Book rr3£>3 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT AN OUTLINE GENERAL HISTORY 1[]3tl ^^ %U of It^H^S /REVISED EDITIOM , OF COMJ ff),^. M. E; THALHEIMER Auf/ior of "A Mamial of Ancient Historyr "A Manual of Medt,Fval and Modern History," "A History of England:' "The Eclectic History of the United States," etc. VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG 6- CO. Cincinnati New York THALHEIMER'S HISTORICAL SERIES. Eclectic History of the United States. History of England. General History. Ancient History. Eastern Empires {separate). History of Greece {separate). History of Rome {separate). MediiEiHil and Modern History. Copyright BY Van Antwerp, Bkacg & Co, •Eclectic Press Van Antwerp. Bragg & Co. CiN'ClNNATI PREFACE. In the Outline of General History, as presented to the public nearly six years ago, the aim was to combine the ex- treme of brevity with a lively and simple narrative, such as might supply the present need of young scholars, while af- fording a symmetrical plan for the research of older ones. It was felt that much labor was left to the teacher in filling up the outline thus offered; but the author lias had the satis- faction of knowing that the book, in its several editions, has been both ably and successfully used. In the present enlarged edition, much of the needed sup- plementary matter has been added in the form of notes upon each chapter. The selection from such a wealth of material has of course been a matter of difficulty, and it is not to be supposed that a perfect proportion has been attained. It is hoped, however, that the more practical aim has been meas- urably reached, — of contributing somewhat to the conven- ience of teachers and the profit of pupils. References to authorities have been multiplied, and the quotations, though necessarily brief, may serve as guides to a more extensive reading of the works from which they are taken. IV PREFACE. The Maps and Engravings are the same as in previous editions, of which they constituted an important part of the value. Cordial thanks are due to several distinguished teachers, who, from their experience in the actual use of the book, have contributed valuable suggestions for the correction of the plates. Grateful for the favor with which the Outline of General History has already been received, the author commends it anew to the candid judgment of teachers, hoping that to their pupils this revised and enlarged edition may convey some hint, however inadequate, of the wealth of historical literature that awaits their perusal, and of the fullness of life in the ages of which they are the heirs. Brooklyn, N. Y., | April, 1883. CONTENTS. Introduction ...... Page 7 BOOK I.— THE ANCIENT WORLD. PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. Chapter P^^Se I. Dispersion of Races — Chaldaea, Assyria, Media, and Babylonia ....... 9 II. Smaller Asiatic States — Phoenicia, Syria, and Asia Minor '9 III. The Hebrews 25 IV. The Medo-Persian Empire . . . . . 3^ V. African States and Colonies ..... 42 PART II. — Hellenic States. VI. Earliest History of the Greeks — their Religion VII. Sparta and Athens ...... VIII. The Persian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian Wars IX. Greek Literature, Philosophy, and Art X. Alexander the Great ..... XI. Successors of Alexander ..... 52 63 70 84 94 99 PART III. — Rome. XII. The Roman Kingdom — Its Religion XIII. The Roman Republic — Samnite Wars XIV. The Roman Republic, Continued — Punic Wars XV. " " " Civil Wars XVI. The Roman Empire ..... XVII. " " Continued XVIII. The Northern Barbarians .... 106 112 121 129 14.0 150 158 (V) VI CONTENTS. BOOK II. — MEDIEVAL HISTORY. Introduction Page 167 Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. PART I.— The Dark Ages. Settlements of the Northern Tribes The Roman Empire in the East The Saracens ..... The Western Empire Restored The Northmen .... PART II.— The Middle Ages. VI. The Crusades ........ VII. Cjuelfs and Ghibellines — Rise of Italian and German Cities .... VIII. The Tartar Conquests IX. Plantagenets in England . X. House of Capet in France XI. The Empire and the Church XII. Languages and Literature XIII. Dawn of the Modern Era BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. I. The French in Italy ..... II. Charles V. and the Reformation — The Turks III. House of Orleans in France .... IV. The Tudors in England ..... V. Rise of the Dutch Republic .... VI. The Stuarts in Great Britain .... VII. The House of Austria and the Thirty Years' War VIII. European Colonies ...... IX. The Northern Kingdoms .... X. The Bourbons in France .... XL Great Britain under the House of Brunswick . XII. British Empire in the East .... XIII. The French Revolution ..... XIV. Absolutists and Liberals in Europe XV. The Second French Empire .... XVI. American Affairs ...... OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 1. From the earliest known times, men have been divided into two classes — those who, wandering from place to place, lived upon the wild products of the earth, or upon the milk and flesh of their herds; and those who, preferring settled abodes, built cities and villages, and increased their wealth by mining, tillage, mechanical arts, and commerce. 2. The first settled communities could only exist near great rivers, where the fertile soil afforded plenty of food, as in the valleys of the Ganges, Indus, Tigris, Euphrates, and Nile ; while beyond the great mountain barrier which divides central from southern Asia, roamed the ancient Scythians, ancestors of fierce and wandering tribes, which frequently burst their bounds, carrying ruin to the rich cities and harvest fields of the southern plains. With the progress of the world, the nomadic or wandering races have become fewer, and the civilized more numerous ; but to this day the steppes of central Asia are occupied by roving tribes. 3. History begins with the formation of settled com- munities. Other sciences deal with man as an animal, or classify the several races according to their languages, habitations, and use of metals. Histor}- has to do with (7) 8 INTRODUCTION. civilized man, and describes the raids of barbarians only as it tells of earthquakes and floods which have overthrown his dwellings and destroyed his wealth. 4. The populous communities of India, China, and Japan — though they contributed their jewels, spices, per- fumes, and silken garments to the luxury of the western Asiatics — were so little known to the Greek and Roman writers, that they also are beyond the range of ancient History. We have only to tell the story of those nations which, through their art, their literature, or their laws, have helped to make our modern society what it is. 5. History is divided into three periods : Ancient, Me- diaeval, and Modern. Ancient History describes the states that rose and fell in western Asia, Africa, and Europe, until A. D. 476, when the German race became predominant in the latter, and overthrew the Roman Empire of the West. Mediaeval History covers the thousand years between the breaking-up of the old order and the establishment of the new. It tells how the tribes of northern barbarians grew to be the nations of modern Europe, and ends with the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire, A. D. 1453. The opening of Modern History is marked by the revival of learning, the multiplication of printed books, the discov- ery of America, and the reformation in religion. Cuneiform Characters. BOOK I.— THE ANCIENT WORLD. PART I. — Nations of Asia and Africa. CHAPTER I. DISPERSION OF RACES — CHALD^A, ASSYRIA, MEDIA, AND BABYLONIA. Assyrian War Chariot. ^^»^*HE earliest known attempt to form a settled W^\ community was made by the sons of Noah, ^^^ at Babel, after the Flood. It was defeated by the Confusion of Tongues. See Gen. xi : 4-9. The three families then separated. The children of Japhet were divided, one part traveling westward by many paths into Europe, ^ while another, moving eastward, occupied the (9) lO THE ANCIENT WORLD. table-lands of Iran, Hactria, and northern India. They were the parents of the Indo-Germanic or Aryan race, whose active intellect has made it the leader of the world in art. hterature. and laws. 7. The children of Shem remained upon the fertile plains of the Tigris and Euphrates. This family has ever been distinguished for intense religious feeling; and from its ranks came the Chosen People, to whom were com- mitted the written revelations of God. Part of the Hamites moved to the shores of the jNIed- iterranean, and established the great empire of Egypt; while Ximrod, a grandson of Ham, built Babylon, and became the founder of the Chaldsean Kingdom- south of the Euphrates. The Hamites were great builders : in Egypt their massive pyramids and temples have proved almost as lasting as the eternal hills; but in Chaldsea the want of stone compelled them to use a more perishable material. Gen. xi : 3. From the clay of the plain and a natural bituminous cement, they erected buildings^ which were the wonders of the ancient world. 8. The Chaldseans were diligent students of the heavens, and their astronomical records date from the twenty-third century before Christ. They were the inventors of writing, which the Phoenician merchants learned from them and taught to the rest of the world. In writing, as in build- ing, their ingenuit}^ enabled them to make use of simple and rude materials; their wedge-shaped letters were im- ])ressed, with a stick, upon tablets or cylinders of clay, which were afterward either baked or dried in the sun. The earliest Chald^ean hterature, so far as it has yet been read, consists chiefly of prayers, hymns, and charms against evil spirits. g. In the thirteenth century B. C, Chald^a was ab- sorbed into the Semitic Empire of Assyria, This, at its greatest extent, reached from the Nile and the Mediter- ASS YR TAX EMPIRE. ranean on the west to the mountains of Media on the east. The Assyrians were a vigorous nation, "all mighty men;" and their kings commonly led their armies in person, sharing the hardships of night-marches and toil- some campaigns among the mountains. a. The First Period of Assyrian history begins in un- known antiquity, and ends with the Conquest of Babylon by Tiglathi-nin, about 1250 B. C. b. The Second Period extends from the latter event to the independence of Babylon, about 745 B. C. c. The Third Period comprises the New or Lower Em- pire of Assyria, B. C. 745-625. 10. Although monuments, lately discovered, give com- plete lists of the Assyrian kings, from B. C. 1850, yet we know very little of the early centuries of their history. It was Tiglath-pileser I ( B. C. 1 120- 1 100) who made As- syria the foremost nation in the world. It declined as the Hebrew monarchy expanded, but became powerful again after the death of Solomon. 11. I'va-lush IV, or Vul-nira'ri ( B. C. 810-781), was the husband of Sam'mura'mit, a Babylonian princess, whom the Greeks called Semiramis. ^ Her name is associated with wonderful stories of conquests and public works. But these are mere fables concerning a mythical personage who lived, if at all, 500 years earlier. The real power and wealth of Sammuramit entitled her to a mention in Assyrian an- nals — an honor accorded to no other woman. There is some reason to believe that during this joint reign of Iva- lush and Sammuramit, the Hebrew prophet Jonah preached repentance to the Ninevites. If so, it was Iva-lush him- self who laid aside his royal robes and sat in sack-cloth and ashes. (Jonah, iii and iv.) Forty years of humiliation followed, and the subject province of Babylon became not only independent but for a few years supreme. THE ANCIENT WORLD. 12. Tiglath-pileser II ( B. C. 745-727) was the founder of the New or Lower Assyrian Empire. He extended his dominion to the Mediterranean, and received tribute from all the kings of Syria and Palestine. Tyre, the richest maritime t:ity in the world, paid three tons of gold into his treasury. He and his successors removed thousands of caj)tive Israelites to Media and the river Gozan, filling their places with Baljylonians. (Read 2 Kings xv : 29, and xvii:4-6, 24-33.). 13. Sargon ( B. C. 721-705) was one of the greatest Assyrian kings. He defeated the Egyptians and Philis- tines in the great battle of Raphia,''and afterward annexed Babylon to his empire. His son Sennach'erib (B. C. 705- 680) gained many victories o\ er Phoenicians, Philistines, Egyptians, and Ethiopians. He took "all the fenced cities of Judah," and insolently threatened Jerusalem. But his pride was humbled l)y the sudden destruction of 185,000 of his soldiers, and he had to abandon most of his western conquests. (2 Kings xviii : 13-21, and xix.). 14. E'sarhad'don (B. C 680-667) conquered Babylonia, Egypt, and Arabia ; and his son As'shur-ba'ni-pal raised the empire to its greatest i:)0wer and glory. He built many temples, and the finest of Assyrian palaces. He also collected a great library of clay tablets, inscribed with the records* of former kings, their letters, treaties, and laws ; discourses on mathematics, geography, and natural history; '•■■These kings' own words prove all that the Hebrew prophets wrote of their cruelty, not less than of their splendor and power. One of them thus describes his treatment of a contjuered city: "The men, young and old, I took prisoners: of some I cut off the feet and hands; of otliers I cut off the noses, ears, and lips: of the young men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads I built a tower. I exposed their heads as a trophy in front of their city. The children I Inirnt in the flames. The city I destroyed and consumed and burnt in the fire." DESTRUCTION OF NINEVEH. 13 directions for worship, and primeval traditions. Among the latter is the Chaldsean story of the Deluge, coinciding in many important points with that which we have in the Bible. 15. The glory of Asshur-bani-pal was quickly followed by ruin under his successor. A wild horde of Scythians (§2) plundered the Assyrian cities; Media and Babylonia revolted; Nineveh was besieged and taken, its king was slain, and his dominions were divided between the con- querors, B. C. 625. The great cities of Assyria long lay in ruins : even the Greeks could only point to heaps of rubbish, under which Nineveh, Calah, and Resen were sup- posed to be buried. In late years, many of these mounds have been explored, and the magnificent palaces of Sargon, Sennacherib, and their successors, have contributed their sculptures to the adornment of European museums, and their inscriptions to our hitherto scanty knowledge of the primitive eastern nations. 16. Media. — B. C. 633-558. The two allies who had put an end to the Assyrian Empire, were of very different rank. Media, a rough country south of the Caspian Sea, was inhabited by Aryan tribes, which had claimed inde- pendence of Assyria but little more than a century. The founder of Median greatness, who first united these tribes into one kingdom, was Cyax'ares, the joint-conqueror of Nineveh with Nabopolas'sar. He is said to have been the first Asiatic who properly organized an army, separating cavalry, spearmen, and archers into distinct companies. Under his reign, and that of his son Asty'ages, Media rose rapidly in wealth and importance. Extreme luxury took the place of rude manners and simple dress ; and their passion for hunting was all that remained of the hardy Medes in the jeweled courtiers of King Astyages. At this point the Persians, a kindred but subject nation, gained the supremacy, by reason of their brave and manly character. f4 THE ANCIENT WORLD. •■'*/"";"';S;w<|j/ SLACK ss. V Mai' 1. 17. Babylonia. — Babylon, on the contrary, was the seat of one of the oldest Asiatic states, long celebrated for wealth, luxury, and learning. The wonderful clear- ness of the air o\er the plain of the Euphrates early attracted attention to a study of the stars. Observations were carefully recorded, and tables still existing prove the ]jainstaking skill of the Babylonian astronomers. They measured time by sun dials, and were the inventors of other astronomical instruments. 18. After his country had been for 500 years subject to the Assyrian Empire (^ 9. />.), Nabonas'sar, a Baby- lonian general, set up an independent kingdom. But the fifth king of his line was taken captive by Sargon (§13); and for nearly a century the country was again ruled by Assyrian viceroys, though always ready to revolt. Fearing a double attack, from the north and south, which had been planned by the Medes, the last Assyrian king sent his general, Nabopolas'sar, to defend Babylon. But Nabo- polassar turned traitor ; he allied himself with Cya.xares, and led a Babylonian army to the siege of Nineveh NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 1 5 (§16). In the division of the spoils, which followed the capture of the great city, Nabopolassar received Susiana, Babylonia, and Chaldrea, with all Syria even to the bor- ders of Egypt ; while Assyria proper was added to the dominion of Cyaxares. ig. B. C. 604-561. Nebuchadnez'zar, the second Baby- lonian king of this line, was one of the greatest monarchs whom the whole world has seen. By his victories over Egypt, Phoenicia, and Palestine, he reigned from the Med- iterranean to the Indus. The royal descendants of David ate the bitter bread of captivity at his table in Babylon (2 Kings xxiv : 10-16, and xxv : 6, 7, 27-30). He adorned his capital with the celebrated Hanging Gardens, and pro- tected it by walls of enormous thickness, while he en- riched the whole country by canals and reservoirs, which distributed the waters of the Euphrates over its vast and fertile plain. 20. Babylonia became preeminent in industrial arts ; and merchants from all parts of the world thronged her markets. There they found delicate muslins and linens, and magnificent carpets from the Babylonian looms, as well as fine wool from Cashmere ; pearls from the Persian Gulf: diamonds and perfumes from India; bronzes and musical instruments from Phoenicia. The amazing fertility of the Babylonian soil — probably the richest on the globe — afforded abundance of barley and dates for even the poorest people, while the rich enjoyed every luxury which the ancient world could l)oast. 21. At the height of his grandeur, Nebuchadnezzar was suddenly cast out from the society of men, and for seven years fed with beasts. His pride being humbled, his reason returned; and, acknowledging the supremacy of the Most High, he resumed the "excellent majest)- " of his kingly state (Daniel iv : 24-36). After a reign of 43 years, Nebuchadnezzar died, and with him ended the real great- i6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ness of his kingdom. Under Nabona'dius, the fourth of his successors, and the crown-prince Belshaz'zar, Babylon was taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and its whole territory was added to the Medo-Persian Empire. Describe, from Map I, the Rivers Tigris, Euphrates, Nile. Point out Chaldaea, Babylonia, Media, Assyria. Nineveh, Baby- lon, Raphia. Read Daniel i-v. Jeremiah xxvii : 5-8. Kawlinson's Five Ancient Eastern Monarchies. Herodotus, Volume I. Heeren's Asiatic Re- searches. Children of Sheni. Childi-en of Ham. Children of Japhet. Assyrians Chaldseans 1 1 1 Hindus Asiatic Aryans 1 Medes and Persians Bactrians. Hebrews Phoenicians * 1 Greeks Romans European Aryans ■ Celts, Germans Arabs Egyptians . Slavonians. •■■The language of the Phoenicians was Semitic, though they were descended from Canaan, son of Ham. NOTES. 1. These great migrations occurred some centuries before the begin- nings of connected history. Their order may be traced by comparing the languages of the several nations, and the names they gtive to mountains and rivers on their routes. Thus the Ap-en-uines and the C-evennes are memorials of tlie same people that named Ben Lomond and Ben Nevis. These were the Celtg, who at one time occupied a great part of Central and Western Europe, and were the ancestors of the Bretons of France, as well as of the inhabitants of Ireland, Wales, Corn- wall, and the Highlands of Scotland. Prof. Fiske says: "In vei'y recent times — probably not more tlian twenty centuries before Christ — Europe was invaded by a new race of men, coming from Central Asia. These were the Aryans, a race tall and massive in stat- ure . . . with round and broad skulls, with powerful jaws and promi- NO TES. 1 7 nent eye-bi'ows, with faces rather square or angular than oval, with fair, ruddy complexions and blue eyes, and red or flaxen hair. Of these, the earliest that came may perhaps have been the Latin tribes, with the Dorians and lonians; but the first that made their way througli Western Europe to the .shores of the Atlantic were the Gael or true Celts. After these came the Cymry; then the Teutons; and finally— in very recent times, near the beginning of the Christian ora— tlie Slavs. These Aryan invaders were furtlier advanced in civili/.atiun than the Iberians, who had so long inhabited Europe. They unde'.stood the arts which the latter understooil, and, besides all this, they had learned how to work metals; and their invasion of Europe marks the begin- ning of what archtei)lo;;ists call the Bronze Age, when tools and weapons were no longer made Of polished stones, but were wrought from an alloy of copper and tin. The great blonde Aryans every-where over- came the small brunette Iberians; but instead of one race exterminating or expelling the other, the two races every where became commingled in various proportions. In Greece, southern Italy, Spain, and southern France, where the Iberians were most numerous as compared with the Aryan invaders, the people are still mainly small In stature and dark in complexion. In Russia and Scandinavia, where there were very few^ Iberians, the people show the purity of their Aryan descent in their fair complexion and large stature; wliile in northern Italy and northern France, in Germany and the Britisn Islands, the Iberian and Aryan statures and complexions are intermingled in endless variety, ='—Jb/m Fiske, in Atlantic Monthly, May, 1882. 2. The three great men of the earliest Chaldsean Empire were Nim- rod,.the founder; Urukh, the builder; and Chedor-laomer, the conqueror. The' latter, "having extended his dominion o%'er Babylonia and the ad- joining regions, marched an army a distance of 1200 miles, from the shores of tlie Persian Gulf to the Dead Sea, and held Palestine and Syria in subjection for twelve years, thus effecting conquests which were not again made from the same quarter till the time of Nebuchadnezzar, fifteen or sixteen hundred years afterwards." He is "the forerunner f Babylon, had extended their joint sway over all the lands from the IMcditerraneau to the Indus. F. Lenormant remarks (in Anc. Hist, vf the East, I, 367): "Such is the legend that Ctesias first related to the (Jfeeks. We repeat that there is not one word of truth in it; the Assyrian monuments contradict it at all points. Such personages as Ninus and Semiramis belong in no way to real history; they never existed in fact. Ninus, as the name clearly indicates, is only a personilii ation of the whole history of the city of Nineveh, and of all its power. ... So all the useful or gigantic works, whatever their origin, executed at difierent periods by various Asiatic sovereigns have contributed to the glory of the name of Semir- amis. To her have been attributed all the buildings of Babylon, from the Tower of Babel, identical with the Temple of Bel, to those of the age of Nelmchadnezzar and his successors." Herodotus, who li\ed B. C. 484-108 (see §150), had never heard of the mythical Semiramis, but he mentions a real queen of that name as ha'viiig "raised magnificent embankments to restrain the river Eu- phrates, which, till then, used lo overflow and flood the whole countrj^ around Babylon." This was the Sammuramit mentioned in the text, who seems 'to have been a descendant of the old Babylonian kings, married to a king of Assvria, who had thus strengthened his authority over the discontented provinces In the Euphrates Valley. To please them, all royal acts in that -region were done in her name. The his- torian above quoted calls this royal i)air, " the Ferdinand and Isabella of Mesopotamia." See gti!.'}. 5. Baphia was on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, between Gaza and the "River of Egvpt." The battle is described as "the first com- bat between the two'great powers of Asia and Africa." Shebek and the Egyptian forces were i)ut to flight, while the Philistine prince was carried" ca lit ive to Assvria. "The battle of Raphia foreshadowed truly enough the position which Egvpt would hold among the nations tiom the time that she ceased to be isolated, and was forced to enter upon the struggle for preeminence, and even for existence, with the great kingdoms of the neighboring continent. With rare and brief excep- tions. Egypt has, from the time of Sargon, succumbed to the superior might of whatever power has been dominent in western Asia, owning it for lord, and submitting, with a good or a bad grace, to a position in- volving a greater or less degree of dependence. Tributary to the later Assyrian princes, and again probably to Nebuchadnezzar, she had scarcely recovered her independence when she fell under the domin- ion of' Persia. Never successful, notwithstanding all her struggles, in thoroughly shaking off this bated yoke, slie did but exchange her Per- sian for Greek masters when the emj^ire of Cyrus ])erislied. Since then Greeks [? 101], Romans [5 •J3!!], Saracens [ji 299], and Turks [i 7!i:l] have each, in their turn, been masters of the Egyptian race, which has paid the usual penalty of precocity in the early exhaustion of its powers."— iJau;- linson^s Anc. E. Mon. Ill, 1-15. CHAPTER II. SMALLER ASIATIC STATES. hcenicia. — The narrow strip of land between Mt. Lebanon and the sea held some of the most im- portant communities of early times. They were not a nation, but a mere cluster of commercial cities/ of which Tyre and Sidon were the chief. Now and then some great danger led them to form a league ; but usually they were only united by a common language and religion, each city having its king or judge, who was also its high- priest. The name Phoenicians was given them by the Greeks. They called themselves Canaanites, and were of the same race as the tribes expelled or conquered by the Hebrews. 23. The importance of Phoenicia was owing to her wonderful maritime enterprise. The Mediterranean and western Atlantic, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean, all were highways for her ships, and their coasts and islands were dotted with her colonies. In her markets might be found silver from Spain, tin from Britain, and amber from the Baltic; gold and apes from Africa; pearls, (19) THE ANCIENT WORLD. rubies, and diamonds from India and Ceylon; no less than engraved seals from Babylon; copper and horses from Armenia; oil, honey, and balm from Palestine; wine and white wool from Damascus; lambs and kids from the the Bedouin Arabs; and embroidered linen from Egypt. In return, the gold, silver, bronze, and glass-wares of the Phoinicians, and the precious dye known as Tyrian purple, found great favor in foreign markets. 24. Penetrating the remotest corners of the ancient world, the Phoenicians were carriers of ideas as Avell as of merchandize. Our greatest debt to them is the alphabet (^8). They were not inventors either in art or literature, nor were they inspired, like the Greeks, with a love of freedom. So long as trade flourished, they were content to pay tribute to Assyria, or to lend their ships and sailors to the Pharaohs. This is true especially of Sidon and the smaller cities. Tyre withstood three memorable sieges: one of five years by Sargon, B. C. 720-715; another of thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and a third by Alex- ander of Macedon (B. C. 333, 332), after which 8,000 of her ])eo])le were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery. The second of these sieges is celebrated in the Hebrew Script- ures (Ezekiel xxvi-.xxviii). The bravery of the Tyrians probably secured favorable terms, for while a great num- ber sailed away with their families and goods to Carthage, others removed to an island half a mile from the main- land, and soon made New Tyre richer than the Old. 25. When Nebuchadnezzar's kingdom was overthrown, the Phoenicians submitted to Cyrus, and their ships made the principal part of the Persian fleets. They brought cedar wood from Lebanon to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem, as their forefathers had done in the days of Solomon and Hiram (i Kings v: 6-18. Ezra iii : 7). 26. Syria. — The most important Syrian state had its seat at Damascus, one of the oldest cities in the world. ASIA MINOR. It alone was able to hold out against David and Solomon, who reigned over all th-e remaining country from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates ; but three centuries later it became subject to the Assyrian kings. Other Syrian nations were the Hamathites, in the valley of the Orontes; the northern and warlike Hittites, whose chief city was Carchemish; and the southern Hittites, a peaceable trading people near the Dead Sea. 27. Asia Minor. — Probably the earliest inhabitants of Asia Minor were the F/irygiaiis, a hardy race of farmers and vine-dressers, who had come from Armenia and brought thence a tradition of the Flood. Later came the Cappadocians, also sons of Japhet (§6), who crowded the Phrygians westward of the River Halys; then the T/iraciaiis, who took possession of the north-western coast, to which they gave the name Bithynia, from one of their tribes. The "brave, shield-bearing Paphlagotiiaiis''' occupied the rest of the Euxine coast. A mixed population of Aryans and Shemites inhabited Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia on the southern shore ; while the borders of the yEgean were very early colonized by Greeks. 28. Among all these nations, Lydid^ became supreme under its last five kings, who ruled B. C. 694-546. In the time of Ardys, the second of these kings, occurred one of those great movements of the northern barbarians, which have been mentioned in i^2. The Cimmerians (Crimeans) of southern Russia, ancestors of the modern Cossacks, swarmed over Asia Minor, captured Sardis, the Lydian capital, and ravaged all the western provinces. Successive waves of the same great tide of migration spread through Italy; "another, taking a more northerly direction, reached the western coast of Britain, where the Ci7///;r, their descendants, still live. 29. Croesus, the fifth and last king of Lydia, was noted for his enormous wealth.'^ Having become master of all THE ANCIENT WORLD. Asia Minor and the Isles of Greece, he leagued himself with the great' empires of Egypt and Babylon, to resist the Persian power, which was then becoming formidable. His efforts were vain; having fought one battle in Cappa- docia, Cyrus marched swiftly upon Sardis, defeated and captured its king, and made Lydia a province of the Persian Empire. Map 2. Asia Minor. Point out, on Maps i and 2, the following countries and cities: Phivijicia — Sidon, Tyre, Berytus. Syiia — Damascus, Hamath, Carchemish. River Orontes. Asia Minor — Phrygia, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lydia, Sardis. River Halys. Bound Asia Minor. Read Rawlinson's Ancient Monarchies, Vol. II, pp. 402-412, 444; Vol. Ill, 51-53, 392. Herodotus, Book I, j} i ; III, ^19; IV, ^,42; V, §58. Grote's History of Greece, Chapters XVII, XVIII, XXXII. NOTES. 23 NOTES. 1. Sidon was the oldest of these cities, and its people are said to have been the first to abandon the wandering ways of their ancestors, and, bullilins )mts l)y the sra, find their subsistence in its waters. The name 8i(hiniuilt wherever a safe harbor could be found in the neighborhood of forests, for in those early days there was no other maritime power to interfere. The half-savage natives of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, were glad to exchange the wild products of their Islands for eastern wares, and gained at the market fairs of the Phoe- nicians some ideas of numbers, weights, and measures. It was, however, the discovery of the precious metals in Spain that made the Tyrians find Sidonians the wealthiest of all the nations of antiquity. The Tarshish of the Old Testament— which the Greeks called Tai'tessus — included the modern provinces o£ Andalusia and Murcia. "The first traders to these fortnuiite shores were said to have replaced their lealace In civilization among the groups of the nations of Asia Minor. The Lydians became on land, as the Phoenicians by sea, the mediators between Hellas and Anterior Asia. As a people whose wits had been at an early period sharpened by intercourse with the rest of the world, full of enterprise and engaged in the pursuits both of commerce and of domestic industry, they were the first who knew how to take every advantage of the treasures of the valley of the Hermus. At the base of Trnolus they discovered, in the sand of the deciduous rivulets, the seemingly insignificant gold dust, and thus, in the vicinity of the Greeks, brought to light tihe power of gold, so infinitely important, so fatal, for Greek history. The Lydians reckoned three epochs under three generations of rulers, the first of which dcnvccl its source from Atys, a god belonging to the mythic circle of the ^Mother of the mountains, whose worship filled with its tumultuous music all the highlands of Lydla and Pliry<;ia. Their second dynasty, the Lydians, led back to a Heracles, wliom they called the son of Ninus. Independently of this myth, Ctesias narrated to the Greeks that King Ninus [see note 4, Ch. 1,] liad conquered Phrygia, tlie Troad, and Lydia. Plato, too, had heard of the power of the Ninevites as supreme in Asia Minor at the time of 24 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the Trojan War." It appears, therefore, thai, • through ti\e centuries or thereabouts, the Lydian empu'e was a state iu vassalage to Xineveh on the Tigris." The third dynasty is the one mentioned in our text. 3. "As rich as Croesus" was tlie proverbial exi^ression in ancient times for enormous wealth; but the last Lydian king was not less cele- brated for his misfortunes. In Rawlinson's Herodotus, I, 368, we learn how his story was regarded by the Greeks. "They had seen the rapid rise and growtli of a magnificent empire upon their borders, and haii felt its irresistible might in opposition to themselves; they had been dazzled by the lavish display of a wealth, exceeding all that their poets had ever fabled of Colchis or Hesperia; they had no doubt shared in the confident expectation of further conquests with which the warrior- prince, at the head of his unvanquished bands, had crossed the Halys to attack his unknown enemy. And they had been spectators of the result. Within a few weeks the prosperous and imissant monarch, master of untold treasures, ruler over thirteen nations, lord of all Asia from the Halys to the sea, was a captive and a Iieggar, the miserable dependant upon the will of a despot whose anger he had provoked. Such a catastrophe had in it something peculiarly calculated to excite the feelings of the Greeks. Accordingly, the story of Crcesus seems to have become to the romancers of the period what the old herear forever." An interesting passage of the Vendidad desciilxs fourteen stages in the progress of the western Aryans, from the mountain region of Thibet to their final settlement in Persia. At everv place Ahriman sent upon them some disease or other calamitv, to compel them to go farther. In Ragha, or northern Media, the twelfth stage of their journey, tliey en- countered a large Turanian population, their ancient enemies. One body of immigrants remained in this region, and a thousand years of war ended in the establishment of the Aryan kingdom of Media; but, in the meantime, the religion which their fathers had learned from Zoroaster, became sadly corrujjted by mixture with the serpent-worship of the Turanians, tlie idolatry of the neighboring Assyrians, and the Chaldsean adoration of the seven planets. To this day the Vezidees, or devil-worshipers, of the same region, profess the dual Ijelief that Zo- roaster taught, but worskip only the evil which they fear, because, they say, the Good Spirit, being already kind and iuduigeut, does not need to be conciliated. NOTES. 41 2. "Athens was the mother-city of the Ionic states, and tlie Attien- ians were disposed to syniiiatliize witli tlie lonians as tlieir kinsmen and colonists." Tliey liad, iiior<'()ver, their own grievance in the re- ception of tlieir exiled tyrant Hippias (P14) at the Persian court. But, though disposed to favor and restore Hipiiias, Darius does not appear to have thought the tyrant's late fellow -citi/.cns worth remembering until they gave him cause. When lie heard of the burning of Sardis, by the allied Greeks, the king exclaimed with contemptuous rage, "The Athenians! who are theyi^^ When he was informed, he seized his bow, and, shooting an arrow high into the air, he cried, "Oh, supreme God, grant me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!" And every day at dinner, an attendant was ordered to say three times, " Sire, remeniber the Athenians." 3. An interesting record of the early years of Darius's reign has been found cut on a perpendicular rock-tablet of Behistun, the face of the cliff having been smoothed for the purpose. It bears four sets of in- scriptions, one of which is ascribed to Semiramis (jjll, and note); but the most important is in the words of "Darius the King." For a long time after this was known to exist, it was supposed to be wholly out of reach for purjjoses of information; for it was 300 feet ft-om the base of the mountain-wall, and the reader must be drawn up with ropes by a windlass placed on the summit. This perilous feat was performed many times by Colonel Rawliiison, of the British army, then holding an official post at Bagdad. He sjient some weeks in obtaining a copy of the pompous sentences which.Darius had ordered to be inscribed in three languages, Pei-sian, Babylonian, and Scythic, and which scholars have since, with incredible patience, industry, and learning, succeeded in deciphering. Their English version may be read in Kawlinson's " Her- odotus," Vol. II, Appendix. 4. Their Persian allies were scattered; they were in the heart of an unknown and hostile country, two thousand miles from home, and surrounded by the victorious army of Artaxerxes. The wily Tissaiiher- nes, who had been rewanled with the dominions of Cyrus, detained them nearly a month by false pretenses of negotiation ; and, hav- ing led them as far as the head waters of the Tigris, gained posses- sion of all their officers, whom he caused to be put to death. At this crisis, the Athenian Xenophon called together the principal Greeks, at midnight, and urged the election of new officers, who should lead them back to their native land. The suggestion was adopted; five generals were chosen, of whom Xenophon was one, and, by break of day, the army had been mustered lV)r its homeward march. Their course lay over the table-lands of Armenia, where many per- ished in the freezing north winds, or were blinded by the unusual glare of snow. Here is Xenophon's own account of their arrival in sight of the Black Sea. "On the fifth day they came to the mountain; and the name of it was Theches. When the men who were in the front had mounted the height, and looked down upon the sea, a great shout proceeded from them; and Xenophon and the rear-guard, on hearing it, thought that some new enemies were assailing the front; for in the rear, too, the people from the country that the.v had burned were following them, and the rear-guard, by placing aii ambuscade, had killed some, and taken others prisoners, and had ca|)tured about twenty shields, made of raw ox-hide with the hair on. But, as th(^ noise still increased, and drew nearer, and as those who came up from time to time kept run- ning at full speed to join those who were continually shouting, the cries becoming louder as the men became more numerous, it appeared to Xenophon that it must be something of very great moment. "Mounting his horse, tlierefore, and taking with him Lycius and the cavahy, he liastened' forward to give aid, when presently the.v heard the soldiers shouting, 'The sea! the sea !' and cheering on one another. They all then began to run, the rear-guard as well as the rest, and the baggage-cattle and horses were put to their speed; and, when the.v had all arrived at the top, the men embraced each otlior and their gener- als and captains, with tears in their eyes. Suddenly, whoever it was that suggested it, the soldiers brought stones, and raised a large mound, on whicli they laid a number of raw ox-hides, staves, and shields taken from the enemy."— ^na6a*i\s. Book IV, Ch. VII. CHAPTER V. AFRICAN STATES AND COLONIES. jFRICA is, of all the continents, least fit for the home of man. One fifth of its surface is covered by a sea of sand, and the interior consists often of marshes and tangled forests. Its northern coast, however, is among the most favored regions of the globe. Here are the great Moorish corn-fields which once fed the hungry yV^^^^^y/ millions of Rome; while the Nile valley ^ 1 1 1 1 III ! \ ill the north-east has sustained, from the earliest times, a swarming popula- tion. This great river, in its overflow, spreads every year over the lowlands a new deposit of fertile soil, so that the farmer has only to cast his grain upon the retiring waters, and a plentiful harvest springs up without further tillage. No wonder that the old idol- aters worshiped the Nile ! 66. Egypt. — Long before our oldest records were writ- ten, Hamites, from south-western Asia, had settled in the valley of the Nile (§7). At first they formed a multitude of petty states, but gradually these became united into the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. Now and then some powerful monarch, reigning at Thebes or Memphis, reduced both kingdoms under his sway, and reigned from the Isle of Elephantis to the sea. 67. The Egyptians were great builders, and their pyra- (42) Cleopatra's Cartouch. EG YPTIAN HIS TOR V. 43 mids, temples, and palaces seem destined to stand as long as the earth itself endures. More than this, they were great writers, and, now that the key to their language has been found, we may read their characters and daily em- ployments, their thoughts about life, death, and immortality, almost as familiarly as those of our own ancestors. 68. Egyptian history, before the Persian conquest, is divided into three Periods : I. The Old Empire, from unknown antiquity to 1900 B. C. II. The Middle Empire, or that of the Shepherd Kings, 1900- 1525 B. C. III. The New Empire, 1525-525. During these three periods, 26 Dynasties, or families of kings, are on record; but sometimes two, three, or even, five of these were reigning at once in different parts of the country. The kings of the Fourth Uy- ... /-I • 1 ■-ni B. C. 2440-2220. nasty built most of the pyramids. Ihese enormous masses of stone face the four main points of the compass; and one, known as the Great Pyramid, is so delicately adjusted for observations of the heavens that some wise men believe it to have been built by Divine direction. The useful and elegant arts made great pro- gress under the Pyramid-Kings. The copper-mines of the peninsula of Sinai were worked chiefly by .captives taken in war; and the pictures on the tombs indicate a refined and intelligent life among the people. 6g. Egypt was soon divided into five separate kingdoms, and these, one by one, became the prey of invading tribes from Asia, led by the Shepherd Kings. ^ These rude and ignorant people made slaves of the Egyptians, and arrested the progress of arts and sciences for 400 years. 70. At length a deliverer was found in the Theban Amo'sis, who rallied the spirit of the Egyptians and drove out the intruders. He became king of the whole country, 44 THE ANCIENT WORLD. and founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty.- For 800 years Egypt continued to be a united kingdom, and enjoyed the brightest period of its history. The government, though strong, was mild to its native subjects, but probably cruel to the captive Hebrews, whose lives were made bitter with hard bondage ($31) in the brick-kilns, and who built many of the vast temples and palaces for which this period is celebrated (Exodus, i: 7-14). 71. Greatest of Egyjjtian monarchs was Rameses II, who made conquests in Asia, Africa, and Europe, and brought home a great train of captives to build new monuments of his glory. Fearing the increasing numbers of the race already enslaved, he ordered every Hebrew boy to be thrown into the Nile. It was probably his son, ■Meneph'thah, who suffered the ten judgments of God for his oppressions, and finally let the Israelites go out from the land (Ex. vii : ip-xi : 5; xii : 29-33). For twenty years the buildings ceased, and the glory of the Egyptians was long in decline. 72. During the seventh century B. C. the country was ruled by Assyria (^14); but when that empire fell, Psam- met'ichus,^ and his yet greater son, Ne'cho, revived the Egyjjtian i)ovver. By concpiering Phoenicia, Necho gained power on the sea, and the continent of Africa was first circumnavigated by his fleets. The story of the successful navigators was scarcely believed by the ancient world, because they declared that in rounding the southern cape, they had seen the sun to the northward. With our better system of astronomy we find this circumstance a strong confirmation of their truthfulness. Necho reigned for three years over all the country between the Mediterranean and Euphrates; but he was then defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (§^19) in the great batde of Car'chemish, and lost all his possessions in Asia. His successors paid tribute to Baby- lon, and, when freed from that yoke, they soon fell under RELIGION OF THE EG YPTIANS. 45 the greater power of the Persians. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, and became a part of the Persian Empire. 73. The Religion of the Egyptians contained some true and noble principles, mingled with a disgusting idolatry. They believed in a future life,'* and that its happiness depended on their well doing while here. Their tombs were always in sight, in the sandstone ridges which bounded the narrow valley of the Nile. Between the city of the living and that of the dead lay a sacred lake, before passing which to his final rest, every man, whether king or peasant, had to be approved by the judges. If his life was found to have been unworthy, he was forever shut out from the sepulcher of his fathers. It was believed that the soul also must appear before a judgment-seat of the gods, and only when sealed as "justified," could it enter the abode of the blessed. 74. If acquitted by the judges, the body was embalmed and returned to the house of its earthly abode, to be kept at least a month, and sometimes even a year, while joyful feasts were held in its honor. It then passed the sacred lake, and was laid away in a tomb whicli was more richly ornamented than the home of the earthly life. In late years the repose of these Egyptian tombs has been broken, and many "mummies" — the mortal forms of the men and women who walked about the streets of Thebes or Heli- op'olis thousands of years ago — have been added to the "curiosities" of our museums. 75. The Egyptian priests were philosophers, who knew a great deal more than they chose to tell the people. They believed in one Supreme God, and thought it impious to represent Him by any work of human hands; but they made Him known to the multitude under various names and attributes. As the Creator, he was Phthah ; as the Revealer, he was Amun; as the Benefactor and the Judge of men, he was Osiris, etc. Even plants and animals were 46 THE ANCIENT WORLD. supposed to possess some portion of his life, and were accordingly worshiped by the ignorant. Thus Memphis had its bull, Apis, which was regarded as a living symbol of Osiris. It was worshiped in life, and buried after death with great pomp and solemnity. Heliopolis, likewise, had its sacred calf, Ombos and Arsinoe their crocodiles, Thebes and Sais their sheep, all objects of local adoration. Every year at the rising of the Nile a seven days' feast was held in honor of Osiris, the preserver and benefactor of men. 76. Castes. — The priests constituted the highest rank in the kingdom, and by their knowledge, especially of physical science, they exercised great power over the common people. Not only religious services, but all the learned professions were entrusted to them. Their medical skill was widely famed, so that kings of Assyria sent to Egypt for physicians. Their power over body and soul was equally great, for, as the earthly judges of the dead, they could refuse to any man the passport by which he hoped to enter the abode of Osiris. 77. Next below the priests stood the soldier -caste. During intervals of service, the soldiers lived on their own lands, each man having an allotment of about six acres. The kings sprang either from the priestly or the military order, usually the former, and in any case each monarch was made a priest as part of the ceremony of his coronation. He bore the title Phrah (Pharaoh), signi- fying the sun ; and as representing the god of light, was head of the state religion not less than of the monarchy. 78. Below the two privileged classes were the great mass of the people, divided into four castes : farmers, boatman, artisans, and herdsmen. They owned no land, at least after the time of Joseph, the Hebrew prime- minister, who during a famine required all proprietors to sell their acres for food, holding them afterward merely as tenants of the king (Gen. xlvii : 18-26). The system CARTHAGE FOUNDED. 47 of castes crushed all ambition among the people. Every- man was compelled to follow his father's occupation, and when the- labor market became over crowded, the king had only to project some grand, but often useless work, and draft thousands of men into the quarries to draw stones for a new pyramid. One huge stone required the labor of 2,000 men, three years, for its transportation. 79. In the crowded cities of Egypt many industries were carried on. Vases of glass and porcelain, and engraved gems, still exist to prove the skill and industry of this ancient people. They excelled all other nations in the fineness of their linen fabrics and in embroidery. Doubt- less the Hebrew women learned of them the art by which they contributed to the beauty of the Tabernacle (Exodus xxvi : 36 ; xxxv : 25). 80. The genius of the Egyptians is chiefly shown in their architecture, which, for grandeur of proportions and the masses of material employed, has never been equaled. In the great Hall of Karnak, the whole Cathedral of Notre Dame could stand without touching either walls or ceiling; and the Temple of Karnak is connected with the palace of Luxor by an avenue of 1,000 colossal sphinxes. Egyptian sculpture was huge rather than beautiful; yet there is an imposing dignity in the gigantic figures of kings who guard the entrances of some temples. In painting, the Egyptians aimed to represent facts rather than to please the imagina- tion; and though the pictures in their tombs afford most interesting views of the daily life of the people, they are hardly to be considered as works of art. 81. Carthage. — The numerous Phoenician colonies have already been mentioned (§23). Of these, the most im- portant was Carthage, a daughter city of Tyre, founded about 850 B. C. The neighboring African tribes were friendly, and the new city grew rapidly in size and wealth. Every known sea was penetrated by her ships; the Atlantic 48 THE ANCTEXT WORLD. coast was explored from Norway to tlie Cape of Oood Hope, and the products of the whole ancient world filled her markets. The destruction of the mother city by Nebuchadnezzar ( § 24 ) threw nearly all of the western commerce of Tyre into the hands of the Carthaginians. All the Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean acknowledged Carthage as their leader, while her own colonies were scattered over Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, western Africa, Madeira, and the Canary Islands. 82. The go\ernment of Carthage was copied, with little alteration, from that of Tyre. In place of the king were two officers called Suffetes or Judges, elected for life from certain noble families. They were aided, or perhaps oftener opposed, by a grand council of several hundreds of citizens, from which committees were chosen to administer the various departments of state. Another Council of One Hundred was afterwards appointed, before which all generals, returning from war, had to render account of their actions; and so severe were its judgments, that an unfortunate commander sometimes chose to kill himself rather than appear before it. 83. The religion of Tyre, of course, descended to her daughter, with the same gloomy and cruel observances. In times of calamity, children were thrown into the heated arms of a brazen image of Moloch, whence they rolled into a furnace of burning coals. No military movement was made without the direction of a prophet or diviner; and the progress of a battle was often interrupted while the general offered sacrifices. 84. 'I'hree hundred years after her foundation, Carthage came into fierce collision with the (ireek cities of Sicily and southern Italy, and destroyed one of their fleets in a naval battle. The Greeks were great traders, and, therefore, rivals of the Carthaginians. In 509 B. C, Carthage made a friendly treaty with the infiint republic of Rome, which NOTES. 49 seemed less likely to become her rival, as the Romans despised trade, dividing their attention between farming and war with their Italian neighbors. They grew to be, however, the bitterest enemies, and finally the destroyers of Carthage. But the story of these later days will be more conveniently told in the history of Rome. See Ch. XIV. Point out, on Maps i and 5, the course of the Nile. Thebes. Memphis. Carthage. Read, concerning Egypt, Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians ; Herodotus, Book II ; Brugsch Bey's Egypt under the Pharaohs ; Rawlinson's History of Egypt, and Palmer's Egyptian Chronicles; Eber's Uarda and Egyptian Princess. Concern- ing Carthage, read Heeren's Historical Researches ; African Nations. NOTES. 1. The best authorities consider it " in the highest degree probable " that it was tlie last of the Shepherd Kings, Apepi, who raised Joseph out of prison to be his prime minister (see Gen. xli). "The eleva-i tion of a foreigner and a Semite to so exalted an office, is thought to be far more likely under Hyksos than under native Egyptian rule; the marriage with the daughter of the high-priest of Heliopolis to be less surprising, and the Egyptian words and names connected with the his- tory to point to tills period." If this be so, the "shepherds" must have become civilized to a great degree by the example of the people whom they had enslaved. "For,"' continues Prof. Rawlinson, "the Pharaoh of Joseph is no rude and savage nomad, but a mild, civilized, and soinewliat luxurious king. He holds a grand court in a city not named, has a number of cup-bear- ers and confectioners, sits upon a throne or rides in a chariot, wears a ring on his liand, lias vestures of fine linen and collars of gold to be- stow on tliDsi' wliom he fiivors, uses the Egyptian language, and is, in fact, undistinguishable froin a native Egyptian monarch. He does not oppress any of his subjects. On the contrary, he sustains them in a time of scarcity when he becomes their landlord, takes a moderate rent, is especially lenient to the priests; and, when he receives the Is- raelites, even concedes to his subjects' prejudice against 'shepherds.' If he is by birth and descent one of the Hyksos, he has adopted all the ordinary habits and modes of life of the Egyptians; he is even, it would seem, tolerant of their religion." It can easily be understood that when the foreign rulers had been cast out, the favor in which the Hebrews had been held by them would give way to a very different treatment. 2. The greatest king of the Eighteenth Dynasty was Thothmes III., who was a miy;lity conqueror, both by land and sea. The French his- torian Lenorniant iiif.-rs from an inscription at Thebes "that the fleets of the great Pharaoh, after having first conquered Cyprus and Crete, had further subjected to his scepter the islands of the southern archipelago, a consideraijle portion of the seaboard of Greece and Asia Minor, and even, perhaps, the lower extremity of Italy." He concludes "from the same monument, that the war-vessels of Thothmes III. penetrated pretty frequently into the waters of the Black Sea, where Herodotus pretends Hist.— I. 56 THE ANCIENT WORLD. that the Egyptians had before this founded a colony in Colchis for the worliing oftiie mines. . . . Memorials of the reign of Thothmes III. have been found at Cherchell, in Algeria; and it is not at all impossi- ble that they really mark the limit whereto the power of this prince extended on the north coast of Africa." English and German Egyptol- ogists read the names in the inscriptions diflferently, but there" is no doubt that Thothmes ruled the coasts of Syria, C'ilicia, and Cyprus, as well as of Egypt. By his great buildings "he has left the impress of his presence in Egypt more widely than almost any other of her kings, while, at the same time, he has sujiplied to the great capitals of the modern world their most striking Egyptian monuments. The memo- rial which he erected to commemorate his conquest of the land of Xa- harain (Mesopotamia), looks down upon the place of the Atmeidan in the city of Constantine; one of his great Tlieban obelisks rears itself in the midst of the Piazza in front of the Church of St. John Lateran, in Rome; while the twin spires, which he set up before the temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, after long adorning Alexandria, have been conveyed, respectively, to London and New York." — RawUnson. 3. Esarhaddon (P4) divided Egypt into twenty districts, over which he placed twenty rulers,— some Assyrian, some native Egyptian, but all subject to his commands. One of these was Fsammetiehus or Psamatik, a Libyan, king of Sais. The powerful Ethiopian king, Tirhakeh, who had previously ruled Egypt, was driven away to tlu' southward. But "no sooner did f^sarhaddon, in B. C. 669, show signs of I'liysical decay, than Tirhakeh IssulhI from his Ethiopian fastnesses, drsceiidcil the val- ley of the Nile, expelled the kings set up by Esaiiuuldoii, and ret'stal> lished his authority over the whole country. The kiniis tlcl to Nineveh, where they found'Asshur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, established in power. Learning from them what had haiijieiud, he at once put his forces in motion, and, in B. C. 668, led them tluDugh Syria and Pales- tine into Egypt, defeated the Egyptians and Ethiopians in a great bat- tle near Karbanit, stormed Memphis and Thebes, and forced Tirhakeh once more to take refuge in his own proper country. After tliis he re- tired, having first reinstated the princes in their former governments and strengthened the Assyrian garrisons in the various towns." A new revolt was followed by a new invasion, and so Egypt contin- ued to be "a shuttle-cock between Ethiopia and Assyria for some ten or twelve years." The perpetual advances and retreats of hostile armies "half ruined the towns, and carried desolation over the broad and fertile plains on either side of the river. The great city of Thebes, long the admiration of the Greeks, and probably for many years quite the most magnificent city in the world, passed into a by-word for depression and decay."— Read Nahum III, 8, 9. In this time of trouble and weakness, Psamatik, king of Sais, found his opportunity to reestablish the EgyiJlian monarchy. With the aid of a body of soldiers, mostly Carians and Ionian (Jreeks, sent by King Gyges of Lydia [g28), he defeated the forces of the vassal-kings, and " proclaimed himself 'lord of the two Egypts, the upper and the lower country.'" "The introduction into Egypt of a large body of Asiatic (ireeks, war- like, and yet civilized and refined, and the close relationship in which they henceforth stood to the king, were events of considerable impor- tance in their effect upon Egyptian art, manners, and habits of thought. The spirit of inquiry was suddenly awakened in the inert Egyptian mind, which had hitherto been content to work in a traditional groove, and had eschewed all needless speculations. Psammetichus himself had his curiosity aroused and began experiments and investigations. . . X question having been raised as to the relative anticpiity of ditferent races of mankind, Psammetichus had two children isolated from tlieir species, brought up by a dumb herdsman, and suckled l>y a goat, in order to see what language they would speak, since he presumed that, if they never heard a word uttered, they would revert to the primitive type of speech. The result of his experiment was thought to prove the Phrygians to be the most ancient nation." "It would seem that another consequence was the opening of free communication and commercial intercourse between Egypt and Asiatic Greece, such as had certainly not e.xisted previously. The Egyptians had hitherto been jealous of foreigners, and scarcely allowed them to NOTES. 51 land on their coast. Now Greek trade, and even Ureek settlements, were encouraged." Merchants from Miletus established two cities at difl'erent mouths of the Nile, of which, Naucratis, the more westerly, became an important seat of Greek commerce. Here 8olon resided during those years of his early manhood, when he was not only repairing his injured fortune, but eiiriehiny; liis mind by oljservations of laws and customs which miglit bi' made useful to his fellow-citizens."— See note, p 68. By his employment of foreign soldiers, Psammetichus gave great of- fense to the Egyptian warrior-class, who seceded to the number of 200,000, and, passing through Nubia and Ethiopia, established a military colony on the Wliite Nile, only nine degrees from the equator. 4. "How it happened " — says Prof. Rawlinson, in his History of Egypt—" that in Es^yptiaii thought the future life occupied so large a space, and was felt to be so real and so substantial, while among the Hebrews 'and the other Semites it remained, even after contact with Egypt, so vague and shadowy, is a nlystery which it is impossible to penetrate. We can only say that so it was; that from a time anterior to Joseph, or even Abraham, the children of Mizraim, in their bright and fertile land on either side of the strong-flowing Nile, thought as much of the future life as of the present; that their religious ideas clustered rather about the tomb than about the temple; and that their worship, domestic rather than national, though it included, among its objects, some beings regarded as wholly divine, was directed especially toward the spirits of those who had been their fathers in the flesh." " There was another worship, also of a practical character, which be- longs almost certainly to this early period— the worship of the reigning monarch. Each king was regarded as an incarnation of Horus, was assigned a priest or priests, and a temple; or, at any rate, a chapel. He was styled 'the victorious Horus,' 'the divine lord,' 'the ever-liv- ing.' His subjects worshiped him, not only during his life, but after his death." Diodorus of Sicily wrote of Egypt in the first century before Christ: "The inhabitants of this region consider the term of man's present life to be utterly insignificant, and devote by lar the largest part of their attention to the life after death. They call the habitations of the living 'places of sojourn,' since we occupy them but for a short time; but, to the sepulchers of the dead they give the name of 'eternal abodes,' since men will live in the other world for an indefinite period. For these reasons they pay little heed to the construction of their houses, while in what concerns burial they place no limit to the extravagance of their eflTorts." Egyptian Sculptors. PART II. — Hellenic States. PERIOD I. — The Age of Fable. CHAPTER VI. EARl.IESI' HISTORY OF THE (JKEEKS — IHEIR RELIGION. E XCEPTING the Jews, the nations hitherto de- scribed have given but few ideas to our modern life. The influence of Egypt, Babylonia, and Persia has doubtless reached us in- directly through their dealings with the Hebrews and (ireeks; but those mighty empires are too remote in time and cir- cumstances to have affected us greatly. Greece, on the con- trary, by her art, literature, Bust of Homer. and philosopliy, has exerted a controlling influence ujjon the intellectual life of the world. 86. The Greeks were Aryans, like the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, and the Brahmins of India, and were probably among the earliest emigrants from the original home in (52) THE GREEK PENINSULA. S3 Asia (§5). The first-comers were called Pelasgi ; their successive abodes in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy may be traced by remains of their buildings, which may still be seen, composed of enormous masses of rough stone joined without cement. Many other tribes followed, among whom the Helle'nes at length gained the chief power in Greece, and gave their name to all the Aryan settlers of ^MVLcn, I Map 3. — Greece. that peninsula and its neighboring islands. "Wherever the Hellenic tongue was spoken, there was Hellas;" the names of Greece and Greeks were of later origin. 87. If you look upon Map 3, you will see that the Greek peninsula is divided, by deep gulfs, into a northern, a central, and a southern imrt. These are, moreover, in- 54 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tersected by mountain-chains, so that twenty-four separate states existed within this httle peninsula, which is only 250 miles long and 180 miles wide at its greatest extent. Northern Greece contained two countries, Thessaly and Epirus; Central Greece, eleven, of which Attica was the most celebrated, though not the largest; and the Pelopon- nesus, or Southern Greece, had also eleven, among which Laced^emon, with Sparta for its capital, long held the supremacy. 88. The Greeks were a bright, active, and enterprising people. Tempted by the bays and inlets which so deeply indent their coasts, and by the many islands which afford easy stepping-stones to Asia, they very early became sailors and traders to foreign lands. Their cities in Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy surpassed those of the mother- land in wealth and beauty. Thus open on every side to foreign influences, the Greeks could not fail to profit by the civilization of older nations.^ They learned the art of alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians, and derived many ideas concerning philosophy and religion from "the learn- ing of the Egyptians." 89. Hellenic history will be treated in four periods : I. The Age of Fable, ending with the Dorian Migra- tion, 1 100 B. C. II. Authentic History, from the Migrations to the Per- sian Wars, 500 B. C. III. From the Beginning of Persian Wars to the Suprem- acy of Macedon, 338 B. C. IV. Empire of the Greeks in Europe, Asia, and Africa, until their conquest by the Romans, 146 B. C. 90. The Age of Fable is also called the Heroic Age. The Heroes were supposed to have been sons of the gods, and to have surpassed all common men in strength, beauty, and greatness of soul. Among the most celebrated were Her'cules, whose "twelve labors" delivered the land from SIEGE OF TROY. 55 noxious pools, savage beasts, and still more dangerous men ; The'seus,^ the civilizer of Attica, and founder of the Isthmian Games (§103); Mi'nos, king of Crete, a great lawgiver and judge; and Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, who sailed with fifty brave comrades through the Black Sea to Colchis in quest of the Golden Fleece. The stories of these and many other heroes may be read in the Greek Mythology. gi. Last and greatest of the heroic deeds, was the ten years' siege of Troy, in Asia Minor. Paris, son of the Trojan king Priam, had carried away Helen, wife of Menela'us, king of Sparta. All the Greek princes mustered their ships and men to punish the wicked deed; and, choosing Agamem'non, brother of the injured Menelaus, as their leader, they sailed across the blue yEgean, and be- sieged Troy. The closing scenes of the war are narrated by Homer in the Iliad, one of the greatest poems of the whole world's literature. 92. Achil'les, the favorite hero of the Greeks, quarreled with Agamemnon and shut himself up in his tent. Hector, the bravest of the Trojan princes, now gained the advan- tage and drove the Greeks to their ships. Pat'roclus then borrowed the armor of Achilles, and at the head of his Myrmidons drove back the Trojans and saved the ships, but was himself slain by Hector. To avenge his friend, Achilles reappeared in battle, and killed the brave Hector, whose corpse he dragged behind his chariot about the walls of the city. Achilles himself perished in the fight, but the Greeks were victorious. Troy fell, and for ages lay so buried in ruins that some have even doubted whether it ever existed. Within a few years, however, the efforts of Dr. Schliemann have brought to light the palace of Priam, and many of its ornaments in gold, silver, and bronze, together with a gate and temple which were de- scribed by Homer. 56 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. 93. Whether we believe the poet's story or not, his descriptions afford true pictures of early Greek customs in war, government, and home life. Each little state (^^87) had its king, who was supposed to be descended from Zeus (§95), and who was at once the father, the judge, the general, and the priest of his people. A council of nobles, also sons of the gods, aided him with their wisdom and their arms. They had broad lands, many slaves, and treasures of gold and silver; but king and nobles lived simply and industriously, plowing and reap- ing their fields, building and rowing their boats, and even sometimes cooking their own dinners. 94. Queens and noble ladies wove the wool and flax of their husbands' estates into garments for themselves and their families, while princesses brought water from the well, or helped their slaves to wash garments in the rivers. These early Greeks loved poetry, music, and all the arts; and in every house a cordial welcome awaited the minstrel who sang the brave deeds of heroes, or the visits of the gods to men. In this way Homer's poems passed from mouth to mouth centuries before they were committed to writing. 95. Greek Religion was for the most part a refined form of Nature-worship. All Hellenes believed in Zeus,^ the Thunderer, king of gods and men; in Posei'don, god of the sea; Apollo, the sun-god; Airs, god of war; HephcEs'tus, of fire and the useful arts; and in Hcr'nics, the promoter of commerce and wealth. The six chief goddesses were Hera, wife of Zeus; Athc'na, his favorite daughter; Ar'fcniis, the moon-goddess; Aplirodi'tc, the impersonation of beauty and love; Hcs'tia,* \\\t guardian of domestic life; and Dcmc'tcr, the bountiful mother of harvests. These twelve constituted the supreme council of the gods, on the heights of Mt. Olympus; but every field, river, and forest was supposed to be inhabited by its separate divinity. GREEK RELIGION. 57 96. "Mysteries," in honor of Demeter, were celebrated every year at Eleusis, in Attica; and so reverently were they regarded, that it was a crime even to mention them in the presence of foreigners or others who were not admitted to a share in them. Of course we have no means of knowing what rites or doctrines were so secretly com- memorated; but ancient writers seem to intimate that they were connected with the hope of a future life. They gave a feeling of comfort and sectirity to their participants; and, in, case of sudden peril, strangers often asked each other, "Have you been initiated?" 97. Much less respectable were the ora^ics or drunken rites held in honor of Diony'sus, god of the vine. Troops of women, called Bacchantes, spent whole nights upon the mountains, shouting, leaping, and clashing noisy instru- ments, even tearing human victims to pieces and devouring their flesh. They believed that this frenzy arose from the presence of the god, and that those who resisted it would be punished with madness. 98. In spite of these strange occasional excesses, the Greeks believed that the Ruler of the world demanded truth, purity, and justice from men. In the earliest times, if deadly sins were committed, there was no hope; the guilty person was haunted by avenging goddesses, wlio never slept, but stood or walked by his side with flaming eyes until his crime was punished. Afterward the idea of atonement for sin was derived from Asia — perhaps indi- rectly from the Hebrews. In case of famine, pestilence, or defeat in war, whole cities or states endeavored to cleanse themselves by prayers and sacrifices, from some known or hidden crime. 99. From very early times the gods were, supposed to make known their will to men by dreams, oracles, divina- tions, and the motions of the stars. The most celebrated oracle was that of Apollo at Delphi. His priestess seated 58 THE ANCIENT WORLD. herself at the mouth of a cave, whence issued an intoxi- cating vapor, and, when sufficiently giddy or inspired, uttered a response so obscure that the inquirer needed more wit to discover what it meant than to decide upon the best course of conduct for himself. It is said that Croesus, king of Lydia, asked counsel at Delphi, whether he should make war against Cyrus (§29). The reply was, "If thou make war against the Persians, thou shalt ruin a great empire." When Croesus had lost his crown, he was not much comforted by the priestess' explanation, that his own empire had been great, and was now ruined. 100. The Heroic Age ended with important movements among the four Hellenic tribes.* The barbarous Illyrians crossed the northern border, and crowded the Hellenes into closer quarters. The Dorians of central Greece then passed over to the Peloponnesus, of which they made themselves masters; and their leaders became kings re- spectively of Argos, Messenia, and Lacedaemon. Many lonians, thus crowded out of southern Greece, founded twelve new cities on the islands and eastern coasts of the -^gean. These soon became rich and flourishing, and were early noted for the brilliant genius of their people. The poets Homer and Anac'reon were lonians of Asia. loi. The Dorians, not content with their conquered peninsula, seized the islands of Cos and Rhodes, and a small portion of the Asiatic mainland, where they built Cnidus and Halicarnassus. The ^'Eolians also built many new cities, both in Asia and in Italy. Great changes occurred in the Grecian governments dur- ing the time of the Migrations. Almost all the monarchies were replaced by republics. Cities acquired much greater importance; in fact, each state now consisted of a city, with its little tract of subject territory. Though completely independent, and often envious and hostile toward each ••■ The Dorians, lonians, Achceans, and /Eolians. THE OLYMPIC GAMES. 59 Other, the Greeks of all these states, in Europe and Asia, prided themselves upon their common language, religion, and ancestry, which distinguished them from the rest of mankind, whom they called barbarians or babblers. 102. This national feeling was kept alive by the great games and festivals, which, at least once in every year, drew together throngs of Greeks from the remotest corners of Hellas. Here were chanted the war-ballads of Homer, which described all the Greeks as united against a com- mon foe. Here, too, were friendly contests in running, leaping, wrestling, and racing with horses and chariots. Every Greek, however poor or unknown, was admitted to the competition; but all barbarians., though of royal birth, were excluded. The victor was crowned with wild olive, laurel, or pine; he was welcomed home with choral pro- cessions, and with all the honors that his native city could bestow. 103. Oldest and most famous of all were the Olympic Games — said to have been founded by Hercules — which were celebrated once in four years, in E'lis, the Holy Land of the Hellenes. While these games lasted, all wars ceased; and so great was their importance, that the Greeks of later years used the period of their recurrence as a measure of time. The First Olympiad \iz.% B. C. 776-772. Next in rank were the Pythian Games, in honor of Apollo, held in Phocis, the third year of every Olympiad. They included competitions in music and poetry, as well as ath- letic contests. The praises of Zeus were again celebrated by the Nemean Games, every two years, near Cleona; in Argolis ; and those of Poseidon, the sea god, in the alter- nate years, by the Isthmian Games, near his temple on the Isthmus of Corinth. 104. Another bond of union was formed by leagues of kindred tribes, for worship and for mutual counsel and defense. The sacred Isle of Delos was the relic-ious me- 6o THE ANCIENT WORLD. tropolis of the Cyclades, whither all the Ionian cities sent yearly embassies to offer sacrifices to Apollo. The Ionian and Dorian cities, in Asia Minor, had each a federal union, whose meetings were celebrated by games and religious festivals ; and on the Greek peninsula a grand " Amphictyonic Council" of twelve tribes met twice every year — in the spring, at Delphi, and in the fall, at Anthela, near Thermopylae. The faith of the Council was pledged to the protection of every member by the following oath : "They would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off their streams in war or peace; and if any should do so, they would march against him and destroy his cities; and should any pillage the property of the god (Apollo), or plan any thing against his tem})le, at Delphi (§99), they would take vengeance upon him with hand and foot and voice, and all their might." Name the natural l^oundaries of Greece. Point out, on Maps 2 and 3, the Aml^racian, Corinthian, and Saronic gulfs. The states of northern (ireece. Of central Greece. Of the Peloponnesus. The islands of Eubrea, Deles, Samos, Lesbos, Leninos, Rhodes, Crete. Miletus, and other Ionian cities in Asia Minor. Mitylene, and other jEolian cities. Cnidus, and other Dorian cities. Troy. For illustration, read Kingsley's "Heroes;" Hawthorne's "Wonder Book" and "Tanglewood Tales;" Homer's Iliad, in Bryant's or Lord Derby's translation ; and Bryant's translation of the Odyssey. For information, see Felton's Smith's Greece, Book I, and the early volumes of (irote's History of Greece. NOTES. 1. The Greeks Ijclievcd that their remote ancestors learned the arts of eiviUzed life from (Jriental and Egyptian strangers. Athens was said to have been founded by Cecrops, a native of Sais in Egypt, who insti- tuted its forms of worship and domestic life. Its citadel was called the Cecropin down to the latest times. Danaun was fabled to have come from tlie >Jile-country with his fifty daughters, to escape the persecu- tion of their fifty suitors, who were all sons of his brother ^gyptus. He became king of Argos, and, as this kingdom enjoj-ed a certain leader- ship in early times. Homer often calls all the Greeks Danai. Pelops was believed" to have come from Asia Minor and founded the kingdom of Myeenfe. From him the Peloponnesus derived its name. NOTES. 6 1 A grain of truth may be found in tlie story of Cadmus the Phoeni- cian, who was reputed to have founded Thebes, in Boeotia, and to have taught tlie people the arts of mining and vine-culture, and the use of the alpliabet. It is certain that both the names and the forms of Greek letters were derived from the Plia?niciRns; and, as these people planted colonies at a very early time in the islands of the Grecian Archipelago, they may very likely have penetrated the main land. The fortress of Thebes bore the name Cadmea to a late period. The stories of Egyptian colonies are thus accounted for by Dr. Smith : "The speculative Greeks [see note, p. 50J who visited Egypt in the sixth and fifth centuries before the Christian era, were profoundly im- pressed with the monuments of the old Egyptian monanlij-, which, even in that early age of the world, indicated a gray and hoary an- tiquity. The Egyptian priests were not slow to avail themselves of the impression made upon their visitors, and told the latter many a won- drous tale to prove that the civilization, the arts, and even the religion of the Greeks, all came from the land of the Nile. These tales found easy believers; they were carried bacdc to Greece, and repeated with va- rious modifications and embellishments; and thus, no doubt, arose the greater number of the traditions respecting Egyptian colonies in Greece. "The only fact whicli lends any countenance to the existence of an Egyptian colony in Greece, is the discovery of the remains of two pyra- mids at no great distance from Argos; but this form of building is not confined to Egypt. Pyramids are found in India, Babylonia, and Mex- ico, and may, therefore, have been erected by the early inhabitants ot Greece, independently of any connection with Egypt."— i^eMoji's Smith's " Greece." 2. Among tire many memorable achievements of Theseus, son of King ^Egeus, "the most famous was his deliverance of Athens from the frightful tribute imposed upon it by Minos for tlie murder of his son. This consisted of seven youths and seven maidens whom the Athenians were compelled to send every nine years to Crete, tiiere to be devoured by tlie Minotaur, a monster with a human body and a bull's head, which Minos kept concealed in an inextricalile labyrintli. The third sliip was already on the point of sailing with its cargo of in- nocent victims, when Theseus offered to go with them, hoping to put an end forever to the horrible tribute. Ariadm*, the daughter of Minos, became enamored of the hero, and, having supplied him with a clew to trace the windings of the labyrinth, Theseus succeeded in killing the monster, and in tracking li is way out of the mazy lair. Ashe returned towards Athens, the pilot forgot to lioist the white sail agreed upon as the signal of success; whereupon .Egcus, thinking that his son had per- ished, tlirew himself into the sea, which afterwards bore his name. Theseus, having now ascended the tlirone, proceeded to lay the foun- dations of the future greatness of Athens. He united into one political body the twelve independent states into which Cecrops had divided Attica, and made Atiiens the capital of the new kingdom. In order to accommodate the increased population of the city, he covered with buildings the ground lying to the south of the Cecropian citadel; and, in conmii'uioration of the union, he instituted the festivals of the Pan- atheiuea and Synoikia, in iionor of Athena, tlie patron goddess of the city. He then divided the citizens into thrc(> classes; namely, Eiq>i the gigantic shade of Theseus was believed to be seen fighting in tlie midst of the Athenian ranks. 3. It has been common to call the Greek gods and goddesses by the names of Roman divinities who most nearly resembled them in charac- ter; but this is often misleading. The Romans tried to find, in the dei- 62 THE ANCIEA'T WORLD. ties of other nations, sometliingin common with their own; and, there is no doubt that many of the (ireeli and Koman conceptions of divinity were coiunion to them with otlier branches of the Aryan family. The following table gives the Cireek and Roman names of some of the principal deities that have been thus identifled : Greek. Roman. Zeus .Tupiter Poseidon Neptune Hades Pluto Ares JNIars Hephpestus Vulcan Hermes Mercury. Apollo bore the same name for both; Helios is an old Greek name for the sun-god, but is not identical with Apollo. GODDESSE.S. Hera Juno Athena Minerva Aphrodite Venus Artemis Diana Hestia Vesta Demeter Ceres Persephone Proserpina. 4. "The religion of the sacred fire dates from the dim and distant epoch when there were as yet no Greeks, no Italians, no Hindus, when there were onlj' Aryans. When the tribes separated, they carried this worship with them — some to the banks of the Ganges, others to the shores of the Mediterranean. Later, when these tribes had no inter- course with each other, some adored Brama, others Zeus, and still others Janus; but all preserved, as an ancient legacy, the first religion which they had known and ])racticed in the common cradle of their race. "This Are was somethiuii divine; they adored it and offered it a real worship. They made otferings to it of whatever they believed to be agreeable to a god— flowers, fruits, incense, wine, and victims. They believed it to have power, and asked for its protection. They addressed fervent prayers to it, to obtain those eternal objects of human desire- health, wealth, and happiness. "At certain moments of the day tliey placed upon the flre dry herbs and wood; then the god manifested himself in a bright flame. "Before eating, they placed ui)on the altar the first fruits of the food; before drinking, they "poured out a libation of Avine. This was the god's liortion. No one doubted that he was present; that he ate and drank; for did they not see the flame increase as if it had been nourishetl by the provisions offered?" — Fustcl de Could iic/cs, '■'■The Ancient City.''' Cities, like families, had their sacred heartli-flres, before which a sa- ci-ed bancpiet was held every day. "In Athens, the men who took part in this common meal were selected by lot. Every guest had a crown upon his head; it was a custom of the ancients to wear a crown of leaves or flowers when one performed a solemn religious act. For the same reason, the banqueters were clothed in robes of white— white was the sacred color, that which pleased the gods. The meal invariably commenced with a prayer and libations, and hymns were sung." When a new city was to be founded, flre was carried from the sacred hearth— the jin/tctin-inn of the mother-city— and placed upon that of the daughter, which had henceforth the saine religion. Exile was consid- ered as a capital punishment, and from the complaints of its victims we should judge it to be worse than death. For tlie exile had no relig- ion; his own gods could be approached only at their own altars, and he had no right to enter the temple of an alien divinity. PERIOD 11. — From the Mii^mtious to Ihc Persian Wars. CHAPTER VII. SPARTA AM) ATHENS. HE history of the Greeks is mainly involved in that of the two leading states, Sparta and Athens. These not only represented the two more im- portant tribes, the Dorians and lonians, but the two opposing principles which divided every state in Greece, except, perhaps, Sparta herself: namely, the prin- ciples of oligarchy and democracy, the former aiming to place the government in the hands of a few powerful men, the latter, to entrust it to the people themselves. The Dorians were remarkable for their severe and simple manners; the lonians, for the brilliancy and harmonious balance of their minds, and their genius for all the arts which beautify life. io6. The laws of Sparta were said to be the work of Lycurgus,' who lived about 850 B. C. ; but, probably, he only shaped the customs already i^revailing into more exact form. When the Dorians conquered the Peloponnesus (63) Pallas Athena. 64 THE ANCIENT WORLD. (§ loo), most of the former occupants of the country be- came tenants and slaves of their conquerors. The Spartans were but few in comparison with these subject Achaeans, and Lycur'gus resolved to make up, by military drill and efficiency, what they lacked in numbers. To this end, every Spartan was a soldier, and was taught that his life belonged to the state. 107. Every newly-born babe was brought before a committee of old men, who decided upon his right to live. If puny or sickly, he was cast into a ravine to perish; but if he seemed likely to be strong, he was accepted as a son of Sparta, and was endowed with one nine-thousandth jiart of the public lands. At seven years of age he was taken from his mother, and, until he was sixty, lived the life of a soldier. He ate black broth at the public tables; he was toughened by exposure to heat, cold, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and scourging, and thought himself disgraced if a word or sound of complaint escaped him. The girls were almost as severely trained as their brothers, and learned to prefer the glory of Sparta above all home affections. One mother shouted for joy when told that her eight sons had perished on one battle-field. 108. Sparta had always two kings, supposed to be descended from twin grandsons of Hercules; but their power was only that of priests and generals, subject to the Senate, and, later, to the committee of five "Ephors," who really governed the state. The population of Lacednemon was divided into three classes: (i) the Spartans proper, descended from the Dorian conquerors, who kept to them- selves all honors and power in the government, and lived in the city of Sparta as in a camp, always ready for mili- tary duty. Commerce and all useful arts were left to (2) the subject Achcraiis, who inhabited the country towns. The fields were cultivated by (3) Hc/ofs,-3. race of serfs attached to the soil, who were kept in a most cruel slavery. To SPARTA AND ATHENS. 65 shut out foreign luxuries, Lycurgus ordered Spartan money to be made of rusted iron, so that no other nation would receive it. 109. For three hundred years from the time of Lycur- gus, Sparta was engaged in contests with her neighbors in the Peloponnesus — the Messenians, Arcadians, and Argives — which gave her the control of the peninsula. So great was her power, that she would, perhaps, have become mistress of all Greece, if the Persian Empire, now domi- nant in Asia, had not tried to extend itself into Europe King Darius turned his revengeful eyes upon the Athe- nians (§52), and his efforts to subdue them — or, rather, their brave resistance — made them, after the wars, the leading power in Greece. no. Athens was not only the rival, but the perfect contrast of Sparta. More than any other people that ever lived, the Athenians loved music, poetry, eloquence, and all the arts of expression ; while the Spartans prided them- selves upon their blunt, laconic speech, and thought it a crime to use three words where two would suffice. 111. The last king of Athens fell in battle with the Dorians (§ 100), and for several centuries the nobles governed the state. Their power was often oppressive — especially when, in times of calamity, the poor were com- pelled to borrow money from them at a ruinous rate of interest, and became slaves from inability to pay their debts. At length, the people made their voice heard in a demand for written laws. To rebuke their presumption, the nobles appointed Dra'co, the sternest of their number, to prepare a code. Draco's laws were said to have been written with blood : the slightest crimes were punished with death, and the lives of all the people were placed at the mercy of the nobles. 112. These cruel enactments drove the people to revolt, and the nobles, now convinced of their error, chose So'lon,^ Hisi. -5. 66 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the wisest of their class, to prepare a more just and liberal constitution. He abolished slavery for debt, ' ^^^' gave to every freeman the right to vote, and ' laid the burdens of the state on those who were best able I to bear them. ' 113. Still the rights of the people were not fully secured. Pisis'tratus, a kinsman of Solon, the most popular and ac- complished man of his time, but also the most ' ^ °' ambitious, managed to usurp the supreme power. I For this reason he was called a tyrant;** but, though he gained his power by force, we can not deny that he used it wisely and well. He strictly enforced Solon's laws, and did much for the improvement of the people. He first collected the war-ballads of Homer into the great epic poem called the Iliad; and his library, the first in Greece, was freely open to all who wished to consult it. Though he was twice expelled from Athens, and once remained in exile eighteen years, Pisistratus at length established his power; and his sons, Hip'pias and Hippar'chus, succeeded him peaceably at his death, 527 B. C. 114. But the Athenians had now learned to be more careful of their liberties. Hipparchus was murdered by a citizen whom he had offended, and his brother, Hippias, was sent into exile. To prevent any citizen's becoming too powerful in future, the singular custom of ostracism'-^ was introduced. The best of men could be exiled for ten years, without accusation, trial, or defense, simply by a vote of one fourth of the Athenian freemen.^ To be ostracised was no disgrace, for it implied no crime, but was a tes- ■•■•"So called from oarQaiim', the Greek name for the tile, or oyster- shell, on which the name of the person was written. If the Senate decicled that public safety demanded the ostracism, the citizens assembled, on an appointed day, in the market-place, and cast these ballots in a heap. If one man's name was found on 6,000 tiles, he left the city within ten days. ATHENIAN OSTRACISM. 67 timony to the talents and sometimes even to the virtues of its victim. This precautionary measure was the work of CHs'thenes, who, next to Solon, may be considered as the founder of Athenian liberty. He "took the people into partnership," and extended the rights of citizens to all free inhabitants of Attica. These he enrolled in ten tribes, each having an equal share in the control of civil and military matters. From this time Athens always had a "government by the people," excepting at two calamitous periods, when the Spartan faction, which existed in almost every city, was able to revolutionize its affairs. About ninety years after the adoption of Clisthenes' con- stitution, it happened that two great men called for the vote of the Senate, under which each hoped that the other would be ostracised. The Senate pronounced that some one must be exiled ; but, before the day appointed for the popular vote, the rivals made up the quarrel, and agreed to "fire off the safety-gun of the republic" against an insignificant man, whose presence or absence could make no difference to his fellow-citizens. But the ostracism, thus degraded, was never called for again. "It was not against such as he," said a Greek writer, "that the shell was intended to be used." Name the boundaries of Lacedaemon. Of Attica. Of Argolis, Arcadia, Messenia. Grote's History of Greece is the best authority for this period. Read, also, in Rawlinson's Herodotus, the two Essays following Book V. NOTES. 1. So much doubt has been thrown upon the history of Lycurgus, that some writers have denied that lie ever lived at aU. We have reason, liowever, to believe that he was the brother of a Spartan king, who died early, and whose infant son lie afterwards cared for as guard- ian and regent. Dorian customs had fallen into some confusion in Sparta, and Lycurgus, during his regency, restored and confirmed them, adding such special provisions as were required by the ch-cuinstances of the state. His discipline and laws are well known, whatever we may think of their author; and they raised Sparta "in a little while to a proud and wonderful eminence." Having finished his work, Lycurgus made kings, senators, and peo- ple swear that they would make no change in his laws until his return. 68 THE ANCIENT WORLD. He then left Sparta forever. He oflfered sacriflees to Apollo at Delphi {\ 99), and received an assurance that Sparta should be the most glori- ous city in the woi'ld so long as she obeyed his laws. " Where and how he died nobody could tell. He vanished from the earth like a god, leaving no traces behind but his spirit; and he was honored as a god at Sparta, with a temple and yearly sacrifices down to the latest times." 