioiistration of the truth of my views upon the most 
 pronounced cases of navicular disease, in the presence 
 of every living writer upon the subject, but as this is 
 not possible I will do the next best thing, and give as 
 good a demonstration as I can on paper which the sub- 
 ject will admit of, and I have the capability of giving. 
 
 Unbalanced by Accident. 
 
 106. I think I have made it plain that the crust or 
 wall of the cup-foot, by projecting beyond the junction 
 of the sole and wall, affords reasons enough to show that 
 
62 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the foot becomes unbalanced by accident as well as by 
 the practitioner's not knowing anything about nature's 
 rule for reducing the wall of a high foot already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Maintains His Own Balance. 
 
 107. The flat-footed horse, although not so salable 
 nor so desirable in the market, has been employed in 
 many kinds of work, and has rendered longer and better 
 service than his cup-footed congeners on account of his 
 greater capability of maintaining his ozvn balance. 
 
 All Diseases Spring from Want of Balance. 
 
 10,8. I present this fact from every possible point of 
 view. I cannot find a single disease of the locomotory 
 organs that cannot be traced to a deviation from a per- 
 fect balance at either of the eight points of the chart as 
 seen at Cut 9, which has been drawn the better to dem- 
 onstrate what is apt to take place with a cup-foot. 
 
 The wall is liable to become too high or too low at 
 either of those eight points of its circumference, simply 
 by projecting beyond its line of union ivith the sole. 
 
 Hereditary Tendency. 
 
 log. Another word about heredity. I said before 
 that I believe that any hereditary tendency to the na- 
 vicular disease is limited mostly to the texture of the horn 
 structures. Texture gives the form of the hoof, and 
 the form produces the lameness. I regard it as a proof 
 of this that the different textures of the hoof are found 
 in different forms of feet. The hard, compact hoof or 
 horn is found in cup-shaped feet resembling those rep- 
 resented in Cut I. When the nails are being driven 
 into them, they ring under the hammer, the hoof being" 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 63 
 
 SO dense ; and the spongy, soft hoof is found in the flat 
 feet, showing that from the rigidity and texture of the 
 horn comes the form, and the form gives the case or the 
 ^?.y-ease. 
 
 Solid and Spongy Feet. 
 
 1 10. It is obvious that a soft or spongy foot cannot 
 retain the same form or angle under the same weight as 
 that of the firmer and harder kind. The first flattens 
 and conforms itself to the required level of the foot ; in 
 other words, more readily adapts itself to the require- 
 ments of the pedal bone within it ; while the better qual- 
 ity, the hard, compact, and dense hoof as seen in Cut i, 
 while being secreted, molds itself closely to the form 
 of the pedal bone as it grows and retains that form 
 whether good or bad, regardless of the weight it has to 
 carry or the requirements of the foot as to its perfectly 
 level bearing and due balance in every direction. The 
 hoof being so hard and resistant, the weight is carried 
 mostly or entirely by the highest part to the detriment 
 of the articulation within. 
 
 The Influence of Form on Diseases of the Feet. 
 
 111. Diseases of flat feet vary as much in their na- 
 ture as the feet vary in form, proving that the diseases 
 common to either are due to the form of the feet. So 
 much are we convinced of the truth of this theory that 
 we have often said, as regards the three locations of a 
 ringbone : Tell me the formation of the foot and I will 
 tell you without seeing the case on what part of the 
 pastern it is situated, and vice versa. Tell me the loca- 
 tion of the ringbone and I will tell you the formation 
 of the foot. It is the same with spavin, knee-sprung, 
 knuckling, etc., or of point iiijj[ in any direction, as those 
 conditions are all produced by a deformity of the hoof. 
 
64 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 A Good Thing to Know. 
 
 112. Therefore the value of a horse to any one is very 
 much dependent on the knowledge he possesses of this 
 theory ; for different forms require different methods of 
 treatment and different modes of shoeing. The chances 
 of the pedal bone being kept balanced and in a state of 
 soundness by the two forms of feet are five to one in 
 favor of the flat foot. The spongy hoof grows more on 
 a level with the ground, and therefore is better balanced, 
 as seen at Cut 2, where the toe of the pedal bone is seen 
 to drop on account of the hoof sprawling and becoming 
 wider in circumference in front than the cup-foot. 
 
 An Indispensable Necessity. 
 
 113. In the same proportion that it keeps on a level 
 with the ground the pedal bone will be level and there- 
 fore properly balanced, without artificial means. This 
 accounts for the comparative soundness of flat feet, and 
 proves that balancing the feet frequently is an indispen- 
 sable necessity. 
 
 Perpendicular Heels. 
 
 114. In the spongy hoof, as a rule, the heels grow 
 higher than the toe, thus preventing undue strains of 
 tendons and their diseases, as seen by the grain of the 
 hoof represented in Cut 2. It grows more perpendicu- 
 larly and therefore raises the heel higher than the toe, 
 which at that point forms a curve ending nearly hori- 
 zontal. It will be deduced from this that cup-feet are 
 subject to undue length and height of toe, and flat feet 
 to too much height of heel, each form, as I before pre- 
 mised, producing ailments peculiar to its own formation. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 65 
 
 Ailments from Too High Heels. 
 
 115. I here present a list of the ailments which pro- 
 ceed from the heels being too high (see Cut 2 for 
 this form of foot) : 
 
 1 . Cor)i, on account of treading too much on the heels, 
 which are almost always too high. 
 
 2. Scratc/ics, caused by concussion to the heels while 
 travelling, which also produces fever in the same region. 
 
 3. Knee-sprung. 
 
 4. Soreness and some swelling at the apex of the 
 pedal bone. 
 
 5. Pointing backward. 
 
 6. Ossified cartilages. 
 
 7. Quarter-crack. 
 
 8. Inability to extend while progressing at high 
 speed, and finishing the step too much under the centre 
 of the body. 
 
 It will be observed that the diseases referred to, that 
 is, those caused by high toe and those caused by high 
 heels, are induced by feet of opposite forms, or by the 
 extremes of two evils proceeding from opposite direc- 
 tions. 
 
 One Good Turn Deserves Another. 
 
 116. One of those strange anomalies we meet with 
 in the horse's foot, we may notice here. It seems some- 
 what anomalous that either height of toe or height of 
 heels should be in itself a cause of one class of diseases 
 and a remedy in another. For instance, those diseases 
 produced by high toes can be removed or benefited by 
 relatively raising the heels, and those produced by high 
 heels by similarly raising the toes. The remedy for the 
 last-named ailment produced by high heels obviously 
 must be by lowering the heels, and, as explained before, 
 
66 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 those different diseases must be looked for in horses 
 which are in the habit of standing with their fore feet 
 back tinder the centre of the body, in other words point- 
 ing backward. Some of these diseases will be referred 
 to when we treat of each disease separately. 
 
 The Natural Size of the Foot. 
 
 1 1 7. This important consideration is referred to again 
 in order to give point to some observations I wish to 
 make concerning the size of feet. It cannot be repeated 
 too often that the line of union of the sole with the wall 
 indicates the limits of a sound foot, for a horse in a state 
 of nature could not be supposed to travel after the sole 
 had been worn through to the sensitive laminae; pain 
 would necessarily stop him until the soles of his feet had 
 grown again ; neither, on the other hand, could he be 
 supposed to travel at all if his feet should get out of 
 proportion by extra growth. 
 
 A Comparison. 
 
 118. Suppose that an equal number of horses, ele- 
 phants, camels, and dogs, say six of each, were to be 
 confined in box stalls all in proportion to their relative 
 size, all fed suitably to their wants, and kept in confine- 
 ment for the same length of time, say for two or three 
 years, every requirement being supplied, but no atten- 
 tion paid whatever to the state of their feet. Under 
 these circumstances which class of animals would live 
 the longest, or rather which would succumb first? The 
 horse only would have suffered by the neglect of his 
 feet. Why? Because the horse, unlike the other ani- 
 mals, having feet which grow at the rate of four inches 
 a year, in two years' time, if he lived so long, his feet 
 would be twelve inches long. No horse could be sup- 
 
rilK FOOT OF TIIF HORSE. 6/ 
 
 posed to survive the pain, irritation, and suffering which 
 the possession of such hoofs would necessarily entail. 
 
 Spring Colts and Overgrown Feet. 
 
 1 19. I have seen spring colts hardly able to stand up 
 on account of overgrowth of hoof which has been accu- 
 mulating during the winter, having been kept within 
 doors, and their feet having received no attention what- 
 ever during that time. 
 
 Reproduction. 
 
 120. It is not very generally known, but it is a fact, 
 that horses in the domesticated state cannot thrive suffi- 
 ciently to beget offspring, if their feet are not kept down 
 to their natural size by the judicious use of the paring- 
 knife, or by wear and tear on suitable pastures. Horses, 
 under all circumstances that we are acquainted with, 
 thrive better when their feet are kept trimmed to the 
 level indicated by the line of union of sole and wall. 
 
 Proper Size of Foot. 
 
 121. Again the proper size and form of the foot is 
 referred to. I consider the feet have been so described 
 as to enable any one to discern the form that causes either 
 class of diseases, the line marking the size and form of 
 the foot so that any one of intelligence may be able to 
 recognize a normal foot. 
 
 The right size for permanent utility, as we have seen, 
 has been limited by nature to where the sole and wall 
 unite, and that size can only be retained by periodically 
 reducing all that grows beyond that line. That which 
 is removed must represent loss or gain of power. The 
 horse's foot being of so small a bulk in relation to its 
 
68 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 weight, carrying power, and the velocity it is capable of 
 attaining, requires the nice adjustment to each other of 
 all its component parts in order that no power shall be 
 lost. 
 
 Horses' Disadvantages Mechanically Considered. 
 
 122. It is a general principle that the smaller the 
 machine and the greater the pressure the more perfect 
 must be the harmony of its component parts. In addi- 
 tion to the smallness of the foot in relation to the weight 
 it has to carry and the speed it is capable of, it has to 
 perform its work under a disadvantage not to be seen in 
 any piece of common machinery. The latter never 
 changes its component parts or any one of them by 
 growing larger every day, no matter whether at rest or 
 in motion. This is a serious disadvantage to the horse, 
 whose feet are growing all the time, at rest or in motion, 
 and necessarily affects the moving power of the horse 
 prejudicially, and the more so the longer it grows. I 
 cannot, therefore, consider it an unimportant question : 
 How much power is lost by a neglect to reduce the extra 
 growth of wall even with the sole? 
 
 Loss of Power from Overgrowth of Hoof. 
 
 123. We may form some idea of the loss of power 
 alone from the extension and elevation of the foot by 
 mere growth. Remembering that the horse's leg is a 
 lever, let us make a little study about the properties of 
 the lever. We may get different degrees of power by 
 the same weight. The power of a common lever is al- 
 ways in proportion to its diameter. If a lever placed 
 upon a fulcrum four inches from its prying end is capa- 
 ble of raising twelve hundred pounds, being one inch 
 in diameter, how much power will it lose by placing 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 69 
 
 the lever upon the fulcrum at five inches from the 
 end? Answer, one-fourth of its power is lost; and 
 placed on the fulcrum six inches from its end it will 
 have lost one -half , and vice versa, if placed at three inches 
 from its prying end it will gain or have one-fourth more 
 than required, and if placed at two inches from the ful- 
 crum it will have gained double the power. 
 
 Now please consider that the horse's weight is carried 
 on four levers or derricks, where at four inches from its 
 prying end it is one inch in diameter as seen at Cut 1 1 . 
 (This represents the distance marked from letter k to let- 
 ter a, which is one inch in diameter of the coronary bone, 
 which works the same as a common lever against the 
 length of four inches, that is to say, of the hoof or foot 
 itself.) 
 
 The Leg a Lever. 
 
 124, The propriety of this comparison will appear 
 when we take into consideration that the tendons or 
 braces of the lever run no farther than the posterior ex- 
 tremity of the foot, which is four inches in length, and to 
 be used as the short arm of the lever, so if we take it for 
 granted that the fulcrum lies where that tendon is in- 
 serted, the question of power lost or gained under cer- 
 tain conditions will be easily solved, as we know that 
 the tendon and column of the leg all terminate at the 
 foot bone, while the lower end of the column of bone, 
 the long arm of the lever, butts against the same bone as 
 represented in Cut 1 1 by the line from letter / to a at 
 the apex. 
 
 The Effect of Disproportion. 
 
 125. Therefore the power of the horse's lever at that 
 point, that is to say, his leg, is determined by its diame- 
 ter in comparison to the length of the prying end of the 
 
70 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 foot. So we see that if the foot is allowed to grow in 
 length one inch beyond the point of union of sole and 
 wall, which is too often the case, the same proportion 
 of the loss of power is the result; that is, the power of 
 a twelve-htindred-pound-horse motor is reduced to that 
 of nine hundred pounds, and if allowed to grow two 
 inches the power is diminished to six hundred pounds. 
 The reader may say if this is a good rule it should 
 work both ways, and many a time I have proved it to 
 work both ways ; when the result would be attrib- 
 uted to any causes but the true one — the removal of the 
 adverse leverage caused by a disproportionate foot. I 
 have many a time caused a horse to gain in flesh while 
 working and drawing a heavier load than before, just 
 by reducing the extra length of his feet, or the short 
 arms of the four levers he walks upon. A commonly 
 observed fact that ought to make this very clear is that 
 when a horse is moving a load the final effort is made 
 upon the point of the toes ; the longer the toes the 
 greater the effort necessary to move the load. As said 
 before, the length of the foot may be compared to a ham- 
 mer in a man's hand; the shorter the handle of the 
 hammer the more power there will be in the wrist. 
 This applies exactly to the case of the horse's foot which 
 we have been considering, and proves to me that lame- 
 ness very often proceeds from weakness rather than from 
 any positive disease. 
 
 Weakness Often Causes Lameness. 
 
 126. The best proof that I can give of this is that it 
 frequently occurs in practice that a horse is brought to 
 me lame, and when his feet have been cut down, or in 
 other words when the disproportions of his feet have 
 been reduced, the lameness disappears. It is necessary 
 to understand this in order to understand the rationale 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 7 1 
 
 of the centre-bearing shoe, which we shall become ac- 
 quainted with presently. With a common lever, the 
 nearer the fulcrum' is to the prying end the easier the 
 weight can be raised. It is very much the same with a 
 horse suffering from navicular disease and pointing. 
 The fulcrum and prying end of the lever, the toe, are too 
 far apart for the animal to stand easily ; lameness is a 
 warning of this disproportion of the foot ; and weakness 
 in the pastern joint is evident in its inability to bear the 
 weight imposed upon it. 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 127. I am now come to talk of the remedy. In order 
 to prepare you for what I have to say for the centre-bear- 
 ing shoe, let me revert for a few moments to the proper- 
 ties of the lever. Everybody knows that with a com- 
 mon lever we can move the fulcrum nearer or farther 
 from the prying end and gain or diminish power as we 
 please. In the horse's leg the fnlcritm is not movable, 
 being formed by the posterior part of the foot itself. 
 But by means of an artificial device attached to the foot 
 we can place the fulcrum — in other words, we may con- 
 centrate the bearing to any point of the foot we please. 
 
 The Centre-Bearing Shoe. 
 
 128. I have been so much impressed with the view 
 that lameness in many cases proceeds from weakness 
 without disease, caused by a disproportioned foot, that 
 the first thing I do in all cases of lameness is to redress 
 the deformity or disproportions of the hoof by cutting 
 the wall down to the smallest compass possible, that is 
 to say, even with the sole, as by this I remove a consider- 
 able portion of the leverage occasioned by the greater 
 circumference of the foot ; and when to this is added the 
 
72 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 attacliment of a centre-bearing shoe all the leverage is 
 absolutely taken away, and the fulcrum itself is the small 
 end of the lever, leaving no strain upon the foot in any 
 direction whatever. 
 
 Mr. Robert Bonner and Dexter. 
 
 129. Twenty-five years ago my success in the treat- 
 ment of all forms of foot lameness had become so re- 
 markable that when I heard that Dexter, the old king 
 of the turf, was lame, I felt sure that, no matter what the 
 cause of the lameness was, I could restore him to sound- 
 ness. 
 
 My surprise was great when I arrived in this city 
 and found that the old king was fully cured. As an 
 architect understands the structure of a building, so Mr. 
 Bonner understood the structure of the foot ; he could 
 perceive the cause, which was a mechanical one ; and 
 when tlie mechanical compensation was supplied the heal- 
 ing powers of nature did the rest. 
 
 A Good Prescription. 
 
 1 30. Among all the prescriptions to be found in books 
 on lameness there are none so good as rest. There is 
 nothing equal to rest, nothing so indispensable as rest ; 
 yet how strange it must appear when I say that a mod- 
 erate amount of work every day is compatible with my 
 idea of giving rest to diseased portions of the foot and 
 leg. 
 
 It is not always convenient or remunerative to stop 
 using the horse, neither is it necessary; for rest can be 
 given to the injured parts by the centre-bearing shoe. 
 I should not make such a sweeping statement as this if 
 it were not true, as it can be tested so easily by any or 
 every horseshoer in the country. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. •] I 
 
 The Properties of the Centre-Bearing Shoe. 
 
 131. If the power of the lever can be increased by 
 moving the fulcrum toward the prying end of it, it can 
 be increased in the same ratio by moving the prying 
 end of a lever toward the fulcrum. In the horse's foot 
 the centre-bearing shoe becomes the fulcrum and there 
 is no short arm of the lever — it has been moved back — 
 and the fulcrum and the prying end of the lever are one 
 and the same thing. 
 
 I took out patents in Canada in 1868 on horseshoes 
 so formed as to reduce the leverage of the foot. The 
 use of these for twenty-five years and my observations 
 for a still longer period have but confirmed my earlier 
 convictions that lameness in the first stages comes from 
 weakness induced by overgrown feet. 
 
 Mr. Villeneuve's Case and Professor McEachran. 
 
 132. A somewhat remarkable case of the character 
 last mentioned was that of a horse belonging to Mr. 
 Villeneuve, of Montreal, Canada. I applied a centre- 
 bearing shoe in that case which surprised everyone con- 
 cerned but myself. This horse had been lame for sev- 
 eral weeks of the near fore foot, and had been under 
 the care of the principal of the Veterinary College of 
 Montreal. Prior to my treatment, a seton had been in- 
 serted into the shoulder, and as it had not produced the! 
 desired effect the owner asked me what I could do for 
 his horse. I replied that I would cure him on the fol- 
 lowing Monday morning at eight o'clock. At the time 
 appointed, the owner was present with several friends; 
 and as I had a shoe ready for the occasion, the shoe 
 was nailed on and the horse pronounced cured in five 
 minutes. I got into the buggy with the owner and the 
 
74 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 horse was driven six miles, going perfectly sound all 
 the time ; and on our return home the owner drove to 
 Professor McEachran's office, who inspected the horse 
 and could but acknowledge that the animal was not then 
 lame. 
 
 The Explanation. 
 
 133. The explanation of the cause and the cure in 
 this case is simple enough. The hoof at the outside of 
 the toe was too long and too high compared with the 
 inside heels, and this being re-dressed by the paring- 
 knife a shoe was put on that was highest in the eentre, the 
 centre-bearing shoe, in fact; this took the weight entirely 
 oif the weak spot and enabled him to travel without pain 
 or lameness. The owner complimented me by saying 
 that but for the explanation he could readily have be- 
 lieved that the age of miracles had not quite passed away ; 
 and the incident is referred to here to prove that lame- 
 ness in many cases where there is no manifestation of dis- 
 ease is often but the result of weakness induced by want 
 of balance in the feet. Horses can bear some amount 
 of neglect in this matter without serious results, but the 
 foot is constantly outgrowing the limits of endurance. 
 Of course this adverse leverage at the toe, or at the in- 
 side or outside of the toe, is felt the most when the foot 
 is at a backward angle at the instant it leaves the ground. 
 
 Adding Fuel to Fire. 
 
 134. I deem it to have been conclusively shown 
 that undue height of the toe causes navicular disease ; 
 and pointing with one or both feet to the leading symp- 
 tom of it ; but when length or extension of the toe is 
 conjoined with height it is like adding fuel to fire. (Ob- 
 viously the cause of the trouble is of a mechanical nature 
 and should be counteracted by measures of the same 
 nature. 
 
THE FUOT UF THE HORSE. 75 
 
 Rustication 
 
 135. Is not always beneficial to a lame horse. Every- 
 thing proper may have been done; but the injured parts 
 might have become so weakened by disease that it is a 
 positive cruelty, although no cruelty is intended, to turn 
 a horse out to grass and compel him to unduly exert 
 his injured limb in order to pick up what may be hardly 
 enough to keep him alive. When the alternatives of 
 choice are hunger or pain, I believe they will often en- 
 dure the pangs of hunger rather than the suffering and 
 pain caused by the exertions necessary to gather their 
 food. 
 
 Injuries of tendons and ligaments need rest to facil- 
 itate the healing processes of nature. I believe that 
 for very many cases turned out under such circumstances 
 it is a virtual sentence of death, so many of them remain- 
 ing lame for the remainder of their days. 
 
 Long Strides and Short Strides. 
 
 136. One of my aims in forming a shoe for the pre- 
 vention and cure of foot diseases has been to lessen the 
 amount of irritation produced by the movements of the 
 pedal joint while the animal is in motion, as I found 
 that with an injured joint the animal either could not or 
 would not take a long step. A long stride must neces- 
 sarily produce a long sweep of the joint, and the longei 
 the sweep the greater the degree of pain and lameness. 
 
 Rationale of Rocking Motion. 
 
 137. This suggested the idea of a roek-over motion 
 which would not call for so much movement in the joint. 
 By means of the rocking shoe the pedal joint is aided 
 very much in this respect, not having to rotate so far — 
 
76 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a substitute being found for it which is placed upon the 
 external surface of the foot; and the result is more or 
 less of rest to the injured parts, even while the horse is 
 in motion. It must be readily apprehended that as a 
 forced articulation is the exclusive cause of the disease 
 tmder consideration and of its permanent persistence, 
 a limitation of those movements ought to be beneficial ; 
 and it is so. The rocker shoe enables a horse to resume 
 slow work at once, and it gives him more ease and bet- 
 ter health than he could gain by standing in a stall from 
 day to day. Viewed mechanically the rocking shoe 
 shortens the prying end of the lever, causing the weight 
 to be lifted nearer the fulcrum, and increasing the 
 power to lift and rotate the joints of the leg and foot 
 many times over. 
 
 A Perfect Balance. 
 
 138. Great relief is always obtained immediately by 
 simply lowering the toe, as that causes an abatement of 
 the pain while the animal is in a standing position ; that 
 is, supposing the case to be one of navicular disease ; but 
 unless the leverage caused by both high and long toe be 
 also judiciously reduced and kc/^t reduced, no permanent 
 cure can be effected. No veterinary writer that I am 
 aware of has ever suggested any device, mechanical or 
 otherwise, for the purpose of realizing this intention. 
 Veterinarians will find an important addition to their 
 list of mechanical appliances in the rocker shoe. With 
 this shoe no horse points, which proves that the horse en- 
 joys a perfect balance while using it. The locomotive 
 on wheels when in perfect order needs its perpetual sup- 
 ply of oil to maintain the harmonious working of its 
 different parts ; the locomotive on legs only requires its 
 bearing and carrying surfaces to be kept /eve/ and in a 
 ivel/-ba/anced condition by the judicious use of the rasp 
 and knife, to insure perfect equipoise of all the forces 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 'J'J 
 
 that animate the vital machinery of the horse, and to be 
 self -oiling into the bargain. 
 
 Points and Facts for Horseshoers. 
 
 139. Recognizing the fact that the great need of the 
 times as regards horses and horseshoers is improve- 
 ments in shoes and shoeing, I will say a little more 
 upon the facts and principles, the practice of which has 
 the indorsement of many who have ver)' large interests 
 in horses, financial and otherwise; and which I hope will 
 aid hereafter in the development of a universal system 
 of shoeing, which will convert a bane into a blessing as 
 regards horses, and thereby emphasize the importance 
 and value of horseshoeing in the public estimation. 
 
 A Ne^w York College of Horseshoers. 
 
 140. The consideration of so many separate diseases 
 prevents my making as full an exposition of those facts 
 and principles as I could have wished, but I shall hope 
 that a start has been made in the right direction; and I 
 hope that some teacher or leader may arise with the lit- 
 erary ability necessary to consolidate all known and es- 
 tablished facts into one universal and enduring system 
 of horseshoeing. The establishment of a college of 
 horseshoeing would then become easy of accomplish- 
 ment. A co-operative company could easily be formed 
 for this purpose. 
 
 The following facts and observations will afford some 
 idea of the principles and facts of shoeing with which 
 my name has been identified for the last twenty-five 
 years in the city of New York. 
 
 The foot of the horse has different attributes and re- 
 quirements which ought to be perfectly understood by 
 those who undertake to practise the important art of 
 horseshoeing. Horseshoeing should be a twofold art: 
 
78 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 it should embrace hygiene and pathologic shoeing or 
 treatment of the foot. He should be well grounded in 
 the principles of shoeing in health and disease. The 
 locomotory organs as high as the elbow should constitute 
 the rightful domain of horseshoeing; as the first and 
 last necessity of a horse either in health or disease is 
 shoeing adapted to his different requirements whether 
 he be sound or lame. All outside of that domain should 
 be the field of the veterinarian. But horseshoeing will 
 never attain to this ideal eminence until there is a col- 
 lege for teaching the higher branches of knowledge 
 which underlie the true art of horseshoeing, and domi- 
 nate the locomotory system of the horse. This would 
 involve a high degree of technical education ; and that is 
 the great need of the time for horseshoers and their art. 
 141. Horseshoeing requires the recognition and un- 
 derstanding of three principles, namely, levelling, sym- 
 metrizing, and balancing. 
 
 Levelling. 
 
 The ordinary idea of levelling is simply to remove 
 the inequalities upon the plantar surface of the foot re- 
 gardless of symmetry or balance. What the dead level 
 of its foundation is to a building, the perfect level is to 
 the body of the horse. This is the first requisite of a 
 perfect balance. Men whose proper business is wagon- 
 building sometimes engage in horseshoeing. These 
 men and boys, many of them, could hardly define the 
 limits of the frog, the sole, and the wall, and yet they 
 are permitted to jeopardize values amounting to mil- 
 lions of dollars every day in the week. The college of 
 horseshoers, which should instruct in practice as well 
 as theory, and with power to grant diplomas, would soon 
 correct this evil. 
 
 As we have seen, the white line is a safe rule to go 
 by ; but after this is reached care must be taken to leave 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 79 
 
 the foot a perfect level — not a plane surface more or less 
 oblique, but a dead level fore and aft and from side to 
 side. I have read of sandals and plates ; and although 
 iron plates are in vogue in some Eastern countries, I 
 don't think they have reached the acme of perfection 
 there any more than we have in our Western civiliza- 
 tions in regard to horseshoeing. I have read nothing 
 about them anywhere suggestive of the ideas of level- 
 ling, symmetrizing, or balancing the foot, their idea 
 being simple protection against zvear and tear. Horse- 
 shoeing must reach a higher plane than this before it 
 can satisfy the requirements of European and American 
 communities. My opinion is that when the dead level 
 of the foot and its perfect balance in all directions is 
 fully understood and generally practised, we shall hear 
 of greater speed and capacity for endurance among rac- 
 ing and trotting horses than we have yet witnessed; 
 that there will be physical and mental developments in 
 horses not dreamed of in the common philosophy ; that 
 lameness will virtually become a reminiscence ; horses 
 will enjoy better health and condition ; people who own 
 horses will have less plagues and losses from such prop- 
 erty and as a consequence more pleasures and gains ; and 
 though last in the list, not the least important result 
 will be a higher respect for horseshoeing as an art — for 
 it must needs be through the instrumentality of im- 
 proved horseshoeing that these benefits can ever be 
 brought about. 
 
 Symmetry. 
 
 142. Symmetry concerns the balance of the foot from 
 another point of view. The foot may be a dead level 
 without being properly balanced. A perfectly balanced 
 foot laterally is one in which the central line of bear- 
 ing runs throuofh to the toe and divides the foot into 
 two equal halves. This means equal weight on both 
 
80 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 sides, and equal weight implies a perfect balance ; and 
 this is the just requirement of every horse, and espe- 
 cially so for horses which are kept for speed. The knife 
 and rasp must be in requisition to produce symmetry, 
 which means a perfect lateral balance. If the foot is so 
 misshapen as to make it hard to symmetrize, the object 
 aimed at, a perfect balance, must be effected as far pos- 
 sible by the judicious adjustment of the shoe, which will 
 be referred to later on. 
 
 Balance. 
 
 143. The essential importance of a perfect balance, 
 if we wish to secure perfect ease or perfect action for 
 the horse, cannot be overestimated ; and this idea, bean 
 ideal I might have said, will be emphasized in the fol- 
 lowing observations. 
 
 You may have a foot perfectly level and yet not per- 
 fectly balanced. This must be effected by the perfect 
 adjustment of the shoe in the /ore and aft direction, all 
 other things being equal. These three ideas, levelling, 
 symmetrizing, and balancing, should permeate every 
 nook and corner of a horseshoer's mentality, if he would 
 remove horseshoeing from the domain of empiricism 
 and place it in the region of science and art where it 
 ought to be. It should be his first and last study, as 
 it is the most vital and essential portion of his art. 
 
 Lack of Balance. 
 
 144. It cannot be denied that many horses shod in 
 the best manner under ordinary methods of shoeing 
 evince a restlessness and uneasiness in their feet, with- 
 out any sign of active disease, which lack of balance, I 
 think, Vv'ill sufficiently account for. It is not uncommon 
 for shoes to be removed under the impression that they 
 have been hammered on too tight, or that a nail might 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 8 1 
 
 have crowded the sensitive tissues somewhere or other, 
 and nothing being discovered, the shoe is reset and the 
 cause of the uneasiness remains as great a mystery as 
 ever. 
 
 Mr. Bonner dictates his own shoeing, because horse- 
 shoers have not undergone the technical and manual 
 training which alone would inspire confidence to leave 
 the performance of that work to others without super- 
 vision. 
 
 Perfect Balance. 
 
 145 . Further, the value of a perfect balance to horses 
 is seen in the fact that horses have no inclination to point 
 with their feet when they enjoy a perfect balance, any 
 more than the animals which have ball pads in their 
 feet. 
 
 A perfect balance is perfect repose and rest. It is 
 astonishing to some how horses recuperate their muscu- 
 lar energies while standing on the centre-bearing shoe ; 
 and who does not know how the muscular tissues actu- 
 ally waste away under the maleficent effects of a lame 
 foot, producing a condition termed ^^/r^///;/ f It would 
 take an abler pen than mine to do justice to this part of 
 the subject. 
 
 Effects of an Unbalanced Foot. 
 
 146. An unbalanced foot is the fruitful cause of 
 nearly every form of lameness to which the foot is liable, 
 EXCEPTING those from accidents. In support of this state- 
 ment I have given a list of nine different diseases, de- 
 fects, or deformities (paragraph 63) arising from a want 
 of balance produced by the toe being too high. 
 
 I will now present you with a category of similar 
 ills which proceed from the heels being too high, number- 
 ing eight, following which will be an inventory of ail- 
 
82 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ments distinctly traceable to a lack of lateral balance, 
 which will be referred to as tJic iiisidc portion of the foot 
 being too high, numbering twenty-seven; and closing the 
 procession with, a catalogue of maladies due to the out- 
 side portion of the foot being too high, thus making a total 
 of fifty-four abnormal conditions which I charge to the 
 account of an unbalanced foot. 
 
 Maladies Proceeding from the Heels Being 
 Too High. 
 
 147. Refer to Cut 2. 
 
 1. Corn in one or both feet on account of treading 
 too much upon the heels. 
 
 2. Scratches caused by the jarring of the feet and 
 producing fever in the soft tissues between the heels, 
 
 3. Knee-spring. 
 
 4. Front-foot fissure. 
 
 5. Pointing backward. 
 
 6. Ossification of lateral cartilages. 
 
 7. Quarter- crack. 
 
 8. Inability to extend during fast progression ; thus 
 forcing the horse to step too much under his body. 
 
 Diseased Conditions Due to the Inside Portion 
 of the Foot Being Too High. 
 
 148. I. Warping the hoof, causing contraction of the 
 outside heels and widening the inside heels at the same 
 time. 
 
 2. Bending or bowing the fetlocks, hocks, and knees 
 outwardly. 
 
 3. Abnormal enlargement of tissues and hoof, the 
 inside heel. 
 
 4. Corn on the inside heel. 
 
 5. Quarter-crack of inside heel or quarter. 
 
 6. Deformity of the inside heel by lengthening. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 83 
 
 7. Causing the feet to stand too close to each other 
 resting or travelling. 
 
 8. Causing ringbone on the inside of the pastern. 
 
 9. Causing ossified cartilages. 
 
 10. Stumbling both before and behind. 
 
 1 1. Sprain of the suspensory ligament on the outside 
 of the fetlock. 
 
 12. Windgall on the outside of the fetlock. 
 
 13. Knuckling before and behind. 
 
 14. Splent immediately under the knee on the inside. 
 
 1 5 . Knee-sprung outwardly. 
 
 16. Spavin and deformity of the hoof of the same 
 foot. 
 
 17. Soft tumor on the inside and inclining to the 
 front of the knee. 
 
 18. Interfering before and behind. 
 
 19. Boxing or hitting the knee. 
 
 20. Hitching behind. 
 
 2 1 . Causing the hind foot to tread between the two 
 fore ones. 
 
 22. Causing the head to be carried on the same side 
 that is carried inward. 
 
 23. Causing the hoi^se to drive on one line and to 
 cross the road. 
 
 24. Bony deposits on the inner and fore part of the 
 fetlock, called higJi ringbone. 
 
 2 5 . Causing one foot to rest against or upon the other. 
 
 26. vSpringhalt. 
 
 27. Bog-spavin and thoroughpin. 
 
 Diseases Caused by the Outside Portion of the 
 Foot Being Too High. 
 
 149. I. Corn on same side. 
 
 2. Enlargement of the quarter, and ossification of 
 the lateral cartilage of the same quarter. 
 
84 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 3. Increased growth of hoof on the same side com- 
 pared with the inside. 
 
 4. Ringbone partly in front and toward the outside 
 of the pastern. 
 
 5. Windgall on the opposite side of the fetlock in 
 both fore and hind legs, 
 
 6. Rupture of inside suspensory ligaments of both 
 fore and hind legs. 
 
 7. Cause of travelling too wide apart of both fore 
 and hind feet. 
 
 8. Cause of an outside spavin, or a soft spavin oppo- 
 site the ordinary spavin. 
 
 9; Cause of a bony deposit on the outside of the fet- 
 lock, and partly in front of the same, which corresponds 
 with the high ringbone of the opposite side. 
 
 10. Ossification of lateral cartilages. 
 
 The Why and the Wherefore. 
 
 150. Being unduly high on the inside portion of the 
 foot exposes a horse to many more ailments than undue 
 height at any other part of the foot, or circumference of 
 the foot, for the following reasons, which have been 
 given, but which I will take leave to repeat. Anatomi- 
 cal reasons prevent a horse from pointing directly in- 
 ward. Imagine if you can a horse standing with his 
 fore feet close together. His chest is in the way ; he 
 may cross one leg before or behind the other, but he 
 cannot point directl)' inward; if he did his body would 
 oscillate from side to side whether travelling or at rest, 
 as the base of support would not cover as much space as 
 would be necessary for stability or repose, thereby caus- 
 ing the horse to fall during motion. 
 
 Being high on the outside portion of the foot gives 
 him less oscillation and more stability, and enables 
 him to obtain more relief from pointing, while in pain. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 85 
 
 The disadvantage of being too high on the inside makes 
 the lameness more sudden and acute when it proceeds 
 from that part than from any other part. 
 
 Pointing. 
 
 151. Pointing is an instinct of the horse, which he 
 does to find relief, by distributing his weight equally on 
 all parts of his foot, or joint, and in every direction but 
 one he can find relief, and in that one direction he can 
 find 110 relief; and that direction is directly inward ; and 
 this is the reason that in those other directions the dis- 
 eases are not so severe or so numerous. 
 
 Symmetrization 
 
 152. Calls for a few more observations which I 
 omitted in the paragraph on that subject. Want of 
 symmetry alone is a common cause of lameness. Perfec- 
 tion in the act of shoeing can never be attained until 
 this and all it implies is perfectly understood. Sym- 
 metry and balance may be considered as synonymous 
 in their meaning; either implies a just distribution of 
 the weight to be carried by every structure of the leg, 
 as without it one structure would be favored at the ex- 
 pense of another. It implies also an equalized bearing 
 in every joint. If you regard the foot as a circle having 
 two intersections at right angles through the centre, 
 the foot as level as still water and the central line of 
 bearing through the leg striking the circle at the central 
 point, you will get my idea of the mechanical require- 
 ments of a horse in the process of shoeing. 
 
 Twisting the Pedal Joint. 
 
 153. According to the rule laid down, the circumfer- 
 ence of the wall of the foot, after being balanced, should 
 be at an equal distance all around the margin of the 
 
86 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 pedal bone — that is to say, there must be no fulness at 
 any one point or scantiness at another; for the reason 
 that when a foot is out of proportion laterally, when 
 travelling on soft roads the narrowest part will sink into 
 the ground, while the broadest part would become cor- 
 respondingly elevated and float, as it were, over the top 
 of the soft ground ; and this would occasion a twisting of 
 the pedal Joint, which would be less likely to occur with 
 a well-symmetrized and, therefore, a well-balanced foot. 
 Other points of view may be presented of the evils of 
 lack of lateral balance. A foot unbalanced in this way 
 is liable to all of the diseases which have been enumer- 
 ated as emanating from want of the fore-and-aft bal- 
 ances. Soft roads or soft bedding will not help such 
 cases, but rather aggravate them. 
 
 Only Two Classes of Disease. 
 
 154. It may be well to remember that the ailments 
 to which the horse is liable are not changed in their 
 nature by different forms of feet, from whatever quarter 
 of the foot they may proceed. They are only acceler- 
 ated in different degrees by certain forms of feet, as we 
 shall see more particularly when we come to treat of 
 the diseases of the foot separately. 
 
 It will be instructive to contrast the effects of the two 
 forms of hoof represented in Figs. 2 and 5. One has a 
 convex and the other a concave outline on the front 
 surface. I have seen horses whose hoofs have curved 
 inwardly half an inch, and some outwardly the same 
 distance, from the straight line. It is well understood, I 
 am sure, that the normal position of the laminated 
 structures is at an equal distance from the top to the 
 bottom of the wall, whether curved inwardly or out- 
 wardly, so that it is possible for the points of the toes 
 of the pedal bones in those cases to vary in height 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 87 
 
 'an inch or more. It is a fact that navicular disease is 
 ahvays the attendant of the elevated toe, and never of 
 the elevated heel ; showing the natural and necessary 
 connection between high toe and navicular disease. 
 
 I wish to record an observation in reference to a con- 
 dition met with occasionally when a horse may have both 
 forward feet perfectly sound, yet having a tendency to 
 grow uneqitally. One foot may be like Cut No. i, the 
 other like Cut No. 2. While No. i has a tendency to 
 grow equally all round. No. 2 has a tendency to grow 
 higher at the heel than at the toe. The result of this 
 unequal growth is to be seen when the animal is feeding 
 from the ground by his extending his foot like No. 2 
 backward of a vertical line, while the foot like No. i is 
 extended correspondingly forward. A horse having feet 
 of this nature will necessarily have an awkward gait, 
 the foot like No. 2 being carried more under his body 
 than its fellow, rendering him perpetually liable to 
 break in consequence of this unequal balance of his fore 
 limbs. These faults of action can be corrected by lower- 
 ing the heels of the foot, like No. 2, until the animal 
 stands upon it as perpendicularly as upon the opposite 
 foot. 
 
 Spavin. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks. 
 
 155. I hope the spirit of investigation and the desire' 
 for proof of the theory I have advanced concerning the 
 origin of the foot-diseases of the horse will be aroused 
 in the minds of all who may read this book, especially 
 the teachers and writers on veterinary pathology, espe- 
 cially the pathology of the foot. I hope I am not too 
 sanguine in thinking that a gleam of light and truth 
 may be discovered here and there in these pages that will 
 assist them in their endeavors to efface some of the un- 
 
88 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 certainties and perplexities of the foot-pathology of the 
 horse. Many books have been written upon the general 
 subject of lameness of horses, but hitherto with but neg- 
 ative and not very satisfactory results to horses. 
 
 With these preliminary remarks I will proceed to 
 the consideration of the very common disease called 
 spavin. 
 
 The Origin of Spavin. 
 
 156. The term spavin applies to a bony deposit upon 
 the small bones of the hock joint, on the inward and for- 
 ward aspect of the leg. Spavin has a common cause 
 with all other bony deposits such as ringbone, splent, 
 and other forms of exostosis — this word is synonymous 
 with bony deposits — which will be referred to later on. 
 
 All bony deposits are the effects of an unbalanced 
 pedal bone caused by certain disproportions of the hoof. 
 
 All bony deposits always manifest themselves in line 
 with the viost elevated part of the hoof, and nowhere else. 
 
 Contrariwise all sprains of tendons, and lesions of 
 ligaments and bursal enlargements, are ahvays in line 
 with the lowest part of the foot, and nozvhere else; and 
 this leads me to say that I have no objection to my 
 theory being called the one-bone theory, from the fact that 
 I maintain that it is to the abnormal displacement of 
 one bone, the pedal bone — in other words, an unbalanced 
 pedal bone — to which all the fifty-four diseases before 
 enumerated are primarily due. 
 
 A New Classification of Foot Diseases. 
 
 157. If my theory be correct, diseases may be sim- 
 plified very much in their classification. There are in 
 reality but two classes of diseases in the locomotory 
 organs of the horse, one which relates to hard tissues, as 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 89 
 
 the bones, and the other to soft tissues, as tendons, lig'a- 
 ments, and ligamentous structures. Under these two 
 heads all the diseases and abnormalities of the limb and 
 its action can be classified ; and all of them of both 
 classes can be traced to one objective point or bone — 
 the pedal bone ; the displacement of which by a dispro- 
 portioned foot is a fact of positive demonstration. 
 
 The One-Bone Theory. 
 
 158. This proposition I think has been conclusively 
 proved, but it will be proved again and again from dif- 
 ferent points of view. I care not where I take up the 
 question ; whether I reason from the effect to the cause 
 or the cause to the effect, it is always the same conclu- 
 sion, there can be no other, and for that reason I think 
 it must be right. That conclusion is as true of all other 
 diseases of the foot as of navicular disease, which has 
 occupied so much of our attention. I shall find it nec- 
 essary in my consideration of the different diseases of 
 the foot and leg to state and restate these basic facts, as 
 I might call them, in order to make my arguments com- 
 plete and conclusive. 
 
 Spavin may be referred to as a separate disease or 
 one of a class of similar diseases. The latitude I al- 
 lowed myself in the discussion of the navicular disease 
 will not be necessary in the consideration of spavin, as 
 many facts are now understood which will throw light 
 on the rationale of both diseases — indeed, I may say of 
 all diseases. 
 
 As some further compensation for this discursive 
 style, I hope it will be remembered favorably that I 
 have endeavored to avoid the use of technical terms, 
 and have employed language suitable to readers of aver- 
 age intelligence. All the readers of my book will not 
 be learned men. 
 
90 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Origin of Spavin. 
 
 159. Like all other bone diseases, spavin originates 
 primarily in a particular deformity of the hoof at one 
 particular point, which causes a displacement of one 
 particular bone, in one particular direction; and this 
 displacement causes action and reaction in the same 
 direction upon the joints and tissues above it, to pro- 
 duce undue and tmequal strain of tendons, ligaments, 
 and ligamentous structures; and a corresponding com- 
 pression of the bones, which constitute the moving ma- 
 chinery of the leg. 
 
 The Hock Joint 
 
 160. And its diseases, like the pedal joint and its 
 maladies, seem to have puzzled veterinary pathologists 
 very much in the past ; but I think it need not be very 
 much of a puzzle in the future with the key to it which 
 I have, or shall furnish to every reader before I have 
 done. 
 
