Qass. 
 Book. 
 
 '.«*'«* 
 
 X \^S 
 
 ■A(o 
 
 ^^-<ni>M 
 
 1- 
 
 fif^ 
 
C,'.. 
 
 THE PROFESSION 
 
 OF 
 
 HOME MAKING 
 
 A CONDENSED HOME-STUDY COUESE 
 
 ON DOMESTIC SCIENCE; THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE 
 
 MOST RECENT ADVANCES IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES 
 
 TO THE HOME INDUSTRIES 
 
 PREPARED BY TEACHERS OF 
 RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY 
 
 FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES; 
 
 DIETITIANS, PROFESSIONAL HOME AIANAGERS, AND ALL 
 
 INTERESTED IN HOME, HEALTH AND ECONOMY 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 1911 
 
 

 COPYEIGHT 1911 
 BY 
 
 )ME Economics Associatio?? 
 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 HOME-MAKING as now taught in many schools 
 and colleges takes rank as a profession as truly 
 as any occupation. It is the greatest of the pro- 
 fessions — greatest in numbers and greatest in its effect 
 on the individual and on society. The profession of 
 home-making has added as much to every day house- 
 keeping as scientific farming has to that of past genera- 
 tions. 
 
 The correspondence courses of the American School 
 of Home Economics were prepared to carry this new 
 profession to everyone in reach of the mails. With the 
 co-operation of prominent teachers, the best courses in 
 home economics and domestic science were condensed 
 into clear and practical lessons, especially adapted to 
 home study. The enrollment of over 7,000 members 
 in the School and their appreciation of great practical 
 benefits and interest of the course indicates the wide 
 demand for such teaching and its value. 
 
 The present volume is made up of some of the most 
 popular and helpful lessons of the Course, including 
 the regular ''Test Questions" and Programs for Class 
 Study. It is a comprehensive reference work for every 
 day use, but it is much n^ore — it is a carefully prepared 
 home-study Course, put into book form after being 
 tested by use, revised and supplemented. It is pub- 
 lished at a popular price to enable progressive home- 
 makers to manage their homes more easily, to save on 
 household expenses, to keep up to date and to make the 
 daily routine of housekeeping an interesting profession 
 instead of deadening drudgery. That it may serve as 
 an inspiration to many and be the means of extending 
 even more widely this movement for the conservation 
 and improvement of the American home is the hope of 
 the School. 
 
 American School of Home Economics. 
 3 
 
CONTENTS * 
 
 CHEMISTEY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 P.Y Margaret E. Dodd, S. B. 
 
 Graduate of IMassachusetts Institute of Technology 
 
 Water ..... 
 
 The Atmosphere 
 
 co.mbustiox .... 
 
 Fuels .... 
 
 Food as Fuel 
 
 Sugars and Starches 
 
 Digestion of Sugar and Starch 
 
 Chemistry of Cooking 
 
 Fats as Food 
 
 Nitrogenous Foods 
 
 Effects of Cooking 
 
 Mineral Matter in Food 
 
 Decay ..... 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Cleaning .... 
 
 Chemistry of the Laundry 
 
 Removal of Stains 
 
 Bleaching 
 
 Cleaning \\^ood'»vork 
 
 Cleaning Metals 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Chemistry of Baking Powder 
 
 Chemistry of Lighting 
 
 Chemistry and Electricity 
 
 Chemistry of Plant Life 
 
 The Housekeepers' Laboratory 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Notes on Laundry Work 
 
 IIo.ME Soap ^L\king 
 
 Dishwashing . . . 
 
 Bread Making 
 
 lio.ME Made Baking Powdf.u 
 
 Composition of Gas 
 
 Spontaneou s Com bu stion 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 Program of Class Study 
 
 Page 
 
 
 oo 
 
 28 
 
 .31 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 4.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 ,51 
 
 .53 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 78 
 
 87 
 
 94 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 103 
 
 10.5 
 
 108 
 
 121 
 
 124 
 
 129 
 
 139 
 
 141 
 
 149 
 
 149 
 
 1.50 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 160 
 
 103 
 
 165 
 
 * Note : For page numhcr sec foot of poyrs. 
 
PEINCIPLES OF COOKEKY 
 
 By Anna Bakuows 
 
 Teacber of Cookery. Teachers' College, Columbia University 
 
 Fire in Cooking . 
 
 \Yateu in Cooking 
 
 Ice and Ice Chests 
 
 Preparation and Preserving oe F 
 
 Choice of Food 
 
 Milk and Its Products 
 
 Cooking of Butter 
 
 Cooking op Cheese 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Cooking of Eggs 
 
 Cooking of Meat, Fish, and Poui; 
 
 Cooking of Vegetables 
 
 Cooking of Grains 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Bread and Other Doughs 
 
 Pastry and Cake 
 
 Cooking of Doughs 
 
 Form of Serving 
 
 Flavor .... 
 
 Food for a Day 
 
 Bibliography 
 
 Test Questions 
 
 Comparative Value of Fuels 
 
 FiRELESs Cookers 
 
 Co-operative Cooking 
 
 Kitchen Appliances 
 
 The Housekeeper's Library 
 
 Card Catalo(j of Foods 
 
 Cookery a Fine Art 
 
 Cake Making 
 
 Menu Making 
 
 Economy in the Use of Fats 
 
 Menus for Special Occasions 
 
 Program for Class Study 
 
 )ODS 
 
 Page 
 177 
 192 
 204 
 208 
 215 
 218 
 224 
 229 
 2.'U 
 2.^^ 
 247 
 263 
 274 
 278 
 281 
 296 
 301 
 304 
 312 
 315 
 322 
 323 
 325 
 330 
 336 
 337 
 340 
 342 
 343 
 345 
 346 
 HoQ 
 358 
 359 
 
 * Note : For inuje niimhcv see foot of pages. 
 
Fki:i: Hand Cooking 
 
 WkKJUTS AM) MlCASURKS 
 
 Effkct of IIhat on Food :\lATi:Ki\r,s 
 temrfhatunk and time of cookincj 
 Thickening and Leavening Agents . 
 Shortening ...... 
 
 Flavoring ...... 
 
 Fundamental IlECirEs 
 
 Page 
 8G7 
 r.C)9 
 ;370 
 37;i 
 374 
 37r» 
 
 G-400 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Bv Bertha M. Terrill, M. A. 
 
 Professor of Home Economics, University of XCimont 
 
 IIOUSEKEEriNG A PR0FESSK)N ...... 405 
 
 DiVI.SION OF HO.ME ENI'ENDITIRES ..... 409 
 
 Rent 421 
 
 Operating Expenses ....... 426 
 
 Food Expenses 430 
 
 Clothing Expenses ....... 436 
 
 Higher Life ......... 437 
 
 Household Accounts ....... 442 
 
 Bank Account and Banking ...... 460 
 
 Test Questions ........ 440 
 
 The Organization and LJivision of Lai'.or .... 47."> 
 
 Domestic Service ........ 479 
 
 Buying Supplies ......... 499 
 
 Kitchen and Laundry Furnish inos .... 504 
 
 Table and Bep Linen . . . . . . . .516 
 
 Carpets and Rugs 522 
 
 Test Questions . ... . . . . . . 525 
 
 Marketing — Cuts of Meat ...... 527 
 
 Poultry 551 
 
 Fish 553 
 
 Vegetables .......... 556 
 
 Butter, Milk and Vah;s ....... 559 
 
 Dry Groceries ......... 561 
 
 Bibliography ......... 56.3 
 
 Test Questions ......... 564 
 
 Programs for Class Study ...... 566 
 
 Cost of Ho.me and Stea.m Laundry Work .... 570 
 
 Experience in Division of Income .... 571 
 
 Food Economy ......... 577 
 
 The Domestic Service Prop.le.m 583 
 
 Help by the Holr ........ 586 
 
 Systems of House Work ...... 590 
 
 Value of the Individual IIu.me ...... 592 
 
 * Xo(( 
 
 For jKKjc iiuinbcr .see foot of pages. 
 6 
 
HOME CAEE FOE THE SICK 
 
 By Amy E. Poi-e 
 
 Teacher of Nursins. Presbyterian Hospital 
 New Yorix City 
 
 Symptoms of Disease .... 
 
 Choice^ Furxishixg, and Care of the Sick- 
 Care OF Patient; Making and Changing Bi 
 Lifting and Handling the Patient 
 Convalescence ..... 
 
 Care of the Hair, Mouth, Teeth 
 Baths and Bathing .... 
 
 SiCK-Roo.M Methods .... 
 
 The Giving of Medicine 
 Purgative, Enemata, Douches 
 Poultices and Fomentations 
 Test Questions .... 
 
 Contagion; Nursing in Contagious Diseasi 
 Disinfection of the Room, Contents, Etc. 
 Precaution in Contagious Diseases 
 Surgical Operations at Home . 
 Obstetrics ...... 
 
 Care of the Child ..... 
 
 Food for the Sick — Recipes 
 Emergencies ; First Aid to the Injured 
 Foreign Bodies in Eye, Ear, Nose, Throat 
 Poisons and Antidotes .... 
 
 Bandages and Bandaging ... 
 Test Questions ...... 
 
 Program for Class Study . . . , 
 Index 
 
 Room 
 ;d 
 
 Pa-e 
 504 
 GOl 
 605 
 612 
 621 
 624 
 626 
 6.3:5 
 640 
 646 
 651 
 655 
 657 
 664 
 666 
 667 
 674 
 685 
 687 
 696 
 706 
 707 
 708 
 716 
 718 
 721-736 
 
 * Note: For ptujc number see foot of pages. 
 
t Mtium — 
 
 'T^HAT right living should be the fourth "R" in edu- 
 cation. 
 
 ' I ^HAT home -making should be regarded as a pro- 
 fession. 
 
 ' I ^HAT health is the duty and business of the individual; 
 illness of the physician. 
 
 ' I ^HAT most illness results from carelessness, ignorance, or 
 intemperance of some kind. 
 
 ' I ^HAT as many lives are cut short by unhealthful food and 
 diet as through strong drink. 
 
 npHAT on the home foundation is built all that is good 
 in state or individual. 
 
 ' I ^HAT the upbringing of children demands more study 
 than the raising of chickens. 
 
 npHAT the spending of money is as important as the 
 earning of the money. 
 
 ' I ^HAT economy does not mean spending a small amount, 
 but in getting the largest returns for the money expended. 
 
 ' I ^HAT the home-maker should be as alert to make pro- 
 gress in her life-w^ork as the business or professional 
 man. 
 
 ''T^HAT the most profitable, the most interesting study for 
 women is the home, for in it center all the issues of 
 life. 
 
 npHAT the study of home problems may be made of no 
 less cultural value than the study of art or literature and 
 of much more immediate value. 
 
 — American School of Home Economics 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 A Day's Chemistry 
 
 BEING an outline of llie simplest and most evi- 
 dent cliemical changes suggested by a day's 
 work at home and a description of the various chemical 
 substances of interest to the housewife. 
 
 WATER 
 
 The morning bath will introduce us agreeably to the 
 wonderful chemical substance, water, and with this o^c^currence 
 substance v\^e will begin our study of a day's chniiistry. 
 The water for the house may come from the town sup- 
 ply, from wells, cisterns, or springs. It may be 
 "surface water," from pond, lake, or stream, or it may 
 be "ground water," from wells or deep springs. Cis- 
 tern" water is, of course, rain water. Water is present 
 in many substances where wc might not suspect it. 
 All living things contain a large percentage of water. 
 Of an athlete weighing 150 pounds, all but about 42 
 pounds is water. Wood, meat, vegetables, fruit, when 
 dried, weigh from 50 to 98 per cent less. ]\Iany natural 
 and artificial substances owe their crystalline form to 
 
 Copyright, 1904, 1905, 1907. 1910, by Home Economic Association. 
 
CHEMISTRY OP THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Nat lira J 
 
 Water 
 
 Distilled 
 Water 
 
 water and when heated, give off this "water of crystal- 
 Hzation" and crumble to powder. Common washing 
 soda shows this effect, when exposed to the air, and 
 soon gives off so much water that its crystalHne char- 
 acter is lost. 
 
 All water found in nature is more or less impure, 
 that is, it contains substances in solution. It dissolves 
 air and takes substances from the soil and rocks over 
 which it runs. Often it comes in contact with animal 
 and vegetable substances and dissolves something from 
 them. Near dwellings the water in streams, ponds, 
 and wells is very likely to become contaminated. De- 
 caying substances give rise to materials easily dissolved 
 in water, which may travel for a considerable distance 
 under ground, so that the drainage from the house or 
 barn is frequently carried to near-by streams or wells, 
 making their waters quite unfit to drink. Fig. i. 
 
 The following experiment will illustrate that air is 
 dissolved in water. 
 
 Experiment. Place a tumbler of fresh well-water or 
 tap-water in a warm place. After a time, bubbles will 
 be seen collecting on the sides of the glass. This is 
 air which was dissolved in the water. As the water 
 grows warm, it cannot hold so much air in solution and 
 some of it separates. 
 
 Most of the impurities In water are less easily con- 
 verted into vapor than the water itself; hence, when 
 the water is boiled, they stay behind while the water 
 ''boils away". Water from almost any source can be 
 made pure and clear by distillation. Distilled water is 
 
 10 
 
WATER. 3 
 
 prepared in an apparatus known as a still. See Fig. 2. 
 A still consists of a boiler, A, and a condenser. In 
 the condenser, a coil of tube, D, usually made of pure 
 
 FIG. 1. WELL, CONTAMINATED BY HOUSE DRAINAGE. 
 
 tin, is surrounded by cold water which continually 
 runs through the apparatus. The steam, admitted at 
 the upper end of the coil, is condensed by the low tem- 
 perature and distilled water is collected at the lower 
 
 11 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Rain 
 
 Water 
 
 end. In the laboratory, distilled water is often made 
 in the glass apparatus shown in Fig. 3. 
 
 Distilled water has a flat taste, because air and other 
 dissolved substances which give water its taste have 
 been removed. It will again dissolve the air on being 
 poured several times from one vessel into another. 
 
 Rain is water which has been evaporated from the, 
 surfaces of natural bodies of water, oceans, lakes, 
 and from the land, and is practically free from mineral 
 matter, but contains dissolved gases. 
 
 The vapor, cooled at the low temperatures of the 
 upper levels of air, falls as rain. The first fall of any 
 
 FIG. 2. A STILL. 
 A, Goosenock; B, Boiler; I), Coiidonsing Coil. 
 
 shower is mixed with impurities \vhich have been 
 washed from the air. Among these may be carbon 
 dioxide, ammonia, and carbon in the form of soot and 
 creosote. It is these last impurities whicli cause the 
 
 12 
 
WATER. 5 
 
 almost indelible stain left when ram water stands upon 
 window-sills or other finished woods. 
 
 Fig. 3. Making Distilled Water in the Laboratory. 
 
 Water is a nearly universal solvent. It dissolves 
 more substances and these in larger quantities than any 
 other liquid. At a given temperature, water will dis- 
 solve only a certain proportion of the various salts 
 and other soluble substances. When the water will 
 take up no more, the solution is said to be saturated. 
 Increasing the temperature generally increases the dis- 
 solving power of water for solids and liquids. The 
 reverse is usually true for gases. 
 
 When a saturated solution of a solid is cooled, crys- 
 tals are frequently formed, niany having beautiful 
 shapes. Examples are shown in Fig. 4. 
 
 Experiment. In an earthen- ware or enameled dish 
 dissolve as much alum as possible in a little boiling 
 water. Pour the solution into a shallow dish or sau- 
 
 oolubility 
 
 13 
 
6 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 cer, and set it away for a day or more where it will be 
 undisturbed. Beautiful, clear, six-sided crystals wil) 
 form in the dish. If strings are hung in the solution, the 
 crystals will form upon them. Rock candy crystals 
 are made from cane sugar syrup in this way. 
 
 The experiment may be repeated, using washing 
 soda instead of alum. 
 
 /: 
 
 / 
 
 
 7 
 
 fsTUDi 
 
 Effect of 
 
 Water on 
 
 Metals 
 
 FIG. 4. SHAPES OF CRYSTALS. 
 
 Silver, copper, and tin are not perceptibly dissolved 
 in pure water, but when combined with acid substances, 
 the compounds formed are soluble. These compounds 
 of a metal with an acid are called salts. The salts of 
 copper, zinc, and lead are poisonous. Copper, brass, 
 (an alloy of copper with zinc) tin, solder, and iron 
 are metals easily afifected by acids, so that cooking 
 utensils made of these materials should not be used 
 with acid substances like lemon and vinegar. 
 
 14 
 
WATER. 
 
 Lead pipes are much used in plumbing, and as a 
 rule no evil results follow, since ordinary drinking 
 water acts under most circumstances only very slight- 
 ly upon lead. The pipes are soon coated with a layer 
 of carbonate and sulphate of lead, which is insoluble 
 and prevents any further action. Water from new 
 lead pipes, or pipes not kept constantly full, or from 
 a hot-water system in which lead is used, should never 
 be used for drinking or cooking because of danger 
 from poisoning. Pure distilled water, or rain water, 
 affects lead more than ordinary ground water. 
 
 Rain water absorbs more or less carbon dioxide gas 
 from the air and soaking into the soil often comes in 
 contact with magnesia in the rocks and with limestone. 
 
 Water 
 gas will 
 
 contammg 
 
 WiLte-r 
 
 Try?/l ^.^/rr^ 
 
 this 
 dissolve these 
 mineral substances mak- 
 ing what is known as 
 ''hard" water, a very dif- 
 ferent substance from the 
 original rain water 
 which is "soft." This 
 subject will be dis- 
 cussed when the chem- 
 istry of the laundry is 
 explained. ^^^- ^- ^ water filter. 
 
 Ordinary water for drinking purposes is often filtered. 
 Filtration v/ill remove small particles suspended in the 
 water, but has no effect on substances dissolved in it. 
 
 The small charcoal or sand filters will not remove 
 
 '^n '^''■fcc''^w*'tc^ 
 
 Effect of 
 Water 
 on Lead 
 
 Hard 
 Water 
 
 Leiyer of qr&vel 
 
 Layer of cK&rcoal 
 L&.yev- of gr*vel 
 
 Filtering 
 
 15 
 
8 CHEMISTRY Of THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 the minute living- forms called micro-organisms or 
 germs, some of which are the cause of disease. A filter 
 of porous stone or procelain, in which the w^ater filters 
 slowly, is more effective. A good filter is shown in 
 Figure 5. 
 
 Water which has strained or filtered through several 
 feet of earth is often much improved, but the earth 
 filter itself may become contaminated after a while and 
 more harm tlian good result. A thick layer of sand 
 and rock, however, removes germs effectively, and con- 
 sequently water from deep driven wells is safe. 
 Composition Water was long considered an elementary or simple 
 
 substance, but towards the end of the last century it 
 was found to consist of two quite different substances 
 so intimately joined together that the identity of each 
 is lost. If we pass an electric current through water 
 in the proper way, we see a gas rising in bubbles from 
 the end of the wire by which the current enters and a 
 like appearance at the wire by which the current leaves 
 the water. The two gases have evidently, come from 
 the water and are the substances out of which it is 
 made for the w^ater begins to disappear. By placing an 
 inverted glass filled with w^ater over each wire, the 
 gases are easily collected. See Fig. 6. When one 
 bottle is ///// of gas, the other will be only half full : and 
 on decomposing the whole of a given amount of water, 
 this proportion holds true. 
 
 If we test these gases, we shall find them quite dif- 
 ferent. The bottle which is full contains a gas called 
 
 16 
 
WATER. 9 
 
 hydrogen. There is evidently twice as much of this by 
 volume in water as of the other gas which is called 
 oxygen. These two gases were tied together by what 
 is known as chemical force, but the electric current 
 separated them and gave us an opportunity to make 
 the acquaintance of each by itself. We would hardly 
 suppose this clear, colorless liquid to be composed of 
 such material. On decomposing pure water from any 
 
 rs 
 
 HYDROGEN 
 
 Fig. 6. Decomposing Water Into Oiygen and Hy- 
 drogen Gas. 
 
 source, the proportion of oxygen to hydrogen is always 
 the same, and in fact, all chemical compounds have a 
 certain composition which never varies under any con- 
 dition. 
 
 The name hydrogen comes from two Greek words, 
 meaning water and to produce. Hydrogen is interest- 
 ing as being the lightest common substance. It is an 
 invisible gas like air, but unlike air will burn. If a 
 
 Hydrofeii 
 
 17 
 
10 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 lighted candle be placed in a bottle of hydrogen, the 
 flame will be at once extinguished, though the hydro- 
 gen will take fire at the mouth of the bottle. Fig. 7. 
 Hydrogen will unite with other substances besides 
 oxygen : that is, it will join with other substances by 
 chemical force. It forms a part of most animal and 
 vegetable substances. 
 
 Tig. 7. 
 
 Hydrogen Will Burn 
 in Air. 
 
 Fiff. 8. A Candle 
 Burns Vigorously in 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Oxygen Oxygcu, as wcll as hydrogen, is a tasteless, color- 
 
 less, odorless gas. The weight of a given volume is 
 sixteen times that of the same volume of hydrogen. 
 It is very abundant and the most important substance 
 to mankind. Should we test this gas with a lighted 
 candle, as we did the hydrogen, we would find that 
 the oxygen would not give a flame, but that the candle 
 would burn far more vigorously. Fig. 8. 
 
 18 
 
WATER. 
 
 II 
 
 When substances burn in oxygen they really unite 
 jvith it chemically, forming new substances called 
 oxides. Water is hydrogen united with oxygen and its 
 chemical name might therefore be oxide of hydrogen. 
 
 When water is heated in an open vessel, evapora- 
 tion from the surface of the liquid is more rapid as 
 the temperature increases. Soon vapor is formed on 
 the sides and bottom of the vessel and bubbles begin to 
 rise which are at once condensed by the cooler parts 
 of the liquid, thus making the familiar ''singing" noise. 
 Finally the liquid becomes so hot that the bubbles reach 
 the surface without condensing, and then the water 
 boils and goes ofif into the air as steam, an invisible 
 gas. This occupies the small space between the spout 
 of the tea-kettle and the cloud of vapor which is com- 
 monly called steam, but is really finely divided drops 
 of water. A cubic inch of water makes about a cubic 
 foot of steam. 
 
 The temperature at which pure water begins to boil 
 at sea level is 212" Fahrenheit (or 100° Centigrade) 
 and this temperature remains the same while the boil- 
 ing continues. Increasing the heat simply increases 
 the violence of the boiling. The steam given off is of 
 the same temperature as the boiling liquid. Most pure 
 liquids have a definite boiling point ; ether boils at 
 100° F, alcohol at 173° F, turpentine at 315° F. 
 
 When the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface 
 of the liquid is less than at the sea level, as on a moun- 
 tain, where there is not so much air above pressing 
 down on the surface of the liquid, the temperature of 
 
 Effect of 
 
 Heating 
 
 Water 
 
 Boiling 
 Point 
 
 19 
 
12 CHBMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 boiling is less. For example, the boiling point of water 
 in Denver, Colorado, is about 202° F, and on the top 
 of some of the mountains in the Himalayas, 180° F. 
 People living in high mountain regions have difficulty 
 in cooking with water or steam. 
 
 Increasing the pressure on the surface of the liquid, 
 on the other hand, raises the boiling point. This is 
 seen when water boils in a confined space, as in a steam 
 boiler. Under five pounds pressure of steam, water 
 boils at about 22^° F and at 100 pounds pressure, at 
 
 337° F. 
 
 An increase in the boiling point of water is caused 
 by dissolved substances. A very strong solution of 
 common salt boils at about 226° F, and a solution of 
 sugar — syrup or molasses — boils at an increasing tem- 
 perature as the water is lost. 
 
 The temperature at which a syrup boils, is a meas- 
 ure of its thickness or density. In many modern cook- 
 ery books temperature tests are given for boiling sugar 
 in making confections, which vary from 215° for 
 a thin syrup, up to 350° for caramel. In making maple 
 sugar a "sugar thermometer" is often placed in the 
 boiling syrup. At a given temperature, which is high- 
 er for sugar cakes than for soft sugar, the proper con- 
 centration is reached. 
 lAtent Considerable heat is absorbed by the process of boil- 
 ing. It requires 966 times as much heat to change a 
 pound of water at the boiling point into steam as it 
 does to raise it one degree Fahrenheit. The heat 
 
 Heat 
 
 20 
 
WATER. 
 
 13 
 
 which is used to change the state of the water without 
 changing its temperature is called latent heat from the 
 Latin word, meaning hidden. The "hidden heat" is 
 given out again when the steam is condensed. This 
 same quantity of heat is absorbed when the water 
 evaporates slowly ; hence the great cooling effect of 
 large bodies of water. 
 
 When water is cooled it shrinks slightly until the 
 temperature of 39° F is reached. On further cool- 
 ing it to the freezing point, 32° F (or 0° Centigrade) 
 it increases in volume, so that ice takes up more space 
 than the same weight of water and consequently floats. 
 If this were not so, la.kes and streams would freeze 
 solid in winter and it is doubtful if they would melt 
 completely during the summer in the northern part 
 of the United States. 
 
 To melt ice, 144 times as much heat is required to 
 change the ice at 32° F into water at 32° F, as to raise 
 the temperature of the same quantity of water one 
 degree Fahrenheit. This is the latent heat of melting 
 and the same amount of heat is given out when water 
 freezes. Water thus serves as the great temperature 
 regulator for the earth, for by evaporating, much of 
 the heat of summer is absorbed, and before freezing, 
 a great deal of heat must be given out and absorbed. 
 
 Water has a much greater capacity of absorbing heat 
 than any other common substance. For example, one 
 pound of water will absorb ten times as much heat in 
 being raised one degree as a pound of iron. The great- 
 
 Freezing 
 
 Heat 
 Absorption 
 
 21 
 
14 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 er absorbing capacity of water for heat explains why a 
 kettle of fat heats up so much faster than the same 
 weight of water under like conditions ; for the fat re- 
 quires only one-third as much heat to raise it, say, to 
 200° F, as does the water. 
 
 THE ATMOSPHERE 
 
 When we leave the sleeping room, we open the win- 
 dows to admit air. We may with advantage treat 
 our lungs to an air bath by standing at the open win- 
 dow or by going out of doors for a few minutes to take 
 in five or ten deep breaths. Next, perhaps, we shall 
 use drafts of air to help us make a fire in the range 
 or in a fire place. 
 
 Air is a real substance. It can be weighed. The air 
 in a room 15 feet by 20 feet by 10 feet high weighs 
 210 pounds, and would fill ten ordinary water pails 
 if liquified. Air will expand and may be compressed 
 like other gases and it has been liquefied by intense cold 
 and pressure. It requires considerable force to move 
 it. When a bottle is full of air, no more can be poured 
 in. Our houses are full of air all the time. It pervades 
 all things — the cells and tissues of our bodies are full 
 of air. 
 
 Wood and some metals even contain a little. In 
 breathing we take a little from the room, but it is im- 
 mediately replaced by expired air, which is impure. 
 Were there no exits for this air, no pure air could enter 
 the house, and we should die of slow suffocation. The 
 
 22 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE. 15 
 
 better built the house the quicker the suffocation. Fortu- 
 nately no house is air tight. Air does pass out through 
 the walls and cracks, and comes in around doors and 
 windows, but unless there is a great difference in the 
 temperature indoors and out, this fresh air is neither 
 sufficient to replace the bad air nor to dilute it beyond 
 harm. Therefore in ordinary weather, the air of all 
 rooms must be often and completely changed either by 
 special systems of ventilation or by intelligent action 
 in the opening of doors and windows. 
 
 The atmosphere surrounds the earth to a depth of 
 fifty miles or more. The effect of gravity of the earth 
 on this mass is to produce a pressure or weight of air 
 on all things. This pressure is about fifteen pounds on 
 each square inch, but we do not notice it, for the pres- 
 sure is the same on all sides of us and the internal 
 pressure in the cells of our bodies balances the external 
 pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 If it were not for the pressure of the air, we could 
 not drink lemonade through a straw or pump a pail of 
 water. When we exhaust part of the air by suction, 
 we remove part of the pressure over the liquid in the 
 straw and the air pressure on the surface in the glass 
 forces the liquid up the straw. The same principle 
 applies in a pump — the air is partially taken off the top 
 of the water in the pipe, and then the pressure outside 
 forces the water up in the pipe and by a proper valve 
 arrangement, it is made to run into the pail. See 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Air 
 Fressiirs 
 
 23 
 
i6 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Composition 
 of Air 
 
 Fitrogen 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere at the sea level is 
 sufficient to force water up into a vacuum about 34 
 feet vertically; but owing to mechanical imperfections 
 of pumps, the practical limit is 2^ or 28 feet rise be- 
 tween the surface of the water and the valve of the 
 pump. It is customary to use a force pump if water 
 is to be raised to a height above this. Fig. 10. 
 
 Unlike water, air is not the result of a chemical union 
 of two unlike simple gases. Nevertheless, air contains 
 more than one substance. It is made up chiefly of two 
 gases simply mixed together, and each exhibits its 
 own characteristics to some extent. 
 
 Pure air consists of oxygen, which we have found 
 constitutes one-third of water, and of nitrogen (and 
 argon). The oxygen forms about a fifth and the 
 nitrogen four-fifths of the air. Besides these, several 
 other gases are found in small but varying quantities. 
 
 To the oxygen gas is due the power of air to support 
 combustion (fire) and life. Oxygen unites chemically 
 with most other substances, and were the air all oxy- 
 gen, the combustible part of the earth would soon be 
 consumed by its own fires. Fortunately four-fifths of 
 the air is a gas that has little power of combination and 
 this nitrogen serves to dilute the oxygen and to weaken 
 its force, much as water would dilute and weaken a 
 strong and powerful chemical. 
 
 The most marked characteristic of nitrogen is its 
 sluggishness or inertness. Nitrogen, like oxygen, is 
 a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas. It is fourteen 
 
 24 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 17 
 
 times as heavy as hydrogen. Though nitrogen from 
 the air unites with other elements with difficulty, it 
 is found in all living tissues, both animal and vegetable, 
 and when these decompose the familiar substance, am- 
 monia, is formed. This is a compound of hydrogen 
 and nitrogen. 
 
 Fig. 9. Suction Pump. 
 
 Fi£ 
 
 10. Force Pump. 
 
 Carbon dioxide is always present in the atmosphere. 
 This is one of the countless combinations of carbon, 
 the element present in all animal and vegetable mate- 
 rials. Carbon is nearly pure in the form of charcoal. 
 Soot, graphite or the black lead of lead pencils, and the 
 
 Carbon 
 
 25 
 
Carbon 
 
 i8 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 
 
 diamond are other forms. Carbon unites very readily 
 with oxygen and the gas formed by their chemical 
 union is called carbon dioxide because it contains two 
 
 Dioxide parts of oxygen to one of carbon. Wood, coal, gas — 
 almost everything that will burn in the air — and even 
 our own bodies contain carbon, though we would not 
 suspect its presence because it is combined with other 
 substances and has merged its own character in those 
 of the substances of which it forms a part. All our 
 food contains carbon in its combinations. 
 
 When we breathe w^e take into our bodies the oxy- 
 gen of the air. This oxygen is needed by the various 
 organs and is carried in the blood from the lungs to all 
 parts of the body. During the circulation the oxygen is 
 taken up by the cells and replaced by carbon dioxide. 
 This is brought back by the blood to the lungs and 
 breathed out. If we remain long in a closed room, a 
 portion of the oxygen of the air in the room and of the 
 substance of our bodies is changed into carbon dioxide, 
 which is unfit to breathe. This is the reason for the 
 special need of ventilation in the sleeping room. 
 
 Water Water in the form of vapor is constantly passing- 
 
 off into the air from the surface of bodies of water, 
 from vegetation, and from animal organisms, as in- 
 visible vapor. The amount of water vapor present 
 in the air is very variable. Warm air will hold more 
 vapor than cold air. Ordinarily on a pleasant day, the 
 atmosphere holds between 60 per cent and 70 per cent 
 of the possible amount of water vapor. 
 
 26 
 
THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 19 
 
 When the air is saturated or at the dew point, a 
 slight lowering of the temperature causes the vapor to 
 condense. That air will absorb only a certain amount 
 of moisture explains why a draft of air is necessary 
 when drying clothes within doors and why the wash- 
 ing drys slowly on a damp day. 
 
 The presence of vapor in the air is shown by bring- 
 ing a pitcher of ice water into a warm room. The air 
 against the cold surface of the pitcher is cooled until 
 the dew point is reached, when it deposits part of its 
 moisture. Any person who wears glasses knows the 
 effect of such condensation in going into a warm room 
 from out of doors on a cold day. That the air exhaled 
 contains water may be shown by breathing upon any 
 bright, cold surface. 
 
 The discomfort we feel in a crowded room is largely 
 due to the excess of moisture resulting from the 
 breathing and perspiration of so many persons. The 
 danger of going from a crowded reception or *'tea" 
 into the open air is also due to it. Crowded rooms 
 become very warm, the air soon becomes saturated 
 with vapor and cannot take away the perspiration from 
 our bodies. Our clothes thus become moist and the 
 skin tender. When we go into the colder, drier air, 
 clothes and skin suddenly give up their load of mois- 
 ture. Evaporation absorbs heat ; the heat is taken 
 from our bodies and a chill results. There is much 
 to learn concerning the ventilation of "rooms for social 
 purposes. 
 
 Dew 
 Point 
 
 How a 
 Chill is 
 Produced 
 
 27 
 
20 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 ^ ^^ The air also contains a very small amount of a gas 
 called argon. This was discovered in 1894. It resem- 
 bles nitrogen so closely that it long escaped detection. 
 Several other gases are present in minute quantities. 
 
 COMBUSTION 
 
 Very likely a fire must be built in the cook stove. 
 In order that chemical combination may take place, 
 the conditions must be right. The stove is so con- 
 structed that a current of air can pass from under the 
 grate through the fire box, and funnel, to the chimney, 
 and we must arrange that this air current shall not be 
 unduly obstructed, for fuel will not burn without 
 oxygen. 
 Kindling Substauccs differ greatly as to the ease or difficulty 
 
 with which they may be made to burn, or in chemical 
 terms, with which they may be made to unite with 
 oxygen. The temperature to which a substance must 
 be heated before it will take fire is called the kindling 
 point. We therefore place light materials, like shav- 
 ings, pitch-pine chips, or paper on the grate, twisting 
 the paper and arranging all in such a way that oxygen 
 has free access to a large surface ; upon this we place 
 small sticks of wood, piling them across each other 
 for the same reason, and on this, in turn, hard wood or 
 coal. The large stick of wood or the coal cannot be 
 kindled with a match, but the paper or shavings can, 
 and these in burning will heat the wood until it takes 
 fire which then will kindle the coal. 
 
 Point 
 
 28 
 
COMBUSTION. 
 
 21 
 
 To kindle the fire, we unthinkingly^ hght a match. 
 The burning of the match repeats the same principle 
 we have described. The match is made by dipping the 
 ends of small sticks of wood into melted sulphur, a 
 substance more easily kindled than wood. When the 
 sulphur is dried, the match is tipped with a preparation 
 of phosphorus. Phosphorus has such a low kindling 
 temperature that friction of the match against any 
 rough surface heats it sufficiently to set it on fire. In 
 burning, this sets fire to the sulphur and this, in turn, 
 kindles the wood. Paraffine now has replaced sulphur. 
 
 The products (substances formed) of the burning 
 match are oxide of phosphorus, oxide of sulphur, and 
 carbon dioxide and water from the carbon and hydro- 
 gen of the wood. As our coal fire burns, we have two 
 diflierent oxides of carbon formed — carbon monoxide 
 composed of one part carbon and one part oxygen, 
 and carbon dioxide having two parts oxygen to one of 
 carbon. The carbon monoxide formed in the lower 
 part of the fire rises through the burning coals, takes 
 up more oxygen at the top of the fire and forms carbon 
 dioxide. The blue flames seen over a hard coal fire 
 are caused by carbon monoxide burning. Carbon 
 dioxide does not burn, since in this form the carbon 
 holds as much oxygen as possible. The drafts and 
 dampers so regulate the supply of oxygen that the 
 fire may burn rapidly or slowly and that the harmful 
 products of combustion may be carried out of the 
 house by way of the chniiney. 
 
 Chemistry 
 of a Match 
 
 Products of 
 Combustion 
 
 Carton 
 Monoxide 
 
 29 
 
22 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOED. 
 
 Constant 
 Oomposition 
 of the Air 
 
 Elements 
 
 It might be thought that with the milUons of human 
 beings and animals and countless fires constantly usini;- 
 oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide, that the atmos- 
 phere would soon consist of a large proportion of car- 
 bon dioxide. Nature has wonderfully provided for 
 this. Carbon dioxide, which is the waste matter of 
 animals, is one of the foods of plants. Thus the trees 
 of the forest and the shrubs and plants of the garden 
 are continually taking in the carbon dioxide and giv- 
 ing out pure oxygen, so that the carbon dioxide is 
 kept at about three or four parts in 10,000 of air. 
 
 As has been said, wood consists mainly of the sub- 
 stances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, to- 
 gether with other substances in small amounts. The 
 growing tree has taken these simple substances from 
 the air and earth and stored them up in a complex form 
 as wood. 
 
 The chemist calls the simple substances out of which 
 different things are made, elements. Carbon, oxygen, . 
 nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, silver, gold, copper, 
 iron, lead, tin, mercury, zinc, aluminum are the chemi- 
 cal elements familiar to most people. When the wood 
 is burned, or oxidized, its elements are made into new 
 combinations, but in the burning no substance is de- 
 stroyed. Some of the new products are invisible, it 
 is true, but that they exist may be proved in many 
 ways. 
 
 One of the fundamental laws of chemistry is the 
 Law of Conservation of Matter (substance). This 
 may be stated as follows : The weight of all the 
 
 30 
 
COMBUSTION. 
 
 23 
 
 products made in a chemical action is exactly equal to 
 the weight of all the substances used. That is, the 
 weight of the dry wood plus the weight of the oxygen 
 required to burn it, equals the combined weight of car- 
 bon dioxide, water, and ashes produced. Matter can 
 neither be destroyed nor created — it can only be 
 changed or transformed. Scientists have reason to be- 
 lieve that there is just the same amount of oxygen, nit- 
 rogen, sulphur, iron and of all the other elements in 
 the universe at the present moment as there was at the 
 beginning of things. 
 
 A familiar form of nearly pure carbon is charcoal. 
 It is made by heating wood for a time with a very 
 small amount of air. The vola- 
 tile parts of the wood are driven 
 off, leaving the carbon. The old 
 fashioned method of making 
 charcoal is shown in Fig. ii, 
 where the burning of part of the 
 wood gave the heat necessary for 
 the making of the charcoal. At ^'^- "• c^^^^-^o^i Kim. 
 the present time, most charcoal is made by the de- 
 structive distillation of hard wood in iron stills ; the 
 products being charcoal, crude wood alcohol, crude 
 acetic acid, together with gas and wood tar, which last 
 are burned to give the heat for the process. 
 
 Charcoal is a porous substance and has the power of 
 absorbing into its pores gases and even particles of 
 
 Conservation 
 of Matter. 
 
 Charooal 
 
 31 
 
24 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 coloring matter. A few pieces of charcoal added to 
 the water in which flowers are standing, or plants 
 growing, help to keep the water sweet by absorbing the 
 impurities. Boneblack, a very finely powdered animal 
 charcoal, is used to decolorize li([uids. If it is mixed 
 with a dark- syrup, for instance, and the mixture vio- 
 lently shaken, the color will be absorbed and filtration 
 will give a nearly colorless syrup. 
 Coal Coal is formed in almost every country on the 
 
 earth, but the United States has the largest amount. 
 It was originally wood and other carbonaceous mate- 
 rial, once a part of living organism at a date of perhaps 
 millions of years ago. During these years, the earth's 
 crust has been subjected to slow upheavals and depres- 
 sions, so that in some places, what was originally at 
 the surface, has been covered with thousands of feet of 
 earthy matter, or possibly by the ocean. Under enor- 
 mous pressure, the plants have been subjected to heat 
 from the earth's interior. This is destructive distil- 
 lation on the largest scale. 
 Graphite lu tlic making of coal if this distillation is com- 
 
 plete, a substance called graphite is obtained. Graphite 
 is the black lead used in lead pencils and in stove polish. 
 It is a shiny, black mineral with a slippery feeling and 
 is nearly lOO per cent carbon. If the distillation is 
 less complete, hard coal, called anthracite containing 
 about 90 per cent carbon, results. If still less per- 
 fect, soft or bituminous coal, having varying per- 
 centages of carbon, is formed. 
 
 32 
 
COMBUSTION. 25 
 
 Where the process goes on under water, peat is p^^^ 
 found. This is partially formed coal, but little dis- 
 tilled and contains only about 40 per cent carbon. 
 
 Besides carbon, these substances are made up of 
 gases composed- of carbon and hydrogen, called hydro- 
 carbons. These gases give the yellowish and orange 
 flames in a coal fire. Pure carbon does not burn with 
 flame — it merely glows. Anthracite coal contains 
 only from 3 to 4 per cent of volatile matter, but bi- 
 tuminous coal may have 30 to 40 per cent of these 
 hydro-carbon gases. 
 
 Coke is made by the destructive distillation of soft coke 
 coal. Like charcoal, it is chiefly carbon, but contains 
 more mineral matter (ash). The coke obtained as a 
 bi-product in the manufacture of coal gas is rather soft, 
 but when coke is made as the principal product, it is 
 hard and brittle. Coke makes a very hot fire without 
 flame, but does not last as well as hard coal. The ash 
 should be allowed to accumulate in the grate when 
 burning it. Many consider it an improvement over 
 soft coal for household use and it might be used to 
 advantage more than it is. 
 
 Graphite is so hard and compact that it cannot be 
 burned. Anthracite ignites with some difliculty and 
 then burns slowly with intense heat. 
 
 Bituminous coal ignites readily and burns well when coking 
 there is sufficient draft. The "coking" variety cakes 
 over on top and the fire must be broken up to allow 
 the air to penetrate the fire. Soft coal should be put 
 on the fire in small amounts as otherwise the hydro- 
 
 33 
 
 Coal 
 
26 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 carbon gases escape unburned and thus much heat 
 value is lost. Smoke is made up of finely divided 
 particles of carbon and is always an indication of in- 
 complete combustion and, therefore, loss. 
 
 
 /'( 1 A 
 
 
 ^ V','m-'\ ) 
 
 
 p" 
 
 \r 
 
 
 ^T==T=7^^' 
 
 *««^ 
 
 „, ' 
 
 Fig. 12. Burner of a Blue Flame Oil Stove. 
 
 Oil from tank (not shown) is forced up O, Is vaporized in passing 
 through the straight tube, mixes with air at A, and burns with a blue 
 tiame at the top. 
 
 Kerosene Kcroscnc and gasoline are also important fuels. Gas 
 
 will be taken up under the subject of light. Petroleum 
 is an oily liquid found in many places in large quanti- 
 ties, particularly in Pennsylvania and Ohio. It is 
 made up almost entirely of compounds of carbon and 
 hydrogen (hydro-carbons). 
 
 When the crude petroleum from the Pennsylvania 
 district is purified by distillation and other processes, 
 the main product is kerosene. The lighter and more 
 volatile products are gasoHne, naphtha, and benzine 
 — all three having much the same composition. Gaso- 
 line is the most volatile. Among the heavier products 
 are various lubricating oils, vaseline, and paraffin. 
 
 In order to burn, kerosene must be vaporized. In 
 the new blue flame oil stoves, various devices are em- 
 
 34 
 
COMBUSTION. 
 
 27 
 
 ployed to vaporize the oil. In Fig. 12 the oil passes 
 through a tube heated by the flame, where it is changed 
 to vapor which is mixed automatically with air and is 
 then burned. Sometimes an alcohol flame is used to 
 start this process, but the flame of the burning oil 
 itself continues it. A slight pressure of air is main- 
 tained in the oil reservoir to give a constant small jet 
 of oil to be vaporized. In other styles of stoves, the 
 oil is fed automatically by gravity to a hollow ring, 
 when it becomes heated to the point that it gives vapor. 
 The vapor mixes with air and burns with a blue flame. 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 Fig. 13. Blue Flame Oil Stove, Showing Oil Reservoir and Light- 
 ing Ring. 
 
 Gasoline is burned on much the same principle as 
 kerosene. It vaporizes much more easily and the pres- 
 sure for the flow of the gasoline is furnished usually 
 by having the tank a few feet above the burner. 
 
 Blue Flame 
 Oil Stoves 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 35 
 
28 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 rJ.Mh ^^^^ measure of safety of kerosene is the temperature 
 Point ^^ which it will give off an inflammable gas. This 
 is called the flash point and is determined by heating 
 the oil slowly and observing the temperature at v^hich 
 a flash can be produced by applying a lighted taper 
 to the surface of the oil. Below the flash point, there 
 is no danger of explosion from oil. Most states in the 
 United States have a legal flash point, or a fire test, 
 below which standard kerosene cannot be sold. The 
 flash point of good kerosene is 120'' F. The fire test 
 is the temperature at which the oil will take fire and 
 burn when a light is applied. This is about 30° F 
 higher than the flash point. The ordinary tempera- 
 ture of the room is above the flash point of gasoline, 
 naphtha, benzine, etc. In other words, these sub- 
 stances are constantly giving out an inflammable vapor. 
 Fuel A comparison of the heating value of the various 
 
 fuels will be of interest. Practical tests of the amount 
 of steam produced in a steam boiler have shown that 
 one cord of ordinary wood is approximately equal to 
 one-half ton of coal ; a gallon of oil (or gasoline) is 
 equal to about twelve pounds of coal; 1,000 cubic feet 
 of coal gas is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about 
 four and one-half gallons of oil. Hard coal has a 
 little higher fuel value than soft coal, because the com- 
 bustion is commonly more perfect. Coke is nearly 
 equal to hard coal by weight, but is much more bulky. 
 It is usually sold by measure. A bushel of coke 
 weighs 40 pounds, of anthracite 67 pounds, and of soft 
 
 36 
 
FOOD. 29 
 
 coal y6 pounds. Damp wood is a much poorer fuel 
 than dry wood, because so much heat is absorbed and 
 wasted in changing the water into steam. 
 
 The heat given off by a fuel is not the only point to 
 be considered. In the cook stove, but a small portion 
 of the heat given off by the solid fuel can be used for 
 cooking, as most of it is radiated into the room or 
 carried up the chimney. In the gas or oil stove, the 
 flame may be applied exactly where it is wanted, so 
 that the proportion of heat which can be used is much 
 greater. Moreover, the flame can be shut off instantly 
 when wanted no longer and all expense stopped. On 
 the other hand, the range usually serves to heat the 
 water of the hot water system, incinerate garbage, and 
 in winter helps to heat the house. 
 
 FOOD 
 
 Having the fire well under way the housekeeper 
 turns her attention to the breakfast. A great variety 
 of chemical actions may here be considered. In the 
 first place, why must we "eat to live ?" 
 
 Wherever there is life, there is chemical change ; 
 and as a rule a certain degree of heat is necessary ^^ ^« 
 in order that chemical change may occur. Vegetation 
 does not begin in the colder climates until the air be- 
 comes warmed by the heat of the spring. When the 
 cold of winter comes upon the land vegetation ceases. 
 
 Since many animals Kve in temperatures in which 
 plants would die, it is evident that they must have some 
 
 37 
 
30 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Combustion 
 in the Body 
 
 Vital 
 Temperature 
 
 Air as 
 Food 
 
 source of heat in themselves. This is found in the 
 union of the oxygen of the air breathed with car- 
 bonaceous matter eaten as food and the formation of 
 carbon dioxide and water, just as in the combustion of 
 wood or coal. Only instead of this union taking place 
 in one spot and so rapidly as to be accompanied by 
 light, as in the case of fire, it takes place slowly and 
 continuously in each living cell. Nevertheless, the 
 chemical reaction seems to be identical. 
 
 The heat of the human body must be maintained at 
 98.5° F — the vital temperature — the temperature neces- 
 sary for the best performance of the normal functions. 
 Any continued variation from this degree of heat in- 
 dicates disease. Especially important is it that there 
 be no considerable lozvcving of this temperature, for a 
 fall of one degree is dangerous, since in that case the 
 chemical changes necessary to the body cannot be car- 
 ried out. 
 
 The slow combustion or oxidation of the carbon 
 and hydrogen of food cannot take place without an 
 abundance of oxygen ; hence the diet of the animal must 
 include fresh air — a point not always considered. 
 
 The amount of oxygen taken in by the body daily is 
 equal to the sum of all the other food elements. 
 
 Except water, two-thirds of these foods consists of 
 some form of starch or sugar — the socalled carbohy- 
 drates, in which the hydrogen and oxygen are found in 
 the same proportion as in water. 
 
 The power to do mechanical work comes from the 
 
 38 
 
FOOD. 
 
 31 
 
 combustion of fuel. The body is a living machine 
 capable of doing work, raising weights, pulling loads, 
 and the like. The animal body also requires fuel in 
 order to do such work as thinking, talking, even wor- 
 rying. For the present, then, we will say that food is 
 necessary, (i) to preserve the vital temperature and 
 (2) to enable the body-machine to do its work. 
 
 Suppose we begin our breakfast with fruit, say, an 
 orange or a banana. Fruits are especially rich in 
 sugars and these are composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen. If sugar is placed upon a stove, it will 
 melt and steam (water) will pass off into the air, 
 leaving the black charcoal (carbon) ou the stove. 
 Moreover, sugars burn easily and fiercely. We shall 
 get both heat and energy from our fruit. Within the 
 body it will be changed into water and carbon dioxide- 
 Fruits contain a large percentage of water ; but the 
 banana is capable of giving more energy and heat 'than 
 the orange, because it has much less water and more 
 sugar. Fruit loses in drying a large portion of its 
 water, so that dried fruits contain a larger percentage 
 of food materials than fresh fruits. For instance, 
 raisins are 60 per cent grape sugar. 
 
 Fruits consist of a loose net-work of a woody ma- 
 terial holding the soft pulp and this woody fibre, called 
 cellulose, is practically indigestible. Cooking softens 
 this, making cooked fruits easier to digest. 
 
 The Body 
 a Machine 
 
 Fruit 
 
 CellulosK 
 
 39 
 
Cane 
 Sugar 
 
 32 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 SUGARS AND STARCHES. 
 
 At breakfast some sugar from the sugar bowl may 
 be added to the fruit. Many people add sugar to the 
 oatmeal or other cereal eaten, although it is often held 
 by teachers of dietetics that this is not a good place to 
 use it, for proper cooking and thorough mastication of 
 the cereal will bring out a rich sweetness due to changes 
 explained later. Country boys know how sweet a 
 morsel is made by chewing raw grains, especially 
 wheat. Possibly a glass of milk is taken at breakfast 
 and this contains another kind of sugar — milk sugar — 
 in about 5 per cent. Coffee and tea are usually sweet- 
 ened, so that a considerable part of the breakfast may 
 be of this class of foods — a quickly burning material 
 giving heat and energy. 
 
 There are several different sugars recognized by 
 chemists ; these are cane sugar or sucrose, grape sugar 
 or glucose, milk sugar or lactose, and fruit sugar or 
 levulose. Cane sugar is obtained from the juices of 
 many plants, notably sugar beets, sugar cane, the 
 palm, and as maple sugar from the rock-maple trees. 
 Molasses and brown sugar are obtained during the 
 manufacture of white sugar from sugar cane. Cane 
 sugar is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen 
 in the proportion of twelve parts of carbon to eleven 
 parts of water. When sugar is heated it is chemically 
 changed, more or less, according to the degree of heat 
 and the rapidity with which it parts with its water. 
 
 40 
 
SUGARS AND STARCHES. 33 
 
 Heating it gradually, we obtain first straw colored 
 barley sugar, then brown caramel, and finally black 
 carbon. 
 
 Grape sugar is found in honey and in all ripe fruits. Grape 
 It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in some- ^"^^"^ 
 what different proportions from what they occur in 
 cane sugar. It appears on the outside of dried fruits, 
 such as raisins. It is only two-fifths as sweet as cane 
 sugar. Large quantities- are manufactured from corn 
 starch. 
 
 Milk sugar is similar to cane sugar in composition. j^^j^ 
 It is obtained from the whey of milk. It is hard ^"^^'^ 
 and gritty and not very sweet to taste. When milk 
 sours, it is because this sugar is fermented and changed 
 into lactic acid. The acid causes the milk to curdle. 
 
 Fruit sugar or levulose occurs with glucose (grape -^^.^^^ 
 sugar) in fruits. It is about as sweet as cane sugar ^"^" 
 but it does not crystallize. 
 
 A marked characteristic of all sugars is their solu- 
 bility and all but the last are crystalline substances, 
 that is, will form crystals. 
 
 At breakfast bread, toast, or some cereal like oat- 
 meal or wheat, usually follows the fruit course. 
 These foods are prepared from grains (seeds) and 
 contain much nutriment in a condensed form. They 
 supply the body with starch and some nitrogenous 
 food. But the body cannot use starch as such. It 
 must be changed into a form of sugar called starch 
 sugar, or maltose. While we are following Mr. Glad- 
 
 starch 
 
 41 
 
34 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Source 
 of Starch 
 
 stone's rule and chewing each mouthful of our toast 
 twenty-five times, we will consider what starch is like 
 and how it is made available for use. 
 
 Starch is found in greater or less abundance in all 
 plants and is laid up in large quantities in the seeds of 
 many species. See Fig. 14. Rice is nearly pure 
 starch ; wheat and the other cereals contain sixty to 
 seventy per cent of it. Some tubers, such as potatoes, 
 contain it although in less quantity — ten to twenty per 
 cent. 
 
 It is formed by means 
 of the living plant-cell 
 and the sun's rays, from 
 the carbon dioxide and 
 water contained in the 
 air and it is the end of 
 the plant - life — the 
 stored energy of ' the 
 summer. It is prepared 
 and stored by the parent 
 
 for the food for the young plant until the latter can 
 
 start its own starch factories. 
 
 Starch in its common forms is insoluble in water. It 
 dissolves partially in boiling water, forming a trans- 
 parent jelly when cooled, as every housekeeper knows. 
 The cellulose which occurs in various forms in the 
 shells and skins of fruits, in their membraneous parti- 
 tions, and in cell walls, is an allied substance. 
 
 Fig. 14. starch Much Magnified. 
 a, Potato Starch; b, Corn Starch. 
 
 42 
 
SUGARS AND STARCHES. 
 
 35 
 
 DIGESTION 
 
 Digestion is primarily synonymous with solution. 
 All solid food materials must become practically solu- 
 ble before they can pass through the walls of the di- 
 gestive system. Starch and like materials must be 
 transformed into soluble substances before absorption 
 can take place. Cane-sugar, though soluble, has to 
 undergo chemical change before it can be absorbed. 
 By these changes it is converted into grape and fruit 
 sugars. These and milk sugar are taken directly or 
 with little change into the circulation. To this- fact is 
 due a large part of the great nutritive value of the 
 dried fruits, as raisins, dates, and figs, and the advan- 
 tage of milk-sugar over cane-sugar for children or in- 
 valids. 
 
 Under certain conditions — weakened digestive power 
 or excess of sugar — cane-sugar may remain so long 
 in the stomach before the change takes place that fer- 
 mentation sets in and a "sour stomach" results. This 
 is one of the dangers of too much candy. 
 
 The chemical transformations of starch and sugar 
 have been very carefully and scientifically studied with 
 reference to brewing and wine-making. Several of 
 the operations concerned necessitate great precision in 
 respect to temperature and length of time, and these 
 operations bear a close resemblance to the process 
 of bread-making by means of yeast. 
 
 There are two distinct means known to the chemist 
 by which starch is changed to sugar. One is by the 
 
 Digestion 
 of Starch 
 
 Starch 
 Conversion 
 
 43 
 
Ferments 
 
 Conversion 
 in the Body 
 
 36 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 use of acid and heat, which changes the starch into 
 sugar, but can go no farther. The other is by the use 
 of a class of substances called ferments, some of which 
 have the power of changing starch into sugar, and 
 others of changing the sugar into alcohol and carbon 
 dioxide. These ferments are very important in all 
 vesfetable and animal life. Some are formed bv small 
 plants like yeast, which is often present in the air. 
 
 Fig. 15- 
 
 Among the well known ferments is one formed in 
 sprouting grain, which is called diastase or starch con- 
 verter, and under the influence of warmth, changes the 
 starch into a sugar. The starch first 
 takes up water ; then under the in- 
 fluence of the ferment, is changed 
 into maltose, a form of sugar 
 which is easily soluble in water. A 
 similar process is carried on in the 
 preparation of the malted foods on 
 the market. 
 
 The same cycle of chemical changes goes on in the 
 human body when starchy substances are taken as 
 food. Such food is moistened with saliva and warmed 
 in the mouth, becoming well mixed through mastica- 
 tion. It thereby becomes impregnated with pfyalin, 
 a ferment in the saliva, which can change starch into 
 sugar, as can the diastase of the malt. The mass then 
 passes into the stomach and the change, once begun, 
 goes on. In the intestines the sugar formed is absorbed 
 into the circulatory system and by the life proc- 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Yeast Highly 
 
 Magnified. 
 
 44 
 
COOKING. 
 
 37 
 
 esses, is oxidized, that is, united with more oxygen 
 and changed finally into carbon dioxide and water, 
 
 from which it v/as made by the help of plant life and 
 sun light. 
 
 No starch is utilized in the human system as starch. 
 It must undergo transformation before it can be ab- 
 sorbed. Therefore, starchy foods must not be given to 
 children before the secretion of the starch converting 
 ferments has begun, nor to any one in any disease 
 where the normal action of the glands secreting these 
 ferments is interrupted. Whatever starch passes out 
 of the stomach unchanged, meets with a very active 
 converter in the intestinal juice. If grains of starch 
 escape these two agents, they leave the system in the 
 same form as that in which thev entered it. 
 
 Digestion 
 of Starch 
 
 COOKING 
 
 Early man, probably, lived much like the beasts, 
 taking his food in a raw state. Civilized man requires 
 much of the raw material to be changed by the action 
 of heat into substances more palatable and already 
 partly digested. 
 
 The chemistry of cooking the raw materials is very 
 simple. It is in the mixing of incongruous materials 
 in one dish or one meal that complications arise. 
 
 The cooking of starch, as rice, farina, etc., requires 
 little explanation. The starch grains are prepared by 
 the plant to keep during a season of cold or drought 
 and are very close and compact ; they need to be 
 
 Cooking 
 of Starch 
 
 45 
 
38 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 swollen and distended by moisture in order that the 
 chemical change may take place readily. Starch grains 
 may increase to twenty-five times their bulk by absorb- 
 • ing water. 
 
 The cooking of the potato and other starch-contain- 
 ing vegetables, although largely a physical or mechani- 
 cal process is very necessary as a preparation for the 
 chemical actions of digestion ; for raw starch has been 
 shown to require a far longer time and more digestive 
 power than cooked starch. Change takes place slowly, 
 even with thorough mastication, unless the starch is 
 swollen and heated, and, in case the intestinal secre- 
 tion is disturbed, the starch may not become converted 
 at all. 
 
 Bread O^r brcakfast will undoubtedly contain bread. 
 
 Bread of some kind has been used by mankind from 
 the first dawn of civilization. During the earlier 
 stages it consisted chiefly of powdered meal and water 
 baked in the sun or on hot stones. This kind of bread 
 had the same characteristics as the modern sea-biscuit, 
 crackers, and hoe cakes, as far as digestibility was 
 concerned. It had great density ; it was difficult to 
 masticate ; and the starch in it presented but little 
 more surface to the digestive fluids than that in the 
 hard compact grain, the seed of the plant. 
 
 Experience must have taught the semi-civilized man 
 that a light porous loaf was more digestible than a 
 dense one. Probably some dough was accidentally left 
 exposed ; yeast plants settled upon it from the air ; 
 
 46 
 
COOKING. 39 
 
 fermentation set in, and the possibility of porous bread 
 was thus suggested. 
 
 A Hght, spongy, crisp bread with a sweet, pleasant ideal 
 taste, is not only aesthetically but chemically con- 
 sidered the best form in which starch can be presented 
 to the digestive organs. The porous condition is de- 
 sired in order that as large a surface as possible may 
 be presented to the action of the chemical converter, 
 the pty^lin of the saliva, and later to other digestive 
 ferments. There is also better aeration during the 
 process of mastication. 
 
 Very early in the history of the human race, leavened leaven 
 bread seems to have been used. This was made by *''* ^®*** 
 allowing flour and water to stand in a warm place until 
 fermentation had well set in. A portion of this dough 
 was used to start the process anew in fresh portions of 
 flour and water. This kind of bread had to be made 
 with great care, for germs different from yeast might 
 get in, forming lactic acid — the acid of sour milk — 
 and other substances unpleasant to the taste and harm- 
 ful to the digestion. 
 
 A sponge made from perfectly pure yeast and kept 
 pure may stand for a long time after it is ready for 
 the oven and still show no signs of sourness. 
 
 On account of the disagreeable taste of leaven and 
 because of the possibility that the dough might reach 
 the stage of putrid fermentation, chemists and physi- 
 cians sought for some other means of rendering the 
 bread light and porous. The search began almost as 
 
 47 
 
Chemistry of 
 
 40 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 soon as chemistry was worthy the name of a science, 
 and one of the early patents bears the date 1873. Much 
 time and thought have been devoted to the perfecting 
 of unfermented bread; but since the process of beer- 
 making has been universally introduced, yeast has 
 been readily obtained, and is an effectual means of giv- 
 ing to the bread a porous character and a pleasant 
 taste. Since the chemistry of the yeast fermentation 
 has been better understood, a change of opinions has 
 come about, and nearly all scientific and medical men 
 now recommend fermented bread, if well baked. 
 
 The chemical reactions concerned in bread-making 
 Bread-Making ^j.^ similar to thosc iu beer-making. To the flour and 
 warmed \yater is added yeast, a microscopic plant, 
 capable of causing the alcoholic fermentation. The 
 yeast begins to act at once, but slowly ; more rapidly 
 if sugar has been added and the dough is a semi-fluid. 
 Without the addition of sugar no change is evident to 
 the eye for some hours, as the fermentation of starch 
 to sugar by the diastase present gives no gaseous 
 products. The sugar is decomposed by the yeast plant 
 into alcohol and the gas, carbon dioxide ; the latter 
 product makes itself known by the swelling of the 
 whole mass and the bubbles which appear on the sur- 
 face. 
 
 It is the carbon dioxide, which causes the sponge- 
 like condition of the loaf by reason of the peculiar 
 tenacity of the gluten, one of the constituents of wheat. 
 It is a well-known fact that no other kind of grain will 
 
 48 
 
COOKING. 
 
 41 
 
 make so light a bread as wheat. It is the right pro- 
 portion of gluten (a nitrogenous substance to be con- 
 sidered later) which enables the light loaf to be made 
 of wheat flour. 
 
 The production of carbon dioxide is the end of the 
 chemical process. The rest is purely mechanical. 
 
 The baking of the loaf has for its object to kill the 
 ferment, to heat the starch sufficiently to render it 
 easily soluble, to expand the carbon dioxide and drive 
 off the alcohol, to stiffen the gluten, and to make chem- 
 ical changes which shall give a pleasant flavor to the 
 crust. The oven must be hot enough to raise the tem- 
 perature of the inside of the loaf to 212° F, or the 
 bacteria will not all be killed. A pound loaf, four 
 inches by four inches by nine inches long, may be 
 baked three-quarters of an hour in an oven where the 
 temperature is 400'' F, or for an hour and a half, when 
 the temperature during the time does not rise above 
 350° F. Quick baking gives a white loaf, because the 
 starch has undergone but little change. .The long, 
 slow baking gives a yellow tint, with the desirable 
 nutty flavor, and crisp crust. Different flavors in 
 bread are supposed to be caused by the different 
 varieties of yeast used or by bacteria, which are pres- 
 ent in all doughs, as ordinarily prepared. 
 
 The brown coloration of the crust, which gives a 
 peculiar flavor to the loaf, is caused by the formation 
 of substances analogous to dextrine and caramel, due 
 to the high heat to which the starch is subjected. 
 
 Object of 
 Baking 
 
 The Crust 
 
 49 
 
42 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 One hundred pounds of flour are said to make from 
 126 to 150 pounds of bread. This increase of weight 
 is due to the incorporation of water, possibly by a 
 chemical union, as the water does not dry out of a loaf, 
 as it does out of a sponge. The bread seems moist when 
 first taken from the oven, and dry after standing some 
 hours, but the weight will be found to be nearly the 
 same. It is this probable chemical change which makes 
 the difference, to delicate stomachs, between fresh 
 bread and stale. A thick loaf is best when eaten after 
 it is twenty-four hours old, although it is said to be 
 "done" when ten hours have passed. Thin biscuit do 
 not show the same ill effects when eaten hot. 
 
 The bread must be well baked in any case, in order 
 that the process of fermentation may be stopped. If 
 this be stopped and the mastication be thorough, so 
 that the bread when swallowed is in finely divided por- 
 tions instead of in a mass or ball, the digestibility of 
 fresh and stale bread is about the same. 
 
 Water The cxpausiou of water or ice into more than seven- 
 teen hundred times its volume of steam is sometimes 
 taken advantage of in making snow-bread, water-gems, 
 etc. It plays a part in the lightening of pastry and 
 crackers. 
 
 Air, at 70 degrees, doubles its volume at a tempera- 
 ture of 560 degrees F, so that if air is entangled in a 
 mass of dough, it gives a certain lightness when the 
 whole is baked. This is the cause of the sponginess 
 of cakes made with eggs. The viscous albumen or 
 
 50 
 
COOKING. 
 
 43 
 
 ''white of egg" catches the air and holds it, even when 
 it is expanded, unless the oven is too hot, when the 
 sudden expansion is liable to burst the bubbles and the 
 cake falls. 
 
 FATS 
 
 If cream instead of milk is used on the cereal or in 
 the coffee, this with the butter on the bread, will add 
 a considerable amount of another important food, 
 fat. Fats form a large class of food stuffs which in- 
 clude the animal fats like cream, butter, suet, lard, 
 cod liver oil and tallow, and vegetable fats like olive 
 and cotton-seed oils, etc. Within the animal body ail 
 fats are liquids, being held in little cells which make 
 up the fatty tissue. 
 
 The digestion of fats is probably something like a 
 process of soap making. With the intestinal fluids, 
 the bile especially, the fats form an emulsion in which 
 the globules are finely divided, and in some way are 
 rendered capable of passing through the membranes 
 into the circulatory system. The change, if any, does 
 not destroy the properties of the fatty matters. 
 
 If we define cooking as the application of heat, then 
 whatever we do to fats in the line of cooking is liable 
 to hinder rather than help digestibility. 
 
 Fats may be heated to a temperature far above that 
 of boiling water without showing any change ; but 
 there comes a point, different for each fat, where re- 
 actions take place, the products of which irritate the 
 mucous membranes and therefore interfere with diges- 
 
 Digestion 
 of Fats 
 
 Cooking: 
 of Fats 
 
 51 
 
44 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Composition 
 of Fats 
 
 Heat from 
 Fats 
 
 tion. It is the volatile products of such decomposition 
 which cause the famiUar action upon the eyes and 
 throat during the process of frying, and also, the tell- 
 tale odors throughout the house. The indigestibility of 
 fatty foods, or foods cooked in fat, is due to these 
 harmful substances produced by too high temperature. 
 
 Many fats are solid at ordinary temperatures, while 
 others are always liquids, but all fatty materials have 
 a similar composition. When pure they contain only 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They differ from 
 starch and sugar in the proportion of oxygen to the 
 carbon and hydrogen, there being very little oxygen 
 relatively in fats, hence more must be taken from the 
 air for their combustion. If persons eat much fat they 
 must have more fresh air to burn it. A person confined 
 to the house needs to be careful what fats, and how 
 much, are taken. 
 
 One pound of starch requires one and two-tenths 
 pounds of oxygen, while one pound of suet requires 
 about three pounds of oxygen for perfect combustion. 
 This combustion of oxygen with the large amount of 
 hydrogen, as well as with the carbon, results in a 
 greater quantity of heat from fat, pound for pound, 
 than can be obtained from starch or sugar. Experi- 
 ments indicate that the fats yield more than twice as 
 much heat as the carbohydrates ; hence people in 
 Arctic regions use large amounts of fat and every- 
 where the diet of winter may safely contain more fat 
 than that of summer. 
 
 52 
 
NITROGENOUS FOODS. 
 
 45 
 
 Both fats and carbohydrates are the sources of the 
 energy or work done by the body as well as the heat 
 to keep up the vital temperature and they must be 
 increased in proportion as the mechanical work of the 
 body increases. A man breaking stone needs more fat 
 or starch than the student. If a quantity is taken at 
 any one time greater than the body needs for im- 
 mediate work, the surplus will be deposited as fat, and 
 this will be drawn in case of a lack in the future sup- 
 ply of either ; it is like a bank account. 
 
 Food 
 
 a Source 
 
 of Energy 
 
 NITROGENOUS FOODS 
 
 The animal body is more than a machine. It re- 
 quires fuel to enable it not only to work but also to 
 live, even without working. A part of the food eaten 
 must go to maintain the body, for while the inani- 
 mate machine is sent periodically to the repair-shop, the 
 living machine must do its own repairing, day by day 
 and minute by minute. 
 
 The adult animal lives, repairs waste, and does 
 work ; while the young animal does all these and more 
 — it grows. For growth and repairs something else 
 is needed beside starch and fat. 
 
 The muscles are the instruments of motion, and 
 they must be nourished in order that they may have 
 power. The nourishment is carried to them by the 
 blood in which, as well as in muscular tissue, there 
 is found a food element which we have not heretofore 
 considered, namely, nitrogen. It has been proved that 
 the use of the muscles and the brain sets free certain 
 
 Nitrogen 
 Necessary 
 
 53 
 
46 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Proteids 
 
 Gelatinoids 
 
 nitrogenous compounds which pass out of the system 
 as such, 'and this loss must be supplied by the use of 
 some kind of food which contains nitrogen. Starch 
 and fat do not contain this element ; therefore they 
 cannot furnish it to the blood. 
 
 The American breakfast will probably include meat, 
 fish, or eggs. These are examples of the nitrogenous 
 food-stufifs. Nitrogenous food compounds are some- 
 times classed together under the name of proteins. 
 These may be divided into proteids, gelatinoids, and 
 extractives. 
 
 The proteids all resemble albumin, which is found 
 nearly jnire in the white of an Qgg. These in some 
 form are never absent from animal and vegetable or- 
 ganisms. They are most abundant in animal flesh and 
 in the blood. Other common articles of diet belong- 
 ing to this group in addition to albumin, are the curd 
 of milk (casein), tlie lean of animal flesh and fish 
 and gluten of wheat, and the legumin of peas and 
 beans. The proteids are the most important nitro- 
 genous food materials. They build up and repair the 
 muscles, tendons, cartilage, bones', and skin and supply 
 the albumin of the blood and other fluids of the body. 
 
 The animal skeleton — horns, bones, cartilage, con- 
 nective tissues, etc. — contains nitrogenous com- 
 pounds which are converted by boiling into substances 
 that form with water a jelly-like mass. These are 
 known as the irelatinoids and are so named because of 
 
 their resemblance to gelatin. 
 
 Although somewhat 
 
 54 
 
NITROGENOUS FOODS. 
 
 47 
 
 similar to the proteids in composition they are not 
 thought to be true flesh formers. However, they do 
 help out the proteids in some unknown way. 
 
 The chief constituent of the connective tissues of 
 meats is collagen. This is insoluble in cold water, but 
 in hot water becomes soluble and yields gelatin. Col- 
 lagen swells when heated and when treated with 
 dilute acids. Steak increases in bulk when placed 
 over the coals, and tough meat is rendered tender by 
 soaking in vinegar. Meat a few days old is tough, 
 for the collagen is dry and hard. In time it becomes 
 softened by acids which are secreted by bacteria either 
 in or on the meat ; the meat thus becomes tender and 
 easily masticated. Tannic acid has the opposite effect 
 upon collagen, hardening and shrinking it. This ef- 
 fect is taken advantage of in tanning, and is the dis- 
 advantage of boiled tea as a beverage, since tea always 
 contains a little of this tannic acid when freshly made 
 and much more if the tea is boiled. 
 