2. The Helots were never allowed to forget that they were slaves. They were clothed in the skins of sheep and dogs, and were cruelly scourged for no fault of theirs. Sometimes they were forced to become intoxicated, that Spartan boys might be taught to despise drunkenness. Worse than all, from time to time, bands of young Spartans, armed with daggers, were ordered to range over the counti-y, murdering the strongest and best of the Helots. This was partly to improve their own military discipline, but also to keep down the rustic population, who were constantly increasing in numbers, while the Spartans were di- minishing. In war, every heavy-armed Spartan was attended by a certain number of light-armed Helots, sometimes as many as seven. If a Helot rendered very distinguished service, he was sometimes re- warded by freedom; but this was rare. On one occasion, wlicn Sparta, in a great emergency, had been well served by these subject pt'ui)le, a proclamation was issued that the bravest and best might come and claim their freedom ;— two thousand presented themselves and were treaclier- ously put to death. It is clear that Spartan cruelty arose in this case from fear; but the danger was the result of a false and wicked system, which must have destroyed all sentiments of justice and generosity in the master, as well as of manliness in tlie serf. 3. Though Solon was of a great Athenian family, being descended from King Codrus, he was poor; and, to mend the fortune which his tatlier's extravagance had impaired, lie betook himself to foreign trade. He was not, however, ambitious to become rich, but desired rather to improve his mind by the widest experience and observation. While he was exchanging his Attic oil and honey for Egyptian millet at Naucra- tis, he was studying the life of the people under the rule of the Pha- raohs, and unconsciously fitting himself to be of service to his fellow- citizens. Attica was sufTering then, as many a state has f-ince, from a violent strife of parties. Tlie Plain, the Shore, and the Mountain, were party names for the proud and wealthy nobles, the merchants, and the peasants. The latter were often very poor, and, under the hard laws of the time, many had become the slaves of their creditors, from whom they had borrowed money at enormous rates of interest. Solon's experience en- abled him to sympathize with all parties, to two of which he belonged. He repealed the harsh laws of Draco, and relied upon the Atlienian love of fame and approval as sutficient motives to good citizenship. Special acts of patriotism were rewarded by crowns, public banquets, places of honor in the popular assemblies, or by a statue in the market place or the streets. On the other hand, a citizen who remained indif- ferent in time of i)ublic danger, was declared to be disgraced. 4. The name tyrant had no bad meaning until the men who bore it made themselves odious by their abuse of power. The earliest tyrants took sides with the common people, and often secured for them a wel- come relief from, the oppressions of the noljles. The great danger con- nected with atyrany was, that it was subject to no laws, and was limited only by the tyrant's own good disposition or his fear of revolt. This he was usually able to prevent by means of a force of foreign soldiery, whom he paid out of the revenues of the state. The first step of Pisistratus toward absolute power was certainly in- genious. Wlien his plans were ready for execution, he appeared one day in the market-place, bleeding with self-inflicted wounds, which he assured the iieople he had received in defense of their rights, -from his and their enemies, the factious nobles. The people, in their grief and indignation, voted him a guard of fifty club men. Solon saw the dan- ger that lurked in this measure, but his remonstrances were unheeded. Pisistratus did not limit himself to the fifty men allotted him, but raised a much larger foi'ce, w'ith which he seized the Acropolis, and made himself inaster of the city. His first tyranny lasted but a short time; NOTES. 69 then he was driven from Athens, and his property was sold at auction for the benefit of the state. After he was gone, the two parties of the Plain and the Shore quarreled between themselves, and the latter invited Pi- sistratus to return. To explain matters to the Athenians, or, as some say, to secure their consent, a new sclieme was invented. A tall and very beautiful peasant girl was found in one of the country districts of Attica, who, when arrayed in glittering armor, looked stately enough to rep- resent Athena herself. A rumor was set afloat among the people that their tutelary goddess was coming in her own person to bring back her chosen vicegerent to her city. Accordingly, a great crowd assembled to worship Athena and acknowledge Pisistratus as their ruler. The second tyranny, like the first, was short; for his old enemies made peace with each other and united in expelling him. This time he did not wait to be recalled, but raised contributions of men and money among the other cities of Greece, and landed with a great army at Mar- athon. Here he was joined by a crowd of friends from Athens, and gained an easy victory over the troops that were hastily sent to oppose him. Then marching upon the city he secured himself in power by keep- ing his foreign mercenaries, and by sending sons of the first Athenian families tobe hostages with his friend and ally, Lygdamis, on the island of Naxos. The gold mines which he owned near the river Strymon, af- forded the means, not only of paying his troops, but of gaining favor with the Athenians by beautifying their city with temples and other architectural works. The greatest was the temple of the Olympian Zeus, a colossal structure, 359 feet in length by 173 in width, which was completed 650 years after its foundation, by the Roman Emperor Ha- drian. This third tyranny of Pisistratus was by far the longest, lasting, some say, sixteen years. It was the period of all his peaceful enterprises, among others the institution of the greater Panathenaja, or twelve- days' festival in honor of Athena. It was distinij,nished from the lesser Panathentea instituted by Theseus (see note, p. (11) by a sacred proces- sion carrying a crocus-colored robe, embroidered with representations of the victories of Athena, to her temple, the Erechtheum, and more especially by recitations of the poems of Homer, which Pisistratus had collected for this purpose. The greater Panathensea occurred in the third year of every Olympiad ; the others, in the first, second, and fourth years. 5. Probably the most illustrious victim of this i^eculiar custom was Aristides (§120) whose honorable character was universally known and esteemed. When he held the office of archon, the courts of law were said to be deserted, because all suitors felt safer in submitting their causes to Ills arbitration. He was opposed on almost every point of public policj' by Themis- tocles (jiin and note), who desired to make Athens a maritime power, while Aristides wished her to remain an agricultural state. Their dis- putes ran so high that the ostracism was proposed, and Aristides was banished. It is said that during the voting he was asked by a man wdio could not write, to inscribe the name of Aristides on an oyster- shell for him. "Why?" said the great archon, "has Aristides ever in- jured you?" " No," said the man, "nor do I even know him by sight, but it vexes me to hear him always called 'the just.'" Aristides wrote his own name on the shell, which was cast into the heap. As he left his beloved city, he exclaimed, "May the Athenian peo- ple never know a day which' shall force them to remember Aristides!" This generous wish was not fulflUeil. The great crisis of the Persian wars, to be described in the next chapter, demanded the best efforts of all loyal Greeks. At midnight, before the liattlc of Salamis (^118), Them- istocles was called from a council of officers on board ship to meet Aris- tides, who had crossed in an open boat from ^Egina, to inform his an- cient rival of the danger to which he was exposed. "At any time," said the just man, "it would become us to forget our private dissensions, but now especially, in contending who should most serve his country." His exile ended with the victory at Salamis, which restored all the Athenians to their burned or shattered homes; and the following year he was general-in-chief of the Athenian forces. Three years after the battle, as president of the Hellenic League, he was raised to the highest honor ever conferred by all the Greek stales upon a citizen of one. PERIOD HI. —From the Bco^inuiin- of the Persian Wars to the Aseendency of Alaeedou. CHAPTER VIII. MARATHON, THERMOPYL.^J, SALAMIS: SUCCESSIVE SUPREMACIES OF ATHENS, SPARTA, THEBES, MACEDON. E have learned in the liistory of Persia (§52) how the Athenians drew upon themselves the venge- ance of the great King Darius, by aiding their brethren in Asia to revolt. The first fleet which he sent to conquer Greece was wrecked at Mt. Athos; but the second — after burning Carystus and Eretria, on the island of Euboea — landed I). C 490. , 100,000 men on the east- ern coast of Attica. The Athenians, led by Milti'ades,^ met them upon the plain of Marathon. Both armies fought long and bravely. The Medes A Grecian Soldier. ^^j-j^j Persians wcre the most magnifi- cent soldiery in the world, and they outnumbered the Athenians ten to one. Nevertheless, they were driven to their ships with great slaughter, and sailed away to Asia. A ten years' breathing-space then enabled the Greeks to collect their forces. (70) BATTLE OF SALAMJS. 71= 116. In the spring of 480, B. C, the greatest army that the world has ever seen (§53) came pouring into Greece. The two Spartan commanders, Leon'idas on land, and Eurybi'ades with his fleet upon the sea, met Xerxes at Thermopylae. In this narrow pass between Mt. (Eta and the Malian Gulf, a mere handful of Greeks held the whole Persian host at bay for more than a week. At length a treacherous Greek showed the Persians a path over the mountain, by which they could attack the little army in the rear. Thus betrayed, Leonidas dismissed all his forces excepting 300 Spartans and a few hundreds of Thespians and Thebans, and, rushing upon the enemy, fought until every man but one was slain. 117. The gates of central Greece were now open, and the army of invaders pressed on. Eurybiades would have withdrawn the whole fleet to the Peloponnesus, leaving Athens to its fate; but Themis'tocles,^ the Athenian leader, persuaded him to stay long enough at Salamis to allow the people of Athens to find places of safety. The oracle at Delphi had directed them to seek refuge in "wooden walls," which Themistocles assured them must mean their ships. A mournful procession of refugees immediately withdrew from the city, leaving behind only a few who were too poor or too feeble to be removed. Beautiful Athens was burnt, in revenge for the destruction of Sardis. 118. The great decisive combat between the Greek and the Persian forces, took place in the straits of Salamis. Xerxes himself, from a golden throne upon the shore, watched the battle between his magnificent armament of 1200 ships and fewer than 400 on the part of the Greeks. But the Greek pilots knew all the currents and soundings of these narrow seas, and could drive the brazen beaks of their light craft straight into the cumbrous Persian vessels. The battle was long and obstinate, but it ended in a glorious victory for the Greeks. Xerxes sailed away 72 THE ANCIENT WORLD. in bitter humiliation to his own land. The next autumn, his great general, Mardo'nius, was defeated and slain at Platasa, and the remnant of his fleet was destroyed the same day at Mycale on the opposite side of the yEgean. 1 19. The Persian kings gave up the attemjjt to conquer Greece, but for two hundred years they never ceased to meddle in her affairs by bribery and by stirring up the jealousies of the several states. Even the Spartan regent Pausa'nias, who had won the victory of Plataea, was per- suaded by their golden promises to betray his country. His treason, however, was discovered in time, and he was starved to death in a temple of Athena, his own mother bringing the first stone to block up its gates. Athens, instead of Sparta, now became the leading state in Greece. 120. A Hellenic League was formed for the protection of the islands and coasts of the yEgean against the Per- sians. Its treasury, to which all the maritime states con- tributed, was on the sacred isle of Delos. "Aristi'des the Just" — the best and greatest Athenian of his time — was the first president of the league ; and such con- fidence did all men place in his wisdom and integrity, that he alone decided how much each state should pay into its treasury, and no one ever complained of his assessments. 121. His successor was Ci'mon, the son of Miltiades. In 466 B. C., he gained a great victory over the Persians at the River Eurymedon, and swept the coasts of Asia Minor of their ships and armies. Cimon's immense wealtli and generosity made him the idol of the Athenians, whose city he adorned with marble colonnades and temples, with groves and fountains, until it became the glory of all Greece. Yet even he had to suffer, as Aristides and Themistocles had suffered before him, from the ingratitude and fickleness of the Athenians. AGE OF PERICLES. 73 122. Sparta was in great trouble through a revolt of the Helots (§ 1 08). These wretched people found courage at last to revenge themselves for centuries of ill-treatment; and the Messenians seized the opportunity to strike a blow for independence (§ 109). During the ten years' war which followed, Cimon persuaded the Athenians to forget their causes of complaint against Sparta and send her aid in her distress. He himself twice led an army to her assistance. But Spartan hatred of Athens could not even now be suppressed. The Athenian troops were insultingly dismissed; and so great was the vexation at home, that Cimon was ostracised as a friend of Sparta (§ 114). 123. The popular party now came into power, with Per'icles, the most brilliant of all Athenian leaders, at their head. Knowing that freemen can only be governed by reason and persuasion, he had spent his youth in studying the history and the interests of Athens, the science of gov- ernment, and the arts of elotjuence. Nothing could exceed the power and beauty of his oratory, or the influence he acquired over his countrymen. 124. The "Age of Pericles" is celebrated as the cul- minating period, both in the power and genius of Athens. Her maritime emj^ire extended over all the Greek coasts and islands, and on the main-land she was the successful rival of Sparta. At the same time sculptors and architects, painters and dramatic poets were producing the most per- fect works of art that the world has ever seen ; and the liberal encouragement offered to talent drew to Athens the greatest intellects from every land. Athenian citizens spent a large portion of their time in discussing public affairs, for private business was chiefly in tlie hands of slaves, who were three or four times as numerous as the freemen. Hence, it happened that the whole mass of citizens was better trained to civic duties than was ever any similar class of people, before or since. We must not imagine 74 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Attic slaves to have been in condition at all like the Helots (^io8). The Athenians were of more gentle and generous nature than the Spartans, and no cases of cruelty are on record. 125. The perpetual rivalry of the two leading states occasioned several wars, one of which grew from a dispute for the control of the Delphic oracle. Pericles, though free from superstition himself, well understood its power over others, and he desired to enlist Apollo on the side of Athens. The rashness of the younger Athen- '*'*^ ians led to a sad defeat at Coronaea in Boeotia; and most of the allied cities in central Greece now re- sumed their oligarchic governments under the influence of Sparta (§105). 126. P>om these and many other elements of strife arose the Peloponnesian war, which, for twenty-seven years ( B. C. 431-404), involved all Greece in calamities. Almost every summer a Spartan army ravaged the fields of Attica, and the people took refuge within the walls of Athens. Every nook was crowded ; a plague broke out among the swarming population, who ascribed it to the wrath of Apollo, the especial protector of the Spartans. Their com- plaints were loud against Pericles, whose cautious policy they were unable to understand. He was even accused of embezzling the public funds, and was heavily fined. 127. Pericles bore their unjust accusations with admir- able patience, but his strength was now broken by afflic- tion. His son and nearest friends had died of the plague; a slow fever seized the great statesman himself As he lay dying, his friends around his bed were talking of his great deeds, when he interrupted them, saying, "All that you are praising was due to the favor of Heaven. What I pride myself upon is that no Athenian has ever had oc- casion to mourn on my account." THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 75 128. The war grew more cruel every year. Mitylene, having revolted against Athens, was brought back to its allegiance by its own popular party, which outnumbered the friends of Sparta. Nevertheless, the Athenian assembly which was called to decide the fate of the recaptured city — carried away by the eloquence of Cleon, a violent dem- agogue — sentenced all the men of Mitylene to death, and its women to slavery! The author of this brutal decree dispatched a galley to Lesbos with orders for its immediate execution. But a night's rest brought a better mind to the Athenians; they revoked their cruel act, and sent another galley in still greater haste to save the lives of the doomed people. 129. Happily, it arrived in time; the Mityleneans were spared, but the walls of their city were destroyed, and their fleet was absorbed into that of Athens. Corcyra soon after- ward suffered a reign of terror in which brothers murdered brothers, and fathers their own sons. Sparta, afraid of her slaves, treacherously murdered 2000 Helots, the bravest and, therefore, the most dangerous of their class. Floods, earthquake, and pestilence combined with the evil passions of men to destroy unhappy Hellas. 130. All parties were now wearied out, and, in 421 B. C. , the Peace of Nicias provided for fift}' years' truce be- tween Sparta and Athens. Unhappily, war soon broke out again, through the ambition of Arcibi'ades,^a brilliant young Athenian, whose genius might have made him the glory of his native city, but who was in fact the chief occasion of its ruin. He persuaded his countrymen to take part in a war between the Doric and Ionic colonists in Sicily; and was one of the three generals who commanded the Athenian forces. But he was soon called home to answer a charge of sacrilege : namely, of having burlesqued the Eleusinian Mysteries (§96) in a drunken frolic. He took refuge with the Spartans, and betrayed to them all the 76 THE ANCIENT WORLD. plans of the Athenians. The Sicilian expedition ended in a miserable failure. The Athenian fleet was destroyed in the harbor of Syracuse; the soldiers- perished either in battle or of starvation; and the few who survived were sold as slaves. 131. All the rivals, enemies, and unwilling subjects of Athens now took advantage of her distress. Sparta made a treaty with the king of Persia, offering to put him in possession of the whole Cirecian territory north of the Corinthian Gulf, with all the islands and coasts of the ^gean. But Alcibiades had found a new refuge with the Persian governor of Asia Minor, and by skillful flatteries he partly defeated the Spartan plans. By several great naval victories he regained control of the grain-fleets in the Black Sea, and so relieved a famine in Athens. For these serv- ices his offenses were pardoned, and he was made general with unlimited powers. 132. Persian gold and Spartan skill, however, turned the scale against the Athenians; and they suffered a defeat at ^gos-Potami, which ended their supremacy in Greece. The Spartans besieged and took Athens. Its walls were destroyed, and its government was remodeled on the Spartan pattern. The chief power was committed to Thirty Tyrants, who for eight months sub- jected the citizens to fines, imprisonment, or death at their will. The second period of Spartan supremacy ( B. C. 404-371) was marked by the overthrow of free govern- ments throughout Greece. 133. But Sparta's leadership was not easy to maintain. The king of Persia was enraged by the aid she had given to his rebellious brother (§ 58), and a league of many Grecian states, disgusted by her overbearing tyranny, brought on the Corinthian war. Sparta had her best and greatest man, the king Ages'ila'us, for her chief commander, and gained decisive victories over her enemies at Corinth DEATH OF SOCRATES. 77 and Coronaea. A great naval battle with the Athenians and Persians off Cnidus was less fortunate to her, for it resulted in the destruction of the greater part of her fleet and th'e rapid decline of her power. 134. Athens meanwhile had been rescued from Spartan rule by Thrasybu'lus, one of her exiled citizens, who mus- tered an army of his fellow-exiles and defeated the Spartan forces at Phy'le and Muny'chia. The laws of Solon were restored. The only blot upon the happy time was the ex- ecution of the philosopher Soc'rates — one of the best and wisest men that ever lived — on a false charge of having introduced a new worship and corrupted the Athenian youth. Socrates was, in fact, too wise to believe in all the superstitions of the Greeks; but he was also too prudent to destroy the childish faith of his pupils until they were able to receive something better in the place of it. He refused to accept his life on the condition of forbearing to teach; for the great aim and passion of his life was to promote virtue and wisdom in the young. He spent the thirty days of his imprisonment in cheerful converse with his friends, expressing to the last his firm conviction of the soul's im- mortality. When the appointed moment arrived, he drank the poison hemlock and calmly expired. 135. The Spartans, weary at length of the disastrous war, sent a messenger to the Persian court, begging the Great King to interfere and settle the affairs of Greece. This was his sentence: "King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia and the islands of Clazom'ente and Cyprus should belong to him. He thinks it just to leave all the other Grecian cities, both small and great, independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens as of old."- — B. C. 387. 136. Spartan power having fallen, Thebes became the next leader of the Greeks. This Boeotian city had been for some years governed by a Spartan garrison ; it was 78 THE ANCIENT WORLD, rescued by the bold and ingenious contrivance of one of its own noblemen, and became the head of a new confed- eracy numbering seventy cities. The Theban Epam'inon'das was the greatest general whom Greece ever produced, and his purity of character was still more admirable than his military genius. At Leuctra, a few miles north ^^'' west of Platsea, the most fiercely contested of all Grecian battles was fought, resulting in a victory for Epaminondas, which ended the leadership of Sparta. 137. Four times he invaded the Peloponnesus, where he established an Arcadian League to balance the Spartan power, and called home the exiled Messenians, who had been for three hundred years a bamshed race, but whom he now settled in the homes of their fathers (^5 109). Sparta itself, which in all the centuries of its existence had never seen an enemy in arms, was threatened by the Thebans, l)ut it was saved by the energy of its old king Agesilaus. During his fourth invasion of southern Greece, Epami- nondas was slain in the fatal battle of Mantinea. With his death the Theban power fell, and Athens enjoyed another short period of leadership in Greece. 138. The kingdom of Macedon on the north had now become powerful enough to be regarded with fear. The Macedonians were barbarians (§ 102), but their kings claimed to be descendants of Hercules, and as such had been admitted to a share in the Olympic Games. Philip II, one of the ablest of these kings, had in his boyhood been a hostage at Thebes, where he had learned the art of war from Epaminondas. He had, moreover, become l)rOficient in the Greek language; while he had acutely studied the fatal dissensions among the Greeks, which promised a fair field for his talents both as general and as orator. 139. Soon after his return to Macedon and assumption of the crown, Athens became weakened by the "Social PHILIP'S SUPREMACY. 79 War," in which many of her late allies and subject states turned against her. Philip seized the opportunity to con- quer all her dependencies on the Thermaic Gulf. Then, availing himself of the Sacred War* to interfere in central Greece, he was made a member of the Amphictyonic Council (§ 104) and commander of its forces. 140. Demos'thenes, the great Athenian orator, saw the danger and used all his eloquence to avert it. It was in vain; gold and persuasion were working secretly for Philip, while his arms were advancing in the north ; and at length the great battle of Chaerone'a, in which his B. C -^^8 army defeated that of Thebes and Athens, made all Greece subject to Macedon. The Congress of Corinth, the next year, acknowledged Philip's supremacy, and appointed him to command the Hellenic forces in a war which was now preparing against Persia. But Philip was murdered at a feast, and this new enterprise was left to the yet greater genius of his son Alexander. Point out, on Maps 2 and 3, Marathon, Salamis, Platcea, Eretria, Carystus, Thebes, Coronaea, Chseronea, Corcyra, Corinth. The Ther- maic Gulf. Macedonia. The Hellespont. Thrace. The authorities for this chapter are the same as for the preceding. NOTES. 1. Miltiades, though an Atlienian, had been prince or "tyrant" of the Chersonese— that narrow tongue of land north of the fleUespont — owing to a curious incident that occurred during tlie first reign of Pisis- tratus. His uncle, also named Miltiades, was sitting one day at the door of his mansion, when he saw appi-oaching him a group of men whom he knew to be foreigners by their singular dre.ss and by their long spears. With his usual courtesy he invited them to become his guests; the strangers gladly consented, and soon told their story. Tliey were Thracians from the Chersonese, where their countrymen were even now hard pressed by the hostility of a neighlKirint; tribe. These men had been sent to ask direction from Apollo at Deljjlii (\ ii'.'i, and had been commanded by the priestess to chooNe for their ally the first man who should offer them hospitality after they quitted the temple. They had traveled all through Phocis and Bceotia without receiving ■■■■ So called because the Phocians seized the treasures of Apollo's temple at Delphi, and the Thebans undertook to punish the sacrilege. 8o THE ANCIENT WORLD. any attention; now they gladly hailed Miltiades as their leader, and begged him to found a Greek colony on the Hellespont. It happened that Miltiades, as well as many other nobles, was on bad terms with Pisistratus. A large party of Athenians joined him in establishing an independent state in the Chersonese, and victory rewarded the Tliracian guests for their obedience to the oracle. As Miltiades had no son, his sovereignty passed in turn to his two nephews, of whom one com- manded atMarathon. He had drawn upon him the wrath of Darius by C()nromised to aid him in conquering the Greeks. Artaxerxes was (k'lighti'd, and gave him at once three cities, whose tribute would provide his support. But, with all his selfish ambition, Themistocles probably never intended really to betray his country; and, to avoid ful- filling his promise to the king, he is said to have poisoned himself. He had been in exile twenty-two years. 3. Alcibiades was the most popular Athenian of his day; not only on account of his personal beauty and brilliant talents, but of his great wealth, which, joined with his gayety of temper, led him to provide amusements for the people on a most liberal scale. When the Sicilian envoys applied to Athens for help, he eagerly seized the opportunity for adventure, hoping also to lead his fellow-citizens to the conquest of Carthage. Nicias was more prudent; he persuaded the Athenians to send mes- sengers into Sicily to find out whether the people of Egesta were able to fulfill their share in the undertaking. But the messengers were de- ceived by a curious trick. They saw in the temple at Egesta, a mag- nificent display of altar-furniture, which they supposed to be solid gold, but whicli was in fact only silver-gilt. They were invited to a long succession of private entertainments, and were surprised to find every house supplied with glittering table-service of gold and silver; not knowing that the cunning Egesteans passed on these precious vttensils from house to house. So they returned to Athens to urge an expedition in aid of such wealthy allies. The plan was very popular; volunteers crowded the recruiting offices, and the generals had difficulty in restrict- ing the number that should be allowed to go. The Dorian League in Sicily had for its head the powerful city of Syracuse, which had been founded by Corinthians about B. C. 734, and, In the war then raging in Greece, it had joined the Peloponnesian Con- federacy. The great operation of the war was the siege of Syracuse by the Athenian fleet. After its failure, the besiegers might still have withdrawn in safety, but for an eclipse of the moon, which occurred on the very night before their proposed departure. The soothsayers de- clared that the army must remain just where it was for three times nine days. Nicias was too superstitious to follow his better judgment; the Syracusans heard of his plans, and, after defeating the Athenians in a naval battle, blocked up the entrance to the harbor, and cut off every way of escape, either by land or sea. Alcibiades, having been condemned to death by the Athenian judges, made himselif a great favorite, first with the Spartans, and afterwards with the Persians, with whom he successively took refuge. But the spoiled child of Athens was at length restored to her favor. "The rec- ords of proceedings against him were sunk in the sea, his property was restored, the priests were ordered to recant their curses, and he was 'appointed commander-in-chief of all the land and sea forces." Some reverses, however, gave new power to his enemies; he went into volun- tary exile, and ended his days as a sort of independent chief in the Thracian Chersonesus. 4. This was Pelopidas, a young Theban of great wealth and influence, who had taken refuge at Athens B. C. 382, on the seizure of the citadel of Thebes by the Spartans. Here, in secret agreement with Phyllidas, secretary of the Theban government, he planned with his fellow-exiles the deliverance of their native city. Phyllidas invited the principal Spartan leaders to a banquet at his house, and when they were some- \vhat stupid with food and wine, informed them that he was going to introduce some Theban ladies. At this moment, a messenger brought a letter to Ardiias, the chief general, begging his immediate attention, as it contained a matter of importance. But the general thrust the let- ter under the cushions of his couch, saying, "Serious matters to-morrow." Pelopidas and eleven young friends, who had arrived that day in Hist.-B ^ THE ANCIENT WORLD. the city, disguised as hunters, now entered the hall in the long white veils and festive garb of women. They dispersed themselves carelessly among the guests, and were courteously received ; but, as one of the Spartan lords attempted to lift the veil of the person who was address- ing him, he received a mortal wound. Swords were now drawn from beneath the silken robes, and no Spartan left the room alive. The prisons were thrown open, and 5(X) honorable citizens, who had suffered a three years' captivity rather than submit to Spartan rule, joined tlie forces of" the revolutionists. As day dawned, the people were summoned to the market-place, and a unanimous vote affirmed tlie independence of Thebes. The Spartan garrison in tlie Cadraea (see note 1, Ch. VI), deprived of its officers, and despairing of reinforcements, speedily sur- rendered. For fifteen years after tills, Pelopidas rendered distinguished service to his native city, both in war and diplomacy, and fell in battle, in de- fense of the Thessalian allies of Tliebes against the tyrant Alexander of Phera?, B. C. 364. 5. Epaminondas, though of noble birth, was born and reared in pov- erty. His principal teacher was a Pythagorean philosopher (^ lo^), Lysis of Tarentum; and he illustrated the highest virtues of the sect in the truthfulness, purity, and justice of his character. Though Pelopidas was his dearest friend, he took no part in the scheme above mentioned (note 4), because it involved deceit and tlie possible shedding of innocent blood; but he constantly urged a manly resistance of the Theban youth to the Spartans, and had raised their confidence by niatching them in athletic contests with these rivals. An eight years' war followed the expulsion of the Spartans from Thebes. All the Boeotian cities, excepting two, cast off the Spartan in- fluence (^10.5) and formed popular governments, joining tin inselves at the same time in a new "Boeotian League," with Thebes at its head. In the spring of 371 B. C, a congress of all the Grecian states met at Sparta, for the purpose of putting an end to the war. When the treaty was drawn up, Sparta signed it for the whole Laconian confederacy; but each of the other states was expected to sign separately. Athens con- sented to this, but Elpaminondas, representing Theijes, clamed his right to ratify the treaty in the name of tlie whole Bceotian League, of which his citj' was as truly the head as Sparta of Lacouia. But this was de- nied hini, and the war between Thebes and Sparta still went on. Cle- ombrotus, the Spartan king, invading Boeotia, was defeated and slain in the battle of Leuctra, where the new tactics of P'paiiiinoiKlas were first put to the proof. The second Spartan supremacy, \\ljich had lasted 34 years Irom the battle of iEgos-Potami (!;132), now gave way to a nine years' supremacy of Thebes, which was to end B. C. 362, at the death of Epaminondas. 6. Agesilaus II. ascended the Spartan throne B. C. .398, on the death of his brother Agis. In one of tlie earliest years of his reign he led an army into Asia, defeated two powerful satraps, Tissaphernes and Phar- naViazus, and was about to advance to the very heart of the Persian empire, when the five epliors, who were supreme in Sparta, even over the kings, summoned him liome. He wrote back, "We have reduced most of Asia, driven back the barbarians, made arms abundant in Ionia. But since you bid me, according to the decree, come home, I shall fol- low my letter, and maj', perhaps, be even before it. For my command is not mine, but my country's and her allies." He immediately marched by Xerxes' route, from Asia to Greece. Sparta was now engaged in war against a powerful league of states, and had just gained a great victory over the allies at Corintli. Agesi- laus, hearing of it, exclaimed, "Alas for Greece! she has killed enough of her sons to have conquered all the barbarians." He iiimself defeated the allies at Coroneia, in Bceotia, and ravaged the territories of Argos and Corinth. It was with his full ai>proval that Phoebidas, a Spartan captain, seized the Cadniea in 382 B. C, and that eleven years later Tliclies was excluded from the peace, and the fatal campaign of Leuctra l)eg-ni. In the spring of 361 B. C, Agesilaus, now eighty years of age, crossed the sea with a band of soldiers, to the aid of Tachos, king of Egypt, who had revolted against Persia. The appearance of the little, lame, old man, a true Spartan in his contempt for kingly pomp and NOTES. 83 splendor, excited ridicule among the Egyptians; but wlien Agesilaus transferred liis aid to Nectanahis, who, in turn, had risen against Tachos, tlie importance of the little Spartan nas felt, for Nectanahis obtained the throne. Agesilaus died on his marcli to f'yrene, whence he was to liavc sailed to Hparta; his body, embalmed in wax, was conveyed with great honors to his native city. An ancient oracle had foretold tliat Sparta would lose her power under a lame sovereign. The prediction wa.s fulfilled, but through no tault of the king, who lias been justly called "Sparta's most perfect citizen and most consumniate general, in many ways, perhaps, her greatest man." He had all the virtues of his countrymen without their too common faults of avarice and deceit. His remark upon the victory at Corinth, shows that his patriotism was not narrowed to the boundaries of liis own state. Many incidents are preserved which prove liis warm and tender allection, Ijotli for his own children and for friends, — a rare trait among the Spartans. He was the nineteenth king of the Proclid or Eurypontid line. It will be remembered (§108) that there were two lines of Spartan kings ijfvmed from twin grandsons of Hercules, Procles and P'urysthenes; but Eurypon, the third Proclid king, gave his name to his house. 7. Demosthenes, the greatest of ancient orators, was born about 385 B.C. He was only .seven years old when his father died, and the ample property which was left for Demosthenes and his sister, in the care of three kinsmen, was shamefully squandered before the boy was able to plead for his rights in the Athenian courts. His sense of wrong, mean- while, fostered in him habits of self-reliance and independent judgment, and incited him to a diligent study of oratory, by which he hoped to win at last a favorable decision. His discouragements were many; for he had a weak constitution and defective utterance; but his persever- ance was rewarded, and, at the age of twenty -one, he regained from one of his guardians a great part of his property. The power which he had gained for his own interests he now devoted to the service of his country. Philip of JNIacedon had seized some possessions of Atliens north of the ^Egean, and was daily increasing his influence among the states of Greece. Demosthenes was almost the only Greek who had the courage and the honesty to withstand the l^ribes and flatteries of the king. His Philippics are the most splendid and spirited remonstrances against unjust power that any language contains. His Olynthiac Ora- tions did indeed move his countrymen to tit out an expedition for the relief of Olynthus when besieged by Philip; but the rescue was pre- vented by a treacherous plot in the town itself, and the ■wiiole Chalcidic peninsula fell into the power of Macedon. After the death of Philip, Demosthenes was the soul of the new struggle for Greek independence. The Athenians, though submitting to Alexander, steadily resisted his demand for the surrender of their great orator. Demosthenes was subsequently thrown into prison through an intrigue of the Macedonian party, and escaping with the secret permis- sion of the magistrates, remained in exile until the death of Alexander. A state-trireme was then sent to bring him back in triumph to his na- tive city, and the most glorious day of his life seemed to mark a new dawn of Athenian freedom. The "Lamian" War," however, ended in defeat (ji 176), and Antipater, regent of Macedonia, advanced upon Athens. Deserted by all her allies, that city was forced to overthrow her free government at the jNIaeedonian dictation, to receive a foreign garrison in her fortress of Munychia, and condemn to death Demosthenes and his friends, who had fled at the approach of the conqueror. Demosthenes had taken refuge in the temple of Poseidon at Calauria. He had long carried poison about him, in expectation of such an emergency; and, by its means, he escaped the officer of Antipater, dying B. C. 322. * So called because its principal action was the siege of I,amia, in Thessaly, which was held by Antipater, the Macedonian Regent, against the confederate Greeks. CHAPTER TX. GREEK LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND ART. SPT is time for a brief sketch of those poets, historians, IB and philosophers, to whom — even more than to ' her great generals and statesmen — Greece owes her fame; and whose dominion in the minds of civilized men has never been shaken, though theii native land has for ages been trampled by barbarians. 142. For one practical reason, if for no other, poetry must liave existed in (Ireek literature long before prose. The art of writing, though \ery early known to the Greeks, was for a long time used almost exclusively for inscriptions on bronze or marble tablets in temples and palaces. There were no cheap and convenient materials for writing; so that a ship-master, whom Homer mentions in the Odyssey, had no written list of his cargo, but carried the items in his memory. Now a poet might produce his song or epic, and retain it, by the help of rhythm, in his memory, until others had learned it from his lips (^94); but this would be almost impossible in the case of long compositions in prose. (84) - HOMER AND HESIOD. 85 143. A better reason is found in the intense love of poetry and music, which was universal among the Greeks. All their life, public and private, in war or peace, was associated with song. Hymns to the gods were probably their earliest compositions. Triumphal odes welcomed the victor at the Games (§102) home to his nati\e city. The ten thousand Athenians rushed down from the heights, and across the plain of Marathon, singing a battle-hymn, which the poet ^s'chylus, who was one of them, has preserved for us. The Greek ships moved into the combat at Salamis to a similar strain: "On, sons of the Greeks! Strike for the freedom of your country! Strike for the freedom of your children and your wives! — for the shrines of your fathers' gods and the sepulchers of your sires." 144. The two great epic (narrative and heroic) poets of Hellas were Homer and He'siod. Homer' was an Ionian of Asia — of what city can not now be known, though many contended for the honor of his birth. An English poet has written : "Seven ancient cities claimed the Homer dead, Through which the living Homer begged his bread." This may not be literally true, but it is probable that the "Father of Poetry" lived a sad and wandering life, shad- owed in his old age by blindness. He lived about 850 B. C. Besides the Iliad, which has been mentioned (§91, 92), he was the author of the Odyssey, which described the adventures of Ulys'ses, king of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. 145. Hesiod-lived about a hundred years later, in Bceotia, where he tended his flocks upon the slopes of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. In contrast with Homer, who sang the mighty deeds of princes and heroes, he depicted the homely, rustic scenes with which he was familiar. His chief poem is the "Works and Days," consisting mainly of maxims for common life. Besides this is the "Theogony," 86 THE A NCI EXT WORLD. which described the origin of the world, and of the gods and heroes; but it is beheved to have been composed by some poet of his school, not by Hesiod himself. The poems of Homer and Hesiod constituted the "Bible of the Greeks ; " for these iirst put into permanent form the beliefs concerning the gods. 146. Epic poetry naturally flourished most while the kings ruled in Greece (^93, loi), for it celebrated the doings of gods and heroes, from whom the kings sup- posed themselves to be descended. When the common people gained power, lyric and dramatic poetry sprang to life. The two great lyric poets of Sparta were Tyrtae'us and Alc'man ; but neither was Spartan-born. The one was Athenian, and the other a Lydian Slave. The story goes, that the Spartans, being in great distress during the second Messenian war (^ 109), were directed, by the oracle, to borrow a leader from Athens. Not daring to disobey the priestess, but not wishing to render any real aid, the Athenians sent tlie poor, lame school-master, Tyrtaeus, to be the general of their rivals. But Apollo was not to be thwarted. The stirring songs of Tyrtfeus^ did more than martial feats could have done to reinforce the courage of the Spartans; they immediately began to gain victories, and the lame school-master became the hero of the war. 147. Simon'ides lived during the Persian wars, and his songs celebrate the heroes who fought and fell at Mara- thon, Thermopyl^, Salamis, and Platcea. Pin'dar was a Theban poet, but he studied at Athens, and was honored by all the states of Greece. His triumphal odes in honor of victors at the Games (^^102) are all that have come down to us, though he wrote many hymns, dirges, and processional songs. 148. ^^schylus was the father of dramatic, as Homer was of epic i)oetry. The first tragedies and comedies were recited by a chorus alone, and were not really dramas, as GREEK POETS AND HISTORIANS. 87 we understand the term. Both had their origin in the songs and dances which were part of the festivals of Dionysus; and these festivals, which occurred every spring, in Athens, continued to be the occasion when new plays were produced. So fond were the Athenians of this sort of entertainment, that they would sit all day long in the theater, while ten or twelve plays were successively per- formed. Their theater was open to the sky, and, from the hill-side on which it was situated, commanded a magnifi- cent view of land and sea. 149. ^schylus is distinguished by the rugged grandeur of his dramas; Soph'ocles, for the exquisite perfection of his art; Eurip'ides, for his tender and pathetic pictures of every-day life. These three are confessedly at the head of the Athenian tragic drama, and were unsurpassed by any ancient poets. Aristoph'anes, on the other hand, was the master of comedy. In his fun-producing plays, he fearlessly attacked the greatest Athenians of his day — the half divine heroes, and even the gods themselves. 150. If we turn to prose literature, we find that Greek historical writing, like philosophy and poetry (§100, 152), had its origin among the lonians of Asia. Hecatse'us, of Miletus, was the first prose-writer of note. He traveled extensively, and wrote books on history and geography. Herod'otus, the "Father of History," was a native of Halicarnassus (§101), but he early removed to Samos and learned the Ionian dialect. He traveled in many lands, and took the greatest pains to ascertain the truth of events which he wished to narrate. His theme was the great conflict between the Persians and the Greeks; but he found occasion for many interesting accounts of other nations. There is a story that he recited the whole nine books of his history at one of the Olympic Ciames, and that Thucyd'ides, then a boy of thirteen years, hearing him, was moved to tears of admiration. The assembly greeted 88 THE AA-CIEiVr WORLD. the great work with shouts of deHghted applause, and conferred on each book the name of one of the Muses. 151, Thucydides was the greatest philosophic historian among the Greeks; some competent critics declare him to be tlie greatest of any age or nation. He wrote the history of the Peloponnesian War (^^126) to its twenty-first year; and his account of its causes and incidents is our best authority concerning the relations of Greek states and parties. He was an actor in the events which he describes. Xenophon was a pupil of Socrates (§134); he continued the history which Thucydides left unfinished, and wrote a narrative of the "Retreat of the Ten Thousand" Greeks from the mad expedition of Cyrus the Younger (§58). He had accompanied the army as a volunteer, but, when the Greek generals had been slain, he was chosen one of the leaders of the homeward march. His story presents a lively picture of the countries through which the route lay. Among his other works are a defense of Socrates, and a romance, called the Cyropoedia, concerning Cyrus the Great. 152. The "Seven Wise Men* of Greece" flourished during the sixth century B. C. They were Solon of Athens (§112), Tha'les of Miletus, Pit'tacus of Mitylene, Perian'der of Corinth, Cle'obu'lus of Lindus, Chi'lo of Sparta, and Bi'as of Priene. ( Notice that four of the seven lived in the Asiatic colonies, ^100.) Thales^ was also celebrated as the founder of the earliest school of Greek philosophy, called the Ionic. His most illustrious successor in that school was An'axag'oras, the teacher of Pericles, Socrates, and Euripides. He, first of the Greeks, believed in a creative Mind as the author and ruler of the universe: and to this purer faith we may trace the elevation of spirit which enabled Pericles to bear serenely the unjust reproaches of the mob, and Socrates to look calmly into the face of Death (§134). Anaxagoras, like his great GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 89 pupil afterward, was tried in the Athenian courts for im- piety; but his Hfe was spared on the condition of his departure from Athens. 153. The second school of (Ireek philosophy took its name from Elea, in Italy. Xenoph'anes, the founder of the Eleatic school, censured Homer and Hesiod for ascrib- ing human passions and weaknesses to the gods, and taught that the Creator is one. • ■ -^ Still more important was the Pythagorean school, which also had its headquarters in Italy. Pythag'oras, of Samos, its founder, had studied not only with earlier Greek phi- losophers, but with Egyptian priests (^75), and, perhaps, with Babylonian and Hindu sages. He made some great discoveries in music and mathematics; but his most important work was that of a religious teacher. He believed himself inspired of Heaven to make known a purer mode of life than was prevalent among the Greeks. The last forty years of his life were spent at Crotona, in Italy, where he became the head of a numerous and powerful society. Its members bound themselves, by strict rules, to temperance and self-control, and aspired to a serene life, above the dominion of the passions. Similar clubs were formed in many cities of Italy; and the Pythagoreans numbered many thousands — among them some of the best and noblest men in Greece. 154. The death of Socrates has been mentioned (§134). Though one of the wisest of the Greeks, he did not teach any system of philosophy, but aimed rather to put his disciples in the way of finding the truth for themselves. He was unattractive in person, humble and simple in life ; he received no payment for his teachings, but taught in the street or the market-place, wherever any chose to listen. The greatest of his disciples was Pla'to, the founder of the Academic School, so called because his lectures were given in the grove of Academus, near a gate of Athens. go THE ANCIENT IVORLD. We are indebted to Plato for most of what we know of Socrates; for a great portion of his writings is made up of dialogues, in which Socrates had part. His own philos- ophy is the highest and purest of which the ancient world could boast. 155. Aristotle/ the tutor of Alexander the Great, was the founder of the Peripatetic School of philosophy. His lectures, at Athens, drew about him a throng of listeners from all the Hellenic cities in Europe and Asia; and he discoursed to them while walking up and down in the shady groves which surrounded his Lyceum. Aristotle was an acute and patient student of physical, as well as mental, science. When Alexander, the greatest of his pupils, became the master of Asia, he caused rare col- lections of animals and plants to be sent from all his provinces to his old teacher, who found in them materials for his great works on natural history. The mental philosophy of Aristotle continued for two thousand years predominant in Europe. 156 In the arts of architecture and sculpture the pre- eminence of the Greeks is even more decided than in literature. Greek poetry and philosophy have been rivaled, and, in some respects, surpassed; but the greatest modern sculptor admits the impossibility of attaining that perfection of repose and beauty which distinguishes the works of . Phid'ias and Praxit'eles.'^ The stirring scenes of the Persian War aroused all minds to their highest pitch of energy; and the seventy years of Athenian supremacy were the blossoming time of Hellenic genius. The necessity of rebuilding ruined Athens afforded the opportunity which Themistocles, Cimon, and Pericles gladly embraced, to make their idolized city the glory of all lands. 157. Then arose the Par'thenon, or temple of Athena, the Virgin, which, for exquisite beauty of proportion, has never been surpassed. Then was cast the colossal statue GREEK ART. 91 of Athena Prom'achos, from the bronze spoils of the Persians, which were found upon the field of Marathon. Its glittering helmet and spear might be seen far off at sea, as if the goddess were keeping perpetual guard over the city which bore her name. This was the work of Phidias, the greatest of the Greek sculptors, and, therefore, the greatest whom the world has yet produced. 158. Other works of Phidias were the gold and ivory statue of Athena, which stood in the Parthenon ; and, most admirable of all, the colossal statue of Zeus, in his temple at Olympia, in Elis. Though size was the least of its merits, we may say that the figure, though sitting, was nearly sixty feet in height. The throne and the pedestal on which it stood were adorned with elaborate sculptures in gold. The figure itself represented perfect majesty in repose, as if the god were presiding at the games which were held in his honor. 159. As Ionia had her schools of poetry and philosophy (§152), so she had her peculiar order of architecture: perhaps the most refined and graceful of the three Greek orders — equally removed from the simple grandeur of the Doric, and the exuberant ornament of the Corinthian. The most noted example of the Ionic order was the temple of Ar'temis, at Ephesus; of the Doric, the Parthenon, at Athens; of the Corinthian, the temple of the Olympian Zeus, begun by Pisistratus and his sons, at Athens, but completed 650 years after its foundation by a Roman emperor. The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer have been best translated l)y our countryman W. C. Bryant ; the existing Tragedies of ^-Eschylus and Sophocles, by Prof. Plumptre ; Herodotus, by Prof. Rawlinson. Translations of Thucydides and Xenophon are found in all large libraries. Read accounts of the Greek philosophers in Grote, Chapters xvi, xxxvii, Ixviii, and in K. O. Miiller's History of the Literature of Greece. Find descriptions of Greek Orders of Architecture in Fergusson's "Handbook," Book VI, Chapter ii. 92 THE ANCIENT WORLD. NOTES. 1. Of the 17 or 19 cities tliat are named by various ancient writers as birthplaces of Homer, all but Smyrna and Chios are rejected by the best critics, and of these Smyrna has generally tlie choice. Nothing is known of Homer's life; the Greeks universally considered him as their greatest poet ; it was left for modern critics to question his existence, or, at least, his autliorship of the works whicli bear his name. In 1795, Prof. F. A. Wolf, of Halle, in Germany, published his startling theory that the Iliad and the Odyssey were never complete poems, but collec- tions, first made in the time of Pisistratus (j;113), of the songs of various minstrels, who had lived at different times during the preceding 500 years. After long contention, the Ijest opinion seems to be that the two poeuis, as tbey have come down to us, are the work of one great poet, who may have used the rude ballads of earlier bards, but cer- tainly create! them anew, and gave them unity by his own powerful genius. A party of ancient critics supposed the Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of two difTerent authors, but Longinus, the rhetorician, a courtier of Queen Zenobia (j2fi2, note), accounted for tlie contrasts found in the two poems by affirming tliat Homer wrote the Iliad in the vigor of youth, and the Odyssey in his old age. " In the Iliad, the men are better than the gods;'in the Odyssey, it is the reverse." In the Odyssey, protection and punishment are both bestowed upon mortals for just cause; in the Iliad, from mere caprice. Zeus, in the latter, sends a dream to deceive Agamemnon; Athena prompts Pandarus to treachery ; Paris, who has vilely abased the hospitality of Menelaus, goes uncondemned; while, in the Odysse.v, the gods are the avengers of wrong. It may be that Homer, in his earlier poem, adhered to the traditions of a ruder stage of society, while, in thelatter, he exj^ressed his own higher ideas concerning the gods. 2. Hesiod had a brother Pcrses, wlio, instead of earning a support by honorable toil, spent his time in idleness or in hanging about the courts, where he contrived to obtain an award of more than his just share of his father's property. The poet, who was frugal and industri- ous, seems to have composed the " Works and Days," either with the hope of reclaiming Perses from his evil habits, or with the purpose of punishing him by holding him up to reproof. Ci-itics have said that the poem might have lieen named "Farming Operations," or "Lucky and Unlucky Diys," or "A Letter of Remonstrance and Advice to a Brother." It is in three parts; the first cites many popular stories and proverbs to show how much better is honest labor than laziness and extravagance; tlie second gives practical rules for farming; and the third is a religious calendar, pointing out the days which are favorable or unlucky for plowing, sowing, etc. Among his homely di- rections to tlie farmer, is the following for the winter months: "Now is the time to go warm-clad, thick-shod, ami with a waterproof cape over the shoulders, and a fur cap, lined with felt, about the head and ears." He adds that in cold and wet weather workmen must have more food, but cattle less. Sixty days after the winter-solstice, vine-dressing must begin; but when the snail quits the earth and climbs the trees, this work gives place to early harvesting. The advantages of early rising, especially at this busy time, are strongly urged. Tlie poem is full of curious pictures of primitive Greek life on a farm, and tells us, in fact, nearly all we know of the manners of the common people in those remote times. Tlie Theogony opens thus: "In the lieginning was Chaos, next the Earth, with its broad bosom, the immovable foundation of all beings, the vast Tartarus in tlie depth of its abyss, and Love, tlie most beauti- ful of all the immortal gods." Chaos produced Erebus and Night; Night became mother of Etlier and Day. Children of Heaven and Earth were Ocean and the Titans, the Cyclopes, and the hundred-handed giants. Uranus was the first ruler of creation, but he was dethroned by his son Kronos. The latter had a habit of devouring his own children, but Zeus, his youngest born, hav- ing been rescued by a trick, grew up to make war upon his father. The Titans fought on the side of Kronos, while with Zeus were the Cy- NO TES. 93 elopes and the giants whom he had befriended. At last the Titans were overwhelmed by a storm of heavy stones, and were imprisoned as far under the earth as earth is from heaven, with Day and Night pacing as sentinels before the brazen gates of their dungeon. 3. "The martial appeals ot Tyrtseus are enlivened by illustrations of the soldiers' duties and of the scenes and adventures of the battle- Held. Among the most graphic of his pictures is the description of the warrior advancing to the encounter 'with comprfssed lii)s and firm step, brandishing his spear in his hand, while his plume uods terribly from his helmet.' The excellence of a glorious death is placed in spirited contrast with the wretchedness of life purchased by loss of honor." 4. The sayings of the Seven Wise Men were inscribed on bronze tab- lets in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The following are among the most celebrated : Solon, being asked how he would banish injustice from a republic, replied, "By making all men feel the injustice done to any." Pittacus declared that "the greatest blessing a man can enjoy is the power of doing good." Periander, that "a wise governor would pre- vent rather than punish crime." Cleobulus, that "a man should never leave his dwelling without considering well what he was about to do, nor reenter it without re- flecting on what he had done." Chilo, when asked what were the three most difficult things in a man's life, replied, "To keep a secret, to forgive injuries, and to make a profitable use of leisure time." His most celebrated maxim was, "Noth- ing in excess." Bias pronounced the most unfortunate of men to be he who knows not how to bear misfortune. 5. " Thales was born at Miletus about 640 B. C. According to Herod- otus, he predicted the eclipse of the sun which occurred during a bat- tle between Cyaxares the Mede, and Alyattes, king of Lydia, about 609 B. C. [is 16]. He considered water to be the origin or principle of all things, fixed the length of the year at 365 days, and attributed the attractive power of the magnet to a soul or life by which it is animated." 6. Aristotle, boi-n at Stagira, in Thrace, B. ('. 8.S4, has had probably a wider and more lasting influence in the progress of human intelligence than any other man that ever lived. His father, Nicomachus, was a physician at the Macedonian court, and the author of some medical and scientific works. At the age of seventeen, Aristotle went to Athens, where he remained twenty years and became the most successful pupil in the school of Plato. As his own opinions became more clearly de- fined, he was unable to accept some of Plato's doctrines, but he never lost his affection and reverence for his teacher; perhaps thus originating the ancient proverb, "Plato is dear, but Truth is dearer.'' When Alexander came to the throne of Macedon, Aristotle removed to Athens and established a school, which was called the Lyceum, be- cause it was near the temple of Apollo Lycius. His active and restless temperament caused him to walk up and down while delivering his lectures; hence the name Peripatetic. After Alexander's death, the Athenians brought charges of impiety against Aristotle, who departed from their city without awaiting his trial, "that the Athenians might not incur the guilt of twice sinning against philosophy " (See g 134). He died at Chalcis, in Euboea, at the age of sixty-two. 7. Phidias was a son of Charmides, an Athenian, and is supposed to have been born about the time of the battle of Marathon, though the date is uncertain. He was the founder of the Classical School of Greek Sculpture, which replaced the rudeness and stift'noss of the older statues with forms of ideal beauty and grandeur. The school of Praxiteles, which followed that of Phidias, had less of majesty, but even more of beauty and grace. Examples of the Early or Archaic School may be seen in the Ccsnola Collection of Cyprian Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of New York; of the School of Phidias, in the Elgin Marbles of the British Museum, and the Venus of Meios, of which there are many copies in this country; of the later school, in the "Marble Faun" which Haw- thorne has described, the group of Niobe and her children, and per- haps the Venus de' Medici. PERIOD IV. — Ilclh'iik Kingdoms in Europe, Asia, and Africa. CH AFTER X. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. LEXANDER III. of Macedon,' though only twenty years old when he became king, had already proved his extraor- dinary genius for war and government. A new congress at Corinth conferred ujion him the same command which his father had held (j^ 14°)' -'^nd in the spring of 334 B. C. he crossed the Hel- lespont with a (Jreek army of 35,000 men. As before, the jjerfect training of the (Ireeks more than matched the im- mense numbers of the Persians (§§ 115, 118). At the passage of the Granicus, Alexander defeated a superior force which opposed him; then, turning southward, he quickly made himself master of Asia Minor. Darius III, with half a million men, was defeated at Issus, and fled, leaving his mother, wife, and children in the hands of the conqueror. 161. Alexander then i)ur])osely left him time to collect the whole force of his empire for a decisive combat, while he himself turned aside to receive the submission of Phoenicia. Palestine, and Egvpt, and thus prevent any (94) Demosthenes. BATTLE OF ARBELA. 95 attack by sea upon Macedonia or Greece. Egypt and Palestine gladly threw off the Persian yoke; and — though Tyre withstood a long and obstinate siege — in less than two years, all the Mediterranean coast, as far as Libya, was added to the dominion of Alexander. Near the western mouth of the Nile he built a new city, called from his own name Alexandria,^ which has ever since been an im- portant mart of exchange between the East and the West. 162. At length he marched eastward for the grand battle which was to decide the fate of western Asia. Darius had mustered and drilled more than a million of men, and had carefully chosen a field, near Arbela, which gave him all the advantage of this immense number. The ground was leveled and hardened, so that his scythe-armed chariots might operate with full ' "^ ' effect. He himself was present in the midst of his men, and his example increased their bravery. Nevertheless, Alexander and his Macedonian phalanx were again victo- rious, and Darius became a fugitive and a captive (§^ 60, 61). The three Persian capitals, Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, soon submitted to the conqueror. 163. The young Greek general was now an Oriental monarch. His court, composed equally of /\siatics and Europeans, was as splendidly ceremonious as that of Xerxes himself. He put on all the haughty airs of a Persian king. His old comrades were required to prostrate them- selves on their faces in approaching his throne; and some of his best friends were put to death for daring to express their opinion of these new pretensions. But if his sudden successes were fatal to Alexander's good sense, they did not destroy his energy and talents. During the remainder of his short life, he reduced all the remaining provinces of the Persian empire to his sway. (See ^§48, 51.). 164. He was no brutal conqueror, like those Asiatic chiefs (p. 12, note) whose tracks were marked by the ashes 9^ THE A.VC/ENT WORLD. of burnt cities and by pyramids of human heads. Wher- ever his armies advanced, rivers were cleared for naviga- tion ; roads were made through tangled forests ; new cities sprang up ; trade revived, or was led into new channels ; and western thrift took the place of oriental indolence and stagnation. Learned men accompanied his fleets and armies; and their reports afford our first definite knowledge of India. 165. But while Asia gained, Europe lost in almost equal measure. The Greeks, like the Persians before them (i5 63), lost their free spirit, and learned the slavish habits of courtiers. Art and literature declined as the spirit of the people became enslaved. The grand result of Alexander's short and brilliant career was to diffuse Greek civilization from the Adriatic to the borders of India, and from the Crimea to the cataracts of the Nile. By giving to all this region one common lan- guage for government and literature, Alexander's con- quests prepared the way for the more rapid progress of Christianity. 166. Having extended his empire eastward beyond the Indus, Alexander was planning the conquest of Italy, Carthage, and all the western coasts of the Mediterranean. His schemes were, however, broken off by his sudden death from a fever, at Babylon. He was 32 years of age, and had reigned 12 years and 8 months. Trace, on Map i, Alexander's progress from the borders of the yEgean Sea to Arbela. Point out the countries and cities which he conquered. Read the story of Alexander in Felton's Smith's Greece, Ch. XLIV., and in Plutarch's Lives ; in Thirlwall's History of Greece, and in Williams's Life and Actions of Alexander the Great. MAP No. IV. IMPORTANT GREEK COLONIES. In Spain. Saguntum, and 5 other towns In France. Massilia (Marseilles) In Italy. Cumae Sybaris, and 25 subject cities Crotona Tarentum Locri Epizephyrii Rhegium Siris, or Heraclea Metapontum In Sicily. Naxos Syracuse Catana Leontini Gala Zancle, or Messene Himera Hybla Selinus Camarina Agrig-entum In Africa. Naucratis, in Egypt Cyrene Barca Hesperides On Ionian Islands and Coasts. Corcyra Ambracia Anactorium Leucas Apollonia Epidamnus In Thrace. Methone Potidasa Olynthus Amphipolis Sestus Byzantium On the Black Sea. Istria Apollonia Odessus Mesambria Tomi Cherson The Greek cities of Asia Minor were wealthiest and most im- portant of all ; but they are to be considered as independent states, rather than as colonies. S-K.Vail.dO. GREEK SAGES AND ARTISTS. Philosophers. Thales B. C. 639-546 Anaximander 610-547 Pythagoras 570-499. Auaximenes 548-484. Xenophanes 540-500. Parmenides 520-460. Anaxagoras 500-428. Zeno 488-448. Socrates 469-399. Plato 430-347- Xenocrates 396-314- Aristotle 384-322. Poets. Homer 85(^776. Hesiod 790-640. Archilochus 714-676. Terpander 700-650. Alcman 671-631. Tyrtaeus 683-657. Alcaeus 590. Stesichorus 632-552. Anacreon 563-478. Simonides 556-467. yEschylus 525-456. Pindar. 522-442. Sophocles 495-406. Euripides B. C. 480-406 Aristophanes 444-380 Poetesses. Sappho 611-573. Corinna 500. Myrtis 500. Sci(lpt07'S. Ageladas 500-450. Phidias 490-432. Polyclitus 452-412. Myron 480-431. Alcamenes 444-400. Agoracritus 440-425. Scopas 395-350- Praxiteles 364-350. Apollodorus 320. Painters. Polygnotus 463-426, Zeuxis 424-400. Apollodorus 408. Parrhasius 400-344. Pamphilus 390-350. Eupompus 375- Apelles 352-306. Protogenes 332-300. Asclepiodorus 330. Melanthius 330- Note.—Single dates fall within the time of the greatest fame or power of the person named. Where two dates are given they usually include the period of greatest activity, in a few instances the whole life, of author or artist. The most ancient names, those of Homer and Hesiod, are involved in the greatest doubt; the opinions, even of ancient writers, differing by no less than 500 years as 10 the time of their b'rth. The dates in the table are those of Smith's Dictionary of Biography. NOTES. 97 NOTES. 1. Of the four greatest military leaders that the world has known, Alexander of Macedon was earliest in time; and, if we compare the shortness of his career with the duration of its results, we can hardly refuse to call him the most extraordinary character in history. Through his mother, Olympias, he was descended from the kings of Epirns, who traced their origin to Achilles (§92). His ruling passion in childhood was a thirst for warlike achievements; he slept with his sword and a coyy of the Iliad under his pillow; and his waking hours were spent in manly exercises, in which he excelled all the youth of his time. A magnificent war-steed, named Bucephalus, was once brought to Philip, but proved so fierce and flery tliat neither grooms nor nobles could mount him. Alexander begged leave to try, and brought him under perfect control. The king wept for joy at this proof of his son's genius for command, and declared that Alexander must seek anotlier kingdom, for Macedonia was too small to give exercise to his powers. At the age of thirteen, Alexander became for three years the pupil of Aristotle, "the greatest intellect of that, or perhaps of any age" (see note 6, Cli. IX). Under his influence, " the boy awoke to the knowledge that a wonderful world lay before him, of which he had seen little, and threw himself, it is said, into the task of iiJithfring, at any cost, a col- lection for the study of natural history. While his mind was thus urged in one direction, he listened to stories which told liim of the great quar- rel still to be fought out between the East and the West, and learnt to look upon himself as the champion of Hellas against the barbarian despot of Susa." At sixteen, Alexander acted as regent of the kingdom during Ills fatlier's absence, and seized every opportunity to increase his knowledge by conversations with foreign embassadors. At eighteen, he contributed largely to Philip's victory at Clueronea (g 140). Several Greek states hailed his accession to the throne as a signal of their release from the Macedonian >(ike. But the young king soon showed them that in energy and ability he was at least not inferior to his fatlier. A second revolt in Thebes was avenged by the storm and capture of the city, and the destruction of all its houses, excepting that of Pindar, the poet (§ U7). All the Thebans were sold into slavery, save the descendants of Pindar and the oi)])(>nent8 of the revolt. This terri- ble act of severity deterred other states from fi)llowing the example; and Alexander took his place without opposition at the head of the Grecian forces. After the battle of Issus, the mother, the wife, and two daughters of the Persian king were left in the hands of the conqueror, but they were treated with the utmost generosity. Most of tlie maritime cities wel- comed Alexander as a deliverer from tlie hated rule of the Persians. Tyre and Gaza were the only exceptions, and tliey were punished for their resistance by frightful massacres. His unbroken series of successes began to have an evil efTect in the once manly and sincere character of Alexander, While in Egypt, he made a visit to the temple of Amun (§75), in the Libyan oasis, and caused himself to be recognized by the too-obedient priesthood as a son of the god. After his conquests in Asia, he ordered the death of Par- menion and his son Philotas, only because the latter had claimed too large a share of credit for his father and liimseU in the vielories of the Greeks. Enraged by the reproof of his faitliful friend Clitus for his drunken boasting, he murdered Clitus with his own hand; but we must add, to his credit, tliat, as soon as he was sober, he declared himself unfit to live, and would neither eat nor drink for tliree days. Having subdued the whole realm of Darius, Alexander advanced into India, a land of wonders, of wliich scarcely even the name had reached the (Jreeks. The naturalists who accompanied his expedition noted with curiosity the " wool-bearing trees " (cotton plants) and other strange productions of tlic country. The soldiers, however, refused to go farther than the Hyphasis (Sutlej), and, building a fleet on another branch of the Indus, he descended the great river to the sea. Leaving his admiral, Nearchus, to take the sliips through the Persian Gulf to the Tigris, he proceeded with his army across the Gedrosian desert to Susa. The hardships of the march were terrible, and great numbers per- Hist.-7. 98 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ished of hunger and thirst. Resting at Rusa, tlie conqueror Iiad time to mature liis plans for mailing one great empire of the lands he had sub- dued. He married a daugliter of liarius, and gave liberal gifts to nearly ten thousand of his veteran tri)(>|)crs, who had also taken Asiatic wives. He received into his army i!(i,(KKi J'lisian soldiers, whom he caused to be drilled in Macedonian tactics; and phiced over several provinces Persian olKcers wliom he could trust. Some of his veterans mutinied at this elevation of the conquered people to equal place witli themselves; but Alexander soothed their discontent with great skill, and then sent them home. He was planning to combiiie all the then-known countries into a great empii'e, extending from the Indus to the Straits of Gibraltar, with Babylon as its capital. The distribution of waters over the great Baby- lonian iilain enlisted his personal attention. He returned from a visit to the canals, to give a great banquet to Nearchus and the other officers of the tleet, who were about to sail for Arabia. In the midst of their preparations the king was attacked by a fever, which, in eleven days, ended his life. 2. The quick eye of Alexander discerned the extraordinary advan- tages of tlie site between Lake Mareotis on the south, and the Mediter- ranean on the north. Summoning Dinocrates the architect — who had won great fanie by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephesus — he com- manded him to build here a city that should outrival Tyre. Within a few yeai's the densely peopled Alexandria was the greatest commercial city in the world. The island of Pharos, crowned by its light-house- tower, 400 feet in height, was connected with the mainland by a mole protected by forts. The island is now a jjeninsula, and the artificial causeway has grown, by accumulations of earth and sand, into a broad isthmus, on which a great portion of the modern city stands. The ancient city consisted of three parts: the Jewish quarter in the north-east; Rhacotis, the Kgyi)tian (juarter, in the west, and Brucheum, the royal or Greek quartcT, covering tlie remainder. The Greek quarter surpassed all the rest in magnificence, for it con- tained the palaces of the Ptolemies (1 172), the Mausoleum of Alexander, and many other splendid buildings. But the city's best title to fame consisted in the Museum, a sort of university which drew together the most brilliant company of learned and accomplished men that were ever assembled in one place. Demetrius Phalereus, " the last of Attic orators," is said to have inspired the flr.st of tlie Ptolemies with the idea of the great Alexandrian Ijibrary, the first institution of its kind in the world (^172). Part of this collection was kept in the temple of Serapis, on the inland rising ground of the Egj'ptian quarter; the rest was connected with the palace and museum. Among the great men of Alexandria were Euclid, the Geometer; Hipparchus, the "father of Astronomy; " Eratosthenes, the flr.st of Ge- ographers; Callimachus, the cliief Librarian, and the most celebrated grammarian, critic, and poet of iiis time; Apelles and Antiphilus, the painters. With all these and many more the king lived on terms of intimacy, delighting in their conversation and liberally forwarding their studies. At his request, Manethi), an Egyptian priest, wrote in Greek an account of the doctrines, wisdom, history, and chronology of his country, "based upon the ancient works of the Egyptians themselves, and more especially upon their sacred books." "Eratosthenes had heard that in Sycne, in LTpper Egypt, deep wells were enlightened to the bottom on the day of the summer solstice, and that vertical objects cast no shadows." He had already "calculated the obliquity of the ecliptic closely enough to serve for a thousand years after." He now perceived that Sycne niust be under the ecliptic, and, by comparing its latitude with that of Alexandria, 62.5 miles distant, was able to calculate the circumference of the earth. His result was too large — .31,500 miles — owing to an error in his first measuifinent ; init his method was right, and he had taken the first great step towards a knowledge of mathematical geograyhy. "The wise men of IMolemy's court well understood the spherical forih of the earth; their knowledge- being mainly theoretical— was lost during the ages of ignorance which followed; and it was left for Columbus and his successors to prove its correctness by actual experiment." CHAPTER XI. SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. LEXANDER'S great empire fell to pieces shortly after his death, and his principal officers fought over the division of the spoils. After twenty-two years of fierce contention, a battle at Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, finally gave Syria and the East to Seleu'cus; Egypt to Ptol'emy ; Thrace, with part of Asia Minor, to Lysim'- achus ; Macedonia and Greece to Cassan'der. 168. The Seleucidae.— The kingdom of Seleucus^ was by far the greatest and richest of these divisions, and under his energetic reign it rapidly became Hdlenized. His capital, Antioch^ on the Orontes, continued for a thousand years to be one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in the world. The last survivors of those who had marched and fought under Alexander were Seleucus and Lysimachus; and these two made war in their old age against each other. Lysim- achus was slain, and his dominions in Asia Minor were added to the kingdom of Seleucus; but the latter was soon afterward murdered in Europe, where he was still pushing his conquests. 169. The successors of Seleucus were inferior to him in character ; and two independent kingdoms, Parthia and Bactria, sprang up in the north-eastern part of their do- (99) A Greek Lady. lOO THE ANCIENT WORLD. minion. (See map i.) The Bactrians were of the Aryan race (§6), and their new kingdom was thoroughly Greek in spirit ; the Parthians, on the contrary, were nearly re- lated to the barbarous Scythians ; and their movement for independence was a revolt against Hellenic ideas. 170. Anti'ochus III,^ the fifth of the Seleucidae, had many wars but few successes : nevertheless, his flatterers called him "the Great." His reign is marked by the fiirst serious collision of the Greek kingdoms with Rome. He suffered four signal defeats from the Romans, who took from him Asia Minor, except Cilicia, with all his ships and elephants, and an enormous treasure. His son, Antiochus Epiph'anes,^ had nearly conquered Egypt, when the Romans again interfered and made him resign all that he had taken. He obeyed, but revenged himself by plundering and des- ecrating the Temple at Jerusalem, B. C. 168. 171. The Jews sprang to arms, inspired by their brave leader Ju'das Maccabae'us.^ Antiochus, who was now be- yond the Euphrates, set out in a great rage to punish their revolt ; but, in attempting to plunder another temple in Elymais, he was seized with a furious madness in which he died. Rome took the part of the "Maccabees," and Judtea became a separate kingdom. Between the Parthians on the east and the Romans on the west, the Seleucidae were engaged for a hundred years in constant wars, until, in 65, B. C, their whole dominion was absorbed into that of Rome. 172. The Ptolemies. — B. C. 323-30. The Egyptian kingdom of Ptolemy^ was the most brilliant of all the Hellenic dominions. Under his thrifty management Egypt became a market for the whole world's wealth. Traders, scholars, and artists thronged in multitudes to Alexandria, which soon rivaled Athens in its beautiful buildings, while it surpassed the Attic city by its famous library — the greatest in the ancient world. To enrich this collection, Europe THE PTOLEMIES. loi and Asia were ransacked for literary works, and copies were obtained at any cost. A special embassy was sent to Jeru- salem to ask of the High Priest a copy of the Hebrew Scriptures and the services of a company of learned men who could translate them into Greek. These were royally received and entertained by Ptolemy, and the version which they produced became one of the chief treasures of the Alexandrian Library. It is called the Scptuagiiit, either be- cause the translators were seventy in number, or because it was sanctioned by the Sanhedrim, or Council of Seventy, at Alexandria. 173. The first Ptolemy was perhaps the greatest and best man among Alexander's generals — distinguished in an age of fraud and violence for his truthfulness and self- control. None of his descendants equaled him in char- acter; but his son, Ptolemy Philadel'phus, continued the patronage of learned men with still greater liberality, while his wise commercial policy made Egypt the richest country in the world. 174. Ptolemy HI., called Euer'getes, was a great con- queror, and extended his kingdom both westward and northward along the Mediterranean from Cyrene to the Hellespont. He even made conquests east of the Euphra- tes, and brought back some old Egyptian images which had been carried away by Sargon or Esarhaddon (§§ 13, 14), but his eastern acquisitions were abandoned almost as soon as they were made. The rest of the twelve Ptol- emies had hardly any history worth recording. Egypt, like all the other Mediterranean countries, became subject at last to the Roman power. Cleopa'tra, a brilliant but unscrupulous princess, was the last of this royal line ; she tried to beguile the Roman generals by her arts, when she could not oppose them by arms ; and for some years she was successful. But at length An'tony, her lover, was de- feated in his contest with Octa'vian, and Cleopatra killed THE ANCIENT WORLD. herself to escape from adorning the triumphal procession of his conqueror. Egypt became a Roman province. 175. The Egyptians, under the Ptolemies, kept their own language, religion, and customs, while, as in all the other Hellenic kingdoms, Greek was the language of the government. Royal and priestly decrees, intended to reach all the mixed population of the country, were written in three languages : the hieroglyphics, or sacred language of the priests, the demotic speech of the common people, and Greek. About eighty years ago, a stone, bearing one of these threefold inscriptions, was accidentally found by a French engineer near the Rosetta mouth of the Nile. Learned men, with immense patience, compared the Greek sentences, which they could easily read, with the corre- sponding characters of the unknown tongues, and thus ob- tained a key to the long-sealed writings of the ancient Egyptians. The Rosetta Stone contained a decree of the priests, ordering divine honors to be paid to the fifth of the Ptolemies at his coronation. 176. Greece, led by Athens, vainly attempted to make herself free from Macedon after the death of Alexander. The " Lamian War" ended in only confirming the Mace- donian supremacy, while Demosthenes (§ 140) and most of his party were condemned to exile or death. In this time of calamity, the Greeks learned too late the necessity of a closer union of the states. Several federations were formed, of which the most important were the Achoean League in southern, and the yEtolian in central Greece. But, unhap- pily, the several states were still divided by jealousies, which gave every advantage to their enemies. Rome and Macedon played off one League against the other almost at will; while the Romans were steadily advancing toward universal dominion. 177. Philip V, the greatest of the later Macedonian kings, was at length so ruinously defeated by them at Cyn'oceph'- CONQUEST OF GREECE. 1 03 alse, that he gave up all attempts to control the Greeks, having, indeed, more than enough to do in keeping a foothold in his own land. Philopce'- " ' '^^' men,''' the chief of the Achaean League, was the greatest man in Greece at this crisis. He infused his own brave and energetic spirit into the whole nation, and enabled it for a while to resist the encroachments of Rome. After his death, B. C. 183, the Roman power became irresistible. Per'seus, the last of the Macedonian kings, was defeated at Pydna, B. C. 168, and was afterward carried as a prisoner to Ltaly, where he died in a dungeon near Rome. 178. A few years later, the remnant of the Achseans made a desperate effort to shake off the Roman yoke. One of their leaders was defeated and slain near Ther- mopylffi ; another made a final stand at Corinth, but he, too, was defeated and the city was taken, plundered, and destroyed. But captive Greece ruled her conquerors by her intellectual greatness. Roman nobles sought instruction at Athens; and Greek philosophy and poetry inspired all that was best in the literature of Rome. Point out on Maps i, 2, 3, and 4, Antioch, Alexandria, Actiiim, Cynocephalse, Pydna, Corinth, Athens, Thermopylae. The latest period in the History of Greece may be read in Grote, Chs. XCV, XCVI, and in Freeman's History of Federal Government, Vol. I. Some account of the Seleucidse will be found in Rawlinson's Sixth Monarchy. Their history and that of the Ptolemies may be found in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography. Read also of Alexandria and its schools in Smith's Dictionary of Geography, in Charles Kingsley's four lectures on the subject, and in Draper's In- tellectual Development of Europe. The "Lives" of Aratus and Philopoemen are in Plutarch. 104 THE ANCIENT WORLD. NOTES. 1. Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, or the Conqueror, rivaled the fame of Alexander as a founder of cities and patron of learning. In all the seventy-two provinces of his kingtloni, Greek towns became centers of Greek intelligence and enterprise in the midst of Asiatic indolence. Seleucia, on the Tigris, was intended as a rival to Babylon; but subse- quently wishing to keep watch of his rivals, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, he removed his capital from that eastern valley to the Mediterranean, and built Antioch, which long ranked as the third city in the worhl, Rome and Alexandria being its only superiors. Dying in B. C. 280, Se- leucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus I., wlio won the name of Hiitiji- (savior) by a victory over the Gauls, but was afterward killed in battle with those barbarians, B. C. 261. 2. This Antioch was one of sixteen new cities of the same name, given to them by Seleucus in honor of his father Antiochus. The Syr- ian Antioch, however, surpassed all the rest in wealth, beauty, and re- sources for enjoyment. Within a few miles was the celebrated cypress grove of Daphne, which, for the beauty of its winding walks and nu- merous rivulets and fountains, was compared to the Vale of Tempe. The road thither lay along the river and through the pleasure-grounds attached to private villas, whose well-watered lawns, gardens, and shrubberies contributed to the delight of every sense; and, in the month of August, the annual festival of Apollo and Artemis drew great crowds from all the region to the temple of those divinities which Seleucus had erected in the midst of the grove. The city itself was noted for the magnificence of its colonnaded streets, and the gayety of its inhabitants. It was visited, however, by frequent and terrible earthquakes. One of the most severe occurred in the time of Trajan, A. D. 115; another, in that of Justin, A. D. 520, when the city was entirely destroyed, and a quarter of a million of lives were lost. Twelve years later it was sacked and burnt by the Persians; and, though partly rebuilt by Justinian (gg292, 293), never regained its high rank as Queen of the East. 3. Antiochus III. was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded his brother Seleucus III. in 223 B. C. He gained sonie advantages over Ptolemy IV., but was afterwards defeated by him in a great battle at Raphia, near Gaza, B. C. 217. In one campaign he recovered Media from the Parthian king who had overrun it. Extending his march to India, he made friendly alliances with several Hindoo princes. In 195 B. C. he received at his court the great but unfortunate Hannil)al (i;!; 210-214), who gladly led the Syrian armies against his ancient enemies, tlie Ro- mans. But Hannibal's advice was not followed, -and Antiochus, having invaded Greece in 191 B. C, was defeated by the Romans at ThermopyUe. The next year he suffered a still more signal overthrow near Magnesia, in Lydia, leaving more than half his army dead upon the field. In the peace which followed, he surrendered all his ships and elei>hants, and all Asia Minor except Cilicia, wliile he engaged to pay nearly S2I).(iiki,()00 for the expenses of the war. In attempting to take part of this amount from the treasures of the temple of Belus, he provoked a riot iu which he was killed, 187 B. C. 4. Antiochus IV. was undeservedly styled Epiphanes (the Illustrious), for his reigu brought little honor to himself or his kingdom. He had been one of twenty hostages, given by his fatlier to the Romans as se- curities for the payment ot his enormous war indemnity (see note 3); and, in his twelve years' residence at Kdine, lie adopted notions and habits which proved displeasing to his people, when, in 175 B. C, he returned to be their king. Both Jews and Greeks believed that the wild insanity which ended his life was a judgment of Heaven for his impious dese- cration of their temples. 5. As a pai't of the studious insults heaped by Antiochus Epiphanes upon the religious observances of the Jews, they were required to offer swine's flesh upon their most holy altar at .lerusalem. Mattathias, the ofHciating priest, was a brave old man, and, instead of complying with the royal mandate, struck down with his axe the Syrian officer NOTES. 105 who brought it; then, with his four sons and other loyal followers, he marched against the Syrians and overthrew the altars wliiih they had set up. The surname JShucabaus from the Hebrew word Makkah, a hammer, was given to Judas, tlie most famous of the sons of Maliatlilas, in consequence of his victories over Antiochus about 165 B.C., but his descendants were called Maccabees, as well as Asmona^ans (from tlieir ancestor, Asmonseus). They ruled Judaea until B. C. 37. Judas fell in bat- tle with tlie Syrians, B. C. ItiO, and was succeeded by his brother Jona- than, as ruler and high priest. He was followed by a younger brother, Simon, under whose leadership the independence of the Jews was rec- ognized, even by the king of Syria. 6. Alexander was not destined to carry out his own magnilicent project [in the development of Egypt]. That was left to the general whom he most esteemed, and to whose personal prowess he had once owed his life; a man than whom history knows few greater, Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. It was his wisdoin which perceived that the huge empire of Alexander could not be kept together, and advised its partition among the gener- als, taking care himself to obtain the lion's share, not in size, indeed, but in capability. He saw, too, that the only way to keep what he had got was to make it better and not worse than he found it. It had not escaped that man what was the secret of Greek supremacy. How had he come there? How had his great master conquered half the world? How had the little semi-barbarous mountain-tribe up there in Pella risen under Philip to be the master-race of the globe? How, indeed, had Xenoplion and his Ten Thousand [;; .>Sj, how had the handfuls of Salamis and Marathon, held out triumphantly, century after century, against the vast weight of the barbarian? The simple answer was, Because the Greek has mind; the barbarian, mere brute-force. Because mind is the lord of matter; because the Gi'eek, being the cultivated man, is the only true man; the rest are mere things — clods, tools tbr the wise (ireek's use, in spite of all their material phantom strcntith of elephants and treasures, and tributaries by the million. Mind was the secret of Greek power; and for that Ptolemy would work. He would have an aristoc- racy of intellect; he would gather around him the wise men of the world, and he would develop to its highest the conception of Philip when he made Aristotle the tutor of his son A\e-KStxi6.QX.— Abridged from Alexandria and her S^iools. By Charles Kingsley. 7. Philopcemen, "the last of the Greeks," was a native of Megalop- olis, in Arcadia. In his youth he was tired with zeal by the genius and virtues of Epaminondas (g 136), and devoted himself to the study of the art of war. In B. C. 208, he was appointed general-in-chief of the Ach£e- an League, one of the too-late etTorts of the Greeks to find strength in federal union. If they had learned the secret earlier, the history of Greece might have been longer and more prosperous. Originally, the League was only a union of twelve small towns in the north of the Peloponnesus, for purposes of common worship; but the people who formed it were so respected for their virtues, that powerful states some- times submitted disputes to their decision. In the year 280 B. C, the League, long discontinued, was revived, not now chiefly for religious puri^oses, but for a substantial political union. Aratus, df Sicyon, was its most famous leader before Philopcemen. The Encyclniiailia Britan- nica says: "Thus did this people, so celebrated in the heroic age, once more emerge from coinparative obscurity, and become the greatest among the states of Greece in the last days of its national independence. The inhabitants of Patrte and of Dyme were the first assertors of ancient liberty. The tyrants were banished, and tlie towns again made one commonwealth. Many neighboring towns, which admired the constitu- tion of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love of justice, and of the public good, were incorporated with the Achseans and admitted to the full enjoyment of their laws and privileges. The Achaean League aflFords the most perfect example in antiquity of the federal form of government, and, allowing for difference of time and place, its resem- blance to that of the United States is very remarkable."— I, 94. The resemblance may perhaps be accounted for by the fact that the founders of our great Republic were acquainted with Greek history. PART III. — Rome. CHAPTER XII. THE ROMAN KINGDOM — ITS RELIGION. HE Italian peninsula had now become the seat of the most powerful and long-enduring government that the world has ever known. But, if we would trace the stream of conquest to its source, we must go back to a little village on the Tiber, founded in the eighth century before Christ, if common report* be true, by a "band of shepherds and robbers. Southern Italy and Sicily were already occupied by many Greek cities; while north of the Tiber were the Etruscans,^ a civilized and powerful people, whose singular religious customs largely affected those of the Romans. 1 80. The latter belonged to the Latin branch of the Italian race, and soon allied themselves with the League of thirty Latin cities, between the Liris and the Tiber. They resembled the Spartans in their stern and haughty character; and the influence of Rome in Latium, as of Sparta in Greece, was Standard-Bearer. ■•■■For the legendary account of the founding of Rome, see Ancient History, pp. 249, 250. (io6j) KINGS OF ROME. 107 always in favor of government by the nobles, against any assumption of power by the common people. 