 The subject has afforded the occasion for the dis- 
 play of much brilliant writing on the anatomical and 
 physiological peculiarities of the hock joint; but the 
 purely mechanical aspect of the subject has received but 
 scant consideration. When veterinary writers cannot 
 account for the origin of a diseased condition, they seem 
 to take a sort of despairing refuge in heredity. 
 
 I suppose I must ask and answer the customary 
 question. What is a spavin? A spavin, then, is a bony 
 enlargement upon the small bones of the hock, on the 
 inner and forward avSpect of the leg. This is the best 
 short definition I can give; tJic ivhy and the wherefore 
 of its existence, however, will not be quite so brief. As 
 regards its 
 
THE FOOT OK THE HORSE. 9 1 
 
 Symptoms, 
 
 161. In its earliest stage a slight lameness may man- 
 ifest itself, and there be no symptoms whatever to de- 
 note the seat of pain that causes the lameness except a 
 slight increase of temperature, which only the initiated 
 could detect. At this stage the cause being understood, 
 and the cure in the form of a rocker shoe applied and 
 kept up, the lameness disappears forever. This will be 
 a novel theory and a surprising fact to many veterinary 
 practitioners, I have no doubt. As the disease progresses 
 the temperature and the lameness increase. Whether 
 standing or moving, the horse evinces pain, and if he 
 point it will be forward and inward, in exactly the 
 same direction as the location or seat of pain in the 
 hock ; and if forced to 77iove over quickly from one side 
 of the stall to the other, he may Jiop over on the sound 
 leg. When led at a walk, the step, as a rule, is made 
 in front of a vertical line drawn from the hip, and the 
 heel of the lame foot or leg does not dwell upon the 
 ground backward of this line ; and sometimes the animal 
 walks on his toe with his flanks drawn in. -The horse 
 with a spavin hesitates to lie down, and when down is 
 reluctant to rise. 
 
 Some horses affected by spavin in both legs enjoy 
 perfect health otherwise, but require assistance in get- 
 ting up, and are able to perform much slow work. 
 
 Inherited Form.s of Hock. 
 
 162. There are inherited forms of hock, which pos- 
 sibly predispose to spavin, but which can be counter- 
 acted by suitable showing. Before we can fully under- 
 stand the causes of spavin we must become familiar 
 with the mechanical principles which are involved in 
 
92 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the production of that abnormality. As every form of 
 hock, whether straight, crooked, bent-in or bent-out, is 
 liable to that morbid condition, it might fairly be asked 
 why this is so, and the explanation of this will, I think, 
 unravel some other tangled questions in connection with 
 veterinary foot-pathology. 
 
 Suppose we take a horse of perfect symmetry of 
 form : a line falling from the superior to the inferior 
 extremity of either fore or hind limbs should divide 
 that column, including the foot, into two equal halves, 
 and as long as these remain equal, all other things 
 being equal, we shall have a standard form for power. 
 
 The most perfect horse to-day will have changed his 
 angles of bearing on the ground very appreciably in one 
 month's time. His foot will grow downward and for- 
 ward one-third part of an inch in one month, and it 
 might have grown unequally. In any case the angle of 
 bearing is changed, and that is sufficient to disturb the 
 equipoise of the pedal bone ; and that disturbance acts 
 and reacts upon every joint and every tissue of the limb. 
 There cannot be a deviation from the perfect balance 
 without a corresponding detrimental effect upon the 
 working parts of the machine. Power must be dimin- 
 ished. In the first stages of the departure from the 
 natural balance, it may only amount to fatigue and 
 weakness, passing gradually into lameness, the lame- 
 ness often disappearing as soon as the foot is cut down 
 and the animal is reshod ; in such cases the lameness is 
 said to be intermitting, disappearing after each shoeing, 
 and appearing again when the foot has grown out of 
 normal proportions. 
 
 Constant Menace of Danger. 
 
 163. The changes which are the most productive of 
 weakness, which terminate in lameness, are those con- 
 nected with the form of the foot itself. The foot. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 93 
 
 through the extreme mobility of the pedal joint, is sus- 
 ceptible to more changes of angle and therefore is more 
 liable of departures from natural conditions than any 
 other part of the machine. It must be obvious that 
 unless both sides of the foot bear equal weight, it is 
 because one side is wider than the other, and that the 
 widest part will have to carry the most weight and sus- 
 tain the unequal pressure, and that this unequal pres- 
 sure is a constant menace of danger to both sides of the 
 foot. This condition of the hoof is the precursor of 
 spavin. 
 
 A foot having a larger bearing surface on the inside 
 than on the outside, and having to stand upon or to 
 move over soft ground, will cause a greater compression 
 of the bones of the leg on the inside than when standing 
 upon or moving over hard ground, for the reason that 
 the narrowest side will sink into the ground while the 
 broadest will remain near the surface. 
 
 Long and Short Axes. 
 
 164. A foot may be unequally divided in regard to its 
 long axis, that is, from the toe to the heel; yet as long 
 as the foot is kept level and the animal doing only slow 
 work the spavin may develop very slowly indeed, and 
 the lameness may be intermitting in its character; but 
 if, in addition to abnormal width on the inside of the 
 foot, there should be an undue elevation under the i>iside 
 toe-nail, you have all the requisite conditions for the 
 production of a spavin of the first order. That elevation 
 at the inside toe will increase the compression of the 
 small bones of the hock in the exact ratio of its growth ; 
 and will give a tzvist to the foot besides that will act on 
 every joint above the foot, no matter whether the ground 
 he travels on be hard or soft. 
 
94 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 A Cause of Spavin. 
 
 165. Again, a foot may be equally balanced with re- 
 spect to its long axis, and the undue elevation at the 
 inside of the toe will produce compression which ter- 
 minates in spavin. It is important to take this fact into 
 consideration also, that the greatest amount of compres- 
 sion of the bones takes place at the instant the foot 
 leaves the ground, and that is always at the highest 
 part; so that I think it is demonstrable from this that 
 the higher and longer the toe is on the inside, the greater 
 will be the force of compression exerted upon the small 
 bones of the hock at the seat of spavin, which is on the 
 inside of the leg also. 
 
 Another Cause of Spavin. 
 
 166. Again, the condition of any foot with an undue 
 elevation at the inside toe is sometimes aggravated by a 
 contracted outside quarter. This contraction has a two- 
 fold injurious effect upon the outside quarter : it both 
 shortens and loiuers the side of the foot to which it be- 
 longs. These combined effects cause more weight to be 
 thrown on the inside part of the foot and increase the 
 pressure upon the inside toe. In this manner the bal- 
 ance on the transverse or short axis of the foot is de- 
 stroyed, the front part of the foot being made thereby 
 to carry more than its due share of weight, and this 
 factor, therefore, aids in the compression of the small 
 bones of the hock, the final effect of which is spavin. 
 
 Great Weight Borne by One Leg. 
 
 167. It is obvious that the weight of the animal 
 must be carried by one part of the leg or another. 
 Think for a moment of the weight to be carried on each 
 leg by a horse weighing 1,200 pounds. Eight, hundred 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 95 
 
 pounds has to be carried by the fore legs and 400 
 pounds by the hind legs. In motion each fore leg has 
 to carry the whole 800 pounds by turns ; and each hind 
 leg has to carry 400 pounds in its turn, likewise. Add 
 to this the force acquired by momentum and that of 
 the adverse leverage at the toe that has to be overcome, 
 and you have at least a force of resistance equal to 500 
 pounds weight, which the jointed bony column of the 
 leg is called upon to sustain at every step the hind leg 
 of the animal takes forward. Consider for a moment 
 that the whole leg may be regarded as a bow, from the 
 stifle to the extremity of the toe, and that the weakest 
 part of the bow is the centre just where the small bones 
 of the hock are situated, and that these small bones 
 receive the first effects of that great compressive and 
 perhaps concussive force of 500 pounds weight, and you 
 will not have far to go to find the origin of spavin. If 
 you are in search of a theory and must have one, I sug- 
 gest the mechanical origin of spavin rather than hered- 
 ity, excepting as to conformation. When all the con- 
 ditions, normal and abnormal, which I have described 
 are allowed to have their full play, the point from which 
 they exert their greatest force upon the bony structures 
 of the leg lies directly under the inside toe hole of the 
 shoe, and of all the bone diseases of the leg, spavin is 
 perhaps the most common result. I might add to this 
 the observation that the conditions that conspire to 
 produce spavin are all aggravated by hoofs of a very 
 hard and compact texture, which will retain their rigid 
 form under all circumstances. In such cases a horse 
 can become spavined without shoes as well as with them. 
 
 Other Causes of Spavin. 
 
 168. Again, the foot maybe perfect, and an ill-made 
 or badly fitted shoe may cause the inside toe to produce 
 the disease or to aggravate it when produced, on account 
 
g6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of its undue height ; or they may be fitted too close and 
 short at the outside heel, which produces the same effect, 
 by allowing the shoe to wear faster at that point, and 
 causing the inside toe to take more pressure of weight 
 as it leaves the ground. 
 
 Conformation a Cause of Spavin. 
 
 169. Conformation may cause spavin to appear on 
 the inside or outside of the hock, according as the hock 
 is bent inward or outward. It is not that the limb is 
 weaker, but it is the influence which such ill-shapen 
 joints have on the bearing surface of the foot. The 
 bend of the hock outwardly has a tendency to warp the 
 hoof inwardly, and to cause it to become higher and 
 wider on the inside than on the outside. This confor- 
 mation must constitute a strong predisposition to spavin. 
 A horse with a hock bent outwardly must tread more 
 upon the outside than the inside quarter, and in due 
 time a warping of the quarter must be the necessary 
 result. 
 
 Early Bias. 
 
 170. In my search for the causes of spavin, I have 
 observed what I think may possibly give the first bias 
 to the form of foot most favorable to the production of 
 that condition. I have watched very young colts while 
 at grass, and have noticed how they spread their fore 
 legs and cross their hind ones. With their short necks 
 it seemed as if they were forced to assume this position 
 to enable them to reach the grass. This crossing of the 
 hind legs places the weight of the animal on the outside 
 walls of the feet, and I think this circumstance alone, 
 all else being equal, might give a bias or tendency to 
 the form of the foot and leg most favorable to the devel- 
 opment of spavin. Quite apart from heredity, this ten- 
 dency is given to feet in different stages of colthood ; 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 97 
 
 and they might appear contracted, but, as is usual, the 
 colt is expected to grow out of it ; the ultimate effect 
 not being foreseen. These hints will not be neglected 
 by an observant breeder of horses. Causes like these, 
 taking place after birth, maybe mistaken for those which 
 occur before birth. Cases of this character I think would 
 very likely be ascribed to heredity by Professor Wil- 
 liams, as he regards heredity as the primary cause of 
 spavin. Should it be doubted whether the bent-out 
 variety of hock predisposes to spavin or not, it might be 
 remarked that the bent-in — commonly called the cow- 
 hock or cat-ham variety — produces bony deposits upon 
 the outside of the hock corresponding to those upon the 
 inside, and which have been named outside spavin. Pro- 
 fessor Williams professes to have a specimen of this 
 nature, and he admits that he cannot assign any cause 
 for its origin. The composition of this outivard spavin 
 is first cartilaginous and then bony; but when discov- 
 ered in the first stage, by simply lowering and narrow- 
 ing the outside of the foot it can be counteracted and 
 dispersed. 
 
 What I Have Never Seen. 
 
 171. This shows that even hereditary causes can be 
 counteracted by the exercise of a little mechanical in- 
 genuity, when all the facts are fully understood. I have 
 owned horses of both the bent-out and bent-in varieties 
 of hock, but by shoeing to counteract their natural ten- 
 dency to spavin they have been kept totally free from 
 that and all other diseases. It is common to see a 
 spavin on one side of a hock, but I have never yet seen 
 one on both sides of the hock at the same time ; and I 
 have never yet seen a spavin on either side but that the 
 foot is either the highest or the widest, or both condi- 
 tions may be combined on the same side as that on 
 which the spavin is located. 
 7 
 
98 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 It is not an uncommon thing to see shoes and shoe- 
 ing which intensify all the other causes of spavin; and, 
 as I have somewhere else remarked, no kind or class of 
 horse having groiviiig feet is exempt from liability to 
 spavin. 
 
 Professor Williams has remarked that spavins are 
 rarely seen on the outside of the hock, and this fact 
 must have made his single specimen specially interest- 
 ing and valuable; and as the professor does not hazard 
 a single speculation as to its origin, perhaps the fore- 
 going explanation will enable him to supply an omission 
 in the next edition of his valuable work. 
 
 Further Observations on Spavin. 
 
 172. I will continue my observations on spavin and 
 its causes a little further in order to embody some points 
 and facts of observation attending the development of 
 that disease, which I have not referred to sufficiently in 
 preceding pages. 
 
 It will be remembered that no less than twenty-seven 
 morbid conditions have been enumerated as arising from 
 the inside portion of the foot being too high ; while but 
 eight could be placed to the account of the outside of 
 the foot being too high. Now, the reasons for this have 
 already been given, but they will bear a brief repetition, 
 namely, that with troubles on the outside of the foot 
 the animal is not obstructed in the act of pointing or 
 resting his foot ; while the inside of the foot being the 
 source of his uneasiness, he encounters an insuperable 
 obstacle to his purpose of pointing. This brings me to 
 the effects of the spavined condition upon action. 
 
 Compression of Bones. 
 
 173. A horse with an inside spavin not only points 
 inwardly while standing, but carries his leg inwardly 
 while in action ; and if at speed he carries the spavined 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 99 
 
 leg between the fore ones. It is easy to understand 
 that this is for the purpose of relieving compression of 
 the bones and its accompanying pain. It must be diffi- 
 cult for some horses to keep their hind legs clear of 
 their fore ones while in action. It may be stated, as an 
 invariable rule, that an animal's right or wrong way of 
 standing is carried out in action, whether it be slow or 
 fast. Further corroboration of the truth of the theory 
 that compression of bones is the cause of spavin may 
 be found in the following considerations. 
 
 All writers on spavin refer to the peculiar way some 
 spavined horses have of walking more or less on their 
 toes. The bare fact is usually given without note or 
 comment as to its cause. In the light of my theory, it 
 is easy to conceive that the painful effects of compres- 
 sion are lessened by that action, from the well-known 
 fact that the straighter the hock and limb can be kept 
 the less compression is caused in the front part of the 
 hock. The bow to which I have compared the leg be- 
 comes relaxed by straightening out. In proportion to 
 the animal's ability to relax this bow, thereby transfer- 
 ring some of the weight to the back part of the leg, he 
 will find relief from pain. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 174. An observer may notice a horse with spavin 
 extend his spavined leg forward as far as he can, with 
 the view of straightening his leg. It is obvious that 
 that position gives him the most ease. Another method 
 of obtaining ease is by placing the pained leg over 
 against the sound foot, just allowing the toe to touch the 
 ground. This relieves compression, by throwing the 
 pastern into an oblique position ; and as the pastern and 
 hock joint have a reciprocal relation to each other, as 
 the pastern becomes more the hock becomes less oblique, 
 therefore compression is relieved by this position. Look 
 
lOO THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 at the dread a horse with spavin has of lying down or 
 of rising when down. A horse cannot lie down without 
 doubling his leg at the hock, and this causes increased 
 compression at that part; and if the horse is spavined, 
 the pain attending extreme compression must be very 
 great. The limb may be compared to a pair of nut- 
 crackers, which causes more compression the closer 'tis 
 bent. When the animal rises the limb must be doubled 
 up again, like the closed nut- crackers, and of course that 
 is the moment of extreme pain which the animal dreads 
 to encounter. He will be seen to straighten out his leg 
 all he can, and scramble to his feet the best way he can. 
 
 I cannot help referring to the old-time notion that 
 firing and blistering would strengthen the hock and 
 prevent the formation of a spavin. How much more 
 rational to keep the foot balanced ! 
 
 To remove the lameness caused by pain is easier 
 than to remove the spavin. If the spavin is in the in- 
 cipicnt stage — that is, in its earliest manifestations — cor- 
 rect shoeing will cause its dispersion ; but for the fully 
 developed spavin, all that can be done is to remove the 
 lameness and let the spavin alone. It can only be an 
 eyesore while the animal is able to move freely without 
 pain. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 175. As regards the treatment of spavin, my practice 
 IS first to ascertain and compare the relative widths of 
 the inside and the outside of the foot, so as to be sure 
 that the weight and pressure shall be transferred from 
 the inside to the outside portion of the foot when the 
 shoe comes to be attached. This can be effected by 
 cutting down the inside bearing surface all the way 
 from the toe to the heel ; and be sure to have the inside 
 bearing surface a little lower than the outside while 
 Hmcness lasts. Remember to Iqwct, shorten, and round 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. lOt 
 
 ^^^the inside toe all it will bear; and leave the outside 
 heel a little the highest. This is all that can be done 
 without shoeing. 
 
 There are some conditions of feet associated with 
 spavin which I have not mentioned. The wall on the 
 inside grows down straighter, and this causes an undue 
 elevation of the inside half of the pedal bone in the same 
 degree, while the outside w^all grows more obliquely; it 
 may be inside or outside of a vertical line of the wall 
 at and near the heel. This latter contingency is a loss 
 of support to the pedal bone, causing an unbalanced 
 condition of the foot. 
 
 Shoeing for Spavin. 
 
 1/6. The shoe that will compensate for these defects 
 I have named the sJioe-fiy (see Cut 35). This shoe is a 
 modification of the centre-bearing shoe. It is a four- 
 calk shoe, the calks at the heels being set sideways, with 
 the outside heel a little higher than the inside, which 
 will give a tilt in the direction of the inside toe. The 
 shoe at the inside toe should be hammered down thin 
 and the web rounded up, and the two calks should be 
 small and so placed that the toe shall have no bearing 
 at that point — the inside toe — when it leaves the ground. 
 Plainly this shoe will cause the foot to roll over easily 
 inwardly without pressure upon the point of danger. If 
 this process is performed properly, the result is almost 
 an immediate relief from pain and lameness in a large 
 majority of cases ; but if a case arises in which it is not 
 effective, put on a centre-bearing shoe, and the result 
 will surprise you. 
 
 Bloofl-Spavin and Thoroughpin. 
 
 177. These morbid manifestations are of a similar 
 nature to so-called windgalls ; they are the result of in- 
 juries to the synovial sacs — or little bags — through 
 
I02 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 which the tendons have to glide when the horse moves. 
 Their existence, like the spavin, is always associated with 
 a high inside toe. Some cases of this nature are accom- 
 panied by a bony enlargement directly on the inside of 
 the hock, which may be large or small according to its 
 development. The cause being the same as that of 
 spavin, the remedial measures are the same — a '' shoc- 
 fly' or a centre-bearing shoe according to the require- 
 ments of the case. 
 
 Occult Lameness. 
 
 178. It may be well to remark that lameness is some- 
 times present when there are no visible or tangible evi- 
 dences of the cause. When both cause and location are 
 imknown it is an occiilt lameness. It is such cases as 
 these which call forth such a variety of opinions among 
 veterinary practitioners. " Who shall decide when doc- 
 tors disagree?" Lameness may also result from the 
 sprain of any of the lesser ligaments of the joint; but 
 whether it be in the hard or soft tissues, deep-seated or 
 near the surface, whatever the cause may be, the never- 
 failing resource, when properly adjusted, is the centre- 
 bearing shoe. 
 
 Interesting Experiment. 
 
 179. It may interest some of my readers, who may 
 not be aware of the fact, to know that a man can exert 
 more force against any fixed object by pressing against 
 it with that portion of the hand nearest to the wrist, 
 than if his whole hand be spread and pressed against 
 the same object. I know of no reason why this should 
 not apply to the horse's foot and leg. By removing the 
 area of bearing from the circumference to the centre of 
 the foot the power must be increased thereby, and this 
 result is attained by the centre -bearing shoe. It is plain 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I63 
 
 that the arm of a man can resist more pressure in a 
 straight than in an oblique line ; and I believe this 
 equally true of the horse's foot and leg. The highest 
 part of the centre-bearing shoe should be placed exactly 
 under the centre of the foot, where the foot and leg are 
 equally divided by a straight line from the shoulder. 
 When the foot is wider on one side than the other, you will 
 have to study the line of bearing regardless of the shape 
 of the foot, and place the centre of the shoe as nearly 
 under the axis or line of bearing as possible. The 
 utility and value of the centre-bearing shoe cannot be 
 insisted upon too strongly. 
 
 Treatment for All Bone Diseases. 
 
 180. From the preceding remarks it will appear 
 that the rationale of the treatment for spavin is the 
 proper one to adopt in all bony formations or other trou- 
 bles on the outside as well as on the inside of the leg 
 or hock, the only difference being that the outside toe of 
 the shoe has to be lowered and the inside heel to be 
 slightly raised, that the shoe may roll outwardly instead 
 of inwardly. 
 
 Contracted Tendons. 
 
 181. I have explained why a horse walks on his toe 
 or toes, and that it is to avoid pain ; yet while pain is 
 avoided in this way the back tendons are overtaxed, and 
 they often become contracted and shortened, so much 
 so that the heels are prevented from touching the ground 
 while the animal is travelling. I have observed occa- 
 sional instances of this nature when the tendons re- 
 mained of their natural size, and I have concluded that 
 the contraction must have been in the body of the mus- 
 cle instead of the tendinous portion of it. This condi- 
 tion can only be cured or palliated by raising the heels 
 
I04 THE FO(^T OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the shoe and lowering the toe of both the foot and 
 the shoe until the heels come to the ground and carry 
 their due share of the weight . 
 
 Coming Events. 
 
 182. Horses are sometimes seen to stand upon their 
 toes in the stable and go sound when they are at work. 
 As "coming events cast their shadows before," this 
 practice should be regarded as the first premonitory 
 symptom of dangers ahead and treated the same as for 
 shortened tendons at once. The only sure way to pre- 
 vent contraction of the back tendons is not to overtax 
 them. 
 
 Egregious Mistake. 
 
 183. It is an egregious mistake to suppose that ten- 
 dons can be lengthened by raising or extending the toe. 
 The only way it can be done without dividing the ten- 
 don is to eoax it dozen, as it were, by lowering the toe 
 all it will bear and raising the heels with calks suffi- 
 ciently high to get a bearing upon them, and to lower 
 them little by little as the horse improves. Walking 
 upon the toe proves that the pedal articulation is not 
 evenly divided before and behind. Not until the joint 
 works equally both ways will all unnatural strain of the 
 back tendons be prevented. 
 
 Un-wise Practice. 
 
 184. I cannot forbear to notice the unwise practice, 
 whoever may be responsible for it, of placing a toe calk 
 on the point of the shoe that wears the most, with the 
 view of making the shoe last a little longer. It will be 
 seen upon reflection that this is calculated to weaken the 
 horse's capacity for work, and is the kind of economy 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I05 
 
 that saves at the spigot and loses at the bung-hole. If 
 circumstances call for raising the toes, the heels should 
 be raised correspondingly. Low heels are apt to cause 
 the toe to grind, and this grinding movement will be 
 less in proportion to the height of the heels. 
 
 Ringbone. 
 
 Rationale of Causes. 
 
 185. The rationale of the causes that produce the 
 morbid bony formation called ringbone is the next sub- 
 ject for consideration. Whoever understands the causes 
 of spavin will readily understand also that ringbone is 
 essentially the same disease, differing only in location. 
 Like the spavin, it is a bony excrescence produced by 
 exactly the same causes, namely, compression of the 
 bones as its immediate cause, and by a misshapen hoof 
 and an unbalanced pedal bone as its remote causes. 
 Both hind and fore feet are alike subject to ringbone. 
 
 Locations of Ringbone. 
 
 186. Ringbone is mostly first seen upon the small 
 pastern bone, and may appear on any one of three loca- 
 tions (see Chart 9). 
 
 1. In front upon the middle of the bone (Fig. 4). 
 
 2. A little toward the inside of the bone (Fig. 3). 
 
 3. A little toward the outside of the bone (Fig. 5). 
 When it occurs on the middle of the bone it is in a 
 
 direct line with the toe-clip of the shoe (Fig. 4) ; when 
 on the inside of the middle it is in a line with the inside 
 toe-nail (Fig. 3); and when upon the outside of the 
 middle it is in a line with the outside toe-nail (Fig. 5). 
 When the ringbone starts on the inside, a line drawn 
 from the first inside toe-nail of the shoe (as in Fig. 3) 
 to the seat of inside spavin would cross directly over 
 
I06 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 //. When the ringbone occurs in this location, the foot 
 is invariably of the same abnormal form as that which 
 produces the inside spavin. A proof that the primary 
 cause of ringbone is the parent of spavin lies in the fact 
 that if we treat the foot for ringbone in precisely the 
 same way that we treat it for spavin, the lameness and 
 pain will disappear at once if it be in the early stages. 
 Another proof is that when the ringbone appears on the 
 outside in a line with the outside toe and the outside spavin, 
 the lameness will also disappear under the treatment 
 prescribed for outside spavin. Ringbone growing upon 
 the middle of the lower pastern in a line with the toe- 
 clip of the shoe is always caused by undue length or 
 height of the toe, or by both combined. 
 
 High Ringbone. 
 
 187. Another form of ringbone, called high ringbone, 
 appears similarly upon the upper and inner portion of 
 the large pastern bone, and in the same relative local- 
 ities as on the lower pastern. Their centres of morbid 
 activity lie in precisely the same lines as those on the 
 lower pastern. 
 
 There can be no other conclusion arrived at than 
 that all these bone diseases, the results of inflammatory 
 action in the bones, though called by various names, 
 proceed from one primary cause, namely, a deviation of 
 the pedal bone from its natural position by irregular 
 growth of the hoof. The vicinity of the joints appears 
 to be affected most by compression and concussion, as it 
 is there these excrescences mostly appear. It is equally 
 true of ringbone as of other diseases, that want of know- 
 ing how to pare the hoof and adjust the shoe will but 
 add fuel to the fire and intensify the other causes. 
 
 The feet of a ringboned horse will always be found to 
 have the wall projecting more or less beyond the sole. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. IO7 
 
 Ringbone never appears when the foot is perfect in 
 form and balance. I feel justified in saying that if our 
 views and recommendations for the care of horses' feet, 
 from colthood to maturity, should be generally accepted 
 and carried out in practice, ringbones and spavins would 
 soon cease to be seen anywhere except as specimens in 
 
 pathological museums. 
 
 I 
 
 A Remarkable Fact. 
 
 188. I deem it worthy of mention in this connection 
 that there is not on Mr. Robert Bonner's farm a single 
 case of ringbone or spavin, and the sufficient reason for 
 the fact is that all his stock is under his own supervi- 
 sion. The colts' feet are pared monthly and the horses' 
 still oftener. I consider this might be a pretty fair cor- 
 roborative proof of the value as well as of the correctness 
 of my theory. 
 
 A Serious Mistake. , 
 
 1 89. Ringbone can be produced by keeping horses 
 or spring colts during the winter on extra thick and soft 
 bedding. It is customary with farmers who raise large 
 quantities of grain to spread the straw after thrashing 
 in a barn-yard sometimes from five to ten feet deep or 
 more and then turn the horses and colts onto it, think- 
 ing the animals will be in comfortable quarters. This 
 is a very serious error, for the animals could not be sit- 
 uated more favorably for the production of foot and leg- 
 diseases, as the heels sink in and the toes turn up all the 
 time. Thick and deep bedding is only fit for horses to 
 lie upon, not to walk or stand M^on. 
 
 Even cobble-stones would be better for a horse to 
 stand upon than soft bedding. They are even better 
 for lame horses to stand upon than soft ground, for the 
 reason that they can balance their feet better on their 
 
I08 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 rounded surfaces than on any any other ground, whether 
 they be shod or barefooted. One will often see a horse 
 pawing and feeling with his feet to find an easier position ; 
 and they will sometimes dig holes in the ground, in 
 order to stand with the toe down and the heels up, 
 which they will do if you supply them with cobble-stones. 
 
 Forty-five Years' Experience 
 
 190. Has taught me that an irregular and unbal- 
 anced foot is the first cause of ringbone. It has also 
 taught me that a centre-bearing shoe, when applied at 
 the commencement of the lameness, will cause its coun- 
 teraction and dispersion. In ordinary cases it will in a 
 large majority of instances relieve the lameness, but 
 will not scatter the excrescences. Such is the marvellous 
 effect of the centre-bearing shoe that I hope to be ex- 
 cused for referring to it so often, as it is usually to pre- 
 sent some new view of its action or properties which I 
 have not before presented. When a horse is made to 
 travel on a spherically shaped shoe, lame or sound, a less 
 degree of rotation in the joints of the leg is necessary 
 by the rounded surface of the shoe ; and the less strain 
 there is upon the joints and their ligamentous connec- 
 tions the more reserved power there will be in the horse 
 for contingencies calling for speed and endurance, be- 
 sides the immediate relief it gives from pain and lame- 
 ness. 
 
 Firing and Blistering. 
 
 191. Nearly all writers on ringbone recommend firing 
 and blistering and a run at grass. What is the ration- 
 ale of firing and blistering? It is to set up rapid inflam- 
 matory action in the bones around the joint, so as to 
 destroy the mobility of the joint, as it is this mobility 
 which produces the pain and lameness. vSpeed horses 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. IO9 
 
 can never go so fast after the mobility of the joint has 
 been destroyed as they could before; therefore whatever 
 benefit is derived from it is limited to slow-goers and 
 draught horses. In a large proportion of horses fired 
 and blistered for ringbone, failure and disappointment 
 are the usual results, for the destruction of one joint 
 only increases the work of the others. 
 
 Double Motion. 
 
 192. A centre-bearing shoe can be applied for all 
 ringbones, whether they be high or low, and even 
 when they are so low that they involve the pedal artic- 
 ulation. When the latter is the case, the condition 
 termed club-foot is produced. Such a foot in travelling 
 reaches the ground with the heels first and leaves the 
 ground last, with the toe making a double motion. The 
 lower the ringbone is situated, the greater will be the 
 lameness and the more of a club-foot action it will have 
 in walking, and in the same proportion will the shoe be 
 required to rock, so as to prevent the striking of the 
 ground first with the heel and lastly with the toe. 
 
 A Disadvantage. 
 
 -93. The centre-bearing shoe has one disadvantage, 
 and that is in being slippery on wet ground. As to the 
 principle of the shoe when modified to suit the various 
 purposes for which horses are used, I feel assured that 
 horses will work better and speed faster than when shod 
 with common shoes. The more perfect the foot and 
 the sounder the horse, the less elevation of the ground 
 surface of the shoe is required ; but I am convinced that 
 a slightly rounded surface will facilitate speed whenever 
 or wherever that quality is desired. 
 
no THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Ringbone More Injurious than Spavin, 
 
 194. For the reason that the main articulations of the 
 joints are more or less involved than in spavin ; in the 
 latter the interference is m.ainly with the small bones, 
 but not with the principal articulation. A ringbone 
 upon the hind pastern will sometimes force a horse to 
 walk upon his toe, the same as would a spavin, and for 
 the reason, namely, to avoid compression of the bones 
 in front of the pastern joint. This compression, Ire- 
 peat, is felt the most when the last effort is made by 
 the toe as it leaves the ground, as it is there the pastern 
 turns or rocks over and the pain is felt. To avoid this 
 he not only walks on his toe, but will not allow his foot 
 to stretch backward beyond the vertical line of the artic- 
 ulation. The degree of lameness will always be in pro- 
 portion to the amount of compression at each finishing 
 of the step. 
 
 Heredity. 
 
 195. As to the heredity of ringbone, the great Cana- 
 dian horse St. Lawrence was entirely free from this dis- 
 ease, yet I knew of a son of that horse developing a 
 ringbone after he was twenty years old. I could not 
 deem this case one of heredity ; and if a law were to be 
 passed prohibiting breeding from ringbone sires and 
 dams, I certainly would have those animals exempted 
 from the operation of that law who developed no ring- 
 bones until after they were ten years old. In the case 
 of ringbone just referred to, if it were hereditary I 
 cannot understand why one hind foot should inherit this 
 disease, to the exclusion of all the others, and why it 
 did not appear at an earlier age. I can comprehend, 
 however, how easy it is for feet to get out of shape when 
 there are no bed-rock principles to go by in paring and 
 shoeing a horse's foot. It is chance-work, depending 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I I I 
 
 entirely on the individual experience and judgment of 
 the shoers, among whom there are widely differing de- 
 grees of capacity and intelligence. To some, cutting 
 down the foot involves too much labor; in such cases 
 hereditary ///disposition, I think, would be as good a 
 theory as to the origin of ringbone as hereditary prc- 
 disposition. 
 
 The Remedy— "Ay, that's the Thing." 
 
 196. The centre-bearing shoe applied as directed for 
 spavin gives relief from pain and lameness in very bad 
 cases, but its effects are most striking in the earlier 
 stages, when the pain and lameness disappear absolutely 
 in a few days. Why? Because the bearing of the shoe 
 is transferred from the circumference to the centre of 
 the foot, rotation of the joint being substituted by an 
 external mechanical rotation that relieves the strain of 
 the sensitive parts and multiplies the power. 
 
 Percival and Ringbone. 
 
 197. If in the early part of this century the one-bone 
 theory had been known and a rational system of shoe- 
 ing had been built upon it and universally taught and 
 practised, I feel sure that Mr. Percival about half a cen- 
 tury ago would not have been able to collect one hun- 
 dred and fifty specimens of completely anchylosed joints 
 due to the disease called ringbone, nor would all of his 
 successors together up to the present time. That gen- 
 tleman could see no deeper into the matter than to 
 ascribe a short pastern and concussion as the origin of 
 ringbone ! 
 
 The Rocker Shoe. 
 
 198. The rocker shoe is made by welding a piece of 
 iron on each side of the shoe from two to two and one- 
 half inches long — according to the size of the shoe — and 
 
112 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 half an inch high as shown in Cut 2 1 . The front and 
 back parts are rounded down to suit the requirements 
 of tlie case ; that is to say, if the horse has a tendency to 
 walk on his toes, make the highest part of the rocker 
 toward the heels ; and if he treads too much upon the 
 heels, have the highest part of the rocker toward the toe. 
 The required modifications should be made by degrees, 
 guarding against radical changes or sudden transitions. 
 
 Ossification of Articular Cartilage. 
 
 Dangerous Form of Ringbone. 
 
 199. I wish to call the attention of veterinary pathol- 
 ogists to a disease of the pastern joint which, as far as I 
 know, has received no special consideration as a distinct 
 variety of ringbone. It proceeds from the same pri- 
 mary causes as ringbone, but its location is more peril- 
 ous to the pastern joint than the forms of ringbone 
 which have been described, inasmuch as it is more a 
 disease of the articulation than of the bone. It starts in 
 the articulation and extends to the bone, while other 
 forms of ringbone commence in the bone and extend 
 to the joint. This makes it so dangerous and so ex- 
 tremely difficult to cure. You may obliterate the small 
 pastern joint by firing and blistering if you will, but no 
 such liberty may be taken with the large pastern joint. 
 
 While the large pastern joint remains sound, it will 
 compensate for the loss of motion in the small pastern 
 joint; but there is no compensation for injuries to the 
 large pastern or fetlock joint. When that articulation 
 becomes seriously affected, it is incurable. I know of 
 scores of such horses around New York City to-day 
 which but for this one articular and /articular malady 
 would be worth many thousands of dollars in the ag- 
 ofreofate. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. II3 
 
 Peculiarities of Large Pastern Joint. 
 
 200. There are peculiarities in the construction of 
 this joint which I must advert to in order to make my 
 observations on this malady intelligible. No joint of 
 the hmge variety possesses so large an articulating sur- 
 face as this joint in the entire system of the horse for 
 its size or admits of such a wide sweep of rotation. 
 Fully two-thirds of the circumference, of the bones form- 
 ing the joint is covered by articular cartilage, and this 
 indicates the wide degree of rotation that it enjoys. A 
 deep groove in the centre of one bone and a high ridge 
 upon the centre of the other indicates that not the 
 smallest degree of lateral motion was intended for this 
 joint. Below the knee there is no provision for lateral 
 motion in any of the joints. 
 
 Ball-and-Socket Joint. 
 
 201. The three joints below the knee admit of mo- 
 tion only in direct lines. Every provision possible has 
 been made to brace and strengthen the pastern and the 
 pedal joints to prevent any sideway motion and pre- 
 serve them in their true lines of bearing for carrying 
 weight. It is easy to see what the effect would be if 
 there was any sideway movements of the joint. The 
 legs would get mixed up and bewilder the animal by 
 constantly thinking how to keep his legs clear of each 
 other in rapid motion, particularly when changing his 
 movements. Evidently his fore legs below the knee are 
 designed to rise and fall only in the direct lines of 
 flexion and extension, like a common hinge. His hind 
 limbs have ball-and-socket joint called whirl bone, to 
 enable him to plant his hind feet to greater advantage 
 and to keep them clear of the fore feet. 
 
 The remarkable ligament called the suspensory vrill 
 
114 "THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 be fully described elsewhere ; therefore I shall only call 
 your attention to its hammock-like form and capacity 
 for resisting the forces of weight and momentum when 
 both are imposed upon the pastern joint. 
 
 Anatoray of the Joint. 
 
 202. We will now glance at the nature of the mate- 
 rials which enter into the composition of the joint other 
 than bone. The ends of each bone are tipped with two 
 layers of cartilage, one comparatively soft and elastic, 
 which are the buffers of the joint, the other a thin coat- 
 ing of some very hard, smooth material, to enable the 
 bones to glide smoothly on each other. These gliding 
 surfaces are oiled as it were by a fluid called synovia, of 
 course to prevent friction. While this living hinge 
 hangs all right and is kept oiled, there is no danger to 
 the joint. As soon, however, as the foot changes its 
 line of bearing, whether to the left or to the right, 
 whatever might be the cause, this living hinge ceases to 
 rotate with precision around its central axis ; the bearing 
 becomes unequally distributed ; a wabbling motion is set 
 up; friction ensues; and very soon, if the cause is not 
 removed, the thin cartilage is fretted through and the 
 soft elastic buffers are ploughed into ; disorganization 
 ensues ; all the tissues composing the joint become in- 
 volved in inflammatory action ; and the products of in- 
 flammation first appear under the skin upon the edges of 
 the joint. At this stage, if the cause can be recognized 
 and the foot balanced, the self-healing power of nature 
 will restore the parts to normal conditions. It is, how- 
 ever, very apt to receive but little notice. When the 
 cause continues in operation, the product of inflamma- 
 tion becomes ^r/^/Zj/ in its nature and eventually changes 
 into bone. When this happens the mobility of the pas- 
 tern joint is more or less destroyed, generally more, and 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. II5 
 
 the animal is valueless for any but the slowest work. A 
 centre-bearing shoe is a helper in such circumstances, 
 but the disease is irremediable. The cartilaginous de- 
 posits having become converted into bone, I think I may 
 with propriety name this disease ossification of the articu- 
 lar cartilages of the large pastern joint. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 203. The treatment in the early or any stage should 
 be precisely the same as for spavin or ringbone. Some- 
 times the centre of activity is on the outside and some- 
 times upon the inside ; but most frequently on the latter. 
 Of course the paring of the foot and the modification of 
 the shoe must be in accordance with the respective loca- 
 tions of the disease. 
 
 Splent. 
 
 Causes of Splent. 
 
 204. Splent is the name of another bony deposit, the 
 most frequent cause of which is undue height and width 
 of the inside of the foot. It is often found to be exceed- 
 ingly painful, the animal 6-«/r///«^'- /// his leg very quickly 
 when the part affected is pressed upon. It is most fre- 
 quently found on the upper and inside portion of the 
 large metacarpal or cannon bone, its common name. 
 Splent generally appears on the inside of the leg and 
 but very rarely on the outside. All bony enlargements 
 of the cannon bones are called splent. A bony deposit 
 on the lower portion of the cannon bone is often caused 
 by a blow from the opposite foot, so severe sometimes 
 as to produce lameness. Cooling lotions and a boot are 
 usually sufficient for such cases. The splent, however, 
 just under the knee joint is of a more serious nature, 
 and still more so if the horse is used for fast work. The 
 lameness increases and diminishes in the ratio of the 
 speed. 
 
Il6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Causes and Effects. 
 
 205. What makes the effects of splent so situated so 
 painful and hard to cure is that the material which 
 unites the small splent bones to the cannon bone be- 
 comes elongated and strained at their superior portions 
 by the extra weight they are forced to carry, while the 
 inside portion of the foot is higher than the outside. 
 
 It can be produced in a perfect foot in turning while 
 going fast, by forcing too much weight upon the inside 
 of the foot and knee when so turning. It can also be 
 produced by stepping upon a stone or some inequality 
 of surface while going fast, or by the foot being turned 
 up inwardly. It never occurs when the animal is walk- 
 ing or at slow work. // is the price paid for speed. 
 
 Firing and blistering in such case should be the last 
 resource, and never resorted to until all others have 
 been tried and found to fail. 
 
 Sudden Unequal Pressure. 
 
 206. It is not, properly speaking, a disease of the 
 joint, although the small splent bones have a small 
 articulating surface on the upper end. As said before, 
 the trouble is in the very short ligaments which unite 
 the splent bones to the large cannon bone. 
 
 The force of the weight and strain from sudden un- 
 equal pressure upon these bones not only presses them 
 downward, but has a tendency to force them apart. If 
 the main articulation or lesser articulations of the small 
 bones of the knee are involved, it is but remotely. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 207. In some cases of this form of lameness, simply 
 lowering the inside of the foot has removed the cause, 
 and the lameness, the effect, has ceased. I have known 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. II7 
 
 many such kept at fast work to become sound and re- 
 main so as long as the feet were kept level and perfectly 
 balanced. 
 
 The shoe best adapted for such cases is the centre- 
 bearing shoe, as horses with these shoes on are not sub- 
 ject to sprains or other injuries arising from treading on 
 unequal surfaces, as is the case with any other form of 
 shoe. 
 
 The centre-bearing shoe is more than an equiva- 
 lent for a level and smooth pavement ; it gives the foot 
 a pivot to turn upon, which the pavement does not, 
 however level, thereby preventing a tzvist of the pedal 
 articulation ; and what prevents that will prevent a twist 
 in the knee joint. 
 
 Enlargements of the Heels. 
 
 Abnormal Enlargements. 
 
 208. These are abnormal conditions, which are inci- 
 dental and limited to the backward portions of the foot, 
 just as there are diseases which pertain to its forward 
 parts. 
 
 These enlargements have no specific designations, 
 but to some they are suggestive of bunions or fun- 
 gous growths, and are to be met with in every class of 
 horses. 
 
 No one will dispute the statement that these en- 
 largements are abnormal. In the same region we may 
 have ossified lateral cartilages and a fistulous affection 
 called quittor. 
 
 On the under part of the heels, at the inflection which 
 marks the union of wall and bar, a red stain may often 
 be seen which indicates the presence of a morbid condi- 
 tion called corn. All these conditions maybe attributed 
 to the same general cause, namely, undue height of the 
 heels. These abnormally enlarged heels are simply 
 
Il8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE, 
 
 elonofations of the heels as seen in Cut i6. The heel 
 which receives the heaviest thumps while travelling be- 
 comes larger and longer than its fellow. When this 
 happens the red stain indicative of corn is usually ab- 
 sent. At a slow no lameness may be present, but at 
 fast work lameness is very apt to be manifested. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 209. The symptoms in the forward feet are pointing 
 with the affected foot backward and inward and fulness 
 of the lateral cartilage and the tissue surrounding it, 
 supposing the trouble to be on the inside heel. 
 
 The swollen tissues sometimes are so large that it is 
 difficult and dangerous to lower them sufficiently to get 
 a bearing upon the opposite side, and the only way to 
 avoid pressure and concussion is to raise the whole outer 
 part of the hoof sufficiently high for that purpose by 
 means of a shoe. 
 