 The last class of nitrogenous compounds are the 
 extractives, so called because they are readily extracted 
 by water from meat where they principally occur. The 
 proteins of this class are thought to have little value 
 as food, but they give the flavor to meats, etc., and are 
 therefore of great importance. They are stimulants, 
 somewhat of the nature of caft'ein of coffee and the 
 thein of tea. 
 
 Collagen 
 
 Extractives 
 
 55 
 
4B CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 COOKING OF NITROGENOUS FOOD-STUFFS. 
 
 Cooking should render nitrogenous food more solu- 
 ble because here, as in every case, digestibility means 
 solubility. Egg albumin is soluble in cold water, bur 
 coagulates at about i6o° F. At this point it is ten- 
 der, jelly-like, and easily digested, while at a higher 
 temperature it becomes tough, hard and dissolves with 
 difficulty. Therefore, when the white of tgg (al- 
 bumin), the curd of milk (casein), or the gluten of 
 wheat are hardened by heat, a much longer time is 
 required to effect solution. 
 
 Albumin As prcviously stated, Qgg albumin is tender and 
 
 jelly-like when heated from i6o° F to i8o° F. This 
 fact should never be forgotten in the cooking of eggs. 
 Raw eggs are easily digested and are rich in nutri- 
 ment ; when heated just enough to coagulate the al- 
 bumin or "the white," their digestibility is not ma- 
 terially lessened ; but when boiled, the albumin is 
 rendered much less soluble. 
 
 In frying eggs, the fat often reaches a temperature 
 of 300° or over — far above that at which the albumin 
 becomes tough, hard, and well-nigh insoluble. 
 
 There is much albumin in the blood, therefore the 
 juices of meat extracted in cold water form a weak 
 albuminous solution. If this be heated to the right 
 temperature the albumin is coagulated and forms the 
 "scum" which many a cook skims off and throws away. 
 In doing this she wastes a portion of the nutriment. 
 
 56 
 
NITROGENOUS J'OODS. 49 
 
 Experiments on the digestibility of gluten have Gluten 
 proved that a high temperature largely decreases its 
 solubility. Subjected to artificial digestion for the 
 same length of time, nearly two and one-half times 
 as much nitrogen was dissolved from the raw gluten 
 as from that which had been baked. 
 
 When gluten is combined with starch, as in the 
 cereals, the difficulties of correct cooking are many, 
 for the heat which increases the digestibility of the 
 starch decreases that of the gluten. 
 
 Experiment.- The gluten in wheat flour may be ob- 
 tained as follows : Place half a cupful of flour in a 
 muslin bag and knead under water. The starch will 
 work out through the bag. After a time all the starch 
 may be so separated. A brown, elastic, stringy mass 
 remains in the muslin. This is gluten, the nitrogenous 
 part of the flour. 
 
 The same principle of cooking applies to casein of casein 
 milk, although to a less extent. There seems to be no 
 doubt that boiling decreases its solubility, and con- 
 sequently, its digestibility for persons of delicate di- 
 gestive power. 
 
 The nitrogenous substances of meat consist of solu- Meat 
 ble albumin, chiefly in the blood and juices, the al- 
 buminoids of the fibres, the gelatinoids of the connect- 
 ing tissues, and the extractives. The cooking should 
 soften and loosen the connective tissue, so that the lit- 
 tle bundle of fibre which contains the nutriment may 
 fall apart easily when brought in contact with the 
 
 57 
 
50 
 
 CHIiMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Broth 
 
 and 
 
 Soup 
 
 Effdct of 
 
 Temperature 
 
 on M-iat 
 
 teeth. Any process which toughens and hardens the 
 meat should be avoided. 
 
 When it is desired to retain the juices within the 
 meat or fish, it should be placed in boiling water so 
 that the albumin of the surface may be hardened and 
 prevent the escape of the albumin of the interior. The 
 temperature should then be lowered and kept between 
 1 60 and 180 degrees during the time needed for the 
 complete breaking down of the connective tissues. 
 
 When the nutriment is to be used in broths, stews, 
 or soups, the meat should be placed in cold water, heat- 
 ing very slowly and the temperature not allowed to 
 rise above 180° F until the extraction is complete. The 
 extracted meat still retains the greater part of its 
 original proteid substances. It is tasteless and un- 
 hiviting, but when combined with vegetables and 
 flavoring materials may be made into a palatable and 
 nutritious food. 
 
 Experiment. To show the effect of water at dif- 
 ferent temperatures upon raw meat, place a bit of lean 
 meat about as large as the finger in a glass of cold 
 water and let it stand an hour. The water becomes 
 red, and the meat grows white. Pour off this water 
 and boil it. A scum rises to the surface. The albu- 
 min dissolved has been rendered insoluble by heat. 
 
 Put a bit of raw meat into boiling water, and boil it 
 hard several minutes. The meat is toughened by the 
 process. The outside of the meat is hardened first, 
 and very little of the nutriment dissolves in the water. 
 
 58 
 
of Proteids 
 
 FOOD. 51 
 
 Put the meat into cold water and bring the tem- 
 perature slowly to the boiling point ; then allow it to 
 simmer gently for some time. The meat is tender, and 
 some of the nutriment is in the water. This is the 
 method employed in making a stew. A little fat which 
 is always present even between the fibre of the lean 
 meat will be melted out and rise to the top of the 
 water. 
 
 We have seen that the ferment in the saliva changed Digestion 
 the starch into a sugar. The ferment in the gastric 
 juice, pepsin, with the help of an acid (principally 
 hydrochloric acid) changes the albuminoids into pep- 
 tones in the stomach. This change is completed in the 
 intestines. The peptones are soluble in water and are 
 absorbed into the blood. 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE EFFECTS OF COOKING 
 
 The object of all cooking is to make the food-stuffs 
 more palatable or more digestible, or both combined. 
 In general, the starchy foods are rendered more di- 
 gestible by cooking ; the albuminous and fatty foods 
 less digestible. The appetite of civilized man craves 
 and custom encourages the putting together of raw 
 materials of such diverse chemical composition that 
 the processes of cooking are also made complex. 
 
 Bread — the staff of life — requires a high degree of 
 heat to kill the plant-life, and long baking to prepare 
 the starch for solution ; while, by the same process, 
 the gluten is made less soluble. Fats, alone, are easily 
 digested, but in the ordinary method of frying, they 
 
 59 
 
52 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Effect on 
 Solubility 
 
 Common 
 
 Salt 
 
 not only may become decomposed themselves, and 
 therefore injurious ; but they also prevent the necessary 
 action of heat, or of the digestive ferments upon the 
 starchy materials with which the fats are mixed. 
 
 The effects of cooking upon the solubility of the 
 three important food-principles may be broadly stated 
 thus : 
 
 Starchy foods are made more soluble by long cook- 
 ing at moderate temperatures or by heat high enough 
 to change a portion of the starch to dextrine, as in 
 the brown crust of bread. 
 
 Nitrogenous foods. The animal and vegetable al- 
 bumins are made less soluble by heat ; the gelatinoids 
 more soluble. 
 
 Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition, 
 but are decomposed at very high temperatures and 
 their products become irritants. 
 
 MINERAL MATTER 
 
 The remaining ingredient of the food of our break- 
 fast to be considered is the mineral matter which con- 
 stitutes the ash when food-products are burned. There 
 is only 5 or 6 per cent of mineral elements in our bod- 
 ies, but these materials are necessary to life and health. 
 They are found chiefly in the bones and teeth, but are 
 present also in the flesh, blood, and other fluids. Phos- 
 phate of calcium forms the principal mineral part of 
 the bones. 
 
 The food we eat contains a small amount of mineral 
 matter which forms the ashes when food is burned. 
 
 GO 
 
MINERAL MATTER. 53 
 
 This mineral matter gives the body the mineral salts 
 which it needs ; but in addition to this, most people de- 
 sire and eat a considerable quantity of common salt 
 every day. The amount eaten is far in excess of the 
 sodium and chlorine the body requires, though sodium 
 is an important constituent of many of the fluids of the 
 body, and chlorine is found in hydrochloric acid of the 
 gastric juice, the digestive fluid of the stomach. A 
 great diversity of opinion exists as to the desirability 
 of much salt in the diet, but the balance of evidence in- 
 dicates that a liberal amount of salt is not harmful, but 
 rather beneficial. 
 
 Experiment. To show the mnieral part of bones, 
 place a moderate sized bone on a hot coal fire for half 
 an hour or longer. 
 
 To show the gelatinoids of bones, place a small bone 
 in a shallow dish and cover with strong vinegar or 
 weak hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) and let stand 
 over night or longer. The acid will dissolve out the 
 phosphate of calcium leaving the animal matter. 
 
 Coffee, an important part of the breakfast to most Flavor 
 people, introduces an important feature of the chem- 
 istry of cooking — the production of the proper flavor. 
 The chemical changes involved are too subtile for ex- 
 planation here — indeed many are not understood. The 
 change in the coffee berry by roasting is a familiar il- 
 lustration. The heat of the fire causes the breaking 
 up of a substance existing in the berry, and the forma- 
 tion of several new ones. If the heat is not suflicient, 
 
 61 
 
 Production 
 
54 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 the right odor will not be given ; if it is too great, the 
 aroma will be dissipated into the air, or the compound 
 will be destroyed. 
 
 Broiling steak is another illustration — a few seconds 
 too long, a few degrees too hot, and the delicate morsel 
 becomes an irritating mass. The chemistry of flavor- 
 producing is the application of heat to the food material 
 in such a way as to bring about the right changes and 
 only these. Flavors in addition to the pleasure they 
 give to eating have the advantage of stimulating the 
 flow of digestive fluids and making digestion more 
 easy. 
 
 DECAY 
 
 The clearing away of the breakfast introduces to the 
 housekeep'^r two important problems: — (i) the pres- 
 ervation of the remaining food from decay; (2) the 
 proper cleaning of the articles used during the meal 
 and its preparation. 
 
 Decay is caused by minute vegetable organisms 
 known as moulds and bacteria. Both are present in 
 the air either as the plants themselves or as their 
 spores, the reproductive cells, ready to grow whenever 
 they fall upon suitable soil. When these grow upon 
 animal or vegetable substances, a variety of new com- 
 pounds are formed, many of them taking oxygen from 
 the air, so that finally the carbon becomes carbon diox- 
 ide, the hydrogen is oxydized to form water, and the 
 other elements in their turn also become oxides, so 
 that the decaying substance is utterly destroyed and 
 
 62 
 
Decay Not 
 
 DECAY. . 55 
 
 new substances made in its place. When organic sub- 
 stances are protected from the action of these living 
 plants, decay will not ensue. 
 
 The old idea was that oxygen caused decay, but 
 many experiments disprove this. Oxys^en alone does caused by 
 
 -^ ^ . ^ /^ . Oxygen Alone 
 
 not produce this result, but oxygen with "germs" will 
 do so. These "germs" develop much more slowly in 
 the cold, so that food is placed in the refrigerator or 
 in a cool place and away from the dust. 
 
 The problems introduced by these living plants, their 
 life history and their work, as well as the methods of 
 prevention and care against their ravages, belong 
 rather to household bacteriology than to chemistry. 
 We are ready therefore to pass on to our next prob- 
 lem, that of cleaning. 
 
 63 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 PART I, 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first 
 sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
 side of the sheet only. Do not copy ansivcrs from the lesson 
 paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may kno',N 
 that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num- 
 ber of times before attempting to answer the questions. 
 
 1. What do you understand a "chemical element" to 
 
 be? Name all that you have ever seen. 
 
 2. What is a ''saturated solution?" 
 
 Name the substances usually found in the 
 house which are soluble in water. 
 
 3. What causes atmospheric pressure? Explain 
 
 some effects of it. 
 
 4. Why must the diet of animals include fresh air ? 
 
 5. Explain the effect of cooking on starch, (b) On 
 
 fats, (c) On proteids. 
 
 6. What are the products of combustion in burning 
 
 coal or wood? 
 
 7. What is meant by "conservation of matter?" 
 
 8. How can the boiling point of water be raised? 
 
 How may it be lowered? 
 
 64 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 9. V/hat is meant when it is said that a chemical 
 substance always has the same composition ? 
 
 10. What is "latent heat?" 
 
 11. What can you say of the composition of meat? 
 
 12. Explain the physical and chemical changes which 
 
 starch must undergo before it is absorbed into 
 the circulation. 
 
 13. What can you say of the chemistry of bread- 
 
 making ? 
 
 14. Why is distilled water pure? 
 
 15. Explain the composition of water. 
 
 16. Describe the chemistry of a sulphur match. 
 
 17. How is charcoal prepared ? How is coke made ? 
 
 18. Why does the proportion of carbon dioxide in the' 
 
 atmosphere not increase? 
 
 19. In what different ways is food used in the body? 
 
 20. Do you understand all parts of this lesson paper ? 
 
 If not, what part is not clear ? 
 
 Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 
 
 65 
 
o o I o o 
 
 o o\i<\j o o 
 o o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 A MECHANICAL WASHING DEVICE 
 
 Made to fit in the bottom of a wash boiler. The formation of 
 
 steam forces the hot, soapy water up the spouts, 
 
 over and through the clothes. 
 
 ROTARY TYPE OF WASHER 
 
 Piston Water Motor Attached 
 
 "1900" WASHER 
 Electrically Driven 
 
 66 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 A Day's Chemistry 
 PART II, 
 
 CLEANING 
 
 The cleaning of the dishes, silver, cutlery, and linen 
 introduces a great variety of chemical problems. The 
 subject of the chemistry of cleaning may well include 
 with the daily task of dishwashing, the equally im- 
 portant ones of house cleaning and laundry work. 
 
 The various processes of housework give rise to 
 many volatile substances, such as the vapor of water 
 or fat. If not carried out of the house in their vapor- 
 ous state these cool and settle upon all exposed sur- 
 faces, whether walls, furniture, or fabrics. This thin 
 film entangles and holds the dust, clouding and soil- 
 ing with a layer more or less visible everything within 
 the house. The fires and lights give out smoky de- 
 posits of incomplete combustion. The dishes are soiled 
 with waste from all kinds of foods — starch, grease, al- 
 bumin, milk, gums, or gelatines and the juices of 
 fruits. 
 
 Dust alone might be removed from most surfaces 
 with a damp or even with a dry cloth, or from fabrics 
 by vigorous shaking or brushing ; but usually the 
 greasy or sugary deposits must first be broken up and 
 the dust thus set free. This must be accomplished 
 without harm to the material which is dirty. 
 
 67 
 
56 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Cleaning, then, involves two processes: (i) the 
 greasy or gummy film must be broken up, that the 
 entangled dust and dirt may be set free; (2) the dust 
 must be removed by mechanical means. 
 
 We will have occasion to use alkalis for cleaning and 
 acids for removing stains and it will be well to consid- 
 er what is meant by the terms, acid, alkali, and salt. 
 
 ^^ An acid is a substance with an acid or sour taste 
 
 ^^^^ and having the property of changing certain vegetable 
 colors. A substance much used in testing for acids is 
 litmus, 2l kind of fungus, giving a blue solution in 
 water. Paper soaked in litmus solution and dried is 
 knowni as test paper or litmus paper. It can be bought 
 at any druggist's. This paper is turned red by the 
 presence of any acid, even in the most minute quantity. 
 An acid will cause effervescence with a carbonate like 
 cooking soda or washing soda. 
 
 ^n An alkali is a substance often having a soapy taste, 
 a slippery feeling if strong, and the property of turn- 
 ing red litmus, blue. 
 
 Alkalies will neutralize the effects of acids. If an 
 acid be added very carefully to an alkaline solution, 
 there comes a point where the mixture will change the 
 color of litmus in neither direction. The solution is 
 neither acid nor alkaline, and is said to be neutraL 
 If we make a weak solution of the acid sold at the 
 drug stores as muriatic acid, and add to this very care- 
 fully a weak solution of caustic soda, until the solu- 
 tion is neutral, we shall find that the neutral solution 
 
 Alkali 
 
 68 
 
CLEANING. 57 
 
 will taste like table salt. In fact, we have made com- 
 mon salt in this way. 
 
 A chemical salt is a substance obtained by neutraliz- ^ sait 
 ing an acid with an alkali or otherwise — a substance 
 that is usually neutral and will turn the color of neither 
 red nor blue litmus paper. 
 
 All acids contain the element hydrogen, which can 
 often be driven out and replaced by a metal placed in 
 the acid. If we drop a bit of zinc into some muriatic 
 acid, tiny bubbles of hydrogen begin to escape. The 
 zinc joins the remainder of the acid, making a 
 new substance. This new substance is the metallic 
 salt, called muriate (or chloride) of zinc. Muriatic 
 acid is also called hydrochloric acid. Thus a salt re- 
 sults from neutralizing an acid with a metal. If oxide 
 of zinc, a white powder, has been used in place of the 
 metal, the same salt, chloride of zinc, would have been 
 made ; but no hydrogen gas would have come off, for 
 the hydrogen of the acid would unite with oxygen of 
 the oxide and form water. 
 
 Grease or fats, called oils when liquid at ordinary Fats 
 temperature, are chemical compounds made of carbon, ous 
 oxygen, and hydrogen combined in many different 
 ways, but all contain an ingredient of an acid nature 
 known to the chemist as a fatty acid. The fatty acid 
 base is combined with glycerine in the common fats. 
 
 Strong alkaline substances will break up fats into 
 their parts and combine with the fatty acid, thus 
 making soap. 
 
 69 
 
Alkali 
 Metals 
 
 58 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 The elements which form strong alkaHs are the 
 "alkali metals." The common elements of this group 
 are sodium and potassium. There is also ammonium 
 which is not an element, but a combination of nitrogen 
 and hydrogen ; it acts, however, like an alkali metal. 
 
 When an element unites with water in a certain way 
 it is called a hydrate or hydroxide. The hydrate of 
 ammonium — aqua ammonia or ammonia — is known as 
 the "Volatile alkali" because it evaporates sO easily. 
 It is valuable for use in all cleansing operations — in 
 the kitchen, the laundry, the bath, in the washing of 
 delicate fabrics, and in other cases where its property 
 of evaporation, without leaving any residue to attack 
 the fabric or to absorb anything from the air, is in- 
 valuable. 
 
 Caustic The hydrates of potassium and sodium are called 
 
 ^and caustic potash and caustic soda, respectively, or the 
 
 p*o"ta8h caustic alkalis or "lyes" because they "burn" animal 
 
 tissues. These combine readily with fats to form 
 
 compounds which we call soaps. 
 
 Most of the fats are soluble in turpentine, ether, 
 chloroform, naphtha, or kerosene, and somewhat in 
 alcohol. That is, the fats are dissolved unchanged, 
 just as salt is taken up by water. These form solvents 
 for greases more or less valuable according to con- 
 ditions. 
 
 If the housekeeper's problem were the simple one 
 of removing the grease alone, she would solve it by the 
 free use of one of the solvents or bv some of the strone: 
 
 70 
 
Soap 
 
 CLEANING. 59 
 
 alkalis. This is what the painter does when he is 
 called to repaint or to refinish ; but the housewife 
 wishes to preserve the finish or the fabric while she 
 removes the dirt. She must, then, choose those ma- 
 terials which will dissolve or unite with the grease 
 without injury to the article cleaned. 
 
 Soap is by all odds the safest and most useful 
 cleaning agent. It is made from most of the common 
 animal and vegetable fats and oils, as tallow, suet, lard, 
 cotton seed oil and cocoanut oil, chemically combined 
 with caustic soda or caustic potash. Castile soap is sup- 
 posed to be made from olive oil. Rosin soap forms a 
 part of all common yellow soap. It lessens the cost 
 and makes a good soap for rough work. Silicate of 
 soda is sometimes added to cheap soaps. It has some 
 cleansing action, but must be regarded as an adulter- 
 ant. 
 
 Good soaps are nearly neutral substances because 
 the alkali has been neutralized by the fatty acid. The 
 coarser grades may contain more or less free alkali. 
 All soaps are slightly decomposed w^hen dissolved in 
 water. The freed fatty acid produces the milkiness 
 seen when a cake of soap is placed in perfectly pure 
 water. 
 
 The cleaning action of soaps consists chiefly in 
 forming emulsions with oily or greasy substances. ^^ soap 
 Cream is an example of a very perfect emulsion. Its 
 fat Is in the shape of very finely divided globules and 
 because of the whey which surrounds them, the cream 
 can be mixed with a very large quantity of water and 
 
 71 
 
 Action 
 
6o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 show no sign of greasiness. When the whey is sep- 
 arated as in churning, the globules of fat come together 
 and butter is formed. An emulsion is not a true solu- 
 tion, for the particles of fat can be separated by proper 
 means from the liquid. 
 
 The soap makes an emulsion with the oily or greasy 
 substances holding the dirt, so that both may be 
 washed away by the water. A certain proportion of 
 free alkali in soap helps the action, but it has a cor- 
 rosive effect on many materials. Soap will form 
 emulsions with many other materials besides fats and 
 oils ; so while water is a very general solvent, soap 
 and water will take up many additional substances. 
 
 The housekeeper may be familiar with two kinds of 
 >f Soap gQ^p . i-j^rd soaps and soft soaps. Caustic soda makes 
 the hard soaps and caustic potash makes the soft 
 soaps. 
 
 Caustic potash is derived from wood ashes and a few 
 generations ago soft soap was the only laundry soap 
 used. Wood ashes were plenty when wood fires were 
 universal. Soda-ash was at that time derived from 
 sea weeds, and therefore uncommon inland. Early in 
 the century a French manufacturer, Leblanc, dis- 
 covered a process of making soda-ash from sodium 
 chloride or common salt. This quite reversed the con- 
 dition of the two alkalis, for now soda-ash is much 
 more common, and the manufacture of soap on a large 
 scale really began then. Soda-ash is now the cheapest 
 form of alkali. Caustic soda is made from soda-ash. 
 
 Kinds 
 
 72 
 
CLEANING. 6 1 
 
 The terms, soda-ash, and pot-ash have been used ; soda-Ash 
 these substances in chemical terms are respectively 
 the carbonate of sodium and the carbonate of potas- 
 sium. They are chemical compounds made up of car- 
 bonic acid and two metals — sodium and potassium. 
 When the carbon dioxide, which we have seen is 
 formed by the combustion of carbon, is added to water, 
 carbonic acid results. This is a very weak acid and 
 when it is combined with the very strongly alkaline 
 elements, sodium or potassium, the result is an alka- 
 line substance. Soda-ash and potash (sometimes called 
 pearl-ash) are called alkalis, but they are not nearly 
 so powerful as the hydrates of sodium and potassium 
 which are commonly called caustic soda and caustic 
 potash. 
 
 When soda-ash, wdiich is a white powder, is dis- washing 
 solved in hot water and the solution is cooled, crystals 
 of the common washing soda are formed. This sub- 
 stance is also called "sal soda" and ''soda crystals." 
 The crystals contain about 65 per cent of water and 
 when exposed to the air, lose some of this water and 
 crumble to the white powder, soda-ash. The powder 
 is, therefore, stronger than the original crystals. 
 
 Washing soda should never be used in a solid form, 
 but should be dissolved in a separate dish, and the 
 solution used with judgment. A satisfactory amount 
 is about two ounces of the dry soda to a large tub of 
 water, and well dissolved before the clothes are put in. 
 Nearly all of the 'Svashing compounds" on the market 
 
 Soda 
 
 73 
 
62 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Borax 
 
 Hard 
 
 Water 
 
 Temporary 
 Hardness 
 
 Permanent 
 Hardness 
 
 depend upon the washing soda for their efficiency, and 
 sometimes they contain nothing else. 
 
 Borax is a useful alkali, milder than washing soda, 
 but effective as a cleaner, disinfectant, and bleacher. 
 It is more expensive than either of the others de- 
 scribed, and because of its weaker alkaline action, more 
 of it must be used to produce a given result. It is 
 much less irritating to the skin and less injurious to 
 fabrics than soda, so for some uses its additional cost 
 may be justified. Caustic potash or ''lye" is too strong 
 an alkali to use on fabrics, but is valuable to put down 
 the kitchen sink drain to free it from grease. The 
 soap made in the drain will be washed out by water. 
 Solid washing soda may be used for the same pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In the laundry the composition of water is im- 
 portant. Water for domestic use is either hard or soft, 
 according as it contains a greater or less quantity of 
 certain soluble salts — usually compounds of lime or 
 magnesia, which have been taken up by the water while 
 passing through the soil. 
 
 When the hardness is caused by calcium carbonate 
 (carbonate of liiiie) it is called ''temporary" hardness, 
 because it may be overcome by boiling. The excess of 
 carbon dioxide is driven off and the carbonate of lime 
 separates out. The same separation is accomplished 
 by the addition of sal soda, borax, or ammonia. 
 
 When the hardness is due to the sulphates and 
 chlorides of magnesia or lime, it cannot be removed 
 
 74 
 
CLEANING. 
 
 63 
 
 by boiling. It is then known as "permanent" hard- 
 ness. Public water supplies are sometimes softened 
 before delivery to the consumer by the addition of 
 slaked lime, which absorbs the carbon dioxide, and 
 the previously dissolved carbonate separates out. 
 
 Soft water is needed in laundry work both for 
 cleanness and economy, and water not naturally soft 
 should be softened by boiling or by the addition of the 
 before mentioned substances. 
 
 When soap is added to the hard water, it is decom- 
 posed by the water, and the new compound formed by 
 the union of the lime and magnesia with the fatty acid 
 of the soap is insoluble, and therefore settles upon any 
 article with which it comes in contact. Until all the 
 lime has been taken out, there will be no action be- 
 tween the soap and the dirt. Therefore, large quanti- 
 ties of soap must be wasted. It has been estimated that 
 each grain of carbonate of lime per gallon causes an 
 increased expenditure of two ounces of soap per 100 
 gallons, and that the increased expense for soap in a 
 household of five persons where such hard water is 
 used might amount to five or ten dollars yearly. 
 
 This "lime soap," although insoluble in water, will 
 dissolve readily in kerosene or naphtha, for which rea- 
 son, kerosene will be found very effective for cleaning 
 bowls or the bath tub when the surface has become 
 coated from the use of hard water and soap. 
 
 Hard waters produce certain undesirable effects in 
 cooking processes. The cooking of beans and similar 
 
 Soap and 
 Hard Water 
 
 Cookinig with 
 Hard Water 
 
 75 
 
64 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 vegetables should soften the cellulose and break up 
 the compact grains of starch. It is difficult to cook 
 vegetables in hard water, for the legumin of the vegeta- 
 ble forms an insoluble compound with the lime or 
 magnesia of the water, and the cellulose is softened 
 with great difficulty. Hard water does not readily 
 extract the flavor from tea and coffee, and therefore 
 much more of either must be used to get the desired 
 strength. 
 
 Dish During this discussion of cleansing agents, let us 
 Washing i^opc that the breakfast dishes have been soaking in 
 water, after having carefully scraped or ''scrapped" 
 so as to save soap in washing and to keep the water 
 as clean as possible. Plenty of hot water and soap 
 with clean, dry towels is the secret of quick and easy 
 work. If the hard water is used, it may be softened 
 for the soap is doing no good unless there is a strong 
 suds. 
 
 To save the appearance of the hands, use a good 
 white soap, free from alkali, and soften the water with 
 borax. 
 
 Glass, silver ware, china and kitchen ware take their 
 turn. All should be rinsed in hot ^yater to remove 
 the soap and heat the dishes so that they will drain 
 nearly dry and thus make wiping easy. In the dish 
 washing machine used in large hotels and restaurants, 
 the dishes are simply washed with soapy water and 
 rinsed in very hot water while in such a position that 
 
 76 
 
CLEANING. 
 
 65 
 
 they drain perfectly. They dry completely and re- 
 quire no wiping. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 
 Pig. 16. Dish Washing Machine Used in Large Hotels and 
 Restaunuits. 
 
 Experiment. Wash a plate and dip it in very hot 
 water, then place it so that all parts will drain. Ob- 
 serve if it dries coinpletely. See if you can wash the 
 dishes in this manner with very little wiping and if 
 time would thus be saved. 
 
 77 
 
66 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 structure 
 of Fibres 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Wool 
 
 Linen 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE LAUNDRY 
 
 If the morning happens to be Monday, the washing 
 is probably in progress in the average American fam- 
 ily. The mistress should understand the chemical 
 principles involved and every detail of the work, in 
 order that the best results may be secured, and that 
 the clothes may not be harmed. 
 
 The fibres of cotton, silk, and wool vary greatly 
 in their structure and a knowledge of this structure 
 as shown under the microscope, may guide to proper 
 methods of treatment. Fig. 17. 
 
 The fibres of cotton, though tubular, become much 
 flattened during the process of manufacture, and under 
 the microscope, show a characteristic twist, with the 
 ends gradually tapering to a point. It is this twist, 
 which makes them capable of being made into a firm, 
 hard thread. 
 
 The wool fibre, like human hair, is marked by trans- 
 verse divisions, and these divisions are serrated. These 
 teeth become curled, knotted or tangled together by 
 rubbing, by very hot water, or by strong alkalies. 
 This causes shrinking, which should be prevented. 
 When the two fibres are mixed, there is less opportun- 
 ity for the little teeth to become entangled and there- 
 fore there is less shrinkage. 
 
 Linen fibres are much like cotton, with slight notches 
 or joints along the walls. These notches serve to hold 
 the fibres closely together, and enable them to be 
 felted to form paper. Linen, then, will shrink, though 
 
 78 
 
THE LAUNDRY. 
 
 67 
 
 not so much as wool, for the fibres are more wiry and 
 the teeth much shorter. 
 
 Silk fibres are perfectly smooth and when rubbed, 
 simply slide over each other. This produces a slight 
 shrinkage in the width of woven fabrics. 
 
 Cotton and wool differ 
 greatly in their resistance 
 to the treatment of chemi- 
 cals. Cotton is very little 
 affected by a solution of the 
 alkalies, when the cloth is 
 well rinsed. If the alkali is 
 not removed completely, 
 however, it becomes very 
 concentrated when the cloth 
 dries, and as it generally 
 acts for a long time, the 
 fibre may be weakened or 
 "tendered." 
 
 Cold dilute solutions of the acids have no very great 
 effect on cotton, provided always that they are com- 
 pletely washed out. Strong or hot solutions of acids 
 have a very decided deleterious action, and even a very 
 minute quantity of acid dried on the goods tenders the 
 fibre badly. 
 
 Wool resists the acids well, but is much harmed 
 by the action of the alkalies. A warm solution of caus- 
 tic soda or caustic potash will dissolve wool quickly 
 and completely. The carbonates, like washing soda. 
 
 Textile Fibres Much 
 Magnified. 
 a, Wool; b, Mohair; C, Cot- 
 ton; d, Silk; e, Linen, 
 
 Silk 
 
 Chemical 
 Action 
 on Fibres 
 
 79 
 
68 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 have not such a decidtd effect, but they make the wool 
 harsh and less flexible. 
 
 Linen lesembles cotton and silk is much like wool 
 in the resistance to chemical action, but the linen is 
 more affected by the alkalies than cotton and silk is 
 more acted on by acids than wool. 
 
 © 
 
 C^ 
 
 Q> 
 
 Fig. 18. Sections of Ordinary and Mercer- 
 ized Cotton Fibres. 
 
 Mercerizatioq 
 
 Soaking 
 
 That cotton fibre is not seriously affected by alka- 
 lies is shown by the process of mercerization. In this 
 process, patented by Mercer in 1852, the cotton threads 
 are treated with a strong solution of caustic soda 
 while under tension. The fibres lose their twisted and 
 hollow shape and become more rod-like and nearly 
 solid, as shown in Fig. 18. Thv threads have a tend- 
 ency to shrink considerably, but are prevented by the 
 tension. This and the method of manipulation gives 
 the mercerized fabric the characteristic gloss some- 
 what resembling silk. 
 
 In laundering, the best practice seems to be to 
 soak the white clothes at least, in cold water or in 
 luke-warm suds. The badly soiled portions may be 
 soaped and rolled tightly to keep the soap where it is 
 
 80 
 
THE LAUNDRY. 69 
 
 most needed. The water should be well softened, and 
 a very little extra washing soda solution may be 
 added. The soaking loosens the dirt and saves much 
 rubbing and hence wear on the clothes. It is probable 
 that the cleansing wears out the articles which make 
 up the weekly wash more than the actual use they re- 
 ceive. 
 
 After washing the clothes, they may be wrung out BoiUnr 
 and put into a boiler of cold water, which is then 
 heated and boiled briskly for a little while. Whether 
 to boil, or not to boil the clothes depends largely 
 upon the purity of the materials used. If there is any 
 iron in the water, or elsewhere, it is sure to be de- 
 posited on the goods, thus producing yellowness. Soap 
 may be added to the clothes in the boiler, or borax 
 ,may be used, allowing a tablespoonful to every gallon 
 of water. The borax serves as a bleacher and as an 
 aid in the disinfection of the clothes. One great ad- 
 vantage of boiling is the additional disinfection which 
 this insures. 
 
 After washing, the clothes should be thoroughly Ripaing 
 rinsed. They cannot be clean otherwise and proper 
 rinsing is essential to successful washing. The more 
 thoroughly the wash water is removed between rins- 
 ings, the less number of rinsings will be required to 
 give the same results. 
 
 Bluing is frequently added to the last rinsing water 
 to counteract, or cover up, any yellowness. A light 
 blue appears to the eye whiter than a light yellow. 
 
 Bluing 
 
 81 
 
70 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 stains 
 
 Washing 
 
 Colored 
 
 Goods 
 
 Washing 
 Woolens 
 
 The color is, however, .Q'iti}- in comparison with white. 
 Most of the H(]ui(l bhiing now on the market contains 
 Prussian Blue, a compound of iron. This compound 
 is decomposed by soap and alkalies, when the goods 
 are next washed, making a slight yellow stain of iron 
 on the cloth. Frequent repetitions of this action may 
 give a distinctly yellow shade to the white goods. The 
 indigo blue used a generation or more ago did not 
 have this objection. It is said that white goods which 
 have never been blued, never require bluing. 
 
 Stains and all special deposits should be removed 
 before the goods are treated with soap or soda, as 
 these frequently set the stains. Hot water will spread 
 any grease and also set many stains*, so the clothes 
 when not soaked, should be wet thoroughly in cold 
 or luke-warm water before washing. 
 
 Colored goods and prints require more delicate treat- 
 ment than white goods. If they are soaked, the water 
 should be cold and contain very little soap and no 
 soda. Only dissolved soap should be used in wash- 
 ing them, and this should be of good quality, free 
 from alkali. They should be dried with the wrong- 
 side out and in the shade, for direct sunlight fades 
 colors about twenty times as much as reflected light. 
 
 All wool goods require the greatest care in wash- 
 ing. The different waters used should be of the same 
 temperature and never too hot to be borne comfortably 
 by the hand. 
 
 82 
 
Soap 
 Solution 
 
 THE LAUNDRY, 71 
 
 The soap used should be in the form of a thin soap 
 sohition. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric and 
 only a good, white soap, free from rosin, is allow- 
 able. Make each water slightly soapy and leave a 
 very little in the fabric at the end, to furnish a 
 dressing as nearly like the original as possible. 
 
 Many persons prefer ammonia or borax in place 
 of the soap. For pure white flannel, borax gives the 
 best satisfaction on account of its bleaching quality. 
 Whatever alkali is chosen, care should be exercised in 
 the quantity taken. Only enough should be used to 
 make the water very soft. 
 
 The fibres of wool collect much dust upon their Brushing 
 tooth-like projections and this should be thoroughly 
 brushed or shaken off before the fabric is put into 
 water. All friction should be by squeezing, not by 
 rubbing. Wool should not be wrung by hand. Either 
 run the fabric smoothly through a wringer or squeeze 
 the water out, that the fibres may not be twisted. 
 Wool may be well dried by rolling the article tightly 
 in a thick dry towel or sheet and squeezing the whole 
 till all moisture is absorbed. Wool should not be al- 
 lowed to freeze, for the teeth will become knotted 
 and hard. Above all, the drying should be accom- 
 plished quickly, and in short, the les? time that is 
 taken in washing, rinsing, and drying, the less will 
 be the shrinkage and the better will be the result. 
 
 83 
 
starching 
 
 Cooked 
 Starch 
 
 ITncooked 
 Starch 
 
 72 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 Some of the clothes are starched. This in addition 
 to making them stififer and giving them a better ap- 
 pearance helps to keep them clean longer. Practically 
 all the household starch on the market is corn starch, 
 although in the textile industries and large laundries, 
 wheat, potato and rice starches are used. Corn starch 
 has the greatest stiffening effect, but wheat starch and 
 rice starch penetrate better and give a more flexible 
 finish. 
 
 To make cooked starch for ordinary work, wet ^4 
 cup with % cup of water and pour on one quart of 
 boiling water. Boil thoroughly till clear. Use double 
 the quantity of starch for stiff starching. Borax may 
 be added — J^ to i level tablespoon to a quart — to in- 
 crease the gloss and penetrability and to prevent the 
 iron from sticking. Lard, wax or paraffine is some- 
 times cooked with die starch for the same purpose — ^ 
 tablespoon to a quart. 
 
 For very stiff starching, as for collars, the thick 
 paste should be rubbed thoroughly into the goods and 
 the excess wiped off with a damp cloth, after which the 
 goods is dried before a fire. 
 
 'The prepared starches, to be used cold, contain 
 borax. This may just as well be added to cheaper 
 preparations. As the uncooked starch depends upon 
 the heat of the iron to swell and stiffen it, a hotter 
 iron is required than with boiled starch. 
 
 For producing an ecru shade in curtains, coffee is 
 sometimes added in quantity to give the desired color. 
 A solution of gum arabic is sometimes used to stiffen 
 
 84 
 
A. METHOD OF FOLDINo^ DRESSES, SHIRTS AND SHEETS 
 OR TABLii. CLOTHS 
 
 85 
 
.vuLii 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 METHOD OF FOLDING UNDERCLOTHES 
 
 ORDER OF IRONING 
 
 Night Dresses: 
 
 1 — embroidery, 2— sleeves, 3— yoke, 4— body. 
 Drawers: 
 
 1— trimming, 2— tucks, 3— body, 4— band. 
 Skirts: 
 
 1— ruffle, 2— hem, 3— body. 
 Shirt Waists: 
 
 1 — cuff, 2 — collar band, 3 — sleeves, 4 — yoke, 5 — back, 6 — front. 
 
 (From "The Laundry," by Flora Rosp; Bulletin of the Cornell Reading 
 Course for Farmers' Wives, Ithaca, N. Y.) 
 
 86 
 
THE LAUNDRY, 
 
 73 
 
 dark colored clothes which would show the white 
 color of the starch. 
 
 THE REMOVAL OF STAIN 
 
 Whenever possible, stains should be removed when 
 fresh. If the staining substance is allowed to dry on 
 the cloth, its removal is always more difficult, and 
 sometimes a neglected spot or stain cannot be removed 
 without damage to the cloth. 
 
 The nature of the spot must be known before the 
 best substance to dissolve and remove it can be chosen. 
 To remove grease spots, solvents of grease should 
 be chosen, though we may remove such spots some- 
 times by causing the grease to form an emulsion with 
 soap and thus be removed, or the grease may be made 
 into a soap with ammonia or washing soda and thus 
 dissolved and removed in water. The first of the three 
 methods is, as a rule, the best. Grease will dissolve 
 readily in benzine, naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, ether, 
 and chloroform and somewhat in turpentine and hot 
 alcohol. Ether and chloroform are the best solvents, 
 but they are more expensive and not much more ef- 
 fective than naphtha. 
 
 Caution! All of the solvents for grease are In- 
 flammable and some are explosive, so that they should 
 never be used near a fire or light. Work with them 
 should be done in the day time and preferably out of 
 doors. 
 
 Grease 
 Spots 
 
 Precautions 
 
 87 
 
74 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 A^bsorbenta 
 
 Bluing 
 Stains 
 
 In applying any of these solvents to grease spots 
 in fabrics, a cloth should be placed underneath the 
 stain to absorb the excess of liquid containing the 
 dissolved grease. The spot should be rubbed from 
 the outside towards the center until dry. This will 
 tend to distribute the solvent and prevent the formation 
 of a ring where the liquid stops. It is well to apply 
 the solvent on the wrong side of the fabric. Old spots 
 of any kind may require long treatment. For this a 
 little lard may be rubbed into the spot and left for 
 some time, then the whole may be dissolved by naphtha 
 or washed out with soap or ammonia. 
 
 Spots of grease on carpet or heavy material may be 
 treated with absorbents. Heat will assist by melting 
 the grease. Fresh grease spots may often be removed 
 by placing over the spot a clean piece of blotting 
 paper and pressing the spot with a warm iron. French 
 chalk or whiting may be moistened with naphtha and 
 spread over the spot. When all is dry, brush off the 
 absorbent. The absorption method may be used in 
 many other cases, moistening with cleansing agent 
 which will not harm the material treated. 
 
 Bluing spots may frequently be removed by soak- 
 ing in strong ammonia water. Alcohol or ammonia 
 will remove grass stains, and an old remedy is to smear 
 the stains with molasses before the article goes into 
 the wash. The acids in the molasses seem to have 
 the desired effect on the grass stains. 
 
 88 
 
STAINS. 
 
 75 
 
 Fresh stains of coffee, tea or fruit may be removed 
 by hot water. Stretch the stained part over an earth- 
 en dish and pour boiling water upon the stain until it 
 disappears. It is some times better to sprinkle the 
 stain with borax and soak in cold water before ap- 
 plying the hot water. Old, neglected stains of coffee, 
 fruits, cocoa, etc., will have to be treated with some 
 bleaching agent. In many cases, it is not possible to 
 remove them without severely damaging the cloth. 
 
 Mildew causes a spot of a totally different char- 
 acter from any we have considered. It is a true mold, 
 and like all plants, requires warmth and moisture for 
 its growth. When this necessary moisture is furnished 
 by any cloth in a warm place, the mildew grows upon 
 the fibres. During the first stage of its growth, the 
 mold may be removed, but in time, it destroys the 
 fibres. 
 
 Strong soapsuds, a layer of soft soap, and pulver- 
 ized chalk, or one of chalk and salt, are all effective 
 if, in addition, the moistened cloth be subjected to 
 strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches the 
 fibres. Bleaching powder or Javelie water may be 
 tried in cases of advanced growth, but success cannot 
 be assured. 
 
 Some of the animal and vegetable oils may be taken 
 out by soap and cold water or dissolved in naphtha, 
 chloroform, ether, etc. Mineral oil stains are not sol- 
 uble in any alkaline or acid solutions. Kerosene will 
 
 Coffee and 
 Fruit Stai.is 
 
 Mildew 
 
 Vaseline Stains 
 
 89 
 
70 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Paint 
 
 Ink Spots 
 
 Indelible 
 Ink 
 
 evaporate in time. Vaseline stains should be soaked 
 in kerosene before water and soap touch them. 
 
 Paints consist mainly of oils and some colored earth. 
 Spots of paint, then, must be treated with something 
 that will take out the oil, leaving the insoluble color- 
 ing matter to be brushed off. Turpentine is most 
 generally useful. 
 
 Spots of varnish or pitch may be dissolved by the 
 use of the same solvents as paint. Alcohol is also one 
 of the best solvents here. 
 
 Spots made by food substances are greasy, sugary, 
 or acid in their nature. Whatever takes out the grease 
 will generally remove the substance united with it, 
 as the blood in meat juices. Sugar is dissolved by hot 
 water, so sticky spots are best removed with this. 
 
 Ink spots are perhaps the worst that can be encoun- 
 tered, because of the great uncertainty of the composi- 
 tion of inks of the present day. When the character 
 of an enemy is known, it is a comparatively simple 
 matter to choose the weapons to be used against him, 
 but an unknown enemy must be experimented upon 
 and conquest is uncertain. 
 
 Indelible inks formerly owed their permanence to 
 silver nitrate. Now many are made from aniline black 
 solutions and are scarcely aftected by any chemicals. 
 The silver nitrate inks become dark in the sun by a 
 photographic process. ]\Iany silver salts, and sonie 
 salts of other metals, change in color in a bright light. 
 
 90 
 
Ink 
 
 STAINS. 77 
 
 Silver nitrate inks may be removed by bleaching 
 powder solutions. The chlorine in this replaces the 
 nitric acid forming white silver chloride. This will 
 darken if not at once removed, but will dissolve in 
 strong ammonia water or a solution of hyposulphite of 
 soda. This last salt, much used by photographers, 
 commonly called "hypo," will often dissolve the stain of 
 indelible ink without the use of the bleaching fluid 
 and is less harmful to the fibres. Some inks contain 
 carbon in the form of lamp black which is not affected 
 by any chemicals which can be used. 
 
 The old fashioned black ink is a compound called writing 
 the gallo-tannate of iron. It is made by adding a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron to a water solution of nut 
 galls. A little gum solution is added to make the ink 
 of better consistency. This kind of ink is removed 
 by the addition of a warm solution of oxalic acid 
 or muriatic acid drop by drop, and this finally well 
 rinsed out. Of course some materials will be injured 
 by the acids, so this method must be used with cau- 
 tion. Lemon juice and salt will sometimes remove 
 the spot and is safe. Cover the spot with salt, wet with 
 lemon juice, and spread in the sun. Bleaching powder 
 solution and acid will frequently destroy any ink stain 
 of long standing which acids alone will not affect. 
 
 Some ink stains are removed when fresh by clear, 
 cold, or tepid water — skimmed milk is safe and often 
 effective. If the stain is allowed to soak in the milk 
 
 91 
 
78 
 
 ciii'M/sTRV oj- riiii iiorsi-iioi.ii 
 
 Ink on 
 
 Carpets 
 
 Colored 
 Inks 
 
 Iron 
 Rust 
 
 until ilk- milk soiiis. the result is ot"tcu better. Some- 
 times the ink will dissolve out if a piece of ice is- laid 
 on the spot and blotting paper under it. The blotting 
 paper absorbs the water and should be often changed. 
 
 Ink on heavy materials like carpets and draperies 
 may be treated with some absorbent to keep the ink 
 from spreading. JJits of blotting paper, cotton batting, 
 meal, llour, sawdust, etc., iiiay be used and removed 
 as long as an\- ink is absorbed, then go over the spot 
 repeatedly with a lemon freshl\- cut, and linally rinse 
 with cold or tepid water. If an ink stain has worked 
 through varnish into the wood, turpentine will usually 
 remove the spot. 
 
 Of late colored inks are generally prepared from 
 aniline colors. These are made from substances pro- 
 duced in the distillation of coal tar. The colors are 
 .soluble in water, and by dissolving them and adding 
 to the mixture some thickening substance, different 
 colored inks are produced. They are rather dil^cult 
 to remove successfully, but bleaching powd^^r solution 
 will frequently destroy them. 
 
 The red iron-rust spots must be treated with acid. 
 These are the results of oxidation — the union of the 
 oxygen of the air with the iron in the presence of mois- 
 ture. The oxide formed is deposited upon the fabric 
 which furnishes the moisture. Ordinary "tin" uten- 
 sils are made from iron coated with tin, which soon 
 wears off, so no moist fabric should be left long in tin 
 unless the surface is entire. 
 
 92 
 
STAINS. 
 
 79 
 
 Iron-nist is, then, an insoluble oxide of iron. The 
 chloride of iron is soluble and so hydrochloric acid is 
 used to remove the rust. The best method of apply- 
 ing the acid is as follows : Fill an earthen dish two- 
 thirds full of hot water and stretch the stained cloth 
 over this. Have near two other dishes with clear 
 water in one and ammonia water in the other. The 
 steam from the hot water will furnish the heat and 
 moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a little 
 hydrochloric (muriatic) acid on the stain with a medi- 
 
 RemoTiAf 
 Bust 
 
 FIG. 19. REMOVING IRON RUST STAIN. 
 
 cine dropper. Fig. 19. Let it act a moment, then 
 lower the cloth into the hot water. Repeat till the 
 stain disappears. Rinse carefully in the clear water 
 and, finally, immerse in the ammonia water, that any 
 excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric pro- 
 tected. 
 
 Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight 
 stain, probably because a little hydrochloric acid is 
 formed from their union. 
 
 Salt and 
 Lemon Juic« 
 
 93 
 
8o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Ink stains on colored goods are often impossible 
 to take out without also removing part of the dye. The 
 ink must be washed out in cold water before it dries ; 
 any slight stain remaining can, perhaps, be removed 
 wath a weak acid like lemon juice without harming 
 the color. 
 
 BLEACHING 
 
 When the clothes are washed, the mistress likes 
 to have them hang out of doors where the air and 
 sunshine can dry them. She is glad when the white 
 articles can be spread on the grass, knowing that they 
 will be made whiter by Nature's bleaching agent. 
 The sunlight is the chief agent in this bleaching and the 
 articles are laid flat on the grass so that the rays of 
 light will strike in a more perpendicular direction. 
 There are also other devices for bleaching, among 
 which are the fumes of burning sulphur, chloride of 
 lime (bleaching powder) and Javelle water. 
 
 Originally all bleaching of linen and cotton was 
 done out of doors by the action of oxygen, water, and 
 sunlight. In these days of great factories, this process 
 is impossible for lack of space ; but various artificial 
 bleaching stuffs have been discovered whose action is 
 satisfactory if skilfully used. 
 Bleaching Chloriuc is a gas which has remarkable readiness to 
 
 combine with other bodies. It is even more energetic 
 than oxygen. By its action upon them, chlorine de- 
 stroys the greater number of coloring substances. Be- 
 
 94 
 
BLEACHING. 
 
 8i 
 
 cause of its liarmful action upon the human body, 
 chlorine gas itself cannot be used in factories or in the 
 household, but the compound which chlorine forms 
 with lime (oxide of calcium) known as chloride of 
 lime or bleaching powder, is safe and effective. 
 
 The principal coloring matters are composed chiefly 
 of the elements carbon and hydrogen and some of the 
 metals. If a substance which makes new combination 
 with the elements present is brought in contact with 
 these colors, the new compounds thus produced may 
 be colorless. The element chlorine does just this. 
 It can be set free from chloride of lime by weak acids, 
 and will dissolve very readily n water when so set 
 free. By dipping colored cloth into a weak solution 
 of chloride of lime and acid, many colors and stains 
 are at once destroyed. But the energy of the chlorine 
 is not stopped by this process. Having destroyed 
 the color, the bleaching powder attacks the fibres of 
 the goods, unles the cloth is at once placed in some 
 solution wdiich can neutralize the bleaching powder. 
 There are several such easily obtained and used. The 
 use of bleaching powder in the household is frequently 
 of dubious success for lack of this precaution. Am- 
 monia water will perform this action satisfactorily, 
 since the harmless soluble salt, ammonium chloride, 
 is formed ; hypo-sulphite of soda is also effective. 
 
 Chloride of lime loses strength rapidly if exposed 
 in an open vessel. It absorbs water and carbon di- 
 
 Action of 
 Chlorine 
 
 Chloride 
 of Lime 
 
 95 
 
82 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Javelle 
 Water 
 
 oxide from the air, grows damp and the chlorine gas 
 escapes. 
 
 In using bleaching powder, mix one or two tea- 
 spoonfuls with a pint of cold water in an earthen- 
 ware dish. The effective part of the powder will be 
 dissolved, so let the mixture settle, or strain off the 
 liquid through a cloth. Add a little vinegar or a few 
 drops of acetic acid to the nearly clear solution and 
 use at once. 
 
 Javelle water is also used as a bleaching agent. It is 
 very like bleaching powder, except that soda replaces 
 the lime. It is prepared by dissolving one pound of 
 washing soda in a quart of hot water and adding one 
 quarter of a pound of chloride of lime also dissolved 
 in a quart of hot water. Let the mixture settle, pour 
 off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. It will keep 
 for some time. The dregs may be used to scour 
 the kitchen floor or to disinfect waste pipes. This is 
 very useful in removing stains on white cloth, but 
 the addition of some solution to neutralize the action 
 is always necessary, just as with bleaching powder. 
 The best substance to use for this is hypo-sulphite of 
 soda, the "hypo" used in photography, which is quite 
 harmless to the cloth. 
 
 Chlorine cannot be used in bleaching fabrics of ani- 
 
 BiSching ^^'^^^ fibre such as wool and silk; it leaves them yellow 
 
 rather than white. For these the fumes of burning 
 
 sulphur, or these fumes dissolved in water must be 
 
 Sulphur 
 Dioxide 
 
 96 
 
BLEACHING. 
 
 83 
 
 used. No special means of destroying the excess of 
 sulphur fumes is required. These fumes are a com- 
 pound of sulphur and the oxygen of the air and famil- 
 iar to every one, in the acid fumes from a burning 
 "sulphur match." The article to be bleached must be 
 wet, and then hung in some enclosed space above a 
 piece of burning sulphur. The sulphur candles, to be 
 had at any druggist's, are convenient for this use. 
 Fig. 20. The fumes have great affinity for oxygen, 
 that is, unite with it easily, and take it from the color- 
 ing stul¥s, converting them into colorless ones. This 
 method of bleaching is sometimes not permanent. 
 
 FIG. 20. A SULPHUR CANDLE. 
 
 These fumes of sulphur are often used to disinfect 
 rooms where there has been sickness. Its power in 
 this respect is far less than is generally supposed how- 
 ever, and much larger quantities of the gas are re- 
 quired for thorough work than are commonly used. 
 Chlorine gas is an excellent disinfectant, but is dan- 
 gerous to use because of its irritating effect upon the 
 throat and lungs. The use of ''chloride of lime" as a 
 disinfectant depends upon the fact that chlorirj£ slowly 
 
 Dial) Action 
 
 ^7 
 
84 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Peroxide 
 
 Alkalies 
 on Paint 
 
 escapes from this substance when it is exposed to the 
 air. 
 
 Another bleaching agent of growing importance 
 is peroxide of hydrogen. Water is a compound made 
 up of one-third oxygen and two-thirds hydrogen. Un- 
 der certain conditions, a compound half oxygen and 
 half hydrogen may be prepared. This is not very 
 permanent as the extra oxygen slowly escapes. This 
 extra oxygen has great power as a decolorizer. The 
 peroxide is a liquid much like water in appearance 
 and is used in bleaching hair, feathers, and ivory. It 
 is the safest bleaching agent for the housekeeper to 
 work with and may be used on wool and silk as well 
 as cotton and linen. 
 
 CLEANING WOODWORK 
 
 In the interior of the house woods are seldom used 
 in their natural state. The surface is covered with 
 two or more coatings of paint, varnish, etc., which 
 add to the wood durability or beauty. The cleaning 
 processes are applied to the last coat of finish and 
 must not injure this. 
 
 Soft woods are finished with paint, stain, oil, shel- 
 lac, varnish, or with two or more of these combined ; 
 hardwoods with any of these, and in addition, wax, or 
 wax with turpentine, or both with oil. 
 
 All these surfaces, except those finished with wax, 
 may be cleaned with a weak solution of soap or am- 
 monia, but the continuous use of anv alkali may im- 
 
 98 
 
in Cleaning 
 
 CLEANING. 85 
 
 pair and finally remove the polish. Refinishing will 
 then be necessary. Waxed surfaces are turned dark 
 by water. Finished surfaces should never be scoured 
 nor cleaned with strong alkalies, like sal-soda, or potash 
 soaps. Scouring with these strong alkalies will break 
 the paint or varnish and in this way destroy the finish. 
 
 A few drops of kerosene or turpentine on a soft Kerosene 
 cloth may be used to clean all polished surfaces. The 
 latter cleans them more perfectly and evaporates read- 
 ily; the former is cheaper, safer, because its vapor is 
 not so inflammable as that of turpentine, and it pol- 
 ishes a little while it cleans ; but it evaporates so 
 slowly that the surface must be rubbed dry each time, 
 or the dust will be collected and retained. The harder 
 the rubbing, the higher the polish. 
 
 Outside the kitchen, the woodwork of the house sel- 
 dom needs scrubbing. The greasy layer is readily 
 dissolved by weak alkaline solutions, by kerosene or 
 turpentine, while the imbedded dust is wiped away by 
 the cloth. Polished surfaces keep clean longest. If the 
 finish be removed or broken by deep scratches, the 
 wood itself absorbs the grease and dust, and the stain 
 may have to be scraped out. 
 
 CLEANING METALS 
 
 Most metals may be washed without harm in a hot 
 alakline solution or wiped with a little kerosene. 
 Stoves and iron sinks may be scoured with the coarser 
 materials like ashes, emery or pumice ; but copper, pol- 
 
 99 
 
Tarnish 
 
 86 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 ished steel, or the soft metals, tin, silver, and alumi- 
 num require a fine powder that they may not be 
 scratched or worn away too rapidly. Metal bathtubs 
 may be kept clean and bright with whiting and am- 
 monia, if rinsed with boiling hot water and wiped dry 
 with soft flannel or chamois. 
 
 Porcelain or soapstone may be washed like metal 
 or scoured with any fine material. 
 
 The si)ecial deposits on metals are caused by the 
 oxygen and moisture of the air, by the presence of 
 other gases in the house, or by acids or corroding 
 liquids. Such deposits come under the general head 
 of tarnish. 
 
 The metals, or their compounds, in common use 
 are silver, copper and brass, iron and steel, tin, zinc 
 and nickel. Aluminum is rapidly taking a prominent 
 place in the manufacture of household utensils. 
 
 There is little trouble with the general greasy film 
 or with the special deposits on articles in daily use, if 
 they are washed in hot water and soap, rinsed well and 
 wiped drv each time. Yet certain articles of food act 
 upon the metal of tableware and cooking utensils, 
 forming true chemical salts. 
 
 The salts of silver are usually dark colored and 
 Sulphide insoluble in water or in any alkaline liquid which will 
 not also dissolve the silver. Whether found in the 
 products of combustion, in food, as eggs, in the paper 
 or cloth used for wrapi)ing, in the rubber band of a 
 fruit jar, or the rubber elastic which may be near the 
 
 100 
 
 Silver 
 
METALS. 
 
 »7 
 
 silver, sulphur forms with silver a grayish black com- 
 pound — a '.ulphide of silver. All the silver sulphides 
 are insoluble in water. Rub such tarnished articles, 
 before washing-, with common salt. By replacement, 
 silver chloride, a white chemical salt, is formed, which 
 is soluble in ammonia. If the article be not washed in 
 ammonia it will soon turn dark again. With an old or 
 deep stain of silver sulphide friction must be used. 
 
 The analysis of many samples of silver polish, 
 showed tbem to be made up of either precipitated 
 chalk, diatomaceous earth or fine sand. In using them, 
 it is necessary to be careful in regard to the fineness 
 of material since a few coarse grains will scratch the 
 coating of soft silver. In former times the housewife 
 bought a pound of whiting for fifteen cents, sifted it 
 through fine cloth, or, mixing- it with water, floated off 
 the finer portion, and obtained in this way, twelve 
 ounces of the same material for three ounces of which 
 the modern housewife pays twenty-five cents or even 
 more, when she buys it **by the box." 
 
 The whiting may be made into a paste with ammonia 
 or alcohol, the article coated with this and left till the 
 liquid has evaporated. Then the powder should be 
 rubbed off with soft tissue paper or soft cotton cloth, 
 and polished with chamois. 
 
 The presence of water always favors chemical 
 change. Therefore iron and steel rapidly oxidize in 
 damp air or in the presence of moisture. All metallic 
 article^ mp^' be protected from such action bv a thin 
 
 Silver 
 Polish 
 
 Whiting 
 
 Protecting 
 Metals 
 
 101 
 
88 CIIIMISTKY ()!■ '11 1 li I lOUSr.l lol n. 
 
 oily ro.ilin^. lion .md sh-cl arliclcs iiol in use may l)c 
 covered willi a lliin layer of vaseline. 
 
 Kusl ean he hiiiovim! Iioni iron or steel hy kerosene 
 if nol loo (jeep. 
 
 'The larnisli on brass or cojjper will dissolve in am- 
 monia vvaler, hnl (lie ohjeels larnisli a^ain more (|nick- 
 \y than if i)ulislied by friction. 
 
 102 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Read Carefully. Plact- youv name and address on the first 
 sheet of tlie test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
 side of the sheet only. J)o not copy ansivcrs from the lesson 
 />(i/>cr. Use your own words, so that your instructor may kiujw 
 thai you understand the subject. Kead the lesson paper a nuni- 
 her of times before attempting to answer the (luestioiis. 
 
 1. Name all the substances you can think of which 
 
 are not soluble in water and are soluble in naph- 
 tha or benzine. 
 
 2. Does suj^ar neutralize acid chemically? Why? 
 
 3. Tlow is soap made? What is the difference be- 
 
 tween hard and soft soa])? 
 
 4. What is "hard" water? How does it act with 
 
 soa])? How is it softened? 
 
 5. h'.xi)lain how 'Mduin^" may make white clothes 
 
 yellow. 
 
 6. Why remove stains when fresh? Why before 
 
 washinji^? 
 
 7. Why is there danger in usini;- naphtha, benzine, 
 
 and lo some extent alcohol near a light? 
 
 8. TTow do cotton and woolen differ in the effect of 
 
 acids and alkalies upon them? 
 
 103 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 9. What precautions must be taken in bleaching or 
 removing stains with chloride of lime solution 
 or with Javelle water? 
 
 10. Give a good method of starching and ironing 
 
 clothes. 
 
 11. If possible, try to remove some stain by a method 
 
 given in this lesson and tell of the results. 
 
 12. Describe a good method of washing woolens. 
 
 13. Why does the drying of a little acid or alkali on a 
 
 fabric have a very disastrous effect? 
 
 14. What is your method of washing dishes ? 
 
 15. What can you say of acids, alkalies, salts? 
 
 16. What is "washing soda?" How should it be 
 
 used? When should it no/ be used? 
 
 17. Why does strong soap or washing soda harm 
 
 varnish or paint? 
 
 18. What is the cause of tarnish on metals? How 
 
 can it be removed and prevented ? 
 
 19. What advantages has ammonia for use in the 
 
 laundry ? 
 
 20. Do you understand everything given in this les- 
 
 son paper? Are there any iquestions you would 
 like to have answered? 
 
 NoTK. — After completing the test siign j'^our full name. 
 
 104 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 A Day's Chemistry. 
 PART III. 
 
 Soda 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF BAKING POWDER 
 
 We will suppose that after the strenuous course of 
 cooking, washing, and cleaning outlined for the morn- 
 ing, that the housekeeper still has strength to make 
 soda biscuits for tea, and we will study the chemical 
 action involved. 
 
 One of the first chemical methods of securing car- 
 bon dioxide to use in making bread rise, was by putting 
 hydrochloric acid and cooking soda together in a dough 
 which might be put into the oven before the gas es- 
 caped from it. 
 
 Cooking soda is a salt called bi-carbonate of sodium. cooking 
 It differs from the ordinary mono-carbonate of soda 
 (washing soda) in yielding twice as much carbon diox- 
 ide in proportion to the sodium part of the compound. 
 The saleratus of our grandmother's time was bi-car- 
 bonate of potash, made from wood ashes. The name 
 is still used, but at all stores, cooking soda would be 
 delivered invariably if saleratus were asked for. The 
 true saleratus costs ten times as much as the soda and 
 is no more effective. The carbonic acid is easily set 
 free by chemical compounds of an acid nature, and 
 new chemical compounds result. 
 
 105 
 
90 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Heating 
 
 Cooking 
 
 Soda 
 
 Early 
 Experiments 
 
 Experhncnt. Put a little cooking soda into any 
 acid — lemon juice, vinegar, almost any fruit juice — 
 and the carbon dioxide will be seen to escape in tiny 
 bubbles. Part of the acid unites with part of the soda, 
 forming a new salt, and the acid taste will be much 
 reduced or lost. 
 
 Part of the carbon dioxide in sodium bi-carbonate 
 is driven off by simply heating, leaving ordinary 
 sodium mono-carbonate, washing soda. In using this 
 process, cooking soda is mixed with the flour. The 
 high temperature of the oven drives off carbon dioxide, 
 and the bread puffs up. It is light, but yellow in 
 color. The sodium carbonate remains in the bread 
 and its alkaline nature serves to neutralize the acid 
 fluids of the stomach (gastric juice) so that digestion 
 of the bread may be retarded. The sodium carbonate 
 also acts in some way upon the gluten producing an 
 unpleasant odor. 
 
 Among the first methods proposed was one undoubt- 
 edly the best theoretically, but very difticult to put in 
 practice. This depended upon the liberation of carbon 
 dioxide from bi-carbonate of sodium by moans of 
 muriatic acid — the method already described. The 
 liberation of gas is instantaneous on the contact of 
 the acid with the "soda" and even a skilled hand can- 
 not mix the bread and place it in the oven without the 
 loss of much of the gas. Tartaric acid, the acid phos- 
 phates, sour milk (lactic acid), vinegar (acetic acid), 
 
 106 
 
BAKING POWDER. 
 
 91 
 
 alum, all of which hav^ been used, are open to the 
 same objection. 
 
 Cream of tartar is the only acid substance commonly 
 used which does not liberate the gas by simple con- 
 tact in cold solution. It unites with "soda" only when 
 heated, because it is so slightly soluble in cold water. 
 
 Experiment. To illustrate this stir a little soda and 
 ''cream of tartar" into some cold water in a cup. Ii? 
 another cup mix the same amounts of each in warm 
 water. Note the difference in the action produced. 
 
 To obtain an even distribution of the gas by thorough 
 mixing, cream of tartar would seem to be the best 
 medium by which to add the acid, but because there are 
 other products which remain behind in the bread in 
 using all the so-called baking powders, the healthful- 
 ness of these residues must be considered. 
 
 Common salt is the safest residue and perhaps that 
 from acid phosphate is next in order. 
 
 The tartrate, lactate, and acetate of sodium are not 
 known to be especially hurtful. As the important 
 constituent of Seidlitz powders is Rochelle salt, the 
 same compound as that resulting from the use of 
 cream of tartar and *'soda," it is not likely to be very 
 harmful, even in the case of the habitual "soda bis- 
 cuit" eater, because of the small quantities taken. 
 
 The various products formed by the chemical de- 
 composition of the alum and "soda" are possibly the 
 most injurious, as these are sulphates, and are thought 
 
 Cream of 
 Tartar 
 
 Injurious 
 Products 
 
 107 
 
92 (7// M//.S'77\')' or Till'. llOVSlillOJ.IX 
 
 t4) l)c I lie Ic.isl readily nl)S(M"l)(Ml sails. 'V\\v salt' of 
 "aliiiii" haKiii!.; powder is inn-easiii^, as il is cheaper. 
 Tjikiii^ into eonsideiatioii (lien llie advantage j^ivcn 
 h\ llie iiis( tliihilil y nf ereain of lariat" in eold vvaler, 
 and llie eomparalively litlle danger lioni ils derivative 
 - koclu'lle salt — it would seem to be, on the whole, the 
 hesi snhstance to add to the soda in older to liberate 
 llie i;as. bill the piopoil ions should be eheinieally ex- 
 act, since loo niiich alkali would lmi<lcr the process of 
 diiMSlion. I leiice bakiiij; powders prepari'd by weif^ht 
 and carehilb iiii\e«l, are a i;rcat improvement over 
 cream of tartar and "soda" measured separatelv. As 
 commonly used, llie proportion of soda should be a 
 little less than half. 
 
 LIGHTING 
 
 i'y the time supper is over or even before, diirincT ^ 
 lar^e portion of the year davlii:;hi lias i;-one. ( )nr 
 grandmothers would have bronL;hl onl the candles. 
 Tel haps we shall use a candU' to lii;ht onr wav while 
 we can \ the biiller and food into llu' cool cellar. 
 Th« Ciindlo The caiidle Ikime altlioiijdi small in :ire.i is l\pical (d 
 
 all llames. I'lame indicales llie bnrnini; o{ a .i;as for 
 solid substances in bnrniiiL; siiiipK u;low' and do not 
 burn with llame. When wo( d and soft coal burn, 
 ^ases are set free by heat and these gases burn over the 
 betl of fuel. i;i\ini; the llames. 
 
 The ••eiieral form ^^^i the candle llame Is a cone 
 wiliest abo\e the basi\ or about at the top of the wick. 
 If it is examined larefiillv it will be seen to consist 
 
 It'lmno 
 
 108 
 
I.ICII I INC. 
 
 93 
 
 of llircc layers, l-'i^. 21. '1 In- iiiUrioi- pari is dark, 
 ^ivini; oiil no li^lil. 'J lie second is yellow and is the 
 Iniiiinons pari, and snrroimdin^' this and most easily 
 seen al I lie base, is a very lliiii him- layer. . 
 
 Expcriiiiciil. If a small splint of wood or a match 
 he placed across llic lower i)art oi the llanie near the 
 wick for a moment, it will he charred where the outer 
 layers of ihe tiame have touched it, hut the centre will 
 not he chan;;c'd. Press a ])iece of card hoard (piiekly 
 down on the flame from above 
 and remove it before il is sel on 
 (ire, and a riiij^' of scoicIumI paper 
 will show the shape of llie hot 
 part of the llame. 
 
 The candle consists of hydro- 
 carbons (compounds of carbon 
 and hydrof^^'n). When a match is 
 applied lo llie wick, llie hydrocar- 
 bons are melted and the li(pn"d 
 rises on the wick by capillary at- 
 traction. The heat chanj^cs this to 
 j^^as (or vapor) which is set on fire, 
 since at the hi^h temj)eratnre it easily unites with the 
 oxygen of the air, Tlu re is i)Knty of oxygen present, 
 but it is all seized upon by the carbon and hydrogen 
 in the outer parts of the column of pas risinj:^ from the 
 wick, so that none reaches the centre. The pas diffuses 
 outward toward the oxypcn continually, so that the 
 innei cone may be regarded as a gas factory. The yel- 
 
 FlK. 21. Flame of u 
 Candlf. 
 
 Chnini«lry 
 (>r tli<; 
 Caiidlc I''lnm<l 
 
 109 
 
94 
 
 ciiiiMisiKV or 'run iiorsiiiioi.i). 
 
 Nil ( III n 
 111 Hiiiiilt" 
 
 FiploNitniH 
 
 I'l lllllNl VA 
 
 M 1 1 ( iirot) 
 
 low Ii).;lil is caused l)\ llic iiuaiulcsrciUH' or ^lo\viii}_; of 
 small particles of carhon. healed lo "wliile heal." 
 riii'se are sel lice Ikuii the (( iiii|>( tiiiids where llie llaiiie 
 is vei \ hoi and lhe\ areiml \(| niiiled w ilh oxy^iMi. 
 
 I'daines "sum >l..e." (hal is. llnow oil iiiihiiiiied car 
 hoii wiieii lhei«' is an iiisiillieieiil sn|)|il\ ol oxyiM-ii. 
 Any device which coiislaiilly niiews a steady sii|)|)lv ol 
 air (with oxygen) will make the llame l)iirii hellef. 
 'The chimiie\' ol" a lamp does this h\ |)fotect iiii; the 
 llaiiie liom wind and l)\ makii)!';, enci»»sinL;, and direct- 
 ins'. ii|)\\ai(l a tinreiil ol air. The chimnev makes 
 llie lamp "draw, " as ihe < liinine\ ol llie honse makes 
 the .stove "draw." 
 
 W hen the air is mixeil with an inllammahle j^as ntld 
 llie tempeiatmc ol anv part is raised lo the kindliii}.;^ 
 point ol ihe i;as, as ha|)pens if a hi;ht is hionidit into 
 such a mixlnre, an explosion lakes place. The llanu* 
 spicads llnonjdi llu- whole an<l comhinalion ensnes 
 e\ei\\\here almt»st instanth. Cireat heat is piodnced 
 and the teases expand snddenl\ and with violence. If 
 the leases are conlined, the enclosini; walls may he 
 hroken h\ Ihe pressmc. ( ontiaclion follows this ex 
 ])ansion and air i nshes in, piodncini', a second sonnd. 
 'The sounds occur so near lo^elhcr as lo L;ivc the im- 
 pii'ssion of OIK'. 
 