181. Rome was governed by kings for more than two centuries after its foundation (B. C. 753-510). Tradition names seven monarchs : Rotrhilus, the mythical founder of the state, and Nu'ma, of the religion of Rome; Tiil'lns Hostil'ius and An'ciis Mar'tius, who extended its dominion by conquests; the first Tar'quin, who enriched the city by many grand and useful works; Ser'viits Tiil'lius^ who gave to every free Roman the right of voting, divided public lands among the people, and organized the whole state into a military system; and Tarquin the Proud, who, trying to rob the people of their newly found rights, was expelled with all his family. 182. A republic was then established under the "good laws" of Ser'vius. Two chief magistrates, afterwards called consuls, were elected every year, with full kingly powers. They were attended by a guard of twelve lictors, bearing fasces, or bundles of rods, as symbols of authority. At the end of their year of office, the consuls could be tried and punished for any abuse of their power. 183. In the earliest times, Rome contained only the patricians — consisting of 300 families — with their clients and slaves. The clients," though free, had no civil rights ; they were represented in courts of law by the patrician whom they chose as their patron — whose lands they culti- vated, or whose influence protected their trade. Each patrician was proud of the number of clients who assumed his family name. The heads of the 300 noble houses constituted the Senate, an august assemblage, mostly of old men, distinguished by the broad, purple stripe upon their mantles, and by their thrones and scepters of ivory. The whole body of patricians constituted the Coniitia Curiata, which confirmed or annulled all laws proposed by the magistrates. Io8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 184. Later, there arose at Rome a new class, called plebeians, who were either foreign settlers, or children of mixed marriages, or clients whose protecting families had become extinct. The patricians were very angry when the new Assembly of the Hundreds, formed by the good king, Servius Tullius (§181), included even plebeians in the right to vote. They believed that patricians alone could ap- proach the gods with prayers and sacrifices, and that, therefore, it would be an insult to Heaven if a plebeian were admitted to any office which must be entered with religious rites. Another point of jealousy was found in the division of lands conquered in war. The patricians wanted these for the pasturage of their enormous flocks; but Servius thought it right to give the plebeians also a share. 185. Every free Roman was a soldier, and was enrolled, according to his wealth, in one of five ranks. The richest, being able to equip themselves in complete brazen armor, fought in front of the army; the rest, according to their means and equipment, were placed in successive ranks toward the rear. 186. The Religion of the Romans was less poetical than that of the Greeks; but it was bound up with their love of home and country, and strongly affected their daily life. As Greek monarchs were supposed to be descendants of Zeus, so the first Roman king was fabled to be a grand- son of Mars, the war-god; and the whole history of this martial people justifies the legend. The two chief divinities of the Romans were Ju'pitcr and Mars; and almost all their yearly religious festivals were connected either with war or tillage. The worship of some of the other divinities was borrowed from abroad; e. g. that of Apollo from the Greeks, and that of Miner'va from the Etruscans. 187. But the "household gods" were nearest and dearest to every Roman heart. Every house was a temple, and RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. lOp every meal a sacrifice to Ves'ta, the home-goddess. Her temple was the hearthstone of the city, where six noble maidens guarded the sacred fire by night and day. Over the door of every house was a little chapel of the Lares, or ancestors of the family, to whom the father jmid his devotions whenever he entered.^ i88. The Romans, like the Greeks, believed in oracles (§99), while from the Etruscans they borrowed rules for the interpretation of signs in the heavens, of the appearance of sacrifices, and of dreams. The Four Sacred Colleges were those of the Pontiffs, the Augurs, the Heralds, and the Keepers of the Sibylline Books} The first regulated public worship and kept the calendar; the second con- sulted the gods with reference to all public affairs; the third guarded the honor of the nation in its deaHngs with foreign powers; the fourth, in times of great public calamity, looked into the Sibylline Books, which were supposed to prophesy the fate of Rome. 189. Once in five years, after the taking of the census, there was a solemn purification of the city and all the people, by means of prayers and sacrifices, to avert the anger of the gods. In like manner farmers were supposed to purify their fields, and shepherds their flocks; generals their armies, and admirals their fleets, to guard against disasters which might be visited upon some secret or open impiety.'^ Name the boundaries of Italy. The tribes who occupied it in the early days of Rome. What islands near Italy? Read the early history of Rome in Arnold, Niebuhr, and Mommsen. NOTES. 1. The Etruscans, or Tuscans, differed much from the other nations of Italy in language, appearance, and character. Probably they were two races combined,— the mass being Pelasgi (^86), who were conquered and absorbed, perhaps even before they entered Italy, by a more powerful people from the North, called by themselves Ra.s'ena. History tirst finds this conquering people in Rhcetia, the country about the head-waters THE ANCIENT WORLD. of the Adige, the Danube, and the Rhine, where, until lately, their language was still spoken, and works of art like theirs were found. Entering Italy, they formed, in time, three distinct confederations, of twelve cities each. The first was in the plain of the Po; the second, in Tuscany, which still bears their name; the third, in Campania; but the last was lost in wars witli the Samnites. At a very early period, the Etruscans were a luxurious and wealthy people. They had treaties with the (Jarthagin urns; they sent three ships to aid the Athenians in their war in Sicily (^ 130). Their architecture, as still existing in city walls and amphitheaters, is of the most massive character, and their tombs contain untold wealth of bronzes and jew- elry. Their religion was gloomy and superstitious, consisting mainly of contrivances for averting calamities and predicting future events. Their elaborate books of divination were said to be made up of the sayings of a miraculous dwarf named Tages, whom a plowman found one day in his furrow, and who, though only a boy, had gray hair, and was wiser than any ancient sage. His sentences were delivered in verse, like oracles (^ 99), and were carefully written down. They taught how to avert the wrath of the gods by sacrifices, and to learn their will by auguries drawn from the flight of birds, from thunder and lightning, and from the entrails of slain beasts. The fifth and seventh kings of Rome (PSl) were Etruscans from Tarquinii. The first Tarquin adorned his capital with magnificent buildings, and drained it by an extensive system of sewers. A characteristic specimen of Etruscan ar- chitecture is seen in the still perfect round arch of the Cloaca Maxima. 2. After the plebeians had obtained equal civil rights witli the patri- cians, the character of clientage changed" but great men still prided themselves upon having a crowd of dependents waiting in their recep- tion-halls, or following them tlirough the streets. One chief duty of the client was the morning salutation. The Romans were early ri.sers, and the vestibulesof greathouses were thronged before sunrise with those who came to pay their re.spects to the proprietor. About sunrise the hall doors were thrown open, and the patron made his appearance, spoke with each of his callers, invited some to dinner, and heard the requests of any who needed advice or aid. Originally food was either served to the guests or given out in baskets: as this became inconven- ient, a fixed salary was assigned to each client, which was often his only means of support. Special distributions were made on occasions of domestic festivity ; when there was a wedding in the patron's family, a piece of gold was given to each client. 3. Here is a picture of the life of a well-born Roman, from "The An- cient City," by M. Fustel de Coulanges: "Each one of his daily actions is a rite; his whole day belongs to his religion. Morning .and evening he invokes his fire [note \. p. 62], his penates, and his ancestors; in leaving and entering his house he addresses a prayer to them. Every meal is a religious act, which lie shares with his domestic divinities. "He leaves his house, and can hardly take a sti'i) without meeting some sacred object— either a chapel, or a place formerly struck by light- ning, or a tomb; sometimes he must step back and prVmounce a prayer; sometimes he must turn his eyes and cover his face, to avoid the sight of some ill-boding object. " Every day he sacrifices in his house, every month in his curia, sev- eral months a year, with his gens or his tribe. Above all these gods, he must offer worship to those of the city. There are in Rome more gods than citizens. " He offers sacrifices to thank the gods; he offers them, and by far the greater number, to appease their wrath. . . . There is a festival for seed-time, one for harvest, and one for the pruning of the vines. Before corn has reached the ear, the Roman has offered more than ten sacrifices, and invoketl some ten divinities, for the success of his harvest. He has, above all, a number of fe.'^tivals for the dead, because he is afraid of them. He never leaves his own house without looking to see if any bird of bad augury appears. There are words which he dares not pro- nounce for his life. If he experiences some desire, he inscribes his wish upon a tablet, which he places at the feet of the statue of a divinity. " He steps out of his house always with his right foot first. He has NOTES. his hair cut only during the full moon. He carries amulets upon his person. He covers the walls of his house with magic inscriptions against lire. He knows of formulas for avoiding sickness, and of others for curing it, but he must repeat them twenty-seven times, and spit in a certain fashion at eudi repetition. "He does not deliberate in the senate if the victims have not given favorable signs. He leaves the assembly of the people if he hears the cry of a mouse. He renounces the best-laid plans if he perceives a bad presage, or if an ill-omened word has struck his ear; he is brave in bat- tle, but on condition that the auspices assure him the victory. "This Roman, whom we present here, is not the man of the people, the feeble-minded man whom misery and ignorance have made super- stitious. We are speaking of the patrician, the noble, powerful, and rich man. This patrician is, by turns, warrior, magistrate, consul, farmer, merchant; but every-where and always he is a priest, and his thoughts are fixed upon the gods." 4. These books were kept with the greatest care in a stone chest under the temple of Jupiter C'apitolinus. A curious story was told of their origin. A strange woman came one day to King Taninin— whether the First or the Second the legends did not agree— and ollered him, for a certain price, nine books of propliecies. The king refusing to purchase, she went away and burned three volumes, then, returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king again refused, and the Sibyl again disappeared, but came bacli, demanding the same price for the books that were left. This time the king bought the mysterious volumes, and the woman was never seen again. At first, two keepers of the books were appointed, subsequently there were ten, and at last fifteen. The prophecies were written on palm leaves, and probably in Greek. It is not known whether they foretold future events or merely dictated the forms of worship by which the supposed wrath of the gods could be appeased in times of pestilence or other calamity. The Sibyls, if indeed they had any real existence, seem to have been Asiatic prophetesses, who wandered from ijlace to place with their sacred honks. Six of these weird women are mentioned by ancient writers: the Erytlirtean (to whom the Roman volumes above- m^entioned were ascribed), the Samian, the Egyptian, the Sardinian, the Cumsean, and the Hebrew. There are. said to have been four more, whose names and origin can not be discovered. 5. One feature of Roman religion has neitlier been borrowed nor imi- tated. "They built temples and ofTered sacrifices to the highest human excellencies— to Valor, to Truth, to Good Faith, to Modesty, to Charity, to Concord. The Virtues were elevated into beings, to whom disobedi- ence could be punished as a crime; and the superstitious fears which run so often into mischievous idolatries, were enlisted with conscience in the direct service of right action. On the same principle the Roiuans chose the heroes and heroines of their national history. . . . On the same principle, too, they had a public officer, a Censor Morum, who might examine into the habits of private families, rebuke extravagance, check luxury, punish vice and self-indulgence, nay, who could remove from the senate, the great council of elders, persons whose moral con- duct was a reproach to a body on whose reputation no shadow could be allowed to rest. "Such t)ie Romans were in the day when their dominion had not extended beyond the limits of Italy; and, because they were such, they were able to prosper under a constitution which, to modern experience, would promise only the most hopeless confusion. . . . "The sense of duty is present in each detail of life; the obligatory must, which binds the will to tlie course which right principle has marked out for it, produces a fiber like the fiber of the oak. The edu- cated Greeks knew little of it. They had courage and genius and en- thusiasm, but they had no horror of immorality as such. The Stoics saw what was wanting, and tried to supply it; but, though they could provide a theory of action, they could not make the theory a reality: and it is noticeable that Stoicism, as a rule of life, became important only when adopted by Romans." — Froude's ^'Ccesar." CHAPTER XIII. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC — SAMNITE WARS. Tribune and Lictor.^ HE 480 years' history of the Roman Re- public is a record of ahnost continual wars; but there were four dis- tinctly marked periods, which will help us to un- derstand the development of this remarkable nation. I. Wars for existence, and growth of the Re- publican Constitution, B. ^- 510-343- II. Wars for possession of Italy, B. C. 343-264. III. W^ars for Foreign Dominion, B. C. 264-133. IV. Civil Wars, B. C. 133-30. igi. Patricians and Plebeians. — ^In the contests with the Latins and Etruscans, whicli followed the expul- sion of the kings (§ 181), a great part of the Roman ter- ritory was lost, and the rest was laid waste. The poor people, who derived their living from the soil, were in great distress, and had to l)orrow money from the patricians at ruinous interest in order to go on with their farming. Some even sold themselves as slaves, and others were thrown into the dungeons of their creditors. At length, tired of a government which cared only for the rich, and had neither justice nor j)ity for the poor, the plebeians seceded to the Sacred Mount, and resolved to form a new city. (112) AGRARIAN LAWS. II3 192. The patricians now consented to cancel the debts of all who were unable to pay, and agreed to the yearly election of two tribunes, whose duty it should be to de- fend the interests of the plebeians. The next year an "Agrarian Law" provided for the distribution of a certain part of the public lands among the plebeians, while the rents of those leased to patricians were applied to the pay- ment of soldiers who had hitherto been compelled to give their services to the state. The consul who proposed this law was condemned and beheaded at the expiration of his term ; and the first tribune who attempted to enforce it was murdered. But its enemies only defeated themselves, for so violent was the popular rage that the next tribune, Publil'ius, was able to obtain a still greater security for the rights of the plebeians. This was, the power to elect their own officers* in their own Meeting of the Tribes; and there, too,, to discuss all questions affecting the whole na- tion, before they were presented to the Assembly of the Hundreds. This prevented the plebeians being outvoted by the clients of the noble houses, who of course were controlled by their masters. 193. Some proud patricians, rather than share their power with inferiors, went over to the enemies of Rome. Among these was Ca'ius Mar'cius — called Co'riola'nus, be- cause he had taken the town of Corioli from the Volscians; but it was with these same Volscians that he now took refuge, and even led their armies against his native city. A sacred embassy of priests and augurs went out to meet him, but he refused all terms of peace. At last, his mother, his wife, and his little children appeared, followed by a procession of noble ladies, entreating him to spare ■■"From that time," says a Roman historian, "the election of tribunes and iiediles was made ^oithoul bh-ds," alluding to the cere- mony of "taking the auguries," which must precede every election in which patricians had part. See § 184. Hist.— 8. 114 THE ANCIENT WORLD. their altars and their homes. Coriolanus yielded, but with the despairing cry: "Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but thou hast lost thy son ! " He led away his army. Some say the Volscians killed him in their revenge, but others, that he lived to great age, lamenting, in the loneliness of exile and infirmity, the foolish pride that had robbed him of home and honor. 194. x\fter many years of contention, all classes agreed to appoint ten men {Decci/iviri), who should consider and adjust all conflicting claims and make a new constitution for Rome. The results of their labor were the Laws of the Twelve Tables,* which be- came the "source of all public and private right'' in Rome for a thousand years. They were approved by the Senate, and ratified by the Assembly of the Hundreds. But, though formally accepted, the laws were not enforced until two secessions and many violent tumults, caused by patri- cian outrages, had proved the powder of the plebeians. 195. Rome was soon afterward visited by a terrible calamity. The Gauls,'^ who had conquered northern Italy, came pouring through the defiles of the Apennines, and defeated the whole Roman army with great slaughter in the battle of the Allia ; then, pushing on with irresistible fury, captured and burned the city. The rocky height of the Capitol was bravely defended for several months, and then ransomed for 1000 pounds of gold. The Gauls continued for many years to ravage Italy, and twice encamped within a few miles of Rome, but at last they withdrew to the fertile plain between the Alps and the northern Apennines, which was thenceforth named from them Cisalpine Ciaul. They learned letters and civilized habits from the Etruscans, and taught them in some degree to their wild kindred among the Alps. *-'So called because they were inscribed on bronze tablets. THE SAMNITES. 115 196. The poverty and distress of the plebeians, resulting from the ravages of the Gauls, made the patricians only more haughty and overbearing. Rome was a shapeless heap of rubbish, through which even the direction of former streets could not be traced; while orchards and farm-buildings outside the walls had all been burnt. Again the dungeons beneath the patrician houses on the hills were crowded with insolvent debtors, who cried out against the cruelty of their tormentors. 197. The tribune Licin'ius Sto'lo, and his colleague L. Sex'tius, then brought forward a series of laws, which were designed to raise the plebeians to absolute equality with the patricians in civil rights and the use of the public lands. Of course the latter violently opposed the meas- ures ; but, after some years, the ' ' Licinian Laws "'^ were passed, and Rome had for the first time a really popular government. Of the two consuls chosen every year, one was henceforth a plebeian. The consuls still had unlimited military power; but most of their judicial duties were now committed to a p/'cstor, who for a time was chosen only from the patricians. 198. Wars in Italy. — At peace with herself, Rome now looked out upon the broader field where she was to become mistress of the world. The Samnites to the south- ward were more civilized and powerful than the Latins. They had conquered most of the Greek settlements (§88) in southern Italy, and had adopted Greek ways of living and thinking, so that they were superior in intellectual culture to their neighbors, with whom they were now to contest the rule of the peninsula. But the Romans had already proved that wonderful genius for government which afterward enabled them to bind together all their conquests into one great empire ; while the Samnites had only a loose confederation of cities without any recognized leader. Il6 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 199. All Italy was engaged on one side or the other; and the three Samnite Wars lasted, with brief intervals, more than half a century (B. C. 343-290). The Latin allies, becoming unruly, were reduced to obedience by a war, which broke up the League (§ 180) and subjected all Latium to Roman law. Two incidents of the Latin war illustrate the Spartan-like sternness of the Romans. All soldiers were forbidden to leave the camj) on pain of death; but Ti'tus Man'lius, the consul's son, vexed by the challenge of a Latin warrior, went out and killed him, and, returning in triumph, laid the spoils at his father's feet. The consul ordered his guards to behead the young man before his tent in the presence of all the army. 200. The battle which decided the fate of Latium, took place at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, 339 B. C. The augurs had declared (§ 188) that Fate demanded the destruction of an army on one side and a general on the other. It was therefore agreed by the Roman commanders that, if any portion of their army should begin to give way, the consul commanding in that quarter would devote himself to death for the deliverance of the state. Manlius led the Roman right; De'cius, the plebeian consul, the left, j All fought bravely, but at length the Roman left wavered. Decius called the pontiff, and with his aid repeated the solemn words in which he devoted himself and the Latin army to the gods of death and the grave ; then, mounting his horse, plunged into the thickest of the fight and was almost immediately killed. 201. B. C. 326-304. The Second Samnite War lasted 22 years. The Romans suffered a disgraceful defeat at the Caudine Forks, where the remnant of their army which survived had to "pass under the yoke," in token of submission. A treaty of peace was then made ; but the Roman Senate refused to be bound by it, and sent the THE THIRD SAMNITE WAR. 117 :\vo consuls and two tribunes who had signed it, bound in :hains, to suffer the vengeance of the Samnites. Pon'tius, ;he Samnite general, generously released them. After nany reverses and a few great victories, the Romans vere at length acknowledged as masters of Italy. 202. The Samnites, however, made use of the six years' nterval of peace to enlist all the Italian nations in a new eague against Rome, and, in 298 B. C. , the Third Samnite kVar broke out. Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, on the lorth, were allied with Lucanians, Apulians, Greeks, and samnites on the south. In a great battle It Sentinum, the Gauls and Samnites were ' ' ^'^ ' iefeated, and 25,000 men were slain. Pontius, the Sam- lite general, still defended his country by his brilliant genius; but at length the Romans gained a victory, in vhich he was made a prisoner and compelled to walk :he streets of Rome loaded with chains to adorn the xiumph'* of the consul. When the procession reached the bot of the Capitoline Hill, he was led aside and be- leaded in the Mamertine Prison. Samnium w^as com- pletely subjected, and a Roman colony of 20,000 people guarded its territory. 203. Two short wars added to the Roman possessions he lands of the yEqui and Sabines, rich in oil, wine, and brests of oak. These were divided among the people, nany of whom had been made poor by the long wars ; md, by the wise laws of Hortensius, Rome was saved rom civil strife for 150 years. 204. The next important contest was with Pyr'rhus,^king )f Epirus, an ambitious and able prince who , . -r 1 1 1 r B. C. 281-278. vas mvited nito Italy by a league of many lations, with the Greek city of Tarentum at their head. \t Heracle'a, his elephants put the Roman horse to flight; md his military genius was proved by many other vic- :ories. But while Pyrrhus was fighting for glory, Rome Il8 THE ANCIENT WORLD. was fighting for existence. As often as one army was destroyed, another was ready to oppose him; and at length he withdrew into Sicily, hoping to recruit his forces for a fresh attempt. He was defeated two B C 275 years later at Beneventum, and left Italy never to return. His allies submitted, and the whole Italian peninsula, properly so called, was now subject to Rome. 205. Her power was secured by many new colonies and by military roads, the remains of which may yet be seen. The maritime colonies possessed the full "Roman right;" /. e., the colonists retained all the powers and privileges of Roman citizens. They could go to Rome and vote in the assemblies; and they could be elected to any office which would have been open to them w^hen living in the mother city. The "Latin right" was that which had been given to the cities of Latium when they were first made subject to Rome. It was bestowed on the less favored colonies; but it included commercial and other privileges, which bound them to Rome by ties of interest. Point out, on Map 5, the nations engaged in the Third Samnite War: see §202. Point out Sentinum. Tarentum. Beneventum. Heraclea. Read the story of this period, more fully told, in Arnold's History of Rome. NOTES. 1. Lictors were public officers who attended every great magistrate of Rome, in greater or less number, according to his raalc. They carried fasces, which were bundles of birch or elm rods, bound together, and usually having an axe in the middle. Each king had been preceded by twelve lictors; after the republic was established, one of the consuls was attended by twelve, bearing the fasces and axe; the other consul had twelve lictors, but their fasces consisted of rods only. There is a curious story told by Livy, which shows how much importance was attached to the pomp and dignity supposed to be derived from these attendants : " Fabius Ambustus, one of the most illustrious patricians, had two daughters whom he gave in marriage— one to a patrician, who became a military tribune, the other to Ijicinius Stolo, a prominent plebeian. Tills plebeian's wife was one day at the house of her sister, when the lictors, conducting the military tribune to his home, struck the door with tlieir fasces. As she was ignorant of this usage, she showed signs of fear. The laughter and teasing questions of her sister showed her how much she was degraded by the plebeian marriage that had nlaced NOTES. 119 her in a house wheie such honors could never come. Her fatlier guessed the cause of her troiil)le, and consoled her by promising that she should see at lier own house what she had seen at her sister's." Accordingly, he joined with her husband in obtaining for the plebeians a share in the consular office, B. C. 3()(j. " F'roni that time the plebs had every year one of the two consuls, and they were not long in succeeding to other magistracies. The plebe- ian wore the purple dress, and was preceded by tlie fasces; he admin- istered justice; he was a senator; he governed the city, and commanded the legions." Licinius Stolo was himself consul for the years B. C. 364 and .361; and we may hope that Fabia often enjoyed the noise of the twelve lictors at her door. 2. The Gauls were a warlike and powerful people belonging to the Celtic branch of the Ai-yan family (see note 1, p. 16). At this time, and for a century later, they were continually passing the inountain-barrier which divides Central from Southern Europe; and their dominion, at its greatest extent, is said to have been as great, though, of course, far less compact and well organized, than the Roman empire was after- wards. On their approach to Rome, the Vestal Virgins (§187) withdrew, still carefully guarding the sacred Are in urns, to Caere, in Etruria;' the mass of the people, with the fugitives from the conquered army, took refuge in other Etruscan towns; but the noblest of the patricians resolved to hold the capital. Those who were too old to flirht, lioped to sei've their country equally well by a heroic death. They repeated after the Pontifex Maximus, a solemn imprecation (see §200) devoting themselves and the army of the (lauls to death for the deliverance of Rome. Then, arrayed in their most maguifleent apparel, holding their ivory scepters, and seated each upon liis ivory throne at the door of his own house, they sat motionless while the tumult of plunder and pillage was going on around. The barbarians were struck with admiration of these venerable figures; and one of them began reverently to stroke the long white beard of Papirius. Enraged by this profaning touch, the old senator struck him with his ivory .scepter. It was the signal for slaughter. The Gauls, recovering from their momentary awe, massacred the noble old men without delay. The siege of the capital continued six or eight months. At one time it was nearly taken, the enemy having scaled the steep cliff" by night. The gari-ison were asleep, luit some geese, sacred to .Juno, gave a timely alarm, and the citadel was saved. Marcus Manlius, wiio was tlie first to awaken, flung the first assailants down the cliti', anil thus maintained the fortress until his comrades could come to his aid. 3. The "Lieinian Laws " were three: 1. To relieve present distress,— the enormous interestalready paid upon debts, was reckoned as part of the principal, and so deducted from the sum .still due. 2. To prevent future poverty,— the lands belonging to the state, but hitherto absorbed l)y the patricians, were to be thrown open equally to the plebeians, and no man could hold more than 312 acres, or pasture more than 100 oxen and 500 sheep on the undivided part. o. One consul every year should be a plebeian. 4. A " Triumph " was the greatest reward ever bestowed upon a Roman general by the gratitude of his compatriots. It was subject to the following conditions: The victory must have been over foreign foes, for it was reckoned as unseemly to exult over fellow-countrymen, how- ever guilty tliey might be — it must have been an actual extension of. Roman territory, not the recovery of something lost— arid the war must be completed, so that the army was withdrawn from the field, for the soldiers must share in the honor paid to their general. Moreover, the general himself must be of consular, or at least praetorian, rank; an ofl3- cer of lower grade could receive an ovation, in which he entered the city on foot, but the chariot was a mark of kingly state permitted only to the highest. It will be noticed that the ovation— though much mis- quoted in our day— was only a secondary honor; it took its name from the sheep {ovus) which was .sacrificed at the end of the ceremony in the THE ANCIENT WORLD. temple of the Latiu Jupiter on the Alban Mount; while a Triumph was ended by a more costly sacrifice of oxen in the temple of the Ro- man Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. The victorious chief must wait without the walls until the senate decreed him the honor of a Trlumpli; and until a special vote of the people had continued his military command within the limits of the city; for, without this, it must be laid down on entering the gates. On the appointed day, he was met at the 'I'riumphal (Jate by tlie senate and all the magistrates in their most magiiitiiciit apjiarel. ' Taking tlie lead of the procession, they were followed by a hand of trumpeters ami a train of wagons laden with the spoils of the conquered countries (§230), which were indicated by tablets inscribed in large letters with their names. Models, in wood or ivory, of the cajjtured cities; pictures of mountains, rivers, or other natural tcatuies of the region subilued; loads of gold, silver, precious stones, vases, statues; and whatever was most rich, curious, or admirable in the spoils of temples and palaces made an important part of the display (see note 2, Ch. XVJ). Then came a band of flute-players preceding the white oxen destined for sac- rifice, the horns of the oxen being gilded and adorned with wreaths of flowers and fillets of white wool. Elephants, or other strange animals from the conquered countries, were followed by a train of captive princes or generals, with their families, and a crowd of captives of in- ferior rank loaded with fetters. Then came the twelve lictors of the "Triumphator" in single file, their fasces (note 1) wreathed with laurel; and lastly, the geneial him- self in his circular chariot drawn by four white horses. His robes glis- tened with golden embroidery; he bore a scepter; and his head was crowned with Delphic laurel. A slave standing behind him held a diadem of Etruscan gold; he was instructed to whisper from time to time in his master's ear, " Remember that thou art but a man." Be- hind the general rode his sons and lieutenants, and then came the en- tire army— their .spears adorned with laurel— who either chanted h,\Tiins of praise, or amused themselves and the bystanders with coarse jokes and doggerel verses at their general's expense. This rude license of speech was thought to prevent the injurious efl'ects of overmuch flat- tery, which the Romans, like the modern Italians, were taught especially to dread. All the people, in gala-dress, thronged the streets, and every temple and shrine were adorned with flowers. As a terrible contrast to tlie joy of the day, just as the procession liad nearly finished its course to the capital, some of the captured chiefs were led aside and put to death. That the noble Pontius suflered this fate, is one of the greatest blots upon the honor of Rome. A little more than a century later, Jugurtha, after walking in chains in tlie triumph of Marius (!:22(M, was cast into the lower dungeon of the same Mamertine prison to perish of hunger. The execution of the victims having been announced, the sacrifices were offered in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter; the laurel crown of the general was placed as a votive oflering in the lap of the image; a magnificent banquet was served; and the "Tri- umpliator" was escorted home late at night by a throng of citizens bearing torches and pipes. The state jiresented him with a site for a liouse, and, at the entrance to this triumphal mansion, a laurel-wreathed statue of its founder perpetuated the memory of his glory to his latest descendants. 5. Pyrrhus greatly admired the manly virtues of the Romans, and, in reviewing his prisoners, is said to have exclaimed, "If I haeace, and reluctantly they Yielded to "liis arguments, for they would gladly have purchased his life by some concession, tliough, of course, no one dreamed of his violating liis promise to return. He went to Carthage, and sultered, it is said, a most painful tleath at the hands of his disappointed captors. 2 Hamilcar bad commanded in Sicily during the First Punic War, and defended himself successfully for five years against the Romans. He was the leader of the popular party in Carthage, where, in the in- terval between the two wars, lie put down a formidable revolt of the mercenary troops. "Before departing for Spain, the general performed a solemn sacri- fice to propitiate the gods for the success of his enterprise. The omens were declared favorable. Hamilcar had poured the libation on the victim, which was duly offered on the altar, when, on a sudden, he desired all his officers and the ministers of the sacrifice to step aside to a little distance, and then called his son Hannibal. Hannibal, a boy of nine years old, went up to his father, and Hamilcar asked him kindly if he would like to go with him to the war. The boy eagerly caught at the otter, and, with a child's earnestness, implored his father to take him Then Hamilcar took him by tlie hand and led him up to the al- tar, and bade him, if he wished to follow his father, lay his hand upon the sacrifice and swear that lie would never be the friend of the Ro- NOTES. 127 mans. Hannibal swore, and never to his latest hour forgot his vow. He went forth devoted to his country's gods, as the appointed euemy and destroyer of their enemies; and the thought of his high calling dwelt ever on his mind, directing and concentrating the spirit and en- thusiasm of his youth, and mingling with it the forecast, the great pur- poses, and tlie deep and unwavering resolution of the matufest man- "The story of his solemn vow was told by Hannibal himself, many years afterwards, to Antiochus, king of Syria (see J 214); but, at the time, it was heard by no other ears than his father's; and, when he sailed with Hamilcar to Spain, none knew that he went with any feelings beyond the common, light-hearted curiosity of a child. But the Romans vieweil Hamilcar's expedition with alarm, and were probably well aware that he would brook his country's humiliation only so long as he was unable to avenge it."— .lr/)a?(/'.v History 0/ i?09ne, i^p. 459, 460. Hamilcar was killed in battle B. C. 229. 3 Hannibal was probably born B. C. 247, and was scarcely 26 years of age, when, on the death of his brother-in-law, Hasdrubal, the will of the soldiers, confirmed l)y the government in Carthage, placed him at the head of the forces in Spain. In two campaigns he subdued the Spanish tribes that were hostile to liis rule; then, in the spring of 219 B. C, laid siege to Saguntum, a city in alliance with Rome. Its resist- ance was long and desperate, but in eight months Hannibal was master of the place. His march from Carthageua to Italy occupied five months, of which onlv rtfteen days were spent in passing the Alps. On the left bank of the Trebia, he met a Roman army of greatly superior numbers to his own, and routed it with heavy loss. All the Gauls now declared in his favor, and he wintered in security while filling up his broken ranks with recruits that pressed in from every side. His second en- counter with tlie Romans was in a narrow pass between Lake Thrasy- menus and a rocky declivity of the Apennines. Here his victory was more complete than before. Thousands ot Romans, including the Con- sul Flaminius, fell by the sword; thousands perished in the lake, and 15,000 remained as prisonei's in Hannibal's camps. Of these, he dis- missed all the Italian allies, without ransom, hoping to separate their people from Roman influence. His third great battle was at Cannse; and if, after his victory, he had marched directly upon Rome, it seems probable that he might have put a triumpliant end to the war. But he waited for reinforcements whicli never came, and it is said that his veterans were rendered less warlike by tlie luxury of their winter in Capua. Hannibal's energy never flagged ; appearing suddenly in the most unexpected miarters, he bewildered the Romans by the swiftness of his movements; and not only throughout Italy, but in Macedonia, Sicily, and Africa, lie was the soul of tlie great contest. When, after the battle of Zama, Hannibal saw all his labor of twenty years set at nauglit, he only set himself to find means of renewing hos- tilities witli Rome. As chief magistrate of Carthage, he effected reforms In tlie rtuances and other departments of the government; but, in so doing, he enraged the opposite party, and was at length compelled to flee from his native city. He was received with great honor b.y Aiiti- oclius III., of Syria, who was glad to employ him as a commander, but failed to profit Ijy his advice. One condition demanded by the Romans ill making peace with Antiochus, B. C, 190, was the surrender of Hanni- bal ; but the great general was warned in time, and took refuge with the king of Bithynia. Seven years later, the Romans sent an embassy to demand him, and, seeing that escape was hopeless, he put an end to his life by poison. Plutarch says that Hannibal and Scipio once met at the court of An- tiochus, ill Ephesus, and had a friendly discussion concerning military rank. Hannibal declared that Alexander was the greatest general the world had ever seen, Pyrrhus the second, and himself the third. Scipio smiled and said, "But in what rank would you have placed yourself if you had conquered me?" "O Scipio," was the reply, "then I would have ranked myself not third, but first." 4. To the Scipios more than to any other family Rome is said to have been indebted for her conquest of the whole Mediterranean world. Four of the family bore the surname Asiaticus, on account of their sue- THE AXCIENT WORLD. cesses in the East; aiifl an equal nunilier, tliat of Africanus; but the con- queror of Hannibal is reiiardod as tlie greatest man" Koine ever produced, witli tlic exception of Julius Casar. He never engaged in any impor- tant business without tirst preparing his mind by prayer in the temple on the Capitoliue Mount. At the age of 24 (B. C. 21(h, he was appointed to the commami of the Roman forces in Spain, and distinguislied him- self by the capture of Carthagena and all its stores of arms and food. The next year he gained a brilliant victory over Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, and, in a few years, less by fighting than by his personal influence, he had won all Spain to obedience to Rome. His energy and courage were fully equaled by his generosity and courtesy toward all who fell into his power; and the Si)aiiisli people even wished to make him their king. Returning to Italy, he was unanimously chosen consul for the year 205 B. C, and earnestly desired to carry the war into Africa; but the senate, jealous of the successes of so yoiing a general, refused him an army. They could not, however, prevent his being joined by volunteers, and so many young men from the allied towns flocked to his standard, that he soon had a great force, both on land and .sea. His success in Africa has been told in the text. On his return to Italy, in 201 B. C, the delight of the people at their deliverance from tlie long terror in which Hannibal had held them, broke forth in extrava- gant demonstrations. They would even have made him consul and dictator for life, and would have placed his statue in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter. But Scipio knew the jealousy of the senate, and re- fused these marks of honor, only accepting tliesurname Africanus in memory of his chief victory. He afterwards distinguished himself both in war and negotiations against Antiochus III., at whose court he is said to have met Hannibal (see note 3). These two men were noble enough to recognize each other's greatness, and Scipio was the only Roman senator who opposed the mean per.secutions by which his coun- trymen showed their fear of the great Carthaginian. He is said to have died in the same j'ear as Hannibal and Philopoemen, B. C. 183. 4. Cato the Censor, or the Elder, was of plebeian family, and was born at Tusculum, among the Sabine hills, B. C. 23-1. In his youth lie served against Hannibal, and to the end of his life he was the most re-, lentless foe of Carthage. In the intervals of war he worked on his farm, and, though he afterwards became celebrated as an orator in Rome, he always jirided himself on retaining the plain and simple habits of his boyhood. His talents were first recognized while he was pleading the causes of his poorer neighbors in the courts. He was invited to Rome, and .soon rose high in otfice. He bitterly op])osed the Greek tastes and luxurious manners, which, witli increasing wealth, had become fash- ionable among liis countrymen; and, wheii elected Censor (*. e., keeper of the public morals) in 1.S4 B. ("., his attempt to force his own sober and frugal .style of living upon tiie patricians, occasioned great di.scontent. Still, he was generally respected as a model of old-fashioned Roman virtue. His great-grandson, "Cato the Younger," was one of the most deter- mined opponents of Cwsar, and killed himself when opposition proved to be hopeless. 6. " Spain was the only one of the great countries of Europe where the mass of tiie people were not of the Aryan stock (see note 1, p. 16). The greater part of the land was still held by the Iberiann, as a small part is even now by their descendants, the Ba^.ques. But, in the central part of the peninsula, Celtic tribes had pressed in, and we have seen that there were some Phcenician colonies in the south, and .some Greek colonies on the east coast. In the time between the First and Second Punic Wars, Hamilcar, Hasdrubal, and Hannibal had won all Spain for Carthage. But during the Second Punic War, between the years 211 and 206, the Carthaginian territories in Spain were all won for Rome by the Seipios. Spain has always been a hard country to conquer, and the Romans had constant wars with the native tribes. Still we may ' look on the Roman dominion in Spain as Anally established in B.C. 1.38, when the younger Scipio took Numantia. From this time all Spain was a Roman province, except some of the mountainous parts in the north, where native tribes still remained free." — Freeman''s "■General Sketch," pp. 68, 69. CHAPTER XV. ROMAN REPUBLIC, CONTINUED — CIVIL WARS. Roman Soldier. CENTURY of internal conflict ends the history of the Roman Republic. The strife between patricians and plebeians was long ago ended; but in its place had arisen a grinding, igno- ble jealousy between the rich and the poor. Rome was a "commonwealth of millionaires and beggars." Many rich proprietors held four times the amount of public lands to which the law entitled them ; and, instead of hir- ing free labor, preferred to cultivate by means of gangs of slaves who could be bought cheap after every Roman victory. These slaves, often the equals of their masters but for misfortune in war, — strong, intelligent, and trained to the use of arms — constituted one of the greatest dangers to which Rome was now exposed. 218. In the year 133, B. C, Tibe'rius Grac'chus,' Tribune of the People, brought forward a bill for a re-distribution of the state lands, limiting the patricians, as before, to 500 jugera (about 312 acres), and dividing the remainder into homesteads for the poor. His fellow-tribune, Octa'vius, vetoed the bill; but Tiberius moved the people to depose him, and the Agrarian Law was passed. Other propositions followed, designed to raise up a middle-class of peasants, which would prevent collision between the two extremes of society. But the wrath of the wealthy class was now excited, and Tiberius was murdered on the steps of the Capitol. Hist— g. (129) f 130 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 219. His younger and yet abler brother," Ca'ius Grac'- chus, became Tribune of the People, B. C. 124. He provided for the hungry crowd by forming new colonies, not only in Italy, but beyond the seas, and by building immense granaries at Rome, whence the government dealt out wheat at less than half price to all who chose to apply for it. The first of these measures was wise and benef- icent ; the second was very dangerous, for it drew into Rome a thriftless crowd from all the country, and there were never wanting leaders whose wicked ambition made use of these people for their own ends — sometimes for the destruction of the state. Caius Gracchus lost his life in a popular tumult; 250 of his followers fell with him, and 3000 were strangled in prison by order of the Senate.-''^ 220. Roman virtue, if not dead, was in a fatal decline. A war with Jugur'tha — an African prince, °^ who had murdered two heirs to the kingdom of Numidia in order to seat himself on its throne — brought to light the disgraceful fact that even senators and con.suls would sell themselves for gold. One general made a dis- honorable peace, and another, with his whole army, passed under the yoke (§ 201). At this humiliating crisis, when neither great wealth nor noble birth escaped reproach Caius Ma'rius, a Latin farmer's son, w'as made consul and entrusted with the war in Africa. Among his officers was Corne'lius Sul'la, a young patrician, of dissolute character, *The noble character of the Gracchi was due, in great measure, to their mother, Cornelia, a daughter of Scipio Africanus. Their father died when they were very young, and Cornelia, refusing all the lures of ambition — among others a royal crown — devoted her- self to the training of her boys. She lived to see both of their young lives sacrificed for the good of their country ; and, though - the Senate forbade her to mourn for them, a grateful people after- wards placed upon her tomb the proudest of inscriptions: ''Cornelia, the Mother of the Gracchi." MARIUS AND SULLA. I31 but great ability, to whose tact and bravery the capture of Jugurtha was due. That wily prince was starved to death in a Roman dungeon, B. C. 106. 221. Marius, in violation of the law, was reelected to the consulship iive successive years. Italy was trembling at the approach of two great hordes of barbarians from beyond the Danube, who had destroyed a Roman army of 80,000 men at Arausio, on the Rhone, and now threatened the peninsula. The Teutones were to enter Italy from Roman Gaul, while the Cimbri were to i)ass through Switzerland and descend upon the Lombard plain to the eastward. Marius and Sulla hastened to meet them, and gained a victory at Aix, which ended in the total destruction of the Teutones. The next spring the Cimbri were defeated at Vercellae, and 60,000 captives were sent to the slave-markets of Rome. 222. The danger arising from so numerous and warlike a slave-class (§ 217) was already felt in Sicily. In the First Servile War (B. C. 134-132), 200,000 rebels were in arms; and the Second, which broke out B. C. 102, taxed for three years the best Roman generals. It was suppressed B. C. 99 ; but the masters did not soon forget their terror. 223. Another peril threatened Rome from her Italian allies, who, disappointed in the hope of full " Roman rights," which Caius Gracchus had wished to give them, formed a federal Republic by themselves, and defeated sev- eral armies which were sent to subdue them. Rome gained peace only by yielding to the just demands of the states. All the Italians were admitted to full Roman citizenship; the "Latin right" (§ 205) being reserved for Spaniards and other provincials — and so the "Social War" was ended. 224. A .furious contest, which now arose between Marius and Sulla for the command in a war against Pontus,^ ended by making Sulla master of Rome and driving Marius into I 132 THE ANCIENT WORLD. exile. But when Sulla had departed for the East, Marius returned. By capturing the corn-fleets from Sicily and Africa, he starved Rome into surrender, and proceeded to massacre all who were opposed to him. But he died on the eighteenth day of his seventh consulship, and Sulla, returning with his victorious army, soon turned the tables. 225. In five campaigns he had brought the Pontic War to a triumphant conclusion, and had recovered the revolted provinces of Achaia, Macedonia, and Asia. He came laden _ with treasure and followed by a devotedly attached soldiery, with whom he many times defeated the " Mari- ans" and established a new Reign of Terror at Rome. Six thousand soldiers were massacred by his order; new "proscription-lists" were published every day, and the streets flowed with blood. 226. Sulla was made Dictator, with unlimited power; and he now tried, with some show of reason, to restore at once the simple virtues and the patrician rule which had belonged to the early days of the Republic. But, though aristocratic government was restored for a time, Roman virtue was dead ; and ^ome, enslaved by luxury, could no longer hope to escape an outward servitude, whenever her master should appear. At the end of three years, Sulla suddenly resigned his power and retired to Puteoli, where he died, B. C. 78. 227. The Romans, though rich and luxurious, were hardly less brutal than the wolves whom tradition made their foster-brothers. Their favorite sport was to see the bravest of their captives fight with wild beasts, or butcher each other in the arena, "to make a Roman holiday." One of these "gladiators," named Spar'tacus, moved his comrades to revolt; they were joined by enslaved herdsmen from the mountains, so that their number rose, the first year, to 40,000, and the second, to I VICTORIES OF POMPEY, 133 100,000 men. For two years they defeated all the armies of Rome, and convulsed all Italy with terror ; but jealousy divided their forces ; Spartacus was defeated and slain by Cras'sus, and the remnant of his followers, attempting to escape northward, were met and destroyed by Pom'pey. 228. This general had been a favorite lieutenant of Sulla; and he had distinguished himself by conquering the remnant of the Marian party in Africa and Spain. He now received the consulship with Crassus. After its expiration he rendered yet more bril- liant services by sweeping the Mediterranean of Cilician pirates, who were ravaging all its coasts; by ending the wars with Pontus and placing that country, as well as Bithynia and Syria, under Roman rule. He captured Jeru- salem by a three months' siege, B. C. 63, and established Hyrca'nus as High Priest and ruler of the people. 229. Rome, meanwhile, barely escaped ruin from the corrupt elements within her borders. Cat'iline, a dissolute nobleman, plotted with comrades like himself to murder the consuls, overthrow the government, and assume control of affairs. Plans were laid with great skill and secrecy, and the wicked plot seemed likely to succeed ; but, happily, it became known in time to Cic'ero, the great lawyer and orator, who was then consul, and by his prompt measures it was brought to naught. Catiline fell, fighting at the head of his legions, and most of his accompHces were put to death. Cicero was rewarded by the unbounded gratitude of his fellow-citizens, and by the title, "Father of his Country." 230. Pompey might now have been master of the Roman world; but, to avoid exciting alarm, he disbanded his army as soon as he set foot in Italy, and journeyed privately to Rome. In the triumph (§ 207, note) decreed him by the Senate, he was declared to have conquered 22 kings and 12,000,000 of people, and to have almost doubled the rev- 134 THE ANCIENT WORLD. enues of Rome. Nevertheless, the aristocracy, Avho had opposed his appointment in Asia, now refused to ratify his acts, or to give lands to his veteran soldiers. Pompey, though by birth and taste an aristocrat, had to ally himself with Ju'lius Cae'sar, the rising leader of the Marian party, in order to fuliill his pledges to his troops. 231. Crassus, on account of his great wealth, Avas ad- mitted as a partner in their plans ; and the three formed the First Triumvii'ate , which for several years ruled the Roman world. It was not a magis- tracy, but a private agreement — what, in modern times, would be called a "Ring." Ccesar was made consul, and, by dividing the rich Campanian fields among the poorer citizens, satisfied the claims of Pompey's veterans. At the end of his term he chose the government of Gaul (§ 216) — the poorest and most turbulent of all the provinces. 232. Pompey and Crassus became consuls. When their year was out, Pompey went to Spain, and Crassus under- took a war with Parthia — now a vast empire reaching westward to the Euphrates — in the hope of increasing his wealth by the plunder of the Asiatic cities. But he suffered an overwhelming defeat near Car'rhse, and was treacherously murdered by a Parthian officer, B. C. 53. 233. By swiftness, energy, and good management, Caesar subdued the Gauls in eight campaigns, beside invading Britain and Germany. In choosing the most difficult of the provincial governments, he had especially wished to train an army which would enable him to carry forward the great scheme which he was maturing. He perceived that the mere city-government which had sufficed for Rome in her poorer days, was unfit for the almost world-wide dominion which she had now attained. He wished to civilize western Europe, give equal rights of Roman citizenship to all the provinces, and make one compact Empire out of so many scattered nationalities. I C^SAR DICTATOR. 135 234. Pompey's friendship was now turned into jealousy and hatred, and with many powerful men at Rome he was plotting Caesar's destruction. The Senate ordered the whole army in Gaul to be disbanded on a certain day. Caesar's resolution was quickly taken. Crossing the little river Ru'bicon, which separated his province from Italy, he marched with his devoted legions upon Rome. Pompey retired into Greece; and the nobles following him organized a new Senate at Thessalonica. 235. Pompey was master of Spain, Africa, and the East- ern provinces, while Caesar had only Italy, Illyricum, and Gaul ; but the wonderful energy of the latter turned the balance in his favor. His able policy soon restored order and confidence in Italy ; then, by a toilsome but decisive campaign of forty days, he conquered the Pompeian party in Spain ; and, returning to Rome only long enough to be elected consul and pass some laws giving relief to debtors and proscribed persons, he pressed on into Greece, where the great decisive combat took place at Pharsalia in Thes- saly. Pompey was defeated, and, fleeing into Egypt, was murdered by an officer of Ptolemy, B. C. 48. 236. His party rallied in great force in the province of Africa, but Caesar defeated them at Thapsus, where 50,000 Pompeians were left dead upon the field. Caesar was now the acknowledged head of the Roman world. The Senate declared him Dictator and Imperator* for life, with liberty to name his successor. His statues were placed in the temples, and his name was invoked in legal oaths like that of a god. Cssar used his power in a way that proved his genius to be even greater for govern- *This title had often been given by acclamation to successful generals ; it now acquired a special meaning equivalent to the mod- ern Emperor. Caesar's name has also given to three great empires their title for the highest dignitary : Kaiser and Czar. 1 136 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ment than for war. Instead of the proscriptions and mas- sacres which had followed the return of Marias and Sulla (§§ 224, 225), amnesty to all was his policy. He seemed to have forgotten the injuries which he had personally received, and sought out men of merit in all parties to aid him in the restoration of order and prosperity. 237. He reformed the calendar,^ which had fallen into great confusion, and with such wisdom that it has needed only one slight amendment from his time to our own. He planned great works of public utility for Rome, while he equally studied the interests of every part of his vast em- pire. He rebuilt the cities of Corinth and Carthage, and founded many new colonies in Europe, Asia, and Africa, giving to all the people as nearly as possible the same privileges as to those of Italy. Yet all these works and many more were accomplished in the intervals of seven toilsome campaigns, which he conducted between his cross- ing the Rubicon and his death — a period of little more than five years. 238. Caesar still had bitter enemies, and they were joined by a few honest Republicans, who believed that the one- man power had destroyed Roman freedom. On the eve of his departure for Asia — where he meant to punish the Parthians for the fate of Crassus (§ 232) — Caesar was murdered in the Senate House. But though the Dictator was dead, the Romans were not free. It was easier to destroy one man's life than to restore to the nation the strong and simple character which had been the true foundation of the Republic. The conquests in the East had brought to Italy a crowd of Asiatics, who lowered the tone of Roman society; and, ever since ease and wealth had been regarded by the people at large as of more value than honesty and freedom, the Republic had been doomed. A new Tri- lunvirate (§ 231), composed of Mark An'tony, Lep'idus, 4 DEFEAT OF ANTONY. 137 and Caesar Octavia'nus — nephew and heir of the great Dictator— soon divided the world among them. A pro- scription followed, in which 2,000 knights and 300 sena- tors — among the latter, Cicero,^ the Father of his Country — lost their lives. The last of Caesar's murderers were defeated at Philippi, 42 B. C, and ended their lives by suicide. 239. The Triumvirate was soon broken by the defection of Lepidus, and a quarrel between Antony and Octavian. Antony was enslaved by the arts of the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra (§ 174), on whom he bestowed Syrian territories which belonged to Rome, and for whose sake he forgot both duty and honor. In a great battle off Actium, he was deserted by many of his " ' ^'' officers, and fled to Egypt, leaving the victory to Octa- vian. The next year he was again defeated at Alexandria, and in despair put an end to his own life. Cleopatra followed his example. Egypt was made a province of Rome, and the younger Cassar was now lord of the world. Point out, on Map 5, the provinces of Ctesar and of Pompey before the battle of Pharsalia, \ 235. The site of Crassus' defeat, \ 232. — Pharsalia, Thapsus, Philippi, Actium, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Numidia, the Danube, the Rhone, Arausio, Aquce Sextii^ (Aix), Vercellae, Puteoli, Thessalonica. Read Merivale's History of the Romans under the Empire, For- syth's Life of Cicero, Cssar's Commentaries, and Mommsen's History of Rome, Vol. IV. NOTES. 1. Sempronius Gracchus, the father of the two Tribunes, was a plebe- ian, but a distinguished general, and twice a consul, who, in 176 B. C, had conquered tlie island of Sardinia for Rome. Tiberius Gracchus had served at the capture and destruction of Carthage (g 215) under his brother-in-law, Scipio Africanus llie Younger, and liad afterwards dis- tinguished himself in the Nuraantian war in Spain. The measure whicli cost him his life, through the violent opposition of the nobles, was only the revival of the Licinian I^aw (^ 197 and note), which had never been repealed, tliough completely disregarded. 2. Caius Gracchus, while still a youth, had drawn upon himself the Jealousy of the aristocracy by his great talents and persuasive eloquence; but during his service in Sardinia he had risen high in tlie favor of 138 THE ANCIENT WORLD. soldiers and people. As tribune, one of liis laws transferred the judicial power from the senate to the equestrian order, and another created the class of great mercliants and bankers, hitlierto unknown in Rome, by assigning to distinguished plebeians tlie collection of revenues in the provinces. He himself conducted a colony to Carthage, and, after at- tending to their establislunent, returned in seventy days. He desired to give the full rights of Roman citizenship to all free Italians. But the senate liad now undermined his intluence witli the people by a stratagem. They induced M. Livius Drusus. the new tribune, to propose still more radical changes, which, however, were never in- tended to be carried out. Opimius, a bitter enemy to Gracchus, became consul, while the latter descended to a private station, and several of his laws were i-epealed. Fulvius Flaccus, a rash partisan of Caius, took up arms in his defense, but Caius abstained as far as possible from all violence. He perished in a general massacre, ordered by Opimius, B. (J. 121. 3. Pontus, south of the Black Sea, from which it took its name, was one of the kingdoms tliat hail been formed from the fragments of the old Persian Empire. When the "Province of Asia" was organized, Pontus, under its king, Mithridates the Great, became the next neigh- bor of Rome. Mithridates was an ambitious and able prince, who combined the qualities of a barbarian chief and a European statesman in remarkable proportions. He spoke Greek with fluency, and was equally familiar with the Asiatic dialects of the tribes among which he had passed iiis wandering and adventurous life. By means of spies he was a keen observer of all that was going on in Rome; and, encouraged by the corruption of the ruling classes, and the dangers arising from slaves and allies, he hoped to make himself undisputed sovereign of the East. • He h-ad already annexed the Euxine coast as far as the Crimea, and, "with the help of pirates from the Mediterranean, formed a fleet which gave him coniplete command of the Black Sea." "Wlien the news of the Social War reached Mithridates, he thcaight it ncedle' Honian armies; he had been admitted to Roman citizenship, and raised to the rank of the equestrian order. It was part of tlie subtile ))olii-.v of Rome to confer rank and privileges on the youth of the leading families in tlie nations which she wished to enslave. Among other young German chieftains, Arminius and his brother, who were the heads of tiie noblest house in the tribe of the Cherusci, had been selected as flt objects for the exercise of this insidi- ous system. Roman refinements and dignities succeeded in denational- izing" the brother, who assumed the Roman name of Flavins, and ad- hered to Rome throughout all her wars against his country. Arminius remained unbought by honors or wealth, uncorrupted by reflnement or luxury. "Vast and admirably organized as the fabric of Roman power ap- peared on the frontiers and' in the provinces, there was rottenness at the core. . . . Slaves, the chance sweepings of every conquered coun- try, shoals of Africans, Sardinians, Asiatics, Illyrians, and others made up the bulk of the population of the Italian penin.sula. The foulest profligacy f)f manners was general in all ranks. . . . Conscious of being too debased for self-government, the nation had submitted itself to the absolute authority of Auiiustus. With bitter indignation must the German chieftain have Ijcheld all this, and contrasted it with the rough worth of his own countrymen: their bravery, their tidelity to their word, their manly independence of spirit, their love of their national free institutions, and their loathing of every pollution and meanness. "Arminius found among the other German chiefs many who sym- pathized with him in his indignation at their country's abasement, and many whom private wrongs had stung still more deeply. . . . Seeing that the infatuation of Varus was complete, he secretly directed the tribes between the Weser and the Ems to take up arms in open revolt against the Romans. This was represented to Varus as an oc- casion wliich required his prompt attendance at the spot; but he was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national ris- ing. . . . He therefore set his army in motion and marched eastward in a line parallel to the course of the Lippe. . . . For some distance Varus was allowed to move on, only harassed by slight skirmishes, but struggling with difflculty through tlie broken ground, the toil and dis- tress of his men being aggravated by heavy torrents of rain, which burst upon the devoted legions, as if the angry gods of Germany were pouring out the vials of their wrath upon the invaders. After some little time tlieir van approached a ridge of higli, woody ground, which is one of the offshoots of the great Hercynian forest, and is situated be- tween the modern villages of Driburg and Bielefeld. Arminius had caused barricades of hewn trees to be formed here, so as to add to the natural difiiculties of the passage. Fatigue and discouragement now began to betray themselves in the Roman ranks. Their line be- came less steady; baggage-wagons were abandoned from the impos- sibility of forcing them along; and, as this happened, many soldiers left their ranks, and crowded round the wagons to secure the most val- uable portions of their property ; each was busy about his own aflairs, and purposely slow in hearing the word of command from his officers. Arminius now gave the signaffor a general attack. The fierce shouts of the Germans pealed through the gloom of the forests, and in thronging multitudes they assailed the flanks of the invaders, pouring in clouds of darts on the encumltered legionaries, as they struggled up the glens or floundered in the morasses, and watching every opportunity of charging through the intervals of the disjointed column, and tso cutting off the communication between its several brigades. . . . Unahle to keep together, or force their way across the woods and swamps, the horsemen were overpowered in detail, and slaughtered to the last man. The Roman infantry still held together, but more through the instinct of discipline and bn'ivery than from any hope of success or escape. . . . The Roman host, wiiieh, on the yester morning had marched forth in such pride and might, now broken up into confused fragments, either fell fighting beneath the overpowering numbers of the enemy, or perished in the swamps and woods in unavailing efforts at flight. P'ew, very few, ever saw again the left bank of the Rhine. Never was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete. Throughout Germany the Roman garri- THE ANCIENT WORLD. sons were assailed antl cut off; and, within a few weeks after Varus had fallen, the German soil was treed from the foot of an invader."— A'/;- E. Creasy, " Fifteen Decisive Battlen of the WorlcV' From this decisive point the Rliine continued to be the frontier be- tween Rome and the Germans, until, five centuries later, the tide of conquest turned in the other direction, and tlie Teutonic races divided the empire into the kingdoms of modern Europe. 3. Seneca, the son of a Roman knight, was born at Cordova, in Spain, a few years before the birth of Christ. In the reign of Tiberius he gained "distinction by pleading causes in the courts; liis eloquence drew upon him the hatred of Caligula, who detested excellence of every kind, and who would have ordered the orator to instant execution, but that some one pointed to the consuniijtive frame of Seneca and whispered that it " was useless to extinguisli a waning lamp." Among the first acts of Claudius was the banishment of the philosopher to Corsica; but, after eight years, he was recalled by Agripplna, and became the tutor of her son. The worst stains on Seneca's character came from his consent to some, at least, of Nero's crimes. His philosophy was high and pure, but his life was governed by an excessive love of wealth. He " declaimed in praise of poverty with two millions sterling out at usury, and cele- brated the divine beauty of virtue with the same pen which had writ- ten a defense of the nrurder of a mother by a .son." But Seneca's weak compliance failed of its desired end. His unspok- en condemnation, of which Nero could not but be conscious, was as irksome as open remonstrance would have been. Seneca was accused of having part in a conspiracy against the emperor, and by Nero's or- der he put an end to his own life by opening his veins. 4. The Asmoneean Dynasty (? 171 and note) had been succeeded, B. C. 37, by tliat of the Herods, who were Edomites by descent. Herod the Great, the first of these kings, was a man of remarkable ability, but of cruel and ungoverned passions. It was he that ordered the murder of all the infants in Bethlehem, with the vain hope that the Savior of the world might porisli among them. His own death occurred the same year. His son, Arcliclaus, tbrfeited his kingdom by many crimes, A. D. ii; and with a short interval, A. D. Jl-44, under Herod Agrippa I. (see Acts xii), Judfea remained subject to Roman procurators or governors, under the Imperial Legate of Syria. It was under Pontius Pilate, the sixth of these governors, that Christ was crucified. The series of of- ficials that followed Agrippa I. were, if possible, more criminally cor- rupt than their jiredecessors. " All the bonds of social order were dis- solved; no property was secure; assassins alone prospered, and the pro- curators went shares with tliem in the ))roflts." At last, in .\. 1>. (iii, Gessius Florus plundered the treasures of the temple, gave up Jerusalem to open robbery, and crucified a number of its inhabitants. Revolt could no longer be delayed; the Roman garri- son in the Castle of Antonia were put to the sword; the Syrian Legate, after a short siege of Jerusalem, was compelled to withdraw; and his retreat was changed into fliglit by a fierce attack near Bethhoron. Nero intrusted the suppression of the Jewish revolt to his best and ablest general, Vespasian, who, within a year, had reduced the whole country, excepting Jerusalem and one or two other fortresses. But the death of Nero and the rivalry of the generals for the crown suspended the war for two yeai's. No sooner was Vespasian proclaimed emperor than he charged his son Titus with the completion of the work which he had begun. Jerusalem itself was divided between two parties. John of Gischala, the GaliUean leader of the "Zealots" holding the temple and the height of Mt. Moriah; while the guerrilla captain, Simon Bar Giora, occupied Mt. Zion and the Upper City. But when, in the spring of A. D. 70, Titus, with his legions, had encamped upon the heights to the northward, and had taken the Lower City, the two leaders found it necessary to forget their differences and strain every nerve for tbe com- mon defense. Finding that the two heights could not be carried by as- sault, Titus surrounded the whole city with a strong wall, and resolved to reduce it by famine. Rather than submit, mothers are said to have devoured their own children; and still the daily sacrifice went on in the temple. At length, Aug. 10, a firebrand fiung by a Roman soldier, set fire to the temple, and, after a frightful slaughter, Mt. Moriah was NOTES. 149 abandoned, its surviving defenders cutting tlaeir way across the bridgp to Mt. Zion. The garrison of tlie Upper City, meanwliile, was so re- duced by famine, tliat when, on the 7tli of September, tlie final assault was made, there was no power to resist. Multitudes were slain; the rest were sold ofT as slaves, and divided among offlcers and soldiers as booty. Titus carried away the two leaders, and TOO of their brave com- rades to adorn his triumph at Rome, together with the seven-branched candlestick and other golden spoils of the temple. Representations of these may still be seen at Rome, upon the "Arch of Titus," which com- memorated this victory. Even the fall of the Holy City did not wholly break the spirit of the Jews, for the fortress of Masada, on the Dead Sea, remained in the hands of the Zealots. With its capture, A. D. 73, tlie last spark of re- sistance died out. 5. M. Ulpius Trajanus was born near Seville, in Spain, A. D. 52, be- ing the first Roman emperor, though by no means the last, who was not a native of Italy. He was commanding the Roman forces in Ger- many, liaving his head-quarters in Cologne, when he was adopted by the Emperor Nerva, as his heir; and, the next year, A. D. 98, became emperor. Trajan had the hardy, simple, and industrious habits of the earlier Romans; as a warrior, he shared the hardships of the camp and the march, and was both loved and reverenced by his soldiers. He appointed the younger Pliny, A. D. 103, to be governor of Bithynia; and Pliny's letter asking the eni|3eror's direction concerning the Chris- tians in his proNince, is the first mention of the new rcligmn in profane literature. Trajan's reply shows him more just and nurciful than his lieutenant; though any proved disrespect to the gods of Rome is to be punished, informers are not to be encouraged, and slight concessions on tlie part of the accused are to be accepted as proof of repentance. The so-called Column of Trajan at Rome is supposed to be a memo- rial of this emperor's victories beyond the Danube. Remains of the bridge by which he crossed that river are still visible at Szernecz; and both the name and the prevailing language of the new kingdom of Roumania are interesting results of Trojan's conquest and settlements. The emperor was at Antioch at the time of the great earthquake, A. D. 115, which destroyed many buildings and multitudes of lives. It is uncertain whether his interview with Ignatius, the saintly bishop of Antioch, took place at this visit or earlier. To stay the persecutions of his flock, the bishop freely offered himself as a martyr; and, after a long and toilsome journej', he was indeed thrown to the wild beasts in the Coliseum at Rome. It is hard to reconcile the usual justice of Trajan with this iniquitous sentence. The emperor died A. D. 117, in Cilicia, having reigned 19 years and 6 months. 6. In the first book of his "Meditations" M. Aurelius thanks the gods for " good grandfathers, good parents, a good sister, good teachers, good associates, good kinsmen and friends, nearly every thing good." At the age of eleven, he assumed the plain, coarse dress of a philoso- pher, and even injured his health by hard study and scanty food. As he grew up he gained the serenity of the Stoics, without their harsh- ness; and, amidst all the stern and absorbing duties of his imperial sta- tion, found time to "live according to nature and reason." The weight- iest of his maxims is this: " l.ove mankind ; follow God." How far Aurelius was guilty of the persecutions of the Christians, it is impossi- ble to tell; the records of his reign are scanty; and many things were done in the emperor's name of wliich he did not even know. The pol- icy of the government toward Christians had been fixed by Trajan and Hadrian. Still, there is reason to fear that some persecuting edicts were issued by Aurelius himself. He know of the Christians only from their resistance to the Roman law, which declared all religions equal in their right to be, only requiring divine honors to the emperor, which the Christians, of course, were unable to render. The story of the "Thunder- ing Legion" belongs to this reign. During the war against the Quadi, the Roman army was near perishing by thirst, when a sudden storm drenched it with rain, while discomfiting its enemies with fire and Jiail. The great victory which followed was ascribed — one report says by the emperor himselt^— to the prayers of the Christian soldiers who made up a greater part of the legion above mentioned. CHAPTER XVII. ROMAN KMI'IKE. — CONTINUED. HERE followed a dis- graceful time when the Praetorian (luards set up and put down em- perors at their will, even once selling the crown at public auction ! The le- gions on the borders (§ 244) thought they had a still better right to dictate ; and three rival generals were at once proposed as masters of the Roman world. S e p t i m ' i u s Seve'rus was the successful ^v-^""^ ^T--^ ~-^s^__^_'-_ candidate; and he proved one Roman Lady and Servant. ^f ^]^q ablest of the CmperOrS. In a war with the Parthians, he took their capital, Ctes'- iphon, by storm, and added, not only Mesopotamia, but a large tract east of the Tigris, to the dominions of Rome. He replaced the old Prretorians with 40,000 troops chosen from the legions, and made their chief, the prcetorian prrefect, the most powerful person in the world, next to the emperor. Severus made war, in per- son, against the Caledonians, in the north-western ex- tremity of his empire, and died at York, the Roman capital of Britain, A. D. 211. 257. His two sons reigned together for a year, but Car'acal'la, the elder, then murdered his brother, and, (150) ALEXANDER SEVER US. 151 goaded by a guilty conscience, made the whole world suffer five years from his agonies of remorse. He put to death 20,000 persons on the pretext that they were his brother " Ge'ta's friends." The only good act recorded of this wretched prince is the gift of full Roman citizen- ship to all the inhabitants of the Empire. Very likely this was done only to simplify his tax-rolls; but it had the im- portant effect of making the protection of Roman law the equal right of every person. 258. Macri'nus, the murderer and successor of Caracalla, was himself defeated and slain by the armies of Elagab'alus, a Syrian boy of fourteen years, whom the armies in the East had been bribed to acknowledge as their emperor. In his infancy he had been made a priest of the Sun; and the worship of 3a'al was now placed at Rome above that of Jupiter himself. Old Roman worship, however mistaken in its objects, had at least been decorous and solemn. Elagabalus added to the disgust inspired by his gluttony and drunkenness, by profaning every thing that ' the Romans held sacred. At last he was murdered by the praetorians, A. D. 222. 259. His cousin, Alexander Severus, a very different character, was gladly acknowledged by both army and Senate as their chief. His blameless life and noble aims promised happiness to the Empire. Good men were called to the highest offices, the public money was honestly spent, and the Senate was respected as in the days of Augustus. j A great revolution had taken place in Asia. The Parthian { Empire (§§169, 232) was now overthrown by the new Persian monarchy of the Sassan'id?e, who aimed to govern all the provinces of Darius the Great (§ 51). Alexander met the new Artaxerxes and defeated him on a plain east of the Euphrates. Then, returning to the West, he set out for a campaign in Ciermany, but was slain in a mutiny of his troops, A. D. 235. 152 THE ANCIENT WORLD. 260. It is needless to name all the puppet-chiefs who were set up in turn by the soldiers — now a Thracian peasant, now an African proconsul, now a child of twelve years — each one sure to be deposed and slain as soon as the whim or resentment of his masters called for a change. Under De'cius,^ the second great persecution A. D. 249-251. . . T 1 I • 1 of Christians took place ; and the bishops of Rome, Antioch, and Jerusalem were among the martyrs. Decius fell in battle with the Goths — one of the most powerful German tribes — who were ravaging the country south of the Danube. 261. Vale'rian (A. D. 254-260), the bravest and ablest of this series of emperors, had to struggle against count- less hordes of barbarians from the north, and against the rising power of Persia in the east (§258). At last he was made prisoner by Sa'por, the Persian king, in a great battle near the Euphrates, and spent the rest of his days in a cruel captivity at the Persian court. Various fragments of the Roman Empire set up independent gov- ernments under many chiefs, known in general as the "Thirty Tyrants." 262. Aurelian^ (A. D. 270-275) reunited the Roman dominions, defeated the pretenders to sovereignty within, and the hostile barbarians beyond, its limits; and ex- tended one victorious empire again from the Atlantic to the Euphrates. Several of his successors were wise and good men; but their reigns were short and usually ended by violence, until the dangerous power of the legions was overthrown by Diocle'tian, A. D. 284. 263. Period III. Perceiving that the Roman dominion was too large to be well governed by a single sovereign, Diocletian^ shared his title of Augustus with his friend Max- im'ian. A few years later each emperor adopted a son and successor, who bore the title of Ccesar during his adoptive father's lifetime, and was especially charged with k PERSECUTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. 153 the defense of the frontiers. Almost every province needed the presence of a great army, so fierce and constant were the attacks of barbarians. Diocletian had his capital at Nicomedia, in Asia Minor; Maximian, his at Milan, in northern Italy; while the Caesar Constan'tius fixed his head-quarters at York (§ 256), and the Caesar Gale'rius at Sirmium, on the Danube. 264. The succession being thus regularly provided for, the soldiers lost their power of dictating the choice of new emperors. The removal of the government from Rome, destroyed the influence of the Senate. The emperor's edict had all the force of law ; and instead of veiling his power under simple, citizen-like manners, he now assumed the state of an eastern monarch, and could only be ap- proached with ceremonies of reverence. 265, The religion taught by Christ and His Apostles had now reached every portion of the Empire ; and, in those times of ruin and corruption, Christians were known as the most orderly, industrious, and worthy members of any community. Nevertheless, for their refusal to worship the emperor's image, they were subjected to a horrible persecution. In 303, A. D. , Diocletian published an edict ordering the destruction of all their churches and sacred books, and the death of all persons who presumed to hold secret meetings for worship. The passions of envy and hatred were let loose, and every soil was wet with innocent blood. 1 I 266. In 305, A. D., Diocletian, weary of power, laid I aside his crown, and compelled Maximian to do the same. { Some years of contention followed, during which the Roman world had at one time six masters, then four, then tAvo, and finally only one, who was Con'stantine', son of Con- stantius. This great general had always esteemed the virtues and protected the lives of the Christians so far as he was able, even in times of persecution. He was now 154 THE ANCIENT WORLD. to do more. On his march into Italy it is said that he saw a flaming cross in the heavens, with the inscription : By this, conquer! He adopted the emblem as his standard, and soon gained two victories over Maxentius, ' ^^^' son of Maximian, which gave him the posses- sion of Rome and all Italy. 267. As soon as his power was established in the East, Constantine issued a circular-letter to all his subjects, ad- vising them to follow his example and become Christians. Though pagans were allowed the free exercise of their religion, Christianity became, in an important sense, the religion of the Empire. The first general Council of Christian bishops was convened by Constantine at Nice,'* in Bithynia, A. D. 325. 268. On the ruins of old Byzantium, Constantine built a new capital of the world, which he called New Rome, but which bears in history his own name — Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The last trace of the republican forms, so carefully cherished by Augustus, had now van- ished ; and Constantine's court was a gorgeous assemblage of officials, whose ceremonious behavior rivaled the homage paid to Xerxes or Darius. He created three new ranks of nobles throughout the Empire, to whom the nobility of modern Europe may trace their titles. 269. A standing army of 645,000 men was now con- stantly maintained (see § 244) ; but, as Roman citizens were no longer of the same stuff with the followers of Decius and Fabius, great numbers of barbarians were received into the pay of the emperor. Nothing could so have shown the weakness of Rome as thus to arm her late enemies and future conquerors. Besides multitudes of Franks in the imperial armies, 300,000 Sarmatians were received as vas- sals of the Empire, and settled in Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Italy. JULIAN THE APOSTATE. 155 270. Upon the death of Constantine, A. D. 337, his three sons divided the empire among them and put to death all their relatives, excepting two cousins. Within a few years, Con'stans and Constantine II. were slain in war, and Constan'tius II., the ' ' ■'^°' surviving brother, reigned over the whole Roman world. He had a long and calamitous war with the Persians, who defeated the Roman armies in nine pitched battles, and extended their raids westward to the Mediterranean. 271. His cousin Ju'lian was, meanwhile, commanding, with great ability, near the Rhine, where he gained im- portant victories over the Germans. Constantius, jealous of his fame, ordered the greater part of Julian's army to the East. The soldiers in Gaul mutinied at this unjust command, and proclaimed their beloved general Emperor. The Senates of Athens and Rome confirmed their choice. Before the two cousins could meet in arms, Constantius died, A. D. 361, and Julian was every-where received with joyful acclamations. 272. He reduced the luxury of the court, and declared himself the "Servant of the Republic." But Julian was a pagan, chiefly, perhaps, because the kinsmen who had murdered all his family, called themselves Christians. He publicly renounced Christianity, placing himself and his dominions under the protection of the "immortal gods." After sixteen months' reign he died in war with the Per- sians, and his successor, Jovian, restored Christian worship and universal tolerance, A. D. 363. Trace, upon Map 5, the wars of Septimius Severus. Point out the four capitals of Diocletian's empire. The new capital of Constantine. Gibbon's "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire" is the great authority from the time of the Antonines. For a very interesting account of the Nicene Council, read Stanley's "Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church." 156 THE ANCIENT WORLD. NOTES. 1. Decius was a native of Pannonia, on the Upper DanuVjp, a region whicli afterwards gave birtli to a long series of emperors. Tlie manner of his elevation to imperial rank was singular. Tiie army in Mcesia had revolted; and Decius, who stood high in the confidence of the Em- peror Philip, was commissioned by him to reduce tiiem to obedience. On his arrival at the scene, the soldiers, feeling that their guilt was beyond forgiveness, thronged about liira witli drawn swords, and com- manded liim to choose between instant death and an imixTial crown. For the moment he accepted the latter, but wrote to assure Philip that he had only acted under compulsion, and would lay down his uncom- fortable dignity as soon as he could escape from his jailers. The em- peror, however, distrusted his loyalty, and marched with an army to meet him. A battle was fouglit near Verona, in which Philip was de- feated and slain, A. D. 249. The sliort reign of Decius was marked by two very different attempts to restore the ancient manners, and with them the ancient power, of Rome. It was widely felt that tlie calamities that had come upon the empire were due to the corruption of its people. Some of the more su- perstitious believed also that the gods were angry because a new religion, hostile to their worship, had become prevalent. So it was resolved both to revive the censorship (note to ^215) and to persecute the Christians. Valerian, afterwards emperor, a Roman of the old school, was chosen by the senate to be censor; but the untimely end of Decius relieved him from the embarrassing anil, indeed, hopeless task of restoring the or- der and decency of the early times to Rome. The second measure was only too successful, for the wicked passions of men are ready to break forth with or without a pretext. Beside the martyrdoms mentioned in the text, a terrible massacre of Christians occurred in Alexandria; and thousands, through fear, disowned their faith. 2. Aurelian was of humble origin— his fatlier having been a farm- servant in the wild country near the Danube — and the son was indebted solely to his own strengtli, courage, and talents for his rapid rise in militarv rank. Having expelled the Goths from lUyria and Thrace, he received the puiolic thanks of Valerian, with tlie title of consul-elect. Thirteen years later, the shouts of tlie legions hailed him as emperor, and his short reign was crowded witli brilliant successes. The Goths, Vandals, and Alemanni were first vanquished by hard fighting; then he turned against Zenobia, Queen of the East, wlio, since the deatli of her liusband, Odenatus, had ruled at Palmyra over a great part of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The Palmyrenes were twice defeated, and their city was taken after a long anil brave resistance. Their queen was carried as a captive to Rome. Learning, on his way, that the Pal- myrenes had revolted and had destroyed the Roman governor and gar- rison, Aurelian instantly reversed his march, massacred the whole population of the city, and razed its buildings to the ground, giving orders, however, for the reconstruction of the Temple of the Sun, which he regarded as his own special divinity. Tlie whole empire east of the Adiiatic was now subject to Aurelian; but Britain, Gaul, and Spain were ruktl from Bordeaux by Tetncus, the last of a succession of "tyrants." His armies were defeated, perhai)s liy his own consent, at Chalons; and tlie west of Europe submitted to the conqueror. Aurelian celebrated his victories by such a "triumph" as Rome had not seen since the time of Julius Ceesar. His visit to the capital was still more happily marked by wise laws for the relief of tlie poor, and by the building of a new and strongly fortified wall around the whole city, which, however, was not completed until the reign of Probus. Aurelian was on his march against the Persians, when he was slain by one of his ofHcers, A. D. 275. 3. Diocletian was the son of a Dalmatian freedman ; some accounts even assert that he himself had been a slave, but this is improbable. He held high commands in the army under Aurelian, Probus, and Cams. The last-named emperor died suddenly in Asia, and his son, Numerian, was murdered by his father-in-law, tlie pra?torian prtefect, who lioped to succeed liim. The soldiers, learning of the crime, set up Diocletian, I NOTES. 157 who was captain of the body-guards, to avenge and succeed their idol- ized emperor. Carinas, brother of Numerian, marclied against tlie usurper and defeated liim in Moesia; but was himself murdered by one of his own officers, and liis army came over to Diocletian. A new era in the history of Rome was now begun. To guard against the violence which had destroyed so many emperors, the sovereign was surrounded by retinues of soldiers, and, far from making any pretense, like Augus- tus (^2-11), of republican simplicity, he put on all the magnificence of an oriental monarch. His robe was cloth of gold ; his shoes, of purple silk, were embroidered with jewels; a kingly diadem, such as Caesar could not venture to wear, encircled his brow; and lie could only be approached by a complicated series of ceremonies. Some said the head ot the Dalmatian peasant had been turned by his elevation; but, in fact, Diocletian hiul carefully planned all this as a necessary part of his new scheme of government, together with the military and political changes, and his succes.s might seem to have pi-oved the wisdom of his plan. "He found the empire weak and shattered, threatened with im- mediate dissolution from intestine discord and external violence. He left it strong and compact, at peace within, and triumphant abroad, stretching from the Tigris to the Nile, from the shores of Holland to the Euphrates." The worst effect of the revolution was, perhaps, in the increased bur- dens it imposed upon the people. To support four courts, with the palaces and other costly buildings which the new plan required, witli the increased retinues and guards, both civil and military, was more than the starved and exhausted empire could bear. Grea't regions of once fertile country had become depopulated by centuries of civil war; and the diminished numbers who had to support the increased bur- dens, endured untold miseries at every visit of the tax-gatherers. 