 There "are different degrees and forms of enlarge- 
 ment caused by deformities of the hoof in this region. 
 Sometimes the persistent pressure of a deformed hoof 
 causes atrophy, or a wasting away of the soft tissues, 
 or, aided by concussion, the effects may be seen in 
 hypcrtropJiy; that is, an unnatural enlargement of the 
 tissues. These abnormal enlargements are very com- 
 mon in our practice, and I feel that no apology is neces- 
 sary for speaking of them at such length. They are 
 very insidious in th^ir development, and they too fre- 
 quently end disastrously. Horses are often seen lifting 
 the foot and bending the knee without any other visi- 
 ble or tangible sign of trouble ; and, alas ! how few there 
 are who can intelligibly interpret that simple sign ! In 
 pronounced cases the knee may often be seen half-bent 
 in the endeavors of the animal to gain ease from the 
 pain produced by these deformities. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. II9 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 210. The remedy in the early stages is to lower the 
 hoof of the afflicted heel and throw a little extra share 
 of weight upon the opposite heel. This will check the 
 growing enlargement and tend to equalize the bearing. 
 In some advanced cases, as shown in preceding remarks, 
 a bearing on both sides cannot be obtained by subtrac- 
 tion of hoof, but it can be by the addition of iron. 
 
 It is not only a law, but 2^ fact, that the horn-secreting 
 processes of the wall, the sole, and the frog are unduly 
 stimulated by concussion of the heel, which strikes the 
 ground first, and that this cause alone, all else being 
 equal, will produce a disproportion of size between the 
 two heels, as well as between the two sides of the foot. 
 
 I have observed in some cases of one abnormally 
 high heel that the diagonally opposite toe has been 
 affected by atrophy or a deficiency at that point. 
 
 Recognizing this as a laiv and a fact, it should be easy 
 to apply the right remedy : 
 
 Equalize the bearing of both heels one zvay or another 
 as pointed out. When the shoe is to be the principal 
 equalizer of the bearing, one horn of the shoe should be 
 thin and the other thick, the requirement being to 
 transfer the largest share of the bearing from the nn- 
 soiindio the sound liieQl. 
 
 An elongated heel is never seen in a sound foot, 
 therefore it must be a deformity. 
 
 The sound has a uniformity of contour of both heels 
 which pleases the eye and satisfies the judgment. 
 
 It may safely be predicted of a deformed heel that 
 lameness will be the result sooner or later. It generally 
 occurs upon the inside heel. When it occurs on the out- 
 side it is not so injurious, for the reason that a horse can 
 better prevent pain of the outside heel by pointing 
 backward and outward ; and when it is on the inside 
 
I20 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 heel he cannot point in the direction that gives him the 
 most ease. For this reason, also, the inside heel is the 
 slowest in returning to normal conditions. 
 
 Corn. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 2 11. In my last article I made mention of the fact 
 that corn is one of the morbid conditions incidental to 
 the posterior part of the foot of the horse. At first 
 sight it might seem strange that one cause should pro- 
 duce such widely different effects such as we see in fun- 
 gous enlargements on the one hand and an invisible 
 condition denoted by a little blood-stained spot upon the 
 other. Horses affected but slightly by corn are not 
 usually considered practically tmsound. 
 
 Corn is a very prevalent disease among city horses, 
 and on account of its extensive prevalence among all 
 classes of horses, the pecuniary losses arising from this 
 one form of diseased foot must be very great indeed. 
 
 If horses are not /r^-disposed to this malady by heredi- 
 tary transmission, they are all equally r;irposed to it. 
 
 It is found in all breeds of horses and textures of 
 feet, from the thoroughbred to the flat-footed and cold- 
 blooded horse. Although this is the case, certain forms 
 of feet, all else being equal, are the most disposed to this 
 malady. 
 
 Corn and its Causes. 
 
 2 12. The question of corn and its causes has long 
 been considered a mystery. I confess I shall be some- 
 what disappointed if I do not succeed in removing some 
 portion of its mysterious character, and also if some 
 who have been mystified over the matter do not freely 
 " acknozvlcds^c tJic corny 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 12 1 
 
 I refer you to Cut 2, which represents a foot which 
 has a strong tendency to grow at the heels, a form of 
 foot which is prolific in the production of a certain class 
 of diseases, which includes corn. In our observations 
 on enlargement of heels, we stated that in common with 
 corn it proceeded from undue height of one or both 
 heels. The best proof that high heels are the most fre- 
 quent cause of corn is that by simply lowering the heels 
 the corn will gradually disappear, without any other 
 treatment. In Cut 2 you will observe that extra height 
 of hoof at the heels has tipped the pedal bone down- 
 ward and forward, differing in that respect from Cut i, 
 where the pedal bone is kept level by an even growth 
 of hoof. In Cut 2 it will be seen how, while the direc- 
 tion of the outline of the heel takes an almost vertical 
 angle, that of the wall approaches the horizontal tozvard 
 the toe, and that the pedal bone under these conditions 
 must necessarily become higher behind than it is in 
 front. It cannot avoid tipping forward and downward at 
 the toe, and the effect of this displaced bone makes the 
 horse point backward for relief. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 213. We may ascertain the presence of corn by care- 
 fully pressing the heels and other parts of the foot with 
 pinchers, and by comparing the resistance offered at dif- 
 ferent points of the foot. As corn is commonly found in 
 feet resembling Cut 2, it must be associated with mala- 
 dies which are produced by a foot of that form. These 
 maladies have been enumerated and need not be re- 
 peated. It is not a little remarkable that curing any 
 one of the ailments produced by high heels w^hen our 
 treatment is applied, corn is a frequent accompaniment, 
 but is always the first to yield and disappear, just as if 
 it had been a mere symptom of the other trouble ; yet 
 
122 THE FOOT OF TIIE HORSE. 
 
 as an independent malady it is or has been one of the 
 most formidable agencies of destruction to the equine 
 race. Corn is sometimes present in both heels; in such 
 cases, the general treatment for too high heels usually 
 suffices. If present but in one heel, the treatment pre- 
 scribed for one side is applicable. 
 
 Mr. Robert Bonner and High Heels. 
 
 214. That gentleman when he finds a horse not ex- 
 tending himself in his usual ways suspects that the 
 heels are getting too high, thereby unbalancing the foot 
 and throwing too much weight behind, which creates 
 the tendency to corn. He lowers the heels at once in 
 such cases ; and the freedom with which a horse extends 
 Jiiinself afterward proves the correctness of his judg- 
 ment. I do not think it possible for a horse to speed 
 his best with an unbalanced foot and high heels. Horses 
 kept for speed, in my opinion, whether affected by corn 
 or otherwise, should have their heels kept down so as 
 to maintain a perfect balance of tlie foot. 
 
 Corn and Contraction. 
 
 215. We very seldom find corn in feet affected by 
 navicular disease. The latter comes from extra height 
 of toe, while corn is the product of high heels. If corn 
 is found in company with navicular disease, it will 
 surely be found on the side of the foot which carries the 
 most weight. 
 
 A corn could not possibly be produced any other way, 
 except by simple contraction. In this case the contrac- 
 tion is associated with JiigJi toe and inside foot. 
 
 We have stated before and repeat that all forms of 
 feet, even the soundest, are liable to become the sub- 
 jects of corn. To prove this I refer you to Cut i, repre- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I23 
 
 senting a sound and perfectly formed foot, where in 
 every part of the wall the horn fibres grow parallel with 
 each other, from the coronet downward, at an angle of 
 forty-five degrees. 
 
 Now refer to Cut 2 and notice the difference in the 
 direction of the fibres. The horn fibres grow down at 
 different angles behind and in front of the hoof. There 
 is so much divergence that the wall of the foot in front 
 presents such a concave surface that the balance of the 
 foot is destroyed, the pedal bone displaced, and the 
 leverage produced by the extra height and length of 
 the toe becomes an opposing force to the animal's pro- 
 gression. 
 
 Natural Size and the "White Line. 
 
 216. Corn, as I have stated, can be produced in a 
 perfectly formed foot if the hoof is allowed to grow 
 beyond its natural size. That natural size is no longer 
 a matter of fancy or doubt, but a well-proved question 
 of fact. It is infallibly indicated by a zone of whitish 
 horn that marks the union of the sole and wall (see 
 Cut I, letters y7, /). 
 
 Above this line is shown a foot of proper height and 
 length, and where the first three bones of the foot and 
 leg are in their true line of bearing with each other, 
 this latter being shown half-way between the heel and 
 toe of the pedal bone at the line c. It will be seen 
 that if the wall of the foot is allowed to grow long 
 enough to reach the line // //, the heels will be forced 
 to carry a much greater weight than their share. From 
 these considerations it must be clear that the best-formed 
 foot which ever existed, all else being equal, can be thrown 
 out of balance, and the hinder portion of the foot made 
 to carry more weight than its share, and the forward 
 part of the foot exposed to an adverse leverage, and 
 the living tissues made the subject of inflammatory 
 
124 TtlE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 action ; all by the mere overgrowth of hoof in length 
 and depth. This is not a matter of opinion or mere 
 speculation; it is a question of fact and demonstration, 
 as easily susceptible of proof as the first problem in 
 Euclid. In order to make my theory incontrovertible and 
 unanswerable, I refer you to another form of foot which is 
 represented in Cut 6, where the front wall of the foot 
 presents a convex surface from the horn fibres taking a 
 circular direction outward and downward, and the fibres 
 of the heels growing downward and forward, becoming 
 at the heels almost horizontal. The probable cause of 
 this peculiar growth is an increased secretion in front 
 and a diminished secretion behind. The effect, how- 
 ever, of the form of foot produced by this deviation 
 from normal conditions is to almost totally exempt such 
 feet from the liability to corn, on account of the inordi- 
 nate height and length of toe relatively to the heels. 
 
 Other Causes of Corn. 
 
 217. But there are other causes of corn yet to be 
 noticed. All else being equal, the shoe itself often be- 
 comes instrumental in the production of corn. 
 
 1. By being fitted too closely at the heels when ap- 
 plied to a fungous foot, where the constant tread often 
 works the shoe inwardly of the wall at the heels and 
 causes the weight to be borne by the sole and bars. 
 
 2. From one of the calks wearing faster than the 
 other, thus causing the greatest weight to be borne by 
 the highest heel, either standing or in motion. 
 
 3. A shoe with high heels and no toes will also cause 
 corn. 
 
 4. Such a shoe applied to a truly sound and well- 
 balanced foot not only may produce corn, but render 
 the foot liable to any of the diseases produced by high 
 heels. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 12$ 
 
 It is worth remembering, then, that the form of the 
 foot first of all, then the attitude or mode of standing; 
 next the red stain upon the sole, as a positive sign ; and 
 lastly the unwillingness of the horse to extend himself 
 will enable any fair observer of horses to diagnose the 
 existence of corn or tendencies to it in its earliest 
 stage. 
 
 From all the foregoing considerations I can arrive at 
 no other conclusion than that nearly all diseases of the 
 feet and legs of horses, including corn, are caused by 
 deviations from the natural size and form of the foot; 
 such deviations being aided by certain qualities of the 
 horny structure, by overgrowth, and by imperfect 
 knowledge of the principles of shoeing. 
 
 A Remarkable Phenomenon. 
 
 218. If any of my readers should go to France and 
 have occasion to examine horses there, they must be 
 prepared for a somewhat — to me — "surprising fact" as 
 regards the symptoms of corn. I learn from Professor 
 Liantard's translation of Zundel's work on lameness of 
 horses that " when lame with a corn the horse carries 
 his leg forivard of a plumb line and keeps it semiflexed at 
 the fetlock." I presume this must he 2i habit, or perhaps 
 a custom of the country, as I have never seen an American 
 horse act that way ; the practice in this country being 
 invariably to carry the leg backivard of the plumb line. 
 
 Another Symptom 
 
 219. Of corn is the horse walking on his toe some- 
 times as if he were suffering some acute pain in his 
 heel, which he undoubtedly is and is trying to relieve it. 
 Sometimes in doing this he causes the perforans to swell, 
 and the swelling is very apt to be attributed to another 
 
126 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 cause, namely, undue height or length of toe. A seem- 
 ing paradox must be explained here. It would appear 
 as if we could have swelled tendons from high toes or 
 high heels, which would appear inconsistent with our 
 theor3^ 
 
 The horse is suffering from pain in the back part of 
 his foot in both cases, one being the condition called 
 corn and the other an unduly elevated toe, and in both 
 cases he seeks for ease in the most favorable position for 
 obtaining it, that is, walking on his toes. 
 
 The Horseman's Compass. 
 
 220. What the mariner's compass is to the mariner 
 the horseman's chart should be to the horseman, whether 
 he be a veterinarian, horseshoer, or an amateur of horses 
 (see Cut 9). Where the leg at rest is carried in front of 
 a plumb line, the heels require raising and the toe to 
 be lowered; and when at rest if the leg is carried back- 
 ward of a plumb line, the toe needs raising and the heels 
 to be lowered. 
 
 Morbid Conditions Resembling Corn. 
 
 221. There is still another cause in operation to pro- 
 duce a morbid condition resembling corn, and I have no 
 doubt is often mistaken for it, as it is indicated by a 
 blood-stain in the same locality. While this blood-stain 
 is generally produced by a contracted condition of the 
 quarter, it can be and is caused sometimes by expansion 
 of the quarter instead of contraction. The laminae can 
 be torn asunder in an outward direction as well as 
 crushed together inwardly. This must cause pain and 
 n rupture of small blood-vessels and the blood to fall 
 down and stain the horn tissues. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 12/ 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 222. The remedy for this is to lower and narrow the 
 heel at its fullest side, which is generally the inside, if 
 there is hoof enough ; if there is not, let the shoe be 
 thicker on the opposite side and thick enough to give a 
 broad surface and height to the outside heel calk, as 
 compared with that of the inside, and to regulate the 
 height of the toe by this treatment. Balancing the foot, 
 however, is not sufficient in all cases, for the treatment 
 must depend upon the severity of the case. In the 
 earlier stages, after balancing the hoof and the adjust- 
 ment of a rocker shoe, the corn usually cures itself. 
 
 Suppurating Corn. 
 
 223. If there is evidence that the process of suppura- 
 tion is going on, an opening should be made to allow 
 the pus to escape, taking care not to cut too deeply so 
 as to avoid cutting the laminae and thereby increasing 
 the inflammation. A warm emollient poultice generally 
 completes the cure. 
 
 Severe Cases. 
 
 224. If the horse continues lame after the above 
 treatment, the />us having been discharged, and the ani- 
 mal is evidently in much pain, it must be regarded as 
 an indication that the soft tissues inside of the hoof are 
 swollen, and that the pain is caused by the pressure of 
 the swollen tissues against its unyielding horny envelope. 
 This condition is best combated by paring away all the 
 hard external surfaces of the frog and sole until what 
 remains will be comparatively soft and yield readily to 
 the pressure of the thumb. This will abate the pain by 
 allowing the walls to expand under the pressure of the 
 
128 
 
 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 swollen tissues, and the sole and frog being soft and 
 thin will bulge a little, and in this way the pressure 
 will be relieved and the pain abated. 
 
 In addition to the centre-bearing shoe, it will be im- 
 portant to keep the under surface of the foot moist and 
 supple all the time. To effect this we have but to place 
 between the shoe and the foot a pad of any soft material 
 that holds moisture. I have found a pad of cotton or 
 oakum saturated with a mixture of soft soap and Caro- 
 lina tar in equal proportions to answer the purpose very 
 well. 
 
 Other Contingencies. 
 
 225. Sometimes the prick of a nail in shoeing causes 
 inflammation and suppuration. If after evacuating the 
 pus the foot does not get well under the foregoing treat- 
 ment, lose no time in calling for the best veterinary ser- 
 vices that can be obtained. Such cases call for medical 
 as well as surgical treatment. Underrunning has to be 
 dreaded and guarded against. All such cases and the 
 disease termed quittor should be placed in the hands of 
 a good veterinary surgeon. 
 
 General Treatment of Corn. 
 
 226. The general treatment best adapted to corn 
 after the foot has been properly balanced is a bar shoe 
 made rocker fashion, that is to say, thin at the heels and 
 toe and high in the middle, as in Cut 2 1 . This form of 
 vshoe prevents jarring of the heels such as those seen in 
 Cut 22. If the horn will admit of being cutaway to the 
 extent of an inch and a quarter of its bearing surface im- 
 mediately under the seat of corn, let it be done; if the 
 horn will not admit of this, fitting the shoe to meet the 
 indicated requirement will do just as well. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 29 
 
 Stringhalt. 
 
 Causes. 
 
 227. In tracing the causes of certain diseased condi- 
 tions of horses' feet and limbs to their source, we are 
 not a little gratified that we have met with considerable 
 success in this direction. Though not so destructive a 
 malady as many diseases of the locomotory organs, it is 
 yet one which has engaged the attention and the pens of 
 many able pathologists, and so far has resisted all at- 
 tempts to divest it of its character of impenetrable mys- 
 tery. 
 
 There are two modes of reasoning : one is from cause 
 to effect; the other is from effect to cause. It has 
 seemed to me that all I have read has been reasoning 
 from effects to causes; and I propose to reverse this 
 process and reason from causes to effects. 
 
 So far, with English and French writers, its origin 
 has been more a subject of guesswork than anything 
 else — oi fancy rather than fact. 
 
 An eminent French writer, Bouley, regards it as 
 "but an exaggeration of a physiological fact," automatic 
 in its operation. Professor Liantard has no opinion 
 whatever of his own to offer, but nevertheless he deems 
 it incurable. French writers generally favor the opin- 
 ion that it is a disease of the hock joint, but differ as to 
 the particular seat of the injury. One thinks it origi- 
 nates in a dry spavin, and another ascribes it to " ero- 
 sions of the large articular surface of the hock joint." 
 Others have found lesions in all the joints of the hind 
 leg, and therefore refuse to believe that it can originate 
 in the hock joint. 
 
 English pathologists regard some portion of the ner- 
 vous system as the primary source of the disorder. 
 
 Percival conceived it to arise in " the spinal marrow 
 9 
 
130 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 or in one of the great nervous trunks that pass to the 
 affected leg." Dick located it in the " lateral ventricles 
 of the brain." Williams thinks it \s,choreic\VL its nature, 
 that is, something like Saint Vitus' dance. This writer 
 also has seen stringhalt associated with *' a deposition 
 of melanotic material in the crural nerves of a gray 
 horse," and also with "exostosis on the shaft of the 
 ilium," and with "the pressure of a bone spavin upon 
 the nerves of the hock," and also with rheumatism. 
 Williams has divided the tibial nerves — the nerves which 
 supply the hock joint with sensation — to no purpose. 
 That gentleman, besides giving his own, gives the views 
 of other English writers, some of whom thought they 
 had traced it to a " hypertrophied condition of the nerves 
 given off from the lumbar plexus," and some to "the 
 pressure of exostosis upon a nerve," and others to 
 " paralysis of the muscles antagonistic to those affected 
 with spasms." 
 
 A Mysterious Malady. 
 
 228. From these brief extracts it appears that every 
 joint of the limb, and the entire nervous system from 
 the brain to the foot and from centre to circumference, 
 has been anatomized and investigated and called upon 
 to yield up the secret source of stringhalt, without a 
 single echo in response. Varnell expressed the de- 
 spondent feeling of all writers on this subject in the fol- 
 lowing words : " There is a mystery about the matter 
 which for the present is darkened over with a heavy 
 mist that requires considerable research to clear away." 
 
 Personal Observations. 
 
 229. As far as I am aware, no curative or preventive 
 measure has ever been suggested for this malady. It 
 occurs nearly always in one or both hind limbs, very 
 
THE FOOT 9F THE HORSE. I3I 
 
 rarely in a fore limb. The value of the animal affected 
 with stringhalt depends upon the intensity of the ail-. 
 ment. In some cases the foot affected is only raised a 
 few inches higher than its fellow, and in others only at 
 the walking gait. Some show it only in trotting, and 
 some only when they are backing. The higher the 
 foot is raised, the more quickly it has to be lifted and 
 returned to the ground. This impulsive action is exe- 
 cuted so as to keep time with the movements of the 
 other leg. If the foot were flexed slowly, it would not 
 have time to be raised two or even three feet high and 
 to descend the same distance when in action and cover 
 as much ground as its fellow in travelling low. Hence 
 the higher the foot is raised the more spasmodically the 
 foot must revolve. The limb is sometimes carried so 
 high as to strike against the belly of the horse with the 
 front of the pastern joint. 
 
 Professor Liantard and Stringhalt. 
 
 230, The learned professor in his observations on 
 stringhalt has allowed a curious error — if it is not a 
 printer's error — to find its way into print. In his work 
 on lameness the professor says that the horse in ex- 
 treme cases of stringhalt " brings the front part of the foot 
 in violejit contact luith the abdomen at every step.'' The 
 horse who can do this is constructed upon some mechan- 
 ical principle with which I am unacquainted. No horse 
 that I have ever observed could perform this remarkable 
 feat. Whenever I have watched a horse lift his hind 
 leg he has had to flex his hock joint, and his foot is 
 drawn downward and backward while the hock is bent, 
 and is only straightened out when the foot is on the 
 ground. How a horse can kick his belly with his foot 
 without bending his hock is a mechanical mystery I am 
 unable to solve. 
 
132 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Resemblances to Stringhalt. 
 
 231. A jerking action of the hind limbs is frequently 
 seen tinder various conditions other than stringhalt. A 
 wound inflicted upon the extensor at or near the main 
 point of its insertion into the apex of the pedal bone is 
 almost sure to be accompanied by a movement of the 
 leg resem.bling stringhalt ; and so is acute laminitis in 
 the forward feet, as well as navicular disease when the 
 pain is very severe. In all these cases as the disease 
 becomes ameliorated the jerking action passes away. 
 
 Exploring for Causes. 
 
 232. When I began first to pay some attention to 
 this disease and its causes, over forty years ago, I thought 
 I had made some discoveries as to the causes of lame- 
 ness, both general and particular, and felt the assurance 
 that if I made a systematic and close study of the mechan- 
 ism of the horse's hind leg, I might be rewarded by an- 
 other discovery. I bought stringhalt horses for purposes 
 of experiment and study. I found that stringhalt very 
 rarely came on suddenly. A gradual development of 
 the disease was the rule. My next observation was that 
 stringhalt horses could walk better on perfectly level 
 and smooth ground than on any rough or uneven sur- 
 face. If the animal was but slightly affected the jerk 
 would be scarcely visible ; or from being constant, would 
 become intermittent on smooth ground. None went 
 better or improved on ordinary roads. Then instead of 
 watching at a distance, I kept close to the animal and 
 observed each of its footprints. Then the mechanism 
 of the hock joint became an object of interest and study. 
 I noticed in all cases an indisposition to let the leg go 
 backward of the plumb line of the limb, which I call 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 33 
 
 pointing in motion. Only in extremely bad cases did I 
 observe any tendency to walk on the toe. But the going" 
 even a little better on a very smooth surface suggested 
 that there must be something in the road or in the foot 
 that made the difference. 
 
 I then had a level bit of road prepared, and had the 
 foot cut down level to the line so often referred to, 
 wondering what the result would be of bringing the 
 two levels together. I was aware before that time of 
 the effect of a balanced foot upon spavin and some 
 other diseases, but I never dreamt of connecting an un- 
 balanced foot with stringhalt; yet this conclusion was 
 forced upon me by the inexorable logic of facts. That 
 conclusion was that stringhalt was produced by the self- 
 same cause as spavin and many other diseases of the 
 foot and leg, and that the same remedy was applicable 
 to all alike ! I own a horse at the present time on which 
 I can produce stringhalt by means of a shoe high on 
 the inside toe ; and by removing the shoe the string- 
 halt disappears. This might be called producing 
 stringhalt to order. I confess to having felt more gratifi- 
 cation from the discovery of the origin of stringhalt than 
 of all the other diseases together. 
 
 My First Case of Stringhalt. 
 
 233. The first case I undertook to relieve or cure in 
 New York was that of a horse owned by Mr. Isaac 
 Smith, now a resident of Brooklyn. The horse was a 
 heavy trucker, having stringhalt in one leg and struck 
 his belly at every step, btit not with his Joot. Mr. Smith 
 considered the aire as almost miraculous. The treat- 
 ment was precisely what would have been adopted for 
 spavin. This horse worked for a year perfectly sound, 
 when he changed owners and shoers, and the old mal- 
 ady returned. This teaches that there can be no abso- 
 
134 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 lute cure for troubles of the feet and legs. It can only 
 be for as long as the foot can be maintained in its nor- 
 mal and healthy conditions. 
 
 The Very Worst Case. 
 
 234. In 1876 I undertook the cure of the very worst 
 case I had ever seen. He was affected in both hind legs 
 and struck his belly at every step he took. At first 
 starting out of the stable he would hold up one leg so 
 high and for so long a time that you would think the 
 animal would fall over; an incident which has been 
 recorded as having been seen by Colonel Fitzwygram, 
 an English veterinary writer. Both hind feet of this 
 case were badly contracted, and the animal walked upon 
 his toes, never letting his heels touch the ground. This 
 case was treated at home. 
 
 A centre-bearing shoe a little higher in the centre than 
 usual was placed on each foot. Improvements were 
 visible day after day, and in thirty days all trace of 
 stringhalt had disappeared ! As long as we shod this 
 horse he went sound ; when he changed shoers his old 
 disease returned as bad as ever. Professor Liantard's 
 comment on this case was that " the horse had re- 
 turned to his old habit;" as if stringhalt was noth- 
 ing but a habit, which a horse could adopt or return 
 to to suit his own sweet will. Has the deformity of 
 the foot and imperfect shoeing nothing to do with the 
 matter? Is going lame merely a habit? Does a horse 
 undergo pain and suffering simply to indulge in a habit? 
 Is pointing the limb nothing but habit? If stringhalt 
 be a habit, as a rule it can be easily controlled. 
 
 I have cited these cases to show that this malady has 
 a common cause with all other ordinary ailments of the 
 foot and leg, produced by overgrowth of hoof and un- 
 scientific treatment of the foot ; and a further proof of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 35 
 
 their identity of origin is the fact that the self-same 
 mechanical methods of shoeing and treatment are appro- 
 priate in all diseases that spring from an unbalanced 
 condition of the feet. 
 
 I am not surprised that Professor Liantard should 
 regard stringhalt as incurable and merely habit. 
 When he has perused these pages he m.ay possibly find 
 some reason for revising his list of incurable diseases in 
 the next edition of his work on " Lameness of Horses." 
 
 Still a Mysterious Malady. 
 
 235. The whole of the mystery of stringhalt has not 
 yet been cleared up. Although we know the cause of 
 it and have it in our power very largely to counteract it 
 and to cure it relatively, yet the questions as to the 
 exact manner in which it affects the nervous system or 
 whether it has any favorite location are still involved 
 in as much mystery as ever. I believe I have shown 
 incontestably that diseases of bones and ligamentous 
 structures can be traced to the same fountain-head as 
 to cause. To these two classes of structures I think 
 may fairly be added a third class, namely, the nerve 
 structures. I don't know of any better proof that can 
 be given for the identity of the cause or causes of the 
 three classes of disease than that the self-same mechan- 
 ical appliance — the centre-bearing shoe — is the all-suffi- 
 cient remedy for the diseases in each class with scarce- 
 ly an exception. All writers agree in the opinion, in 
 which I also agree, that whatever the original cause 
 may be, the disease must be attributed to some derange- 
 ment of or interference with some portion of the nerve 
 structures, either in its large or small branches. At this 
 point agreement ends and the widest diversity of opin- 
 ions begins. Do I assume too much in supposing that 
 I have furnished a fresh starting-point for future inves- 
 tigators? 
 
136 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Observations on Stringhalt. 
 
 236. Perhaps, too, the following observations may 
 aid in the discovery of the exact location of stringhalt. 
 The domain to be explored is a pretty wide one — that 
 of the nervous system. Some one with the necessary 
 qualifications may yet succeed in clearing up the mys- 
 tery attending this question. However that may be, I 
 think an important advance has been made in removing 
 stringhalt from the list of incurable diseases, and I 
 fully believe it will be absolutely prevented in that 
 good time coining for horses when the requirements of 
 their feet will have become fully understood and sci- 
 ence will have taken the place of empiricism in the mat- 
 ter of shoeing. 
 
 Symptoms of Stringhalt and Spavin Compared. 
 
 237. In studying the hock joint and its mechanism, I 
 observed some striking differences between the effects 
 of spavin and those produced by stringhalt upon the 
 movements of the leg. 
 
 1 . Walking on the toe is common in spavined horses, 
 while no sign of this is ever seen in stringhalt, except 
 as a very rare exception, 
 
 2. A spavined horse when turning round or moving 
 sideways will touch the ground lightly with the toe, 
 and for about one-half of the step will drag the toe 
 along the ground ; whereas a stringhalt horse will jerk 
 his leg up and allow it to descend quickly, neither 
 dragging the toe nor stepping upon it lightly. 
 
 3. A spavined horse on first starting out drags his 
 leg until it gets zuarnicd up; while a stringhalt leg is 
 lifted spasmodically from the start. 
 
 4. In a bad case of spavin the horse straightens his 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I37 
 
 hind extremities while lying down, evidently to relieve 
 pain, while the stringhalt horse doubles up his extrem- 
 ities, just as if they were perfectly sound. Neverthe- 
 less the various parts of the hock joint are simultaneously 
 compressed by one common cause, namely, the undue 
 height and length of the toe. The tendons which pass 
 over the hock becoming attached to a foot with a long 
 toe exerts an undue force of compression or strain 
 upon every substance, texture, or tissue which enters 
 into the formation of that joint. It is the action of the 
 flexor and the extensor tendons combined that keeps the 
 hock joint and the pedal joint in their proper positions 
 and angles toward each other. It ought to be plainly 
 seen what a powerful influence leverage at the toe 
 must have upon the movements and functions of the 
 hock joint. This fact can be stated as follows : As you 
 lengthen or raise the toe, or both, the spasm is increased ; 
 as you diminish the height and length of the toe the 
 spasm is diminished. 
 
 Treatment of Stringhalt. 
 
 238. In early or mild cases simply balancing the foot 
 will suffice. In advanced and inveterate cases the 
 centre-bearing shoe properly adjusted simply works 
 wonders. 
 
 It must not, however, be understood that every case 
 absolutely zvithout exception zvill receive benefit from it. I 
 have met with one case, and bjit one, that received no ben- 
 efit from the centre-bearing shoe; so that I conclude 
 more exceptions to the rule may be found in practice 
 hereafter. Why that one case was not amenable to the 
 treatment successful in every other case is as great a 
 mystery to me as the exact location of the disorder. To 
 this I may add that I have never yet seen a case of 
 stringhalt associated with a well-balanced foot. 
 
138 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Mechanism of Hock Joint. 
 
 239. I desire to record one more observation upon 
 stringhalt and its possible if rvo\. probable location. It can 
 easily be observed that the lower part of the leg, that is, 
 the leg below the hock, can only be raised or bent while 
 the pastern and foot are folded together backward and 
 downward, and that when the pastern joint has reached 
 its limits in folding the hock joint has reached its limits 
 of flexion or folding likewise ; and any effort beyond 
 this natural limit to flex the hock must cause an abnor- 
 mal compression which wull be felt principally at the 
 hock joint. I have watched the leg when it has been 
 lifted as high as it was possible to lift it, when the leg 
 would vibrate for an instant, as if the forces of the 
 flexors and extensors were about equally balanced, and 
 required a short interval for the forces to act which draw 
 the leg downward. In consequence of the severe strains 
 and compression to which the hock joint is so much ex- 
 posed as an agent of the propelling power, I am inclined 
 to the opinion that the proximate causes of stringhalt 
 will be found in immediate connection with the hock 
 joint. 
 
 Stringhalt Suddenly Acquired. 
 
 240. Professor Williams records an aggravated case 
 of stringhalt as being acquired in one night and becom- 
 ing worse with age. It might be interesting to state 
 that I had a similar experience with a horse of my own 
 many years ago. I drove a horse about forty miles one 
 day in Canada, in the month of March, when the snow 
 was slushy under the horse's feet, which had not been 
 shod for several months. It may not be known to every 
 reader that farm-horses in Canada usually go all the 
 winter without shoeing, as long as the snow lasts, as 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 39 
 
 they remain sharp and are rarely reset before spring ; 
 therefore the feet grow long, and this was the case with 
 my horse. After a forty-mile drive this horse devel- 
 oped stringhalt in one night. The longer a foot has 
 been shod the more snow it will gather at the toe, and 
 becoming hardened into a ball at the toe sets up a lever- 
 age which strains the back tendons, and in proportion 
 to the strain will be the compression upon the hard struc- 
 tures of the hock joint. That that joint was the seat of 
 trouble in this case was shown by the successful treat- 
 ment. The hock was enveloped in a mass of very fine 
 hay which was held in position by several very long 
 and heavy bandages. The szvcating process which I 
 adopted was caused by using Jiot beef brine, kept up for 
 several hours. The legs were then dried and kept warm 
 with dry bandages until next day at noon, when the 
 horse was so much better that he was driven sixteen 
 miles, only showing some degree of stringhalt in one 
 leg. The sweating process was renewed upon the hock 
 of the unsound leg, and the horse went as well as usual 
 the next day. 
 
 Hock Movements. 
 
 241, Observers of the horse's hock movements have 
 noticed that some horses lift their hind feet higher 
 sometimes than at others, and higher than is necessary 
 at all times, considering it waste of power when they do 
 so ; but why they do it has not been so readily perceived . 
 My theory throws light on this little problem, as well 
 as a few others. I deem it a fact that cannot be dis- 
 proved — indeed, it is one that is susceptible of the clear- 
 est proof — that a long and high toe combined with un- 
 due height of the inside half of the foot predisposes 
 very strongly to higher lifting of the foot, which neces- 
 sarily involves a greater flexion of the hock. Young 
 and sound horses when they acquire feet of this form 
 
140 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 describe what has been called the half -moon circle with 
 such feet upon the ground. It is also worthy of notice 
 that when the inside half of the foot is unduly high and 
 the inside toe high and long with it, just at the instant 
 the toe leaves the ground the foot is jerked up vSuddenly 
 and lowered slowly ; and if the heels are raised instead 
 of the toe, conjointly, the movements of the foot and leg 
 are reversed — the foot is raised slowly and lowered sud- 
 denly. 
 
 Effects of Snowballing. 
 
 242. It is common enough to see horses in winter 
 raised on one or both hind feet higher than usual, the 
 effect of snowballing. Colts and young horses often 
 show a disposition to stringhalt after balling at the toe. 
 The sole of the foot, which is not meant to carry the 
 whole of the superincumbent weight, is certainly made 
 to do so when a snowball gets packed between the shoe 
 and the foot and stays there. After such cases, when 
 the old horn has been removed, red stains appear which 
 show very plainly that there has been an effusion of 
 blood from the sensitive sole into the horn tissues. In 
 my opinion this is due to snowballing. 
 
 Quarter Crack. 
 
 How Split Hoof is Produced. 
 
 243. Much learning has been wasted, as far as the 
 horse is concerned, in discussing the proximate and remote 
 causes of split hoof, just as there has been over every 
 other disorder of the foot. An unbalanced foot is the 
 parent of a numerous progeny of maladies more or less 
 destructive to the horse, and split hoof, as I prefer to 
 call it, is a member of the family. The cause and cure 
 could be very briefly stated, but I presume it will be 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I4I 
 
 expected of me that I should give some account of the 
 hozv and the why of its production. 
 
 Professor Williams and Split Hoof, 
 
 244. In glancing at what Professor Williams has said 
 about split hoof, I was surprised at how little he has to 
 say about it. All he has to say will hardly furnish me 
 with a text of sufficient scope to give point to my own 
 observations. But for the use I make of his utterances, 
 I hope it will be deemed a sufficient compensation if I 
 present him with a few surprising facts and a few theo- 
 retic novelties. 
 
 " A brittle condition of the wall caused by a perverted 
 condition of the secreting structures," and that "it 
 rarely happens on the outside." This is the sum total of 
 the information to be found on split hoof in a book 
 designed and used as a text-book in veterinary colleges 
 in this country and in England! I have an impres- 
 sion, however, that the subject has not been quite ex- 
 hausted in the utterances above quoted. 
 
 What is the matter with recent writers on lameness? 
 The spirit investigation seems to be dead or slumbering 
 as regards foot diseases. One writer evidently would 
 willingly hand over all foot diseases to the horseshoer ; 
 the foot he considers the domain of the horseshoer. 
 These veterinary agnostics seem to have become sullenly 
 indifferent to the consideration of foot diseases. 
 
 "Come, let us Reason Together." 
 
 245. To begin with, I take issue with Professor Wil- 
 liams as to the cause of split hoof. I deny that a per- 
 verted condition of the secreting structures is the cause 
 of split hoof. But even supposing it were, what in the 
 learned professor's opinion causes a perverted condition 
 
142 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of the secreting structures? There must have been a 
 cause for this, but as the learned professor has not 
 delved so deeply into the category of secondary causes, 
 I will assume the role of preceptor to the professor. A 
 contracted or zvired in condition of the quarters is a 
 much more obvious immediate cause of split hoof than 
 a perverted condition of the secreting structures. The 
 nearest proximate cause of split hoof is a contracted 
 condition of whichever quarter the split may affect ; and 
 the extent of the split depends upon the angle or degree 
 to which the wall is bent from its normal shape. No 
 one has ever seen a split hoof in a normally shaped foot. 
 The fact is demonstrable that the heel which approaches 
 nearest to the centre of the foot, whether it be the out- 
 side or the inside, will receive more weight than any 
 other part of the foot when the foot is placed upon the 
 ground. It is also a fact that the quarter receiving this 
 weight is pressed inward against the frog tissues. An- 
 other factor in the problem is this, which is equally 
 demonstrable with the rest, that when the lower margin 
 of the hoof is contracted the upper border around the 
 coronet becomes expanded. Moreover, the upper margin 
 of the hoof is very thin, gradually becoming thicker as 
 it descends. These conditions being associated, you 
 will not have long to wait for a split hoof. You know 
 that a split in the quarter alivays begins at the top and 
 extends downward. 
 
 The secretions have nothing to do with the cause of 
 the split, the split being produced by purely mechanical 
 causes ; but after the split has taken place the lesion 
 may and does interfere with the secreting structures. 
 Perverted secretions! Why, as soon as the contracted 
 quarter is expanded and the expanded upper margin 
 of the hoof is contracted, the split is invisible and the 
 secretions show their integrity by giving you an inch of 
 new hoof in about three months. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I43 
 
 This may be a surprising fact to the professor, but it 
 is a fact nevertheless. 
 
 Rationale of Split Hoof. 
 
 246. We have seen that a contracted quarter is the 
 proximate cause of split hoof. To what causes, then, are 
 we to attribute the contracted quarter? There are two 
 classes of causes — predisposing and exciting. I will 
 deal with the predisposing first. The most powerfully 
 predisposing cause is neglecting to cut and to keep cut 
 the wall even with the sole of the foot, that is, at the 
 line of union between sole and wall ; for it is then that 
 the foot is in its strongest and best iovm /o?' all purposes. 
 When the foot is allowed to grow beyond the line re- 
 ferred to, in that same proportion will the foot become 
 weak and become more liable to splitting from purely 
 inecJianical causes. All horn beyond this line is excres- 
 cent, and until cut off is a perpetual menace of danger 
 to the horn structures above that line. The higher the 
 foot is allowed to grow the greater the danger. The 
 slightest divergence from a perpendicular bearing will 
 carry one heel inward toward the centre of the foot. 
 The first quarter that yields must be the weakest. 
 From the moment it begins to give way, an additional 
 burden is thrown upon it by the superincumbent weight, 
 and the strongest part of the hoof has the least to carry 
 and therefore is less exposed to injury than the weakest 
 quarter. All this can be prevented absolutely by keep- 
 ing the foot down to its natural level. An additional 
 cause to this in promoting weakness in the quarter is 
 concaving \h.Q shoe too far back. The heel is apt to get 
 on this inward bevel and bulging at the coronet and a 
 split hoof may be the result. 
 
 I would here enter my protest against a very com- 
 mon practice, that of so-called casing the heels. This is 
 
144 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 a mistake, as a few moments' consideration will show. 
 Supposing a foot perfect in all respects, easing the heels 
 unbalances the foot to that extent immediately even be- 
 fore the shoe is attached. A constant see-saw motion is 
 set up when the horse is travelling, which necessarily 
 loosens the nails in the front part of the foot, and this 
 will account for many shoes being lost on the road. 
 The gaps between the heels and the shoe admits sand 
 and dirt, and the grinding and friction produced by the 
 motions of the horse must wear the inside quarter the 
 fastest, as it is the thinnest and weakest of the two and, 
 other things being equal, is the most liable to become 
 warped and bent and therefore the most susceptible to 
 a split near the coronet. For a proof of this, inspect a 
 shoe which has been worn by a horse with eased heels, 
 and you will find a crease in the web of the shoe and a 
 highly polished surface which is deeper on the inside 
 than the outside quarter. 
 
 Another powerfully predisposing cause of weakness 
 of the inside quarter is the common practice of having 
 less nails on the inside than on the outside of the foot, 
 the alleged reason being to allow the foot to expand and 
 contract on one side, if it could be not permitted on the 
 other. The truth of the matter is this: Theoretically 
 the hoof contracts and expands at every step, but the 
 amount is very trifling in a foot of the natural size. The 
 loss of this trifling degree of expansion and contraction 
 is a much less evil than nailing the foot more on one 
 side than the other. 
 
 The Treatment. 
 
 247. If the split extends but a short distance, it can 
 be cured in most instances by the application of a shoe 
 closely fitted to the affected quarter, having one hole 
 nearly under the crack. A space is to be left between 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I45 
 
 the shoe and wall at the bearing point under the crack, 
 from an inch to an inch and one-half on each side of the 
 crack and about one-eighth of an inch in depth, either 
 by cutting the hoof or depressing the shoe. The centre 
 of the depression should be immediately under the 
 crack. The draft of the nails will bring down the hoof 
 sufficient to close the jEissure at the coronet. In some- 
 what advanced cases the rocker shoe is the best, as seen 
 at Cut 21. In exceptionally bad cases, when the foot is 
 split throughout from top to bottom, the centre-bearing 
 shoe is preferable, as this causes as much ease and rest 
 to the foot even while the horse is at work as the common 
 shoe does when he is at rest in the stable. 
 
 I cannot help reiterating the remarkable properties 
 of the centre-bearing shoe. Whether at rest or in 
 motion, it receives the weight of the animal and con- 
 centrates it at a single point, that point being at the 
 centre of the foot, which enables the weight to be car- 
 ried with greater ease than it can be carried in any other 
 way. I have never yet met with a split hoof so bad 
 that it did not yield to the combined effects of a strong 
 hoof expander and a centre-bearing shoe, without any 
 other appliance or aid whatsoever. They all surrender 
 iTistantly to this method of treatment, and the horse goes 
 to work rigJit away. I was going to compare this method 
 with the methods recommended in works on lameness 
 of horses, but my intention has changed, as I now think 
 the sooner they pass from the memory of mankind the 
 better it will be for horses. 
 
 Post-Natal Influences. 
 
 248. I don't know any more suitable time or place 
 than the present for recording some observations which 
 have reference to the causes of several distinct diseases 
 of the foot besides and including split hoof. The influ- 
 
14^ THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ences of heredity, or as some prefer to call them pre- 
 natal influences, have very little to do, in my opinion, 
 with the majority of cases. 
 
 I propose to show that we need not go so far back 
 as heredity for the origin of many diseases, since there 
 are so many reasons to be found for their being in post- 
 natal influences if we study the horse's independent 
 existence. The sucking colt has to spread his fore legs 
 to obtain his sustenance from the dam, and as soon as 
 he begins to eat grass he is too frequently handicapped 
 by a short neck and long legs. He has to spread his 
 legs and lower his body so as to be able to reach the 
 grass, and in doing so his weight is carried by the 
 inside of the fore feet. The colt's foot is small-cupped 
 and comparatively soft and yielding to pressure. Under 
 this mechanical pressure the inside of the fore foot gets 
 a bias in the wrong direction. The outside of the foot 
 may or may not preserve its normal shape, but the in- 
 side becomes the lowest, inclines inward, and wears 
 away the most. This changes the form and the form 
 changes the angle of bearing, and the unequal bearing 
 becomes a strongly predisposing cause of contraction, 
 split hoof, and other ill results when the requisite 
 knowledge for correcting or counteracting those tenden- 
 cies are absent. In this way I believe many a deformity 
 of the feet has a beginning, and is an inheritance, if it 
 be one at all, which has its sources in imperfect human 
 knowledge rather than in a predisposition derived from 
 its progenitors. 
 