 In a mixttife of inllammahK- i;as and air iIumt must 
 he a certain pi(»|)orlion iA each to i;ivi' conditions which 
 will piodiice an explosion. A vcrv small ainoimt of 
 j^as in the ait will not explode nndef an\' conditions, 
 
 110 
 
in: III' IN a. 
 
 9S 
 
 ns wlicil llicrc is ;iii ndor nl co.-il j;;i', in llic room Iroiii 
 wliicli no explosion follows even (lion}j;h ;i lij^Iil Ix' 
 prcscnl. ( )n llic oilier hand, a niixliire containinj;" a 
 larj^r proportion of inl1:nnnial)lc j^'us and a lillle air 
 will not explode. 'I lie jnoporlion of air lo i-as in .ni 
 explosive niixinre varies in diCferent cases, l)iil in ^^eii 
 eral ranges from ahoni Ivvi'ive lo live parts ol air to one 
 
 4^-~ 
 
 I 
 
 \''\K- ~~<I' 'I'Iii- I'^H'im I or win- (illU/r nil II (lilH I'lllllli'. 
 
 part of ^a.^. Il is, of eonis<', never safe lo relv '»n llie 
 elianee of llie eoi reet propoilions of ^as and air iiol he- 
 in}4 present. 
 
 I''.xplosions sonietinies ocenr by unwise use of kero- 
 sene in kindling a (ire in a slov<'. If llie kerosene is 
 pom'ed upon a liic alreadv bnrninj.;, eiion_i;li vapor of 
 kerosene iiiav I)e piodiieed lo j^ive a disastrous ex|)k)- 
 sioii. Soakin<^ wood or pa|)er in kerosene for use as 
 kindlings and then lif;hlin^ would produce no such 
 dire results. 
 
96 
 
 CIIIWISTKY Ol' rnii HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Sftfoty 
 
 Lhiiij)H 
 
 1'^xi)K)si(»Ms ill mines arc usually caused hy a j;^.'U 
 called fire (laiuj) and co)nj)()sed of carbon and liydroj^cn. 
 When (his escapes fioni ihe coal and beconios mixed 
 with ail-, il is vety explosive. li a miner hrinj^s a 
 nalscd llame into the mine, the Inc-damp will ij^nite 
 and disaster results. A safety lamp was devised hy 
 Davy for use in such dangerous places. Tt was found 
 that a };as is cooled helow its kindling tempt'ralure in 
 passim; throui^h a line wire f;au/.c. 
 I,am|»s surrounded hv such a gauze may 
 he taken into a mine with conil)arativc 
 safety. V\\^. 22. 
 
 The action of the wire p^auzc Upon tlio 
 i;as may he studied hy holdim;- over a 
 i;as jet a piece of line wire nettinj;'. such 
 as is used in window screens, and then 
 li^htini; the i;as alM)ve the nelliui;. h^ij;'. 
 22a. Il will he seen that the i;as helow 
 the neltini; is very slow in i^nitini^, 
 since it does not readily hccoun" suflicientlv heated, the 
 wire ncttini;- coolinj;- it helow its kindling- point. 
 
 The kerosene lamp L;ives lii'.hl hy Iho principle 
 already descrihi-d. The reservoir o.V the lamp corre- 
 si)omls to the ciip of melted tallow at the top of the 
 candle. 'Vhv oil is drawn to the (oj) ^^{ the wick hy 
 capillary attraction, where the heav vaporizes il ; so 
 that vapor and not oil is what really burns. The struc- 
 ture of (he (lame is precisely like that of the candle, 
 all hough its shape diilers, because of the shai)c of the 
 wick. 
 
 112 
 
I ICllTfMG. 
 
 97 
 
 llliiminalin^ j^ns is today llif source of lij;lil in iiiosi (j„,i y 
 rily houses. 'I'licrc ,\\c Iwo kinds of ^as iii>\v liir 
 nislu'd for lliis imrposc. ( 'oal ^^as is ohlaimd liom 
 the dcshiKiivi* dislillalioii of -.(dl coid. Iscccivcis 
 i)r rctorls of iron or (ire ( la\' an- Idled willi soil co.d 
 and licaled lo i loo" or more. I'lnm lliese iclorls IuIks 
 Irad up inlo a larj^c |»ipe callcMl liie hydraulic inani, 
 
 u 
 
 Hydrftii 
 
 Hr»,..rl. 
 
 h 
 
 r.nnitidfir 
 
 C on <t ""»»'"' 
 
 
 fMm 
 
 FKl. TA. MANUKACTIIIIINO OT COAI, (JAM. 
 
 throtij^h which water is Kepi llowin^. As tlic coal be- 
 comes heatc(i, a ininiher of dilTeicnl snhstances aic 
 j^iven off, which at this iiiidi tempi r.ilnre are in the 
 ^^ascolls stale. Some of them diss(»lve in the water 
 of the hy(h"anlic main, hnl those needed for ilhnninat 
 in^'" ^as are not solnhle and passing" out of the main, 
 Ihey travel ihron^di several hmidrecl feet of vertical 
 pipe called the (dndens( r, where more vvatei' tcmovcM 
 any impnrities which may liave escaped fiom the 
 hydraulic main. 
 
 DiNlillnlion 
 <tl Ciinl 
 
 113 
 
98 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Purifying 
 Coal Gas 
 
 Aniline 
 
 Water Gas 
 
 The gases are then passed on through numerous 
 other devices to remove remaining traces of impurities, 
 and arc finally collected in a circular chamber known 
 as the gas-holder, from which they are distributed to 
 the consumer. Fig. 23. 
 
 If the purification is not perfect, the coal gas will 
 contain sulphur compounds, and these on burning pro- 
 duce oxide of sulphur, which is further changed by 
 moisture and the air into sulphuric acid. The quan- 
 tity produced may be very minute and yet in time 
 may be sufficient to damage books and fabrics. 
 
 The materials which collect in the hydraulic main 
 and the condensers contain many useful substances, 
 one of the most valuable being ammonia. Among the 
 most interesting substances obtained from coal tar is 
 aniline from which beautiful dyes are made. Aniline 
 itself is a colorless liquid, but in combination with 
 other chemical substances it yields a wide range of 
 beautiful colors now used in dyeing. Other useful 
 substances obtained from the distillation of coal tar 
 are carbolic acid, a disinfectant, and naphthalene 
 which is sold in the form of moth balls. 
 
 In some cities what is known as water gas forms 
 the basis of the illuminating gas. This is made by 
 passing very hot steam over red hot anthracite a>al 
 or coke. The oxygen of the water unites with the 
 carbon of the coal, forming carbon monoxide — a com- 
 pound of one part oxygen and one part carbon — and 
 the hydrogen of the water is set free. Both the gases 
 
 114 
 
LIGHTING. 
 
 99 
 
 thus formed will burn, but in burning they produce a 
 colorless flame. It is therefore necessary to mix with 
 them some gases containing much more carbon which 
 will give light when burning. The mixture is stored 
 and distributed like coal gas. 
 
 This gas is cheaper to manufacture in most locali- 
 ties, but it contains much more carbon monoxide which 
 is a very poisonous gas. Much discussion has arisen 
 as to the safety of using w^ater gas and in some places 
 its manufacture is forbidden by law. 
 
 The destructive distillation of vegetable and animal 
 life in the depths of the earth, caused by the great 
 heat within the earth, has in some places given rise 
 to petroleum and natural gas. The gas gave a cheap 
 and convenient fuel, but unfortunately the supply is 
 becoming rapidly exhausted. 
 
 An illuminating gas of growing importance today 
 is acetylene. This is a compound of carbon and hydro- 
 gen and is prepared by the action of water upon cal- 
 cium carbide, which is a compound of carbon and the 
 element calcium. Calcium carbide is manufactured in 
 large quantities at Niagara Falls where pure lime 
 mixed with powdered charcoal is fused at an intense 
 heat. A dark gray crystalline solid results which, 
 when mixed with water, produces acetylene gas and 
 slaked lime. 
 
 Acetylene is a colorless gas of characteristic odor, 
 soluble in water, and explosive if mixed with air. 
 With an ordinary burner it makes a yellowish smoky 
 
 Natiiral 
 Gas 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 115 
 
KM) 
 
 riir.MiSTKY or 'rim iiovseiiold. 
 
 Aoetylene 
 OoiifiialorH 
 
 flame, l)iil willi .'i j)r()|)iMly conslniclcd biirmT, it ^ivos 
 a brilliantly white li^lit, very like sunlight. Colors 
 appear at their true values seen in this \\\!}\{. The 
 flame is an intensely hot one. In acetylene burners 
 the q-as escapes through two very minute holes directed 
 oblicjuely towards each other, as shown in Im^-. 24. 
 
 FKJ. 21. A( RTYLRNR CAS lU'UNIORS. 
 
 The ^as has been somewhat in disicpntc because of 
 lacl': of a suitable arrangement for making and storing 
 it. Many generators are upon the market, it is true, 
 but very few of these are really safe. As soon as a 
 reliable one is obtainable, the ^as will be widely used 
 for lijj^htinj^-. It may also be used for cookinj.^, but at 
 present is rather expensive. ( )ne form of p^encrator 
 is illustrated in b'ij^. 25. The calcium carbide in 
 lumps is fed automatically into water as louf^ as the 
 ^as is used. When the storaj^^e tank is nearly full the 
 su])ply of car1)ide is automatically shut off. In an- 
 other style, which is also aut(jmatic, water is fed on 
 t(^ the lum|)S of carbide. Roth st^'les have their advo- 
 cates, but the lump fei'd generator is most ^^enerally 
 recommended. The apparatus costs from about $65.00 
 for a 10 lii^ht plant to $.^(X3.0() for a 100 liqht plant. 
 
LIGHTING. 
 
 101 
 
 A cheaper gas than acetylene is gasoline gas, some- 
 times called carbnretted air gas because it is com- 
 mon air impregnated with the vapors of gasoline. It 
 burns with a rich, bright flame similar to coal gas and 
 
 Oasolind 
 Gau 
 
 Fig. 25. Acetylene fJuH Generator and Storage Tank. 
 
 is conducted through pipes and fixtures in the same 
 manner. It may be used in an ordinary gas stove. 
 
 The gas machine consists of a generator containing 
 evaporating pans, an automatic air pump operated by 
 
 117 
 
102 
 
 CHEMISTRY Of THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 a heavy weight or by a water motor, together with 
 a regulator or mixer. The general arrangement is 
 shown in Fig. 26, the generator being entirely outside 
 the building in which the gas is used. All such ma- 
 chines require intelligent care, for several disastrous 
 
 Oxide of 
 Calcium 
 
 FIG. 2G. GASOLINK GAS PLANT. 
 
 explosions have taken place w^hen such care has not 
 been given to the apparatus. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 One of the common chemical substances found about 
 the country house at least is quick lime, used for 
 whitewash and as a deodorizer. 
 
 The term lime usually means the oxide of the element 
 calcium. Its commonest compound is calcium carbon- 
 ate which is found in nature as limestone, chalk, mar- 
 ble, coral, shells, and several other familiar substances. 
 Calcium is also found combined with sulphur and 
 
 118 
 
Lime 
 
 LIME. 103 
 
 oxygen in the compound calcium sulphate, which is 
 the mineral gypsum from which plaster of Paris is 
 made. Bones contain a considerable amount of cal- 
 cium phosphate and o^gg shells, calcium carbonate. 
 
 Lime, the oxide of calcium, is made by heating Qui^k 
 broken pieces of limestone in furnaces called lime kilns. 
 The calcium carbonate as a compound is broken up, 
 carbon dioxide gas being given off and calcium oxide 
 left. This freshly formed oxide is called "quick lime," 
 and when it is exposed to moist air, it attracts water 
 and changes to a form called chemically, calcium 
 hydroxide and, commonly, '^slaked lime." Quick lime 
 may be used to dry the air of damp cellars, etc., because 
 of this property. The process of slaking the lime is 
 also accomplished by treating quick lime with water. 
 When this is done, much heat is evolved and the hard 
 lumps crumble to a soft powder and increase consider- 
 ably in bulk. The rise in temperature shows that 
 chemical change is taking place. 
 
 Slaked lime will dissolve slightly in water, yield- 
 ing lime-water. This is a mild alkali and has several water 
 household uses. It may be prepared by pouring two 
 quarts of boiling v^^ater over about a cubic inch of 
 unslaked lime. Stir it thoroughly and let it stand over 
 night ; in the morning pour off the liquid and treat 
 the sediment with hot water a sc^cond time. When the 
 sediment has again settled, pour off the clear liquid 
 and bottle this. It is mixed with milk and fed to 
 young children and invalids to prevent acidity of the 
 
 119 
 
 Lime 
 
104 
 
 CHEMISTRY 01' THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Mortar 
 
 and 
 
 Plaster 
 
 Hydraulic 
 Cement 
 
 Stomach and make the milk more easily digested. 
 Lime-water and oil form one of the best remedies for 
 burns. The alkali of the lime neutralizes tlie acid 
 nature of the burn. 
 
 Mortar is made of slaked lime and sand. When 
 this is spread upon the walls, the lime slowly absorbs 
 carbon dioxide, always present in the air, and changes 
 to carbonate of lime. The water is given off into the 
 air (evaporates) and the mass becomes hard. Of 
 course the surface becomes carbonate sooner than the 
 deeper parts be-cause this has closer contact with the 
 air, and it therefore takes considerable time for all the 
 plaster to harden. The water contained in the mortar 
 soon dries, but while the mortar is becoming hard, 
 more water is continually formed in the chemical pro- 
 cess, so that it requires a long time for the new plaster 
 to become quite dry. It is considered unhealthy to 
 live in rooms with newly plastered walls. This may 
 be because such walls are damp, thus producing damp 
 air, or it may be because the moisture in the walls 
 interferes with the ])assage of air and other gases 
 through the walls — a process little considered as a 
 rule, but of great importance. 
 
 Certain varieties of limestone contain other salts, 
 such as magnesium carbonate. Lime made from these 
 does not soften from exposure to the air. It will, 
 however, harden after long contact with water, and 
 such substances arc known as cements. Portland cement 
 will harden under water. 
 
 120 
 
LIME. 
 
 105 
 
 Quick-lime is a strong- alkali and does the work of 
 such substances. It is used in tanneries in taking 
 hair from hides and also in decomposing fats for mak- 
 ing candles. When dead animal substance is buried 
 in lime, the process of decomposition is greatly hast- 
 ened, probably because the lime unites with all water 
 present while the strong alkali acts upon the fats re- 
 ducing them to soaps of different kinds. 
 
 Whitewash is simple slaked lime mixed with water. 
 It is very cleansing in its effects and also gives the ap- 
 pearance of freshness and cleanness. When newly ap- 
 plied, it is nearly colorless, for the calcium hydrate is 
 colorless ; this in the air soon changes to calcium car- 
 bonate which is white and opaque. 
 
 CHEMISTRY AND ELECTRICITY. 
 
 In most houses electricity is used for operating the 
 door bell, table bell and perhaps the electric gas light- 
 ers. We have learned how stored up chemical energy 
 is changed into heat and force in the stove and in the 
 human body ; but in the electric cell, chemical energy 
 is changed into electrical energy. 
 
 If a strip of pure zinc be placed in a weak solution 
 of acid, no chemical action takes place. Place in the 
 same solution a strip of sheet copper and again no 
 action takes place ; but let the copper and the zinc be 
 brought in contact, or connected by a copper wire, and 
 immediately vigorous chemical action will begin at the 
 surface of the copper plate ; bubbles of hydrogen col- 
 lecting there. This action is as follows : the zinc dis- 
 
 Whitewash 
 
 A Voltaic 
 Cell 
 
 121 
 
io6 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOED. 
 
 solves in the acid and hydrogen is set free. This 
 hydrogen travels with an electric current set up in the 
 liquid, passing from particle to particle through the 
 liquid until it reaches the copper. Here the hydrogen 
 stops, but the electric current passes up the copr^er 
 plate and over the wire to the zinc and down thai" "^o 
 
 Leclanche 
 Cell 
 
 Fig. 27. A Simple 
 Voltaic Cell. 
 
 Tig. JS. A Leclanche 
 Cell. 
 
 the liquid and so on. This arrangement of acid and 
 metals is called a simple voltaic cell. Fig. 27. 
 
 Other cells are arranged with different liquids and 
 solids to gain various ends, and several cells may be 
 united by wires between the plates to gain additional 
 strength of current. The form of cell often employed 
 to work electric bells is the Leclanche cell. Fig. 28. 
 This consists of a plate of carbon (or a porous eel) 
 containing carbon), in place of the copper, a strip 
 or rod of zinc, and a solution of ammonium chloride 
 
 122 
 
ELECTRICITY, 
 
 107 
 
 which takes the place of the acid. The zinc is not 
 affected by the ammonium chloride unless it is con- 
 nected with the carbon, but when there is a circuit 
 for the electricity, a current is generated. The com- 
 mon conductors of the electric current are the metals 
 and carbons. 
 
 Fig. 29. A Battery of Cells Counected lu Series. 
 
 The zinc is gradually changed to zinc chloride, at 
 the expense of the ammonium chloride, and after a 
 time both the zinc and the ammonium chloride must 
 be renewed. In renewing the battery^ the jars should be 
 cleaned out carefully and the zincs renewed if they 
 are completely eaten through. A quarter of a pound 
 of pure ammonium chloride (sal-ammoniac) is dis- 
 solved in enough water to about half fill a jar. When 
 the carbon and the zinc are replaced, this will bring 
 the liquid up to two inches from the top. The jar 
 should not be filled too full. The wires which have 
 been disconnected should be reconnected as before. 
 
 For bell work the cells are usually connected up "in 
 series," that is, the zinc of one cell is connected to 
 
 Renewing 
 Batteries 
 
 Cells in 
 Series 
 
 .23 
 
io8 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Plant Foods 
 
 the carbon of the next, the outside circuit being estab- 
 lished between the end carbon and end zinc. Fig. 29. 
 If there is a short circuit anywhere 
 in the hne, that is, if the current has a 
 chance in any way to flow from one 
 wire to the other without going 
 through the bell or other apparatus, 
 the batteries are very quickly ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 A modification of this cell has been 
 made in which the spaces inside it are 
 filled with some spongy mass in the 
 pores of which the ammonium chlor- 
 Fig. 30. A Dry Cell. i<^^^ ^^ held. These may easily be car- 
 ried about without danger of spilling solutions. They 
 are called dry cells and when exhausted cannot read- 
 ily be renewed. 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 Most housekeepers have at least a few house plants 
 and many have gardens which occupy part of the time 
 each day. All foods are directly or indirectly produced 
 by plants and it is well to consider also what food these 
 living things require in their turn. 
 
 Plants are able to take from the materials forming 
 the crust of the earth and from the air surrounding 
 them all that they need for their life. The leaves of 
 the plants, because of the green substance called 
 
 124 
 
PLANTS. 
 
 109 
 
 upper Surface 
 
 Bvea.thinq Pores 
 
 Fig. 31. Section Through 
 a Leaf. 
 
 chlorophyl, have the power of decomposing carbon 
 dioxide gas in a such a way that plants make use of 
 the carbon and breathe out oxygen. Fig. 31. This 
 separation is very difficult to 
 make in the laboratory. The en- 
 ergy of sunlight is utilized by the 
 plant for this work, for the action 
 does not take place in darkness. 
 In this way plants return to the 
 air the oxygen so necessary for 
 animal life and are themselves 
 fed in part by the useless and 
 even harmful gas exhaled by ani- 
 mals. 
 
 The soil on which the plant grows furnishes the 
 mineral matter needed. When plant tissues are 
 burned, these mineral substances remain as ashes. 
 When the ashes of plants are analyzed, they are found 
 to consist of potash, soda, iron, and lime in the form 
 of phosphates, sulphates, and silicates. Some of these 
 substances are present in the soil in inexhaustible 
 quantities, but others are less abundant and unless the 
 soil be fertilized from time to time, the plant soon 
 uses them up. These less abundant substances are 
 phosphates-, potash, and nitrogen. 
 
 The lover of house plants has long resorted to 
 various expedients for feeding them, and many plant 
 foods are now sold and in common use. In using these 
 for manuring potted plants, care must be taken not to 
 
 Chlorophyl 
 
 Fertilizers 
 
 125 
 
no 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Nitrogen and 
 Plant Life 
 
 Conservation 
 
 use too much, since strong solutions of them are likclj 
 to corrode the roots and kill the plants. 
 
 Although nitrogen is a very abundant element, form- 
 ing as has been said, four-fifths of the air, yet it is com- 
 paratively rare in forms which are of use to plants. 
 As a rule plants cannot take it from the air and there- 
 fore require soluble compounds of nitrogen for food. 
 One of the most important of these is ammonia. This 
 is formed when organic substances decay, its odor 
 being very noticeable about stables. Its action with 
 acids was described in the pages about cleaning and it 
 was explained how it unites with acids to form salts, 
 usually soluble. Sulphate of ammonia is the form used 
 in agriculture. A very little ammonia in the water 
 used on house plants is a good thing for them. 
 
 It has been seen that plants by aid of sunlight breathe 
 in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen gas. In 
 addition to this, they also breathe as animals do, to a 
 slight extent, taking in oxygen and br-eathing out car- 
 bon dioxide. This action is more pronounced in dark- 
 ness. 
 
 The wonderful principle called conservation is il- 
 lustrated by what we know of plant life. Plants in 
 growing store up energy derived from the heat and 
 light of the sun. When they decay, or are burned, or 
 are eaten by animals, exactly the same amount of 
 energy is set free and changed into a new form, and 
 just as much carbon dioxide as the plant breathed in, 
 is given back to the air. A plant which was many 
 
 126 
 
PLANTS. Ill 
 
 years in growing may be consumed in an hour or may 
 decay slowly for years. In either case the same total 
 amount of energy is set free, fast or slowly. This 
 energy is most apparent as heat. In the growth and 
 destruction of the plant both energy and matter have 
 been transformed, but neither energy nor matter has 
 been made or lost — it has merely taken on a new appear- 
 ance. When animals feed on*plants they transform the 
 energy of sunHght which is stored up in the plant into 
 energy of vitality. In this sense man and all animals 
 are "children of the sun." 
 
 CHEMICAL TERMS. 
 
 To explain various chemical and physical phenomena 
 the scientists consider that matter consists of certain 
 small molecules and atoms. 
 
 If a drop of water be divided and sub-divided in- 
 definitely, it is conceivable that a point would come 
 when it could not be divided further by physical means. 
 This final bit of water is called a molecule. It would 
 be far from visible by the most powerful microscope. 
 From calculation which we will not go into, we learn 
 that a few hundred million ordinary sized molecules 
 would cover the space of a pin head. 
 
 If the water is broken up by some powerful force 
 as by the electric current, we have seen that two dif- 
 ferent substances are obtained — oxygen and hydrogen. 
 Consequently the molecules of water must have been 
 made up of other still smaller particles and these are 
 called atoms. The atoms of a chemical element, then. 
 
 127 
 
 Molecules 
 
112 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 are of the same kind, for from an elemental substance 
 like oxygen, only oxygen can be obtained by any 
 means now known. 
 Atoms The atoms may be likened to the letters of our alpha- 
 
 bet and the molecules to the words. From a few dif- 
 ferent kinds of atoms (letters) can be made a great 
 variety of molecules (words). 
 
 TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS. 
 
 Aliimiuuiu 
 
 Al 
 
 Iodine 
 
 I 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 O 
 
 Ai'senic 
 
 As 
 
 Iron 
 
 Fe 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 P 
 
 Barium 
 
 Ba 
 
 (Fei-rum) 
 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Si 
 
 Boron 
 
 B 
 
 Lead 
 
 Pb 
 
 Silver 
 
 Ag 
 
 . Calcium 
 
 Ca 
 
 (Plumbum) 
 
 
 (Argentum) 
 
 
 Carbon 
 
 C 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Mg 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Na 
 
 Clalorine 
 
 CI 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Mu 
 
 (Nati'ium) 
 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cu 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Hg 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 S 
 
 Gold 
 
 Au 
 
 (Hy d rargy rum) 
 
 Tin 
 
 Sn 
 
 (Aurum) 
 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Ni 
 
 (Stannum) 
 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 H 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 N 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zn 
 
 Chemical 
 Signs 
 
 The atoms of an element are all exactly alike. They 
 weigh the same and act the same whatever their 
 source. Two or more atoms of an element may com- 
 bine to make a molecule of that element. The mole- 
 cules of a chemical substance are always composed of 
 the same number and kind of atoms. 
 
 To express the composition of substances chemists 
 have made use of certain abbreviations and signs. To 
 indicate an atom of hydrogen the letter H is used and 
 for oxygen, the letter O, for nitrogen, N, and so on as 
 shown in the table. 
 
 When expressing a compound the number of atoms 
 is indicated by sub-script ; for example, Hj means two 
 
 128 
 
CHEMICAL TERMS. 
 
 "3 
 
 atoms of hydrogen ; H^O expresses two atoms of 
 hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, and as we have 
 found, this is the composition of water ; so H2O is the 
 chemist's short way of indicating water. These are 
 called chemical formulas. The formula for sulphuric 
 acid is H2SO4. This indicates that it is made up of two 
 atoms of hydrogen, one atom of sulphur, and four 
 atoms of oxygen. The following table gives the chemi- 
 cal formulas of many of the chemical substances found 
 in the household. 
 
 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 
 
 All modern science is based upon experiment. 
 Chemistry was hardly a science until experimental re- 
 search began. It must be confessed that the average 
 housewife seldom thinks of making experiments. She 
 is apt to remain helpless before any new problem of 
 the home without printed directions or advice from 
 friends. Very often the easiest and surest way to find 
 out a thing is to try it. Use your kitchen as a labora- 
 tory. It would, of course, be most unwise to make ex- 
 periments on expensive materials. For example, if 
 a stain was to be removed from colored goods, it would 
 be best to find the effect of the chemicals to be used on 
 some small piece of the fabric. 
 
 To test the color of a sample of gingham for fastness 
 in washing, try a part of the sample in soap and hot 
 water and see if the color "runs" or stains the water. 
 Dry and iron the piece treated and compare with the 
 portion of the original sample kept. A sample can be 
 
 Expressing 
 Molecules 
 
 Ezperimentg 
 
 Testing 
 Colors 
 
 129 
 
114 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 TABLE OF COMMON SUBSTANCES AND THEIR FORMULAS. 
 
 SUBSTANCE 
 
 FORMULA 
 
 SUBSTANCE 
 
 FORMULA 
 
 Water 
 
 H.,0 
 
 Calcium Oxide 
 
 
 Peroxide of Hydro- 
 
 
 (Lime) 
 
 CaO 
 
 gen 
 
 H2O3 
 
 Lime Water . . . . 
 
 CaOH 
 
 Sulphuric Acid . . 
 
 HaSO* 
 
 Calcium Carbonate 
 
 CaCOa 
 
 Sulphur Dioxide . 
 
 SO2 
 
 Calcium Hypo- 
 
 
 Hj'drochloric Acid 
 
 HCl 
 
 chlorite (Chloride 
 of Lime) . . : . 
 
 Ca(C10)j 
 
 Vcetic Acid .... 
 
 C2H4O3 
 
 Sodium Thiosul- 
 
 
 Tartaric Acid . . . 
 
 C4H6O6 
 
 phite ("Hypo") . 
 
 NaaSaOs 
 
 Cream of Tartar 
 
 
 Cane Sugar .... 
 
 C12H22O11 
 
 (Acid potassium 
 tartrate) . . . . 
 
 KCiHbOs 
 
 Milk Sugar .... 
 
 C12H22O11+H2O 
 
 Carbon Dioxide . . 
 
 COa 
 
 Grape Sugar , . . 
 
 C«Hi20« 
 
 Carbon Monoxide . 
 
 CO 
 
 Starch 
 
 (C6Hio06)x 
 
 Caustic Soda . . . 
 
 NaOH 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 (CHioOJy 
 
 Caustic Potash . . 
 
 KOH 
 
 Stearine (in fat) 
 
 C3H8(02Cl8 H3 J )3 
 
 Sodium Carbonate 
 
 
 Palmitin (in fat) . 
 
 C3H5(02Cl6H3,)3 
 
 {Anhydrous) , . 
 
 NaaCOa 
 
 Soap - 
 
 NaOaCiHHaji. 
 NaOsCisHai. 
 
 Sodium Carbonate 
 
 
 ( 
 
 etc. 
 
 {CrystaUiue) 
 (Washing Soda) . 
 
 Na.,C03+12HoO 
 
 Albumen . . . . -^ 
 
 {Not definitely 
 known.) 
 
 Sodium Bicarbon- 
 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 CsHsOH 
 
 ate 
 
 NaHCOa 
 
 Wood Alcoliol . . 
 
 CH3OH 
 
 Ammonia {^as) . . 
 
 NH, 
 
 Glycerine 
 
 C3H6(OH)3 
 
 Ammonium llj-- 
 drate (Ammonia 
 
 
 G'soHne, N'phtha \ 
 
 C«H,4. CtH.s. 
 
 Water) 
 
 NH.OH 
 
 Benzine, etc , . ) 
 
 CsHis, etc. 
 
 130 
 
Testing by 
 
 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATOKY. 115 
 
 tested for fastness to light by exposing to direct sun- 
 light for a day or two, saving a portion of the cloth as 
 before for comparison. If the dye will stand direct 
 sunlight without appreciable change for this length of 
 time, it will not give much trouble by fading. Wall 
 paper may be tested for fading in a similar way. 
 
 The industrial chemist always endeavors to test 
 materials in a manner as nearly like the way they are comparison 
 to be used as possible. For example, if he were testing 
 two samples of flour to be used for making bread, he 
 might make up two small loaves, using carefully 
 weighed quantities of each sample of flour and other 
 materials and baking the loaves at one time, compare 
 the result. In such cases it is usual to have a "stand- 
 ard" flour or other material to use for comparison. 
 
 This method of testing by comparison could often 
 be used by housekeepers provided reasonable care 
 were taken as to weights and conditions. Working 
 thus, flour, baking powder, soap, spices, flavoring ex- 
 tracts, in fact almost all the raw materials of the kitchen 
 and laundry could be tested. 
 
 The chemicals for househald use are chiefly acids, 
 alkalies, and solvents for grease. Acids and alkalies chenicais 
 are opposed to each other in their properties and if too 
 much of either has been used, it may be rendered in- 
 nocent or neutralized by the other ; as when soda has 
 turned black silk brown, acetic acid or vinegar will 
 bring the color back. 
 
 Hous hold 
 
 131 
 
ii6 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, 
 
 Acids for the 
 Laboratory 
 
 Care of 
 Chemicals 
 
 The acids which should be on the chemical shelf 
 for the household are acetic, hydrochloric (muriatic), 
 oxalic. Vinegar may be used in many cases instead of 
 acetic acid, but vinegar contains coloring matter which 
 stains delicate fabrics and it is better to use the puri- 
 fied acid. Hydrochloric and oxalic acids are strong 
 acids and will harm most household materials if al- 
 lowed to act for loiig time. Acetic acid is a weak acid 
 and as it is volatile, evaporates without becoming con- 
 centrated as do the others. 
 
 Some bright blue flannels and other fabrics, when 
 washed with soap or ammonia become changed or 
 faded in color. If acetic acid or vinegar be added to 
 the last rinsing water, the original appearance may be 
 restored. Not all shades of blue are made by the same 
 compounds, hence not all faded blues can be thus re- 
 stored. 
 
 The use of these acids has been indicated in the 
 previous pages, and there remains to be considered, 
 only certain cautions. Hydrochloric acid is somewhat 
 volatile. It will escape even around a glass stopper 
 and will eat a cork stopper ; therefore, either the glass 
 stopper should be tied in with an impervious cover — 
 rubber or parchment — or a rubber stopper used, for the 
 escaping fumes will rust metals and eat fabrics. 
 
 Oxalic acid should be labeled POISON. 
 
 The bleaching agents, "chloride of lime'' and Javelle 
 water owe their beneficent effect to substances of an 
 acid nature which are liberated from them. Thev 
 
 132 
 
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 117 
 
 should all be used in solution only, and should be kept 
 in bottles with rubber stoppers. 
 
 Sulphurous acid gas, obtained by burning sulphur, 
 will often remove spots which nothing else will touch. 
 The amount given off from a burning sulphur match 
 will often be sufficient to remove from the finger fruit 
 stains or those made by black kid gloves. 
 
 The alkalies which are indispensable are : Alkalies 
 
 1st. Ammonia — better that of the druggist than the 
 often impure and always weak * 'household ammonia." 
 The strong ammonia is best diluted about one-half, 
 since it is very volatile, and much escapes into the air. 
 
 2nd. Potash and Caustic Soda, which are to be had at 
 the grocers in small cans. The lye obtained from wood 
 ashes owes its caustic and soap-making properties to 
 potash. The caustics are corrosive in their action, and 
 must be used with discretion. 
 
 Crystallized sodium carbonate, the sal-soda of the 
 grocer, is chemically speaking a salt and not an alkali, 
 but it gives all the effect of one, since the carbonic acid 
 is so weak that it readily gives place to other sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Sal-soda is a very cheap chemical, since It Is readily 
 manufactured In large quantities, and forms the basis 
 of most of the washing powders on the market. With 
 grease, it forms a soap which Is dissolved and carried 
 away. 
 
 3rd. Borax Is a compound of sodium with boric acid, 
 and acts as a mild alkali. It is the. safest of all the 
 
 133 
 
ii8 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Solvttnta 
 
 Oloset for 
 Chemicals 
 
 alkalies, and affects colored fabrics less than dots 
 ammonia. 
 
 Solvents for grease are alcohol, chloroform, ether, 
 benzine, naphtha, gasolene — all volatile — kerosene and 
 turpentine. Of these chloroform is the most costly, 
 and is used chiefly for taking spots from delicate silks. 
 Fabrics and colors not injured by water may be treated 
 by alcohol or ether. Benzine, naphtha or gasolene are 
 often sold, each under the name of the other. If care 
 is taken to prevent the spreading of the ring, they can 
 be safely used on any fabric. They do not mix with 
 water, and are very inflammable. 
 
 The less volatile solvents are kerosene and turpen- 
 tine. Kerosene is a valuable agent in the household, 
 and since some of the dealers have provided a deodor- 
 ized quality, it should find an even wider use. The 
 lighter variety is better than the 150-degree fire test, 
 which is the safe oil for lamps. As has been indicated 
 in the preceding pages, the housewife will find many 
 uses for this common substance. 
 
 On account of the purity and cheapness of kerosene, 
 turpentine is less used than formerly, although it has 
 its advantages. 
 
 These household chemicals should have their own 
 closet or chest, as separate from other bottles as is the 
 medicine chest, and especially should they be separated 
 from it. Many distressing accidents have occurred 
 from swallowing ammonia by mistake. 
 
 In addition to these substances, certain others may be 
 kept on hand, if the housewife has sufficient chemical 
 
 134 
 
THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LABORATORY. 
 
 119 
 
 knowledge to enable her to detect adulteration in the 
 groceries and other materials which she buys. 
 
 A few of these simple tests are given with the 
 chemicals needed. 
 
 Directions for Using the Housekeeper's Laboratory. 
 When directed to make a solution acid or alkaline, 
 always test it by means of the litmus paper : 
 
 Blue turned to red means acid. Red turned to blue 
 means alkaline. 
 
 Only by following the directions can the test be 
 relied upon. Under other circumstances than those 
 given, the results may mean something else. 
 
 Use the acids in glass or china vessels only. Metals 
 may be attacked. Do not touch brass with ammonia 
 or marble with acid. Aluminum is quickly corroded by 
 the alkalies. 
 
 Heating or burning a substance often gives evidence 
 of its character. Organic solids will char, leaving 
 charcoal (carbon) when heated and will disappear 
 completely when burned. Some salts melt ; others do 
 not. 
 
 All the carbonates that the housewife is likely to 
 meet will give an effervescence of carbon dioxide with 
 muriatic acid and most of them with acetic acid. 
 
 Substances of an acid nature will effervesce with a 
 solution of cooking soda. The test will be more deli- 
 cate if the solutions are warm. 
 
 To test for sulphuric acid or soluble sulphate in soda, 
 cream of tartar, baking powder, vinegar, sugar or 
 
 Tests 
 
 Vessels 
 
 Carbonates 
 
 135 
 
120 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 Lime Test 
 
 Phosphates 
 
 Chlorides 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Alum 
 
 syrup: Add muriatic acid to the solution (if the in- 
 sokiblc part is sulphate of lime, it will dissolve in the 
 acid on heating), then add barium chloride. A heavy 
 white precipitate proves the presence of sulphuric acid, 
 either free or combined. If the solution is not distinct- 
 ly acid at first, it is not free. 
 
 To test for lime in cream of tartar, baking powder, 
 sugar or syrup : Make the solution alkaline with am- 
 monia and ammonium oxalate. A fine white precipi- 
 tate proves the presence of lime. Good cream of tartar 
 will dissolve in boiling water, and will show only 
 slight cloudiness when the test for lime is applied. 
 
 To test for phosphates in cream of tartar or baking 
 powder : Make acid by nitric acid, and add ammonium 
 molybdate. A fine yellow precipitate or yellow color 
 proves the presence of phosphates. 
 
 To test for chlorides in soda, baking powder, sugar, 
 syrup or water: Make the solution (a fresh portion) 
 acid with nitric acid, and add silver nitrate. A white 
 curdy precipitate or a cloudiness indicates chlorides. 
 
 To test for ammonia in baking powder: Add a 
 small lump of caustic soda to a strong water solution. 
 Red litmus will turn blue in the steam, on heating. 
 
 To test for alum in cream of tartar, baking powder 
 or bread : Prepare a fresh decoction of logwood ; add 
 a few drops of this to the solution or substance, ac^ 
 render acid by means of acetic acid. A yellow color 
 in the acid holution proves absence of alum. A bluish 
 
 136 
 
TESTS. 121 
 
 or purplish red, more or less decided, means more or 
 less alum. 
 
 To test for starch in any mixture which has been starch 
 cooked, simply moisten with dilute tincture of iodine 
 such as is kept by the druggists. An intense blue color 
 will show the presence of even a minute quantity of 
 starch. If the substance has not been heated, boil a 
 portion and let cool and then test with a few drops of 
 iodine solution. Heat destroys the blue color of iodine 
 with starch and therefore the test must be made in cold 
 solutions. 
 
 If the label of a washing powder claims it to be washing 
 something new, and requires that it be used without **^ ^^ 
 soda, as soda injures clothes, it can be tested as fol- 
 lows : Put half a teaspoonful of the powder into a 
 tumbler, add a little water, then a few drops of muriatic 
 acid. A brisk effervescence will prove it to be a car- 
 bonate, and if the edge of the tumbler is held near the 
 colorless flame of an alcohol lamp, the characteristic 
 yellow color of sodium will appear and complete the 
 proof. If the acid is added drop by drop, until no more 
 effervescence occurs, and there remains a greasy scum 
 on the surface of the liquid in the tumbler, the com- 
 pound contains soap as well as sal-soda, for the acid 
 unites with the alkali of the soap and sets free the 
 grease. Acetic acid or a solution of oxalic acid may 
 be used in place of the muriatic acid. 
 
 If some very costly silver polishing powder is offered silver 
 as superior to all other powders, a drop or two of 
 
 137 
 
122 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 muriatic acid or of warm vinegar will decide whether 
 or not it is chalk or whiting by the effervescence or 
 liberation of the carbonic acid gas. 
 Sample i^ making all the foregoing tests, it is well to ob- 
 
 serve the effect of the chemicals used on the substance 
 to be tested for, and so become familiar with the char- 
 acteristic color or appearance of the test. For example, 
 before testing a washing powder, add a little acid to a 
 soap solution and observe the greasy film produced, 
 and in testing for alum add a very little alum solution 
 to some flour and test with the logwood solution, not- 
 ing the color given. This procedure will lead to more 
 reliable results. 
 
 Caution f Use a new solution of a fresh portion of 
 the first one for each new test and follow directions ex- 
 actly. This is essential to remember. 
 
 138 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the first 
 sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write on one 
 side of the sheet only. Do not copy anszvers from the lesson 
 paper. Use your own words, so that your instructor may know 
 that you understand the subject. Read the lesson paper a num- 
 ber of times before attempting to answer the questions. 
 
 1. What properties of "cream of tartar" make u 
 
 suitable for baking powder? 
 
 2. Explain how a candle is a gas factory. 
 
 3. What conditions must be present for an explosion 
 
 to take place? 
 
 4. What is "cooking soda ?" How does it dififer from 
 
 washing soda ? 
 
 5. What is the principle of the Davy safety lamp? 
 
 6. Describe the manufacture of coal gas. 
 
 7. How Is water gas made? What objectionable 
 
 features has it? 
 
 S. What is "quick lime" and what are its uses ? 
 9. How is electricity produced in a voltaic cell ? 
 10. What does the chemical formula HoSO^ indicate ? 
 
 139 
 
CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 11. How is ''conservation" illustrated in the life and 
 
 decay of a tree ? 
 
 12. What can you say about the advisability of the 
 
 housekeeper making experiments? 
 
 13. How would you test for a carbonate? How foi 
 
 an acid without using litmus paper? 
 
 14. How are tests made by comparison? 
 
 15. Are there any questions you would like to ask re- 
 
 lating to "A Day's Chemistry"? 
 
 16. Have you any personal experience, original 
 
 method, or new fact to offer, relating to the sub- 
 jects taken up in the lesson on the '^Chemistry 
 of the Household" that would be of interest to 
 your fellow students? 
 
 Note — After compleliTig- the test, sig-n your full name. 
 
 140 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 By Margaret E. Dodd, S. B. 
 
 In reading many hundreds of test papers written 
 by our students I have found that additional com- 
 ments suggest themselves frequently, and it may be 
 of interest to bring them together here. 
 
 IMPURITIES IN WATER 
 
 By the term impurities, we mean substances out of 
 place. Pure water is oxide of hydrogen, H^O. If 
 water has salt dissolved in it, for instance, the salt is 
 an impurity for the water, though we do not think 
 of salt as being an impure substance in itself. The 
 mineral impurities in drinking water are seldom a 
 source of danger, although if the amount is large, 
 such water may not "agree" with persons not used 
 to it. Mineral impurities will usually make the water 
 hard, and therefore troublesome for laundry work 
 and to some extent in cooking. 
 
 LAUNDRY WORK 
 
 Satisfactory water for laundry work must not only 
 be clear and soft but it must be free from iron, from 
 the discoloration due to decaying vegetable matter, 
 clayey soil, and so on. It should also be free from any 
 odor when hot. Muddy Wc^ter may be cleared more 
 
 141 
 
128 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 or less satisfactorily by filtering it through sand or 
 "by precipitation." In the latter method, dissolve 
 a scant tablespoonful each of alum and borax in a 
 little hot water, and add this amount to each gallon 
 of water used, stirring it in, and allowing it to settle. 
 The alum and borax react to form a cloudy substance 
 which settles to the bottom, carrying the mud with it. 
 The clear water must then be carefully poured or 
 dipped off from the sediment. A siphon is an excel- 
 lent contrivance for such a use. If a piece of garden 
 hose is used, tie on a piece of wood so that it extends 
 one or two inches beyond the end, to keep it above 
 the sediment. Weight it with a piece of lead. 
 
 When water made hard by carbonate of lime is to 
 be softened, addition of any of the alkalis will soften 
 it, for this reason. These carbonates will not dis- 
 solve in water unless it contains carbon dioxide gas 
 in solution. The alkalis added, unite with the gas, 
 and the lime is thereby made insoluble and separated 
 from the water. We do not see it as a rule, for there 
 is in reality, very little of it, and this little separates 
 in very tiny particles. Water which is hard in the 
 clothes boiler frequently causes trouble because of 
 tiny bits of lime which separate from it and make 
 spots upon the clothes. 
 
 A spring situated in sandstone rock generally 
 yields soft water because the sandstone is so slightly 
 soluble, but one situated in limestone rock always 
 gives hard water. Limestone is a very common rock, 
 
 142 
 
LAUNDRY WORK 129 
 
 so man}^ springs are of hard water. A shallow well 
 is more apt to yield soft water than a deep one is, and 
 a river has clearer and softer water near its source, 
 where it runs over rocks, and through uncultivated 
 land. 
 
 Occasionally where free alkali is added to hard 
 water, it unites with greasy or oily matter in the gar- 
 ments being washed, and forms dark spots of soap 
 insoluble in water. This is prevented to some extent 
 by addition of a very little turpentine, and boiling 
 such spotted garments in clean suds may dissolve out 
 the stains if they have formed. This happens so sel- 
 dom that the use of soda in laundry work (with cau- 
 tion) for softening water is still to be recommended 
 
 Washing powders are usually composed for the 
 most part of washing soda, and as they cost more than 
 soda, it is rather better to buy the latter. Moreover, 
 the strength of the alkali may be more accurately 
 judged. 
 
 Water varies greatly in hardness, so it is difhcult to 
 give exact rules for softening it, though I am often 
 asked for them. In general, for moderately hard 
 water use: 
 
 I level tablespoonful of sal soda to i gallon 
 
 water. 
 X level tablespoonful of powdered lye to i 
 
 gallon water. 
 I level tablespoonful of borax to i gallon 
 water. 
 
 143 
 
130 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 Do not use ammonia with very hot water, for heat 
 liberates the ammonia gas, which is thus lost. 
 
 Some students have thus described the use of ashes 
 from hard wood: 
 
 Add a quart or more of water to a quart of ashes. 
 Boil it a few minutes, adding more water if necessary. 
 Then add sufficient water to make a gallon. Let it 
 settle, then pour off the water and strain it. Put 
 enough of it in the wash water to secure a good suds 
 with soap. The water dissolves the potash (potas- 
 sium carbonate) from the ashes. So this is an eco- 
 nomical method of getting this alkali. 
 
 I have had many interesting letters on the subject 
 of laundry work. Some of the processes described 
 may be new to many of our students. 
 
 One writer describes a method of using paraffine 
 in washing. She dissolves a bar of soap in boiling 
 water and adds to it a piece of paraffine almost as 
 large as a walnut. She uses this in making a suds 
 with boiling water in which the clothes are thoroughly 
 boiled for twenty minutes or more, punching them 
 ocassionally. They must be rinsed in several hot 
 waters to ensure the removal of the paraffine, but 
 she claims the clothes will be beautifully white. 
 
 A number have advocated the use of kerosene in 
 laundry work, especially with very much soiled articles. 
 Both this and parr-ffins certaimy act upon the oily 
 film which entangles che dirt and thus make the wash- 
 ing easier. Tlr^i ol:jection to their use is that more 
 
 144 
 
\ 
 
 BLUING 131 
 
 soap and more hot water and therefore more 
 fuel must be used. Two tablespoonfuls of kerosene 
 in a boiler of soapy water is about the right quantity. 
 In this connection it should be said that when clothes 
 are taken from the boiler, they should be put into 
 tepid water, and pushed well into it, for lying in the 
 air seems to set the dirt, probably because the fibres 
 contract as they cool, so that foreign particles are 
 enclosed in the cloth and cannot fall out into the rinse 
 water. 
 
 Kerosene is excellent to use in washing dish towels. 
 Make a strong soap suds, putting in a tablespoonful 
 of oil to a gallon of water. Soap the towels well, and 
 boil them in this suds for half an hour or so. Then 
 wash, rinse and dry them, in the fresh air. Kerosene 
 is somewhat volatile, and its odor will escape in time. 
 When kerosene has been used, the wringer, tubs, etc.-, 
 will need very careful cleaning to remove any film cf 
 oil before it has time to catch dust. 
 
 BLUING 
 
 There are three kinds of bluing now on the market. 
 The action and disadvantages of Prussian Blue have 
 been described. It gives a better color, however, 
 than either of the other two . A second kind is Ultra- 
 marine blue. This, also, is an iron compound, but 
 it does not decompose with alkali. It is what we 
 often buy as the "ball bluing," and is insoluble in 
 water. Water, however, causes it to break up into very 
 
 145 
 
132 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 minute particlt's which spread through the Hquid and 
 give it a bhie color. The water must be kept stirred, 
 and one must be careful in using it that the clothes 
 do not get streaked. The balls of bluing should be 
 tied up in a cloth and washed from this into the water. 
 It is well to prepare it in a separate dish and then add 
 it to the water. Indigo blue is easier to use, but does 
 not give so good a color. Preparations of indigo 
 for laundry work may still be obtained. 
 
 Here is a method of cleansing knitted Avorsted goods 
 which was strongly recommended. AYash the gar- 
 ment in gasoline, and allow it to dry. Then shake it 
 well in a tight box with flour or fuller's earth, allow- 
 ing it to remain there an hour or more. The powder 
 will absorb any greasy or oily substance, and later 
 may be shaken out. In using gasoline for cleaning 
 in this way, have a generous amount, and allow for 
 rinsing the articles well. The gasoline may be used 
 more than once, for the dirt which it contains will 
 settle to the bottom of the vessel in which it stands 
 and the clear liquid may be poured off. Use it out 
 of doors, or in a strong outward draft, that the in- 
 flammable vapors it produces may blow harmlessly 
 away. 
 
 To many people, the word "chemical" always 
 means an acid. Now, acids and alkalis dift'er so much 
 in their properties, that it ic wise to be able to distin- 
 guish between them. Injuries due to the use of one 
 may frequently be remedied by prompt use of the 
 
 146 
 
SOAP MAKING 133 
 
 other. Alkalis are especially useful in laundry work 
 because of their action upon grease of most kinds. 
 Some of the salts formed with the alkali metals are 
 alkaline in reaction. Among these are washing and 
 cooking soda. 
 
 HOME SOAP MAKING 
 
 All fats and oils are compounds of certain fatty 
 acids combined with glycerine. Glycerine is easily 
 separated from this combination by strong alkalis, 
 and thus soaps are made. The glycerine is a by-pro- 
 duct in many soap factories, but it is not evident in 
 home-made soap, being thrown away with any waste 
 water, or, perhaps, left in the soft soap. The various 
 fats are composed of different kinds of fatty acids, so 
 we have varieties of soap made from them. 
 
 Rosin acts like fatty acids, for it is able to combine 
 with alkali to make rosin soap. This is good for 
 rough work, but it is apt to separate in hot water, 
 setting free the rosin acids, which may settle upon the 
 fabric being washed, giving it the odor of rosin or 
 causing it to become yellow. It is very objectionable 
 when the clothes come to be ironed. This rosin also 
 makes fabrics likely to take up dust. If the clothes 
 are well rinsed, the amount of rosin soap in ordinary 
 yellow soap gives no trouble. 
 
 I have often been asked for a recipe for home-made 
 soap, and, too, I have had many students write me of 
 their success in this process. Many housekeepers 
 
 147 
 
134 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 keep and clarify the fats from food. Soap may 
 easily be made from this, as follows: 
 
 Take a jiound can of lye (Babbitt's potash is good) 
 and dissolve it in three pints of cold water. It will 
 become quite hot as it dissolves, and care must be 
 taken in adding the lye to the water, as it is apt to 
 spatter, and is likely to irritate the hands. 
 
 Have ready five pounds of clean fat, which has been 
 melted and strained through cheese-cloth to remove 
 all specks of brown. When the lye is cool, pour it 
 slowly on the grease, stirring it with a stick until the 
 two mix, and the liquid becomes about as thick as 
 honev. Too long stirring may cause the ingredients 
 to separate. 
 
 Mould the soap in agate or wooden trays. If a 
 wooden box is used, it should be lined with several 
 thicknesses of wrapping paper. The layer next the 
 soap should be oiled. The soap should harden in a 
 moderately warm place, and then may be cut into 
 cakes. This is the so-called "cold process" soap. It 
 will not be suitable for fine work but improves with age. 
 
 Several students have described to me how 
 they remembered seeing soap made at home from 
 alkali obtained by leaching wood ashes. The ashes 
 were put into a large box pierced with holes, the 
 box placed over the soap kettle, and hot water was 
 poured upon the top. This alkali would make soft 
 soap, which would be stored in barrels. If hard soap 
 were desired, salt was added to some of the soft soap. 
 
 148 
 
DISH WASHING 
 
 J35 
 
 A reaction takes place by which some of the sodium 
 in the salt is combined with the fatty acids, sufficient 
 hard soap being formed to harden the mass. Nowa- 
 days, even when we buy "potash" we are quite sure 
 to find that we can make hard soap, for it almost 
 always is chiefly soda (caustic soap). 
 
 Washing soda has a great many uses, and I am 
 frequently reminded of new ones by our students. 
 I am told how excellent it is to put a little in water 
 and boil this in the cooking dishes on which food has 
 hardened or burned. Another describes how she 
 cleans silver by boiling it with a little soda, then rins- 
 ing it in very hot water and drying quickly and 
 thoroughly. The wife of a dairy farmer assures me 
 that she could never get her creamery cans suitably 
 clean without plenty of sal soda, which quickly 
 removes the butter fat. When we use it in laundry 
 work, however, we must remember that, like other 
 solids, when it dissolves, a saturated solution forms 
 around each piece, and this strong solution may in- 
 jure anything on which the pieces rest. Therefore 
 the crystals should always be dissolved, and the solu- 
 tion diluted as much as may seem necessary. 
 
 DISH WASHING 
 
 The washing of dishes takes so much time in every, 
 house that it is evidently a subject calling for close 
 attention. Nothing is more desirable than that this 
 work be done thoroughly and well; still, it is doubtless 
 
 149 
 
136 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 possible to plan for it in such a way that time may 
 be saved for other matters. 
 
 In the first place, systematic work is sure to go 
 more rapidly than haphazard fashions. The dishes 
 should be prepared for washing by scraping them as 
 clean as possible, and some housekeepers advocate 
 rinsing off many of them under the hot or cold 
 water faucets before putting them in the dish- 
 pan. Hard water is very unsatisfactory for dish 
 washing, and the use of soda or borax is a great help 
 when soft water is not available. Borax is not so 
 hard on the hands as soda. Dishes which have 
 contained milk or eggs are better rinsed well in cool 
 water, for heat hardens the albumins so that they are 
 removed with difficulty. 
 
 Plenty of hot, soapy water is necessary to do this 
 work easily, and a second dishpan of clear, hot water 
 in which to rinse the dishes is a great help. Use 
 very little soap on gilt china, however. 
 
 There seems to be a great variety of opinion on 
 the subject of washing glass. Many housekeepers 
 have expressed a preference for washing it in cold 
 water rather than in hot. Where the glass is not 
 at all greasy, this is very well. Ammonia or soda in 
 the water helps to clean the glass and makes it 
 lustrous. Glass washed in cold water should be 
 allowed to drain almost dry before it is polished. 
 
 One housekeeper has described to me a wire basket 
 which she has had made to hold dishes when they 
 
 150 
 
DISH WASHING 137 
 
 drain, and which is made to fit into her dishpan. 
 Fitting the dishes into this, she is able to immerse 
 them in hot rinsing water, and then Hft them out 
 to dry. She finds the plan an excellent one. 
 
 Another student writes that she has found sifted 
 coal ashes a most useful article to use in cleaning 
 knives. Another prefers sifted wood ashes. These 
 most be very carefully sifted, so that no hard bits be 
 left in, which might scratch the articles polished. 
 
 The kitchen dishes are usually the most difficult 
 to wash, and one student describes a home-made 
 "scrubber" which she declares is very useful. "Take 
 a broom apart, a good one, by removing the wire and 
 letting the straw loose," she says. "The upper part 
 of the straw is then put into boiling water and left 
 long enough to soften it. Then the straws are tied 
 together in bundles about two inches across, using a 
 strong twine. The twine is pulled tight, and sinks 
 into th^ softened straw, and when dry, it does not 
 slip. A loop is left for hanging the bundle, and the 
 straw is left its whole length. These are so long and 
 slender they will reach into anything. They are a 
 great saving on the hands, and allow the use of much 
 hotter water." 
 
 Many of our students recommend the use of soft 
 paper in cleaning greasy dishes, kettles, and pans, 
 The papers may be burned, thus disposing of much 
 grease which would otherwise find its way irito the 
 kitchen sink drain. 
 
 151 
 
138 - CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 LATENT HEAT 
 
 The subject of latent heat, described on page 12, 
 has proved very puzzling to many. It is certainly 
 a strange idea at first, that heat does anything more 
 than make things warm. Still, a moment's considera- 
 tion recalls to mind that heat can do many other 
 things. Heat causes chemical change, for substances 
 are often changed by strong heat. Heat causes most 
 substances to expand. If a sealed can of any sub- 
 stance is strongly heated, it will probably explode. 
 Heat causes liquids to evaporate, and solids to melt. 
 
 If a liquid is placed in an open dish on a source 
 of heat, its temperature will rise until it begins to 
 boil. After this, it gets no hotter, no matter how 
 much heat is applied, unless the liquid is becoming 
 more dense as it boils, as would be the case with a 
 syrup, for example. The heat it receives is all 
 expended in changing the liquid into vapor, or, as we 
 say, changing the "state of matter." The particles 
 (molecules) are driven farther apart by the heat. A 
 cubic inch of water makes a cubic foot of steam. 
 The amount of heat necessary to produce the change 
 from liquid to gas varies with different substances. 
 Water requires a very large amount. Four times as 
 much heat is required to change an ounce of water into 
 steam as to vaporize the same amount of alcohol. 
 If heat is applied rapidly, the liquid will boil rapidly, 
 but it does not affect the temperature. The heat 
 
 152 
 
LATENT HEAT 139 
 
 used in this way is not lost, but is stored up in the 
 vapor as latent heat. The steam is no hotter than 
 the boiling water, and heat added keeps it from 
 becoming liquid. When vapor condenses and changes 
 back to liquid, the latent heat is given out, and 
 warms surrounding things. In fact, the vapor can- 
 not condense unless the latent heat it contains is 
 removed, except under pressure. This latent heat 
 makes steam an excellent medium for heating build- 
 ings, as it contains so much heat and passes through 
 pipes rapidly. Not only is the steam itself hot, but 
 it carries a vast amount of heat stored up, to be 
 liberated in the cooler regions. 
 
 Latent heat is stored up in water, also, and is liber- 
 ated when the water becomes ice. This is seldom 
 apparent, for far less heat is thus stored in water 
 than in steam, and, too, the temperature of freezing 
 water is low. The heat given out when water freezes 
 is at 32° F, while that given out when steam condenses 
 is at 212° F. Still, a cellar may be several degrees 
 warmer if it contains a tank of water which freezes 
 than if the water were not there. The temperature 
 may keep about 32° F. where otherwise it might 
 go to 26° or less. 
 
 A room is cooled in warm weather by sprinkling 
 water upon the hoor. The evaporation of the water 
 takes much heat from the air, storing it in the 
 
 153 
 
140 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 vapor produced. Britannia and some other metals 
 of which pitchers, teapots, etc., are made will melt 
 if placed on a hot stove. If, however, they contain 
 water, this is not likely to occur, for the water can- 
 not be heated above its boiling point, and this is far 
 below the melting point of the metal, and keeps the 
 temperature of the metal low enough for safety. 
 This reminds me of an experiment I once saw where 
 candy was actually made in a pasteboard box. The 
 syrup never became hot enough to scorch the paper, 
 and thus the paper itself was kept fairly cool. 
 
 USE OF THE THERMOMETER 
 
 A kitchen thermometer may be bought of any 
 dealer in the better class of kitchen goods. The 
 floating dairy thermometers are convenient. One 
 to register 212° F, may be obtained from the School 
 for 50 cents. A thermometer made to register oven 
 temperatures is more expensive, one registering to 
 600° F. costing $1.50. Various uses of the ther- 
 mometer are described in Principles of Cookery and 
 Home Care of the Sick, but there are many times in 
 the kitchen when it is of assistance, as in getting the 
 right density for syrups in candy making, for syrups 
 in preserving, and the right temperatures for raising 
 bread, making soups, custards, etc. 
 
 Some uses of the thermometer in the kitchen are 
 the following, described in Miss Parloa's "Home 
 Economics"; 
 
 154 
 
BREAD MAKING 14* 
 
 Olive oil is liquid above 75°. If above this tem- 
 perature it shows solid specks, making it look cloudy, 
 you may be sure it is adulterated with some fat having 
 a higher melting point. 
 
 Butter should melt at 94°. If it does not, you may 
 know it is adulterated with suet or some other fat 
 having a higher melting point. 
 
 BREAD MAKING 
 
 The composition and manufacture of bread are 
 subjects which have been given much study. The 
 carbon dioxide which serves to lighten the dough 
 raised with yeast is produced at the expense of 
 some of the starch of the flour. This starch is 
 completely driven from the loaf as carbon dioxide 
 gas and alcohol during the baking. *The loss is esti- 
 mated at about 2 per cent. Attempts have been 
 made in large bakeries to save the alcohol, but no 
 economical method has b^en devised. About fifty 
 years ago, German chemists in studying the question 
 estimated that the food materials lost in twenty- 
 four hours, when bread is raised with yeast, was 
 sufficient to supply bread to 400,000 people! These 
 figures were certainly startling to the thrifty Germans, 
 and the possibility of producing the carbon dioxide 
 gas in some less extravagant manner was studied 
 with considerable care in German laboratories, and 
 also at Harvard University in America. Baking 
 
 155 
 
142 CIJEMISTRY OF THE HOVSEJJOLIJ 
 
 powders arc llic result of lliese investij^ations 
 Cilulen is not ehangccl chemically by the action of the 
 yeast or of the carbon dioxide, but it is physically 
 changed — the escape of the ^ascs strctcdiint^ it out 
 into fibres. Gluten, like other proteids, hardens when 
 heated. Bakinjj; thus makes the porous condition of 
 the doui^h pcrmai cut. 
 
 MAKING BAKING POWDER 
 
 Several sliidents have sent mc rcci])es they like 
 to use for making baking ])owder. The claim is 
 made that these cost rather less than the kinds that 
 can be bought, and also that they are much more 
 elTective. Here is one: 
 
 yi lb. cream of tartar. 
 
 ]4^ lb. cooking' soda (blc^arbonate of soda). 
 
 J s lb. corn starch. 
 
 The best quality of each must be bought. Sift 
 them together at least a dozen times, the last time 
 into baking powder boxes. Be c\ircful to seal up all 
 crac-ks bv pasting over them |)ap(M- strips. About one 
 half as nuich of this is rccpiired as for the average 
 powder sold. 
 
 These proportions would probably give a slight 
 excess of acid. We might combine 2^:^ parts of the 
 acid salt with one part of soda if our salts are chemi- 
 cally pure. The corn starch is added to keep the soda 
 and acid salt from forming (|uite such an intimate 
 
 156 
 
DISTILLA TION 143 
 
 mixture. The two salts in contact would very 
 slowly combine, and the baking i)owder thus lose its 
 strength. 
 
 DISTILLATION 
 
 A few nKjre words might be said on the subject of 
 distillation. I am sometimes asked to explain more 
 fully the term "destructive distillation." When a 
 complex substance like wood or coal is heated some 
 of its ingredients are made volatile at the high tem- 
 jjcrature, and so escape as gases. The wood itself 
 is broken up into simpler substances. It is plain 
 that in this process the original .substance is lost as 
 such, new substances taking its place, and we there- 
 fore speak of the process as destructive distillation. 
 
 When water containing various salts or gases in 
 solution is heated, the gases will V)e given off as the 
 temperature rises. At the boiling point, the water 
 itself will begin to pass off as vapor. The salts will 
 not vaporize unless much more strongly heated. If 
 the steam be collected and cooled, it will condense to 
 form pure water. This in an illustration of simple 
 distillation. If a mixture of alcohol and water be 
 heated some of the alcohol will vaporize before the 
 water. It may in this way be separated from the 
 water, and this process is called fractional distilla- 
 tion. This is the principle employed in the manu- 
 facture of whiskey, etc. 
 
 157 
 
144 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 COMPOSITION OF GAS 
 
 The complex nature of coal gas is shown by the 
 following table, which represents an average sample: 
 
 Hydro-carbon vapors 0.6 
 
 Heavy hydro-carbons 4.4 
 
 Carbon dioxide 3.4 
 
 Carbon monoxide 10. o 
 
 Methane (CH4) 30.6 
 
 Oxygen , 0.3 
 
 Hydrogen 45-9 
 
 Nitrogen 4.8 
 
 100% 
 
 Of these, the hydro-carbons, carbon monoxide, CH4 
 and hydrogen are combustible. 
 
 Coals always contain more or less sulphur, v hich is 
 a great trouble to the gas manufacturer. It fre- 
 quently happens that some of it gets into the gas. 
 If such, gas escapes, the sulphur compounds unite 
 with the silverware, giving is a coating of dark 
 sulphide of silver. If silver tarnishes quickly, it is 
 an indication of a leak of gas or sewer gas. It is 
 estimated that a ton of coal should yield 10,000 feet 
 of gas, 1,400 lbs. of coke (35 bushels), 12 gallons 
 of tar, 4 lbs. of ammonia. 
 
 More than six hundred products are obtained from 
 the coal tar. The nature and uses of these products 
 would form an interesting topic for futher study. 
 
 158 
 
COMPOSITION OF GAS 145 
 
 The composition of water gas is somewhat as follows : 
 
 Hydro-carbon vapors 1.2 
 
 Heavy hydro-carbons 12.0 
 
 Carbon dioxide 3.0 
 
 Carbon monoxide 28.0 
 
 Oxygen 0.4 
 
 Hydrogen 3i-4 
 
 CH4 (Methane) 20.8 
 
 Nitrogen 3.2 
 
 100% 
 
 Notice that this gas contains less methane and 
 hydrogen (which are combustible), and their place 
 is taken by carbon monoxide, which, although com- 
 bustible, is very poisonous. There is some carbon 
 monoxide in ordinary illuminating gas but not nearly 
 so much. The water gas has a strong odor from the 
 hydro-carbons (crude gasoline) added to make it 
 luminous, but comparatively little of it in the air is 
 likely to produce very injurious effects upon living 
 things, plants and animals alike. It is the most poison- 
 ous substance that comes into the house. It is estimat- 
 ed that about fourteen per cent of the gas manu- 
 factured escapes into the earth through leaky gas 
 mains. In passing through the soil the odorous part 
 of water gas may be strained out, so that it becomes 
 odorless. Whole families have been poisoned from 
 deodorized water gas leaking into the house by way of 
 
 159 
 
146 CIJEAIISJ/kV of I HE J/Ot'SFJ/OLD 
 
 the riMlar. This (Muphasizcs the iniportiince of having 
 a porlectly li^lit rellar, with ixMucnted walls and 
 lloor, and the importance oi" venlilatini^ (he c"ellar, lor 
 tlu^ cellar air finds its way to the rooms above. 
 Natural i;as contains pi^act icalh' no caiboii monoxide. 
 
 SPONTANKOUS COMIiUSTION 
 
 We otten hear ol lii-es apparently "starting them- 
 selves." Such cases arc due lo accumulation ol heat 
 produced 1)\' slow o.xidation. II a pile ol oil)' raj^s, 
 cotton waste, eU'.,l>(.* allowed to stand lor a time, tin* 
 oily matter will be};in to combine slowly with oxygen. 
 This ma\' ociur in the inner part of the heap, and 
 the outer laNcMs retain llu^ IumI untd, piMdiaps, the 
 kindlinv; point ol somi> ol t \\c inllanunablc oils is reach- 
 cil.when the wlioU^ mass will burst into tlame. This is 
 nuich morc^ bkel\' to ha]>piMi with linseed oil and 
 certain other vegetable "drying oils, " as they imite 
 readilv with oxygen, anil so become hard and varnish- 
 like. The mineral oils (paralhne oil) do not combine 
 with oxNgen at ordinar\' temptM-atures, and i)robabl\- 
 will not cause spontancHUis combustion. Still, all 
 oily cloths should be burneil or dispovsed of in some 
 safe fashicni. 
 
 CONSliRVATION OK ENERGY 
 
 An interesting and important principle, ex- 
 plaineil on i>age 23 of Part 1, and again on i>age 110 
 of Tart 111, is C'onsiMvatism. Tins principle has been 
 established b\' countless t>\pernniMits, but it is not 
 
 100 
 
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 147 
 
 one that the housekeeper can well investigate. It 
 is, however, one she must continually bear in mind. 
 Matter and energy can never ho^ created or destroyed; 
 Ijotli may be transformed, and may therefore appear 
 in many different ways. The voltaic cell is a simj)le 
 device for transforming chemical energy into elec- 
 trical force. The chemical affinity of two substances 
 causes them to unite under the right conditions. 
 This union results in the liberation of energy, which 
 may appear as heat, light, or electricity. When 
 coal and oxygen unite, -we get both heat and light 
 as a result. Chemical union usually produces heat. 
 
 The energy of our bodies we get solely from the 
 food we absorb. We should eat such foods as best 
 give us the needed energy, and we should learn to 
 expend this energy wisely, as we have but a limited 
 amount of it. One student wisely comments upon 
 this, as follows: 
 
 "In the economic plan of housekeeping, it would 
 be well if each one would endeavor to realize that 
 she is a part of the machinery of the household, and 
 that to be continually on the move is as disastrous 
 to the equilibrium of the home as it is to rust, as it 
 were, for want of use. A given amount of rest each 
 day is a true part of economy. Then, too, in the 
 daily regime, there are ways and ways of doing things. 
 Always choose the easiest, if it conflicts not with the 
 quality of the work done. For example, do not 
 stand while paring potatoes, apples, etc. It is just 
 
 161 
 
MS CNEMISrh'V ()F Till-: HOl'Sl-.IIOLn 
 
 as easy to ilo this work sitlinj]:, ^inil you can then get 
 some rest at the sa..io (nnc. Don't worry— to worry 
 is a very extra vaoanl tliino. for it uses up vakuible 
 force, and does no good at all " 
 
 162 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 149 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, Richards and Elliott, 
 [$i.oo, postage 8c.) 
 Chemistry of Daily Life, Lassar-Cohn. ($r.5o, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, vSnydcr. ($1.25, 
 
 postage IOC.) 
 
 Chemistry of Cooking, Williams. ($1.50, postage 12c.) 
 Chemistry of Common Life, Johnston. ($2.00, postage 
 
 i6c.) 
 Chemistry of Life and Health. C. W. Kimmins. ($1.00, 
 
 postage IOC.) 
 
 First Lessons in Food and Diet, Ellen H. Richards. (30c., 
 
 postage 4c.) 
 
 Laboratory Notes in Household Chemistry, H. T. Vulte 
 
 and G. A. Goodell. 
 
 Laundry Work, Juniata L. vSheppard. (50c., postage 6c.) 
 Story of a Lump of Coal, Martin. (35c., postage 4c.) 
 Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Bailey. ($1.40, postage 
 
 I2C.) 
 
 Elements of Chemistry, R. P. Williams. ($1.10, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 An Introduction to General Chemistry, Smith. ($1.25, 
 postage I2C.) 
 
 Essentials of Chemical Physiology, Halliburton. ($1.50, 
 postage 14c.) 
 
 First Course in Physics, Millikan and Gale. ($1.25, post- 
 age 14c.) 
 
 Introduction to Organic Chemistry, Ira Remsen. ($1.20, 
 postage I2C.) 
 
 Organic Industrial Chemistry, S. P. Sadtler. ($5.00 
 postage 28c.) 
 
 163 
 
150 C//£J//STA'\' i^r THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 U. S. GOVERNMENT BULLETINS 
 
 Tiuiustrial Aloohol: Sources and Maiuilacturo. Fanners' 
 Bulletin Xo. jo8 (freeV 
 
 Industrial Alcohol: Uses an*.! Statistics. I'^anuers' Bulletin 
 Xo. J69 (free). 
 
 Modern Conveniences for the Fvinn Home. Fanners' l>ul- 
 letin Xo. :»7o (tVeeV 
 
 Composition of American Food Material. HuUclin Xo. jS. 
 OtVice of Experiment Station. (Price 5c. ") 
 
 vSome Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple Methods 
 ior their Detection. Bulletin Xo. 100, Bureau of Chemistry. 
 (Price 10c.) 
 