4. "In the close of May or beginning of June, Nicsea was approached by the representatives of the Christian Church from every part of the Eastern Empire and from a few parts of the Western also. . . . The posting arrangements of the empire made such a convention far more easy than would have been the case at any period in the Middle Ages. The great lines of communication were like raihoads, stiaight as arrows, from one extremity of the empire to the other. P'rom Bordeaux to Constantinople, a few years later, we have the record of 200 post -stations and 91 inns— an inn at the interval of every half-day's journey. " There were present the learned and the illiterate, courtiers and peas- ants, old and young, aged bishops on the verge of the grave, beardless deacons just entering on their office; and it was an assembly in which the dilTerence between age and youth was of more than ordinary sig- nificance, for it coincided with a marked transition in the history of the world. The new geneiation had l)eeii Ijrought up in peace and quiet. They could just reniemljer the joy dilfused tlirough the Christian com- munities by the edict of toleration (§2i)(j), published in their boyhood; but they had themselves suffered nothing. Not so the older, and by far the larger, part of tlie assembly. They had lived through the last and worst of the persecutions, and they came like a regiment out of some frightful siege or battle, decimated and mutilated by tlie tortures or the hardships they had undergone. ... It was on their character as an army of confessors and martyrs, quite as much as on their char- acter as an CEcumenical Council that their authority reposed. In this respect, no other council approached them." . . . "The whole assem- bly rose. . . . and then, for the first time, set their admiring gaze on Constantine, the conqueror, the august, the great. Gazing at his splen- did figure, as he passed up the hall between their ranks, remembering, too, what he had done for their faith and for their church— we may well believe that the simple and the worldly both looked upon him as though he were an angel of God, descended straight from heaven. . . . There was a gentleness and sweetness in his voice which arrested the attention of all. . . . 'It has, my friends, been the object of my high- est wishes to enjoy yonir .sacred company. ... I rejoice at the mere sight of your assembly. But the moment that 1 shall consider the chief fulfillment of my prayers will be when I see you all joined together in heart and soul, and determining on one peaceful harmony for all. which it should well become you who are consecrated to God, to preach to others.'" CHAPTER XVIII. THE NORTHERN BARBARIANS. URING these last years of the Roman Empire in the West, the main interest centers upon the swarms of free warriors who were pressing down upon it from the plains of central and northern Europe. Though rude in their ways of living, these people — with the ex- ception of one tribe, soon to be mentioned — belonged to the same Indo-Germanic race (§6) with the Greeks and Romans ; they had much of the same capacity for art, ^^^^ ^~^ science, literature, and gov- Captives in War. ernment ; and they were able to appreciate and admire in the Roman cities the proofs of a civilization far beyond what they had yet been able to create. One of their great chiefs^ declared that he would rather renew and perpetuate the fame of Rome by Gothic strength, than found a new Gothic Empire of which he himself should be the Caesar Augustus. 274. With such feelings many Germans had enlisted in the Roman armies, even in the first days of the Empire; and, after the time of Constantine, the "barbarians" con- stituted the great body of the legions. These gigantic warriors were far braver and hardier than the people of (158) THE GOTHS AND THE HUNS. 159 the south; and their virtues often put Romans to shame. As soldiers they were faithful to the emperors who em- ployed them ; but this did not prevent their free country- men from being the terror of the declining Empire. The principal German tribes were the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, Saxons, and Burgundians. 275. As early as the reign of Valerian (§ 261), the Franks and Alemanni had overrun Gaul, Italy, and Spain, and had crossed the straits into Africa. The Goths had built fleets from the woods near the Danube, with which they sailed along the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece, plundering and burning many cities, among others Ephesus, Corinth, and Athens. Western Europe was, meanwhile, afflicted by swarms of Saxon ])irates, while Roman Britain was ravaged by the Picts and Scots. The emperor Val- entin'ian — the successor of Jovian — and his great general, • Theodo'sius, gained important victories over the western marauders. 276. The Gothic kingdom of Her'manric now extended from the Danube and Euxine to the Baltic; but, under the reigns of Valentinian in the west, and his brother Va'lens in the east, the Huns, a new race of savages — more fierce, hideous, and terrible than had yet been seen — appeared from Asia and conquered the Ostro- goths, north of the Black Sea. Their brethren, the Western Goths, or Visigoths, begged the protection of the Roman emperor in the East. Valens gave them lands ; and a million of men, women, and children crossed the Danube. But the Roman officers, appointed to receive and feed this hungry crowd, were so false to their trust that the Goths were driven to revolt. In a great battle near Hadrianople, Valens and two-thirds of his army were slain. 277. His successor, Theodosius,- being called to interfere in western Europe in behalf of the sons of Valentinian, united the whole Roman dominion for the last time under THE ANCIENT WORLD. one sovereign. This great emperor well deserved to be called " Theodosius the Great." He made friends of the Goths by settling colonies of them in Thrace and Asia Minor. He put an end to pagan worship in every part of the Empire, demolishing the temples or turning them into Christian churches. Yet, by one act of needless cruelty he incurred the displeasure of the famous Arch- bishop Ambrose of Milan, and was forbidden to enter a church until he had publicly confessed his guilt. Theo- dosius submitted, and, after eight months, was restored to his standing as a Christian. 278. Upon his death, A. D. 395, the Empire was divided between his sons Arca'dius and Hono'rius ; and the East and the West were never again united except in name. Al'aric,^ king of the Visigoths, was placed at the head of the imperial armies in the East, and we can not tell whether it was as Gothic king or Roman general that he three times invaded the dominions of Honorius. The first time (A. D. 400-403), he was defeated and driven back by Stil'icho, the guardian and minister of the young emperor ; five years later he advanced to Rome, and only withdrew on receiving an enormous ransom, after thousands of its citizens had died of famine or pestilence ; the third time, the "eternal city" was actually taken and given up for six days to plunder and massacre. The spoils of Asia, brought home by Sulla, Pompey, and others, from their great campaigns, fell into the hands of the barbarians. Alaric died during his retreat from Rome. 279. His brother-in-law, Adol'phus, who succeeded him, founded the new kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain. Nearly at the same time the Vandals concpiered Roman Africa ; the Franks settled themselves in northern, and the Burgundians in eastern France. Britain was left to be con- quered by the Saxons and kindred tribes from Germany. MAP No. VI. EMPERORS OF ROME. Augustus B. C 31 Gallienus A. D. 260. Tiberius A. D • 14 Claudius II. 268. Caligula 37 Aurelian 270. Claudius 41 . Tacitus 275. Nero 54 Florian, Probus 276, Galba 68 Carus 282. Otho 69 Carinus and Numerian 283. Vitellius 69 Diocletian with Maximian 284. Vespasian 69 Constantius with Galerius 305. Titus 79 Constantine I. with Galerius, Domitian 81 Severus, and Maxentius 306. Nerva 96 " with Licinius 307. Trajan ^ 98 " with Maximinus 308. Hadrian II" 7. " alone 323. Antoninus Pius 13^ 5. Constantine 11., Constantius M. Aurelius Antoninus 16 [. 11., Constans 337. Commodus 1 8c ). Julian 361. Pertinax 19. 3. ! Jovian 363. Didius Julianus 19, 5. 1 Valentinian I 364. Septimius Severus 19: }. Gratian and Valentinian 11. 375. Caracalla and Geta 211 . Theodosius (East and West) 392. alone 21: !. Honorius 395. Macrinus 217 . Theodosius 11. (E. and W.) 423. Elagabalus 21^ !. 1 Valentinian 111. 425. Alexander Severus 22: !. I Maximus, Avitus 455. Maximinus 23. J. Majorian 457. Gordians (father and son) 235 5. Libius Severus 461. Philip the Arabian 2\A |.. Anthemius 467. Decius 24c ). Olybrius, Glycerius 472, 473. Gallus 251 . Julius Nepos 474. Valerian 25: ,. Romulus Augustulus 475, 476. West fnim 3 Greenwich Jill. Vail, del. (Cop!/right,1.Sn,lii '« ■rii, Jirai/j, ^ Co.) ROMAN WRITERS. Poets and Dramatists. B. C. tlvius Andronicus, 240. Neevius, 235 : Tragedies, Com- edies. Ennius, 239-169: "Annals." Plautus, 254-184: Comedies. Terence, 195-1 59. Pacuvius, 220-130: Tragedies. Attius, 170-90: Tragedies. Luciliiis, 148-103: Satires. Lucretius, 95-51 : Philosophical Poem. Catullus, 87-47 : Lyrics. Virgil, 70-19: the " ^neids," " Georgics," and "Bucol- ics." Horace, 65-8 : Odes, Satires, and Epistles. TibuUiis, about 54-18: Elegies. Propertius, born ab. 51 : Elegies. Ovid, B. C. 43-A. D. 18: "The Metamorphoses," " Fasti," and " Epistles." A. D. Phaedrus, 25 : Fables. Persius, 34-62 : Satires. Juvenal, about 100: Satires. Martial, 43-104: Epigrams. Lucan, 39-65 : Epic Poem, " Pharsalia." Statins, 61-96 : ' Silvi^e," " The- baid," and " Achilleid. ' Historians. B. C. Fabius Pictor, 216. Cincius Aliraentus, 218-190. Cato the Censor, 234-149 : " The Origins," "Agriculture," etc. Varro, 116-28: "Agriculture," etc Julius Caesar, 100-44: "Com- mentaries on Gallic War." Sallust, 86-34 : " Jugurthine War" and "Conspiracy of Catiline." Livy, 59-A. D. 17: "Annals." A. D. Tacitus, about 57-117: "An- nals," "Histories," "Ger- many," etc. Suetonius, about 70-117. PJiilosopJiers and Orators. B. C. Cicero, 106-43: " Tusculan Dis- putations," "Duties," "Old Age," " Friendship," etc. A. D. Seneca, died 65 : Epistles, etc. Pliny the Elder, 23-79 : " Natura'l History." Pliny the Younger, 61-110: " Panegyric on Trajan," etc. Celsus, 20 : Medical Treatises. Pomponius Mela, 45 : Geograph- ical Treatise. Note, — The dates are from Smith's Dictionary of Biography, with a few additions from Woodward and Gates' Encyclopaedia of Chronology. In some cases they are conjectural, as no ancient authorities exist. FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. l6i 280. The Roman generals were called to fight with At'tila, king of the Huns, a monster so hideous and hith- erto so irresistible, that he was known to the terror-stricken world of his time as the Scourge of God. He had rapidly built up a kingdom extending from the Rhine to the Volga, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic; and a host of subject chiefs served in his army of 700,000 men. In a great battle at Chalons, he was completely over- thrown by the combined force of Romans and ' '*^' Goths. Within two years he had collected a fresh horde of barbarians, with which he ravaged northern Italy and threatened Rome ; but a sudden death ended his career. 281. A series of crimes and quarrels at court, drew the Vandals into Italy. They plundered Rome fourteen days, and sailed away to Carthage ' ' ^^^' laden with air the treasure which the Goths had left. They conquered the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, from which they could easily descend at any time upon the Italian coasts. After half a dozen insignificant emperors had been set up and put down by the German chiefs of the army, Rom'ulus Augus'tulus, a harmless boy, became the last of the Roman Emperors of the West. But the Goths wanted to be paid for their services by one-third of all the lands in Italy. Being refused, they deposed Augustulus, and conferred sovereign power upon their own chief, Odo'acer. 282. The Roman Senate now sent the purple robe and diadem, which had been worn by Augustulus, to Ze'no, emperor of the East, acknowledging that Constantinople was the seat of government for all the world, but requesting that Odoacer might rule Italy with the title of Patrician. Trace the boundaries of Mermanric's kingdom ; of Attila's. Site of Attila's defeat. Settlements of Goths, P^ranks, Vandals, Bur- gundians, Saxons. Hist. — II. 1 62 THE ANCIENT WORLD. NOTES. 1. This was Athaulf, or Adolphus, the Visigoth, brother-in-lavv and successor of Alaric (see j; 278). See Bryce''s ^'■Holy Roman Empire,'''' Chapter III., for a very interesting sketch of the relation of the barbarians to tlie declining Roman power. 2. The Emperor Theodosius I., was a son of the General Theodosius named in J!27o. The western countries of Europe were always inclined to be independent; and Maxinius, a Spaniard, now made himself masicr, for a time, of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, (iratian, the elder son of \:\\- entinian, was put to death by tlie usurjier at Ijyons; and his brother, Valentinian II., gained, at first, Ijy the intcrNention of Tlu'odosius, only Italy, Africa, and western lUyricum. But Maxinius, not content with tlie rich' countries tliat he luid usurped, invaded Italy. The feeble Valentin- ian could do notliing in his own defense; but Theodosius again took up his cause, and Maxinius was defeated and slain, A. D. 388. P'our years later, Valentinian II. was murdered, probaljly by order of Arljo- gastes, general-in-cliief of his armies, who, not daring to assume the imperial crown himself, set up Eugenius, his former secretary, as Em- peror of the West. Tiieodosius marched to avenge the inurdered Val- entinian, whose sister was his wife. He was victorious as before. En- genius was l)eheaded in the very presence of his conqueror, and Arljo- gastes, after wandering, nearly starved, in the desolate mountain passes, killed himself with his own sword. Theodosius reigned four montlis over the vast dominions of Augustus; but, upon his deatii, at Milan, in the January following the defeat of Eugenius, his son Honorius re- ceived the crown of the western empire, wliile Arcadius reigned at Con- stantinople over tlie Roman dominion in tlie East. Theodosius was not baptized until the end of the first year of his reign; but he immediately signalized his zeal by an edict, which de- nounced not only paga,ns, but those who held the Christian faith in any other form than that which had been authorized by the Council of Nicfea. In May, 381, he convened, at Constantinople, a second gen- eral council to confirm and complete the work of its predecessor. The crowning victory over paganism was tlie destruction of tlie colossal im- age of Serapis and his niagiiiticent temple at Alexandria. Egypt was the home of the most monstrous superstitions, anil the worship of Se- rapis was among the most widely spread and deeijly seated. It must be remembered that even Christians, at this time, believed the pa;j;aii deities to be living and powerful beings, thougli evil in character; and there was a general fear that Serapis would avenge any violence done to his dwelling-place. At last, a soldier, braver than the rest, mounted a ladder, and with his axe aimed a heavy blow at the cheek of the image. The face fell, and no harm came to tlie assailant. Then the crowd, relieved of its terrors, pulled down the monstrous frame and dragged it in triumph througli tlie streets of Alexandria. The crime for which the emperor sutt'ered penance at Milan was a general massacre which he onlered at Tlicssalonica, cjipital of the prov- ince of Macedonia. His provocation liad been serious, but the punish- ment far exceeded tlie offense. In A. D. 390, a charioteer of the circus had been imprisoned for just cause; tlie people, after vainly demand- ing his appearance, broke out into a riot, mui-dered the general and his officers, and dragged their bodies about the streets. This was the act of the lowest of the mob; but, to avenge it, Theodosius sent an army of barbarian mercenaries, invited all the Thessalonians to witness the games in the circus, anti, when thousands were assembled, commanded an indiscriminate slaughter Innocent and guilty i)erislu'd alike, some say to the number of 14,000, others estimate it at iialf that luimucr. The personal humiliation of the emperor, though it might prove his return to right feeling, could not undo his atrocious act. 3. Alaric had studied the arts of war under Theodosius, M'ho well knew how to make frienrls of the Goths and to strengthen his armies by the enrollment of their brave youth. As soon as the great emperor was dead, the Visigotlis tlin'w olf the imperial yoke, chose Alaric to be their leader, and, issuing from Thrace, overran Greece and captured Athens. Arcadius, alarmed by his successes, tried to enlist the Gothic NOTES. 163 leader on his own side by making him master-general of the imperial armies; and, as the eastern and western empires were now at war, Alaric was sent to invade Italy in A. D. 403. The Emperor Honorius abandoned Milan at the approach of the Goths, and shut himself up in the fort- ress of Asta. Alaric besieged him there, but Stilicho advanced to the relief of his master and gained an advantage over the invaders at Pol- lentiM. The (ioths were still more decisively defeated at Verona, and Alaric now agreetl to leave Italy and to serve Honorius as maslt r-jjen- eral of the Konian forces in Avestern Illyricum, turning his arms against his late master Arcadius. But the fame of Alaric soon tirew tluongs of German youth to his personal service, and he resunie 4° 15. The characters of the Medes and Persians. 41, 62-64 16. The career of Cyrus. 42-45 17. Of Cambyses and his successor. 45-47 18. The history and dominion of Darius I. 48-52 19. The career of Xerxes. 53^55 20. Sketch the History of Persia under his successors. 56-59 21. Describe the fall of the Persian Empire. 59 -61 22. Africa and the Nile. 65 23. Who settled Egypt ? 7. 66 24. Describe Egyptian arts and religion. 67, 73-75> 79' 80 25. The different castes or ranks. 76-78 26. Sketch their history. 68-72 27. The history of Carthage; its government, etc. 81-84 28. Of what race and character were the Greeks? 85-88 29. Name some of the heroes and their doings. 90-92 30. Describe the manners and religion of the early Greeks. 93-99 31. Their migrations and changes of government. 100, loi (164) QUESTIONS — BOOK I. 165 What bonds of union among the Greeks ? 102 - Describe Spartan character and customs. 106- Name some early wars of Sparta. Describe the Athenians and their first two lawgivers. iio- The Tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons. How were future tyrannies guarded against ? Describe the Persian invasions of Greece. 52-55, 115- ■ Tell something of Pausanias, Cimon, Themistocles. 119- The story of Pericles. 123- Of Alcibiades and the fall of Athens. 130- What can you tell of Socrates ? 134, How was the Corinthian War ended ? Describe the rise and fall of Theban supremacy. 136, How did Greece become subject to Macedon ? 138, Why was the poetry of Greece older than its prose? 142, What can you tell of Homer? 94, 100, Of Hesiod and his works? Name some great lyric poets. 146, Describe the theatre at Athens, and name four masters of dramatic writing. 148, The greatest Greek historians. 150, Describe three schools of Greek philosophy. 152, What can you tell of Plato and Aristotle? 154, What can you say of Greek architecture and sculpture? Name some of the most celebrated works. I57- Tell the story of Alexander. 160- How was his empire divided after his death ? Describe the Syrian kingdom, and some of its kings. 168, What new dominions arose in the East ? Who were the Maccabees? Describe Ptolemy I, and his successors. 172- What became of Macedonia and Greece? 176-: Who and what were the Romans? 179, Name the Roman kings. Describe the government of the Republic. 182 -: The religion of the Romans. 186- : The patrician and plebeian contests. 191 -194; 196 The Gallic invasion. The Samnites. Tell two stories of the Latin War. 199, 200 Describe the Samnite Wars. 201, 202 1 66 QUESTIONS.— BOOK I. What was done with lands conquered from the /Equi ? 203 Tell the story of Pyrrhus. 204 Describe Roman colonies and provinces. 205, 209, 244 How did Rome become a maritime power? 206-208 Describe the career of Hannibal. 210-214 The last Punic War. 215 What was done with Greece and Spain? 216 Describe the dangers of Rome, and the efforts of the Gracchi. 217-219 Tell the history of Marius and Sulla. 220-226 Describe the Gladiator's War. 227 The Conspiracy of Catiline. 229 The history of Pompey. 228-235 Of Julius Cajsar. 230-238 Of Crassus. 231, 232 Of Ctesar Octavianus. 238-245 WHiat change of government did he make? 241-244 Describe his three successors. 246-249 The character and reign of Nero. 250, 251 Vespasian and his sons. 252 Describe the reigns of the " Five Good Emperors." 253, 254 The state of the empire under Commodus. 255 W^hat were the Prte.torian Guards ? 244, 256 Tell the history of Septimius .Sexerus and liis sons. 256, 257 What contrast between Elagabalus and his successor ? 258, 259 What calamities mark the reign of Valerian? 261 Describe his successors. 262 What changes were made by r)iocletian ? 263-266 Tell the history of Constantine. 266-269 Of his sons and nephew. 270-272 What emperors persecuted Christians? 250, 254, 260, 265 Name and describe the chief German tribes. 273-275 Describe Attila and his Huns. 276, 280 Theodosius the Great, and the divisions of the Empire. 277, 278 The Goths and Vandals in Italy. 27S, 281 Who settled in England; in France; in Spain; in northern Africa ? 279 107. What disposal was made of the Western Roman Empire ? 282 BOOK II.— MEDIEVAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. 283. When the empire of the C^sars was falling into the hands of barbarians, and Rome itself — the Eternal City — Avas plundered by Goths and Vandals, most people thought the end of the world had come. The old world had, indeed, passed away: the magnificence of Persia, the learning of Egypt, the brilliancy of Greece, the majesty of Rome were all in the past; but out of the northern forests had come the founders of new nations, who now possess Europe and America, India and Australia, and many islands of which Rome never dreamed. 284. Mediaeval history covers the thousand years from the time when the barbarian Odoacer became king of Italy to the time when the present system of European nations was established. It is to be studied in two parts : the first six hundred years, when the destructive passions of men were in ascendency, are called the Dark Ages; the last four hundred, when the tendencies to order and civilization had gained strength, are called the Middle Ages. 285. Even in the Dark Ages some powerful civilizing agencies were at work. Most of the barbarians in south- ern Europe were Christians, and held the clergy in great respect. They also admired the Roman skill in govern- ment, and gladly availed themselves of the services of Roman officials. So it came to pass that most of the (i67) 1 68 IN TROD UCriON. cities in Gaul, Spain, and Italy kept their Greek or Roman charters, with their bishops for chief magistrates ; and that life in these cities was, for a time, as orderly and secure as it had been in the days of the Empire. Learning had almost wholly disappeared from among the laity; the clergy alone could read and write, and pos sessed the universal Latin language which was used m dealings between the several nations. They framed laws, negotiated treaties, kept the records of public events, and executed missions to foreign kings. The education of young chiefs was entrusted to them ; and their influence did not cease when their pupils had grown to manhood. Thus the power of the Church rose rapidly upon the ruins of imperial Rome. It was, indeed, the only power which could hold in check the proud and passionate con- querors; and the "Dark Ages" would have been darker still, but for the lights of reason and piety which the churches kept alive. Many men of superior talents with- drew from the turmoil of public life into monasteries, where they gave themselves to study and devotion. All that was left of the treasures of ancient learning was gathered within these convent walls, and the industry of the monks multiplied copies of the old manuscripts, which afford our only means of knowing the thoughts of the Greek and Roman writers. PART I. — The Dark Ages. CHAPTER I. SETTLEMENTS OF THE NORTHERN TRIBES. T the end of the fifth century from the birth of Christ, the western European nations may already be traced in their rude beginnings. The heathen Angles and Saxons were crowd- ing the Celtic Britons into the mountain-region of Wales, and giving its present name to Eng- land. They learned Christian doctrines a hundred years later from Roman missionaries, and taught them to their heathen brethren on the continent. The continental Saxons occupied A Prankish Warrior. most of the land between the lower Rhine and the Baltic. 287. The Akmanni possessed southern Germany and part of Switzerland, while the Burgitndians had the valley of the Rhone and the Swiss lakes. The Franks held the country between the Loire and the Rhine. Chlodwig^ or Clo'vis, their chief, gained many victories over the Ale- manni, the Burgundians, and the Visigoths, and made himself king of nearly all France. His wife, Clotil'da,. was a Christian; and Clevis, though a pagan, was so (169) lyo MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. impressed by her faith thcat he called upon "Clotilda's God," at the turning point of a battle. He gained the victory, A. D. 496, and, with thousands of his warriors, was immediately baptized. The Eastern emperor sent him the purple robe and diadem of a consul, making him a lieutenant of the Empire. The descendants of Clovis, though often divided by fierce contentions, ruled the countries which are now Belgium, Western Germany, and a great part of France, for more than two hundred years. 288. One powerful Gothic kingdom occupied Spain (§279) and south-western Gaul; another, under Theod'- oric,^king of the Ostrogoths, embraced Italy and the lands between the Adriatic and the Danube. This great chief had been a hostage at Constantinople during his youth ; and the education which he there received added the quick intelligence of the Greek to the rude energy of the Goth. He learned, also, a profound respect for the imperial system of laws, and his firm rule of thirty-three years was a hai)py time for Italy. Two ' *^^ ^^ ' consuls, one chosen by himself and one by the emperor of the East, kept up the ancient forms of government. All religions were protected, and, though the Goths held one-third of the lands and formed a kind of military aristocracy, they paid an equal share of the taxes, and respected all the rights of their Italian neigh- bors. Theodoric was the greatest German monarch of his time ; the chiefs of the other nations referred their differ- ences to him and regarded him as their head. 289. In the confusion that followed Theodoric's death, the Eastern emperor interfered, and, in spite of a long and brave resistance from the Goths, ■'■ made Italy a subject- province. But a new German race, the Lombards, or Long-Beards, soon appeared and overran the whole penin- sula, which was afterwards divided among their thirty THE LOMBARDS. 171 dukes. Rome, Ravenna, Naples, and some other cities still remained subject to the Empire, while the Lombards ruled the rest with Pavia for their capital. The great northern plain of Italy still bears their name. The Lom- bards were a fierce and cruel race, never mingling in a friendly manner with the Italians, as the Goths had done. Still, they became educated, in the course of years, by contact with wiser and better people than themselves; so that the system of laws published by their king, Rotharis, in 643 A. D., was the best of all the barbarian codes.'* It was founded upon the ancient customs of the German tribes, but it borrowed some of its best features from the Roman laws, and especially from the Bible. 290. All the tribes hitherto described were Germans: west of them was a narrow border of Celts in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and north-western France ; while eastward were the Slavonians, far more numerous, though less warlike, than the Germans — fathers of the modern Poles, Bohemians, Bulgarians, Illyrians, and a very large proportion of the Russians. Point out, on Map 4, the settlements of the German tribes. The Lombard capital of Italy. The Italian cities which belonged to the Eastern Empire. The dominions of the SLavonians and Celts. Read Ciilibon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Parke (jotlwin's History of France; and Ilallani's Middle Ages. NOTES. 1. Chlodwig ■' was born about A. D. 466, and, at the age of fifteen years, succ-eetlod his father, Childeric, as king of tlie Salian Franks. Five years later he gained a victory over the Romans and Gauls, cap- turing from them the town of Soissons, whicli lie made his capital. More than half of i^rance was then occupied by the Goths and Bui- gundians. Alaric, king of tlie Visigoths, ruled from the Loire to the Pyrenees; but he was defeated and slain in a great battle near Poitiers, A. D. 507, and his whole dominion was added to the kingdom of the *The General History admits the common French names of the Prankish sovereigns, only because the usage 'has been too long established to be easily changed ; and many allusions in literature would fail to be understood if the German names had been used. In strict accuracy, C/otns should be Hlodwig or Chlodwig (the original of Ludwig or Lewis); Charlemagne (530S) is Karl the Great ; Albert is Albrecht ; and Egbert is Ecgberht It is im- portant to remember that the descendants, both of Hlodwig and of Karl were Germans : they spoPce the Old Hi^h German language, which is the parent of Modern German, and were regarded as foreigners bv the Gauls and Romans whom tliey coniiuered and nUed. The modern French monarchy dates from the accession of Hugh Capet (§338) A. I). 9a7. 172 MEDIyEVAL HISTORY. Franks. Clotilda was a niece of the king of Burgundy, by whom, in her helpless orphanage, she had been cruell.y oppressed. CJIovis, of course, made her quarrel his own, and gained decisive victories over her kinsmen. His conversion gained for him tlie powerful support of the clergy; but it does not seem to have greatly altered thelierceness of liis nature. He destroyed many princes of his own family in order to gain the sovereignty of all the Franks, which he succeeded in doing toward the end of his life. The dynasty which he founded is called Merovingian, from Merowig, his grandfather. 2. Theodoric the Great, a son of King Theodemir, was born A. D. 4r)5. The East (ioths were then settled between the Danube and the Adriatic; and, though allies of the Eastern P^nipire, were usually re- garded with suspicion and required to give hostages for their friendly behavior. This was, perhaps, a fortunate state of things iov Theodoric, for it procured him the opportunity to study the higliest civilization of his age; and the lessons which he learned at Constantinople were of rich benefit to his Italian sulyects in later years. At the age of twenty, Theodoric succeeded liis father as king of the Ostrogoths; and soon afterward was involved in war svith Zeno, Empe- ror of the East, who had usurped the throne of Theodoric's late host and Ijeuefactor, Leo I. The Gothic king was on the point of capturing Con- stantinople, when Zeno, who had been driven from the city, had tlie art to engage him in the conquest of Italy. Odoacer, a Gothic or Her- ulian cliieftain, had put an end to what remained of the Western Ro- man Empire. Theodoric three times defeated him in battle, and finally besieged him in Ravenna, which surrendered after three years, and the whole peninsula submitted to tlie Gothic king. For some years Tlieo- doric was regent for his grandson Amalaric, the young king of the West Goths, and ruled all the country from Sicily to the Danube, and from Belgrade to the Atlantic. But as soon as Amalaric was of age, he was lifted upon the shields of the Visigothic chiefs, according to the custom of all German tribes, and was thus invested with royal power A. D. 522. Subsequently, his grandfather aided him in wars against the sons of Clovis, with varying success. So large a mind as that of Tlieodoric could not fail to be in advance of an age in wliich civilization and barbarism were curiously mixed. In the latter part of his reign, a fierce, fanatical rage against the Jews broke out into a riot, in wliicli houses, shoi>s. and synagogues in sev- eral cities were burnt. Theodoric, witli impartial justice, required the mobs to make good the property they had destroyed. But tlieir rage was then turned against the king. Disheartened by his failure to main- tain order, or, perhaps, depressed by failing health, he became a prey to unjust suspicions. Boethius, a distinguished statesman and philosopher, the brightest ornament of the court, was accused by his envious rivals of having con- spired with the Emperor of the East to drive the Goths out of Italy. He was tlirown into prison, where he wrote in prose and verse, his ad- mirable treatise on the "Consolation of Philosophy," a work wliich Alfred the Great so valued that he translated it into the Saxon English of his time (^329). The execution of Boethius by the king's order was soon followed by that of his father-in-law, the venerable Syramachus; but grief and re- morse for these two acts hastened the death of Theodoric, who died within a year, A. D. 526. The good effects of Theodoric's reign were not all lost, even when, after sixty years' duration, his kingdom was overthrown, A. D. 55;>. Cassiodorus, his learned secretary and chief minister, liad founded, at Ravenna, the first of modern public libraries. After thirty years of high office under Theodoric and his successor, Cassiodorus retired at the age of seventy, to a monastery, whicli he established at Squillace; and, duiing his thirtv remaining years— for he lived nearly a century— he gave an impulse to monastic learning which lasted through tlie Middle Ages. He spent large sums of money for manuscripts which he en- couraged the monks to copy; and thus set a fashion which insured the safe preservation of many treasures of ancient literature through atrcs of war and tumult. But for the convent-libraries, modern learning would have been a new creation— robbed of all its rich inheritance from the past. NOTES. 173 3. Rome was surrendered without a blow by its senate and clergy, A. D. ooii; but \'itiges, the third successor of Theodoric, mustered a pow- erful army and liesieged Belisarlus more than a year in the Eternal City. Tlie se]iulcht'r of Hadrian, now the castle of 8t. Angelo, was then first vised as a fortress, and the beautiful Greeli statues which adorned it were hurled down upon the heads of the besiegers. In aNintile assault the Goths lost %)f.M) men; and, at length, Vitiges was compelled to draw off liis reduced army to Ravenna, leaving all Italy to JJclisarius. Ten thousand Kurgundians, wlio had come to the aid of the (Toths, destroyed the splendid city of Milan; and the next year, Theodebert, their Frankish sovereign, passed the Alps with 100,000 men, disguising his intentions until he fell, almost at the same moment, upon both the Gothic and the Roman army near Pa via, and gained a complete victory, A. D. 539. This was a double treachery; for he had accepted great gifts both from the emperor and the Gothic king, as the price of his alliance. Theodebert then ravaged Italy until famine and disease had leduced his army to one third of its original numbers, and he withdrew beyond the Alps. Ravenna, which, secure within its marshes, could not be reduced by the Roman forces, at length yielded to famine. The Goths, weary of the unfortunate reign of Vitiges, begged Belisarlus himself to become their king. He pretended to accept their offer, but, as .soon as the keys of the fortress were in his hands, he de- clared that he held them only as the faithful subject and lieutenant of Justinian. Pavia alone, with its garrison of 1,000 Goths, still held out; but, as .soon as Belisarlus had been recalled to Constantinople, the new king, Totila, commenced his rapid and triumphant inarch for the recovery of Italy. Rome was retaken, A. D. 54(); its senators were carried away to Cam- panian prisons, and its people were scattered in exile. Belisarlus, re- turning, soon regained the city and defeated the Goths in a decisive battle. But the great general was fettered by the ungenerous suspicious of his master (notes T, 2, Ch. II). Totila, A. D. 549, again took Rome, following up his success by the conquest of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and the invasion of Greece. An embassy, undertaken by the Pope liim- self, now induced Justinian to .send a sufficient force, under Narses, for the recovery of Italv. In a great battle near Tagina, Totila was slain, and Rome, for the fifth time in one reign, changeil masters, A. D. 552. All Italy was ruled for a time by the lieutenants of the empire, who bore the title of Exarchs of Ravenna. Narses, the first aad greatest of the exarchs, reigned A. D. .S54-568. — Manual of Mediceval and Modern His- tory, pp. 22, 23, fi 290. 4. Within aijout a century, all the German tribes systematized their ancient customs or usages into written codes of law. Thus Tlieodoric, the eldest son of Clovis, reigning at Metz over tlie north-eastern portion of his father's dominion, caused three codes to be piepared for his Ale- mannic. Bavarian, and Rijiuaiian subjects, respectively. Six codes were in force under the Londjard kings, after their conquest of Italy,— the Roman, Gothic, Salian, Hipuaiian, Atemannic, and the Lombard of King Rotharis. Any man, when summoned into court, might declare by whicli code he lived and desired to be judged; but, unless he could prove himself a member of a Teutonic tribe, the Roman law prevailed. All the codes, though embodying immemorial customs, were formed under more or less influence from the clergy, and were modified by the princii>les of the Scriptures. After the Lombard conquest, the exarchate of Ravenna comprised only what were lately the States of the Church, together with Venice, Naples, and the Calabrian coast. Byzantine Priest. CHAPTER IT. THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST. HOUGH the emperor at Constan- tinople still called himself lord of all the countries Avhich Augustus or Trajan had ruled, and though the jK Cxerman chiefs acknowledged him their / superior (§ 281), his actual dominion was but little more extensive than that of the modern Turks. 292. During the sixth century the great- est emperor was Justin'ian,^ A. D. 527-565. , , - /". ,1 ■ the grandson of a Gothic farmer. He had fierce and costly wars with Persia, and obtained peace at last only by paying tribute to the Sassanidse (§ 259). His military glory is all due to his great generals, Belisa'rius- and Nar'ses. The former conquered northern Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica from the Vandals (§279); Sicily and all Italy from the (ioths (§ 288). Theodoric's king- dom fell, sixty years from its foundation. Italy, Africa, and the islands were then governed by exarchs, or lieuten- ants of the Empire, one having his seat at Carthage and one at Ravenna. Narses, who had an important part in the contpiest of the Goths, was exarch of Ravenna four- teen years. 293. Justinian is noted for the splendid buildings with which he adorned his capital, among which the Church of Santa Sophia was said to surpass the Temple of Solo- mon. But his best title to fame is in the legislative work (1 74 J LAWS OF JUSTINIAN. 175 which afforded a model of civil law for all the nations of Europe. The ablest jurists, under his direction, compared the decisions of all the best judges since the preparation of the Twelve Tables (§ 194). These, when edited, formed the Pandects. The Code was an abridgment of the acts of all the emperors since Hadrian. The Institutes set forth the elementary principles of law, and afforded a text-book to the great law-schools of Rome, Athens, Beirut, and Constantinople. 294. By the wars of Herac'lius,^ one of the greatest of Justinian's successors (A. D. 610-641), the Persian Empire was overthrown, but the same emperor saw the rise of a new and greater power in the East, which will be described in the next chapter. Leo 1 11.^ is called the second founder of the Eastern Empire. His brilliant defense of the cap- ital against the Saracens, saved it from destruction, while his firm and wise government gave it a new era of security. His subjects were the most prosperous people of that age. The commerce of Europe with ' ^'^ ^^'' Asia had its center at Constantinople, and the cities of central and eastern Asia were then far more flourishing than now. Leo's attempt to put down the wor.ship of images led to a violent contest, both in the East and in Italy, and was a chief cause of the separation between the Greek and Roman churches. •295. The Macedonian Dynasty, of which Basil L was the founder,^ governed the Empire nearly 200 years, and, in 867 A. D. , raised it to its highest military fame by wars with the Saracens, Russians, and Bulgarians. Basil IL was the greatest of the imperial generals.^ Trace, on Map 5, the conquests of Belisarius. Point out the capitals of the two Exarchates (g 292). Justinian's capital. Read Gibbon, and Finlay's "History of the Byzantine Empire." Also, Rawlinson's "Seventh Ancient Eastern Monarchy." 176 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Justinian was born A. D. 4.S.>, in Dardania. At the age of 35, he was associated with his uncle, Justin I., in the imperial dignity, and nine years later became sole emperor. The rivalries of the circus in Constantinople, between the " Blue " and the " Green " faction led to open riot and rebellion, in which 30,000 lives were destroyed, but the prompt- ness of Belisarius, general of the Imperial Guard, quelled the insurrec- tion, and the clemency of Justinian soothed the discontonls and en- mities out of which it had arisen. The Church of Sant:i Sopliia (Holy Wisdom) was among the buildings destroyed in the contlagration ; and Justinian caused it to be rel)uilt on a far more magnilieent scale fronithe plans of the architect Anthi'mius. It is now said to be one of the most remarkable buildings of any age or country; and Justinian considered liimself, by reason of it, as a rival of Solomon. Upon the Turkish con- quest of Constantinople (2 379) this great church was converted into a mos(|ue. oilier temples, as well as convents, roads, bridges, aqueducts, and for- tifications in various parts of the empire attested the architectural zeal and liberality of Justinian. The Imws of Rome had never been reduced to a system since the time of tlie Decemviri and the Twelve Tables (^194), for Julius (';csar had not been allowed time to fultill his purpose (^ 237). Every thing (ki>ended uixin precedents, and tiiese could be learned only from a mass of sepa- rate decisidn.-i "which no fortune could buy, and no intelligence could comprehend." The need and importance of Justinian's work is there- fore evident. At the head of the commission of ten, who prepared the flrst code, was Tribonian, a celebrated jin-ist and a great favorite with tlie emperor. Justinian was a IDjeral patron of many industrial arts, and it was during liis reign thtit the eggs of silkworms were tirst brought from China to the West. Tlie culture of mulberry plants and the manufact- ure of silk were encoitraged by the emperor, and became a very im- portant industry in Greece and the Mediterranean islands. 2. Belisarius was an otflcer of Justinian's guard before the latter be- came emiieror in .527, and he was soon afterward promoted to be gen- eral-in-clilef in the army of the East. In this capacity he defeated the Persians at Dora, in •>«, and put down a dangerous riot in the capital, 532. His greatest victories were over the Vandals and the Goths, as mentioned in tlie text; but liis most powerful enemy was tlie Empress Tlieodora, wlio poisoned the mind of Justinian against him, deprived him of the men and war materials that he had a right to expect for his enterprises in Italy, and thus detracted from his success, and more than once deprived liiin of liis command. On a false accusation of conspir- acy against Justinian, he was imprisoned and robbed of all his posses- sions. There is a story that blindness was added to his misfortunes of poverty and old age; and that he was seen begging in the streets of Constantinople: "Give a penny to Belisarius tlie general." But this is more picturesque than true. We may be certain, however, that no greit man ever suffered niore from the malice and jealousy of those who ought to liave been his friends; and we may reasonably conjectvu'e that if Belisarius, like Ceesar and Napoleon, had i)ossessed means commensur- ate with his talents, he would have ranlced with them among tlie great- est generals of all ages. 3. Heraclius was born about A. I). .")73, in Cappadocia, the son of a Koman governor of Africa, of the same name. He had gained distinc- tion in the army before tlie violent deatli of Phocas, an odious tyrant, opened for him the way to the imperial throne. His empire was al- reatly in the grasp of (Jhosroi^s II., king of Persia, one of whose armies had conquered Syria, Egypt, and northern Africa as far as Tripoli, while another had advanced to the Bosphorus and held its camp for ten years in sight of Constantinople. Tlie genius and courage of Heraclius shone brightest in these years of adversit.y. He conveyed his army by sea to the borders of Syria and Cilicia, and, on the very spot where Al- exander, nearly a thousand years before, in tlie battle of Issus ('i 160) had overthrown the ancestor of Chosroes, intiicted a decisive defeat upon NOTES. 177 the Persian hosts. In a second expedition he carried the war into Per- sia, and forced Chosroes to recall his forces from the Nile and the Bos- phorus; in a third, he gained a battle on the ground that covered the ruins of Nineveh, utterly (h^stroying the armies of Persia, The power of the second Persian empire expired with Chosroes, and its existence was soon ended by the ^Nloliammedans. But these extraordinary etiorts had exhausted the forces of the em- pire, and the Saincens soon gained all that lleraclius had wrested from the Persians. Tlie emiieror, as if content with liis early achievements, gave himself up to excessive luxury, while province after province was seized by the enemy; and his empire covered only Constantinople and its suburljs. The glory of liis ydutli was lost in the disgrace of his old age. Hallam well says: "That prince may be said to have stood on the verge of both hemispheres of time whose youth was crowned with the last victories over the successors of Artaxerxes, and whose age was clouded by the first calamities of Mohammedan invasion." 4. Leo III., the son of an Isaurian farmer, rose, by his military tal- ents, to the highest command in the armies of AnastasiusII. "When Theodosius III., in 716, deposed Anastasius and commanded the army to acknowledge him as emperor, Leo instantly marched against him and defeated him. Instead, however, of reinstating his former sover- eign, he made himself master of the empire. Scarcely was he seated on the throne, when the Saracen forces advanced to their third siege of Constantinople (see g 299). This lasted just two years, Aug. 15, 718, to Aug. 15, 720, and was pressed with all the energy and fury of the earliest Saracen period. But Leo, issuing with his galleys from the Golden Horn, three times consumed the Moslem fleets with storms of Greek fire, and returned laden with plunder and with multitudes of captives. At length he gained a complete victory by land, and the caliph retreated after a loss of 28,000 men. Wliile the emperor was so long shut up in his capital, the besiegers took good care that no news of their defeat should reach the provinces; and it was even believed in the West that the empire had been over- thrown. But Leo's energy and promptness soon regained Sicily and the portion of Italy that still obeyed the eastern Caesars. Leo's edict against images, was a political, quite as much as a religious measure, for he hoped to soothe the enmity of Jews and Mohammedans, which had been excited by the novel practices in the churches. We have seen that he failed; indeed, his edict was the signal for a general revolution, in which Ravenna, Rome, and the other Greek possessions in Italy were lost to the empire. 5. Basil I. was said to be descended, on the father's side, from the Arsaeidte, rulers of the Parthian Empire; on the mother's, from Con- stantine the Great, and, perhaps, from Philip and Alexander of Mace- don. It is probable, however, that the name of "Macedonian," borne by his dynasty, was derived only from the great estates which he had purchased in Macedon. As a boy, he was made a prisoner and slave by the Bulgarians; but, after many surprising turns of fortune, arriving at Constantinople, he rose into favor at court, and at last attained the imperial cnjvvn itself. His reign was signalized by the Christianization of Bulgaria, an event of lasting importance. Though no general him- self, Basil had the talent to discern and employ military talent in others; and his armies gained great victories over the Saracens, whom they ex- pelled from the Italian peninsula, though not from Sicily. Basil I. reigned A. D. 807-886. 6. Basil II. was born in the imperial palace at Constantinople A. D. 958, and came to the throne A. D. 976, in partnership with his younger brother, Constantlne. Constantine, however, was idle and luxurious, while Basil bore all the burdens of a reign troubled by many wars, both civil and foreign. His sister Theophania was the wife of Otho II., Era • peror of the West (^322), but Basil had need to light against his brother- in-law no less than against the Arabs and Bulgarians. The powerful kingdom of the latter was overthrown by a series of conflicts extend- ing over 30 years. CHAPTER III. THE SARACENS. Saracens. ROM the sandy deserts of Arabia a power had now arisen, which threatened to subdue and govern the whole extent of the Roman dominion. Moham'med/ an Ara- bian camel-driver, in his journeys from Mecca to Damascus, met travelers from all nations. He had the wit to perceive that all the old religions were dead, while the Christian church was weakened and divided by the war against images; and he conceived the bold idea of replacing all the creeds by the worship of One God, of whom he himself was to be the prophet. 297. His own tribe, however, were so angry at his pre- tensions, that they vowed to kill the self-appointed prophet. He fled to Medina, where he soon had a pow- erful party; and from this flight (Hegira) his followers still date their history. Within seven years, all Arabia submitted to be not only taught, but governed by Mohammed. He claimed to have received from the Arch- angel Gabriel a volume containing the decrees of God. These he made known only in fragments to his disciples, who wrote them on palm-leaves or on bits of bone. After his death they were collected and published in the Koran. 298. He now commenced a wonderful career of con- quest, A. I). 629. All who would not believe in his A. D. 622. SARACENS IN THE WEST. 1 79 mission were subjected to tribute or death. The bravery of his followers was sharpened by religious zeal. They were told that the moment of e\ery man's death is written in the Book of f'ate. At that moment he will fall dead, wherever he may be ; until it comes, he is safe in the fiercest storm of battle. 299. In less than a hundred years the successors of Mo- hammed had conquered Persia, Syria, Egypt, northern Africa, and Spain. Alexandria was twice re-taken by the Greek armies and fleets, after it had submitted to the Moslem force, but it was twice re-captured, and its library, containing inestimable treasures of ancient literature, was destroyed. Constantinople was more fortunate. It was twice besieged by the Moslem, once for seven years (A. D. 668-675), ^"l-lllo) alter her father's death,— first, in connection with her mother, Beatrice, and afterwards alone,— ruled a great portion of central and northern Italy. She is one of the most remarkable figures in that turbulent age. "1 hough she married Godfrey of Lorraine in her youth, and Guelph ot Bavaria in her more mature age," she kept her sovereign rights over her own dominions, and is chiefly noted for her devotion to the church. In 10// she made a reversionary grant of all her territories to the papal power She led her own armies to battle, and such were her acquirements that her orders were equally well understood by her Italian, French, and German soldiers, while they were intelligible to levies from almost every part of Europe. Hist.— 13. CHAPTER V. THE NORTHMEN. Danish Pirateb. HE last of the northern nations who con- quered a place in southern and western Europe were the natives of Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula; but these were found superior to all the rest, excepting, perhaps, the Goths, in vigor of mind and body, and in their aptitude for civilized life. Their native land being too poor to support them all, multitudes of young Northmen sought their fortunes abroad. As early as the eighth century a large body of them passed overland to Constantinople, and enlisted in the guards of the emperor of the East. Successive bands of their countrymen, moving in the same direction, conquered the Slavic king- doms of Novgorod and Kiev, and became founders of the Russian Empire. Ru'ric was the first Norman ruler of Russia. Christianity was introduced by I 327- A. D. 862. NORMAN SETTLEMENTS. 1915 Greek missionaries, and, in A. D. 955, Queen Ol'ga* was baptized at Constantinople. Vlad'imir- the _, . II- -1 A. D. 980-1015. Great mcreased his empire by conquest, and civiHzed it by many churches and schools. Yar'oslav was a still greater benefactor, for he procured the transla- tion of the Holy Scriptures and many other books into the Slavonic language, and made the first Russian code of laws. 328. Cireater numbers of the Northmen^ became sea- rovers, the terror of all western Europe. Wherever they landed, the smoking ruins of houses, churches, and mon- asteries marked their track. At first they only ravaged the coasts; then, as they grew bolder and more numerous, they established fortified camps near the mouths of the rivers, whence they pursued their depredations over a wide extent of country. At length their numbers and powers were so great that they settled themselves on extensive tracts of land, the inhabitants of which they had expelled or destroyed. Thus a great part of eastern England and north-western France became their permanent abode, and they now proved that extraordinary genius for order and good government which no one certainly would have expected of the terrible sea-robbers. 329. One condition exacted by King Alfred^ -i^ in En- gland, from Gu'thrun, the Danish chief, and by King Charles, in France, from Rollo, was that both, with their principal followers, should become Christians. This they did with apparent good faith. The English Danes could not, however, prevent their pagan countrymen over the sea from trying their good fortune ; and, under the weak reign of Eth'elred II., they gained such power that Eng- •■■ Alfred, the West Saxon, A. D. 871 -901, was the best of the early English kings. By many years hard fighting, he reclaimed his king- dom from the Danes, and then civilized it by wise laws, schools, and books, which he either translated, or caused to be translated, from Greek and Latin. He is truly called Alfred THE Great. T96 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. land was added, for a time, to the Scandinavian Empire of Knut. 330. The duchy of Normandy had, meanwhile, become the richest and best governed part of France. A succes- sion of able rulers was . descended from Rollo, and many beautiful cathedrals and abbey-churches expressed their zeal for the religion which they had so lately adopted. Their restless spirits and their new faith were ecjually indulged by pilgrimages, which, indeed, many western Christians undertook, but of which the Normans were especially fond. On their way to the tomb of our Lord, or the shrines of His saints and apostles, the Norman knights had their eyes wide open for any warlike adventures that might offer. 331. In passing through southern Italy, they did not fail to remark the weakness and wealth of the Greek cities, which, though belonging to the Eastern Empire, were always exposed to the attacks of Saracens or Lombards. By taking sides with one party or the other, the Normans gained great power for themselves, and, at length, became masters of twelve cities, which they formed into a military republic. After a victory over the Pope's forces at Civ- itella, they declared themselves vassals of the '°^^ Church, and so gained his favor and protec- tion (§317). Under Robert Guiscard, their duke, they gradually drove out the Greek magistrates of the cities and conquered from the Lombards their last possession, thus making the Norman power supreme in southern Italy. At the same time Roger Guiscard was conquering Sicily* from *Of the NorniEins in Sicily, an English historian says: "No con- queror ever deserved better of the conquered. The noble island of Sicily, so long the battle-field of Europe and Africa, became, under Norman kings, the one example of really equal and tolerant govern- ment which the world could then show. Under the Norman scepter, the two most civilized races of the world, Greeks and Saracens, could live together in peace, and enrich their common country with results of skill and industry such as no northern realm could rival." NORMANS IN ENGLAND. 1 97 the Saracens, and held it as a fief from his brother. Thus arose the kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies. 332. A still more important Norman conquest was that of England. Duke William,^ the sixth from Rollo, was a cousin of Edward the Confessor, the last English king of the family of Alfred. William declared that Edward, hav- ing no children, had promised him the English crown. This weakest of claims was, however, supported by strong arguments, in the favor of the Pope and the arms of 60,000 warriors. He landed, with a great army, in the south of England ; Harold, the Saxon king chosen by the people, was slain in the Battle of Hastings ; and the whole country submitted, in time, to "William the Conqueror." 333. He divided the land in fiefs among his barons, and gave all the chief places in church and government to foreigners. The Saxon nobles descended to the rank of thanes, or country gentlemen. William was the ablest prince of his age, and he usually aimed to be just; but he was terribly cruel and obstinate when his will was crossed. Among his most tyrannical acts was the devastation of a belt of land, 60 miles wide, in northern England, by which 100,000 people were made homeless, and thousands perished of hunger and cold. This was done to guard against invasions from Scotland and Norway. There was even less excuse for the burning of 60 villages, in Hamp- shire, to provide the "New Forest" for the king's favorite sport of hunting. 334. William Rufus (A. D. 1087- 1 100), the second son and successor of the Conqueror, was an aljle but wicked king, caring more for his own wild pleasures than for the dearest interests of his people. He was killed by an arrow, while hunting in the "New Forest." His brother, Henry I, had been carefully educated for his duties as an English sovereign, and in many ways pleased the 1 98 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. people, especially by marrying the heiress of their Saxon kings. But he unjustly deprived his eldest brother, Robert, of his Norman inheritance, and kept him shut up in Car- diff Castle for the last twenty-eight years of his life. 335. Henry's only son, William, was drowned in the Channel, and the king attempted to secure the English crown to his daughter Matil'da. Some of the barons would have sustained her claim; but her haughty spirit offended them, and, after ten years of distracting civil war, Matilda fled to the continent, while her cousin, Stephen, was acknowledged as king. The iij5 II54- pgQpj^ suffered infinite miseries as a con- sequence of these royal disputes. The land was left un- cultivated ; for the poor people had no encouragement to sow or plant, when the fruits of their toil were sure to be swept awa)- by knightly robbers whose castles com- manded the whole country. Famine created solitudes, where once had been villages full of happy homes. The dispute was settled in A. D. 1153, by the death of Ste- phen's only son. He then consented to acknowledge Matilda's son, Henry, as his heir. 336. France During the Dark Ages. — It has been seen how the feeble successors of Clovis gave way to the family of Pepin, and how the dominions of Charlemagne were divided among his grandsons (^ 314). The western part of those dominions remained longer under Carlo- vingian rule, than did either Italy or Germany, and kejjt exclusively the name of France. The descendants of Charlemagne had but little of his genius for war and gov- ernment; and the defense of the country against Saxon and Norman pirates was left to the great nobles, espe- cially to Robert the Strong, Count of Anjou and Orleans. Three times Paris was besieged by the Northmen, twice it was taken by storm, and the banks of the Seine were whitened with the bones of its murdered people. Charles HOUSE OF CAPET IN FRANCE. 199 II., called the Fat, who, for a little while, reunited the whole empire of Charlemagne, only bribed . A D SSi; 886 the pirates and suffered them to carry their • - • ravages farther inland, while he spent his strength in fighting the members of his own family. 337. Count Robert was killed in battle, but his son, Eu'des, bravely defended Paris, and was called to the throne from which Charles had been deposed for his cow- ardice, A. D. 887. But a small party crowned Charles the Simple, who reigned north of the Seine while Eudes lived, and afterwards over all France. He gave up a large region, in north-western France, to Rollo the Dane, on condition of his followers becoming Christian and civ- ilized. To do them justice, the wild sea-rovers soon ex- celled their masters in the arts of orderly living (§ 330). 338. Under the descendants of Charles IV., the real power rested with Hugh the Great, Duke of France and Count of Paris, who, for thirty-three years, set up and put down princes at his pleasure. His son, Hugh Capet, was chosen king by the nobles, A. D. 987, and his family continued to rule France more than eight centuries. His actual power was less, however, than that of some of his vassals. When he tried to compel the obedience of one by demanding, '"Who made you a count?" the reply was, "Who made you a king?" Continental Europe was then divided into great fiefs, and royalty was little more than a shadow. The dukes of Normandy, Bur- gundy, and Aquitaine, the counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Toulouse, were sovereign in their own dominions, paying little respect and still less obedience to the king. ' 339. The reigns of Hugh and his son, Robert the Pious, were among the darkest periods of history. Under a deluded notion that the • • ^ ^■'°3'- year 1000 was to be the end of the world, the terror- 200 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. stricken people refused to cultivate the ground. Famine and pestilence ensued, and some of the starved peasantry even fed on human flesh. A terrified crowd filled the churches ; many princes and rich nobles bestowed their wealth upon the monks, and set off on pilgrimages to the Holy Land, where it was believed Christ would soon appear. When the fatal year had passed, the western world breathed again ; but it was long before the injury springing from this delusion was repaired. Another and long prevailing source of misery was found in the private wars of the barons. No one dreamed of mercy or even common justice toward the peasants, whose fields were laid waste and their families reduced to starva- tion by the quarrels of their masters. Under Henry I. (1031-1060), the French clergy succeeded in establishing what was called the "Truce of God," and, in some degree, abated these calamities. All fighting was for- bidden between Wednesday evening and Monday morning, as well as on all holy days. Trace, on Map No. 1 , the conquests and settlements of the Northmen. Read Freeman's "Norman Conquest;" Palgrave's "Normandy and England;" Green's "Short History of the English People;" Hume's or Knight's "History of England;" Michelet's "History! of France." NOTES. 1. Olga is regarded in Russia as a saint, and a special patroness of the imperial family. She was the wife of Igor, son and successor of Ruric, and, upon her husband's death, A. D. 945, she became regent for her son. Ten years later, she made a visit to Constantinople with a brilliant and imposing train, and received baptism in the Church of St. Sophia. She died at a great age in 969. 2. Vladimir was the first Cliristian sovereign of Russia. He sent an embassy in 988 to Constantinople, demanding in marriage the Greek princess Anna, sister of the emperors Basil II and Constantine IX., and inarched an army to the Crimea, by way of enforcing his suit. This was successful, and Vladimir became not only a faithful ally of the emperors, but a zealous adherent of the Greek Church and enemy of the ancient paganism. Christianity became the established religion of his realm; and he founded many schools and churches to spread its influence among his people. 1 NOTES. 3. The eleventh century seems to have been the great age of Scandi- navian enterprise; for, while the Normans were pushing their conquests in Italy, Sicily, Russia, and England, the Icelandic branch of their fam- ily had already reconnoitered the North American coast, and were making settlements, if tradition be true, within the present limits of the United States. Greenland was discovered and colonized by them in A. U. 985; and fifteen years later, Leif the Fortunate cruised near the shores of New- foundland, Nova Scotia^ Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. A German sailor of his crew was delighted with the wild grapes of the New En- gland coast, which reminded him of his native land. If the Northmen made settlements in America, tliey did not keep up communication with Europe, so that all record of them is lost. 4. When a child of four years, Alfred was taken by his father, King Ethelwolf, on a pilgrimage to Rome; and, doubtless, during their long stay, his active mind received many impressions which influenced his later life. Though so long the prey of conquerors, Italy .still surpassed all western Europe in learning and civilization. On his homeward journey, Ethelwolf visited the court of the French king, Chaiics the Bald, where— his own queen having died many years before— he married the princess Judith. Among her bridal gifts was a volunie of old En- glish poems, which she used to read to her step-sons, and one day of- fered it as a prize to the one who would first learn to read. Alfred, though the youngest, was the one who gained the reward; and good books were ever afterward tlie dearest delight of his life. Four of Alfred's brothers wore the English crown before he was him- self called from his beloved studies to the heavy burdens of kingship. The whole country north of the Thames was now in the possession of the Danes, who reigned at York; and, after seven years' hard fight- ing, they had so nearly conquered flic south country, that Alfred was compelled to hide himself among the ninrsliy forests of Somersetshire. But he established a camp on an island of firm ground in the naidst of a bog; and, collecting some of his loyal subjects, often surprised the enemy by a night attack, while bringing in supplies of food. When he was ready for a more decisive battle, he first put on the di.sgnise of a harper, and, entering the camp of Guthrun at Ethandune, informed himself thoroughly of the numbers and condition of the Danes. He found them lazy and negligent, despising the English and fearing no attack. Then, swiftly and .secretly mustering his forces, he gained a com- plete and decisive victor.v. Guthrun acknowledged the over-lordship of Alfred, and agreed to content himself with the lands a.ssigned him in the northern and ea.stern part of England. His followers renounced their heathen worship and their marauding habits, and became as or- derly as the German invaders had become four centuries before. Alfred improved the years of peace which followed, by prDviding for the defense and civilization of his people. He rebuilt <-ities that the Danes had destroyed, and guarded his coasts by a powerful tli^et, and the land by a regularly trained militia. He founded schools, and re- quired all owners of land to send their sons thither for instruction. One of these was at Oxford, and Alfred is hence called the founder of the university. Learned men were employed in translating Greek and Latin books, and foreign artisans introduced useful manufactures into the countr.y. Even the king found time, in the midst of his many cares, to write or translate several books for the benefit of his people. Among his translations were Orosius's History of the World, and Boethius's Con- solations of Philosophy, but most valuable of all, the Psalms and other portions of the Scriptures. So great improvements were made by Alfred in the administration of justice, that he is sometimes named as the author of trial by jury, and some other safeguards of personal rights. He certainly did reorganize and enforce all that was best in the old German customs, from which our later institutions have been developed. This great king and lawgiver died in A. D 901, after a reign of thirty years. His moral greatness was shown in the sacrifice of his personal tastes for the good of his kingdom; and historians rank him with Washington and William the Silent (g^ 514-521) as one of the three highest examples of human character. MED/y^VAL HISTORY. 5. "Williara became Duke of Normandy at the age of ten years in 1035, his father, Dnlce Robert, liavinj; died in Asia Minor on liis return from a pilgrimage to tlie Holj^ Land. Tliougli so young, William soon proved liis energy and courage by putting down a rebellion of his barons. It was six years after William's accession in Normandy, when his cousin Edward— twenty-one years his senior— who had been a resident at tlie Norman court during the Danish occui)ati(>ii (if his HE Saracen Empire in Asia was now in decline, and all its real power had fallen into the hands of the Turks/ a fierce Tartar tribe, whose dominion, under Malek Shah, extended from Arabia to the borders of China. In A. D. !073 they conquered Jerusalem,"'^ and put an end to the indulgence which Christian pilgrims had en- joyed under the caliphs. Multi- tudes, returning to Europe, told stories of cruel outrages inflicted by the barbarians; and the rage and grief excited by these stories came to their height when Peter the Hermit, a French monk, who had been in the East, traveled through Italy and France, with 'the approval of Pope Urban II., setting forth his plan for wresting the holy places from the infidel. All Europe was ablaze with zeal. Thousands of every rank and age put the red cross on their shoulders, which declared their purpose to die, if need were, for the deliverance of the Holy Land. Hence the wars which followed are called Crusades, or wars of the Cross. (203) Crusader. A. D. 1096. 204 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 341. Not only soldiers, but old men, women, and chil- dren took part in the First Crusade. An unnumbered host of these, without order, officers, or plan, set out in the spring of 1096 A. D. In their ignorance, they expected to be fed by miracle, and to arrive at Jerusalem in a few days. Disappointed in both hopes, they either perished miserably of starvation and fatigue, or were killed in battle by the people whose corn-fields and granaries they attempted to rob. The two divisions led by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, were attacked by the Turks near Nice in Asia Minor, and a pyramid of their bones was the only monu- ment of this vanguard of the crusading hosts. 342. The regular army of Crusaders moved in the autumn, by four different routes, toward their rendezvous at Constan- tinople. The most northerly division was led down the valley of the Danube by God'frey^ of Bouillon, A. D. 1096. 1 1 r T T • 1 duke of Lower Lorrame ; the next, across north- ern Italy by Ray'mond of Toulouse,'* the greatest lord in southern France ; the third, across Epirus by Bo'emond^ of Taranto, son of Robert Guiscard (§331); and the last, by four princes, of whom one was Robert of Normandy, eldest son of the king of England. 343. The emperor Alex'is, who had before been in terror of the Turks, was now equally alarmed by the numbers and power of his allies. The free and haughty bearing of the Franks'' — as all western Christians were, and are still, called at Constantinople — shocked his ceremonious court; and he was glad to "speed the parting guest" across the Bosporus. He was rewarded for his somewhat grudging hospitality by the town and fortress of Nice, which the Crusaders wrested from the Turks and restored to the Eastern Empire. 344. Another great victory was gained over the Turks at Doryloe'um; but much had yet to be suffered before the Christian host arrived at Antioch, the capital of Syria CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM. 205 (§168). The Turks had laid waste the country, and filled or poisoned the wells; so that multitudes died on the march, of hunger and thirst. Antioch withstood a siege of seven months; and when it was taken, the Christians were besieged in turn by a fresh army of 200,000 Turks, while a violent plague carried off 100,000 of their own forces. Nevertheless, a victory was ' • '°9 • gained, which opened the way to Jerusalem; but it was a pitiful remnant of the gallant armies, which, three years before, had assumed the Cross, that now arrived, with tears and shouts of joy, before the Holy City. 345. This was again in the possession of the Saracens from Egypt, who had wrested it from the Turks; but a forty days' siege — during which the assailants suffered agonies of thirst in the midsummer ' '°^^' heat — ended in its capture by the Christians. By the votes of his brave comrades, Duke Godfrey was chosen to be the first Christian king of Jerusalem. He refused to wear a golden crown in the city where his Master had worn the crown of thorns; but he consented to be styled Guardian of Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. Godfrey survived his consecration to this office only one year, and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin. 346. By successive conquests, the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem^ was extended eastward to the Euphrates, and southward to the borders of Egypt. The French language, customs, a-nd laws prevailed throughout the lands once ruled by David and Solomon, which were parceled out into four gre^it feudal baronies. The first of the three famous Orders of Chivalry, which added monkish vows to those of the knight, had its origin in the First Crusade. This was the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, or the "Knights Hospitallers." They were followed, in 1117, by the "Templars," who undertook the defense of pilgrims, and, in 1 19 1, by the "Teutonic" Order. §§360, 361, 460, 560. 2o6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 347. The Second Crusade was preached by St. Bernard'f abbot of Clairvaux — the greatest mind in Christendom in his time — and was led by two great mon- A. D. 1146-1149. a archs, the emperor Conrad III. and king Louis VII. of France. Nevertheless, it ended in nothing but disaster and disgrace. 348. Sal'adin, 10 the prince of Moslem warriors for valor, courtesy, and gentleness of soul, now became sultan of Syria and Egypt. In a great battle near Lake Tiberias he broke the power of the Christians, and A. D. 1187. . . . captured their kmg, Cuy 01 Lusignan, with the grandmaster of the Templars, and many other nobles. Most of the important towns in Syria — and, last of all, Jerusalem — fell into his hands. This calamity aroused all Europe. The great emperor, Frederic Barbaros'sa, with his son and eighty-eight German princes, assumed the Cross, and so did the kings Philip Augustus of France and Richard^ ^ the Lion-Hearted of England. A. D. 11 89. 349. The emperor never saw Jerusalem, for he was drowned in a little river in Asia Minor. All the Christian forces in Syria were mustered for the siege of Acre, when the arrival of the French and English kings effected its capture. The prodigious strength and valor of Richard were the admiration of the Christians, and the terror of the Saracens. But Philip was jealous, and, feigning illness, he returned home. Richard took and re-fortified Jaffa, Ascalon, and Gaza, and, fighting every step of the way, advanced within sight of Jerusalem. But his allies refused to join him in besieging it, and he withdrew in grief and shame, covering his face with his shield. 350. News now came that King Philip was plotting with Richard's brother John for a partition of his dominions. John was to have England, while Philip seized all the fiefs in France for which Richard was his vassal (§318). These FOURTH AND FIFTH CRUSADES. 207 were the two great duchies of Normandy and Aquitaine, with the counties of Maine, Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine. After making an honorable truce with Saladin, Richard embarked for home; but he was shipwrecked in the Adri- atic, and landing at Zara, tried to make the journey across Europe in the disguise of a pilgrim. He was recognized, seized, and imprisoned, by his bitterest enemy, the duke of Austria, whom he had insulted after the capture of Gaza. At length, being summoned to plead his cause before the Diet of the Western Emj^ire (S312), Richard was permitted to be ransomed and restored to his kingdom. 351. A Fourth Crusade was proclaimed, A. I). 1200, by Pope Innocent III. The overland route had now been found too dangerous, and the French barons made a treaty with the Venetian Republic, then the greatest maritime power in Europe, to transport their armies, by sea, to the Holy Land. But first they undertook the cause of Isaac Angelas, emperor of the East, who had been dethroned, imprisoned, and depriveci of his sight by an unnatural brother. By two attacks they captured Constantinople, and restored the blind old emperor to his throne; but a quarrel afterward broke out between the Greeks and the Franks, which ended in a second capture of the city, and the foundation of the Latin Empire of the East. Most of the crusaders never reached the Holv Land at all. The Latin Empire lasted till 1261. 352. The Fifth Crusade was marked by the siege and capture of Damietta in Egypt, though the Christian forces were afterwards overwhelmed with calamities by an over- flow of the Nile. The emperor Frederic II. was now engaged in a fierce contention with the Pope, who had first excommunicated him for delaying to join the Crusade, and again, for presuming to go while under cen- sure. His presence in the Holy Land, A. D. 1229, how- ever, secured the surrender of Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem, 2o8 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. and Nazareth to the Christians, and he assumed the crown of Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. 353. The Sixth Crusade was led by the king of Navarre, and by the English Prince Richard, a nephew of the Lion-hearted. By peaceful agreement, the greater part of Palestine was surrendered to the Christians, and the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt. Christians and Saracens were now compelled to join their forces against a pagan horde of Tartars, who had been expelled from Korasmia by Genghis Khan, and who, sweej)ing over Pales- tine, captured Jerusalem, and murdered a vast multitude of its })eople. A two days' battle ended in the almost complete extermination of the Syrian hosts. But Bar'bacan, the Tartar chief, was soon slain, and western Asia breathed again. 354. The Seventh Crusade was led by the good king Louis IX. of France. He captured Damietta, but afterwards, overwhelmed with disasters and himself a prisoner, he had to surrender it for his ransom. He then spent four years in the Holy Land, where he repaired the fortifications of Acre, and ransomed many thousands of Christian captives. He never saw Jerusalem, 355. 'I'he Eighth Crusade was occasioned by the fall of Antioch; 17,000 of its people being slain, and 100,000 carried away as slaves, by an army of Korasmian Turks, called Mamelukes, from Egypt. King Louis heartily engaged in it, but he died of the plague, in Tunis, before he could reach Palestine. Prince Edward, the future king of England, gained a victory over the Turks, and secured a favorable truce of ten }ears. 356. The last general effort for the deliverance of the Holy Land is not even numbered by most historians among the Crusades, though the emperors of the East and West were enrolled in it. Acre was the only remain- ing possession of the Christians in the East, and it was MAP No. VIII. THE CRUSADES. First, led by Godfrey of Bouillon and others, A. D. 1096. Second, " the Emperor Conrad III. and King Louis VII. of France . . 1147. Third, " Emperor Frederic I. of Rome, Philip II. of France, and Richard I. of England . . 1189. Fourth ends in capture of Constantinople by Venetians and French . . . 1204. Fifth, led by Emperor Frederic II. . . . 1228. Sixth, " Theobald 1. of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall . . 1238. Seventh, " King Louis IX. of France . . 1248. Eighth, " " " " " " and Prince Edward of England . 1270. Note. — The Crusades are differently numbered by historians. Some omit the Sixth above mentioned, and name as the Fifth an ineffectual enterprise led by Andrew of Hungary, in 121 7. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 209 besieged by a great army of 200,000 Mamelukes. The defense was long and obstinate, but at last the city fell, and all Palestine was overrun by the Turks. 357. Although the Crusaders had failed of the end they sought, they had gained others of far more value. Their minds were enlarged by contact with customs different from, and usually superior to, their own. Compared with the art, learning, and refined society of Constantinople, the Franks were barbarians. Even from the Saracens, whom they had pictured as inhuman monsters, they had much to learn. They were amazed to find the "infidel dogs" better behaved than themselves; but they could not fail ; to admire the delicate generosity of Saladin, who sent snow from Lebanon to Richard in sickness, and presented him with two beautiful Arabian horses when Richard's own had been killed in battle. 358. Several peculiar products of Asia — sugar, the silk worm, and fine wheat, for example — were first brought into Europe by Crusaders, and a brisk trade now sprang up between the East and the West. Venetian merchants visited the great cities of China, and it is probable that they found there two inventions, gunpowder and printing, which were to change the whole current of European life. 359. The immediate results in the West were not less great. Europe was divided, as we have seen, into a mul- titude of duchies and counties, whose holders wxre perpet- ually making war upon each other. Now it was good for those quarrelsome chiefs to be moved for once by a com- mon feeling, the only feeling that could move kings and vassals, priests and peasants, alike. The power of the Church was for a time supreme; the age of chivalry began ; the authority of the leading sovereigns became centralized and better established; Venice and Genoa secured an immense increase of trade. The lands which knights and barons had sold to pay the expenses of their Hist.-H. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. crusades, were bought in many cases by the Church, but in others by thrifty citizens, and thus a middle class sprang up between nobles and peasants. 360. The three Orders of. Chivalry, which had arisen from the Crusades, were now rich and powerful. The Templars, having no fit use either for their vast wealth or their knightly energies, became haughty, luxurious, and dangerous to the governments under which they lived. Their order was dissolved about 40 years after the last Crusade, and their lands were given to the Knights of St. John. See §404, and note, p. 240. 361. These, in their successive stations at Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta, kept up a rigorous discipline, and bravely defended southern Europe from the Turks. The Teutonic Knights had yet harder work to do. The Prus- sians, and several other tribes near the Baltic, were still heathen, and a century and a half of fierce conflict pre- ceded the establishment of Christianity in the northern wilds. The industry of the brotherhood meanwhile turned the salt marshes .into fertile fields by means of dykes and drainage ; and Marienburg, their fortress and capital, be- came a center of civilizing influences for all that pagan region. Trace, on Maps 8 and 13, the general course of Crusaders in 1096 A. D. Point out their first conquest ; Antioch, Jerusalem, Acre, Jaffa, Ascalon, Gaza, Damietta. Lake Tiberias. Boundaries of the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem. Stations of the Knights of St. John. Territory of the Teutonic Knights. Read Hallam's "Middle Ages," Ch. I, Part I, and Ch, VI; Mill's History of the Crusades ; Michelet's History of France ; Morrison's Life and Times of St. Bernard ; Milman's Latin Christianity, Book VI.; Heeren's Essay on the History of the Crusades ; and Finlay's History of the Byzantine and Creek Empire. Rev. James White's History of France, in one volume, will be found very useful by those who lack time or opportunity to consult larger works. NOTES. NOTES. 1. These were the Seljukian Turks, so called from Seljnk, their chief, who, expelled from Turkestan hy the reigning prince, had settled with all his tribe in Bokhara, and had embraced the religion of Mohammed. Falling in battle when more than a liundred years old, Seljuk was succeeded by his grandson, Togrul Beg, the real founder of the dynasty. He overran most of the realm of the Abbassides, and even the caliph be- came his prisoner, but was treated with perfect respect, and appointed Togrul to be his lieutenant. From this time the caliphs were little more than the spiritual heads of Islam, the military power being committed to the Turkish chiefs. Togrul was succeeded in lOtiS by his nephew, Alp- Arslan (the Strong Lion), of whose justice and clemency wonderful stories are told. Under Alp-Arslan and his son, Maiek Shah, the Sel- jukian empire reached its greatest extent and power, and soon began to decline. For the character of the Seljukiaus in general, see note 2, below. The Ottoman Turks, who still hold their ground in western Asia, were a later arrival. See g378. 2. Since its capture by Titus (?2.51), Jerusalem had undergone many changes. Rebuilt by Hadrian (§254) as a Roman city, it became, under (^onstantine (?267), the great center of Christian pilgrimages. Helena, the mother of Constantine,is said to have discovered the real sepulcUer and cross of Christ on this sacred ground, in A. D. 325; and she built the two churchs of the Nativity and the Holy Sepulcher, whose remains still exist. In 611 or 614, Jerusalem was captured by Chosroes, king of Persia. It was re-occupied by Heraclius, A. D. 629, but was conquered by the caliph Omar, A. D. 637, and continued under Saracen rule more than four centuries. The Saraceiis favored Christian pilgrimages, which resembled their own religious usage; and, they were not only enriched by the taxes imposed upon pilgrims, but sliared with Christian merchants in the profits of the great Easter fairs, which drew fleets of vessels from the Mediterranean ports, Genoa, Pisa, and Araalti. After tlie year 1000 had passed (^39), and a new Christian age had be- gun, the tide of pilgrimage set eastward with greater energy than ever. "Now, liowever," says Dean Milman, "the splendid, polished, and more tolerant Mohamniedanism of the earlier caliphs had sunk before the savage yet no less warlike Turks. This race of the Mongol stock had embraced all that was enterprising, barbarous, and aggressive, re- jecting all that was humane, or tending to a higher civilization, in Mohammedanism. They were more fanatic Islamites than the follow- ers of the prophet, than the prophet himself. The Seljukians became masters of Jerusalem; and, from that time, the Christians of Palestine, from tributary subjects, became despist^'d slaves; the pilgrims, from re- spected guests, intruders, whose hateful presence polluted the atmos- phere of pure Islamisni. Year after year came back the few survivors of a long train of pilgrinas, no longer radiant with pious pride at tlie accomplishment of their holy purpose, rich in precious relics, or even the more costly treasures of the East; but, stealing home, famished, wounded, mutilated, with lamentable tales of their own sutTerings and of those who had died of the ill-usage of the barbarous unbelievers. At length, the afflictions of the Christians found a voice which woke indignant Europe; an apostle who could rouse warlike Latin Ciiristen- dom to encounter with equal fanaticism this new outburst of the fanat- icism of Islam. This was the mission of the hermit, Peter."— iaim Chris- tianity, IV., Ch. VI. 3. Godfrey was a younger son of Count Eustace, of Bologne, but early distinguished himself in the armies of the Emperor Henry IV., who rewarded him with the duchy of Bouillon, of which Sedan is the capital. His courage and genius for command were equaled by the patience and generosity which enabled him to pacify the conflicting passions of his comrades in arms. Tasso lias made Godfrey the hero of his poem, Jerusairm Delivered. 4. Count Raymond IV., of Toulouse, conquered for himself from the Mohammedans the district of Tripoli, in Syria, and held it as a vassal (ii31fi) of the king of Jerusalem. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 5. Boemond was an able and ambitious in'ince, discontented with his secondary rank, and aspiring to an imixiial crown, either in the East or West, perhaps botli. In his fatlier's life-time he had wrested Illj'ria, Macedonia, and Greece from tlic Kastern Empire, but these provinces had been lost. When Urban II. took counsel witli him, first of all tlie western princes, about tlie feasibility of a crusade, he warmly furtliered the scheme, hoping to regain the eastern provinces, or at least to find exercise for his military talents in some profitable enterprise. He was the leader in the siege of Antioch, and received that citj', with a large territory, as an independent principality. 6. The Princess Anna Commena, daughter of Alexis, was a girl of fifteen years at tJie time of tiie First Crusade. In her Alexind, written thirty years later in the seclusion of a convent, she has given a lively account of the manners of the Prankish chiefs, which sliocked the re- fined tastes of tlie Greeks. One of the western counts even seated him- self on the imperial throne, at the very time when his companions in arms were taking tlieir oatli of obedience to Alexis. Being admonished of his rudeness, he still continued to mutter between his teeth, while staring fixedly at the emperor: "What rustic fellow is this, to be seated alone, wliile such leaders stand around him ! " Alexis (1U80-1118) was the first emperor of his family— the Comneni. 7. The Kingdom of Jerusalem lasted 88 years, being overthrown by Saladiu in 1187 (jol8). 8. Bernard was born in Burgundy, in 1001, of noble and pious parents. At 22 j^ears of age he quitted the pleasures of the world, and, witli tliirty young companions, including his five brothers, entered the convent of Citeaux. Two years later, he was made abbot of Clairvaux. The new abbey was only a rude wooden structure, erected bj' Bernard and his twelve monks with their own hands; but, from this humble dwelling went forth a power whicli was felt in all the courts of Europe. After Edessa liad been captured by the Mussulmans in 1115, Bernard roused the French and German people to a second Crusade, and, by his per- sonal appeals, overcanae the extreme reluctance of the Emperor Conrad to engage in it in person. Tlie power of genius, eloquence, and energy of will was heightened in Bernard by a supreme and unselfish devotion to what he considered right. He died in H53. 9. Conrad III. was a son of Frederic of Hohenstaufen, and uncle of Fiederic Barbarossa. It was in tlie battle of Weinsberg, between Conrad and his rival, Plenry the Proud of Saxony, that the war cries of "Welf and " Weiblingcn " — more familiar to us in their Italian equivalents, Guelf and Ghibelline (^-itiS) were first heard. The Guelfs were dukes of Bavaria; the Hohenstaufen, dulies of Frauconia, Suabia, and Saxony. After losing thousands of his men in the march through Asia Minor— mainly through the treachery of his Greek guides— Conrad joined his forces "with those of King Louis of France, in laying siege to Damaseus. It proved a miserable failure, owing to the jealousy of the Christian barons of Palestine, and tlie two sovereigns returned to their western dominions more like fugitives than mighty princes. 10. Saladin was a Kurd by birth, and had been vizier to Noureddin, sultan of Damascus, wlio dethroned tlie Fatimite (note, p. 182) calipli at Cairo, and aiMid l-',uyiit to his dominion. On Noureddin's death, Saladin made himself sultaii of all his dominions. Even his enemies admired Saladin's perfect humanity toward his prisoners, and high-minded gen- erosity toward liis adversaries in arms. His character is depicted in doubtless exaggerated colors in Scott's l\(li><)iiuii, and in Lessing's poem, jyatlian the Wise. 11. See Chapter IX. for an account of the family to Avhich Richard beloiig(!d. He is brilliantly pictured in Scott's romances, Ivanhoe and Tlie Talimiatt. His real character is thus suminert up by Hume: "Of an impetuous and vehement spirit, he was distinguished by all the good as well as tlie bad qualities incident to that character; he was open, frank, generous, sincere, and brave; he was revengeful, domineering, ambitious, haughty, and cruel." CHAPTER VII. Venetian Nobleman. GUELFS AND GHIIiELLlNES. RISE OF ITALIAN AND GERMAN CITIES. HE two great powers of Europe, during the Middle Ages, were the Church and the Empire, and these, as we have seen, were often at deadly strife (§ 325). The emperor was the civil head of Christendom, as the pope was the spiritual head; and they often differed as to the boundaries of their respective juris- dictions. This rivalry probably had one advantage, in preventing either from becoming absolute. The haughty will of the Caesar could bow to none but the vicegerent of God; while the ambition of the Pope could only be curbed by a power which, like his own, was held to be of divine appointment. The Church had done good service in main- taining order during the Dark Ages; and, if it did not enlighten the people, it guarded the treasures of ancient learning for the benefit of later times. 363, The Guelfs and the Hohenstaufen, two powerful German families, contended for the imperial crown. The latter obtained it, A. D. 1138; and the name GhiheUine, taken from one of their castles, was adopted, by the ad- herents of the emperors, to distinguish them from the Pope's party, who more commonly sided with the Guelfs. The cities of Italy, most of them independent republics, declared themselves either Guelf or Ghibelline ; and as (213) 214 MEDL^VAL HISTORY. they were almost constantly at war, either among them- selves or against the emperor, these battle-cries rang through the peninsula for centuries. (See note 9, p. 212.) 364. The great city of Milan, once an imperial capital (§ 263), led the opposition to Frederic I., the greatest of the Hohenstaufen. Twice it was besieged and taken, and after the second capture its stately walls were leveled with the ground. Even its enemies and rivals now joined it in a "Lombard League," which gained a great victory over Frederic at Legnano, A. D. 11 76. Seven years later the Peace of Constance established the independence of all the Lombard cities. See §348. 365. By marrying the heiress of the last Norman king (§ 2)Z'^)i Frederic's son, Henry VI., obtained the crown of the Two Sicilies, in addition to that of the Empire. His son, Frederic H., was called Stupor Mundi A. D. 1212-I250. / , , r ^ Tir 1 1\ 1 (the Amazement of the World), by reason of his brilliant talents. He enriched his native Italy by improved laws, and by his liberal patronage ot literature and commerce (^^352). Nevertheless, he was continually at war with the popes, who, at length, deposed him and offered all his crowns (i^ 324) to other princes. His death was followed by 23 years of confusion, several rival em- perors being acknowledged by different parties. The im- perial crown was given, at last, to Rudolph of Hapsburg' who had the good sense to leave Italy to itself, and use his power against the turbulent jn'inces and robber-knights who were destroying the peace of flermany. He demol- ished 70 castles, the strongholds of these marauders. 