 Atrophy of Bone. 
 
 249. The deformity of the hoof is followed by a cor- 
 responding deformity of the pedal bone. That the 
 bones of very young animals are softer and more liable 
 to be pressed out of shape by unequal and unnatural 
 pressure upon the hoof, I think will hardly admit of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I47 
 
 question. Be that as it may, it is a verifiable fact that 
 in very many feet which have been examined after the 
 death of the animals to which they belonged, the inside 
 wing of the pedal bone has been found to be smaller — 
 in some considerably smaller — than the outside one ; a 
 condition termed atrophy, or wasting of the bone. I 
 deem it a reasonable inference in such cases that the 
 deformed hoof and the malformed pedal bone stand in 
 relation to each other, as cause and effect. My view is 
 that in consequence of the unequal pressure the hoof 
 and the wing of the pedal bone immediately over it at 
 the inside quarter are both alike obstructed in their 
 natural growth and development, and that they never 
 recover from their retarded development, but adapt 
 themselves as well as they may to abnormal conditions. 
 Later on, when shoes are applied to their feet and there 
 is no recognition of the true state of things weak inside 
 quarters and an unbalanced pedal bone with their at- 
 tendant evils, contraction and split hoof, are the very 
 common consequences. 
 
 Keep it Down. 
 
 250. These observations, if correct, point to the ne- 
 cessity of caring for and paring the colt's feet almost as 
 soon as they are foaled. Judicious paring will counter- 
 act the effects of straddling, so injurious to the feet of 
 colts. The rule for cutting cannot be more simple : Don t 
 let the ivall project beyond the sole — keep it dozvn, or the 
 penalty of neglect may be a deformed hoof, a malformed 
 pedal bone, and a diminished market value. I know of 
 horses to-day which in consequence of a weak inside 
 quarter have to wear an expander all the time to give 
 them equal bearing on both sides of the foot ; with this 
 equal bearing they can do fast work comfortably, with- 
 out it they are cripples. 
 
148 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Subject Not Exhausted. 
 
 251. I have not yet exhausted the subject of split 
 hoof and its causes, but I could not say less and do 
 it anything like justice. I could not dispose of the 
 subject in eighteen words. Cut 17 is an illustration 
 which will show that when both quarters are split at 
 the same time, it is because they are both contracted at 
 the same time. The plantar surface of such a foot 
 shows both quarters bent in immediately behind the 
 wings of the pedal bone, as shown by the dotted trans- 
 verse line ; and that the resistance of the wings of the 
 pedal bone is what causes this short inward curve of 
 the quarters, at the said dotted line, and renders the 
 quarters liable to split opposite and above the dotted 
 line referred to. It goes by saying that when the hoof 
 assumes this contracted form it is much more liable to 
 become split than when the heels have been kept 
 wider apart. 
 
 As regards treatment, I think enough has been said 
 to prepare the shoer for successfully coping with any case 
 of split hoof that arises in or on the quarters. 
 
 Front-Foot Fissure. 
 
 252. We have been considering split hoof when it 
 occurs in the quarters ; we have now to consider a form 
 of split hoof which is found in the front of the foot, a 
 most pestiferous and difficult form to deal with when 
 there is a want of knowledge in relation to its causes ; 
 and without that knowledge there can be no just appre- 
 ciation of the remedy. 
 
 Lest I should be accused of magnifying this evil and 
 the difficulties attending its cure, I will give the exact 
 words of Professor Gamgee in regard to it, to be found 
 in his work on " Lameness and Shoeing," than whom a 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I49 
 
 more trustworthy writer does not exist. He says: "The 
 origin, cause, and really bad features of these cases is 
 disease of the coffin bone. It was only by numerous 
 dissections of feet thus affected that any right conclu- 
 sion could have been arrived at on these very trouble- 
 some and partially incurable forms of foot disease. 
 During thirty years of practice I attained no knowledge 
 worth consideration about these feet with fissures in 
 front. All that was evident was that the horses so 
 affected were worked in a miserable plight, with a foot 
 bound up and subjected to innumerable operations, until 
 they were at length sent to the slaughter-house." 
 
 Rationale of Causes. 
 
 253. There are two different causes for this ailment, 
 which, although producing fissures in the same part of 
 the hoof, vary very widely in character, so much so 
 that it is important those causes should be distinguished 
 one from the other. One cause of this disease orig- 
 inates in an accidental injury to the coronary band from 
 which the fibrous portion of the horny wall is secreted ; 
 the other springs from an unbalanced condition of the 
 pedal bone. In the first case it might be called the 
 rA-trinsic and in the latter the ///trinsic cause. We will 
 explain the rationale of the extrinsic cause first. Any 
 accidental injury to the coronary ligament, whether 
 serious or trivial, happening at or near the centre of the 
 foot, is very apt to cause a fissure at this point: first, 
 because the hoof is very thin at its junction with the 
 coronary ligament, and, secondly, because there is more 
 movement in the hoof at that particular point than at 
 any other part of the hoof when the horse is in motion, 
 and from this the fibres are more liable to be rent 
 asunder there than at any other point; and however 
 small the beginning, it will continue until a new bond 
 
150 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 of union is set up between the coronary ligament and 
 the wall of the hoof. At the finishing of every step the 
 coronary ligament is strained and the fissure kept open. 
 As before remarked, the fibrous, tough portion of the 
 wall is derived from the coronary band by secretion, 
 and there being a break in the continuity of the secret- 
 ing structures, there is a corresponding break in the con- 
 tinuity of the secretr<^ structures ; and that is the way 
 most front fissures have their origin when the cause is 
 r.;irtrinsic. 
 
 Causes Intrinsic. 
 
 254, We will now trace the chain of z?/trinsic causes 
 which lead to this deplorable effect of imperfect knowl- 
 edge; and in order that the reader may have a clear 
 comprehension of the rationale of those causes, we shall 
 have to refer again to the mechanical principles in- 
 volved in the construction of the foot and the source of 
 its mechanical derangements. Let it be remembered 
 that the limbs of the horse are so constructed that all 
 the ailments of the foot affect more or less every other 
 portion of the limb of which it forms a part. 
 
 The foot is the fulcrum of the entire limb, and any 
 alteration in the bearings of the fulcrum will have cor- 
 responding effects upon the levers and pulleys connected 
 with it. 
 
 All for Want of Balance. 
 
 255. It will be readily understood how undue height 
 of the heels predisposes to split quarters ; now you will 
 be prepared for the fact that undue height of the heels 
 also produces a strain upon the extensor tendon just 
 where it is inserted into the apex of the pedal bone. 
 As surely as strain upon the perforans tendon is pro- 
 duced by a too high toe, just as surely a strain is pro- 
 duced upon the extensor tendon by too high heels. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 151 
 
 Position of Pedal Bone. 
 
 256, The next factor in the question is the peculiar 
 part played by the pedal bone. Let it be recalled that 
 this bone receives the insertions of the two most power- 
 ful tendons of the leg, and that this bone is the medium 
 through which or by which the movements of those ten- 
 dons are reciprocated. It cannot be difficult to under- 
 stand how the forces conve3^ed by these two tendons can 
 be equalized and balanced by the set of the pedal bone ; 
 and how any alteration of this set would destroy the 
 balance of the forces between these two tendons, no 
 matter whether it was by raising or lowering the heels 
 or by raising or lowering the toes. 
 
 Leverage at the Heels. 
 
 257. Another factor in this problem of front-foot 
 fissure must now be introduced. How adverse leverage 
 is produced at the toe has been described. Adverse 
 leverage at the heels must now be considered. While 
 the leverage at the toe produces a direct strain upon the 
 perforans, leverage at the heels has the same effect upon 
 the extensor, and at no point is that strain more acutely 
 felt than directly in front at the apex of the pedal bone, 
 where the movements voluntary and involuntary caused 
 by the progressive movements are greater than else- 
 where in that region of the hoof, and therefore the 
 most acutely felt. The extensor at this point is exposed 
 to strain and injury from both a high heel and a high 
 toe. The high heels produce a direct strain; that from 
 the high toe arises from a doubling-up of the pedal bone, 
 which causes its apex to press against the lower end of 
 the small pastern bone. In short, the pedal bone is al- 
 ways "between the devil and the deep sea." It is only 
 
152 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 safe when it enjoys a perfect balance. This leverage at 
 the heels is produced by long shoes and high calks so 
 commonly to be seen on heavy, slow horses. As con- 
 stant dropping wears away stones, constant undue strain 
 upon tendons, whether in front or behind the leg, will 
 weaken them. The strain upon the perforans produces 
 the morbid condition termed navicular disease, when 
 the same species of strain produces inflammation in the 
 region of which the apex of the pedal bone is the centre, 
 and this creates the conditions which lead to front fis- 
 sure at the coronet. In this case a perversion of the 
 secretions precedes the split hoof; in the quarters the 
 split hoof takes precedence of the perverted secretions. 
 The most important of the tissues at this point are the 
 laminae, from their double function of secretion and of 
 connecting media, for whatever impedes or destroys the 
 secretions will soon cause disconnection. Defective 
 secretions will soon make a defective hoof, and there- 
 fore liable to split upon the slightest provocation. 
 
 Peculiar Form of Foot. 
 
 258. Please refer to Cut 2. This is a form of foot 
 which I deem naturally predisposed to front-foot fis- 
 sure ; it has preternaturally high heels independent of 
 shoeing, and has to be shod jnst so to prevent its flying 
 asunder. 
 
 This form gives a constant //// to the pedal bone for- 
 ward at the apex and downward at the toe, producing 
 strain upon the extensor, and leading to that form of 
 split hoof which runs through the hoof from top to bot- 
 tom, or from bottom to top, and sometimes half-way 
 through from either end. This kind of foot is mostly 
 seen in heavy horses which could not travel without 
 shoes, and the shoe, therefore, becomes a necessary part 
 of the foot, but the shoe should be formed so as not to 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I 53 
 
 interfere with the natural balance of the articulation. 
 When the principles involved in the theory I am en- 
 deavoring to explain are fully understood, there will be 
 no difficulty in adapting shoes to this particular form 
 of foot that will not only cure these fissures, but, what 
 is of far more consequence, will absolutely prevent them. 
 
 Concussion. 
 
 259. The shock and concussion produced by undue 
 height of heels become greater as the heels of the shoes 
 are longer, and in the same proportion will the strain 
 be increased on the extensor just where it unites with 
 the pedal bone. This often causes a sJiortcning of the 
 step or lameness even before any fissure has taken place. 
 About this time a warning symptom may be detected 
 at the spot where the split occurs. It is that of a slight 
 depression, a scaly and ridgy surface, and pain being 
 evinced by pressure of the finger. I might also refer 
 to the gap made as the foot touches the ground when the 
 heels are long and high, between the toe and the ground, 
 varying from one to three inches in different horses. 
 This is one effect of the loss of balance upon the pedal 
 bone. With unusually low heels, the toe reaches the 
 ground first. The best shoe for such a foot as this must 
 meet its particular requirements. When the hoof cannot 
 be lowered, the shoe should be made lower and shorter 
 at the heels; this would lessen the gap referred to, 
 where as a rule the gap is much wider than in feet 
 formed as in Cut 5, which are apt to go on the toe in- 
 stead of the heels. 
 
 To Prevent Slipping. 
 
 260. In shoeing feet as shown in Cut 2, for slippery 
 ground, side calks should be preferred to heel calks, 
 welded one inch forward of the point of the heel of the 
 
154 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 hoof, as seen at Fig. 26. No matter about the length of 
 the heels or branches of the shoe ; the shorter the bear- 
 ing part of the shoe is at the heels for such forms of 
 feet, the less concussion they will be subjected to; the 
 less strain, and therefore the less inflammation, there 
 will be in the region of which the apex of the pedal 
 bone is the centre, just where it is united with the ex- 
 tensor ; and therefore the less interference there will be 
 with the secreting structures, and. both split hoof in 
 front and at the quarters will be prevented by that mode 
 of shoeing. If the horse is shod with a common shoe, 
 the toe calks should be set back to correspond with the 
 heel calks. 
 
 The centre-bearing shoe, however, is the standard 
 shoe for every species of split hoof, whether in front or 
 at the quarters, for all forms and textures of feet and 
 for every breed of horses. 
 
 Shoeing for Front Fissure. 
 
 261. The following directions for shoeing for front 
 fissure should be duly considered and thoroughly mas- 
 tered, if they are to be dealt with effectually. The shoe 
 should be a bar shoe ; the bar, however, is not intended 
 for the frog to press against, but for the purpose of 
 giving firmness to the shoe, as the front part of the shoe 
 must be hammered down thin. The shoes are to be 
 made rocker-fashion, and according to the size of the 
 foot so must be the size and extent of the rockers. 
 Large horses sometimes require the rockers to be from 
 one inch to one inch and a quarter high in the centre, 
 and from one and one-half to two inches from the centre 
 in the long direction, and the ends tapered so that each 
 rocker shall be the segment of a circle, and of course 
 they should be both of the same size, and set on evenly 
 so as not to wabble. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I 55 
 
 A Solid Foot. 
 
 262. No part of the rim of the shoe should be al- 
 lowed to touch the ground while the horse is in motion, 
 for if the toe is allowed to press upon the ground when 
 the foot is raised, the fissure is forced apart and is made 
 to gape at every step, and no horn could grow down 
 solid under such circumstances. It is intended to keep 
 the foot as solid as possible, and thereby to prevent motion 
 in its divided parts, so that growth of horn may be 
 facilitated rather than retarded. The slight expansion 
 and contraction natural to a healthy foot must be sacri- 
 ficed for a short time for the sake of a greater gain. 
 Solid growth of horn can only be promoted by prevent- 
 ing motion in the divided parts. 
 
 No Easing Off. 
 
 263. As regards nailing on the bar shoe described, 
 it is important that the shoe should fit snug and firm at 
 the heels, having a solid bearing at the quarters, where 
 the easing-off process is usually indulged in. No casiiig 
 off is to be practised here, as it would nullify all that 
 could be done besides. Motion at the quarters especially 
 would produce motion in the divided parts at the fissure. 
 The nailing, therefore, should be carried well back to 
 fulfil the above-mentioned intentions. So much for 
 the heels; now for the toe. A suitable space is to 
 be formed at the toe by cutting the wall an inch or 
 more on each side of the centre of the toe to allow the 
 draft of the nails at the toe to close the fissure at the 
 coronet. This can be understood and carried out by 
 any handy farrier having care and judgment. Of course 
 the length and depth of this interspace must depend 
 upon the size of the foot, the extent of the fissure, and 
 
156 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the skill of the operator. The frocr must not bear upon 
 the bar of the shoe, for the reason that bearing at that 
 point would counteract the closing of the fissure at the 
 coronet. 
 
 Rationale of the Rocker Shoe. 
 
 264. The rationale of the rocker shoe in these partic- 
 ular cases admits of a little further explanation. But 
 for the repose given by this shoe to the pedal articula- 
 tion, the coronary bone by its forward and backward 
 movements would press against the fissure every time 
 the toe left the ground, and thereby check the growth 
 of so/id matter. We are not seeking to unite the divided 
 fibres — they can never be united. It is the nascent un- 
 divided horn fibres that need protection. This is the 
 essential element of the curative process. It may as 
 well be observed also that the smaller the compass of 
 the ground-bearing surface of the foot, the more firmly 
 can a shoe be attached to it ; and furthermore, the smaller 
 the compass of bearing the less degree of articulation 
 of the joint is required. It is equally true in the pro- 
 portion in which the bearing is drawn to a central point. 
 Strain will be lessened and repose given to the articula- 
 tion, either in action or at rest, thus giving nature a 
 chance to exert her self-healing powers. The centre- 
 bearing shoe can be thus demonstrated to be in fact and 
 theory both the best safeguard against injuries that has 
 yet been invented or discovered, as far as my knowledge 
 of the matter extends. 
 
 Professor Gamgee. 
 
 265. Professor Gamgee concludes his article on front- 
 foot fissure by the statement that he had made numer- 
 ous dissections of feet affected by that disease, and that 
 " he had become satisfied that the front part of the coffin 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 57 
 
 bone was the seat of mischief," and that he thought was 
 "a complete solution of the matter." Whatever the 
 professor may consider a complete solution of the matter, 
 I could only regard as a complete solution of the matter 
 a rational history of its primary and secondary causes, 
 and the discovery of a device which will absolutely pre- 
 vent or cure it. Whether the professor's "complete 
 solution of the matter" can be judged favorably by this 
 criterion or not, I will cite the professor's own words: 
 "Usefulness and care is all that can be looked for under 
 the best management; perfect cure should not be ex- 
 pected, as it can rarely be accomplished.'" 
 
 It has been my more fortunate experience to cure 
 every case of split hoof, whether at the front or at the 
 quarter, that I have had to treat during the last twenty- 
 five years right here in the city of New York, by the 
 methods and according to the principles described in 
 this article. My motive in making this comparison is 
 not the desire to belittle others or to exalt myself. It 
 has been done purely for purposes of instruction. Pro- 
 fessor Gamgee is vastly my superior in intellectual abil- 
 ity and literary attainments. He has done what he 
 could to improve and to advance the vocation of horse- 
 shoeing, appreciating as he does its great importance to 
 society ; but that it has not been given to him to dis- 
 cover the basic facts upon which a new and enduring 
 system of horseshoeing in full accordance with the laws 
 of nature and, fortunately, the requirements of civiliza- 
 tion, his own language, cited elsewhere in these pages, 
 is a sufficient answer. I believe the time will come, but 
 not yet, when the principle of shoeing for all horses of 
 whatever class or kind, and kept for whatever purpose, 
 will be that of light or heavy metal plates, having on 
 the ground surface varying degrees of curvature suiting 
 the requirements of each case. From the few experi- 
 ments I have made upon racing and trotting horses, I 
 
158 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 believe that here is an unexplored region for experi- 
 ments that promise a rich return in the development of 
 speed without waste of power. If ever this principle 
 becomes common, we shall have fewer accidental injuries 
 to the feet, and diseases from other causes be almost 
 totally unknown. I believe emphatically this principle 
 will be embodied in the horseshoe of the future. 
 
 Knuckling. 
 
 266. Knuckling is an ailment common to all breeds 
 of horses and horses used for every purpose. 
 
 There is a certain conformation to the pastern or 
 fetlock joint which must be regarded as a predisposing 
 cause of this ailment. Horses with short and upright 
 pasterns are more subject to this malformity than those 
 with oblique pasterns. Cut 5 represents an ankle 
 which is always liable to knuckling, for the want of 
 knowing how to keep the foot properly balanced by the 
 paring-knife and the shoe. This complaint is some- 
 times of an intermittent character, from the fact that 
 sometimes, more perhaps from accident than design, the 
 foot gets tolerably well balanced, and the horse goes 
 better till it gets out of shape again. 
 
 Why Colts Knuckle. 
 
 It has been observed that yearlings often knuckle 
 during the winter, and return to their normal form in 
 summer, by simply having had their feet worn down 
 on harder surfaces than can be found during the winter 
 season. Why is this? The explanation is easy enough. 
 When colts are housed during the winter the feet grow 
 long, as in Cut i, as well at the heels as at the toe. 
 The heels by their forward growth reach to nearly the 
 centre of the, foot and cause the foot to rock backward, 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE, 1 59 
 
 thus straining- at the back tendons, which presses the 
 pastern joint out of its proper angle, and as long as it 
 continues so the condition is termed knuckling. 
 
 Prevention in Colts. 
 
 267. Colts from a country free from snow are not so 
 disposed to this deformity, for enjoying more field ex- 
 ercise the walls of their feet are more apt to wear even 
 with the sole than those of their snow-bound cousins 
 which are kept within doors all the winter, Colts run- 
 ning at pasture, you may be sure, will escape many 
 troubles which others endure. As a rule they never 
 become knuckled. The remedy is very simple for the 
 cure or prevention of such malformation in colts. Cut 
 their feet down to the line of safety; practise this early 
 and often ^ and you will never be troubled with the con- 
 tingency termed knuckling as long as you do so. The 
 reason why should be plain enough. When the wall is 
 pared evenly with the sole, the foot enjoys its due bal- 
 ance and there is no rocking backward, and therefore 
 no undue strain is put upon the perforans, and there is 
 no pressing of the pastern joint out of its proper posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Keeping the wall on a level with the sole at the line 
 of safety is the all-important rule either to prevent or 
 to cure knuckling. It should be done once every month 
 at least, and twice a month would be better. This rule 
 applies to horses and colts of all ages. It should be 
 known to all horse-breeders that colts suffer much from 
 untrimmed and unbalanced feet, and as a consequence 
 their owners suffer in the region of the pocket-book ; for 
 the consequences of untrimmed feet are that the colts 
 do not thrive so well, and that the muscles of their hind 
 quarters do not attain their due degree of development 
 for want of sufficient exercise, which the colts are indis- 
 
l6o THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 posed to take while their feet are in trouble. Many 
 horses remain deficient in their hind or fore quarters 
 as long as they live, for this very reason. 
 
 Retarded Development. 
 
 268. Fulness and perfection of the hind quarters 
 depend very much upon the condition of the feet. Six 
 or twelve months of retarded growth at one or two years 
 of age can never be regained. We have said that per- 
 fect feet formed like Cut i were subject to knuckling; 
 it might also be stated that extra loiu heels are another 
 cause of knuckling. The wall of a perfect foot grows 
 higher all round its circumference, and for that very 
 reason it can be pared and yet left in an unbalanced 
 state (see Cut i , and the dotted lines from g at the heel 
 to h at the toe) . The heel, by being cut too low relatively 
 to the toe, will draw down the back tendons, and their 
 tension will press the fetlock forward, causing it to take 
 an opposite angle, which is knuckling. The remedy in 
 this case is to cut the toe down to correspond with the 
 heels, and thus balance the foot. 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 269. In perfectly sound feet otherwise, knuckling 
 is preceded by the following symptoms. The horse 
 commences to point more or less with the affected foot 
 forward of a plumb line, in order to relieve the strain 
 upon the back tendons caused as already explained. 
 As the knuckling increases the pointing decreases, as 
 knuckling gives more ease to the back tendons than 
 pointing. From that time the perforans tendon be- 
 comes relieved, and the extensor tendon and the apex 
 of the pedal bone receive the weight from the small 
 pastern ; from the anterior surface of the latter and to 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. l6l 
 
 relieve this contingency the affected foot is drawn back- 
 ward, and instead of pointing forward he points back- 
 ward. 
 
 Causes. 
 
 270. I have seen some horses knuckled in both hind 
 legs from causes which perhaps are not commonly sus- 
 pected. When a horse points with both fore legs at a 
 forward angle, the horse extends his hind legs at a back- 
 ward angle. Now, if his hind pastern be of the up- 
 right variety the strain upon the perforans will cause 
 the knuckling position, which will not occur if the hind 
 pasterns are oblique. The cure of the knuckling in the 
 hind feet in such a case is the cure of the front feet 
 pointing, for when the latter is cured the former passes 
 away. 
 
 Rocking Backward. 
 
 We have seen that knuckling in young colts is caused 
 by the foot getting long and rocking backward over the 
 heels. It is plain that the effect of rocking backward is 
 to lower the heels and strain the perforans. Now par- 
 ing a well-formed foot too much at the heel has precisely 
 the same effect. The same backward rocking effect is 
 produced by a short shoe when the horse is travelling 
 over soft ground where the heels sink deeper than the 
 toe. This latter cause is usually intermittent, appear- 
 ing only when the horse has been too long shod, and 
 usually disappearing with the next shoeing. The per- 
 manent remedy for this is keeping the foot short, and 
 level from side to side. The remedy for the colt's feet 
 is the frequent use of the paring-knife and rasp, with 
 the view of keeping them in good shape, that is to say, 
 perfectly balanced all the time. 
 II 
 
1 62 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Veterinary Surgeons and Horseshoers. 
 
 271 . I have read a recent work on lameness of horses, 
 the compiler of which ascribes knuckling mainly to trau- 
 viatic causes. This surprised me very much, as in my 
 experience in horseshoeing the causes of knuckling 
 have been mainly the other way. The unlearned reader 
 is informed that traumatic is a general term characteriz- 
 ing diseases which proceed from wounds and accidental 
 external injuries. Lest the scope of my work should 
 be mistaken, I would again refer to the line drawn be- 
 tween diseases which are caused by accidents and those 
 which arise from intrinsic causes. The former class is 
 considered to belong to the province of the veterinary 
 surofeon, and the latter to that of the horseshoer. Dis- 
 eases called traumatic require medicinal treatment as 
 well as surgical. My work treats of those diseases 
 which I consider have a mechanical origin, and my 
 remedial treatment is always mechanical, not medicinal. 
 As a horseshoer, not as a veterinary surgeon, I name 
 the diseases which I think arise from defective modes 
 of shoeing and of management of the feet, and although 
 this embraces a pretty wide field of discussion and in- 
 vestigation, it does not cover all the ground concerning 
 the general subject of lameness of horses. The history 
 of horseshoeing shows what it has been brought to by 
 the dictation of leaders in veterinary science during the 
 last one hundred years. May it not be possible that 
 improvements may proceed from the ranks of horse- 
 shoers themselves? According to Professor Gamgee the 
 modern veterinary surgeon thinks more of his dignity 
 than of his duty, and is willing that everything relat- 
 ing to horseshoeing and foot diseases should go to the 
 horseshoer. Although penned by a horseshoer, the 
 veterinary surgeon may find a stray fact or two in this 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 163 
 
 book, here and there, that may be of service to him in 
 his professional work. At least I hope so. 
 
 Causes of Knuckling. 
 
 272. As these causes have not been referred to by 
 writers on lameness of horses, I hope to be forgiven for re- 
 ferring to them, as so little seems to be known outside 
 of traumatic causes, which are always visible and palpa- 
 ble. For one case arising from these visible and palpa- 
 ble injuries to the perforans tendon, there are scores of 
 instances which exhibit no sign of any external injury 
 whatever by which they may be accounted for. And 
 the book referred to is said to be the latest scientific 
 work on the lameness of horses. Every one in the 
 following category of causes is in itself a distinct cause 
 of knuckling, and some of them combine and produce 
 the same effects : 
 
 1. A long toe standing or travelling upon soft ground, 
 or standing on soft bedding, will cause the foot to rock 
 backward and strain the perforans tendon. Be it re- 
 membered that whatever causes a strain to the perforans 
 tendon is a cause of knuckling. 
 
 2 . A high toe will strain the perforans on any kind of 
 surface. 
 
 3. A long and high toe combined will produce the 
 same effect in a still greater degree while travelling. 
 
 4. A contracted outside heel corresponding with full 
 inside toe will lower the heels and cause strain to the 
 perforans. 
 
 5. Both contracted quarters, like Cut 17, will strain 
 the perforans. 
 
 6. A shoe fitted short at both heels will cause them 
 to wear faster than at the toe, thereby causing strain to 
 the perforans. 
 
 7. A shoe too thin at the heels, any shoe thinner at 
 
164 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the heels than at the toe, will produce strain upon the 
 perforans, according to the shape and growth of the 
 foot. 
 
 8. A shoe fitted too tight at the outer heel, will wear 
 fast at that point, and cause strain to the perforans. 
 
 9. The whole inside half of the foot, being higher 
 relatively than the outside half, will produce strain 
 upon the perforans tendon, and will derange the func- 
 tions of the pedal articulation. In short, any cause 
 or causes combined that derange the seat of bearing 
 in the pedal articulation and cause strain upon the 
 perforans tendon will produce the abnormal condition 
 termed knuckling. 
 
 The Horseman's Compass. 
 
 273, If you will now glance at the chart on pointing, 
 you will readily perceive how these causes can be easily 
 understood by any one who can tell the difference be- 
 tween an upright and oblique position. Raising the 
 heels in order to relieve the perforans tendon is good as 
 far as it goes, but it goes such a very little way; else 
 why do we see so many knuckled horses in our streets, 
 either standing or travelling ? Can nothing more be done 
 to prevent or cure this dangerous weakness as well as 
 unsightly deformity of the limb ? By the aid of the chart 
 referred to we shall gain a clear insight into the causes 
 of knuckling, both proximate and remote, which could 
 not be gained without it. When a horse commences to 
 knuckle, if it proceeds from being too high on the inside 
 half of the foot, whether it be before or behind, he will 
 either stand with his feet close to each other, or cross 
 his legs, resting one foot upon the other; and he will 
 travel with his feet unusually close together. The 
 effect of this form of the foot will also cause the knee- 
 sprung condition with an outward direction of the knee. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 165 
 
 Oblique Pasterns. 
 
 274. Near the beginning of this article it was stated 
 that feet formed like Cut 2 are not subject to knuckling, 
 the reason being that such forms of feet are always too 
 high at the heels, which prevents knuckling. Now this 
 form of fetlock has knuckling associated with it occa- 
 sionally, and that is when the whole inside half of the 
 foot becomes higher than the outside half. It has also 
 been remarked that pasterns formed like Cuts 12 and 13 
 were entirely exempt from this ailment. The reason 
 for this exemption is that the obliquity of such pasterns 
 is too great for the fetlock to be forced by any mechani- 
 cal means, to leave its low oblique angle for an opposite 
 one. Long and low oblique pasterns are not so sensi- 
 tive to changes in the form of the feet as the more 
 upright ones. The straighter the pasterns, all else 
 being equal, the more readily it becomes affected by 
 changes in the bearing of the hoof. 
 
 To Prevent Knuckling. 
 
 275. Knuckling is at all times easier prevented than 
 cured. It is easy to cure in its early stages ; but when it 
 has become chronic it is not easily disposed of. A recent 
 writer on knuckling, in summing up his views, stated that 
 " the prognosis is ahvays one of a very serious character, 
 and the disease is never otherwise than exceedingly re- 
 fractory to treatment." I have had a more fortunate 
 experience in such cases; and I hope and expect that 
 when the writer referred to shall have had a deeper in- 
 sight into the mechanism of the foot and the causes of 
 its derangements, and shall have become acquainted 
 with the mysterious properties of the centre-bearing 
 shoe, he will record a more successful experience in the 
 next edition of his work. 
 
l66 THE FOOT OF THE HOkSE. 
 
 The Foot the Essential Part of a Horse. 
 
 276. Some writers think that working the animal too 
 young must be considered a cause of knuckling. Those 
 who assign this as a cause of knuckling never mention 
 the cause or causes of weakness which produce this ten- 
 dency to knuckle. 
 
 When the foot is of the proper natural size and pro- 
 portion, work, by which I mean a vigorous exercise of 
 the muscular energies, will improve the tone and general 
 condition of the animals; while the same amount of 
 exercise or work, all else being equal, exacted of a 
 horse whose feet are out of due proportion and ill-shapen 
 and unbalanced would make him dispirited and un- 
 thrifty. The foot — the well-balanced foot — is the es- 
 sential part or property of the horse. When a young 
 horse becomes knuckle-jointed, I have invariably found 
 that the walls of the foot were projecting beyond the sole 
 in a greater or less degree, thus compelling it to work 
 under the disadvantages of a leverage force at the toe 
 arising from a disproportioned hoof. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 277. When the case is a serious one, and the heels 
 have to be raised, shorten the toe at the same time as much 
 as possible. A four-calk shoe works best, the calks being 
 set back, bearing in mind to have the outside calk the 
 largest in order to brace the outside of the foot. Never 
 yet has a pronounced case of knuckling been cured by 
 raising or lengthening the toe, or by welding a piece of 
 iron to the shoe projecting more or less from the front 
 of the foot, as recommended by some writers on knuck- 
 ling. 
 
THE FOOT UF THE IIOKSE. 1 6/ 
 
 Curb. 
 
 Location. 
 
 278, The hock joint is not only the seat of several 
 diseases such as bone spasm, bog spavin, thoroughpin, 
 and probably stringhalt, but is also the location of a dis- 
 eased condition, the common name of which is curb. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Curb is a hard callosity in its advanced stage, or but 
 a mere soft swelling in its early stage. It is formed on 
 the back of the hock, a little below the point of the 
 hock, or OS calcis as we shall sometimes call it. The 
 limb in its efforts at or in propulsion — for the hind legs 
 are the propellers of the system — at the instant that 
 the toe leaves the ground produces the greatest amount 
 of strain upon all the tendons of the leg, but especially 
 upon the powerful tendon that finds its lower attach- 
 ment upon the posterior surface of the os calcis or back- 
 ward bone of the hock. Curb thus claims kinship in 
 the manner of its production with navicular disease and 
 split hoofs, inasmuch as they all occur at the termina- 
 tion of tendons, where there is the greatest amount of 
 indirect motion, and consequently where the greatest 
 degree of strain is exerted upon those tendons. The 
 point of the hock is a fulcrum, and so is the navicular 
 bone, and the greatest force is exerted in a lever be- 
 tween the fulcrum and the lifting point or short end. 
 The moment of greatest strain to the large tendons in 
 both fore and hind legs is when the toe leaves the 
 ground in the act of flexing the limbs preparatory to a 
 forward movement. Harmony is nature's first law in 
 the movement of a machine ; while harmony reigns, all 
 goes well. I need not state the converse of this proposi- 
 tion. 
 
1 68 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Limits of Endurance. 
 
 279. Every piece of machinery constructed of steel 
 and iron, as the locomotive engine for instance, has a lim- 
 ited capacity for strain and endurance. It is even so 
 with the locomotory machinery of the horse. Tendons 
 and ligaments have their limits of strain, and bones have 
 their limits of resistance to compression. Any strain of 
 one or compression of the other beyond those limits will 
 result sooner or later, as the cause is persistent, in vari- 
 ous morbid manifestations — one of which is the spot 
 designated as the seat of curb. They are liable to ap- 
 pear alike on hard or soft structures. All the bony 
 deposits are essentially of the same nature and produced 
 by the same cause, compression, and all the lesions of 
 ligaments and tendons are essentially of the same char- 
 acter, being produced by undue strain. And what is 
 equally clear and demonstrable is the fact that both 
 these classes of disease are produced by the same iden- 
 tical cause — an undue elevation and extension of the toe. 
 
 Deranged Machinery. 
 
 280. The altered bearing of the foot on the surface of 
 the earth, through the operation of this cause, produces 
 derangements of the forces and functions of every tissue 
 and every joint composing the limb; and as long as 
 this fact remains an unknown factor in the category of 
 causes of foot and other diseases, so long will the horse 
 continue to be a martyr to human ignorance rather 
 than the victim of a cruel and unrelenting law of nature. 
 
 The various bones of the hock joint are bound to- 
 gether by straps and bands very strongly at every point 
 where strength is needed most, as it has need to be to 
 carry weight and resist momentum, and exert the pro- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 69 
 
 pelling power besides. Ligaments and bands resist 
 strain in every direction ; but they all have their limits 
 of resistance. It is obvious too that the os calcis, or 
 highest bone of the hock, is the fulcrum of the lever 
 which lifts the leg preparatory to a forward movement, 
 and being so, the liability to strain is greater at this 
 point than at any other portion of the tendon. I 
 hardly need say that unusually violent movements, 
 such as rearing, leaping, sudden reining-in, etc., with 
 or without the adjunct of a high toe will greatly increase 
 this liability. Furthermore the seat of curb is an im- 
 portant centre of action. The tendon of the largest mus- 
 cle of the leg ends exactly at that point. The point of 
 the hock combines the properties of the pulley and the 
 lever, and the nearer the forces lifted the greater the 
 strain will be upon the lifting forces. That the sprain 
 of the tendon produces the inflammatory symptoms 
 and products at this point I think cannot be gainsaid. 
 It matters little whether it is in this, that, or the other 
 tissue principally ; all the tissues adjacent to the sprain 
 are involved. That the substance of the os calcis is 
 affected by inflammatory action cannot be doubted, and 
 possibly forms the basis of that permanent enlargement 
 which characterizes curb. 
 
 A Fertile Region. 
 
 281. Not only curb is produced in the manner de- 
 scribed, but throughout the whole course of the perforans 
 from the hock to its insertion into the pedal bone, and 
 from the insertion of the extensor into the apex of the 
 same bone back again to the hock, a region is bounded by 
 these two tendons which is fertile in morbid manifesta- 
 tions of one kind or another. Between the toe and the 
 knee of the fore leg and the toe and hock of the hind 
 leg seem to concentrate nearly all the ills which hitherto 
 
170 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 seem to have been the horse's fatal inheritance. All 
 along the line down the back of the leg you can trace 
 lesions of the soft structures, and all the way up the 
 front of the leg may be traced masses of morbid ma- 
 terial on the surfaces of the bones, all the results of 
 undue strain upon the tendons and ligaments as the 
 active, and compression of the bones as the passive, 
 agents in the production of these diseased conditions, 
 and all from one and the self-same remote cause, and 
 not very remote either— an abnormally long toe. We 
 cannot conceive that curb has any cause peculiarly its 
 own ; that is, separate and distinct from other morbid 
 conditions of the limb. They all belong to the same 
 family. The family likeness is stamped upon them all. 
 Nothing stamps their identity of origin so much as the 
 identity of the remedy. The adverse leverage at the 
 toe produces the strain ; remove the leverage at the toe 
 and the strain is relaxed ; place on the foot a centre- 
 bearing shoe, and every particle of strain is removed 
 from the previously overstrained ligaments and tendons. 
 I state this as a matter of fact and demonstration, and 
 challenge any one to disprove its absolute truth. 
 
 A Fixed Fact. 
 
 282. This is not a theory, but a fixed and unchange- 
 able fact, which must and will have general recognition, 
 not only as a fact but as a factor of the first importance 
 in the methods of management and protection for horses' 
 feet. In all cases of curb, immediate relief is given by 
 cutting down the foot to the white zone so often referred 
 to, and by placing on the foot a rocker or a centre- 
 bearing shoe ; no animal need be idle longer than a few 
 days, and if the case is not severe he will be able to 
 continue his work right along without lameness, and 
 suffer no disadvantage whatever. The general adapta- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I71 
 
 bility of the centre-bearing shoe to all forms of disease 
 and diseased action is one of its most remarkable fea- 
 tures, and of course confers upon it a property of great 
 value, and constitutes it a boon of no mean importance 
 to the horse and his owner. Its good effects are 
 simply marvellous. The "half hath not been told" of 
 its beneficial influences. In most cases of curb, spavin, 
 and so-called navicular disease, its good effects are in- 
 stantaneous in their operation. It is not at some future 
 time that the good effect may be expected, but right 
 there and right then. The animal walks away with a 
 long stride, doubtless feeling a glad surprise at the novel 
 experience oi feet without pain. 
 
 Curb Varies. 
 
 283, It is proper to say that curb varies very much in 
 size and degree. At first it seems to be small and un- 
 even in circumference ; but if the subject of it is kept 
 at work regardless of the enlargement it will become 
 larger, and the longer it is neglected the harder it will 
 be to remove. The lameness consequent upon curb 
 varies also very much in degree. 
 
 Curby Hock. 
 
 284. This term is applied to hocks which have a 
 slight enlargement at the seat of curb, but in which no 
 lameness is present. 
 
 Any deviation from the straight line of the hock upon 
 its outer surface denotes either a coarsely formed os 
 calcis due to heredity, or a condition due to the effects 
 of curb of which the evidences of its former existence 
 had not entirely disappeared. Veterinary experts often 
 differ in their opinions on this very question ; and for 
 this reason a curby-looking hock will always be an object 
 of .suspicion . 
 
172 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Curby Hock and Sickle Hock. 
 
 285. The term curby hock is also associated with the 
 form of hock sometimes called sickle hock, from the ante- 
 rior outline of the limb resembling the agricultural imple- 
 ment called a sickle. From a mechanical point of view, 
 this form of hock is not the best calculated to withstand 
 any violent exertion; the toe, the bearing-point, being 
 so far forward greater force is required to act upon the 
 foot than would be the case if the cannon bone stood 
 more vertically. In a sickle-shaped hock, the angle 
 formed by the thigh and leg bones being much more 
 acute than when the cannon bone is upright, as the 
 leg is lifted the point of the os calcis is thrown more 
 obliquely backward, and the flexors of the leg are com- 
 pelled to lift it at a double disadvantage, having to act 
 against the transverse angle of the leg and the point 
 of the OS calcis as well. The strain upon the tendon at 
 the seat of curb must be very much intensified, and 
 whatever increases that strain must increase the liability 
 to curb in the same ratio. 
 
 Characteristics of Pointing in Curb. 
 
 286. We have treated very many cases of curb in 
 different degrees of development. A horse with curb 
 stands pointing forward with his hind feet, and travels 
 the same way, that is, with his legs under his body, 
 rather than by letting them swing back goose-fashion. 
 He also steps short and throws as much of his weight as 
 he can on to his forward feet. This he does, of course, 
 to favor his affected limb or limbs. I have seen some 
 horses so severely affected and so lame as to walk upon 
 the hind toe entirely with the view of straightening the 
 limb and obtaining ease. With these very severe 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 73 
 
 cases, a centre-bearing shoe modified as in Cut 1 1 , where 
 the central and very highest part of the ball comes 
 directly under the insertion of the perforans at letter 
 k and line p, proves more effective than any other kind 
 of treatment I have even seen or heard of. I have never 
 yet seen a case where inflammation would sooner sub- 
 side than from the application of that very simple 
 device. 
 
 Sprain of Back Tendons. 
 
 Various Effects from One Cause. 
 
 287. In our discussion of the nature and causes of 
 curb, we have shown that many forms of lameness may 
 justly be attributed to one primary cause ; that none of 
 them have a distinct and separate cause from the others ; 
 and if but one ailment affects a limb it must be at the ex- 
 pense of other portions of the same limb, and sometimes 
 of the other limbs. It must be obvious that the differ- 
 ent segments of the column of bone could not be kept 
 in a vertical position without the use of stays and braces 
 in the front and at the back of the column. These stays 
 and braces are mainly the perforatus and the perforans 
 at the back of the leg and the extensor in front of it. 
 Each effort to propel is always dependent upon the an- 
 terior and posterior braces for support, and not only the 
 front and back parts of the column are exposed to con- 
 tingencies arising from derangements of the machinery 
 in these two directions, but, as already pointed out, 
 there are as many points from which danger may pro- 
 ceed as there are points in a mariner's compass. 
 
 The Pointing Compass or Chart. 
 
 288. For practical purposes we have reduced these 
 points to eight ; and from one point alone we have shown 
 that as many as eight different forms of disease can pro- 
 
174 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ceed or be produced; that point and that cause of dis- 
 eases being a toe which may be too long or too high, or 
 both conditions combined. As a proof of the truth of 
 this proposition we will show that sprains of the back 
 tendons are due to the self-same cause to which I have 
 ascribed the production of curb, namely, a straight long 
 or high toe. I repeat that to one cause, a long or high 
 toe or both in combination, may be fairly attributed 
 ninety-nine one-hundredths of the cases of sprain that 
 occur among horses, whether it comes in the form of a 
 curb or any other lesions of soft tissues as the tendons 
 and ligaments below the knee, or the hock. 
 
 The Centre-Bearing Shoe 
 
 289. Will be a valuable auxiliary to veterinary sur- 
 geons in the treatment of sprains of every class and kind, 
 and it ought to prove a welcome addition to his somewhat 
 limited resources in cases of this nature. The dreaded 
 permanent enlargements and shrinking and shortening 
 of tendons will be considerably reduced in number and 
 severity. More rapid cures will be effected without 
 turning the patients out to grass half cured. Blister- 
 ing, and firing and blistering, will be in less frequent 
 requisition. From the humanitarian point of view I 
 deem this will be a considerable gain ; I do not care to 
 regard it from any other. A large percentage of loss 
 must be attributed to inefficient mechanical methods of 
 treatment, in conjunction with the purely medicinal. 
 The only suggestion of any mechanical aid in the treat- 
 ment of sprains which I have read of in books is that 
 of simply raising the heel. This is not sufficient. As 
 will be seen, the peculiar property of the centre-bearing 
 shoe is to relieve sprain from any and every direction 
 from which it might come. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that, however perfect the 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1/5 
 
 foot may be, there is no absolute safeguard for it 
 against such accidents as stepping into a hole heel down 
 first. Very many accidents, however, may be averted 
 by the feet being kept in good form and perfect balance. 
 The best feet grow rapidly, and many of them require 
 paring every fourteen days. The tendency of natural 
 growth is always and ever to give undue length of toe, 
 and to unbalance the foot by the growth of the heels 
 forward and downward. Without principles to guide 
 or rules to follow, but the rule of thumb, in paring and 
 balancing the foot, the best feet are just as liable as the 
 poorest to the perils which beset the horse with unbal- 
 anced feet. 
 