 Arsenic in Wall Paper and l'\ibrii's Bulletin Xo. S6, 
 Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c ") 
 
 Chemical Composition of Apples and Cider, l^ullctin Xo. 
 SS, Bureau of Chemistry. (Price 5c. ) 
 
 A^"'^'. — For the /Vtv bulletins, send to the Department 01 
 Agriculture, Washnigton, D. C; to obtain the/or .s\j/c bulletins. 
 send coin ormoney order to the Sup m intendent of Documei^.'s 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 164 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS 
 
 STUDY ON 
 
 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 By Maurice L^Bosquet, S. B, 
 Director, American School of Home Economics 
 
 As in the study of chemistry and physics so much emphasis 
 is placed on laboratory work, the following supplementary 
 program is made up chiefly of simple experiments, such as 
 may be performed with little or no apparatus. When heat 
 is required, it ma}'' be supplied by a small gas stove, a one 
 burner oil stove, or an alcohol lamp. The lamp of a chafin g 
 dish might be useu. A thermometer will be loaned by tne 
 School for 6 cents postage, or one may be purchased for 
 50 cents. 
 
 MEETING I 
 
 (Study pages 1-29) 
 Water 
 
 To show that ordinary water has gases dissolved in it. 
 See experiment on page 2. The gas dissolved in water is 
 not exactly of the same composition as air. It usually con- 
 tains more oxygen and more carbon dioxide than ordinary 
 atmospheric air, varying somewhat with the sources of the 
 water. This dissolved gas enables fish and other marine 
 animals to live. A fish cannot live in water that has lost its 
 dissolved air by being boiled. It is drowned just as human 
 beings are, because of lack of oxygen. 
 
 Water of Crystallization 
 
 Make crystals as described on page 5. A certain definite 
 amount of water is present in the crystals which varies witn 
 each substance. Clear crystals are pure or nearly so. The 
 "mother liquor" remaining after the crystals are formed 
 
 151 
 
 165 
 
152 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 contains most of the impurities; thus crystallization is a 
 method of purification. 
 
 The water in the crystals of washing soda may be shown 
 by heating some in a tin dish. The crystals will melt and 
 on continued heating, steam will be given off. Not all crys- 
 tals contain water of crystallization, — for example, common 
 salt, cane sugar. 
 
 Boiling Point 
 
 It is almost impossible to convince any "domestic" that 
 water boiling furiously is no hotter than when it is just barely 
 boiling. It is instructive to prove this with a thermometer. 
 Also observe that the "simmering" temperature is very 
 nearly the same as the water when boiling, so that cooking 
 may be done nearly as rapidly by simmering and with jar 
 less fuel. 
 
 Latent Heat 
 
 This is a somewhat perplexing phenomenon. We all recog- 
 nize that steam is hot, but that it contains a much greater 
 supply of heat than hot water is not so easy to realize. The 
 following may make this a little clearer: In a small sauce 
 pan or dish put about two tablespoonfuls of water. Heat it 
 to the boiling point and then continue the boiling until it 
 has all boiled away. Note (i) how long it takes to raise the 
 water to the boiling point, and (2) how much time is required 
 to convert it all into steam. 
 
 To start the boiling, the water is raised from about 6o°F. 
 to 212° F., or through 152°. In converting the water into 
 steam, there is no rise in temperature, but the heat has 
 to be applied for a much longer period. On page 12 is the 
 statement that "966 times as much heat is required to change 
 a given quantity of water into steam as to raise it one degree 
 F. " but the water in this experiment was raised 150°. As 
 966 divided by 152 equals 6 (plus), we might expect that it 
 would take six times as long to boil the water away as to 
 
 166 
 
PROGRAM 153 
 
 raise it to the boiling point. Of course no exact results can 
 be expected in this experiment, as not all the heat ap- 
 plied is absorbed by the water and used in boiling it, Ijut the 
 experiment will show that the steam must contain a great 
 deal of heat. 
 
 A similar experiment will show the latent heat contained 
 in water in reference to ice. If a teaspoonful of ice cold 
 water and an amount of snow or ice which when melted 
 would make a teaspoonful, each be added to a glass of water 
 of the same temperature, it will be found that the pulverized 
 ice or snow lowers the temperature much more than the tea- 
 spoonful of ice-cold water. That is to say, a great deal more 
 heat would have to be added to the "ice and water mixture, " 
 to bring it back to the original temperature, than to the "ice 
 cold water and water mixture. " 
 
 Oxygen in the Air 
 
 To show that the atmosphere contains a gas which is used 
 up in combustion, attach a candle an inch and a half long to 
 the bottom of a saucer with some of the melted wax. Pour 
 about one-fourth of a glass of water into the dish, light the 
 candle and invert the glass (one with straight sides) over 
 the lighted candle. The flame will grow dim and soon be 
 extinguished and the water will rise about one-fifth way up 
 the glass. This shows a number of things. In burning, 
 the carbon of the hydrocarbons of which the candle is made 
 unites with the oxygen, making the gas carbon dioxide. 
 This takes up the same volume as the oxygen out of which 
 it was formed, but the water quickly dissolves the carbon 
 dioxide and the pressure of the atmosphere on the water 
 outside the glass forces it up into the partial vacuum formed. 
 
 The nitrogen of the air remains, but this will not "support 
 combustion," and so the candle is extinguished. 
 
 Manufacturing Water 
 
 That the burning of a candle produce-^ water as well as 
 
 167 
 
154 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 carbon dioxide may be shown by placing the flame against 
 a window pane. A film of moisture may be seen, also, when 
 a lamp having a cold chimney is first lighted. The burning 
 of a match will show water when it is placed against a cold 
 surface, but this experiment is not so conclusive, for the 
 wood may contain moisture. The candle contains no moist- 
 ure, so the water must have been manufactured by the 
 burning. 
 
 Atmospheric Pressure 
 
 We have had one example of the result of atmospheric 
 pressure in the candle experiment. The working of a siphon 
 i-s an interesting example. Take a small rubber tube, fill it 
 with water, pinch both ends,* put one end in a glass of water, 
 and lower the other end into an empty glass at a foot lower 
 level; release the pressure of the fingers, and the water will 
 run from the tube, apparently going "up hill" over the edge 
 of the glass. The explanation may be found in any text 
 book on physics. This is a good way to empty wash tubs, 
 etc., using a piece of rubber hose. 
 
 Carbon Dioxide 
 
 Light a splinter of wood and let it burn in a wide-mouthed 
 bottle until it is extinguished. Add a tablespoonful of clear 
 lime water (obtained at any drug store, or add a small lump 
 of lime to warm water in a fruit jar, stir well, cover and let 
 settle over night), close the bottle and shake the lime water 
 around. It will grow milky from the formation of carbonate 
 of lime (calcium), with which we are more familiar in the 
 forms of chalk, marble, and clam shells. 
 
 Again with any sort of a tube (a straw), blow into a little 
 clear lime water. It will grow milky, showing that the 
 breath contains carbon dioxide. If you will continue to 
 blow into the lime water for a long time, the milkiness 
 will be seen to disappear. This is because the carbonate of 
 lime is dissolved by the excess of carbon dioxide in the water. 
 
 168 
 
PROGRAM 155 
 
 after the lime water (hydrate of Hrae) is all changed into 
 carbonate of lime. This point comes up in connection with 
 hard water and laundry work. 
 
 Flash Point of Kerosene 
 
 The flash point of a sample of kerosene may be determined 
 approximately by placing about two teaspoonfuls in a cup, 
 then adding hot water to a bowl of water in which the cup 
 containing the oil is placed. Stir the kerosene with a ther- 
 mometer, and apply a lighted taper to the surface of the oil 
 from time to time as the temperature of the oil rises. A 
 quick flash over the surface of the kerosene will show the 
 flash point. Read the temperature indicated by the ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 References: Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Chapter 
 I, Atmosphere, Combustion. ($1.50, postage 
 
 I2C.)~ 
 
 Story of a Lump of Coal, by Martin. (35c., 
 
 postage 6c.) 
 Air and Water as Food, in Plain Words about 
 
 Food, by Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, by Bailey, 
 Chapter on The Atmosphere, Fuels. ($1.40 
 postage I2C.) 
 
 Topics: The Formation of Coal — See any good encyclo- 
 
 pedia and geologies. 
 Fire Worship — See "Popular Science Monthly," 
 Volume X, page 17, also "Public Opinion/* 
 Volume XIV, page 251. 
 
 169 
 
150 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 MEETING II 
 
 (Study pages 29-55) 
 
 If the Food Course is being taken, some of the experiments 
 here suggested might better be postponed until the lessons 
 on Principles of Cookery or Food and Dietetics. 
 
 Starch 
 
 The blue color produced by a tincture of iodine (obtained 
 at the drug store) on the faintest trace of starch is a very 
 delicate test for starch. Cooked starch shows the test much 
 better than uncooked. Note that the blue color is destroyed 
 by heat, but appears again when the test is cool. Test 
 various foods — grains, vegetables, fruits, and nuts for 
 starch. 
 
 The conversion of starch into dextrin may be shown by 
 heating a little flour or corn starch in a hot oven for half an 
 hour or so, or until it becomes a deep yellow color. Dis- 
 solve in a little cold water, filter out the unchanged starch 
 by pouring through absorbent cotton in a funnel; test the 
 filtered liquid to sec if there is still any unchanged starch in it. 
 Add double the quantity of alcohol to a part of the liquid. 
 The dextrin will be precipitated, i. e., thrown out of solution 
 and will settle as a fine powder. because dextrin is not soluble 
 in alcohol. The water solution should be concentrated by 
 boiling if much is used. 
 
 That the starch is changed by heating with butter or other 
 fat may be shown by adding two teaspoonfuls of flour to 
 one teaspoonful of very hot butter, stirring for some time. 
 Remove a drop on a piece of white paper and test it with 
 tincture of iodine. 
 
 Make starch paste by mixing a quarter of a teaspoonful of 
 laundry or corn starch with a spoonful of water and adding 
 it to a cup of boiling water and boil. To about half a glass 
 of this when it has cooled to body temperature (100° F) add 
 a half teaspoonful of saliva. Keep the mixture warm (not 
 
 170 
 
PROGRAM 157 
 
 hot) for some time by placing it in warm water. From 
 time to time test small portions with iodine solution as it 
 grows clearer. Add saliva to a portion of hot starch; to a 
 cold portion testing as before. 
 
 Gluten 
 
 May be the gluten separates from flour as described on 
 page 49, or better as described in "Food and Dietetics" page 
 41. Bake part of it in an oven. 
 
 Experiments with other proteids also described on pages 
 41 and 43 of "Food and Dietetics." 
 
 Experiments with yeast described on page 45 of "House- 
 hold Bacteriology, " Part I. 
 
 "Digestion is Synonymous with Solution" 
 
 This statement is made on page 35. To show the reiation 
 of the length of time required to make a solution, take two 
 equal portions of any crystals, such as washing soda or alum, 
 and pulverize one portion. Stir each in a glass of water and 
 observe the tima for each in dissolving. Note that the time 
 required for complete solution is determined by the largest 
 crystal. 
 
 This experiment shows how important a part of digestion 
 chewing is and that the teeth are primarily digestive organs. 
 
 Cooking Meat 
 
 See experiment on pages 50 and 51. 
 
 Mineral Matter — Gelatin 
 See experiments on page 53. 
 
 References: Chemistry of Cookery, by Mattieu Williams 
 
 Pages iy-31. Albumen. ($1.50, postage i6c.) 
 
 Chemistry of Daily Life, by Lassar-Conn. Pages 
 
 56-66. Digestion of Food. ($1.50, postage loc.) 
 
 (Select and send to the School a composite set of answers 
 
 to Test Questions on Part I, and report on eupplemental 
 
 work and experiments.) 
 
 171 
 
158 CJJEMISTRY O/'' V'/ZA" J/OUSI'ffOLlJ 
 
 MEETING III 
 
 (SUuly i)aK<-'S 55-^^5) 
 
 Cleaning: Acids, Alkalies, and Salts 
 
 Strips (jf lit.iiiiis |).i|)(;r may Ik; ol>l,,'iiiic(l at, ;i. drug store or 
 will bo sent from Uio Schofjl on r(M|iu;sl. Moisten tlic V)]ue 
 paper in vinegar, lemon jiiiec;, tomat(j, solutifjn of cream of 
 tartar, etc., au'l tluMi in a,irim')iiia (even f,li(; va]>or will 
 change it), in solutif>n of washing Sfjda, h.iking soda, borax, 
 soap, and varions washing jjowders. If the ))ay>er is wajihed 
 in miming w.'itnr aft(;r being tnrned ])liie with annrionia, a 
 test ior acid may usually be fcmnd in milk, mcjlasses, and 
 sr)metimc;s butt(!r. One pi(;e<! of j)ap(;r will Ix; fotmfl tf) ttirn 
 from bine to red ,'uid l)a(:k again to bhw; an ind(;(ini tc nnmbcr 
 of times when wet with r.ohitioni; of acid:; and alkalies alter- 
 nately. 
 
 Huy five cents' worth of hydrochlorie acid and a little 
 caustic soda at the druggist's. As caustic soda is unpleasant 
 to handle, it is best to have the druggist dissolve it in water. 
 Now jKjur a part of the acid into a saucer or glass, with a 
 little water, and a'ld the solntion of caustic soda until the 
 mixture 1)egins l,o turn the litmui; faintly blue. In an agate- 
 ware; dish, fnn; from worn places, (;vapf)rate the solution to 
 dryness. A whitish substance will b(; found, which by test- 
 ing will be recognized as C(jnunon salt. 
 
 I'Vom two very active chemic^.al substances has been 
 formed a neutral s.ubstance — salt. Not all salts, however, 
 are neutral. Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is chem- 
 ically a salt, but it is made up of a very strong alkali forming 
 clement — sodium — and a v(;ry w(;ak acid — carbonic acid — 
 and tin; alkali ])roperties pr(;dominate. ('rc^.un of tartar is 
 an e.Kample (jf an acid salt. It is acid ])(.)tassium tartrate, 
 whicli is a double salt, that is, tartaric acid is added to neutral 
 potassium tartrate, the result being a substance which has 
 acid properties. Connnon alinn is slightly acid U) litmus paj^er. 
 
 17Z 
 
PROGRAM 159 
 
 Soap 
 
 Soap chemically cDnsidcmd is a salt, made up of a fat 
 acid and the metallic substance sodiuni. The fatty acid 
 can be separated by addinji^ any acid lik(' vinej^ar to a solu- 
 tion of soap, if the Solution is warm, it rises as a scum 
 to the top. It can be dissolved in ammonia, forminj^ an 
 ammonia soaj). The sodium part of the soap unites with 
 the acid and forms a s.ill. 1 1 liydroehloric acid is adde<l to 
 a Soaj) solution (a suflicient <|u;intity to make the solution 
 very sli^ditly acid), the fatty acid rtMnoved, and the residue 
 evajjorated to dryness, common s.'dt will be found. 
 
 If lime water Ik; added to a solution of ;;o;i|), white clots 
 of "lime; soaj)" will Ix; formed which arc; insolubh; in water, 
 but on eollectinj!^ and dryinj; will be found to dissolve; in 
 gasoline, nai)htlia, or kerosene. This is why n;iphtha or 
 j^asoline is useful in cleaning' bath tu])S, bowls, etc. Quite 
 a good varnish can be made of aluminum jsoap, made from 
 alum and white soap, dried and dissolved in gasoline. 
 
 Washing Powders 
 
 It is not dilhcult to get some idea of the composition of 
 the various washing powders on the market. When acid 
 is added to a solution, if there is efTervesccnce, washing soda 
 is probably present. A skum would indicate; that soap 
 formefl ;i |)ar( of the mi.xture. 
 
 Hard Water 
 
 In the experiin(;ut with cabou dio.xide; it was shown how 
 carbonate of lime; might l)e dissolved by an excess of carbon 
 dioxide gas, the liicarbonate of lime l)eing formerl, which is 
 soluble in water, 'i'his is an (;xampl(; of .111 "unstable" 
 chemical compound. Simj)ly boiling drives off I he excess 
 of car1)on dioxide gas, leaving the; ordinary carbonate of linn; 
 which is insoluble and is deposited on tin; sides of tlu; tea 
 kettle or otlu;r vessel. This may be shown by blowin;^ inlo 
 lime; wat(;r imtil the cloudiue;;;; which at (ir;;t ap])ears begins 
 
 173 
 
i6o CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 to dissolve. ' As it is difficult to dissolve it completely, the 
 solution may be filtered. On boiling the clear solution, the 
 milkiness will appear again. 
 
 Hardness that is brought about by the sulphate of lime — 
 "permanent hardness " — is difficult to remedy by any house- 
 hold means. Washing soda helps a little, but not very 
 much. The so-called alkali waters of the west, in addition 
 to sulphate of lime contain sulphate of soda and other salts, 
 so that they are beyond remedy. 
 
 Reference: Chemistry of Daily Life — The Manufacture of 
 Soda. Page 194. 
 
 MEETING IV 
 
 (Study pages 66-88) 
 Laundry Work 
 
 Bluing May Yellow Clothes: On page 70 is the statement 
 that the repeated use of ordinary bluing may stain the clothes 
 yellow. To prove this, dip a piece of white muslin into a 
 strong bluing solution — about a teaspoonful of liquid blu- 
 ing to a cup of water — dry the cloth with a hot iron and boil 
 it in a little strong soap solution. The color will be seen to 
 fade. Rinse and dry with the iron. On comparing the 
 cloth with part of the original piece, a slight yellow stain 
 will be seen. This is oxide of iron (iron rust) and can be 
 proved to be such by adding a drop of pure dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid and then a drop of yellow prussiate of potash 
 (potassium ferro-cyanide), the intense blue color produced 
 being a test for iron. The conditions in this experiment 
 are, of course, much more severe than obtained in ordinary 
 washing, as most of the bluing is washed out before the 
 clothes are boiled again, but the experiment proves the pos- 
 sibility. As indigo costs about a dollar a pound and Prus- 
 sian blue only a few cents, practically all the bluings on the 
 market are Prussian blue. 
 
 174 
 
PROGRAM i6l 
 
 Iron Rust Stains 
 
 Make "rusty water" by letting a few nails stand in a can 
 of water over night or longer. Boil some white cotton cloth 
 ^n a little of the water. Try the same with wool. Strain 
 some of the wate r through white muslin and boil the muslin 
 in soapy water. 
 
 Stains 
 
 One of the classes gave a demonstration before a large 
 audience on the removal of stains as outlined in this lesson. 
 As the only way to learn how to*remove stains is to remove 
 stains, it would be advisable to make a few, if none are at 
 hand, and then try the experiments on them. 
 
 Referenees: Chemistry of Daily Life — Inks. Page 178. 
 
 Laundry Work, by Juniata L. Sheppard, (50c., 
 postage 6c.) 
 (Send answers to Test Questions on Part II, and report 
 on supplemental work.) 
 
 MEETING V 
 
 (Study pages 89-1 11) 
 Baking Powder 
 
 Perform experiments suggested on pages 90 and 91. 
 
 Reference: Baking Powders. Bulletin No. 119, Maine Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. (Loaned for 2c.) 
 Lighting 
 
 (i) See Experiment page 93. 
 (2) Insert the small end of a clay pipe stem in the inner 
 
 part of a candle flame and touch a lighted match to the 
 
 other and so prove that the candle is a "gas factory. " 
 3) With a piece of wire gauze make the experiments 
 
 illustrated on page 95. 
 (4) Visit the local gas plant if there is one — or the electric 
 
 light station — obtaining permission first from the office. 
 
 175 
 
l62 CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD 
 
 Electric Batteries 
 
 (i) Detach one of the batteries that furnish the current 
 for the electric bell, attach a wire to each pole and place 
 the other ends on the tongue and note that the electric 
 current gives a slight "taste" — i. e., stimulates some of 
 the nerves of taste. 
 
 (2) Get some one to explain the action in an electric bell 
 or send 2c. stamp to the School for circular giving descrip- 
 tive diagram, diagrams for bell wiring, etc. 
 
 Plants 
 
 Examine with a microscope the "breathing pores" on the 
 under surface of leaves. 
 
 MEETING VI 
 
 (Study pages 1 1 1 - 1 2 2) 
 
 Chemical Formulas 
 
 Reference: "Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, " by Rich- 
 ards and Elliott. Pages 9-30. ($1.00, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 "Elementary Chemistry. " Text book of Ameri- 
 can School of Correspondence, (Postage 4c.) 
 
 Housekeepers' Laboratory- 
 Make some of the tests described. 
 
 Reference: "Some Forms of Food Adulteration and Simple 
 Methods for their Detection. " Bulletin No, 
 100, Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Department 
 of Agriculture. Send loc, (coin) to the Supt 
 of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 
 (Send answers to Test Questions on Part III and report on 
 supplemental work.) 
 
 176 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 A NATURAL starting point in the art of cookery 
 is the fire, since cookery without heat is an im- 
 possibihty. Human beings everywhere use fire to pre- 
 pare their foods and by such appHcations of heat man 
 first showed his superiority to the beasts. 
 
 FIRE 
 
 Among the ancients fire was regarded as a gift from 
 the gods, to be protected in every way, and all civiliza- 
 tion, forms of religion, civil ordinances, and family life 
 have been traced to the care primitive man bestowed 
 upon his fire. Among the early tribes, the chieftain 
 was often the only one to have a fire in his home. 
 The hearthstone thus became the center of the home 
 life, the abode of the household gods, and even at the 
 present time it is impossible for some persons to sep- 
 arate the spirit of the home from the kitchen fire. 
 
 In different sections of the country may still be 
 seen all the types of fire and stove that have been Anciont 
 
 J i stoves 
 
 developed through centuries, and every housekeeper 
 should be familiar with the principles underlying the 
 care of each. Among these are the camp fire where 
 food is broiled over coals or buried in hot ashes, the 
 charcoal brazier of the fruit vender, essentially the 
 same as the portable stoves found in Pompeii, the open 
 fireplace, the brick oven, the Franklin stove, (an in- 
 
 177 
 
2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 vention of Benjamin Franklin), cookstoves adapted to 
 wood, to hard and soft coal, to kerosene, to gas, and 
 the electrical appliances which as yet are little more 
 than toys for the rich. 
 
 A century and more ago chimneys and fireplaces 
 were often troublesome by smoking 
 and Count Rumford and Benjamin 
 Franklin each in different ways 
 brought their inventive faculties to the 
 solution of this serious problem of 
 daily life. When the fireplace was the 
 dependence of the home for w^armth 
 and cooking, the charred, half-burned 
 brands of wood were carefully covered 
 , „ ^, with ashes at nig^ht to start the fire the 
 
 A Roman fetove o 
 
 or Brazier. j^cxt moming. If the wind had blown 
 
 off the ashes and the coals were gone out, it was easier 
 to borrow more coals from a neighbor than to use the 
 flint to produce a spark. All this was changed when 
 matches were invented. 
 
 It was but a step for primitive man from baking in 
 Ovens i^Q^ ashes or in a covered kettle set on the coals to a 
 simple form of oven. Often one oven served a com- 
 munity. Brick ovens were built at one side of the 
 chimney. Sometimes the heat was turned through a 
 flue to heat these ovens, sometimes a fire was built 
 directly in the oven, and when it was burned down the 
 oven was swept out and the food put in to be cooked 
 
 First 
 
 178 
 
FIRE. 3 
 
 by the heated bricks. The later brick ovens, still used 
 in some old houses, often had space underneath for 
 a separate fire. 
 
 An Oven, Showing Direction of the Hot Gases. 
 
 For the open fire, wood is the most satisfactory fuel 
 but it is not desirable for continuous use in cooking or 
 heating. Wood is sold by measure, which is an in- 
 accurate method at best. The drier the wood the better 
 it burns, and a hard wood which produces coals is 
 most useful. 
 
 When wood is heated and the volatile portions ex- 
 pelled, charcoal is produced. This is usually sold by 
 measure. Its weight is about one-fifth that of the wood 
 from which it is made. It is a primitive form of fuel 
 and generally used in warm countries. A succession 
 of small fires which can be quickly lighted and as 
 
 Wood 
 as Fuel 
 
 179 
 
4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 quickly extinguished are more suitable to such condi- 
 tions than the one large stove or range. 
 
 The small stoves used today by the Latin races and 
 their colonies do not differ materially from those of 
 the early Romans. 
 Charcoal The charcoal broiler is used by many hotels because 
 
 of the flavor it appears to develop in meats. 
 
 Peat is an important fuel in some sections of the 
 world. It must be thoroughly drained or dried, and 
 at best contains a large percentage of ash. 
 
 Both anthracite and bituminous coal have been in 
 common use for less than a hundred years. 
 Hard Coal A dcusc soHd, Hkc hard coal, kindles slowly but 
 
 requires far less care to maintain a fire than wood. 
 Coal is a better fuel for winter than summer. If the 
 lumps of coal are too large they will not kindle readily ; 
 if too small, they choke the flame. The large nut and 
 tgg grades are best suited to cooking purposes. The 
 draft and size of the fire box determine the size and 
 grade to be used for good results. The free burning 
 "Franklin" coal should be used with poor draft, while 
 with a good draft and large fire box all grades and the 
 larger sizes may be used. A dark brilliant coal will 
 have fewest clinkers. The intense heat resulting from 
 open drafts fuses in large masses the foreign matter 
 which is mixed with the carbon. By burning oyster 
 shells in such cases, new compounds are formed which 
 prevent the clinkers, but the clinkers seldom form with 
 a moderate supply of air. 
 
 180 
 
FIRE. 5 
 
 Soft coal needs very different treatment from hard. 
 Little draft underneath is required, but some draft is 
 necessary over the top to burn the gases given off, and 
 the funnel draft must be open to allow the smoke to 
 escape. If the coal has **coked" over on top it must 
 be broken up when good fire is required. If the fire 
 is to be kept, it is allowed to coke over. 
 
 Briquettes are made from coal dust and other sub- 
 stances and are used extensively in places where coal 
 is high priced. 
 
 The wood and coal stoves and ranges are today the 
 most common means of cooking foods. Housekeepers 
 often become familiar with one stove and one kind of 
 fuel and are unsuccessful with another because ihey 
 are unwilling to study the laws of nature, or lack the 
 patience to experiment with a new adaptation of them. 
 
 Much besides personal preference must be con- 
 sidered in the proper valuation of fuels ; not only the 
 percentage of carbon, moisture, and volatile matter in 
 each, but the necessary waste, the by-products, and 
 the time required for caring for each and keeping the 
 surroundings clean. 
 
 The best stoves and ranges are those plain in finish 
 and simple in construction, with parts well fitted to- 
 gether so that they can be taken apart if necessary 
 and easily cleaned. 
 
 A portable range is one that may be moved if neces- 
 sary, while the "set" range is built into the chimney. 
 
 The fire box is lined on the sides with a kind of brick 
 
 Soft Coal 
 
 stoves 
 
 and 
 
 Ranges 
 
 Fire-Box 
 
 181 
 
6 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 above which the fire should never come. The revolv- 
 ing grate is the most common in recent styles of stoves. 
 There is a grate underneath, and below is a place for 
 ashes or a pan which may be taken out to empty. The 
 oven is surrounded by spaces through which hot gases 
 circulate. 
 
 The housekeeper should investigate her stove thor- 
 oughly when the fire is out, take off all covers, open 
 doors, remove the ''clean out" plate for the space under 
 the oven ; then see Low the dampers work and explore 
 all passages with a lighted match or candle if need be. 
 The Draft '^^^^ draft givcu by the chimney depends upon the 
 
 difference in temperature between the air of the room 
 and the gases of combustion. The hot gases are more 
 expanded and therefore lighter and tend to rise. The 
 hotter the fire the greater the draft will be. 
 
 The supply of air is as essential as fuel for a good 
 fire ; combustion depends upon both. Smoke and an 
 accumulation of soot are indications of incomplete 
 combustion. 
 
 Several drafts and dampers are common to all wood 
 and coal stoves and ranges. They should be open to 
 start the fire, but closed to keep it. The slide under the 
 fire box supplies the fresh air necessary for perfect 
 combustion. A check in the ])ipe or at the back of 
 the stove under the pipe, or in both places, is usually 
 known as the chimney damper. A slide in the stove 
 pipe or connected with the chimney damper admits 
 cold air into the stove pipe when opened and thus les- 
 sens the draft. 
 
 182 
 
FIRE. 7 
 
 The oven damper turns the heated air away from oven 
 the pipe so that it goes over the top, down the side, ^*"'p«'^ 
 under the bottom, and up the back flue in most stoves 
 and heats the oven before it makes its escape. These 
 differ sHghtly in different ranges but the purpose of 
 each is the same. Experiment with your own stove 
 until you can control it. 
 
 Many ranges have a slide or door above the fire 
 box which may be used for broiling. Hoods are some- 
 times placed over large ranges to gather odors and 
 excessive heat and convey them to the chimney. 
 
 Whether the fuel be coal or wood, the starting: of a 
 
 Kindling 
 
 fire and its care afterwards are much the same pro- the Fire 
 cess. First remove ashes, brushing off the top of the 
 oven under the covers. When the fire box is clear, 
 put in crumpled paper, bits of wood, and then larger 
 wood and a sprinkle of fine coal. See that all drafts 
 are open. Replace the covers and then blacken the 
 stove, if necessary, but polish after the fire is started. 
 Light the paper and as the wood settles down, add coal, 
 little by little, till it is even with the lining of the fire 
 box. When the blue flame of coal disappears, close 
 the oven damper, and a little later shut the slide under 
 the fire box and the chimney damper. Open the 
 damper when more coal is added. When coal is red 
 it is nearly burned out. 
 
 To keep a fire several hours shake out the ashes, 
 
 To Keen 
 
 fill with coal, close the dampers, and partially open the Fire 
 the slide above the fire. 
 
 183 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, 
 
 Gas 
 
 Burners 
 
 For continual use it is better to add a little fuel at 
 a time, but not in the midst of baking anything. With 
 wood and soft coal the chimney damper cannot be 
 closed as much as with hard coal, because there is more 
 soot and smoke which must be allowed to escape. 
 Gas is an invisible fuel obtained from several sources. 
 Pure coal gas is more satisfac- 
 tory than natural gas, or than the 
 so-called "water gas." The es- 
 cape of the latter is less easily de- 
 tected and it is much more poi- 
 sonous, hence there is more dan- 
 ger in using it. 
 
 For institutions at a distance 
 from large towns a private sup- 
 ply of gas which is fairly satis- 
 factory is made from gasoline, 
 and acetylene gas is now 
 often made even for the single 
 house. 
 
 For fuel purposes, the burners are so constructed as 
 to admit sufficient air with the gas for complete com- 
 bustion. A bluish flame is produced, which is much 
 hotter than the yellow blaze used for light. 
 
 It is possible to admit too much air, which causes a 
 
 loss of heat. If the air supply is adjustable, close the 
 
 opening for the air until a yellow flame is produced, 
 
 and then open it until the flame just comes blue again. 
 
 If a burner in a gas stove "burns back" and shows a 
 
 ^Ag. 
 
 Bunsen Burner. 
 
 184 
 
FTRH. 9 
 
 yellowish flame, leaving a deposit of soot on the bottom 
 of kettles, turn it out and light it again, being careful 
 that the gas does not ignite back in the pipe before 
 it mixes with the air. 
 
 Gas stoves should be connected with the main sup- 
 ply by a pipe large enough to insure sufficient supply of 
 
 Oas 
 
 Stoves 
 
 Gas Stove with Oven. Broiler, and Hot Wa- 
 ter Heater Attachment. 
 
 fuel under all conditions. The amount used can then 
 be regulated by the cook for each burner. Care must 
 be taken to keep the burners and all parts of the stove 
 perfectly clean. 
 
 The gas stove is especially adapted to the conditions 
 of the present age ; it is far less care than either wood 
 or coal ranges, and at ordinary rates for gas, less ex- 
 pensive when properly operated. Even at high prices 
 
 Advantagep 
 of Gas 
 Stoves 
 
 185 
 
10 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Gas 
 ileter 
 
 for gas it is a cheap fuel if human energy and time 
 are considered. The application of a match makes the 
 full power of the stove available at once and as soon as 
 work is done, the flame may be shut off. Any desired 
 degree of heat may be obtained at short notice with 
 no waste of fuel and no debris to be cared for. The 
 stoves occupy small space and each part may be used 
 independently. 
 
 J'^X 
 
 CUBtC 
 
 FEET 
 
 CUBIC 
 
 U)0 TM0U9ANO 10 THOUSAND 
 
 FEET 
 
 (a) (b) 
 
 Dial of a Gas Meter, (a) At the Beginning of a Month, 
 (b) After Registering the Amount of Gas Used for the Month. 
 
 The housekeeper should learn to read a gas meter. 
 Each space on the right hand circle passed by the hand 
 indicates the consumption of loo cubic feet of gas, on 
 the middle circle i,ooo feet, and on the one on the left 
 hand 10,000 feet. Read from left to right, taking the 
 ifigure just passed by each hand and add two ciphers 
 for the hundreds. A previous reading deducted from 
 the present one shows the amount of gas consumed in 
 a given time. 
 
 Example. In the illustration, the hand on dial A has 
 just passed the figure 7, indicating 700 cubic feet; on 
 dial B the hand has passed figure 8 (note that this 
 
 \86 
 
FIRE. 
 
 II 
 
 hand moves in the opposite direction to the first), and 
 on dial C the hand has last passed the figure 4. The 
 reading is then, 700+8,000-1-40,000-^48,700 cubic feet. 
 If in a month the hands are 
 in the position indicated in the 
 second figure, the reading is 
 64,900 cubic feet. The dif- 
 ference between the two read- 
 ings is 64,900 — 48,700^=^16,- 
 200 cubic feet. Sixteen thou- 
 sand two hundred cubic feet 
 is the amount consumed for 
 the month. 
 
 The small dial at the top of 
 the illustration indicates cubic 
 feet and is used only for test- 
 ing the system for leakage. 
 
 Kerosene and gasoline are 
 useful fuels for summer and 
 emergency use. These are 
 sold by the gallon and only 
 the best qualities should be 
 
 used. The blue flame kerosene probably are the best 
 of this class of stoves. The small lamp stoves also 
 have merit. They are similar in construction to read- 
 ding lamps and should receive equal care. Two small 
 stoves often are more useful than one large one, be- 
 cause more readily moved where needed. It is essen- 
 tial that such stoves should stand out of a draft. 
 
 steam Cooker, Circular 
 Form. 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 and 
 
 Gasoline 
 
 187 
 
12 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 steam 
 Cooker 
 
 Chafing 
 Dish 
 
 A Steam cooker is an invaluable adjunct to the small 
 stoves whether gas or kerosene is burned. Several 
 articles may thus be cooked over one burner and both 
 time and fuel are saved. 
 
 The Aladdin oven is an arrangement for saving 
 heat. It may be used with an 
 ordinary large lamp or with gas. 
 The iron oven is placed inside a 
 jacket of non-conducting sub- 
 stance, hence little heat is lost. 
 It is especially useful for slow 
 cooking. 
 
 The Norwegian cooking box 
 is another plan for saving heat. 
 A kettle of food is raised to the 
 boiling point and then packed in 
 a box lined with non-conducting 
 materials. 
 
 The modern chafing dish is 
 but slightly different in effect from the primitive char- 
 coal stove or brazier. The use of alcohol for fuel 
 makes it simple and clean. Wood alcohol — a by- 
 product from distillation of wood — is often used for 
 fuel, but its disagreeable odor makes it less desirable. 
 
 Anything that may be cooked over any other stove 
 in a frypan, saucepan, or double boiler may be pre- 
 pared in the chafing dish. 
 
 Aladdin Oven Hoated 
 by Lamp. 
 
 188 
 
FIRh. 
 
 13 
 
 Heat brings out the flavors in food and develops 
 nev^ ones and makes soluble, substances which the 
 human stomach could not otherwise digest. In most 
 cases moderate heat long continued produces better 
 results than intense heat applied for a short period. 
 
 A MODIFIED NORWEGIAN COOKING BOX. 
 
 Graniteware Pails with tight covers are packed with asbestos and covered with a pad, the 
 lid of the box is then closed and the whole wrapped in an old blanket. 
 
 The degree of heat best adapted to make food digesti- 
 ible is not always that which produces the most ac- 
 ceptable flavor, hence cooking must be more or less of 
 a compromise. As yet we know little about the de- 
 gree of heat best suited to the perfect cooking of each 
 food and the temperature at which it should be served. 
 Nothing will cook until it is warmed, and warming 
 and drying are usually the first steps in the cooking 
 process. 
 
 Effects 
 of Cooking 
 
 189 
 
u 
 
 FK1NC1FLE6 OF COOKERY. 
 
 Transmis- 
 3ion of Heat 
 
 Boiling 
 
 Roasting 
 
 The transmission of heat from a fire to our foods 
 may be by conduction, as when heat travels along a bar 
 of metal, by convection, when heat is transferred by 
 the motion of heated liquid or gas, and by radiation 
 through the air. The effect of heat on the food is fur- 
 ther modified by the way the metal or other substance 
 containing the food is affected by heat. 
 
 The use of asbestos in the form of mats and linings 
 for ovens and jackets for kettles to modify the heat 
 transferred to food is likely to increase in the future. 
 
 Broiling probably was the first attempt at cooking 
 since it required little beside the fire and the heat. 
 Roasting is a similar process applied to larger sections 
 of meat and therefore requiring a longer time. The 
 relationship of roasting and broiling is most apparent 
 with a gas range for there is no line of separation be- 
 tween the cooking of thick steaks and thin roasts. 
 Much so-called roasting is really baking. 
 
 In broiling and roasting, tender portions of fish, flesh 
 or fowls are exposed to intense heat at first to sear the 
 outside and close the open tubes or pores which con- 
 tain the juices. The fire should be free from smoke 
 and may be charcoal or half-burned wood or coal or 
 gas. After the surface is browned the section of meat 
 should be drawn away from the intense heat and kept 
 at a more moderate temperature until cooked thor- 
 oughly. More depends upon the shape of the article 
 to be broiled or roasted than upon the weight. 
 
 When a thick mass is to be cooked in this fashion it 
 
 190 
 
FIRE. 15 
 
 becomes necessary to modify the heat on the outside and Basting 
 to aid in driving it in by the process known as basting ; 
 that is, dipping up the hot fat which has dripped into 
 a pan beneath the meat and hence is known as drip- 
 ping, and pouring it over the outside of the mass. The 
 glossy brown secured by basting may have suggested 
 to some early cook the advantage of deep frying. 
 
 Chaflng-Dish — the Modern Brazier, 
 
 The difference between broiling over coals and in a 
 hot pan is but slight and dry frying or sautering is a 
 similar process. Toasting is a similar application of 
 heat to foods already cooked once. 
 
 The earliest forms of baking were in the hot dishes 
 and then in covered kettles set in coals or hung over 
 the fire. Our ovens are an outgrowth from those 
 primitive methods, and now much so-called roasting 
 is really baking. 
 
 A point to study in this connection is the fact that 
 food is fuel for the human body. The amount and 
 
 191 
 
i6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 quality of fuel is varied according to the work to be 
 done, so should the food be chosen according to 
 the work of the individual and the climate or season 
 of the year. 
 
 WATER 
 
 Water is not always considered to be strictly a food 
 in itself, but by its aid many foods and flavors are put 
 in forms more acceptable to the palate and more readily 
 absorbed by the body than they could be in any other 
 way. 
 Importance Immcnsc quantities of water are necessary for 
 
 ui Cooking the preparation of food and the cleansing of dishes 
 in addition to what is needed for laundry and bathing 
 purposes. Cities make provision from some source 
 safe from contamination for the water needed by their 
 inhabitants. In small communities the individual fam- 
 ily must each be responsible for its water supply. This 
 is not the place to discuss the medical aspect of the 
 water question, but all agree that water should be 
 above the suspicion of danger of transmitting disease. 
 Moreover, for household purposes water should be 
 clean and soft, since hard water containing mineral 
 salts hinders processes of cooking and cleaning. 
 
 A limited water supply or inconvenient arrangements 
 for its use and disposal afterward, tend to reduce the 
 consumption to such an extent as to interfere with the 
 proper cooking and service of food, if not below the 
 actual standards for health. 
 
 192 
 
WATER. 17 
 
 Nearly three-fourths of the human body is water and 
 a similar proportion will hold in most foods served at 
 our tables. The total amount of water taken by a 
 human being daily averages two or three quarts, or 
 from four to six pounds. The portion of this which 
 is taken as a beverage depends upon the solidity of the 
 food. 
 
 The benefit gained from mineral waters often is quite 
 as much due to an increased consumption of water as 
 to the mineral constituents they contain. The tendency 
 of civilized man in feeding himself is toward too con- 
 centrated foods, too little water as a beverage and too 
 little watery food. Water not only brings solids into 
 the stomach in an acceptable form, but it is essential 
 in building new tissues and removing wastes. The in- 
 side of the body, as well as the outside, sometimes re- 
 quires washing. 
 
 The temperature at which water is taken into the 
 stomach is an important point. A glass of cool water 
 sipped slowly may have as stimulating an efifect as one 
 of wine. Often more ice than water is found in the 
 glasses on American tables, and the ice water is taken 
 hurriedly and interferes with digestion. 
 
 Hot water taken slowly will often revive tired peo- 
 ple as effectually as tea or coffee. The merit of soup 
 as a first course at dinner probably is due to the fact 
 that it contains ninety to ninety-five per cent hot water 
 and that the solids are largely in solution and absorb- 
 able. 
 
 Miners 
 Water 
 
 193 
 
i8 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Flavor 
 of Water 
 
 Dishwashing 
 
 If clear hot water is an unpalatable beverage, salt 
 or lemon juice may be added to give a distinct flavor. 
 
 There is a marked difference in flavor between water 
 freshly boiled and that which has been kept hot for a 
 long time. The latter has lost the gases which give 
 life to fresh water. For any purpose in cooking stale 
 water will injure the flavor of foods whether it be 
 taken from a hot water faucet or from a teakettle where 
 it has stood for hours. 
 
 Other ill flavors come into our foods because of im- 
 perfect utensils, badly washed. A rough surface or 
 seam will retain something from previous cooking to 
 add to the next substance cooked therein, or greasy 
 dishwater or soap may be left in sufficient quantity to 
 give an appreciable change of flavor. 
 
 Another important use of water essential in good 
 cooking is for the cleaning of utensils. 
 
 Dishwashing is not a popular occupation probably 
 because repairing or setting to rights is never quite as 
 interesting as the construction of something definite. 
 Insufficient appliances and inconvenient conditions for 
 the work are other causes for its unpopularity. 
 
 With a convenient sink of the right height, ample 
 table room for soiled and clean dishes, abundance of 
 towels and hot water, dishwashing loses its terrors. 
 
 A knowledge of the composition of each food and the 
 way it is affected by different degrees of heat is as de- 
 sirable in dishwashing as in cooking. For example, 
 where gelatine has dried on a strainer it should be 
 
 .94 
 
WATER. 19 
 
 softened in cold water, but that treatment would not be 
 helpful if the strainer had been used for fry fat, while 
 an egg beater plunged in boiling water would be all the 
 harder to wash because the ^gg would be cooked. 
 Time is saved by careful sorting and scraping of dishes 
 before washing. Detergents are helpful but less im- 
 portant than abundance of water. 
 
 Strong soda water boiled in a utensil will remove soaking 
 food that has burned on. Soaking is as helpful in Wishes 
 dishwashing as in the laundry and dishes that cannot 
 be washed as soon as used should be covered with 
 water. After washing, any dishes are improved by 
 rinsing in scalding water. 
 
 The usual plan is to wash dishes in this order, glass, 
 silver, crockery, cooking pans, or kettles." Often it is 
 more desirable to get the large pieces out of the way 
 first. 
 
 It is half a century since the first dishwashing ma- 
 chine was invented and though they are in general use 
 for hotels, hand work seems better adapted to most 
 households. 
 
 To illustrate the effect of the range of temperature 
 from the block of ice at 32° F to the steaming kettle at 
 212° F let us follow the process of making a simple 
 gelatine jelly. The gelatine has been extracted for us 
 in factories from bones of animals and needs no cook- 
 ing, but must be dissolved and combined with liquid 
 and flavoring. It is first softened in cold water, the 
 time required varying according to the size of the parti- 
 
 195 
 
20 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 cles of gelatine. Then it must be dissolved with boil- 
 ing liquid. Use only as much boiling liquid as is neces- 
 Geiatine sarv to dissolve the ijelatine. The su2:ar, if that is to 
 
 Jelly ■' ^ ... 
 
 be used, added next, because it will dissolve more 
 rapidly in a warm medium, and then is put in the fruit 
 juice or whatever is to flavor the jelly. 
 
 The compound is to be strained and cooled. The 
 larger the mass the slower the cooling. 
 
 Experwicnt. To illustrate this put half the jelly in 
 one mould and the other half in several cups. The cup 
 will be firm before the large mould at any tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 To illustrate another point put one cup in a pan of 
 snow or cracked ice mixed with coarse salt. When 
 some of the jelly is half thickened combine with it 
 whipped cream or white of egg^. 
 
 If possible take temperature of each with a ther- 
 mometer. The key to all gelatine desserts, is to have 
 proper proportions of gelatine and liquid and to have 
 the right temperature for the dififerent stages. The 
 proportions are given by each manufacturer on the 
 package. 
 
 METHODS OF COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 Water is as essential as fire in all processes of cook- 
 ery. No food can be cooked without water and un- 
 less it naturally contains a large proportion of the 
 fluid, more must be added during the cooking process. 
 Boiling Cooking food in water indicates further progress in 
 
 196 
 
WATER. 21 
 
 this art than either broiling or roasting. It impHes 
 the invention of a kettle to contain the water, though 
 the earliest cooking of this sort' may have been done by 
 dropping heated stones into a hollow one containing 
 the water and meat or into a water tight basket. Homer 
 and other ancient writers have nothing to say about 
 boiled meats, though they mention those which were 
 broiled or roasted. 
 
 Boiling, stewing, and steaming are slight variations 
 of the same process. Under ordinary conditions, with- 
 out pressure, no food thus cooked can be raised to a 
 higher temperature than 212° F at sea level, and at 
 high altitudes few foods can be cooked in this way, 
 since water boils at a lower temperature. 
 
 Experiment. Much may be learned by heating a 
 given measure of water and watching it until it reaches 
 the boiling point. 
 
 Tiny bubbles hardly larger than the point of a pin 
 soon form and rise to the top, but this is not boiling. 
 The same thing may happen in a glass of water stand- 
 ing for an hour on the table. How will you explain 
 this? 
 
 Vv^hen the water is actually boiling large bubbles 
 rise rapidly and break on the surface. Keep up this 
 process until nothing appears to be left in the pan. 
 Where has the water gone? Has anything been left 
 behind ? There will usually be a trace of coloring mat- 
 ter to indicate that solids do not evaporate. 
 
 This point may be made more apparent by puttjng a 
 
 197 
 
22 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 "Evaporation 
 
 Choice of 
 Utensils 
 
 tablespoonful of salt in the water that is to be evapo- 
 rated. 
 
 What is left behind in a teakettle which is never 
 cleaned inside though the water is allowed to boil day 
 after day? 
 
 Experiment. Other simple experiments may be made 
 with two dishes of uniform size containing the same 
 amount of water exposed to the same heat, one covered, 
 the other uncovered. Which reaches the boiling point 
 first ? From which does the water first evaporate ? 
 
 The evaporation of water is an important factor in 
 cooking. The rate of evaporation is proportionate to 
 the surface exposed to the air and not to the amount 
 of water in the kettle. 
 
 Thus the same quantity of syrup or sauce made in a 
 shallow pan will naturally become thicker than when 
 cooked for the same time in a deep pan having only 
 one-fourth the surface. 
 
 The art of the cook is displayed by the proper choice 
 of utensils, or, if utensils are limited, by varying the 
 time of the process or by the addition of more water 
 for different purposes. Where long cooking is neces- 
 sary choose deep utensils, . reserving the shallow ones 
 for the occasions when haste is essential. 
 
 The use of a cover serves several purposes ; it pro- 
 tects the food in the kettle from foreign matter from 
 outside, it aids in retaining the heat, and prevents the 
 loss of water to some extent, as much of the steam 
 condenses and runs back. 
 
 198 
 
COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 23 
 
 Even without a thermometer it is evident that water 
 cannot be made as hot as fat, for a potato, a bit of meat, 
 or a lump of dough might be cooked in water indefinite- 
 ly without assuming the brown color which would 
 come to any one of these articles in hot fat. 
 
 By observation also, we might discover that, however 
 rapidly the water in a kettle boils, potatoes or other 
 foods do not cook more quickly. ^ In the same way we 
 should find that absolute boiling or bubbling of the 
 water was not necessary in order to cook some foods. 
 
 Through such observation and experience certain 
 common laws of cooking have been established and 
 these have been verified and explained by the experi- 
 ments of modern scientists. The temperature of the 
 water should be adapted to the type of food material 
 to be cooked in it. Vegetables containing woody fibre 
 to be softened require the boiling-point, while meats 
 and eggs, of different composition, will cook more per- 
 fectly at a lower temperature. To extract juices and 
 flavors of meats and vegetables to the fullest degree 
 divide the substance finely to expose as much surface as 
 possible to the action of the water and let that be cold. 
 Soak first, then heat the whole slowly and. hold below 
 the boiling point till the end is gained. 
 
 When water is used only for the purpose of convey- 
 ing heat let it be boiling hot when the food is put into 
 it. Even then some of the solids in the food will be dis- 
 solved in the water and lost unless it be used. In some 
 cases, as in strong flavored vegetables, this may be a 
 
 Temperature 
 in Cooking 
 
 Cooking 
 with Water 
 
 199 
 
24 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 desirable loss. Mediums like hot fat, a thick syrup, or 
 a gravy in which water is thickened with flour, by 
 their density prevent loss of shape and flavor in the 
 articles cooked in them. Rapid boiling in water tends 
 to disintegrate foods. Meats are cooked to rags, 
 potatoes become a soggy paste, and no intensity of heat 
 is gained. 
 
 stewing 
 
 Braising 
 
 A Double-Boilor — an Invention of Count 
 Rumford. 
 
 Stewing implies moist heat, a sort of sweating 
 process. Boiling requires much water, at its highest 
 temperature ; stewing is done with little water at a heat 
 sufficient to soften the substance, but considerably be- 
 low the boiling point. Hence boiling is more applica- 
 ble to vegetables and stewing to animal foods. 
 
 Braising and fricasseeing and pot roasting are com- 
 binations of broiling or frying and stewing. Sections 
 of meat are first browned to secure a good flavor and 
 then stewed until tender in broth or gravy. 
 
 200 
 
COOKING IN WATER. 25 
 
 Water is a restless substance and is constantly escap- 
 ing from the surface of our foods while they are being 
 cooked. Keep the water in the right place, is a watch- 
 word against many of the difficulties that arise in 
 cookery. 
 
 When a sauce or soup is too thick water may be 
 added. On the other hand, when such foods are too 
 watery the surplus often may be evaporated by cook- 
 ing rapidly, uncovered, for a short time. 
 
 Besides kettles of various shapes, the double boiler ^he 
 and the steam cooker are important utensils dependent BoSer* 
 for use upon water. The double boiler we owe to the 
 inventive genius of Count Rumford. Here is one ket- 
 tle set in another containing water, and so long as 
 there is water between a food and the fire no browning 
 can take place in the food. This utensil is especially 
 associated with compounds of milk and with the cook- 
 ing of cereals. Though the food in the upper part 
 does not quite reach the boiling point, this disadvantage 
 is more than balanced by the long time which may be 
 allowed for cooking with no danger of burning. 
 
 The steam cooker is found in many patterns, all on 
 the same general plan. It differs from the double 
 boiler in having several parts above the kettle contain- 
 ing the water, each with perforated bottom, so that 
 the steam and vapor have direct access to the food. 
 
 The" bain marie" is a French device to serve the same 
 end. One large kettle of water contains a number of 
 
 201 
 
20 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 deep sauce pans. 
 
 Making 
 Tea 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Co free Pot for 
 Drip Coffee. 
 
 Making 
 
 This is especially useful for food 
 already cooked which is to be 
 kept hot for intermittent serving 
 ni restaurants. 
 
 The prevalent idea that all 
 food must be served the moment 
 it is cooked is due in many 
 cases to imperfect methods for 
 keeping it warm. 
 
 For tea and coffee a moder- 
 ately soft water is generally con- 
 sidered best. 
 
 The different kinds of tea re- 
 ceive their name from the local- 
 ity where they grow and from 
 the size of the leaf, the younger leaves furnishing the 
 choicer varieties. (See the illustration and descrij^- 
 tion given on page 139 of Food and Dietetics.) 
 
 To make tea, use an earthen pot, fresh boiling water, 
 and from one-half to one teaspoonful of tea for each 
 half pint of water. Leave covered in a warm place to 
 steep for three to five minutes and serve. For cold 
 tea drain from the grounds at once. 
 
 Names mean little in brands of coffee further than 
 to indicate the original home of a special variety of the 
 plant. The berry improves in quality for several years 
 but loses flavor after roasting and more after grinding. 
 One pound of good coffee measures about one quart 
 and will make at least thirty full cups of strong coffee. 
 Thus one pound should supply one person for a month 
 
 202 
 
COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 27 
 
 or four persons for a week. It is better to buy coffee 
 in small lots often, unless it is ground as used. 
 Cofifee may be steeped like tea or boiled. All things 
 
 STEAM COOKER WITH DOORS. 
 
 considered, the drip coflfee pots are most satisfactory 
 and the beverage thus made is more economical and 
 uniform and probably less injurious than when it is 
 boiled. 
 
 203 
 
28 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ICE 
 
 Ice is becoming more and more essential to civilized 
 man, not only for summer use but for the year around. 
 The future promises many improvements along this 
 line, in more rigid inspection of the sources of the 
 natural ice supply, in improved facilities for the manu- 
 facture of artificial ice, perhaps even in the individual 
 home, by the transmission of cold brine as gas and 
 water are now supplied from house to house from cen- 
 tral plants, making it possible to dispense with the 
 iceman's daily round. Patents have been issued for 
 methods of cooling houses in summer similar to those 
 used in cold storage plants. Food is now sent long dis- 
 tances in refrigerator cars and the whole subject of 
 refrigeration has received much study. It has been 
 found that different foods require various degrees of 
 temperature. 
 Cold The preservation of food by cold storage is of great 
 storage ^jg^efit to armies and navies, but is not an unmixed 
 blessing to the housekeeper for it has upset the seasons 
 of foods, and when we can obtain a food at any time 
 of the year it loses the charm it possessed when the 
 season was a short one. Moreover, though food in 
 cold storage does not spoil, it parts with something and 
 undergoes certain changes which are not fully ex- 
 plained as yet. The housekeeper is usually safer in the 
 use of canned foods than of those subjected to a long 
 period of cold storage. 
 
 204 
 
ICE. 
 
 29 
 
 The household refrigerator is frequently expected to 
 do impossibilities in caring for foods. It is a great 
 labor saver when properly used and may be depended 
 upon the year around and not merely in summer. 
 
 It should be placed in a cool, light, airy place, con- 
 venient to kitchen and dining room unless a second 
 
 A Refrigerator showing Direction of Air Currents. 
 
 refrigerator be placed there. If possible place it near 
 the door so that the ice man need not track all over 
 the kitchen floor. The cellar is no place for a re- 
 frigerator. A good cellar is a safe place for most 
 foods, and a poor one will injure the refrigerator. 
 
 In many households the cost of ice is more than 
 saved by the preservation of food that would other- 
 wise be' lost. The average family will use from one to 
 two dollars' worth of ice a month at city prices. 
 
 In modern houses the water pipe from the ice com- 
 
 The 
 Refrigerator 
 
 205 
 
ilefrigerator 
 
 30 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 partment of the refrigerator is often connected with 
 the sewer pipe. This should never be direct. Let the 
 pipe drip into a spout. 
 
 A refrigerator should have several compartments, 
 that foods like milk and butter may be kept apart 
 from others. The coolest place is usually under 
 the ice. A tile or enamel lined refrigerator has many 
 advantages, but any that are properly made if kept 
 clean will do good work. Any break should be repaired 
 at once, for an overflow of water or a crack in the lin- 
 ing may cause an odor which will flavor all food. 
 
 Care of The icc should be washed clean before putting in 
 place and no food should ever be placed upon it. The 
 jars of water chilling for table use are the only things 
 to be allowed beside the ice in its compartment. No 
 food should be put away while warm. 
 
 How often a refrigerator should be cleaned depends 
 upon the way it is used. If nothing is allowed to spill 
 or rub against the sides or shelves, or, when this hap- 
 pens, if it is cleaned away at once, and if nothing stays 
 there until unfit for food, frequent scalding is un- 
 necessary. Every week or fortnight when the ice is 
 nearly out remove shelves and scald them thoroughly 
 and wash throughout. 
 
 Glass and stone jars, deep earthen and agate plates 
 are the best utensils in which to put foods away in the 
 refrigerator. 
 
 The principle of the refrigerator Is exactly that of 
 
 206 
 
Freezer 
 
 ICE. 31 
 
 the Aladdin oven — a closet with shelves is put inside a 
 case of non-conducting substance. 
 
 On the same plan, our ice cream freezers are built, ice cream 
 The outer tub is a non-conducting substance to pre- 
 vent the entrance of heat. 
 
 There are jugs for hot water and coolers for ice 
 water constructed according to the same idea. 
 
 Salt is mixed with ice because its affinity for water 
 will cause the ice to melt, and when a solid changes to 
 liquid form, heat is absorbed from the surrounding 
 objects. Cracked ice about the size of coarse rock salt 
 is used, the proportion being three parts ice to one of 
 salt. 
 
 Ice cream, custard, or fruit juice to be frozen, should 
 be more highly flavored and sweetened than if it were 
 to be eaten at an ordinary temperature. The "organs of 
 taste are benumbed by the cold, and a stronger flavor 
 is necessary to produce an effect. The cost of ice for 
 making frozen desserts is less than the cost of fuel for 
 cooking many, 
 
 207 
 
Uncooked 
 Food 
 
 Preserving 
 Food 
 
 PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FOODS 
 
 All processes of cooking are the result of gradual 
 evolution. Nature ripens fruits and seeds in the sun- 
 light. Dry nuts and seeds are stored by squirrels and 
 other creatures. Primitive men were but little in ad- 
 vance of the squirrel when they saved different grains 
 and pounded or parched them for food. 
 
 We may understand better the origin of our proc- 
 esses of cooking if we first consider the foods avail- 
 able without special preparation. Tropical countries 
 have always afforded a variety of fruits capable of sus- 
 taining human life. It is estimated that many more 
 persons may be supported on a given piece of ground 
 planted to bananas than by the same surface planted 
 with any crop in a temperate climate. The breadfruit, 
 fig, date, and raisin are other important fruit foods. 
 
 In temperate climates without knowledge of agricul- 
 ture mankind must depend largely upon animal foods, 
 and doubtless here would come the first application of 
 heat to change the flavor or to aid in preservation of 
 the food from day to day. 
 
 The drying of fruits and the smoking of meats natu- 
 rally were the earliest methods of preserving foods. 
 Probably the preservative action of smoke was acci- 
 dentally discovered and the salting of fish may have 
 been derived naturally from its association with salt 
 water. 
 
 Since all foods are mainly water it was an immense 
 advantage to wandering tribes to reduce their burdens 
 
 32 
 
 208 
 
PRESERVING FOOD. 
 
 33 
 
 by drying their foods„ Even the niost primitive house- 
 keepers discovered that in proportion as food parted 
 with water it was less Hahle to ferment, mould, or de- 
 cay, though the scientific reason for this that most bac- 
 teria can live and develop more rapidly in fluids has 
 only been discovered recently b}' bacteriologists. 
 
 The modern housekeeper seems to be losing the art 
 of drying foods, yet in many cases that mode of preser- 
 vation is more desirable than canning or cold storage. 
 
 Dried 
 Fuods 
 
 Dried Prunes Before aud After Soaking. 
 
 One reason why dried fruits have fallen into dis- 
 repute is this : To remove the discoloration which takes 
 place when cut fruits are dried or evaporated in fac- 
 tories they are often bleached by sulphur and suffer 
 loss of flavor. Another reason for not using dried 
 foods is that it takes time to soak them. 
 
 When they are to be made ready for use the first 
 step is to supply as much water as they lost from 
 evaporation. This is best accomplished by long soak- 
 ing without heat, merely cooking them enough at the 
 end to soften tough fibres and to prevent fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 209 
 
34 rKlNCII'l.liS 01' COOKIKV. 
 
 Ilom-y an<l olive oil iii;i\ In- considered uilli llie food 
 piodiuts re(|iiiriii^ litlle j)rei);iralioii. They were 
 commonly used hy (lie ancients. 
 N"t8 Nuls are an important lood in some parts of the 
 
 world, riie peasantry <>1 southern Europe find in the 
 chestnut a substitute for cereals, it is made more di- 
 j^cstihle 1)\' a ])artial cooking'. The neglect of nuts in 
 our country is due to the chea])ness of cereal j)roducts 
 l)ut there is an increasin^^^ use of them as a substitute 
 for mc-ats. Average shelK'd nnls havi' weight for 
 weight ahont twice the fuel value of wheat Hour be- 
 cause they ct)ntain so much fat. ( "hestnuts are about 
 two-thirds starch, ami contain little fat. ( )ther nuts are 
 from one-tiiird to two-thirds fat. 
 
 It is a common idea that nuts are very iudij^estible. 
 'IMiat may be changed if we learn to masticate tlu-m 
 l»i(>|)eil\' or to ^rind them and combine with other 
 foods instead of eatini; them without chewini; pro])i'rly, 
 as dessert after suflicient nourishment has been taken. 
 
 Nuts and fruits supplement each other, to some ex- 
 tent, the one coiilainiuL; what tln" other lai^ks. 
 
 The lei^uminous seeds, pi'as, beans, lentils, and pea- 
 luits, ari' somewhat like nuts, but are not so rich in 
 fat and are unpalatabK' unless cooked. Most of our 
 common vej^ctables are the result of a^es of cultivation. 
 
 We are only on the threshold of the possibilities of 
 combining and ])reserviu_L; fruits. An increased use of 
 fruit, fresh and preserved, will tend to cause a di- 
 minished use of alcoholic be\'era|L;i'S. bruit juice is one 
 
 FriiitB 
 
 210 
 
Jellies 
 
 CANNING. 35 
 
 of the best agents to quench thirst. A desire for some 
 other beverage than water may be taken as a cry for 
 food. Fruit juices, hot or cold, will better supply this 
 desire than tea or coffee. The expressed juice of real 
 fruit may be sterilized and then charged with carbon 
 dioxide, as well as the chemical compounds now sold 
 as soft drinks. 
 
 Inferior fruits and skins and cores, if clean, may 
 under pressure yield juice for jellies, or to flavor other 
 foods. Fruits may be blended, pressed, and strained, 
 and used in many ways even for children and invalids 
 when the solid particles and seeds would prove irritat- 
 ing. The juice of the lemon or orange and the pulp 
 of the banana may thus be combined. 
 
 Since modern housekeepers lack patience to dry foods canned 
 and soak them out again the canning factory has come 
 to their aid. Within the last half century this business 
 has developed immensely. Home canning cannot com- 
 pete with that of the factory, because there a higher 
 temperature is gained which more effectively sterilizes 
 the food. 
 
 Canned foods keep because the bacteria in them are 
 destroyed and others cannot enter because the air is 
 kept out. Fruit will not spoil even if the jar is not 
 full, provided the air above it has been sterilized. 
 
 Unfortunately, ignorance of the processes involved 
 makes the consumer demand impossibilities in color 
 and form, lind this has led the manufacturer to use 
 artificial colorings freely. 
 
 Goods 
 
 211 
 
36 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Preserving 
 in Sus:ar 
 
 Canning 
 
 Preservatives of different kinds have been found to 
 be cheaper than care and time expended in the prepara- 
 tion. Clean foods keep better than unclean ones, but 
 skilled human labor is the means to cleanliness and that 
 is expensive. 
 
 Pound for pound preserves which include jellies 
 made from fruit juice and marmalades from fruit pulp 
 with equal weight of sugar keep even if exposed to air, 
 because bacteria do not flourish in dense substances. 
 
 Some fruits are preserved half by drying in the sun- 
 shine, half by sugar. Spiced fruits were more common 
 before the days of air-tight jars, for spices are enemies 
 of bacteria. 
 
 The canning of food is not a complicated process. 
 Everything must be clean, that is, free from spores 
 of mould or germs that promote decay. Such cleanli- 
 ness may be accomplished in part by water, partly by 
 heat. The jars, covers, tunnels, and spoons must be 
 subjected to boiling water to render them sterile. They 
 are usually put in cold water which is slowly brought 
 to the boiling point. The scalding of tomatoes and 
 peaches not only renders the skin easy of removal but 
 sterilizes the outside so that nothing is rubbed on to the 
 inner surface as it is peeled. 
 
 An accumulation of dust, mould, and decayed por- 
 tions, even if each be slight, cannot but afifect the re- 
 sult. Therefore the fruit for any purpose must be care- 
 fully picked over and washed. Very juicy fruits, like 
 currants, may have the juice expressed without first 
 
 212 
 
CANNING. 
 
 37 
 
 cooking, while others, like the crab apple, require the 
 effect of heat to start the juice. 
 
 The utensils for cooking and straining should not be 
 of metal if the best flavors of the fruit are to be re- 
 tained. Agate or earthen ware kettles, wooden spoons, 
 and linen strainers are desirable for this work. If 
 
 PRESERVE JAUS. 
 "LIGHTNING." IMPROVED "MASON." 
 
 necessary to use metal anywhere, do it as quickly as 
 possible, and never leave an iron spoon in a kettle of 
 cooked fruit. 
 
 Sugar is not essential to canning, but is usually 
 added for flavor and because fruit cooked in a syrup 
 keeps its shape better than when cooked in water. 
 
 The best jars are those having glass covers and 
 fastening wnth a spring. The screw tops are easily 
 rendered imperfect and are hard to close and open. 
 
 "Utensils 
 for Canninf 
 
 Preserve 
 Jars 
 
 213 
 
38 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 The less lettering there is in the glass the surer we 
 are of keeping it clean. The rubber rings spoil 
 quickly and none that are stretched or brittle 
 should be used. New ones are usually required every 
 year. Pint jars are more satisfactory for the average 
 family than the larger sizes. 
 
 A grocer's tunnel is desirable for filling the jars, 
 and a half-pint dipper with a long handle is another 
 help. 
 Essential The csscutial points in canninsr fruit may be summed 
 
 Points . , , 
 
 Up in very few words. All that is necessary is to have 
 the fruit and everything that comes in contact with it 
 sterilized, and then keep the air away from it. That is, 
 the fruit and whatever it touches must be raised to a 
 sufficient degree of heat to destroy any micro-organisms 
 already there that would cause change of form or de- 
 cay. This being done care must be taken that no others 
 are allowed to enter through the air. There is no 
 magic about it, only constant watchfulness. 
 
 Gentle cooking, long continued, seems to be fatal to 
 the bacteria, which might work so much ill, and this 
 method is more conducive to preserving the natural 
 appearance of the fruit than is intense heat for a short 
 period. 
 
 Fruit, vegetables, milk, and meats all are prepared 
 in similar fashion. Animal foods spoil easily because 
 of their composition. 
 
 214 
 
CHOICE OF FOOD 
 
 Primitive man made use of anything near his hand 
 to satisfy his need and accidents and extreme hunger 
 made many foods appetizing to our ancestors which 
 might not appeal to us today if we had not inherited the 
 taste for them. 
 
 According to W. Mattieu Wilhams, ''the fact that 
 we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep, 
 oxen, etc., for the preparation of our food is merely a 
 transitory barbarism." Other authorities agree with 
 him that the art of cooking may some time be so de- 
 veloped as to enable us to prepare the coarser vegetable 
 substances in an easily assimilated form without de- 
 pending upon animals as middle men. 
 
 The art of the cook has done much to make un- ^.^^ ^^^ 
 likely food materials attractive, but there is another ^^ cooking 
 phase of the question, and that is the problem how 
 to make what we know is nourishing both pleasant 
 and attractive. The cook of the past had to make 
 the best possible use of the meager nutrients at hand. 
 The cook of the present and future has the harvests of 
 the whole world within reach all the year around. 
 How shall such abundant material be combined to sat- 
 isfy the palate without overloading the digestive or- 
 gans? 
 
 More important still, how shall we select and pre- 
 pare foods that they may produce sufficient energy in 
 the human body for the great tasks awaiting it in our 
 complex civilization. 
 
 3» 
 
 215 
 
40 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Classification 
 of Food 
 
 Organic 
 Foods 
 
 During the last twenty years or less much material 
 has been published by the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture recording the results of investigations. Many 
 of these pamphlets can be secured for the asking. 
 
 For practical use all the principal substances found 
 in our foods may be classified under five heads : water, 
 mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. 
 The first, and its importance in cooking, has already 
 been considered. The second appears in different forms 
 in all foods, rarely exceeding one per cent, of their 
 natural weight. This it is which remains as ash when 
 a food is burned. It is most prominent in the refuse 
 portions of food which are removed before coming to 
 the table, such as the husks and bones. Some of these 
 mineral matters are readily soluble in water, hence are 
 lost when no use is made of the water in which vege- 
 tables are boiled. 
 
 Common salt is the principal mineral substance in 
 use in cooking. 
 
 The other three great classes of food substances 
 are known as organic compounds, — the protein, fat, 
 and carbohydrate. 
 
 The proteins are subdivided into many classes, but so 
 far as practical cooking is concerned, little need be said 
 of these here. Since this type of material constitutes 
 about one-fifth of the human body by weight it must 
 be found in the daily food. Lean meat, eggs, milk 
 
 "Following the nomenclature of the U. S. Department of 
 Agriculture, the term protein is used to denote all classes of 
 nitrogenous foods. 
 
 216 
 
CUOICE OP POOD. 41 
 
 curd, and portions of grains and seeds arc the princi- 
 pal sources of this class of food. As a whole, protein 
 of vegetable origin is more slowly and less perfectly 
 absorbed than animal protein. The principal duty of 
 nitrogenous foods is to build up the body and to keep 
 it in repair. 
 
 Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable j.^^^ 
 sources and for the convenience of the cook are com- 
 monly separated by heat or pressure. Considerable fat 
 is stored as a reserve fund in the normal human body. 
 Its principal office is that of fuel to keep the body's ma- 
 chinery going. 
 
 Carbohydrates are chiefly of vegetable origin and in- carbo 
 elude starch and sugar. They are not apparent to any 
 extent in the body but are important fuel foods, though 
 more than two pounds of starch or sugar would be re- 
 quired to produce as much energy or bodily heat as one 
 pound of fat. 
 
 The provider of food, the cook, and the consumer 
 all should be familiar with the composition of com- 
 mon foods in order that the daily meals may be adapted 
 not only to purse and palate but to climate and the con- 
 dition of individual bodies. 
 
 hydrate: 
 
 217 
 
Milk 
 
 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 Milk is a complete food for the young animal because 
 it contains the five fundamental types of food ma- 
 terial — water, mineral matter, fat, carbohydrate, and 
 protein. 
 
 The analysis of average milk is about as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 87 
 
 Mineral .01 
 
 Fat 04 
 
 Casein , .03 
 
 Sugar 05 
 
 1. 00 
 Since the fat is the most valuable portion commer- 
 cially, dairymen study to feed their cows in such a 
 way as to increase it, and in some instances milk has 
 been produced containing 6 per cent of fat. 
 Use of Though mainly water, milk is a valuable nutritious 
 
 food and should be used freely by itself and in com- 
 bination with other food materials, in soups, sauces, 
 and puddings. When we remember what the depart- 
 ment of agriculture has proved for us, that a quart of 
 milk is quite as nourishing as a quart of oysters for 
 which we pay six or eight times as much, we can 
 see that it is desirable to use it more freely than is 
 generally done. Especially during the summer months 
 we do well to substitute milk and cheese for meats. 
 There are average families which do not use over a 
 pint of milk a day ; there are others who find it neces- 
 
 42 
 
 218 
 
of Milk 
 
 MILK. 43 
 
 sary to take a gallon, and the meat bill in the latter 
 cases becomes proportionately small. A pint of milk 
 a day is not an excessive allowance for each member 
 of a family, though many households consume much 
 less. 
 