366. Italy became almost wliolly Guelf. The Two Sic- ilies were bestowed upon Charles of Anjou,^ a French prince, who, moreover, ruled Provence in right of his wife, and exerted imperial power in Rome and several northern cities. But his harshness drove the Sicilians to revolt, and 8,000 French were massacred, A. D. 1282. The island RIENZI AT ROME. 215 became a separate kingdom, ruled for a century and a half by Arragonese princes. The "Two Sicilies" were reunited in 1435, under Alfon'so of Arragon. See §331. 367. The cities of Lombardy soon lost their freedom and submitted to podestas, or tyrants, of whom the greatest were the Visconti of Milan. Rome was filled with murder and robbery, especially after Pope Clem'ent V. had re- moved the "Chair of St. Peter" to Avignon, in southern France. The 72 years absence of the popes 1 ■ r 1 1 A. D. 1305-1377. was known to writers of that day as a "Babylonish Captivity." During this time the Roman tribune, Rienzi,^ succeeded, for a few months, in restor- ing order and dignity to his native city. Turbulent nobles submitted to his authority ; not only Italian cities, but foreign kings, recognized the new " ' ^'*'' Republic ; robbery ceased, and prosperity revived. But Rienzi's head was turned by his success; he was expelled; and when, after six years' exile and imprisonment, he returned with the support of the pope, he was slain in a popular riot. 368. In 1377, Pope Gregory XI. came back to Rome; but his death was followed by the Great Schism (§ 419), during which two, and even three, popes were obeyed at once by different nations. In spite of these troubles, Italy was by far the richest and most civilized portion of Europe. The merchant-princes of Genoa and Venice lived in palaces surpassing those of kings, or even emperors, north of the Alps. Their commerce embraced all Europe, with south- ern and central Asia ; and, handling the money of all nations, they were the first modern bankers. The Bank of Venice dates from 117 1 A. D. While the Eastern Empire was falling to pieces through its own weakness and the attacks of the Turks, Venice became sovereign of the Morea, with Cyprus, Crete, and many of the Greek islands. Her great rival was Genoa, which monoiDoIized 2l6 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. the commerce of the Black Sea, and this rivahy occasioned many wars. 369. Florence is most celebrated of all the Italian re- publics for the freedom of her government and the genius of her people. The wealth of her great bankers, traders, and manufacturers of wool made many princes their debt- ors. After 1343 A. D. , magistrates could be chosen only from the "Arts," or trades-unions, and thus the indus- trial classes had supreme control of the government. Dan'te, the greatest poet of the Middle Ages, was a Flor- entine, but he spent most of his manhood in exile, owing to the deadly strife of Guelfs and Ghibellines. 370. The chief power in Florence fell, during the fifteenth century, into the hands of the Med'ici, a family of wealthy citizens. Cosmo de Medici was the first who assumed to nominate candidates for public office. His grandson, Loren'zo the Magnificent, pro- moted the revival of learning and the arts. He collected ancient gems and statues, which stimulated the genius of the young artists whom his liberal patron- age drew about him. His ascendency marks the most brilliant period of Florentine history. 371. Meanwhile the German cities had also risen to great importance. Each was governed by a Council of its Own choosing ; and, free from the jealousies which often ruined the Italian cities, they formed leagues for the common defense. Their chief enemies were the knights and nobles, who lived by plunder, and liked nothing so well as to rob a merchant of his costly wares. The idea that a mere tradesman could have rights which they were bound to respect never occurred to these noble high- waymen. 372. The League of the Rhine, A. D. 1255, numbered 60 cities: that of Suabia, in 1376, was still larger. Several free cities of Upper Germany — now Switzerland^— joined THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE. 217 the Forest Cantons in a league, which at length secured the independence of the Swiss republics. Equally remark- able was the union of the Hanse^ towns of northern Germany, for the protection of their trade from pirates at sea and robbers on land. This league of merchants be- came so i^owerful that its fleets controlled the northern seas, and kings were proud of its alliance. Among its foreign factories were London and Bruges, where the Ger- man and Italian merchants met to exchange the gems, silks, and finer fabrics of Asia and the south for the fish, hemp, and timber of the north ; for, to the slow navigation of those days, the voyage from the Mediterranean to the Baltic was too long to be made in a single summer. 373. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the common people were gaining power in almost every country in Europe. Before this time, society, outside of the Church, had been chiefly made up of nobles, with their vassals and serfs. But the cities of Italy, Spain, and soutliern France had always kept something of the free- dom which they had enjoyed under the Romans; and, in Germany, England, and the Low Countries, the wealth of artisans and merchants was now so great as to make them important to the sovereigns, who were always in want of money. Accordingly, representatives of the cities began to be called to a share in the government of all these countries. Point out, on Map No. 9, Genoa. Venice, and her dominions. Florence. Milan. Avignon. Lubec. Hamburg. Bruges. London. Read Sismondi's History of the Italian Republics; Campbell's Life of Petrarch; Dante's "Vita Nuova," translated by Norton; Longfellow's "Dante," with the Notes; Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici; J. A. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy, Vol. L, The Age of the Despots. 2l8 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Hapsburg was a rather insiguificant little castle in southern Sua- bia, though its name has become one of the most illustrious in Europe, from its having been the cradle of so powerful a family. Knight Ru- dolph, the founder of the ducal and imperial line, was so poor that he is said to have mended his own clothes; but he was a brave and pru- dent man, well able to cope with the disorderly elements within the empire. Ottocar, king of Bohemia, was the most dangerous of the great princes; but he was subdued, and his kingdom was added, a few years later, to the dominions of the House of Luxembourg. Subsequently it became a part of the Austrian dominion, to which it still belong.s. Rudolph bestowed the Duchy of Austria upon his son Albert, who was afterwards elected King of the Germans, though he was never crowned at Rome. 2. Charles married Beatrice, daughter of Count Raymond-Berenger of Provence, who is said to have been bitterly dissatisfied with the title of Countess, while her sisters were the wives of kings. One of them was Eleanor, consort of Henry III. of England (^ 384). The ambition of Charles, however, needed no incitement from his wife's complaints; and the events of that turbulent age atforded him abundant opportunity for self-aggrandizement. The Pope having excommunicated the two sons of Frederic II., bestowed upon him the Sicilian kingdoms; wliile the titles of senator of Rome and imperial vicar, which he held during the intenegnum in the empire (j36.5), gave him the control of all the rest of Italj-. By his orders, young Conradin, grandson of Frederic II.— who had come into Italy to claim his inheritance, but had been de- feated and captured— was beheaded with five of his companions in the market-place at Naples. On the scaffold the prince solemnly bequeathed his kingdom to his cousin Constance, wife of the king of Aragon; and Sicilv soon became a possession of her family. Naples and its territo- ries "were for centuries in dispute between the French and the Aragonese princes. Charles of Anjou died In 1285, the .same year with the kings of France and Aragon. 3. Nicolas, or Colas di Hienzi was Ijorn at Rome, was liberally edu- cated, and became a friend of tlie poet Petrarch about A.D. 1340. In 1342 he accompanied Petrarch and others in a deputation sent by the citizens to the Pope at Avignon, beseeching him to return to Rome. The city was a prey to tumult and anarchy— the great nobles issuing from their castles to rob and murder at their will, while their armed followers had al- most daily fights in the streets. Since neither Emperor nor Pope would come to the rescue, Rienzi proposed to the citizens a restoi-ation of the "Good Estate" of the ancient republic. Refusing the proud title of Senator, which they would gladly have bestowed, he chose to be called Tribune, or champion of the people ; and, for a few months, Rome resumed something of her ancient rank. The king of Hungary and the queen of Naples submitted their cause to his arbitration, and the republics of northern Italy sought his protection. He cited the Emperor Louis to appear and submit his election, as of old, to the choice of the Roman people, and he required the Pope and the cardinals to return to their lawful seats. The story of Rienzi is well told in Bulwer's iji'e/izi, the Last of the Tribunes. 4. Beginning of the Swiss League. " While the three kingdoms which belonged to the empire were thus getting weaker and more di- vided, an ". vvhile the kingdom of France to the west of them was grow- ing stronger and stronger, two new powers gradually arose in what we may call the borcier-land of all these kingdoms. One of these lasted but a short time, ':iv:. :hc other has lived on to our own day. These are the Duchy of j:iurgund);,-a.nC the League of the Swiss Cantons. This last began among three :^mall mountain districts on the borders of Germany, Bur- gundy, anci Italy; called Vri. Schiri/tz, and Unlerivalclen. They were Ger- man-speaking iiemcers of the empire, and there was nothing to dis- tinguish them from other German-speaking members of the^empire, except that they had kept far more of the freedom of the old times than most other lands had. Like many other districts and cities of the NOTES. 219 empire, tliey joined together iu a league for mutual defense. This they had doubtless done from earlier times, but the first written document of their union belongs to the year 12!)1. The Counts of Hapsburg (See g36o and note), who had now become Dukes of Austria, and who had estates within the three lands themselves, were now very dangerous neighbors, and the confederates had to keep close together in order to guard their freedom. This they made safe by the battle of Morgarten, which they won over Duke Leopold of Austria, in i:>lo. Presently sev- eral of the neighboring cities. Lucerne, Zurich, and Berne, joined their alliance, as did also the smaller towns of Zug and Glarus; so that in the course of the fourteenth century they had a league of eight states. Its name was the Old League of High Germany, and its members were called the EhJgenossen or Confederates; but the name of the Canton of Schwytz gradually spread over the whole league, and they came to be commonly called Swiss, and their country Switzerland. . . . "Such a league was, of course, much dreaded by the neighboring no- bles, but it was for a long time favored by the Emperors. . . . But the Dukes of Austria were their constant enemies, and therefore, when the empire passed into the Austrian House, the confederates had to be on their guard against a power which had hitherto been friendly. But they did not throw off their allegiance to the empire. . . . They were simply one of many German leagues, which circumstances allowed to become more independent than the others, and, as it turned out, to survive them."— Jfugiicsclin died of disease, but the besieged commander kept his faith, and, marching out with his garrison, placed the keys on the coffin of the dead hero. 6. These were the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, in En- gland; and of An.jou, Berri, and Burgundy, in France. King Robert of Naples, grandson of Charles of Anjou (see g 366 and note), had been succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, who, at the age of sixteen, married her cousin, Andrew of Hungary. The boorish manners of the king-consort displeased the elegant court of Joanna, and his assumed claim to govern in his own riglit alarmed her Nea- politan counselors. King Andrew was murdered, A. D. 1345, by the adherents, though it may be hoped without tlie consent, of his wife; and his brother, the king of Hungary, avenged his death by invading the Italian kingdom and expelling I lie queen. Having gained the Pope's favor l)y ceding Avignon to him, she was restored to her kingdom in NOTES. 241 1352; but, having no children, she, in 1381, adopted the Frencli prince as lier lieir. Joanna lias been called the Mary Stuart ^see g 504) of Italy, and some incidents of her eventful life do indeed call to mind the Scottish queen. 7. This was Philip the Bold, who, as a boy of fourteen years, had fought by his father's side at Poitiers (g 889), and, with him," had been carried a prisoner to England. His bravery was rewarded with the great Duchy of Burgundy, whose first line of French dukes soon afterward (1361) expired. "Thus commenced that famous line of dukes which played so great a part in the history of France during the four- teenth and tifteenth centuries, and by the splendor of its achievements and the magnificence of its patronage rivaled the greatest dynasties of the time. Philip's marriage with Margaret brought him the countships of Burgundy (Franche Coiutfi), Flanders, Artois, Rethel, and Nevers, and, at a later period, he purchased Charolais from the Count of Au- vergne. He was succeeded, 1104, by John the Fearless, who was assas- sinated on the Bridge of Montereau, 1419, and left the duchy to his son, Philip the Good. ... By very questionable proceedings Philip ob- tained possession of Hainault and Holland. Namur was purchased in 1429, and the following year Brabant and Limburg also fell into his grasp. In 14.3.5 there were yielded to him, by treaty with France, Macon, Auxerre, Bar-sur-Seine, and various other towns in that district. His son, Charles the Bold (§§ 411-413), followed in the same course of territo- rial aggrandizement, and even began to aim at the founding of a great Gallo Belgian kingdom, but his splendid plans came to an untimely enil with his death at the battle of Nancy." 8. Joan d' Are was born about 1411, in the little village of Dom- Remy, in Lorraine, of poor but excellent parents. In her childhood she saw and heard many proofs of the misery of her country, desolated as It was, not only by the wars of the great nobles, but by the ravages of free companies of soldiers, who, responsible to no government, roamed over the land, lobbing and plundering at their will, or sold their serv- ices alternately to either party which would restrain them the least and pay them the most. Joan " was untiring in her efforts to relieve the sufferings of the poor about her, and even sold her bed and the greater part of her clothing in order to procure them supplies. She afterwards stated that as early as the age of thirteen she received com- mands from Heaven to go and liberate France." Her parents tried to suppress her enthusiasm, but the "voices" and "visions" continued to haunt her, and, in her eighteenth year, she could no longer disobey. Though the French officers treated her pretensions with scorn, she gained the favor of the Dauphin, and set forth, bearing her consecrated banner at the head of her troop, for Orleans, which was then besieged by the English, and at the very point of surrender. She first threw herself into the town with a supply of much-needed provisions; then, by a succession of sorties, so confounded the besiegers that they aban- doned the siege and departed. When the second part of her mission was fulfilled (§394) she saluted the Dauphin as king, and begged his pei'- hiission to return to the care of her sheep. But Charles, hoping to gain further advantage from her presence with his soldiers, refused to let her go. Her " voices " now ceased to be heard; and the high spirit that had sustained her seemed to fail. Wounded and a prisoner, ,she pined in her dungeon for the sunshine and green fields of her native hamlet. Yet, when brought before her judges, she steadfastly maintained the integrity of her motives in all that she had done, and she died declar- ing that her voices had not deceived her. A secretary of the king of England exclaimed, "We are lost, we have burned a saint!" and even her executioner was overwhelmed with remorse. 9. Charles V. was the first king who had borne thetitle of Dauphin. Dauphiny had been a part, first of the kingdom of Burgundy (note, p. 141), and afterwards of the empu'e. Its most important county was the Viennais, pertaining to the ancient city of Vienne (§2.54). Count Hu- bert II., having lost his only son in 1335, made over his lands to King Philip VI. with the condition that the privileges and independence of his province should be maintained. After the count's death, his title was always borne by the eldest son of the reigning king. Hist.— 16. CHAPTER XI. THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH. John Huss. HR history of Germany during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is a story of turbu- lence and misrule (see § 363). A quarrel, over the choice of flj an emperor, occasioned a dis- tracting civil war, A. D. 13 14- 1328. Most of tlie nobles cliose Frederic of Austria;^ but the primate and the people of the great towns preferred Louis of Bavaria, who at length took his rival prisoner at the battle of Miihldorf, and reigned, though not in peace, until 1347. 416. His successor, Charles IV., settled the rank and privileges of the seven Electors, whose duty it was to choo.se the emperors and assist at their coronation. They were the three archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, and four lay-princes : the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, and the count- palatine of the Rhine. Until he was crowned at Rome, the chosen prince bore only the title of Emperor-r/^r/. His successor was usually chosen during his life-time, and was called King of the Romans. 417. Wenceslaus (A. D. 1378-1400), son of Charles, cared only for his kingdom of Bohemia, and neglected his imperial duties, spending much of his time, moreover, in (242) COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 243 drunken revelings. At length, in 1400, the electors de- posed him and gave the crown to Count Ru'pert of the Rhine (A. I). 1400- 1410), an energetic and able ruler who would have done much for Germany if his reign had been long enough. 418. Sigismund (A. D. 1410-1438), brother of Wences- laus, was next chosen." His first care was to call together a general council for tlie reformation of the Church — a duty which had been considered as devolving on the emperors ever since Constantine convened the Council of Nice (§267). The free city of Constance was appointed for the meeting; and thither came 18,000 clergymen, in- cluding patriarchs and bishops ; hundreds of learned men from the universities; sovereign princes, or their embassa- dors; last of all, Pope John XXIII. and the Emperor Sigismund. 419. The occasion was serious enough to justify the imposing display. Three popes were claiming obedience in France, Spain, and Italy: the damaging truths which they told of each other were undermining men's reverence for the Church ; and several great reformers, especially in England and Bohemia, were preaching boldly against the evil lives of the priesthood. Though the Council had come together for purposes of reform, among its first decisive acts was to burn a reformer. John Huss,'*one of the great doctors of the University of Prague, was summoned to answer for his teachings, and the imperial word of Sigismund was pledged for his safe return. He was tried and condemned as a heretic ; and chose death rather than denial of what he believed to be the truth. The princes and prelates who stood around the emperor, saw a deep flush of shame overspread his face when the sentence was read. Huss was burnt at the stake; and his friend and fellow-professor, Jerome'^ of Prague, suffered tlie same fate within a year. 244 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 420. When the news reached Bohemia, a civil war^broke out. Prague, the capital, was taken by the Hussites, and monks were every-where put to death in revenge for the two martyrs. The popular fury became fiercer when, by the death of Wenceslaus in 1419 A. D. (§ 417), the guilty Sigismund became king of Bohemia. The war raged nearly twenty years ; and, though all the force of the empire was exerted against the insurgents, Sigismund only gained possession of his kingdom a {t\N months before his death. 421. The Council of Constance deposed all three of the rival popes (§419) and elected Ot'to Colon'na,'^ a better man than any of them, but who did little to realize the needed reforms. Another council met at Basle, in 1431, and carried on tlie work begun at Constance. It declared that the voice of the whole Church, in general council, was of supreme authority, and provided for such assemblies at regular intervals. 422. Pope Euge'nius IV., finding that he could not man- age the council at Basle, summoned a rival one at Ferrara, where very important visitors were received. These were John Palaeol'ogus, emperor of the East, and the patriarch of the Greek Church, with a train of courtiers and clergy. It may be remembered (§§ 294, 306) that the eastern and western churches had separated upon the question of image-worship; and they had since been more widely parted by a difference of belief. The eastern Ccesar, now finding that he could not stand alone against the Turks (§§ 340, 378), offered to give up the points in dispute and admit the supremacy of the pope, on condition that the European princes would come to his aid. The bargain was signed and sealed, but the authorities at Constanti- nople refused to ratify it; and fifteen years later the eastern empire was overthrown. 423. Upon the death of Sigismund, the crown of the REIGN OF FREDERIC III. 245 western empire was bestowed upon Albert of Austria, his son-in-law, and, though still elective and often contested, it continued to be worn by the dukes of Austria for more than three centuries. 424. Frederic III.* reigned fifty-three years (A. D. 1440- 1493), ^^^^ '"'is vacillating character afforded few acts worth telling. He secured the marriage of his son Maximilian with the young duchess Mary of Burgundy (§ 413), which made him lord of her rich inheritance in the Netherlands. Mary died young; but, as regent for his son Philip, Max- imilian still ruled the Low Countries, and Philip's marriage with the heiress of Spain made the Hapsburgs the most powerful family in Europe. Point out, on Map No. 9, tlie dominions of the Seven Electors. Prague. Constance. Basle. Ferrara. Read Menzel's History of Germany, Vol. 11., and the Introduction to Dyer's Modern Europe; also, Coxa's House of Austria. NOTES. 1. Frederic was eldest son of Albert I., and grandson of Rudolph of Haj)sburu (5 865); but the cruelty and avarice of Albert had much di- minished tlie good-will formerly felt towards his family. His oppressions had driven the Swiss to revolt, and thus led to the rise of a confedera- tion of free states. Louis of Bavaria was supported by the Ghibellines (§363), and Frederic by the Guelfs. After his capture at Miihldorf, in 1322, Frederic signed a renunciation of the imperial crown, which was bestowed upon Louis at Rome, in 132S. 2. Sigismund iiad alreadj' for twentj' -three j-ears (g418) been king of Hungary, having married a daughter of King Louis of Hungary and Poland in 1386. With him began that connection of tlie empire with the Hungarian dominions, which, though for a time resisti'd, had im- portant effects for centuries. Hungary was now the great Ijattle-ground of Europe with the Turks (§379), and their incursions would have taxed the best energies of even a braver and abler prince. 3. It is said that nearly 100,000 people were at one time assembled in the little city of Constance, wliicli had only about 7,000 permanent in- habitants. The Council itself numlicrerl, at its fullest sessions, 3 patri- archs, 20 cardinals, 33 archbisli()i)s, 15i) bisliops, 50 provosts, 1,800 priests, and 3(10 doctors nf tlicoloijv, Ix'sides 73, in the countv of Durham, in England, and became a priest at the age of 30. For the benefit of liis pupils, he compiled famil- iar Latin text-books, setting forth all that was then known of astron- 250 MEDIMVAL HISTORY. omy, mathematics, grammar, and music; but his most important work is his Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation, which was written in Latin, but afterwards translatfd into Old English by King Alfred the Great (§329 and notes'). 2. "Very early in life Abelard (1079-1142) became the most powerful combatant in the intellectual tilting-matches of the schools. Before the age of twenty, he had wandered through a great part of France, as an errant logician, and had found no combatant who could resist his prowess. He arrived at Paris, where the celebrated William of Cham- peaux was at the height of his fame. The schools of Paris, which afterwards expanded into the renowned university, trembled at the temerity of the youth who dared to encounter that veteran in dialectic warfare, whose shield had been so long untouched, and who had seemed secure in his all-acknowledged puissance. Abelard in a short time was the pupil, the rival, the conqueror, and of course an object of implaca- ble animosity to the vanquished chieftain of the schools. He seized at once on the weak parts of his teacher's system, and in his pride of strengtli scrupled not to trample him in the dust. . . . "TluTi' was no branch of knowledge on which Abelard did not be- lieve himself, and was not believed, competent to give the fullest in- struction. Not merely did all Paris and the adjacent districts throng to his school, but there was no country so remote, no road so difficult, but that the pupils defied the toils and perils of the way. Even Rome, the great teaclier of the world in all arts and sciences, acknowledged the superior wisdom of Abelard, and sent her sons to submit to his disci- pline. ... So great was the concourse of scholars, that lodging and provision could not be found for the countless throng. On the one side he was an object of the most excessive admiration, on the other of the most implacable hatred." "Abelard fled. . . . After some delay he found a wild retreat, where, like the hermits of old, he built his solitary cabin of osier and of thatch." Almost immediately "the desert was peopled around him by his admiring scholars. . . . They built lowly hovels, . . . fed on bread and wild herbs .... reposed contentedly on straw and chaff. A monastery arose, which had hardly space in its cells for the crowding votaries. Abelard called it the Paraclete, a name which, b.y its novelty and .seeming presumption, gave new ofTense to his multi- plying enemies. . . . His whole system of teaching, the foundation and discipline and studies in the Paraclete, could not but be looked upon with alarm. This new philosophic community— a community at least bound together by no religious vow — ... in which the pro- foundest and most awful mysteries were freely discussed, . . . awoke tlK' vitiilant jealousy of the two great reformers of the age, Norbert, Arclibisliop of Magdeburg, . . . and Bernard, whose abbey of Clair- vaux was the model of the most rigorous, most profoundly religious monastic life. . . . "Abelard, in all his pride, felt that he stood alone, an object of uni- versal suspicions. . . . His overweening haughtiness broke down into overweening dejection. In his despair he thought seriously of taking refuge beyond the borders of Christendom." By his Breton countrymen "he was offered the dignity of abbot in !i monastery on the coast of Brittany. It was a bleak and desolate re- gion, the monks as rude and savage as the people. There, on the very verge of the world, on the shores of the ocean, Abelard sought in vain for quiet." The greatest of his opponents was St. Bernard (§347 and note), who procured the condemnation of his doctrines by the Council of Sens, and afterward by the I'(»i)e. "Absent, unheard, unconvicted, Abelard was condemned by the su- preme Pontiff. The decree of Innocent condemned all public disputa- tions on the mysteries of religion. Abelard was condemned to silence, his disciples to excommunication. "Still, for the last two years of his life, he found peace, honor, se- clusion, in the abbe.v of Clugny. He died at the age of sixty-three." — Abridged froin Milman's Latin ChriMianUy. 3. Albert the Great (A. D. 1200-1280) had no superior among the "schoolmen " of the Middle Ages. He lectured three years at Paris, and NOTES. 251 for mauy years at Cologne, and left many writings on logic, tlieology, philosophy, and physical science. He was a native of Bavaria, and be- longed to the Dominican Order. 4. Thomas Aquinas (A. D. 122r>-1274), a pupil of Albert the Great, was of a noble family in tlie kingdom of Naples, having been a grand- nephew of the Emperor Frederi(; 1. His fame as a teacher has never been surpassed; he was called tlie Angelic Doctor, and crowds of at- tentive hearers gathered about liim at Paris and at Rome. The most important of his many works is his Smn of Theology. 5. Roger Bacon (A. D. 1214-1292 , called TTie Admirable Doctor, and the greatest philosopher of tlic tliirteenth century, was an Englisliman, having been born in Somi isttshire and educated at Oxford and I'aris. He was thorouglily acquainted with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, nutapliys- ics, and theology, but was especially remarkable among the learned schoolmen for his fondness for and acquirements in physical science. His skill in mechanics was indeed .so great as to draw upon him the suspicion of deulini; in magical arts, and he was sentenced by a Council of his own Franciscan Order to an imprisonment which lasted ten years. His Oj jus- Ma jus treats of nearly all the sciences as then known. 6. Dante Alighieri was born in Florence, A. D. 1265, and was liber- ally educated at the universities of Padua, Bologna, and Paris. Critics call him the most original of all writers and tlie greatest poet that ap- peared between the age of Augustus (ii242) and that of Elizabeth (g.'tll). He may almost be said to have created the language in which he wrote, which, though spoken in common intercourse, had never been made a medium of literature. His genius was early stimluated bj' his love for Beatrice Portinari, which, after her early death, inspired the greatest of his poems. The family of Dante were Guelfs, and he at one time held high office in Florence, where that party was supreme. But the Guelfs themselves were divided into the Whites and the Blacks; and Dante, belonging to the defeated Whites, was condemned in 1302 to exile and confiscation of his nroperty. The rest of his life was spent in exile; and, though a welcome and honored guest at the courts of several princes, he never ceased to long for his beloved city. He became a Ghibelline by principle, and, in his Latin treatise De Monarchid, set forth the loftiest ideal of the empire, as a divine institu- tion for the maintenance of justice in the world. His greatest work— the one mentioned in the text— is the Divina Commedia. It is called a comedy, neither in the classical nor the modern sense; for it is the most somber of poems; but, because it is written in the language of the common people. There is an admirable English translation by Profes- sor H. W. Longfellow, with notes, which contain a treasure of informa- tion concerning mediaeval literature and life. 7. The fiither of Petrarch was, with Dante, an exile from Florence, and his son was born, A. D. 1.S04, at Arezzo, in Tuscany. The family afterwards removed to Avignon, the seat of the papal court. Francis Petrarch studied law at Montpcllier and Bologna; but the chief delight of his life, then and afterwards, was the reading of Latin authors, some of whose long-lost manuscritits he discovered in tlie dust and rubbish of old monasteries. In this way he rescued two lo.st orations of Cicero at Liege, and the same author's "Familiar Letters" at Verona. He spent much time in copying and arranging fragments of ancient writ- ings, often making complete what had existed only in scattered pieces; and thus contributed more than any other man of his age to the Revi- val of Learning. He was, moreover, one of the three founders of Italian literature, which attained perfection in his three hundred sonnets and fifty canzoni addressed to Laura de Sade. This lady was distinguished not more by her rank, wealth, and beauty, than by her lofty purity of character, which added a reverent respect to the life-long devotion of Petrarch. One of his finest poems is that in which he describes her death in 1848. Petrarch received the laurel-crown of poetry in the capital at Rome in 1341, by the award of the senate. For a time he was an ad- herent of Rienzi (g 367), and shared his dream of a new Roman Repub- lic. 252 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. He was Archdeacon of Parma, and canon of several cathedrals, but declined the higher dignities that were offered him, for fear of losing his independence and leisure for literary work. He had great influence with the princes of his time, who employed him in important embas- sies. His favorite residence was the beautiful Vaucluse, a romantic glen in tlie mountains near Avignon. He died A. D. 1374, at Arqua, his later home among the Euganean Hills. 8. Boccaccio was born in Paris, A. D. 1313, though the son of a Flor- entine merchant. He was forty years of age when he wrote, at the re- (luest of Q,ueen Joanna of Naples (§408 and note), his Decamerone or Hundred Tales, on wliich his fame principally rests. In later life he lectured on Dante, and wrote a commentary on the Liferno. Like his friend Petrarch he did good service in the Revival of Learning by col- lecting and copying manuscripts, many of which he found during his missions to various foreign courts. He died a year after Petrarch. 9. Sir John Mandeville, sometime called the English Herodotus, was born at St, Albans about 1300. After practicing medicine for a time, he set out for Palestine, where he entered the service of the sultan of Egypt. He traveled extensively through various countries of Asia, and reached Pekin, where he spent three years. The narrative which he wrote of his wonderful adventures, is always amusing and .sometimes true; but lie borrowed many extravagant stories from the romances of the Middle Ages. Tlie chief value of his work is in its being the flrst extended example of English prose. 10. Geoffrey Chaucer was born at London, A. D. 1328, and became a favorite of King Edward III. and his court. In 1373 he went to Genoa on a mission from the king, and met tlie then nged poet, Petrarch, whose Intlucnc' apiicus in some of his poems. Chaucer's chief work is the "Cniiti rhm\- Tales," the plot of which is said to have been suggested by tiK' l>i;uniii'nine. Tlie several stories are told by pilgrims .iourneying t<") the shrine of Thomas a Becket (§382), who represent all varieties of character, from sailor to baron, and from parson to plowman. The language differs much from the English of our day, but its difficulties are soon conquered, and there is an inexhaustible charm in the liveli- ness of the descriptions and the rich and varied humor of the narra- tive. 11. John Wicliffe (§381) was born about 132-1, and was educated at Oxford, where, in IStil, he became master of Baliol College. Though often called in question by high tribunals for his denunciation of the corruptions of the times, he had a powerful protector in John of Gaunt, and in later years in Q,ueen Anne, wife of Richard II. The citizens of London also sympathized with him, and rallied in his defense. He was exi)clled at last from his chair at Oxford, and, retiring to his parish of Lutterworth, devoted his last three years to his translation of the Bible, and to the writing of tracts for the religious instruction of the com- mon people. He died December, 1384. 12. Lorenzo was a zealous collector of ancient manuscripts, gems, and statuary, which he liberally placed at the service of students, and in every way promoted and encouraged their use. His library, still ex- isting la Florence, contains many rare treasures. During Lorenzo's life-time, Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, kept a secretary- for many years in this library employed in copying rare manu>cii|)ts; so that "the Florentine citizen's liberal tastes benefited distant lands. The " New Academy " founded by Lorenzo, was an association of learned men, whose influence, so far as it extended, recommended the philoso- phy of Plato as a substitute for that of Aristotle, which had hitherto been supreme. The new school of Italian sculpture, of which Michael Angelo was the greatest reiiresentativc, owed its origin to his patron- age, and the pre-eminence of Florence, in the history of Art, dates from his time. CHAPTER XIII. DAWN OF THE MODERN ERA. HE two centuries following the Crusades were full of changes. A rich commercial class sprang up, whose travels and enterprises drew the north and the south, the east and the west, into closer acquaintance. Three arts, bor- rowed from the remote east, oc- casioned immense revolutions in F.urope. The first was the manu- facture of gunpowder, which put an end to feudal power and the supremacy of armed knights. Hitherto, the castle on the cliff, as long as food and water held out, could withstand, all attacks of common citizens, while a single Costumes of XV. Century, horscman, encascd in steel, could put to flight a hundred unarmed peasants. Gunpowder went far to equalize ranks. 431. The inventions of paper and printing did still more to equalize knowledge. So long as the only books were copied with the pen on costly parchment, learning was for those who could devote life or fortune to its pursuit. Paper was made from cotton, at Samarcand, as early as the seventh century; but cotton was then rare and costly in Europe, and it was six hundred years later that linen rags were found to answer the same purpose. Printing from solid blocks had long been practiced in China; but, (253) 2 54 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. in 1438 A. D., a Dutch mechanic, named Kos'ter, in- vented movable types of wood; and, six years later, John Gutenberg, of Mentz, cut similar types from metal, with which he printed the first edition of the Bible. The new art was eagerly adopted in England, France, Italy, and Spain, and books were soon within the reach of the common people. 432. During the fifteenth century most of the great duchies and counties became absorbed into centralized monarchies. The seventeen provinces which were called collectively the '" Low Countries,'' or Netherlands, were united under the dukes of Burgundy. The marriage of Charles VIII. (§ 414) with the Duchess Anne of Brittany, annexed the last of the great fiefs to the crown of France. The Wars of the Roses (§§ 396-399) had destroyed feud- alism in England. Many noble families had become ex- tinct, and their lands were bought, in some instances, by merchants — marking a great rise of the industrious classes into honor and dignity. 433. The kingdom of Naples was reunited with that of Sicily and Aragon (^366) under Alfonso V. His suc- cessor added the crown of Navarre to those of his other dominions ; and all Spain soon afterwards became consoli- dated by the marriage of Fer'dinand' of Aragon with Isa- bel'la of Castile and Leon, and by their joint conquest of the Moors in the south. These brave and brilliant people had maintained a Mohammedan empire in Spain for nearly eight hundred years, and in arts and learning they far surpassed their conquerors. Their cities were adorned with the most beautiful buildings in Europe, but their power had long been declining. In 1492, their capital, Granada, was taken by Ferdinand and Isabella, and the great penin- sula was again under Christian rule. 434. The greatness and goodness of Isabella were sul- lied by cruel bigotr}'. The Spanish Intpn'sition, a secret DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 255 court for the punishment of heretics and dissenters, was established early in her reign. On the suspicion of heresy, any man miglit be bruught before the black-hooded intpiis- itors, who sat in a dark chamber underground. He had no opjjortunity for defense ; he did not see the faces of his judges, nor know the special acts of which he was accused; and rarely, if ever, did he again see the light of day. Another cruel act was the exile of the Jews, who had hitherto been better treated in Spain than in any other country of Europe, and were the most enlightened and useful of her suljjects. Thousands died from the hardships of the voyages ; those who sur\i\ed, enriched other lands by their skill and industr\-, and the fatal decline of Spain began at the ]>roudest moment of her triumph. ■435. Age of Discoveries. — The greatest glor}- of Isabella is connected with the disco\ery of America. The Portuguese^ had been first to explore the Atlantic to the southward, and find a sea-route to India by ; passing the Cape of Good Hope. The rich ' '•* 7 1 Indian trafiic, as carried on by Alexandria and the Red I Sea, had afforded much of the wealth of Venice. It was I now diverted to the Atlantic, and the great Republic be- 1 gan to decline. The Portuguese established a number of (important trading posts (?^574) in India, of which " Goa I the Golden," on the western coast, was the principal. 436. The yet bolder enterprise of Chris'topher Colum'- bus, with the aid of Queen Isabella, resulted in the open- ing of a Aum' World to the knowledge of Eu- ropeans. In his first and second voyages, Co- lumbus^ visited what we know as the West India Islands ; in his third, he touched the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. 1498. One year before, Sebas'tian Cab'ot,'' a Venetian in the service of Henry VII. of England (§ 399), had explored the North American coast from Hudson to Chesapeake Bay. The Portuguese A. D. 1492. 256 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Cabral', in 1500, took possession of Brazil in the name of his king. 437. The great Columbus died in poverty in the country which he had enriched by his discoveries. His son, as viceroy of the New World, conquered and colonized Cuba. Other Spaniards followed, moved by the same romantic spirit of adventure that had been nourished by the wars against the Moors. Vas'co Nu'nez de Balbo'a,^ in 15 13, ascended the mountains of the Isthmus, and, first of Europeans, looked westward over the waters of the Pacific. Magel'lan, in 1520, passed the southern-most point of the American continent, crossed the Pacific, and discovered the islands afterwards called Philippine, from Philip II. of Spain. He was killed on one of these islands, but his squadron completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. 438. Most of the natives of the New World were sav- ages, living by hunting and fishing, or upon the spontane- ous products of the soil. They were inclined to be friendly, and, in their awe of superior power, regarded the white men as messengers from heaven ; but the cruelty and deceit of the Spaniards soon changed their minds. Two great empires, Mexico and Peru, had gained a high degree of civilization. Their cities were guarded by a well-ordered police ; their magnificent temples were adorned with ex- quisite carvings in stone and wood, and their markets were filled with delicate and costly merchandise. P>y the pos- session of fire-arms and horses, two Spanish adventurers, Cor'tez in Mexico and Pizar'ro in Peru, were '^'^ '" able to conquer these two empires with mere handfuls of European troops. To satisfy the Spanish thirst for gold, the natives were driven to work the mines, and it is said that, in Peru, four-fifths of the laborers perished in these unaccustomed toils. The good priest Las Cas'as'' made every effort to relieve their sufferings. When a brill- iant young student of the University of Salamanca, he had SPANISH EXPLORERS. 257 accompanied the second expedition of Columbus ; and his heart was so touched by the helplessness and heathenism of the natives, that he renounced all ambition and chose a life of poverty, in order to elevate and help them. His fifty years of devoted effort were not in vain, though few of his countrymen shared his humane spirit. Among other plans, he procured the introduction of Africans, who seemed better able to endure the hardships of the mines and the plantations; but he lived to pronounce the scheme a failure, for it enslaved one race without rescuing the other. 439. Other Spaniards explored the western coasts of North America, and laid the humble founda- tion of our modern California. Fer'dinand de So'to, from the eastward, penetrated to the Mississippi, in 1539, and explored the basin of the Arkansas; but he died in the wilderness, leaving no monument of his discov- eries. The French were, very early, attracted to the fish- eries of Newfoundland, but they were among the last to make settlements in the New World. The unveiling of this great continent, wath its wonderful products and its immeasurable wealth, had a great effect in arousing the mind of Europe to new enterprise, and was among the chief causes that led to the Modern Era. Point out the several Christian and Moorish kingdoms in Spain. The different commercial routes between Europe and Asia. Trace the voyages of Columbus, Cabot, Balboa, Magellan. Point out Mexico and Peru. Read Prescott's History of Ferdinand and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, and Conquest of Peru ; Irving's Life of Columbus; and Ma- jor's Life of Prince Henry the Navigator. NOTES. 1. Ferdinand, surnamed the Catholic, was, perhaps, the ablest and most successful monarch of his age. His own kingdom, since the ac- quisition of Catalonia in the twelfth century, had been the third mari- time power in the world; his marriage with Isabella united all the Christian kingdoms in Spain under one rule; and their joint efforts soon established order and peace in place of the turbulent violence of the nobles. The two sovereigns sat as judges once a week to hear the complainis of their poorer subjects, who could not afiford the expense Hist.— 17. 258 MEDIyEFAL HISTORY. of ordinary lawsuits. TJiey also provided for the better education of the youth of tlieir realms, inviting learned men to settle in tlie coun- try, and founding universities. Tlie shrewd policy of Ferdinand often degenerated into fraud, especially in his wars with Louis XII. of France for the possession of southern Italy, it is said that "Spain called him the Wise; Italy, the Pious; France and England, the Perfidious." 2. Tlie chief promoter of Portuguese enterprise in this direction was Prince Henry, called "the Navigator" (^A. D. l;^9-l-14ti0), "to whose en- lightened foresight and perseverance the human race is indebted for the maritime discovery witliin one century, of more than lialf the globe." He was half an Englishman; for ids mother, Pliilippa, was daughter of John of Gaunt, and granddaughter of King P'dward III. (see jiji :587-;591). At the age of 21, lie had so distinguished himself in war against the Moors, that the Pope, the emperor, and the kings of En- gland and Castile offered him the chief command in their respective armies. But the prince desire 1 something better tlian military glory. He was Granil Master of tlie Portuguese military " ( )rder of Clirist," and believed tliat its immense revenues could be spent in no better way tlian in extending the boundaries of Christendom, and in satisfying man's rightful craving for knowledge concerning the world tliat has been given him for a home. "Accordingly, in 1418-11), he took up his alDode on the extreme south-western jjoiut of Europe, tlie promontory of Sagres in Algarve, of which kingdom he was made governor in per- petuity, with the purjiose of devoting liimself to the study of astronomy and matliematics, and to the direction and encouragement of the ex- peditions which he proposed to send fortli. There he erected an observa- tory—the first in Portugal— and, at great expense, procured the services of Mestre Jacome, from Majorca, a man very skillful in tlie art of nav- igation and in the making of maps and instrunieiits, to instruct the Portuguese officers in those sciences." Tlie prince had gained much in- formation from the Moors concerning the people and natural features of western Africa; tlie main practical results of his enterprises were tlie rediscovery and colonization of Madeira, the settlement of the Azores, and the exploration of the western Al'ricaii coast as far as the Gambia. But he accomplished more than this in leading the way to bolder the- ories of navigation. "Until his day the pathways of the liumaii race had been the mountain, the river, and the plain; the strait, the lake, and the inland sea. It was he who first conceived the tin )ught of open- ing a road through the unexplored ocean— a njad replete with danger, but abundant with promise." The above facts and quotations are from the Enc.t/clopo'dia Britannica. 3. Christoforo Colombo, or. as he afterwards I^atiuized his name, Columbus, was of Genoos;' birth. In cliildhood he studied geometrj', astronomy, and navigation at the University of Pavia, but at the age of fourteen he entered upon that sea-fariug" life in which he attained greater glory than any mariner before or since. For many years he sailed the Mediterranean, engaged now in commerce and then in war; but, in 1470, at the age ot thirty or thirty-five, he repaired to Ijishon, which Prince Henry (note 2) had made the .chief center of maritime enterprise. Here he married, and in the intervals of expeditions to the west coast of Africa, supported his family by making maps and charts for navigators. A grand scheme was alreaily taking possession of his mind; viz, to push boldly to the westward until he should reach, as he confldentl.y believed, Japan. In 1477 he sailed a hundred leagues north of Iceland. His first etfbrts to obtain means for his great enteri>risc were in vain, and he became so poor that on his way to tlie Spanish court, he was compelled to beg for bread at a convent. Still his lot■t^• resolution sustained him, and, after eiglit years' delay, Queen Isabella, with a spirit as noble as his own, exclaimed. " I will undertake the enterprise for mine own crown of Castile, and if it be needful, I will pawn my jewels to defray the expense." Columbus was matlc High Admiral and Vicero.y of all the lands he might discover; three small ships were placed at his disposal, and he set sail from Palos, Aug. 3, 1492. After stopping at the Canaries to I'efit, the little squadron pushed westward into those unknown regions which were peoi^led with inde- scribable terrors for the ignorant and superstitious seamen. It is said that Columbus was heading for what is now the coast of Georgia, when NOTES. 259 a flight of birds from tlie southward convinced him tliat he should find land sooner in that direction; and so it was ordered tliat the Ba- hamas instead of our own territory were first occupied by (Spaniards. Just as the discontent of tlie sailors was breaking into dangerous mu- tinj- the glad cry, " Land ahead ! " was heard from tlie mast, and a low, green island bordered with trees was soon seen. With joy and thank- fulness only to be measured bj' the painful burden of anxiety which he had borne, the great admiral knelt on the threshold of the New World, and named the island San Sulvador. Still, and alway.s, he be- lieved that he had only touched unknown parts of Asia; he identified'' the mines of Veragua Vitli those from which Solomon had obtained the gold for his temi)le, being in the same latitude,, and, according to his calculations, equally distant from the River Ganges. Irving says of Columbus, " His conduct was characterized by the grandeur of his views and the magnanimity of his spirit. In.stead of scouring the newly-found countries, like a grasping adventurer eager only for immediate gain, he sought to ascertain their soil and produc- tions, tlieir rivers and harbors; he was desirous of colonizing and cul- tivating them; of conciliating and civilizing the natives; of building cities, introducing the useful arts, subjecting every thing to the control of law, order, and religion, and thus of founding regular and prosper- ous empires." While Queen Isabella lived, Columbus had a friend who shared his high enthusiasm, and comfoi'ted him in calamities wliich she could not entirely prevent. Her death, in 1504, left him at the mercy of a crafty and ungrateful king, and his last years were full of sorrows. 4. John Cabot, a Venetian pilot and navigator, received from Henry VII. a patent authorizing himself and his sons to take possession, in the king's name, of any "islands or regions inhabited by infidels," whicli they could discover at their own risk and expense. Sebastian Cabot, tJie most distinguished of the sons, was born at Bristol, England, in 1177. A few years after the voyage mentioned in the text, he sailed as far south as the extreme point of Florida. Entering the service of the King of Spain, in 1512, he became a member of the Council of the In- dies, at Seville; but afterwards returned to England, where he died at great age. 5. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, had been told by the natives of Central America, of a vast ocean beyond the mountains and the southward. With a chosen band of hardy men, he climbed, first through miles of tropical forests, and then over rocky precipices, until he reached an airy regioiLwitliin siglit of the summit. Then, leav- ing his followers behind, "witTi a puli>italing heart he ascended alone the l)arc mountain-top. It was as if a new world were unfolded to him; separated from all hitherto known by this mighty barrier of mountains. Below him extended a vast chaos of rock and forest, and green savan- nas and wandering streams, while at a distance the waters of the prom- ised ocean glittered in the morning sun." "At this glorious prospect, Vasco Nunez sank upon liis knees and poui-ed out tlianks to God." He marked the scene of the discovery with a cross made from a fair and tall tree, and with a mound of stones, inscribing, also, the names of the Spanish sovereigns on the trees. Afterwards, descending to the sea, he marched into the water witli drawn sword and waving banner, and proclaimed that he had taken "actual possession of these seas and lands and coasts and poi'ts and islands, and was prepared to maintain and defend them in the name of the Castiliau sovereigns." 6. Irving states (Columbus and his Companions, Appendix XXVIII.) that it was the father of Las Casas who accomiianied Columbus on his second voyage, and that the young priest first visited the New ^Vorld in company with Ovando, in 1502. In any case he devoted a long life to the .service of the oppressed. "As a missionary, he traversed the wil- derness of the New World in various directions, seeking to convert and civilize them; as a protector and champion, he made several voyages to Spain, vindicated their wrongs before courts and monarchs, wrote volumes in their behalf, and exhibited a zeal and constancy and in- trepidity worthy of an apostle. He died at the advanced age of ninety- two years." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. — BOOK II. Section 1. What are the divisions of Median'al History? 284 2. What had the northern liarbarians to do with the changes which introduced the Dark Ages? 283, 285 3. What was the power of the Church in the Dark Ages? 285 4. Where were tlie various tribes, A. D. 500? 286-288 5. What nations successively governed Italy ? 288, 289 6. What non-German races in Europe ? 290 7. What was the extent of the Eastern Empire? 291 8. Describe the reign of Justinian; of Ileraclius; of Leo III. 292 -294 9. The Macedonian Dynasty. 295 10. Tell the story of Mohammed. 296-298 11. Of his successors. 299 12. Describe their invasions of Spain and France; their purpose and results. 300-302 13. The three Moslem empires, and their progress in civilization. 303, 304 14. What was done by Saracen pirates? 305 15. Describe the rise of tlie C'arlovingians. 301, 306—308 16. The reign and character of Charlemagne. 308-313 17. What became of his dominions after his death? 314, 315 18. What is meant by the Feudal System? 316-319 19. What occasioned the rise of the Saxon Line of emperors ? 320 20. By whom, and for how long, were the Roman emperors chosen? 321 21. Describe the last of the Saxon, and the greatest of the Franconian emperors. 22. Tell the story of Henry IV. and Hildebrand. 23. Describe the Northmen and their conquests in the East. 24. Their piracies and settlements in the West. 25. The rise of their Italian kingdom. (260) 322, 323 324. 325 326, 327 328, 329 iZ^ QUESTIONS.— BOOK II. 261 Section 26. Their conquest of England. 332, Ty^T) 27. The sons and nephew of William the Conqueror. 334, 335 28. Who defended France against the Northmen ? 336, 337 29. Describe France under the first two Capets. 338, 339 30. The First Crusade, its causes and results. 340-346 31. Who had part in the Second Crusade? 347 32. Describe Saladin and the Third Crusade. 348, 349 33. What was done in the Fourth Crusade? 351 34. By the Emperor Frederic II. in the Fifth? 352 35. What occasioned an alliance of Christians and Saracens ? 353 36. Describe the Crusades of Louis IX. of France. 354, 355 37. What became of Acre ? 356 38. What were the consequences of the Crusades? 357 ~ 359 39. What became of the three military Orders? 360, 361 40. WHiat relations existed between emperors and popes? 362 41. Who were Guelfs and Ghibellines? 363 42. Describe the wars of Frederic I. in Italy. 364 43. The character and reign of Frederic II. 365 44. Of the first of the Hapsburgs. 365 45. Tell the story of Charles of Anjou in Italy, 366 46. Of Rienzi. 367 47. What can you tell of Italian cities and merchants? 368-370 48. Of the German cities and people? 371, 372 49. Describe the rise of the middle class, 373 50. The character of the Turks. 303, 374 51. Tell the story of Genghis Khan. 375 52. Describe the Mongol dominion. 376 53. The career of Tamerlane. 377 54. The rise of the Ottoman Empire. 378-380 55. The character and reign of Henry IL of England. 381, 382 56. Of his two sons. 383 57. What great event marks the reign of Henry III. ? 384 58. Describe the first two Edwards in England. 385, 386 59. The wars of Edward III. 387, 389- 406 60. The reign of Richard II. 390 61. Name the three Lancastrian kings. 392 — 39^ 62. Describe the wars of the Lancastrians in France. 393, 394 63. Who was the King-maker, and why so called? 397 64. Name the three Yorkist kings. 397-399 65. What is meant by the Wars of the Roses ? 396 562 MEDI.'EVAL HISTORY. 66. Describe their end and their consequences. 67. What events mark the reigns of Louis VI. and VII. in France ? 68. Describe the crusade against the Albigenses. 69. The character and reign of Louis IX. 70. Of Philip IV. 71. Wliat three tings ended the elder line of Capet? 72. DeNcribe the first two Valois kings. 73. The condition of France under Charles VI. 74. What changes occurred under Cliarles VII. ? 75. Describe the character and reign of Louis XI. 76. The condition of Germany in the 14th and 15th centuries. 77. Who were the seven electors? 78. What sons of Charles IV. wore the imperial crown? 79. Describe the Council of Constance, its acts and their consequences. 418 -421 80. Wliat was done ])y the councils of Basle and Ferrara ? 42L, 422 81. What can you tell of the Hapsburgs? 82. Name some great teachers in the Middle Ages. 83. Name and describe the oldest universities. 84. What changes occurred in European languages? 85. What led to the revival of Learning? 86. What important inventions toward the end of the Middle Ages? 87. How were several western nations consolidated? 88. Descrijje the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 89. The Portuguese voyages of disco\ery. 90. Tell the story of Columbus. 91. Describe the New World and its inhabitants. 92. Name other discoverers and their enterprises. Section 399 400 401, 402 403 404 405 406, 407 408, 409 410 411 -414 415 416 417. 418 423, 424 425 426 427, 428 429 430. 431 432, 433 434, 435 435 436, 437 438 436 -439 BOOK III.— MODERN HISTORY. CHAPTER I. THE FRENCH IN ITALY. W French Troops Entering an Italian City. K have seen that the invention of gunpowder (§430) destroyed the mihtary supremacy of knights and nobles, but at first it seemed hkely to aggrandize the kings more than it elevated the people. Instead of the feudal levies, which served, at most, only forty days at a term, and were always crumbling away when most needed, a king could now have a regular standing army at his command; and long foreign wars became possible. 441. The first of these modern expeditions was the madcap invasion of Italy by Charles VIII.' of France (§414). The pretext was in the claim of his house to the crown of Naples (§408), but an imme- (263 )> A. D. 1494. 264 MODERN HISTORY. diate reason was that Lu'dovi'co Sfor'za^ wanted to poison his nephew, the duke of Milan, and thought that the pres- ence of a French king as h's ally might prevent the pun- ishment of his crime. 442. Alexander VI. ^ occupied the throne of St. Peter from A. D. 1492 to 1503, and, during his pontificate, all Italy was filled with corruption and violence. At Flor- ence the eloquent sermons of Savon'aro'la,'' a Dominican monk, effected a partial reformation of morals. He de- clared that the French were ministers of divine wrath against the wickedness of the times ; and welcomed their king to Florence ; but, when Charles proposed to tax the city and recall the Medici (§ 370) who had just been ex- pelled, the Florentines flew to arms, and he was forced to retire. 443. Charles passed through Rome to Naples. The Aragonese king (§ 366) abdicated, his son was expelled from the capital, and the whole kingdom was gained by the French almost without a blow. But Charles' foolish vanity and arrogance roused the indignation of the Neapol- itans; and by this time all Italy had recovered from its first shock of alarm, and had united in a league against him. He quitted Naples for the north, and the kingdom was lost as speedily as it had been won. 444. This foolish war kindled a thirst for conquest in the kings of France, for which Italy suffered long. At the same time it led to better acquaintance among the na- tions, which resulted in some important alliances. Philij),' heir of the Netherlands, married Joan'na,^ daughter of Fer- dinand and Isabella of Spain ; while her younger sister, Cath'erine, became the wife of Arthur of England, and, upon his death, of his brother Henry, the heir of the English crown. These two marriages may be said to have shaped the history of the sixteenth century. Charles," son of Philip and Joanna, inherited Spain and the Indies, WARS IN ITALY. 265 southern Italy and the Netherlands, and was elected to the imperial crown, A. I). 15 19, which made him the foremost figure in that eventful age. 445. Charles VIII. of France left no son, and, upon his early death, the crown went to his cousin Louis, duke of Orleans. To the royal claim upon Naples, Louis XII. added a title of his own to the duchy of Milan, and soon sent an army to enforce it. All Lombardy was annexed without a blow, and the king- dom of Naples was almost as easily reconquered. But Ferdinand of Aragon — the craftiest monarch of his age — though an ally of Louis, gained possession of the Neapol- itan fortresses by trickery, and drove out all the French. And, though Louis doomed thousands of brave men to die of pestilence in the marshes of southern Italy, he never succeeded either in regaining the kingdom or in punishing the fraud. 446. The League of Cambray united the emperor, the pope, and the kings of France and Spain against the Venetian Republic. It was the first close alliance of ereat European powers since the crusades; and, ° . -r n 1 1 1 • • A. D. 1508. oddly enough, its manifesto declared their main object to be a war against the "Infidel," after having first put an end to the ambition and greed of Venice. This republic was, in fact, the only effective opponent of the Turks, and had just ended a war which deprived them of important dominions in the Levant. 447. The war of the League was carried on with fright- ful brutality. In one instance 6,000 men, women, and children were smothered in a cave near Padua, the French soldiers having deliberately kindled a fire at its , entrance. The pope, Ju'lius II., suddenly turned the balance by quit- ting his allies and forming a "Holy League," with Spain and Venice, against the French. Untamed by old age or his peaceful profession, he con- 2 66 MODERN HISTORY. stantly appeared on horseback at the head of his troops, enduring all the hardships of a severe winter. Gaston de Foix, the French commander, was called the " Thunder- bolt of Italy" on account of his swift, decisive movements. He gained many victories, but he was killed in the great battle of Ravenna, A. D. 15 12, and a few weeks later only three towns and three fortresses remained to the French of all their conquests in Italy. 448. The warlike Pope Julius was succeeded, in 15 13, by the Cardinal de' Medici, who took the name of Leo X. He resembled his father, Lorenzo (§370) in the perfec- tion of his tastes in art and literature, and in his liberal and courteous manners. But he was a pagan in faith and a libertine in morals; and he used his great power chiefly to enrich his family, who were again supreme in Florence. Louis XII. died in 1515, and his rival, Ferdinand, in 1 5 16. Ferdinand was the most successful monarch of his age, but his character is stained by falsehood, ingratitude, and base injustice.* (see note, p. 257). 449. Francis I. (A. D. 1^15-1547), succeeding his cousin as king of France, lost no time in renewing the war in Italy. His generals conducted an army of 64,000 men across the Alps by paths trodden hitherto only by mountain goats, and surprised the enemy by a sudden appearance upon the Lombard plain. The battle of Ma- rignano regained the Milanese duchy for Francis. 450. The emperor Maximilian died in 15 19, and the seven electors bestowed the crown upon Charles of Spain. In his envy and disappointment, Francis sought the alli- ance of Henry VIII. of England against the new eniperor, and had with him, near Calais, a famous inter- view, known as the Field of the Cloth of Gold, from the brilliant display of trappings on either side. But the emjjeror was, at the same time, courting the friendship of Henry and his great minister Wolsey, promising his FRANCIS I. A PRISONER. 267 influence to make the latter pope at the next vacancy. Henry tried to make peace between his two great allies; but the causes of enmity were too deeply seated, and the contests for Burgundy, Milan, and Naples broadened into an almost continuous war of two hundred years between France and the House of Austria. 451. In 1 52 1, Francis lost the duchy of Milan, and Pope Leo X. is said to have died of joy at the news. He was succeeded, in the papal chair, by Adrian, tutor of Charles V. — an honest man, who purified the Roman court during the few months of his reign. Francis was just ready for a new invasion of Italy, when he was de- serted by his kinsman and most powerful subject, the Duke of Bourbon. Having been injured and bitterly in- sulted by the king's mother, Bourbon went over to the emperor, and agreed with him and the English king, upon a triple partition of France. Henry VIII. actually advanced within thirty-three miles of Paris; but his allies failed to support him, and France was not divided. 452. In 1524, Francis marched into Italy with every prospect of victory. He was defeated, however, in a great battle before Pavia, and was made a prisoner. For a year he was held a captive in Spain, and finally released only upon his promise to restore Burgundy (§413) to Charles. As soon as he was free, Francis broke his royal word, and hostilities were renewed. He gained little, although Pavia was taken and given up to pillage in revenge for his disaster before its walls. A truce was agreed upon in the treaty of Cambray — known as the Ladies' Peace, because it was ne- gotiated by the emperor's aunt and the king's mother, A. D. 1529. Trace the march of Charles VIII. through Italy. Point out Ravenna. Padua. Pavia. Milan. Venice. The dominions of Charles V., §444. Read Villari's Life of Savonarola; Ranke's History of the Popes; Dyer's History of Modern Europe, Vol. I. 268 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Charles VIII., son of Louis XI., and Charlotte of Savoy, became king by liis father's death, in 1483; but, as he was only in his'l4th year, the regency had been committed to his elder sister, Anne of Beaujeu. Either from jealousy or simple inditlVniicc, Louis had paid no attention to his son's education; and, to the power and duties of a king, Charles could only bring an untrained and ignorant mind. No wonder that his judgincnt was constantly at fault, and that his impulses, though soniVtinies gciieious and kindly, led him into ruinous undertakings. The festivities with which he celebrated his departure for Italy, used up the entire sum which was to have •lefrayrtl the expense of the war, and he could only proceed by bonowing and jiawning the jew- els of his kinswomen, the Duchess of Savoy and the ^Marchioness of Montferrat. The wealiness and corruption of Italy, rather than his own power, led to his rapid conquests, and he had no ability to keep what he had so easily won. Charles married Anne, Duchess of Bretagne; their three little children died before an accident put an end to his own life in 1498. 2. Ludovico Sforza, or Louis the Moor — so called from his swarthy complexion— was one of those adventurers, not uncommon in his day, who gained wealth and power by practicing upon the weaknesses of sov- ereigns. His brother, the Duke of Milan, was murdered in 1476, leaving a little son eight years old. The widowed Duchess was recognized as Regent; but Ludovico wrested the power from her hands, imprisoned his nephew, and, when the Kingof Naples interfered, invit<'e in 1492, the same year that Columbus discovered America, anil it was l)y his edict tliat the newly found continents and islands were divided between the Spaniards and the Portuguese. 4. Savonarola was born at Ferrara, 1452, and became Prior of San Marco, in Florence, in 1491. He used his great power in advocacy at once of republican freedom and of Christian morality. Lorenzo de' Medici, who greatly admired him, made many efforts to win the elo- quent prior to his side; but Savonarola was firm, and even refused his blessing to Lorenzo when dying, except upon the condition that he would restore liberty to Florence. After the expulsion of the Medici, in 1494, the liberal party, with Savonarola at its head, gained ascend- ancy, and established a new constitution, based upon Christian princi- ples. At>juiing tlie former luxury and license of Florentine life, this party called its members Piagiumi, or weepers. But its extreme meas- - ures led to a re-action; Alexander VI. interfered, and Savonarola, re- sisting his authority, was "arrested, tortured, condemned, and strangled in May, 1498." 5. Philip was the son of Maximilian I. and the Duchess Mary, of Burgundy (iJ424), and inherited from his mother the seventeen wealthy provin(;es known collectively as the Netherlands or Low Countries. They are named in ii5r2, note. 6. In 1504, upon the death of Queen Isabella, Joanna was crowned Queen of Castile and Leon; but, so fee))le was lier mind, that the royal power was exercised, first by her husliand, afterwards by her father, and finally by her son. Upon Philip's death, in 150(i, slie became totally insane, and spent the nearly fifty years that reniaineanding near Tunis he stormed its fortress, routed Barbarossa in a pitched battle, occupied the city, and restored its rightful sovereign, whom Barbarossa had expelled. He moreover set free a vast multitude of Christian captives, whom he clothed and sent home to F.urope. Francis I., though many of his own subjects were thus liberated, hated Charles all the more for his great success. He took Barbarossa into his own pay, and renewed hostilities with the emperor. To guard against invasion, he laid waste a rich and beautiful tract of his own dominion, on the lower Rhone. Villages were destroyed, crops burned, and wells poisoned. Charles marched to besiege Marseilles; but this horrid plan of defense was too successful, and he had to retreat with a loss of 30,000 men. 466. Upon the death of Zapolya, Solyman seized Buda, the capital of Hungary, which for 150 years continued to be a Mohammedan city, both in religion and government. A second African expedition, made by Charles V. in 1542, resulted in failure. His fleet was destroyed by tempests, antl his army by famine and pestilence. The king of France, rejoicing in these disasters, raised five great armies to attack the various dominions of the emperor; but his enterprises ended in much loss and very little gain. His Turkish allies meanwhile found a ready market at Marseilles for the Chris- tian slaves whom they carried away from the coasts of Italy ' d THE FIRST RELIGIOUS WAR. 275 467. Again, as in the days of Charles Martel (§§300-302), it seemed possible that the Mediterranean would be sur- rounded by a great Mohammedan empire; but the prospect was far more terrible than before, for the Turks were a brutal race compared with the refined and intellectual Saracens. All the Christian powers were indignant at the alliance of Francis I. with these pirates; and Henry VIII, of England again joined Cliarles V. in an invasion of France. He captured Boulogne, ' ' ' '''^'" while the emperor took several towns and fortresses, and advanced within two days' march of Paris. 468. Francis was now forced to abandon his unnatural allies: he made peace with Charles, and promised to join him in the suppression of heresy. The Vaudois, a harm less people, who occupied the high Alpine valleys between France and Piedmont, were the first sufferers from this new alliance. They had kept the simple faith of the early Christian ages, and were glad to find themselves in substantial agreement with the Reformers. 'J'he armies of Francis now pursued them like wild beasts among their mountains, hurhng mothers with their children from the cliffs, and dragging off men to be chained in the royal galleys. In many towns of France and the Netherlands persons were burned to death for heresy. 469. In December, 1545, the Council of Trent was opened (§461). But, without waiting for its decisions, the emperor collected a great army, and made war on the Protestant princes. By a mixture of violence and fraud, he captured the elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of Hesse, and bestowed the dominions of the former on Duke Maurice of Saxony, whose descendants still retain them. The duke was a cousin of the rightful elector, who, while leading the Protestant armies, trusted him to govern and defend his dominions. His betrayal of the trust was almost a death blow to the Protestants. But Maurice, 276 MODERN HISTORY. having gained all he wanted, turned against the emperor, and nearly made him prisoner by a sudden movement. The bishops in council at Trent made a hasty retreat, and only met again after ten years' vacation. This first religious war in Germany was ended by the peace of Passau, 1552. The Smalcaldic League was dissolved, and its forces went to fight the Turks, who were overrunning all southern Hungary, and ravaging the Mediterranean coasts and islands. 470. In 1555, the sick and weary emperor resolved to throw off the burden of public care, and snatch a little repose before his death. His two rivals were already dead. He invested his son Philip with the lordship of all the Netherlands and the crown of Spain, while he recommended his brother Ferdinand (§462) to the electors for the imperial crown. He then took up his residence in a convent, at Yuste, in southern Spain, where he amused himself with gardening, watch-making, and music; though he still kept a keen eye on public affairs, and aided his children by his advice. Two years after his retirement, he was seized with a strange desire to . celebrate his own funeral. Clotlied as a monk, he joined the chant of the brotherhood about his empty coffin, but within a month this solemn farce was turned into reality. He died on the 21st of September, 1558. 471. The reign of Charles V. was one of the most eventful periods in history. Conquest and colonization in America, and struggles of religious principles in Europe, had made the world on which he closed his eyes, in 1558, a different one from that on which they had opened with the century. The Reformation had at one time affected Italy and Spain, Austria and Hungary, no less than north- ern Germany and England; but it was now checked in all the dominions of the Spanish-Austrian family. 472. The new society of Jesuits had much to do with this counter-reformation. Their founder was Ignatius Loy- THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 277 o'la, a Spanish cavalier, who in his youth had been severely wounded in battle. While slowly recovering, his mind, full of remorse for past sins, plunged eagerly into schemes for atonement by extending the Christian faith into regions of heathendom. So, while Luther was shaking the dominion of the church by his preaching, Loyola was preparing a movement which reestablished and extended its power. The Jesuits differed from most -of the other religious orders by their liberal studies, which developed all their talents, and made them the ablest of teachers. The influence which they gained over the princes and leading minds of Catholic Europe, may be read in the history of the next three centuries. The General of the order, residing at Rome, was made acquainted with each mem- ber's character and talents; and while he made use of the commanding intellect of some to manage kings and em- perors, he could employ the humble piety of others in missions to the savages of America, and the crowded cities of China and Japan. Point out the dominions of Charles V. on Map 9. ??444, 451. The conquests of Solyman. Trace the expeditions of Charles V. Point out the country of the Vaudois. Spires, Worms, Augsburg, Trent. Read Ranke's History of the Popes, and History of Germany during the Reformation ; Robertson's Life of Charles the Fifth, edited by Prescott ; Coxe's House of Austria. NOTES. 1. Frederic the "Wise was among the greatest German princes of his day. On the death of Maximilian, in 1519, the Saxou Elector became regent of tlie Empire, and was even offered tlie imperial crown; but, feeling tliat he liad not the means to act with the energy which the times demanded, he steadily refused it, and gave his vote to Charles of Austria. Under this obligation to the wise Elector, Charles could not immediately use extreme measures against Luther, who was a fa- vorite professor in the new university of Wittenberg, founded by Fred- eric, in 1502. It is said that Charles, in later years, ntiretted that he had not put an end to Luther's teachings by condemning liim to the stake; but now he quieted the fears of the people by re-affirming his safe con- duct, remarking that "if truth, and faith abode nowhere else, they ought ever to find a refuge in the courts of princes." 278 MODERN HISTORY. 2. Luther's version of the Scriptures first gave literary forms and permanence to tlie German language. It was closely modeled upon the speecli of the common people; "How does the mother say it?" was the question which he continually asked of his friends, whose notes, taken in the cottages of the poor, gave him valuable aid in his great under- taking. The New Testament appeared in 1522, shortly after his friendly de- tention in the Wartburg; the Old Testament, in 1.534. Luther was highly esteemed by many great German princes, who relied upon his counsel in matters afTecting their dominions. He died in 1546, the year after the opening of the Council of Trent, in the 63d year of his age. Though of moderate stature, Luther hadacommandingpresence; his eyes were dark and brilliant, his voice rich, clear, and of great power. Decision and energy marked every movement. Carlyle has said of him, "No more valiant man ever lived in that Teutonic kindred whose char- acter is valor; the thing he will quail before exists not on this earth or under it." And Heine has remarked, " He was not only the greatest, but the most German man of our history. In his character all the faults and all the virtues of the Germans are combined on the largest scale. He was not only the tongue, but the sword of his time." The princes were: John the Steadfast, Elector of Saxony, who had 5eded his brother, Frederic tlie Wise, in 1525; Prince Wolfgang of 3. succeed Anhalt; the Dukes of (irnliciiliaECfii, < 'ellc, and Mecklenburg; two Counts of Mansfeld; George, ISIaitiia v." of I'.randciibiUK ; and Philip, Landgrave of Hesse. The cities were Magdeinug, St ras))urg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- stance, Reutlingen, Windsheim, Memmingen, Lindau, Kempen, Heil- bronn, Issny, Weissenburg, Nordlingen, and St. Gallen. 4. Zwingli, or Zwingle, had received a liberal education at Basle and Vienna, and added to his familiarity with Plato, Aristotle, and Seneca a profound and intimate acquaintance with the sacred writers in their original languages. He was present, as chaplain, with a body of Swiss mercenaries, in the battle of Marignano; but afterwards used his great influence in dissuading his countrymen from the foreign military serv- ice which marked the period of greatest degradation in the Swiss re- publics. Becoming preacher to the famous monastery of Einsiedeln in 1516, Zwingle found himself in the midst of the grossest superstitions of his age and country; and thenceforth he sought to substitute Chris- tian intelligence and right living in his hearers for mere observances. He was of iilmost exactly the same age as Luther, and the two reform- ers Iji'gaTi about the same time to preach against the errors and abuses wliicli l)i>tli found in their respective fields of labor. But while Luther was willing to retain all rites and doctrines which were not expressly forbidden in the Scriptures, Zwingle went further, and wished to reject all that were not expressly commanded by the same authority. Called in 1518 to be preacher in the Cathedral at Zurich, Zwingle produced much excitement by the bold and frank spirit of his teachings; but the great Council of the canton sustained him against all oi)i)onents, and often sought and followed his advice concerning ijublic aflairs. The reformed faith was declared to be the state-religion of Zurich, Glarus, and Bern, while the Catholic party was stronger in most of the other cantons. These ditterences led to open war, and Zwingle was killed in the battle of Cappel, 1531. 5. William Farel was born at Gap, in France, 1480, studied in Paris, and |)it'aclied the reformed doctrines with great eloquence and success in must of the towns of Switzerland. It was ihroutih his influence that Protestantism was established in Geneva, and that Calvin was induced to take up his abode there. When both reformers were banished for a time from Geneva, Farel removed to Neufchatel, and founded a church which still exists. 6. John Calvin was a native of Picardy, in northern France. Being destined for the priesthood, he was sent to the University of Paris, where he became intensely engaged in a study of the Scrijjtures, and was led to a belief in the reformed doctrines. The zeal and energy of his preach- ing soon drew upon him the displeasure of the church, ahj, quitting his NOTES. 279 native land, he took refuge in Basle. Here he published the most Im- portant of all tiis works, the " Institutes of the Christian Religion," which he dedicated to King Francis I. Visiting Italy, he was kindly received by the Duchess Ren ^e, of Ferrara, a daughter of King Louis XII., who, like her cousin, Margaret of Navarre, was a warm friend of the reform- ers. But even her influence could not secure his safety, and he with- drew to Switzerland, inteTiding to proceed into Germany. At Geneva, however, he yielded to Farel's urgent entreatj'. and was elected jireacher and teacher of theology in that city. During the re-action which ensued against the severe iloctrine and discipline of the reformers, Calvin with- drew to Strasliurg, and established a reformed congregation which served as a model to all the Protestant churches in France. In 1541, he complied with the pressing invitation of the senate of Geneva, and re- turned to the city, 'Wl'.ere he was welcomed with great joy and afTection. The 23 years that remained of his life were spent in untiring ett'orts to establish the Genevese church and state on firm foundations of intel- ligence and morality, and the results of his labors are still felt. He lived in poverty, steadily refusing to receive more than a bare support from those whom he was serving. It should be remarked that what we now call Frencli Switzerland, had then no connection with the Swiss ('(Hil'eil- eration. Geneva was a free city, having thrown ofT the civil jurisdiction of her bishop-counts, together "with their spiritual authority. Valais was a part of the Duchy of Savoy, and Neufchdtel belonged to the principality of Orange, on the Rhine. All three became Swiss states in 1815. 7. This princess, i-onietimes called the " Pearl of Valois," was dis- tinguished for her beauty, genius, and liberal culture. She was first married to the Duke of Alengon, but, two years after his deatli, in 152.5, she became the wife of Henry d'Albret, king of Navarre. She was tenderly attached to her brother, Francis I., and, during his captivity in Spain (H52), made the toilsome journey to Madrid to comfort him in his loneliness, and to negotiate a treaty with the emperor for his re- lease. Queen Margaret constantly used her influence for the protection of the Reformers and their adherents. The poet Marot was attached to her court, and dedicated to her his popular French version of the Psalms. The queen herself was the author of many works in prose and verse, of wliich the best known is a collection of tales called the "Heptameron." Her daughter, .leanne d' Albret, married Antony of Bourbon, and was the mother of King Henry IV., of France. See JiHi^-l, (jn- 8. Solyman was an enlightened as well as a powerful pi-ince; he adorned his cities with magnificent buildings, provided for the instruc- tion of youth, and encouraged artists and learned men. Not content with ruling all the dominions of the eastern Ca'sars, he aimed to make Constantinople the capital of the world; and the dissensions in Chris- tendom gave him every prospect of adding all western Europe to his realm. While, in 1526, the royal Council of Hungary were disputing about the means of resisting him, he was marching directly upon them with oOd.diKi men and 300 well-mounted cannon of the latest and most effective design. King Louis II. awaited him, with only 20,000 men, on the marshy plain of Mohacz, but was defeated and slain. Solyman marched oh toward Buda, marking his track by the smoking ruins of towns and villages. After two weeks" residence in Buda, he withdrew, carrying with him the valuable library of ^Matthias Corvinus (§429, note), and many works of art, to enrich Constantinople. Three years later, having conquered Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia, Solyman advanced again and laid siege to Vienna; but the German princes now forgot their dissensions for a time, and joined in so spirited a defense that he was compelled to retreat. Solyman long outlived his great ally and opponents in the West (see PofiO, .561), and the wave of Turkish conquests having reached its height in him, has ever since been declining. CHAPTER III. THE HOUSE OF ORLEANS IN FRANCE. iHE last six kings of the House of Valois (see Table, p. 214, and §405) belonged to the Orleans branch. The wars of Louis XII. in Italy have been mentioned (§445). At home he proved himself a wise and good king, by lightening the burdens and studying the welfare of his people. The hard lessons of his early life had not been lost upon him. He had been treated with injustice by the court, especially by the Lady of Beaujeu, a worthy daughter of Louis XL, who had been regent during her brother's minority; but when the early and sudden death of Charles VIII. raised him unexpect- edly to the throne, the courtiers began to fear that they had damaged their own prospects. Louis quieted their uneasiness by the generous remark that "it would ill become a king of France to remember the quarrels of a duke of Orleans." 474. The character of Francis I. (A. D. 15 15 -1547) has been shown in his dealings with Charles V. and Henry VIII. , and with his Vaudois subjects (§468). He little cared though his people were starving at home, so long as his hunger for "glory" could be fed by conquests in Italy; and though he talked much of the "honor of a (280) A Leaguer. REIGN OF HENRY II. 281 king," he broke his word without uneasiness. His inter- course with Italy, however, brought some increase of refinement to France; and he cUaimed the proud title of "Restorer of Letters and the Arts." (see §452). 475. During the reign of his son, Henry H. (A. D. 1547-T559), the Guises,^ an ambitious and powerful family descended from the dukes of Lorraine, gained great as- cendency at the French court. Mary of Guise became the wife of James V. of Scotland, and her daughter, the young Queen Mary (§498), was married to the dauphin, afterwards Francis W. During the regency of the elder queen, the Guises ruled the Scottish court, where they strongly opposed the English and Protestant influence. 476. Henry H. married Catherine de' Medici, ^ a niece of Pope Clement VH. Though he persecuted his own heretical subjects, Henry allied himself with the Protestants of Germany, that he might seize Metz, Toul, and Verdun, free imperial cities, which until very lately (1870) were still held by France. The Duke of Guise distinguished himself by defending Metz against the Emperor Charles V., who, with a grand army of 100,000 men, vainly tried to recapture it. 477. In war with Philip H., the French forces suffered a severe defeat at St. Quentin ; but Guise partly consoled the king by the capture of Calais,^ which, for more than 200 years, had been held by the English (§388). The treaty of Cateau Cambre'sis, two years later, closed this war with Philip. France agreed to resign all her claims in Italy, but retained Savoy. Calais was to be restored to England after eight years, or put to ransom for 1,500,000 crowns, to be paid by the French. But Calais, was never restored, nor was the ransom ever paid. During the festivities following the treaty, Henry II. was accidentally killed by the lance of one of his courtiers, whom he had. challenged to a tilt. 2 82 MODERN HISTORY. 478. The Reformed Church of France, deriving its doc- trines from Calvin, was first organized in the reign of Henry II. The French Protestants were now first called Huguenots. During the successive reigns of Henry's three sons, their mother, Catherine de' Medici, tried to rule France by playing off the Catholic party, led by the Guises, against the Huguenots who had the great Bourbon'* family, including the princes of Conde and the young king of Navarre,^ at their head. 479. Francis II." reigned less than a year and a half, and was succeeded, in 1560, by his brother, Charles IX., then only ten years old. The religious wars broke out with an attack of the duke of Guise and his armed retainers upon a congregation of Huguenots, who were met for worship in a barn. Frightful scenes of violence soon occurred in all parts of France. The pope and the king of Spain sent aid to the Catholics, while Elizabeth of En- gland furnished men and money to the Huguenots. 480. The (lueen-mother, who cared only too little for any religion, but who wanted to marry her favorite son Henry to the tjueen of England, at length procured a treaty of peace, by which the Huguenots were guaranteed freedom of worship, and restoration to all their rights. The good Admiral Coligny,''one of their leaders, was in- vited to court, and was treated with the greatest affection by Charles. 481. Two years later, the Princess Margaret was married to the young king Henry of Navarre, now the chief of the Huguenots, and all good men rejoiced in this token of a settled peace. It is hard to tell when the friendly policy was abandoned, but within six days after the ug 24, 1572. wedding, before daylight of St. Bartholomew's Day, a signal was given from the palace for a general massacre of the Huguenots! Instantly, as if a myriad of wild beasts had been let loose, the streets of Paris MASSACJiE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. 283 resounded with the yells of murderers and the despairing cries of their victims. Eight days and nights these horrid scenes went on in Paris, and they were repeated in all the cities of France. 482. King Charles had opposed his mother's plan, first suggested to her by the Duke of (kiise. She took as an order from him his frantic exclamation; "Well, then, kill them all, that not one may live to reproach me ! " Soon, however, his better soul awoke, and conscience never afterwards allowed him to rest. His sleep was broken by the cries of his victims, or by visions of their blood-stained faces, and the only approach to comfort he enjoyed was in listening to the hymns of his old Huguenot nurse. He died within two years of the massacre, in the 24th year of his age, A. D. 1574. 483. His brother, Henry HI., was a shallow youth, who gave more attention to his monkeys, parrots, and fantastic dress, than to the parties that were tearing France to pieces. The great feudal chiefs — even commandants of single towns and fortresses — set up independent governments in con- tempt of the royal power. The king's only surviving brother joined the Huguenot party in order to secure some new provinces for himself, and obtained for them a more favorable treaty than they had ever before enjoyed. 484. The Guises and most of the Catholic nobles now joined themselves in a league for the extirpation of the Huguenots. They accepted the protection of the king of Spain, and secretly planned the dethronement of Henry HI. Henry yielded all that they asked. He declared himself the head of the league, hoping thus to disarm its treasonable designs; and he revoked all grants of freedom of conscience. His weak policy did not succeed; his nominal leadership only lasted three months, and the duke of Guise, a man of immense force of character, was always the true leader. The death of the king's brother made the MODERN HISTORY. _ f leaguers yet more zealous, for Henry of Navarre, the head of the Huguenot party, was the next heir to the throne. The Duke of Guise seized Paris, and set up a revolutionary government, which continued six years in force. 485. Unable to meet this powerful subject in a fair field, Henry invited Guise to a conference, and caused him to be murdered in his very presence, A. D. 1588. This base deed was soon requited; for a Dominican monk, named Clement, obtained an audience, and stabbed the king to the heart. Henry HI. was last of the descendants of Philij) of Valois, who had ruled France 260 years. The queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici, died a few days after the murder of Guise. Point out, on Maps 7 and 13, the (hicliy of Lorraine. The cities of Metz, Toil!, Verdun, Paris, Calais. Read Histories of France ah'eady mentioned, and Pressens^'s His- tory of Protestantism in France. TABLE — HOUSE OF VALOIS. Philip VI. I John. Chakles V. Ch.^rles VI. Louis, Duke of Orleans. I I I I I Ch.\rles VIl. Charles, Duke of Orleans. John, Count of Aii^ouleme. I I " I - Louis XI. Louis XII. Charles, Count of An;;ouleme. Charles VIII. Francis I. 1 1 Henry II. m. 1 Catherine de' Medici Francis II. Charles IX. Henry III, NOTES. 285 NOTES. 1. Lorraine was then a German duchy, and the Guises were regarded as foreigners by the French. The first Dulce of Guise was a younger son of Dulie R6n(5 II., of Lorraine, and received liis title from King Francis I., wliom lie served with distinction in the battle of Marignano and elsewhere (H-19)- It was his son, the second Duke of Guise, who defended Metz in l.S5;3, and captured Calais in 1557. Mary of Guise, Queen Regent of Scotland, was daughter of the first and sister of the second Duke. 2. Catherine was daughter of Lorenzo II.