 The next form of foot most conducive to sprains is 
 represented in Cut 5. In this form the toe is always 
 high in comparison with the heel. We seldom, if ever, 
 find a horse suffering from sprains of tendons whose 
 heels have a tendency to grow higher than the toes, as 
 in Cut 2. These are simple but important facts as re- 
 gards horseshoeing, neither hard to understand nor 
 difficult to apply ; and if utilized as I hope they will be 
 throughout our broad land, they will be as valuable in 
 the prevention of many accidental injuries as they are 
 in the remedial treatment of every other. 
 
 Treatment of Sprains. 
 
 290. The treatment should be exactly the same as 
 that prescribed for curb or ringbone, having its seat in 
 the central line of the pastern. 
 
 1 . The wall should be lowered even with the sole at 
 the white line so often referred to. 
 
 2. The centre-bearing shoe should be modified to 
 suit the degree of lameness or the circumstances of each 
 particular case. Remember that the greater degree of 
 lameness will require a greater depth of the ball. In 
 
\y6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 an occasional case it may require to be cone-shaped. 
 Then as the pain and lameness diminish the shoe 
 must be lowered. Even after recovery, this style of 
 shoe should be worn, as it is the best safeguard against 
 the return of the injury. 
 
 Racers and Trotters. 
 
 291. In cases of racers and trotters, fever and lame- 
 ness will become manifest, if there is not a sufficient 
 ro// of the shoe ; with this the fever and lameness will 
 disappear. As to the length of time that should be al- 
 lowed to elapse before a horse is worked, it may be said 
 that as soon as the fever has abated, and sometimes before 
 it has altogether abated, the animal should be started a 
 short distance to test his capacity for work, and if found 
 to work well the distance can be increased at each suc- 
 ceeding trial. When the injuries are limited to sprain, 
 and there is no decided rupture or severe laceration of 
 the tendon, the chances are that he will follow his races 
 without much risk. I have followed several individual 
 cases with strained tendons treated as just described for 
 more than two years, doing their work, and trotting 
 close to 2 : 20. The swelling, which at first was spread 
 more than three inches over the tendons, had during 
 that time and while at work been gradually lessening 
 and by the end of that time had entirely disappeared. 
 As a rule, enlargements and blemishes disappear after 
 this mechanical method of treatment, and firing or blis- 
 tering, or both, are absolutely dispensed with. Why 
 enlargements remain after the old style of treatment is 
 that the tendons have lost a portion of their natural 
 strength during their illness, cannot stand the work so 
 well after as before the injury, with the same old form 
 of the foot and the same old style of the shoe. Like 
 causes will always produce like effects, all else being 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1/7 
 
 equal. "Constant dropping wears away stones," and 
 the. constant pegging and straining at the toe when it 
 leaves the ground for a forward step keep up the irri- 
 tation and consequent enlargement. 
 
 Windgalls. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 292. To the list of injuries caused by a straight, 
 long, or high toe or both combined can also be added 
 the morbid swelling called windgall. The fact that they 
 are equally distributed on both sides of the fetlock goes 
 to show that the foot was perfectly straight and well- 
 balanced laterally while they were coming. But wind- 
 galls are not always found on both sides; sometimes 
 they are seen on one side only, and always on the side 
 on which the foot is found to be the lowest relatively to 
 the other side. They are at first soft and puffy swell- 
 ings varying in size from a peanut to a walnut, and 
 sometimes they are larger, and the fluid they contain is 
 doubtless the product of inflammation in the tissues at 
 that point. They are more frequent and serious when 
 they are associated with long oblique pastern. It is not 
 wise to disregard their first appearance. The judicious 
 manipulation of a wet bandage will disperse them at 
 first, but the longer they stay the harder they are to be 
 got rid of. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 293. Windgalls when caused by a long or high 
 straight foot, or both combined, can be best prevented 
 or cured at first by the self-same treatment as that pre- 
 scribed for strain of the back tendons, no other being 
 necessary ; and when it occurs on one side only it should 
 be treated as spavin would be treated upon the same 
 
178 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 side. A horse's foot always kept short, that is to say, the 
 wall kept even with the sole, very rarely, if ever, has 
 windgall. Windgall is another product of overgrowth 
 of the wall at the toe ; so that the slightest appearances 
 of a puff at the fetlock should be regarded as a sure sign 
 that the toe needs shortening and lowering. 
 
 The Ear-Marks of the Family. 
 
 294. There is a species of windgall that makes its 
 appearance in another locality, but it has the ear-marks 
 of the windgall family. It is found in the hollow spot 
 between the os calcis or point of the hock and the lower 
 end of the thigh bone. It also is the product of a high or 
 long toe, or both combined. It is somewhat globular in 
 form, and varies in size from two to four inches in diam- 
 eter. Lameness is its common attendant, but the lame- 
 ness does not depend upon the size of the swelling, that is 
 to say, that a small swelling may be attended by lameness, 
 and a large one otherwise. I repeat, the treatment for 
 all windgalls should be the same as that for sprains of 
 tendons ; except the one-sided windgalls, which should 
 be treated for whichever side they happen to be on, as 
 an inside or outside ringbone should be treated. 
 
 Mr. Quintal's Case. 
 
 295. In 1869, I treated just such a case as that last 
 described for Mr. Joseph Quintal, a wholesale grocer of 
 Montreal, Canada. The animal was a very valuable 
 one, and all that the best professional skill could do or 
 advise to be done had been tried unstintingly. The 
 owner was very reluctant to allow any non-professional 
 to treat the case. That reluctance, however, was over- 
 come by a friend of that gentleman who had become 
 acquainted with me and my theory. I simply applied a 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 79 
 
 ball shoe and nothing else was done. In three months 
 the swelling had entirely disappeared. 
 
 Originating Causes. 
 
 296. This ends the list of ailments the first parent or 
 originating cause of which is to be found in a straight 
 long or high toe ; and the best proof that they are all 
 the progeny of one parent is that they all can be pre- 
 vented, cured, and immediately mitigated by the self- 
 same methods of paring and preparing the foot, and by 
 the application of the same mechanical remedy, with 
 but slight modifications, the centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 Acute Laminitis. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 297. This disease is more common to city horses 
 than horses in the country. As a rule, it is very de- 
 structive to horses which have been the subjects of its 
 attack, for after an acute attack a great many horses die, 
 and the few which recover temporarily have never a 
 very good time of it afterward. Their feet become 
 ridgy and deformed, and the condition termed drop sole 
 is a too frequent sequel of the disorder. There is a re- 
 markable peculiarity attending this disease, which so far 
 as I know cannot be said of any other specific disease 
 of the foot or which arises from intrinsic causes. Some- 
 times diseases of the lungs or bowels will seem to quit 
 either of those regions, and intrench themselves, as it 
 were, in the feet. Learned pathologists, of which I do 
 not profess to be one outside of the foot, call this trans- 
 mission of disease from one organ to another metastasis. 
 I have remarked that during some of these attacks of 
 laminitis the tendency of the entire system is to shed 
 the hair very freely, and it always seemed to me the 
 
l8o THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 hoof itself could part company with the foot with a very 
 little provocation. Hair and hoof, remember, are com- 
 posed essentially of the same substance ; it only differs 
 in form. 
 
 Causes. 
 
 298. Laminitis may be brought on by long drives 
 which cause great exhaustion ; by standing too long on 
 the feet in railway cars, on steamboats, and on ship- 
 board in sea voyages. Getting chilled when heated, by 
 a sudden cold breeze from a lake, or by the sea, or on 
 a ferry-boat, or by drinking too much cold water when 
 heated — in short, any circumstance under which the 
 horse is exposed to a chill, whether it be from cold air 
 externally, or from drinking too cold water internally. 
 
 A Not ITncommon Cause 
 
 of laminitis is driving a newly purchased green horse 
 from the country in order to test his capabilities before 
 he has been put into working condition — laminitis is the 
 usual consequence. 
 
 The Cause of Causes, 
 
 299. However, is the unbalanced condition of the 
 feet. When the foot is in a healthy condition, the lam- 
 inae of the feet will sustain great weight without yield- 
 ing, all else being equal ; but any departure from normal 
 conditions, or any undue taxation of their strength, will 
 compel them to yield to a superior force. In normal 
 conditions there is less leverage force at the toe to harass 
 and distress the laminae, but with an overgrown toe and 
 a disproportioned hoof generally two forces come into 
 play, the effects of both being to derange and disorgan- 
 ize the l^niinated structures. The front part of the foot 
 
THE FOOT OP^ THE HORSE. l8l 
 
 is the area of disturbance, the storm-centre as it were, 
 from which proceed some very deplorable consequences 
 to the horse. The overgrown toe sets up leverage, the 
 direct effect of which, at every step the animal takes, is 
 to cause a separation of the laminae at the region of the 
 toe. In addition to this there is a force acting in the 
 opposite direction to this ; that force being the combined 
 effects of weight and momentum pressing upon the toe 
 of the pedal bone, causing its displacement and a sepa- 
 ration of the laminae in that region. Both these forces 
 can be counteracted by keeping the foot to its norm.al 
 level, thereby removing the leverage from the toe, and 
 placing the sole immediately under the pedal bone upon 
 the earth, from whence it will receive direct support, 
 and the laminae will be kept in the position nature as- 
 signed them. 
 
 Area of Laminated Structures. 
 
 300. I have made a little calculation as to the area of 
 the laminated structures which may or may not throw 
 some light upon the functions of these structures, which 
 are very much in dispute at the present time. A 
 medium-sized foot of the horse contains about ten square 
 inches of double laminated structure. This double ar- 
 rangement has two functions or purposes to serve ; one 
 is to provide the means for its own protection, and the 
 other is to assist in supporting the weight of the animal 
 while standing or in motion. It is obvious, I think, that 
 any undue strain upon these laminae by superimposed 
 weight will either weaken or destroy the secreting 
 functions. While they lie in close apposition to and 
 with each other, they can only fulfil the functions for 
 which they were intended. Whatever causes tend Q\en 
 to separate them tend in that degree to promote disease 
 and disorganization, especially in the front region of the 
 
1 82 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 foot first, and eventually to the whole foot. The horse 
 has no need of any hoof beyond the termination of the 
 laminated structures. The line of utility has to be 
 drawn somewhere, and that is where it is drawn. 
 
 Observations Wise or Otherwise. 
 
 301. If it is admissible to personify nature and speak 
 of her intentions, I should say that when she made the 
 horse she made ample provisions for the protection of 
 his feet while roaming- the plains. Where man's do- 
 minion begins nature's ceases as far as the wear and 
 care of the hoof is concerned. It may be thought a 
 rather far-fetched illustration to compare the claw and 
 bill of a canary-bird to the foot of the horse ; but they 
 are formed out of essentially the same natural sub- 
 stance. The bird's bill and claws are growing all the 
 time, and so is the toe-nail of the horse, for that is what 
 it is. He has but one toe on each foot, and his toe-nail 
 is always growing too long. When the bird's bill or toe- 
 nail grows too long, it must be either worn off or cut off. 
 The bird keeps its little bill in order itself by removing 
 the overgrowth pretty frequently, for that is what it 
 does when we say it is sharpening its bill. Biddy, the 
 hen, keeps her claws sharp by scratching for a living. 
 The human finger and toe nails require to have their 
 overgrowth kept in check, and the horse is no exception 
 to the rule. 
 
 Bootmaker and Cobbler. 
 
 302. The fact needs but little explanation that the 
 horse loses by domestication an important natural attri- 
 bute — that of being able to keep his own feet in repair. 
 Nature is his master-bootmaker; but the horse is ex- 
 pected to be his own cobbler, and would be, if you gave 
 him his liberty on the plains. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 183 
 
 In domestication he is pretty well taken care of in 
 all else besides the feet — there all his troubles begin. 
 Why ? Simply because the fact is not apprehended as 
 it ought to be that his toe-nail is always growing, and 
 he can neither cut it off nor wear it off himself. Any 
 principle or rule for this necessary, nay all-important 
 operation to the horse seems to be utterly unknown. 
 By growth the foot changes its angle of bearing every 
 day. Perpetual growth of horn is a perpetual menace 
 of danger to the horse, and the only thing to counteract 
 this is a just appreciation of the horse's requirements in 
 this regard and the frequent and judicious use of the 
 paring-knife. Why are not elephants, camels, dogs, 
 and other fleshy-footed animals subject to the same 
 classes of disease as the horse? Because the horse has 
 the good or bad fortune to have a foot that doubles its 
 size in one year, while the area of the laminated struc- 
 tures never increases one iota. This accounts for horses 
 coming from the country into the city and becoming so 
 easily foundered or weakening the laminae of the feet. 
 Straining and weakening of the laminae of the feet will 
 always be in proportion to the extra growth of hoof be- 
 yond nature's line of demarcation — the line which marks 
 the junction of sole and wall. 
 
 A Valuable Suggestion. 
 
 303. I desire to make a suggestion which would pre- 
 vent a great deal of suffering to horses and of losses to 
 horse-owners. Horses may arrive from the country in 
 perfect condition as to their feet ; they may be shod well 
 as ordinary shoeing goes ; and yet most of them are seen 
 to favor their feet all they can, as they are driven over 
 hard roads and harder pavements. Why? Because 
 travelling over hard roads and city pavements is a new 
 and anything but an agreeable sensation to them after 
 
184 THE P^OOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 the soft roads and the softer turf of the country. On 
 the soft turf the toe and heel sink into the ground alter- 
 nately, and that greatly eases them as they pass over 
 the ground. This is the rolling motion that nature 
 gives them. It obviously lessens the chances of strain 
 and concussion. When they get into the city, these 
 favorable conditions are all changed. A hard, unyield- 
 ing piece of metal is nailed to the foot, and he is driven 
 over hard city pavements. Every step he takes the 
 laminae receive a double shock of concussion, one at the 
 heel and another at the toe, as he places his foot down 
 upon the first and quits it from the last. To obviate 
 every chance for worry or disease to the horse, the first 
 shoes he should get on in the city should be the centre- 
 bearing or rocker shoe. With these he would become 
 accustomed to the hard pavements and city life gen- 
 erally, and he can be shod afterward with common shoes 
 if desirable, with more safety to himself and more satis- 
 faction to his owner. 
 
 Other Causes of Laminitis. 
 
 304. Various are the secondary causes of laminitis; 
 yet all more or less dependent upon one primary cause. 
 We have been considering laminitis as produced by an 
 overgrown toe — this causes a loss of balance in the 
 antero-posterior direction of the foot; laminitis can also 
 be produced by a loss of lateral balance. The lack of 
 lateral balance will produce a foot so deformed that in- 
 stead of its being planted flat and level upon the ground, 
 as it should be, it is planted on a bevel on account of its 
 being unduly high on some part of its circumference 
 other than the toe. 
 
 A little common horse-sense should teach any one 
 that when a horse points his foot it is invariably pointed 
 toward the spot from which the uneasiness proceeds. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 85 
 
 By this sign or symptom the seat of pai-n can be located 
 unerringly in the lamiiuE right over the elevated portion 
 of the foot. It is no doubt due to this circumstance that 
 horses show soreness very often after a drive when no 
 swelling is to be seen in the limbs, and which usually 
 passes away after soaking the foot or after a night's rest. 
 Furthermore the laminae can become inflamed by any 
 form of foot which lessens their power to carry the 
 weight which is necessarily imposed upon them. These 
 laminated structures are the fulcra or props upon which 
 the great lever, the limb, rests in the last effort made 
 when the foot leaves the ground, and what is called con- 
 cussion is no doubt a spraining of the laminae in propor- 
 tion to the weight they carry, augmented by the momen- 
 tum of speed. 
 
 Bony and Fleshy Enlargements, 
 
 305. Together with undue strains and sprains and 
 compressions of bones, are all to be attributed to the 
 different abnormal growths of the foot, and it must be 
 obvious the sprains of the one class of tissues and the 
 compressions of the other must be communicated through 
 these media, the laminae which form the connecting link 
 between the hard and the soft tissues. Certain modes 
 of shoeing must not be overlooked as productive of in- 
 flamed laminae. For instance, a shoe fitted full at the 
 toe and long at the heel unduly strains and lessens the 
 power of the laminae. Concussion or undue straining of 
 the laminae is also produced by imdiic length of the toe 
 as well as undue length of the heel. A long and wide 
 toe clip to secure large shoes in their place is additional 
 exciting cause, especially when hammered down tight 
 upon the toe. The constant pressure of the toe clip aug- 
 ments the other causes which centre at the toe, and would 
 of itself prepare the foot for greater embarrassments. 
 
1 86 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Some other predisposing causes must also be noticed. 
 Too much or too little sole-bearing, and burning the 
 sole, will cause fever in the laminae. 
 
 Uneven calks and snowballing will also cause in- 
 flamed laminae. Inflammation of the whole foot may 
 result from the point of the frog being left to grow so 
 high as to come into contact with hard roads. 
 
 The point of the frog often becomes so hard and dry 
 from constant pressure as to inflame the soft tissues 
 lying between the navicular bone and the frog. Coming 
 between the weight above and the hard frog below, they 
 are crushed as if they were between the two jaws of a 
 vise. The characteristic of a healthy frog is its elastic- 
 ity. It is often observed by the shoeing smith that a 
 horse will not stand upon the floor barefooted until the 
 point of bearing, in that case the point of the frog, is 
 removed. When that is done he can stand with ease. 
 
 The Reason Why 
 
 306. So many kinds and degrees of injuries termi- 
 nate in the laminae of the feet is that the foot is conflned 
 within a comparatively unyielding grasp of horny sub- 
 stance, and injuries which would scarcely be noticed on 
 other points of the system often become destructive to 
 the animal when happening within the foot. Swelling, 
 the result of inflammation in other parts, where it is 
 unconfined gives relief to pain ; but when the swelling 
 is confined as it must be within the hoof, the pressure 
 and the pain are augmented in manifold degrees. Need 
 I remind you that even the prick of a nail has caused 
 the loss of many valuable animals from this very cause? 
 Many degrees of inflammation are also observable within 
 the foot. Sometimes it passes away ; and there is no 
 tissue or structure within the foot that is not liable to its 
 attacks. The sensitive and insensitive tissues of the 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 8/ 
 
 sole, as well as those of the wall, sometimes receive the 
 brunt of the attack, the secretions are suspended, and 
 pumice of foot is the result when it does not actually 
 destroy the animal. Chronic inflammation in the laminal 
 tissues of the wall often has its sequel in a partially dis- 
 organized condition termed seedy toe. Disconnection 
 has destroyed secretion ; and disconnection can be traced 
 to cover an area of four or five square inches, nearly 
 one-half of the whole foot. Extreme cases of pumice 
 foot and of seedy toe are considered incurable ; and yet 
 many cases deemed incurable can be arrested and 
 ameliorated very much by the centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 Symptoms of Acute Laminitis. 
 
 307. The horse has an agonized expression of coun- 
 tenance ; while standing on his feet he trembles with 
 pain ; compel him to move backward and his feet are 
 not lifted off the floor, but dragged backward without 
 lifting; compel him to move forward, and his step is 
 irregular and made with pain and hard breathing ; his 
 feet are kept in advance of his chest, so as to place the 
 bearing upon his heels and to keep it there, as the 
 region of pain is the front part of his feet. His hind 
 limbs are called upon to aid his forward ones to their 
 utmost ability, and all advances are made by the hind 
 feet being kept forward under the body. 
 
 The Remedy. 
 
 308. All diseases of the laminae having a mechanical 
 origin, the best remedy yet found is one purely mechan- 
 ical. Need I say that the centre-bearing shoe is the 
 remedy for this as for all other diseases of the foot 
 which have a mechanical origin ? In every stage of this 
 disease from the first to the last degree of inflammation, 
 
l88 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 except the horse is in an actually dying condition, this 
 shoe will give instant relief from pain. In many cases 
 where the animal would not or could not rise, these 
 shoes have been applied to the feet, and when he has 
 been assisted to rise he has stood and walked easily and 
 comfortably. Detailed directions for applying the shoes 
 have been given so often that it is not necessary to re- 
 peat them here, " The half hath not been told" of what 
 I could say on this one particular topic. 
 
 Centre-Bearing Philosophy. 
 
 309. I must find room to expatiate a little on what 
 I consider the philosophy of the centre-bearing shoe. 
 Each time I refer to it, it seems as if some latent merit 
 suggested itself from a new point of view. Its imme- 
 diate effects are so remarkable upon the horse's foot 
 and limb that even with myself it becomes a source of 
 wonder and surprise with every fresh victory it achieves. 
 A centre-bearing shoe has two distinctly beneficial 
 effects upon a laminitic foot: In the first place, the 
 protection it affords the sole against contact with the 
 ground by covering the whole of the under surface of 
 the foot. In the second place it has the peculiar effect 
 of balancing the foot in such a way that all the 
 tendons and ligaments and laminated structure, even 
 the very bones themselves, seem to fall into their 
 proper places, and to be relieved of all strain and 
 effort in the movements of placing the legs one in 
 advance of the other. It is like supplying the limb 
 with an extra joint, and that joint of such a char- 
 acter that it admits of motion in every direction. The 
 whorl-bone joint, as some call it, is a ball-and-socket ar- 
 rangement that admits of describing some portion of a 
 circle, but the ball without the socket admits of describ- 
 ing a full circle ! Unlimited motion in every direction ! 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 1 89 
 
 I consider it a vsupplementary joint. The one point of 
 bearing is where the long and the short axes intersect 
 each other. This enables the animal to balance himself 
 fore and aft, and from side to side, with equal facility, 
 and so evenly that if every joint in the limb, any one 
 or all of them, have suffered by being out of the line 
 of bearing, they appear to fall into line at once and 
 smooth rotation is the result. 
 
 Side-way Movements. 
 
 310. Whether the horse wishes to move forward or 
 backward, or turn from right to left, or from left to 
 right, the movement does not incommode him in the 
 least; in fact he can make sideway movements much 
 easier than he could in sound health without the ball 
 shoe. These sideway movements try a crippled horse 
 very severely with flat shoes on his feet covering an 
 area of twenty square inches of bearing surface ; since 
 the first three joints of the leg from the bottom admit 
 only of fore-and-aft motion, and the knee joint only 
 admits of very limited lateral motion ; so that the horse 
 when he finds himself able to swing round a circle or 
 take a long stride must indeed experience an agreeable 
 surprise. 
 
 Broad's Laminitis Shoe. 
 
 311. A Mr. Broad, a veterinary surgeon of Bath, 
 England, has constructed a shoe which he calls Broad's 
 laminitis shoe. I have examined a drawing and read a 
 description of this shoe in Professor Williams' work on 
 veterinary surgery. Wishing to judge it by its effects, 
 I read Mr. Broad's own description of it. The ap- 
 plication of the shoe must be made within three days 
 after the attack, and must be accompanied hy poultices 
 and soakings and whippings every day, to compel exercise 
 
190 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 for several weeks, and after that time the horse, if he is 
 alive, may be turned out to grass for twelve months, 
 and the result even then is not always of the most en- 
 couraging character. Although some of Mr. Broad's 
 friends have written approvingly of his shoe, his shoe 
 has encountered much hostile criticism among the mem- 
 bers of the veterinary profession. Mr. Broad is entitled 
 to some credit for the spirit of progress he has evinced 
 in regard to laminitis. Because a horse with laminitis 
 goes upon his heels to save his toes, Mr. Broad puts on 
 a shoe with a very thick, heavy toe and a very thin heel, 
 under the idea that the weight of the shoe prevented 
 jarring to the foot, and the very thin heels supplemented 
 the horse's wish to get as much as possible over on his 
 heels. This is all I can discover about the shoe and its 
 effects upon the laminitic foot. I hope Mr. Broad will 
 read this book. He will find that it does not matter 
 whether the horse has been attacked for three days or 
 three weeks; if the horse is able to stand upon his feet 
 to have the shoes attached to them, let him put on a 
 pair of centre-bearing shoes and he will find more ben- 
 efit to the horse in one hour than in twelve months' use 
 of his shoe ; and all the soakings, poulticings, and whip- 
 pings and turning to grass for six or twelve months dis- 
 pensed with — nay, more, in from three to six days the 
 horse can be doing his usual work if the centre-bearing 
 shoe is kept upon him all the time. 
 
 Seedy Toe. 
 
 312. Sometimes separation of the laminas takes place 
 between the internal surface of the hoof and the front 
 part of the pedal bone ; a chronic case of this nature has 
 acquired the name of seedy toe. The laminated struc- 
 tures, wherever they have become disunited, appear to 
 have become dried up and powdery, which doubtless 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I9I 
 
 suggested the term seedy toe, but for which dry-rot is 
 just as appropriate. It is deemed incurable by veteri- 
 nary surgeons, but it really is no more incurable than a 
 quarter-crack or a toe-fissure. Give nature a chance, 
 remove all inccJianical obstacles to her work of healing, 
 that is all the assistance she needs in most cases — and 
 particularly in this case. Put genial pressure on the 
 sole, and get the pedal bone back to its place and keep 
 it there by suitable measures so that the work of secre- 
 tion may go on without friction or disturbance of any 
 kind. It takes a year to grow four inches of wall, but 
 with the shoeing I recommend the horse can do his 
 work all the time instead of being turned out to grass 
 for that period. 
 
 Shoeing for Seedy Toe. 
 
 313, First pare down to the ivJiite line and remove 
 all dead matter from the interspace between the wall and 
 the pedal bone. Have a half-ball shoe fitted and ready 
 for nailing on when everything else is done. Let there 
 be plenty of nail-holes in the shoe from half an inch 
 to three-quarters of an inch apart, and slanted to suit 
 the wall so that the nails will get a good grip. Have 
 ready sufficient gutta-percha to fill up the space between 
 the plate of iron and the sole. Make a mould of the 
 space by softening the gutta-percha in hot water and 
 pressing it between the shoe and the sole until it is a 
 perfect mould of the space. Then remove one-eighth 
 of an inch from the lower edge of the wall all round the 
 foot, so that the ivhole sole may get direct pressure. Now 
 put your mould in place and nail on your shoe, drawing 
 on the sole with care and judgment evenly all round, so 
 that the whole weight should be borne upon the sole as 
 nicely balanced as possible. Nail the shoe well back at 
 the heels and forward at the toe, with the view of mak- 
 
192 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ing a solid block of the foot for the time being. If this 
 operation has been done properly, in one month you 
 will find one-third of an inch of new horn grown down 
 from the coronary band. The last two cases I have 
 described were two of the very worst cases of the results 
 of inflammation in the feet that I have ever met with 
 where the hoofs had not been cast off. What deduction 
 can be drawn from these cases? Fairly, I think, that if 
 horses so diseased as these could be snatched from the 
 jaws of death in one case, and from comparative useless- 
 ness in the other, how easy it must be to cure or palliate 
 the trouble in horses less severely affected by the same 
 disease ! I deem it a certainty that fully ninety per cent 
 of the horses that perish yearly from this cause alone 
 could be saved for many useful purposes and a very 
 large percentage absolutely cured if treated before the 
 pedal bone has dropped through the sole ; and even 
 these could be made to do slow work nearly as well as 
 when sound. 
 
 Pumice Foot. 
 
 314. One of the worst cases of pumice foot I ever 
 saw was treated by me several years ago. The centre 
 of the foot bulged three-quarters of an inch below the 
 level of the wall. A high rocker shoe set him to work 
 immediately ; he went as well as ever over the pave- 
 ments, and is now in prime condition. 
 
 It may be well to remember that the soreness re- 
 maining after an attack of laminitis and partial recovery 
 is limited to the laminae which attach the pedal bone to 
 the wall, and that the action and reaction caused by the 
 heel and toe bearing of the common shoe increases the 
 soreness and lameness in proportion to the hardness of 
 the roads upon which the horse has to travel. The 
 proof of this is that a horse so affected travels much better 
 on soft or sandy roads for the reason that action and re- 
 
THE FOOT OF TIIIC HORSE. 1 93 
 
 action is less felt on surfaces that yield to the pressure 
 of the heel and toe. After an attack of laminitis the 
 hoof, as a rule, grows faster and higher at the heels 
 than at the toe, and takes the form represented at Cut 2. 
 In such cases the heels will have to be pared more than 
 the toe. 
 
 A Comparison. 
 
 315. The different effects of the centre-bearing and 
 the common shoe are worth a few moments' considera- 
 tion. With a common shoe the soreness decreases as 
 the animal passes from hard roads to soft ; but with the 
 centre-bearing shoe the soreness diminishes rapidly upon 
 the hardest of roads ; the horse never looks for a soft 
 spot to walk upon, proving clearly, I think, that the 
 action and reaction of the common shoe is the cause of 
 the permanent disability of laminitic cases after they 
 have partially recovered, and keeps the foot weak and 
 liable at any time to another attack. 
 
 The Most Important Consideration. 
 
 316. After an attack of laminitis the due balance of 
 the foot is the most important consideration, as much for 
 its cure or amelioration as for its future prevention. 
 All writers note the susceptibility of the horse to this 
 disease after one attack. I think I have shown in the 
 preceding paragraph why this is so, but the following- 
 observations may not be out of place. 
 
 Besides the twofold part the laminated structures 
 have to play in the economy of the foot as secreting and 
 connecting media, they are the first to receive impres- 
 sions favorable or otherwise from the external world, 
 and they are the last to receive directions, as it were, 
 from headquarters — the brain. They have need to be 
 constantly on the qui vivc against dangers, for there is 
 no structure of the foot so exposed to danger as are 
 13 
 
194 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 these laminated structures. They bear the brunt of the 
 first hostile attack from external sources, and they have 
 no more deadly enemy, metaphorically speaking, than 
 an overgrown hoof, which begins by destroying the nat- 
 ural balance, which throws the whole machinery of the 
 foot and leg into confusion, for the reason that the 
 laminae — like the king-pin of a machine — form the con- 
 necting link between the moving and balancing forces 
 of the limb, and therefore those of the whole body. 
 Verily the foot is the essential part of the horse, and 
 verily, verily the laminae are the essential part of the 
 foot. What horse or house can stand without founda- 
 tions? 
 
 The Happy Medium. 
 
 317. I think it has been sufficiently demonstrated 
 that if you leave the heels too high, he will strain the 
 laminae at the heels, and if you leave the toes too high 
 he will strain the laminas at the toes, and either the one 
 condition or the other will equally impede his progres- 
 sion in proportion to the degree of the disturbance. 
 The happy medium in this case is an even balance and a 
 justly distributed weight ; in other words, a due propor- 
 tion of the superficies of united laminae to other portions 
 of the hoof. To prevent slipping the half -ball four- 
 calk shoe. Cut 44, will be found the best substitute for 
 the centre-bearer. 
 
 Concluding Observations. 
 
 318. In concluding this article on laminitis, I wish to 
 affirm my absolute conviction that a centre-bearing shoe 
 is preferable to any other kind or modification of shoe 
 for all cases of lameness, arising from whatsoever cause. 
 Not for one form of lameness only, but for all forms. 
 It supplies the one thing needful to improvement or 
 recovery in all cases of lameness — quietude and repose 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I95 
 
 of the inflamed tissues, without which there can be no 
 reasonable expectation of the patient's recovering. 
 
 After the horse's recovery, the centre-bar, the rocker, 
 and the half -ball four-calk are about equally good, ex- 
 cepting in the winter, when any four-calk shoe will be 
 preferable to the rocker. 
 
 I regret to say the centre-bearing shoe or any modi- 
 fication of it has a disadvantage in deep soft ground or 
 deep snows; under such circumstances it is no better 
 than any other form of shoe. But for this the cen- 
 tre-bearing shoe and its modifications would be the 
 imiversal shoe. Under all other circumstances it is 
 susceptible of universal application to sound horses to 
 keep them sound, and for lame horses to make them 
 sound. Many feet after a severe attack of laminitis get 
 so deformed and shrivelled up that there is no such 
 thing as paring or making them level enough for the 
 affixing of any other kind or form of shoe than the cen- 
 tre-bearing shoe. 
 
 Contraction. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 319. This disease presents itself in so many different 
 forms that to treat of every form separately would oc- 
 cupy more space than I can devote to the entire book. 
 I shall, therefore, confine myself to four leading forms 
 or types of this disease. 
 
 Hoof -bound, the common but expressive name for con- 
 traction, has been observed as an abnormal condition of 
 horses'- feet for centuries and has engaged the attention 
 of the best veterinary physicians of all times. The value 
 and importance of the horse in the wars of ancient 
 Greece about twenty-three hundred years ago must have 
 been well appreciated, when a great general of the Grecian 
 army, Xenophon, a profound historian and writer on the 
 
196 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 most momentous questions and problems of human ex- 
 istence, should feel constrained to write a treatise upon 
 the foot of the horse. Many measures have been devised 
 to rectify its abnormal conditions, but nothing has had 
 a permanent effect but the conditions which were sought 
 to be rectified. Like the poor they have been with us 
 always. Until the true mechanical principles governing 
 the movements of the foot were discovered, it would have 
 been impossible to formulate uniform and certain rules 
 which could be applied to that organ either in health or 
 disease. All that has ever been known through the 
 ages has been matters of individual experience. Not 
 until now has there been any well-proved basic facts 
 upon which a uniform and universal system of theory, 
 could be based, which there might be if all horses' feet 
 are constructed alike. 
 
 The Effects of Contraction 
 
 320. Are visible mostly in the fore feet. Its first 
 effect is to diminish the width of the foot, and as it 
 becomes narrower it increases the length. This change 
 in width and length is in various degrees and forms, 
 and the more marked the change the more injurious 
 will be the results. 
 
 The Causes of Contraction 
 
 32 1 . Are various ; sometimes it results from a dis- 
 eased or disabled limb, whatever the cause of that dis- 
 ablement may have been. Whatever produces lameness 
 for any length of time, such as wounds, kicks, or blows, 
 and keeps the limb out of use, is sufficient to produce 
 atrophy or wasting of the tissues composing the limb. 
 The muscles show the first symptom of atrophy. Exer- 
 cise is necessary to keep these and all the other tissues 
 of the limb from shrinking in size, and for maintaining 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I97 
 
 them in a normally healthy condition. As a rule, when 
 there is lameness there is fever in the feet, and contin- 
 ued fever in the tissues of the foot will cause a wasting 
 away of those tissues, as much as and perhaps more 
 than those upon the outside of the foot. The processes 
 of secretion of the various hoof structures being weak- 
 ened and checked by crozvding, the hoof itself becomes 
 shrunken to the size of the shrunken tissues within the 
 .hoof. Whatever disease causes a prolonged state of 
 inaction will thus cause a diminution in the size of the 
 foot. 
 
 Favoring the Feet. 
 
 322. The hoof of a lame foot, from being so con- 
 stantly favored, always grows more vertically during 
 disease than when going sound and carrying the usual 
 weight. 
 
 Work and extra weight keep the hoof expanded in 
 that proportion, so that the variation in size between a 
 foot carrying weight and a foot in disuse is not always 
 due to the latter circumstance, for a foot may and does 
 under extra weight expand faster than the latter con- 
 tracts under less weight and thus increase the difference 
 in size. 
 
 The change in horses' feet, then, the effect of dis- 
 turbance to their natural development affects the size of 
 the feet rather than the form; that is to say, the circum- 
 ference of the foot is not necessarily made oblong, and 
 the frog also, though becoming smaller in size, may re- 
 tain its normal form. 
 
 Narro^w Feet Increase Leverage. 
 
 323. Hoof-bound, the effect of disease, is very fre- 
 quently only a simple diminution in size of feet, with- 
 out lameness or other serious result, but when the 
 lateral diameter of the hoof has been diminished the 
 
198 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 results must be more or less serious, as the foot then 
 becomes longer and increases the leverage at the toe. 
 Contraction appears under different forms, and each 
 form produces ailments and morbid conditions peculiar 
 to that form. In some cases the ailment is limited to 
 one side of the foot only, and appears most frequently 
 upon the inside of the foot, as seen at Cut 15, «. At 
 other times the foot is oblong like Cut 16, a. Again it 
 appears contracted at both heels as in Cut 17, while Cut 
 18 represents the contraction of one heel only. 
 
 Type of Contraction No. 1. 
 
 324. It ought to be very evident indeed that a horse 
 cannot travel with ease with a foot wider on one side 
 than the other, which implies lack of lateral balance ; 
 for if this balance is lost the narrowest part will sink into 
 soft ground first and give the ankle joint a twist at every 
 step. When the foot contracts upon one side only, the 
 angle of the contracted wall becomes more vertical at 
 first than that of the opposite wall, and so unbalances 
 the foot by the elevation of the pedal bone, of course on 
 the same side as the wall which is the most vertical, 
 and lameness is the necessary result. When this takes 
 place on the inside of the foot, it gives rise to many more 
 forms of lameness than when it occurs on the outside 
 half of the foot. The reason for this has been fully ex- 
 plained, and briefly stated here is that the horse cannot 
 point inwardly for relief so easily as he can outwardly. 
 It must be a matter of importance to understand well 
 the difterent effects caused by contraction, when diseases 
 and morbid conditions numbering a quarter of a hundred 
 can be traced to one form or type of contraction — that 
 one being associated with an undue elevation of the in- 
 side half of the foot. Briefly stated, contraction from 
 heel to toe, as in Cut 1 5, <?, would elevate the same side of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. I99 
 
 the pedal bone, by the wall of the foot becoming more 
 vertical. This is the first type or form of contraction. 
 The second is that of a partial contraction of one side, as 
 at Cut 18. 
 
 Type of Contraction No. 2. 
 
 325. This form of contraction only affects one-fourth 
 of the foot's circumference. From behind the central 
 transverse line of the hoof just opposite the wing of the 
 pedal bone, the hoof commences to contract and falls 
 inward beyond the vertical line ; thus, instead of elevat- 
 ing the pedal bone on one side, it causes a sinking- dotvn 
 of the pedal bone at that very point. The different ef- 
 fects of these two forms of contraction are so remarkable 
 that I feel that I cannot do justice to the subject or my- 
 self, if I do not give them a little further consideration. 
 
 We have already stated that contraction from heel 
 to toe, as seen at Cut 15, «, elevates by its vertical form 
 the pedal bone on the same side. You may ask how it 
 is that contraction causes elevation in one case and de- 
 pression in another. It is this way: when one heel 
 only contracts at the quarter, and not beyond it, it al- 
 ways loses its vertical angle for an angle more or less 
 acute inward. The support of either side of the hoof is 
 therefore diminished in proportion to the outer or inner 
 angle or direction taken by the wall at the quarter. An 
 outward or an inward direction taken by the heels has 
 the same effect as the process of lowering the heels, 
 while the vertical wall, all else being equal, will elevate 
 that side of the foot. 
 
 Overweighing. 
 
 326. When the heel or quarter fails to support its 
 due share of weight, that which it fails to carry has to 
 be carried by the front half of the same side, that is, 
 
200 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 from the central transverse line of the foot to the toe, 
 which thus becomes overweighted, and this has a crush- 
 ing or flattening effect upon the same side of the pedal 
 bone, the tendency being always to crush it to a level 
 with the crushed wall at the quarter. 
 
 Shoeing for Two Forms of Contraction. 
 
 Both these two different effects of contraction — one 
 being of the whole side of the foot, and the other being 
 of one-quarter only — can be both cured and prevented 
 by the same method of treatment, and until this is ac- 
 complished a modified shoe should be worn which 
 would both prevent and cure the lameness. 
 
 A shoe for a foot resembling Cut 1 5 , «, should be made 
 thinner inside, if the hoof cannot be lowered enough 
 without it, and, vice versa, thick inside for the opposite 
 condition resembling Cut 18. This form of the foot 
 being low on the inside is the same as being high on 
 the outside, and is the cause of all the diseases attributed 
 to high on the outside half or portion of the foot. 
 
 Mechanical Expansion. 
 
 327. Besides producing the eight diseases referred 
 to, the heel by lapping and pressing against the frog 
 prevents its due growth and development, and not only 
 hinders the secreting processes but is also the cause of 
 their vitiation, and we have as a result the disease com- 
 monly called thr7ish. That portion of the frog which 
 lies under the contracted quarter dwindles away or 
 perishes altogether first, proving that contraction is the 
 proximate cause of tJirusJi. It is also proved by the fact 
 that mechanical expansion of the contracted quarter 
 causes a rapid cure of the thrush with no other applica- 
 tion besides water ; and a renewal of healthy frog tissiie 
 speedily follows. Quarter crack is of very frequent 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 201 
 
 occurrence in feet of this character, as also are the mor- 
 bid conditions termed corn and ossified lateral cartilages. 
 If only one foot is affected the horse will point that one 
 foot in the direction of the highest side, and not only 
 that but to the highest point on that side. The hoof of a 
 contracted, foot is not only deformed, and the softer tis- 
 sues within it atropJiied, but the very bone itself becomes 
 atrophied and deformed. In this form of contraction one 
 of the wings of the pedal bone is often seen to be smaller 
 than the other, and there can be no mistake as to its 
 cause, since it is always found on the contracted side. 
 
 Dexter's Pedal Bone. 
 
 328. When Dexter passed into the hands of Mr. 
 Robert Bonner he was lame from a contracted foot. The 
 outside quarter of the off fore foot was the location of 
 the cause of his lameness. Mr. Bonner had that quarter 
 expanded mechanically and the lameness disappeared 
 immediately. It had always been suspected, but not 
 known positively until after the decease of Dexter, that 
 the wing of the coffin had been affected by the contracted 
 quarter (see Cut 31). This cut, by Mr. Bonner's per- 
 mission, was outlined from Dexter's pedal bone, and one 
 may not only learn from it how bones can become 
 affected by the contraction of a hoof, but it may be in- 
 teresting to some that it represents the pedal bone of 
 the first horse who trotted one mile in 2 : i^V^. 
 
 Cut 32 is a profile drawing of the same bone and is 
 the exact size of the original. 
 
 Type of Contraction No. 3. 
 
 329. The third type of the deformity of the foot 
 caused by contraction is the oblong form, where the 
 lateral diameter becomes transformed into length, as 
 seen in Cut 16, ^. 
 
202 THE FOOT OF TPIE HORSE. 
 
 Feet when so contracted resemble those of the 
 mule. Both sides of the foot become vertical and com- 
 press the laminated structures, and the pedal bone as 
 well. Continued lateral pressure alters the shape of the 
 pedal bone, transforming its width into length, corre- 
 sponding to the shape of the outer wall. The lameness 
 is usually proportionate to the change in the shape of 
 the hoof, for when the foot becomes narrower by com- 
 pression, the navicular bone is crowded too much for 
 natural action and the pedal articulation becomes ob- 
 structed, and permanent obstructions are often the re- 
 sult. Another distinct effect produced by this form of 
 contraction is that of straining the back tendons, caused 
 by the extra length of the foot which the change from 
 breadth to length has produced. 
 
 Thus we may have three distinct effects from the 
 midiform type of contraction : 
 
 I. Compression of the laminated structures. 2. 
 Changes in the form of the pedal bone by which it has 
 been made less wide and more long, thus occasioning 
 encroachments upon the articulating surfaces of the 
 pedal joint. 3. Undue strain of the perforans tendon 
 resulting from an elongation of the foot at the time the 
 toe of the foot leaves the ground. 
 
 No Remedy. 
 