 To study the composition of milk put a quart of composition 
 fresh milk in a glass jar and leave it twenty-four hours 
 or longer until it is thick and sour. What percentage 
 of the whole is the cream? Remove the layer of 
 cream on top to another jar, screw on the top, and 
 shake until the fat separates from the watery por- 
 tion of the milk. Collect the butter on a spoon, wash 
 out the milk by pressing and folding with a knife. 
 Weigh or estimate carefully the value of the butter ob- 
 tained. What proportion of the original bulk of milk 
 does it represent? Persons fond of unsalted butter may 
 thus prepare it for themselves. 
 
 Why is salt added to butter? 
 
 The remainder of the milk, now a thick mass of 
 curd, may be pressed out with a spoon or cut with 
 a knife to show the greenish water known as whey. 
 What nutritive substances are there in this? 
 
 Turn the thick milk into a two-quart pan and fill 
 with hot water, in twenty minutes drain the water off 
 through a strainer, that no curd need be lost, and pour 
 on more hot water. Do this several times until the 
 curd loses its sour taste and has contracted, but do 
 not allow it to become too hard. If boiling water is 
 used the curd will become unpalatable and indigestible. 
 
 219 
 
Sour 
 
 Milk 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Junket 
 
 44 PKINCirLFS OF COOKERY. 
 
 Buttons have been made of sour milk treated by heat 
 and pressure. 
 
 Press as much water as possible from the curd and 
 compare the quantity with the original amount of 
 milk. Remember that this still contains much water. 
 Now combine the curd with butter or thick cream, salt 
 it and shape in small balls or pack in cups. Thus 
 we learn something of the value of milk and have 
 made a sour milk cheese more palatable than when 
 the whole mass of curdled milk is heated on the stove 
 or strained in a cloth. 
 
 With prepared rennet in liquid or tablet form the 
 curd and whey of sweet milk may be separated. The 
 milk should be warmed slightly before the dissolved 
 rennet is added, then chilled in the dishes from which 
 it is to be served. This is known as junket or rennet 
 custard. 
 
 Absolute cleanliness is essential for every utensil to 
 come in contact with milk. The souring of the milk 
 is due to the action of bacteria which come to it from 
 contact with utensils and the air. Its fluid form and 
 nutritive material afiford a medium peculiarly favor- 
 able to the development of germs of disease, as well as 
 to the growth of useful bacteria which aid in butter 
 and cheese making. 
 
 The growth of such micro-organisms is hastened by 
 moderate heat, but most of them are killed by raising 
 the milk to the boiling point. 
 
 Sterilization requires a temperature of two hun- 
 
 220 
 
MILK. 
 
 45 
 
 dred and twelve degrees F, continued for about 
 twenty minutes ; this process usually changes the flavor 
 of the milk so that it is disagreeable to many palates. 
 The high temperature also causes the fat globules 
 to separate instead of being retained in the form of 
 cream. 
 
 Pasteurization takes its name from the noted French 
 scientist, and consists in raising the milk to a tempera- 
 ture of about one hundred and fifty-five degrees F. By 
 this means the flavor of the milk is unchanged. 
 
 The cook finds it safe to scald the milk for soups, 
 bread, cr puddings, to prevent its souring during the 
 process, before cooking it with the other ingredients. 
 There is a gain in the time of cooking when the milk 
 is heated while the other materials are being pre- 
 pared. 
 
 A bit of bicarbonate of soda dissolved in milk before 
 it is heated often will neutralize any incipient acidity 
 and make it usable for puddings or soups. The 
 "cream" of tomato soup is liable to curdle unless the 
 acid of the tomato is neutralized by soda or the milk 
 thickened with flour before the two parts are combined. 
 It is safer with all "cream" soups to keep the stock 
 and thickened milk apart until just before using. 
 
 Lemon or other acid fruit juices are sometimes 
 mixed with milk for sherbet without curdling if, before 
 the juice is added, the milk is thoroughly chilled in the 
 freezer can. 
 
 To Prevent 
 Souring 
 
 Neutralizing 
 Acidity 
 
 Mixing 
 with Acid 
 
 221 
 
46 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Salt sometimes curdles milk, especially when it is 
 added to hot milk. 
 
 Since the solid portions of milk readily adhere to 
 the bottom of the saucepan placed in direct contact 
 with heat^ and the resulting burned flavor rapidly pene- 
 trates the whole of the milk, a double boiler or its 
 equivalent, one dish set in another of boiling water, 
 is the best way to heat milk. 
 
 Milk is an important ingredient in preparing cocoa 
 and chocolate, and such beverages rank with soup in 
 nutritive value. Hot milk sipped slowly is a simple 
 remedy for exhaustion and sleeplessness. Hot milk 
 should be served with cofifee when cream is not avail- 
 able. The milk soups are valuable foods and have as 
 their foundation the white sauce described further on. 
 
 Most of our puddings require milk, especially the 
 cereal and custard varieties. 
 Cooking Because there are solids in the milk more time must 
 be allowed for the grains of rice or corn meal to 
 absorb the moisture than when cooked in water. The 
 protein portions of the milk have somewhat the same 
 effect as the egg used to coat the croquette or oyster 
 before frying. If the particles of grain are thus var- 
 nished over they cannot absorb moisture as rapidly 
 as from clear water. Hence, it is often advisable to 
 cook the grains in water first and finish the process 
 in the milk. 
 
 In making blanc mange from Irish moss, if the 
 moss is first cooked in a small quantity of water and 
 
 222 
 
MILK. 
 
 47 
 
 the thick paste strained before it is added to the milk, 
 there is no loss of milk. When the moss is cooked di- 
 rectly in the milk there is some loss of milk when the 
 moss is strained out. 
 
 The baked Indian meal pudding and the creamy rice 
 pudding require long, gentle baking. There is a 
 continual evaporation of moisture from the surface of 
 
 Concentrated 
 Milk 
 
 "BLANC-MANGE." 
 
 the pudding pan, and really a condensing of the milk. 
 In proportion as the pudding dish is refilled with milk, 
 the pudding increases in nutritive value. 
 
 Milk is commonly used for mixing dough of many 
 types and this adds to the nutritive value of bread 
 and cakes. 
 
 Bread made of milk or part milk will have a browner, 
 tenderer crust than bread made wholly with water. 
 There seems to be good ground, however, for the prev- 
 alent idea that bread or cake made with milk does 
 
 223 
 
Milk 
 
 48 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 not keep so well as that made with water. A cer- 
 tain cheesy flavor develops where milk is a principal 
 ingredient. 
 Sour Sour milk is often used for mixing griddle cakes and 
 quick doughs, because the acid it contains will be neu- 
 tralized by the soda added, and thus produce the effer- 
 vescence which makes the dough light. The souring 
 process seems to have so affected the protein sub- 
 stances in the milk that such a dough is tenderer than 
 one made with sweet milk and baking powder. The 
 use of sour milk will be further treated in the section 
 on doughs. 
 Skimmed For doughs, soups, and puddings, in which additional 
 fat is introduced, skimmed milk may be used as well 
 as full milk. 
 
 The use of cream in well-to-do families is increas- 
 ing. Whipped cream is demanded as a garnish or 
 sauce for many desserts quite complete in themselves. 
 
 The process of beating or "whipping" cream gives 
 it an attractive appearance, and by expanding its par- 
 ticles probably makes it more digestible. 
 
 BUTTER 
 
 Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat. An 
 ounce of butter a day is a fair allowance for each 
 person when meats, lard, olive oil, and cream are used. 
 To test this in your own case, divide one ounce of 
 butter in three portions, one for each meal, and see 
 whether you naturally use less or want more. Or, this 
 
 224 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 49 
 
 may be tried in a family by shaping a portion of but- 
 ter into balls with butter paddles and noting the 
 amount consumed by each person at the table. An 
 ounce of butter is easily secured by cutting a quarter 
 pound pat into quarters. Or, if that is not available, 
 measure the butter. Two level or one round table- 
 spoonful is equivalent to one ounce. A pound of but- 
 ter will measure one pint. 
 
 Individual Shortcakes to be Served with Whipped Crenm. 
 
 Butter is probably rendered slower of digestion by 
 cooking, and for this reason it is wiser to flavor foods 
 with it after they are cooked. Often it is better to 
 allow the individual eater to butter the broiled m^eat, 
 or fish, or mashed vegetables, according to his own 
 taste. Then there need be no waste if a portion of 
 the whole dish is not eaten, and if the food is re- 
 heated the flavor is better. 
 
 In one dietary study of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture of the United States (Bulletin 75 from ^.he office of 
 Experiment Station), so much butter came back in 
 
 Butter 
 
 for Flavoring 
 
 225 
 
50 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 Composition 
 of Butter 
 
 White 
 Sauce 
 
 the platters where it had been poured over steaks, 
 chops, and fish, that it was assumed that none was con- 
 sumed. Certainly, in every household considerable but- 
 ter and other valuable fat finds its way to the dish 
 water. One of the first steps in the application of 
 science to housekeeping is to stop such needless waste. 
 
 In a glass measure cup, or a tumbler, put a quar- 
 ter of a pound of butter, set the glass in a pan of 
 warm water and leave until the butter melts. 
 
 Estimate the percentage of clear fat. 
 
 What other substances appear to be present? 
 
 How does this explain the sour and cheesy tastes 
 sometimes noticed in butter? 
 
 Milk thickened by flour and made richer with but- 
 ter and flavored, is known as milk gravy, drawn but- 
 ter, or white, or cream sauce. It is a substantial food 
 in itself and forms a valuable addition to fish, eggs, 
 meats, and vegetables. By its addition a small por- 
 tion of any food substance is extended and made to do 
 more service, and flavors too pronounced to be agree- 
 able to all are much modified. 
 
 There are several ways of compounding this sauce 
 which apply to other sauces in which butter is the 
 principal ingredient. A general formula covering the 
 ordinary sauces — white, tomato, and brown — is this: 
 one ounce of butter, one-half ounce of flour, and one- 
 half pint of liquid ; or, to express the same quantities 
 in other terms, two level tablespoons of butter, the 
 same of flour, and one cup of liquid. 
 
 ^ 
 
 226 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 SI 
 
 1, Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the dry 
 flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then draw 
 to a cooler part of the stove and stir while adding 
 the liquid hot or cold, then cook again till thick, stir- 
 ring till smooth, 
 
 2, Another way is to rub butter and flour together 
 and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then 
 stir till thick and smooth. 
 
 3, When thin cream is substituted for butter and 
 milk, or when less butter is to be used, rub the flour 
 smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the re- 
 mainder, which should be hot, and cook over water 
 until smooth. Then add butter and season. 
 
 The theory of the first method is that the butter at- 
 tains a slightly higher temperature than the milk and if 
 the flour is combined with the hot butter it is cooked 
 more quickly and- thoroughly than when put into 
 milk. 
 
 In the second case, longer time is required, but the 
 flavor of the butter is changed less than by the first 
 method. 
 
 The third way is more economical of butter. 
 
 Butter is also used for brown sauces. These are 
 made after the first plan for the white sauce, but the 
 butter is allowed to brown before the flour is put in, 
 and is cooked until a reddish brown hue is acquired 
 before the liquid, which is usually brown meat stock, 
 is added. 
 
 Methods 
 of Making 
 
 Brown 
 
 Sauce 
 
 227 
 
52 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 Varieties 
 
 cf White 
 
 Sauce 
 
 Creamed 
 Dishes 
 
 Precautions 
 
 in Using 
 
 Butter 
 
 In many other sauces the plan is similar to that 
 followed in making the white sauce, but meat stock, 
 strained tomato, or other vegetable stocks, are used 
 in place of part or all of the milk. 
 
 These sauces are the foundation of many entrees or 
 made dishes, such as croquettes and souffles. 
 
 For meat or fish croquettes the sauce is made of a 
 double thickness by using only half as much liquid. 
 It is then combined with about an equal quantity of 
 meat, seasoned and cooled, when the mixture may he. 
 shaped. Souffles have the sauce as the basis and the 
 puffy effect is produced by eggs. 
 
 The usual white sauce, combined with an equal quan- 
 tity of meat, fish or vegetable stock, gives us the cream 
 soup, cream of chicken, cream of cod, cream of as- 
 paragus, etc., etc. 
 
 Since butter is not pure fat but contains water and 
 curd, it is less desirable than other fats for greasing 
 pans unless it is melted and the fat used alone. 
 
 Except in cases when it is necessary to brown some- 
 thing quickly, butter should not be used for frying or 
 or sauteing. It is too expensive and burns easily. Be- 
 cause of the quantity of milk, often sour, contained in 
 butter, it is not strange that some recipes for rich 
 cake call for small quantities of soda to balance this 
 acidity. For such purposes, butter is frequently 
 washed to remove milk and salt. 
 
 That butter responds quickly to changes of tempera- 
 
 ture should be remembered in mixing any 
 
 dough, 
 
 228 
 
CHlillSB. 
 
 53 
 
 like pastry, when a large proportion of butter is 
 used. 
 
 Slightly rancid butter may be made usable for some 
 purposes by scalding it in water, then chilling and re- 
 moving the cake of fat on top. If further treatment 
 is necessary the fat alone may be heated with bits of 
 charcoal. 
 
 CHEESE 
 
 The origin of cheese is probably more ancient than 
 that of butter. It is a form of dried or condensed milk 
 convenient for transportation. Milk is nine-tenths 
 water, while cheese contains but a trifle over three- 
 tenths water. Average cheese is about one-third each 
 water, fat, and casein. 
 
 A pound of cheese costing sixteen cents contains 
 about twice as much nutritive matter as a pound of 
 meat which will vary in price. There will be less 
 waste in the cheese than in an average piece of meat. 
 Moreover, cheese has the advantage of keeping better 
 than the meat under adverse conditions. Its disad- 
 vantages are that because of its concentration it is not 
 easy of digestion. This may be overcome somewhat 
 by diluting the cheese with milk, as is done in many 
 of the rarebits, fondues, and souffles. The addition of 
 a small quantity of bicarbonate of ]:)Otash or soda aids 
 in making cheese soluble. There is danger that the 
 cheese will be over cooked. When merely melted it is 
 probably quite as digestible if used moderately, as 
 
 Rancid 
 Butter 
 
 Composition 
 
 Nutritive 
 Value 
 
 229 
 
54 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 many of our common ways of preparing meat. Judg- 
 ing from the types of people who depend upon cheese 
 largely it might be used with us more generally than 
 it is. The annual consumption of cheese in this coun- 
 try is only about three pounds per capita. We might 
 well use cheese more freely in cooked dishes, for flavor 
 as well as for nutriment. 
 
 230 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERS, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on nL- 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy a7isuiers/ro7n the 
 lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor 
 may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- 
 son paper a number of times before attempting to answer 
 the questions. 
 
 1. Give a rough diagram of the stove or range with 
 
 which you are most famiHar. Show where in 
 the oven and on top of the stove the heat is 
 greatest, and explain why. 
 
 2. What is your method of starting and regulating 
 
 a coal fire? 
 
 3. Counting the time required to keep fire and stove 
 
 in good condition, what is the most economical 
 fuel within your reach ? 
 
 FEET 
 
 100 THOUSAND I0TH0U5AN0 I THOUSAND 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2, 
 
 4. Fig. I represents the dial of gas meter at the 
 beginning of the month ; Fig. 2 at the end of 
 
 231 
 
PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 the month. What is the reading in each case, 
 and what will Ije the amount of the hill at $1.25 
 per 1,000 feet of gas? 
 
 5. If you use a gas stove, read the meter before and 
 
 after a day's baking and find the cost of fuel. 
 If other fuel is used, give the amount and ap- 
 proximate cost. 
 
 6. Where, in your experience, would a thermometer 
 
 be helpful in cookery ? 
 
 7. Mention several foods requiring the action of 
 
 heat, vet which need little preparation and few 
 utensils. 
 
 8. What different ways have wc of cooking with 
 
 the aid of water ? 
 
 9. Is it possible to cook in water that does not boil ? 
 
 Give examples. 
 
 10. What gain in cooking certain foods over, rather 
 
 than in, water? Describe utensils by which this 
 can be accomplished. 
 
 11. What kinds of foods should be kept In the refrig- 
 
 erator? Describe the refrigerator, or whatever 
 is used In its place. 
 
 12. What are the essential points in canning fruit? 
 
 13. How should dried fruit and vegetables be pre- 
 
 pared to restore them as nearly as possible to 
 their original condition ? 
 
 14. Are there any substances suitable to add to foods 
 
 as preservatives? 
 
 232 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 15. What are the relative merits of paper bags, 
 wooden boxes, tin cans, and glass jars for keep- 
 ing groceries in pantry or store closet? 
 
 1 5. How can you determine for yourself that there is 
 water and fat in milk, cheese, and butter? 
 
 17. Make a menu for meals for two days, introducing 
 
 as many dishes as feasible that contain milk or 
 cheese. 
 
 18. Suggest treatment and uses for sour milk, dry 
 
 cheese, and butter of poor flavor. 
 
 19. Make a white sauce three times or more, putting 
 
 the ingredients together in different order each 
 time, and report which seems the most satis- 
 factory and expeditious. 
 
 20. Are there any questions which you would like an- 
 
 swered, relating to the topics taken up in this 
 lesson? 
 
 Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 
 
 23; 
 
234 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART II 
 
 EGGS 
 
 Since the c^p; is similar to milk in composition, both 
 cnntJiininj^- water, fat, and protein, withont starch, 
 and as there are many simple dishes in wiiich milk and 
 eggs are combined, it is natural that that should be our 
 next topic. 
 
 The egg may seem a small article to have much space 
 devoted to it, but there is no other food so in(lisi)ensable 
 to the art of cooking. A French chef has compared 
 the office of eggs in cooking to the usefulness of ///(•, an, 
 and a, in conversation, both would be difficidt without 
 them. ,, „ , 
 
 U;sei Illness 
 
 Aside from its great food value, and there is no c^^ ot Eggs 
 of bird that may not be eaten, the tgg is a general 
 harmonizer in the kitchen ; it serves to thicken cus- 
 tards and sauces; to clarify soups and jellies; to make 
 a coating of crumbs adhere to chops or croquettes ; it 
 puffs up soullk's ; it leavens a whole grouj) of cakes; 
 it garnishes salads and emulsifies oil into a smooth, rich 
 dressing for them, and couibined with odd bits of 
 fish or meat, it makes many a savory dish of what 
 would otherwise be lost. 
 
 235 
 
56 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 The composition of eggs varies with the kind of fowl 
 and its food. The edible portion of the average hen's 
 Ggg is nearly 75 per cent, water, 12 per cent protem, 
 12 per cent, fat, and I per cent, ash or mineral mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Since carbohydrates are lacking, we naturally com- 
 bine eggs with starches and sugar which supply the 
 class of substance missing. 
 
 Like milk, eggs may be eaten either raw or cooked, 
 and the ways of cooking eggs, however elaborate they 
 seem, may be reduced to a few siniple processes. 
 
 We shall have the key to all cookery of eggs if we 
 study some eggs cooked by moderate and some by 
 intense heat. 
 Effect To see how the egg is affected by different degrees 
 on Eggs ^f heat, we may poach several eggs, or drop them 
 from their shells into water at different temperatures. 
 When an egg is dropped into a saucepan with cold 
 water, and heat applied, before the egg begins to cook, 
 the egg and w^ater mingle somewhat, showing that a 
 portion of the raw egg is soluble in cold water. As the 
 water is heated, this soluble egg becomes cooked and 
 rises in a thick froth on top, and if the cooking is 
 continued longer, this froth may contract and settle. 
 This point is turned to the cook's advantage in clear- 
 ing" jellies, soup stocks, and coffccc Thus even the lit- 
 tie portion of the egg white adhering to the shell is 
 sometimes utilized for cleanng coffee.- 
 
 236 
 
EGGS. 
 
 57 
 
 When an egg- is droDDcd directly into boiling water, 
 the outer portions of it are hardened by the heat. This 
 cooked egg docs not appear to be soluble itself and, 
 moreover, protects the under portion until that also 
 is penetrated by the heat. 
 
 Experiment. — Boil one egg rapidly ; put another into 
 the boiling water, remove from the stove, and let 
 stand for fifteen minutes or more. Compare tempera- 
 tures with a thermometer. See which egg is more ten- 
 der, and presumably, more easy of digestion. 
 
 The white and yolk of eggs cook at different tem- 
 peratures, and these appear to vary slightly wdth the 
 freshness of the egg. For general use it is sufficient to 
 remember that 150° to 180° F is ample heat for dishes 
 composed mainly of eggs and milk. When starch is 
 used, a higher temperature is required, and whenever 
 possible, this should be obtained before combination 
 with the eggs. Having learned this, we have the key 
 to the successful cooking of all custards and the like. 
 A custard that has curdled, or wheyed, or settled in 
 the center, has cooked too long, or in too hot an oven. 
 The custom of setting a custard in a pan of water 
 in the oven is wise, for the moisture lowers the tem- 
 perature of the oven. Excessive beating of eggs may 
 aid the curdling of the custard ; it certainly is a waste 
 of effort here, however it may be in cake making. 
 
 Average custards are made with three to six eggs to 
 a quart of milk ; naturally the larger number makes a 
 firmer custard, but the other is quite palatable. Often 
 
 Temperature 
 for Cooking 
 Lggs 
 
 Custards 
 
 237 
 
Eggs 
 wjtb Starch 
 
 58 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. ' 
 
 gelatine or corn starch is used to assist in thickening 
 milk when eggs are expensive, but these combinations 
 are not real custards. 
 
 There is a long list of puddings where a custard 
 or Qgg and milk are combined with starchy materials. 
 In such cases as have already been stated, it is wise to 
 have the starch, whether in the form of rice, tapioca, 
 sagOj or corn starch, cooked in the milk before the 
 
 POACHED EGGS ON USH BALLS. 
 
 JJropped 
 
 Ege 
 
 tgg is addedo Bread or cracker crumbs may be com- 
 bined directly with the milk, for then the starch has al- 
 ready been cooked. 
 
 A single dropped egg may show that water need not 
 boil in order to cook an egg. Even if a thermometer is 
 not available, it can be seen that the white of the 
 egg instantly changes in appearance when it comes in 
 contact with water far below the boiling point. A muf- 
 fin ring placed in the water assists in keeping the egg 
 
 238 
 
EGGS. 
 
 59 
 
 in good shape. A little salt and lemon juice or vinegar 
 in the water makes the Qgg harden quickly on the out- 
 side instead of mingling with the water. 
 
 Since we reckon the cost of other foods by the vaiuc 
 pound, for easy comparison we must estimate the value 
 of eggs on the same basis. It will be found that the 
 average hen's tgg weighs about two ounces, and that 
 eight good sized eggs in their shells, or nine or ten 
 shelled eggs, weigh one pound. The fuel required, 
 the labor of preparation, and the waste are much less 
 with eggs than for most other foods. 
 
 Some experiments recorded in **Eggs and Their 
 Uses as Food" (Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, U. S. 
 Dept. Agl.), show that it cost more than twice as 
 much to serve and satisfy at breakfast a family of over 
 one hundred women in a college boarding hall with 
 mutton chops or beefsteak at less than 20c. per pound, 
 than with eggs at 25c. a dozen. 
 
 Commercially, there are many grades of eggs, de- Preserving 
 pendent upon their age. Cold storage has done away 
 with most other methods of preserving eggs. Anything 
 that will exclude air, without bringing ill flavor to the 
 eggj will aid in preserving it. Eggs are available al- 
 most everywhere at all seasons and even at their high- 
 est prices, are not more expensive than the choicer 
 cuts of meat. 
 
 An inferior egg injures all other materials with 
 which it is combined, therefore it is never economy to 
 buy poor eggs. When eggs are high do without them. 
 
 239 
 
6o 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Variety 
 
 Doin'binations 
 
 to Reduce 
 
 Cost 
 
 making dishes which require lew, if any; then when 
 they are again plenty they will be all the more appetiz- 
 ing. With proper conditions for keeping eggs, it may 
 be economy for some housekeepers to buy a large quan- 
 tity in the fall and pack" them carefully in an upright 
 position, but many find it better to give the grocer 
 a few cents more than to take the time and rfsk of 
 loss. 
 
 COMBINATION OF EGGS WITH OTHER FOODS. 
 
 Any fundamental food, like the tgg, must be served 
 in a variety of ways or we tire of them. Foods having 
 short seasons should be prepared in the simplest 
 fashion. 
 
 The nutritive value of the food is not materially 
 changed by a variation in the method of cooking, pro- 
 vided no additions are made to it. It may appeal more 
 to the palate in one form than another, and the time 
 of digestion may vary, though in the end as much may 
 be absorbed in the one case as in the other. 
 
 To illustrate this point, let us take two eggs costing 
 at average prices two cents each, or four cents. 
 Whether boiled in the shell or dropped from the shell 
 into "boiling water, their food value would be practi- 
 cally the same ; when scrambled or made into an 
 omelet there is a slight addition of nutritive material. 
 
 But the rigid economist says that eggs at two cents 
 apiece are too expensive for the family of limited 
 means. Then comes in the art of cooking to show how 
 the eggs may be conibined with less costly food ma- 
 
 240 
 
BGGS. 6i 
 
 terials to make several palatable dishes which may 
 take the place of meats and yet require but little more 
 labor in preparation. 
 
 First, the two eggs may be combined with one cup of with 
 white sauce ; this may be served with the omelet, or sauce 
 blended with the scrambled tgg, or made into a souffle, 
 or served with hard boiled eggs chopped or sliced. 
 
 The identical quantities might be used in each case. 
 By such combination the cost of the dish is doubled, but 
 it will go at least twice as far and its fuel value is more 
 than trebled. Or, instead of the sauce, we may use 
 one cup of milk thickened with white bread crumbs and 
 well salted and omit the butter or use less. This will 
 reduce both cost and fuel value. 
 
 The foundation may be as^ain extended and varied. ,„.,^ 
 
 ^ ^ With 
 
 To the two eo:gs and cup of white sauce miav be added cheese 
 
 "^^ ^ ' or Ham 
 
 two ounces of grated cheese or two ounces of chopped 
 ham. If the ham is of average fatness, the fuel value 
 of the cheese and ham will be about the same. The 
 ham might be more expensive than the cheese were 
 it not that this is a way to turn to good account the 
 smaller bits of meat. By this addition the dish, at two 
 and a half times the cost of the eggs, becomes about . 
 five times as efficient in fuel value. 
 
 This combination may be served in many forms, — serving 
 the cheese may be warmed in the sauce and poured 
 over the eggs hard boiled, poached or made into an 
 omelet, and the ham might be used in the same way. 
 
 After mixing sauce, cheese, and yolks of raw eggs, 
 
 241 
 
('ttko 
 
 fu I'KINi in I'S Oh ( noKl'KV, 
 
 the slill wliihs <)1 llir i\\\\ liiav I"' l'»l<li(| in :iiii| ||ic 
 niixliin- l»;iK<(l III niic dr.li or scvriiil lilllr <iiic»S, 
 
 All siicli (■< tiiiltiii.il ions aic ii:iliii.ill\ < ah ii willi some 
 form <tl hicad, aii<l luTi' aj^aiii llif wlmlc ((»sl is di- 
 iiiinisli«<l Willi an iin rras*- oi fuel valiK". 
 
 A Miniiiiarv "I IIksc |)osmI)Ic i oiiiliinal n tiis iiiay l>'* 
 clcai <'i III laliiilai li )i III, as h 'lli tu s 
 
 VVcikIiI. <■"■,! ( .il 
 
 -' '-ggS I <«/ .JC. |()| 
 
 Wliilf Sauce* ; 
 
 I (' iiiilU , , H u/. ji , \ty2 
 
 nuiiri 1 "/ -'t ■ -17 
 
 I'li.iu , , . . , , .K' «»''•• "^i 
 
 ( li.tsi* 2 (I/, 2c. • ('< 
 
 I I. nil ' M. .', .'07 
 
 It wniild |)c iiilcicsliii}; lo lra(c lli<- liislory "I **f^"^ 
 COolviii|.', and liiid vvlio In si discovci' d llial <.'f^|;s cooked 
 in inilK, swctlciictl and llav<»r<'<|, made llie palalahic 
 toin|toiind vvc know as ciislai'd ; or wlio Insl discovered 
 llie dell* loiis spoiif^v cake oi "diet hiead," as oiu lorc- 
 iiD )l hers ealled il 
 
 All oil! model II ieii|MS joi s|)oiij'c cake, aiij.Ml cake, 
 lad\ liiij^Mis, and sponj^e diops, aif !)iil slij^lil vaiia 
 
 tion'> llojll llie !e«lpes |(» lie jiilind m old Cool-. Ixioks, 
 wilic II rail III! llie vveif^lil «d lln vyy;, in siij-ai aixl liall 
 the weij-dil <d (he e^^s in Ikuii. 
 
 'IIk' leiideiicv of llie ailislic cook is lo sepaiale llie 
 two pails o| llie e}.',i',, nsiii}.; the \<»ll. Ii» |ii<nlin<- CiT- 
 iani ( lle( Is and llie while h a ( il liei s. 
 
 I he pi opt II 1 1< MIS aie ahmil llie same in llie ant;e1 cake 
 
 212 
 
EGGS. 
 
 63 
 
 as in the sponge cake, but the egg whites only are 
 used. The egg yolks, left from such cakes, are more 
 desirable than the whole egg for many custards and 
 sauces, producing a richer and more creamy effect, 
 since the yolk of egg contains considerable oil. 
 
 Eggs in doughs may better be studied here with 
 other qualities of eggs rather than later with doughs. 
 
 Under this head may be included noodles, pop- 
 overs, Yorkshire pudding, cream puffs, eclairs, tim- 
 
 K(U; TiMIJALES. 
 
 bale cases, fritters of many varieties, as well as sponge 
 and angel cakes and macaroons. 
 
 From a study of these distinctly egg doughs we may 
 see why eggs are added to muffins, puddings, etc. 
 
 These may be divided into three classes : ( i ) When 
 the egg is used merely to stick flour together, such as 
 noodles and timbale cases. (2) When the cake re- 
 sulting is to be hollow like popovers and puffs, then 
 the egg is beaten with the other ingredients. (3) 
 Where a spongy texture is desired, the eggs are sep- 
 arated and beaten separately. 
 
 For such mixtures as the first class lightness is not 
 essential, is really undesirable ; hence, the eggs are 
 
 Eggs in 
 Doughs 
 
 Classes of 
 Egg Doughs 
 
 243 
 
64 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 beaten only cnoiii^h to blend yolk and white, and not 
 to mix air with them. In noodles, which are a kind 
 x^Toodies of ^SS niacaroni, the eg": snp])lies liquid as well as aids 
 in sticking the particles of Hour tooethcr. After a stifif, 
 smooth dough is made, it is rolled much thinner than 
 would be possible if it did not contain egg. Then it is 
 
 Pop Ovors — an Exaniplo i)i)ii<;h liaised by Ur- Kxpansiuu of Air, 
 
 Timbales 
 
 cut in strips or fancy shapes and may be cooked at once 
 or dried and used like macaroni. 
 
 The timbale cases are made from a thin batter, in 
 which, to egg and flour, milk and small quantities 
 of fat and sugar are added, and the whole beaten to- 
 gether until smooth. If the batter is then allowed to 
 stand until the air bubbles escape, the timbale cases 
 will have fewer holes in them. The hot timbale iron 
 is then dipped into the batter and the coating adher- 
 ing is fried until crisp. 
 
 244 
 
EGGS, 
 
 65 
 
 The second class should be hollow, and to secure 
 this result the eggs are beaten without separating 
 yolk and white, or better still, are dropped in with the 
 other ingredients and all beaten togethefo 
 
 Popovers are the result of a very thin batter, usually 
 one cup each of flour and milk, one Qgg, and a little 
 salt. This is beaten thoroughly together with a Dover 
 
 Popover: 
 
 SPONGE CAKE. 
 
 beater, poured quickly into greased cups, iron or 
 earthen, and baked until thoroughly done. Yorkshire 
 pudding is a similar combination. 
 
 Cream puffs have a cooked foundation of water, but- 
 ter and flour ; to this when cool the eggs are added and 
 beaten into it one by one. Because of the scalding 
 of the flour this is a stiff mixture and will keep its 
 shape when dropped on flat pans, and will puff while 
 baking. The same mixture, fried in deep fat, produces 
 a hollow fritter which may be filled like a cream puff. 
 
 Cream 
 Puffo 
 
 245 
 
66 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Spongy- 
 Mixture? 
 
 Beating 
 Eggs 
 
 Cooking 
 
 For the third class of egg doughs and for meringues 
 and puffy omelets, the whites of eggs are beaten by 
 themselves and mixed with special care into the other 
 ingredients that none of the air which has been en- 
 tangled may be lost. This air expands when heate.d, 
 producing the delicate lightness of the meringue, or 
 sponge, or angel cake. 
 
 The use of a whisk on a platter is the best way of 
 ({uickly converting the slippery egg white into a frothy, 
 flaky mass, 'so firm and dry that it may be turned up- 
 side down without slipping from the platter. 
 
 Egg beaters are not absolutely essential, for the work 
 may be done with a fork in time. The whisks are' 
 best for beating whites alone — those with cog wheels 
 for the whole egg or for beating batters. 
 
 When yolk and white are mixed, it is impossible to 
 beat in as much air as into the white alone, probably be- 
 cause of the oil contained in the yolk. Even a very 
 little of the yolk will prevent the whites from becom- 
 ing a stiff froth. 
 
 Popovers, meringues, and sponge cake, like other 
 articles containing large proportions of egg, require 
 long cooking at moderate heat. When taken from the 
 oven too soon they shrivel out of shape. 
 
 It is not wise to make cheap cakes and try to make 
 baking powder take the place of eggs in making the 
 mass light. When eggs are cheap, make good cakes 
 and custards, but when they are high in price, de- 
 pend upon desserts where they are not required. 
 
 246 
 
FISH, FOWL, AND FLESH, 
 
 Two important animal products, milk and eggs, have 
 been studied, and we come now to a consideration of 
 the flesh of animals as food. The cooking of the flesh 
 in any way is a comparatively simple matter once we 
 have mastered a few fundamental laws which are prac- 
 tically the same as in cooking eggs. 
 
 The choice of different sections of a creature for 
 different purposes and the decision as to best ways of 
 cooking whatever cut happens to be available, are less 
 simple. 
 
 The primitive cook applied heat to his fish, fowl, 
 or section of meat and consumed it when cooked. The 
 modern marketmen first divide and clean, then the 
 chef seasons and applies the heat in different ways to 
 the various portions. One part is naturally tender and 
 ready for immediate cooking, another will be better 
 if kept a wxek or a month, others will be improved by 
 salting or smoking. 
 
 Savages have fewer kinds of food and simpler meth- 
 ods of preparation than civilized man. Because of 
 greater abundance it is a natural tendency in civiliza- 
 tion to discard as refuse certain portions formerly 
 eaten. On the other hand, business competition makes 
 it necessary to save all by-products and every por- 
 tion of an animal is used for some purpose and brings 
 some money return, even though small. Were it not 
 for this, our animal foods would l)e higher in price 
 
 67 
 
 247 
 
68 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Meat a 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Product 
 
 Comparative 
 
 Composition 
 
 of Animal 
 
 Food 
 
 Costs of 
 Meat 
 
 than they are. As it is, they are the most expensive 
 part of the daily food. 
 
 This is partly due to the fact that the flesh of ani- 
 mals is a secondary product. Animals consume grains 
 and require additional human care, and thus must 
 cost more than the grains, themselves, alone. More- 
 over, it has been learned by dietary studies that average 
 families in the United States obtain from half to 
 two-thirds of the protein in their food from animal 
 source, and the cost of food is usually proportionate 
 to the demand. 
 
 The composition of all animal foods is similar. 
 r\Iilk is mainly water, but contains some of each of 
 the food principles. Eggs have less water than i-pilk, 
 and no carbohydrates, but furnish larger proportions 
 of fat and protein. Fish would average about the 
 same proportion of protein as eggs, but rather less 
 fato Poultry yields more protein than eggs, but about 
 the same amount of fat. The flesh of the larger ani- 
 mals will average about two-thirds water, the pro- 
 tein and fat being in varying proportions according to 
 the age and condition of the animal. 
 
 Without regard to the names given by marketmen of 
 different localities to the cuts of meat, we may learn 
 the location of the choicest pieces. Cuts which offer 
 tender muscle or large proportion of muscle will natu- 
 rally command the higher prices. 
 
 In any of these animals the framework of bone is 
 practically the same. The larger portion of bone is 
 
 248 
 
MEAT: 
 
 69 
 
 in the forequarter. This is one reason why the fore- 
 quarters are cheaper than hindquarters in our mar- 
 kets. Consequently, there is less nutritive value per 
 pound and what there is is less accessible, for the meat 
 is not easily carved unless boned before cooking. 
 
 Meat of any kind should have little odor when in 
 good condition. It should be firm and dry rather than 
 
 Judging 
 Mea t. 
 
 LAMB CHOPS AND KIDNEYS. 
 
 moist, and should be well marbled with fat. 
 
 The lower part of the legs will have little muscle in 
 proportion to the bone, and there will be tendons hold- 
 ing the muscle to the bone. 
 
 Muscles getting little motion or exercise will be 
 tender, while those which are active will be tough, 
 though juicy. The neck and legs, therefore, will be 
 suitable for broths but not desirable for roasts. 
 
 A general rule is this : the market value of meat 
 increases backward from the head, but decreases down- 
 
 Toughnesj 
 
 249 
 
70 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 ward toward the legs. This brings the choicest cuts 
 in the back upper part of the creature and inchides 
 the rump and loin. 
 
 The muscle of good beef is dark red when first 
 cut and grows brighter when exposed to the air for a 
 short time. The fat is yellowish white. 
 Mutton Mutton and lamb have a hard white fat. The flesh 
 
 and Lamb ^f ni^itton is a duller red than beef. The lamb is 
 pinkish in tinge. The bones of veal and lamb are 
 smaller than those of beef and mutton. Veal and fresh 
 lean pork are somewhat the same shade of dull pink, 
 but the pork has more fat mixed with it. 
 
 Meat from young animals is tender but not so nu- 
 tritious, and does not keep so well as that from older 
 ones. 
 
 The heart, liver, sweetbread, kidney, tripe, are also 
 used as food and the same general laws govern the 
 methods of cooking them. 
 
 The chef may not recognize the same elements in 
 meat that the chemist does, yet his choice and prepara- 
 tion of a cut of meat are based upon its composition. 
 From this point of view, meat consists of three 
 parts : lean muscle, fat, and bone, and the market value 
 of any cut is based upon its relative proportion of 
 these. 
 
 Lean meat is most desired and tender fibres com- 
 mand the higher prices. Some fat is utilized with 
 the meat, but a large part goes to the manufacture of 
 artificial butter, lard, and soap. Much of the bone is 
 
 250 
 
MEAT. 
 
 71 
 
 Some Fat 
 Needed 
 
 refuse, but some of its substance may be extracted by 
 right treatment. 
 
 The lean portion of meats is about one-fifth or twenty 
 per cent, protein about five times as much as in an 
 equal weight of milk. 
 
 The muscle or the lean meat may be freed from Preparatio 
 skin, gristle, bone, and fat, wholly or in part before 
 cooking. It is easier to serve when this is done, and 
 there is no waste at the table, but there may be loss 
 of flavor. Raw meat may be digested readily, but we 
 cook it to make it more attractive in appearance and 
 more appetizing in flavor. 
 
 Some fat is required to keep the meat from drying 
 during the cooking process. Often the muscle is so 
 closely associated with bone, tendon, and gristle, that 
 to remove them would cause serious loss of juice. In 
 any case, when the tougher portions are removed they 
 should be used for stock and their flavor returned to 
 the muscle as a sauce or used for soup or other good 
 purpose. 
 
 Tender muscles may be cooked quickly— steaks and 
 roasts — and should be exposed to intense heat at first. 
 
 Tougher portions may be made more palatable by 
 pounding to separate the connective tissue, but this is 
 often accompanied by loss of juice, or they may be 
 put through the meat chopper or cooked slowly for a 
 long time in a gravy, or both. 
 
 By browning tough meat first we give it a good Browning 
 flavor and sear the surface so that more of the juice will 
 
 Tough 
 Meat 
 
 251 
 
72 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Braising 
 
 Salt Meat 
 
 Fatness 
 
 be retained than if raw meat were used. Some scraps of 
 fat may be browned, an onion sliced and fried in the 
 fat, an equal measure of Hour added, and when it is 
 mixed smoothly with the fat, w^ater is put in, in the 
 same proportions as for white sauce. The meat is put 
 in the gravy and left covered on the back of the stove 
 to cook slowly, later vegetables are added. 
 
 Braised meat and pot roasts are similar in efifect, but 
 large pieces of meat are used and more time is re- 
 quired. All the trimmings, except the fat, are put with 
 the bones, covered with cold water and the kettle is 
 set on the stove to heat slowly. 
 
 Salt meats should be cooked slowly in plenty of 
 water until tender. When the meat is very salt, it 
 should be put on in cold instead of boiling w^ater. 
 
 Wild animals usually are less fat than those that 
 have been raised for food. Excessive fat may mean 
 disease. Young animals have but little fat compared 
 with older ones. Half the w-eight of a pig may be 
 fat and a fourth of a fat sheep or ox. Some portions 
 of a creature wall contain much more fat than others. 
 Layers of fat occur around the inner organs of ani- 
 mals. Some fish have fat or oil in the liver and little 
 or none elsewhere. Fat mingled wath the lean tissues is 
 partly visible, partly detected only by chemical meth- 
 ods. 
 
 To a certain extent fat takes the place of water in 
 the tissues. In fat meat the purchaser gets the same 
 amount of protein but buys fat instead of w^ater. 
 
 252 
 
MEAT. 73 
 
 The surplus fat purchased with meats should be 
 turned to good account by clarifying it for shortening 
 or frying. It should be freed from the protein mat- 
 ter as far as possible by trimming and soaking in cold 
 salted water. The w^ater should be changed often, and 
 the fat, after being cut in small pieces, may soak from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours. Then it is drained and 
 
 Saving 
 the Far 
 
 SAUSAGE AND FRIED APPLES. 
 
 heated slowly to separate the clear fat from the heavy, 
 honeycomb-like tissues which contain it. At the end 
 of several hours the fat will have melted and may be 
 strained from the crisp brown tissues. If raised to 
 too high a temperature the fat is less wholesome and 
 v/ell flavored 
 
 In the average household, trimmings of beef, pork, 
 veal, lamb, and poultry, may be prepared together for 
 
 253 
 
74 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Frying in 
 Deep Fat 
 
 Testing 
 i'emperature 
 
 Bones 
 
 fry fat, and where much meat is used will keep a sup- 
 ply in the frying kettle. 
 
 Frying in deep fat is a satisfactory method of st 
 curing a crisp, brown crust. When the process is prop- 
 erly conducted very little fat is absorbed by the food. 
 
 The temperature of fat suitable for cooking is much 
 higher than that of boiling water and ranges from 
 300° to 400° F, according to the nature of the article 
 to be cooked. For doughs which should rise, and fish 
 which must be cooked through, a lower temperature 
 and longer time arc required than for fishballs or cro- 
 quettes, already cooked and only to be browned. 
 
 If many pieces of cold food are put into the kettle 
 of fat at one time, the temperature will be lowered so 
 much that they may absorb fat and even fall to pieces. 
 
 A bit of bread dropped into the kettle will brown 
 in one minute if the fat is right for frying doughs, and 
 in less time if it is ready for croquettes. 
 
 Fat by itself does not boil, but when moist food 
 is put into it large bubbles of steam begin to form. 
 At first the foods being cold and heavy sink to the 
 bottom of the kettle ; as they warm and the water es- 
 capes, they rise toward the top. 
 
 As soon as the food is brown it should be removed 
 from the fat and drained on soft paper before serv- 
 ing. 
 
 The bones of animals yield considerable nutritive 
 material if we use proper methods to extract it. Mar- 
 
 254 
 
MhA'I. 
 
 75 
 
 row is found in the leg bones, but they have not so 
 much protein matter as the spongy rib bones. When 
 meat is boned before cooking, bits of meat cHng to 
 the bone. By soaking in cold water, then cooking 
 gently, a large part of the flavor and nutritive part 
 of the bone is dissolved in the water. Cartilage, gristle 
 
 Extracting 
 Nutriment 
 
 MEAT LOAF IN RICE. 
 
 and tendons are also somewhat soluble when exposed 
 to moisture and heat. The smaller the pieces into 
 which bone and meat are divided the greater the sur- 
 face exposed to the dissolving action of the water. The 
 flavors of meat which are drawn into the water are 
 known as extractives and are stimulating rather than 
 nourishing. 
 
 255 
 
76 
 
 riK/NCI/'LlLS Ol- CODKI'JO' 
 
 Soup I'liis process of extraction l'n)iii portions iinsuit- 
 
 stock .^1,1^^. jj^ ^.,jj j^ known as making- sonp stock. IJonillon 
 
 and hccf tea are made fiom tonj"!! lean meat vvitli littk' 
 
 iMLMO'r (TT I'ltoM SUM': Ol" I'isn. 
 
 Names 
 ot Soups 
 
 or no Ixtiie. ( "onsomme is maiK' from meat and ponl- 
 try toi;c'tlier. AnylliinL; lliat wonid L^ive a strong' 
 lla\(>r ninst hi' remo\c(L The skin of knnl) or beef 
 should he thrown awa\. 
 
 The llavorini;" of (he sonp or the i^arnish served in it 
 j^ives its distinctive name. All meat, poultrv, and 
 fish sonps ha\i' as tlu'ir hasis a slock matU' from the 
 I)oriions nndesirahK' to nse in an\ otlui- wa\ . 
 
 Yd slock contains hnt a small proportion n{ the 
 nnlrinu'iit ol the imat, and tihn- of thi' meat from 
 wliieli sloek has heen made ma\' \)c nsed tor hashes, 
 w ith herhs, etc., to tjive llavor. 
 
 256 
 
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 
 
 FISHo 
 
 77 
 
 Fresh fish have full lifelike eyes, red gills, silvery, 
 not slimy skin and scales, firm, tail, not flabby and 
 drooj)ing, and firm llcsh. Plump short fish are better 
 than long thin ones of the same variety. The time of 
 their transfer from the water to the table should be as 
 short as possible. While fish as a whole is not so nu- 
 tritious as meat, it may often take the place of meat 
 on our tables. It is the province of the cook to suj)- 
 plement the fish with such sauces as will supply l)oth 
 flavor and nutriment. 
 
 In general, the methods of cooking fish are the same 
 as those followed in cooking meats. The flesh should 
 be thoroughly cooked, but not overdone. Oily fish, like 
 
 Proper 
 Appearanct 
 
 Methods 
 of Cookinp 
 
 For Fish Stock. 
 
 I'KKl'AUATION OF FISH. 
 
 Uuady to Fry. 
 
 salmon and mackerel, are best Ijroiled. Almost any 
 fish may be baked whole or in fillets. Boiling is an 
 extravagant method of cooking unless the water is 
 used for a soup or a sauce. Steaming is better than 
 
 257 
 
78 
 
 PRINCIPIJIS OF COOKERY. 
 
 hoiVmiJ!;, as more of the llavor is retained in the fish. 
 Fryini^ in salt i)ork fat is a desirable way to cook tish 
 lackinjx tiavor or fat, but for uniformity in cookin.tv the 
 kettle of deej) fat is to be preferred to the thin layer 
 in a shallow pan. 
 
 If a iish lackiui^ in fat is brushed over with oil or 
 melted butter and broiled under s^as, the result i^^ives the 
 best effects of fryinp;' without the disac^reeable odors. 
 
 Sauces 
 ;7ith Fish 
 
 FISH sTiFFioi) AM> 'I'urssKi* von uakinc. 
 
 Fish stock may be kept for several days if convenient, 
 or it may be used as the basis of a sauce to serve with 
 the fillets of the llesli. 
 
 Since so many varieties of tish lack fat, rich sauces 
 are generally considered a necessary acc()iiii)aninienl. 
 The com])()siti()n of the Iish and tlie \\a\ in wliich it is 
 cooked should (K>ci(k> tlie kind of sauce to be served 
 with it. Acids like lemon juice, i)ickles, and tomato 
 arc often ai;reeable additions to a fish sauce. 
 
 258 
 
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 79 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 Young birds are to be chosen for broiling and other judging 
 quick cooking, but full grown fowls are more nutritious 
 for broths and stews. A fowl is usually fatter than a 
 chicken, the skin is tougher, and the bones — especially 
 the tip of the breast bone — are harder. In the skin of 
 the young bird there are usually pinfeathers, the feet 
 are smoother, and the muscles or flesh are less well 
 developed than in the fowl. 
 
 To prepare poultry, pick out pinfeathers, singe and Preparing 
 rub ofif the hairs and wipe clean. Cut through the Sissee 
 loose skin on the back, pull away from the neck, take 
 out the crop and windpipe in front, cut ofif the neck. 
 
 Cut through the skin on the legs about an inch 
 below the joint, break the bone, twist the leg and 
 pull out the tendons one by one. Take off the wings 
 and cut through the loose skin on the sides and sep- 
 arate the leg and thigh joints. 
 
 From backbone to tip of breastbone cut through thin 
 muscles on either side. This exposes the interior or- 
 gans- so that it is easy to learn their relative positions. 
 Then one knows how to proceed when preparing a 
 bird to roast when the opening is small. 
 
 Loosen the membranes which attach these organs 
 to the body, following the breastbone with the fingers 
 until the point of the heart is felt. Then remove heart, 
 liver, and gizzard together. The gallbag is protected 
 by the liver, so there is little danger of breaking it if 
 
 259 
 
a 
 
 M 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 I— « 
 
 o 
 
 Cm 
 
 Oi 
 
 H 
 U 
 cj 
 
 >-] 
 
 C? 
 
 o 
 
 260 
 
Order of 
 
 POULTRY, 8i 
 
 they arc not separated. The intestines should be re- 
 moved when the fowls are dressed for market. 
 
 Next detach the lungs from the backbone near the 
 wings, and the kidneys, which are lower down in the 
 back. These are not used. 
 
 Separate the gallbag from the liver without break- 
 ing, and cut away any portions of the liver which are 
 tinged with green. Cut across the larger end of the 
 heart and slip it out of the membrane enclosing it. 
 Cut through the gizard on the wnde side and take out 
 the inner portion without breaking, if possible. 
 
 Learn the order of removal of these portions from 
 the body, and then nothing will be forgotten when Removal 
 preparing a bird for any purpose, — the crop and wind- 
 pipe from the neck. 
 
 The heart, liver, and gizzard, together, from an open- 
 ing near the tail. 
 
 The lungs and kidneys from the hollows in the back- 
 bone. 
 
 The oil bag on the upper part of the tail. 
 
 The backbone can now be divided near the middle, 
 and by slipping a knife under the sharp end of the 
 shoulder blade and then cutting through the ribs from 
 the point where the wings come off, the upper part 
 of the back is separated from the breast. 
 
 If desired, the fillets of white flesh can be separated 
 from the breastbone and wishbone by running the 
 knife close to the bones. 
 
 261 
 
82 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Never soak a fowl in water, as is often the practice. 
 If any parts need washing rinse them ofif quickly one 
 by one. 
 
 The breastbone, upper part of back and neck, and 
 sharp ends of wings should be put in cold water and 
 
 CHICKEN STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. 
 
 Put in 
 
 Boiling 
 
 Water 
 
 heated slowly ; thus more flavor is extracted from these 
 portions which have but little meat. 
 
 When the water is boiling hot the other sections are 
 put in and the hot water coagulates the juices on the 
 outside and thus more flavor is retained. To accom- 
 plish the same end, the joints are often browned in hot 
 fat and then are stewed afterward, 
 
 262 
 
Softening 
 
 VEGETABLES AND GRAINS. 
 
 Like the foods already studied, vegetables are mainly 
 water, but all the five food principles may be ob- 
 tained from the vegetable kingdom. Here we secure 
 our supplies of starch and sugar, or the carbohydrates, 
 but the proportions of proteid and fat are, as a whole, 
 smaller than in the animal foods. From fruits, vesfe- 
 tables, and grains we obtain mineral substances valu- 
 able for making bones and teeth and keeping the whole 
 system in good condition. 
 
 The woody fibre or cellulose, abundant in vegetable 
 structures, is the great obstacle to be overcome by ceiiuiose 
 cooking. Plants growing rapidly with plenty of 
 water and sunshine usually have less of this fibre, and 
 it is the aim of the gardener to eliminate it as far as 
 possible. By improved methods of cultivation the 
 agriculturist has removed the acrid flavors of the nat- 
 ural vegetables and has reduced the proportion of 
 woody fibre. 
 
 The cell walls cannot be separated wholly from the 
 nutritive substances they contain, and unless softened 
 by cooking may irritate the alimentary canal so that 
 the whole is hurried through before digestion is com- 
 pleted. Cellulose, though of little food value, may aid 
 digestion by providing the necessary bulk for its me- 
 chanical processes. 
 
 Experiment. To get a clear idea of the structure 
 and composition of vegetables, grate a portion of a 
 
 83 
 
 263 
 
84 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 potato or turnip. Let the pulp fall from the grater 
 into a strainer placed over a glass and press out all 
 the watery juice possible. Some of the starch of the 
 potato will settle from the juice, and more mav be 
 washed out of the mass remaining in the strainer. The 
 presence of sugar in the juice of a carrot may be recog- 
 nized by tasting it after evaporation. 
 
 By examination of the woody fiber left in the strain- 
 er, we see how closely it is connected with the starch 
 and sugar, how impossible it would be to separate 
 it, and the necessity for softening it that we may be 
 able to digest the nutrients. 
 
 We discard portions of vegetable foods, the pods, 
 husks, cobs, etc., because of our inability to cook them 
 so they can be digested. 
 
 Chopping and straining aid the cook in dividing the 
 cellulose so that the particles are less irritating and 
 the nutrients are more accessible. 
 
 Parts of It is interesting to note the different parts of plants 
 
 ^ ^forFood which are used for food — the roots, tubers or bulbs, 
 stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds. The last are used 
 mainly in the dry form, and absorb much water in 
 preparation. This must be remembered when study- 
 ing analyses of dried legumes and cereals. 
 
 The botanical grouping of plants is helpful. Once 
 we have learned how to prepare and cook one member 
 of a plant family we have something to guide us with 
 its relatives. Among the principal classes to study in 
 
 264 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 85 
 
 this way are the pulses, the grains, and the cabbage 
 family. 
 
 There are many kinds of each vegetable offered by 
 the seedsmen. Moreover, any vegetable differs ma- 
 terially in different years and at different seasons of 
 the year. 
 
 From the standpoint of the cook a convenient classi- 
 fication of vegetables may be made according to the 
 general preparation, the time, and the amount of 
 water required for cooking them. 
 
 Dried vegetables must have abundant water sup- 
 plied and must be allowed time to soak, thus absorb- 
 ing an amount of water similar to that lost in the dry- 
 ing process. There is little difference aside from the 
 fat added in cooking, in the analysis of the dry bean 
 which has been soaked and baked, and that of the 
 green shelled bean. Sometimes we try to hasten this 
 process of absorption by heat, but the best results 
 are attained when dried fruits or vegetables are soaked 
 until at least double in size before cooking. 
 
 Old or strongly flavored vegetables, such as pota- 
 toes, turnips, and onions, will be improved by the re- 
 moval of the skin and any imperfections before cook- 
 ing, and by soaking in cold water for an hour or two. 
 Inferior onions may be scalded in soda water before 
 cooking, and by changing the water once or twice dur- 
 ing the cooking process will be- rendered less strong 
 in flavor. It is wiser to make the vegetable palatable 
 
 Dried 
 Vegetables 
 
 Strongly 
 Flavored 
 Vegetables 
 
 265 
 
a 
 
 t) 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 266 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 87 
 
 at the risk of some loss of nutriment than to retain 
 everything and have it uneatable. 
 
 Young vegetables in summer and those having 
 sugary juices, like squash and beets, should be cooked 
 in little water or by steaming or baking, so that all 
 their sweetness may be retained, unless the water is 
 reserved for soup or used in a sauce for the vegetable 
 itself. 
 
 Slightly wilted vegetables may be improved by 
 washing and soaking or by wrapping in a damp cloth 
 and placing in the refrigerator or by hanging in a 
 draft of air. 
 
 The pulses or leguminous plants include the bean, 
 lentil, pea, and peanut. 
 
 In the bean we have an example of a vegetable which 
 differs much at different stages of growth. We may 
 use the pods before the seeds they contain have 
 reached their normal size, the full grown seeds may 
 be cooked green, or dry after first being soaked. 
 
 This class of plants is of great value where people 
 must be fed at small expense. Thciy are staples in 
 in China, Japan, Southern Europe and Mexico, are in- 
 valuable in prisons, charitable institutions, and for the 
 pioneer or logger. Because they lack fat, cream, 
 butter, or pork are added before eating. 
 
 Some varieties like the Japanese soy beans, contain 
 as much as sixteen per cent of fat, and peanuts are 
 more than one-third, or about forty per cent fat. 
 
 Young 
 Vegetables 
 
 Wilted 
 Vegetables 
 
 Pulses 
 
 Fat 
 Contents 
 
 267 
 
88 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 uigeetiKiity Though rich in nutrients this class of vegetables ap- 
 pears to be slow of digestion. The ease and complete- 
 ness of digestion are aided by thorough cooking and 
 by removing the skins, grinding, mashing, or strain- 
 ing. Long, gentle cooking develops new flavors and 
 removes the peculiar granular texture present in beans 
 and peas insufficiently cooked, even after straining. 
 
 Feas 
 
 Black Boiui Soui CaruisluHl with Lemon and Parsley. 
 
 The main object in cooking beans, like all vegeta- 
 bles, is to softeif the tough fibres of the pods of the 
 string beans and the skins and cellulose of the dry 
 ones. 
 
 S])lit peas have the skins removed and thus are 
 more* readily digested. The skins of the larger beans 
 ma}^ be rubbed off after soaking* and parboiling. 
 
 Hard water retards the cooking- of beans and a bit 
 of soda is often added to soften the water and loosen 
 
 268 
 
VEGETABLES, 
 
 89 
 
 the skin — thi^ water is poured off wiien the beans are 
 partly cooked. 
 
 Few people use the variety of beans they might, as 
 the black beans for soup, the limas or red kidney 
 for stewed beans, the pea bean and yellow eye for 
 baking and the French tiageolets for salads. 
 
 Potatoes are generally liked because of their lack 
 of pronounced flavor, and for the same reason, may 
 be combined with many other foods. 
 
 A peck of potatoes may cost from fifteen to seventy- 
 five cents, according to the season of the year, and the 
 abundance of the crop. This quantity will weigh fif- 
 teen pounds and will average from fifty to sixty po- 
 tatoes. That is, one pound will be about four pota- 
 toes of medium size, and will cost from one to five 
 cents. 
 
 If pared before cooking and all bad places removed, 
 average potatoes will lose from twenty to twenty-five 
 per cent, or one of the four potatoes in a pound. From 
 selected potatoes the government experts scraped the 
 skins, removing as little flesh of the potato as possible. 
 This was about eleven per cent of the weight. In po- 
 tatoes as usually purchased, the green ends, decayed 
 places, and the potatoes gashed wnth the hoe easily 
 bring the total loss up to the higher percentage. 
 
 It may be a profitable loss to pare old and inferior 
 potatoes before cooking. The main point to notice in 
 the cooking of the potato is to let out the steam, or to 
 
 Beatiff 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Loss in 
 Preparing 
 
 269 
 
90 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Potatoes 
 with Meat 
 
 Combinations 
 
 Cooking 
 Vegetables 
 
 pour off the water as soon as the fibre and starch are 
 softened. 
 
 Because the potato is lacking in protein and fat, the 
 instinct of man has taught him to eat it with meat, 
 since it gave him the food principles the meat lacked, 
 and also the bulk desirable for the process of diges- 
 tion. 
 
 The art of the cook has devised many methods of 
 combining butter, oil, milk and eggs with the potato 
 and other vegetables tO' supply protein and fat. The 
 fried potato absorbs fat while cooking ; the white sauce 
 of creamed potato adds both fat and protein ; a potato 
 soup is creamed potato with more milk ; the potato 
 croquette contains Qgg and is cooked in fat; a potato 
 salad has oil and often eggs. 
 
 Such additions, though increasing the cost of the 
 food, make the result equivalent to vegetables with a 
 moderate allowance of meat. Hence vegetable souf- 
 fiees, or croquettes, may be served when the meat sup- 
 ply is limited. 
 
 Almost any vegetable, by due combination with 
 milk, butter, and eggs may appear as soup, fritters, 
 croquettes, soufflees, or salads. For these complicated 
 dishes, it is essential that the vegetable first shall be 
 perfectly cooked in a simple fashion. 
 
 The methods of cookery applied to vegetables are 
 similar to those used for meat, but must be adapted 
 to the composition and condition of the individual 
 specimen. 
 
 270 
 
VEGETABLES. 91 
 
 It is impossible to give the exact time for cooking 
 any variety of vegetable, for every sample will differ. 
 They are unpalatable when underdone and also at the 
 other extreme. 
 
 There is usually some way of cooking best for each 
 vegetable, but if one kind only is available it is neces- 
 sary to serve it in a variety of ways. This, perhaps, 
 explains why the average cook book gives more re- 
 ceipes for the potato than for all other vegetables. 
 Suitable utensils are essential ; vegetables should not 
 be cooked in iron kettles when others are attainable; 
 strainers, mashers, cutters, ricers and presses are de- 
 sirable. 
 
 Strong flavors frequently are due to careless prep- 
 aration. Careful trimming and thorough washing are 
 essential. Wilted vegetables are improved, as has been 
 said, by soaking. Salad plants need especial care in 
 washing to remove parasites and insecticides. 
 
 Any portion of a root or tiiber grown above ground 
 becomes green and strong flavored and will impart 
 its flavor to other jx^rtions with which it may be 
 cooked. A decayed bit, or the scorching where the 
 water evaporates, may often ruin the flavor of all. 
 
 Young, tender, well flavored vegetables should be 
 cooked and served in the simplest manner. Inferior 
 specimens, like tough asparagus or celery which has 
 lost its crispness, by boiling, straining, and flavoring 
 may be made into palatable soup when they would be 
 worthless under simple treatment. 
 
 Preparation 
 
 271 
 
Vegetable 
 Soups 
 
 92 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Vcn^ctable soups arc of two types ; — for one, the 
 vci;x'tal)lcs arc cooked till tender, cnt in convenient 
 bits and added to a meat stock, lu^r the other, l)y loni^ 
 cookin*;- in water a sin<;"le vci^etahU' or several to^-ether 
 are made into stock, and all that is soft enoui^h is 
 rubbed through a strainer and then ])nt with about an 
 equal quantity, according to the strength of each, of 
 
 7 »4 
 
 TdMA'ro JioLiA WTi'ii i'.i;i:ts. 
 
 Preparation 
 
 and 
 
 Digestibility 
 
 meat stock or thin white sauce. Thick, pulpy stock, 
 like that from peas, beans, or potatoes, needs a much 
 thinner sauce than would celery or asparagus. Un- 
 less some thickening of flour is used, the solider por- 
 tions will settle, leaving the sou]) watery on top. 
 
 In one of the publications of the United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture the difference in digestibility 
 of the same food cooked in various ways is thus stated : 
 Whole peas soaked and cooked, 60 per cent digested ; 
 
 272 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 93 
 
 peas cooked a long time and strained, 82.5 per cent ; 
 pea flour cooked with milk, butter and eggs, 92 per 
 cent. This would seem to prove that the portion of 
 vegetable food considered undigestible can be reduced 
 by right methods of cooking. 
 
 Mashing is a form of preparation suited to squash, 
 turnip, parsnip, and potatoes. A seasoning of cream, 
 
 Mashing 
 
 INDIVIDUAL APPLE AND CELERY SALAD. 
 
 or butter, and salt and pepper, is usually added. Frit- 
 ters and croquettes usually have mashed vegetables 
 as their foundation, or small bits are mixed with a 
 thick cr^am sauce. 
 
 The white sauce is a useful additon to vegetables 
 since it increases- their nutritive value and modifies 
 strong flavors. Almost any cooked vegetables may 
 thus be "creamed" or "scalloped" by adding both the 
 sauce and buttered crumbs and baking. This- is an ex- 
 cellent way to reheat something left from a previous 
 day. 
 
 Creamed 
 Vegetable! 
 
 273 
 
94 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Salads 
 
 Salad is a term belonging especially to a class of 
 iinc(X)ked vegetables and in all cases implies a vegeta- 
 ble foundation tliough meats or fish may be added. 
 The dressing of oil and vinegar is likewise of vegeta- 
 ble origin. 
 
 Here is another of our attempts to bring together 
 the five food principles in a single compound. Water 
 and mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are 
 usually blended in fairly balanced proportions. This is 
 especially true of salads containing eggs, fish, or meat 
 and eaten with bread. 
 
 Addition 
 of Water 
 
 GRAINS 
 
 The grains or cereals are the main dependence of the 
 human race for food and have been known from very 
 early times. Some "member of this family of j>lants 
 is found in every section of the world. Rice, wheat 
 and corn are most largely used as food, while oats, rye, 
 barley, and millet follow closely. Animals can eat these 
 grains or grasses as they grow. For the human stom- 
 ach the coarser portions must be removed. All are 
 similar in composition, being from two-thirds to three- 
 fourths starch. The protein ranges from 7 to 15 i)cr 
 cent; fat varies from i to 10 per cent; there is about 
 I per cent mineral matter and 10 to 12 ])er cent of 
 water. 
 
 Before we can cat and digest such foods a large 
 amount of water must be combined with them. Analy- 
 ses have*shown that the percentage of water in mushes. 
 
 274 
 
GRAINS. 95 
 
 boiled rice, macaroni, and mashed potato is nearly the 
 same. 
 
 When we buy cereals in paper packages we pay a 
 little more for them than when they are bought in 
 bulk, but that is a convenient, clean form in which to 
 keep them. All cereals should be looked over before 
 cooking since they are liable to attacks from insects. 
 
 A Cup of Corn Meal, and the Amount of Mush It Will Make. 
 
 To' make mushes start with the desired proportion of 
 liquid, as that regulates the final amount. If too much 
 water' is used it can seldom be drained off, as it might 
 be from potatoes, and if there is too little at the begin- 
 ning it is practically impossible to add more without 
 making the mush lumpy and pasty. A double boiler, 
 a dish set in a steamer or a covered pail in a kettle of 
 water, are the utensils suitable for cooking mushes. 
 
 Musne 
 
 275 
 
96 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Cooking ' '^^ coarser the ^rain, the more water required, and 
 
 Cereals j^|^g longcT will ])v the time of eookin^^ Whole f;rains 
 are improved by soalvinj;' in cold water, finely ground 
 preparations must be mixed with cold water to pre- 
 vent the formation of lumps. All others should be put 
 into boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to each 
 quart of water. Ordinary oatmeal and granulated 
 wheat need four times their bulk of water, cracked 
 wheat and hominy recjuirc more. The rolled grains re- 
 quire but twice their bulk of water. 
 
 The cooking at first should be rapid and the upper 
 part of the double boiler should be placed directly on 
 the stove for five minutes. Then put it over the other 
 part, cook closely covered and do not stir. Such foods 
 are not injured by cooking for a longer time than the 
 usual directions allow. Coarse hominy, oatmeal, or 
 cracked wheat for breakfast should be cooked several 
 hours the previous day. 
 
 Rice may ])e l)oile(l in a quantity of water which is 
 afterwards drained off, but this is wasteful unless some 
 use is made of the liquid. 
 
 Macaroni and tapioca are not strictly cereals but con- 
 form to the same rules of cookings 
 
 Most nnishes or cooked cereals may be moulded and 
 served cold for variety, especially in warm weather, or 
 be packed smoothly in oblong ])ans or round tin boxes 
 and when cold sliced and fried to serve with syrups or 
 to eat with meats. 
 
 &ioe 
 
 Tried 
 Mush 
 
 276 
 
GRAINS. 97 
 
 A portion of cooked cereal may be added Jto the 
 liquid used in mixing muffins. 
 
 Manufacturers of the present day seem to be trying 
 to see in how many different forms they can prepare 
 the few standard grains ; they are left whole, are 
 cracked, are crushed into flakes, or broken into gran- 
 ules. As the result of this variety of preparations' and 
 
 Cereals shaped iu I'uiiey Muulds. 
 
 the generous way in which they are advertised cereals 
 are used more and more. 
 
 During the last few years they have been cooked in 
 the factories and prepared in forms ready for immedi- to Eat- 
 
 / CereaU 
 
 ate use. These forms have many merits though not 
 all that are claimed for them. In some respects they 
 resemble the primitive forms of unleavened bread 
 which were the first attempts among all races, the 
 bannock, the hoe cake, the tortilla/ 
 
 277 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 VAliT II. 
 
 Ri'.\d C.iri'fully. IMiicc ^-oiir name aii<l a(l<li{\ss on th.'. 
 lirst slut-'t 1)1 (lu'tist. Use a lij^ljl j^radt'ol |)a|)oi' and writ': 
 DH i)iu' side 1)1' the slu*o< only. J)(> hd/ <(>/>y ansicirs front flir 
 frsson paprr. Use your own words, so that (lir instriu*tor 
 iiiay know that yoii iiiukMsland tin* sid)jfit. IVca*! the les- 
 son j>api'i' a nuinlx-i' of 1 iiiK's J)«'rorc a I Iciiipl iiij- toanswiT' 
 the ijucst ions, 
 
 1. Ill \\li;il \\;i\s lire ojU'^'S iist'(l in cnokcrN ? 
 
 2. \\ li;il siil»st;ini('s ww ii.il ur.illy i-oiuhinrd with 
 
 c'j^j^s ;iii(l milk, .iiid w li\' ? 
 ^^. W Ii;il is llic I niiihinit iiLiI prinriplc in rookini;' arli- 
 I'lrs (■< iiil;iiniiiL; ;i liU'L^^' |)r(i|)( ill it )n ol f.^i; ? 
 
 4, Mi'iil it 111 li\(' tlislu's wlu'iT t'L^L; is :iii I'ssi'iilial in 
 
 l;i odiciil , ;iiitl li\r tillu is wlii'ii' it iiia\ he iisi'tl 
 or < niiil Irtl. I'Npkiin \\\\\ .. 
 
 5. II \\i' IiikI il lUTi's.sai \ ttt ifdiuc tile iiiiiiihrr t)l 
 
 i'i;l;s ill a lakc m tiistaitj, \\li;il tiliici tliaiiL;i.'s 
 
 w t nilti lif lUHH'Ssai'N' ? 
 (). Make a t w t » tla\s' iiiciiii Itir llu' scastui wlii'ii c'i;i;s 
 :\vc a! Ilic lt)\vt'sl. i»rif(\ ami Iwo days' iiumm: 
 lor I lie season wlicii llicy aii' expiMisivc. 
 
 7. W Iiuli Ituiiis *il animal Itituj .uf llu' mtisl t.'\- 
 
 pi'iisixr ami win ? 
 
 W liitli nittsi ccoiit miii'al ami why? 
 
 8, W lial poi lions t»|" iiumI arc hosl ft)r stuip slock? 
 
 W'lial slitmltl 1)1' disrardcti? I )i'srril)(' lIic pror 
 I'ss tij makiiiL; soiip. lias llic i'\l 1 ai'lctl meal 
 imtiiti\i' \alik-? 
 
 Z78 
 
PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 9. Why is loss fat absorbed Ijy food in frying- in 
 
 dfcj) f.il lli.in in sanlcrinj^-? 
 10. iWvv niclliods of preparing- ton^Ii meal so lliat il 
 
 is palatable and nnlrilions. 
 il. Give the names of sonps vvliieli have (a) link-, 
 
 (b) much, and (c) j^reat nutritive value. 
 12. Why do we add stuffing- and sauce to meats and 
 
 fish ? 
 
 W What is (he ^-reatest obstacle to be (overcome in 
 cooking- ve^^'tables? 
 