— grandson of Lorenzo tlie Magnificent (^j^ 370, 429, and note), and was born at Florence in 1519. Married in 1533, she had a comparatively quiet and unobtrusive part in public affiiirs, as Dauphiness and afterwards as Queen-consort, finding her satisfaction in the grace and brilliancy of lier court. Her real am- bition became apparent during the successive reigns of her three sons. As regent for Charles IX., and later, by artfully balancing the several parties, she held, for many years, the chief power in France, and used it for purely selfish ends, without regard to justice or mercy. Shakes- peare is said to have depicted her character, as well as the similar traits of Jezebel and Herodias, in his Lady Macbeth. The only good trait, if we may call it such, which this singular woman possessed, was tlie love of the fine arts, which she shared witli all her family. 3. "For the last ten years the French had kept their eyes on Calais. The occupation of a Frencli fortress by a foreign power was a perpetual Insult to the national pride, while it gave England inconvenient au- thority in the narrow seas. The defenses had been repaired by Henry VIII.; but, in the wasteful times of Edward, tlie work had fallen again Into ruin, and Mary, straitened by debt, [and] a diminished revenue, had found neither means nor leisure to attend to them. . . . Lord Wentworth was left at Calais with not more than 500 men. A procla- mation had forbidden the export of corn from England, and, by the middle of the winter, there was an actual scarcity of food. "On the (ith of January, after a furious cannonade. Guise stormed the town. The Eny;lisli attempted to blow it up when they could not save it, but their powdei-f rain had been washed with water, and they failed, wentworth, feeling that further resistance would lead to useless slaughter, demanded a parley, and, after a short discussion, accepted the terms of surrender oft'ered by Guise. The garrison and the inhabitants of Ca- lais, amounting in all, men, women, and children, to 5,000 souls, were permitted to retire to England with their lives, and nothing more. The spoil was enormous, and the plunder of St. Quentin was not unjustly revenged; jewels, plate, and money were deposited on the altars of the churclies, and the inhabitants, carrying with them the clothes which they wore, were sent as homeless beggars in the ensuing week across the Channel. Then only, when it was too late, the Queen roused her- self. As soon as Calais had definitely fallen, all the English counties were called on by proclamation to contribute their musters. But the opportunity which had been long offered, and long neglected, was now altogether gone; the ships were ready, troops came, and arms came, but change of weather came also, and westerly gales and storms. . . . The fragments of the wrecked fleet were strewn on Dover beach, or swal- lowed In the quicksands of the Goodwin. "The last remnant of the continental dominions of the Plantagenets was gone. Measured by substantial value, the loss of Calais was a gain. , Englisii princes were never again to lay claim to the crown of France, and the possession of a fortress on French soil was a perpetual irrita- tion. But Calais was called the ' brightest jewel in the English crown.' A jewel it was, useless, costly, but dearly prized." — Abridged from Froude's History of Emjland, Cli. XXXIV. 4. The Bourbons date from Robert, Count of Clermont, a younger son of King Louis IX. His son Louis served Charles IV. so well, in his wars with the English, that he received the ducal title, and became the first Duke of Bourbon. One of the most powerful members of the family 286 MODERN HISTORY. was that Duke and Constable of Bourbon {\\h\), who deserted the cause of F'rancis I., and fell In the attack on Rome In 1527 (§461). "Consta- ble" was the title of the highest military officer in France The princes of Cond^ took their title from the town of Cond^, in Hainault, which, with other towns, was added to the possessions of the family, in 1487, by the marriage of iSIary of Luxembourg, a great Neth- erland heiress, with the heart of the House of Bourbon. "The Great Conde," mentioned in gi;H18, OI'J, was the sixth of her descendants. The Bourbons occupied the throne of France (see next note) from 1589 to tiie Revolution, and, after the fall of Napoleon, from 1815 to 1848, if we include Louis Pliilippe, who belonged to the j'ounger Orleans branch of tlie family. 5. Navarre was a little kingdom on the confines of France and Spain, and often a subject of dispute between the sovereigns ot those countries. Its independence dated from 887, but in 1.512, Ferdinand the Catholic wrested the part of it which lay south of the Pyrenees from Jean d'Albret, and governed it thenceforth by viceroys of his own family, until it was absorlted as a mere province of Spain. The northern or Frencli portion continued to give a title, and little else, to .several mem- bers of the family of All)ret, until it passed, by the marriage of Jeanne, sole heiress of that family, to the head of the House of Bourbon. Her .son. King Henry of Navan-e, became Henry IV. of France, 1.589. Queen Jeanne herself died at Paris, shortly before the marriage of her sou with the Princess Margaret. 6. Francis II., the eldest son C)f Henry II. and (Catherine de' Medici, was in his seventceiitli year when he came to the throne, and was little more than a iHi))pet in "the hands of his wife's two uncles, the Duke of Guise and the Cardinal of Ijorraine (H75). The King of Navarre, the Prince of Conde and other great nobles, incensed by seeing France thus ruled by foreign adventurers, fornuMl a national party in alliance with the Pro'testants, and tried by the "Conspiracy of Amboise" to get tlie young king into their own power. The cons]ilracy, which took its name from the royal castle of Amboise, was discovered and defeated. The Prince of Cohd6 was condemned to lose his head; l)Ut the death of the king i)revented the execution of the sentence. Dec. .5, 15ti0. 7. Gaspard de Coligny (ko-leen-ye) was one of the most liberal men of his time. Henry II. made him Admiral of France in 1.5.52, and he soon conceived the idea of founding, in the newly discovered countries beyond the Atlantic, a great French empire which should at once in- crease the glory of France and aflford a refuge to those of her children who were now' persecuted for their faith. In 1555, two vessels, laden with French emigrants, sailed for the coast of Brazil. But the comman- dant, Villegagnon, was either faithless or incomijetent, and the Portu- guese .soon drove out the inti'uders up(jii land which they claimed (i 4.!ii). Coligny's two attempts to plant colonies within the present limits of the United States, were equally unsuccessful, the only permanent resull being the name Carolina, which was given to both settlements in honor of Charles IX. Coligny defended St. Quentin for the king, and remained a prisoner after tlie capture of the place. Having embraced the reformed religion about 1.5()0, he acted as second in command to the Prince of Cond*^ in the wars against Catherine de' Medici and the Guises. The young King, Cliarles, seems to have felt a real confidence and respect for the Ad- miral. Four days after the wedding of tlie Princess Margaiet with Henry of Navarre, < oligny was shot in the .street, though not fatally, by a follower of the Duke of (inise. The Queen-mother and the King visited the wounded man in his bed-chamber, and expressed indigna- tion at the crime, whicli they promised to punish. But, on the night of the general massacre. Guise, with his armed retainers, came to Colig- ny's house; a servant, named Le Besmre, ascended to the Admiral's room and stabbed him several times as he lay in bed. " Young man," said the victim, "you ought to respect my gray hairs; but, do what you will, you can only shorten m.v life by a few days." He was quickly killed, and his body was thrown out of the window into the court below, where it fell at the leetofthe Duke. CHAPTER IV. THE TUDORS IN ENGLAND. Costume of XVI. Century. Y marrying a daugiiter of Edward IV., Henry VII. (A. I). 14S5-1509) united the rival houses of York and Lancaster, and ended the Wars of the Roses (>j;§ 396-399). The Yorkists, however, jnit forward two claimants^ to the crown, one jiretending to be the Earl of War- wick, nephew of Edward IV. and grand- son of the " King-maker,"" the other personating young Richard of York, who had been smothered in the Tower (^ 39^)- Both rebellions were easily put down ; but the king's narrow, grasp- ing disposition did not win the love of his people. 487. The middle class made great advances, however, during this reign. Poor nobles were permitted to sell their estates, which were Ijought, in man)' cases, by thrifty citizens. The number of retainers in noblemen's house- holds was also limited by law, and thus a great many idlers were driven to honest work. Englishmen liad their full share in exi)loring the bays and coasts of the New World — a welcome field of adventure for many bold and restless spirits, who, like their ancestors (§§328-329), dehghted in the perils of the sea. 488. Henry VIII. (A. 1). 1509 -1547) succeeded, at the age of eighteen, to a clear title and a full treasury. He Avas the first king since Richard II. (§390) whose claim (287) MODERN HISTORY. to the crown had been undisputed, and his popularity was unbounded. For the first twenty years of his reign, no one doubted his sincere desire to rule justly. He mar- ried Catherine of Spain (§ 444); his eldest sister was already wife of the king of Scotland, (see Table, p. 295). 489. Henry's ambition soon led him into wars on the continent. Hoping to regain the almost forgotten posses- sions of his ancestors (§§ 350, 381) he invaded France, and gained the "Battle of the Spurs," so called from the sud- den flight of the enemy. Meanwhile James IV. of Scot- land marched into England, but he was de- '^'^' feated and slain with 10,000 of his followers at Flodden Field. Henry hastened to make peace with his sister, who was regent for her infant son, James V. Peace with France was soon afterward sealed by the marriage of his younger sister with Louis XH. 490. Henry's chief minister was Thomas Worsey,"who, by his own remarkable talents and tlie king's favor, was raised from a humble position to great power. He was archbishop of York, cardinal, and chancellor of the king- dom; his palaces almost equaled the king's in magnificence and crowds of attendants. The emperor Charles flattered Wolsey, as the surest way to win the favor of Henry (§ 45°)' H^ gave him the revenues of two Spanish bishop- rics, and promised bis influence to make him pope. Two elections passed (§§ 451, 460) without the fulfillment of this promise, and Wolsey became the chief opponent of Queen Catherine and the Spanish party in England. 491. Of all the children of Henry and Catherine, only the sickly princess Mary survived infancy. Henry saw in the death of his sons a sure proof of the wrath of heaven for his marriage with his brother's widow, which was con- trary to the rules of the church. Wolsey, as priest and counselor, encouraged the thought. His importance would have been increased by arranging a new marriage with a MAP No. X. CHIEF ENGLISH WRITERS OF THE TUDOR AND EARLY STUART PERIODS. Prose Writers. Sir Thomas More, A. D. 1480-1535: "Utopia," etc. Wm. Tyndale, 1485-1536: Translation of New Testament. Roger Ascham, 1515-1568: " Toxophilus;" "The School- master." Richard Hooker, 1554-1600: "Ecclesiastical Polity." Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586: "Arcadia;" "Defense of Poesie. " Sir Walter Raleigh, 1 552-1 618 : "History of the World," etc. William Camden, 1551-1623: "Britannia," etc. Richard Hakluyt, 1553-1616: "Voyages," etc. Francis Bacon, 1561-1626: "Essays;" "Advancement of Learning," etc. Robert Burton, 1576-1639: "Anatomy of Melancholy," etc. Izaak Walton, 1593-1683: "The Complete Angler," etc. Poets and Dramatists. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, 1516-1547: Poems. Edmund Spenser, 1553-1599: "The Shepherd's Calendar;'' "The Faerie Queene," etc. Thos. Sackville, Lord Buckhurst, 1536-1608: "Mirror oi Magistrates," etc. Samuel Daniel, 1562-1619: " Musophilus," etc. Christopher Marlowe, 1565-1593: "Doctor Faustus," etc. William Shakespeare, 1564-1616: Plays, Poems, and Sonnets. Ben Jonson, 1574-L637 : Comedies, Masques, etc. Beaumont, 1585-1616, and Fletcher, 1576-1625 : Plays. Philip Massinger, 1584-1640: Comedies, etc. Robert Herrick, 1591-1674: Lyric Poems. Francis Quarles, 1 592-1 644: Poems. George Herbert, 1593-1632: "The Temple," etc. Sir John Suckling, 1609-1643 : " Ballad on a Wedding," etc. STEPS IN EUROPEAN DISCOVERIES. Canary Islands discovered by Spaniards about A. D. Western coast of Africa explored by Portuguese about Madeira discovered and settled by Portuguese about Cape of Good Hope passed by Diaz San Salvador, Hayti, and Cuba disc, by Columbus North American Continent discovered by Cabot South American Continent discovered by Columbus Sea-route to India established by Vasco de Gama 1497- Brazil discovered by Cabral Florida and the Gulf Stream, by Ponce de Leon Pacific Ocean at Darien, by Nunez de Balboa Mexico disc, and conquered by Spaniards 15 17- Philippine Islands discovered, and the world ) circumnavigated by Magellan's fleet ) Harbors of N. Y. and Nevv-port disc, by Verrazzano River St. Lawrence visited by Cartier 1534; Peru conquered by Spaniards i53i~ Pacific coast of N. America explored by Spaniards 1540 Mississippi River discovered by Ferdinand de Soto Richard Chancellor discovers site of Archangel Martin Frobisher explores the northern seas 1576- Davis Strait discovered by John Davis 1585- Australia discovered by Dutch navigators Baffin Bay explored by William Baffin New Zealand discovered by Tasman Mississippi River explored by La Salle Sandwich Islands re-discovered by Captain Cook Africa crossed from east to west by Livingstone Congo River explored by Stanley 360. 415- 420. 487. 492. 497- 498. 499. 500: 512 513- 521- 522. 524- 535- 536. -42. 541- 553- 578- 587- 605. 616. 642. 682. 778. 850. 876. REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. 289 French princess, and so he pushed the application for the king's divorce. 492. Pope Clement (^ 461) had a hard question to de- cide. The Reformation had so affected all the countries in Europe, that if he offended the emperor — Catherine's nephew — Germany and the Netherlands would certainly become Protestant; while, if he refused the divorce, both England and France were almost equally sure to separate from the Roman Church. He tried to gain time by par- leys. Wolsey, finding that the king chose to marry Anne Boleyn, a maid of honor to Queen Catherine, instead of the French princess, lost his zeal for the divorce. 493. This occasioned his fall. He was ordered to retire to his archbishopric of York ; but the ne.xt year he was arrested on a charge of high treason, and died on his way to London. On his death-bed he uttered these memorable words: "Had I but served my God as diligently as I have served the king, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Cran'mer, an obscure priest, now advised the king to lay the question of his divorce before all the universities in Europe. Their opinion was 1 ^ • , , A. D. 1533. agamst it; but Cranmer was raised to the primacy of England, and held a court in which he pronounced the marriage annulled. 494. Parliament confirmed the decision, and recognized Anne Boleyn as the lawful wife of their king. They had previously declared Henry to be the head of the English Church, and annulled the pope's claim to tribute and obe- dience. A subsequent parliament suppressed all the abbeys and convents in England. Part of their revenues were applied to schools, colleges, and six new bishoprics, but a large part went to enrich the courtiers; and Charles V., referring to the immense loans which former kings had drawn from the abbeys, laughingly remarked that his Hist —19, 29© MODERN HISTORY. "brother of England had killed the goose that laid the golden egg." 495. Though he had thus separated from the pope, Henry hated the Reformation. He had distinguished him- self, in his early years, by writing a book against Luther, which gained for him the title, " Defender of the Faith." His wrath was pretty ec^ually di\ided between the Catho- lics, who denied his supremacy, and the Protestants, who disbelieved his doctrines. Among the former, who died for conscience' sake, were Sir Thomas More, the brightest genius and most \irtuous and amiable man of the time ; Fisher, the good bishop of Rochester, and the monks of the Charterhouse in London, a brotherhood whom scandal never accused of any other crime than faithfulness to their convictions. 496. Three years from her coronation, Queen Anne was beheaded on frivolous charges, and her late attendant, Jane Sey'mour, became queen. The next year, the whole nation rejoiced in the birth of a prince, who was afterward King Edward VL Queen Jane died peaceably; and the king's next marriage was with Anne of Cleves,^ a German prin- cess. She failed to please him, and the marriage was annulled. The misconduct of Catherine Howard,''his fifth 1 wife, compelled the king to sign her death-warrant, and * she was beheaded on Tower Hill. His sixth and last wife, Catherine Parr,^ nearly lost her head in conseciuence of a theological discussion, but her ready wit saved her life. 497. In his last years Henry became an intolerable tyrant, and the lives of some of his most noble and blameless subjects were sacrificed to his suspicion. He died in 1547, the same year with Francis L of France. His son, Edward VL (A. I). 1547- 1553), was only nine years old, and the duke of Somerset was made Protector. He was a warm friend of the Reformation. A commission appointed by him, with Archbishop Cranmer at its head, LADY JANE GREY. 29 1 gave to the English Church the forms of doctrine and worship which it still retains. 498. James V. of Scotland (§ 489) had died in 1542, leaving only an infant daughter, the afterwards celebrated Mary, Queen of Scots, to inherit his crown. A leading poHcy of Henry VIII., and of Somerset after him, was to marry the young Edward to this baby queen, and thus peaceably unite the two kingdoms. The Protestant nobles of Scotland favored this alliance, but their opponents hur- ried the little queen over to France and betrothed her to the dauphin. 499. Somerset's talents were not equal to the ' great changes he tried to effect. He was at length deprived of all his offices, condemned for treason, and beheaded. His power passed into the hands of his rival, the duke of Northumberland.^ This unscrupulous plotter persuaded, the young king to set aside his two sisters, Mary and Eliza- beth, who were next him in the succession by his father's will, and to bequeath the crown to his cousin, Jane Grey, ^ who was married to Guilford Dudley, Northumberland's own son (see Table, p. 295). This having been done, Edward's health declined more rapidly, and he died in the sixteenth year of his age. 500. Lady Jane was crowned, against her will, and for ten days a small circle called her queen. But the true queen, Mary Tudor, was welcomed to London with shouts of loyalty; and Northumberland, with his chief accom- plices, was beheaded for high treason. Lady Jane and her husband were spared on account of their youth and inno- cence; but the next year a rebellion of some of their friends brought them to the scaffold. 501. Queen Mary (A. D. 1 553-1 558) soon consented to a marriage with her cousin, Philip of Spain (§ 470), though her best councilors dreaded that great power which ruled so large a part of Europe and the New World {% 444), 292 MODERN HISTORY. I and was believed to be aiming at universal dominion. Mary's strongest desire was to restore the pope's suprem- acy in England, and in this she was aided by her husband and her cousin, Cardinal Pole, who was appointed papal legate. The latter was a good man and counseled gentle measures, but Philip and Mary leaned rather to the brutal policy of Gardiner, under which nearly three hundred persons were burned to death as heretics. Among them were Cranmer and the good bishops, Ridley and Latimer. 502. To please her husband, Mary plunged into a war with France, and lost Calais, the last remaining foothold of the English on the continent. Vexation at this loss and at Philip's neglect threw her into a fever, of which she died in the sixth year of her reign (see §477). 503. The accession of Elizabeth (A. D. 1558-1603), T daughter of Anne Boleyn, was welcomed with universal joy. Learning wisdom by her sister's mistake, she refused all offers of marriage from Philip of Spain and others, declaring that she was wedded only to her realm, and | would never give it a foreign master. Her first Parliament i restored the English Church as in Edward's day, with the j queen instead of the pope at its head. Almost as many | persons lost their lives by denying Elizabeth's supremacy, as had suffered under her unhappy sister's persecutions ; but it must be remembered that many of them were also i traitors. The pope had publicly denied Elizabeth's claims as queen, and her mother's as wife (§492); and her cousin, Mary of Scotland, who was in fact the next heir, had, with his approval, adopted the arms and title of Queen of England (see Table, p. 223). 504. Two years after Elizabeth's accession Mary re- turned, a widow, to her native land. She had been edu- cated as a Catholic, amid the gay and elegant amusements of the French court, and both her religion and her manners shocked the grave Reformers who now had the chief in- REIGN OF ELIZABETH. 293 fluence in Scotland. In 1565 she married Lord Darnley (see Table), a dissolute and contemptible youth, who soon lost her confidence. In revenge for her displeasure, he brutally murdered her secretary at her very feet. A few months later, the house in which Darnley alone was sleep- ing was blown up with gunpowder, and he was killed. The dark suspicion which fell upon the queen was deep- ened by her marrying the Earl of Bothwell, who was known to have been concerned in the murder of Darnley. 505. Mary was imprisoned, and her infant son was crowned. She escaped, was defeated in battle, and took refuge in England, where she was tried by a commission of Scottish and English nobles for the murder of her husband. No sentence was pronounced, but she was imprisoned nine- teen years in England, the center of innumerable plots against the life and government of Elizabeth, and was at length beheaded in Fotheringay Castle. 506. Elizabeth, meanwhile, by wise and thrifty manage- ment, had restored happiness and order to her kingdom. While Philip's persecutions in the Netherlands were driv- ing the most skillful and industrious of his subjects into exile, Elizabeth welcomed all artisans on condition of their taking one English apprentice each, and thus many fine manufactures became established in the country. English merchants and sailors joined heartily in the maritime adventures of the time. 507. Francis Drake" sailed around the globe, and came back laden with Spanish gold. Others penetrated the northern seas and opened a trade with Archangel in Russia, while the gold and ivory of the Guinea coast en- riched the merchants of Southampton. Sir Walter Raleigh® attempted a settlement in a region of North America, which was named Virginia, in honor of the maiden queen. The enterprise was abandoned for a time, owing to perils 294 MODERN HISTORY. at home ; but the capital of North Carohna still commem- orates the gallant adventurer. 508. In 1588 Philip of Spain fitted out an immense fleet to avenge the death of Mary Stuart, and assert his own claim to the English crown, which she had bequeathed him. If any thing had been wanting to unite all English hearts in love and loyalty to Elizabeth, this insolence would have supplied it. All ranks, classes, and religions worked together with a common zeal for the defense, and Eliza- beth proved her generous confidence by bestowing on Lord Howard of Effingham, a Catholic nobleman, the command of her fleet. 509. At length the "Invincible Armada" appeared, stretching seven miles from wing to wing, and composed of the largest vessels that had ever been seen. The Eng- lish ships were smaller and lighter, but their captains knew the coast and could easily harass the clumsy enemy. In the "English Salamis," as in the Greek (§§54, 118), valor and patriotism won the day against immensely superior numbers. Attempting to retreat northward, the Spaniards were wrecked among the Orkneys and upon the west coast of Ireland ; and it was only a tattered remnant of the In- vincible Armada that re-entered the ports of Spain. From this time England ruled the sea. The great Spanish galle- ons, laden with the gold of Mexico and Peru, often fell into the hands of Drake and his brave comrades ; and their capture lessened Philip's power for mischief. 510. Ireland was, as usual, in rebellion, and Elizabeth's chief favorite, the young Earl of Essex, failed in his attempt to subdue it. The queen's displeasure drove him into sedition, and she reluctantly signed his death-warrant, but she never recovered from the grief which it cost her. She shut herself up in her palace, refused food, and died in the 70th year of her age and the 45th of her reign. FAMILY OF TUDOR. 295 With her ended the EngHsh Tudors, and James VI. of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary, came to the throne. 511. The EHzabethan Age was, perhaps, the brightest of England's literary eras. The wonderful events and dis- coveries of the day kept all minds active, and the language reached its perfection in the musical verse of Spenser, the romance of Sidney, the rugged treatises of Hooker, the wise philosophy of Bacon, and the wonderful dramas of Shakespeare. The queen was well versed in Greek, Latin, and several modern languages. The success of Elizabeth's reign was largely owing to her able ministers, Ce'cil, Wal'singham, and others ; but, in spite of many faults of personal character, the queen herself must rank among the greatest sovereigns of her time. Read Green's "Short History," Ch. VI, Sections iv and v, and Ch. VII. THE TUDORS IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. Henry VII. Margaret m. i, , m. 2, Douglas. Henry VIII. Mary m. Brandon, ya7«?j- /f. of Scotland. Earl of Angus. | Duke of Suffolk. I I i I Howard \ I. M.^vry. Elizabeth. | James ]'. m. Mary Margaret ni. Stuart, Earl of Lenno.x. Frances m. I of Guise. I Henry Grey, D. of Suffolk. Mary, married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Jane Grey, I beheaded, 1554. James VI. of Scotland, afterwards James I. of England. Sovereigns of England arc in Capitals, those of Sco/land in Italics. 296 MODERN HJSTOK Y. NOTES. 1. The first of these "pretenders" was Lambert Siranel, a baker's boy, whom an Oxford priest, named Simon, undcrtooli to instruct in tlie belravior suitable to a prince. Wlien liis lessons were completed, he was accompanied by liis tutor to Ireland, where the people were known to be warmly attached to the House of York, and esi)rcially to the Duke of Clarence, father to the real earl whom Himnel prisouated, who had been their lord-lieutenant. Landing in Dublin, tlie sui)pi)sed prince was greeted with loyal acclamations as " King Edward the iSixtli." In England the imposture was quickly exposed by bringing the true Edward from his prison in tlie Tower, and parading him in the streets of London. But the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, widow of Charles the Bold (§413, and note, p. 233), either willingly deceived or easily con- vinced by the representations that were made to her, sent over a force of German mercenaries to co-operate with Simon's Irish troops. The rebellion waseflFectually crushed, however, by the royal victory at Stoke, and the pretended Plantagenet, being too insignificant to be feai-ed, became a scullion in the king's kitchen. The second attempt was more serious. It was led by Perkin, or Pe- terkin, Warbeck, son of a merchant of Tournay. He probably bore some real resemblance to the Yorkist princes, and, as the murder in the Tower had been carefully concealed, there was no apparent improbability in the story of the escape and subsequent hiding of Richard. In any case, there were enemies of Henry VII. who M'er(> willing to countenance any claimant of his crown. King Charles VIII., of France (jj 441-445), entertained the Pretender in Paris with all the sjilendor that befitted a royal reception, and the Duchess of Burgundy, after close scrutiny and questioning, professed herself perfectly satisfied that he was her long- lost nephew. The King of Scotland went farther, and not only received him with royal honors, but gave him a noble lady for his wife, and invaded England in the hope that at least the Yorkshii-e people would rise in favor of their native prince. But this hope was disappointed, and Perkin took refuge in Ireland. Meanwhile, the poor miners of Cornwall had been driven to desperation by the heavy taxes laid upon them by the king; and. when the pretended prince appeared among them, he was soon at the head of 7,UU0 brave men. But, on the approach of the royal army, "King Richard IV." fied, leaving his fol- lowers to their fate. Tlie Plantagenets, with all their faults, never lacked personal bravery; and thus Perkin's imposture was proved by his own act. No one mourned when he was hanged at Tyburn; but many were shocked and grieved a few days later by the iuiquitous execution of the young Earl of Warwick, an innocent victim of other people's crimes. 2. There is a tradition that Wolsey was the son of a butcher; but if so, it is the more remarkable that he obtained his degree at Oxford when only fifteen years of age. He first distinguished himself as chap- lain to Henry VII. by the promptness and tact with which he executed a difficult mission to the Emperor Maximilian. Early in the reign of Henry VIII., Wolsey became royal almoner, and, thus introduced to the king's notice, his talents as a courtier ensured his rise. Though he was really the mainspring of all tliat was done in Eimland, he contrived to make every measure of the government appear the direct act of the king, to whom he behaved with the most humble deference and submis- sion. Like the king himself, Wolsey was a friend of the New Learning, and a munificent patron of learned men. He lounded the first profes- sorship of Greek in England; he established a school at Ipswich and a college at Oxford. The latter was first called Cardinal College, l)ut. after his fall, its name was changed to Christ's Church. Its magnificent buildings still attest the Cardinal's taste and liberality. His two man- sions, Hampton Court and Whitehall, became royal palaces. 3. The Duke of Cleves, Anne's brother, was one of the greatest Protestant princes on the continent; for, besides his hereditary provinces of Cleves, Berg, .Tuliers, and Ravensberg— tlie territories which after- wards constituted West Prussia— he had latel.y become possessed of Zut- phen and Guelders. Henry was led to this marriage by his resentment against Francis I., who had broken his friendly alliance, and was even NOTES. 297 said to be plotting with Charles Y. and the King of Scotland for a par- tition of Henry's dominions. Though he had been willing to please his Protestant courtiers and ally himself with tlie league of German princes, Henry's marriage was as transient as the cause out of which it grew. Anne meekly accepted a home and revenues in England, and snrvived the King by ten years. 4. Catherine Howard was a niece of the Duke of Norfolk, and cousin of Anne Boleyn. During her married life, the duke had much influence at court, and used it to oppose Protestant interests. Shortly before the King's death, Norfolk and his accomplished son, the Earl of Surrej% were arrested for treason and sentenced to execution. Surrey was beheaded, but tlie timely decease of Henry spared his father's life. 5. Catherine Parr was the widow of Lord Latimer, when, in 15-13, she became the wife of Henry VIII. With the progress of disease, the king became increasingly foml of disputes, and the liveliness of the queen's replies once offended him so seriously that he was on the point of or- dering her to the scaffold. But, perceiving her danger, Catherine assured him that she had only taken the opposite side to afford him the pleas- ure of refuting her, and lest the discussion should grow dull. The king could hardly afford to lose so entertaining a companion, and was soon reconciled. 6. Northumberland was a son of Edmund Dudley, a lawyer who had been a notorious tool of Henry VII. in extorting money from his sub- jects (H86). On the accession of Hein-y VIII., Dudley was tried and con- demned to death. His son, however, gained the King's favor, and was made Lord High Admiral of England. His ambition knew no limits. 7. No character in history surpasses in grace and loveliness that of Jane Grey. She always preferred a modest and studious retirement to the splendid amusements of a court. At fifteen she was studying He- brew; while in Greek and Latin, French and Italian, she was able to converse and correspond with the most learned men 01 the age. At the time of her inarriage, no one informed her of the plot to make her queen, and when the Council of Nobles announced to her Edward's death, and her own accession to the crown, she fell into a dead swoon from grief and terror. Submitting herself at length to her father's com- mand, she nerved herself to act with justice and decision, and to thwart, if possible, the ambitious schemes of her father-in-law. When the short farce of her queenship was over, she expressed a joyful sense of relief, and begged that she might go home to her studies. She endured her imprisonment in the Tower with gentleness and patience, and tried to in.spire courage in her husband. They were executed in February, 15.54. 8. Drake was born in Devonshire about 1540. After various bucca- neei^ng enterprises against the Spanish, West Indian, and American settlements, he conducted Ave vessels to the Pacific, and obtained im- mense treasures on the coast of Chili and Peru. He afterwards explored the western shores of North America, wintered near San Francisco, crossed the Pacific to the Moluccas, and returned by the Cape of Good Hope. Queen Elizabeth knighted him as a reward for this daring cruise, and dined with him on board his ship, which she ordered to be pre- served as a nronument. It must be confessed that most of Drake's en- terprises were ])iratical, as they were executed when the governments of Spain and England were at peace. He had, however, his part in open warfare, and contributed largely to the defeat of the Armada. 9 Raleigh also was a native of Devonshire. After studying at Ox- ford he served five years in France in aid of the Huguenots, and after- wards against rebels" in Ireland. He is said to have gained the favor of Queen Elizabeth liy flinging his velvet cloak upon a muddy place in the path by which she was walking from her barge to her palace. In 1584, he received from her a patent authoi-izing him to colonize and govern any territories he might acquire beyond the seas. His two at- tempts on Roanoke Island failed; but he is said to have introduced the potato and tobacco into Europe from, the New World. I CHAPTER V. RISE ()P~ THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. "E have seen that the seventeen duchies, counties, and baronies, known collectively as the Nether- lands, -'^ or Low Countries, had all become subject to the French dukes of Burgundy {§§409-413). On the death of Charles the Bold, in 1477, Burgundy was reiinnexed to France, but the Netherlands, by the marriage of his daughter Alary to Maximilian, were trans- ferred to the House of Austria. No part of Europe was so fertile and prosperous as these Low Countries; none had so many thriving cities or such intelligent and industrious people. Their silks, velvets, woolen cloth, and fine armor were celebrated Though ruled by one sovereign, each province had its owm government, and their representa- tives were only now and then called together in the "States General " when Charles or Philip wanted money. Flemish Costume, XVII. Century. throughout Europe. ■■■These were the diickic's of Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and (Judders; the inargravate of Antwerp ; the comitu's of Artois, Flanders, Hainauh, Namur, Zutphen, Holland, and Zealand ; and the baronies of Mechlin, Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, and ("ironingen. Name these countries and their chief cities from Map No. 11. (298; THE PRINCE OF ORANGE. 299 513. Charles V. had been born in Ghent,' and was sup- posed to favor his Flemish subjects, to the great discontent of the Spaniards. But he constantly violated the chartered rights of the j^rovinces which he had sworn to maintain. By eleven successive edicts, and by the establishment of the Inquisition, Charles tried to stop the Reformation in the Netherlands, and many of his best subjects sealed their faith with their blood. 514. Philip II. (§470) was a still more cruel bigot.- He declared that he would lose a hundred thousand lives rather than see any of his dominions severed from the ancient church. On his departure for Spain, Philip entrusted the regency of the Netherlands ' '^^^ to his half-sister, the Duchess of Parma. Among her councilors was William, Prince of Orange,'* then chiefly renowned for his vast wealth and illustrious descent, but soon to win a nobler fame by his self-denying patriotism. 515. Philip's stern order of "death to heretics," led many thousands to seek safety in other lands ( ^ 506 ). The Prince of Orange, as governor of Holland and Zea- land, refused to permit the burning of his countrymen, and many nobles and citizens leagued themselves to demand a retraction of the hated edicts. The duchess was alarmed, but her council branded the petitioners as a " pack of beggars." The name was adopted by the nobles them- selves at a banquet, with shouts of merriment r^d cries of "Long live the Beggars!" 516. Thousands of the people now be^^an to meet in excited crowds, which broke into cathed'^als, shattered the beautiful stained glass of their windows, and dashed the images to the ground. In a battle near Ant- werp, 1800 "Beggars" were slain. Philip now '^ ^ sent the Duke of Alva, a pitiless monster, to put down resistance with fire and sword. Defying all the laws, he organized a "Council of Aood" in his own house, and 300 MODERN HISTORY. summoned before it the chief opponents of the edicts. The Prince of Orange, now in Germany, refused to appear. Counts Egmont and Horn were tried and beheaded in the great square at Brussels, A. D. 1568. A decree of the Inquisition condemned the entire population of the Nether- lands, with a few special exceptions, to death ! Of course this was not literally executed, but it removed the protec- tion of law from all; and Alva boasted of 18,000 lives destroyed during his regency of six years. 517. Industry ceased; towns were deserted; all the wealthy who could leave fled beyond the sea; many bold spirits took to privateering, and made the name of "Sea Beggars" a terror to Spanish sailors. Their prizes were at first carried into English ports; but, after four years, Queen Elizabeth forbade this for fear of involving herself in a war with Spain. The Sea Beggars then seized Briel, the capital of Zealand, and made it the beginning of a new Republic. The four provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht declared the Prince July 15, 1572. r t~^ 1-1 r 1 , , 1111 ■> !■ of Orange their lawtul "stadtholder, or lieu- tenant, during the absence of Philip II. In 1573, Alva was succeeded by Requesens, a just man, who at least put a stop to indiscriminate murders. But the war still went on. 518. The prince lost several battles, and, in 1574, his brother, Louis of Nassau, was slain near Nimeguen. But the spirit of the whole people was aroused, and their constancy was proved by their heroic defense of Haarlem, Alkmaar, and Leyden, against the besieging forces of the Spaniards. Leyden was relieved only by cutting the dykes and letting the sea overflow the surrounding "^ ' '"^ country, that the fleet of the prince might approach its walls. At last the starving citizens were fed, and then all went in procession to the cathedral to thank God for His great deliverance. I THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. 301 ■ 519. The death of Requesens, in 1576, was followed by new horrors; for his unpaid soldiery were set loose upon the cities, plundering, destroying, and murdering at their will. In Antwerp alone 1,000 houses were burned, and 8,000 people were killed. Under this distress, the Prince of Orange persuaded all the provinces to unite themselves in the Pacification of Ghent, and afterwards in the still closer Union of Brussels. But, unhappily, the different parties could not agree; the union was dissolved, and the seventeen provinces were never reunited until 18 14. The prince, however, secured a permanent union of the seven northern states, under the name of the United Netherlands. Holland far excelled the others in power and wealth, and the whole confederation is commonly called the Dutch Republic. 520. John of Austria, the hero of Lepanto (§561), was now intrusted, by Philip, with the government of the Netherlands. He gained a great victory at Gemblours, which almost annihilated the army of the States; but he died two years later, and was succeeded by Alexander of Parma, son of the former regent, and the greatest general of his time. In 1581, the thirteen Flemish and northern provinces formally cast off their allegiance to Philip II., and conferred their sovereignty upon the Duke of Anjou, brother of the French king, who solemnly swore to defend and maintain their liberties according to the charters. But he was a traitor at heart, and, upon his giving up Antwerp to be plundered by his soldiers, he was driven into France. 521. In 1584, the Prince of Orange was murdered in his own house by a hired agent of Philip of Spain. This foul crime seemed a death-blow to the liberties of the Netherlands; for the wisdom, firmness, and incorruptible fidelity of the prince had been their only sure dependence amid dissensions within and dangers from without. But 30 2 MODERN HISTORY. the blow aroused the States to the necessity of united action; and, on the very day of the murder, the represent- atives of Holland declared their resolution "to maintain the good cause, with God's help, to the uttermost, without sparing gold or blood." 522. The year following the prince's death was sadly marked by the fall of Antwerp. It had bravely withstood thirteen months' siege by Alexander of Parma; when it was taken, tlie ruined homes of its citizens supplied materials for a new fortress, while grass grew and cattle fed in streets which had been crowded with traders from all parts of the world. Antwerp had succeeded Florence (§369) as the banking center of Europe; this distinction now passed to London, whither great numbers of its bankers and merchants removed. 523. In 1596, both England and France became allies of the States against Spain. Cadiz was taken and plun- dered, and many treasure-laden vessels from the Spanish colonies became the prizes of the Sea Beggars. The war was ended by the Peace of Vervins in May, 1598. A few days later, the ten southern provinces of the Netherlands were settled upon Philip's daughter Isabella and her hus- band; and, for fear that either should exceed the other in rank, both were styled ^^ the Archdukes.'' 524. The eldest son of the Prince of Orange was a prisoner in Spain. The second son, Maurice of Nassau, succeeded to the command of the States' forces, and, as he grew to manhood, developed extraordinary talents for war. He gained the battle of Turnhout by the then novel device of arming his cavalry with pistols. At length, in 1609, an honorable truce closed forty years' war with Spain, and secured to the Dutch Republic not only its undisputed territory at home, but the Spice Islands, and freedom of trade with both Indies. Not until forty years later, however, did Spain acknowledge its independence. DEATH OF PHILIP IL 303 525. In 1598, Philip died. His 42 years' reign had begun in unexampled prosperity, and ended in disgrace. In 1580 he had conquered Portugal and added all her rich possessions in Asia and America (§§435, 436) to his own dominions, which now included one third of all the land on the globe. But he had ruined his realms by his stupid tyranny; and, with all the gold and diamonds of the New World at his disposal, he died a bankrupt. His son, Philip III., was a dull bigot, and though his dominion was still the greatest in Europe, it ceased to have a con- trolling part in the world's affairs. The United Netherlands were already the chief maritime nation in the world. Their sailors were the boldest and most skillful, their ships the best modeled; and a Dutch Indiaman would sail round the globe while a Spaniard or Portuguese was making only the outward passage to Asia. Naturally, therefore, the rich commerce with the Indies fell into the hands of the Dutch. They had a thousand vessels engaged in the Baltic trade, and nearly as many more in fisheries. Meanwhile the industry of farmers and manufacturers had made the Seven States the most pros- perous and productive portion of the European continent. Point out, on Map No. 11, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Leyden, Amsterdam. The seven (northern) United Netherlands. The ten (southern) Spanish Netherlands. Read Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic" and "History of the United Netherlands." NOTES. 1. "As early as the fourteentli century, the a«e of the Arteveldes, Froissart estimated the number of fighting men whom Ghent could bring into the field at «U,UUU. The city, by itsjurisdiction over many large but subor.linate towus, disposed of more than its own immediate pop- ulation, which has been reckoned as high as 200,OUO. Its streets and squares were spacious and elegant; its churches and other public build- ings, numerous and splendid. The sumptuous church of St. Bayon, where Charles V. hart been baptized, the ancient castle whither Baldwin Bras de Fer had brought the daughter of Charles the Bold; the well-known belfry, where swiuig the famous Roland, whose iron tongue had called the citizens, generation after generation, to arms, were all conspicuous In the city and celebrated in the land. Especially the great bell was 304 MODERN HISTORY. the object of the burghers' aflfection, and, generally, of the sovereign's hatred; while to all it seemed a living historical personage, endowed with the human powers and passions which it had so long directed and inflamed."— il/o7), tbus passed to the family of Nassau. The title was of bigli antiquity. Already iri the reign of Charlemagne, MAP No. XI. THE NETHERLANDS. The Netherlands subject to Charlemagne A. D. 785. Divided into 17 fiefs under great vassals . . 800-900. Reunited under Dulce Philip of Burgundy . • i437- Become subject to House of Austria by marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy . i477- Independence of the Seven Northern Provinces: 1594. C Zealand, Utrecht, Overyssel, ^ Holland, Guelders, Friesland. V Groningen, ) The Spanish Netherlands: \ r Artois, Namur, Brabant, Liege, ^ < Flanders, Luxemburg, Mechlin Hainault, V (. Limburg, Antwerp, J Conferred upon the Archdukes (p. 228) . . 1598. Become "Austrian Netherlands" upon Isabella's death 1633. Conquered, or liberated, by French revolutionists 1794, '9 Join the Northern Provinces in Kingdom of the Netherlands . . . . . .1815. Separate from Holland and form Kingdom of Belgium 1830. -1 \ SPANISH NETHERLANDS JST O H T H S\E A and THE UNITED PROVINCES in the Seventeenth Century. Scale of Miles. NOTES. 305 Gnillaume an Court Nez, or ""William with the Short Nose," had de- fended the little town of Orange against the Saracens. The interest and authority acquired in the demesnes thus preserved by his valor became extensive, and in process of time hereditary in his race. The principality became an absolute and free sovereignty. ... In l.>i4. Prince Ren6 died at the emperor's feet in the trenches of St. Dizier (Hti7i. He left all his titles and estates to his cousin, William of Nassau, who thus, at the age of 11 years, became William the Ninth of Orange. For this child, whom the future was to summon to such high destinies and such he- roic sacrifices, the past and present seemed to have gathered riches and power together from many sources." "At a very early age he came, as a page, into the emperor's family. Charles recognized, with his customary quickness, the remarkable char- acter of tlie boy. At fifteen, William was the intimate, almost confi- dential, friend of the emperor, who prided himself, above all other gifts, on liis power of reading and of using men. There seemed to be no se- crets which the emperor held too high for the comprehension or dis- cretion of his page. His perceptive and reflective faculties, naturally of remarkable keenness and depth, thus acquired a precocious and ex- traordinary development. He was brought up behind the curtain of that great stage where the world's dramas were daily enacted. Care- fully to observe men's actions, and silently to ponder upon their mo- tives, was the favorite occupation of the prince during his apprentice- ship at court. As he advanced to man's estate, he was selected by the emperor for the highest duties. ... It was the Prince's shoulder upon which the emperor leaned at the abdication (§470); the prince's hand which bore the imperial insignia of the discrowned monarch to Ferdinand at Augsburg. With these duties his relations with Charles were ended, and those with Philip begun. He was the secret negotia- tor of the preliminary arrangement with France, soon afterwards con- firmed by the triumphant treaty of April, 1559. . . . He was one of the hostages selected by Henry for the due execution of the treaty, and, wliile in France, made that remarkable discovery which was to color his life. While hunting with the king in the forest of Vlncennes, the prince and Henry found themselves alone together and separated from the rest of the company. The French monarch's mind was full of the great scheme which had just secretly been formed between Philip and himself, to extirpate Protestantism by a general extirpation of Protest- ants. . . . This conspiracy of the two kings against their subjects was the matter nearest tlie hearts of both. The Duke of Alva, a fellow ho.st- age with William of Orange, was the plenipotentiary to conduct this more important arrangement. The French monarch, somewhat impru- dently imagining that the prince was also a party to the plot, opened the whole subject to him without reserve. . . . The prince, although horror-struck and indignant at the royal revelations, held his peace and kept his countenance. . . . William of Orange earned the sur- name of 'the Silent,' from the manner in which he received these coni- munications of Henry, without revealing to the monarch, by word or look, this enormous blunder which he had committed. His purpose was fixed from that hour. . . . Although having as yet no spark of religious symijathy for the reformers, he could not, he said, but feel Compassion for so many virtuous men and women thus devoted to massacie, and he determined to .•lake and the Dutch A^an Tromp fought many obstinate battles, after one of which Van Tromp tied a broom to his masthead and sailed triumph- antly up and down the channel, showing his determina- tion to sweep the English from the seas. The war closed, however, ■ with reverses to the Dutch, who consented to lower their flags whenever they met an English vessel. 541. The Long Parliament had now become an in- sufferable despotism, but there was no power that could legally dissolve it. Cromwell undertook to do this by military force. Repairing to Westminster with a guard of soldiers, he reproached the members with their tyranny, ambition, and robbery of the people, and ended by crying out: "For shame! Cet you gone! Give place to hon- ester men ! You are no longer a ])arliament ! " His sol- diers cleared the hall and locked the doors. He then summoned a new Parliament, in which, for the first time, the representatives of Scotland and Ireland sat with those of England. This Parliament con- ferred sovereign power upon Cromwell, with the title of Lord Protector for life. 542. England now regained the respect which she had lost under the vacillating rule of the Stuarts. Cromwell demanded justice for the persecuted Vaudois as a condi- tion of his alliance with France against Spain. From the latter he wrested the rich island of Jamaica, and the im- 312- MODERN HISTORY. portant harbor and fortress of Dunkirk. But Cromwell bitterly felt that his power was usurped and despotic. Some of his acts were more arbitrary than those for which Charles was beheaded. He, too, had levied taxes without consent of Parliament, and had imprisoned lawyers who appeared in defense of the victims. 543. Assassins, paid by Charles II., constantly dogged his steps ; the reproaches of his conscience, deepened, it is said, by those of his dying daughter, harassed his mind. A slow fever consumed him, and he died, on the anni- versary of his great victories of Dunbar and Worcester, September 3, 1658. His son Richard, though acknowl- edged as Protector, found himself unequal to the office, and resigned his place. No one was great enough, though several men were quite willing, to be intrusted with the government, and the dread of anarchy led the nation to welcome Charles H. as their king. 544. The Restoration, — Charles H. (A. D. 1660- 1685) entered London amid the clang of bells, the blaze of bonfires, and the shouts of a rejoicing people. He began his reign with amnesty to all political offenders, except a few who had been actively concerned in his father's death. The church was restored to the authority it had enjoyed under James I., and 2,000 dissenting min- isters were expelled from their parishes. Greater severi- ties were inflicted upon the Scots, who chose to meet for worship in lonely recesses of mountain and moor, rather than be false to their covenant. These congregations were often ridden down by the king's troopers, and men, women, and children were put to the sword. 545. In 1664, a new war broke out with the Dutch, who lost their American province between the Hudson and Delaware rivers. It was conferred on the king's brother, James, duke of York, and the northern part has ever since borne his title. During this war two tjreat REIGN OF CHARLES II. 513 calamities visited London — the Plague, in 1665, which de- stroyed 100,000 lives, and the great fire, in 1666, which consumed 13,000 dwellings and 90 churches. 546. Charles, by this time, had disgusted his best friends by the shameful licentiousness of his court. He dismissed his faithful chancellor. Lord Clarendon, who reproved his vices, and allowed his government to fall into the hands of unscrupulous politicians. He married a Portuguese prin- cess, Catharine of Braganza; but he treated her with rude neglect, and even allowed her to be insulted by his court- iers. He sold Dunkirk to the French to raise money for his idle pleasures, and actually accepted a pension from Louis XIV., to betray the religion and the independence of England. He was, however, compelled by Parliament to join in the Triple Alliance (i^ 622) to restrain the aggres- sions of his too-powerful cousin. 547. The duke of York, about this time, declared him- self a Romanist, and the king was, secretly, of the same mind, so far as he had any religion at all. The people, recalling the dangers of a hundred years before (§§ 505- 508), were ready to believe the false stories of one Titus Gates, who told of a "popish plot"' to ' ' ' ' '' ' kill the king and all Protestants, burn London, and crown the duke of York. The excitement became so great, and such rewards were offered for further evidence, that every day brought forth a swarm of new stories, each more atro- cious than the last. But, when the aged and estimable Lord Stafford was actually beheaded for supposed com- plicity in the "plot," remorse and grief took the place of credulity, and Gates was at last punished as he deserved. 548. The "Rye-House Plot," A. D. 1683, was a real scheme to kill the king and his brother on their way to the Newmarket races. Its authors were common ruffians, who were easily detected and punished. Six nobles and gentle- men were at the same time planning some change in the 314 MODERN HTSTORY. government, though their designs did not probably include either treason or murder. One was the duke of Mon- mouth, a son of the king and a low-born woman; another was Algernon Sidney, a noble-minded republican by theory, who had opposed the absolute power of Cromwell as well as that of Charles. Monmouth ran away, but was after- wards pardoned and received at court ; Sidney and Lord Rnssell were tried, condemned, and beheaded on unproven charges of having had part in the Rye-Honse Plot. 549. The names of "Whig" and "Tory" now first appeared in England, the former applied to the party which stood for the rights of the people ; the latter, to that which accepted the Stuart notion of the absolute authoritv of kings. To the Whigs we owe the full estab- lishment of the Habeas Corpus Act, entitling A. D. 1679. . , . , , , every prisoner to a speedy trial, and thus pre- venting arbitrary imprisonments. This guarantee of per- sonal freedom is found in every nation which has derived its ideas of law and justice from England. 550. The reign of Charles II. was a great era in science. Newton^ discovered the law of gravitation ; Boyle^ investigated the properties of the atmosphere ; Hobbes and Locke discoursed of the human mind, its laws and rela- tions to matter. Meanw^hile, Milton,^ in blindness and pov- erty, was composing the greatest epic poem in the language — Paradise Lost. He had been secretary to Cromwell, and devoted his splendid talents to the service of the Commonwealth. He was treated with contemptuous neg- lect by the courtiers of Charles, but later ages know better how to appreciate him. John Bunyan, tinker and preacher, during his twelve years' imprisonment in Bedford jail, wrote the "Pilgrim's Progress," which has probably had more readers than any other English book. 551. Charles left no son entitled to succeed him, and his brother James (A. U. 16S5-1688) accordingl}- became DETHRONEMENT OF JAMES II. 315 king upon his death. Taking advantage of the popular fear of popery, the duke of Monmouth made a rash attempt to seize his uncle's crown. With his little army he met the king's forces at Sedgemoor, where he was defeated, made a prisoner, and condemned to the scaffold. A brutal revenge for this insurrection was taken by Kirke with his dragoons, and afterwards by Jeffreys, the drunken chief justice, who condemned innocent and guilty alike. 552. The king soon took steps for the restoration of popery, and thrust into the Tower seven venerable bishops, who had ventured to remonstrate. The people had been patiently waiting for the king to die, that his daughter, who had married the Prince of Orange — great grandson of the liberator of the Netherlands (§§ 514-521) — might come to the throne. The birth of an English prince, in 1688, disappointed this hope and hastened the Revolution. 553. William of Orange was the leader of Protestant Europe against Louis XIV., as Elizabeth had been against Philip of Spain. The best men in England now joined in inviting him to come and deliver them from misrule. In November, 1688, he appeared with a fleet on the English coast, and both parties declared for him. The queen and her baby-son escaped to France, where the king soon joined them. Louis received them with kindness, main- tained a court for them and their needy followers, and sup- plied fleets and armies to enforce their claims in Ireland. 554. Parliament conferred the crown upon William and Mary as joint sovereigns, and they set their seal to a new Bill of Rights, which established just relations between the people and the throne. 'I"he Scotch Parliament also acknowledged William and Mary, but in Ireland an immense majority held out for James, and there the deposed king landed witli a French force, and besieged Londonderry. The citizens bravely endured a three months' siege, though hundreds died in tlie streets 3l6 MODERN HISTORY. from hunger and disease, and at length Ja.mes had to withdraw. The last decisive battle was on the River Boyne, Avhere both kings were present in person, and William was completely victorious. The last of James' ad- herents, in the highlands of Scotland, were destroyed in the Massacre of Glencoe — a wicked and needless act, for it occurred after their submission. 555- Q^ieen Mary II. died in 1694, and William III. reigned eight years as sole monarch of the three king- doms. England was drawn into his wars on the continent, which, for the first time, burdened her with a national debt. By the peace of Ryswick, 1697, the king of France recognized William as a riglitful sovereign, and promised to give no more aid to the exiled Stuarts. He violated this engagement, however, and, on the death of James II., proclaimed his son as "King James III. of England, Scotland, and Ireland." The English nation felt itself insulted, and, in voting supplies for the war of the Spanish Succession (§ 628), Parliament begged the king never to make peace until Louis had atoned for this act. While preparing for the war, William suddenly died, March, 1702. 556. Anne, second daughter of James II., was crowned at Westminster, April 23, and joined the emperor and the Dutch republic in a grand alliance against France and Spain, of which her great general, the duke of Marl- borough, was the moving spirit. The details of the war will be found in the chapter on France. In 1707, Eng- land and Scotland became one kingdom, under the name of Great Britain. Ireland kept her separate parliament until 1800, when the three kingdoms were united. 557. Queen Anne's heart was, doubtless, better than her head, and she was easily controlled by those who were about her. The duchess of Marlborough ruled her for years with the tyranny which a strong mind sometimes exercises over a weak one, scolding the poor queen un- ERA OF QUEEN ANNE. 317 mercifully for some little domestic arrangement, which the humblest woman might be allowed to make in her own house, but which the haughty duchess chose to manage herself. At last she was dismissed from court, and her place in the queen's favor was taken by a Mrs. Masham. The duke was too justly accused of prolonging the war in order to make himself rich with army contracts. He was removed from command, and soon afterward the treaty of Utrecht restored peace to Europe. 558. Queen Anne left no children, and, by a special act of Parliament, the House of Stuart was succeeded by that of Hanover. Perhaps it would have consoled the Electress Elizabeth (§ 530) in her poverty and exile, if she could have foreseen that her grandson would sit upon the throne of Great Britain. The prevalence of French taste may be clearly marked in the writers of Queen Anne's time, who are distinguished for neatness and polish of style, rather than for great thoughts or energetic feel- ing. Pope translated Homer's Iliad, and wrote his own moral Essays and Epistles, in the same stiff measure and artificial rhymes. Addison and Steele, two charming prose- writers, produced the Tatler and afterwards the Spectator — forerunners of our literary weeklies and monthlies. Read Green's Short History, Chs. VIII and IX. HOUSES OF STUART AND HANOVER. James I. I Charles I. Elizabeth m Elector-Palatine. I I Charles II. James II. Mary m. Pr. of Orange. Sophia m. Elector of Hanover. L I I . Ill "I I Mary. Anne James P'rancis [\ 552). William III. George I. Notice that the mother, as well as the wife, of Willliam III. was an English princess, and that he was himself the third in the line of succession to the crown. 3^8 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1 111 the oourse of two centuries, the English language had under- gone so many changes that Wicliffe's Bible (?391) could no longer be read except by scholars. The loundation for all the modern versions was laid by William Tyndale, an exile for his belief in the reformed doctrines, who, in l.'yiS," published at Antwerp his translation of the New Testament. Tyndale was afterwards imprisoned for heresy, and, In 15;>(i, was strangled and liuriit at the stake. His books were burnt by order of the government, but his work formed the basis of Cover- dale's translation of tlie whole Bible, which appeared in 1535, with the sinction of Henry VIII. This was followed by the "Great Bible" ot i:.:!!i^l51I, also sanctioned by tlie king; and by the "Bishops' Bible" of l.')(;s-1572, in the reign of Elizabeth. Fifty-four scholars and divines were emploveil upon King James's translation, and these were divided into six "('onipanies," four for the Old Testament and two for the New. Tlieir work occupied two years and nine mouths. In June, 1870, a Revision of King James's Version was commenced In- two English Companies appointed by the Convocation ot Canter- bury who afterwards invited two Committees in America to co-operate with' them. The Revised New Testament was presented to the public in May, ISSl. 2. The "Spanish Marriage" scl.enie was met in England with tlie strongest remonstrance from Parliament and all the king's best coun- cillors. It was promoted, however, by the Duke of Buckingham, "a handsome vouiig adventurer," whom James had " raised rapidly through every rank of the peerage, and intrusted with the direction of English policy. . . . But tlie selfishness and recklessness of Buckingham were equal to his beauty, and the liaughty young favorite was destined to drag down in his fatal career the throne of the Stuarts." James flattered himself that if his son sliould marry a Spanish prin- cess, his own influence with the Spanish court would secure some pro- tection to his daugliter's interests in Germany, and he preferred this crooked policy to a direct use of his own power, in which the Commons would most heartily have sustained him. But Frederic, driven from Bo- lieinia, found a Spanish army encamped in the heart of his hereditary dominions, and was subsetiuently forced to take refuge in Holland. Prince Charles, wlio was then in Spain, urging his own suit, demanded Spanish interference in his sister's behalf; but was answered that there was an unalterable maxim of state that the King of Spain must never ttght against the Emperor. "If you hold to that," replied the Prince, "there is an end of all; " and he not unwillingly returned to England. 3. When only three years old, Hampden was left fatherless and heir to one of tlie largest estates in England. Educated at Oxford, he after- wards studied law in London, and entered the House of Commons in 1021. To the flist illegal demand of Charles I. for a loan, "Hampden replied that he 'could be content to lend, but feared to draw upon himself the curse in Magna Charta (§.S83), which shouki be read every year against those who infiinge it.' He was punished by so hard an imprisonment that he never afteiwards did look like the same man he was before." The levying of ship-money dated from Alfred the Great (?:i2)i and notes), who had required eacli maritime town to provide and maintain a ship for the defense of thecoast. Butthis was done only with the advice and consent of his "wise men." Hampdeu's Arm and reasonable resist- ance encouraged all true patriots; and even the Earl of Clarendon (^51(3) remarks in his 'History of the Civil Wars," that Hampden "grew tht argument of all tongues, every man inquiring who and what he was that durst, at his own charge, support the liberty and prosperity of tho kingdom." Hampden was mortally wounded on Chalgrove Field, 1643. 4. Oliver Cromwell was born in Huntingdonshire, 1509, was edu *ted In Cambridge, and studied law in London. He was a cousin of Hamp- den. Although over forty years of age when he entered the army, "he never lost a battle, and his victories were always decisive." NOTES. 319 With the consent of Fairfax, the commander-in-chief, Cromwell in- troduced a "New Model" of discipline into the Parliamentary armies. His first aim was to collect a body of honest, sell-respectiiig,'and God- fearing men, and never, probal)ly, was such another army seen. Wher- ever they moved, every man's house anil field were res]Jected, and pro- visions were honestly paid for, while the wild mai'auders wlio followed Prince Rupert, and many of whom had learned their trade among the liideous ravages of the Thirty Years' War, hurt the Iving's cause more by their disgraceful misconduct than they helped it by their bravery. * Tlie events of Cromweirs life are briefly noted in the text. His char- acter should be studied in I'arlyle's "Letteis and Speeches of Cromwell," in "Macaulay's Review of Hallam's Constitutional History of England," and in " Forster's Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England." 5. Sir Isaac Newton was a farmer's son, born in Lincolnshire, Kifi'. In his boyhood he pi'oved his ingenuity by constructing a wind-mill, a water-clock, and other pieces of mechanism. While a student at Cam- bridge, he disc(jvered the binomial theorem in Algebra, and soon after- ward the ditferential calculus. In his retirement to the country during the Great Plague t§->l5), the fall of an apple from a tree led him into a train of reasoning which ended in a demonstration of the law that holds the planets in their orbits. It was "the germ of his greatest work, the 'Principia,' which La Place regarded as 'pre-eminent above all other productions of the human intellect.'" Among his other discoveries was his theory explaining that which Sir John Herschel calls "the chief of all optical facts— the production of colors in the ordinary refraction of light by a prism." Read tlie accounts of Newton in the "Encyclopae- dia Britannica," or in " Lippincott's Biograjihical Dictionary," also "Sir David Brewster's Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton." 6. Robert Boyle, a younger son of the "great Earl of Cork," was born at Lismoie, in Ireland, 1620. This was the year of Lord Bacon's deatli, and, as if destined to succeed him, Boyle is "accounted the most zealous and successful " of Bacon's disciples. After a liberal education, followed by travels in Italy, Boyle returned to England, and became one of the founders of the Royal Society of Science. The most noted of the prac- tical results of his studies and experiments was the perfecting of the air-pump. He is entitled to admiration as well by the noble liberality of his character as by his splendid contributions to science. 7. John Milton was born in London, ICOS. After seven years at the University of Cambridge, he spent five years in rural quietness, study- ing music and the classical M-riters, and composing the most beautiful of his poems; "Comus," "L'^llegro," "II Penseroso," and " Lycidas." He afterwards tra\ eled in Italy, visited Galileo in his prison, and en- joyed the society of many great men. " When I was preparing," he says, "to pass over into Sicily and Greece, the melancholy intelligence which I received of the civil commotions in England made me alter my pur- ,pose; fori thought it base to be traveling for amusement abroad while my fellow-citizens were fighting for liberty at home." Taking up his residence in London, IMilton soon afterwards married Mary Powell, a Indy of royalist family. Being accustomed to much gay "society, Mrs. Milton found her husband's house so dull that she soon icturiied to her early liome, and, as her lather had begun to repent "havintr matched his eld\'st daughter to a person so contrary in opin- ion," Miltt)n's letters antl attempts at reconciliation were treated with contempt. Finding, however, that he was about to cast her off irre- trievably for disobedience and desertion, the now repentant wife begged to be taken back. The reconciliation was perfect, and Mrs. Milton's kindred had reason to re;joice in it, for they soon needed a refuge un- der the protection of the now powerful republican. As "literary champion of the Commonwealth," Milton was called upon to answer the arguments of its opponents. His "Defense of the English People " cost hnii his sight. He was warned of the danger, but says, "I did not Ifftlance whether my duly should be preferred to ray eyes." Thus it was in total darkness that he composed his greatest poem, " Paradise Lost," and another epic, second only to it, the " Paradise Begaine 1." He died in 11)74. Prof. Masson's great work on the "Life and Times of Milton " is the highest authority on the subject. CHAPTER VIT. THE HOUSE OK AUSTRIA AM) THE THIRTY YEARS WAR. m^' M )N the abdication of Charles W, the Hapsbin-gs were sepa- rated into a Spanish and a (iernian branch — his brother Kerch nand becoming duke of Austria and emperor, while Philip reigned over Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands. Still the two branches usually acted in concert, and together continued to be the leading power in Kurope. 560. The main interest of l-'erdinand's reign (A. 1). 1558 -1564), and that of his son, centers about the wars with the Turks, who now exacted a yearly tribute from the em- peror, and were fighting for the control of the Mediter- ranean. In 1565, Solyman (§§460-467) besieged MaltaMvith an immense fleet and army; but the Knights of St. John defended it so bravely that he abandoned the enterprise and sailed away to Con- stantinople in a rage. Five years later, the whole island of Cyprus, for eighty years a possession of Venice, was conquered by the Turks, and all Europe was alarmed. (320) An Arqu. b i.^ier. MAP No. XII. CHIEF ENGLISH WRITERS OF THE COMMONWEALTH, THE RESIORATION, AND QUEEN ANNE'S REIGN. Thomas Fuller, A. D. 1608-1661 : " Worthies of England," etc. Jeremy Taylor, 1613-1667 : "The Liberty of Prophesying," etc. Abraham Cowley, 1618-1667 : Poems. John Milton, 1608-1674: " Paradise Lost," etc. Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, 1608-1674: "History of the Rebellion," etc. Samuel Butler, 1612-1680: "Hudibras."^ Sir Thomas Browne, 1 605-1 682 : " Religio Medici," etc. Edmund Waller, [605-1687: Poems. Ralph Cudworth, 1617-1688: "True Intellectual System of the LTniverse," etc. John Bunyan, 1628-1,688: "The Pilgrim's Progress.' Richard Baxter, 1615-1691 : "The Saints' Rest," etc. John Dryden, 1631-1700: "Absalom and x-Vchitophel," etc. John Locke, 1632-1704: "Essay concerning Human Un- derstanding." Gilbert Burnet, 1643-1715: " History of the Reformation," etc. Joseph Addison, 1672-17T9: "Cato," "The Spectator," etc. Sir Isaac Newton, 1642-1727: "Mathematical Principles," "Optics," etc. Sir Richard Steele, 1671-1729: Comedies, " The Tatler," etc. Daniel DeFoe, 1661-1731 : " Robinson Crusoe," etc. Alexander Pope, 1688-1744: " Essay on Criticism," "The Dunciad," etc. 1 Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745: "Gulliver's Tra\els," etc. BATTLE OF LEPANTO. 321 561. A fleet of 300 Spanish and Venetian vessels were soon assembled under the command of John of Austria, a half-brother of the king of Spain, and met the Turkish armament in the Gulf of Lepanto^(see Map 4). The ensuing combat was perhaps the most im- ' '^^'" portant naval battle of modern times; for it was the point where the Ottoman Empire, having reached its greatest power, began steadily to decline. The Turks lost 224 ships, and 30,000 men. The great Solyman had died in 1566, and his son Se'lim, who reigned till 1574, was weak and self-indulgent. 562. Ferdinand's son and successor, Maximil'ian II. (A. D. 1564- 1576), was one of the best monarchs of the age. He gave religious liberty to his own dominions of Hungary and Bohemia, and steadily opposed the Jesuits, though his wife, a sister of Philip II. of Spain, was willingly ruled by them. His son, Ru'dolph II. (A. D. 1576- 161 2), on the contrary, expelled all Lutherans from his hereditary states. The laws of the empire did not permit persecution in Germany, but the bigotry of Rudolph prepared the way for the most terrible war of religion on record. He was a weak-minded and superstitious man; but his belief in the magical influences of the stars was of some use, for it led him to endow an observatory at Prague, where the great astronomers, Kepler^and Tycho Brahe,^ pursued their studies of the heavens. 563. Europe was again alarmed by the progress of the Turks under Moham'med III., a monster who had secured his possession of the throne by murdering his nineteen brothers. In a three days' battle at Keresztes, fifty thousand Christians were slain ; but the war resulted unfavorably to the Turks, and the treaty which ended it dispensed with any further tribute from the em- perors, who were now named by their proper titles instead of being called "Kings of Vienna" as before. Hist.— 21. 32 2 MODERN HISTORY. 564. The long weak reign of Rudolph ended in 161 2, and his brother Matthi'as became emperor; but the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia were soon resigned to Ferdinand of Styria, their cousin. The Bohemians revolted against Ferdinand, threw his council out of the window of the castle at Prague, and ultimately chose Frederic, the elector- palatine, a son-in-law of James I. of England, to be their king. This was the first act in the Thirty Years' War, in which almost every nation in Europe was engaged, though Germany was the chief sufferer. 565. The old enmity between tlie reigning houses of France and Austria led the former to take an important, though at first a secret, part in the war. Richelieu's shrewd management strengthened the Protestant cause, and aided the king of Sweden, who soon appeared as its champion. Wal'lenstein,' the imperial general, was the most singular character of his time. He believed that a great destiny was written for him in the stars; and his soldiers followed him with the l)lindest obedience and confidence, as if all the forces of lieaven and earth were on his side. The magic of his name drew about him 50,000 volunteers, whom he maintained, without expense to the emperor, by turning them loose upon the unhappy people, whose homes and fields they ravaged. 566. King Frederic was not only driven from Bohemia by Ferdinand's troops, but lost his dominion on the Rhine, and ended his life in exile and poverty. Ferdinand, on the death of his cousin Matthias in 161 9, received the imperial crown. The first years of the war favored the imperialists. Wallenstein and his freebooters swept over the Protestant states, leaving a broad track of misery and desolation l^e- hind them. The king of Denmark, who came to the aid of the Protestants, was driven back even to his islands in the Baltic — his dominions on the mainland being occupied by the emperor's forces. With the aid of the king of GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 323 Sweden, he was able, however, to relieve the fortress of Stralsund, before whose walls Wallenstein lost nearly half his army. Soon afterward the Diet insisted upon the dis- missal of Wallenstein for his brutal tyrannies and extor- tions, and Count Tilly was appointed as his successor. 567. In 1630, Ciustavus Adolphus,^ king of Sweden, in- vaded Germany. His army, unlike that of Wallenstein, respected all the rights of the people, paying honestly for whatever food it required. One by one all the fortresses of Pomerania and Mecklenburg were either taken, or will- ingly surrendered to the Swedish king. The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, descendants of the great leaders of the Reformation, were neither able to fill their place at the head of Protestant Germany, nor willing that any other should fill it. Angry because the people looked to Gus- tavus as their great deliverer, they refused him their aid, and even resisted his progress, so that he was compelled to leave the ancient city of Magdeburg to the vengeance of Count Tilly and his brutal Croats and Walloons. Thirty thousand citizens were massacred, and the entire city, excepting the cathedral, was consumed by fire. 568. Tilly then ravaged and plundered Saxony; and the smoke of two hundred burning villages at length made the Elector willing to join his forces to those of the king* of Sweden. The great victory of Leipsig was the result, in which the imperial army was wholly dispersed or de- stroyed. All Germany lay open to Gustavus; he might, apparently, have marched to Vienna, captured the emperor, and received for himself the crown of the Caesars. The Austrian courtiers no longer laughed at the "Snow-King," who, at his head-quarters in Mentz, on the Rhine, was surrounded by a brilliant array of ambassadors and princes. Ferdinand was reluctantly compelled to recall Wallenstein, who, with haughty insolence, accepted command only on the condition that the entire military power of the empire 324 MODERN HISTORY. should be placed in his hands, and that neither the emperor nor any of his family should come near the army. 569. The last victory of Gustavus was at Lutzen, where Wallenstein and his trooi^s were defeated, but ^ ' the great king was slain. The Spanish and Austrian governments ordered public rejoicings for his death, as a victory to their cause; but the rest of the world mourned the loss of the noblest character of the time. The Protestant states of Germany chose the Swed- ish chancellor Ox'enstiern'' to succeed his master as the protector of their interests, while Duke Bernhard of Weimar became their military chief. 570. It was soon evident that Wallenstein meant to make himself king of Bohemia. Instead of bringing him to a just and open trial for this treason, the emperor ordered a secret assassination, and the foul deed was performed by some of Wallenstein's own officers. King Ferdinand of Bohemia, the emperor's eldest son, assumed chief command of the army, and, in the summer of 1634, inflicted a ruinous defeat upon the Swedes at Nordlingen. The elector of Saxony, and most of the other princes, soon made peace with Ferdinand; and the imperial armies invaded France, though with little success. 571. In 1637 the emperor died, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand III., a more liberal and peace-loving prince. Yet the war went on, and its last years were more hideously brutal than even its beginning. The Swedes had lost the perfect discipline of Gustavus Adolphus, while the German soldiers lived wholly by plundering the wretched people. Hunger was the gre'at weapon constantly em- ployed, each army destroying all the food it could not eat, for the purpose of starving its opponents; and, of course, women, children, and helpless men suffered more than the soldiers. In Bohemia alone more than a thou- sand castles and villages were burned. TREATY OF WESTPHALIA. 325 572. At last all parties were sufficiently worn out to unite in an earnest effort for peace. Two congresses were opened at Mlinster and Osnabruck, one for the Catholic and one for the Protestant powers; and, after five years' labor of embassadors from nearly all nations of Europe, the treaty of Westphalia was signed. Spain recognized the United Netherlands after eighty '^ ■> ' + • years' struggle as an independent republic. The son of Frederic V. was restored to his electorate (§566). Relig- ious freedom was guaranteed to all the German states. Many imperial powers were now bestowed upon the Diet, which was hereafter to meet, at stated intervals, at Frank- fort, instead of attending the emperor whenever and where- ever he chose to call it. 573. The Holy Roman Empire ceased to exist, except in name ; and 300 sovereign and separate states, each with its distinct coinage, constitution, and laws, existed between the Alps and the Baltic. One could hardly travel a day, even in the slow coaches of that period, without paying duties at several custom-houses, which marked the bound- aries of as many governments. The peace of Westphalia was an important turning point in the history of Europe — ending 130 years of religious strife, and marking the decline of the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. A few years later saw an immense increase in the power of France. Find the sites of all the sieges and battles mentioned in this chapter. Where is Westphalia? Saxony? Brandenburg? Mecklen- burg? Pomerania? Bohemia? Point out the separate dominions of the two branches of the Hapsburgs. Read Schiller's "Thirty Years' War;" Dyer's History of Modern Europe; and, for illustration of the times, Schiller's three-fold drama of Wallenstein, translated by Coleridge. Also, and especially, S. R. Gardiner's "The Thirty Years' War," a brief sketch, which brings into strong relief the chief events and results. 326 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Upon the capture of Rhodes (g460), the Knights of St. John received from Charles V. a gift of the ishind of MaUa tor their permanent resi- dence, and their industry soon converted its rocky cliffs into bf)th a garden and a fortress. Their grand-master at this time was La Valette, a veteran in hisOSth year, who, in his youth, " liad witnessed the mem- orable siege of Rhodes, and had passed successively tli rough every post in the Order, from the humblest to the bislicst, which lie now occupied." Learning Solyman's designs, he "summoned the linights absent in for- eign lands, imported provisions from Sicily and Spain, drilled the native militia, and worked with liis own hands upon the repair of the fortifi- cations." Then summoning his brethren to the chapel of the convent, he reminded them that thev were the "forlorn hope of Christendom," the "chosen soldiers of the cross;" and the whole number, having par- taken together of the siu-.aincnt, solemnly renewed their vows. On the morning of May IS, l.'Xi.'), the Turkish fleet appeared— 180 ships, be- sides transports and 30,000 men. The castle of St. Elmo was first in- vested, and, after a mcmth's siege, sustained with incredible heroism, was reduced to a heap of ruins, in which nearly all its defenders were buried. The attacks upon II Borgo and its protecting castles of St. Michael and St. Angelo were, if possible, Jiiore determined; but the re- sistance was also more successful. "Mustapha ran his mines under the Christian defenses, until the ground was iierforated like a lioney-comb, and the garrison seemed to be treading on the crust of a volcano. La Valette countermined in his turn. The Christians, breaking into the galleries of the Turks, engaged them boldly undcrgrouml ; and some- times the mine, exploding, buried both Turk and Cliristian under a heap of ruins. Baffled at every point, with their ranks hourly thinned by disease, the Moslem troops grew sullen and dispirited." At this crisis, the Viceroy of Sicily arrived with a fleet and army to the aid of the brave defenders of the island, and Mustapha, getting his enormous cannon on board his galleys, sailed away for Constantinople. His arrival threw Solyman into a furious rage, and stamping on the letters that annou'n"ed it, he declared that as he had no otflcer whom he couhl trust, he would himself lead an expedition to Malta the next year and kill every man on the island. To avoid public notice, he caused the fleet bearing the shattered remnants of his army to come into port in the night — a striking contrast to the sailing of the brilliant armament from the Golden Horn amidst the joyous acclamations of the multitude. In Malta, on the other hand, the eighth of September, the day of the Turks' departure, is still celebrated as a most glorious anniver.sary. Read the full account in "Prescott's Philip II.," Vol. II., pp. 890-505. 2. "What brought most pleasure to the hearts of the conquerors was the liberation of 12,000 Christian captives, who had been chained to the oar on board the Moslem galleys, and who now came forth, with tears of joy streaming down tlieir haggard cheeks, to bless their deliverers." — P)-escoU, Philip II., Vol. III., p. 350. 3. Kepler's greatest discovery was uf three Laws which determine the motions of the jilanets. Sir ,Tohn Herschel pronounced them "the most important and bc.iutiful system of g(V)metrical I'elations which have ever been discovered by a mere inductive in-ocess." In his devout joy at the grandeur of the truth that had dawned upon him, Kei)ler exclaimed, "O God, I think Thy thoughts after Thee!" And when it was said to him that few would ever be able to understand his ai)struse reasonings, he replied, "It matters not; I can well afford to wait a hundred years for a reader, since God has waited six thousand years for an ol)server." 4. Tycho Brahe was of a noble Swedish family. An eclipse of the sun, which occurred in August, 15(i0, four months before he comjileted his 15th year, gave direction to his whole life. For, while sui^iiosed to be reading law at Leijisic, he employed the whole time while his tutor was asleep, in a study of the stars and planets. Subsciiuently, Frederic II. of Denmark, gave him an island near Copenliagen, and MOTES. 327 built for him there the magnificent observatory called Oranienborg, or City of the Heavens. After twenty years sj^ent in important discoveries, Tycho lost his royal patron, and soon afterwards the pensions by which he had been enabled to maintain his establishment. He accepted the patronage of the Emperor Rudolph, and settled, in A. D. KJOO, at Prague, where Kepler became his a.ssistant. Tycho Brahe discovered the true theory of comets, catalogued 777 stars, and made some great improve- meilts in the theories concerning the moon. 5. This extraordinary man was born Baron von Wallenstein, but be- came, by imperial appointment, Duke of Mecklenl)urg, Friedland, and Sagaii, and Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Though his parents were Protestants, he was educated in the Jesuit college :it Olmiitz and afterwards studied at Bologna and Padua. His belief in astrology—/, e., in the power of i be stars over human destiny— he held in common with most of the men of his time. He had powerful enemies at court, and it is p()ssil)le that his treasonable designs Avere exaggerated. But it is certain that, after the battle of Leipsic, Wallenstein sent a messenger to Gustavus, oflfering, if the king would entrust him with 1.5,000 men, to conciuer IJohemia and Moravia, surprise Vienna, and drive the empe- ror into Italy. The king did not trust a man who could so openly avow himself a traitor, and declined the ofTer. 6. Gustavus Adolphus was a son of Chai-les IX. of Sweden, and grandson of Gustavus Vasa, the founder of the dynasty (§585). Be- coming king before he was 17 years of age, he found himself engaged in war with Denmark. Before this was ended, a conflict with Russia liad begun, and this was followed by a 9 years' war with the powerful kingdom of Poland. Gustavus secured at last an honorable peace, to- gether with accessions of territory south and east of the Baltic; but the greatest advantage of all was the self-discipline gained through expe- rience which fitted him for his great part in the Thirty Years' War. Schiller says: "The glorious battle of Leipsic effected a great change in the conduct of Gustavus Adolphus, as well as in the opinion which both friends and foes entertained of him. ... In all his subsequent o))erations, more boldness and decision are observable, greater deter- mination, even amidst the nrost unfavorable circumstances, a more lofty tone toward his adversaries, a more dignified bearing towards his allies, and even in his clemency something of the forbearance of a con- queror." Gustavus hated flattery. Shortly before the battle of Lutzen, when the country people were crowding about him, eager to look upon one wlioni they considered as their guardian angel and avenger, a.nd, if possible, to touch the sheath of his sword or the hem of his garment, he exclaimed, "Is it not as if this people would make a God of me? I fear heaven will punish us for this presumption, and soon reveal to this deluded multitude my weakness and mortality ! " On the morning of the battle of Lutzen, the whole Swedish army, kneeling, joined in the devotions of tluMr king, and then broke forth in singing Luther's hymn, '■'Ein feste Burg ist uiifier Gott," which has been called tlie " Battle-song of the Reformation." It was the first time that (iustavus and Wallenstein— the two greatest generals in Europe- were to meet in battle on ecjual terms, and every soldier felt how much was at stake. Three imperial brigades were put to flight by the im- petuous onset of the Swedes, but were rallied and led back by Wallen- stein. A colonel <>f Swedish eavali'y having fallen, the king took his coinmand, and charging lar in advance of his men, received a mortal wound. His cousin, the Duke of Lauenburg, was close behind him, and received him in his arms. "Brother," said the king, "I have enough; look only to your own life." His men fought all the more bravely in the grief of their loss; and, after nine hours' desperate com- bat, the troops of Wallenstein were withdrawn. 7. To Oxenstiern, the lifelong counselor of Gustavus Adolphus, and guardian of his. daughter {g58()), we owe the only attempt at Swedish colonization in America (?583). Though its connection with Sweden was short, the settlement remained vrnder Dutch and English control, and descendants of Oxenstiern's coloni.sts may still be found in Phila- delphia and the adjacent country. CHAPTER VIII. EUROPEAN COLONIES. HE bold explorers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were followed by a more patient and ploddhig set of men, who founded permanent settlements in the newly discovered lands. The Hindu peninsula was already the seat of a great empire (§ 377), and of a swarming population far more skillful and industrious than their European visitors. Here, then, was no room for colonization ; the Portuguese, and, after them, the Dutch, French, and English, had to con- tent themselves with a few trading factories guarded by forts. (328) SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. 329 575. Jesuit missionaries opened the way for Portuguese traders into China and Japan. Macao was given them by the Chinese emperor, and continued in their possession until it became a free port, in 1846. The Japanese seem to have been less favorably impressed by their first ac- quaintance with Europeans, for, in 1637, the government ordered a general massacre of native Christians and the expulsion of all foreigners, while natives were forbidden to leave the country. For more than two centuries Japan shut herself up from all the world ; but in our day she has suddenly opened her doors and welcomed not only trade, but the most familiar intercourse with the western nations. 576. The great rich domain of Brazil,' in South America, was divided, by the king of Portugal, into extensive fiefs, called captaincies. By their subjection to Spain (§ 525), the Portuguese lost their whole eastern dominion, and, for a time, that of Brazil; but the latter was regained and at length became an independent empire, ruled by a branch of the royal family of Portugal. 577. Spain treated her colonists in the New World in the most selfish and despotic manner. They were forbid- den to make their own clothes, furniture, tools, or even some necessary articles of food; for all these things must be bought of the mother-country. They were not per- mitted to build ships, nor to trade with the colonies of other nations. Once a year a merchant fleet from Spain brought whatever they were supposed to need, in exchange for American products ; and the colonists must pay what- ever their masters chose to ask, or lose all opportunity to dispose of their merchandise. Their governors were natives of Spain, who had no interest in the colonies ex- cept to enrich themselves as soon as possible. Under such bondage, it is needless to say that the Spanish col- onies did not flourish; and, though they have now 330 MODERN HISTORY. secured their independence, the people are still lacking in enterprise. 578. Doubtless, this stupid tyranny was fortunate for the European Protestants of the sixteenth century ; for a wise and liberal system of government would have drawn enormous wealth from these vast and rich domains, and Charles V. and Philip II. might, indeed, have been lords of the world (^§444, 525). But, then, if Spain had been either wise or liberal, .she would not have chosen to crush the Reformation, to ruin the Netherlands, or to deprive herself of the industry of the Moors and Jews (§ 434). 579. The false theory that only gold and silver consti- tuted wealth led to a comparative neglect of the fertile soil of the colonies, and to stringent edicts against export ing the precious metals from Spain ; while the decay of industry left the Spaniards very little to buy at home ; and so their gold would have been nearly useless if the edicts had not been disobeyed. It must be confessed that the Dutch and English shared the same erroneous ideas. Their colonies were supposed to exist only for the benefit of the parent state, and were narrowly watched lest they should grow too prosperous. 