 330. For alterations in the form of the pedal bone 
 there is no remedy, but lameness may be overcome by 
 the use of a shoe so modified as to require less motion 
 in the pedal joint, and to reduce the leverage upon the 
 perforans tendon caused by the extra length of the 
 foot. That shoe is the full centre-bearing as seen at 
 Cut 21. A rocker or centre-bearing shoe limits the 
 movements of the hinge-like articulation and gives it 
 comparative rest; and it shortens in the same propor- 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 203 
 
 tion the under surface of the foot, which therefore 
 lessens undue strain of the perforans tendon at every 
 step. A lateral expander gives freedom to the lateral 
 laminae, and liberates the crushed and imprisoned frog ; 
 and by removing pressure from the secreting structures 
 reconstruction of healthy tissues rapidly follows. By 
 these means extremely bad cases of this form of con- 
 traction have been relieved of pain and lameness, and 
 may be again when the mode of operation is generally 
 understood as I wish it to be. 
 
 Type of Contraction No. 4. 
 
 331. The fourth form or type of contraction seems 
 to combine some of the characteristics of the three forms 
 already described, and yet has some peculiarities of its 
 own sufficient to distinguish it from the others. This is 
 the peculiar effect of a dry, hard sole. Whether horses 
 be shod or barefooted, the growth of the horn goes on 
 just the same, and all the time. Two horses standing 
 on the same dry floor for six months, one shod and the 
 other unshod, will have their feet contracted in about 
 the same time and in the same degree. The effect of 
 leaving the feet unpared is that the slant or the forward 
 angle at which even healthy feet grow causes them to 
 warp or contract in proportion to the weight they have 
 to carry, as seen at Fig. i. 
 
 The Problem Solved. 
 
 332. Here are the factors in the problem of contrac- 
 tion and its causes proximate and ultimate : 
 
 1. The bearing-point of the heels has been carried 
 forward toward the centre of the line or axis of bearing 
 (see Cut I, letter E). 
 
 2. The bearing-point of the toe has been carried for- 
 
^04 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ward several inches beyond the same axis of bearing. 
 The necessary effect of this mere growth of hoof, 
 whether the animal is standing still or in motion, is to 
 place more weight upon the posterior half of the foot 
 than its proper share. In fact, it has unbalanced the 
 foot, and this unbalancing of the foot favors one portion 
 at the expense of other portions of the limb. The 
 higher or longer the walls grow the less calculated they 
 become to sustain weight, and as if this were not a suffi- 
 cient cause of mischief another factor comes into play 
 to augment the danger. The wall has been growing, 
 and the sole has not been idle, and what one would 
 think ought to prevent contraction actually becomes 
 one of its auxiliary causes. Dry, hard, and dense 
 horn, all else being equal, will cover a less area of 
 space than the same horn if in a moist and elastic con- 
 dition ; hence it is that as the sole becomes dry and 
 hard, its mechanical contraction from this cause pulls 
 in the walls laterally and thus aids in the work of gen- 
 eral contraction. 
 
 A Digression. 
 
 333. Too many owners of horses, who are probably 
 not very well posted in such matters, attribute to bad 
 shoeing those results which ought to be laid to the 
 account of neglecting to have the horses' feet pared 
 down and shod regularly and sufficiently often. I have 
 known some w^ho would allow their horses to go two or 
 three months without paring or shoeing, and then won- 
 der why the horse went so badly, and could find no 
 blame for any one but the shoer. They were probably 
 not aware of the fact that the injuries caused by the 
 overgrowth of hoof even while the horse is standing still 
 are much greater than . hard work would be with feet 
 kept to the natural size. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 205 
 
 A Gro^wing Hoof a Growing Evil. 
 
 334. We have seen that overgrowth of sole as well 
 as overgrowth of wall is a source of danger. At the 
 risk of being thought tedious I must make a few more 
 remarks upon this condition of the foot, wherein the 
 sole plays so conspicuous a part, A growing hoof is a 
 growing evil, and the longer the space of time between 
 each paring or trimming the foot, even supposing it to be 
 done passing well, so will be the magnitude of the evil. 
 Even the wall itself without any aid from the sole has a 
 constant tendency to contract. Nature supplies moist- 
 ure sufficient to the interior of the wall as far as the 
 laminated structures extend, and no further. The 
 longer the walls grow after being deprived of naturally 
 supplied moisture, the dryer, the more dense, and more 
 compact it becomes, and therefore the more mischievous 
 in its effects. It not only contracts itself, but its self- 
 contracting force is so great that the sides and quarters 
 of the hoof above it are drawn inward with such a 
 powerful grasp that contraction is the result ; and this 
 force increases as long as the hoof continues to grow. 
 
 Remove Excrescences. 
 
 335. It is when the bottom of the foot is filled with 
 overgrown sole that the wall and widest part of the 
 pedal bone are drawn together from side to side by the 
 shrinking of the overgrowth of both wall and sole. 
 They are virtual excrescences, and should be removed 
 as fast as they appear. Moisture will aid in removing 
 these sources of danger. Under anything like natural 
 conditions the sole exfoliates or sheds off in flakes, and 
 would be kept down in this way if no shoe were attached 
 to the foot and the animal running wild. The true sole. 
 
206 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 if never left thicker than its natural thickness, has no 
 tendency to contract at the transverse diameter of the 
 foot, and therefore could never cause a round foot to 
 become oblong. 
 
 Penalty of Neglect. 
 
 336. The fault, then, is in neglecting to pare the foot 
 monthly or oftener if it needs it. Owners of horses 
 cannot be impressed too deeply with the importance of 
 this fact as one of the absolute requirements of the 
 horse, the neglect of which are penalties of a very seri- 
 ous nature, and which are exacted to the uttermost 
 JartJiing from the horse and his master both ; from one 
 in the form of suffering and disability, from the other 
 in vexation, disappointment, and pecuniary losses. If 
 the owner cannot or will not allow the feet to be pared 
 oftener than once a month, moisture should at least be 
 supplied to the sole, which would prevent its attach- 
 ment to or cause its detachment from the wall and thus 
 ward off one of the ill effects of an overgrown sole ; but 
 nothing can be done for the overgrown wall but to cut it 
 down. In all my forty-five years of experience, I have 
 never seen a contracted foot where it has been kept 
 down to its natural size by frequent paring. 
 
 Another Cause of Contraction 
 
 337. Is a shoe concaved too much near the heels 
 (see Cut 17). Contraction in this case is produced by 
 the shoe being fitted too full at the heels, and the heels 
 being allowed to rest upon the concave instead of the 
 level surface of the heel of the shoe. Sometimes one 
 heel only becomes affected (see Fig. 1 8) , where one of 
 the heels is so full as to rest on the seated part of the 
 shoe easily, while the opposite side from not being so 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 20/ 
 
 full restvS upon the slanted surface and is forced inward 
 at every step. The doubling in at the quarters is the 
 effect of the resistance offered by the wings of the pedal 
 bone. The pedal bone fills the front half of the foot 
 only. All behind and between the wings of that bone 
 are soft, elastic tissues, that yield to the mechanical 
 expansion of the quarters. The effect of heels con- 
 tracted, as in Fig. 17, is that when both heels so con- 
 verge toward each other they cease to carry the weight 
 imposed upon them, and they sink down, and the ten- 
 dency of this sinking is to strain the perforans tendon. 
 Of course the effect will be in proportion to the intensity 
 of the cause. Now, as the weight of the animal should 
 be carried equally by the fore and hind portions of the 
 foot, whatever causes an unequal distribution of this 
 weight is pernicious and productive of mischief. With 
 two converging or contracted heels sinking down, nearly 
 the whole labor of the limb devolves upon the front 
 half of the foot. A horse with feet so contracted is 
 liable to all the ailments attributed to extra height of 
 the toe, by its causing undue strain upon the perforans, 
 and its necessary accompaniment, compression of the 
 bones in the front aspect of the leg. Standing or trav- 
 elling, a horse with a foot of this character is always 
 pointing, trying to find that support for his heels of 
 which he has been deprived by contraction. The ani- 
 mal wears his shoe mostly at the toe, and his feet and 
 even his shoulders are mostly carried in front of a ver- 
 tical line, so much so that his chest has the appearance 
 of being sunken in, and for that reason such cases have 
 acquired the name of chest founder. This character of 
 feet wdll cause horses to paw their bedding into a heap 
 so that they can elevate their heels upon it, and thus 
 relieve the strain upon the perforans which causes so 
 much uneasiness. Frequent stumbling, too, is the 
 effect of this kind of contraction. 
 
208 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Ridges on the Wall. 
 
 338. When the heels are contracted as in Cut 17, the 
 hoof secretions are increased in the front part of the 
 coronet, the result of undue stimulation through the 
 extra weight thrown upon the laminae in the front part 
 of the foot. The secretions of the hinder half of the 
 foot are diminished from this very cause. The differ- 
 ence in the rates of growth are to be measured by the 
 relative distance between the ridges at the front of the 
 hoof and those at the back part. It will be usually seen 
 that they are pretty close together at the heels, but 
 wider apart on the front of the hoof (see Cut 7) , 
 
 Mechanical Expansion. 
 
 339. In order to show how a foot can be modified in 
 form by mechanical appliances, I w^ill briefly describe 
 one of the cases which afforded me an opportunity of 
 considering this problem. The case was one of utter 
 disablement from work, and his weight was carried en- 
 tirely upon his toes; it would compare unfavorably with 
 Cut 5. The feet were cut to the white line, and rolling- 
 motion shoes attached. The highest part of the curve 
 was one inch higher at the heels than elsewhere. As 
 will have been seen, it was not placed in the centre of 
 the foot, but at the back part under the heels, and it 
 brought the limb from pointing in front of a vertical 
 line from the shoulder to the back of the vertical line. 
 The extra height of the heels was a compensation for 
 the pedal bone being held too high by the convex form 
 of the front outline of the hoof. Fore-and-aft balance 
 being obtained, the lateral balance was sought for by a 
 self-acting expander. The very next day that horse 
 travelled twenty-five miles, and never lost a day's work 
 for many a day. In this operation two purposes were 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 209 
 
 in view : one was to stop the pointing ; and the other, by 
 raising the heels a little higher than the toe, to stimulate 
 the secretion of horn in the region of the heels, which 
 would strike the ground first ; and increased secretions 
 in the back region of the foot would be attended by 
 diminished secretions in the front region of the foot. 
 At the end of one year the convex outline had disap- 
 peared entirely for a straight one. The secretions had 
 so increased at the heels and diminished in the front of 
 the foot that the tendency of the wall was observed to 
 become a co/icair surface, and to counteract this tendency 
 we had to lower the heels and raise the toe when a little 
 over a year before we had to lower the toe and raise the 
 heels ; proving that a horse in regard to his feet can be 
 pretty much what we make him. 
 
 General Principles of Treatment. 
 
 340. It is impossible to give directions which will 
 suit every form or kind of contraction, since every case 
 has some individual peculiarity or requirement. Gen- 
 eral directions only can be given, but any intelligent 
 horseshoer or amateur can readily perceive what modi- 
 fications of the treatment may be necessary for excep- 
 tional or individual cases. The first thing to do, having 
 a contracted foot to treat, is to ascertain to which particu- 
 lar class or form of contraction the case belongs. The 
 chart on pointing, and the palpable and visible evidences 
 before you, ought to render this an easy matter. Re- 
 member, 
 
 The Objective Point 
 
 in all you do is to balance the pedal bone. Upon the per- 
 fect adjustment of this bone everything else depends. 
 After cutting to the white line the foot may require to 
 be propped up here or there, and that propping up is to 
 14 
 
2IO THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 be effected by an extra thickness of the shoe at the 
 lowest part. That lowest part may be at the toe or the 
 heels or the inside or outside of the foot ; but wherever 
 it is, the shoe must be made thicker or thinner as cir- 
 cumstances require for the express purpose of equalizing 
 the bearings of the pedal bone. There must be no tor- 
 sion or distortion of the pedal joint; and it can always 
 be known, by the horse ceasing to point, whether the pedal 
 bone is properly adjusted or not. This fact is an im- 
 portant guide in the operation of balancing a foot ; when 
 the balance is all right, he virtually tells you it is by 
 standing erect upon it. A perfect balance is the desid- 
 eratum, lengthwise and crosswise both. Having got the 
 lengthwise balance in the manner indicated — that is, by 
 means of a properly constructed shoe — we promote the 
 restoration of the lateral balance by means of a self- 
 acting expander, a small steel instrument which exerts 
 a lateral pressure outwardly when placed in a proper 
 position between the heels of the hoof. This expander 
 v/orks slowl}^ but surely, and in perfect harmony with 
 the shoe, in restoring natural balance to the foot in 
 every direction. If these simple measures are applied 
 with care and judgment, in nine cases out of ten your 
 horse can go about his usual work right aivay, and con- 
 tinue at it every day, and he will be the happier and his 
 owner the richer as a consequence. 
 
 Expander all the Time. 
 
 341. I have owned several fast horses with feet so 
 deformed that without an expander being worn con- 
 stantly they would not speed so fast, on account of the 
 hoof returning to its old form, and thereby losing the bal- 
 ance to some extent. Feet formed so as to resemble 
 Cuts 17 and 18, when once expanded will by careful 
 monthly shoeing be very likely to retain their natural 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 2 I I 
 
 form. When the feet have become very deformed the 
 expander should remain in use until there is an entire 
 change of hoof, which takes about a year's time to ac- 
 complish. It does not take so long if the deformity is 
 less pronounced. As to the management of the feet 
 while the expander is in operation, moisture to the foot 
 is not objectionable, but it is by no means indispensa- 
 ble, as the outward pressure is constant, and wet or dry 
 the hoof as fast as it is secreted becomes remodelled 
 without failure to its natural form. 
 
 The time to begin the use of an expander is when 
 the feet show that they are getting out of shape. It will 
 be an easy matter then to restore them to good form. 
 Horses of every age and description or form or texture 
 of feet, as long as they live, are amenable to treatment. 
 I have had some cases that were very aged who, after 
 their feet were expanded, would hop, skip, and jump like 
 colts at play. Horses raised under the careful watch- 
 ing and management and shod upon the principles and 
 practice I am endeavoring to inculcate, may be taken to 
 market as perfect as the day they were foaled. 
 
 The First and Last Cause. 
 
 342. I cannot emphasize too strongly, that neglect to 
 pare the horse's foot down to the white line, and suffi- 
 ciently often, is the first link in the chain of causation 
 which leads to all the horse's misfortunes, his miseries, 
 his diseases, and his disablements, first, last, and all the 
 time. It is the nndcrXy'vn^ and the ovcrXy'in^ cause. If 
 there is ever to be a good time coming for horses, that 
 good time will never come until one of two things shall 
 have happened ; either nature must change her laws for 
 the better protection of horses' feet, or mankind must 
 change its views in relation to the same question. The 
 latter contingency, though difficult, will be more likely 
 
2 12 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 to happen than the former one. The age of miracles 
 has passed. It requires but that the breeders and edu- 
 cators, the owners and shoers of horses should have the 
 simple but eternal fact engraven upon their understand- 
 ings, that the foot must be kept within certain well- 
 defined limits of growth, not only for the purpose of 
 developing the horse's magnificent capabilities but in 
 order to keep that insignificant-looking little horny box 
 from becoming in the future what it is in the present — 
 a veritable Pandora's casket from which all his troubles 
 and miseries proceed. When this one fact shall have 
 permeated the minds of all who are concerned in the 
 truth and education of the horse and in utilizing his 
 various capabilities, and though last not least the horse- 
 shoers — then shall the horse's millennium have arrived. 
 
 Knee-Spring. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 343. All text-books on veterinary pathology show 
 how very little is known of the causes which produce 
 this morbid condition. No disease can be very intelli- 
 gently discussed if the causes are not fully understood. 
 The locality and general appearance of the trouble re- 
 quire no statement ; what is wanted to be understood is 
 the cause, the prevention, and the remedy when called 
 for. All this might be stated in a few sentences ; but 
 as this book is intended to be primarily one of instruc- 
 tion for every class of horse-owner and particularly for 
 horseshoers, I must present some rational exposition 
 of its causes. Any diseased condition, I presume, stands 
 the best chance of being successfully treated when its 
 causes proximate and remote are fully understood. 
 
 In our various essays on particular forms of disease 
 we have endeavored to trace the secondary causes to 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 213 
 
 their fount and origin, and we have no wish to shirk the 
 task in this case. It is a source of trouble to me that I 
 have so much material for the work and so small a space, 
 unless I produce a big book, which I have read some- 
 where is a big evil. I prefer to start the game at once, 
 than beat about the bush. An unbalanced foot is 
 
 THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF KNEE-SPRING — excepting those 
 
 which are the result of natural conformation. Some 
 horses have a natural tendency to this defective form of 
 limb, but in nearly all cases it is an acquired blemish, 
 and fortunately there are few cases beyond the reach of 
 mechanical remedies. 
 
 Causes. 
 
 344, When describing the various directions in 
 which a horse points, we have shown that he is solely 
 dependent upon his feet for the maintenance of his 
 equilibrium. We may now add that he is also depend- 
 ent upon the due obliquity of certain parts of one limb 
 for perfection in other parts of the same limb ; I refer to 
 due obliquity of the pastern joints. Regarding natural 
 conformation as a strongly predisposing cause of knee- 
 spring, we can trace this predisposing cause to an 
 oblique pastern, and in support of this view we can trace 
 also the forward angle or undue straightness of the hock 
 to the self-same cause, namely, undue obliquity of the 
 pastern. 
 
 Knee-Spring and Straight Hock. 
 
 345. We find that the knee is affected in its forward 
 angle by an oblique pastern as seen in Cut 12, and the 
 forward angle is altered in the hind limb by an oblique 
 pastern as seen at Cut 13. In the fore limbs it is called 
 kncc-spriiig; in the hind straight hock; and this is how it 
 comes about. The back tendons become strained under 
 
214 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 weight, on account of the obliquity of the pastern. The 
 extensor tendons are not as powerful at the knee as the 
 flexors, and are, therefore, overcome by the latter, the 
 knee being pressed forward by the obliquity of the pas- 
 tern; and the same rationale applies also to the hock 
 joint. 
 
 Straight Hock and Calf-Knee. 
 
 346. The opposite condition of pastern, that is, of the 
 upright pattern, produces the form called calf-knee, the 
 opposite of knee-spring. In knee-spring the limb falls 
 forivard and in the calf-knee backivard of a vertical line. 
 And so of a hock with straight pasterns, it falls back- 
 ward of a vertical line — in other words it becomes more 
 crooked as the pasterns stand straighter. This being a 
 rule, it strengthens our theory. 
 
 Knuckling and Knee-Spring. 
 
 347. The rationale of knuckling explains the causes 
 of knee-spring as well as of straight hock. To account 
 for this is easy when we consider that all the back ten- 
 dons or hinder braces of the leg become relaxed by the 
 forward angle taken by the pastern in the position of 
 knuckling. In this relaxed condition of the perforans 
 neither the knee nor the hock has any support backward 
 except what is afforded by the broad band which encir- 
 cles the knee and a few small ligaments. These bands 
 are called annular ligaments because they surround the 
 joint like a ring. Both knee and hock can bend back- 
 ward until they have taken in the slack, as it were, of the 
 flexors, unless they are altogether too slack. If the 
 flexors should be too slack in consequence of knuckling, 
 the knee or the hock will have nothing to support it 
 backward but the bands and ligaments referred to, for 
 the fetlock is resting on the extensor tendon, or apex of 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. H^ 
 
 the pedal bone, or upon both, and none at all on the 
 back tendon, which is the cause of the undue slackness 
 of the perforans. This reference to knuckling has been 
 made to enable the reader to distinguish between knee- 
 spring when the result of natural conformation, and 
 when it is a consequence of some morbid condition of 
 the limb. As to the acquired causes, we can trace the 
 defective condition termed knee-sprung to three distinct 
 deformities of the foot : 
 
 1. Height of toe, accompanied, as a rule, by feet re- 
 sembling Cut 5. 
 
 2. Height of heels, accompanied, as a rule, by feet 
 resembling Cut 2. 
 
 3. Height of inside heel or of inside toe, or both com- 
 bined. 
 
 It will be seen that we attribute knee-spring to two 
 opposite forms of feet, namely, undue height of toe and 
 undue height of heels. This will be easy of explanation 
 when we reach the symptoms. Meanwhile I would re- 
 mark that the fetlock as well as the knee is dependent 
 upon the formation of the feet for their proper and nat- 
 ural angle of bearing ; and not only may the feet be of 
 different forms that produced the defects called knuck- 
 ling and knee-spring, but the symptoms accompanying 
 either form of the feet may vary in character accord- 
 ingly. This brings me to 
 
 Symptoms. 
 
 348. When an undue height of the toe is the cause 
 of knee-spring, there are three distinct symptoms which 
 will denote that cause unerringly, namely : 
 
 1. The foot lands upon the ground toe first, and as 
 a result the shoe wears mostly at the toe and frequent 
 stumbling is the result. 
 
 2. The horse, while standing or in action, points in 
 
2l6 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 front of a vertical line drawn from the point of the 
 shoulder. 
 
 3. The feet, as a rule, resemble that in Cut 5. 
 
 When knee-spring is produced by undue height of 
 heels — 
 
 1. The horse when at speed, lands with his heels 
 upon the ground first, and wears his shoes most at the 
 heels, just the opposite of the high-toe habit. 
 
 2. When at rest the horse stands with his fore feet 
 backward under his body, which we call pointing back- 
 ward. 
 
 3. When at speed he travels with his fore feet under 
 his body, showing that the articulation of the pedal joint 
 is not equally divided ; that the flexion contrary to that 
 caused by too high toe, occupies more of its share of the 
 articulation and prevents the natural extension of the 
 limb in travelling. 
 
 Lateral Balance 
 
 349. Has an important bearing on knee-spring. A 
 horse may be knee-sprung from too high a toe, or too 
 high heels, and yet preserve his lateral balance. The 
 legs swing in direct lines like a pendulum, and when 
 they do so, this form of knee-spring usually yields to 
 the simple process of balancing the foot. No perma- 
 nent injury may result from either of the two causes 
 named. Balance the foot and leg by paring. If the toe 
 is too high, apply a modified centre-bearing shoe rolled 
 at the toe and raised at the heel. In this way you stop 
 the pointing, and to stop the pointing is to straighten 
 the knee. For a foot too high at the heel, the same 
 result is attained by lowering the heels until the horse 
 stops pointing backward, and if the heel cannot be 
 lowered sufficiently without it, a shoe should be applied 
 hammered down thin at the heels. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 217 
 
 Complicated Causes. 
 
 350. Knee-spring can also be the result of a compli- 
 cation of causes, the most common complication being a 
 high inside heel and a high inside toe, constituting the 
 whole of the inside half of the foot being too high. 
 When this is the cause, less weight is borne on the out- 
 side of the knee joint and more weight is thrown upon 
 the inside of the knee joint. This is a disagreeable 
 complication. The symptoms by which we can distin- 
 guish this cause from the others are seen in the changed 
 aspects of the knee. In the latter case the knee bends 
 forward and outward, leaving a wider space between the 
 two knees, while in the two previous cases the knee 
 bends directly forward only. You will also notice that 
 when the knee bends forward and outward the heels 
 approach each other inwardly, and of course the toe 
 turns outwardly. This injury to the knee caused by the 
 height of the inside half of the foot has some resem- 
 blance to the hock when the latter is affected by spavin, 
 which it should be remembered is produced by height of 
 the inside toe. Knees bowed outwardly are analogous 
 in form to hocks bowed outwardly. The knee-sprung 
 horse suffers more when the undue height is on the 
 inside than when upon the outside half of the foot. 
 The lower row of the small bones of the knee being 
 narrower than the upper row, they suffer the most, and 
 callosities and bursal distentions and bony deposits fre- 
 quently make their appearance in that region of the 
 knee joint. A horse so affected travels with his feet 
 close together, as the flexion of the knee is difficult; 
 and as the cause continues the difficulty of flexing the 
 knee increases. Partial or complete anchylosis is the 
 usual result in a majority of such cases. 
 
2l8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The Remedy 
 
 351. For knee-spring in the last case described is 
 to lower the inside half of the foot ; this gives immediate 
 relief. 
 
 Sloping Stalls. 
 
 352. The sloping of the stall has been considered to 
 have something to do with causing knee-spring. It 
 may or it may not have, depending on circumstances. 
 The sloping backward would help the horse if his heels 
 were too high, and be detrimental to the horse whose heels 
 were too low. I have no doubt that many horses have 
 changed owners whose satisfaction or dissatisfaction 
 with their horses had some connection with the circum- 
 stances referred to. The best box-stall for all horses 
 comes very near to one partly or wholly covered with 
 cobble-stones, when or where the horse can select a suit- 
 able spot upon which to balance himself, and so prevent 
 the uneasiness he is compelled to endure under other 
 circumstances. It may be noticed that a knee-sprung 
 horse will often go down-hill lame and up-hill sound, 
 which proves at least that one cause of knee-spring is 
 high heels. 
 
 Essay on Cutting and Interfering. 
 
 ! Horseman's Compass. 
 
 353. In preceding pages, when explaining the causes 
 of pointing, we have attributed this abnormal position 
 of the horse to an unbalanced hoof caused by an undue 
 height of the foot, at any one of eight points of the 
 earth's compass; and have also shown how the disturb- 
 ing cause which produces disease can be immediately 
 located. We have shown that within this hoof three 
 bones form a joint, called the pedal joint, or the pedal 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 2 19 
 
 articulation. We have seen that this joint is limited to 
 one kind of motion, namely, that of a common hinge, 
 which only opens in straight lines, there being no pro-- 
 vision for any lateral motion whatsoever. This kind of 
 motion, when speaking of the horse's movements, is 
 called flexion and extension. 
 
 Articulations. 
 
 354. When the foot is properly balanced, and the 
 articulating surfaces are equally divided, they enjoy 
 their due limits for flexion and extension; but let there 
 be any disturbance of the balance of the foot, and there 
 will be an impediment to the free articulation of this 
 joint. 
 
 Shock and friction from treading on uneven surfaces 
 will be the result. It hardly need be said that it is all- 
 important to prevent shock and friction to this joint, as 
 this is the beginning of sorrows to the horse. It does 
 not admit of a question that an unbalanced foot, from 
 whatever point it may proceed, whether from alterations 
 in the bearing surface of the hoof or of the shoe, or of 
 both combined, will interfere with the smooth working 
 of the pedal joint, by causing the foot to reach the 
 ground with either the toe or heel first, a contingency 
 which no other animal besides the horse that we know of 
 is subject to. In this respect the ball pad of the fleshy- 
 footed animals furnishes a remarkable contrast to that 
 of the foot of the horse, whose foot pad is on the inside 
 of the foot, a peculiarity seemingly inherited only by 
 the equine race. The pad of the ball-footed animals is 
 always perfectly adapted to its immediate requirements, 
 requiring no supervision whatsoever; it matures with 
 their maturity, " grows with their growth and strengthens 
 with their strength" — a perfectly finished instrument of 
 progression as long as the animal lives; but the horse's 
 
220 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 foot is the very antipodes of all this, it changes its angle 
 of bearing from day to day. It is a perfect and yet un- 
 finished instrument. To keep it perfect calls for never- 
 ceasing watchfulness and care from the day of its birth 
 to that of its death. 
 
 Pointing. 
 
 355. The first indication of the foot and, therefore, 
 of the pedal articulation being out of balance is the act 
 or fact of pointing with his foot while standing. This 
 is a pointer or indicator of something going wrong with 
 the pedal articulation. This is the first point, and any- 
 thing wrong in this joint will act and react on every 
 joint above it. The second indication of disturbed bal- 
 ance is the manner in which the limb moves while the 
 animal is in motion. In perfect motion the animal 
 swings his legs backward and forward in straight lines 
 with the precision of a pendulum, moving to and fro 
 with perfect regularity and ease, at equal distances both 
 ways. In the perfectly balanced limb the heel touches 
 the ground first, and the toe is the last to leave it in each 
 stride, and this applies to the fore and hind feet alike. 
 When the toe becomes too high, this regular swing 
 changes to a more forward action and less backward 
 action, the extension depriving the flexion of some of 
 its share of articulatory surface. 
 
 Contrast this movement with the effects of high 
 heels. The order of pointing is reversed, and the 
 manner of motion is changed with it. His legs will 
 extend backward instead of forward, detained as it 
 were under his body. All else being equal, balancing 
 the foot will balance the articulation, and you will have 
 a perfectly rhythmical movement immediately. What 
 better proof can be given that perfect action or motion 
 of the limbs depends absolutely upon a perfect balance 
 of the foot? It is an incontestable fact that when the 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 22 1 
 
 feet are in perfect form, the limb flexes and extends 
 the same on one side of a vertical line of the shoulder 
 as the other, in a straight line, as said before, like the 
 swing of a pendulum. These remarks apply to hind as 
 well as fore feet. 
 
 Examine the Foot. 
 
 356. The form or condition of the foot is the same of 
 all irregular action. Two general causes account for 
 this — natural conformation, and mechanical causes aris- 
 ing from loss of balance. There is one exception to 
 this rule: The elbow of a horse, due to natural con- 
 formation, may incline too much outwardly for perfect 
 symmetry, and in such a case the limb will flex out- 
 wardly and zvabbling action will be the result ; and vice 
 versa, when the elbow lies too close to the ribs the legs 
 will flex inwardly and cause wabbling. The former is 
 called outside wabbling and the latter inside wabbling. 
 
 Form and Interfering. 
 
 357. Deviations from straight lines in the articula- 
 tions of the limbs are caused, first, by two distinct forms 
 or parts of the foot. One relates to the form of the 
 foot at the toe and the other to the form of the foot at 
 the heels. As said before, a perfect foot with perfect 
 action lands on the heels first, and the toe is the last to 
 leave the ground. The form has very much to do wdth 
 the prevention of interfering when the limbs are in 
 motion, whether it be due to the shape of the toe or the 
 heels. The horse as a rule, when the foot is perfectly 
 circular in form at the toe for several inches on both 
 sides of the toe, and of equal length and height at both 
 heels, flexes and extends or swings his limb as much one 
 way as the other in a straight line. But if instead of 
 the perfectly circular toe there is a projection or bulg- 
 
222 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 ing at either side of the toe, the foot will no longer 
 swing in straight lines but swing either inwardly or 
 outwardly according as it happens to be the inside or 
 outside of the toe which is the fullest. Fulness of 
 inside toe causes the foot to swing or wabble outwardly. 
 Fulness of the outside toe causes the foot to wabble 
 inwardly, and strike the opposite limb. It will be re- 
 membered that extra height at either side of the toe 
 will produce the same effect as extra fulness at either 
 side of the toe; now both defects combined increase 
 wabbling or interfering in that proportion. 
 
 The Shoe-Fly Shoe. 
 
 358. It was to remedy or overcome interfering that 
 a shoe called shoe-fly was patented by me many years 
 ago. A drawing and indorsement of this shoe is to be 
 seen in a Report on Horseshoeing made recently to the 
 Agricultural Department by Professor Holcomb, D.V.S. 
 Interfering increases when the extension of the foot 
 occupies more of the articulating surface than its proper 
 share, and still more so when it is partly sideways ; that 
 is to say, when the outside toe is full and high compared 
 with the inside heel, as this gives the heel an inward 
 twist at every step. 
 
 Modes of Interfering. 
 
 359. Another mode of interfering is caused by the 
 form of the heels. The instinct of the horse while 
 travelling with heels of different lengths or heights of 
 the same foot causes him to plant his foot inwardly or 
 outwardly of a straight line, in the endeavor to avoid a 
 shock and twist caused by the highest or longest of the 
 two heels. 
 
 A long or high outside heel or both combined with a 
 straight pastern causes the foot to be planted upon the 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 223 
 
 ground on the outside of a straight line, or on the same 
 side as that of the highest heel. Still further to illus- 
 trate this, the foot with high outside heel, in order to 
 avoid a shock as the foot lands, articulates and extends 
 it away from the other leg. The inside heel being high 
 or long, or both combined, the foot is articulated too 
 near the opposing leg, and that also is done to avoid a 
 shock. By adding fulness of the shoe to height and 
 length of the inside heel, the same effect will be pro- 
 duced and intensified. Interfering will always be in 
 proportion to the severity of its cause. These remarks 
 apply to all feet, fore or hind, with straight pasterns. 
 
 There is one exception to the above rules — that is, in 
 cases of oblique pasterns, where the highest calk should 
 be on the inside heel to prevent interfering. The ex- 
 planation is this : with an upright pastern, the high out- 
 side heel causes the horse to travel further apart, or 
 while travelling to point outwardly, while the high in- 
 side heel applied to an oblique pastern causes the fetlock 
 to rotate outwardly and clear the way for the coming 
 foot. When cutting is the effect of fulness at the out- 
 side toe, narrow the hoof first at that point; then, if he 
 still cuts, under-hem the shoe at the outside toe ; and if 
 the cause exists at the inside heel, through being too 
 long, too high, or too full, lower the hoof at the heel, 
 and shorten and narrow the inside heel of the shoe one 
 inch or more. Height and length on one heel will tell 
 on hard roads the most. Both height and length will 
 cause a shock, but the height of the heel will cause a 
 greater shock than mere length. The fulness of the 
 shoe at the heels will produce the same effect upon soft 
 roads by projecting beyond the circular line, thus cover- 
 ing a greater surface of ground, and therefore will sink 
 less into the ground than if the shoe be short and nar- 
 row, which is the condition of the opposite heel. This 
 accounts for a horse travelling wider behind. 
 
224 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 An Erroneous Idea. 
 
 360. I wish here to correct a mistaken idea which 
 some horsemen entertain in supposing that loading the 
 outer half of the shoe will cause the horse to widen his 
 gait behind. Such an idea is opposed by every mechani- 
 cal consideration. Suppose you were to load a pendu- 
 lum, swinging in straight lines, on one side: would it 
 not carry the weighted side nearer to the line of gravita- 
 tion? Of course it would. If the weight had been 
 upon the inside it would have carried the leg more out- 
 wardly. Yet in spite of this the extra weight of the 
 entire shoe and the momentum it created overcame the 
 lesser disadvantage. But there is another reason why 
 the gait is widened under such circumstances. The 
 greater the superficies of iron upon the ground, without 
 any reference to the mere xvcigJit of the shoe, the wider 
 will be the action, for the reason that the foot will be 
 raised more on the outside than on the inside of the foot on 
 soft ground, and this of itself will cause the horse to 
 point outwardly, whether standing or travelling. 
 
 Most Speed Most Danger. 
 
 36 1 . The annoyance of interfering and cutting is very 
 much increased by the increase of speed. Low speed 
 means low cuts, high speed high cuts. Interfering and 
 cutting at road gaits have been sufficiently explained 
 except the shoe which should be used generally for in- 
 terfering, which will now be referred to. 
 
 The Standard. 
 
 362. The shoe I call sJioe-fly is the standard shoe 
 for this purpose, and apart from its tendency to slip is 
 preferable for road- work and speed, as it can be made 
 lighter than the four-calk shoe (Fig. 35). 
 
THP: VOOT nv THE MORSE. 225 
 
 The four-calk shoe is made on the shoc-Jly prineiple, 
 and is less liable to slip than the shoe-fly (Fig. 36). 
 
 A common shoe with a toe piece set full on the inside 
 toe in a bias position as in Fig. n . 
 
 General Maxims. 
 
 363. Raising the inside heel prevents cutting to a 
 long and oblique pastern. 
 
 Raising the ouiside heel prevents the same to a short 
 pastern. • 
 
 Bear in mind that the mechanical rule laid down, 
 namely, that raising the inside of the foot causes the 
 tread of the feet to come closer together, and vice versa, 
 is not broken by this apparent exception to the rule. 
 In the case of the oblique pastern, the object of raising 
 the inside heel is to cause the fetlock to rotate outwardly, 
 of course — that is, away from the opposite leg when 
 passing it, a movement which is only practicable in the 
 hind leg without mechanical assistance on account of its 
 having a ball-and-socket joint in the limb which admits 
 of such movements, which the fore limb has not. 
 
 The Ball-and-Socket Joint. 
 
 364. This kind of joint in the hind limbs gives greater 
 freedom of movement to those limbs than that possessed 
 by the fore ones. The fore limbs must move in straight 
 lines; the hind ones have the power to vary their move- 
 ments according to circumstances, which the fore ones 
 have not. 
 
 Thus when there is any disturbance of his balance in 
 the hind limbs he can adjust the bearings of his feet 
 better, and thus remove some of the extra weight from 
 the highest part of the foot when it leaves the ground. 
 The scrcxving of the toe or twisting of the limb outwardly 
 15 
 
226 THE FOOT OF TKE HORSE. 
 
 is one effect of the ball-and-socket joint (the whirl 
 bone). 
 
 Natural Conformation. 
 
 365, In general, cutting and interfering can be obvi- 
 ated or overcome by mechanical means, but the rule is 
 not without exceptions, especially when their causes 
 spring from natural conformation. There is no cer- 
 tainty that any mechanical remedy will correct these 
 faults. Interfering and forging can be inherited as well 
 as the general form of the animal. The least that can 
 be done for these exceptional cases is to apply the centre- 
 bearing shoe, as this will cause the foot to leave the 
 ground from the centre rather than the outer edge of 
 the foot and thus give the legs a little more freedom of 
 movement. As a rule we find interfering to prevail 
 largely among horses whose knees and hocks are bent 
 inwardly, and also among those who are narrow-chested 
 and narrow-hipped. 
 
 Cutting at Speed 
 
 366. Is done on two different parts of the limb, one 
 at the inner part of the hind legs, and mostly that of 
 the inner pastern ; the other is called high speedy cut 
 in the region of the knee joint. The shoe shoe-fly or one 
 of its modifications is the best preventive, but while a 
 horse may travel free from cutting at a slow gait, he 
 may for various reasons cut or hit the inside of the hind 
 li'mb against the forward foot when at speed. As to 
 one cause, he may be too high or too full or both com- 
 bined at the inside toe of the hind foot, compared with 
 the outside heel of the same foot; which means that, all 
 else being equal, a low and narrow outside heel will 
 produce the same effect as that of a full and high inside 
 toe ; and both defects combined will increase the chances 
 of cutting twofold. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 22/ 
 
 In the chart on pointing we have shown how a full 
 and high toe inwardly will cause the horse to point ex- 
 actly in the same direction — that is, forwardly and in- 
 wardly. And we have also shown that any mode of 
 pointing or standing is carried out when the horse is 
 travelling, whether fast or slow. With hind feet so 
 formed, the horse in his attempt to land his foot upon 
 the ground at right angles will not do so by reason of 
 the wrench and pain it gives him, and to avoid this, in 
 his endeavor to equalize bearing it passes too near the 
 fore foot. To state the cause is to suggest the remedy. 
 If the cause is at the inside toe, lower and narrow it ; if 
 at the outside heel, raise it, or combine both measures 
 if the shape of the foot calls for it. It will easily be 
 understood how a horse having a high outside heel, in 
 order to avoid a shock upon that heel, will plant the 
 foot otitivardly instead of inzuardly, which direction will 
 prevent contact with the forward foot. Here is a cause 
 and a remedy in few words. 
 
 Another Cause 
 
 367. Of cutting at high speed is the fore foot moving 
 outwardly away from its vertical line of action by a high 
 outside toe, and being carried into the way of the hind 
 foot ; it is made to occupy the space which the hind foot 
 should have occupied. The remedy for this should be 
 obvious enough — that is, to balance the foot first, and if 
 this is not sufficient, lower the outside half of the foot a 
 little ; this will give the tendency to carry the foot in- 
 ward, and leave room for the coming hind leg. 
 
 Hitching. 
 
 368. Defects in hind limbs are not limited to the pro- 
 duction of lameness, and interfering with either its fel- 
 low leg or the forward one of the same side but gives 
 
22 8 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 rise to that peculiar and disagreeable species of action 
 called hitching, but which I prefer to call running of the 
 hind extremities. Hind feet of the form last described 
 are very apt to cause a horse to break while at speed. 
 A perfect balance of every foot is the surest ground- 
 work for the development of the highest speed. 
 
 Forging. 
 
 369. We have been showing the importance of the 
 connection between the two arts of shoeing and driving 
 horses. An examplification of this is to be seen by 
 what follows in this article. Though the defective 
 action called forging can be controlled to some extent 
 by checking, it can also be prevented by a certain mode 
 of shoeing. The effect of checking is first that the 
 vertebral column or backbone becomes more or less 
 bent downward according to the height of the checking ; 
 and further, the bending downward of the backbone 
 gives a greater obliquity to the shoulders, causing the 
 fore feet to point forward standing or in motion, and 
 this causes an obliquity in the corresponding angle of 
 the hind extremities. There is, thei'efore, under such 
 circumstances a greater distance between the hind and 
 the fore feet, and consequently there will be the less 
 chances of forging. 
 
 Checking also causes the fore feet to be carried higher 
 than before, while the hind feet will be carried less 
 high; this also diminishes the chances of forging. The 
 theory that checking prevents forging by separating 
 the hind feet from the fore ones is analogous to the 
 theory that a horse whose body is long in comparison to 
 his height seldom forges ; and viee versa, a horse short 
 in body compared to his height is very apt to forge. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE, 229 
 
 Shoeing for Forging. 
 
 3.70. The rationale of checking having been ex- 
 plained, we will describe our method of shoeing to 
 counteract forging. The first aim is to cause the fore 
 feet to be carried farther forward and the hind feet 
 farther backward. 
 
 This is to be done by raising the toes of the fore feet, 
 as this will cause them Xo point forzvard whether standing 
 or travelling. Next, raise the heels of the hind feet, 
 which will produce the opposite effect, namely, poijiting 
 backivard. This will cause the feet to be kept farther 
 apart while travelling. 
 
 With many horses this last method will answer, when 
 again with some long and crooked hind legs and sprawl- 
 gaited horses the gait will have to be shortened, and 
 this can only be accomplished by adding a toe piece to 
 the hind shoes, sometimes set full at the toe, with no 
 heels, and by applying high quarter rolling-motion 
 shoes to the fore feet. This rolling-motion shoe on the 
 fore feet will cause them to rock over quicker than 
 would a fiat shoe, and thus enable them to be kept out 
 of the way of the hind feet, and so prevent striking. 
 The toe calks on the hind shoe will shorten the stride of 
 the hind feet, and this circumstance will tend to shorten 
 the stride of the forward feet also. Remember, it is the 
 extra length of the stride that causes the annoyance; 
 and if you succeed in sJiortcning the stride your object is 
 gained. Also, bear in mind that, everything else being 
 equal, the lighter the shoes the better. 
 
 Extreme Cases of Forging 
 
 371, May call for the checking and shoeing processes 
 combined, and when they do they very rarely fail of 
 their purpose. 
 
230 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 How to Locate the Lameness of Horses. 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 372. Whoever wishes to become a master in the art 
 of locating foot lameness of the horse should make a 
 careful study of the chart on pointing. This chart will 
 furnish points of knowledge and rules for guidance 
 which are indispensable acquisitions to whomsoever 
 would become experts in this heretofore difficult art. 
 
 The Language of Motion. 
 
 373. The observer should look at a horse both at a 
 walking and an easy trotting pace; sideways, coming 
 toward and going from. When lame of one foot for- 
 ward only, we may notice that the rise and fall of the 
 sound foot to and from the ground will be followed by 
 the same motions of the head, that is to say, the head 
 will rise and fall with the foot. For the lame leg the 
 head is raised when it is placed on the ground, and 
 comes down when the lame foot is raised from the 
 ground. 
 
 The same rule applies to the hind extremities, only it 
 is the haunch that rises and falls with the sound leg in- 
 stead of the head. These do not include all the symp- 
 toms of lameness, for the horse may be lame of the two 
 forward feet or of the two hind feet separately. 
 
 Elastic Movements. 
 
 374. The symptoms of the two last forms of lameness, 
 whether it be the two fore or two hind limbs which are 
 implicated, are as follows: when trotting the step is 
 short and just the reverse of elastic — that is to say, there 
 is }io spring in the action. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 23I 
 
 The bounding and springing action is only to be seen 
 in sound limbs. When the lameness is very painful 
 this peculiarity of motion is to be seen in the walk or 
 the trot of the affected animal. 
 
 Must Keep Time. 
 