 14. Give methods for cooking" fish. What is ilu 
 
 j)rnper a|)p('arance of a fresh fish? 
 
 15. I'laii a rolali(Hi of different cereals for five break- 
 
 iasts in winter and five in summer, j^ivin^- rea- 
 sons for your choice. 
 
 16. tlovv may dillcrenl in.tliod.s ,,f picpaiiii^- a vcff^ 
 
 ctable chan^^e its nutritive value? 
 
 17. Describe your own method of roastinj^- meat. 
 
 18. Give the names of the vegetables and grains used 
 
 in your household. Name some that are not 
 used. 
 
 "^- '^ "'•''■^- •'">■ (pieslion you wish (o ask or subject 
 you wouM hkc to discuss relating- to this les- 
 son ? 
 
 Nom— After c-oMiplcliiiK the lest, sign y.nir full n.„ne. 
 
 279 
 
'A 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 u 
 w 
 
 Q 
 (/J 
 
 H 
 
 i/i 
 
 I— t 
 
 (^ 
 
 d 
 
 s 
 
 Q 
 
 (X, 
 
 Q 
 
 IS 
 
 <: 
 
 H 
 
 180 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART III 
 
 BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS 
 
 Having considered the whole grains wc must learn 
 how to use them when ground into flour. Although Mixing 
 some lorms ot bread like hoe cake and tortillas can be 
 made from cracked grain without making it into a 
 flour, most people depend upon flour for a large part of 
 their dai-ly food. 
 
 In the best cook books the ingredients are mentioned 
 in the order in which they are to be put together to 
 secure the best results and to save dishes ; the dry cups 
 and spoons are used for the flour and spices, then for 
 the shortening and liquids. The flour is sifted before 
 measuring and sifted again to mix the other materials 
 with it. 
 
 There is such variation in flours that it is impossible General 
 to give exact recipes for doughs, but it is easy to learn fr[*Dou*'hs' 
 certain general proportions and experience must teach 
 the rest. A simple formula will be helpful in inter- 
 preting old recipes in which the exac* quantities of 
 flour or li(|uid are not stated, or in analyzing recipes to 
 decide whether they are doughs or batters. 
 
 One measure of flour to one of liquid makes a bat- 
 ter. 
 
 Two measures of flour to one of liquid gives the 
 urual muffln mixture. 
 
 281 
 
100 
 
 l'h'lX( 7/7 /•:, Oh ( OoKhh'V 
 
 MhUIiih: 
 
 /nnul 
 
 'llltcc lll<';iMII (". (i| llnlll III nlir ii| ||(|l||i| |||,-|k(*S .'I 
 Mill )|()ll|'ll, lull (illi lli;il |||:i\ |)c kill, |< led. 
 
 I'"lll IIK'.IMIIC', III ||<i||| In (ijic (il ||i|li|(| r, llic llMl.iJ 
 I'l < '|tM| t H 111 |m| (Idiij'li', |(> lir litjjcil IJiiii like |»;i',li\' ( ij" 
 ( ( i( ik ICS. 
 
 IklMris .iihI iiiiiIIiii', ( ;iii lie '.lined Willi ;i S'pooil. 
 I >« Hii'li', .lie iiii\((| iimic I III i| I iil}_;lil\ .iiid cimIn witii a 
 km Ic. 
 
 Mt'iijdi', aic made Iiidil heeaii'.e lliiis llie\ are iii«>re 
 I Mi.il.ihle .Hid I li.!',i " I ilik'. 
 
 I lie aliiiM',1 eii(|less variel\' of hieads, cake, jiihI pas- 
 li\ iii.i\ lie ( ki'.'.ilied aecnrdiiir, !'• Mic iiH'aiis nse(I In 
 mai.e llieiii li;'.lil. N easl lia'. Iieeii known In llie liiiniaii 
 ia((' llnlll a \'v\\ v\\\\\ peiincl, IJie nllnas are imu ii 
 l.ih I iii\('iilinns. 
 
 I lie jti iiH iji.il means are liiesc : 
 
 Ilie iiie( liaiiii ;il nil ind I K t H Ml n| ail", as 1)\' healiiis.; 
 or l>\ llie adtjilinii n| c^^s ni l»\ llie h'Idiii!; nf |)asl!\', 
 or in I lie act ;iled < >r I >atli',lilisli In ead. 
 
 I Ik 11'. e (d NcasI, liic f'jnulli td a |tlanl lilliiii.; lIic 
 dniiidi Willi i;as. 
 
 llie (Ileum al < i iiiilun.il mn <d a hi raikoiiale ol soda, 
 w illi St Miie a( id Milr.l.mec. 
 
 km jti.KlK.i! ir.e in e\'er\ d.i\ lile il is t'ssenlial 
 
 ti. ieiiieiiil»t I Mi.il \ea'.l llHr.l Ite he. lied like nliier Inlins 
 nl plant llie .imj il wf w.iiil il In i',i"V\. vn'' mii'-l piti 
 vide llie liidil kind nl m.iI, Millieieiil nini',lmc, and Miil 
 aide leinpei .»l in e. Altei ils wnik is dniie, llie vilalilv 
 (d llie \easl niiisi l)e deslro\cd l)\ Ileal. 
 
ith'i.in. lot 
 
 ll ni.iN l)c (If'.ii ;il)lc lo ljiM\\ ||(i\v l() iii.iiilll.u I iiir ^ ■ 
 N'c.'isl ;il linmc .111(1 liiiw In iilili/r llic (liicd \cas( O.'ikl'S *'"'""* 
 ill ciJicijMiK its, llnuii'li (•( iiii|>r( sst'd \(;isl ciikcs ;irc now 
 so ^viK r;ill\ 11. ('<l lli.il il i'. liiinlK iicccs'.'ii'n'. A r<)iii- 
 prcssc'd yc.'isl. rake .'.iKMiId Itc liiiii and solid, not soil 
 and |>asl\ ; il siioiiJd jool, ,( inn! Imi}; like Insli clircsc, 
 iiol d.irk (■o|oi<(| ;nid ino|d\. W'lirn onl\ |>iiil (d a 
 
 IIMI'il'IIL II'I'IONIIII.H. 
 
 yeast cake is lo l»c ii', cd, il slionld lie ( nl off ';r|iiairlv 
 and llic rcni.'nndci wt'a|)|M'd sinoo||il\' in Ini lod :it',nn, 
 vvlicii ll may li<" kcpl.a few days loiij;ci. 
 
 liWI'AI) 
 
 llic (•'.'. cull. d iii;;!c(|i(iil'. in Im.id ni.il.iiif; aK-yrasl, 
 li(|iiid. .Mid IJoin ; llic |iio|iorl ioii'. iii.in he varied ac- 
 ( ( ll dim; lo (•( iiidin HIS. 
 
 Sll^ar .and slioilcnini; ;iic coiiimonl\' ii'.cd, knl if 
 llicy U'cic oinillcd \\lio||\' il would l>c |)o,',i|i|c lo li,i\c 
 pakalalik , nnhilioii', liicnk S.all is ('sscnri.al lo snil llic 
 t.asic o| nio',l |)ci',oir., kill ;r; krc.id is nsii.allv coniliiiicd 
 
 2h:j 
 
102 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Causes of 
 Slow Rising 
 
 Kinds of 
 Flour 
 
 with salted butter its absence would be less noticeable, 
 and bread might be made without it. Fermentation is 
 hindered by the presence of salt, a small amount of 
 sugar hastens the process. 
 
 Sugar in large quantities makes the dough dense and 
 the yeast cannot expand so readily. An excess of short- 
 ening has much the same effect. If a dough is made 
 stiff with flour it rises more slowly. A stiff dough 
 usually has small air cells and is finer grained than 
 when the dough is made softer. 
 
 The liquid may be milk, whole or skimmed, or water, 
 or half of each. The milk supplies some sugar, fat and 
 nitrogenous matter and produces -a more nourishing 
 loaf than that which is made with water. Mashed po- 
 tatoes or sifted squash or cooked cereals are some- 
 times added to a bread dough for variety, but the proc- 
 ess is not changed by such additions. 
 
 The best bread flour is made from spring wheat and 
 pastry flour from winter wheat, though they may be 
 used interchangeably if necessary. The spring wheat 
 flour contains more gluten and less starch, so that less 
 of the bread flour is required to produce a dough of a 
 given consistency. 
 
 The entire or w^hole wheat flours provide more bone 
 making materials than white flour, otherwise there is 
 little difference in the nutritive value of the better 
 grades of each. 
 
 The presence of gluten makes wheat the favorite 
 flour for yeast dough. Gluten is adhesive when moist- 
 
 284 
 
BREAD. 
 
 103 
 
 ened and thus retains the gas' bubbles formed by the 
 yeast in somewhat the same way that egg-whites hold 
 air when they are beaten. 
 
 Old recipes for mixing yeast bread usually give di- 
 rections for rubbing shortening into the flour and then 
 
 Order of 
 Mixing 
 
 "BREAD CAKE" OR BUN BREAD. 
 
 adding the other ingredients with liquid to make a 
 dough that can be kneaded. The best authorities to- 
 day reverse the order, thus saving time and energy and 
 producing a better result. 
 
 The liquid is warmed that the fat, sugar, and salt 
 may readily blend with the other ingredients and that 
 the dough may rise more rapidly. When it is below 
 100 F, or cool enough to avoid cooking the yeast, that 
 
 Liquid 
 Warmed 
 
 285 
 
104 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY, 
 
 Double 
 
 Process 
 
 Sread 
 
 Amount 
 ot "icasi, 
 
 Short 
 Process 
 
 is added and well mixed through the li(juid. Sufficient 
 flour then is mixed in to give the desired consistency 
 for kneading. 
 
 At first the mixture may be stirred with a spoon, but 
 as it becomes stiifer a knife will more easily serve to 
 produce a smooth dough. 
 
 The process of mixing bread may illustrate the bat- 
 ter and drop batter or muffin mixture as well as the 
 dough. To make a sponge, half the quantity of Hour to 
 be used is mixed with the liquid and this allowed to 
 rise till foamy, when the remainder of the flour is add- 
 ed. The advantages of this double process are that a 
 trifle less flour is required since the first has time to 
 expand before the second is put in, and that the process 
 is somewhat shortened because in the first stage there 
 is less resistance for the yeast to overcome and the 
 whole sponge becomes full of yeast for the second 
 stage. 
 
 Sometimes it is more convenient to use a small ])or- 
 tion of yeast and allow the dough to rise for a longer 
 time, and again to use more yeast and thus do the work 
 more quickly. Until the scientists decide which is real- 
 ly the better method, the housekee]:)er \\W\ find it de- 
 sirable to vary the quantity of yeast according to her 
 conditions. Time, temperature, and quantity of yeast 
 must be considered, — if one must be diminished, the 
 others should be increased. 
 
 For common use. a short process is to be preferred 
 to the old custom of letting the dough rise over night. 
 
 286 
 
BREAD. 
 
 105 
 
 When it rises by day we can regulate the temperature 
 and stop the process at the right time. One yeast cake 
 to one pint of Hquid and about three pints of flour, will 
 make two medium-sized loaves of bread, which can be 
 completed inside of six hours. 
 
 BREAD MAKING MACHINE. 
 
 When necessary, a dough well risen and ready to 
 shape may be cut down and put in a refrigerator or 
 other cold place and thus held in check for several 
 • hours without injury. Sometimes half the bread may 
 be shaped in a loaf and the remainder in rolls and the 
 pans containing the latter set away in a cool place for 
 several hours before baking that they may be hot for a 
 later meal. 
 
 When first mixed, dough is kneaded just enough to 
 blend all ingredients, then it is put back in the bowl. 
 
 Holding- 
 Dough 
 in Check 
 
 Kising 
 
 287 
 
io6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 brushed over with water or with melted fat and cov- 
 ered while it is rising. Snch precautions aid in pre- 
 venting the formation of a dry crust caused by the 
 evaporation of the water on the surface during the 
 process of rising. The bowl containing the dough 
 may be set in a pan of warm water which is changed 
 often enough to keep the temperature even. When the 
 dough must stand over night in a cool kitchen, tlic 
 bowl may be wrapped in a blanket to prevent the es- 
 cape of heat. 
 Kneading Mucli time IS doubtlcss wasted in kneading doughs, 
 
 though it seems to be agreed that this process works 
 all ingredients together and thus give a better texture 
 to the bread. To knead work the edges of the dough 
 little by little toward the center, pull it over, press 
 down into the mass and press it away with one hand 
 wdiile turning the whole around with the other. When 
 the dough is smooth, elastic, and rises quickly when 
 pressed and docs not stick to the hand then it is done. 
 
 After the dough is double in bulk it should be 
 kneaded enough to redistribute the air bubbles which 
 have run together and formed larger ones, and to 
 shape it for baking. At this stage no flour should be 
 added, for here much time would be required to work 
 in a little flour, and that is why long kneading has 
 been thought necessary. Di]) the fingers in soft fat if 
 the dough inclines to stick, as one would do when pull- 
 ing candy. 
 Shaping To shape biscuits or rolls, first make smooth round 
 
 288 
 
BRIiAl). 
 
 107 
 
 balls, llicn by liciilk- rolling and prcssiirt" make llic lin- 
 jL^rr rolls — tluMi fartlu'r extend (ill tlie slrij)s ran he 
 twisle(l or K'fl as sticks for sonp. 'Ilins one lorni may 
 be developed from another. 
 
 When rolls are to be ent ont and folded, the pressnre 
 of the rollini;' ])in will ecpialize the air bnbbles witbotit 
 previous kneadiniL;'. Instead of makini;' the donmli for 
 rolls rieli vvilb bntter or lard, it is wiser to brnsli over 
 tlie ontside of the rolls with melte<l fat when tliey are 
 pnt in (lie pan. 
 
 IMINS— Sia'yXUATK ANM IN I.OAK. 
 
 A^ain tlie donmb innst be allowed to double in bulk 
 md then it is ready to l)ake. 
 
 To smnmari/.e the points alreadv covered. — Tlie time 
 required depends upon the (|uantil\' of yeast used, and 
 tbe lemj)eralure at wliieli tlie <IonL;li is kepi. ( )iie 
 measure of li(|nid to three of Hour is the usual propor 
 .tion. h'or fanc\' brt-ads make a spouj^e lirst, and let 
 the mixlure rise three times. 1 .ar_i;e (piantities of sn^ar 
 and butter tend to retard the i^rowtb of the yeast plant. 
 For bread add all the Hour at once. Small shapes- are 
 
 SiMllIUI, 
 
 289 
 
ic8 
 
 PRINCirLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Baking 
 «f Bread 
 
 Cooking Soda 
 with Acids 
 
 preferable to large ones, as thus more thorough cook- 
 ing is insured. 
 
 The baking of bread is not easily disposed of in a 
 few words. Yeast doughs having risen before being 
 put in the oven will bear rather a higher degree of heat 
 at first than other doughs. A more moderate oven 
 is requiretl for loaves than for rolls that the heat 
 may penetrate cvenl}', but the loaf nuist remain a suf- 
 ficient time to raise the center to a degree of heat that 
 will insure the destruction of the yeast. A moderate 
 temperature might allow the dough to continue rising 
 and even to sour from the growth of bacteria when in 
 the oven. 
 
 When thoroughly baked, a loaf of bread will seem 
 light and hollow and no steam will come from it to 
 burn the hand as it is turned from the pan. 
 
 The usual temperature for baking bread is about 
 400° F, though a good result may be reached by a 
 more moderate heat continued for a longer time. 
 
 E.vpcriiiioif. Three or four glass tubes or common 
 tumblers are all the apparatus needed for some prac- 
 tical experiments which will make the use of these leav- 
 ening agents much clearer than does the ordinary cook- 
 book. Dissolve some soda in half a tumbler of water ; 
 in another tumbler dissolve some cream of tartar, in 
 a third have a little molasses ; in a fourth place some 
 sour milk, and in a fifth some vinegar. 
 
 Now ])Ut a part of the soda water into each of the 
 Other glasses, stir well, -and watch the result. Leave 
 
 290 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS, 109 
 
 these till later to see how soon the gas escapes and 
 that it cannot be revived. By tasting soda and cream 
 of tartar we shall see that it is desirable to combine 
 them in such proportions that each may neutralize the 
 other. This is done in baking powders. 
 
 In another glass dissolve some baking powder, first 
 in cold and then in warm water to show that the gas 
 escapes more rapidly at a high temperature. 
 
 CORN BREAD. 
 
 These experiments show us why we should sift 
 cream of tartar and soda or baking powder with the 
 flour instead of dissolving it in liquid. The gas which 
 is to make the dough light begins to escape from the 
 soda when it comes in contact with an acid liquid. 
 
 Some baking powder manufacturers try to convince 
 us that their product is so perfect that it is useless for 
 the housekeeper to continue to keep soda and cream of 
 tartar in her store closet. But much as we owe to their 
 perfect methods- of grinding and sifting and combining 
 
 Soda and 
 Cream o.<: 
 Tartar 
 
 291 
 
no PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 these substances in the right proportions, there are 
 times when we must use them separately. 
 
 Angel cake, for example, requires the addition of 
 cream of tartar to stiffen the egg-white which is its 
 foundation. This aids in holding up the spongy mass 
 until it is made hrm by heat. In any case where there 
 is a large proportion of egg-white a slight excess of 
 cream of tartar is desirable. 
 Molasses That molasscs is acid in spite of its sweetness is evi- 
 
 and Soda . . ,.^ 
 
 dent by testmg it with a bit oi soda, l^or this reason 
 soda is added to molasses candy since if it is filled with 
 air bubbles it will be more brittle. The acidity varies 
 in different grades of molasses, and modern methods 
 of manufacture and quick transportation give us a less 
 acid product than that of the past. This explains why 
 many of the recipes of our great-grandmothers called 
 for such large quantities of soda in gingerbread, etc. 
 In such recipes it is usually wise to reduce the quantity 
 of soda and use a small amount of baking powder. 
 JJrown bread and all cakes and puddings containing 
 molasses, because of its acidity, are usually more pal- 
 atable if some soda is used to make them light instead 
 of baking powder only. 
 
 Butter contains so much buttermilk that, unless it is 
 washed before using, a bit of soda is essential for all 
 rich cakes and cookies which are to be kept for any 
 length of time. 
 
 Sour Milk Because of the tendency to use an excess of soda 
 
 and Soda ^^j^|^ -^^ ^l^^ ^^j,^, ^j g^^^^ ^^^-jl^ l^^g \)QQ\\ Condemned. But 
 
 292 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. in 
 
 thick, sour milk is- not very variable in acidity, and the 
 use of one even teaspoonful of soda with each pint of 
 sour milk is safe. Soda is inexpensive and sour milk 
 is also, while cream of tartar and baking powder are 
 costly. One half level teaspoon of soda is usually 
 enough when one cup of molasses is used, as- it is with 
 one cup of sour milk. When it is more convenient to 
 
 BOSTON BROWN BREAD. 
 
 substitute sweet milk for sour, we retain the soda and 
 add one slightly rounding teaspoonful of cream of tar- 
 tar. 
 
 Baking powder contains some starch, but two or strength of 
 three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder are equal in powder 
 effect to one rounding teaspoonful of cream of tartar 
 and the half level teaspoonful of soda. 
 
 Just why some good old recipes recommend dissolv- 
 ing soda in hot water before adding it to the other 
 ingredients, or mixing it w^ith hot molasses, is uncer- 
 tain. Perhaps the housewives wanted to "see with 
 
 293 
 
112 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 their eyes" that action would result. Or the habit 
 might have been the result of the impure quality of 
 the alkaline substance. The "pearl ash," as saleratus 
 was called, was not as finely pulverized as is the soda of 
 today, and may not have been as thoroughly purified 
 from other ash. Hot water would dissolve it quickly, 
 any impurities would settle, and even if some gas es- 
 caped enough was left to do the work of puf^ng up 
 the dough. 
 
 Mixing Such small quaniities relatively of soda, cream of 
 
 Powder tartar, and baking powder are used in a dough that it 
 
 has been a question how they should be mixed with 
 
 the other ingredients to secure the most perfect result. 
 
 The dough should be light throughout, not here a solid 
 
 streak, and there large bubbles. 
 
 Some teachers of cookery have recommended sifting 
 the one or two teaspoon fuls of baking powder over a 
 cake after it was mixed and beating thoroughly just 
 before pouring into the pan in which it is to be baked. 
 But as soon as the powder comes in contact with the 
 moist surface of the dough some gas will be lost, and 
 moreover, it is doubtful whether two teaspoonfuls of 
 baking powder can be evenly mixed through a quart 
 of cake batter without much beating which does not 
 improve the quality of the cake at that stage and de- 
 lays the baking. 
 
 The accepted plan at present is to sift with the flour 
 the baking powder or cream of tartar and soda or the 
 
 294 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 
 
 113 
 
 soda alone when it is to be used with some sour milk 
 or molasses. 
 
 The sooner the process is completed after the acid 
 and soda meet each other the better. Therefore we 
 keep all the materials dry until the last moment, then 
 mix quickly and bake at once. 
 
 Similar recipes are found in all cook books, and once 
 the general proportions and the office of each ingre- 
 
 General 
 Directions 
 
 RYE MUFFINS. 
 
 dient are learned, it is easy to make many variations. 
 The process of mixing is practically the same in all 
 cases. Prepare the fire and dishes for cooking, be- 
 fore mixing any of the ingredients measure every- 
 thing, sift all dry materials together, add liquids, mix 
 all thoroughly, and cook immediately. 
 
 Qianges in the proportions of materials' often lead 
 to a change in the manner of mixing them. For ex- 
 ample, when a small quantity of shortening is used in 
 batters, it may be meked and beaten in, but if a large 
 
 Manner 
 of Mixing' 
 
 295 
 
114 I'ls'lNCII'l.r.S or COOKh.KV. 
 
 l»l"|"'l I Kill r. lr(|II|l((|, il sliullld l)r Illl»|)((| |||| crc'iiiiv 
 
 .iikI l»l<ii«lr(| Willi ihc sn^.ir ;is (nr cake, or mixed into 
 III'' ll'iiir ;i'. III |»;i',lr\ iii;ikiii<;. I'nr sliU doiiidis vvliicli 
 ;il<' I" l»<' Killed, il is cssc'iili.il lli;il the l;il siioiild \)v 
 j'lil III (did MiKc even ;i siii;ill (|ii;iiilil V, if vv.'inn, will 
 l<iid In iij.ij.e llie doijeji .soil ;i i id ' si ick v. Wc J^rcaSf 
 'giioiionjiiK' |i.iir., I'liddles, elc, hccanse l;it |»reveiils adiu'sinn ; in 
 IIh' s.iiiie \\;i\' l;il ill a doii;di Jceps llie |i;irli(les sej)a- 
 lale and ni.ikes il lucak ;i|i;iil icidilw so lli.il we c'lll 
 il "slloll" ol" "lender." I lelice si lo| I ei li ii<' is ;iliv form 
 
 of l,il lli.il will .i< ( niii|)|isli siieli a rcsiill. '|\>i'jv(' like 
 rcsiill ., iijoie :,|ioi leiiiiii; is i-e(|nire(! willi i)i<';id llonr 
 lii);li III idiileii lliaii Willi |»a'.lrv llom- low in idiileii. 
 
 I\j4i;s in <loii<dis, as in oilier cases, have ihr (pialily 
 <>l inakini; pailieles hold lo;'(l|ier, jiisl llie ifvcisc of 
 shorleiiiii!;. Aii\' doiiidi coiiliiiiiin;' hhk h ej-i; will he 
 <kr.lie and s|ioiim\', and il cooked loo (|iii(kl\' will he 
 h>n<4li. I )oiiidis lo he inaile i ieli wilh hiiller, like 
 pound eak<'. nia\' he saved fidiii heaviness hv (he use 
 of e^^f;s. 
 
 PASTRY AND CAKE 
 
 Shofleake and |iaslr\' aie illirl lal ions (d ihe ii'^e of 
 iiiiK II t.il 111 tloiiidis and I he i e .nil is hiil I le and lender. 
 Sueei'SS in pasli'N' iii,ii in:; iIcjk nd'. more ii|)(iii keepinj^r 
 llie iimredieiil', «ol.| and haiidliiii; llie doiiidi deflly 
 lliaii aii\ 'pet lal liiimiil.i (H ordei' o| mixiiiL;'. Wdien 
 fiul a small aiix iiml ( >| ',lioi liiiiiii; is used, a small (pian 
 lil\ oj h.il.iii;; powdcf is lielpjiil; this, (d eoiil'se, is 
 omilled III pull |)aslr\, in which Ihe weights <d (he 
 
 2()r) 
 
/'./,', / A') ,/,\7' ( '.IK I:. 
 
 115 
 
 fintii ,ii)(| hillhr .'ire ('(jit.il, .111(1 ll I;. ||(i| (..nciiI i;i I m 
 
 ollici- casrs. 
 
 I'cw <li>ni;lis i((|iiiic .1 sni.illci iiiiiiiln r a^ iiij-j rdicnis Paitry 
 lli.'iii |>,'islr\'; llniir, s;ill, slmi Icmhim, .md IkjukI .iir ilic 
 cssciili.'ils. ;iii<l .lii i'. iiK < ti |M )i ,il((I III I lie I •! M( (•',•, (i| nil V 
 inj^''. VVllcii llic lloiii ;iii<I 'JKMlriiiiiL; .lie \v;iliii llir\' 
 stick loj^x'llicr so lli.il I'ss ;iir is mixed inin (lie dniijdi. 
 
 Ai'PMO I'lr; IN i»i:i.i- n,,\i 1; 
 'I'Ih' |)I(K(',s (.1 h.lliii'' ;iiid loldiiic IS ;i device I'm ( ;il( li- 
 
 iii}^ iiMHc air in llie dnti^li, Tliis aif, vvIk n Ik al(( 
 patids and (>iiir. Ilic hiveis aparl. 'Ilic ( nldd (I 
 niixe(| in llie ddiifdi llic i-icah r il', (•v|);iir.i. .11 in l»; 
 In caki'-iiiaisini^' a sinj^de, vvdl |»im|.(.i lidurd \,,\ 
 may !)<• made lli<- basis Inr a l-jciI iiiiiiiIki nl' vari 
 Tlierelnic. il is essenli.il llial llie I niKlainciil.d |)iiii<i 
 |)Us he nndiTstood, iIkii llic vaiialinns (an lie ,i(((.iii- 
 plishcd easily. 
 
 . ex - 
 c air 
 
 Illl.l (;„i,„ 
 
 les. 
 
 Mn 1(1 III; 
 
 297 
 
116 
 
 298 
 
CAKE. 
 
 117 
 
 Tlie ])rinciplcs underlying;- si)on!L^c cake were ex- 
 plained in the section on e^i^s. The main points in 
 such cakes, which contain no Ijutter and are made li<;ht 
 by eggs only, are to mix carefully that sufficient air 
 may be entangled in the dough to make it li^ht, and 
 then to bake slowly but thoroughly. 
 
 The shape in which cake is to be baked should de- 
 cide the proportion of Hour to be used. Layer cakes or 
 small cakes require less flour than large loaves. This i^ 
 probably because the small cake is stiffened more 
 quickly by the heat, while the large mass must be 
 stiffened with flour to hold up the air cells until the 
 heat can penetrate the whole. Variations in cake are 
 easily obtained through changes in flavoring ingredi- 
 ents. To mix chocolate in the cake melt it and* mix 
 with the sugar and l)Utter. Such a cake might have a 
 white frosting flavored with vanilla. 
 
 A cake flavored with alm'ond may have a few shred- 
 ded almonds sprinkled over the toj) just before the cake 
 is put in the oven. Almond ])aste can be rubbed into 
 the butter and sugar in making cookies ; it is rather 
 rich and heavy for a cake. Desiccated cocoanut, 
 chopped nuts, raisins, currants, dates, citron, candied 
 orange and lemon ])eel, singly or in various- combina- 
 tions, serve to give us many cakes from a single reci])e. 
 
 The ingredients mentioned for jiastry are com- 
 mon to all cakes as well, but further variety is gained 
 by the addition of sweetening and seasoning. Air or 
 gas- to make the cake light is obtained by the use of 
 
 Sponge 
 Cake 
 
 Flavoring 
 
 Ingredient. 
 
 299 
 
iiM 
 
 /'h'iN( in / ,v Oh ( ooKiin' 
 
 Ih .ilni <}'j''. .Mill 111 ImI III!- |Mi\\(|( !•., cU'., ;is \v<II .r. hy 
 i'KMIMIIl!' Iilllln .iihl Iti.iiliii' Mil Ml ||i|<-<| llli'l rdiciils. 
 
 I Ik' '.Im •! Itiiiiii' |iii Mil, ( I.I',', III ill', ill', III. IV l»«- I. ml, 
 (ll il'pili;.;, tiitl oil, iiilliili III , ImiIIi I, m i ir.iiii, ck li li.iv- 
 liif; il'. <i\\ii ',11(1 I. il ( li. II .11 III I', In W Inn llic'.r ;irt' 
 Known, ( < miiIhii.iIii III', .iml 'iilr.l il iil n nr, .nr |mi-,m|)Ic' t() 
 :i<l.l|il .1 t;l\('ll loliiillLi |i> llir .i\ .iil.ililr 1 1 i.il el i;ils. 
 ,4vviini.,iii„B I iij. ,,11^,,. ,,| s\V(('|( iini^; I', liiiiili il III Ml!',.!! .iihl inn 
 
 luSS'CN, lull lli( i|ii.inlil\ Id III' II', III III .1 (.ill '.iniiilil |>f: 
 
 ''''•»'*-.•., 
 
 * ^ 
 
 HI'ON(il'I (VUvl'J H'I'|i|'M:Ii U 1111 I'liKVM 
 
 li'lniiij il .1 1 1 1 1', I 111'', 111 '.wcrl lilliii}', I'. Ii» \)r .nl«lc(| 
 l.ih I. 
 
 W Ikii \\c «iiiiMilri llic l(in;; Ir.l nl .s|ii("('s and rx- 
 li.iil . .mil linil', .iinl mil'. .i\ .ni.iMf Ini '^cusoinni; llic 
 t.iKf, W'' t .III •.(•(• Iiiiw il r, |>i I'.'.ililc III ni.ilsr ni.niN \a 
 
 I It I It ', III I III' '..line I .ll'.f 
 HoUtivo llicic I", .1 cell. nil ifl.ilivr i u i >i >i n I n in Id he |i illi i\\ ft! 
 
 t'litpiil UollH ' ' 
 
 '"'''»'»" III llir ll'.f III llii'.c iii^i (•(lltiil'. wliiili, iMUt- Ic.nncti, 
 
 .iOO 
 
COOKING 01' no U (J I IS. 
 
 119 
 
 enable us to decide whether a rccii)c is rehable. In 
 butter cakes there is usually less hulUr than su^ar, 
 and less sugar than flour. When baking powder is 
 used less is required than would be necessary for a 
 dough where there are no eggs. Thus two even tea- 
 spoonfuls of baking j)owder is enough for three cups 
 of flour for a cake in which three or four eggs are use. 
 Some cooks use from one to two teasix)ons of bak- 
 ing- powder for each cuj) of Hour in all cases, forgetting- 
 that the eggs alone would make a cake quite light. 
 When there is an excess of baking powder, the cake is 
 liable to be coarse grained and will dry quickly. 
 
 Dutch apple cake and cottage pudding are similar to 
 the common muffin mixture in the proportions of Hour, 
 liquid, etc., but are made richer by mcreasing the quan- 
 tity of fat and sugar. 
 
 The ordinary doughnut mixture is not unlike a cot- 
 tage pudding dough, with the addition of Hour to make 
 it stiff enough to roll easily. Or it is similar to the 
 quick biscuit dough with the addition of sugar, q^^, 
 and spice. Because doughnuts are cooked in fat, less 
 shortening is required than for most stiff doughs. 
 
 Cooky doughs are more like pastry with the addi- 
 tion of sugar, spice, and ^^^, and the same care should 
 be given to keeping^ the dough cold in order to roll and 
 cut it without adhering to the board. 
 
 COOKING OF DOUGHS 
 Doug^hs are steamed, baked in the oven, or on a g-rid- 
 dle on top of the stove. Such mixtures of manv differ- 
 
 Cottage 
 Pudding 
 
 Doughnuts 
 
 Cookies 
 
 301 
 
120 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ent ingredients are more difficult to cook than the sepa- 
 rate substances of which they are composed, though 
 heat affects each ingredient in combination much as it 
 does singly. Sugar carmelizes and this aids in pro- 
 ducing a golden brown color in the crust of anything 
 
 AN ACCURATE OVEN THERMOMETER. 
 Punch a hole in a comnjon gas stove oven and insert thermometer, 
 which will register to 600 degrees F, wrapped with asbestos and wire 
 where it passes through the top. 
 
 containing it 
 
 Since it burns readily, cakes and cookies 
 are more liable to be scorched than unsweetened 
 doughs. Flour browns when exposed to dry heat. 
 
 Eggs cook at a low temperature. Butter melts, 
 hence doughs containing much must contain more flour 
 than those that have little or none. 
 
 302 
 
of the Oven 
 
 COOKING OF DOUGHS. 121 
 
 The heat applied should conform to the way in Heat 
 
 which it affects the principal ingredients in any dough. ^^i^i^^ed 
 Those containing many eggs need moderate heat, etc., 
 etc. The size and shape of the article are also to be 
 considered. In general, small thin portions require 
 less time but will bear higher temperature than larger 
 portions as with bread doughs. 
 
 There are various tests for the heat of the oven. Temperature 
 Oven thermometers are valuable aids, showing com- 
 parative if not actual degree of heat. When a ther- 
 mometer is inaccessible, a piece of white paper or a 
 teaspoonful of flour if charred from a five minutes' 
 stay in the oven indicate too great heat and other de- 
 grees may be gauged accordingly. All parts of an 
 oven are not equally hot and each housekeeper must 
 study her own. 
 
 The lower part of a gas oven is very hot because 
 the full force of heat is below ; in the wood or coal 
 range one side is usually hotter than the other because 
 of the position of the firebox. 
 
 303 
 
Variety 
 
 FORM AND FLAVORS 
 
 Thus far we have studied the fundamental princi- 
 ples of cooking and have seen that some knowledge 
 of the chemical composition of each food is necessary 
 before we can secure the best result through the ap- 
 plication of heat and moisture. But this is only the 
 foundation of the art of cookery. 
 
 The form in which our food is served may attract 
 or repel, and the flavor may make it appetizing or the 
 reverse. We .must depend mainly for sustenance upon 
 a few kinds of meat, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and 
 unless variety were secured in some way we should 
 quickly tire of them. 
 
 Through the ingenuity of cooks of all times and 
 countries, so many combinations have been devised, by 
 changes in flavor and form, that some of our common 
 foods might appear in different guise every day in the 
 year. 
 
 The multiplicity of formulas in our cook-books, even 
 when well classified, are puzzling to the beginner who 
 has not learned tO' analyze each recipe and thus find the 
 simple processes- of which it consists. 
 
 What is generally termed ''fancy" or *1iigh-class" 
 Cookery cookcry is merely the application of the simple proc- 
 esses to costly foods or a further complicated prepara- 
 tion to foods which have first been cooked as perfectly 
 as possible, according to the principles- already out- 
 lined. 
 
 122 
 
 'Fancy" 
 
 304 
 
FORM. 
 
 IX 
 
 For example, if we have learned how to make a 
 white sauce and how to cook meats and vegetables, we 
 do not require separate detailed recipes for creamed 
 chicken, creamed oysters, creamed potatoes, creamed 
 cauliflower, or creamed" asparagus ; we only need to 
 make the sauce a little thinner or thicker to offset the 
 
 Creamet 
 Dishes 
 
 CREAMED FISH IN RAMEKINS. 
 
 dry or watery nature of the article with which it is to 
 be put and to vary the flavor slightly to adapt it to an- 
 other material. 
 
 Furthermore, any such creamed meat or vegetable 
 may be served plain, or on toast, or in timbale cases, or 
 combined with buttered crumbs, as a ''scallop," or by 
 the addition of stiff tgg whites it becomes a ''souffle" 
 when baked. When the sauce is made of double thick- 
 ness, and combined with the meat or vegetable and 
 chilled, the mass may be shaped into croquettes or cut- 
 
 Variety 
 in Serving 
 
 305 
 
124 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Adaptation 
 
 Principle 
 of Contrast 
 
 Made 
 Dishes 
 
 lets which are then coated with ^^g and crumbs and 
 fried. 
 
 Thus any intelHgent woman knowing something of 
 the nature of foods and the effect of heat and moisture 
 may to some extent make her Own recipes or adapt oth- 
 ers to the supphes available at the moment. 
 
 No cook-book can be sufficiently expanded to pro- 
 vide for great variation in climate, food materials, and 
 utensils. The cook must constantly adapt to her condi- 
 tions, she must be observant of the changes of tem- 
 perature and learn when one food material or flavor 
 may be substituted for another. 
 
 If uncertain about the wisest combination of ar- 
 ticles of food, whether in a single dish or for the differ- 
 ent courses in a menu, it is safe to follow the plan of 
 contrast. Thus the cream soup is served with crisp 
 crackers or croutons, the creanied fish is covered with 
 buttered crumbs and baked till crisp, the croquettes 
 are crisp outside and creamy within. 
 
 Another point is to add to any food, substances sup- 
 plying any of the food principles it lacks. Potatoes are 
 mashed with cream or butter because they lack fat, are 
 blended with tgg for croquettes or souffle because they 
 lack protein. Eggs lack starch, so we serve them on 
 toast or use them in puddings with rice, tapioca, etc. 
 
 Composite preparations of food, often classed as en- 
 trees or made dishes, are known by many names de- 
 rived from different languages, especially from the 
 French. 
 
 306 
 
FORM. 125 
 
 Here is no place to attempt to define all the terms 
 used on a menu card, but we may group some of these 
 compound dishes under a few general heads and study 
 their characteristics. 
 
 Soups have as their basis either animal or vegetable soups 
 stock or both combined. Stock is secured by the aid of 
 heat and moisture from portions of meat and vegeta- 
 bles too tough to be used in other ways. Flavor and 
 some nutriment are soaked, cooked and strained out, 
 and this water is the stock which is then further fla- 
 vored and garnished by the addition of some contrast- 
 ing substance. Thus a meat stock is usually garnished 
 with grains or shreds of vegetable, and a vegetable 
 stock is often combined with milk and thickened. 
 
 Stews are thick soups containing larger portions of stews 
 the meat and vegetables. These are also known as 
 chowders, ragouts, salmis, etc., etc. Sometimes a stew 
 has dumplings steamed over it, sometimes it is cov- 
 ered with a crust of pastry, mashed potatoes, or cooked 
 cereal and baked as a pie. Here again are combined 
 contrasting food principles. 
 
 Hash is a term that also may include the assortment Hash 
 of foods known as scallops, timbales, etc., since the 
 substance giving a specific name to each of these is 
 minced or chopped fine before it is combined with other 
 materials. Meat and fish are put on toast or mixed 
 with potatoes or bread crumbs or encased in rice or 
 in a pastry shell. The exact proportions of the con- 
 
 307 
 
126 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 Souffles 
 
 Salads 
 
 Left Overs 
 
 trasting- ingredients is of less importance than their 
 proper moistening and flavoring. 
 
 The scallop owes- its name to the shell in which it is 
 often served. Au gratin is another name for the same 
 combination of a meat or vegetable with sauce and 
 crumbs. The croquette gets its name from its crisp 
 crust, the timbale from its thimblc-like shape. Rissoles 
 and krouicskies are kinds of fried meat pies or cro- 
 quettes in a pastry crust. 
 
 Souffles have as a foundation fruit or vegetable pulp 
 or minced meat in a sauce and are puffed up by the in- 
 troduction of stiffly beaten ^gg whites. The name is 
 sometimes given to cold dishes where a similar effect is 
 gained by whii)pcd cream. 
 
 Salads may consist of cold cooked meats, fish, etc, 
 vegetables cooked or raw, fruits and nuts. Almost any 
 food may l)e served in a salad, singly or in combina- 
 tion. The distinctive feature of a salad is the dressing 
 of fat, oil, butter, or thick cream, which is variously 
 flavored. 
 
 Many of the most satisfactory of these made dishes 
 doubtless had their origin in an effort to use left-overs. 
 
 Milk surplus may be used in many ways. Skimmed 
 milk answers as well as full milk for soups and doughs 
 when fat is also used. Even if otherwise likely to 
 curdle in heating, the addition of a little cooking soda 
 makes it possible to s-cald milk, and then it may be used 
 for custards, ])U(ldings, etc. Sour milk is available for 
 
 308 
 
FORM. 
 
 127 
 
 doughs and cheese, and cream may be substituted for 
 butter and milk in simpler cakes and cookies. 
 
 Eggs left at the table in a soft-boiled condition may 
 be cooked again until hard and then combined with 
 sauces and served on toast or used as a garnish in 
 soups or salads. 
 
 Meat left-overs should be carefully sorted. 
 
 The obloquy heaped upon hashes is due to careless- 
 ness. All uneatable portions, — bone, skin, and gristle, 
 should be removed, but may yield a little stock if put 
 in cold water. The clear lean may have about one- 
 fourth as much fat with it if it is to be used in the com- 
 bination with potatoes, bread or cereal. There may be 
 two grades of the lean, one cut in pieces of uniform 
 shape an inch or more across, to be served in a sauce 
 or moulded in a jelly ; the other to be chopped fine for 
 hashes, croquettes, etc. 
 
 Vegetables. Cooked vegetables spoil quickly but 
 often may serve as soup, or a scallop, or a salad for a 
 second meal. 
 
 Fruits. It seems practically impossible to put to- 
 gether several kinds of fruit without good results. 
 Combinations of left-over fruits, raw or cooked, will 
 serve as the basis of a gelatine dessert made like the 
 jelly described elsewhere, or may be frozen alone, or 
 combined witn cream, or thickened for a pudding 
 sauce, or diluted with water for a fruit punch. Add 
 sugar as desired. 
 
 Meat 
 Left Overs 
 
 Fruit 
 Combinatioas 
 
 309 
 
128 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Attractive 
 Form 
 
 Garnish 
 
 Shapes 
 
 Bread. No scrap of bread of any kind need be lost. 
 Brown bread and muffins of different kinds are some- 
 times wasted when they might be steamed, or toasted 
 and served in cream sauce, or made into puddings hke 
 a baked Indian pudding. SHces of stale raised bread, 
 dried, gives us croutons, cut in cubes, or crumbs white 
 and brown, coarse and fine, to use for scalloped dishes, 
 stuffing for fish and poultry, and for many kinds of 
 sweet puddings. 
 
 The use of gelatine is an instance of our endeavor 
 to make foods attractive in form. It has doubtful food 
 value and nO' agreeable flavor, but it gives solidity to 
 fruit juices, or in aspic jelly to soup stock, and in such 
 jellies we may mould fruits for dessert, or meat and 
 vegetables for salad. 
 
 Garnish is often desirable to make foods more ap- 
 petizing, but it is a question whether this purpose is 
 served by the addition of unedible materials which 
 must be laid one side before the food itself is accessible. 
 
 The truest art does not waste effort on useless things. 
 
 The form of foods is further varied by utensils pro- 
 ducing different shapes, the meat choppers with ad- 
 justable knives for particles of different sizes, the 
 fancy knives for making thin slices or balls of vegeta- 
 bles and fruits, the muffin pans, waffle iron, the timbale 
 iron, the many cutters and moulds for puddings, etc 
 The tendency of the present day is plainly towards 
 small portions for individual service, and here again a 
 
 310 
 
FORM. 
 
 129 
 
 new recipe is not required, only the necessary changes 
 in time of cooking which would result when a mass was 
 divided into several portions-. Moulds in which a fgod 
 is to be cooked should be greased, but rinsed with cold 
 water when the food is only to be cooled in them. 
 
 Scales and measures are lacking in many kitchens 
 and accurate work is impossible without them. The 
 
 Weighing 
 
 SALMON LOAF. 
 
 average kitchen need not be furnished with many 
 special utensils, but there should be a full supply of 
 "general purpose" articles of the best grade of mate- 
 rial and finish. 
 
 The utensils should be adapted to the size of the 
 family and tO' the physical ability of those who are 
 to use them. The saving of human life and energy 
 is more to be considered than the durability of imple- 
 ments. 
 
 utensils 
 
 311 
 
Preparation 
 
 Right 
 Heat 
 
 Common 
 Salt 
 
 FLAVOR 
 
 The art of cooking shows us many ways of develop- 
 ing the appetizing flavor of foods. 
 
 First, by the removal of whatever might produce bad 
 flavors, such portions as skin and tainted bits of meat, 
 decayed parts of vegetables, and over brown portions 
 of bread and cake. 
 
 Second, by the right application of heat and moisture 
 to bring out the natural flavors in each food. The 
 steeping of tea instead of boiling, the browning of the 
 coffee berry and cocoa bean before they are ground, 
 the flavor developed by long cooking in cases like the 
 baking of beans and steaming of puddings and brown 
 bread. Sometimes a portion of the nutritive value is 
 sacrificed to flavor, as in the browning of the outer 
 surface of the steak or roast. 
 
 Third, by the use of many additional flavoring ma- 
 terials to intensify natural" flavors to supply deficiencies 
 and to produce variety. 
 
 Salt is useful as a preservative, seems to supply a 
 need in the human system and therefore is an agreea- 
 ble addition, but it also serves to bring out natural 
 flavors. As an illustration of this power, taste of a 
 meat or chicken broth that is unsalted, and again after 
 salting, when the flavor of the meat will be much more 
 apparent. For this purpose salt is often eaten with 
 fruits, is added in minute quantities to lemon and other 
 jellies made with gelatine, to custards, ice creams, and 
 often even to coffee. 
 
 130 
 
 312 
 
FLAVOR. 
 
 131 
 
 Lemon juice is also an aid in extending other flavor 
 and is acceptable with many foods, especially fish. 
 
 Salt, pepper, lemon, and onion are the extent of the 
 flavors used in some households, and food need not be 
 insipid if no others are tried, but it is wiser to mahe 
 occasional use of the long list of condiments and 
 spices. 
 
 The distinction as usually made is that the condi- 
 ments pepper, mustard, etc., are used with meats, 
 while spices, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., 
 are associated with fruits and sweets, but this classi- 
 fication has exceptions. Spices are neglected nowa- 
 days and it often seems as if people hardly were ac- 
 quainted with any other flavor for dessert dishes than 
 vanilla. The list of flavoring herbs is a long one, run- 
 ning through sage, thyme, majoram, summer savory, 
 bay leaves, tarragon and parsley, which are used dry 
 or fresh, to the green mint, cress, and salad plants 
 which are condimental rather than nutritive. 
 
 There are many compound flavors which every 
 housekeeper should keep in her store closet, and use in 
 her cooking instead of supplying a single perennial 
 catsup on the table, such are curry, tabasco, tarragon 
 vinegar, mushroom catsup, poultry seasoning, etc. 
 
 Onion, celery, cheese, chocolate, coffee, meat ex- 
 tracts, each may have an important place in our list of 
 flavors. 
 
 Sugar is an important food and also must be looked 
 upon as a flavor, since it will often bring an insipid 
 vegetable up to its normal condition. 
 
 Common 
 
 Flavoring 
 
 Material 
 
 Condiments 
 and Spices 
 
 Sugar 
 
 as Flavoring 
 
 313 
 
132 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, 
 
 Blended 
 Flavors 
 
 Adding 
 Flavoring 
 
 Reasons 
 
 for the Use 
 
 »f Flavoring 
 
 French cooking excels in that blending of flavors 
 which produces an agreeable effect, though no one is 
 apparent. 
 
 The best results are usually reached when the flavor- 
 ing is combined with the food in the process of cook- 
 ing, but there are right and wrong ways of doing this. 
 If salt is put on the cut surface of a roast, juice will be 
 drawn out, but if sprinkled over the fat will gradually 
 flavor all. Whole herbs and spices, tied in a bit of 
 cheese cloth may be left to cook in a soup stock or 
 brown gravy until the desired flavor is attained and 
 then withdrawn, leaving the stock clear. Ground spices 
 would give a cloudy effect. 
 
 The use of flavors is economic, for thus inexpensive 
 foods are varied and made palatable. It is a part of 
 the art of cooking, since nowhere are greater skill 
 and intelligence required than in the distribution of 
 these elusive yet powerful substances, and by discrim- 
 ination in the use of condiments- and spices our foods 
 may be made more healthful. 
 
 314 
 
Buying 
 
 FOOD FOR THE DAY 
 
 In the preceding pages the most important foods, 
 their composition and preparation for the table have 
 been considered. Our study would be incomplete with- 
 out some reference to their best combination for the 
 daily meals that they may appeal to the palate and pro- 
 mote health without exceeding the bounds of mod- 
 erate incomes. 
 
 There are three important divisions in the prepara- 
 tion of food for a family, wise buying, good cooking, s^rvilTg 
 and careful serving. When buying foods the house- 
 keeper should know the sum available for feeding each 
 person for the day or week, she must note the season 
 of each food, and also adapt her choice to the climate 
 and weather. She must remember the individual 
 needs of each member of the household, depending 
 upon age, health, and occupation. 
 
 The art of cookery finds its field between the ^^^^ 
 choice of food and the serving of the cooked dishes at cookery 
 the table. As with other arts perfection can come 
 only through constant practice in manipulation, and 
 from continual adaptation of conditions to the desired 
 end. No formulas for combinations of foods can be 
 devised so complete that continuous care is not re- 
 quired in every step of the process. 
 
 133 
 
 315 
 
KU 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 Cost of 
 Food 
 
 "Constants" 
 
 Vvw housekeepers have the time or take the trouble 
 to keep their aeeounts in sueh a way as to know how 
 nuieh it eosts to feed eaeh ])erson in their charge for 
 a day, week, or month ; fewer still know anything of 
 the relative ])roi)()rtion of protein, fat, and carbo- 
 hydrate which is placed on the family table week by 
 week. 
 
 When purchasing clothing we take note of its wear- 
 ing (jualities and the ability to keep us warm, but we 
 seldom apply the same reasoning to our foods, al- 
 though it is quite as necessary. 
 
 Some one has estimated that in the average house- 
 hold one-tenth of the sum spent for food will go for 
 flour, a tenth for butter, another for sugar, another for 
 milk, one-fifth for meat, one-fifth for fruit and vegeta- 
 bles, and the remaining fifth for sundries. 
 
 There are certain articles of which e(|ual quantities 
 will be used each week or month, and by an examina- 
 ti(^n of previous bills it is easy to estimate the amount 
 required for a given j^eriod. Many of these ''con- 
 stants" like butter, sugar, and flour, can be bought in 
 quantities sufficient for a month, then the housekeeper 
 knows how to apportion her money for the variable 
 suj^plies. 
 
 It is not necessary for the housekeeper to attempt 
 to estimate the ])roportion of fcvxl princii)les in every 
 dish she serves, but once a month or a quarter, if her 
 accounts are well kept, she can see how nearly she ap- 
 
 316 
 
FOOD FOR A DAY. 135 
 
 proaches such daily estimate as the one below for each 
 member of her family : 
 
 A DAY'S RATION 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Meat and fish 12 to 16 
 
 One egg 2 
 
 Butter -ito 2 
 
 Milk, I gill to I pt 4 to 16 
 
 Sugar 2 to 3 
 
 Dry fruits i 
 
 Legumes i 
 
 Fresh vegetables and fruits 6 to 8 
 
 Potatoes 8 to 12 
 
 Flour and grains 12 to 16 
 
 Multiply this by thirty and we have a fair allow- 
 ance for one person for one month. Multiply this by 
 the number of persons in the family, or, to be more 
 accurate, by the fractional parts of a man's ra- 
 tions, usually allowed for women and children, and 
 we have an ample supply for one month for the fam- 
 ily. 
 
 If the larger quantity of potatoes has been used the 
 smaller amount of flour would have been ample, while 
 if eggs were cheap and two or more consumed by each 
 person daily there should be a corresponding reduc- 
 tion in the amount of meat and fish. 
 
 Of the amount purchased there will be not far from Refuse 
 
 and Waste 
 
 10 per cent refuse and waste. Refuse in the form of 
 bones, skin, and parings, waste of what is- left on in- 
 dividual plates and odd bits that are spoiled and are 
 
 317 
 
136 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 A Day's 
 Alowance 
 
 Cost of 
 Labor 
 
 Prepared 
 Food 
 
 Buying 
 
 thrown away. Much fat also is thrown away, but it 
 should be remembered that fat is worth more than 
 twice as much as the carbohydrates in keeping the body 
 warm. 
 
 Twenty-five cents a head a day is a fair allowance 
 for an abundance and variety of wholesome, satisfying 
 fbod. Life may be sustained on half that amount, while 
 fifty cents daily cannot nourish more completely, but 
 may provide luxuries and foods out of season. 
 
 The actual cost of table board appears, from studies 
 made under different conditions, to be about equally 
 divided between the raw material and the labor re- 
 quired for the preparation and service. It may be 
 cheaper tO' pay a little more for a prepared food than 
 ' to use one's own strength or pay for service to get 
 ready a less expensive article. 
 
 The woman who has time and strength and no 
 other way to earn should choose the cheaper grade 
 of food. Cheapness does not always indicate mean- 
 ness, it may mean an abundant supply or less human 
 labor in preparation. 
 
 There is a growing tendency toward the fuller 
 preparation of food outside the home, but there is the 
 more need that the housekeeper should be familiar 
 with processes of manufacture that she may know 
 when she is well served. 
 
 The housekeeper who never goes to grocery and 
 market and does not study the market reports in the 
 
 318 
 
FOOD FOR A DAY. 137 
 
 papers is rarely an economical buyer. She is liable 
 to go on in the same old routine instead of varying her 
 menus with the litcxc surorises that may be found by 
 visiting the markets. There are bargains to be had in 
 foods as well as in clothing, when the market is over- 
 stocked, or some odd lot is left over. Cuts of meat 
 cannot be made to order and the first choice falls to 
 the early visitor to the market. 
 
 Where one woman must take entire care of a fam- planning 
 ily, she must plan carefully if she would have a well 
 balanced household. Elaborate cooking and meals of 
 many courses are out of the question even if they were 
 desirable. Meals should be planned several days in 
 advance and the buying done accordingly, though such 
 plans will be much modified in the performance. 
 
 A reserve store of canned foods, etc., is a great aid 
 in the emergencies that arise in all households. 
 
 By wise use of outside supplies and by making one's system 
 head do more work and hands and feet less, the food 
 for a family may be provided without exhausting the 
 energy of the housekeeper. 
 
 The actual cooking necessary for a family through 
 a day may be done in a shorter period than is usually 
 allotted to it if the work is planned wisely. The de- 
 tail of arrangement depends upon the kind of fuel 
 used, and whether the chief meal is served at noon or 
 night. 
 
 319 
 
138 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Breakfast 
 
 Dinner 
 
 The breakfast should be a simple meal — fruit, raw 
 or cooked, cereal or warm muffins, (seldom both at 
 the same meal), and eggs, bacon, creamed salt fish or 
 some cold meat. When the meat is cold the bread is 
 warm, while with bacon or omelet toast may be served. 
 
 Some one must be in the kitchen for some time to 
 prepare and serve even a simple breakfast, especially 
 if there are tardy members of the faniily. With the 
 same supply of fuel required for the muffins, it is not 
 difficult for a woman of average ability to bake a cake 
 or pudding which will then be ready for the noon or 
 the night meal. Or at this time the vegetables may be 
 cleaned, fruit picked over and little details attended 
 to which save much time later. 
 
 Noon dinners usually are considered easier for 
 housekeeper and cook, since the work can all be done 
 by daylight and the hours of work if not actually less 
 are not so extended through the day. When supplies 
 are ordered early and delivered promptly, much energy 
 and worry is saved. At least half the time the soup 
 may be derived from previous supplies, and be pre- 
 Dared in advance. 
 
 One kind of meat or fish, potatoes or rice and a 
 single other vegetable or salad are enough for all 
 ordinary occasions. Fruit or a dessert prepared earlier 
 in the day completes a meal sufficient for all needs of 
 the luiman body if the articles have been chosen wisely 
 to supplement each other. 
 
 320 
 
FOOD FOR A DAY. 
 
 139 
 
 For a noon luncheon or night supper there are many 
 variations of the souffles, hashes and scallops already 
 described. One of these with bread and butter, tea or 
 cocoa, fruit and a simple sweet will provide all that is 
 essential. 
 
 To prepare meals for a family year in and out 
 is not an easy task. The housekeeper must remember 
 not only the cost and nutritive value of the foods but 
 the whims and notions of her family. The ability of 
 the human being to talk makes him much harder to 
 •feed than the animals who must accept the balanced 
 ration bestowed upon them. 
 
 A few points to be observed in planning menus are 
 these : avoid routine, introduce novelties, cheap or ex- 
 pensive, in attractive form, but say little of nutritive 
 value or cost. Do not allow the same meat or fish to 
 appear too many meals in succession. Let some- 
 thing else intervene. When the meat course is sub- 
 stantial let the dessert be light and make the dessert 
 especially nutritious when the meat course is insuf- 
 ficient. Let there be variety on the table through the 
 week or month but have few dishes at each meal. 
 
 The fundamental processes of cookery are not many 
 and the essential points have been outlined in these 
 pages. An intelligent woman can adapt the recipes in 
 any reliable cook-book to her own conditions after she 
 knows something of the composition of foods and the 
 way each is affected' by heat and moisture. 
 
 Supper 
 
 Planning: 
 Menus 
 
 In 
 Conclusion 
 
 321 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Boston Cooking School Cook Book ($2.00). Fannie M. Farmer. 
 
 Boston Cook Book ($2.00). Mary J. Lincoln. 
 
 Catering for Two ($L25). Alice J. James. 
 
 Century Cook Book ($2.00). Mary Roland. 
 
 Home Science Cook Book ($L00). Anna Barrows and Mary 
 
 J. Lincoln. 
 Kitchen Companion ($2.50). Maria Parloa. 
 Practical Cooking and Serving ($2.00). Janet M. Hill. 
 Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40). M. H. AbeL 
 Young Housekeeper ($1.00). Maria Parloa. 
 Borer's (Mrs.) Ne'w Cook Book ($2.00). Mrs. S. T. Rorer. 
 Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking ($1.00). Helen 
 
 Campbell. 
 Hostess of To-day ($1.50). Linda Hull Larned. 
 Luncheons ($1.40). Mary Roland. 
 
 Note. — These books may be borrowed by Members. Any one may jnir- 
 chase them through the School by sendhig price. 
 
 GOVERNMENT BULLETINS 
 
 Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking — Charles D. Woods. 
 
 85. Fish as Food— C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 
 
 93. Sugar as Food — Mary Hinman Abel. 
 
 121. Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food — M. H. Abel. 
 
 128. Eggs and their uses as Foods — C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 
 
 182. Poultry as Food— Helen W. Atwater. 
 
 183, Meat on the Farm — Andrew Boss. 
 
 203.* Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies — Parloa. 
 
 249. Cereal Breakfast Foods — Woods and Snyder. 
 
 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table — Parloa, 
 
 263. Use of Milk as Food— R. S. Milner. 
 
 293. Use of Fruits as Food — C. F. Langworthy. 
 
 295. Potato and other Root Crops as Food — Langworthy. 
 
 298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products, 
 
 332, Nuts and their use as Food — M. E. Jaffa. 
 
 359. Canning Vegetables in the Home — J. F. Breazeale, 
 
 375. Care of Food in the Home — Mary Hinman Abel. 
 
 389. Bread and Bread Making — Helen W. Atwater. 
 
 391. Economical use of Meats in the Home — Hunt 
 
 322 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a lig-ht g-rade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
 the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instruc- 
 tor may know that you understand the subject. Read the 
 lesson paper a number of times before attempting to 
 answer the questions. 
 
 1. Mention and describe three methods of making- 
 
 doughs light. 
 
 2. What are the advantages in the use of baking 
 
 powder ? When should baking soda and cream 
 of tartar be used separately? 
 
 3. Describe some mixture where more than one 
 
 means of making it Hght is used. 
 
 4. How does the bread obtainable outside your home 
 
 compare with what you can produce there as 
 to cost, including time and fuel, substance, and 
 palatability ? 
 
 5. Experiment, if you can, under your own condi- 
 
 tions and report of the effect of too rapid and 
 too slow baking on different types of dough. 
 
 6. Rearrange this recipe for a simple cake in proper 
 
 proportions and order of mixing : ^ ^%Z, 2 
 teaspoonfuls butter, 2 c. milk, i c. flavoring, I 
 teasp. flour, 3 c. baking powder, i teasp. sugar 
 
 323 
 
PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 7. Give examples wherein the form aiul manner of 
 
 serving may add to the attractiveness of food 
 and not reqnire too much time. 
 
 8. How does bread tlour cHf^"er from pastry flour? 
 
 How does this affect its use in doughs? 
 
 9. Give the general proix)rtion of flour and liquid 
 
 in (1) soft doughs, (2) a batter, (3) muffin 
 
 mixtures, (4) pastry or cookies. 
 10. W hy does shortening make doughs flaky? 
 M. Give the one method of making bread. What 
 
 conditions will hasten the process; what will 
 
 retard the process? 
 Successful pastry — how made ? 
 
 13. What varieties of cake are there and what ai 
 
 the general proportion of the ingredients ? Give 
 some of the reasons why a cake "falls?" What 
 makes cake dry and coarse in texture? 
 
 14. Discuss the use and abuse of "fancy cookery." 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 17 
 
 18 
 19 
 
 \\'hat is meant by contrast in foods? Give ex- 
 amples. 
 
 ^\'hat can you say of flavoring? 
 
 How ma\' "left-overs" of meat — of vegetables — 
 of bread, be used? 
 
 On what principle should menus be planned? 
 
 (iive the menus for the meals s^Tved in your 
 household during one week and suggest how 
 thev might be improved without additional la- 
 bor or expense. 
 
 324 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 IN 
 
 APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE 
 
 Bv Anna Barrows 
 
 Director, Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer, Teachers, 
 College, Columbia University, and Simmons College. 
 
 The conditions of life in the households represented 
 by the pupils of this school vary greatly with locality 
 and climate, and, taken together, would give a fine 
 composite picture of the average American home. 
 
 While reading the hundreds of papers which have 
 passed through my hands since the School opened, 
 nothing has impressed me more than the variety of 
 conditions to which any woman in this country 
 must be ready to adjust herself at short notice. 
 Much human energy might be set free for other pur- 
 poses, and much money saved, if men and women 
 gave closer study to some of these e very-day questions. 
 
 Emerson has said truly: "We must learn the homely 
 laws of fire and water; we must feed, wash, plant, 
 build. These are the ends of necessity, and first 
 in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, famine, 
 disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that 
 hold us to common sense." 
 
 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FUELS 
 
 Every householder and housekeeper should have 
 more definite knowledge regarding the amount of 
 heat available from a given bulk of each of the stand - 
 
 147 
 
 325 
 
148 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 ard fuels. One cord of wood is approximately equal 
 to one-half ton of coal; i,ooo cubic feet of coal-gas 
 is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about four and 
 one-half gallons of oil or gasoline. The time re- 
 quired to keep stove and fire in good condition must 
 be counted with the cost of the fuel. 
 
 In this connection, facts reported in some of the 
 test papers received are interesting. 
 
 From a southern plantation, wood is reported as 
 costing only the labor of preparation for the stove, 
 and that only sixty cents a cord. In another locality, 
 one sixteenth of a cord of wood is used dail}^ at a cost 
 of twelve cents, or about two dollars a cord. Else- 
 where, a housekeeper finds wood at five dollars a 
 cord the cheapest fuel within her reach, and estimates 
 her daily supply to cost ten cents, or about one fiftieth 
 of a cord. Another burns a cord of wood each week 
 for cooking only. 
 
 An English pupil writes: "The range to which I 
 am most accustomed is the almost universal farm- 
 house open fireplace and Glendenning oven, used in 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland. The oven is heated 
 by the hot air from the fire by a passage at the back 
 of the fireplace, with only one damper for oven. At 
 the opposite side there is nearly always what is called 
 here a 'set-pot' for heating water. The heat of 
 my oven is greatest at the bottom, on account of the 
 hot air being underneath. What is not cooked in 
 the oven is done over the open fire." 
 
 326 
 
FUELS 149 
 
 COAL 
 
 The price of coal varies according to quality and 
 distance from the mines, and may cost from three to 
 twelve dollars a ton. A hodful or scuttle of coal 
 may weigh from fifteen to thirty pounds, but after 
 weighing the contents of an average hod, any house- 
 keeper may estimate readily the amount used daily, 
 or for different purposes. 
 
 One woman writes that she can do her day's work 
 with a single hodful of coal, making a ton last nearly 
 three months, while a maid in her kitchen usually 
 disposes of a ton a month. Another housekeeper 
 runs a fire day and night on half a ton a month, 
 while in a colder region three hods daily is the usual 
 winter allowance. 
 
 GAS 
 
 Gas is available in comparatively few sections of 
 the country outside of the large cities, but wherever 
 it is used, housekeepers soon learn to plan their cook- 
 ery to save fuel. This usually results in economy 
 of time, so that fewer hours are spent in the kitchen, 
 though all the necessary work is as well done as 
 before. 
 
 A thousand feet of gas a week is a generous allow- 
 ance for kitchen use in an average family. Accord- 
 ing to one report, gas at $1.50 a thousand feet has 
 proved cheaper than coal at $5.00 a ton. 
 
 One cannot use a gas range in the same fashion as 
 the wood or coal stove, but must adapt herself to its 
 
 327 
 
ISO 
 
 /'h'/X( iri.h.s ()/'- i(>()k/h'\ 
 
 |)l;iii ,'iiii| llic ii.iliiic ol llic liiil. A lilc.'un cooker 
 makers il. |)o:;:,il)lc to cook <'iioiij',li looil lof Iwo days 
 ovci" one hiinicr a 1. oik- liiiic. Today's dinner, a 
 cereal lor tonioii'ow's hicaklasl, Some (ii|) (mustards 
 lor ;in|)|)ci", a sLulTed jowl lo l>c Ihowikm j over in llie 
 oven lor tomorrow's dinner, all may l)(; cookin)', al 
 
 Ol|C<'. 
 
 Then, vvitli llic ovens as c(»iiimonlv arra!ij'C(l, we 
 may l)ioil or ioa;;l, Ix'iicalli the Manic wlm li r; licatiiij^ 
 l.lie oilier oven to l»;ike | lot.i toe:;, l»rcad or cake. 
 
 ( )ne |»n|»il i(|)oit'; thai, she l»oil;; |)ol.a,l-oes in l,h(^ 
 lowci- p.irt ol the donhlc l>oilcr while cookinj; cereal 
 lor the next, da\', and aliove llial, sets a hasin ol milk 
 lo licit lor a |)nddiii;', or ;,ance or i;oii|». Hy ;;ucli 
 lord Ik tiijdi I the <'\|)ciisc ol j',a,s is no j;rea,t,ei" than 
 aii\' other tiicl, :iiid IIk- lahor ol housework is mncli 
 i"cdnce< I . 
 
 ALCOHOL 
 
 The removal ol the lax on fuel alcohol, Janiiriry, 
 Kjoy, nia\' iiKsin mm h to the lioii:i(d>.ee|>ei- as well as 
 1.0 the mamilacl nrci. 10\'ci\' one who has used a 
 clialmj; dish (tr ah oli()l lam|) has wished that- alcohol 
 was as cIksiii as. keros.eiie. Ihidci the new law il 
 may reach t ha I | lom t . 
 
 SiiK'c it ma\' I »e made of many coarse and interior 
 ve^el.al)l(! |ii'oducts now n!mse(|, there need he no 
 lack ol" this fuel, which is i)ract.ically without, odor or 
 s.mokc. 
 
 Tliti'. the housckcc|tcr must he ivsidy to ada])l hcr- 
 
 328 
 
I'UI'llS 151 
 
 self Lo .'inollior clian^c; in Incl:; .iixl .'ijiparatus for its 
 
 US(3. 
 
 Willi the alcoliol lanif) and the hay-hox nuicli of 
 the discomfort and dirt now associated witli kit(li(;n 
 ])rocesscs will be banished, never to return, and the 
 kitclicn its(;lf well may be di^milied with th(; name of 
 "laboratory." 
 
 KEROSENE 
 
 The small oil and ^^asoline stoves are not used as 
 much as they deserve. With intelli^'ent can; ;ind 
 hi^di ^'rade oil, a well-made oil st(;ve is safe. I'ire in 
 any form is not a ])laythin^. 
 
 Jwery household witliout gas (jr electricity shoidd 
 be supplied with a good three-burner lamp stove and 
 small oven to ht it. 'J'hese will cost about $3 .00. II 
 this lam]> is given the same care that is giv(;n lamps 
 for evening use, results will be satisfactory. Jiut 
 one must not expect a small stove to work as rajndly 
 or accomplish as mu(;h as a hirger one. Have the 
 lamj) lull of ()\\ U) d(; good work. Do not let it Imrn 
 many hours in succession, but give it a chance to 
 co(j1 off. Keep the wicks even and clc;an, and have 
 new ones when they become discolored, f;r too short 
 to reach the bottom of the lamp. 
 
 Oil stoves are hable to smoke if they stand in a 
 draft, and therefore should be protecter]. Choose 
 utensils to fit the stove and oven, ;i,nd nev(!r fill them 
 so bdl lliat then; is danger of boilnig ov(tr into the 
 lamp. Since the heat is greatest in the low(;r j>art of 
 
 329 
 
152 
 
 J'NINCiri.l'.S ()/'- i'OOKr RV 
 
 l.lic oven, cook 0,1 llic ii|i|)cr :,licl( .r, iiiikIi ;i:-; possibles, 
 or {'Xcli.'iiijM' when possible!. A;;l)c:;lo:i iii.il.s in.'iy \)v. 
 ii;;<'(| oil llic lower iJiclvc:;. Willi Ivvo Mii^'c hiiriK^r 
 Liiiip :,lov<':;, .'iiid ;iii oven lo III, one, il, li;i;; Itccii c.'isy 
 scvcr.il liiiK ;;, in my own (•\|icii('iicc, l,o do all llici 
 cookiii); lor a laiiiily ol :;ix oi" ('i};lil. |»ci":;oii;i. 
 
 I' IKI'.M'ifiS COOKIOKS 
 
 'riic Noiwci'iaii (^)ol>:iii}; I'ox or ImicIcss Cool: 
 Sl.ovc i;i <lc:;(i il )ci| and illii'.l ra l."d (»ii |)aj^('S 12-1;^. 
 Tlii:; device lia;, heeli ex|)loilc(| ;,o niijcli ol lale thai, 
 il, d(';,eive;. I nil Ik'!" de;,cii| )l ion. 
 
 TliC' new iiilcre;;l in llii;; niclliod ol cool'.ini', is |ii"o!»- 
 ahly due jo llie ex |»erinienl ;; made in m;*";, under I, lie 
 direct, ion ol I, lie ( 'oiiinii;;:;ary (ieiieial ol I lie War 
 I )c| i.ii I men I , and llie;,e were llie re:;nll, ol a, report, 
 troiii ll|iilc<| Slate;; ("oii;ailar ("leik, ( leor};e 11. 
 Miiipli\, ol iMaiiklorl, (ieiniany. I'elow ii; a con- 
 den;, alioii ol Mr. IVinipliN'';; report,, a:; it, appealed 111 
 |);iil\' ('oii;;iilar l\e|)(»il;; m April, km'^. 
 
 "In .ill addre;;;; to an audience ol woikiii)', people, 
 Mrs. I'aek, wili- ol llie director ol llie iiidn;;tria,l 
 ;;clioo| at iMaiikloil, hroujdd, l,o tlie alleiilioii ol lier 
 licarei;;, tlie liay liox oi" lirclcss sl,ove. 
 