580. Though the whole western continent, with the ex- ception of Brazil, had been given to Spain by Pope Alex- ander VI., France and England made good their claim to a large share of North America. The beautiful meadows of Acadia, now Nova Scotia, were settled by French peas- ants about 1604; Quebec was founded in 1608, and Mon- treal in 1640. The French policy was to treat the Indians like friends and brothers, and so secure their aid. They slept in the wigwams of the savages, ate of their loath- some food, and fought their battles with the terrible fire- arms which were sure to give victory over those who encountered them for the first time. 581. In this way, with an Algonquin war-party, Samuel FOUNDING OF NEW YORK. 331 Champlain,^ in 1609, explored the beautiful lake which now bears his name, and encountered the Iroquois of central New York. At another time he penetrated the Canadian wilderness to the headwaters of the Ottawa and to Lake Huron, gaining a host of savage allies. La Salle^ explored the Mississippi River from its source to the Gulf of Mexico; and caused a loud-voiced herald to proclaim that the "most high, mighty, invincible, and victorious prince, Louis the Great, king of France and Navarre," was lord of all the country from which the great river drew its waters. His attempt to colonize "Louisi- ana" — so the whole vast region was called in honor of Louis XIV. — resulted in a sad failure. 582. The first settlement within the present limits of the L'nited States was made by French Protestants, in 1564, under the patronage of Coligny (§' 480). It was extermniated by Spaniards from St. Augustine; but the recollection of the attempt led many exiled Huguenots to seek homes in the Carolinas, when, in 1685, the revocation of the Edict of Nantes deprived them of safety at home. 583, Early in the seventeenth century, Henry Hudson,^ in the service of the Dutch Republic, while looking for a north-west passage to India, discovered the river which now bears his name. The Dutch West India Company undertook to colonize the "New Netherlands," including, under that name, the whole tract between Chesapeake Bay and Connecticut River, which Hudson had explored. A fort and a few huts were built on Manhattan Island, for purposes of trade with the- Indians, and hence grew, in time, the greatest city of the western hemisphere. A settlement of Swedes on the Delaware was conquered and absorbed into New Netherlands ; but soon afterwards the whole Dutch territory was ceded to the English (§ 545), who divided it into the colonies of New York and New Jersey. 332 MODERN HISTORY. 584. The English colonies in America were founded, mainly, by private enterprise, and owed nothing to the home government except the land which they occupied. They covered only a strip of Atlantic coast from the St. John's River to the Penobscot; but, though far less extensive than the French settlements, they were, at the close of the seventeenth century, more populous and flour- ishing. Each of the thirteen colonies had its House of Assembly chosen by the peojjle, like the "Commons" at home ; while the royal power was represented by a gov- ernor appointed by the king. The oldest colony was Virginia, so named in honor of Queen Elizabeth, though it was not permanently founded until the reign of her successor. Its capital city, as well as the river by which it stood, bore the name of James I. Among the earliest adventurers in Virginia were many young cavaliers, who had ruined their fortunes by a self- indulgent life, and hoped to find gold and jewels enough in the New World to make them rich again. These hopes were, of course, doomed to disappointment, and the colony was nearly destroyed by famine and the hostility of the natives; but, as soon as industry and good sense took the place of idle speculation, Jamestown began to flourish. The New England colonies were founded in no expec- tation of sudden wealth. The first pilgrims willingly ac- cepted lives of toil, hardship, and peril for the sake of "freedom to worship God" in a manner which their con- sciences approved. It must be confessed that they some- times denied to others the religious freedom which they had taken such pains to require for themselves. But relig- ious liberty grew by all these trials. The colony of Rhode Island was founded by an exile from Massachusetts. Rhode Island has the honor of the first distinct enactment that no man should be disturbed, or in any way called in question, on account of his religion; and. Maryland was not long in following the good example. In his colony EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 333 on the Delaware, the Quaker, William Penn,® put in prac- tice the just and peaceable principles of his sect. He dealt with the Indians as if they had been Christians like Iiimself; and so well did the savages appreciate his confi- dence that no Quaker settlement ever suffered from their attacks. SYNOPSIS OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS BEFORE A. D. 1700. Portuguese: — Madeira, 142 1 ; the Azores, 1432; Malabar Coast, 1498; Cochin, 1503; Goa, 1510; Ormuz, 1515; Macao, 1517; Bombay, 1530; Gold Coast (Africa), 1610; Brazil, 1501-1530; Capital at Bahia, 1549. Spanish: — Canaries, 1405 ; Hayti, 1495; New Grenada, 1510; Cuba, 1511; Venezuela, 1520; Mexico, 1521; Nicaragua, 1522; Peru, 1532; Quito, Guayaquil, and Buenos Ayres, 1535; Santiago de Chili, 1540; Philippine Islands, 1566; Porto Bello, 1584. French: — Nova Scotia, 1604; Quebec, 1608; Montreal, 1640; Guiana, 1604; Senegal, 1637; Pondicherry, 1674. Dutch: — Guiana, 1580; Spice Islands, 1607; Java, 1612; Gold Coast, 161 1; New Amsterdam, 1614; Cura9ao, 1634; Mauritius, 1644; Cape of Good Hope, 1650. British : —'inxs.i, 1612; Madras, 1639; Bombay, 1662; Guiana, 1630; Gold Coast, 1661 ; Virginia, 1607 ; Massachu- setts, 1620, New Hampshire, 1623; Connecticut, 1635; Rhode Island, 1636; North Carolina, 1653; South Carolina, 1670; Pennsylvania, 1683. Read Robertson's "America;" Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World ; " and Bancroft's " History of the United States," Vols. I, II, and HI. 534 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Brazil was the seat of the first a!i;ricultural colonies in tlie New World. The sugar cane was early broufilit from Madeira, and was found well suited to tlie soil. (Jreat plantations and manufactories were es- tablished, and quantities of siiijnr were exported to Europe. Kiii<; .lohn 111., of Portugal, made the first atteiui)t to give Brazil a regularly organ- ized tiovi rnnient, by granting domains called captaincies, each extend- ing "lO Ic.iiiues along the coast, and as far inland as the means and couragr of the proprietor allowed him to penetrate. The first captaincy- was in the present province of San Paulo; and here, about 1552, the first college was founded. It exists to this day, as a great law school. The magnificent harbor of Rio Janeiro was first explored by Martin de Sousa, in 1531, but his settlement was upon the island of St. Vincent; and the site of the present capital was first occupied by the French under Villegagnon, in 1538. Villegagnou gained the favor of Colign.v (HSO and note) by intimating that his colony would serve as a refuge for the persecuted Huguenots; and thus secured a large number of in- dustrious and valuable settlers. But as soon as he thought himself safe beyond the sea, he began to oppress and ill-treat his colonists, so that many of them felt obliged to return, and 10,000 more, who were waiting in France to embark, changed their minds. Finding that his treachery had defeated itself, Villegagnon sailed for France, and the Portuguese (lovernor General attacked and dispersed the settlement, replacing it by a Portuguese colony. The first Governor General of Brazil, Thome de Sousa, had founded, in 1519, the city of Bahia for a cominon capital of all the settlenuiits which now dotted the coast ft-om the Amazon to the La Plata. :Many orphan boys and girls were sent out by the Portuguese government— tlie boys to be educated by the Jesuits, who were teaching the elements of religion and morality to both colonists and savages. While Brazil was nominally subject to Spain, the Dutch, who were at war with that power, made many eflTorts to establish themselves on the coast. They captured Bahia, and, though it was soon lo.st. Count Maurice of Nassau maintained Dutch supremacy in Brazil for fourteen years, and aspired to be the founder of a great western empire. But" in 1640, a revolution in Portugal placed the Braganzas, the pres- ent ruling family, on the throne, and, in a few years, the Brazilian provinces were reduced to obedience. 2. Samuel de Champlain, first Governor of Canada, was born at Brouage, in France, 15H7. He gained the favor of Htnry IV. by his gallant service in the French navy in the war against Spain, and, in l(j()3, visited the St. Lawrence under the king's patronage. Five years later, he laid the foundations of Quebec, and the next summer joined the Algonquins in one of their expeditions to the interior. Hi's first meeting with the Iroquois was at the present site of Crown Point, in the State of New York. They had never seen fire-arms, and were con- fident of victory. Champlain placed himself at the center of the Al- gonquin line, his two French comrades at either eitd, and at their first aim three Iroquois chiefs fell dead. Dismayed by this novel mode of warfare, the Iroquois fled, thinking themselves pursued by bolts from Heaven-. Champlain became Governor of Canada in 1020. The English captured Quebec in 1628, but restored it a year or two later on the con- clusion of peace, and there Champlain died in 1635. 3. The exciting story of La Salle's adventures must be read in Park- man's History of the " Discovery of the Great West." La Salle was the discoverer ofthe Ohio and the Illinois Rivers; he built and launched above Niagara Falls the " first vessel that ever plowed the waters of Lake Erie," and explored the lakes as far as Green Bay; built Fort Cr&vecoeur below Peoria, and thus claimed Illinois for the French by right of first settlement: explored the Mississippi, and finally was murdered in Texas by some of his own men, after twenty years of incredible hardships. 4. In 1607, Hudson, in the service of London merchants, had cruised along the eastern coast ot Greenland farther than any mariner had gone before, and finding his northward progress at length blocked by ice, had crossed the polar sea to Spitzbergen, and vainly tried to reach NOTES. 335 the Pacific tiirough the frozen passage between that island and Nova Zembla. The next year, in the service, now, of the Dutch East India Company, he renewed this search for a north-east passage to China- but, being again thwarted by the ice, he turned westward, and, after a stormy voyage of nearly three months, reached the banks of Newfound- land. Continuing his voyage to the southward, he touched the coast of what is now Maine, cruised in sight of Cape Cod, and explored Del- aware Bay, before, retracing part of his course, he entered the beautiful harbor of New York. He landed a boat's crew at Ooney Island, Sept. 4, lf)()!». Afterwards he ascended what he called the "great north river," to beyond where Albany now stands, hoping to find that it afforded an entrance to the Pacific. His next voyage was his last. In 1010 he dis- covered and explored the great northern bay which bears Ills name and spent the following winter there, in great suffering for want of provisions. In the spring of 1611, his crew mutinied, and turned Hud- son and his son adrift in an open boat on that stormy sea, while they returned with the ship to Europe. 5. "William Penn was the eldest son of Admiral Penn, an able and distinguished officer in the British navy. While studying at Oxford, he became interested in the new sect of Friends or " Quakers " and his adherence to their principles as to dress, manners, and worship brought upon him the stern displeasure of his father, who had destined his son to the gay court life to which his wealth and station entitled him. Twice the younger Penn was expelled from his father's house, and twice at least he was imprisoned for his dissent from the established worship. The admiral, however, became fully reconciled with his son, whose coui-se he even approved in his dying words: "Let nothing in this world ever tempt you to wrong your conscience." Coming into possession of his father's large fortune, Willinin Penn took an active part in the liberal politics of his tinae, warmly furHier- ing the election of Algernon Sidney to parliament (^518). DiN;"ii)poiiited for the time in his hopes of England, he resumed his youthful pioject of establishing a better society among the American forests. He liad been called to act as umpire in llie settlement of a dispute concerning Western New Jersey, and used his power afterwards as trustee for that colony, in securing a very liberal constitution, and promoting the emi- gration of "Friends" to the eastern banks of the Delaware. In 1680, he procured from Charles II. a large tract west of that river, with full sovereign rights, in payment of a large debt which the English gov- ernment owed his father. He intended to call it Si/lvcoiia, as a land of foi'ests; the king insisted on naming it Penn.spkania in spite of Penn's remonstrances, who " feared lest it should be looked on as vanity." Here tlie "Quaker Prince" desired to establish a "free colony for the good and oppressed of all nations," using his sovereign power only for the full trial of his "holy experiment," whether perfect .iustii-c' and good will, without severe restrictions, would constitute a sec'ur<' foun- dation for a state. The name which he gave his new capital was a pledge of the "brotherly love " that he hoped to see prevailing. Swedes, Finns, and Dutch were already numerous along the Dela- ware (see Ch. VII., note 7). Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia, was founded by a company of " Friends " from Kircliheim, near Worms. In Novemlier, 1682, Penn made a treaty with the chiefs of the neigh- boring Indians, promising them the same just and equal friendship which he designed for his white tenants. The Duke of York, who, in 1685, became King James II. of England, had been a comrade and warm friend of Admiral Penn, and faitlifuUy kept his promise to the dying Admiral by continuing his friendship and protection to his son. In 1682, the duke bestowed upon Penn the "three lower counties" on Delaware Bay, which now constitute the state of Delaware. Penn becanre poor in the prosecution of his great "experiment." He was defrauded by his agents, and preferred to go to prison rather than attempt to satisfy their unjust claims. A moderate loan, which he asked of the colonial legislature, was refused him, and he died, 1718, having spent a long life in the service of otliers, with some reason to doubt whether his attempt to promote justice and brotherly love were altogether a success. CHAPTER IX. THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS. j^ENMARK, Sweden, and Norway were in 1397 united under one queen, Margaret Waldemar. Her successor was less fortunate; he lost all three king- doms, and ended his days as a pirate. Christian of Oldenburg reunited Marga- ret's dominions, and his family continued to rule Denmark more than 400 years; but the barbarous tyranny of his grandson occasioned a revolt in Sweden, and the rise of a new royal race, with Gustavus Vasa as its founder. This young noble- man had suffered grievous wrongs from Frederic the Great. ^^^^ ''Ncro of the Nortli" — his father hav- ing been beheaded for no crime, and himself imprisoned. He escaped, and, putting on the coarse garments of an ox- driver, hid himself among the peasantry until he could raise an army of volunteers, with which he defeated the Danes, captured Upsala, and restored the independence of Sweden. The Diet then declared him king, and made the crown hereditary in his family. 586. His great grandson was the hero of the Thirty Years' War (§§564-569). The early death of Gustavus Adolphus, upon the field of Lutzen, left the crown to his little daughter, Christina,^ then only six years old. As she grew up, Christina displayed wonderful talents and accomphshments, but no steadiness of purpose. She was (336; IVAN THE TERRIBLE. 337 soon tired of governing; and, bestowing her kingdom upon her cousin, Charles X., spent the rest of her Hfe in aim- less wanderings. 587. The vast but ill-governed realm of Poland held discordant elements enough to keep not only itself but all its neighbors in a perpetual stir. The kings were elected, and had little power compared with the nobles. These were entitled to levy armies and make war whenever any proceeding of king or diet failed to please them; and, naturally, war went on almost all the time. The powerful neighbors of Poland — Sweden, Denmark, Brandenburg, Russia, and Austria — found many occasions to interfere in her affairs at the invitation of one or another party; and at length, as we shall see, the last three named divided her whole territory among them. 588. Russia, after a hundred years' fighting, was made free from her Mongol oppressors (§376), about A. D. 1481, by I'van III. Still she was only an inland grand duchy, less powerful than Poland or Bohemia — very difterent from that mighty empire which now occupies nearly half of Europe and all northern Asia, while her victorious armies have almost reached the borders of India. The Black Sea was still surrounded by the dominion of Turkey, the Baltic and its gulfs by that of Sweden; and it was a hundred years later that an entrance for English traders into Russia was effected through the Arctic Ocean, by the new port of Archangel. 589. Under Ivan the Terrible, the first "Czar of Mus- covy" (A. D. 1 538 -1 584), Kazan and Astrachan were taken from the Tartars; and the vast frozen plains of Siberia, extending eastward to the Pacific, were added to the Russian dominion. Ivan's son, Fe'odor, was last of the line of Ruric (§327), and his death was followed by years of civil war. In A. D. 16:3, Michael Ro'manofF, ancestor of the present Czar, came to the throne. 338 MODERN HISTORY. 590. His grandson, Feodor II., having no children, and passing over his incompetent brother Ivan, bequeathed his crown to his half-brother Peter, a bright but obstinate boy of ten years. Though Ivan was too feeble to protest, hia sister Sophia interfered in his behalf, and managed to have the two crowned as joint so\ereigns, with herself as regent. Even in boyhood Peter perceived the needs of his empire, and resolved to redeem it from barbarism, and give it a high rank among the European states. He studied dili- gently, and practiced himself in all that he wished his people to know. He drilled in the ranks of a new com- pany of soldiers, with which he meant to replace the Strelitz, or imperial guard, which had become too powerful; and he attended so closely to all the details of his little navy, that he became "the best carpenter, the best pilot, and the best admiral in the North." 591. Still further to educate himself, he resolved to visit the western nations. Traveling as a servant in one of his own embassies, he arrived in Holland, and engaged as a ship-builder in one of the dock-yards of Am- ' ^^' sterdam. Here he toiled, in rough clothes, among the other workmen, obeyed orders, and received his weekly wages Hke the rest. In England he took less pains to disguise his imperial rank, and was treated with friendly attention by William III. (§555)- 592. On his homeward journey he heard of a new revolt planned by his sister, and hastened to put it down with cruel severity. Sophia was immured in a convent, the Strelitzes were disbanded, and Peter's new regiments took their place. Then came a struggle for reform, in which the Czar had need for all his obstinacy, to overcome the superstitions and fi.xed notions of his people. The long robes and bushy beards of the men were cut short by im- perial decree; for, in small things as in great, Peter meant that his own will should control all the millions who called PETER THE GREAT. 339 him lord. In essential matters, he met less resistance; colleges, foundries, factories, and frigates were soon created, and one great war-vessel was built by the Czar himself Having thus taken measures to civilize his empire, Peter thought the time had come to give it an outlet to the Baltic. 593. Charles XII. was now king of Sweden" — an am- bitious youth, whose favorite hero and model was Alexander the Great (§§160-164). His accession, in 1697, when only fifteen years old, tempted three powerful neighbors to increase their dominions at his expense. The Czar besieged Narva with 80,000 men while Charles was engaged in a war with Denmark. But this war ended sooner than Peter had expected, and Charles, with only 8,000 men, came to the relief of his beleaguered town. The Russian troops were mostly barbarians, clothed in skins of wild beasts, and armed with arrows and clubs. The Czar's magnificent train of artillery was useless, for want of gunners. He suffered a ruinous defeat, his entire army being killed or captured. 594. Peter had that rare wisdom which can learn of an enemy, and draw strength even from disaster : ' ' The Swedes will defeat us for a time," said he, "but in the end they will teach us how to conquer them." Charles turned aside to conquer Augustus of Saxony, who was king of Poland, but whom he succeeded in dethroning. Peter seized the land he wanted near the Gulf of Finland, trans- ported thither 300,000 peasants from all parts of his empire, and, among the marshes formed by the Neva, laid the foundations of his splendid new capital, St. Petersburg. 595. Having disposed of Poland, Charles invaded Russia with a great army. Here cold, hunger, and the fatigues of marching through forests and bogs made sad havoc with his troops; and at Pultawa he met his first defeat (A. D. 1709). Both sovereigns were present. Charles was 340 MODERN HISTORY. carried on a litter, being disal^led by a wound; but when the battle was lost, he mounted a horse and made his retreat into Turkey. He soon persuaded the Sultan to join in war against the Czar, whose ambition he had reason to fear. Peter, march- ing to meet the immense Turkish force, was disappointed by his allies, and found himself in almost as dangerous a case as was Charles at Pultawa, surrounded by superior numbers, cut off from supplies, and unable to advance or retreat. He was saved by the adroitness of his wife, the Empress Cath- erine, who, presenting all her jewels to the Grand Vizier, managed to secure a peace favorable to the Czar. 596. Charles remained more than five years in Turkey, a troublesome and unwelcome guest, while his kingdom, sur- rounded by many enemies, was going to ruin for want of its head. At last he was forced to depart, and made the whole journey on horseback in sixteen days. Arriving at Stralsund, he ordered war to be prosecuted more fiercely than ever. But his good fortune was now exhausted ; he lost all his territories east and south of the Baltic, and met his death while besieging a town in Norway. 597. Peter's untiring perseverance wrought immense benefits to his country, and justified his new title. Emperor of all the Russias; while all subsequent times have agreed with his own in styling him Peter the Great. Before his death he bestowed the crown upon his wife,^ who reigned two years alone as the Empress Catherine I., (A. D. 1725 -1727). This remarkable woman had been a Swedish peasant, and was one of the many prisoners taken by the Russians at the capture of Marienburg. She became a servant in the house of Prince Menschikoff — himself once a baker-boy — where the Czar saw her, and soon recognized a quickness and firmness of mind equal to his own. She aided him in all his plans, while her even temper was able to soothe the violent fits of anger to which he too often gave way. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 341 598. Prussia was conquered by the Teutonic Knights (§361) about A. D. 1231-1243. They redeemed it from a wilderness of marshes and thickets, and gradually civilized its pagan and half savage inhabitants. After a long series of wars with Poland, a large part of its territories were absorbed into that kingdom, while the Grand Master had to do homage for the rest; but, in 1526, Prussia became an independent duchy, and, in 1618, it was annexed to Brandenburg. 599. After the Thirty Years' War had passed by, like a desolating storm, the able management of the "Great Elector," Frederic William (A. D. 1640- 1688), restored prosperity to the country. He gave lands and homes to 20,000 French refugees from the persecutions of Louis XIV. (§626), and their industry converted the sandy wastes about Berlin into gardens and orchards. Many of the exiles, too, were learned and accomplished people, whose language, literature, and manners brought refinement hith- erto unknown into Prussian .society. 600. The son of the Great Elector was made King Frederic I. of Prussia by the Emperor Leopold, who wanted his help in the War of the Spanish Succession. Prussia was already a great military powder, and it became still greater under Frederic William L, its second king (A. D. 1 7 13 -1 740). He was a morose and insufferable tyrant — so penurious that his children went away hungry from his table, and so violent of temper that he threw^ the plates at their heads if they dared to complain. He flogged his son, the crown-prince, when eighteen years old, before the eyes of his future subjects; and when the prince attempted I to escape to foreign parts, he was imprisoned as a deserter, and would probably have been shot if the emperor had not interfered. 601. One of the king's whims was to have a brigade of the tallest grenadiers in Europe, and he took the greatest 342 MODERN HISTORY. pains to collect them from all the northern countries. Every man was more than six feet high, and some even approached eight feet. If any king wanted to please Frederic William, he sent him a present of the tallest man he could find. His recruiting agents were always on the watch, and once they made a serious mistake by kidnap- ping the imperial embassador ! The most humble apologies were made, for the only being on earth that the king stood in awe of was the "Caesar." For all this, Frederic William was an honest, shrewd, and generally well-meaning man; and he left his kingdom in much better condition than he found it 602. Frederic II., the Great, was the most noted general of his times; and his wars began the long contest between Austria and Prussia, which has lately ended in making the latter supreme in Germany. He came to the throne in May, 1740, and the next autumn the direct male line of the House of Hapsburg ended with the emperor Charles VI. Having no son, Charles had tried to secure his hereditary dominions to his daughter, and the imperial crown to her husband, Francis of Lorraine. The daughters of his elder brother had a better right; but, during his lifetime, Charles obtained their consent, and that of most of the European sovereigns, to his "Pragmatic Sanction," which arranged the succession as he wished it. 603. No sooner was Charles dead than most of the powers forgot their promises. Frederic II. marched into Silesia, and soon made himself master of it; while the electors gave the imperial crown to Charles Albert of Bavaria, nephew of the late emperor. Maria Theresa was in a perilous position. Great Britain was her only ally, while Prussia, Poland, Sardinia, and the three Bourbon courts of France, Spain, and Naples were against her, beside many of the German states. Her cousin was in- stated as archduke of Austria and king of Bohemia. FREDERIC THE GREAT. 343 604. Taking refuge in Hungary, Maria Theresa presented herself, with her infant son in her arms, before the assembly of nobles, and asked their aid in regaining her rights. Though they had many causes of complaint against her house, the brave princes were moved by the sight of their young sovereign in her beauty and distress. The great hall rang with their shout, "Let us die for our king^ Maria Theresa!" One hundred thousand men were soon under arms : not only were Austria and Bohemia reconquered, but Munich, the capital of Bavaria, was taken, and the emperor Charles VII. was expelled from his own heredi- tary dominions. 605. In 1745 he died, and Francis of Lorraine then received the crown of Charlemagne. The "War of the Austrian Succession " was ended three years later by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Though formally at peace, the empress-queen cherished a bitter resentment against Frederic of Prussia, who had seized the moment of her distress to rob her of her province of Silesia; and she deeply laid her plans to combine all continental Europe against him. Russia, Sweden, Saxony, and France — the latter ultimately joined by the other Bourbon kingdoms (§603) — took sides with Austria. 606. Frederic struck the first blow by a sudden invasion of Saxony. The Austrians, coming to its relief, were defeated at Lowositz, and the entire Saxon army then surrendered to him, most of its common soldiers enlisting in his service. Pushing into Bohemia, Frederic gained a great victory over Prince Charles of Lorraine, the em- peror's brother. Still his affairs were so desperate — his whole dominion overrun by enemies eager for its destruc- tion — that he at one time almost decided to give up the single-handed contest, and end his days by poison. He took braver counsel, rallied his few remaining forces, and by his brilliant victories of Rossbach and Leuthen, A. D. 344 MODERN HISTORY. 1757, astonished the world. Mr. Pitt (§644), becoming premier in Great Britain, sent a liberal supply of the sinews of war; a wild horde of Russians, Cossacks and Calmuck Tartars, was defeated at Zorndorf. 607. Yet greater dangers and disasters were in store for Frederic. Three Austrian armies surrounded him in Silesia, while an overwhelming force of Russians occupied Berlin, destroyed its arsenals and foundries, and plundered its citizens. His genius and resolution did not fail. He de- feated the Austrian generals one by one; and Russia was soon changed from an enemy to a devoted friend. The Empress Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter HI, The young Czar had a romantic admiration for Frederic, and immediately stopped the operations of his armies in Prussia. The "Seven Years' War" was ended early in 1763, having cost nearly a million human lives, without making any change in the boundaries of the warring nations. Prussia kept Silesia, the original cause of dispute, and took her place among the great powers of Europe. 608. Peter HI. had reigned scarcely six months, when his wife caused him to be deposed and assassinated, and herself assumed the crown as Catherine H.^ Though so wicked a woman, the Czarina had extraordinary talents for governing. She perfected many reforms which Peter the (ireat had only begun; made herself the leader of the northern nations ; dismembered Poland f conquered the Tartars of the Crimea — the last of the Mongol hordes which had once enslaved Russia (^376); and established her power on the Black Sea. 609. Maria Theresa, the Austrian empress-queen, was still living, but her son, Joseph H., had succeeded his father as emperor of the West. Catherine's ambitious movements alarmed both him and Frederic the Great, lest Poland and Turkey were to be swallowed up by Russia. Austrian and PARTITIONS OF POLAND, 345 Prussian armies were marched into Poland, and the Czarina, unable to seize the whole prize herself, signed a treaty by which a third part of the Polish territory was divided among the three powers. Maria Theresa resisted the un- just scheme as long as she could, and at last signed the treaty with the following protest: ^^ Placet, '^'^ because so many great and learned men will ' ' '''^"'" it; but when I am dead, the consequences will appear of this violation of all that has hitherto been held just and sacred." 610. After her death, two successive "partitions com- pleted the work of spoliation, and Poland, as a kingdom, ceased to exist. The Poles made heroic efforts to preserve their independence; their general, Kosciusko,^ after fighting many battles, was captured and immured in a Russian dungeon; the last king was compelled to abdicate, and the central part of the kingdom, with the capital, became a mere province of Russia. Catherine the Great died one year after the completion of this crime, of which the main guilt rests upon her. '* Literally, "It pleases me" — the form in which emperors and kings usually gave their consent to laws and treaties. Point out the dominions of Margaret Waldemar. Of Gustavus Adolphus. Of Peter the Great at his' accession. Of the present Czar. The old and the new capital of Russia. The Polish capital. That of Sweden. Of Prussia. The dominions of Maria Theresa. The province conquered from her by Frederic the Great. Pultawa, Stralsund. Read Voltaire's "Peter the Great" and "Charles the Twelfth," C'arlyle's "Frederic the Great," and Dyer's "Modern Europe." 346 MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. NOTES. 1. The education of Christina was directed by Chancellor Oxenstiern and four other learned men, according to the substantial and solid plan marked out by her father. "She learned Latin, Greek, Hebrew, history , politics, and other sciences," but no feminine aeconiplishmeuts ; lur only amusements being horsemanship and the chase. When a mere baby she had clapped her hands in delight at the thunder of artillcr.\-; and her subjects saw in lier the worthy daughter of a heroic father. She drew to her court the most distinguished scientific and litciary men, whose conversation interested her more than the duties of her kingdom. She lived 35 years after her abdication, chiefly at Konic where she founded an academy and made rich collections of muiluls and objects of art. She died in 1089, at the age of 63. 2. Charles XII. was grandson of Charles X., the cousin and successor of Christina (§ 586). In his boyhood, his firmness amounted to obstiiuK-,\-, but he could always be influenced by an appeal to his honor. Whiii threatened at once, at his accession, by Russia, Poland, and Denmark, he surprised his senate by his energy, and re-assured it by the spirited declaration: "I have resolved never to wage an unjust war, nor ever to close a just one except by the destruction of my enemies." Determined to leave nothing to chance, he inured himself to severe fatigues and privations, and took part in all the exercises of his soldiers. He was aided by the sound advice of Count Piper, who had been his father's councilor of state, and became his own prime minister, acconipanying him in all his campaigns. Charles allied himself with England and Holland; and their fleets, combined with his own, covered his descent upon Denmark. The plan was so well laid that, without battle or blood- shed, the Iving of Denmark was forced to make large concessions for the safety of his capital, and undo the ml.sehief he had already done. Charles never saw his capital .(Stockholm) after 1700, though he reigned till 1718. Having driven Auiiustus from Poland, he followed him into Saxony, and, fixing his cam)) at liCipsic, received embassadors like a conqueror and sovereign prince. Augustus abdicated the throne of Po- land in favor of Stanislaus Leczinsky, whom Charles had placed upon it. After his defeat at Pultawa, the character of Charles appears less admirable. His long neglect of his kingdom left it at the mercy of its enemies. Augustus resumed the crown of Poland, and allied himself again with Russia and Denmark, while Stanislaus took refuge in France. All the treaties that Charles had made were broken; and, when envoys from the Swedish senate came to his camp in Turkey, imploring him to return and govern his kingdom, he insultingly replied, "I will send one of my old boots to govern you." In his satire on the "Vanity of Human Wishes," Dr. Johnson has written these lines: " On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. A frame of adamant, a soul of fire. No dangers fright him and no labors tire. . . . His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress and a dubious hand; He left the name at which the world grew pale To point a moral or adorn a tale." 3. Peter's eldest son, Alexis, was a quiet and studious youth, with neither ambition nor taste for war, and averse to the reforms which his fatlier was Introducing. He was claimed by the party of "Old Rus- sians," as their leader in opposition to these reforms, and this drew upon him the violent wrath of his father, whose brutality, when roused, was scarcely less than that of Ivan the Terrible. During one of Peter's absences from Russia, Alexis took refuge at Vienna, and afterwards at Naples. It was a crime for any Russian noble to leave the empire with- out the czar's especial permission, and Peter chose to consider his .son's act as amounting to treason and rebellion. Alexis was persuaded to return, but was compelled to renounce his claims to the crown, and was soon afterwards tried on a charge of conspiracy and condemned to death. Early in 1718, he was found dead in his prison, and there is NOTES. 347 little doubt that he had been poisoned by his father's order. He was 28 years of age, and left an infant son, who, nine years later, became the Eraperor^Peter II. The only remaining son of Peter the Great died the following year, and, of all his children, only two daughters survived him. Oneofoiiem, Elizabetli, became empress in 1741 (^007). It was upon the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt, in 1721, which ended his 21 years' war with Sweden, that tlie senate and synod con- ferred upon tlieir czar the new titles "Peter the Great, Emperor of all the Russias and Father of his Country." He wrote to his embassa- dor in Paris: "Apprenticeships usually end in seven years, ours has lasted thrice as long; but, thank God, it is at length brought to the de- sired termination." 4. Catherine II, was of German birth, being a daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst. The present division of Russia into "governments," dates from her reign; she also re-organized the army and civil service, "prniiiotrd agriculture, commerce, and education, and liberally patron- ized .sciLutific men." Her powerful favorite, Potemkin, was the conqueror of the Crimea, and, in 1787, the czarina visited her new provinces, to do him honor and to receive the homage of her Tartar subjects. Embarking at Kiev, she descended the Dnieper with a magniticent flotilla of 22 vessels, ac- companied by the exiled king Stanislaus of Poland, and by tlie Emper- or Joseph II. To give the new dominions an air of i^rosperity, Potem- kin had caused temporary villages to be erected along the route, and peopled with inhabitants brought from a distance and dressed in holi- day attire. Herds of cattle grazed in tlie intervening pastures; but as soon as the gay procession had passed, hamlets, people, and herds van- ished like a scene in a play.— Jl/eri/wcrt/ anO jSImlirn History. During the War of American IndeiJendeuce, ('atlierine rendered val- uable service to our cause by her proclamation of Armed Neutrality, in whicli slie was joined by Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Austria, Portu- gal, and the United Netherlands, 1780. 5. The following description of Poland explains the temptation that kingdom offered to ambitious neighbors, and the ease with which their plans were carried out. Two thirds of the nation were serfs, whose ig- norance and squalid misery made them scarcely diflerent from brutes. By law, they were debarred from jjossessing property; if a crop failed, thousands died of starvation. The remaining one third consisted of three orders of nobility— with clergy, lawyers, citizens, and Jews. Of the magnates, or highest nobles, there were not more than 120, of whom four or five were the heads of powerful factions at war with each other. The middle class of nobles numbered 20,000 or 30,000 persons; and the lower nobility, more than a million. These were &r idle, ignorant, and often beggarly class of people, too proud to engage in any employment and too poor to exist in comfort without it, and yet the most insinnirt- cant of them could nullify the proceedings of a whole diet by his single veto. The citizens chiefly consisted of 40,000 or 50,00(1 artisans, who, scat- tered in wretched villages, were almost as completely subject to the oppressions of the nobles as the serfs themselves. Taxation fell only on Jews, artisans, and clergy. The heads of all departments of government were responsible to the diet and not to the king, and the diet was di- vided into hostile parties. With all these tendencies to chaos added to the right of the nobles to make war against the king (§587), it was ev- ident that a downfall was near. More than a hundred years before it took place, John Casimir, the last of the Vasa dynasty, clearly pre- dicted a dismemberment of Poland by Russia, Austria, and the House of Brandenburg. 6. Kosciusko was one of the Polish heroes who aided in our War of Independence, having come to this country in 1777. He enjoyed the friendship of Washington, and fought with distinction in the battles on the Hudson and at Yorktown. After his release from his Russian i>rison, he re-visited the United States. A monument at West Point coinineni- orates his services. He refused to join in conspiracies against Russia, but wrote an eloquent letter to the Emperor Alexander I., entreating him to grant a free constitution to Poland. He died at Soleure, in Switzerland, 1817. CHAPTER X. THE BOURBONS IN FKANfJE. 'ENRY IV. (A. 1). 1589-1610) the first of the royal House of ]5ourbon, came to the throne in tlie midst of a civil war. Though the nearest heir to the monarchy, he was only eleventh cousin of the last king; and, as hereditary leader of the Hugue- nots, he encountered violent opposition from nearly all ad- herents of the old church. The League (^484) was strong in the support of Philip of Spain, who wanted the French crown for his daughter, and who had at his command the greatest general and the finest soldiery in the world. Nevertheless, Henry gained a brilliant victory over the forces of the League at Ivry, and his generous and gallant character drew many even of the Catholic nobles to his side. 612. Paris was besieged by the royal forces, but Henr)' would not let his people starve. Food was carried in, and the city was thus enabled to await the arrival of the Spanish army. In 1593, Henry reconciled himself witFi (348J Prince of Condtf. HENRY IV. AND SULLY. 349 the Roman Church, and soon obtained by management what he liad been unvviUing to gain by force. Being at length victorious over all his enemies, he pro- claimed universal toleration in the Edict of ' ■ '^^ ■ Nantes, and thus ended the religious wars of a third of a century. 613. Aided by his great minister, Rosny, duke of Sully, Henry undertook to redeem France from the poverty and misery occasioned by so many years of misrule. Under their careful management, tillage, trade, and fine manu- factures soon began to flourish, and the people enjoyed a prosperity such as neither they nor their fathers could remember. A favorite scheme with Henry was the hum- bling of the House of Austria; and to this end he wished to league all Europe in a great Christian commonwealth,' in which each power should have only its due share of importance, and disputes should be settled by reason rather than by arms. As a first contribution toward this balance of power, he resigned the French claims upon Italy, which had been the cause of so many wars (§§404, 408, 445). 614. But on the eve of his departure for the Nether- lands, the great king was assassinated by a frantic Jesuit. His queen, Marie de Medici, became regent for her son Louis Xni. (A. D. 1610-1643), who was then only nine years old. Herself an Italian, and ruled by Italian favorites, the queen wholly changed the policy of the government. She made a close alliance with Spain, marrying her son to the Spanish infanta, and her daughter to the crown- prince, afterwards Philip IV. The treasures, which Henry's good management had collected, were squandered upon her worthless favorites, while Sully retired from the council. When he was sixteen years of age, Louis took the govern- ment into his own hands, caused Concini, his mother's chief tool, to be put to death, and called some of his father's old councilors about him. 35© MODERN HISTORY. 615. The great Cardinal-minister, Richelieu,' was now rising into power. Like Henry IV. and Sully, he aimed to abate the proud ascendency of the Hapsburgs; and to this end he constantly aided the Protestants of England, Holland, and Germany, though, for political reasons, he made war against those of France. We have seen that the great Huguenot chiefs had made themselves almost independent during the wars of the League (§483). They coined money and executed justice like sovereign princes; indeed, the inefficiency of the last of the Valois had made it quite necessary that some strong hand should repress the robbery and violence that everywhere prevailed. France had almost fallen apart into the great duchies and counties that held its territories in the time of Hugh the Great (§338). 616. Richelieu was far more a Frenchman than a Roman cardinal. He put down the feudal chiefs, but he had no disposition to persecute the Huguenots. He besieged and captured Rochelle, their stronghold, but he A. D. 1627-1628. ^11 1 • 1 r ■ /• confirmed the people m the free exercise of their religion, and renewed the Edict of Nantes. Other Huguenot towns submitted, and all fortresses not needed for the defense of the country against foreign enemies were ordered to be leveled with the ground. 617. Not satisfied with ruling France, Richelieu took a leading part in the affairs of Europe. In the Thirty Years' War, France was an important actor, though secretly at first, through money and counsel supplied in equal measure to the Swedish king; and by the peace of Westphalia she was confirmed in the possession of Lorraine and Alsace, with several fortresses on the upper Rhine. But before this, in 1643, Richelieu and his king had both died, and Louis XIV., at the age of five years, had come to the throne, under the regency of his mother, Anne of Austria, and her chief minister. Cardinal Maz'arin. THE FRONDE. 351 618. We come, now, to the greatest era of the French monarchy — a reign of seventy-two years (A. D. 1643- 1715), during which France became the leader of the world in art, literature, and social refinement; while her king's ambition seemed almost to threaten his absolute and universal dominion. At its beginning, Conde^ was gaining brilliant victories over the Spanish forces in the Netherlands; but the expenses of war and a luxurious court soon drove the Parisians into a civil strife, called the Fivnde, which raged for several years. 619. Conde thought his great services were slighted by the regent, and, after being driven from Paris, actually accepted a commission from the king of Spain to lead those armies which he had lately conquered. Mazarin, on the other hand, knew little, and cared less, concerning the laws of the land which he undertook to govern; while he disgusted the people by his greed for gold. He was several times dismissed, but soon recalled to office, while the young king'* and his mother, hiding in a suburb of Paris, often went cold and hungry, owing to the impossi- bility of collecting taxes. The Fronde was ended in 1652, and Mazarin was soon reinstated. 620. The war in the Netherlands favored France, and in the treaty of the Pyrenees, which closed it, Spain gave up the proud preeminence which she had held ever since the days of Ferdinand and Isa- bella. It was agreed that the French embassador should walk before the Spanish at every foreign court where both countries were represented — a precedence which Louis thought so important that he was ready to go to war upon its least infringement. 621. Upon the death of Mazarin, in 1661, the king, who was now 23 years of age, announced to his council — "For the future, I shall be my own prime minister." He at once undertook the actual business of governing, 352 MODERN HISTORY. and, though fond of pleasure, he thenceforth devoted many hours every day to the routine of affairs. He detected the frauds of the finance-minister, Fouquet, and condemned him to a dungeon for Hfe, while he put the honest Colbert^ in the vacant place. Colbert was able to lighten the taxes, and yet keep the king's treasury full, by encouraging all useful industries and, thus, multiplying sources of wealth. 622. Louis had married a Spanish princess, and, upon her father's death, in 1665, he marched into the Nether- lands, declaring that the ten provinces, with Luxemburg and Franche Comte, belonged, of right, to her. This bold movement was checked by a triple alliance of En- gland, Holland, and Sweden, which forced Louis to sign the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. His wrath was chiefly ex- cited by the little republic of Holland, which had wrested her own freedom from the iron hand of Spain, and now was able to protect her late oppressor. 623. He first bribed England and Sweden to withdraw from the alliance; then, with his army of 200,000 men, he marched into the States, occupied Guelders, Utrecht, and Overyssel. and encamped within sight of Amsterdam. The Dutch stood alone against all the world, but the temper which had been proved in eighty years' war with Spain was not likely to yield to the groundless demands of France. The young Prince of Orange, now at the head of affairs, proposed that in the last extremity they should give back Holland to the sea, and, embarking with wives and children on their immense merchant fleet, seek new homes on the opposite side of the globe. 624. The dykes were cut near Amsterdam; the ocean flowed over the fertile fields, and the fleet was able to surround and defend the capital. Spain and the empire soon sent aid to the States, and the war became general On the Rhine and in the Mediterranean, the French were still victorious; and when peace was finally made at LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. 353 Nimeguen, A. D. 1678, the glory of the "Grand Monarch" was at its height. In contempt of his treaty, he went on "reuniting" territories, on the pretense that they had once belonged to the dominion of the Franks I Among the rest, the free imperial city of Strasburg was thus appropriated, and the skill of Vauban, the famous military engineer, soon made it a fortress of surpassing strength. 625. After the death of his Spanish queen, Louis mar- ried Madame de Maintenon, a woman of good sense, who wrought a great reformation in the court. Unhappily the king conceived the idea that he could atone for his sins by persecuting his Protestant subjects. The Huguenots, though no longer a political party (§§478, 615), numbered several millions, and were now the most useful and orderly class in France. Colbert had especially encouraged them on account of their skilled industries; but Colbert was now dead. The w^ar-minister, Louvois, by the king's order, quartered troops of dragoons in all the provinces, who abused the defenseless people at their will. 626. This "dragonnade" was followed by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (§612). The churches of the Huguenots were ordered to be demolished, their ministers exiled, their children deprived of all instruction save that of the parish priest. Those who resisted the decree were shot without mercy. Half a million of the persecuted people found nxeans of escaping. Other countries, in Europe and America, gained what France lost, and most of them still bear marks of the improvements they owe to the exiled Huguenots. 627. Perceiving the French king's blunder, his great L-nemy, the Prince of Orange, who was now king of En- gland (^553), stirred up a grand alliance against him. It comprised the emperor and the chief German states, with England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, and Savoy. The war, which soon broke out, was conducted with the greatest Hist. —23. 354 MODERN HISTORY. brutality by the French on the Rhine. Louis ordered his generals to burn every village which they could not garri- son; and 100,000 people were thus made homeless in a itw weeks. His own subjects were suffering no less cruelly from starvation, owing to the ruinous wastes of war. At length, ministers from all the European nations met at Ryswick, in Holland, and, in 1697, concluded a treaty of peace. 628. It was soon broken by the "War of the Spanish Succession," which for thirteen years taxed the energies of Europe, and extended all around the globe. Charles H. of Spain died in 1700, leaving no children, but be- queathing all his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. Now it happened that the Emperor Leo- pold was just as nearly related to the Spanish family as was the King of France (see Table, p. 283). In alliance with England and Holland, he proclaimed his second son, the archduke Charles, king of Spain. The English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy gained splendid victories over the French at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. England became mistress of Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in the world, and of the island of Minorca, a second key to the Meciiterranean. 629. "Louis the Great" was at length completely hum- bled. His people were starving, while the wealth and life- blood of his kingdom were poured out on foreign battle- fields. Year after year he begged for peace, offering larger and larger concessions, but the allies did not trust him, and the war went on. At length, in 1711, the emperor Joseph died, and his brother Charles was elected to suc- ceed him. The allies had gone to war to prevent Bourbon supremacy in Europe, but they had no mind to see the head of the Hapsburgs ruling Spain, Italy, and the empire, as in the days of Charles V. (^§424, 444). 630. Eighty embassadors of the se\eral powers now met those of France at Utrecht, in Holland (.\. D. 1713), and. THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 355 after more than a year's deliberation, articles of peace -were signed. The next year, a conference at Rastadt settled the points in dispute between France and the empire. Philip V. was recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but all the Spanish possessions in Italy and the Netherlands were ceded to Charles VI. 631. Louis XIV. died in 17 15, a weary old man, be- reaved of all his children and most of his grandchildren, and disappointed in that glory which had been the idol of his life. With his last breath he charged his great- grandson and successor to undo the mischiefs he himself had done, and be content with his rightful dominions. 632. The age of Louis XIV. was the most brilliant period in French literature. The tragedies of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Moliere, the "Letters" and "Thoughts" of Pascal, the fables of La Fontaine, the sermons of Bossuet, Bourdaloiie, Fenelon, and Massillon, are unsurpassed in their different kinds of excellence. The good Fenelon was tutor to the younger dauphin, and wrote the story of Telem'achus for the benefit of his pupil. 633. Louis XV.'' (A. D. 1715-1774) was only five years old at his accession, and the regency was bestowed on the Duke of Orleans, a nephew of the late king. France was buried in debts, and the regent gladly consented to a scheme of Law, a Scotch banker, to pay the bondholders with paper money, representing shares in the "Mississippi Company." A fever for speculation now began to rage. The less people knew, the more they imagined concerning the wealth of the North American continent : lords, ladies, princes, and prelates crowded to buy shares, and the public debt vanished as by magic. But suddenly it was found that tiiere was no real money to meet these paper promises to pay, and thousands of fancied ^^^°' millionaires awoke to beggary. During the excitement, a company of emigrants founded the city of Ahiv Orleans, so 356 MODERN HISTORY. named in honor of the regent, and this was the only last- ing result of the " Mississippi Scheme." 634. Louis married Maria Leczinska, daughter of an exiled king of Poland, and, in 1733, undertook the "War of the Polish Succession," in a vain attempt to restore him to the throne. Still more important was the War of the Austrian Succession, in which all Europe was engaged, and which extended to the colonies in Asia and America. France gained nothing by it, while her already hopeless debt was increased by $250,000,000. Even the gay and thoughtless courtiers of Louis XV. felt that they were dancing on the edge of a precipice. The fair promise of the king's youth had been broken by selfish dissipation: the control of his kingdom rested now in the hands of the Marchioness de Pompadour, a bad though tolerably bright woman, who was persuaded by the flatteries of Maria Theresa to plunge that exhausted kingdom into a seven years' war with Prussia. The latter had England for an ally, while the three Bourbon kingdoms of France, Spain, and Naples united in a "Family Compact." 635. The war began in America. France claimed the entire basins of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence, and attempted to guard them by a chain of forts reaching from Quebec to New Orleans. The kings of England, on the other hand, had given charters for lands running west- ward from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and collisions soon occurred on the head-waters of the Ohio." In America the contest was known as the French and Indian War, because the savage allies of the French often attacked English settlements, burned their villages, and either dragged away mothers and children tlirough the snow, or murdered all the settlers with their tomahawks. This horrid warfare was successful at first, but, in the end, the forts on the Ohio and St. Lawrence were taken by the English. In 1760, General Wolfe, with a small British force, scaled the LOUIS XVI. OF FRANCE. 357 rugged Heights of Abraham, and captured Quebec, the strongest natural fortress on the western continent. 636. The treaty of Paris, 1763, left all boundaries in Europe unchanged, but deprived France of her whole American dominion. The northern part became British America, while the Mississippi Valley was ceded to Spain, to pay for her losses by the Family Compact. 637. Louis XV. died in 1774, leaving a starving people and a treasury in hopeless ruin. His grandson, Louis XVL, was a young man of the best intentions, but of no great energy of mind or will. He had married the Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette,* who, though beautiful and kind-hearted, was not a favorite with the people. She was known to share the despotic temper of the Hapsburgs, and to urge her husband to arbitrary measures. 638. Great sympathy was felt in France for the Ameri- cans in their struggle for independence (§§650-652), and the king was reluctantly compelled to declare . r. -n • • T 1 A. D. 1778. war agamst Great -Britain. It was a dangerous step, for, great as were the grievances of the Americans, the French, at home, had infinitely more to complain of, and naturally began to think of asserting tlicir rights. 639. Several finance-ministers^ tried, in turn, to diminish the national debt, and relieve the general poverty; but abuses were too deeply rooted in the constitution of the state. The nobles and clergy, who owned two-thirds of all the land in France, paid no taxes; and so the whole burden of the government rested on those who had no voice in making or executing the laws. At length, A. D. 1789, the States-general were called, for the first time in 175 years, and with their meeting, at Versailles, the great French Revolution may be said to have begun. Read Dyer's Modern Europe; Martin's History of France; Weiss's History of the French Refugees; Bancroft's History of the United States. 358 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. The great Confederation planned by Henry was to consist of fifteen states, in tliree groups: (1) Six Elective Monarchies: the Empire, the States of the Church, Venice, Hungary, Bohemia, and Poland; (2) Six Heredi- tary Monarcliies: France, Spain, Ureal Britain, Denmark, Sweden, and Lorabardy — the last to be formed of the two duchies of S;ivoy and Mi- lan; (H) Tliree Federal Republics: Switzerland, the Netherlands, and a Confcdcratidn of Italian states. The Czar of Muscovy — afterwards to becDiiie Eiiiiicror of Itussia (^589, 597), was considered as belonging rather to Asia tlian Europe, Ijut he could be admitted to the Commonwealth if he desired it. His own age and later ones [)oured great contempt on what they called the visionary sctiemes of Henry IV.; but it neverthe- less contained the essential principle of international law; and the more human reason prevails over brutal impulses, the nearer the world will come to a realization of the spirit of his plan. Heni-y IV. was, of all their monarchs, the greatest favorite with the Frencli. His generous confidence and forgetfulness of injuries soon quieted tlie dissensions in his kingdom; his valor and his gay good humor made him tlie idol of liis armies. At Ivry he prefaced the word of comniand with this brief address: "Fellow-soldiers, you are Frenchmen; behold the enemy! II you lose sight of your ensigns, fol- low my plume; you will always find it on the high road to honor!" Macauiaj' has commemorated tlie incident in a spirited ballad. It was by the treaty of Vervins in 1598, that Henry made peace with Spain. Philip II., aged, infirm, and straitened in resources (§525), restored to France all his conquests excepting the fortress of Cambray. 2. Armand Jean du Plessis, afterwards Cardinal Richelieu, was the ablest and most celibrated of French prime ministers. At the early age of 22 he ohtaiiicd the bishopric of Lucon, chiefly by his address and ready wit in asking the Pope for it, though it had been for some time in his family. In 1(311, he entered the service of Marie de' Medici, and used his influence in making peace between her and lier son. In 1622, he became cardinal, and in 1621 a member of the royal council, in which he speedily rose to the head. His policy, clearly conceived and firmly pursued, aroused tlie bitter opposition of the Queen -mother, but she was exiled in 1630, and from that time till his death, Richelieu ruled France. In 1635 he founded the French Academy of 40 members, the most dignified and illustrious of literary institutions — the supreme authority in all that relates to the French language and literature. Al- most the only weakness of the great statesman was his fancying him- self a poet. Richelieu died in December, 1642, five months before the king, Louis XIII. 3. For the connection of Conde with tlie Bourbons see §478 and note. 4. Louis XIV., called the Great, was the eldest son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip HI. of Spain. The hardships which he sutt'ered in his childhood made him only the more determined to use his power absolutely when he should obtain it. The war of the Kronde had for its chief mover the Cardinal de Retz, a restless and ambitious adventurer; but many great nobles and even fine ladies of the court took an active part in it. Most important of the latter was Mademoiselle de Montpensier, the king's own cousin, sometimes called "the Great Mademoiselle," and the richest heiress in France. Slie gained a battle for tlie Prince of Cond6 by directing the cannon of the Bastille with her own hands against the forces of the king. In fulfillment of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, Louis XIV. married his cousin, Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. 5. Jean Baptists Colbert was born at Rheims, 1619, in comparatively humble circumstances. His early travels made him acquainted with many parts of Fiance, and he studied especially the state of trade and the menns by which it could he improved. Cardinal Mazarin, who had perceived his merits and employed him in the care of his own estates, recommendeil him to the cunHdeiice of Louis XIV.; and, as controller general of finances, he became the " founder of commerce and protector NOTES. 359 of all the arts." He either originated or greatly extended the manufac- tures of glass, silk, and woolens; establislied a Chamber of Commerce, connected tlae Mediterranean witli the Atlantic by the Canal of Langue- doc; chartered companies for trade with the East and West Indies, and phmted colonies in Canada. As minister of marine, lie established great naval arsenals at Toulon, Brest, Havre, and Dunkirlj, and kept the fleets in the highest state of etticiency. Himself a member of the French Academy, he founded two oUiers, of Inscriptions and of Sciences, as well as an Astronomical Observatory. He died in office, 1683. 6. Louis XV. is said to liave been remarkable in his childhood for purity and loveliness. But the court of the regent was a scene of scandalous corruption, and the character of the young king was not strong enougli to withstand evil influences. In 1723, though only 13 years old, he was declared of age, and, as the Regent d' Orleans died about the same time, the Duke of Bourbon became prime minister. Three years later, he was succeeded by the excellent Cardinal Fleury, who had been Louis's preceptor and possessed his entire confidence. Under liis prudent and peaceful management, some degree of order and prosperity returned to France. Still the decline of the monarchy was so manifest, that there was a standing jest at court: "After us, the Del- uge." Cardinal Fleury died in 1743, and tlie king, in imitntion of his predecessor, resolved to be his own prime minister (g621). But his de- votion to business lasted only Ave years, and, in 1748, abandoning him- self to dissipation, lie left the interests of his people to the reckless hands of whoever might- be the court favorite of the hour. The disasters of the Seven Years' War, followed by greatly increased taxation, destroyed the king's popularity, and, to crown all, he increased his private fortune by speculating in grain and in government bonds, thus enriching himself by the starvation of his people. In his youth he had been called " Louis the Well Beloved," but liis successor now began to be called " Louis the Desired." 7. It was in the beginning of this contest that Washington, tlien 21 years of age, first distinguished himself by bearing a message from Gov. Dinwiddle, of Virginia, to the French commandant on tlie Alleghany. The next year he led a party against Fort du Q,uesne (kane), now Pitts- burg; but, being insufficiently supported by tlie colonies, he had to re- tire, leaving tlie whole Ohio basin four years longer to the French. 8. Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa (§g 602-605, 609), and the Emperor Francis I. was only fifteen years of age when her marriage with the dauphin placed her at the head of the brilliant society of Paris. The liveliness and freedom of her manners offended the stately tradi- tions of royal etiquette, and it is even said that her French tutor had insi)ired her with contempt for the manners of her future subjects, that he might increase his own importance. The arbitrary temper which slie had inherited from lier mother liad not time to be corrected by experience before the storm of the Revolution burst upon her. But whatever were her youthful mistakes, she met adversity witli noble firmness, thinking only of her husband and children, and command- ing some respect even from her brutal jailors by her firm and queenly dignity. See gg 680-68.5. 9. The most popular of these was Jacques Necker, a wealthy Swiss banker, wlio, in 1777, became director-general of French finances. He first published an annual account of the revenue and expenses of the government, and thus inspired confidence, while by order and economy he was able to diininish the taxes. Though in great favor witli the people, he had many enemies at court, and, 1781, he resigned liis office and retired to Switzerland. His recall, in 1788, was followed by an im- mediate rise of 30 per cent in tlie public funds. In 1789, a note from the king ordered him to leave the kingdom privately, and it was the rage of the mob at his dismissal that led to tlie storming of the Bastille (§680). Louis was forced to recall Necker, who re-entered Paris ten days after his departure, and was received with unbounded enthusiasm. Tlie next year he resigned his office and passed the rest of his life in studi- ous retirement at Coppet, in Switzerland. Mme. de Stael, the brilliant authoress, was his daughter. CHAPTER XI. GREAT BRITAIN UNDER THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. ^EORGE LEWIS, elector of Han- over,* became king of England, in 1 7 14, by an act of Parliament, which excluded all papists from the throne. He naturally favored the Whigs, to whom he owed his crown ;' while the Tories, or Jaco- bites, as they were now called, in- clined to Prince James (§§552, 555), whom his sister, Queen Anne, would gladly have named as her successor. The prince invaded Scot- land, with a small French force, the next year, but without success; and, after the death of Louis XIV., the Regent (§633) made a close alli- ance with England, Holland, and the Empire, to keep the peace of Europe. The Stuarts, driven from France, kept up a cheerless show of royalty in their poverty-stricken court at Rome. A Grenadier. *See Table, p. 241. The electorate of Hanover was conferred, in 1692, on the father of George L, a duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who married a daughter of Frederic, elector-palatine, and the En- glish princess, Elizabeth. The House of Brunswick was one of the oldest and most ]iowerful in flerman)', being a branch of the Guelf family (§363), whose estates, in the twelfth century, extended from' the Danube to the Baltic. (360) HANOVERIANS AND STUARTS. 361 641. George I. felt and acted more as a German prince than as a British king, much to the displeasure of his new subjects. His reign was marked by many wild specula- tions in finance, among them the "South Sea Bubble," which closely resembled the Mississippi scheme in France (§633). When the crash came, bringing poverty to a multitude of paper-millionaires, a strong reaction set in, and Robert Walpole,^ a sensible country squire, who had opposed the scheme from the first, was placed at the head of the government, a position which he held twenty-one years. 642. George I. died in Hanover, 1727, and his son, George H., became king. Under Walpole's thrifty ad- ministration, the country rapidly advanced in industry and wealth. In the "War of the Austrian Succession" (§§602-605), England was the steadfast friend of Maria Theresa. The king and his son were both present in the battle of Dettingen, 1743, by which the French were driven out of northern Germany. 643. The last attempt of the Stuarts to regain the Brit- ish throne was led by the "Young Pretender," Charles Edward, son of James Francis, who invaded Scotland in 1745. His brave and gallant bearing attracted many young Scots : Edinburgh was taken by surprise, and a grand ball was given at the palace in honor of King James the Eighth. A substantial victory, at Prestonpans, gave the Pretender the cannon which he needed ; the French government, now believing in his certain success, sent arms and money, and he boldly invaded England. But the English, however little they loved their dull German king, dearly loved the prosperity which they had begun to enjoy, and felt no obligation to risk all for the Stuarts. Few joined the prince, while the superior forces of the Hanoverians began to close around him, and he retreated to Scotland. He was finally defeated at Culloden, in 1746, and escaped beyond the seas. 362 MODERN HISTORY. 644. Several colonies were founded during this reign. In honor of the king, Gen. Oglethorpe^ gave the iiame of Georgia to his settlement on the Savannah River, which he had planted chiefly to provide homes for orphans, and for refugees for conscience' sake. The efforts of the Ohio Company to settle lands west of the AUeghanies, led to a collision with the French. In an attempt to capture Fort Duquesne, Gen. Braddock and his British regulars were defeated by Indians, and only saved from utter destruc- tion by the cool bravery of Washington. The fort was subsequently abandoned by the French, and the English renamed it Fort Pitt., in honor of the firm friend of America, William Pitt. The next year forts Niagara and Ticonderoga, and the yet more important fortress of Quebec, were also taken by the British. 645. These colonial contests were part of the Seven Years' War, to which — or rather to the energetic policy of Mr. Pitt*' — three great empires may trace their rise. British conquests from the French in Hindustan laid the foundations of the vast Indian Empire; the share taken by the thirteen American colonies in the war led to the independence of the United States ; and, by enabling Prussia at a most critical moment to withstand the hos- tility of all continental Europe, the rise of the present German Empire may have been rendered possible. (§ 606). 646. George III. (A. D. 1760- 1820) succeeded his grandfather while the Seven Years' War was in progress. It was closed by the treaty of Paris, 1763, in which France ceded to England all that is now British America, while Spain gave up Florida in exchange for Havana and the Philippine Islands, which had been taken by the English. 647. The early years of this reign were marked by a wonderful increase in the power of newspapers. John Wilkes, in his journal, the Noiih Briton, attacked the REIGN OF GEORGE III. id^ policy of the government ; and the king's favorite minister, the Earl of Bute, was compelled to resign. Wilkes was imprisoned for his boldness ; but this despotic action only brought more clearly to light the need of a free press for the security of a free government ; and, thus, an important step in constitutional liberty was gained. The London Times was established January i, 1788. 648. The king, though well-meaning, was obstinate and narrow-minded; and his subjects, both at home and in the colonies, had to look well to their rights. The French and Indian War had added immensely to British posses- sions, but it had also added to the public debt; and it was now proposed to tax the three kingdoms and the colonies alike to meet the expense. This was quite right as far as the British people at home were concerned, for the tax was levied by their own representatives ; but the colonists had no seats in Parliament ; and as Englishmen they claimed their rights, conceded as long ago as the reign of Edward 1., in refusing to pay a tax which they had no share in imposing. 649. Pitt, the Great Commoner, declared, in parliament, that the colonists were right ; but the king hated Pitt, whose ill-health, moreover, withdrew him, about this time, from public affairs, so that the Americans lost this pow- erful friend at court. Lord North's ministry repealed all taxes, excepting that of three pence a pound upon tea. But it was the principle, not the pence, that the colonists were contending for. Most of the tea-ships were sent back to England with their cargoes untouched ; while the Bostonians, in their excitement, dis- charged several shiploads into their harbor. 650. The American Revolution. — A British army was now sent over, and the war began with a skirmish at Lexington, Massachusetts, April, 1775, i^"" which the "red-coats" were put to flight. In the Battle of Bunker 364 MODERN HISTORY. Hill, on the other hand, the Americans were dislodged from their position ; but their valiant resistance had amazed their opponents, and commanded new respect for colonial character. A congress of all the colonies had now met in Philadelphia to take measures for the common defense ; and George Washington became general-in-chief of the American forces. 651. The colonists had desired nothing more than their just rights as British subjects, but the king's harshness compelled them to go farther, and, in July, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed at Philadelphia. During that summer the British, under Lord Howe, cap- tured New York, which they kept until the end of the war. The next year Philadelphia, too, fell into their hands, though Washington earnestly tried to save it by the battle of the Brandywine. The winter which followed was the hardest period of all to the colonists; and the struggle of the weakest nation in the world against the strongest seemed utterly desperate. 652. Nevertheless, the tide had already turned in favor of American independence. Burgoyne, descending with a fresh army from Canada to join Lord Howe, was defeated near Saratoga and surrendered his whole October, 1777. • 1 • 1 , , / - arm)- with its cannon and treasures to Gen- eral Gates. France, Spain, and Holland soon made friendly treaties with the United States, and the fleets of all three nations attacked British ships and setdements in all parts of the globe. The main actions of the following years were in the southern states; and, in October. 1781, the war was virtually ended by the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, with his whole command, at Yorktown, in Virginia. In September, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Versailles, by which George III. acknowledged the independence of his late colonies, now the United States of America. THE PRINCE REGENT. 365 653. England took a leading part in the wars following the French Revolution, but these will be described in another connection (Ch. XIII). It is no wonder that the excitements and responsibilities of that eventful time over- came the mind of the king. After reigning fifty years he became insane, and the regency of the kingdom was committed to his son, who was after- wards King George the Fourth. 654. The wars of the French Revolution burdened Great Britain with a debt of four thousand millions of dollars, which pressed, most heavily, upon the working classes. At the same time the use of steam in manufac- tures threw thousands of worthy people out of employ- ment, while the price of food was raised by the Corn Laws, which prohibited the importation of grain. For many years the government had a difficult task in dealing with the popular discontent under these miseries, which it could not at once remove. 655. George III. died in 1820, and the Prince Regent became kmg. His only child, the Princess Charlotte, was already dead, and his ill-treated wife, Caroline of Bruns- wick, did not long survive his accession. George IV. was a selfish and profligate king, spending the money of his starving people on the most frivolous amusements. For- tunately, the government really rested in better hands than his. Some liberal measures were carried by his ministers; notably, that of "Catholic Emancipation," removing disabilities which had existed ever since the time of Charles II. (§544). There was no longer any danger of the Pope's ruling England ; and it was seen to be wrong that millions of people in Ireland should l)e unrepresented in Parliament merely on account of their religious I)elief. 656. Many Englishmen, of whom Lord Byron was most distinguished, took part in the Greek revolution, which 366 MODERN HISTORY. delivered the land of Pericles and Plato, after four hun- dred years' degrading servitude to the Turks. The gov- ernment at last followed their lead, and, in alliance with France and Russia, defeated the Turkish fleet in the Bay of Navarino (§722). 657. In 1830, William IV. "^ succeeded his brother. His seven years' reign is noted as the period of long-needed j)arliamentary reform. Since the application of steam to machinery, many towns had grown immensely in wealth and population, but had no voice in the government to pro- tect their rights ; while some ancient boroughs, once im- portant, had lost all or nearly all their inhabitants, but, as they were entitled to representation, their seats in par- liament were filled by the appointment of some great landed proprietor, who thus had far more power than was just. In 1832, fifty-six of these "pocket-boroughs" were abolished, and one hundred and forty-three seats were distributed among the great towns, while the right to vote was extended to every man who owned property or paid rent to a certain small amount, 658. One of the first acts of the reformed Parliament abolished slavery in all the British colonies. Wilberforce and others had succeeded, in 1807, in putting an end to the slave trade. Improvement was also made in the Poor Laws, so that a laborer could seek employment beyond the limits of the parish in which he was born. 659. In 1837, the crown of Great Britain and Ireland passed to Victoria,^ daughter of the duke of Kent, while that of Hanover vvas inherited by her father's younger brother (see Table, p. 283). Many troubles beset the three kingdoms and their dependencies. Canada was in revolt, Jamaica nearly so, a commercial war was on the eve of breaking out with China, and the discontent at home was greater than ever, owing to scanty harvests and the high price of food. Riotous meetings were held near the great I I THE CRIMEAN WAR. 367 towns, demanding a repeal of the Corn Laws, and some radical changes in the government. 660. The cold, wet summer of 1845 injured the grain crop all over Europe and blighted the potato in Ireland. A terrible famine was the consecjuence, carrying off thou- sands of the Irish peasantry and leaving whole parishes uninhabited. In 1846, parliament repealed all duties upon articles of food, and gradually the discontent died away in a better condition of the people. 661. In 1840, the queen married Prince Albert'of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, a truly "blameless prince," who, seeking neither honors nor power for himself, devoted his rare talents to promoting the success and happiness of her reign. Among other enterprises which he aided, was the first "World's Fair," for which a "Crystal Palace" was erected in Hyde Park, London, A. D. 185 1. 662. Her alliance with the new French Empire (§§738, 739) plunged England into the Crimean War, the object of which was to protect Turkey against the aggressions of the Czar Nicholas.* The Turks had a prophecy that their dominion in Europe was to fall just four hundred years from the time of its establishment (§379). When that year of fate arrived, the Czar, who coveted Constantinople, proposed to the British gov- ' "' ernment to share the spoils by seizing Egypt and Crete. This was refused, and Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, English ambassador at Constantinople — whom the Czar spitefully called the "English Sultan" from his influence over the Turks — was warned to watch th'= Russian movements. 663. Nicholas soon marched an army to the lower Danube, and seized the provinces of Moldavia and Wal- lachia. The Sultan declared war, and his general, Omar Pasha, gained several brilliant victories over the invaders, forcing them at length to give up the disputed provinces. 368 MODERN HISTORY. To make it sure that the peace of Europe would not be disturbed again in the same way, the French and Enghsh fleets moved up the Black Sea and besieged '^''' ^ ^^' the fortress of Sevastopol in the Crimean pe- ninsula. For nearly a year its strong defenses resisted all attempts to reduce them, though the Russians were re- pulsed at Balaklava and signally defeated at Inkermann. The British soldiers suffered more from cold and hunger, owing to inefficient management, than from the necessary hardships of war; but the sick were kindly and skillfully cared for by Florence Nightingale and her noble band of volunteer nurses — ladies who had left the comfort of Eng- lish homes for a pilgrimage of charity to this Tartar wil- derness, and whose only reward was the happiness of relieving pain. 664. The Czar died in March, 1855; and his son, Alex- ander II., a prince of more moderate views, came to the throne. Lord Palmerston was now at the head of the British ministry, and new energy appeared in the move- ments of the allies. A fleet, cruising in the Sea of Azof, destroyed immense magazines of grain, which were to have fed the garrison of Sevastopol ; while another, penetrating the Baltic, shut up the Russian ships in their harbor of Cronstadt. At last the Redan and the Malakoff, two great forts which guarded the south side of Sevastopol, were taken by storm. The Russians sunk their fleet -in the harbor, set fire to the town, and retired to the north forts. 665. The Czar was now ready for peace, and in March, 1856, a treaty was signed at Paris. The Black Sea was thrown open to the commerce of all nations, but no war- ships, either Turkish or Russian, were pennitted to enter it. The provinces on the lower Danube were united in the almost independent sovereignty of Roumania, free to regulate all matters of religion and law for themsehes, and to choose their own i)rince with the formal consent DESCENDANTS OF GEORGE ITL 369 of the Sultan. Christians in Turkey — who outnumbered rhe Mohammedans almost six to one — were declared to be under the protection of the great Christian ■ Powers. Point out Trafalgar. Navarino. Sevastopol. What seas were traversed by the allied fleets in 1854? Where is Cronstadt ? Roumania ? Read Chapter X of Green's "Short History;" Macaulay's History of England and Essays on Clive and Hastings; Bancroft's History of the United States, volumes relating to the French and Indian and Revolutionary \\'ars. FAMILY OF GEORGE HI. George III. George IV. William IV. Edward, D. of Kent, Ernest Augustus, I died, 1820. K. of Hanover. Charlotte, died, 1817. I Victoria. THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. ?628. Philip III. — g 525. 1 I Anne in. Louis XJll. Philif IV. m Eliz. Mary Anne m. FERDINAND III. I I of France. ' I i \ i i ■ Louis X/l'. in. Maria Theresa. Ch.arles II. Marg't. Theresa m. LEOPOLD I., I who m Louis, Dauphin 2d Mary Anne of Neuberg. Louis. Philip V—g 630. JOSEPH I. CHARLES VI. N'afhi's of Emperors are in large eapitals. Kings of Spain, in small capital: -nd Kings of France, in italics. 4ist. — 24. 37° MEDIEVAL HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Lecky, in his "History of England in tlie XVIII. Century," no- tices the "great multitude ot disputed titles" in Europe as having an important etTect upon the popular views concerning inonarchy. "The throne of England was disputed between the House of Hanover and the House of Stuart. Tlie Spanish throne was disputed between Philip V. and the emperor. In Italy, . . . the successions of Tuscany and Parma were disputed by the emperor and Spanish Q,ueeu. In Poland, the rival claims of Stanislaus, who was supported by Charles XII., and of Augustus (g594), who was supported by Peter tlie Great, were, during many years, contested by arms. In France, the title of the young king was, indeed, undisputed, but his fragile constitution made men look forward to his speedy death, and parties were already forming in sup- port of the rival claims of the regent and tlie kin^ df Spain. Among the causes which were lowering the position of nionarcliy in Europe in the Eighteenth C'entury, the multiplication of tliesf disputetl titles deserves a prominent place. They shook the reverence for the throne; they destroyed the mystic sanctity that surrounded it; they brought the supreme authority of the nation into the arena of controversy. In England, since the period of the Restoration (^544), the doctrine of the divme right of kings, and of the absolute criminality of all rebellion, was, as we have seen, a fundamental tenet, not only of the Tory party, but also of the Estaljlished Church. But, from the accession of George I. it began rapidly to decline. The enthronement of the new dynasty had, for a time at least, solved the doubtful question of the succession according to the principles of the Revolution." 2. J.R.Green, in "A Short History of the English People," says that a complete transfer of political power from the House of Lords to the House of Commons, was marked by " the series of ' Great Com- moners,' who, from this time, became tlie rulers of England. ... Of these Great Commoners, Robert \Vali)()le was the first. Born in 1676, he entered Parliament two years before William's lieatli, as a young Nor- folk land owner of fair fortune, with the tastes and air of the class from which he .sprang. . . . He was ignorant of books; he 'loved neither writing nor reading,' and if he had a taste for art, his real love was for the table, the bottle, and the chase. . . . Walpole was the first minis- ter— it has been finely said— 'who gave our government that charac- ter of lenity which it has since generally deserved.' No man was ever more fiercely attacked by speakers and writers, but he brouglit in no 'gagging act' for tlie press, and though the lives of most of his assailants were in his hands through their intrigues with the Pretendei-, he made no use of his power over them. . . . Walpole was not only tlie first English Peace Minister; he was the first English minister who was a great linancier, and who regarded the development of national wealth and the adjustment of national buixlens as the business of a statesman. His time of jjower was a time of great material prosperity. . . . But if Walpole's aims were wise and statesnianlilce, lie was unscrupulous in the means by wbicb lie realized them. Per.sonally, lie was free from corruption; and he is perhaps the first great Englisli statesman who left ofBce poorer than when he entered it. But he was certainly the first who made parliamentary corruption a regular part of his sy.stem of government. ... A vote was too valuable to be given without recom- pen.se. Parliamentary support had to be bought by places, pensions, and bribes in hard cash." 3. James Edward Oglethorpe was one of the most remarkable men in tlie English society of his day. In youth he served under Marlbor- ough and Prince Eugene in Germany. Returning to England, he be- came interested in philanthropic efforts, chiefly in behalf of orplians and poor debtors, and obtained from the king a large grant of American lands "in trust for the poor." He came over with thetirst settlers :uieech to this effect was the last effort of his life. Lord Kroiigliamsays of I'itt: "He is the person to whom every one would at once i>oint if asked to name the most successful statesman and most brilliant f)rator that his country ever produced." Pitt sacrifleed much of his popularity by accepting "a peerage in 17(j(j, becoming the first Earl of Chatham. He died in 1778. 5. William IV., the third son of George III., was born in London, 17(J5. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1779, and spent a winter iu New York during the occupation of that city by the British (g 651). 6. Queen Victoria was born at Kensington Palace, May 24, 1819. She was carefully educated under the care of her nrother and the Duchess of Northumberland, and is said to have first discovei'ed her title to the crown from her reading of history when about thirteen years of age. Surprised and moved by this sudden perception of the responsibilities that awaited her, she laid her hand in that of her governess and cxclaiuKMl, "I will try to be good!" In her simple and quiet life, exempt from the flatteries of courts, she had learned to be " brave, self- reliant, and .systematic. Prudence and economy had been taught her as though she had been born to be poor." 7. Prince Albert was descended from the elder or ducal Saxon line, dtsccnihd from the electors Frederic the Wise and John the Steadfast, lirotictors of lAither, while the royal House of Saxony have for their founder tliat Duke Maurice (H''!*) who supplanted his cousin. 8. Nicholas I. was the third son of the Erajjeror Paul I., and brother of Alexander I. (i^703), whom he succeeded in 182.5. A dangerous revolt broke out among' the troops at St. Petersburg immediately on his acces- sion, for there were already secret societies iu Russia which were plot- ting radical changes in the government. Many nobles were exiled to Siberia for their share in this plot, and the severity used in its suppression oidy confirmed the arbitrary temper of Nicholas. This was equally shown against the Poles, who, in 18;!(), made a desperate but heroic ef- fort to regain their lost independence, and in the intervention of Nich- olas on the side of Austria in the Hungarian Revolution (^732) of 1848 and '49. In both cases the movement toward freedom was sternly checked, though later events, in the war of 1866, brought to the Hun- garians most of the constitutional changes they desired. The cares inseparable from the despotic control of so vast an empire, aggravated by his vexation at the reverses of the Crimean War, Wore out at last even the iron frame of Nicholas, and he died during the siege of Sebastopol. 9. Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston, one of the most pop- ular of English statesmen, was born 1784, and died 1865. His Irish peer- age gave him no place in the E)nglish House of Lords, but he was fifty years a member of the Commons, where his business-like energy and skill in debate found their most appropriate field. As minister for Foreign Affairs, Palmerston was among the first to recognize the French Republic, and he even approved the steps by which Napoleon III. gained supreme power. CHAPTER XII. BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST. Palanquin Bearers in India. I OR a hundred years from its foundation, the Enghsh East India Company confined itself to trade — building a few forts and warehouses on lands given it by the Mogul emperors. After the time of Aurungzebe, who died in 1707, the empire founded by Baber (^377) rapidly de- clined; and, though a Great Mogul still reigned in his jeweled palace at Delhi, the twenty-one native princes of the peninsula paid him little respect and still less obedi- ence, but spent their time in quarreling among themselves and oppressing their subjects. 667. By helping the weaker party in these disputes, the Company began to acquire power and wealth, which were often increased by buying the sovereignty of some bank- (372j CLIVE AND HASTINGS. 373 nipt nizam or rajali. Conciuests from the French and their Hindu allies, during the Seven Years' War (ij;645), laid the foundation of the British Indian Empire. In 1756, Sura'jah Dow'lah, the native viceroy of Bengal, cap- tured Calcutta, and thrust all the British residents into a loathsome dungeon called the Black Hole, where most of them died in agonies of thirst and suffocation in a single night. Robert Clive,' formerly a poor clerk in the Com- pany's counting-house, now at the head of only 3,000 men, recovered Calcutta and gained a complete victory over the army of Dowlah, who soon afterwards lost his station and his life. Clive was made Governor of Calcutta, and Baron of Plassy, from the scene of his victory. 668. In 1773, the three Presidencies of Bombay, Mad- ras, and Bengal were united under Warren Hastings,- who, as Governor-General, resided at Calcutta. He carried on a fierce conflict with Hyder Ali, the native sultan of Mysore in southern India, who was aided by the French during the war of American Independence (§652). He was conquered at last, but the struggle was renewed by his son, Tippoo Sahib, when the French Revolution had reawakened the hostilities in Europe between the French and the English. The whole kingdom of Mysore was at length absorbed into the British Empire. 66g. The Company's servants usually made themselves rich at the expense of the Hindus, perhaps quieting their consciences with the assurance that no amount of extor- tion and oppression could equal the cruelties of the native rulers. But this excuse did not satisfy English feeling at home. In 1786, Hastings was accused, by Edmund Burke, before the bar of the House of Lords ; and, though he was finally act^uitted on the ground that the directors of the company were more guilty of extortion than he, effectual measures were taken to protect the helpless natives of India from future abuse. 374 MODERN HISTORY. 670. In 1833, the Indian trade was thrown freely open to all British subjects. The Chinese government was soon alarmed by the enormous quantities of opium brought into its markets from northern India. The Chinese people were only too fond of the ruinous drug ; their government made stringent laws to prevent its introduction ; and, when these were violated, British merchants were shut up in their factory at Canton until they gave up all the opium in their possession. The English home-govern- A. D. 1840-1842. - , . P . ment went to war for the protection of its subjects. Canton and several other towns were taken by storm, and, at length, the Chinese officials signed a treaty ceding Hong Kong to the British, and opening several ports to foreign trade. 