 375. If the fore limbs are the affected pair, they are 
 moved with very short steps and kept low to the ground, 
 while the hind ones are raised high after the fashion of 
 the stringhalt horse and pointing under the body, and 
 vice versa ; if lame in both hind legs their action will be 
 short and low, while that of the fore ones will be high 
 and choppy after the fashion of the high-stepping 
 coach horse. This unusually high action of the sound 
 limbs is to be accounted for in this way : they must keep 
 time with the lame feet; so what they lose in stride 
 they gain in height. 
 
 In a severe case of laminitis in the fore feet this high 
 movement of the hind legs is quite remarkable from the 
 fact that it resembles so closely the movement of string- 
 halt. 
 
 See-Saw Motion. 
 
 376. A trotting horse may be lame in two legs of the 
 same side at one time. When so affected the head and 
 haunch see-saw alternately — that is, the head is raised 
 when the lame fore foot is planted on the ground, and 
 the haunch is raised while the head lowers when the 
 lame hind foot is planted on the ground. The latter 
 alternate motion is what causes the see-saw. The rise 
 and fall of the head becomes very much increased or 
 almost double in the case of two legs on one side being 
 affected, than what it is when but one foot is affected, 
 whether it is before or behind. 
 
232 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Diagonal Lameness. 
 
 377. The horse is sometimes lame diagonally, that is, 
 of one fore and one hind foot crosswise at the same 
 time. In this case the whole body follows the rise and 
 fall of the diagonally sound limbs, that is, the head and 
 haunch lower at the incidence or fall of the diagonally 
 sound legs to the ground, and become elevated as the 
 sound legs rise from the ground ; on the other hand, 
 when the diagonal lame feet fall to the ground the 
 whole body becomes elevated. 
 
 Exceptions to the Rule. 
 
 378. It must be observed that the symptoms of lame- 
 ness indicated in the chart on pointing are not abso- 
 lutely infallible in all cases of lameness, as I have seen 
 horses lame in all four feet at the same time, and yet 
 that did not point zvith any foot or in any direction. 
 
 For example, every foot may be equally too high at 
 the toe. The tendency of high toe being to point, the 
 horse finds that the vertical position of all the limbs is 
 the easiest, as by pointing with one limb in such a case 
 he would increase the pain in the limbs which did not 
 point. 
 
 Least of Two Evils. 
 
 379. To point with every foot the horse would place 
 himself in a weak position for carrying his own weight, 
 just as a common four-legged table, with its legs all 
 parallel and inclined in one direction, would not carry 
 as much weight as if its legs were all vertical ; it is even 
 so with the horse — he can stand easier under the weight 
 of his body if all his legs are kept vertical than if he 
 pointed any one of them ; and the animal is wise enough 
 to prefer the least of two evils. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 233 
 
 Trotters and Pacers. 
 
 380. This rule of the rise and fall of the whole column 
 of the body, following the incidence or fall of two 
 sound feet on the ground at one time, applies to the trot- 
 ting and the pacing gaits, with this difference as regards 
 the pacer: in the trotter when lame of two legs the body 
 see-saws, while in the pacer the body follows the fall 
 of the sound feet on one side, and the rising of the 
 body is concurrent with the falling to the ground of the 
 lame foot. This rule is invariable. 
 
 Lameness Without Pointing. 
 
 381. A horse may be lame in all four feet, by being 
 too high on one side of each foot, as well as by being 
 too high at each toe, and yet show no tendency to point. 
 
 When a horse is too high in the heels of all four legs, 
 it is the same as regards pointing. The explanation is 
 the same : the pointing of one foot would intensify the 
 pain in and overtax the strength of all the, other feet. 
 
 Absolute Symptoms. 
 
 382. These illustrative cases show that a horse may 
 be stiff or otherwise defective in every limb, and yet 
 show no symptom of it by pointing. The pointing symp- 
 toms can only be relied upon absolutely in cases where 
 the horse is lame in one or two limbs only. 
 
 Lameness Without Pain. 
 
 383. A horse may exhibit some degree of lameness 
 when there is no evidence of disease, pain, or fever, from 
 the fact that the inside half of one of the hind feet, com- 
 pared with the outside half of the same foot, is too high. 
 
2 34 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 It is plain that such a foot hanging vertically could not 
 touch the ground with both heels, and in order to do so 
 he must carry his leg forward and inward, and this is 
 just what he does standing or travelling. Just so much 
 as it recedes from the vertical line, so much shorter 
 than the opposite leg will it become. 
 
 This, as said before, is done to strike the ground with 
 both heels. On account of this treading inwardly, an 
 uneven gait of the Jiip is produced, which has often been 
 mistaken for a painful lameness and for hitching. 
 
 Anchylosis. 
 
 384. Furthermore, a partial or complete anchylosis of 
 the knee, the hock, the fetlock, or the pedal articula- 
 tion may cause an unevenness of gait, which though 
 unattended by fever or pain is sometimes mistaken for 
 lameness caused by pain. In such cases the horse 
 moves his leg with an outward and forward movement 
 in order to clear the ground, which of itself gives rise to 
 a suspicion of lameness. In general, lameness may be 
 considered the language of pain ; but I think it ought 
 not to be considered invariably so. I might instance a 
 case of this character belonging to myself, which from 
 an injury to the fetlock caused it to become more 
 oblique than that of the opposite leg, thereby causing 
 uneven action. Some would mistake this for a painful 
 affection, yet it never afforded the slightest evidence of 
 pain or inconvenience while travelling. 
 
 Lameness from Loss of Balance. 
 
 385. Having traced some forms of lameness to loss of 
 balance in the direction of the heels and toe, we will 
 now show how lameness is to be diagnosed when it is 
 produced by an unequal balance of the foot in its lateral 
 aspects. Balance is essential in both directions. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 235 
 
 In order to ascertain whether or not a lameness has 
 its origin in a lateral half of the foot, and which lateral 
 half that is, whether it is on the inside or the outside, 
 we should select a suitable piece of inclined ground 
 upon which to try the case. The animal should be 
 jogged across this tiic/i/ie to and fro. The weakest side 
 of the foot will be shown by the animal going more 
 lame in one direction than he does in the other; and 
 it will be found that the affected side will be that on the 
 highest side of the incline. I became acquainted with 
 this fact by my experience with a ringbone horse 
 many years ago on a road which was high at the sides 
 and low at the middle. On one side of the road he 
 went lame, on the other sound. This mere fact of ob- 
 servation at first, like many others, developed in time 
 into a fact of considerable importance in relation to the 
 horse's foot, its structure and its requirements in health 
 and disease, as an aid in diagnosing the causes of lame- 
 ness, in pointing out the absolute necessity of perfect 
 balance for perfect action, and in leading to the inven- 
 tion of the centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 Do the Best You Can 
 
 386, If there is no suitable inclined ground to be had. 
 When we are in doubt as to which side of the foot is 
 the source of the lameness, we should have the horse 
 jogged round in a very vSmall circle. Trot him both 
 ways of the circle; he will go better one way than 
 another. If he goes most lame in trotting to the left, 
 the cause of the lameness will be in the outside half of 
 the near fore foot being too high ; and if he goes most 
 lame in trotting to the right it will prove that the out- 
 side portion of the foot is too high, and therefore the 
 cause of the lameness and, vice versa the cause of lame- 
 ness being diie to the inside of the foot being- too high. 
 
236 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 One More Lesson. 
 
 387. The horse should be slowly trotted led by the 
 halter, the observer viewing him sideways. It will be 
 easy to imagine a vertical line from the point of the 
 shoulder. If a horse travels with one or both feet in 
 advance of this vertical line, letting his toe reach- the 
 ground first, as when afflicted with navicular disease, it 
 indicates undue height of the toe; and if he travels 
 backward of the vertical line, it indicates undue height 
 of the heels. 
 
 Unfailing Signs. 
 
 388. A horse travelling lame <3'^;7(:7;-Z';7/ indicates un- 
 due height of the heels, and going lame up-hill shows 
 undue height of the toes. 
 
 First and Last Words. 
 
 389. Whoever wishes to become a master of the art 
 of locating foot lameness of the horse should make a 
 careful study of the chart on pointing. This chart will 
 furnish points of knowledge and rules for guidance 
 which are indispensable acquisitions to whomsoever 
 would become experts in this heretofore difficult art. 
 
 Tendons and Ligaments of the Leg. 
 
 The Suspensory Ligament. 
 
 390. (See Fig. i, letter D.) I take the liberty of 
 citing from Professor Williams' work on Veterinary 
 Surgery the following description of this remarkable 
 ligament (page i, letter A): "A broad strong band of 
 white fibrous tissue, arising from the supra-posterior 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 237 
 
 part of the cannon bone, lying in the hollow bounded 
 on either side by the small cannon bones ; it extends 
 downward, bifurcating above the fetlock, becoming at- 
 tached to the lateral parts of the sesamoids; thence it 
 is continued downward to the tendon of the extensor- 
 pedis at the antero-inferior part of the os suffraginis, 
 where its divisions become united and are generally 
 lost in the substance of that tendon." 
 
 The Perforans Tendon. 
 
 391. (See Fig. i, letter B.) Lying next to the sus- 
 pensory ligament is the flexor pedis perforans, having a 
 short ligament attached to it which is called the check 
 ligament, because it is plainly its function to limit or 
 check the action of the perforans upon the pedal bone. 
 This check ligament has its upper end attached to the 
 top of the cannon bone in company with that of the sus- 
 pensory. The perforans passes down over the sesamoid 
 at the fetlock joint, which serves the double purpose of 
 a pulley and a fulcrum like the small bone at the navic- 
 ular joint; over which it passes next and finds an in- 
 dependent insertion into the lower posterior part of the 
 pedal bones. 
 
 The Perforatus 
 
 392. (See Fig. i, letter A) is the hindermost ten- 
 don. From the knee it runs over the sesamoids at the 
 back of the fetlock joint, forming a synovial sheath at 
 that point for the perforans to glide through easily and 
 over the fulcrum formed by the sesamoids ; after which 
 it divides into two parts, which grasp the lower pastern, 
 and its distinctive character is lost in the band wdiich 
 surrounds the lower pastern joint; it becomes virtually 
 a part of that annular band. 
 
238 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 Extensor Pedis. 
 
 393. (See Fig. i, letter E.) The extensor pedis lies 
 directly in front of the leg below the fetlock and finds 
 its insertion on the upper border of the apex of the 
 pedal bone. 
 
 Functions of Tendons and Ligaments. 
 
 394. The functions of all these tendons and liga- 
 ments are to secure all the necessary minor and reciprocal 
 movements, without friction and concussion or injury 
 of any kind to the entire system of the animal, in its 
 greater purpose of locomotion. Harmoniously combined 
 action is necessary to secure this. Balance is the ruling 
 power of the whole. Balance is the governing princi- 
 ple of all machinery moving or otherwise, and the living 
 machinery of the horse is no exception to the universal 
 dominance of this principle. Without balance the horse 
 begins to go to piieces ; and when this balance, for want 
 of knozving hozv, or other causes, is not restored, the ani- 
 mal is on the road to ruin, and sooner or later, generally 
 sooner, becomes a complete wreck, not from lack of con- 
 stitutional vigor but from the deterioration of his loco- 
 motory machinery, for want of balance in his foot or 
 feet. The set of the pedal bone determines the balance, 
 or the want of it, of the entire limb, and this set is de- 
 pendent obviously upon the perfect form of the hoof — 
 and the perfect form of the hoof upon the balance of its 
 bearing surface ; therefore all the machinery of the 
 limb for perfect work depends upon the perfect form of 
 the hoof. This has been more fully enlarged upon else- 
 where in these pages. The due adjustment of that 
 bearing siirface depends upon man's knowledge of its 
 requirements and of his disposition to meet them. 
 
 The pedal bone plays a very important part when 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 239 
 
 the horse is at speed. It is the medium through which 
 all the tendons and ligaments act and react on each 
 other, and weight is transmitted from one tendon or 
 ligament to the other during the backward' or forward 
 movements of the limb while at speed. 
 
 Rationale of Movements. 
 
 395. The rationale of these movements may be ex- 
 pressed in the following terms : There is less weight 
 upon the perforans while the limb is extended and just 
 as it lands upon the ground, and in that proportion 
 there is more weight thrown upon the suspensory liga- 
 ment and perforatus; and contrariwise, as the body 
 passes over the foot the weight is thrown back on to the 
 perforans and carried to the finishing of the step back- 
 ward, and therefore lessening the strain upon the sus- 
 pensory ligament. Plainly, the suspensory ligament and 
 perforatus limit the forward and the perforans checks 
 its backward action. 
 
 Transmission of Weight. 
 
 396, This view of the transmission of weight from 
 tendon to ligament and from ligament to tendon during 
 motion receives confirmation from what may be observed 
 in the movements of one leg while pointing. When he 
 changes the direction of his foot, either forward or 
 backward, it is to gain relief from pain by shifting the 
 weight from one structure to another. Thus, if the toe 
 is too high the horse points to relieve the perforans, 
 which means throwing more weight on to the suspensory 
 ligament and perforatus; and in like manner when the 
 heels are too high he points backward, which relieves 
 the suspensory ligament, throwing weight on to the 
 perforans. 
 
240 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 The Reason Why 
 
 397. May be explained once more in order to make 
 this treatise complete in itself. 
 
 By raising the toe the check ligament of the perforans 
 is called into play; and as the tendon, from the part of 
 it where the check ligament is inserted to the pedal 
 bone, becomes strained, the pressure against the pastern 
 joint exerted by the strain forces of that joint forward, 
 and this presses the upper end of the lower pastern bone 
 in a forward direction, which presses unduly against 
 the extensor tendon; and when carried to extreme 
 flexion the upper end of the small pastern bone will press 
 upon the apex of the pedal bone, and its loiver end will 
 take a backward direction, and press against the navic- 
 ular bone, creating stress and strain, distress and pain 
 in both the extensor and the perforans ; and the animal 
 can only relieve himself by pointing in a forward direc- 
 tion. 
 
 Normal and Abnormal Conditions. 
 
 398. Under normal conditions each structure carries 
 its own share of weight, but under abnormal conditions 
 these structures have to help each other as best they 
 may, to call the healing power of nature into play. It 
 will be readily comprehended from this explanation 
 what intimate relations exist between the perforans 
 tendon and the suspensory ligament, and how the sim- 
 ple act of pointing backward or forward will shift the 
 burden of weight from one structure to the other as 
 circumstances require. 
 
 The Ultimate Link. 
 
 399. To trace this chain of causation to its ultimate 
 link, we have but to add what has almost become a 
 formulated expression — namely, that pointing of the foot 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 24I 
 
 of the horse invariably locates the highest part of the 
 circumference of that foot or hoof; that that highest part 
 is always coincident with and indicates unerringly a 
 disturbance of the natural balance of the limb ; and that 
 by the removal of this disturbing cause, all else being 
 equal, the natural balance of the limb is restored, and 
 the cause or causes of the lameness being removed the 
 effect or the effects cease. 
 
 Fair Deductions. 
 
 400. From the foregoing considerations, I think it 
 is a just conclusion that the suspensory ligament is most 
 liable to injuries when the limb is inclined forward at 
 the instant the foot lands upon the ground ; and on the 
 other hand, the perforans tendon is the most exposed to 
 injury when at a backward angle at the moment the 
 toe leaves the ground. 
 
 Critical Junctures. 
 
 401. The instant of landing upon the ground for- 
 ward, or the moment of quitting the ground backward, 
 are the only points of time when these structures are 
 the most exposed to danger, for it is then each one is 
 left to its own resources, as it were, of strength and 
 endurance. At those critical junctures they are unable 
 to help each other. When at rest they sympathize 
 with and help each other in their misfortunes and trou- 
 bles, by taking an extra share of the weight which 
 must be carried under every circumstance by one or by 
 both structures alternately. 
 
 Injuries to the Suspensory Ligament. 
 
 402. (See Fig. i, letter D.) I wish again to refer to 
 
 the fact that the design and scope of this work is limited 
 
 to diseased conditions and abnormal action of the limbs 
 16 
 
242 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 which have their prime source in an unbalanced hoof 
 and pedal bone. This I regard as my legitimate field 
 of inquiry. Horseshoeing is my vocation. I am not a 
 professional veterinarian, whose functions I have no de- 
 sire to usurp. 
 
 When either the perforans tendon or the suspensor)'- 
 ligament becomes injured, their respective symptoms 
 other than pointing will manifest themselves in the 
 following manner: if it be the suspensory ligament, a 
 swelling will be felt above the bifurcation which is half- 
 way between the knee and the fetlock ; if either of the 
 lower branches of the suspensory, the swelling will be 
 below the fetlock. These symptoms, taken in conjunc- 
 tion with the pointing backward, point to the common 
 injuries of the suspensory ligament. 
 
 Predisposing Causes, 
 
 403. Take an unbalanced foot for a starting-point 
 and it is easy enough to trace its connection with an in- 
 jured suspensory ligament. Undue height of either or 
 both heels is the strongest predisposing and exciting 
 cause of the injuries to every part of the suspensory 
 ligament superior and inferior, or, to make it very plain, 
 above or below the fetlock joint, which is susceptible to 
 undue strain. 
 
 Undue height of both heels is apt to produce sprain 
 of both of the inferior lateral ligaments at the same 
 time ; and if but one of those ligaments is sprained it is 
 as a rule caused by undue height, or of height and width 
 combined, on the side opposite to the injured side. It is 
 well to know and to remember that when any part of 
 the suspensory ligament is affected by sprain, the lower 
 articulations of the limb are not impaired, because the 
 suspensories play no part in flexing and extending the 
 limb; their office being to uphold and suspend while 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 243 
 
 the work of flexion and extension is being accomplished 
 by other instrumentalities. 
 
 In common sprains of the suspensories the horse in 
 standing or moving will be apt to point backward in- 
 stead of forward, and in walking will finish the step 
 well under his body, although he will go lame on a trot. 
 He may walk also comparatively free from lameness. 
 In a complete rupture of either the superior or the two 
 inferior suspensories, the fetlock will go down to the 
 ground, or very near it, and the toe will be turned up- 
 ward from the ground accordingly, which clearly shows 
 the function to be that of supporting the limb. When 
 but one lateral branch is ruptured, the fetlock will be- 
 come partly lowered, and the swelling, it is pretty safe 
 to say, will be on the injured side. 
 
 Hard and Soft Roads. 
 
 404. Some writers have observed that sprains of the 
 suspensory ligament are more likely to occur on hard 
 roads than soft roads. I presume there must be a reason 
 for this circumstance, and I present the following as the 
 most rational explanation that I am able to give. On a 
 soft road the heels are more likely to sink in than on a 
 hard road, and while the heels remain sunk and the toe 
 elevated above the level of the heels, the perforans and 
 the suspensory have a more equal share in carrying the 
 weight than when the heels and toe are more on a level. 
 The perforans is thus compelled as it were to carry a 
 little more weight until the critical juncture is over and 
 the toe reaches the ground. Another cause of injury to 
 the suspensory ligament is landing with the heels upon 
 some high and hard substance while the legs are at their 
 most forward angle, and the heels strike the hard ground 
 so suddenly that an instantaneous relaxation of the per- 
 forans follows, leaving the suspensory to bear the brunt 
 
244 THE FOOT OY THE HORSE. 
 
 of the danger. Then there are such causes as running 
 down hill; stopping short; and jumping fences by 
 throwing too much weight upon the heels. Accidents 
 of this nature are always liable to happen to horses if 
 they are shod in the highest degree of perfection ; but 
 those liabilities are always increased when the horse is 
 shod and left too high at the heels. 
 
 Injuries to the Perforans. 
 
 405. (See Fig. i, letter B.) The perforans tendon, it 
 will be remembered, has a twofold duty to perform, that 
 of partly supporting the pastern joint and of flexing the 
 foot. It is therefore exposed to injuries in connection 
 with injuries to the pedal and pastern joints. 
 
 When the perforans is strained, the horse points for- 
 ward, either standing or in motion, in degree of the in- 
 tensity of the injuries, whether the injury be to the 
 check ligament or to the perforans itself. A frequent 
 seat of trouble is just at the point of junction of the 
 check ligament with the perforans. The reason for this 
 is explained when we consider its twofold function — as 
 a suspender of the pastern and as a flexor of the foot. 
 Any swelling of the perforans or its sheath will prevent 
 it from gliding freely and without pain through the 
 sheath provided for it at the back of the fetlock joint 
 and the cannon bone, and over its fulcrum at the navic- 
 ular bone, and thus prevent flexion of the foot by the 
 pain it occasions. Swellings arising from injuries to 
 the perforans make their appearance on the inside or 
 outside of the leg, and very rarely or never at the back. 
 Further, in order to distinguish between injuries to the 
 perforans and the suspensories, it will be found in the 
 former case — the perforans — that the painful flexion of 
 the foot causes the toe to be dragged instead of being 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 245 
 
 bent and raised, and the toe will frequently hit the 
 Of round as a result. 
 
 Mischievous Energy. 
 
 406. I have shown you how injuries to the suspen- 
 sories are brought about by undue height of either heel 
 separately or by both high heels together. I shall now 
 point out how undue length or elevation or both contin- 
 gencies, acting at the same time upon the toe, are the 
 principal cause of lesions to the perforans. The factors 
 in the problem are simple enough : i , obstruction to 
 the full and free motions of the joints; 2, peculiarities 
 of action; 3, the shape of the foot; 4, the nature of the 
 ground travelled upon; and, 5, the rate of speed at 
 which the horse is going. These causes can all act 
 separately or in combination with each other, but sepa- 
 rately or combined the point or points from whence 
 these causes can exert their greatest mischievous energy 
 are at or in the region round about the toe. 
 
 Injuries to the Perforatus. 
 
 407. (See Fig. i, letter A.) There is a remarkable 
 difference between the structure and functions of the 
 perforatus and the perforans. The perforans has a 
 ligament to check its action below the knee, which 
 the perforatus has not, which shows that the perforans 
 has more severe tasks to perform than the perforatus. 
 
 The action of the perforans, though mainly governed 
 by the will, appears to have an automatic or involuntary 
 function along with the suspensory in preventing the 
 undue obliquity of the pastern, whether at rest or speed ; 
 and the perforatus having no check ligament below the 
 knee, and requiring none or it would be present, has 
 evidently less severe tasks to perform. On this account 
 
246 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 it is less liable to injuries or to undue strain than either 
 the perforans or the suspensory. When in action at 
 speed, it is the perforans that takes the lead and has 
 the principal share of the work to be done. 
 
 The perforatus, through being situated at the hinder 
 part of the leg, is exposed to various injuries such as 
 blows, kicks, and accidents of various sorts, A not un- 
 common injury is a heavy shoe when travelling a long 
 distance, the horse becoming excessively fatigued by 
 having to flex his leg with an undue and unnatural dead 
 tveight at the end of his foot, and the consequent inflam- 
 mation and swelling of the sheaths through which the 
 perforans glides in its necessary movements. Whenever 
 its functions become impaired by injuries to its sheaths, 
 which is common enough, dragging the toe is concomi- 
 tant in this case as well as injurious to the perforans. 
 When the perforatus is injured, the animal does not 
 necessarily point forward, but seeks relief by standing 
 with his toe pointed vertically, thus throwing whatever 
 weight he may upon the perforans. As the perforatus 
 is the hindermost tendon, swellings from its injuries al- 
 ways appear at the back of the leg, unlike the perforans 
 and the suspensories, whose swellings appear at the in- 
 ner or outer aspect of the leg. Only in rare and ex- 
 ceptional circumstances does the perforatus become the 
 subject of strain. 
 
 408. (See Fig. i, letter E.) What has been said of 
 the perforatus with regard to its liability to injuries on 
 account of its external situation upon the leg is equally 
 true of the extensor pedis. Its function is simply to 
 extend the foot and keep the toe pointing upward while 
 the foot is landing upon the ground. 
 
 This keeping the toe pointing in the right direction 
 till the posterior part of the foot touches the ground is 
 a function of considerable importance. It is very easy 
 to suppose that without this safeguard the toe would 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 247 
 
 strike the ground first, and stumbling and falling would 
 be very frequent consequences. This function of the 
 extensor shows why a horse stumbles less at a fast gait 
 than at a slow one. The faster he goes the farther he 
 extends himself, and the longer the stride the greater 
 will be the distance between the ground and the point 
 of the toe zvhcn his Jiccls first touch tJic ground. 
 
 This simple fact of observation led me to study this 
 problem a little closer. In paragraph 395 I presented 
 my view of the manner in which the weight of the ani- 
 mal is transmitted from one structure to another during 
 the stride at a fast pace. It was shown that at a critical 
 moment the whole of the weight had to be borne and 
 carried mainly b}' the suspensory and perforatus liga- 
 ment, in proof of which it was shown that immediately 
 after the heel landed the perforans became relaxed, and 
 then gradually resumed its burden of weight as the body 
 passed over in the long stride. This movement will be 
 better understood if we view it in the light of the last- 
 named function of the extensor pedis. Until the mo- 
 ment that the heels touch the ground, the toe is held 
 up by the extensor. The elevation of the toe and the 
 tightening of the perforans are concurrent; and the fall- 
 ing and straightening of the toe are followed immedi- 
 ately by a relaxation of the perforans. 
 
 How to Distinguish an Injured Tendon. 
 
 409. (See Fig. I.) The pain and suffering caused by 
 injuries to the tendons and ligaments, as has been shown, 
 have symptoms in the manner of pointing the leg. It, 
 however, sometimes happens that sprains of the different 
 tendons and ligaments take place, and there being little 
 or no discrimination as to the particular structure in- 
 volved, the treatment must be altogether empirical 
 and uncertain. 
 
248 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 There may be some novices in diagnosis among my 
 readers who will appreciate the few plain directions 
 given in the following paragraphs. 
 
 It will be necessary to manipulate the structures at 
 the seat of the injury by passing and pressing with 
 the fingers over the affected part, both while the foot 
 is on the ground and while it is flexed. The ani- 
 mal will flinch suddenly when you press the injured 
 spot. 
 
 It will be well to study the drawing of the leg and 
 its tendons very attentively. It will be seen that be- 
 hind the upper half of the cannon bone there are four 
 structures, two tendons and two ligaments, which are 
 liable to become affected separately or together. They 
 are usually affected separately. The lower half of the 
 cannon bone has but three structures behind it, namely, 
 the suspensory ligament lying close to the bone, the 
 perforatus on the outside, and the perforans between 
 the two. The check ligament makes the fourth struc- 
 ture behind the upper half of the cannon bone. The 
 usual seat of injury to the check ligament is just where 
 it joins with the perforans, and is the result of undue 
 strain (see Fig. i, letter O). 
 
 In order to get accustomed to manipulating morbid 
 structures intelligently, the novice should practise on 
 healthy legs occasionally. He would not then be so 
 likely to make mistakes when called upon for a prompt 
 and correct diagnosis. 
 
 When the leg is flexed these structures can be readily 
 separated from each other by judicious manipulation, 
 and the injured one and the injury readily discovered ; 
 and if it be borne in mind that the suspensory ligament 
 lies directly behind the cannon bone, and that the check 
 ligament, the perforans, and the perforatus follow in the 
 order they are named, it will be scarcely possible to 
 make any mistake. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 249 
 
 Rational Remedies. 
 
 410. If there be no intelligent appreciation of the 
 merely anatomical arrangement of the structures, what 
 hope can there be of a rational application of the right 
 remedy ? 
 
 General Observations. 
 
 411. Not knowing exactly how to dispose of the fol- 
 lowing somewhat unconnected observations, I present 
 them in a group, hoping they will be found not alto- 
 gether destitute of food for thought and reflection in 
 relation to the needs and requirements of the horse in 
 modern civilization. 
 
 Rocker Shoe Invaluable. 
 
 412. Heels which have a tendency to grow down 
 vertically and to project backward, resembling those in 
 Cut 2, should especially be looked after and kept down, 
 if you desire to prevent suffering to the horse or loss of 
 the value of his services to yourself. Such feet are 
 always better for being shod with shoes which rock 
 backward. The rocker shoe is both a preventive and 
 a cure for all injuries caused by undue height of the 
 heels. 
 
 How to Prevent Pain and Loss. 
 
 413. The simple ability to discern and differentiate 
 the effects produced by undue height of the toe, or of 
 undue height of the heels, upon only two structures of 
 the leg, namely, the suspensory ligament and the per- 
 forans, would prevent immeasurable miseries to the 
 horse and enormous losses to all horse-owners and 
 horse-breeders. The ability to do this implies the 
 ability to adjust the pedal and other articulations of the 
 
250 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 foot and leg, whereby the full flexing and extending 
 movements of the leg are permitted, and by these 
 means the horse could enjoy as much freedom of move- 
 ment as that enjoyed by the fleshy-ball-footed animals. 
 
 Prevention of Injuries. 
 
 414. While the prevention of injuries to the suspen- 
 sory ligament must be sought for in the judicious lower- 
 ing of the heels, the prevention of injuries to the per- 
 forans tendon must be attained by lowering and short- 
 ening the toe, and in some cases by raising the heel. 
 
 Temporary High Heel. 
 
 415. The temporary high heel causes a relaxation of 
 the perforans ; and the suspensory ligament, its intimate 
 friend and neighbor, helps it by carrying a good part of 
 its weight whether standing or travelling. 
 
 Prevention of Strain During Motion. 
 
 416. Shortening and rounding of the toe will always 
 prevent straining of the perforans while in motion on 
 hard roads. 
 
 The shoe best adapted to this purpose is the rolling- 
 motion shoe, which in thousands of instances during 
 the last twenty years has been tried and proved and 
 never found wanting. 
 
 It Must Follow 
 
 417. That a shoe rocking both ways, that is, at the toe 
 and heels, will prevent injuries by undue strain to both 
 the perforans and the suspensory ligament. If by any 
 means the foot can be so balanced as to cause these two 
 structures to carry an equal share of the weight at any 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 25 I 
 
 or every incline of the limb, our object is gained. The 
 only instrumentality by which this has ever been, and I 
 verily believe ever will be, accomplished is the centre- 
 bearing shoe. 
 
 Rocking Movements. 
 
 418. A shoe made to rock both ways answers very 
 well on hard roads, by rocking backward when the foot 
 lands upon the ground, and forward when the foot 
 leaves the ground. The rocking backward favors the 
 suspensory ligament, and the rocking forward spares the 
 perforans. The majority of injuries happening to run- 
 ners on a hard track, I am convinced, is due more to the 
 shape of the foot than to the hardness of the road. It 
 is a very common idea that hard roads are the cause of 
 lameness. It is the unbalanced foot that is the cause, for 
 when a lame foot is balanced and the centre-bearing 
 shoe affixed to it the horse goes free from lameness 
 over the same road almost instantly, and the harder the 
 road the better he goes ! 
 
 Eight Running Horses. 
 
 419. I remember having to shoe eight running 
 horses all on the same day, all of whom were lame from 
 running. I shod them all with light steel ball shoes, the 
 highest part of the convex surface being but a quarter 
 of an inch above the circumference of the shoe. Two 
 weeks later they were reported to me all going perfectly 
 sound and free from lameness excepting one, 
 
 A Drawback. 
 
 420. The centre-bearing shoe has one drawback, and 
 that is that it will not rock on soft ground — that is to 
 say, on ground such as a ploughed field would present. 
 The property that makes it so valuable on hard ground 
 
252 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 renders it valueless on soft, deep, plastic ground. Horses 
 have been shod with centre-bearing shoes one inch 
 hio-h in the centre and have travelled without lameness 
 on the hardest of roads, and yet as soon as they struck 
 soft ground which deprived the foot of the power to roll 
 over they went as lame as ever. The explanation is 
 simple and the truth shall be told. On hard roads when 
 the foot can rock there is no straining of the tendons. 
 On soft grounds the tendons suffer strain and pain from 
 the foot becoming imbedded in the soil and being de- 
 prived of the power to rock. 
 
 A Problem to be Solved. 
 
 42 1 . The bottom of the foot is all that comes in con- 
 tact with the surface of the earth, and yet the appendage 
 to the foot has never yet been discovered which is per- 
 fectly adaptable to every variety of surface over which 
 the horse travels. 
 
 On hard roads for sound horses, there is no shoe 
 equal to a plate of steel or iron, slightly convex on the 
 bearing surface for ease and safety to the horse. 
 
 An iron plate perfectly flat, I have read, is in use by 
 some Eastern nations. Slipping is said to be the disad- 
 vantage of this shoe, but apart from this defect a flat 
 plate is as good as, if not better than, the common shoe 
 on hard roads, and decidedly better than the common 
 shoe on soft roads, inasmuch as the weight of the horse 
 is carried more upon the centre of the foot than it can 
 be with a common shoe. 
 
 A flat plate shoe on ordinary soft ground rocks nearly 
 as easy as a ball shoe on hard ground, by the dirt pack- 
 ing into the centre and spreading around the edges as 
 the body passes over, and will be easier for the tendons 
 and ligaments on deep soil than a ball shoe, for the 
 reasons already stated. 
 
THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 253 
 
 A Cup Foot 
 
 422. vShod with a light running plate, if tender or 
 lame, travels best on ground just soft or deep enough to 
 allow the foot to rock. The heels sink into the soft 
 ground and get supported in the centre ; the foot rolls 
 over to some extent, and the toe beds itself into the 
 ground in much the same way that the ball shoe acts on 
 the hard ground. The weight is carried on the centre 
 and equally balanced between the two weight-carrying 
 structures, the suspensory ligament and the perforans, 
 instead of being jcrh^d to and fro as it were by angular 
 instead of circular bearings and movements. 
 
 A Splendid Auxiliary. 
 
 423. It will be seen what a splendid mechanical 
 auxiliary the centre-bearing shoe and its various modi- 
 fications may become in the hands of a wise and pro- 
 gressive veterinarian. There is hardly an instance of a 
 horse being lame, whether the cause be accidental or 
 arising from defective shoeing, without his receiving 
 immediate benefit from the application of this shoe ; and 
 the manner in which it facilitates the curative process is 
 something unprecedented in veterinary experience. 
 
 Last Words. 
 
 424. Surely, in the nature of things, there must be 
 some basic facts, or central principle, upon which a 
 truly rational system of horseshoeing can be built up 
 and established ; or around which the numerous scat- 
 tered and disjointed facts pertaining to the true economy 
 of the horse's foot may gravitate as to a nucleus, and 
 find a bond of union and crystallization into a true and 
 
2 54 THE FOOT OF THE HORSE. 
 
 perfect system of hygienic and therapeutic horseshoe- 
 ing, which being in accordance with the rest of nature's 
 laws must be as enduring as nature herself. 
 
 This book embodies the results of my observations 
 and practical every-day experience in the shoeing of 
 sound and in the treatment of lame horses for the last 
 forty-five years; and I feel a sense of gratitude com- 
 mingling with my feelings of pride and pleasure that I 
 am enabled to contribute something toward " a consum- 
 mation so devoutly to be wished." 
 
 THE END. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Explanation. — I have given the principal subjects in the order in 
 which they were written preferably to giving them an alphabetical ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 Under the head-line of General Facts, Principles, and Observations, 
 the subject of navicular disease will find its place. This subject had 
 become so interwoven with the facts and principles with which it was 
 so closely connected that I found it impossible to draw a line where the 
 subject of navicular disease could properly be said to begin or end, ex- 
 cept from the first to the last paragraph of the article. 
 
 But if the reader perceives any disadvantage in this lack of arrange- 
 ment of topics, I think he will derive one advantage from it in another 
 respect. 
 
 The navicular disease has been made the niai7i question; and as the 
 origin of this disease is identical with that of all other diseases of the 
 foot and leg of the horse, the elucidation of this question renders the 
 consideration of every subsequent topic a perfectly easy matter. 
 
 Under the principal heading of General Facts, Principles, and Ob- 
 servations all the paragraph headings up to 154 are arranged alphabeti- 
 cally. From that number on the minor topics are to be found, num- 
 bered in the order in which they were written, under the principal 
 headings which give the names of the diseases to which they respect- 
 ively refer. 
 
 Diseases Treated of in the Work. 
 
 P.^RAGRAPHS 
 
 General facts, principles, and observations, including 
 
 navicular disease, . . . . . . i to 154 
 
 Spavin, 155 to 185 
 
 Ringbone, . . . . . . . . . 186 to 204 
 
 Splent, 205 to 208 
 
 Enlargement of heels 209 to 2 11 
 
 Corn 212 to 227 
 
 Stringhalt, 228 to 244 
 
 Quarter-crack, ........ 245 to 266 
 
 Knuckling 267 to 278 
 
56 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Curb 
 
 Sprains of back tendons. 
 
 Windgalls, 
 
 Acute laminitis, 
 
 Contraction, . 
 
 Kneesprung, . 
 
 Cutting and interfering, 
 
 Locating lameness. 
 
 Ligaments and tendons of the leg of the horse, 
 
 PARAGRAI'HS 
 
 279 to 287 
 288 to 292 
 293 to 297 
 298 to 319 
 320 to 353 
 354 to 365 
 366 to 382 
 383 to 400 
 401 to 435 
 
 General Facts, Principles, and Observations, Including 
 
 Navicular Disease. 
 
 Anatomy of horse's foot, 
 
 a little more, 
 Adverse force, an, . 
 Ailments from too high heels. 
 Analysis of pastern joint. 
 Appliance to lessen tension, 
 
 Balance 
 
 a perfect, . 
 
 lack of, . . , 
 Basis of facts, . 
 Blocking the pedal joint, 
 Bonner, Mr. Robert, and Dexter, 
 
 Classes of disease, but two, 
 
 Centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 Column and base. 
 
 Conflicting opinions. 
 
 Comparison, a. 
 
 College for horseshoers suggested. 
 
 Different forms of feet. 
 
 Disadvantages of position of fore legs. 
 
 Diseases produced by a too high toe, 
 produced by too high heels, 
 produced by the outside half of the foot being too high, 
 produced by the inside half oi the foot being too high, 
 
 Disproportion causes adverse leverage, .... 
 
 I 
 14 
 
 52 
 
 116 
 
 76 
 
 74 
 
 144 
 146 
 
 145 
 90 
 61 
 
 130 
 
 154 
 
 9,132 
 
 69 
 
 89 
 
 119 
 
 141 
 
 27 
 38 
 
 63 
 148 
 149 
 148 
 126 
 
INDEX. 
 
 257 
 
 Disadvantage, a horse's mechanical, 
 Discrimination necessary, 
 
 Effects of an unbalanced foot. 
 Equilibrium essential, 
 Equipoise, perfect, necessary. 
 Essential knowledge. 
 Examine thoroughly. 
 Exception to a rule, 
 Excrescence of sole, 
 Explanation of chart on pointing. 
 Egregious mistake, . 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 123 
 
 70 
 
 147 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 25 
 91 
 
 104 
 
 94 
 
 9 
 
 184 
 
 Foot constantly enlarges by growth, 
 
 Forms of feet, different, . 
 
 Facts, facts, facts, . 
 
 Feet of horses compared with those of other 
 
 First case, my. 
 
 Flat feet and cup feet. 
 
 Fleshy-footed animals do not point 
 
 Foot anatomy, .... 
 
 constantly enlarging by growth, 
 
 the short arm of a lever, . 
 
 diseases of, influenced by form 
 Fuel to fire, adding. 
 
 Good thing to know, a, . 
 Growth destroys balance. 
 
 animals. 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 119 
 
 68 
 
 98 
 
 7 
 I 
 
 3 
 141 
 1 12 
 135 
 
 113 
 16 
 
 HoRSESHOERS' coUcgc suggested, . 
 
 " Happy-medium" pastern, 
 
 Hind limbs have greater facility for rest, 
 
 limbs escape ills endured by fore ones. 
 How long will a foot keep perfect? 
 
 141 
 
 79 
 46 
 
 58 
 
 19 
 
 Indispensable necessity, an 
 
 Interesting problem, an 
 
 Intimate connections of pedal bone and hoof. 
 
 Judgment and discrimination necessary, 
 17 
 
 114 
 51 
 30 
 
 70 
 
258 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lameness produced by weakness, . 
 
 Lame horse at grass, 
 
 Law of nature, a, . . . . 
 
 Leg a lever, the 
 
 Level extension of the foot, 
 
 as still water, .... 
 Levelling, symmetrizing, and balancing 
 Leverage power, .... 
 
 upon the laminae, 
 Line of union of sole and wall. 
 Long strides and short strides, 
 Loss of power by overgrowth of hoof, 
 
 Maintains his own balance, the horse. 
 Many diseases produced by one cause, 
 
 ailments, one remedy, 
 Mechanical problem, a, . 
 Missing link, a, . . . 
 
 Mobility of hock joint. 
 
 Natural gauge, a, . 
 
 size of the foot, . 
 Nature's footmark, . 
 Navicular disease, causes, 
 
 disease, flat feet exempt from, 
 
 bone, ulceration of, . 
 
 Opinions, conflicting. 
 
 Objects made alike perform alike, 
 
 Oblique pasterns. 
 
 One good turn deserves another. 
 
 One disease at a time. 
 
 Pedal joint, the, 
 Proper size of the foot, 
 
 balance important, 
 Passing strange, 
 Pastern, oblique, 
 
 upright 
 
 Pedal articulation, . 
 
 articulation a common hinge, 
 
 bone, unbalancing the. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 127 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 125 
 
 54 
 
 99 
 
 142 
 
 53 
 
 83 
 
 93 
 
 137 
 
 124 
 
 108 
 64 
 62 
 
 73 
 29 
 
 45 
 
 86. 
 
 39. 59. 75. 
 
 40 
 
 118 
 
 88 
 
 lOI 
 
 97 
 42 
 
 28 
 
 70, n 
 28. 117 
 
 . 66 
 
 2 
 
 86, 118, 122 
 13 
 85 
 77 
 78 
 49 
 22 
 21 
 
INDEX. 
 
 259 
 
 Pendulum, the leg a, 
 Perfect balance, quick results. 
 Perpendicular heels, 
 Points on pointing, . 
 
 and facts for horsemen, 
 Pointing during motion, . 
 
 an instinct. 
 Prescription, a good. 
 Pyramid of the pedal bone. 
 
 Question answered, a, 
 
 Quick results of a perfect balance, 
 
 Rustication 
 
 Remedy for navicular disease, 
 Relative advantages of position of fore and hind 1 
 Relaxation of the flexor tendons, 
 Rationale of rocking motion, . 
 Remedy, the mechanical, 
 Reprodtiction, .... 
 Results of overgrowth of hoof, . 
 " Rheumatoid diathesis" of Professor Williams, 
 diathesis " theory inconclusive. 
 
 Ridges upon the foot, 
 
 Rustication not always beneficial to horses, . 
 " Respectfully submitted," .... 
 
 Symmetrization 
 
 Symmetry, ....... 
 
 Strides long and short 
 
 Sacrifices much valuable time. 
 
 Silent demonstration, 
 
 Size, proportion and symmetry. 
 
 Solid sole, the, 
 
 and spongy feet, 
 
 Sole, surplus 
 
 Sprain and compression, 
 
 Spring colts and overgrown feet, . 
 Straddling at grass and its consequences, 
 Sticks of whalebone, two, .... 
 Surplus of hoof detrimental 
 
 4. 
 
 o-s 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 20 
 
 8,10 
 
 140 
 
 23 
 
 131 
 15 
 
 56 
 
 136 
 128 
 
 37. 3«. 43 
 
 44 
 
 138 
 
 128 
 
 121 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 17 
 
 136 
 
 80 
 
 143. 152 
 143 
 137 
 
 82 
 106 
 
 84 
 
 95 
 
 III 
 
 96 
 
 34 
 120 
 
 48 
 100 
 
 92 
 
26o 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Twisting the pedal joint, 
 Theory, a new. 
 Thoroughbred horses, 
 Toeing in and toeing out. 
 
 Unbalanced by accident, 
 Upright pastern. 
 Unbalancing the pedal joint, 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 153 
 
 Villeneuve's case, Mr 
 
 Weakness the cause of lameness, . 
 
 Weight must be carried, .... 
 
 Why and wherefore, .... 
 
 Williams, Professor, on navicular diseases, 
 Professor, and English notions. 
 Professor, and oblique pasterns. 
 Professor, respectfully submitted to, 
 
 Wrenching the pedal joint. 
 
 32, 60, 
 
 ZuNDEL, Professor, observations by, 
 
 Spavin, 
 
 Preliminary remarks, 
 
 Origin of, . 
 