 " l'"<ver\' lionr.cwife knows iJiat, a pot, ol eolle<' can 
 he k( pi hot loi ;,oine liliH', willioiil. lire, ;ainpl\' hy 
 wrappiiM', it III a dry towel lo Imiiler e:,cape ol lie.-il,. 
 The Noiwej'.ian " an loina t,i<' kiliheii" ;illracled at,- 
 tciilioii ;il the 1 *ari;; <'X po;at,ioii <•! i.'Wiy hut tailed to 
 conic into j'eiicral n;;e. Now in lieilin, 1\1 iinicli, and 
 
 330 
 
IIKILh.SS COO/s/h' n;j 
 
 "^'"''' '■'•"<'■• |"'|'iil;.i Iccliir,.,:; .-iic slmwiii,; (!)<■ prac- 
 
 ^i'"'"' V.lllir ol (III;; incl ||,,(| of coolsinjr 
 
 "Mrs Ii;icl< sl.;i(c<I (|i;,( :,|„. |,,.,,| ,,,,,.,1 (|„. 1,.,^, |,,^^ 
 loi- lliirlccn yc.'irs, llim; ,;iva(,|y ivdn.inj: H"' •'.'inv; <.! 
 
 i«)llS('|<(«Cl.illJ'.. A(, (,,:;(, ;;|„. ,,:;,.,| (|„. |„,^ i)„.,vly I,,, 
 
 ''^''^'P finished lood vv.irin. I )i;;c()V('riiiK "'•■•'' Mm^ 
 process (»r cookiiij; ((Miliiiiicl, :;||,. cxpcriinciilcd and 
 '"""•I "'•''■ :•!"• <<'nld liiiisli, m ll,,. |„)x, all hoilcd 
 •'""I i<'as(cd meals, s.'iuees, fish, s«)ii|., ve)Md,al)l(;s, 
 IruitS, |»iiddiii);s, e(,e. 
 
 "Tlie hox e.'iiiiK.l, he iis<.d jor arlieles whose chief 
 ji,(.U-.'uai(;n lies ill (he erispncss resnll.iii): Irom ra,|>i(I 
 cookinj,' oil a Ik.I, (ire, Imi(, Uk^ rest of IJk; in(;a,l Djay 
 '"' '■''•"'>' -'""I ho(, III ||„- },(,x. I>a,l,ienee will seeiiro 
 "•'•''''■•' cxperieiire^ .'iii,| iciiiove all d(Mil,(,:;. in 
 K<'iiera,l, l.wo or (Jirec; immilc-, acdial ImhIim); on (Ik; 
 lire is siilfieieid, lor ve)'e(,;, Mcs, winle ro.'isUul meat 
 re(|uires l,wen(,y (,o (,hir(,y niiniMcs. MosI, articles 
 shrjtdd retnaiii l,ijdil,Iy close<| m (he Im.x h)r l.wo or 
 ""<•'• '""ir:;, and may he. |e((, (,,, |<,.,.,, ||,,(. jnr ten or 
 l.welve lionrs. 
 
 "'^"'■'' I'';:niiM-:;, Innl,, (d,c., should he well soal<e(| 
 in cold water, .'diowed (,o hoil two to liv(* immitc; ;in<l 
 lelt h)r two hours in the hox. Soil ve);eh'd»l(!s should 
 be merely hroiijdit (,o a hod and then placed for an 
 '"""■ '"■ 'wr) in (he hox. vSonps an- improved hy 
 I'eiii}'. allowed (,, drvelop \ny (wo 01 (h,,.,- hour:; m 
 I he hox . 
 
 "Covers of pots should nr.t Im- lifted wlirn Wwy 
 
 331 
 
154 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 are being transferred. The object is to retain the 
 heat as long as possible when it has once been de- 
 veloped. Too much water is better than too little. 
 
 "A home-made hay-box will usually be found 
 cheaper and more practical than those with immovable 
 felt and upholstery. Almost any box will do, which 
 has a tight cover. The wood should not be too thin, 
 and there should be no knot-holes or cracks. Old 
 trunks and v-alises may sometimes be used in this 
 way. 
 
 "The box should be loosely filled with shavings, 
 paper or hay, the last being probably most satis- 
 factory. The hay should be renewed every two or 
 three weeks. Nests are made for the pots and the 
 hav packed tightly under and around them. Any 
 kind of pots can be used, although, of course, earthen 
 ones hold the heat best. The tighter the tops fit, 
 the better, but if the food is to be used within six 
 or eight hours, they need not be hermetically closed. 
 When the pots have been placed in the box carefully, 
 without lifting the lids, they should be covered with 
 a pillow and the lid at once securely closed. 
 
 "When not in use, the box should always be left 
 open and the hay loosened, the pillow being hung 
 in the air to dry thoroughly. 
 
 "The chief advantages of the hay-box may be 
 summarized as follows: 
 
 "The cost of fuel can be reduced four-fifths or 
 even nine-tenths. 
 
 332 
 
FIRE LESS COOKER 155 
 
 "The pots are not made difficult to wash; they 
 are not blackened, and they will last for an almost 
 indefinite period of time. 
 
 "The food is better cooked, more tastv, more 
 nutritious and more digestible. 
 
 " Kitchen odors are obviated. 
 
 "Time and labor are saved. 
 
 "There is no need of stirring, no fear of scorching 
 or burning. 
 
 "The cares of the housewife are lessened, and her 
 health and happiness are protected. 
 
 "The kitchen need not be in disorder half of the day. 
 
 "Warm water can always be had when there is 
 illness in the house and during the summer when 
 fires are not kept up. 
 
 "Where workmen's families live crowded in one 
 or two rooms, the additional suffering caused by 
 kitchen heat is obviated by the hay-box, for the pre- 
 liminary cooking can all be done in the cool of the 
 morning. 
 
 "At picnics the appetites of young people are only 
 half satisfied by sandwiches and other cold food. 
 The hay-box can furnish a hot meal anywhere at 
 any time. 
 
 "Similarly, men and women working in the fields, 
 or having night employment, can take with them 
 hot coffee, soup or an entire meal, thus avoiding the 
 necessity of returning home at a fixed hour or having 
 it brought to them by another member of the family. 
 
 333 
 
156 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 "When, different employments make it necessary 
 for the various members of a family to take their 
 meals at different hours, this can be arranged with- 
 out a multiplication of work with the assistance of 
 the hay -box." 
 
 This consular report covered the ground so fully 
 that any intelligent woman can make it the basis of 
 experiments adapted to her own surroundings. 
 
 A small trunk measuring 18x22x24 inches, an 
 agate-ware kettle with close tin cover, made to order 
 to fit in, or merely rest on the kettle, were the appli- 
 ances which served me satisfactorily this summer. 
 
 It was not easy to secure hay, so we looked about 
 for a similar non-conducting substance, and found 
 some boxes of excelsior and sawdust — not quite 
 enough of either, so they were combined and put 
 in bags and sewed up closely enough to prevent clut- 
 ter. The most of the bags were of denim, but some 
 thin cotton bags, in which five and ten pounds of 
 sugar had come, were filled, and did good service in 
 filling chinks. 
 
 To test the heat- retaining capacity of this outfit, 
 two gallons of water was raised to the boiling point 
 in the kettle. Closely covered, it was placed on one 
 of the thicker cushions in the trunk and the others 
 fitted in closely around and over the kettle. A 
 blanket and some newspapers were spread over all, 
 and the trunk locked. Twenty-four hours later the 
 water was hot enough for dish-washing or bathing. 
 
 334 
 
• FIRELESS COOKER 157 
 
 The statements made in the above report were 
 fully verified by my own experience. This method 
 of cooking is especially adapted to any article requir- 
 ing long, gentle heat, such as the making of soup- 
 stocks and broths and rendering tough meats tender. 
 With very tough fowls, when the water cools down 
 below 150-160° F., the whole may again be raised to 
 the boiling point and started again in the hay-box. 
 
 It must not be expected to do everything, but 
 every housekeeper who must depend upon a gas or 
 kerosene stove should arrange a fireless cooker for 
 economy of fuel and to increase her own comfort. 
 
 Many an American housewife uses both coal and 
 gas ranges in her winter home, and in the summer 
 cottage must depend upon wood and kerosene stoves. 
 Probably during the year she also uses a chafing-dish 
 occasionally, and that may derive its heat from alco- 
 hol or electricity. Wherever a house is supplied 
 with electric lights there should be at least one elec- 
 trical cooking appliance. Some exce^ient ones are 
 already on the market, and the next generation, doubt- 
 less, will use this force in housekeeping as freely as 
 we use gas. 
 
 Each of these methods of securing heat for cooking 
 may be the best under certain conditions and have 
 disadvantages under others. The housekeeper needs 
 to be keen in judgment and quick to see in order to 
 adapt her formulas of cooker}^ successfully in turn 
 to wood, coal, gas, kerosene, gasoline, alcohol or 
 
 335 
 
158 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 electricity. She must know how to tell when a thing 
 is "done," and not trust wholly to the number of 
 minutes prescribed in a recipe. 
 
 Women who are called upon to make such rapid 
 transitions become adaptable, inventive, and are 
 less "set in their ways" in other directions. The 
 study of processes of cookery may thus become a 
 broadening influence and means of general education. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE COOKING 
 
 But there are certain household traditions which 
 hold many intelligent women in a firm grasp, and 
 these traditions may be traced to the generations 
 behind us, when no money value was placed upon 
 woman's labor. It does not yet seem easy for 
 women to count fairly the cost of foods cooked 
 under their own roof. Until this can be done there 
 is small chance for co-operative industries, which 
 might relieve the pressure of home cares where house- 
 workers are not readily secured. 
 
 Few families to-day find it wise to make butter 
 for themselves, and many would do well to buy 
 bread, also. When there is a demand for high-grade 
 bread made outside the home, it will be supplied, as 
 has been the case here with other commodities, and 
 with bread in other countries. There are many 
 small towns to-day to which bread is sent from first- 
 class bakeries loo to 200 miles away. 
 
 With stronger laws, better enforced for the clean- 
 liness and purity of food products; with great^*^ 
 
 336 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 1 59 
 
 intelligence on the part of the consumer, and greater 
 skill on the part of the producer, there is no reason 
 why we should not in the future be able to secure 
 wholesome prepared foods of all grades at fair prices 
 outside the home, rather than attempt to prepare 
 everything under the home roof. 
 
 The isolated home must still be its own factory, 
 and its director must be a Jack of all Trades. Such 
 households should be supplied with all helps to make 
 labor easy, but even tnen, much hard labor is neces- 
 sary. Only where large quantities of any product 
 are to be prepared does it pay to have all manner of 
 machines and cunning devices to produce the most 
 perfect results. 
 
 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 Where many people are to be fed, a few good tools 
 like a bread-mixer (See p. 105), meat-chopper, etc., 
 are often more helpful than another pair of hands, 
 unless they are especially efficient ones. 
 
 One pupil has asked for a list of necessar}^ kitchen 
 furnishings. A good list is given in Household Man- 
 agement, page 105. Here is another designed for 
 beginners in housekeeping, or for small families living 
 in city flats, where there is no room to store super- 
 fluous utensils. The stove and refrigerator are usu- 
 ally supplied with such apartments. 
 
 For light housekeeping, where a chafing-dish or 
 small oil or gas stove is the only means for cooking, 
 still fewer utensils would suffice. With the addition 
 
 337 
 
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 i 
 
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 ^^J^H 
 
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 rn 
 
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 bo 
 
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 H 
 
 T3 
 
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 Uh 
 
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 TJ 
 
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 338 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 i6i 
 
 of a few fancy molds, all the foods illustrated in this 
 book could be prepared by the utensils here men- 
 tioned. On page loi some of the most useful are 
 shown. 
 
 When selecting any utensil, be sure that it is of. 
 good quality, with no imperfections that will inter- 
 fere with keeping it perfectly clean. 
 
 KITCHEN F 
 
 High stool 
 
 Scales 
 
 Fibre pail 
 
 Dish pan 
 
 Soap shaker 
 
 Dish mop 
 
 Vegetable brush 
 
 Tea kettle 
 
 Pastry board 
 
 Rolling pin 
 
 Chopping bowl and 
 
 knife 
 
 Bean pot 
 
 Lemon squeezer(glass{ 
 
 Tea pot 
 
 Coffee pot 
 
 Muffin pan, agate waie 
 
 Quart measure 
 
 Pitcher 
 
 Stew kettle and cover. 
 
 Roasting pan 
 
 Sauce pans (three) . . 
 
 Bowls (two) 
 
 Double boiler 
 
 Two quart pans (two) 
 
 Deep plates, to fit pan 
 
 as covers (two) .... 
 
 Cups for moulds (six) 
 
 •50 
 .00 
 
 •50 
 •50 
 . 10 
 . 10 
 . 10 
 . 00 
 .40 
 . 10 
 
 •50 
 
 •30 
 . 10 
 
 •25 
 •50 
 •50 
 •35 
 •50 
 .00 
 ■50 
 •75 
 ■50 
 ■75 
 50 
 
 50 
 75 
 
 URNISHINGS. 
 
 French knife 
 
 Paring knives (two) . . 
 
 Spatula 
 
 Cork screw 
 
 Can opener 
 
 Measure cups, glass 
 
 and tin 
 
 Wire Q^^ beater 
 
 Dover Qg<g beater 
 
 Fine strainer 
 
 Coarse strainer 
 
 Colander 
 
 Flour sieve 
 
 Wire potato masher. . 
 
 Grater 
 
 Wooden spoons (two) 
 Tablespoons (six) .... 
 
 Teaspoons (six) 
 
 Long fork 
 
 Cutters (two) 
 
 Omelet pan 
 
 Loal pans (three) .... 
 Cake pans (three) .... 
 Cake pans (three) .... 
 
 Scotch bowl 
 
 Glass jars (one dozen). 
 
 •50 
 •30 
 •30 
 •25 
 •50 
 
 . 20 
 . 10 
 . 10 
 
 •05 
 . 10 
 . 20 
 . 20 
 . 10 
 
 .JO 
 
 . 20 
 . 20 
 . 10 
 . 10 
 . 20 
 
 •25 
 .60 
 
 •30 
 •30 
 
 •50 
 I . 00 
 
 Total $20, 
 
 00 
 
 339 
 
1 62 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY 
 
 Quite as important as helpful utensils to the house- 
 keeper are the right kind of books. 
 
 .When we remember that cooking schools have 
 been established for a generation in all our large cities, 
 and that the lessons given in such schools have in 
 several places been put in book form, and when we 
 see the lists of cook-books sent out by publishers, we 
 might suppose that every housekeeper in America 
 would be the possessor of several reliable cook-books. 
 But even the intelligent women taking this course 
 are rarely well supplied. 
 
 One pupil honestly states the matter thus: 
 
 "My failures have been many, owing partly to my 
 lack of a cook-book. I have overcooked custards, 
 and undercooked corn starch. I have stirred and 
 beaten all the gas out of pancakes, and wondered why 
 they did not rise, etc., etc." 
 
 Many women everywhere are content to depend 
 upon cook-books issued by patent medicine venders, 
 and upon newspaper clippings liable to typographical 
 errors. Such things may afford helpful suggestions, 
 but much food-material has been wasted by blind 
 following of careless printers, and writers who have 
 little knowledge of the art and science of cookery. 
 
 Enterprising business men realize that they must 
 read their trade journals to keep abreast of the tide 
 of competition. Many a woman spends more than a 
 dollar a year for tissue paper patterns for clothing, 
 
 340 
 
HOUSEKEEPERS LIBRARY 163 
 
 who would hesitate to buy a cook-book once in five 
 years, or to subscribe for a reliable household maga- 
 zine. 
 
 There has been little cash recompense for the 
 housekeeper, however much she studied her trade, 
 but now we are beginning to realize that personal 
 health and family comfort are above price; that they 
 depend chiefly on the air we breathe, the water we 
 drink, and the food we eat. 
 
 On page 140 of this hand-book, there is given a 
 list of reliable books relating to food and cookery, 
 the whole costing about $20. The average American 
 housekeeper, especially if she does her own house- 
 work, should own at least half of these books. While 
 she may not find it feasible to spend more than a 
 dollar a year in this way, still she may be sure that 
 ten dollars spent in the purchase of helpful books 
 would save more than that amount, in a single year, 
 in her bills for food materials. 
 
 Any one near a public library has the opportunity 
 to read such books, and thus discover which are the 
 ones she wishes to own. If the library is not already 
 supplied in this direction, send in requests that cer- 
 tain books be purchased. (Any of the books will 
 be loaned to members by the School). 
 
 The study of this hand-book lays the foundations 
 in the fewest words possible for the fundamental 
 processes of cookery. As one pupil has expressed it: 
 "I have found the lessons wonderfully helpful in 
 
 341 
 
CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 
 
 classifying and fixing facts in my mind, and I feel 
 that I am much better grounded in the principles of 
 cookery than I ever should have been by merely 
 studying cook-books." 
 
 After such a beginning, each one reading a cook- 
 book will instinctively select and add to the founda- 
 tion principles, already acquired, such explanatory 
 details as are best adapted to her home conditions. 
 
 CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 
 
 The up-to-date housekeeper is ready to accept 
 modern ideas and adapt methods from other depart- 
 ments of life to her business of housekeeping. She 
 finds a card catalogue one of the simplest means for 
 keeping addresses, and has another for an inventory 
 of her household possessions, and a third for a list of 
 foods especially suited to her family. In this list 
 each card records not only the name of a food, but 
 the approximate beginning and end of its season, its 
 average price, the quantity required to serve a given 
 number of persons, and several of the best methods 
 of using it. Here, also, may be references to certain 
 pages of the cook-books in her library. Or the cards 
 may have copies of the recipes; such cards should 
 have a hole in the top, so that they may be hung up 
 in the kitchen within view of the worker. 
 
 When uncertain what to chose for the next day's 
 dinner, or for some special occasion, she looks over 
 these cards, and several possibilities will be suggested. 
 From this plan one naturally comes to the study of 
 dietaries and an application of the principles laid 
 down in Food and Dietetics. 
 
 342 
 
COOKING A FINE ART 167 
 
 Among the helps in study along these lines are the 
 series of dietary studies which have been issued from 
 time to time by the office of Experiment Stations, 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. Two of the best to begin with are Bulletin 
 28 (Revised), "The Chemical Composition of American 
 Food Materials" (5 cents), and Bulletin 129, "Dietary 
 Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia; Chicago" 
 (10 cents). The latter gives menus for several days at 
 different prices, with itemized list of materials used 
 and cost of each. 
 
 These may be obtained by sending coin to the Su- 
 perintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 
 COOKERY A FINE ART 
 
 In cookery, quite as much depends upon the order 
 and manner of combining the materials as upon the 
 ingredients themselves. The manipulation of the 
 cook-stove has something in common with that of 
 a musical instrument. It is possible to play by ear 
 with little knowledge of scales and chords, or to cook 
 without knowing the laws of heat or the chemical 
 composition of food materials. 
 
 Or, by continual practice, a single composition 
 may be committed to memory and be reproduced in 
 a mechanical fashion either upon the piano or on the 
 kitchen range. Only after much study and repetition 
 of processes does one become able to interpret intel- 
 ligently the works of great masters, and the funda- 
 mental laws of harmony must be known, before one 
 
 343 
 
344 
 
CAKE MAKING 169 
 
 can produce new creations either in music or more 
 material things. 
 
 As music appeals to the sense of hearing, so does 
 cookery to that of taste. The truest art in cookery 
 is not the ability to construct wondrous complica- 
 tions of food materials, or to carve roses from beets, 
 or model faces in butter, but rather to develop the 
 full flavor of a food by the simplest process, to make 
 the "mouth water" — that is, to stimulate the flow 
 of the digestive juices by savory odors and flavors. 
 
 Brillat Savarin well said that the invention of a 
 new dish meant more happiness to the human race 
 than the discovery of a constellation, but quite as 
 important is the constant preparation of the simple, 
 old foods in the very best way • — the baked potato, 
 the boiled ^^'g, the broiled steak, etc., etc. 
 
 CAKE MAKING 
 
 The mixing of cake often has more to do with its 
 texture than the proportion of materials used, though 
 both have their influence. 
 
 It is an interesting experiment to make a good 
 cooky dough and bake portions of it with different 
 proportions of flour. Take, for example, the familiar 
 1-2-3-4 cake formulas and transpose the flour and 
 eggs so that we use one cup of butter, two cups of 
 sugar, three eggs and four cups of flour. The stiffness 
 of this dough will vary with size of the eggs and the 
 quality of the flour. Often some liquid and more 
 flour are added, making a less rich mixture, and then 
 
 345 
 
I70 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 some baking-powder or its equivalent will be needed, 
 otherwise the creaming of the butter and the eggs 
 will bring sufficient air into the dough. 
 
 Even before all the flour is worked in, some of the 
 dough may be spread on a tin and cut in shapes after 
 baking. When slightly stiffer, bits of the mixture 
 may be dropped on the tin, fruit or nuts put over 
 them, and they will spread out in dainty little cakes. 
 
 If still more flour is added, but before the dough 
 is quite firm enough to use a rolling-pin, small balls 
 of the dough may be shaped round with the hands 
 and flattened on the pan with the under surface of 
 a smooth tin cup. 
 
 A dough in this stage may be chilled, and then 
 can be rolled easily, and the resulting cakes will be 
 much richer than if more flour had been worked in. 
 
 Deft, experienced hands produce satisfactory results 
 with doughs, because they can shape them without 
 working in an excessive amount of flour. 
 
 MENU MAKING 
 
 Through the test questions, the attention of our 
 pupils has been called to the planning of meals for 
 a household, for this is an important part of the house- 
 keeper's duties. Under Part I we asked for menus 
 introducing as many dishes as feasible containing 
 milk and cheese. Such menus would be useful where 
 the meat markets were poor and milk abundant, 
 since one may thus secure similar nutritive elements, 
 and usually at less expense than for meats. 
 
 346 
 
MENU MAKING 171 
 
 After Part II, the request was made for a menu 
 for two days when e^jgs were cheap, and for two days 
 more when they were expensive. This was done 
 because few housekeepers pay sufficient attention to 
 market prices. They get the idea that a certain 
 food IS costly, and therefore not to be used at all, 
 when, perhaps, a careful comparison of the prices of 
 all ingredients would show it to be cheap at some 
 seasons. Angel and sponge-cakes, for example, when 
 eggs are at their lowest price, are less expensive than 
 average butter-cakes. 
 
 With eggs at 25 cents a dozen and butter at 25 
 cents a pound, a sponge-cake with five eggs costs no 
 more than a cake with two eggs and half a cup of 
 butter. If the whites of twice as many eggs are used, 
 the actual cost is no greater, since the yolks are avail- 
 able for other purposes. 
 
 At the close of the lessons we asked for a week's 
 menu from each householder represented, with sug- 
 gestions for their improvement, without increase of 
 labor or expense. 
 
 The responses show an increased attention to the 
 details that count in feeding a family satisfactorily 
 to all concerned. 
 
 Yet menu-making is still a great bugbear to many 
 pupils, and a few more hints on the subject may be 
 helpful. 
 
 Many are hampered seriously by the habits and 
 wishes of different members of their households. 
 
 347 
 
172 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 One young woman writes: "My father demands 
 griddle cakes every morning the year round." 
 
 Naturally, with such tastes, it is difficult to intro- 
 duce many new dishes, or to secure a very varied 
 menu. 
 
 • In the old days of the brick oven, most of the 
 necessary cooking for a family was done on one day 
 of the week, for the proper heating of that oven could 
 not be accomplished hurriedly. 
 
 Now with the gas stove, conditions are very dif- 
 ferent, and two or three hours each day should be 
 ample time for the actual cookery for an average 
 family. But to accomplish everything in these 
 limits wise planning is required. Whatever requires 
 long cooking for breakfast must be started the pre- 
 vious day, and preparation for the dinner or luncheon 
 is begun while breakfast is being made ready, and 
 so on. 
 
 Many business women keep house in this way, 
 and their families are as well fed as those where 
 more time is frittered away on petty nothings. It 
 is only by application of business methods in our 
 kitchens, that the routine in many households can 
 be simplified and untangled. 
 
 The preparation of food for an average household 
 is not a difficult matter when the manager has 
 learned her trade and each individual member is not 
 unreasonable in his or her requirements. 
 
 The housekeeper must think out her plan of action 
 
 348 
 
MENU MAKING 173 
 
 for days in advance and thus save unnecessary dupli- 
 cation of processes. 
 
 When one pair of hands must do all the cooking, 
 it is a foolish waste of time and strength to cook 
 fresh food for the purpose of making composite dishes. 
 Let those come occasionally as an easy way of finishing 
 up some bits too good to throw away, which have 
 already appeared in other forms. For example, it 
 
 Makin;? Timbalc Cases. 
 
 takes no more effort or fuel tc boil twelve potatoes 
 than is required to cook six. These may appear 
 one day as plain boiled, if we have a roast with a good 
 gravy. The next day we are to serve the meat cold 
 or perhaps fried fish with no sauce, so the second 
 portion of potatoes is cut in cubes or slices and 
 reheated in butter, flavored with onion, and sprinkled 
 with chopped parsley just before serving, giving 
 us Lyonnaise potatoes. Or we might prefer Delmonico 
 potatoes and put them in layers in a pudding dish with 
 
 349 
 
350 
 
MENU MAKING 175 
 
 a sprinkle of cheese between, pour r^ thin white 
 sauce over, cover with buttered crurnbs, and heat 
 through in the oven. Or the potatoes may be mashed 
 and for a second appearance take the form of a huge 
 cone, or apples, or pears for individual service. 
 
 Sometimes in our zeal to use up left-overs, we 
 expend much time and strength and more additional 
 material than the value of the original article war- 
 rants. But if one owns a timbale iron, those fraorile 
 shells resulting from frying a batter on it are attractive 
 receptacles for a little creamed chicken or a sweet- 
 bread. 
 
 Croquettes have their place occasionally, and often 
 save the purchase of more meat and thus justify the 
 time they require. A garnish of crisp triangles of 
 toast around a dish of creamed meat disposes of 
 both the scraps of meat and bits of bread — or 
 cases may be made of bread and browned in the oven 
 and filled with meat. 
 
 The store closet should be kept well stocked, and 
 this is less expensive and far easier than buying 
 things as needed. One order a week ought to be 
 enough for the staple groceries, and two orders a 
 week in winter and three in summer for meats, 
 fruits, and fresh vegetables. Do not order by tele- 
 phone, but at least once each week visit the market 
 and make the order according to what is available 
 there. 
 
 The time often spent in a daily visit to markets or 
 
 351 
 
352 
 
MENU MAKING 177 
 
 a daily call from the store-man can be used to bette. 
 advantage in an average home. 
 
 A fair supply of good-grade canned goods should 
 be kept in the house for emergencies ; but as a whole 
 these are more expensive than fresh cooked meats 
 and vegetables; but where fuel is expensive and 
 labor high, they may be used more freely. 
 
 Milk should be used generously. Many families 
 would do well to double their present milk supply. 
 Where milk is abundant and canned vegetables at 
 hand, it takes but a few moments to prepare a nour- 
 ishing and attractive cream soup of corn, beans, peas, 
 or tomatoes. If the top of the milk has been used 
 for cereal and coffee, the remainder will be quite as 
 satisfactory as whole milk for soups or puddings, 
 when butter or other fat is added. 
 
 If our home is at a distance from markets and we 
 have an abundance of one type of food material and 
 little of others, then it may be necessary for us to 
 devise many ways of serving this one, and then we 
 must use different forms and flavors that we may 
 not tire of the monotonous diet. But when the sea- 
 son of any fruit, vegetable, or meat is brief, then we 
 need serve it only in its natural form or cooked in the 
 simplest manner. 
 
 As the seasons change, cold merging into heat 
 and heat into cold again, we let our fires go out, then 
 we kindle them, and we decrease and then increase 
 our clothing. But few households make a corres- 
 
 353 
 
178 
 
 rh'/\( in I's oi' i (>(>A /AT 
 
 I" iii(Iiii)',l\ ni.i I I'.cil I li.iii}'/' III tlitii Ittnd, ;i(lapU':^ it 
 
 lit ilic tlillciiiij; ll(•t'(l^; dI ilii- |k)(|\' as (Ik; external 
 
 lfiii|>t'i a I iiic fliail^es. 
 
 All ttl us know phuc.'; wlicic |i»irk and pics ()ctii|iy as 
 Ijromiiu'nl a |h»s.i(i(»ii (»ii IIic (ahlcs in July as in )aiiti- 
 ar\', lliduv'li llu'ii" litsil viviiij; ((iialitics niak'f M'.cin 
 nul ol pkirc III suiiiiiici, i'\'('n il ailuiissibk' ni winlcr. 
 
 ;.uin.- \Vav9 o! Sfiviny Oian^jt-s, 
 
 "Porlv and htsms," vvlieit" (lie lal | >icdnniinalt'S, may 
 l)e suital'K' liH' midwinter, wink- "Itakcil hcan:;," willi 
 a small ammiiil i>l lal he il poik, licci, Imllci" or 
 
 olive ^u\ arc iiol out •>! placi' al an\' ^;casoll. 
 
 Aiiollifi phase ol lliis mailer i.s llic impioxcmcnl 
 iii Ikii'i'.iur. appelilc;, wliuli is. ait'omplislied lt\' a 
 elian^e m loot!. The eii\ dwelk'rs are (»lleii l>eUer 
 olT in llie s.i>rm;.; Iliaii the eountr\' faiiiil\', iMoni 
 Ihi' South to the eil\ iiiaikek; eomc vicciisol several 
 kiuils, asparaiuis, ktluec, lueuml ua s, awA lade.hes, 
 while the eounlr\' garden is slill Imks A small 
 I'Uihli ol asparajuis as a jsirmsh around some inex.- 
 
 354 
 
MENU MAKING 
 
 179 
 
 Lambs Heart with Asparagus. 
 
 pensive meat like lamb or calf hearts will give relish 
 when a larger quantity would be an extravagance. 
 
 Those who prepare the food for the family deserve 
 a change of labor from season to season, and many 
 women in the country would do well to strike from 
 pie making and spend the time so saved out of doors. 
 It is no harder to care for a strawberry bed than to 
 
 Apricot or Peach Jelly. 
 
 355 
 
l8o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 wield the rolling pin or bend over a hot stove, and 
 strawberries may well be substituted for pies. 
 
 True economy must be practiced in the planning 
 of menus and one thing fitted into another so that 
 nothing is lost. 
 
 USE OF FATS 
 
 Perhaps there is no one thing more often wasted 
 in the average household than fat, yet this is essen- 
 tial to our health, and we pay high prices for it in 
 cream, olive oil, and butter, when cheaper forms 
 might be substituted in some cases. 
 
 The fat trimmed from meats is too often left 
 at the market or thrown away after cooking, instead 
 of clarifying it according to the directions on page 
 73. This, when properly prepared, would be far 
 superior to the lard and cooking butter often bought 
 for culinary purposes. 
 
 The flank fat from beef, or "cod fat," as some 
 market-men call it, is much softer than suet, and, if 
 carefully prepared, is to be preferred to cooking- 
 butter for making ordinary cookies, gingerbread, 
 pastry, etc. This clarified fat usually costs less than 
 ten cents a pound, even after the weight of the scraps 
 is deducted. 
 
 When a housekeeper has not time to prepare 
 such fat, she may buy ttncolored oleomargarine at 
 about half the price of table butter, or in the vicinity 
 of fifteen cents a pound. (Colored butterine is taxed 
 ten cents a pound.) Many preparations of cotton 
 
 356 
 
TABLE SERVICE i8i 
 
 seed oil are on the market, which are satisfactory 
 when fresh for frying and for use in doughs. 
 
 One must use discretion in combining fats for 
 different uses. It is not desirable to use smoked 
 fat like that from bacon, or highly seasoned fat, such 
 as comes from sausages, for frying doughs, but these 
 should be kept each by itself and used for warming 
 potatoes and other vegetables. 
 
 The hard suet and soft chicken oil clarified together 
 give an excellent compound, which may be substi- 
 tuted for butter in tomato sauce and some soups, as 
 well as in many doughs. 
 
 In the same way all bits of meat and bone should be 
 used for stock, alone, or combined with vegetables. 
 Where meat is served once or twice daily in a house, 
 there is rarely need of buying any especially for soups. 
 
 TABLE SERVICE 
 
 The desirability of careful table service for the 
 simplest foods is shown by this incident told by one 
 pupil. 
 
 "My aunt had great difficulty in getting us to 
 eat cereal for breakfast, so she bought us each a very 
 pretty blue bowl. We were allowed to use these 
 only when we had cereal for breakfast. The result 
 was that we eagerly asked for it every morning and 
 now are very fond of the various kinds." 
 
 No one can deny that such attention to details 
 is an important part of the housekeeper's duty. 
 
 Where there are no servants, a housekeeper must 
 
 357 
 
i82 PRINCIPLES OF COiVKF.RV 
 
 1)0 careful that lior efforts for dainty service do 
 not involve her in labor beyond her strength. Each 
 member of the family should have a part in the table 
 service that everything may move smoothly. 
 
 MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Every housekeeper occasionally has to plan a 
 special menu for home or club or church society, and 
 consideration of this matter may be helpful here. 
 
 It is of first importance that we do not undertake 
 more than we can carry out well. This applies to 
 the choice of the food material, to the number of 
 courses, and the way in which they are to be served. 
 
 Instead of sending away for rare luxuries with 
 which our guests might be familiar every day, let us 
 make the most of the specialties of our own locality. 
 
 The table decorations may take the form or color 
 of the season, but beware of special shapes or gar- 
 nishes which might cause any deterioration of the 
 food to be served. 
 
 Other essential points are to have everything served 
 at the proper temperature, to alternate brown and 
 white or crisp and soft effects, and to avoid having 
 the same article appear in two different courses. 
 
 This cou])let from an old English poet sums U]) the 
 whole matter: 
 
 "Three dishes well dressed, and a welcome withal. 
 
 Both please th thy guest, and become th thy hall." 
 
 358 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR 
 CLASS STUDY ON 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Ample material for a course of six or more lessons may be 
 secured from the lesson books on Principles of Cookery 
 and from the Government Bulletins. The Farmers ' Bulletins 
 may be obtained without charge by writing to the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As 
 many copies of each will be sent as desired. The bulletins 
 for which a price is given may be obtained by sending coin 
 to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 The Government will not accept postage stamps. A few 
 reference books are mentioned which will be loaned by the 
 School for the cost of postage given, if not available in the 
 local public library. Any encyclopedia will furnish much 
 on every subject, and a book of standard quotations will also 
 add to the interest of the meeting. 
 
 All the common daily foods may be studied from the 
 historical or literary standpoint, for each has a history and 
 literature of its own. Often it is wise to set the practical 
 housekeeper to look up the historical side of a food, while 
 a philosophical member is required to report upon its prac- 
 tical use. Thus each gets a fresh point of view and a new 
 interest in an old subject. 
 
 It might prove interesting to arrange for a series of lunches 
 to illustrate the foods being studied. Here it is best to 
 keep out of the conventional lines and make the menus 
 educational. When the class is large, a few may be chosen 
 to prepare the lunch for all and directed to keep the expense 
 within certain limits, lo to 20 cents apiece, and to give 
 a report. Chafing dishes should be provided for each group 
 of four to eight and some experimental cookery tried. 
 
 189 
 
 359 
 
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 Uil) 
 
PKOUKAM iQi 
 
 Preserving 
 
 Cmiiunt,' t)l li'ruit, I*rcaervea and Jelliea, Muria Parloa. 
 
 Fannera' HulltiLiii Ni». ao.^, free. 
 Improved Method of Canning, in Parniera' BiilUitin No. 263. 
 Uae and Almae of Food iVeaervativea. ICxtract No. 23 1, 
 
 Free, DeparlnnMil of .Xgriculhirt', WMHliinghtn, D. <\ 
 
 MliiniNCi II 
 (Study pagea .VJ-S4) 
 Milk 
 
 Make aour milk cheeae and junket. (vSeu page 44.) 
 
 Show how acid may be uaed with milk witiiout cunlHng. 
 
 (See page 45.) 
 References: Farmera' Hulletin No. '43, Facta about Milk; 
 N<». 74, Milk as I^'ond; No. ay, Souring of 
 Milk and othe^ C'hangea in Milk Producta; 
 No, 6.3, Care of Milk on i/ne Farm; N<>. 210, 
 The Covered Milk jjuil; No. 337, CMean Milk. 
 Milk and ita Producta, by Wing. ($j. 00, 
 poatage ioc.) 
 
 Butter 
 
 See experimenta page 50. 
 
 White Sauce: In a dialing diah, or over a amall keroaene or 
 gaa burner, make white aauce by threu mcthoda deacribed 
 on page 5f. 
 
 To what extent may other leaa expenaive fata be auljati- 
 tuted for butter. 
 
 Make white aauce with oleomargarine. 
 
 Have some member make two or three amall cakea from the 
 same recipe. In one uae butter, in another (ileomarga- 
 rine, in another a mixture of erpjal parta of lard and beef 
 auet. Pake all at the aame time and have all conrlitions 
 as nearly the aame aa poaaible, vShow reaulta. 
 
 361 
 
192 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Topic: French Sauces and their Inventors. See Hand 
 Book of Domestic Science, by Wilson, page Cy. 
 ($i.oo, postage loc.) And other books. 
 
 Rcjcrcnccs: Extract No. 44. Butter Substitutes. 
 
 Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Ilinman 
 Abel. Chapter on Fats and Oils. (40c., postage 
 
 6c.) 
 Cheese 
 
 Make and serve Welsh rarebit made from difTercnt recipes. 
 
 using the same kind of cheese, or make two lots by the 
 
 same recipe and method, using two or more grades of cheese. 
 
 See Question 17. 
 
 Exhibit: Show samples of all possible kinds of cheese; 
 
 prices and composition. 
 Topic: Ways of using Cheese in Cookery. See Sanitary 
 
 and Economic Cooking and Cook Books. 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 82. Curd Test in Cheese 
 Making; No. 144, The Curing of Cheese; No. 
 162, Cheese Prints; No. 202, Manufacture of 
 Cottage Cheese; No. 244, The Food Value of 
 Cottage Cheese; No. 166, Cheese Making on 
 on the Farm. 
 Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams; Chapter IX. 
 Cheese. ($1.50, postage 2c.) 
 (Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them 
 to the School for correction and report on experiments.) 
 
 MEETING III 
 
 (Study pages 55-82) 
 Eggs 
 
 See experiments on cooking of eggs in water, page 57. 
 Try similar experiments in "frying" eggs with fat at high 
 
 and low temperature. 
 See Question 6. 
 Show c^^ mixtures as custards, sponge cakes, etc., cooked 
 
 Jit too high a temperature and the same ingredients cooked 
 
 at correct temperature. 
 
 362 
 
PROGRAM 193 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, Eggs and their Use 
 as Food; No. 103, Preserving Eggs; No. 122, 
 Flavor of Eggs; No. 262, Color of Eggs. 
 
 Meat, Fish, Fowl 
 
 Sanitary and Economic Cooking, "Methods of Cocking 
 
 Meat," by Mary Hinman Abel. (40c., postage 6c.) 
 See Cook Books. 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; 
 
 No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 193, 
 
 Cooking Meat; No. 162, Cooking Meat. 
 The Roasting of Beef, by Isabel Bevier. Circular No. 71, 
 
 University of Illinois (postage 2c.). 
 
 Topic: Methods of Cooking Cheap Cuts of Meat in Palatable 
 Form. 
 
 MEETING IV 
 
 (vStudy pages 83-97) 
 Vegetables 
 
 See experiments, pages 83-84. 
 Get up an exhibit of uncommon vegetables. 
 Illustrate the eflfect of overcooking vegetables by boiling 
 
 a peeled potato, — one until it is just soft, another until 
 
 it becomes soggy. 
 
 Topic: History of the White Potato. 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No 256, Preparation of 
 Vegetables for the Table, by Maria Parloa. 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas and 
 other Legumes as Food, by Mary Hinman 
 Abel; No. 127, Sweet Potatoes; No. 244, 
 Cooking Qualities of Potatoes; No. y;^, Losses 
 in the Cooking of Vegetables; Extract from 
 Year-Book, 1900, Value of Potatoes as Food. 
 
 363 
 
194 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Grains 
 
 History: See "Corn Plant" by Sargent. (75c., postage 6c.) 
 Experiment: Cook cereal breakfast food for twenty minutes 
 as directed. Start another portion the night before and 
 cook for two hours, heating before serving. Compare 
 results. 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 249, Cereal Breakfast 
 Foods; Extract 324, Wheat Flour and Bread; 
 Extract 326, Macaroni Wheat. 
 The Cooking of Starch in Cereals, Extract No. 7, 
 Illinois Experiment Station. (Postage 2c ) 
 (Select and send answers to Test Questions on Part II.) 
 
 MEETING \ 
 
 (Study pages 99-122) 
 
 Bread 
 
 Demonstration: Illustrate proportion of flour and liquid 
 for (i) Batters, (2) Muffin Mixtures, (3) Soft Dough, 
 (4) Pastry Dough. See pages 99 - 100. 
 
 See experiments with Leavening Agents, page 108. 
 
 If members are in the habit of making their own bread, 
 
 hold a bread contest, appointing judges to grade the bread 
 
 according to the chart designed by Professor Isabel 
 
 Bevier for the Illinois Domestic Science Association, viz. 
 
 Flavor 35 
 
 Lightness 15 
 
 Grain and Texture 20 
 
 Crust — 
 Color 
 Depth [• 10 
 
 Texture 
 Crumb — 
 Color 
 
 Moisture '' 
 
 Shape and Size J_o 
 
 100 
 Size of pan recommended, 7^ x 3J x 2| inches. 
 
 364 
 
PROGRAM 195 
 
 Pastry and Cake: Illustrate the difference between bread 
 and pastry flour by making two cakes exactly alike and 
 baking at the same time. 
 
 Illustrate the effect of a quick and a slow oven on the same 
 dough. 
 
 Topic: Use of thermometers. 
 
 Bread: Quotations from prose and poetry by members. 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 112, Bread and the 
 Principles of 3read Making; No. 114, Skim 
 Milk in Bread Making. 
 
 Story of a Grain of Wheat, by W. C. Edge. ($1.00, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 MEETING VI 
 
 (Study pages 122-138) 
 Food and its Appeal to the Senses 
 
 The importance of flavor, etc., as an aid to digestion: See 
 The Work of the Digestive Glands, by Pawlow, the 
 "Psychic or Appetite Juices." ($2. 00, postage i6c.) 
 Also Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Pages 396-397. 
 ($3.00, postage 26c.) 
 Cut illustration of cooked food from magazine to be discussed 
 
 and criticised by members. 
 Topics: The Use and Abuse of Garnish in Food. 
 
 Harmony in Colors, Flavors and Odors in our 
 
 Foods. 
 Salads. 
 
 Use of Left-overs. 
 Menus 
 
 See Supplement. 
 Menus for a week: Have each member give her method of 
 
 planning meals. 
 Menus for Social Occasions. 
 
 Topics: Economy of Time and Strength in Cooking. 
 Is Hospitality a Lost Art. 
 Serving by different Methods. Illustrated 
 
 365 
 
(IVlilNDIlK rVlM': I'llUa.ESS COOkhlli 
 
 -1 
 
 HENCll rVIMO IMICIOI.IOSS COOKIlll 
 
 Tho "(Caloric," Alimiinoid Lined \\\{\\ Aluminum I^lonsils. 'IMit 
 iilutiiiiiiim ulnisils with cliimiHvl coxrrs ciiii lu^ piucliastHl sopariitoly 
 for hoiiu- niii(lt« cnokt'i's. 
 
 366 
 
FREEHAND COOKING 
 
 THE purpose of this Bulletin is to ta])iilatc the material 
 in Principles of Cookery and^to give the eompara- 
 tively few fundamental recipes in cooking which are 
 capahle of inlniite variation. 
 
 Exact proportions, conditions, and materials are essen- 
 tial to ohtain identical results in cooking, but materials vary 
 somewhat and conditions differ, so that it is often necessary 
 to modify a recipe. I>y "free hand cooking" is not meant 
 hit or miss cooking, or cooking by guess, but the compound- 
 ing of food materials on scientific ]:)rinciples — not following 
 ])lindly l)y "rule of thumb" recipes which may have been 
 made for different conditions. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASUHES. 
 
 3 teaspoons— 1 tahlcspoon 2 i)ints=l quart 
 10 tablespoons=l cup 4 quarts=l gallon 
 
 2 cups^^l pint 1 cu])— 8 ounces (volume) 
 
 A gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds — a cup of water, 8 1/3 
 ounces (avoirdupois). A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. 
 
 All materials are measured level, i. e., by filling cup or spoon 
 more than full and leveling with a case knife. This applies to 
 liquids which "round up" in spoons. Flour, meal, and line sugar 
 are measured after sifting. Measuring cups are not always accu- 
 rate and ordinary tea and tablespoons vary considerably. 
 Test sf^ooiis icilli each other and ivitli the eup before using. 
 
 APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF ONE POUND. 
 2 cups milk 2 5/6 cups granulated cornmeal 
 
 2 cups butter 2 2/3 cups oatmeal 
 
 2 cups chopped meat 6 cups -rolled oats 
 
 2 cups granulated sugar 4 1/3 cups rye meal 
 
 2 2/3 cups brown sugar 1% cups rice 
 
 2 2/3 cups powdered sugar 2 1/3 cups dry beans 
 
 3^ cups confectioners' sugar 4 1/3 cups coft'ee 
 
 4 cups patent flour 8 large eggs 
 
 4 cups entire wheat flour 9 medium eggs 
 
 4^2 cups Graham flour 10 small eggs 
 
 Ni>te. — Read "tabIes|)oons" in place of cups in the above and the 
 weight is about 1 ounce. 
 
 C(ip3Ti;^li( ^'.)\i), by Aiii('ri<"in .S. Ikh.] (u" \\^^\\\^• lOidiiniiilcs. 
 
 367 
 
No table of weights to measure can be more than ap- 
 proximate, as different samples vary in weight for bulk. 
 In truly scientific cookery quantities should be measured 
 by weight. The table is useful for comparison, i. e., pow- 
 dered sugar is more bulky than granulated and less so than 
 confectioners', hence the greater sweetening power of gran- 
 ulated; ordinary white flour (sifted) is less bulky than 
 graham flour, and so on. 
 
 Experiments have shown that there may be a difference 
 of 25 per cent in the weight of a *'cup of flour" measured 
 by different persons in different ways. One method is to 
 sift the flour onto a square of glazed paper (or oil cloth) 
 and pour it into the cup placed on another piece of paper — 
 tap the side of the cup once with a knife and level. 
 
 METHODS OF APPLYING HEAT 
 
 Broiling — Cooking before or over glowing coals or under gas. Ea- 
 diant heat. High temperature at first to sear outside, thus devel- 
 oping flavor and retaining juices; then lower temperature for the 
 heat to penetrate and to avoid burning. 
 
 Pan Broiling — Cooking on very hot griddle with only sufficient fat 
 to prevent sticking. 
 
 Eoasting — Same as broiling, superseded by baking in oven. 
 
 Baking — Cooking in oven by heated air and radiation. 
 Slow oven, 270°— 350° F. 
 Moderate oven, 350°— 400° F. 
 Quick oven, 400°— 480° F. 
 
 (These temperatures were taken by a thermometer through the 
 top of a gas stove oven). 
 
 Boiling — Cooking in boiling water, 212° F. 
 
 Stewing — Cooking in water at temperature 160° to 180° F. 
 
 Steaming — Cooking in contact with steam, 212° F. 
 
 Dry Steaming, as in a ctouble boiler, 192° F. 
 
 Frying — Cooking by immersion in deep fat, approximately 360° F. 
 for uncooked foods, 380° F. for cooked foods. The fat used: all 
 lard, 2/3 lard and 1/3 bef suet, "cod fat" from the flank of 
 beef', oil, ' ' snowdrift, " " cottolene ' ' and mixtures. Tempera- 
 tures vary to produce similar effects with different fats. 
 
 Saute-ing — Cooking in small quantity of fat — often called frying. 
 
 Braising — Combination of stewing and baking. Meat is often first 
 seared to develop flavor and prevent escape of juices. 
 
 Fricasseeing — Combination of sauteing and stewing. 
 
 4 
 
 368 
 
COMPOSITION OF RAW FOODS 
 
 Parts in 100 (approximate). 
 Wheat Flour — 12 water, 12 gluten, 75 starch, 1 fat. 
 Cornmeal — 12 water, 9 protein, 75 starch, 2 fat. 
 Beans and Peas, dry — 13 water, 24 legumen, 60 starch, 2 fat. 
 Potato, white — 78 water, 2 protein, 18 starch, trace of fat. 
 Parsnips, Carrots, Turnips — 85 water, 1 proteid substance, 9 — 12 
 
 starch and sugar, i/4 fat. 
 Banana — 75 water, 1 protein, 22 sugar and starch, i/^ fat. 
 Loin of Beef (avg.) — 60 water, 18 protein, 20 fat. 
 Eggs — 74 water, 13 albumen, 10 fat. 
 Egg, white — 86 water, 12 albumen, no fat. 
 Egg, yolk — 50 water, 16 albumen, 33 fat. 
 Milk — 87 water, 3 casein, 5 sugar, 4 fat. 
 Cheese — 33 water, 26 casein, 33 fat. 
 Nuts — 3 water, 20 protein, 15 starch, 55 fat. 
 Butter — 12 water, 1 protein, 85 fat. 
 Lard, Olive Oil— 100 fat. 
 
 All the above foods except refined fats, sugar and starch, contain 
 from 1/^ per cent to 1 per cent of mineral matter (salts), apparput 
 when the foods are burned as ash. Butter and cheese have 2 per cent 
 or 3 per cent of common salt added. 
 
 Protein foods are eggs, meats, fish, cheese. 
 
 Starchy foods are the grains — wheat, rice, rye, oats, corn, 
 etc., beans, peas, potatoes, chestnut. 
 
 Fats are prominent in fat meats, nuts, cream, butter, lard, 
 vegetable oils. 
 
 Celhilose or woody fiber is found in vegetables, un- 
 screened flours and meals, and in fruits, especially when 
 unripe. 
 
 EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD MATERIALS 
 
 Starch absorbs water, swells and becomes partially soluble 
 in water. This begins at about 150 degrees F. Dry 
 -.starch begins to change to dextrine at about 320 de- 
 grees F. 
 
 Sugar is not changed at low temperatures unless acid is 
 present. It melts at about 365 degrees and begins to 
 caramelize at about 420 degrees F. Sugar, boiled with 
 acid, changes slowly to glucose or non-crystallizing 
 sugar. 
 
 Cellulose itself is not affected by cooking, but the con- 
 necting substances are softened and it may be sepa- 
 rated. 
 
 369 
 
Protein foods are hardened somewhat by Vieat. Albumen 
 coagulates completely at i6o degrees F. and will no 
 longer dissolve in water. Other proteins, as gluten 
 of flour, casein of milk, liginnen of peas and beans, 
 myosin of meat, are hardened somewhat. 
 
 Gelatin is formed from gristle and connecting tissue of 
 meat, and from bones, by long continued heating in 
 the presence of water. 
 
 Fat is not changed except at a high temperature, when it is 
 broken apart — "split" — into fatty acid and glycerine. 
 Some of the glycerine is changed into ^'acrolein" at 
 very high temperatures, 500° and over, which is very 
 irritating to the mucous membrane, as is recognized by 
 the smarting sensation given to the eyes and nose when 
 fats are overheated. Butter begins to ''split" at about 
 256° F., lard at 360° F., beef suet at 440° F., cottolene 
 and snow drift at 450° F., especially prepared cotton- 
 seed oil and olive oil at 600° F. 
 Baking Powder, a mixture of cooking soda and an acid 
 substance, as cream of tartar, or phosphates, or alum, 
 undergoes chemical change, whereby carbon dioxide 
 is set free and salts — as Rochelle salts, or phosphate, 
 or alumina compounds — are formed. The heat of the 
 oven expands the air or gas in the food, evaporates 
 part of the water and drives out volatile substances 
 like alcohol. 
 All these changes are, for the most part, physical rather 
 than chemical in their nature. For example, in a cake after 
 leaking, the sugar is still sugar, the starcn is still starch, the 
 fat IS still fat, and the albumen is still albumen. All the 
 materials have been blended, flavors having been developed 
 through minor but complex chemical chancres and a small 
 proportion of the starch and sugar m the crust have been 
 changed to dextrin and caramel. 
 
 TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING 
 
 All food materials are poor conductors of heat — it takes 
 time for the heat to penetrate. 
 
 The correct time and tcp'>pcrature depends on (i) what 
 
 6 
 
 370 
 
is to be accomplished, (2) size and thicknesses, i. e., the 
 extent of surface exposed to the heat, compared to the bulk. 
 
 Foods with a large proportion of eggs require low tem- 
 perature to prevent toughening. 
 
 Starch requires nearly the temperature of boiling water 
 for cookmg. 
 
 No food containing much water can be raised to a tem- 
 perature above the boiling point— 212 degrees F. Water 
 ^ives off vapor at all ten^peratu^'es, but at 212 degrees F. 
 steam forms rapidly and in so doing absorbs a large quan- 
 tity of heat. No brown crust can be formed until the wa- 
 ter from the surface is nearly all evaporated. A full oven 
 in which much water vapor is being given off requires the 
 application of more heat than wlien only one or two dishes 
 are in it. 
 
 In baking doughs, the larger the mass the lower must be 
 the temperature in order that the heat may have time to 
 penetrate to the interior and expand the gas and harden 
 the albumen and gluten. If the temperature is too high 
 at first, a crust forms, preventing the proper expansion of 
 the loaf and hindering the penetration of the heat. 
 
 Thin loaves, pieces of meat, etc., need much less time for 
 cooking, because the heat penetrates quickly. Higher tem- 
 peratures may be used, as the food is cooked before the 
 surface begins to be burned. 
 
 Mixtures containing much sugar or molasses burn easily. 
 
 Vegetables containing much fiber need long boiling to 
 soften them and separate the cellulose. Young, green vege- 
 tables contain less fiber and require less time in cooking. 
 
 Bearing all the above in mind, the following tables may 
 serve as a general guide for beginners. When it is possible 
 to do so, TEST. 
 
 371 
 
TIME TABLE. 
 
 Boiling 15a king 
 
 Meals (4 to 5 lbs.) — 2 to r» liours. Bcof rib (niediiiin, I lbs.) — 1 hour, 
 
 (Tougi\ ini'iils slioulil br kept If) miii. 
 
 bolow boilin;;'. 1S(»' F.) Hcd' I'ib ( iiK-dium, S ll)s. )— l] hDurs, 
 
 Fish (li to n lbs.) — ibi to If) mill- 15 niin. 
 
 utes. LcH' of lamb — 1 liour, 15 o mlmilt'S. 
 
 Ham (12 to M lbs.) — 1 to 5 Porlt (rib)— 3 to 4 hours. 
 
 hours. Veal (!<«) — 3 to 4 hours. 
 
 Corned IVh'at ( (J to 8 Ib.s.) — 4 to C Chitkcu (2 to 4 lbs.) — 1 to 1 1/3 
 
 liours. hours. 
 
 Potatoes, v/liit< — 20 to 30 min- Turkey (S to 30 lbs.) — 2 to 3 
 
 utes. hours. 
 Potatoes, swcH't — 15 to 25 min- l-'isii ( ;'. to 4 lbs.) — 15 to (!o min- 
 utes, utes. 
 Peas, green — 20 to GO minutes. Braisi'd beef — 4 to 5 hours. 
 Beans, string — y^ to 1 hour. Bread, white — 45 to CO min. do- 
 Beets, young — 45 minutes. pending on shape of loaf. 
 Beets, old — 3 or 4 houi s. Bread, Graham — 35 to 45 min- 
 Onions — 40 to GO minutes. utes. 
 
 Cauliflower — 20 to 25 minutes. (^uick Doughs — 8 to 15 ininnles. 
 
 Cabbage, eut up — 20 to 25 min- Cookies — 8 to 10 minvites. 
 
 utes. Cake, thin — 15 to 30 minutes. 
 
 Turnips, parsnips — 30 to 45 min- Cake, loaf — 40 to 60 minutes. 
 
 utes. Pudding, Indian, etc. — •:'> hours or 
 
 Carrots — 1 hour ; less if young. more. 
 
 Green corn — 8 to 15 minutes. Bread Pudding — 20 to 4 5 min.. 
 
 Spinach — 15 to 20 minutes. depending on sha]H' and muu- 
 
 Squash — 20 to 30 minutes. ber of eggs. 
 
 Asparagus — 20 to 30 minutes. IMes — 30 to 45 minutes. 
 
 Diced Vegetables — 10 to 20 min- Senlloped Dishes — 15 to 20 miu. 
 
 utes. Baked Beans — 12 hours or longer. 
 
 OVEN TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Entrr at Keep at 
 
 Roast Meats 480° F. 350" F. 
 
 Fish 425° F. 350° F. 
 
 Bread 440° F. 400° V. 
 
 Popovers 480° 1^ 450° ¥. 
 
 Cookies, Puff Pa.stc 480° F. 450° F. 
 
 Quick Dou^lis 480° \\ 480^^ V. 
 
 Ginger liread and Molasses Mixture 380° \\ 380° V. 
 
 Pkiin Cake 380° F. 380° F. 
 
 Sponge Cake 350° V. 340° 1'. 
 
 Baked Custard 350° V. lliglier in water 
 
 Those tomperaturc^s ar(> i'or gas ovcmis, with th(?rniometer through 
 the top. An o\en door * Mherinostat " sliouhl register from .10° to 
 70° h'ss. Pew oi" these are accurate in tlieir readings, but after being 
 tested a few times they are useful in obtaining desired temperatures 
 tlioieafter. 
 
 8 
 
 372 
 
In addition to the methods of processes of applying heat, 
 there are a few fundamental processes in cooking, i. e., 
 thickening, leavening, shortening and flavoring. 
 
 THICKENING AGENTS 
 
 The common thickening agents are flour, corn starch, 
 rice flour, potato flour, arrow root, eggs ; also gelatin, sea 
 moss, junket for milk, and pectin of unripe fruits stiffen 
 liquids on cooling. 
 
 Proportions 
 
 One level tablespoon of flour will thicken one cup of 
 liquid for soups. 
 
 Two level tablespoons of flour will thicken one cup of 
 drippings or other liquid for gravies and sauces. 
 
 Five level tablespoons of browned flour will thicken one 
 cup of liquid for gravy. 
 
 The thickening power of corn starch is about twice that 
 of flour. 
 
 Four level tablespoons of corn starch will stiffen about 
 one pint of liquid, as in corn starch pudding. 
 
 Two good sized eggs to one pint of milk make a custard — 
 one tgg to a cup for soft custard or baked cup custard ; 
 three eggs to a pint of milk for a large mold custard. 
 
 One level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen 
 about one pint of liquid, if cooled on ice. 
 
 LEAVENING AGENTS 
 
 Doughs are made light or porous in the following ways : 
 
 (a) By the production (and expansion by heat) of car- 
 
 bon dioxide gas from the combination of baking 
 soda with some acid substance. 
 
 (b) From carbon dioxide gas produced by the growth 
 
 of yeast — a microscopic plant. 
 
 (c) From the expansion of entangled air, incorporated 
 
 in the dough by means of ( i ) beating batters ; 
 (2) folding thick doughs; (3) beating air into 
 eggs, especially the whites — then folding them 
 into the mixture, 
 (d) From the expansion of water to steam. 
 
 373 
 
Proportions 
 
 Use two level teaspoons baking powder to one cup of 
 flour. 
 
 Use one teaspoon less of baking powder for each egg 
 added after two have been used. 
 
 Use one-half teaspoon soda with one and a quarter tea- 
 spoon cream of tartar. 
 
 Use one-half teaspoon soda with one cup sour milk. 
 
 Use one-half teaspoon soda with one-half cup molasses. 
 
 Two teaspoons baking powder are equivalent to one-half 
 teaspoon soda in the above combinations. 
 
 The yeast plant grows best at 75 to 90 degrees F. It 
 changes sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Flour 
 contains a small proportion of sugar and during bread mak- 
 ing some of the starch is changed into sugar, but the yeast 
 begins to act more quickly if a little sugar or glucose is 
 added at first. Salt and fats in quantity hinder the growth 
 of the yeast. Low temperatures stop the growth almost 
 completely ; high temperatures kill the plant. 
 
 When eggs are used as leavening agents, the whites are 
 beaten separately, as they will hold much more air than 
 the yolks, and folded into the mixture the last thing, break- 
 ing as few air cells as possible. 
 
 \Mien air is depended on for leavening agent, all mate- 
 rials are kept as cold as possible. Cold air expands more 
 on heating than warm air. In pastry making, heat also 
 melts the fat, so that the dough cannot be handled. 
 
 SHORTENING 
 
 Fats are added to doughs to make the product brittle — 
 friable — "short," and to enrich the mixture. The fat coun- 
 teracts the adhesive properties of the gluten and starch 
 in flour. 
 
 Pastry flours contain less gluten than In-cad tlmu-s and 
 so require less shortening. 
 
 r.utter and oleomargarine contain about one-eighth water 
 and salt, and thus have less shortening powers than lard, 
 drippings, snowdrift, cnttolene, etc., which contain no water. 
 
 Proportions 
 
 Two cups of flour (eight ounces) made into puff paste 
 requires eight ounces (one cup) of shortening. 
 
 10 
 
 374 
 
Two cups of flour in ordinary pie crust requires four 
 ounces (one-half cup) of shortening. 
 
 Two cups of ilonr in cookies requires four ounces (one- 
 half cup) of shortening, or less. 
 
 Two cups of flour in cake requires about three ounces of 
 shortening. 
 
 Two cups of flour in short cake requires two ounces (one- 
 fourth cup) of shortening, or more. 
 
 Two cups of flour in tea biscuits requires one-half to one 
 ounce (one to two tablespoons) or more of shortening. 
 
 In yeast doughs less shortening is used — from one-half 
 to an ounce to two cups of flour. The tenacity of the 
 gluten is required to hold the carbon dioxide gas slowly 
 formed by the yeast, hence too much shortening prevents 
 proper rising. 
 
 Shortening for batters may be melted and mixed in, but 
 in doughs which are to be rolled — pastry, cookies, short 
 cake, biscuit, etc. — the fat should be cold and hard and cut 
 into the flour with a knife, or rubbed in with the tips of the 
 fingers. 
 
 FLAVORING 
 
 The flavoring materials most commonly used are salt, 
 sugar, spices and extracts. The fine art of cookery con- 
 sists of developing the full natural flavor of the foods them- 
 selves and in combining them in pleasing ways. 
 
 The amount of salt to be used depends, in general, on the 
 total volume of the food. When food tastes salty, too much 
 has been used. A safe proportion is one teaspoon salt to 
 one quart of liquid in soups, sauces, or to one quart of 
 flour in doughs, and for cereals one teaspoon to each pint 
 of water used. When the fl"avors are delicate, somewhat 
 less salt is used, and with strong flavors, somewhat more. 
 Cakes in which much salt butter is used do not need more 
 salt. 
 
 The quantity of sugar to be used depends on the taste 
 desired. Foods served frozen need more sweetening than 
 when at ordinary temperatures. On the other hand, foods 
 that are served warm taste somew^hat sweeter than when at 
 ordinary temperature. 
 
 II 
 
 375 
 
RECIPES 
 
 The following recipes were furnx, hed by Miss Anna Barrows, 
 teacher of cookery, Columbia Universuy, author of Principles of 
 Coolcery, or adapted by the editor from the various standard recipes 
 used in cooking schools: 
 
 WATER: EXTRACTING FLAVOR. 
 Tea. 
 
 Heat an earthenware teapot with hot water. Empty it 
 and put in one teaspoon of tea for each measuring cup of 
 fresh boiling water. Let it stand in a warm place two or 
 three minutes. Strain and serve at once. If the tea boils or 
 stands too long with the leaves it is unfit to drink. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Use one-fourth cup of cofifee for one pint of water. 
 Place fine ground coiTee in strainer in the coffee pot ; add 
 actually boiling water slozvly, a spoonful or two at a time. 
 Cover between additions Pour through a second time if 
 desired stronger. 
 
 Or: Mix one-fourth cap coffee and one teaspoon beaten 
 ^gg with a little cold water, add the remainder of one pint 
 of water boiling hot. Let it boil up, pour from the spout 
 and turn back into the pot and leave for ten minutes where 
 it will keep hot but not boil. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 Stock is the basis for all soups, except milk or cream 
 soups, to which it is sometimes added. From a pint to a 
 quart of cold salted water is used to each pound of meat 
 and bone, both of which should be in small pieces. Let 
 stand one hour, heat slowly and simmer gently for four 
 hours or more, strain and cool quickly. Remove the hard- 
 ened fat before using. About a cup of mixed vegetables — 
 carrot, onion, parsley, celery, etc. — may be added during 
 the last hour. Mixed herbs and spices, as bay-leaf, blade of 
 mace, two or three cloves and pepper corns, may be tied 
 in cheese cloth and removed from the liquor when sufficient 
 flavor has been extracted. 
 
 12 
 
 376 
 
Bouillon — usually made from beef with little bone and 
 no vegetables. Brown Stock — some of the meat and a part 
 of the ve2:etables brow^ied in hot fat or marrow. White 
 Stock — made from chicken, veal, or fish; no flavoring 
 which gives color added. Macaroni, Vermicelli, Noodle, 
 Rice, Barley Soup and the like — cook about one-fourth 
 cup of dry material until tender and add a quart of hot 
 stock, or use cooked left-overs. Julienne Soup — one-half 
 cup mixed cooked vegetables cut in cubes, strips or fancy 
 shapes, to one quart of stock. 
 
 RESTORING WATER. 
 
 Dried Fruits and Vegetables. 
 
 Pick over, cover w^ith cold water, leave for half an hour, 
 then wash thoroughly, inspecting each portion and drain. 
 Again cover with cold water and soak 12 to 24 hours, and 
 then cook slowly until tender. Add sugar if desired for sauce 
 when nearly done, or use like fresh fruit for pies, short- 
 cake, etc. 
 
 Prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, pears and vegetables 
 are treated in this way. 
 
 THICKENING. 
 Sauces. 
 
 Methods of mixing: (i) Melt butter (or other fat) in 
 saucepan, stir in dry flour, cook and stir until frothy all 
 over, then add liquid slowly, hot or cold, while stirring ; 
 cook again until thick, stirring until smooth. 
 
 (2) Rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm 
 liquid in a double boiler, then cook and stir until thick and 
 smooth. 
 
 (3) When cream or less butter is used, rub the flour 
 smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the remain- 
 der, which should be hot, and cook in double boiler until 
 smooth. Then add butter and seasoning. 
 
 Thin Sauce: One level tablespoon fat, one tablespoon 
 flour and one cup liquid, one-fourtl] teaspoon salt, few grains 
 pepper (white). 
 
 Suitable for creamed potatoes, macaroni, toast, etc. 
 
 13 
 
 377 
 
Medium Saucp:: Two tablespoons fat, two tablespoons 
 flour and one cup of liquid. Seasoning. 
 For general use with fish and vegetables. 
 
 Thick Sauck: Two to four tablespoons of fat and three 
 or four of flour for each cup of liquid, either milk or milk 
 and stock. 
 
 This is the basis of souflles and croquettes. 
 
 White Sauce may be varied by different flavors and gar- 
 nishes, such as capers, celery, mushrooms, oysters, lobsters, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Tomato for the liquid in sauce may be seasoned with 
 onion, herbs and spices, by cooking them with it for a short 
 time before straining. 
 
 Spanish Sauce is tomato sauce with the addition of 
 onion and peppers. 
 
 Dutch or Hollandaise Sauce: To one cup white or 
 milk sauce add one or two beaten egg yolks and cook in 
 double boiler like custard. Flavor wath one tablespoon lemon 
 juice. 
 
 Brown Sauce for Roast or Pan Broiled Meats: After 
 placing the meat on the platter drain out any fat in the pan 
 and put some water to soak off the browned juice and flour. 
 
 For each cup of gravy put two tablespoons of the fat in 
 a saucepan and brown two tablespoons of flour in it; then 
 add one cup of the water from the pan. Cook like white 
 sauce. Season as desired with salt and pepper. 
 
 Or, ]\Ielt and brown two tablespoons of butter in a sauce- 
 pan ; add two or three tablespoons of flour and continue 
 the brownin::^-. When coffee color, add one cup water or 
 stock or milk. 
 
 Welsh Rarebit. 
 
 Heat one-half cup of cream in the blazier of a chafing dish 
 or in a skillet, add one tablespoon of butter creamed w^ith one 
 teaspoon of corn-starch, one-fourth teaspoon of salt, and a 
 few grains of cayenne. When thick, set over the hot water 
 or heat very slowly and add one-half pound of soft mild 
 cheese cut up fine and one-half teaspoon of mushroom ket- 
 
 14 
 
 378 
 
chup or Worcestershire sauce or one-fourth teaspoon of 
 mustard. Stir until the cheese is melted and pour over crack- 
 ers or thin toast. 
 
 Cream Soups. 
 
 Cook the vegetable till soft and rub through a strainer, 
 using all or a part of the water in which the vegetable is 
 cooked, except with potatoes. Combine with an equal quan- 
 tity of white sauce or white stock or mixture of the two.' 
 Season. If too thick, add hot milk. Beaten egg may be 
 added just before serving if too thin. 
 
 Asparagus, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Corn, Cucum- 
 bers, Lettuce, Mushrooms, Onions, Spinach, Summer 
 Squash, Turnips, Water Cress. 
 
 Cream of Peas. Beans, Lentil, Potato and other thick 
 soups have half quantity or less of white sauce added to 
 keep the materials from settling. 
 
 Cream of Chicken, Fish, etc., made of stock from bone, 
 skin and other inedible portions combined with about equal 
 quantities of hot white sauce seasoned in various ways. 
 
 Corn Starch Blanc Mange. 
 
 Blend two tablespoons cornstarch with an equal bulk of 
 milk, heat remainder of one cup milk in double boiler. Stir 
 the hot milk into the moistened starch, return to double 
 boiler, stir on stove till thick, put over water, cover and 
 cook twenty to thirty minutes or longer. Add two table- 
 spoons sugar, a bit of salt, flavor and put in moulds. 
 
 Variations : For liquid use part thin cream and part 
 strong coffee, or all fruit juice. 
 
 Put layers of raw or cooked fruit alternately with the 
 blanc mange in the moulds. 
 
 Blend two tablespoons of cocoa with the sugar before it 
 is added to the cornstarch mixture. 
 
 Irish Moss Blanc Mange. 
 
 To soften the moss, soak one-half cup in cold water, wash 
 pick over and cook in one pint of water in a double boiler 
 for about half an hour. Strain and make up to a quart with 
 scalded rich milk or thin cream ; add a teaspoon of extract 
 
 15 
 
 379 
 
flavoring and one-fourth teaspoon of salt. Or cook the 
 softened moss directly in one quart of milk, season and 
 strain. Put in molds. 
 
 Use of Gelatine. 
 
 One level tablespoon granulated gelatine will stiffen about 
 one pint liquid. Different makes of sheet, shredded, granu- 
 lated and powdered gelatine may be used interchangeably 
 by weight. A larger proportion of gelatine is required for 
 large moulds than for small. A little salt improves most 
 gelatine combinations. 
 
 Soak gelatine in cold water until soft, dissolve by adding 
 boiling liquid, sweeten and flavor with coffee, lemon, or 
 other fruit juices and pulp. Keep the proportions of gelatine 
 and total liquid right. A little more gelatine is required in 
 hot weather, unless ice is used. 
 
 Such jellies may be served with whipped cream or boiled 
 custard. Every package of gelatine is accompanied with 
 directions for its use. 
 
 Fruit Pudding. 
 
 Make a jelly flavored with fruit juice, slightly increasing 
 the proportion of gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, combine 
 nearly an equal amount of fruit with it. With each half 
 cup of jelly may be used one date, one-half fig, two or three 
 almonds, one-fourth orange, one-fourth banana, etc. 
 
 Snow Pudding or Fruit Sponge. 
 
 Beat one Qgg stiff' and add one cup half stiffened jelly 
 gradually. Or, beat the jelly till frothing and blend the 
 stiff egg with that. Mould and chill. Serve with soft cus- 
 tard sauce made of the Qgg yolks. 
 
 Bavarian Cream. 
 