671. This was a great concession; for the oldest of em- pires had kept itself closed for ages against all the rest of the world. It soon afterwards made treaties with France and the United States. A new war was occasioned, in 1855, by some trifling encroachment on the part of the Chinese. Canton was again captured by a French and English force, and, by the treaty of Tientsin, more cordial relations were established. 672. A far more serious war soon threatened England with the loss of her whole Indian Empire. The native soldiers, called Sepoys, by means of whom this great peninsula was kept in subjection, numbered nearly a quarter of a million. Better fed, paid, and treated than they ever had been by their native rulers, the Sepoys obeyed their officers with childlike confidence. But they were a superstitious race, and any slight to their religion enraged them beyond endurance. The government held itself bound to respect their religion wherever it did not violate the universal principles of humanity — only inter fering to prevent the burning of widows and the drowning of children as a sacrifice to the Ganges. I THE SEPOY REBELLION. 375 673. In 1856, new rifles came out from England for the Sepoy regiments ; and with them greased cartridges, which were supposed to contain beef-tallow. l"o bite off the ends of these would be pollution to a Hindu ; and, feel- ing their ancient faith insulted, several regiments mutinied. Frightful massacres of the white residents occurred at Delhi, Meerut, and Cawnpore ; and Lucknow, capital of Oude, was besieged, all the summer of 1857, by thousands of infuriated rebels. Gen. Havelock brought a small force from Persia, and, after many battles with far greater num- bers of Sepoys, he was able to enter Lucknow and save it until relief could come from home. 674. At length Sir Colin Campbell, with a brigade of Highlanders, appeared, and the scene changed. Delhi, the rebel capital, was taken, and its king, the "last of the Moguls," with his sons, was executed for mutiny. The rebellion was soon over. The government of India was taken from the company and ■ ' s • vested in the crown. The queen — now called Empress of India — appoints a viceroy to represent her at Calcutta; and efforts have been made to extend even to the lowest orders of Hindus the benefits of enlightened and Christian govern- ment. The British rulers refrain, as before, from directly interfering with the native religion; but the liberal educa- tion provided for Hindu youth is rapidly relieving them from the bondage of ancient superstition. 675. The great continent of Australia was first colo- nized, by English convicts, in 1788. A thousand of these wretched creatures, from prisons at home, arrived in Sydney Cove with their officers, and began to clear the wilderness, make roads and bridges, and prepare the way for better colonists. Hard work proved its advantages; many reformed their lives, and became useful citizens and even magistrates. Australian wool became celebrated in European markets; and thousands of free settlers were 376 MODERN HISTORY. glad to follow where the convicts had prepared the way. The original colony of New South Wales was divided, Victoria being set off on the south and Queensland on the north. In May, 1851, gold was discovered in Victoria, and a great immigration of adventurers followed. Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, has become a thriving city of nearly 200,000 inhabitants, and is the seat of a university, while Sydney, the first settlement founded, is hardly less impor- tant. Australia and the neighboring island of Tasmania are united by submarine telegraph with London, while the great inland wilderness is fast being turned into homes for civilized men. 676. The chiefs of New Zealand^ acknowledged Queen Victoria as their sovereign in 1840. Covering more space than the British Islands, New Zealand is said to be un- surpassed by any country in the world for richness of soil, healthfulness of climate, and grandeur of scenery. The native Maoris are a noble race, who have gladly accepted civilized and Christian teaching. Their skill in war has, however, made them dangerous enemies when- ever the settlers have provoked their hostilities. The Fiji islanders have lately put themselves under the protection and control of the British Queen, and have sent her the great war-club which, for hundreds of years, has been used as a scepter by their chiefs. Point out the Mogul capital of Hindustan. The present capital of Britisli India. The three presidencies. Canton. Hong Kong. The provinces of Australia. Melbourne. Sydney. New Zealand. The P^ijis. Read Mills' "British India;" Articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica on Hindustan, Australia, and New Zealand ; Macaulay's Essays on Clive and Warren Hastings. NOTES. 377 NOTES. 1. Robert Clive was born at Market Dra5'ton, in tlie west of England, in 1725. His "strong will and flery passions" nnfltted him for peaceful pursuits at home, and, at 18, his family "shipped him off to make a fortune or die of a fever at Madras." In the East India Company's contests, tirst with the French, and afterwards witli the native princes, Clive found a fleld for his great military talents. His first feat was the surprise and capture of Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, with a force of only 200 English and 300 native soliliers. Plere he was almost imme- diately besieged by 10,000 natives and French. Macaulay says: "The walls were ruinous, the ditches dry, the ramparts too narrow to admit the guns, the battlements too low to protect the soldiers. The garrison began to feel the pressure of hunger. But the devotion of the little band to its chief surpassed any thing that is related of the Tenth Le- gion of Ctesar, or of the Old Guard of Napoleon. The Sepoys came to Clive— not to complain of their scanty fare, but to propose that all the grain should be given to the Europeans, who required more nourish- ment than the natives of Asia. The thin gruel, they said, which was strained away from the rice, would suffice for themselves!" The de- fense was a complete success, and Clive thenceforth occupied a front rank among English soldiers. Macaulay thus sums up the services which entitle him to be consklered the Founder of the British Empire in Hiudostan: "From his first visit to India dates the renown of En- glish arms in the East. With the defense of Arcot commences that long series of Oriental triumphs which closes with the fall of Ghazni. Nor must we forget that he was only 25 years old when he approved himself ripe for military command .... Clive, an inexperienced youth, had yet more experience than any of those who served under him. He had to form himself, to form his officers and to form his army. . . . From Clive's second visit to India dates the political as- cendancy of the English in that country. . . . Such an extent of cultivated territory, such an amount of revenue, such a multitude of subjects, was never added to the dominion of Rome by the most suc- cessful proconsul. . . . From Clive's third visit to India dates the purity of the administration of our Eastern empire. When he landed at Calcutta in 1765, Bengal was regarded as a place to which Englishmen were sent only to get rl Lafayette, born in 1757, was one of the] most wealthy and powerful of the young nobles of France, when, atl tlie age of lit, he devoted his talents to the cause of American Independ-[ ence. The French government liaai liamcntary reform (^fi57). He died 18.52; and his burial in St. Paul's Catludral was commemorated by Ten' nyson the Poet Laureate, in a grand Ode. CHAPTER XIV. ABSOLUTISTS AND LIBERALS IN EUROPE. A. D. 1815. I HE wars of the French Revolution were now ended, and a grand congress of sovereigns, or their representatives, met at Vienna, to consult to- gether for the restoration of order. The "bal- ance of power" which they then arranged, lasted more than forty years. 715. Prussia received back her lost territories and more; so that she now became one of the Five Great Powers. Austria was consoled for the loss of the Netherlands by all of northern Italy, except the kingdom of Sardinia. France, Spain, and Naples were again subjected to the Bourbons ; and humiliated France had to maintain a foreign army of 150,000 men, who were quartered upon her frontier, to keep her from again disturbing the general peace. 716. Thirty-nine German sovereigns and free cities formed a new confederation, with its capital at Frankfort- (395) 396 MODERN HISTORY. on-the-Main. Holland and Belgium were united in the kingdom of the Netherlands, with the Prince of Orange for their king. The Five Great Powers — Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia — held themselves responsible for maintaining the balance of power, by in- terfering in behalf of any state which might be injured and unable to defend itself. 717. The czari proposed to the other sovereigns a Holy Alliance, binding them to ' ' remain united in true brotherly love ; to govern their subjects as parents, and to maintain religion, peace, and justice." This promised well, but it Avas soon found that the allied sovereigns meant to be very despotic "parents," by no means allow- ing their children to act or think for themselves. Hence arose a conflict between Absolutism and Liberalism, which led at last to the revolutions of 1848. 718. Spain, trying to throw off the stupid tyranny of Ferdinand VH. — who had restored the Inquisition and all the abuses of his ancestors — was subdued by a French army of 100,000 men, under the influence of the Alliance. The liberal constitution was overthrown, and absolute des- potism restored. In Italy multitudes of Liberals joined themselves in secret societies to resist the Hapsburgs in the north and the Bourbons in the south (§634). 719. That of the Carbonari (charcoal-men) numbered half a million. In 1820, they made an open attack upon the government at Naples in such force that the king granted all they asked — the Spanish "Constitution of 1812" and a Liberal ministry. The Holy Alliance again interfered, and an Austrian army restored despotism in Naples. The rule of the Hapsburgs, in northern Italy, was, if possible, more odious than that of the Bourbons. Persons who were only suspected^ of symj^athy with the Carbonari, suddenly disappeared, and spent the rest of their lives in solitary dungeons. THE GREEK REVOLUTION. 397 720. Liberalism was kept alive, in Germany, by the youth in the Universities, whose high spirits doubtless taxed the patience of the paternal governments. Some outbreak of eloquence, on the third centennial of the Reformation, brought a reprimand from the Alliance. A half crazy student of Jena thereupon murdered Kotzebue,^ the Russian consul ; and the sovereigns, fancying some wide-spread conspiracy, insisted upon taking away the freedom of the Universities. 721. The revolt of the Greeks against the cruel oppres- sions of the Turks was met in the same spirit ; but that brave people persevered until their independence was won. Prince Ypsilanti,'' in 1821, publicly announced that the servitude of four hundred years was ended, and that Greece was determined to be free. Hundreds of Greek students hastened to enroll themselves in a Sacred Band, bearing upon their shields the Spartan motto, "Either this or on this." The Turks tried to crush the movement by atrocious massacres; the Sacred Band was cut to pieces, and the beautiful isle of Scio was laid waste ; forty thou- sand of its people perished, while the strongest and most beautiful youth were dragged away to the Turkish slave- markets. 722. The next year Marco Bozzaris^and his Suliote band fell upon a Turkish camp by night and gained a complete victory, with the loss of his own life. Though governments might be indifferent or hostile, the people all over Europe were thrilled with sympathy for the Greeks ; money, food and clothing were supplied, and many volunteers sought the honor of serving in their ranks {§656). At last the govern- ments of Great Britain, France and Russia were moved to interfere, and their combined fleets defeated the Turks in the Bay of Navarino. 723. The soul of the Holy Alliance departed when Alex- ander I. died, in 1825. His brother Nicholas, who succeeded 398 MODERN HISTORY. him, coveted the Turkish possessions on the Black Sea, and his movements in that direction forced the suhan to ac- knowledge the indej^endence of the Greeks. Prince Otho of Bavaria^ was chosen to be their king, under the influence of the allied powers. 724. In 1830 the Liberal spirit became powerful enough to accomplish several peaceful revolutions. Charles X., who had succeeded his brother Louis XVIII. as king of France, offended the people l)y limiting the freedom of the press and of voting. He was forced to resign his crown and take refuge in Great Britain. The duke of Orleans,'^ son of Egalite, was called to the throne as "King of the French," with a liberal constitution, much like that of England. 725. Belgium at the same time separated from Holland and chose Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to be its king. The Poles made a brave but vain effort to throw off the harsh yoke of the Russians, which was made harder to them by the tyrannical temper of the \iceroy, the grand-duke Constantine, brother of the czar. Their very nationality was now blotted out; So, 000 ijatriots were sent A. D. 1832. . ., . , ' , - m one year to toil m the frozen deserts of Siberia; and children were even separated from their parents to be trained in military colonies. 726. Lender the reign of Louis Philippe, France enjoyed some years of peace and prosperity. Still, the "citizen- king " found it impossible to please all parties. Strict mon- archists thought that no one could rightfully reign over France excepting Henry V., the grandson of Charles X.; Bonapartists longed for the military glories of the Empire; and a growing multitude of Liberals desired a French Re- public. A severe loss was felt in the death of the duke of Orleans, the heir to the crown, whom all men loved and trusted. 727. The king's interference in the Spanish marriages hastened his fall. Ferdinand VII. had died in 1833, REl'OLUTION OF i? 399 leaving only two little daughters, the oldest of whom was three years old. His brother, Don Carlos, claimed the crown under the "Salic Law" (§405), but Louis Philippe and a strong party in Spain upheld the little queen, who afterward became the too noted Isabella IL The French king wished to increase his own power by choosing hus- bands for the queen and her sister. To the former he allotted the half-idiotic Francis of Assis, but for her sister, whom he thought likelier to live and reign, he destined his own son, the duke of Montpensier. The marriages both took place, but the Orleans Dynasty was less benefited by them than had been hoped. 728. The Liberals were now powerful in France ; and at one of their great Reform Banquets in the open air, the usual toast to the king was omitted, while the "sovereignty of the people" was received with great applause. The government tried to suppress the next meeting of this kind, at which 100,000 people were expected to be present. The guns of the forts were pointed inward upon the city, and 60,000 soldiers were ready e ., i 4 . to fire upon the mob. This aroused the fury of the lowest class of the people, who, swarming together from their dens and cellars, barricaded the streets and raised the cry, "Long live the Republic!" 729. The king and his sons fled, but the widowed duchess of Orleans'' came with her little son into the revo- lutionary assembly, — calm and undaunted, though weapons were aimed at her heart. She reminded the deputies of her husband's exalted character, and promised that she would teach his son to be like him, true to the people. But a voice from the tribune cried, "Too late!" and a republic was proclaimed. 730. National workshops were now opened, where all who applied found employment and wages. But this plan, though it seemed benevolent, proved very dangerous; 400 MODERX HISTORY. 100,000 workmen were soon massed together in the public shops, and any attempt to control them aroused their fury. The attempt to abate this peril by dismissing a great num- ber of men led to a terrible four days' battle in the streets of Paris. General Cavaignac^by his cool, wise and prompt measures restored order. A new constitution was now adopted, and Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, ^ ** a nephew of the emperor, became president of the French Republic. 731. The Liberals were every-where in arms, especially in Germany, Hungary and Italy, and the year 1848 was marked by revolutions all over Europe. In a riot at Vienna, the war-minister La Tour was beaten to death by the mob, and the Emperor Ferdinand fled, leaving his capital in their hands. He soon afterward resigned in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I. 732. The Hungarians revolted against the long-hated dominion of the Hapsburgs, and set up a republic with Louis Kossuth at its head. Many Poles, having no country of their own, became " soldiers of liberty" and rendered good service to the Hungarians, while the Czar Nicholas sent armies to the aid of his Austrian ally. The brave Hungarians were unable to hold out long against the com- bined forces of despotism. In May, 1849, the brutal field- marshal Haynau, who had crushed the revolution in northern Italy, was placed at the head of the Austrian armies, and by a great victory at Temesvar, overthrew the republic. Kossuth resigned, and Gorgei was made dictator ; but within two days Gorgei surrendered his whole army with its cannon and stores to the Russians. Kossuth and a few companions escaped into Turkey, where they were kindly received by the Sultan, the hereditary foe of the Czar; a few years later he visited America, where his eloquent speeches awakened great sympathy for his op- pressed countrymen. 733. The Italian insurgents were scarcely more successful JOSEPH GARIBALDI. 40 1 in their stroke for liberty; but one important step was gained in the acknowledged leadership of the House of Savoy, which, ten years later, secured the unity and inde- pendence of Italy. Pope Pius IX. had begun his reign in 1846 with liberal measures, which excited great hopes; but when the people demanded war against Austria in aid of the Lombard insurgents, he refused. His minister, Count Rossi, was murdered, and the pope's palace was assaulted, but he himself escaped to Gaeta. 734. Among the noted actors in the Italian revolution was Joseph Garibaldi, a defender of freedom, and a foe to despotism in every form. Garibaldi entered Rome with a band of volunteers; and an Assembly was called, which deposed the pope and proclaimed a republic with Mazzini at- its head. The French president sent an army to the aid of Pope Pius ; it was defeated by Garibaldi before the walls of Rome ; but after more troops arrived from France, the city was taken and the republic was overthrown, July 3, 1849. 735. In (Jermany a national parliament proposed to re- vive the Empire and to place the king of Prussia at its head. But Frederic William IV. refused the crown, and for some years the multitude of German states were less united than ever. Most of the petty sovereigns gave free constitutions to their people; /. c, they conceded freedom of speech and of the press, and shared the law-making power with representatives chosen by ballot. Point out the dominions of the Hapsburgs in Hungary, Germany, and Italy. Of the Bourbons in Spain and Italy. See §740. Note. — The kingdom of Naples had been conferred upon Charles VI. of Austria, by the treaty of Rastadt, in 1714 (see §630), but in 1734 it was conquered by the Spanish Bourbons, and reunited with Sicily under a younger branch of that family. §634. Read Dyer's Modern Europe; "Memoirs" of Guizot and De Tocqueville. Hist. — 26. 402 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. This was Alexander I., son of Paul I. of Russia, and grandson of Catherine the Great (§ti()8 and note). Born at St. I't'tcrsburg, in 1777, lie was educated under the special care of his grandnn it licr. wiio herself wrote stories for his amusement and instruction, and designed that he should be her immediate successor, to the exclusion of liis fatlier. Paul, how- ever, destroyed the will, and rcignccl tivc years after his mother's death, before his foolish and tyrannical conduct provokef Claremont, LSoO. 8. Helene Louise Elisabeth, Duchess of Orleans, was a German princess of l)tautiful and noljle cliaracter — a daughter of the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg Schwerin. She retired to England with the rest of the royal family and died at Richmond in 18.58. 9. General Louis Eugene de Cavaignac had jiroved and developed his military talents in Algeria, where he served, 1832-1848, when, in the year of revolutions, he was called home to defend the government against the Parisian mob. The Assembly invested him with absolute power, but as soon as order was restored he resigned his dictatorship, only to be called immediately to the position of President of the Re- public under the provisional government. This place he held six months, until a general election had decided in favor of Bouaj^arte for permanent president. He then took his seat in the Assembly as a moderate Republican. After the empire was declared, he refused to take the oath of allegiance, and retired to private life, leaving an un- sullied record. 10. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was a son of Louis, king of Holland (?j;708, 707), brother of the Emperor Napoleon I., and of Hortense, daugh- ter of the Empress Josephine. Born at the palace of the Tuileries, 1808. he, at seven years of age, became an exile with his mother, upon the fall of the empire. On the death, in 18.32, of his cousin, the king of Rome (ii70()), he Ijecame tlie representative of the Bonapartist claims; and, in i8:{li, made a foolish and unsuccessful attemjit, with a fcM' follow- ers, at a capture of Strasburg. Being ariested, he was soon set at lib- erty and took rel'nge in the Ignited Slates. Four years later, he made an ((lually vain attack upon Bouloiiue, and this time was sentenced to i)erpetnal imprisonment in the fortress of Ham. After six years he made his escape, and lived for two years in London. The revolution of 181.S opened a way for his return to France, where he was elected in .Tune to be a member of the National Assembly, and, in the following December, to be President of the Republic for four years. The remaining events of his life belong to general history. His lit- erary tastes were exercised, before liis accession to power, chiefly in writings on political and military subjects, his most noted work being "Napoleonic Ideas," iniblisbed in 18,S9. After he became emperor, he commenced, but never tinished, a " Life of Cwsar," in which he is sup- posed to have designed a double parallel between his imperial uncle and the great Julius; and between himself and Augustus (see g? 238, 239). CHAPTER XV. THK SECOND FRENCH EMPIRE. A Prussian Soldier. HE French Republic, like that of half a century before, was soon exchanged for an imperial govern- ment. Having first placed at the head of the army men who were committed to his plans, President Bonaparte caused the principal generals and statesmen of France to be suddenly seized and impris- oned during the night following December i, 185 1. An army was already massed in Paris, the news- l)aper offices were occupied by soldiers, and the morning editions suppressed, while the government printers were setting up placards which appeared before daylight on all the walls. 737. These declared the capital in a state of siege, the National Assembly dissolved, and called for a new election by universal suffrage. The telegraph told the remotest corners of France that the revolution was already accom- plished, and that Bonaparte was responsible head of the government for ten years. The deputies, protesting, were carted away to prison ; and the Supreme Court was broken up by an armed force. The coup d'etat seemed to have succeeded without bloodshed, for the jjrosperous classes (404) UNIFICATION OF ITALY. 405 liked any thing better than anarchy, or the reign of the mob; and all who remembered the First Empire felt sure of a strong and efificient government under a Bonaparte. 738. But, on December 4, • the army in the streets began to fire, apparently without orders, upon a throng of peace- able citizens; multitudes more were massacred in prison, and 26,500 were transported to Cayenne on the African coast. Whatever resistance there might have been, was now crushed: the people conferred the whole executive power on Louis Napoleon Bonaparte for ten years ; and the next autumn, by a similar vote, he became "Napoleon III,* by the grace of God and the will of the people, Emperor of the French." 739. The war in the Crimea, in which France and England were the allies of the Turks against Russia, has been described (§§662-665). ^t was brought about mainly by Napoleon, who wished to please his army and nation by a taste of military glory, such as they associ- ated with his uncle's name. The war was ended by the treaty of Paris, 1856; and, soon afterward, France became the ally of Victor Emanuel,^ king of Sardinia, in a war against Austria. 740. Brave men from all the states of Italy sought the camp of Victor Emanuel, and the contest which followed is called the War of Italian Nationality. The Austrian rulers of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma fled from their mis- governed dominions, and their armies joined the allies, who gained decisive victories at Montebello, Palestro, and Magenta. To the latter, (ieneral McMahon ' ' ^^' contributed by coming up with reserves at the right moment, and he was rewarded with the rank of Marshal of France and Duke of Magenta." * His cousin, the King of Rome (^706), had died near Vienna, in 1852. 4o6 MODERN HISTORY. 741. A few days later Napoleon and Victor Emanuel entered Milan in triumph. The last great battle of the war was fought at Solferino, June 24; and, by the treaty of Villa- franca, P>ancis Joseph surrendered all his claims to Lom- bardy and the protection of the three duchies. The next year Sicily was conquered by Garibaldi and his volunteers, and the Bourbon king, Francis II., fled from Naples. The Two Sicilies united of their own accord with the Kingdom of Italy, which now embraced the whole peninsula excepting the territories of Rome and Venice. French troops still oc- cupied Rome and protected the sovereignty of the pope. 742. Napoleon III. was now at the height of his power, and his history is inseparable from that of all Europe. In 1 86 1 he even interfered in American affiiirs, by assuming a protectorate of the "Latin Race" on that continent. Mexico was in a state of revolution, and a French army, occupying its capital, secured a vote for an hereditary em- pire in place of the republic. The archduke Maximilian,^ brother of Francis Joseph, was chosen emperor under French influence; and entered the City of Mexico with the Empress Carlotta in June, 1864. President Juarez removed the seat of his government to Monterey, and war between the empire and the republic went on for three years with varying fortunes. In 1867, the French troops having been withdrawn, Maximilian was taken prisoner and was shot at Queretaro. The republic was reestablished. 743. Napoleon had now met a powerful opponent to his management of European affairs. This was Count von Bismarck,'* the Prussian chancellor, who had resolved to see his sovereign at the head of united Germany. Austria and Prussia had lately engaged together in the Schleswig-Holstein war, which ended in the separation of those duchies from Denmark; but, in the division of the spoils, a new war arose — a short but very decisive contest, which revolution- ized Germany. I THE SEVEN WEEKS' WAR. 407 744. The Prussian armies had been thoroughly reor- ganized; the infantry had the needle-gun, which, for swift- ness and accuracy in firing, had never been surpassed. The king of Italy made a close alliance with Prussia, and attacked the Austrians at Custozza with less good fortune , , ■ , r • 1 ^„ • • ^ A. D. 1866. than his northern friends. 1 he main action of the "Seven Weeks' War" was the battle of Sadowa, where the needle-gun won the day for the Prussians, while the white-coated Austrian cavalry, — hitherto considered the best and bravest in Euro])e, — was put to flight by the Uhlans. 745. By the treaty of Prague, Austria withdrew at once from Germany and Italy, ceding Venetia to Victor Eman- uel, and recognizing Prussia as the head of the North German Confederation, which succeeded to the arrangement of 1815 (§716). Thus shorn of his German and Italian dominions, Francis Joseph took the wise course of reforming his own hereditary states. A representative parliament was convened at Vienna, which in a single session swept away abuses of a thousand years, making all classes, religions, and races equal before the laws. The "Austro-Hungarian Mon- archy" is now as liberal as any in Europe. 746. The swift and surprising changes made by the Seven Weeks' War were little relished by Napoleon III., who had thought that his aid would be needed by Prussia. Several little diplomatic moves, — made in order to regain his lost importance, — were quietly checkmated by Bismarck, but at length a revolution in Spain afforded the desired cause of war. 747. Isabella II. had been compelled to quit her kingdom and take refuge in France, while the reign of the Spanish Bourbons was declared to be ended. Many candidates sought the vacant throne, — among them a new Don Carlos, grandson of the queen's uncle (§ 727). But Carlos was the representative of absolutism and priestcraft, and the Span- iards had no mind to crown another Philip II. They invited 4o8 MODERN HISTORY. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of the king of Prussia, to be their sovereign. Napoleon chose to consider this as a Prussian aggression, though King William I. declared that he had nothing to do with the matter, and could not prevent Leopold's taking the crown if he chose it. Leopold himself refused to be a candidate, as soon as he heard of the excitement at Paris. 748. All was in vain. The French armies began their march, to the Rhine on the day of Leopold's resignation. On July 19th, Napoleon declared war against Prussia, and, leaving the Empress Eugenie as regent during his absence, went to the frontier with his son. It was soon found that the French army was unfit for service. No regiment was full, and no supplies of food were provided. Thousands of men went starving into battle, and it is no wonder that the gallant army which left Paris so gayly for the "march to Berlin" found itself unable even to defend France. 749. The Prussians were drilled, fed and equipped to the highest degree of efficiency, and, when joined by the South- German forces, had more than twice the numbers of the French. Napoleon gained a slight advantage at Saar- briicken, but it was almost the last of the French victories. Three German armies crossed the frontier into France. The Crown Prince threatened Paris ; while his cousin Frederic Charles three times severely defeated Bazaine, who was now at the head of the main French army, and finally shut him up in Metz with his whole command. 750. McMahon was meanwhile mustering a new force for the relief of Bazaine; but the Crown Prince contrived to crowd him back upon Sedan, where, after a tremendous battle, the fortress itself and the whole French army, includ- ing cannon, horses and 108,000 men, were surrendered to the Germans. The French emperor, who was with Mc- Mahon, surrendered himself, September 2d, 1870, and remained for a time a prisoner at Wilhelmshohe, an old THE SIEGE OF PARIS. 409 palace of his uncle, King Jerome. He died at Chiselhurst, in England, the 9th of January, 1873. 751. Paris was filled with terror; the Crown Prince and his victorious army were daily expected at her gates. The Legislative Assembly declared that the empire had ceased to exist. The Empress-Regent and her son took refuge in England, and a provisional republic was proclaimed with General Trochu at its head. A large party in France now- desired peace. The king of Prussia had constantly declared that he had no quarrel with the French people, but only with their emperor who had insulted him ; but he now de- manded Alsace and Lorraine (^617), while the republic, though willing to pay a large amount of money, refused to cede an "inch of its land or a stone of its fortresses.'' For this cause the war went on. 752. On September 18, the Crown Prince took up his quarters at Versailles and his armies besieged Paris. Gam- betta, escaping in a balloon, joined some other members of the provisional government at Tours, which was for a time the French capital. Strasburg was taken by the Germans, September 28, after a fierce cannonade ; and a month later Bazaine surrendered the stronghold of Metz, with his army of 180,000 men and officers and an immense number of cannon. 753. Germany gained its long-desired unity, while France was on the verge of ruin. All the German states joined in requesting the king of Prussia to assume the imperial crown. This time (§735) the offer was accepted, and the Emi)eroi' William L was crowned in the great hall at , . , Jiin , 1871, Versailles. Pans at last was starved into sub- mission. On the 28th of January, 187 1, the sixteen fort^ which formed her outer circle of defense were surrendered. Three weeks' truce was allowed so that the French peoi)le might vote for a new government. A rei)ul)lic was pro- claimed, and Thiers^ was chosen as its president. The.gov- 4IO MODERN HISTORY. ernment made peace with Germany, ceding Alsace and Lorraine and engaging to pay one thousand millions of dollars as war indemnity to the conqueror. 754. A still greater calamity now befell Paris. That fierce, ignorant and lawless rabble, which had made the worst element in all previous revolutions, gained control of the city, while the rightful government was forced to retire to Versailles. Many battles were fought for the forts south of Paris. Strong parties in other great cities sympathized with the Commune, for it was suspected that Thiers' govern- ment favored a restoration of monarchy, while the towns were uniformly republican. 755- ^^ictory at last remained with the Versailles forces; and the Communists, becoming desperate, fired Paris with trains of petroleum, destroying the Tuileries, the Hotel de Ville and other splendid buildings. The archbishop of Paris and many others were wantonly murdered, and the desola- tion wrought by the Commune far exceeded that of the German siege. 756. The French troops having meanwhile been with- drawn from Rome, that city was occupied by Victor Eman- uel, and the people of the States of the Church signified, by an almost unanimous vote, their desire to be ct., 1870. miited with the Kingdom of Italy. Pope Pius IX.^ was recognized in all his dignities as head of the Roman Church; and princely revenues were secured to him, with undisturbed possession of the Leonine City (§3°5); ^'■^'^ his temporal sovereignty ceased to exist. The first months of 1878 were marked by the death of the two chief actors in recent Italian affairs. King Victor Emanuel died, January 9, in the Quirinal Palace at Rome; and Pope Pius IX., February 7, in the Vatican. Humbert I. succeeded his father as king of united Italy, and Cardinal Pecci became Pope Leo XIII. Under several able minis- ters, .Italy has gained importance among European states. THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 411 757. In 1873, Thiers having resigned, Marshal McMahon was chosen to be president, for seven years, of the French repubhc. The war debt was promptly i)aid by a popular loan, and in spite of this enormous tax upon the industry of the people, the national finances were restored to a healthy and prosperous condition. A year before the ex- piration of the " Septennat " McMahon resigned his office, and M. Grevy, President of the Chamber of Deputies, was chosen to succeed him. Oambetta, — always a leading spirit in the republic, through his great abilities and his liberal policy, — became President of the Deputies, and in November, 1881, was placed at the head of the Cabinet. The seat of government was removed from Versailles to Paris in June, 1879. The same month. Prince Louis Napoleon, son of the late Emperor (§750), was killed in a fight with the Zulus in southern Africa. He had named his cousin. Prince Victor, to succeed him at the head of the Bonapartists, who still hope to regain the ascendancy in France. 758. Spain, after a short-lived republic, and a two years' attempt at constitutional monarchy under Amadeo, son of the king of Italy, restored her Bourbon line in the person of Alfonso XII., son of the ex-queen Isabella. Alfonso guaranteed freedom of worship and some provision for pop- ular instruction, and invited the Jews, after their exile of centuries (p. 191), to return to Spain. Under this en- lightened policy, it may be hoped that the great peninsula, so richly endowed by nature, will in time recover from the effects of ages of misrule. 759. It is long since the Turks, as conquerors (§§560, 563), threatened the peace of Europe ; but the \ast interests of England and Russia, in the East, render them jealous of any changes in the Turkish territories. Meanwhile the Christian subjects of the Sultan have had to suffer intoler- able oppressions. In June, 1875, '^^^ \\\.\\q province of 4 1 2 MODEHy HIS roR Y. Herzegovina revolted, •with the hearty sympathy of her neighbors. The next May the French and German consuls at Salonica were murdered by a Turkish mob. Russia, Austria, and Germany then united in what is called the "Berlin Memorandum," requiring Turkey to reform her government, and give security of life and property to Mussulmans and Christians alike. England refused to join in the demand ; and within a month Bulgaria was the scene of horrid brutalities by the Turks. All Europe was inflamed with indignation ; Servia and Montenegro declared war, with secret aid from Russia; the Sultan, Abd-el-Aziz, was deposed, and probably m.urdered l)y his ministers; and in December, 1876, a conference of six great powers met at Constantinople. The Turkish government refusing to accede to their demands, the Czar declared war, and marched his armies to the Danube and into Armenia. 760. Fierce fighting went on for a year in the Balkan passes and the mountains south of the Black Sea. The de- cisive events were the surrender of Kars, in Armenia, with Nov. 18, 1877. 300 cannons and 10,000 prisoners, and of Dec. 10. Plevna, in the Balkan region, with 30,000 men. The Trojan and Shipka Passes were immediately seized by the Russians, and both parties were now ready to treat for peace. By the treaty of San Stefano, May 3, 1878, Russia was confirmed in the possession of her recent conquests in Asia, including the port of Batoum on the Black Sea. England protested against this easy settlement of affairs, and by a special agreement with the Sultan, June 4, engaged to protect Asiatic Turkey against future invasion, on the con- dition of pledges of reform in tlie government of that region, and the assignment to her of the island of Cyprus. This protectorate would of itself prove the decay of the Ottoman power, but additional evidence is found in the rapid decline of population, which has turned large tracts of once fruitful land into wildernesses. THE RUSSO- TURKISH WAR. 413 761. On the 13th of June, 1878, a Congress of European Powers* assembled at Berlin, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, and devoted a month to the discussion of questions growing out of the recent war. Bulgaria was se- cured in a Christian government of her own, her reigning prince being chosen by' the people, but confirmed by the Sultan with the consent of all the "Powers." Eastern Roumelia was made equally free as to internal affairs, but had her prince appointed by the Sultan. Bosnia and Her- zegovina were added to Austria. Roumania, Servia and Montenegro became wholly independent. 762. A "Supplementary Conference" was held at Berlin in June, 1880, to insist upon the needed reforms in Turkey, and to settle the boundaries of Greece and Montenegro. A league of Allianian mountaineers were resisting the transfer of territory to the latter which the Turks were ready to make ; but upon the appearance of combined fleets of six Great Powers in the Mediterranean, and their proposal to seize the wealthy port of Smyrna as security for the execu- tion of the treaty, the Sultan found strength to fulfill his promises, and late in November Dulcigno and its dependent territories were surrendered to Montenegro. 763. Russia, meanwhile, though victorious abroad, was threatened by enemies at home. Alexander II., by eman- cipating twenty-two millions of serfs in 1861, and by other liberal measures, had studied the best interests of his people; but the change from despotism to constitutional government could not be made in a day ; and the Nihilists, a party op- posed to all restraints of law or religion, were secretly ac- quiring great influence. They made repeated attempts upon the life of the Czar and some of his chief officers, the bold- est of which was the undermining of the Winter Palace at •■"These were Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia and Turkey. 414 MODERX HISTORY. St. Petersburg, in February, 1880, with dynamite and gun cotton. The Czar escaped, but ten soldiers were killed. Count Melikoff was then placed at the head of a Supreme Executive Commission, with absolute power to maintain order throughout the empire. In spite of his rigorous measures to discover and defeat the plots of the Nihilists, the Czar was fatally wounded by the explosion of a bomb, March 13, 1881, and died in a i^iw hours. His son, Alex- ander III , became '"Emperor of all the Russias." A sim- ilar spirit in Germany led to two attacks upon the venerable Emperor William, but though once wounded he recovered, and his assassins were caj.)tured. 764. The jealousies of England and Russia as to their possessions and influence in Asia caused an invasion of Afghanistan by a force from British India in November, 1878. The Governor-General, in his proclamation, charged the Ameer, Shere Ali, with favoring a Russian Embassy while refusing to receive one from Great Britain. He dis- claimed any intention of concjuest, and promised to respect the independence of the Afghans, but declared that England would never permit any other power than herself to inter- fere in their aftairs. The frontier fortresses were seized by a British force, and the Kuram district was annexed to British India. Shere Ali fled into Turkestan, and a new Ameer was proclaimed under the influence of the invaders; but two days later they were se\erely defeated in a three hours' fight before Candahar. The British garrison of that place was relieved by General Sir Frederic Roberts, who after a long march defeated the Afghan army before the place, August 31, 1880; but the war resulted in enormous expense and little credit to its authors. It was, in fact, one of the most unpopular measures of the government of Lord Beaconsfield,'' who was succeeded, in April, 1880, by Mr. Gladstone/ long the head of the Liberal party in England. TROUBLES IN IRELAND. 415 765. In Ireland scanty harvests in- 1877 and 1878, and a total failure in 1879, occasioned famine and misery, and led to an open revolt against the land laws. A Land League was formed in October, 1879, ha\ing for its object an im- mediate reduction of rents and an ultimate division of the land among those who cultivate it. The present English Premier, Mr. Gladstone, has always favored peasant pro- prietorship so far as it can be secured in a just and orderly manner, but the unlawful proceedings of the "Land Leaguers " have called for repressive measures. Mr. Par- nell, president of the League and member of Parliament, was expelled from the House of Commons. January 24, 1 88 1, and was subsequently imprisoned in Ireland. Twenty- nine other Irish members, known as '' Home Rulers,'' were suspended for obstructing the business of the House. The starvation in the western counties of Ireland called forth the generous sympathy of friends in America. Half a million of dollars were promptly sent from New York, and the U. S. frigate Constitution was dispatched with a liberal supply of food. The Mayor of Dublin and the Duchess of Marlborough, wife of the Lord-Lieutenant, also raised a relief fund from English charily ; and the government, by bringing in a new Land Bill, strove to apply a remedy at the root of the distress. The rapid progress of French power in Tunis^ and the armed intervention of Great Brit- ain in Egyptian affairs, ' "^ are among the notable events of 1881 and 1882. Trace on Map 13, the campaign of Napoleon III. in Italy. Point out Sadowa (in Bohemia), Sedan, Melz, Strasburg. Schleswig, Hol- .stein, Alsace, Lorraine. Point out Salonica, Constantinople, Bosnia, Servia, Roumania, Roumelia ; the Balkan Mountains, Cyprus. Read Kinglake's "Invasion of the Crimea;" Lamartine's "His- tory of the Revolution of 1848 : " Blanchard Jerrold's " Life of Na- poleon III.;" E. Dicey's " Victor Emmanuel ;" Count Arrivabene's "Italy under Victor Emmanuel;" Hozier's " History of the Seven Weeks' War;" Riistow's "The War for the Rhine Frontier;" Broad- ley's "The Fourth Punic War, or Tunis Past and Present." 4i6 MODERN HISTORY. NOTES. 1. Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, but I. of all Italy, was born in 1820, at Turin. His family— tliat of the Dukes of 8avoy — was one of the oldest reigning houses in Europe; but his kingdom was now in a de- pressed condition, owing to the pref Indei)endence. He was commissioner to France, 1778, minister to Holland, 17sl, and one of the four commissioners who con- cluded the treaty of peace with Great Britain, 1782. He held the difficult and delicate post of first minister from the now liljeraU-d states to George III. As Vice-president under Washington, and afterwards as President, he belonged to the Federal party, which leaned to the En- glish alliance, and resisted the efTorts of the French to drag the United States into war. Retiring, in 1801, to private life, he lived to see his son become President in 1825, and died on the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration, Jialy 4, 1826. Jefferson died the same day. 3. Thomas JeflEterson, born 1743, in Virginia, was educated at William and Mary Colleiie, where he distinguished himself by hard study and especially by ijroticiuucy in languages. Studying law, he gained an early and i-einarkable success. In 1773, In concert with Patrick Henry and" other patriots, he devised the intercolonial correspondence, which drew the best men of the several colonies together in sentiment, and was of immense .service in preparing the way for union. His profound knowledge of English law and his admirable style as a writer gave Jefferson a leading position in Congress. From his pen came the first draft of the Declaration of Independence, one of the ablest state-papers which the world has ever seen. Among his great services to his native state, was a revised code of laws, and a plan for a complete system of elementary and collegiate education. He was Governor of Virginia, 1779-81. In 1785 he succeeded Dr. Franklin as minister to Paris, where he spent four of the happiest years of his life, and formed that strong attachment to France and the interests of the French people, which led him into opposition to Adams and the Federal part.v during the wars of the French Revolution (See note 2). As President, 1801-18U9, he intro- duced great simplicity into the style of Executive living; sent a written message to Congress instead of going in state to deliver a personal ad- dress, and was accessil)le to the humblest who desired to speak with him. Declining a re-election after two prosperous terms of office, he spent his last years in private and social life, and died 1826. 4. Oliver Hazard Perry was a native of Newport, R. I., and was only 28 years of age when he first built his fleet from the forests by Lake Erie, then fought and gained a complete victory. 5. "William Henry Harrison, born in Virginia, 1773, entered the U. S. armv 1791; represented the Northwest Territory in Congress, 1799; was Gov(?rnor of Indiana Territory, 1801-1813; many times defeated the In- dians and their British allies; represented the Cincinnati district in Congress, 1817, 1818; and became U. S. Senator from Ohio in 1824. In 1828 he was U. S. minister to Colombia; but, being recalled in 1829, he spent some ten years at his farm near North Bend, Ohio. He became President of the United States in March, 1841, but died one month later. NOTES. 429 6. Andrew Jackson was born in Carolina, of Irish parentage. His childhood was sixiit in great poverty, with few opportunities for educa- tion; but, li;i%ing studied law, he removed, at the age of 21, to Nash- ville, Tennessee, and soon obtained a large practice. He was a member of the Convention which framed the State Constitution for Tennessee in 179(), and was the sole representative of that state in Congress, un- til, the next year, he became its Senator. From 179S to 1S(I4, he was Judge of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. Volunteering for tlie War of 1812, Jackson rendered brilliant service against the Cieck Indians, and afterwards against the British in the decisive Battle of New Orleans. After a successful war against the Seminoles, he was made Governor of Florida in 1821; was U. S. Senator from Tennessee in 1823, and was elected President of the United States in 1828. Always strong in his personal and party animosities, he began his administration by sweep- ing all his political opponents from public offices, lemoving ten times as many officials in one year, as all the preceding Presidents had done in 40. He acted with energy and decision against movements for dis- union of the states during his first term of office. The 8 years of his administration were a period of unexampled prosperity, but his finan- cial measures led to a disastrous crisis under his successor. Retiring from public life in 1837, Jackson died near Nashville, in 1845. 7. Gen. Zachary Taylor was born in Orange Co., Virginia, 1784, but during his infancy the family removed to Louisville, Kentucky, where he was educated. Entering the army in 1808, he served as captain in the War of 1812, and for many years afterwards was engaged in Indian warfare, completing, in 1842, the work which Gen. Jackson had begun against the Seminoles in BTorida. In the Mexican War he was one of the most prominent iind successful actors. In 1848 he was elected to be President of the United States. The chief events of his short adminis- tration were the rapid settlement of California owing to the recent dis- covery of gold, and the debates in Congress upon the question of her admission to the Union as a free state. During the violent discussion President Taylor died, July 9, 1850, after only 16 months of office. 8. Gen. Winfleld Scott, also a native of Virginia, first distinguished himself greatly in the War of 1812, in which he rose to the rank of Major-General. At its close he received a gold medal and the thanks of Congress for his "uniform gallantry and good conduct in sustaining the reputation of the arms of tlie United States." He held the chief command in the war with Mexico, and was subsequently the candidate of the Whig party for the Presidency, but was defeated by the Demo- cratic vote for Pierce. The honorary rank of Lieutenant-General was created for hinr in 1855, to cease at his death. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Gen. Scott threw the whole weight of his influence on the side of the Union, but soon afterward, at the age of 75, retired from ac- tive duty, and died at West Point, 1866. 9. Dom Pedro II. was born at Rio Janeiro, Dec, 1825. When he was only six years old, his father, Pedro I., abdicated the Brazilian throne in "his favor, and, returning to Portugal, resumed the crown of that kingdom, which he had previously bestowed upon his daughter, Maria da Gloria. The young emperor was declared of age in 1840, while lacking .some months of fifteen j^ears. The development of the yet unexplored resources of his empire by the encouragenient of science was among his earlie.st cares; he delights in the conversation of scientific men, and himself presides at examinations in schools and colleges. In his extensive travels he takes nothing at second-hand which the most en- ergetic industry will enable liini" to see and investigate for himself; prni ting-houses, factories, telegraphs, telephones, and every form of applied science engage his attention. He has been compared, certainly to his own advantage, with an another imperial Peter (^591) who be- came a traveler for the benefit of his realm. 10. Tlie Marquis of Lome is the eldest son of the Duke of Argyle, distinguished as a writer and lecturer on philosophical subjects, not less than as holding the highest rank and belonging to one of the old- est and most powerful families in Scotland. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. — BOOK III. Section 1. How was kingly power affected by the introduction of gunpowder ? 440 2. Describe the condition of Italy, and the wars of Charles VIII. of France. 441 -443 3. What were their results ? 444 4. Describe the wars of Louis XII. in Italy. 445-447 5. The character of Leo X. Of Ferdinand of Spain. 448 6. The character and reign of Francis I. 449-452, 465, 468, 474 7. What led to the Reformation ? 453, 455 8. Tell the story of Luther. 454, 456, 457 9. Why were the reformers called Protestants? 458 10. What nations embraced their doctrines ? 459 11. Describe Turkish progress under Solyman. 460, 462-467 12. Tell the story of Pope Clement VII. 461, 492 13. What relation was Charles V. to Charles the Bold of Burgundy ? 413, 424, 444 14. Describe his reign and retirement. 450-471 15. Loyola and the Jesuits. 472 16. The reign of Louis XII. in France. 473 17. Henry II., and the Guises. 475-478 18. Catherine de' Medici, her sons, the religious wars. 478-485 19. What was done in England during the reign of Henry VII.? 486, 487 20. Describe the reign and character of Henry ^TII. 488-497 21. Tell the story of Wolsey. 490-493 22. Of Edward VI., Somerset, and Northumberland. 497-500 23- Of Jane Grey and Mary Tudor. 499-502 24. Of Elizabeth. 503 -51 1 25. Describe the Netherlands under Charles V. 512, 513 26. The policy and the agents of Phili]) IT. 514-524 27. The character and measures of William the Silent. 514- 521 (430J QUESTIONS.— BOOK in. 431 28. What became of the seven northern, and the ten southern provinces ? 517, 519, 523 29. Describe James I. of England, and the Puritans. 526, 527 30. Tell the story of Sir Walter Raleigh. 507, 528 31. What colonies were formed in James' reign ? 529 32. What was his foreign policy ? 530 33. Describe Charles I. and his dealings with parliament. 531, 532 34. Tell the stories of Hampden, Strafford, Laud. 533-535 35. Describe the two parties and the civil war. 536, 537 36. What became of Charles I. ? 538 37. What differences between Scotland and England fol- lowed his death ? 539 38. Describe the war with Holland. 540 39. Tell the story of the Long Parliament. 535, 541 40. Of Cromwell's Protectorate, and what followed. 542, 543 41. Describe the restoration and character of Charles H. 544-546 42. What plots, real or supposed, during his reign? 547, 548 43. What parties arose ? What do we ovi^e to the Whigs ? 549 44. Name some great men of the time. 55° 45. Describe the reign of James H. 551, 552 46. Tell the history of William of Orange. 553-555 47. Of the last of the Stuarts. 556, 557 48. How were the Hapsburg dominions divided upon the death of Charles V. ? 559 49. Describe the wars with the Turks. 5^0—5^3 50. Maximilian H. and Rudolph H. 562 51. The beginning of the Thirty Years' War. 564 52. Wallenstein's character and career. 5^5-570 53. Gustavus Adolphus. 567-569 54. Describe the remaining years of the war. 570, 571 55. What was accomplished by the Treaty of Westphalia? 572, 573 56. Describe Portuguese settlements in the east and west. 574-576 57. The policy of Spain toward her colonies. 577-579 58. The French settlements in America. 580-582 -59. The Dutch " " 583 60. The English " " 584 61. Tell the history of Sweden to Christina's abdication. 585, 586 62. Describe the constitution of Poland. 587 63. Tell the history of Russia from Ivan HL to Peter L 588, 589 64. The story of Peter the Great. 59° -597 65. Of Charles XH. of Sweden. 593 - 596 432 QUESTIONS.— BOOK I IT. 66. The early history of Prussia. 598, 599 67. Describe its second king. 600, 601 68. Tell the story of Frederic the Great. 602, 603, 606, 607 69. Describe the War of the Austrian Succession. 602-605 70. Catherine the Great and the Partitions of Poland. 608-610 71. The first of the Bourbons and his reign in France. 611 -613 72. The regency of Marie de Medici. 614 73. Tell the history and policy of Richelieu. 615 -617 74. Describe the reign of Louis XIV., and the circum- stances of its beginning. 618-620 75. What followed Mazarin's death? 621 76. Describe Louis' wars in the Spanish Netherlands and Holland. 622-624 77. His persecutions of the Huguenots. 625, 626 78. His wars on the Rhine. 627 79. The causes and incidents of the War of the Spanish Succession. 628-630 80. Louis' death, and the writers of his age. 631, 632 81. What was done during the Regency? 633 82. In what wars did Louis XV. engage ? 634, 635 83. What possessions were lost by France? 636 84. Describe the first 15 years of the reign of Louis XVI. 637-639 85. The reign of George I. in England. 640-64I 86. Of George II., and the invasion of the young Pretender. 642, 643 87. What part had England and her colonies in the Seven Years' War? 644-646 88. Describe George III., aud his policy in England and America. 647-649 89. Tell the story of the American Revolution. 650-652 90. What were the consequences to England of the French Revolution ? 653, 654 91. Describe George IV., and his reign. 655, 656 92. The reign of William IV. 657, 658 93. The condition of Victoria's empire during the early years of her reign. 659-661 94. The war in the Crimea. 662-665 95. The rise of the British-Indian Empire. 666, 667 96. What was done by Warren Hastings? 668, 669 97. Describe the wars and dealings with China. 670, 671 98. The Sepoy Rebellion. 672-674 QUESTIONS.— BOOK ITT. 433 99. Tell the history of Australia. 675 100. What other dominions has England in the East? 676 loi. What causes led to the French Revolution? 677, 678 102. What was done by the National Assembly ? 679 103. What, by the mob ? 680 104. Describe the Girondists, the Jacobins, and the Reign of Terror. 681 -683 105. What became of the royal family ? 684, 685 106. What, of the three leaders of the Jacobins? 686-688 107. Describe the Coalition. What was done at Toulon ? 689 108. Effects of the Revolution in Paris. In the West. 690 109. What change was made by the Directory? 691 no. What was done in Holland, Belgium, and Italy? 692, 693 HI. Describe Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign. 694 112. How was the Second Coalition broken up? 695 113. What successive titles had Napoleon? 695, 697 114. What changes did he make in Germany? 698, 699 115. Describe the death of Nelson. 700 116. What was done by Napoleon in the North ? 701-703 117. In the south of Europe? 704-705 118. In Austria in 1809? 706 119. Describe the causes and incidents of Napoleon's war with Russia. 707 - 709 120. The campaigns of 1813, and 1814. 710-712 121. The second reign of Napoleon, and its close. 713 122. What was done by the Congress of Vienna? 714-716 123. Describe the Holy Alliance, and its dealings with Spain, Italy, and Germany. 717-720 124. Tell the story of the Greek Revolution. 721-723 125. Describe the Revolutions of 1830. 724, 725 126. The reign of Louis Philippe. 726-728 127. The Revolutions of 1848. 729-735 128. How did Napoleon III. become Emperor of the French? 736-738 129. Describe the War of Italian Nationality. 739-441 130. The French interference in Mexico. 742 131. The Seven Weeks' War and its consequences in Austria. 743-745 132. The Spanish Revolution, and candidates for the crown. 747 133. The Franco- Prussian War. 74^-753 Hist.— 38. 434 QUESTIONS.— BOOK III. 134 135 136 137 138 139 140, 141 142 143 144. 145 146. The War of the Commune. 754 755 What recent changes in Italy, France, and Spain ? 756-758 What has occurred in Turkey, Russia, and Ireland ? 759-763, 765 What important treaties signed 1878-1880 ? 762, 763 Describe the Afghan War. 764 How did the United States become settled after the Revolution ? 766 Describe the war with England. 768- 770 The following years. 771, 772 The Spanish American Revolutions. 773-777 The annexation of Texas and its consequences. 778, 779 How has California gained importance ? 780 Describe the war between the States, its causes and results. 781-787 Mention some recent events. 788-792 DESCENT, FROM EDWARD III., OF THE THREE ROYAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER, YORK, AND TUDOR. Edwakd III. Edward, Pr. of Lionel, Duke of J. of Gaunt, m. 3 Cath. Swynford. Edmund, D. of Wales, d. 1376. Richard II. * deposed, 1399. Clarence. Duke of Lan- I caster. Philippa ni. \ Edm. Mortimer, Hennv IV. Earl of March. I I Rog. Mortimer, | Earl of March. John Beaufort, E. of Somerset. John P)eaufort, D. of Somerset. L Henry V. m. I Catherine of I France, who m, 2 Owen Tudor Edm. Mortimer, Anne Mortimer | I Earlof March, m. Rich-ard, E. Henry VI. Edm. Tudor, d. 1424. of Cambridge. | Earl of | Edward, Pr. of Richmond, m Margaret Wales, d. 1471. I Beaufort. York. I Richard, E.irl of Cambridge, beheaded, 1415 I Richard. D. of York, died at Wakefield, 1460. L, Henry VII. Edward IV. George, D. of Clarence. Richard III. Elizabeth Edward V. m. Henry VII. d. 1483. Richard, Duke of York. h Edward, E. of Margaret, Warwick, Countess of beheaded, 1499. Salisbury, beheaded, 1541. INDEX. Find names of sovereigns under names of their respective countries. Where the list is continuous, only one date, that of accession, is added to each name. Figures refer to pages. Abbas'sides, 180, 182, 183, 221. Abelard (iib a lar), 247, 2.50. A'braham, 25. Acha'ia, Province of, 125. Achse'an League, 102, 103, 10.5. Achae'ans, 58, HI. Achilles (a kil'lez), 5.5, 97. Acre (ii'lver), 20fj, 208. Actium, 137. Adams, John, 419, 428. Adolphus, 1 )S, 1(1(1, l(i2. Adrian VI., Popr, 267, 272. Adriatic, 96, 180, 207, 221. -^gean (lege'an ) Sea, 21, 36, 58, 61, 72. -ffi'gos Pot'ami, 76. JEo'lians, .58. .ffi'qui. 117. ^s'chylus, 85-87. JEto'lian League, 102. Afghanistan (afghan'istan), 414, 417. Africa, 8, 18, 19, 33, 42, 47, 48, 179, 183, 274. Africa, Province of, 125, 132, 135, 1.59, lt)0, 171. Agamem'non, 55. Agesila'us, 76-78, 82, 83. Agincourt (Ji zhan koor'), 229. Agra'rian Laws, 113, 115, 117, 129. Aix (Aks) in Provence, 131. Aix-la-Chapelle, treaties of, 187, 189, 34.-), 3.52. Al'aric, 160-163. Albert the Great, theologian, 247, 2.50. Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, 367, 371. Albigenses, 234, 2;tt. Alcibi'ades, 75, 7(>, 81. Alemanni, 159, 169, 173. Alexander the Great. See Macedon. Alexan'dria, 9.5, 98, 100, 101, 1.37, 162, 179, 3.S5, 418. Algonquins, 330, 334. Al'lia River, battle at, 114. Alps, 30, 114, 123, 2(J6. Alsace (al'sace^, ;>50, 409, 410. Alva, Duke of, 299, ;!00 Ambrose, Arclibishop of Milan, 160, America, 8, 2.5.5-2."i9, 276, 277, .303, 311, 329-;B:35, 353-457, 419-429. American Independence, Declara- tion of, .•;t;i, 420, 428; War of, 347, a57, 3(i2-364, 37.;; Anniversary of, 426. Amiens (a me iiN'), Treaty of, 38.5, 3.S6. Amphictyon'ic Council, 60. Amsterdam, 338, 3.52. Anac'reon, .58. Anaxag'oras, .88. Anjou (ON zhoo') County, 188,207, 232. Anjou, Charles, Ct. of, 214, 2:«. Anjou, Louis, Duke of, 2.37. Anjou, Francis, Dulve of, 301. Anjou, Pliilip, Duke of. See Spain, Philip V. Anne Boleyn (bool'in), 289, 290. Anne of Austria, .i.'iO, Sol. Anne of Bohemia, 246. Anne of Brittany, 254, 268. Anne of Cleves, 290, 296, 297. Antioch, on the Oron'tes, 99, 104, 204, 205, 208. Antony, :Mark, 101, 136, 137. Antwerp, 299, ;W1, 302. Ap'ennines, 16, 114. Aphrodi'te, -56, 62. A'pis, 46. Aporio, 5(S-62, 74, 86, 108. Aqui'nas, Thos., theologian, 247, 2.50. Aquitaine', 184, 199, 207, 2.32, 2.34, 240. Arabia, Arabs, 12, 20, 178-18:3. Arabi (oo rii'be) Pa.sha', 418. A'ral, Sea of, 32. Arbe'la, battle of, 37, 38, 95. Arca'dians, 65; league of, 78. Archangel, 293, *37. Architecture, 10, 13, 17, 18, 47, 90, 91. 141, 174, 196. Arctic Ocean, 3.35, 337. A'res, God of war, .56, 62. Aristi'des, ii9, 72. Aristoph'anes, .87. Aristotle, 90, 93. Ar'yans, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21, 31, 40, .52, .53, 1.58. Asia, 7-.39. .57, 9.5-98, 125, 17.5-203, 209, 220, 221, 223, 414. Asia Minor, 9, 21, .32, 53, .54, 60, -72, 94, 99, 100, 126, 1.59, 160, 204. Asia, Rom. Province of, 1.32, 138. (435) Ass INDEX. Bra Assyria, Assyrians, 10-15, 18, 27, 144. Kiugs of: Tiglathi-iiiu (B. C. 1250), 11. Tiglath-piieser I. (1120-1100), 11. Iva-liisli \X. (810-781), 11, 18. Tiglath-piieser II. (74.5-727), 12. Sargon (721), 12,14,20. Sennacherib (705), 12, 13. Esarhaddou ((J81-067), 12, 50. Asshur-bani-pal (664-642), 12, 13. Astu'rias, 126, 179. Atiie'na, 56, 62, 69, 90. Athens. Athenians, 35, 36, 41, 63-83, 86-91, 102, 15.5. Atlantic Ocean, 47, 188, 2.55. At'tica, 54, 5.5, 70. At'tila, Kil, 163. Auerstadt (ow'er stitt) battle, 387. Augsburg (owgz'-boorg), 273. Au'gurs, 109, 113, 116. Aurungzebe, 372. Australia, 375, 376. Austria, Austrians, 218, .337, .'542, 34.3, .•;,S5, ;i!Mi, 4(l(i, 407, 412, 413. Austria, Dukes of, 207, 219, 320. Austria, Maria Theresa, Arch- iluches.s of, .342-.345. Austria, Hereditary Emperors of: Francis I. (1804), ;386, 389. Ferdinand (18:i3), 400. Francis Joseph I. (1«48), 400,406, 407. Austria, House of. See Hapsburgx. A'vars, 185. Avignon (a ven yoN'), 21.5, 236. Azores', 2.58. Babel, Bab'ylon, 9-18, 20, 32, 95, 96, 98. Babylonian Empire, 14-17, 22, 44. Babylonian Eini)ire, Sovereigns of- Nabouassar I B. C 747), 14. Nabopolassar i625), 14, 15. Nebuchadnezzar (604-561), 15, 20, 27, 28, 32. Nabonadius(.5.55), 16. Belshazzar (5.{9-538), 16, 32. Bac-chan'tes, 57. Bacon, Francis, 295. Bacon, Roger, 247, 251. Baetria, Bactrians, 10, 32, 38, 40, 52, !I9, 100. Bagdad, 180, 18:^, 221. Balakla'va, 368. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 2.56, 2.59. Baltic Sea, 19, 23, 210, 217, 31.5, 337, 339, 36S. Bankers, Italian, 215, 216. Barbarians, 7, 8, 21, 30, .34, 35, 114, 131, 152-151. 15S-1(;3, l(i7. 220, 221. Barbarians, so called by Greeks, .59, 7S. Barbaros'sa of Algiers, 274. Barnet. battle at, 231. Bartholomew, St., massacre on day of. 282, 283. Basle (bal). Council at, 244. Bastile (-teel'), destroyed, 380, 393. Batavian Pepublic,formed of United Netherlands, .3^4. Bavana, Bavarians, 18.5, 188, 34:^. Bavaria, Charles Albert, Elector of, 342 (Charles VII. Emperor). Bazaine', (ien., 408, 409. Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, 414, 417. Beaujeu (bo zhu), Anne of, 280. Becket, Thomas, 22.5, 226, 232, 234. Bede, Tlu' Venerable, 247, 249. " Beggars," The, 299-;m Belgian Republic, formed of Aus- trian Netiierlands, 884, .385. Belgium, Kingdom of, 396, 898. Belgium, King of: Leopold I. (A.D. ls:;o-l,sti5i, 398,416. Bel'grade, 222. Belisa'rius, 174, 176. Bengal, 373, 877. Berlin, 341, 344, 387. Berlin, Congresses at, 413. Berlin Meniorandum, 412. Bernard' of ( hurvaux (v6'), 206, 212. Beth'lehem, 141,207. Bible, Hebrew, 28; trans, into Greek, 101; into Russ., 195; into English, 172, 807, 318; source of Lombard Laws, 171; printed, 254; in Switzer- land, 272. Bismarck, Prince, 406, 407, 416. Bithyn'ia, 21, 1.54. Black Death, The, 236. Black Sea, (Euxine), 21, 41, 5.5, 76, 138, 159, 216, 220, 337, .368, 398, 412. Blake, Admiral, 311. Blenheim (-hime',354. Boccaccio (bok katch'o), 248, 252. Boemond of Taranto, 204, 212 Boeo'tia, 74, 77, .S.5. Bohemia, Bohemians, 171, 242-244, 24(1. 273, 321-824, ;343. Bolivar, Simon, 421, 422. Bolivia, 422, 427. Bologna (bo lon'ya), 146, 247, 327. Bombay, 373. Bonaparte, Jerome, 388, 409. Bonaparte, Joseph, 388, 389. Bonaparte, Louis, 388, 389. Bonaparte. Najioleon, 383-388, 39.3. See France, Jiulr)-.'; of. Bossuet (bos swa'), 355. Boston, Tea destroyed at, 363. Bosworth, battle, 231. Bothwell, Earl of, 293. Boulogne (boo Ion'), 275. Bourbon, Duke of, 267, 286. Bourbon, House of, 282, 285, 286, 348- 359, .'WS, :;'.i5,. ■!',»(). Bourbon, House of, in Spain, 354, ;-i.55, 888, 407, 411. Bourbon, Family Compact, 342, 3.56, 3.57. Boyle, Rob't, 314, .319. Boyne. R., battle at, 316. Bozzaris (hot za'res), Marco, 397, 402. Braddock, Gen., .362, 428. Bragan'zas, 3.34, 388. (436) Bra INDEX. Con Brazil (bra zil'), 250, 329, 334, 388, 425, 42(i. Brazil', Pedro II., Emperor of, 426, 429. Bretigny (bret-een'ye). Treaty of, 228. Briel (breel), 300. Britain, 19, 21, 134, 144, 150, 159, 160. Brit'tauy, Anne, Duchess of, 254, 268. Bruce, Robert, 226, 227. Bru'ges, 217. Bru'sa, Ottoman Capital, 221. Brussels', 300, 305. Brussels', Union of, 301. Buckingham, Geo., Duke of, 308, 318. Bu'da, Hungarian Capital, 273, 274. Buena Vista (bwa'na), 423. Buenos Ayres (bwa'nos I'res), 421, 422. Bulgaria, Bulgarians, 171, 175, 177, 412, 413. Bunker Hill, battle of, 363, 364. Bunyan, John, 314. Bur'gundy, Burgundlans, 159, 169, 184, 187, ISll, 199,238-241, 267, 298. Burgundy, Dukes of: Philip the Bold (A. D. 1363), 237,241. John tlie Fearless (1404), 237. Philip the tiood (1419), 237, 238, 241. Charles the Bold (1467), 238, 239, 241. Burgundy, Duchess of, Mary (1477- 14821, 239, 245. Byron, Lord, 365. Byzan'tium, 1-54. Cabot, J. and S., 2.55, 259. Ca'diz, 302. Cad'mus, 61. Cse'sar, Julius, 134-139. Cae'sar Octavianus, 137. See Roman Empei'oi's: Augustus. Cse'sar, (title), 135, 152, 342, 386. Cairo, iS5. Calais i ka la'), 227, 2;?8, 292, 296. Calcut'ta, 373. Califor'nia, 257, 297, 423. Calvin, John, 272, 278, 279, 282. Cambray', League of, 265 ; Treaty at, 267. Campo Forraio, Treaty of, 385. Canaanites, 19, 25. Can'ada, 3:!i), 331, 366, 426, 427. Canos'sa, 191, 193, Canterbury, 225, 232, 318. Canton, 374. Capet ikfi pa'), 199, 234-239, 381. Cappadocia, 21, 37. Carabo'bo, battle at, 422. Carbonari (carbona'ri), (Ital. secret society), 396. Car'chemish i-ke-), 21. 44. Carlos, Spanish prince, 399. Carlos, Grandson of above, 407. Carlotta, Empress, 406, 416. Carolina, U. S., 269, 286, 331. Carthage, 20, 47-49, 121-12.5, 136, 161, 174. Cashmere, 15. Cassan'der, 99. Castes in Egypt, 46, 47. Castile l-teel'), 254, 258, 268. Catherine of Aragou, 264, 288, 289. Catherine Howard, 290, 297. Catherine Parr, 290, 297. Catiline, 133. Ca'to, 125, 128. Caudine Forks, llti. Cavaignac (ka vtlN yak). Gen., 400, 403. Cawnpore, 375. Caxton, William, 231, 23;3. Ce'eil, 295. Celts, 16, 17, 119, 128, 169, 171. Ceylon', 20. Cheerone'a, battle, 79, 97. Chaldasa, chaldpeans, 10, 13, 15, 17. Chalons (sliii Ion), 161, 163. Champagne, I slianipane). Counts of, 199. Champlain', Lake, 331, 420. Champlain', Samuel, 331, *M. Charlemagne. See Rom. Emperors < if the ^ye.^it. Charles Martel', 180, 184. Charleston, U. S., 423, 424. Charter, The Great (Magna Charta), 22(), 233. Charterhouse, Monks of, 290. Chau'cer, 249, 2'i2. China, S, 209, 220, 221, 223, 253, 277, 329, 366, 374, 423. Christians under Moslem rule, 185, 369, 411-413. Christians under Roman Empire, 143, 145, 149, 152-155, 162, 167. Cicero, i;«, 137, 139. Cilicia, Cilicians, 21, 133. Cimbri, 131. Cimme'rians, Crimeans, 21. Ci'mon, 72, 73. Cities, 7, 168, 216, 217, 234. Civil War in England, 310; in Amer- ica, 423-42.5. Clement V., Pope, 215, 236. Clement VII. Pope, 272, 273, 289, Clients, Roman. 107, 110, 113, 126. Clisthenes (cli'sthcnes), 67. Clive, Robert, 37.!, 377. Clotil'da, 169, 170, 172. Clo'vis (Chlodwig), 169-172; Succes- sors of, 170, 173, 179, 180. Cnidus(ni'-),58, 77. Col'bert (-ber),352, 353. Coligny (ko leen'ye), 282, 286,331, ;134. Colise'um, 144. Colom'bia, S. A., 420, 421. Col'onies, Ancient, 48, 54, 62, 88, 118. Colonies, Modern European, 328- 3:{5, 3b-2-364, 375, 376, 378. Columbus, Christopher, 25-5-259. Commerce, 15, 19-23,26,48. 64,100,175, 209, 21.5-217. 253, 2.5.5, 293, 303, 372-374. Commonwealth, English, 310-312, 319. Conde (con da'),Prinee of, 282, 286, 351. (4S7) Con INDEX. Eng Constance, I'eace of, 214; Council at, 243, 215, 271. Con'stantine, Grand Duke, 398. Constantino'ple, 154, 161, 170, 174, 175, 179, 186, 194, 195, 204, 207, 209, 221, 222, 273, 367, 412. Constantius, Csesar, 153. Consuls, Roman, 107, 116-119, 123, 133, 134, 140, 170. Corday, Charlotte, :382, .393. Cor'dova, 180, 183. Cor'inth, 59, 103, 136, 159. Cor'inth, Congresses at, 79, 94. Corinthian War, 76, 77. Coriolanus (eoriola'nus), 113, 114. Corneille (kor nal'), 355. Cornelia, 130. Corn Ltuvs in Eng., 365-367. Cornwallis, Lord, 364. Coronse'a, battles at, 74, 77. Cor'sica, 122, 123. Corun'na, battle at, 389. Cossacks, 21,344. Covenanters, 309-311. Cranmer, 289-292. Crassus, Rom. Consul, 133, 134. Crecy krase),227. Crete, o5, 181, 215, 367. Crime'a, 21, 96, 138, 344, 367, 368. Croats, 323. Croe'sus, 21, 24, 58. Cromwell, O., 310-312, 318, 319. Cromwell, R., 312. Cronstadt (crou'stat), in Russia, 368. Croto'na, 89. Crusades, 203-212. Ctes'iphon, 1.50. Cuba, 2'iil, 427. CuUo'den, battle at, 361. Cunax'a, defeat of Cyrus at, 37. Custozza I koos tod'za), 407. Cyc'lades, 60 Cynoceph'alae, 102. Cy'prus, 32, 77, 210, 215, 412. Cyrus the Younger, 36, 37, 41, 88. Dacia, 144, 149. Damas'cus. 20, 178, 212. Damiet'ta, 207, 208. Danes in EriKliuid, 195, 201. Dan'te, 216, 1'ls, 251. Danton', ••>S2, 3S3. Dantzic, 38.s. Danube, -34, 131, 141, 152, 159, 222, 366, 412. Dark Ages, 167, 168, 187, 213. Darnley, H. Stuart, Lord, 293. David, 26; descendants of, 15, 27. Decius, Consul, 116. Delaware Bay, 335; river, 331, 333; State of, ,335. Delhi, 221, 372, 375. Delos Island, .59, 72. Delphi, .57, .58, 60, 71. Deme'ter (Ceres), .56, .57, 62. Deluge. Flood, 9, 13, 21. (438) Demos'thenes, 79, 83, 102. Denmark, Danes, 194, 195, 272, 322, 336, ;i:!7, ;i:;y, 406. Det'ting-en, battle at, 361. Diets of the Empire, 186, 190, 207, 271, 325. Dionys'us, 57, 87. Directory, French, 384, 385. Dorians, .58-65, 81. Dorylse'um, battle at, 204. Dow'lah, Surajah, 373. Dra'co, 65. Drake, Francis, 293, 294, 297. Dublin, 310, 41.5. Dunbar, battle at, 311. Dunkirk, 312, 313. Duquesne (kane'). Fort, 362. Dutch, .■iOl-303, 311, 312, 328, 331, 333. East India Co., English, 307, 372-375, 377, .378; Dutch, 335. Ebro (a'bro), 123, 185. Ecbat'ana, 31, 33. Edinburgh (-boro), 311, 361. Edward, Black Prince, 227, 228. Eg'mont, Count, 300. Egypt, Kgvptiaiis, 10-12, 2.5, .32, 33, 36, 37, 42-52, !M-1(I2, I'dO, 207, 385, 418. Egypt, Greek Rulers of: Ptolemy I. (B. C.-323), 98-101, 105. Ptolemy II. (283), 101. Ptolemy III. (247-222), 101. Cleoiiatra (51-30), 101, 102, 137. El'eanor of Aquitaine, 232, 234. Electors, German, 242, 246, 266, 276, 322, 325, 362. Eleusinian Mysteries, 57, 75. E'lis, .59. Elizabeth, Electress Palatine, 308, 317. England, .English, 169, 19.5-198, 201, 2112, 22.5-2.33, 287-297, 306-319, 352, 3.54, .•lii(l-;;7,s, 411-415, 425. England, Sovereigns of: Saxon Line. Alfred (A. D. 871-901), 19.5, 201, 249. Ethelred II. (978-1016), 195. Edward the Confessor (1042), 197, 202. Harold II. (1066), 197, 202. Norman Line. William I. (1066), 197, 202. William II. dO.ST). 197. Henry I. (1100), lit?, 198. Stephen (1135), 198, 225. Plantagenets. Henry II. (11.54), 198, 22.5, 226. 232, 234. Rieliard I. (1189), 206-209, 212, 226. John (1199), 206, 226, 2i&. Henry III. (1216), 226, 233, 235. Eng INDEX. Fta England (Plantagenets continued): Edward I. (1272), 208, 226, 3H3. Edward II. (1307), 227. Edward III. (1327), 227, 228, 240. Richard II. (1377), 228, 245. House of Lancaster. Henry IV. (1399), 228, 229. Henry V. (1413), 229, 237. 238. Henry VI. (1422), 229-231, 238. House of York. Edward IV. (14tU), 230, 231, 2*3. Edward V. (1483), 231. Richard III. (1483), 231. TUDORS. Henry VII. (1485), 231, 255, 287, 296, Henry VIII. (1509), 264, 266, 267, 275, 287-291. Edward VI. (1547), 290, 291. Mary I. (15.53), 288, 291, 292. Elizabeth (1558), 282, 291-295, 300, 332. Stuarts. James I. (1603), .306-308. Charles I. (162.5-1648), 308-310. Charles II. (1660), 310-314. James II. (168.5), 314-316. ( William III. (1688), 315, 316, 338, \ 353. (.Mary II. (1688-1694), 315, 316. Anne (1702), 316, 317, 360. House of Brunswick George I. (1714), 360, 361. George II. (1727), 361, 362. George III. (1760), 362-365, 387, 428. George IV. (1820), 365. William IV. (1830), 366, .371. Victoria (1837), 366, 367, 371, 376. English Language, 172, 249. Epaminon'das, 78, 82. Eph'esus, 1.59. Erie, Lake, battle on, 420, 428. Ethio'pia, 11, 12, 50, 51. Etrus'cans, 106, 108-110, 112-114, 117. Eudes (Odo), C't of Paris, 199. Eug'enie, Empress, 408, 409. Eugenius IV. Pope (1431), 244. Euphrates (euphra'tes), 7, 10, 14, 1.5, 21,26, .32, 141, 1.51,1.52. Eurip'ides, 87. Europe, 8, 16, 17, 26, 6.5, 96, 1.58-161, 167-175, 18.5, etc. Eux'ine, Hee Black Sea. Evesham, battle at, 226. Eylau (i'low), battle at, 388. Ezra, 28. Fa'bius, Rom. Dictator, 124. Fairfax, Eng. Gen., 310, 318. Farel (fa rel'), 272, 278. Fawkes, Guy, 307. Fenelon (f6n'61on). 355. Ferrara (fer ra'ra)i Council at, 244 Fei-rara, Ren'6e, Duchess of, 279. Feudal System, 188, 189, 205, 209. Fijide je') Is.,376. Fire of London, 313. Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, 290. Flodden, battle at, 288. Flor'ence, 216, 249, 251, 264, 268. Foix ifwiii, Ga.ston de, 266. Fontenaye' battle at, 187. France, French, 145, 160, 170, 179, 180, 187, 19.5-208, 227-232, 2W-241, 254, 274, 280-286, mo, 331, &14-360, 379-410. France, Rulers of: Hugh.Capet (-pa') (A. D. 987), 199. Robert the Pious (996), 199. Henry I. (1031), 200. Philip I. (1060). Louis VI. (1108), 234. Louis VII. (1137), 206, 225, 232, 234. Philip II. (1180), 206, 226, 234. Louis VIII. (1223), 235. Louis IX. (1226), 208, 235, 239,240. Philip III. (1270), 235. Philip IV. (1285), 236, 240. Louis X. (1314), 236. Philip V. (1316), 236. Charles IV. (1322), 2.36. Famii^y of Valois. Philip VI. (1328), 227, 236, 240. John (13.50), 227, 228, 2.37. Charles V. (1.364), 237, 241. Charles VI. (1380), 229, 2.37. Charles VII. (1422), 229, 230. 237, 238, 241. Louis XI. (1461), 238, 239. Charles VIII. (148.3), 2.39, 254, 26.3-265, 268. House of Orleans. Louis XII. (1498), 265, 266, 280. Francis I. (151.5), 266, 267,269,280,281. Henry II. (1.547), 281, 286. Francis II. (1,5.59), 281, 282, 286. Charles IX. (1560), 282, 283, 286. Henry III. (1.574), 283, 284. Family of Bourbon. Henry IV. (1589), 282, 284, 286, 348, 349. Louis XIIL (1610), 349, ,3.50. Louis XIV. (1643), 31.5, 316, 331, 341, a50-355. Louis XV. (1715), .3.5.5-357. Louis XVI. (1774-1793), 457, 379-382. Louis XVII. (King only in name). .382 National Convention (1792), 381-384. {439) Fra INDEX. Ham France, Rulers of (continued) : directory (1795), 38-J, 385. Three Consuls, N. Bonaparte, First, (1799), 385, 386. First French Empire. Napoleon I. (1804-1814), 386-392. Hee Bona'parte. Bourbons Restored. Louis XVIII. (1814), 384, 391, 398. Charles X. (1824), 391, 398. Second House of Orleans. Louis Philippe (1830), 398, 399. Second French Republic. LouJs Napoleon Bonaparte Pres. (1848), 400, 401, 403, 404. Second French Empire. Napoleon III. (1852-1870), 405-409. Third French Republic. A. Thiers, President (1871). 409-411. P. MeMahon, President (1873), 405, 408,411. Grf'vy, President (1879), 411. Franche Comt6 (froNsh koN ta'), (Countv of Burgundy), 352. Franco'nia, 188, 190, 192. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 32.5, 395. Franks, LSI, 159, 160, 169, 170, 184-189, 191, 192. 236, a5a. Frederic, Elector Palatine, 308, 318, 322, 325. Fremont, General, 423. French Revolutions, 357, 373, 379-38,5, 3i»5, .Sfl8-4(K). Friesland (frepz'-), 300. Friuli (free oo'le), 188. Fronde, The, 351, 458. Fulton, Robert, 421. Gaeta (gii il'ta), 401. Games, Greek, 59, 85. Ganges River, 7. 374. Gardner, Bisliop. 292. Garibaldi (-biil'dri, 401, 406. Gates, General, 361. Gaul, Gauls, 114, 117, 123, 124, \U, m>. 15!t, 168. Gaza, 266, ;iS5. Gemblours (zhoN bloor'), 301. Gene'va, 27S, 279, 425. Genghis Khan, 208, 220. 223. Gen'oa, 215, 224. Georgia, 362. German'icus, Rom. General, 142. Germany, Germans, 8, 17, 134, 142, 145, 147, 148, 151, 155, 158-161, 169-173, 180. Germany, Kings of, become Roman Emperors, 184-193, 213, 214, 242-246. Germany, Rise of Cities in, 185, 216, 217. Germany, Language and Literature of, 218, 249. Germany, Reformation and Wars of Religion in, 270-278, 320-32.5. Germany, Wars of Austria and Prus,sia. 341-;i45, 407. Germany, Wars with Napoleon, ;«t}-395. Germany, Revoluions in (1848), 400, 401. Germany, Unification of, 406-409. Germany, William I. Emperor of (1871), 409, 414. Gettysburg, battle at, 424. Ghent, 299, 3(»1 ; Treaty of, 420. Ghib'ellines, 212, 213, 216, 251. Gibral'tar, 354. Girond'ists, 381, 382. " Gladstone, Hon. W. E., 414, 41.5, 417. Glencoe, Massacre at, 316. Godfrey of Bouillon (boo eel'yoN'), 204, 205, 211. Good Hope, Cape of, 48, 2.55. Goths, 152, 158-163, 167. 170-174, 179, 186. Grac'chus, Tiberius, 129, 137. Grac'chus, Caius. 130, 137, 1:38. " Grand Alliance," The, 316. Granicus (grani'cus) River, battle, .37, 94. Granson', battle at, 239. "Great Powers," Five, .369, 396; Six, 412,413. Greece, Greeks, 9, 13, 17, 21, ;M-;38,41, 48, .52-105, 125, 135, 159, 196, 365, 397, 398, 413. Greece, Kings of: Otho of Bavaria (1832), 398, 402. Geor^'e of Denmark (1863), 40.3. Gregory III., Pope, 184. Gregory VII., Pope, 190, 191. 193. Gregory XI., Pope, 215. Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty at, 423. Guel'ders, 298, a52. Guelfs, 212-216. 251. Guin'ea, 293. Guiscard', Robert, 196. Guiscard', Roger, 196, 197. Guise (geez). House of. 281-285; Dukes of, 2S2-2S6; JIarv of, 281. Gunpowder, 209", 220, 253, 263. Gutenberg, John, 254. Haarlem, Siege of, 300. Hadriano'ple, Viattle, 159. Halicarnas'sus, 5.s, ,S7. Ham, Haniites, 10, 42. Hamathites, 21. Ham'ilcar, 123, 126, 127 (440) 1 Ham INDEX. Jew Hampden, John, 309, 318. Hannibal, 12;)-12s. Hanover, Electorate and Kingdom, 3fj0, o(i(i, oSy; House of, in England, 317, 3(i()-;i67. Hanseatic League, The, 217, 219. Hapsburgs, House of Austria, 214, 21S, -JIK, L'l:., -Hu, -JOS, 320-325, 312, 319, :%0. .'ftl, .'iSfi, :ill(i, -1(10, 407. Haroun al Kasi'hi't noN'), Mme, ;i53. Malek Shall, 203. Malplaquet (-pla ka'), 354. Mal'ta, 210, 320, .326. Mamelukes, 208, 209, 385, 418. Mandeville, Sir Jolin, 249, 252. Manlius Titus, 116. Mantine'a, battle, 78. Maoris, 376, 378. Marat (ma ra'), 382. Mar'athon, .35, 70, 80, 85. Marco Polo, 221, 223, 221. Mardo'nius, 36, 72. Marengo, battle, 385. Margaret of Anjou (ttN zhoo'), 230. Margaret of Navarre, 272, 279. Maria Leczin'ska, .3.56. Maria Louisa, Empress, 389. Marian I'arty (Rom.,) 132-134. (442) Mar INDEX. Nin Marie Antoinette, '&t, liSU 1182, Marienburg (raa re'en boorg), 210, 3-10. Marignano (mil ren ya'no), 266, 278. Marius, Caius, 130-132. Marlborough, Duke of, 316, 317. Marlborough, Duche.ss of, 316, 317. Mars, R >in. god of war, 62, 108. Marseilles (-salz'), 274. Marston Moor, battle, 310. Maryland, 332. Massachusetts, 332, 363. Massillon (nia seel yoN'). '555. Matilda of England, 108. Maurice of Nassau, 302, 334. Mazarin (mii za raN'), 350, ;V)1. Mazzini (matse'ue), 401. Mecca, 178, 182. Mecklenburg, 323. Me'dia, Mcdes, 12, 13, 31, 40, 70. Me'dia, Kiiiss "f: < 'vnxares (B. C. 634), 13. Astyages (r)94-.")60), 13. Medo-Persian Empire. See Persia. Medici (uied'e clie), 216, 264. Catherine de", 281, 284, 2*5. Cosmo de', 216, John de'. Bee Leo. X, Pope. Lorenzo, 216, 249, 2.52. ISIarie de', 349. Medina (ma de'na), 178, 182. Mediterranean Sea, 10-12, 19, 26, 29, 30, 95, 101, 133, 141, 179, 181, 217, 235, 274, 275, :i54, 413. Mehemet All (a'lee), 418. Melbourne, 376. Memphis, 42, 46. Menela'us, 55. MenschikofiF, Prince, 340. Mentz, 242, 323. Mesopotamia, 18, 29, 144, 150. Messenia, Messenians, 58, 73, 78, 86. Messiah born, 141. Metel'lus, Consul, 122. Metz, 281, 408, 409. Mexico, 25ti, 294, 406, 421, 422. Mexico, Maximilian, Emp., 406, 416. Michigan, 420. Middle Ages, 8, 167. " Middle Kingdom," 187, 2.38. Mil'an, 153, 160, 189, 214,215, 264-267, 406. Miletus, 35, 88. Miltiades, 70, 79, 80. Milton, John, 314, 319. Minor'ca, 354. Mississippi River, 257, 331, 356, 357, 420, 424. " Mississippi Scheme," 355, 3.56. Mityle'ne, 75, 88. Modena, 405. Mogul Empire, 221, 372, .375. Mohacz, battle, 27.3, 279. Mohammed, 178, 181, 182. Mohammedans, 177-183, 222, 274, 27.5. Moldavia. See Moumania. Moliere (mo le er'), 3.55. Mongols, Mongolians, 30,220-224, .3.37. Monmouth, Duke of, 314, 315. Moutebel lo, buttle, 405. Montene'gro, 412, 413. Monterey', 406, 422. Montfort, Simon de, persecutes Al- bigenses, 23.5. Montfort, Simon de. Son, leads English Barons, 226. Montpensier (moN poN se a), Duke of, 399. Montreal', 330. Moore, Sir John, 389. Moors, 42, 2.54, 256. Morat (-rii'), battle, 239. More, Sir Thomas, 290. More'a, 21.5. Moreau (-ro'), 385. Moscow, 390. Munich, 343. Munster, (iniinster). Treaty at, .325. Munychia (-nik'ia), 77. Murat (mil ra'), 388. Myc'ale, battle at, 72. Nancy (noN'se), battle, 239. Nantes, Edict of, .3;:il, 349, a50, a53. Nantes, Executions at, 384. Naples, 171, 189. Naples, Kingdom of, 189, 197, 237, 2.54, 26:3-265, 356, 396. Naples, Queen Joanna of, 237, 240, 241. Nar'ses, 174. Nase'by, battle at, 310. Navarino (navare'no), battle, 366, 397. Navarre, (-vilr'), 208, 2.54, 286. Navarre, King Charles of, 237, 240. Navarre, King Henry of. See France, Kings of, Henry IV. Necho, 44. Nelson, Admiral, 38.5-387, 394. Netherlands, 187, 217, 238, 239, 24.5, 2.54, 264, 276, 293, 298-304, 320, 384, 398. Netherlands, Austrian, 3.55, 385, 395. Netherlands, Spanish, 302, a51-3.>5. Netherlands, rnitc.l, .lOO, 303, .325. Netherlands, Kin-dom of, 396, 398. Netherlands, New, 331. New'foundland, 201, 2.57. New Jersey, 331, 335. New Mexico, 423. New Orleans, 355, 356, 420. Newspapers, 362, 363. Newton, Sir Isaac, 314, .318. New York, 269, 3:51, .335, 364, 415, 426. New Zealand, 376, 378. ■ Niagara, -'vM, 362, 420. Nibelungen (ne'ba loong-en), 163, 249, Nice (neess), Nicse'ain Bithynia, 154, 157, 204. Nicopolis, battle, 222. Niemen (nee'men), R., 388. Nightingale, Florence, 368. Nile, R., 7, 42. 46, 51, 95, 207, 385. Nimeguen (ne ma'gen), 300, 353. Nin'eveh, Ninevites, 11, 13, 18. (443) Nom INDEX. Phr Nomads, 7, 25, 27, 30, 32, 34, 3o, 220. Nordlingen (iiurt'ling-en), 324. Normandy, Normans, 194-199, 202, 207, 2:;2, 382. Northmen, 188, 194, 195, 201. Northumberland, Duke of, 291, 297. Norway, Norwegians, 48, 202, 337. Notre Dame (notr dame), 382. Nova Scotia, 201, 330. Novgorod, 194. Numantia, 12ti, 128. Numidia, 130. Gates, Titus, 313. Octavian. See Roman Emperors, Aiif/ustus. Odo'acer, 101, 107. Od'yssey, 84, 85, 92. CE'ta (O'ta), ML, 3.5, 71. O'glethorpe, Gen., 302, 370. Ohio K., a50. Oldenburg, House of, in Denmark, 330. Olga. Queen, of Russia, 195, 200. Olym'pic, Games, 59, 78, 87. Olym'pus, Mt., .50. Omar Pasha', 307. Ommi'ades, 180, 182. Or'acles, 57, 58, 71, 109. Orange, Princes of: William the Silent, 299-305. Maurice, .302, .334. William Henry, 315, 352, 353. See England, Kings of, William III. Orino'co, R., 255. Orkneys Is., 294. Orl'eans, ( ii.v, 2.30, 241. Orl'eans, Duke of, Bro. of Uhs. VI. 237. Orl'eans, Duke of. Regent of France, a55, .359, 360. Orl'eans, Duke of, called "Ph. Ega- llt6,";«i. Orl'eans, Louis Pliilippe, Duke of, 398. (See France, Kings of.) Orl'eans, Duke of. Son of L. Phil- ippe, 398. Orl'eans, Duchess of, .399, 403. Oron'tes, R., 21, 29, 99. Osi'ris, 45, 40. Osnabruck, Congress at, .325. Ostracism, 00, 07, 09, 7.3. Ostrogoths, 159, 170. Othman, 221. Ottawa R., .331. Ottoman Empire, 221, .321, 411, 412. Oude (owd), 375. Oudenarde, battle, .354. Overys'sel, 298, 3.52. Ov'id, Ml. Oxenstiern, 324, 327, 346. Oxford, University, 228, 247. Pacific Ocean, 220, 256, 259. Padua (pa'dua), 248, 251, 265. Palestine, 12, 15, 20, 25-30, 94, 95, 200, 203-212. Palmerston, Lord, .368, 371. Paper Invented, 253. Paphlagonians, 21. Paraguay, 421. Paris, City, 198, 199, 229, 247, 2.50, 282- 284, 348, 351, 380-385, 391, 399. 400, 404, 408-411. Paris, Treaties of, .367, .362, 405. Paris,* 'ounts of, Ins, 189. Parliament, English, 220, 233,306-317, 300, 3ti:i. 307. Parma, 405. Parma, Alexander, Duke of, 301, 302. Parma, Margaret, Duchess of, 299. Parthia, Paithians, .32, 99, 100, 134, 130, 145, 150, 151. Patricians', Rom., 107-115, 118, 119, 129. Pausa'nias, 72, 81. Pavia, 171, 173, 18.5, 267. Peasants, 188, 2(0, 228, 236, 271. Pekin, 221. Pelas'gi,53, 109. Pelay'o, 179, 1S3. Peloponnesian War, 74-76, 88. Peloponne'sus, 54, 58, 63-65, 78. Penn, William, 333, 335. Pennsylvania, 332, .33.5, 424. Pericles i-clfcs), 73, 74, 88, 90. Perry, Commodore, 420, 428. Persep'olis, 95. Persia, Persians, 13, 31-41, 70-72, 96, 151, 152, 1.55, 176, 177, 273. Persia, Kings of: Cyrus (B. C. 5.58), 18, 20, 24, 28-33, 88. Camby'ses (.529), 32, 3.3, 39. The False Smerdis (.522), .33. Darius I. (.521), 3.3-:i5, 41, 70. Xerxes (486), 35-37, 71. Artaxerxes I. (40.5), 36, 81. Darius II. (424), .36. Artaxerxes II. (40.5), 37, 76, 77. Artaxerxes III. (3.59), 37. Arses (338), 37. Darius III. (.336), .37, 38, 94, 9.5. Persian Empire, New, 151-1.55, 175- 177. Persian Gulf, 1.5, 19, 97. Peru, 250, 294, 422, 427. Peter the Hermit, 203, 204, 211. Petition of Rights, Eng., 308, 309. Petrarch, 248, 249, 2.51. Pharaoh (title), 46, 49. Phid'ias, 90, 91,9.3. Philadelphia, 327, 335, .364, 419, 426. Philip of Austria, 25(), 354, 4(IS. Rhode Island, 3'>2. Rhodes, 5,S, I'lo, 272. Rhone, It., 131, 169, 187, 274. Richard, Prince, 208, 233. Richelieu (reesh le ft), Cardinal, 322, 326, 350, SJS. Ridley, Bishop, 292. Rienzi (re en'ze), 215, 218, 251. Rio Grande 423. River-valleys, first centers of popu- lation, 7, 42. Robert of Normandy, 198, 204. Robert the Strong, 198, 199. Robespierre, 382, 383. Rochelle' 308, 350. Roderick the Goth, 179, 183. Roland, .Mme, 382. 393. Rollo, 195, 196, 199. Roman Kniperors: Augustus, 137-142, 146. Tiberius, 142. Caligula, 142, 143. Claudius, Nero, 143, 148. Vespasian, Titus, 144, 148. Domitian, Nerva, 144. Trajan, 144, 149. Hadrian, 69, 144, 145. T. A. Antoninus, M. A. Antoninus, 145, 149. Com'modus, 145. Sept. Seve'rus, 150. Caracalla, 150, 151. Macrinus, Elagabalus, A. Severus, 151. Decius, 152, 156. Valerian, 152, 159. Aurelian, 152, 156. Diocletian and Maximian, 152, 153, 156, 157. Constantine I., 153, 154, 157. Constans, Constantine II., Con- staiitius II., Julian, Jovian, 155. VahMitiiiian, Valens, 159. Theoddsius, 159, 160, 162. Roman Knijierors of the East: Arcadius, 160, 162. Zeno, 161 ; Justinian, 174-176. Heraclius, Leo III., 17.5-177. Basil I., Basil II., 175, 177. Con.stantine VI., 186. Alexis Comnenus, 204, 212. Isaac Angelus, 207. John Palfeologus, 244. Constantine XII., 222. (445) Rom INDEX. Sch Koman Emperors of tlie West: Hoiinrius, KiO, 103. Autiustulus, 161. R(jman Kinperors of the West and Iviut;s of (ieriuany: CharltMii.-mne (A. D. 800), 18,5-187, 192. Louis the .Mild (814), 187. Lotlmin- iMOi, 1S7. Louis \\. (S.Vii, l,S7, 102. Charles II. (87.5), 187, 102. Charles III. (87«-888), 108, 199. Conrad I. (911), 190, 198. Henrv I. (919), 189. OtJio I. (002), 189. Otlio II. (073), 100. Otho III. (083), 190, 103. Henrv II. (1002), 190. ( 'onrad II. (1024), 190. Henry III. (Io30),10(^ Henrv I\'. (lo.")(i-110(ii, l!)0, 191, 193. Conrad III. (ll.'W), 20(;, -Jlii. Frederic I. (1152), 200,214. Henrv VI. (1191), 214. Frederic II. (1212-1250), 207, 208, 214. Rudolph I. (1273-1292), 214, 218. Louis V. (1314). 242, 245. Charles IV. (1347), 242. Wenceslaus (1378), 242-244. Rupert (1400), 243. Sigisnuind (1410), 243-245, 271. Albert II. (1438), 24.5. Frederic III. (1440), 24.5, 246. Maximilian I. (1493), 245, 246, 266. Charles V. (1.519), 264-277, 303-.305. Ferdinand I. (1.558), 273, 276, 272, 273. Maximilian II. (1564), 321. Rudolph II. (1576), 321, 322. Mattliias (1612). .322. Ferdinand II. (1610), 322-324. Ferdinand III. (1637), 324. Leopold I. (1658), 341,^54. Joseph I. (170.5), 354. Charles VI. (1711), :M2, a54. Charles Vll. (1742), 342, 343. Francis I. (1745), 343. Joseidi II. (1765), 345, 347. Leopold II. (1790). Francis II. (1792-1806), 385, 386. See Auxtriit, Frrn^ci-s I. Koman Empire. 8, \:U, 140-162, 167, 168. Koman Empire of the Ktn^t, 160-163, 174-177, 104, 106, 215, 221, 222 Koman Empire of the West, Re- vived, 186-193, 213, 242-21(i, .".25, 386. Rome Citv, 42, 106-115, 130-135, 110, 113, 160, 167, ISl, 186, 187, 189, 202, 204, 214, 215, :!(i0, 401, 410, 416, 417. Rome, Kingdom and Kings of, 107. Rome, Hepuhlic, 48, 107-1.37. Re- vivctl, 181. 21.5, 401. Roses, Wars of, 2.!0, 231. Rosetta Stone, 102. Rotharis (rolha'ris), 171, 173. Roumania (rouma'nia), 149,367, 368, 413. Rubicon R., 13.5. Rupert, Prince, 310, 319. Russell, Lord William, 314. Russia, Russians, 17, 21, 171, 175, 194, 105, 200, 221, 337-340, 343-347, 366-371, 388, 390, 396-398, 411-414. Russia, Sovereigns of: Ruric (A. D. 862-879), 194. Vladimir (980-101.5), 19.5. Yaro.slav (1019-105.5), 195. Ivan III. (1462-1.505), 337. Ivan IV. (1538), 337. Feodor I. (1584-1.598), 337. Michael III. (1613-1W.5), 337. Feodor II. (1676), 338. Ivan v., with Peter I. (1682), 339. Peter I. (alone, 1689), 338-340, 346-347, Catherine I. (172.5-1727), 340. Elizabeth (1741), 344. Peter III. (1762), 344. Catherine II. (1762-1796), 344, ,345, 347. Alexander I. (18ol), :is8-;^91, 402. Nicholas I. (1825), :!(17, .371, ;^97^0O. Alexander II. (1855), .308, 413, 414. Alexander III. (l.SNl), 414. Rye House Plot, 313. Ryswick, Treaty of, 316, 3&4. Sabines, 117. Sacred War, Greek, 79. Sad'owa, battle of, 407. Sages, The Seven, (Seven Wise Men of Greece), 88. 93. Saladin, 200, 20!i, 212. Salamanca University, 2.56. Sal'amis, battle of, 36, 71, 8.5. Salic Law, 236, 240, 399. Salonica (-ne'ka), 412. Samarcand', 180, 224, 2.53. Samaria, 28, .30. Sam'mura'mit, (Semiramis), 11, 18. Sam'nium, Samnites, 115-117. Samos, 87. San Francisco, 297, 423. San'hedrim, lol. San Slefano, Treaty of, 412. Santa Soi)hia, Church of, 174, 176. Sar'acens. 175, 177-183, 196, 203, 205, 209,274. Saratoga, battle at, 304. Sardinia Isl., 122, 137, 161, 174. Sardinia Kingdom, 39.5. Sardinia, Victor Emanuel, King of, 405, 406. See Italy. Sardis, 21, 3.5, 41. Sassan'idse, 151, 174. Savannah Riv., 362. Savonarola, 204,208. Savoy, .3.53; House of, 401, 416. Saxons, 1.59, lOO, 109, 185, 186, 191. Saxony, Dukes of, 189, 275. Saxony, Electors of: Frederic III., the M^ise (14,86-1.52.5), 271, -371. .John the Steadfast (1.52.5), 278. John Frederic the Magnanimous (1.532), 275. Maurice (1548-1,5.53), 275, 276. John George I. (1611-1&56), 32,3, 324. Schleswig-Holstein War, 406. (446) Sch INDEX. The Schliemann (shlee'-), Dr., 55. Schonbrunn, Treaty of, :^9. Scio, :i!t7. Scipio, Family, 124, 127, 128. Scipio Africaiius Major, 124-12S. Scotland, Scots, l(j, 15lt, 171, 220, 227, .■!l)l)-:n2, :nii, .'iOO, M\. Scotland, Sovereigns of: James IV. (1488), 288. .lames V. (1513), 281, 2.S8, 291. Marv (1542),2Sl,2!tl-2ii;.:. Scott, 50. Vandals, 160, 161. Vauban (v6 boN'), 3.5;B. Vaudois (vo dwJi'), 275, 280, 311. Venezue'la, 421. Venice, 207, 215, 222, 255, 265, 384, 385, 407. Vera Cruz, 423. Verdun (verduN'), Treaty of, 187, 192- Versailles, 357, 364, 409, 410. Vervins (ver vaN'), Treaty of, 302. Vesuvius, Mt., 144; battle near, 116. Victoria, Colony, 376. Vienna, Austria, 145, 273, 384, 389, 395, 100, 407. Vienne, France, 145. Villegagnon (-giin yoN'), 334. Virginia, 293, 332, 419, 423. Visconti (-te), 21.5. Visigoths, 159, 160, 169. Volga R., 161. Volscians, 113, 114. Wales, 169, 171, 226. Wallachia (val la'kia). See Rou- nuoiia. Wallenstein (-stine), 322-324, 327. Walpole, Rob't, 361, 370. "Warwick, Earl of, 230, 231. Washington, Gen., .362, 364, 418,426. Waterloo, battle. 392. Wat Tyler's Rebellion, 228. Wellington, Duke of, 389, 391, 392, :i94. Westphalia, Kingdom of, .389. Westphalia, Treaty of, 325, .3.50, Whigs, Eng., 314, 3(30. Wicliffe, 228, 229, 249, 2.52. Wilberforce, 36(3. Wilkes, John, .362, 363. Wolfe, (ien., a')7. Wolseley, Sir (iarnet, 418. Wolsey, Cardinal, 2r,t;, 28S, 289, 296. Worcester, battle at, 311. World's Fairs, 367, 425. Worms, 1 »ict at, 271. Writing, Art of, 10, 20, 43, 54, 84, 102, Xenoph'anes, 89. Xen'ophon, 37, 41, 88. Xeres (lia'res), battle of, 179, 183. Xerxes, 35, 36, 71. York, House of, 230, 231, 287. York, .lames, Duke of. See England, Kinq James IT. York, Richard, Duke of, 230. York, ( ity, 150, 158, 309, 310. Yorktown, Va., 364. Ypsilanti (ip se lan'te), 397, 40.3. Zama izJi'ma), battle, 124. Zapolya, John, 273, 274. Zealand, 224-22ii. Zend Avesta, 38, 40. Zo'ro-as'ter, 31, 34, ;«, 40. Zurich, 272, 278. Zwingli, Ulrich, 272, 278. (448) / ^ j^ / / / y /^ XA^i^\^ fo