 A new classification of foot diseases 
 
 The one-bone theory. 
 
 The hock joint, .... 
 
 Symptoms, .... 
 
 Inherited forms of hock, . 
 
 A constant menace of danger, . 
 
 Long and short axes, 
 
 A cause of spavin. 
 
 Another cause of spavin, . 
 
 Great weight carried by one leg. 
 
 Another cause of spavin, . 
 
 Conformation a cause of spavin. 
 
 Early bias, .... 
 
 What I have never seen, . 
 
 156, 
 
 162, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 261 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 Further observations on spavin, i73 
 
 Compression of bones, 
 
 
 
 
 174 
 
 Symptoms, 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 , 162 
 
 Treatment, 
 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 Shoeing for spavin, 
 
 
 
 
 177 
 
 Blood-spavin and thoroughpin. 
 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 " Occult" lameness, .... 
 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 Interesting experiment 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 Treatment for all bone diseases. 
 
 
 
 
 181 
 
 Contracted tendons 
 
 
 
 
 182 
 
 Coming events, ...... 
 
 
 
 
 183 
 
 An egregious mistake, .... 
 
 
 
 
 184 
 
 An unwise practice, ..... 
 
 
 
 . 185 
 
 Ringbone 
 
 . i86 
 
 Rationale of causes 
 
 
 
 
 186 
 
 Locations of ringbone. 
 
 
 
 
 187 
 
 High ringbone 
 
 
 
 
 188 
 
 A remarkable fact 
 
 
 
 
 189 
 
 A serious mistake, .... 
 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 Forty-five years' experience, . 
 
 
 
 
 191 
 
 Firing and blistering. 
 
 
 
 
 192 
 
 Double motion, ..... 
 
 
 
 
 193 
 
 A disadvantage, .... 
 
 
 
 
 194 
 
 Ringbone more injurious than spavin. 
 
 
 
 
 • 195 
 
 Heredity 
 
 
 
 
 . 196 
 
 The remedy for ringbone, 
 
 
 
 
 • 197 
 
 Percival and ringbone. 
 
 
 
 
 . 198 
 
 Rocker shoe, ..... 
 
 
 
 
 • 199 
 
 Ossification of articular cartilage, . 
 
 
 
 
 . 200 
 
 Dangerous form of ringbone, . 
 
 
 
 
 . 200 
 
 Anatomical peculiarities, . 
 
 
 
 
 . 201 
 
 Ball-and-socket joint. 
 
 
 
 
 . 202 
 
 Anatomy of the joint, 
 
 
 
 
 . 203 
 
 Treatment, 
 
 
 
 
 . 204 
 
 Splent 
 
 
 
 
 . 205 
 
 Causes of, 
 
 
 
 
 . 205 
 
 Causes and effects 
 
 
 
 
 . 206 
 
 Sudden unequal pressure, 
 
 
 
 
 . 207 
 
 Treatment, 
 
 
 
 
 . 208 
 
262 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Enlargements of Heels, 
 Abnormal enlargements, 
 Symptoms, 
 The remedy. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 . 209 
 . 209 
 . 210 
 . 211 
 
 Corn, 
 
 General observations. 
 
 Corn and its causes, . 
 
 Symptoms of, . 
 
 Mr. Robert Bonner and high heels, 
 
 Corn and contraction. 
 
 Natural size and the white line, 
 
 Other causes of corn, 
 
 A remarkable phenomenon. 
 
 Another symptom. 
 
 The horseman's compass, 
 
 A morbid condition resembling, 
 
 The remedy. 
 
 Suppurating corn, 
 
 Treatment for severe cases of. 
 
 Other contingencies. 
 
 General treatment, . 
 
 Stringhalt, 
 
 Tracing the causes, . 
 
 A mysterious malady. 
 
 My own observations, 
 
 I and Professor Liautard, 
 
 Remarkable resemblance to. 
 
 Exploring for cause. 
 
 My first case of, in New York, . 
 
 The worst case yet, . . " . 
 
 and Mr. Robert Bonner, . 
 
 Still mysterious. 
 
 Observations upon, . 
 
 Symptoms of compared with those 
 
 Treatment of, . 
 
 Mechanism of the hock joint, . 
 
 A suddenly acquired case of, . 
 
 Hock movements. 
 
 Effects of snow-balling, . 
 
 )f spavin, 
 
 . 228 
 
 228. 233 
 
 . 229 
 
 ■ 230 
 
 • 231 
 
 ■ 232 
 233, 228 
 
 • 234 
 . 235 
 
 • 236 
 
 ■ 237 
 . 238 
 
 • 239 
 . 240 
 . 241 
 . 242 
 
 • 243 
 
 • 244 
 
INDEX. 
 
 263 
 
 Quarter-crack, 
 
 How split hoof is produced, 
 Professor Williams and split hoof, 
 " Come, let us reason together," 
 Rationale of split hoof. 
 The treatment of. 
 Post-natal influences. 
 Atrophy of bone, 
 Keep it down, . 
 Subject not exhausted. 
 Front-foot fissure. 
 Rationale of causes, . 
 Intrinsic causes. 
 
 All for want of balance, 
 
 Position of pedal bone. 
 
 Leverage at the heels, 
 
 A peculiar form of foot, 
 
 Concussion, 
 
 To prevent slipping. 
 
 Shoeing for front fissure, 
 
 A solid foot, 
 
 Rationale of rocker shoe, 
 Professor Gamgee, . 
 
 Knuckling, 
 
 Prevention of, in colts. 
 
 Retarded development. 
 
 Symptoms, 
 
 Causes, 
 
 Veterinary surgeons and 
 
 Horseman's compass. 
 
 Oblique pasterns. 
 
 To prevent, 
 
 The foot the essential part of the horse 
 
 Treatment, • • • ' ' 
 
 Curb, . • ■ • 
 
 Limits of endurance. 
 Deranged machinery, 
 . A fertile region, 
 A fixed fact, 
 
 horsesho 
 
 5er! 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 . 245 
 
 . 246 
 
 . 247 
 
 . 248 
 
 . 249 
 . 250 
 
 • 251 
 . 252 
 
 • 253 
 . 254 
 ■ 255 
 . 256 
 . 257 
 . 258 
 • 259 
 . 260 
 . 261 
 . 262 
 . 263 
 . 264 
 . 265 
 . 266 
 
 . 267 
 
 . 268 
 
 . 269 
 
 . 270 
 
 273. 271 
 . 272 
 
 . 274 
 
 . 275 
 
 . 276 
 
 . 277 
 
 . 278 
 
 . 279 
 
 . 280 
 
 . 281 
 
 . 282 
 
 . 283 
 
264 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Curb varies, 
 
 Curby hock, 
 
 Curby hock and sickle hoc! 
 
 Characteristics of pointing, 
 
 Sprain of back tendons, 
 
 Various effects, one cause, 
 The pointing compass, 
 The centre-bearing shoe, 
 Treatment of sprains, 
 Racers and trotters, . 
 
 WiNDGALLS, 
 
 Treatment, 
 
 Ear-marks of the family, 
 Mr. Quintal's case, . 
 Originating causes, . 
 
 Acute laminitis, 
 
 General observations. 
 
 Causes of, . 
 
 The cause of causes, . 
 
 Area of laminated structures, 
 
 Observations wise or otherwise, 
 
 Bootmaker and cobbler, . 
 
 A valuable suggestion, 
 
 Other causes of, 
 
 Bony and fleshy enlargement. 
 
 The reason why, 
 
 Symptom of, . 
 
 The remedy for. 
 
 Centre-bearing philosoph5^ 
 
 Sideway movements. 
 
 Broad's laminitis shoe, 
 
 Seedy toe, .... 
 
 Shoeing for seedy toe, 
 
 Pumice foot, 
 
 A comparison, . 
 
 The most important consideration. 
 
 The happy medium, . 
 
 Concluding observations, 
 
 PARAGRAPH^ 
 284 
 285 
 286 
 287 
 
 288 
 28S 
 289 
 290 
 291 
 292 
 
 294 
 295 
 296 
 297 
 
 298 
 298 
 299 
 300 
 301 
 302 
 
 304 
 305 
 306 
 
 307 
 308 
 
 309 
 310 
 
 311 
 312 
 
 313 
 314 
 
 315 
 316 
 
 317 
 318 
 319 
 
INDEX. 
 
 265 
 
 Contraction, . • • 
 General observations, 
 Effects of, . 
 Causes of, . 
 Favoring the feet. 
 Narrow feet increase leverage. 
 Type of contraction, No. i. 
 Type of contraction. No. 2, 
 Type of contraction, No. 3. 
 Type of contraction. No. 4. 
 
 Overweighting, 
 
 Mechanical expansion, 
 
 Dexter's pedal bone, 
 
 No remedy, • • • * 
 
 The problem solved, . 
 
 A digression, • • • • 
 
 A growing hoof a growing evil. 
 
 Remove excrescences. 
 
 Penalty of neglect, . 
 
 Another cause of, 
 
 Ridges on the wall, . 
 
 Mechanical expansion 
 General principles of treatment 
 Expander all the time 
 First and last cause, . 
 
 Kneespring, . 
 Causes, 
 
 and straight hock. 
 Straight hock and c 
 and knuckling, . 
 Symptoms, 
 Lateral balance, 
 Complicated causes. 
 The remedy, 
 Sloping stalls, . 
 
 alf knee. 
 
 PAR.XGRAPHS 
 . 320 
 . 320 
 . 321 
 . 322 
 . 323 
 324 
 325 
 326 
 
 340 
 . 342 
 . 327 
 . 328 
 . 329 
 . 341 
 
 • 343 
 . 344 
 
 • 345 
 . 346 
 . 347 
 . 348 
 . 349 
 
 • 350 
 
 • 351 
 
 • 352 
 . 353 
 
 . 354 
 . 355 
 . 356 
 . 357 
 . 358 
 • 359 
 . 360 
 . 361 
 . 362 
 . 363 
 
 Cutting and interfering, 
 Horseman's compass. 
 Articulations, . ■ • 
 Pointing, • 
 
 364 
 365 
 366 
 
266 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS 
 
 Examine the foot, 
 Form and interfering, 
 Shoefly shoe, 
 Modes of interfering, 
 An erroneous idea, . 
 Most speed most danger. 
 The standard shoe, . 
 General maxims. 
 Ball-and-socket joint. 
 Natural conformation, 
 Cutting at speed, 
 Another cause, . 
 Hitching, . 
 Forging, 
 
 Shoeing for forging. 
 Extreme case of forging, 
 
 Lameness of horses — how to locate 
 General observations, 
 The language of motion, . 
 Elastic movements, . 
 Must keep time, 
 See-saw motion. 
 Diagonal lameness, . 
 Exceptions to the rule, 
 • Least of two evils. 
 Trotter and pacer. 
 Lameness with pointing, . 
 Absolute symptoms, . 
 Lameness without pain, . 
 Anchylosis, 
 
 Lameness from loss of balance 
 Do the best you can. 
 One more lesson, 
 Unfailing signs. 
 First and last words. 
 
 Tendons and ligaments of the leg, 
 The suspensory ligament. 
 The perforans tendon. 
 The perforatus tendon, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 267 
 
 
 I 
 
 'ARAGRAPHS 
 
 The extensor pedis 404 
 
 Functions of 
 
 
 
 405 
 
 Rationale of movements, . 
 
 
 
 406 
 
 Transmission of weight, . . 
 
 
 
 407 
 
 The reason why 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 Normal and abnormal conditions, . 
 
 
 
 409 
 
 The ultimate link 
 
 
 
 410 
 
 Fair deductions, .... 
 
 
 
 411 
 
 Critical junctures, .... 
 
 
 
 412 
 
 Injuries to suspensory. 
 
 
 
 413 
 
 Predisposing causes, .... 
 
 
 
 414 
 
 Hard and soft roads 
 
 
 
 415 
 
 Injuries to the perforans, . 
 
 
 
 416 
 
 Mischievous energy 
 
 
 
 417 
 
 Injuries to the perforatus. 
 
 
 
 418 
 
 Injuries to the extensor, . 
 
 
 
 419 
 
 How to distinguish an injured tendon or 
 
 ligament 
 
 
 420 
 
 Rational remedies, .... 
 
 
 
 421 
 
 General observations. 
 
 
 
 422 
 
 Rocker shoe invaluable, . 
 
 
 
 423 
 
 How to prevent pain and loss, . 
 
 
 
 424 
 
 Prevention of injuries, 
 
 
 
 425 
 
 Temporary high heel, 
 
 
 
 426 
 
 Prevention of strain during motion, 
 
 
 
 427 
 
 It must follow, ..... 
 
 
 
 428 
 
 Rocking movement 
 
 
 
 429 
 
 Eight running horses, 
 
 
 
 430 
 
 A drawback, ..... 
 
 
 
 431 
 
 A problem to be solved, . 
 
 
 
 432 
 
 A cup foot, 
 
 
 
 433 
 
 A splendid auxiliary. 
 
 
 
 434 
 
 Last words, ..... 
 
 
 
 435 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS OF EACH SHOE. 
 
 The centre-bearing shoe (Cut 42) is represented by the sec- 
 tion of a globe which may be from four to six inches in diameter, 
 the depth of the curve varying from one-eighth to one inch. 
 
 The half-ball (Cut 19). This form is best understood by sup- 
 posing the full centre-bearing shoe to have a slice taken off it at 
 any depth, which would leave a hole in the centre and give a 
 bearing on the circumference of the hole so formed. 
 
 The central bar (Cut 24). The basis of this shoe is a common 
 bar shoe. A fiat bar of steel three-fourths to one inch wide, and 
 of sufficient thickness to carry the weight of the animal, is first 
 given the required curvature, and is then to be welded over the 
 centre of the shoe, that is, if the foot is regular in circumference ; 
 but if the foot is otherwise, the central bar must be welded to 
 the shoe so that the /^t"/ may be balanced rather than the shoe. 
 The central bar in other words should be in a direct line with the 
 axis of bearing of the limb— let the point of the toe be where it 
 will. This shoe will be the substitute for the centre-bearing or 
 ball shoe on all occasions, as it prevents slipping. 
 
 The common four-calk front shoe describes itself (Cut 20). It 
 works like the rolling-motion shoe and prevents slipping. 
 
 The common four-calk hind shoe (Cut 28) for curb, and pre- 
 vents strains of back tendons. 
 
 Rolling-motion shoe (Cut 29). This shoe is thicker at the heel 
 than at the toe ; the toe portion is curved and the heel uncurved, 
 for horses when pointing forward. 
 
 Rocking shoe, for horses high at the heels (Cut 21), for corn. 
 
 F'our-calk shoe for spavin (Cut 18). For stringhalt or spavin 
 the inside calk is set back to allow the toe to fall in an inward 
 direction. 
 
 Rocking bar shoe, one heel cut off for corns (Cut 22). 
 
 Dexter's pedal bone (Cut 31). 
 
 Profile view Dexter's pedal bone (Cut 31). 
 
 Drawing of a contracted foot (Cut 33). 
 
 Drawing of a perfect foot (Cut 34). 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS OF EACH SHOE. 269 
 
 Wing of pedal bone atrophied (Cut 41). 
 
 Line of flexion of hind leg shod with high or low heels (Cut 25). 
 
 Half-ball shoe with four calks (Cut 44). This modification of 
 the centre-bearing is an important one, as it prevents slipping. 
 A horse with this shoe, whether sound or lame, will travel better 
 on the road at all gaits and rates of speed. I have known of 
 many tender-footed and sound horses having their speed im- 
 proved by the use of this shoe, and I have no doubt when this 
 style of shoe can be made lighter that it will be a most important 
 factor in the development of speed. 
 
 Bar shoe for front-foot fissure (Cut 26). 
 
 Rocker shoe made by welding calks two-thirds of the shoe's 
 length, beginning at the heel (Cut 23). 
 
 Grab shoe (Cut 30). The outer edge of the shoe to be of one 
 even thickness all the way round, but scooped at the toe from 
 the outer edge to the inside edge down to a thin edge. 
 
 Flat shoefly — bevelled at the outside toe to allow the foot to 
 rock outwardly to prevent interfering (Cut 35). 
 
 Front four-calk shoefly, to prevent interfering and slipping 
 (Cut 36). 
 
 Common shoe with toe calk for heavy slow horses, to prevent 
 hitting or interfering, same as shoefly (Cut 37). 
 
 Pivot shoe for a club foot or bad ringbone (Cut 39). 
 
 Movable pivot to apply to the heel of a shoe to give a horse 
 rest to his tendons while standing in the stable (Cut 40). 
 
 It will be instructive to contrast the effects of the two forms 
 of hoof represented in Figs. 2 and 5. One has a convex and the 
 other a concave outline on the front surface. I have seen horses 
 whose hoofs have ctirved inwardly half an inch, and some out- 
 wardly the same distance from the straight line. It is well 
 known that the normal distance of the laminated structures is at 
 an equal distance from the top to the bottom of the wall, whether 
 curved inwardly or outwardly, so that it is possible for the points 
 of the toes of the pedal bones in those cases to vary to the extent 
 of an inch or more in height. It is a fact that navicular disease 
 is always the attendant of the elevated toe and never of the ele- 
 vated heel; pointing clearly to the natural and necessary con- 
 nection between high-toe and navicular disease. 
 
.5S 
 
 2 y 
 
 s ■/- 0^ 
 
 = 5 = ? 
 
 !• ^ 5 
 
 5.x 
 
 <ja2 
 
 ^ cS ■'' -,1 
 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 
 >5 
 
 bC 
 
 i 2 O^ 
 
 
 
 s ? o = 
 
 
 C 
 
 -5 $, -^ 'f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a. Apex of the pec 
 
 b. Coronary bone. 
 
 c. Pedal bone. 
 
 d. Pedal joint. 
 
 e. Centre of ioot, 
 
 toe and nail, 
 ff . Natural height 
 gg. A foot grown 
 
 
 "7. 
 r. 
 
 
 
 
 "^ =4-1 ^^--73 tc ;^ 
 
 ^ ° . <i5 a: 2; 
 
 
 " '£ ^ .-5 
 
 • S "^ S 3^ Q 
 
 O^'S 2 S t. f= 
 
 . o p o - i- 
 
 !< X 
 
 g 2 ^ 
 
 ^ OP 
 
 ■ ■ O; a) p 
 
 '^•^ be 
 
 -^•^-„ c S o 
 
 •5^0 0)® a,+j|2-<; 
 
 d ,o o'p tD =tH be 
 
 t^ s .y ■*; ^ ^^ 
 
NO. 3. 
 
 No. 3 shows the toe of the jDodal bone c 
 downward by too high heels. 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 No. 4 sliows the toe of the pedal bone c too elevated by 
 too mucli linof left at the toe h. 
 
NO. 5. 
 
 This cut shows the toe of the pedal bone c raised by 
 an extra growth of hoof at tlie toe, tig. h. 
 
 NO. 6. 
 
 This cut shows a difference in lieight between lieels and toe 
 on account of tlie grain of the hoof growing horizontally 
 at the heels and vertical at the toe. 
 
NO. 7. 
 
 This cut shows the uniformity of the ridges 
 circumscribing th" foot by an even 
 growth of lioof. 
 
 NO. 9. 
 
 chart sliowing that a horse points to these eight 
 directions to find relief, caused by extra height of 
 hoof at either one of those figures. 
 
NO. 10. 
 
 This cut is to show that the strain of the perforans depends on 
 the distance between its insertion at K to the prop line or 
 apex at a. 
 
 NO. 11- 
 
 This cut is to show that obhquity 
 of the pastern depends on the 
 baUxnce of the hoof and that 
 raising the heels causes its ob- 
 hquity and vice versa. 
 
 Cut 12 shows a natural cause for kneespron 
 by an oblique pastern. 
 
NO. 13. 
 
 riiis cut is to prove that the hook 
 depends more or less on the obUqui- 
 ty of the pastern for its angle : that 
 is, oblique pastern causes a straight 
 hock, and vice versa. 
 
 NO. 14. 
 
 This shows that high heels 
 has caused the leg to 
 point back of a vertical 
 line from the point of 
 the shoulder. 
 
 NO. 15a. 
 
 A hoof contrac-ted on one-half 
 only. Make that side of the 
 pedal bone the highest. 
 
 NO. 16a. 
 
 A. hoof becoming 
 contraction. 
 
 oblong by 
 
JMO. 15. 
 
 This sliows that a well-bal- 
 anced foot causes the leg 
 to stand vertical. 
 
 WING 
 
 NO. 17. 
 
 A hoof contracted at both heels. 
 
 NO. 16. 
 
 This shows that an extra 
 high toe causes the horse 
 to point in front of a 
 vertical line drawn from 
 the shoulder. 
 
 NO. 18. 
 
 A hoof contracted at one heel only. 
 
Tliese Sliocs were PatiMiteil in ISCJl) aiid 1S70 in tlie Uiiitel Stales— the 
 Cciitre-bcariiig- Slioe in Canada, Eni'land, France and BiOyiuni. 
 
 NO. 18. 
 
 NO. 18. 
 
 A four-calk shoe for a spavin. The inside calk set further 
 back than the outside calk. 
 
 NO. 19. 
 
 A half-ball shoe. 
 
 Side view. 
 
No. 19. 
 
 A half ball .shue witho it cali 
 
 NO. li). 
 
 A half -ball shoe with a centre 
 piece welcknl near the centre, 
 to cause it to wear and to rock 
 easily also. 
 
 «fO. 31. NO. 81. 
 
 A rocking shoe thinner at both heels and toe. Called a rockc 
 
NO. 22. 
 
 A. rocking bar shoe for corns 
 
 A rocking shoe made by welding the 
 calk on each side. 
 
i 
 
NO. 34. NO. 34. 
 
 A centre-bar shoe to replace a centre-bearins: or ball shoe. 
 
 NO. 26. NO. 26. 
 
 A shoe with the calks set one inch from the points of the 
 heels. 
 
NO. 36. 
 
 NO. 26. 
 
 NO. iS. NO. 38. 
 
 A common foiTV-calk hind shoe f<:)r curbed or swelled 
 tendons. 
 
I 
 
NO. 39. 
 
 A rolling motion shoe rolled at the toe only, for nevaculer 
 disease or for a horse pointing. 
 
 NI?, 30. NO. 30. 
 
 A. grab shoe — :i shoe made to roll, while it prevents slipping. 
 
1 
 
NO. 31. 
 
 View of the bottom of the Dexter pedal 
 bone, with one contracted wing. 
 
 NO. 37. 
 
 A shoe with the toe set on the bias to pre- 
 vent cutting. Set full on the inside. 
 
 Side view. 
 
i 
 
NO. 33. 
 
 A profile view of Dexter's foot or pedal bone. 
 
 NO. 33. 
 
 A foot before expanded. 
 
 NO. 34. 
 
 A perfect foot after expanded. 
 
i 
 
NO. 35. NO. 35. 
 
 A shoe rolled on the outside toe to prevent slipping ; 
 called shoe-fly. 
 
 i\0. 30. 
 
 IVO. 36. 
 
 AfoTir-calk slioe to prevent cutting. The outside toe calk set 
 back of the inside one in place of No. 35 shoe 
 
A ct'iitre-ljearing slioe for a club-foot or 
 for lamenetes. 
 
 ^0. 38. 
 
 Side view, 
 
 IVO. 40 
 
 A movable pivot attached to the shoe, 
 for to rest the tendons while standing. 
 
 Side view. 
 
NO. 44. 
 
 NO. 41. 
 
 A iiedal bone, with one contracted wing. 
 
NO. 42. NO- *'-• 
 
 A shoe made like a half ball, rocking in all directions, 
 Called a ball shoe or centre-bearing shoe. 
 
 NO. 44. 
 
 A shoe made half -ball with calk 
 to prevent slipping. 
 
 NO. 44. 
 
 A half -ball with- 
 out calks. 
 
ON OF 
 
lLIAM R. JENKINS' 
 
 f.^iNARY Catalogue. 
 
 1894. 
 
 (•) Single asterisk designates New Book. 
 
 (**) Double asterisk designates Recent I>nblication. 
 
 ror list of Veterinary and Medical books, especially adapted for the use of students in Veterinary 
 
 College, see back of Catalogue. 
 
 Armatage. "Every Man His Own 
 Cattle Doctob." The Veterinary 
 Cyclopcedia.—Emhv&cing all practi- 
 cal information on the Diseases 
 of Cattle, Sheep and Swine. By 
 Prof. George Armatage, M. E. C. 
 V. S. One large octavo volume, 
 894 pages, with upwards of 350 
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 Half morocco $7.50 
 
 (*) Armatage. "Cattle." Their Vari- 
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 and Disease. By George Arma- 
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 trations. 12mo, cloth 1-00 
 
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 illustrations. 12mo, cloth 1.00 
 
 Agassiz and Goiild. "Outline of 
 
 Comparative Physiology." $1.50 
 
 Allen's American Cattle. Their 
 History, Breeding and Manage- 
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 breeder of live stock. Revised 
 edition. By Lewis F. Allen. 
 Illustrated, Cloth, 12 mo 2 50 
 
 Amateur. "Horses." Their Rational 
 Treatment and the Causes of their 
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 2.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 Anderson. " The Gallop." By 
 Edward L. Anderson. Illustrated 
 with instantaneous photographs 
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 J NDEB S ON. ' ' Vice in tlie Horse " 
 
 and oiher papers on Horses and 
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 ANDERSON. " How to Ride and 
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 By Prof. George Armatage, M. R. 
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2 
 
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 Designed as a Comprehensive Sup. 
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 COUMTNEY. " Manual of Veteri- 
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 8vo, cloth new 3.50 
 
 (*) COX. " Horses : In Accident and 
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 Physiology." With index and 
 463 Illustrative Woodcuts. 2 vols. 3.50 
 
10 
 
 William R. Jenkins' Veterinary Publications. 
 
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 Horse," or Lameness and all Dis- 
 eases of the Feet traced to an 
 Unbalanced Foot Bone, prevented 
 or cured by balancing the foot. 
 By David Eoberge. 8vo, cloth 5.00 
 
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 Amateurs." A Practical Manual 
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851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, (Corner i8th Street), New York. 
 
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 eases OF THE Ox." Being a Man- 
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 i*)S THAN GE WAT. • Teterinary 
 
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 Terry. " The Winter Care of 
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 Terry 0.40 
 
 Touchstone. "Race Horses and 
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 Tuson. " Pharmacop.j:ia." Includ- 
 ing Outlines of Materia Medica and 
 Therapeutics in Veterinary Medi- 
 cine. 12mo, cloth 2.50 
 
 Van Beneden. " Animal Parasites 
 AND Messmates." By P. J. Van 
 Beneden. 12mo, cloth 1.50 
 
 VETERINARY DIAGRAMS. 
 
 Five Charts, on stout paper, as 
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 No. 1. With eight colored illustra- 
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 No. 2. "The Age of the Domestic 
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 No. 3. " Unsoundness and Defects of 
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 No. 5. " The Elementary Anatomy, 
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 the Ox." With seventeen colored 
 illustrations 1.50 
 
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 text. Price, per set of five 5.00 
 
 "Veterinary Homoeopathy." Com- 
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 WALLET. "Hints on the Breed- 
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 Tubercle.) With an Appendix on 
 the Inspection of Live Animals 
 and Meat. Illustrated, 4to, cloth. 6.40 
 
12 
 
 William R. Jenkins" Veterinary Publications. 
 
 WALLEY. "The Horse, Cow and 
 
 Dog." By Dr. Thomas Walley. 
 A poetical account of the " Toubl- 
 ous Life of the Horse"; "The Life 
 of a Dairy Cow," and " The Life of 
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 to Meat Inspection," An im- 
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 Waring. "Riding and Teaining 
 
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 extra 125 
 
 Wiedersheim. "Manual of the 
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 Illustrated, 8vo (net) 3.00 
 
 Wilder and Gage." Anatomical 
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 {*) WILLIAMS. " Principles and 
 Practice of Veterinary Medicine." 
 
 New edition, entirely revised, and 
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 liams, M. R. C. V. S. 8vo, cloth. 5.00 
 
 (*) WILLIAMS. ' ' Principles and 
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 New edition, ju.st published, en- 
 tirely revised and illustrated with 
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 By W. Williams, M. R. C. V. S. 
 8vo, cloth 5.00 
 
 Williams. " Dogs and Their Ways." 
 Illustrated by numerous anecdotes 
 compiled from authentic sources, 
 By Rev. Charles Williams. With 
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 Willard. " Practical Dairy Hus 
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 Willard. "Practical Butter Book." 
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 Making at Factories and Farm 
 Daries, including selection, feeding 
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 Butter Dairying, with plans for 
 Rooms, etc. By X. A. Willard. 
 Cloth, 12mo 1.00 
 
 Wolf. " Wild Animals." The Life 
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 cloth 5.0O 
 
 Wood. "Horse and Man." Their 
 Mutual Dependence and Duties. 
 By Rev. J. G. Wood. With illus- 
 trations. Svo, extra cloth 2.50 
 
 Wood. "New Illustrated Natu- 
 ral History." With many hun- 
 dred illustrations. By Rev. J. G. 
 Wood. Svo, cloth, $4.00 ; sheep, 
 $5.00 ; tree calf 15.00 
 
 Woodruff. "Trotting Horse in 
 America." How to Train and 
 Drive him ; with Reminiscences 
 of the Turf. 12mo, cloth 2. 50 
 
 Worcester. Standard Royal Quarto 
 Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage. Profusely illustrated. New 
 Edition, with Supplement, contain- 
 ing 12.500 new words. Also a new 
 vocabulary of Synonymes of Words 
 in General use. Sheep, marbled 
 edges lO.OO 
 
 Wright. " Practical Poultry 
 Keeper." A Complete Standard 
 Guide on the Management of Poul- 
 try, for domestic use, the markets 
 or exhibition 2.00 
 
 Wurtz. " Elements of Modern 
 Chemistry." Profusely illustra- 
 ted, 12mo, cloth, $2.50 ; sheep 3.0O 
 
 Youatt & Skinner. " The Horse." 
 
 By William Youatt. Svo, woodcuts 2.0O 
 
 Youatt. "The Dog." Revised and 
 
 enlarged. 8vo, Woodcuts 2.0O 
 
 Youatt. "Sheep." A General Trea- 
 tise. Svo, cloth 1.00' 
 
 Youatt and Martin. "The Hog." 
 
 12mo, cloth l.OO 
 
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 Horse." Its Structure, Diseases, 
 Remedies ; Rules to Buyers, 
 Breeders, Shoers, etc. 12mo, cloth, 
 illustrated 1.50 
 
 ZUNDEL. "Tlie Horse's Foot and 
 
 Its Diseases." By A. Zundel, 
 Principal Veterinarian of Alsace 
 Lorraine. Translated by Dr. A. 
 Liautard, V. S. 12mo, cloth, illus- 
 trated 2.00 
 
SUBJECT CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Fleming. 
 
 Actinomykosis. 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Ballou, Chauveau, Hayes, Huxley, Liau- 
 tard, M'Fadyean, McBride, Owen, Percival, 
 Kolleston, Strangeway, Stonehenge, Veter- 
 inary Charts, Wiedershiem, Wilder and 
 Gage. 
 
 Age. 
 
 ' Clarke, Hayes, Huidekoper, Veterinary 
 Diagrams, Liautard. 
 
 Bits and Bitting. 
 
 Bach, Battersby. 
 
 Buying and Selling. 
 Delisser, Howden, Youatt and Spooner. 
 
 Breeding. 
 
 Burdett, Coutts, Coburn, Flint, Forester, 
 Helm, Hill, Jennings, Lehndorff, Long, Mc- 
 Combie, Miles, Mayhew, Navin. Keynolds, 
 Sanders, Simpson, Stonehenge, Walley, War- 
 fleld, Youatt and Spooner. 
 
 Cat. 
 
 Mivart, Stables, Weir, Wilder and Gage. 
 
 Cow. 
 
 Flint, Guenon, Hazard, Keeping, Wallej'. 
 
 Liautard . 
 
 Castration. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Allen, Arinatage, Armsby (2 books), Bou- 
 guignon, Cattle, Curtis, Dadd, Flint, Gres- 
 well, Guenon, Hazard, Hill, Homoeopathic, 
 Jennings, Kirby, Martin, McClure, McCom- 
 bie, Miller, Murray, Navin, Kichthofen, 
 Shepherd, Terry, Steel, Walley, Warfield. 
 
 Charts. 
 
 Clarke, Dana, Dance, Veterinary Diagrams 
 (Sve in number). 
 
 Contagious Diseases. 
 Fleming. 
 
 Dairy and Farming. 
 
 Flint, Sheldon, Steward, Willard. 
 
 Dental. 
 
 Clarke, Clarke's Chart, Hinebauch, Huide- 
 koper, Liautard. 
 
 Dictionaries. 
 See medical list at back of catalogue. 
 
 Dog. 
 
 Ashmont (2 books), Burgess, Dalziel 
 (9 books), Dogs, Floyd, Forester, Hammond 
 Heatley,Hill,Hurndale, Hutchinson, Idstone' 
 Jesse, Kirby, Mayhew, Mills (2 books), Mur- 
 ray, Moore, Rarey, Shaw, Shields, Stables 
 (3 books),Steel, Stonehenge (3 books),Tavlor 
 Walley, Walsh, Waters, Williams, Youatt. ' 
 
 Driving. 
 
 Bach, Driving, Proctor, Woodruff. 
 
 Druggists' Guides. 
 
 Banham, Beasley, Dun, Morton, Bentley. 
 
 Teed and Feeding. 
 
 Armatage, Armsby, Long, Martin, McClure 
 Page, Stewart. ' 
 
 Foot. 
 
 Clarke, Dewitt. Fleming, Liautard, Miles 
 Page, Percival, Karey, Zundel. ' 
 
 Lambert. 
 Percival. 
 Pegler. 
 
 Percival. 
 
 Germ Theory. 
 
 Glanders. 
 
 Goat. 
 
 Hipp opathology. 
 
14 
 
 William R. Jenkins' Veterinary Publications. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 Anderson (6 books), Amateur, Armatage 
 (4 books), Bach, Ballou, Battersby, Baucher, 
 Bussigny, Chawner, Clarke, Chauveau, Chet- 
 wynd, Curzon, Courtney, Cox, Curtis, Dadd 
 (2 books), Dana, Day, Delisser, Dewitt, 
 Driving, Du Hays, Duncan, Dwyer, Famous, 
 Feek, Fleming, Flower, Fitzwygram, Gleason, 
 Greswell, Hanover, Harger, Hayseed, Hayes, 
 Heatley, Helm, Herbert, Howden, Jennings, 
 Karr, Kirby, Lehndorff, Liautard (6 books), 
 Lord, Lupton, Magner, Martin, Maudsle3% 
 Mayhew, Merwin, McBride, McClure, Mead, 
 McFadyean, Miles (2 books), Moreton,Navin, 
 O'Donoghue, Page, Percival, Proctor, Rarey, 
 Keynolds, Rich, Sanders, Sidney, Simpson, 
 Stewart, Struss, Stonehenge, Terry, Touch- 
 stone, Walley, Waring, Wharton, Wood, 
 Woodruff, Youatt and Skinner, Zundel. 
 
 Hoinceopathic. 
 
 Homoeopathic, Gooday, Guenther, Moore, 
 Euddock, Rush, Schaeffer, Veterinaiy. 
 
 Hydrophobia. 
 
 Fleming, Suzor. 
 
 Hygiene. 
 Billings, Page, Smith, Walley, Currier. 
 
 Iiameness. 
 Liautard, Percival, Roberge. 
 
 Laminitis, 
 Holcombe. 
 
 Meat Inspection. 
 
 Walley. 
 
 Materia Medica. 
 Bentley, Dun, Greswell. 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Courtney, Dun, Greswell (2 books). Hill, 
 Robertson, Ruddock, Schaeffer, Simple Ail- 
 ments, Williams. 
 
 Microscope. 
 
 Beale. 
 
 Mind. 
 
 Lindsay, Romanes (2 books). 
 
 Mule, 
 Riley. 
 
 Obstetrics. 
 Fleming. 
 
 Osteology. 
 Flower, McFadyean. 
 
 Ox. 
 
 Greswell, Steel. 
 
 Parasites. 
 Van Beneden, Fleming, Neumann. 
 
 Pathology. 
 Fleming, Holcombe, Steel. 
 
 Periclion Horses. 
 Du Hayes and Weld. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Agassiz and Gould, Ballou, Carpenter,. 
 Dana, Mills, Owen, Roget, Smith, F. Smith. 
 
 Pig- 
 Cumberland, Harris, Long, Martin, Youatt 
 and Martin. 
 
 Pharmacology . 
 
 Greswell, Morton, Tuson. 
 Plagues . 
 Bourguignon, Fleming. 
 
 Popular Books. 
 
 Armatage, Heatley, Law, Manning, May- 
 hew, Navin, Stewart, Stonehenge. 
 
 Poultry. 
 Jennings, Wright. 
 
 Prescriptions. 
 
 Beasley, Cooley, Griffiths, Greswell, Heat- 
 ley (2 books). Morton, Tuson, Manning, May- 
 hew, Miller, Youatt and Spooner. 
 
 Banham . 
 
 Fleming. 
 
 Posology. 
 
 Rabies. 
 
 Bace Horses. 
 
 Chetwynd, Curzon, Day, Famous, Hay 
 Seed, Helm, Martin, Merwin, Simpson,. 
 Touchstone, Woodruff. 
 
 Remembrancers. 
 
 Armatage, Banham. 
 
 Riding. 
 
 Anderson (6 books), Bach, Battersby,. 
 Baucher, Bussigny, De Hurst, Dwyer, Hayes. 
 Herbert, Karr, Mead, O'Donoghue, Strauss,. 
 Waring. 
 
851 and 853 Sixth Avenue, {Corner iSth Street), New I'ork. 
 
 15. 
 
 Roaring. 
 Fleming, Cadiot. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Armatajje, Curtis, Dadd,Jennings,MeClure, 
 Powers, Randall, Shepherd, Steel, Stewart, 
 Youatt. 
 
 Shoeing. 
 
 Dewltt, Heming, Miles, Page, Practical, 
 Rarey, Rich, Russell, Simpson, Youatt and 
 Spooner. 
 
 Soundness. 
 
 Bach, Hanover, Hayes, Howden, Lupton, 
 Miles. 
 
 Sporting. 
 
 Burgess, Curzon, Lewis. 
 
 Stable Guides. 
 
 Armatage (2 books). Bach, Fleming, Fitz- 
 wygram, Harger, Herbert, Martin, Merwin, 
 Meyriek, McClure, Proctor, Sidney, Simpson, 
 Stonehenge, Wharton. 
 
 Surgery. 
 
 Courtney, Flemincr, Greswell, Hill, Hine- 
 bauch, Liautai'd, Williams. 
 
 Swine. 
 
 Armatage, Coburn, Curtis, Dadd, Harris, 
 Jennings, Long, Martin. 
 
 Teeth. 
 (See Dental.) 
 
 Therapeutics. 
 Banham, Greswell. 
 
 Armatage. 
 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Training. 
 
 Anderson, Bauche»-, Daj', Feek, Gleason 
 Haysseed, Hayes, Jennings, Magner, May' 
 hew, Moreton, Proctor, Rarey, Russell 
 Waring, Woodruff. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 Fleming, Koch. 
 
 Typhus. 
 Bourguignon. 
 
 Vade Meeum. 
 Ballou, Liautard, Lord. 
 
 Variolse. 
 Fleming. 
 
 Veterinary Adviser. 
 Law. 
 
 Vice. 
 
 Anderson, Hanover, Gleason. 
 
 Lupton. 
 
 Warranty. 
 Wild Animals. 
 
 Wolf, Wood. 
 
 Zoology. 
 Carpenter, Orton, Wood. 
 
VETERINARY TEXT BOOKS 
 
 The following is a choice list of the Veterinary Books used as students' text books in 
 Ihe Veterinary Colleges of America. For further description of them, see author's index. 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy, Cloth,.. $7.00 
 Btrangeway's Veterinary Anatomy. Cloth,.. . 5.00 
 M'Fadyean's Anatomy of the Horse. Cloth. . 6.50 
 Ballou's Compendium of Equine Anatomy 
 
 and Physiology. Cloth 1-00 
 
 Interleaved l-^s 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Smith's Manual of Veterinary Physiology, 
 
 Cloth ;•••• *-25 
 
 Smith's Comparative Physiology, Cloth (net) 5.00 
 
 Sheep (net) ^OQ 
 
 Hygiene, Q,uarantine, &c. 
 
 Walley's Meat Inspection, Cloth 4.00 
 
 Smith's Manual of Veterinary Hygiene.Cloth 3.50 
 
 Operative Dentistry. 
 
 Liautard's How to Tell the Age. Cloth. 50 
 
 Hinebauch's Veterinary Dental Surgery. 
 
 Cloth 200 
 
 Sheep ••• ^■''^ 
 
 Euidekoper's Age of Domestic Animals, 
 
 Cloth (net) l'^^ 
 
 Clarke's Horses' Teeth, Cloth 2.50 
 
 Exterior ot the Horse. 
 
 Harger's Exterior of the Horse, Cloth 6.00 
 
 Obstetrics. 
 
 Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics, Cloth 6.00 
 
 Liameness and. Shoeing. 
 
 Liautard's Lameness of the Horse, Cloth. . . 2.50 
 
 Zundel on the Horse's Foot, Cloth 2.oo 
 
 Fleming's Practical Horse-shoeing, Cloth,.. 75 
 
 Percival's Anatomy of Horse's Foot, Cloth. . 7.50 
 The Horse's Foot, by David Eoberge, 8vo., 
 
 Cloth 5.00 
 
 Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 
 
 Dun's Veterinary Medicines, Cloth 5.00 
 
 Morton's Manual of Pharmacy, Cloth 3.50 
 
 Tuson's Pharmacopia, Cloth 2.50 
 
 Theory and Practice of Medicine. 
 
 Eobertson's Practice of Equine Medicine. 
 
 Cloth 6.50 
 
 Law's Veterinary Adviser, Cloth 3.00 
 
 Gresswell's Theory and Practice of Equine 
 Medicine, Cloth 3.50 
 
 Williams' Principles and Practice of Veter- 
 inary Medicine. Cloth 5.00 
 
 Courtenay's Manual of Veterinary Medicine 
 and Surgery, Cloth 3.50 
 
 Cattle Practice. 
 
 Steele's Diseases of the Ox, Cloth 6.00 
 
 Law's Veterinary Adviser, Cloth 3.00 
 
 Hill's Principles and Practice of Bovine 
 
 Medicine and Surgery, Cloth 10.00 
 
 Walley's Four Bovine Scourges, Cloth 6.40 
 
 Canine Practice. 
 
 Hill's Management and Diseases of the 
 
 Dog, Cloth 2.00 
 
 Mill's Dog in Health and Disease, Cloth 2.25 
 
 Steele's Treatise on the Diseases of the 
 
 Dog, Cloth 3.50 
 
 Mayhew's Dogs and Their Management, 
 
 Boards 75 
 
 Ashmont's Dogs: Their Management and 
 
 Treatment in Disease, Cloth 2 00 
 
 Youatton the Dog, Cloth 2.00 
 
 Mills' Comparative Physiology, Cloth 3.00 
 
 Surgery. 
 
 Fleming's Operative Surgery, Pt. I., Cloth.. . 3.50 
 
 Williams' Surgery, Cloth 5.00 
 
 Liautard's Surgery, Cloth 7.50 
 
 Gntozoa. 
 
 Neumann's Parasites and Parasitic Diseases 
 of the Domesticated Animals, Cloth 8.00 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Fleming on Koaring. Cloth 2.00 
 
 Fleming's Animal Plagues (first series), 
 
 Cloth 6.00 
 
 Second series. Cloth 4.80 
 
 Koch's Tuberculosis, Cloth i.oo 
 
 Dictionaries. 
 
 Thomas' Medical Dictionary, Cloth 3.00 
 
 Sheep 3.50 
 
 Keating's Medical Dictionary, Cloth 75 
 
 Tucks 1.00 
 
 Gould's Medical Dictionary, Plain Leather, 
 
 (with Index) 3.25 
 
 Half Morocco 4.25 
 
1 
 
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