 Stiffen a soft custard, or fruit juice, or combination of 
 the two, with gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, fold in stiff 
 whipped cream. 
 
 Baked Custards. 
 
 Scald one pint milk. Beat two eggs till smooth, add 
 one-fourth cup sugar, a bit of salt, and blend with the hot 
 milk. Strain into buttered molds, set in a pan of hot water 
 
 16 
 
 380 
 
and bake, until firm. Put a thin knife blade in center of 
 custard and if done no milk will adhere to the blade as it 
 is removed. 
 
 The same proportions may be used for custard pies, or 
 may be combined with cooked rice for a pudding. 
 
 Soft Custard. 
 
 Use the same proportions as for baked custards, or three 
 egg yolks in place of two whole eggs. Pour hot miik over 
 the beaten eggs, stirring constantly. Sugar may be added 
 before or after cooking the custard. 
 
 Return milk and tgg to the double boiler and cook, 
 stirring all the time until the custard thickens and coats the 
 spoon, three minutes or longer. If cooked too long the 
 custard will curdle. Cool quickly. Flavor before serving. 
 
 Egg Timbals. 
 
 Use only one-fourth to one-half cup liquid, milk or stock, 
 for each egg. Flavor with salt, pepper, etc. Cook like 
 custards, turn from mold and serve hot with tomato sauce. 
 
 Thickened Custards. 
 
 Filling for Cream Pufifs, Layer Cake, Sauces, Ices, etc. 
 
 Make a smooth paste with one- fourth cup flour and a 
 little milk and scald the remainder of one pint of milk. 
 When it is hot, blend carefully with the flour and cook in 
 a double boiler twenty minutes or more. Then combine 
 with the beaten yolks of two or three eggs and stir steadily 
 while cooking three to five minutes longer. Take from the 
 fire and sweeten and flavor according to its use. For 
 filling for a layer cake one-fourth cup sugar may serve, 
 while for cream puffs one-half cup or more will be needed. 
 
 The sanie foundation may be combined with an equal 
 quantity of cream or of fruit juice, or of each, made very 
 sweet and frozen as ice cream. 
 
 Frozen Desserts — General Directions. 
 
 All mixtures must be sweeter and more highly flavored 
 than if served without freezing. Cool thoroughly before 
 packing in ice and salt. Use three measures fine cracked 
 ice to one measure of salt. 
 
 17 
 
 381 
 
Lemon Ice. 
 
 Mix in proportion of the juice of one lemon, one-fourth 
 cup of sugar and one cup of water. Or, make a quantity 
 of syrup, 4 measures of sugar to 2 of water, and use 4 
 measures of syrup to i of fruit juice. Strain into a tin can 
 or straight glass jar with a close cover. Pack this in a 
 pail or pan with ice (or snow) and salt. Turn the can 
 around and occasionally scrape down the ice which forms 
 inside. Use other fruit juices in the same way — orange, 
 pineapple, raspberry — to which lemon juice is usually added, 
 grape juice or acid jelly. 
 
 Pineapple Sherbet. 
 
 One can of grated pineapple, one cup of sugar, juice of 
 two lemons, one tablespoon of powdered gelatine, one quart 
 of water or milk. 
 
 Ice Cream. 
 
 Scald thin cream in double boiler, dissolve sugar in 
 the proportion of one cup to a quart, add flavoring w^ieu 
 cool — extract, one tablespoon to a quart. This is "Phila- 
 delphia" ice cream. Thickened custard made very sweet 
 and highly flavored is often called "New York" ice cream. 
 
 Mousse or Parfait. 
 
 Mix together one cup thick cream, two tablespoons pow- 
 dered sugar and flavoring. Whip cream with Qgg beater, 
 skimming off froth as it rises and draining on a sieve. 
 Return liquid to bowl and whip until no more froth will 
 rise. Turn drained froth into a mould ; cover, and bind the 
 lid with a strip of muslin dipped into melted fat. Bury in 
 ice and salt for three to four hours before serving. 
 
 Junket. 
 
 The active principle in junket is rennin or ''rennet," which 
 is extracted from the lining of calf's stomach. This will 
 coagulate or thicken warm milk but nothing else. Its prop- 
 erties are destroyed at the boiling temperature and it has 
 no action in the cold. ITcat two cups of milk to body tem- 
 perature, 90 degrees, ])owdcr junket tablet and dissolve in 
 a little water, add one-third cup of sugar dissolved in one- 
 
 18 
 
 382 
 
third cup of warm water and flavoring extract. Pour into 
 serving dishes and keep warm until set. Cool. 
 
 Caramel syrup or maple syrup may be used in place of 
 sugar. Chocolate may be added or beaten egg yolks with 
 beaten whites on top. 
 
 Jellies. 
 
 Pectin is the gelatinizing agent in jellies and jams. It is 
 a substance similar to starch and is found in most fruits 
 and some vegetables. It is most abundant when fruit is just 
 ripe or nearly so. The making of good jelly depends on 
 having the correci proportion of fruit juice, sugar, and 
 acid and on boiling. The density of the mixture should 
 be between 24 degrees and 30 degrees as measured by the 
 syrup gage at the boiling temperature, and the boiling 
 point 217 degrees F. or 103 degrees C. Long boiling alters 
 the gelatinizing properties of pectin. Too great a propor- 
 tion of sugar and violent boiling cause the sugar to crys- 
 tallize in the jelly. 
 
 Pick over and clean, or pare, core and cut up large fruits, 
 heat with or without water and cook until very soft. Juicy 
 fruits like currants and grapes need no added water, while 
 fruits like apples should be barely covered with water. 
 Strain the juice from the pulp through cheese-cloth or 
 flannel. To the strained juice granulated sugar is added 
 usually in the proportion of pint to pint, but good jelly may 
 be made with half the volume of sugar to juice. The pro- 
 portion depends on the acid and sugar in the fruit. Heat 
 slowly to dissolve sugar, and boil gently until proper density 
 is obtained, skimming froth that rises. If no syrup gauge 
 is used, test by dropping a little on a cold plate to see if 
 the jellying point is reached. Pour into sterilized glasses 
 and when set cover with melted paraftine. 
 
 The pulp may be squeezed in the straining bag to get a 
 marmalade or even a second quality jelly: or, better, heat 
 pulp again with a small amount of water and strain without 
 pressure. This process may be repeated. Boil down some- 
 what and add sugar and finish as before. Jelly may be made 
 from parings and cores. 
 
 As the presence of acid is essential to make the materials 
 jelly, lemon or currant juice is usually added to sweet flavored 
 
 1Q 
 
 383 
 
frnils. ( Si II I II I I.I i\ « >! I Ik- ic nil of (•xpi'iiiiiciils iiiadc by I )i'. 
 Coldlliwaili' ;il I 'iiiviTsil v of Illinois ;iii(l Miss Snow at 
 I 'nixiTsily of C*liiraL;()). 
 
 Soil Cooked Eggs. 
 
 riai'c <.'<4j;s in one c\\\) of hoilini^' water (o each egg in a 
 KailCi'l)an, cover and remove fnun llie lire. 
 
 i'l'oni live lo ten ininntes will l»e ri(|nire(l accordinq' to 
 I lie III mness desire(l. 
 
 ( )r, pnl ( uie ( i;v in i Mie ("ii|) < d C( )id waler and briiiL;' slowly 
 1(» Ilk' boiling point. I'luii reiiioxc the egg. 
 Hard Cooked Eggs. 
 
 i\i'ep eggs ill water just helow the hoiling point for thirty 
 niinntes. The Nolks should he dry enough to mash easily. 
 Such eg,gs are snilahle for .salads ma\' he wanned in any 
 well lla\'ored saiice. nia\' hi' sliihed h\ hK'iiding the yolks 
 with chopped meal or nuts or seasoning (d aii\' kind. 
 
 THICKENING AND LEAVENING. 
 Omelets. 
 
 There are hut two t\'pes of omelet to which sjiecial names 
 are gi\'eii from the garnish adde(l. 
 French Omelet. 
 
 lU-al an egg slightlv. A(\i\ one lahlespooii water or milk, 
 ^.easoll with salt and a dash of pepper. Turn into a hot 
 hnltered fr\ iiig p:m, which must hi' peile< tly cdeaii and 
 snioolh. Lift cooked portions with a fork. Shaki' tlu' pan 
 to pre\eiil adhesion. When all is lirm, fold and serve at 
 once. 
 PulTy Omelet. 
 
 Separate while ami \<>'k id' one egg. lU-al white still, 
 ;idd \olk and hleiid logelhei". Add sail, pepper and one 
 tahlespoon id water or imlk. km n into hnltered pan and 
 place when' it will cook sl(»wly and e\enly. When firm, 
 Told and serve. 
 
 Twit tahle^poons (^i white sance or ])read sidlened in 
 milk nia\ he ir ed instead * d' one of milk or water. ( "hojjped 
 parslcN , iW ( dier xcu'tahle. aii\ nice hits ol meat or hsli, 
 c'i:eOse, jell\. etc., may he folded into the oinelel jnst heh>ro 
 srrviiu'-. 
 
 20 
 
 384 
 
Meringues or Kisses. 
 
 lii'al c'^l;' vvliiU's with ii speck of cream of tartar. When 
 stilT fold in one- fourth ciij) powdered sn,L;ar for eacli white. 
 Idavor sh_L;htI\', (hop <»ii iiiit^reased paper, and hake slowly 
 until dry, thirty minutes or more. 
 
 hor soft inerin_i;nes on putldin^^s, use half as iinuh sn^ar. 
 Fruit Souffles. 
 
 \un- each stillly heaten e^-^- white fold in onc-fuurth cup 
 thick, sweetened fruit |)ulp, or marmalade, or jam. Partly 
 fill huttered molds, and hake like custards, until iirm. 
 
 Serve with soft custard as a sauce. 
 Sponge Cakes. 
 
 K(|ual measures of e^gs, sugar and jjoui', or the weight 
 (d the eggs in sugar, and half of the weight of the c-ggs in 
 Hour. This also ;i])|)lies to the use of egg whites oidy as 
 in angel cakes. 
 
 In other words, two large or three small eggs rightly 
 ])icn(le(l with one-h.ilf (ii|) eac-li of sugar and Hour .uid 
 carefully flavored and haked slowly will pioducc such a 
 cake as that shown on page ()^. 
 
 The yolks <d' the eggs shcjuld he he.'itcu until tliidcr and 
 lighter colored than when l)eginning the process. To llicm 
 add the sugar, one or two teas]>oons of lemon juice and a 
 l)it of gratecl rind. ( )ver the whites of the eggs sprinkle 
 a hit of salt and heal until ,^li(l. I'old them into the yolks 
 and gradiiallv sift the half cuj) of Hour ovei-, hieiiding care- 
 fully without stirring. Put into the pans and hake in a 
 gfcntle heat for twenty minutes, if in small cakes; twice as 
 long if in one mass. 
 Cream Puffs. 
 
 In a saucepan lu-at one-half cup water with two ounces 
 of hutter or less. When hoiling hot mix in one-half cup 
 of tloiu" and continue to stir while it cooks into a smooth 
 mass. Cool till it will not cook eggs and mix in one cg^ 
 and a second and heat the whole vigcjrously with the spoon. 
 Shape on greased pan some distance from each other in 
 six to twelve moimds and hake ahotit thirty minutes ac- 
 cording- to the si/.e. They should he light and dry when 
 taken fiom the ]r.\\\, otherwise they will shrink and he 
 lieavy. 
 
 21 
 
 385 
 
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 386 
 
LEAVENING AND SHORTENING. 
 Biscuit. 
 
 Two cups sifted flour, three teaspoons of baking powder, 
 one-half teaspoon of salt ; sift together, rub in one table- 
 spoon of shortening — butter, oleo, lard, cottolene or drip- 
 pings. Mix to a soft dough with about two-thirds cup 
 of milk or water. Turn onto a floured board, roll and pat 
 gently to three-quarters inch thick, cut and bake. Pastry 
 flour make more delicate biscuits than bread flour. 
 
 Dumplings for Stews : Omit shortening, add milk until 
 dough may be dropped from the spoon into boiling stew. 
 Cover tightly and cook rapidly lo minutes. 
 
 Shortcake : Rub in one-fourth cup of butter in biscuit 
 mixture. Cut like biscuit for individual shortcakes or use 
 a square pan and divide with knife dipped in melted butter 
 so that portions may separate readily after baking. 
 
 Use shortcake mixture for covering to meat pies, apple 
 dumplings, etc. 
 
 MufBns. 
 
 Two cups of sifted flour, two teaspoons of baking powder, 
 one-half teaspoon of salt, one tablespoon of sugar; sift and 
 add one tablespoon of shortening melted, one beaten &gg and 
 one cup of milk. Beat together thoroughly and bake in a 
 quick oven. 
 
 Blueberry Muffins : Use a little less milk in mufliP 
 mixture and add one cup of blueberries and a little more 
 sugar. Chopped apples or other fruit may be used in same 
 way. 
 
 Tea Muffins : In the above muflin mixture use one- 
 fourth cup of sugar and of butter and add two more eggs. 
 
 Drop Cakes. 
 
 One and one-half cups of graham flour, one-half teaspoon 
 each of salt and soda, and one-fourth cup of brown sugar; 
 sift together and mix with three-fourths cup of thick sour 
 milk into stiff batter which drop from a spoon onto a 
 greased pan or in heated gem pans and bake quickly 12 to 
 15 minutes. Sweet milk and two teaspoons of baking powder 
 may be substituted as well as rye and other flours. 
 
 23 
 
 387 
 
Cereal Gems. 
 
 Use even quantities of flour and softened cooked break- 
 fast food, one teaspoon of baking powder to a cup of ma- 
 terial, add sufficient milk to make a batter which will drop 
 from the spoon. Mix thoroughly and bake in hot buttered 
 gem pans. 
 
 Boston Brown Bread. 
 
 Sift together one cup of cornmeal, one cup of rye meal, 
 or entire wheat flour, one teaspoon of soda, one-half tea- 
 spoon salt. Mix with one-half cup molasses and one cup 
 sour milk. If not soft enough to smooth out in the bowl, 
 add a little water. Put in greased tins with tight cover 
 and steam three hours or more. 
 
 Corn Cake. 
 
 Sift together three-quarter cups each of cornmeal and 
 flour, one-half teaspoon each of salt and soda, one table- 
 spoon of sugar. Mix with one beaten Qgg and one cup of 
 thick sour milk or cream. Bake in muffin pans or single 
 pan, twentv to thirty minutes, according to thickness. 
 
 The cornmeal may be scalded with an equal volume of 
 boiling water, left to cool, or over night, and more shorten- 
 ing, two eggs and a little sugar may be added. 
 
 Griddle Cakes. 
 
 Into one pint of sifted flour mix one-half teaspoon of 
 salt, three teaspoons of baking powder and one teaspoon 
 of sugar. Beat two eggs until very light, turn into one cup 
 of milk without stirring, add the mixture to the flour with 
 two tablespoonsful of melted butter; beat well, and add 
 more milk to make a batter about like thick cream. Beat 
 vigorously, especially before each frying. 
 
 Frv on hot griddle, grease with rind of pork or ham. 
 Drop batter from end of the spoon, making circular cakes. 
 Turn when full of bubbles. 
 
 Waffles. 
 
 Ai 
 tnre. 
 
 Are cooked on a waffle iron, using the griddle cake mix- 
 
 24 
 
 388 
 
Plain Cake (''Lightning" Cake). 
 
 Place the flour sifter in the mixing bowl and put in 
 it one and one-half cups of flour, three-fourths cup of fine 
 granulated sugar, two level teaspoons of baking powder, 
 one-half teaspoon of salt. Sift into the bowl. 
 
 In the measuring cup, melt one-fourth cup of butter (or 
 oleo), break in two eggs, fill up the cup with milk. Add 
 one-half teaspoon flavoring extract or saltspoon of spice. 
 Mix with the dry ingredients and beat well two or three 
 minutes. Bake in sheet or greased muffin tins in quick 
 oven. 
 
 Variations : Add two tablespoons of cocoa, or an ounce 
 of melted chocolate. Use one cup caramel or maple syrup 
 in place of sugar. Leave out part of the sugar for Cottage 
 Pudding. 
 
 Cookies. 
 
 Rub one-half cup of butter until creamy, gradually add 
 one cup of sugar, then put in one tgg and beat together 
 thoroughly. Next add, alternately, one-half cup of milk 
 or water and one pint of flour, in which two teaspoons of 
 baking powder have been sifted. Use enough more flour 
 to make a soft dough, from one to two cupfuls, according 
 to the nature of the flour, roll out thin, cut with a cookie 
 cutter or in fancy shapes, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Variations : Before all the flour is added, divide into 
 four portions; to one add one teaspoon of lemon extract, 
 to another one-half cup of desiccated cocoanut ; one-half 
 ounce of chocolate melted, or a teaspoon of cocoa, sifted in 
 with a little flour; to the fourth, one teaspoon of mixed 
 spice and one-half cup of chopped raisins, etc. Or flavor 
 the portions with ginger, almond with chopped almonds on 
 top, or with dates, figs, nuts. Or use less flour and drop 
 from a spoon for a soft thick cake. 
 Gingerbread.^ 
 
 Sift together two cups of flour, one-half teaspoon each 
 of salt and soda and one teaspoon of ginger. Mix with one 
 cup of molasses and two tablespoons of fat softened in one- 
 half cup of hot water. Bake twenty minutes or more in a 
 moderate oven. 
 
 25 
 
 389 
 
Doughnuts. 
 
 Sift together four cups of flour, one teaspoou of salt, 
 tliree teaspoons of baking- powder, one-half teaspoon of 
 mixed spice and one cup of sugar. J\lix with one egg and 
 one cup of milk. 
 
 Sour milk and soda may be used in place of baking pow- 
 der. For richer dcuighnuts, two eggs and one tablespoon of 
 butter may be used. 
 
 Plain Pastry. 
 
 Sift two cups of flour with one-half teaspoon of salt and 
 cut in with a knife, one-fourth cup or two ounces of short- 
 ening. ]\lix with about one-half cup of ice water into a 
 stiit dough. Roll out and spread with one ounce of butter, 
 fold and add a second ounce of butter in the same way, 
 making one-half cup of shortening in all. For upper crusts 
 pjore shortening may be rolled in if desired. Keep every- 
 thing as cool as possible. The lightness of the pastry de- 
 pends on the amount and coolness of the air enclosed and 
 the flakiness on the number of layers of fat and dough pro- 
 duced b\' folding and rolling. 
 
 YEAST DOUGHS— GENERAL PROPORTIONS. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Bread 
 
 j\Iufiins . . . . 
 
 Rolls 
 
 Fancy Rolls 
 
 Buns 
 
 Coitee Cake 
 
 Short- 
 ening 
 
 Liquid 
 
 I tsp. /J oz. +; I cup 
 
 Yeast 
 Cake 
 
 I tbs. 
 
 1 tbs. 
 
 2 tbs. 
 Yi cup 
 M cup 
 
 ]'i oz. 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 2 oz. 
 2 OZ. 
 2 OZ. 
 
 . 4 to 1 
 /4 to I 
 J4 to I 
 
 I cup 
 I cup 
 I cup 
 
 I cup I y\ to I 
 
 Yi cup Ya to I 
 
 4 to I 
 
 Flour 
 
 3 cups 
 
 2 cups I -f- 
 
 3 cups 
 3cups+; I + 
 
 ! 
 
 3cups-fi 
 
 2 cups ' 2 -f- 
 
 Eggs 
 
 26 
 
 390 
 
Bread — Short Process. 
 
 For eacli loaf, use one cup of milk scalded or half milk 
 and half hot water, or all warm water, one-half teaspoon 
 of salt and of sugar, one-half or more compressed yeast 
 cake, softened with luke warm water, and about three cups 
 of bread flo.ir. Alix well and kneed until the dough is 
 smo(^th and springy. The dough should now be warm. Let 
 rise till double, shape, put in pan and let rise again and bake. 
 Or this amount of dough may be shaped into a dozen or 
 two dozen small rolls before final rising. 
 
 Entire Wheat Bread. 
 
 Scald one cup of milk ; in it melt one teaspoon of butter 
 and half a teaspoon each of sugar and salt. When luke- 
 warm, add half a cake of compressed yeast, softened in 
 one- fourth cup of warm water. Stir in between two and 
 three cups of flour to make a dough stifif enough to hold 
 its shape. Mix thoroughly with a knife, but do not knead 
 it until after it has risen to double its bulk, then shape into 
 small loaves, let rise until double in size, bake in hot oven 
 about half an hour. 
 
 One-fourth cup of molasses may be used in place of the 
 sugar if preferred. 
 
 Rolls — Long Process. 
 
 For rolls or two loaves of bread, put into the mixing bowl 
 one tablespoon of butter or lard, one tablespoon of sugar, 
 one teaspoon of salt and one pint of scalded milk. When luke- 
 warm, add one quarter yeast cake softened in water ana three 
 cups of flour. Cover and let rise. In the morning, add to 
 this sponge about three cups of flour to make thick enough 
 to knead. Let rise till double, shape, put in pans, rise again 
 and bake. 
 
 Muffins : Add two or three eggs to the sponge, but no 
 more flour. Bake in muflin pans. 
 
 Coffee Cake. 
 
 Work into one pint of light dough, two-thirds cup of 
 white sugar, one egg, and two ounces of melted butter. 
 Mix thoroughly to a creamy, smooth batter by beating. 
 
 27 
 
 391 
 
Toiii iiild JkiII.iw p.iii :iii<l Id 11', (• ;iL;aiii. Sill siij.',;ir ;iini 
 ( iiiii.'iiiK HI (t\(i llic hip :iii(l li.ikc ill ;i (|iiirk ovi'ii, Si'l'Vf 
 w ;ii III. 
 
 Use of Stnle Hrcnd. 
 Bread Cases. 
 
 ('ill -,Ii(^(s (»f bread I \vn inclics thick and lliroo Indies 
 Imiii;. i\(iiin\c pari oj" ctiiinhs from llic ((iili r, Icaviiij^' a 
 littllnw s|)ac'e. S|)ri'a(l willi build' and biowii in llie oven. 
 
 Croutons. 
 
 (ill dale linad iiilo slices aboiil one lliird iiicli lliiek and 
 llicii ill cubes. r»ake in inoderale oven iiiilil <.M»l(|eii bidwii. 
 
 Dry Ci unihs. 
 
 ( 1 11 I . reiiiainiiii'; lioni cioulons, elc\, should be driiMJ 
 in llie oxen, lolled and silled, llie line ones used lor cro- 
 (|nelles, etc., llie coar.er lor ^^lu^^nl^ or es("alloped dishes. 
 
 C Vack'er cniiiib'. ina\ be used in the ^>aule \va\'. 
 
 Buttered Crumbs. 
 
 Mell biillir and slir in ciuml)S till the Imller is evenly 
 distribuled. 
 
 ( )ne ounce id biiller for one cup cd' crumbs is a fair pro- 
 porliMii. ihillered crumbs seasoned and uioisleiied are used 
 lor sliiHinj.'; i»eppt'rs. loiiialoes, lisli, poullry, etc. 
 
 Filling for Fish or Fowl. 
 
 ( )iie cup of crumbs will serve Uw a small fish or chicken, 
 while a lai<;e fowl or liirke\ will iH-(|uire two or three. 
 With i-acli cup (d' crumbs blend one ounce or more of butter 
 or c'hopped fat salt pork, <Hie teaspoon parsle\' or iiiixi'd 
 lu'rl)s, one half UM.pooii salt and a lillK- pepper. Moisten 
 with milk, water or slock. I'Oi- lish season also with lemon 
 and onion jnicH'. 
 
 Maslud potato or chesluuls ma\' be used instead < d' 
 crumbs, 
 
 2e 
 
 392 
 
Fat— To Try Out and Clarify. 
 
 Cut the fat — beef suet or Hank fat — in small pieces, re- 
 moving skin and bits of lean meat. Cover with cold salted 
 v/ater and leave in a cold jjlace for several hours. iJrain 
 ofif the water, and if possibU- soak a^ain, and drain. Cook 
 slowly in moderate oven or in ui)|)er ])art of the flonble 
 boiler till the fat has melted ancl the scraps are crisj), but 
 not brown. Strain and cool. Slices of raw yxAaio or pieces 
 of charcoal cooked in the fat bc-fore straining will absorb 
 any im])urities. 
 
 lieef, pfjrk and chicken fat may be ccjinbincd. Snr]>lns fat 
 from roast beef, corned beef, etc., may be added. 
 
 Such fat may be used for shortening muffms, j^in^er- 
 bread, etc., iov ^reasin^ pans, for some sauces and soups, 
 or for deej) frying". Mutton fat may be prcpaied to add to 
 fry fat. 
 
 I'^at frr;m bacon, ham or sausaj^es should be reserved for 
 hashes <jr warminj^ over potatoes. 
 
 MEATS. 
 
 Broiled Meats, Chops, Steaks. 
 
 Hie meat slxjuld be cut in convenient pieces, and some 
 of the bone, g^ristle and fat removed. Sections one inch 
 thick will be more juicy than thinner ones. Wipe the meat 
 with a dam]) cloth, grease the broiler or pan with a i)iece of 
 the fat, or brush melted fat over the meat. [Mace tlie meat 
 where intense heat will reach it at first, under the gas flame, 
 or in a hot pan on top of the stove, or over hot coals. Turn 
 often at first, every half minute if directly over the coals, 
 until well seared and browned on both sides, then move it 
 farther away from ihe fire so the heat may ])enetrate to 
 the center without burning the outside. 
 
 As the meat is seared (ju the surface the juices are driven 
 towards the center, and expanding with the heat tend to 
 make the surface of the meat ]ju ff outward. This is very 
 apparent between the wires of a double broiler anrl ]:)robably 
 is the best indication that the meat is cooked. 
 
 Steaks one inch thick should cook in i]\'c or six minutes 
 to be rare, eight or ten ininnh-s to be well done, the time 
 
 2J 
 
 393 
 
varying according- io (lie inctliod of cooking and intensity 
 of heat. MuUoii chops may be served rare, Iamb usually 
 well done, veal and pork always must be thoroughly cooked. 
 
 Broiled meats should be served at once on a hot dish 
 ctnd with slight seasoning beside their own juices. If kept 
 hot the cooking is continued too far. 
 
 r^ish and chicken may be partially broiled and then fin- 
 ished in the oven. Apply \\\v direct heal mainly to the cut 
 inside surface, as the skin burns easily. 
 
 Roast Meats. 
 
 Trim, wipe, score the fat ])()rti()n .and rnl) salt into that, 
 place on rack in pan, sprinkle Horn" all over it, put skin side 
 down. Have oven very hot at lirst to sear outside quickly 
 to prevent escape of juice, then reduce heat, liaste occa- 
 .iionally as needed with the fat which cooks out into the 
 pan, and turn the roast over to cook it evenly. 
 
 If there is danger of burniug put some water in the i)an 
 after the meat is seared, but this is not necessary if heat of 
 (wen is lowered. 
 
 A sirloin or rib roast weighing five pounds will recjuiie 
 a.bout one lunu", or longer, if it is to be well done. A surer 
 rule for lime of cooking is to ahow fifteen minutes for each 
 iiu^h in lliiekness, or twentv minutes if wanted well done. 
 
 Braised Beef. 
 
 UvSe a thick section of the lower part of the round, two 
 to four ])otnids. Trim, wipe and sprinkle with (lour, season 
 with salt and i^epjKM". Brown under the gas or in hot fat. 
 Put in casserole, partly cover with water or brown or 
 tomato sauc(\ Cover closely and cook in very slow oven 
 tliriH' to five hours. 
 
 Meat Stew. 
 
 Neck or breast of lamb of veal or inexpensive cuts of 
 beef mav be used in this way. Cover bone? with cold water 
 and heat sknvly. Cut meat in convenient pieces, roll in 
 flour seasoned with salt and pepper. Fry bits of fat, then 
 
 30 
 
 394 
 
brown sections of prepared meat and oni(jn if desired. I'ut 
 meat in kettle with bones when water is hot. 
 
 Wlien nearly tender add carrot, turnip, pcpjXTs, or celery 
 cut in small shapes about one cup each to one ])ound of 
 meat. 
 
 Potatoes j)ared and cut in quarters may be added 20 to 30 
 minutes before servinj:^, ancl dum|)linp;s 10 minutes before 
 serving-. 
 
 Escalloped Fish or Meat. 
 
 Equal measures of cooked minced meat, bread cruml)s 
 and white or tomato sauce; or, for one measure of meat, 
 half as much sauce and one-fourth as much buttered crumbs. 
 ( I)oile(l rice or macaroni may be used instead of crumbs.) 
 
 Remove all uneatable ])ortions from meat and mince or 
 chop. Put in layers in a buttered dish, having crumbs for 
 the last. l)ake until heated thn)Uf^h and brown on top. 
 Fish or Meat Loaf, or Timbales. 
 
 Remove skin, juristic and bone from meat or fish and 
 mince fine. Combine with an equal quantity of bread 
 crumjjs or stuffinii!;- from a baked fish or roast fowl, season as 
 desired, moisten with milk or stock. Add one l)caten e^^ 
 or more to each pint of the mixture. I'ack in l)uttered 
 moulds, steam or bake until firm in center. Turn out and 
 serve with sauce. 
 
 Meat Loaf in Rice. 
 
 Line a mould with well-cooked rice. Fill with the meat 
 prepared as above. Cover with rice. Steam an hr)ur. Serve 
 witli tomato sauce. 
 
 Fish Balls. 
 
 In a stew ])an put one p\ui potatoes, pared and (juartered, 
 and one cu]) salt cod fish which has been j^icked apart in 
 cold water. Cover with boilinj^^ water and cook until the 
 potatoes are soft. Drain in a colander till no water can 
 be shake!! out. Iveturn to pan, mash thoroughly, add salt 
 if needed, a shake of ])epper, one teaspoon butter, one raw 
 ej^CS", and beat all together. Shape on a spoon or in small 
 balls and fry in deep fat, hot enough to brown them in one 
 minute. Drain on soft paper. 
 
 31 
 
 395 
 
CEREALS AND VEGETABLES. 
 
 Breakfast Foods. 
 
 Usual propoi (ii)iis — ^onc-half cup flakes or one-fonrlli cup 
 granules to one cup water, ouc-fourlh Icaspoou salt to one 
 cup water. 
 
 The denser the cereal, the more water and the longer the 
 time required. 
 
 Rrinj4' water to boiling point in ui)per ])art of douhle 
 boiler, placed directly on the stove. 
 
 Pour cereal slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly. 
 Let boiling continue about five minutes till mixture begins 
 to thicken. Tlace over boiling water in lower part of the 
 boiler. Cover and cook gently with hi lie stirring one hour 
 or more, or till lender and soft. ( )r i)ut in iMreless Cooker 
 for three hours. 
 
 Serve hot, with or without sugar, with nliIl^, cream or 
 butter. Put in moulds with fruit and serve cold as dessert. 
 Pack solidly in loaf shape, slice when cold, brown in hot 
 fat, serve hot. 
 
 Corn Meal Mush. 
 
 Mix one cup cornnical, one-foiu'th cu|) of Hour, one lea- 
 spoon salt, one cup cold milk or water. When smooth 
 blend with one pint l)oiling water, stir for about five min- 
 utes. When thicl< place over water or in steamers and 
 cook one hour or more. Serve hot or pack in i)an to fry, 
 or dip in fat and toast inider the gas. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Pick over and wash thoroughl\' or j^arboil five minutes 
 and drain. Then ])ut in a buttered dish with twice its bulk 
 of boihiig water and set in a steam cooker. In three- 
 quarters of an hour it should be tender and every kernel 
 distinct, an* I it ma\' be cooked longer without becoming 
 mushy. 
 
 Rice Croquettes. 
 
 With one pint of cooked rice (if cold, reheated) blen<l 
 one tablespoon butter and one or two beaten egg yolks. 
 Season with salt, pepper and ]iarsley, or with sugar and 
 
 32 
 
 396 
 
spice. Divide in ten or twelve portions, press in firm 
 shape, roll in egg and crumbs, and fry in deep fat. 
 
 Boston Baked Beans. 
 
 Soak one pint l)eans over night. Parboil in the morning 
 until the skins crack readily with a slight pressure. A 
 very little soda may be put into the water to help this 
 i:)roccss. Score the rind, of one-fourth pound fat salt pork 
 and rinse it. JJrain the beans and put part in the bean pot, 
 then the ])ork and cover with the beans, leaving only a 
 little of the pork rind exposed. Mix one teaspoon of salt, 
 one-fourth teaspoon of mustard and a tablespoon or more 
 of molasses as desired, add water and pour over the beans. 
 Cover and bake twelve hours or more, keeping the beans 
 fdled up with water until the last hour, when the cover 
 should be removed and the pork rind and the top layer of 
 beans should brown. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 Baked. 
 
 Choose those of equal size and scrub with brush. Cook in 
 hot oven 30 to 40 minutes, or until soft. Then crack the 
 skin to let out steam. The potato should be plump (not 
 shriveled), and the inside white and mealy. 
 
 Boiled. 
 
 Wash, pare if imperfect or old. Tf not of uniform size, 
 divide the larger ones. Put in boiling salted water and 
 cook for 20 to 30 minutes, till tender. Drain off the water 
 and shake the uncovered kettle to let the steam escape. 
 
 Riced. 
 
 Put boiled potatoes through strainer or riccr into a hot 
 dish from which they are to be served. 
 
 Mashed. 
 
 In a hot pan mash boiled potatoes. For each half pint, 
 add two tablespoons milk, one teaspoon butter, season with' 
 salt and pepper. 
 
 33 
 
 397 
 
Croquettes. 
 
 Prepare mashed potato witli less milk and one egg yolk 
 for each half pint and season with celery salt, paprika and 
 parsley. Roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep 
 fat. 
 
 Stuffed Potatoes. 
 
 Cut a slice from end of baked potatoes, scrape out inside, 
 mash and season. Add chopped meat, cheese or parsley for 
 yariety. Refill skins and reheat in oyen. 
 Canoes, or Potatoes on the Half Shell. 
 
 Cut the potatoes in two lengthwise, refill each part and 
 brown. 
 
 Creamed. 
 
 Cut boiled potatoes in cubes or slices and reheat in thin 
 white sauce, one-half cup to each cup of potato. 
 Hash. 
 
 Use two parts potato to one part meat, or equal amounts 
 of each. Chop meat, chop or mash potato. Season with 
 salt, pepper, onion, etc., moisten with grayy or water. For 
 one cup hash, put one tablespoon fat in a frying pan. When 
 hot, put in the hash and cook slowly, without stirring, until 
 a brown crust forms on the bottom. Fold like an omelet. 
 French Hash. 
 
 Put meat and gravy in a deep dish, cover with mashed 
 potato and bake till golden brown. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Caramel. 
 
 Put sugar in a smooth iron pan over a hot fire and stir 
 constantly with an old wooden spoon until melted to a light 
 brown syrup. Scrape off any sugar that forms in lumps. 
 When all is melted add an equal amount of boiling water 
 and simmer a few moments until blended into a thick syrup. 
 
 A quantity of this may be made at once and kept on hand 
 to flavor and sweeten custards and ice cream, or to serve as 
 a sauce with other puddings. 
 
 If it should happen to brown beyond the shade of good 
 maple syrup, let it go a little further until the sweet flavor 
 
 34 
 
 398 
 
would be lost. Then dissolve as above and bottle to use for 
 coloring soups and meat gravies. 
 
 Syrup. 
 
 Combine equal quantities of water and sugar in a sauce- 
 pan and stir until dissolved. Boil five to ten minutes until 
 only slightly reduced in quantity. Can while hot in small 
 jars and keep on hand to sweeten fruit drinks or ices as the 
 dissolving of the sugar in cold liquids is a slow and unsat- 
 isfactory process. 
 
 Fondant. 
 
 In an agate saucepan put one cup granulated sugar, about 
 one-sixteenth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar — a bit the 
 size of a small pea — and one-half cup of hot water. Stir 
 till sugar is dissolved, then cover and cook without stirring. 
 Skim and wipe the sides of the pan if necessary. Boil 
 about ten minutes or till 238 to 240 degrees F., when it will 
 form a soft ball in cold water. Turn into a greased bowl 
 or platter and cool slightly. It will grain if stirred while 
 too warm. Beat and knead till a smooth, creamy mass. If 
 it hardens too rapidly dip the hands in water and continue 
 the kneading. 
 
 Pack away in covered dish for a day or longer, then shape 
 as desired. Colors and flavors must be very concentrated. 
 By combination with chocolate, dates, figs, nuts, etc., a 
 great variety of candies may be secured. This fondant is 
 a very satisfactory frosting for cake and may be kept on 
 hand. Warm it over water until it can be spread on the 
 cake. 
 
 Boiled Frostings. 
 
 Cook one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water or 
 less, and a bit of cream of tartar until it will thread, not 
 quite reaching the soft ball stage. Then pour slowly on 
 the stiffly beaten white of one egg and continue beating 
 until cool enough to spread. Much depends on the moisture 
 in the atmosphere as well as the dryness of the cake. 
 
 For a still softer frosting a larger proportion of egg white 
 is used. This may be varied with different flavors and 
 colors. 
 
 35 
 
 399 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 French Dressing for Salads. 
 
 One-fourth teaspoon saU, speek pepper, (uie lahlespoon 
 vinegar, two ov three tahlespiH>ns oil. 
 
 Iliend thonni^hly and ponr over the sahul. 
 
 Mayonnaise Dressing. 
 
 ( )ne egg yolk, inie-hall to one enp oil, one lahlespoon 
 vinegar, one tahlespoon lemon Jniee, one-half teaspoon salt, 
 c-ne-half teaspoon nuistanl, few grains eayenne. 
 
 Mix vinegar, lemon jniee and seasoning. 
 
 Heat egg yolk. ad(' oil drop h\ drop at tirst, heating ev)n- 
 tinnally. .When thiek add a little of tlie seasoning mixtnre, 
 then more oil and alternate nntil'all is nsed. 
 
 Utensils and materials shonld he kept as cool as possihle. 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 Melt one onnee ihoeolate in saneepan cn'er hot water, 
 add a few grains salt, (^ne tahlespoon sugar, one-half pint 
 hi^iling water; stir till smooth; hoil one minnte. P>lend with 
 one pint hot milk and cook in ilouhle hi>iler. 
 
 lieat with Dover egg heater to prevent skin forming on 
 top. Just hefore serving, an q^^ yolk ma\' he addi'd to the 
 chocolate. Ser\'e with whi]ii')e(l cream. 
 
 Chocolate and cocoa hoth contain starch which requires 
 cooking. 
 
 36 
 
 400 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 T N THE study of Economics there are two great 
 ^ divisions — production and consumption. Until 
 within a few years, Ijy far the hon's share of time and 
 study has heen given to the first of these divisions. It 
 has heen deemed sufficient for the securing of happi- 
 ness and prosperity to a people to point out how the 
 greatest degree of efficiency in producing wealth might 
 be obtained. The manner in which that wealth was 
 expended was considered less important. Recently a 
 decided change has taken place. A conviction has 
 been growing, especially among students or economics, 
 of the equal importance of the other division, which 
 covers the use made of the money after it has been 
 acquired. This emphasizes the important place of the 
 home in Economics as will he realized by those who 
 consider how largely the home is the center of the 
 consumption of wealth. 
 
 In former times the home was practically the entire 
 economic world. Most of what was produced to meet 
 the needs of the people originated there, while all of 
 it found ready consumption within the family circle 
 or by limited exchange. To-day the shop and factory 
 have taken most of the productions and developed them 
 
 Divisions 
 in Economics 
 
 Place of 
 Home in 
 Consumption 
 of Wealth 
 
 401 
 
2 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 one by one, into large industries outside the home, 
 such as the manufacture of dress goods and cloth of 
 all kinds, carpets, bedding, candles and soap; trades, 
 such as tailoring, shoe-making and millinery, all hav- 
 ing their origin in the home. The preparation of food 
 is almost the only work left to the home which may 
 be called creative, unless we include the supreme work 
 of developing men and women. 
 
 Yet with production passed practically out of the 
 control of the home, we find the other branch of 
 Economics, consumption, still chiefly confined there. 
 Most of the wealth acquired outside is expended on 
 either the home or the interests closely connected with 
 it. Women thus become the main directors of these 
 expenditures. It is generally conceded that most of 
 them stand in great need of a better understanding 
 of the importance of the work that is theirs, and of 
 the principles which underlie all correct economy. 
 Economy Two aims are of equal importance in the practice 
 
 of economy; (i) to increase the income, and (2) to 
 diminish the expenditures. The last contains possi- 
 bilities of comfort of quite as high order as the first. 
 There are, according to Devine, ''three methods by 
 which general prosperity may be increased; a better 
 choice, a better production, a better consumption. In 
 comparing the relative importance of the* three 
 methods it will be found that there are greater imme- 
 diate possibilities in the third (a better consumption) 
 than in either of the others, and that of the two that 
 
 402 
 
ECONOMICS 3 
 
 remain, the first (a better choice) is more important 
 than the second."* 
 
 In the Hght of all these facts it is a surprising thing 
 that anyone can look lightly upon the share that is 
 given to woman in the economic struggle. There 
 are those who urge that the reason why women are 
 finding the care of their homes less attractive than 
 formerly is the fact that all which adds zest and is 
 worth while is taken from them. Rather is it true that 
 some things which demanded time and strength have 
 yielded to more vital things, and there is now op- 
 portunity to perfect that which is left, with a better 
 appreciation of its importance. 
 
 Devine further affirms that "it is the present duty 
 of the economist to. magnify the office of the wealth 
 expender, to accompany her to the very threshold of 
 the home, that he may point out, with untiring vig- 
 ilance, its woeful defects, its emptiness, caused not 
 so much by lack of income, as by lack of knowledge 
 of how to spend wisely. There is no higher economic 
 function than that of determining how wealth shall 
 be used. Even if man remains the chief producer, and 
 woman remains the chief factor in determining how 
 wealth shall be used, the economic position of woman 
 will not be considered by those who judge with dis- 
 crimination, inferior to that of man. Both may in their 
 respective positions contribute directly and powerfully 
 to the advancement of general prosperity." 
 
 Economic 
 Position 
 of Woman 
 
 Office 
 of the 
 Wealth 
 Expender 
 
 * Devine: Economic Function of Woman. 
 
 403 
 
Use of 
 Money 
 
 Business 
 
 Side of 
 
 tt'o^me-Making 
 
 4 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 As women awaken to a realization of tliis truth, 
 and bend their energy to acquire the knowledge and 
 skill necessary to do their part more successfully, we 
 shall begin to attain the degree of comfort and pros- 
 perity possible for us to enjoy. There is far more 
 money earned in tlie majority of families than is wisely 
 spent. The error is frequently careless expenditure, 
 not sloth in acquiring, a misuse rather than lack of 
 income. The old adage, ''A penny saved is a penny 
 earned," should be daily before the housewife. She 
 should weigh in a less vague and general way the 
 saying that "one cannot have his money and spend it 
 too." Money has but a limited purchasing power: 
 if it goes to gratify one desire, another must be denied. 
 Few, very few, are able to satisfy all material desires. 
 The mistake is made in giving too little thought to the 
 various avenues of expenditure, the desire uppermost 
 at the time being the one gratified, regardless of the 
 relative importance of others. Combined with this 
 are usually the failure to exercise foresight and the 
 lack of sufficient knowledge of values to insure full 
 money value for each outlay. "The woman who longs 
 to get where she 'Won't have to count every penny' 
 will never have her longing satisfied until she makes 
 every penny count."* 
 
 As the economic importance of the home is more 
 fully realized, the business side of home-making is 
 emphasized. The home has a close and intimate rela- 
 
 ♦ Miss Richardson: The Woman Who Spends. 
 
 404 
 
HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 5 
 
 tion to the business world in general. The house- 
 wife in her customary purchases comes in touch with 
 retail trade of almost every variety and adds her con- 
 tribution. If she makes use of the bank as the best 
 medium of exchange, she shares in the interests of one 
 of the large business enterprises. With a surplus to 
 invest, she has to do with one or another branch of 
 the business world in selecting the form of invest- 
 ment, and in looking after the income from it. To 
 conduct any and all of these interests in the most ef- 
 ficient and successful manner requires as thorough 
 training as for any other line of business. Only busi- 
 ness-like methods can succeed. The reason why so 
 many women fail at just this point is from a lack, in 
 their early life and education, of the training which 
 develops business ability. 
 
 HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 
 
 Housekeeping ranks among the professions as truly initiative 
 as any other occupation. It is more than a trade, since 
 one who works at a trade performs each day the task 
 assigned, the work being planned and directed by 
 another. Thus little of the worker's energy is ex- 
 pended in deciding his activities. It is the director 
 who must possess and exercise the power to guide; 
 his work being to initiate, plan and direct. This re- 
 quires larger capacity and ability than is required of 
 the one who merely practices a trade. 
 
 It is the work of the housewife to initiate, plan 
 and direct the business of the house. The woman 
 who considers this work as the opportunity to assist 
 
 405 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Need of 
 Education 
 
 Estimation 
 of Values 
 
 Education 
 
 of the 
 
 Home-Maker 
 
 in sharing the responsibihties of the wage-earner, and 
 in developing the powers of those making up the fam- 
 ily, has grasped the truth concerning the possibilities of 
 her work. 
 
 There should be no more question as to the need of 
 education and training for the woman who selects the 
 food, clothing and works of art which minister to the 
 highest welfare of a family than there is for the need 
 cf study on the part of the farmer, the manufacturer, 
 or the artist who produces them. 
 
 Everywhere training is showing its benefits in the 
 greater efficiency and skill of those who take ad- 
 vantage of it. \\''omen will never be able to spend 
 money so as to bring adequate results, until they 
 have in some way acquired a broad training in the 
 estimation of values. The word of the salesman is 
 a poor guide, yet one who has had no training to aid 
 her is unable to select for herself any more satis- 
 factorily. Houses which are turned over to ''experts" 
 are usually striking witnesses of abundant expendi- 
 ture, but pitiably fail to convey to eye or heart the 
 refreshing individuality or the satisfaction to be real- 
 ized in the cultivated woman's home. 
 
 The fullest, most completely rounded education is 
 none too good for one who is called upon to use and 
 impart so varied information as is the housewife. The 
 study of science is especially practical for one who 
 aspires to master all the things that come within the 
 range of her work. A knowledge of chemistry is 
 
 406 
 
HOUSEKEEPING A PROFESSION 
 
 necessary to an understanding of food composition, of 
 cooking, cleaning, etc. The laws of physics are as 
 closely related. For the mother, modern psychology 
 is an indispensable study, if she is to understand her 
 child, and wisely guide its development. If this 
 knowledge may not be secured in school, a great deal 
 may be done to supplement such training. Study in 
 this course should do much along this line. 
 
 In addition to the knowledge gained through study, 
 there should be a liberal amount of practice in the 
 various duties before one assumes the care of a house. 
 Unfortunate the home where the practical experience 
 all comes after marriage. It comes at the hardest. 
 of periods and is unjust to any man. In no busi- 
 ness can failure be graver or the results more serious. 
 The fact that some very efficient housekeepers have 
 evolved from unpromising beginnings is no argument. 
 Such are, without exception, most eager for their 
 daughters to receive training, since they know by dear 
 experience its value. 
 
 Much of the present aversion to household duties 
 would vanish before adequate preparation to perform 
 them. The American Kitchen Magazine published, in 
 January, 1901, some suggestions of leading men on 
 the general subject of Housekeeping on a Business- 
 like Basis. Some of their remarks are significant. 
 One says : "Whenever one's knowledge of a subject has 
 passed the stage of drudgery and becomes a science, 
 its performance immediately becomes a pleasure. The 
 ability to do a thing in the highest known perfection, 
 
 Practice 
 Necessary 
 
 Housekeeping 
 on a 
 
 Businesslike 
 Basis 
 
 407 
 
8 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 A Right 
 Spirit 
 
 Training 
 
 and 
 
 Devotion 
 
 Essential 
 
 Business 
 Principles 
 
 or a little better than anyone else, is always a source 
 of delight, and it matters little what that something 
 is. This spirit imparts its influence to everyone in 
 any way associated with the work. The men or 
 women who know their business seldom have diffi- 
 culty in keeping those under them happily employed. 
 . . . . Wherever the circumstances of our life land 
 us, we should make our stand, do our part of the 
 
 world's work, and do it well The woman who 
 
 would have a home of her own and a happy one, 
 should know, not only how to manage the chamber- 
 maid, but the cook as well. The moment that either 
 discovers that there is method on the part of their 
 mistress and knowledge superior to their own, they 
 
 will comply with her requests There will be no 
 
 trouble with the kitchen end of the house when women 
 take the same pains to know their business as men do. 
 
 "The first essential is the proper trainii:ig\ The sec- 
 ond essential is such a desire for success that she is 
 willing to perform her part with industry and devo- 
 tion. 
 
 "It is not as necessary to show that housekeeping 
 has in it elements of business as to make house- 
 keepers themselves recognize its business character 
 and apply to it ordinary business principles. A quick 
 attention to details, a fine sense of values, good judg- 
 ment in buying and selling, and a ready adaptation of 
 means to end with the least possible loss, are points 
 of a good business man, — the housekeeper certainly 
 has need of them." 
 
 408 
 
HOME EXPENDITURES 
 
 Whatever the condition of a family, whether large 
 or small, in city or country, in private house or apart- 
 ment, the successful expenditure of money to supply 
 the family with needed comforts depends vastly more 
 upon brains than upon dollars, upon the standard of 
 life than upon circumstances. To know where to 
 economize and where to lavish, to be on the alert for 
 the small wastes, so often disregarded, — only train- 
 ing and experience can realize the ideal in these things. 
 
 The extreme economies practiced in former years 
 are beyond doubt questionable in these days of aston- 
 ishing increase in the production of wealth. Time has 
 become too valuable to be profitably spent in weaving 
 rag carpets merely to save the rags. If done, there 
 must be some aesthetic value found to justify it. The 
 same holds- true of many occupations of the earlier 
 housekeeper. The taking of these occupations from 
 the home and the development of them into independ- 
 ent industries has liberated much time and strength, 
 which it is the duty of the housewife not to waste. 
 The changes have been phenomenally rapid, and ad- 
 justment could hardly be expected to keep pace, but 
 there is much to indicate an appreciation of the sit- 
 uation on the part of manv women and a sincere 
 desire and endeavor to co-operate in meeting the 
 changes intelligently. 
 
 There is no less need of the practice of economy in 
 the expenditures of the present time than formerly, 
 
 Extreme 
 Economies 
 
 True Economj^ 
 
 409 
 
10 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 even if the methods necessarily differ. For instance, 
 while we may afford ourselves finer materials and 
 more variety in clothing there is a correspondingly 
 greater demand for wise and intelligent choice of ma- 
 terials for bodily needs and the avoidance of such as 
 purport to be what they are not. Otherwise extrav- 
 agance in the loss of time through illness, or even of 
 life itself, results. Economy in food no longer re- 
 quires the family to forego certain food-stuffs wdiich 
 were formerly luxuries. The requisite is rather the 
 exercise of foresight in buying the product when in 
 season, or legitimately within the reach of the limited 
 purse, 
 standards O"^ must have a standard, conciously defined and 
 
 of Life recognized, in order to choose successfully. A stand- 
 ard of life consists of those principles which guide 
 one's motives and direct one's activities. Conscious 
 standards are not often enough realized in things 
 ethical. We have standards of weights and measures 
 by which all weights and measures are tested. We 
 have standards by which we discriminate in music, art, 
 and many other things. But who can define his 
 Standard of Life readily? We may reveal it to others, 
 in fact we are constantly doing so as we decide this 
 or that. The great difference between a successful 
 person who accomplishes much, and one who never 
 seems to amount to anything in particular, is the dif- 
 ference in which their standards of life have been 
 made clear and conscious, thus becoming a vital, guid- 
 ing factor in action. 
 
 410 
 
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
 
 n 
 
 We recognize innumerable varieties of standards, 
 as the result of varying education and training, advan- 
 tages and opportunity, or the lack of them. False 
 standards arise from failure to discriminate between 
 needs and zuants. There are conflicting opinions as 
 to what vital needs are, although it would seem self- 
 evident that they consist materially, in tJiose things 
 which man must have to live nnder the best conditions, 
 such as pure food, healthful clothing, sanitary houses, 
 sufficient air and light together with those things 
 which will minister to his highest intellectual and 
 spiritual development. Through failure to distinguish 
 intelligently the majority of people spend two-thirds 
 or more of their income for what fails to bring them 
 the best results in health and happiness. 
 
 We are too inclined to scorn the women of former 
 days because of their more limited horizons. We 
 •may profitably study their understanding of their con- 
 ditions and needs and the wise adaptation to them, 
 which gave them an important place in the work and 
 progress of their time. The women who succeed to- 
 day in the use of larger opportunities are those who, 
 like them, dare to live in intelligent independence, 
 true each to her individual standard of life. Such 
 women do not indiscriminately copy the manners of 
 living or dress of others merely to be like them or in 
 fashion. They are not ashamed to acknowledge a 
 liking for home-making and housekeeping. They 
 spend with care and judgment A suggestive, corn- 
 
 Needs 
 
 and 
 Wants 
 
 Adaptation 
 to Condition? 
 
 411 
 
12 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Good 
 Intentions 
 
 Differing' 
 Standards 
 
 parison between the women of the past and those 
 of the present is that of Miss Richardson in The Wom- 
 an Who Spends: "In olden times women thought 
 and thought and thought before they spent, often mak- 
 ing the spending a burden. Now women often spend, 
 and then think and think and think. Nor does the 
 lack of thought beforehand ease the burden of the 
 results of her spending." 
 
 As urged elsewhere it is not enough that we be well- 
 intentioned since even then we may be painfully or 
 harmfully extravagant through ignorance. We must 
 know not only that pure food, hygienic clothing and 
 durable furnishings are well, but we must know what 
 constitutes each and how to secure them. Other- 
 wise we must be classed among the extravagant. 
 
 No true economy can be practiced in the home until 
 a standard is adopted by all the members of the family, 
 in which there is agreement of efifort to promote the 
 family well-being; at the same time that all unite to 
 accept with intelligent grace the common deprivations 
 necessary to lessen family waste either of money, 
 labor, time, health, strength, or possessions. 
 
 Standards in regard to living must necessarily dif- 
 fer greatly with different individuals and families. 
 The education, tastes, and occupations of people dif- 
 fer so widely that it would be entirely impossible to 
 establish a universal standard. That one may have 
 greater demands than another is purely accidental, yet 
 must be reckoned with. Even our individual stand- 
 
 412 
 
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
 
 13 
 
 ards are not stationary but are ever giving way to 
 new and higher ones if we are as progressive as we 
 should be. All this makes it difficult to proportion ex- 
 penditures so that the highest good shall always be 
 secured. 
 
 The most important reason for attempting to classify 
 our wants and our provision for their gratification, is 
 that thereby we may provide ourselv^es with a defi- 
 nitely recognized standard which can be reckoned 
 with, studied, and, from time to time improved. Man 
 shares with the brutes a low or primitive range of 
 desires consisting of the satisfying of the physical de- 
 mands for food, rest, shelter and clothing. Gradually 
 he comes to desire other things, his standard is raised, 
 and by the repression of his desires in the lower range 
 he is able to secure satisfaction in the higher. The 
 day laborer necessarily has standards as to food which 
 differ from those of the scholar. The scholar must 
 expend more for dress, perhaps, regardless of the dif- 
 ference of income but this difference is not vital, since 
 all genuine and legitimate differences seem to pro- 
 mote progress in the people. The danger lies rather 
 in "accidental accompaniments" which are not neces- 
 sities. 
 
 In deciding upon a standard of life, one acts upon 
 his best judgment at the time, independent of others, 
 except as he recognizes that he may improve his stand- 
 ard by comparison with theirs. "Style of living," on 
 the contrary, is thrust upon one from without, Ac- 
 
 Value of 
 ClassiflcatioD 
 
 Style of 
 Living 
 
 413 
 
14 
 
 HO USER OLD MAN A GEM EN T 
 
 Accurate 
 
 Record 
 
 Important 
 
 Basis of 
 Classification 
 
 cepting it, he becomes its slave, entirely depend- 
 ent upon what "they" will say as to this or that ex- 
 penditure, never upon the consideration of the real 
 good to be derived. 
 
 Only by keeping an accurate record of expenditures 
 can one follow the outgo so as to find how the stand- 
 ards of the family measure up to the ideal. Without 
 indisputable facts in black and white one is easily de- 
 ceived. It is natural to feel that economy is being 
 practiced when many a coveted article is resisted. The 
 year's bill with its record of many other indulgences 
 is sometimes a rude but wholesome awakening. 
 Twenty-fivfe cents to-day and another to-morrow for 
 some luxury in food seems too slight to take account 
 of, but multiplied by three hundred and sixty-five the 
 increase in the food-expense becomes- a considerable 
 sum. It is well to look frequently to aggregated ex- 
 penses like these. 
 
 In arriving at a basis for the classification of ex- 
 penditures it is helpful to compare those of a large 
 number of families, studying the avenues of expense 
 to determine in what way the maximum of health ; 
 physical, mental, and moral is reached. Several such 
 comparative studies have been made and a few typical 
 budgets have been selected to illustrate the method 
 pursued in attacking the problem. 
 
 In making a classification of one's own, it will be 
 most useful to decide upon a tentative division of the 
 year's income under the heads which seem most valu- 
 
 14 
 
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
 
 15 
 
 able to keep as separate divisions. These proportions 
 may be studied in per cents, or the salary for each 
 week or month or quarter may be divided and the 
 amount for each division reserved to defray the ex- 
 penses which arise in connection with that division 
 during the period. As time goes on one is able to 
 see how accurately the provisional division was made 
 to fit the needs. 
 
 Such a theoretical division should always be de- 
 cided upon as a check to undue expenditure, as one 
 will try to bring the actual expense within the limits 
 that seemed wise to set when all things were taken 
 into account at the time of deciding upon the propor- 
 tions. 
 
 A regular income is the fortunate arrangement in 
 many families. This tends to develop thrift and to 
 remove the tendency to run up bills leading to debts. 
 The tendency for such is to live up to the limit of the 
 income and the division for saving and higher life in 
 general is usually small. It is found that salaried 
 people seldom get deeply in debt, but also seldom 
 accumulate very much. 
 
 For those without regular and known income 
 the problem of apportioning expenditures is very dif- 
 ficult. The only safe course is to determine upon a 
 definite minimum income. The surplus will then be 
 an unexpected pleasure. 
 
 The actual per cent of the income allowed for each 
 division will depend chicfl}- upon two things ; namely, 
 
 Theoretical 
 Division 
 
 Tendency 
 with Regular 
 Income 
 
 Division 
 of Income 
 
 415 
 
i6 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Real Values 
 
 Budgets 
 
 the size of the income, and the ideals or standards of 
 the family. The necessities of life must be provided 
 and if the income is small, barely enough to cover these 
 needs, there is little choice left but to spend all for 
 them. Yet as a matter of fact, choice is possible for 
 most families. While a large wage-earning class are 
 receiving smaller incomes than one would wish, at 
 the same time we find choice playing an important 
 role in determining the purchases of the day laborer, 
 as well as of those who are not limited for money. In 
 fact, it is with those who can least afford to be gov- 
 erned by caprices that the most pitiful lawlessness in 
 these things prevails because of ignorance. 
 
 Enlightenment through education in real values is 
 needed by all alike, that correct divisions may be made 
 and lived up to, and that the division for higher life, 
 most often cut to a discreditably low per cent, may be 
 recognized and properly provided for. 
 
 The following table from TJic Cost of Living by 
 Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives some actual and typical 
 family budgets: 
 
 416 
 
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
 Typical Budgets 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Percentage for 
 
 
 c« d .• 
 
 t^Q . 
 
 
 « M rj 
 
 Family Income Per Year. 
 
 
 nd C 
 ; to a; 
 Work 
 
 Qg E: 
 s, Fu 
 s, etc 
 
 bi) 
 
 1-5 d ►-- 
 
 
 
 =^Sfl 
 
 ■t^ t» fcc 
 
 a 
 
 ^>'S 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 ent 
 Far 
 froi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 w 
 
 $3,098, three adults, two chil- 
 
 
 
 
 
 dren 
 
 27.5 
 
 21.1 
 
 16.8 
 
 10. 
 
 24.6 
 
 2,500 (Mass.)-, three adults, 
 
 no children 
 
 25. 
 
 25. 
 
 13. 
 
 13. 
 
 25. 
 
 2,500 (Mass.), two adults, one 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 child, much company. 
 
 32. 
 
 18. 
 
 18. 
 
 10. 
 
 22. 
 
 1 ,980 (St. Louis) , four adults. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 two children 
 
 36.3 
 
 24.2 
 
 30.9 
 
 18. 
 
 50 
 
 950 (Mass.), two adults. 
 
 three children 
 
 20. 
 
 19. 
 
 16. 
 
 15. 
 
 10. 
 
 r 26.1 
 ,' Travel, 
 ] Sickness, etc. 
 
 600 (Boston) , two adults 
 
 (women) , two children. 
 
 23. 
 
 26. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 535 (N. Y.), two adults. 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 15.9 
 
 three children. . . 
 
 55.2 
 
 22.4 
 
 5.3 
 
 9.4 
 
 7.7 
 
 312 "mean" Englishman, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 two adults, three chil- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dren 
 
 55.2 
 63. 
 
 15.5 
 12. 
 
 8.9 
 5. 
 
 13.1 
 16. 
 
 5. 
 
 300, Dr. Engell's estimates 
 
 From Cost of Living, Mrs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. H. Richards. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From these budgets it will be seen that little choice 
 is given the families of most limited means. The 
 necessities cost about the same for all. It is in the 
 range of luxuries that the greatest divergence is to 
 be found. Only there can limitations be wisely set. 
 In those where choice is possible, one observes a va- 
 riety of results, showing that one family preferred to 
 economize in one way, another in another. The com- 
 forts to be secured through increase of rent appeal to 
 
 Necessities 
 Uniform 
 
 417 
 
i8 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Extravagance 
 
 Ideal 
 Budgets 
 
 one, those of additional service, another, and so 
 throughout the list. 
 
 Extravagance is most frequently found in the Food 
 and Operating expense divisions. Individual extrav- 
 agance occurs most frequently in clothes. 
 
 With these actual and typical budgets in mind note 
 the Budgets, as suggested by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, 
 which give the ideal theoretical division of incomes 
 varying from $500 to $4000. The interest and profit 
 to the housewife in the comparison of these widely 
 differing standards will be the stimulus to keep sys- 
 tematic accounts, that she may be able to determine 
 the percentages of her own family expenses. Such 
 an account with its dav of reckonino^ is an excellent 
 moral support since one will learn to think twice 
 over the temptation to spend for personal gratifica- 
 tion, or for those things which have at best little 
 to recommend them either for pleasure or profit. 
 
 418 
 
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES 
 Ideal Budgets 
 
 19 
 
 Family Income. 
 
 Percentage for 
 
 
 
 
 
 Operating Ex- 
 penses, Fuel, 
 Wages, etc. 
 
 .9 
 
 
 6 
 
 Higher Life, 
 Book, Travel. 
 Charity, Sav- 
 ings, irisu'nce 
 
 Two adults and two or three children 
 (equal to four adults) : 
 
 Ideal Division— 
 
 $3,000 to $4.000 
 
 25 
 25 
 30 
 45 
 60 
 
 20 ± 
 
 20=fc 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 ± 
 15 ± 
 10 
 10 
 5 
 
 15 ± 
 20 ± 
 15 
 10 
 10 
 
 25 
 20 
 25 
 20 
 10 
 
 2,000 to 1,000 
 
 800 to 1,000 
 
 500 to 800 
 
 Under $500 
 
 From Cost of Living, Mrs. E. H. Rich- 
 ards. 
 
 Four laws have been formulated by Dr. Engel, 
 which state the tendency in the changes of per cents 
 noted in such budgets as we have been considering: 
 
 DR. ENGEL'S LAWS 
 
 1. The proportion between expenditure and nutri- 
 ment grows in geometric progression in adverse ratio 
 to well-being ; in other words, the higher the income, 
 the smaller is the per cent of cost of subsistence. 
 
 2. Clothing assumes and keeps a distinctly con- 
 stant proportion in the whole. 
 
 3. Lodging, warming and lighting have an in- 
 variable proportion, whatever the income. 
 
 4. The more the income increases the greater is 
 the proportion of the different expenses which ex- 
 press the degree of well-being. 
 
 419 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 DIVISION OF INCOME CHAET 
 Typical Family of Two Adults and Three Children 
 
 360O 
 
 Running Expenses include Wages, Fuel, Light, Ice, Etc. With $1 000 
 Income the Children Would be Educated in the Public Schools. ' 
 
 The above chart was adapted from a large colored 
 chart prepared under the direction of Mrs. E. H. 
 Richards for the Mary Lowell Stone Exhibit on Home 
 Economics. 
 
 420 
 
RENT 
 
 21 
 
 The classes of expenditure discussed in the follow- 
 ing pages are those which, on the whole, best repre- 
 sent the different divisions into which money expendi- 
 ture may fall. These are Rent, or its equivalent paid 
 for shelter. Operating Expenses, such as fuel, light, 
 wages and repairs. Food, Clothes and Higher Life. 
 The latter includes all that ministers to mental and 
 moral well-being, as education, travel, amusements, 
 charities, savings and insurance. These will be con- 
 sidered in order. 
 
 Division of 
 Household 
 Expenditures 
 
 RENT 
 
 The question of buying or renting a house which 
 shall offer shelter and make a home for the family 
 is often a difficult one in these days. Formerly private 
 possession was much more universal than at the pres- 
 ent time. It is more or less impossible within a wide 
 radius of the center of our largest cities to-day to 
 buy a single house at any price. For this reason peo- 
 ple are more and more forced to rent, and must share 
 a house with other families, usually, either in double 
 houses, apartments or flats. Many of the objections 
 which are to be urged against boarding are equally 
 forceful for this manner of living. The too close 
 proximity of others is a misfortune, yet it is preferable 
 to boarding, since some privacy and individuality may 
 still be preserved. Some, feeling the natural instinct 
 of ownership too strongly to be content to give it up 
 so completely, will prefer to go into the suburbs and 
 
 Buying 
 
 or 
 
 Renting 
 
 421 
 
22 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Disadvantages 
 
 of 
 
 Buying 
 
 Advantage 
 9f Ownership 
 
 rely upon electric cars or other means of transporta- 
 tion, for g^oing to and returning from business. 
 
 The difficulties which present themselves when one 
 considers buying, may be summed up under the fol- 
 lowing heads: 
 
 1. Scarcity of available houses in places of any 
 size. 
 
 2. Greatly increased cost, due to increasing valua- 
 tion of property. 
 
 3. Tendency of fluctuating business, causing 
 changes in plans or place of residence, necessitating 
 the disposal of a house at a sacrifice. 
 
 4. Unforeseen changes in business centers in our 
 rapidly growing towns, and cities, greatly affecting 
 the desirability of the location for a home. 
 
 5. Constant expenditures required to keep a house 
 in repair, often in excess of rent. 
 
 6. Decreasing tendency on the part of young peo- 
 ple to have a saving fund which can be used or which 
 they are willing to use for purchasing a home. 
 
 The advantages of owning a home when it is at all 
 possible or feasible, far outweigh these disadvantages. 
 Renting tends to develop demoralizing habits of care- 
 lessness and indifference. The word "home" should 
 have a meaning for us vastly deeper and richer than 
 can be bounded by four walls, it is true, or than can 
 be centered in material or outward covering, yet aU 
 such aids prove vital in developing and strengthening 
 the highest regard for the name with children. The 
 
 422 
 
RENT 
 
 23 
 
 man or woman is to be profoundly pitied to whose 
 mind the name does not recall a definite and loved spot 
 as the home of childhood. 
 
 Nothing contributes more surely and steadily to the 
 development of a worthy citizen and through him of a 
 worthy community than proprietorship in his home. 
 It removes the temptation to move from place to place 
 — always a great hindrance to the development of an 
 ideal home. The family that rents tends to disregard 
 property rights and to enter with less pride or con- 
 cern into the neighborhood life. As soon as a home 
 however humble, is acquired, a pride is taken in 
 it and its surroundings and the sense of personal re- 
 sponsibility for the tone of the community is much 
 keener. 
 
 In providing for shelter either by buying or renting, 
 three factors should play a part, (i) sanitary require- 
 ments, (2) those things which, like location and archi- 
 tectural appearance, answer the social requirements, 
 (3) and standards of living. Sanitary requiiements 
 may well be placed first. Money is well and econ- 
 omically expended which secures the best possible 
 sanitary conditions. Failure at this point has cost 
 many families far more than the two or three dollars' 
 difiference per month in rents by adding doctor's bills 
 — most uneconomical of all expenditures — to the 
 lowering of vitality and decreasing of efiiciency. 
 
 Distinction should be made between essentials and 
 non-essentials, between showy cheats and real worth. 
 
 Leg-itimate 
 Expenditure 
 
 Essentials 
 and Non- 
 Essentials 
 
 423 
 
24 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Bright gilding does not make good plumbing nor 
 does an especially fine porch bespeak a carefully con- 
 structed cellar. Some of the principle requisites are: 
 Ample air space for each individual, (300 cu. ft. for 
 each person having been found to be the lowest amount 
 permissible according to sanitary rules) ; light, fresh 
 air and water in abundance. Drainage conditions 
 should be above suspicion within and without. A 
 house so constructed as to require the minimum of 
 labor to care for is also a wise and economical con- 
 sideration. The housewife will be surprised in her 
 search for these requirements to find what poor pro- 
 visions exist in most houses. The demand for the 
 best sanitary conditions has been so slight up to the 
 present time, that those who build have not found 
 it essential to give them large attention, since selling 
 or renting so seldom depends upon these things. 
 Reasons If a house is found which is offered at a price less 
 
 °Price than others which are similar in the vicinity, one 
 of three reasons may be found to account for it. 
 Either it is an old house out of repair, or is m an 
 undesirable neighborhood, or it is simply cheaply con- 
 structed. In weighing its merits great care should 
 be exercised to distinguish as to the cause. If it is 
 such as to be a menace to health, physical or moral, 
 one has no right to choose it. If it will cost more 
 • to put it in good condition to live in than the difference, 
 or if operating expenses, as fuel, will be increased 
 more than enough to offset the difference, then it is 
 
 424 
 
RENT 
 
 25 
 
 poor economy to select it; but if the difference is 
 merely one in incidentals such as more or less expen- 
 sive woods for finishing, etc., then it may be wise to 
 sacrifice a little at this point rather than in something 
 more vital. 
 
 In building, the demands of modern life require, 
 not including cost of land, an expenditure of about 
 $1000 per person, or $4000 for the typical family of 
 five persons. It is easy to vary this to the two ex- 
 tremes. In most localities, $10,000 should build all 
 that any family could use for themselves alone so far 
 as essentials go. 
 
 The cost of building varies so greatly that no very 
 definite estimates can be given. In parts of the United 
 States where building materials and labor are high the 
 cost of a house may be nearly double that in places 
 where prices are low. The recent experience of others 
 or the conservative estimate of a local architect or con- 
 tractor is the only safe guide. 
 
 The difference in expense too often represents other 
 than legitimate reasons: A large expenditure fre- 
 quently represents bad taste and showy ornamentation 
 rather than more abundant sunlight, fresh air and 
 cleanly surroundings. A good rule to bear in mind 
 is that ''less should be spent for the mere house and 
 more for what goes on in it — the real life." 
 
 In deciding what may be legitimately spent for rent 
 one may safely estimate whatever is necessary to se- 
 cure the requisites for health. It ought to be possible 
 
 Cost of 
 Building 
 
 Rental 
 
 425 
 
26 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Location 
 and Rent 
 
 to secure safe surroundings at a cost not exceeding 20 
 per cent of any income between $500 and $5000 a year, 
 not including the expense of heating and Hghting. If 
 more than that is necessary, it is an indication that 
 the sanitary standards in the community are not as 
 high as they should be. As a matter of fact low 
 standards which the individual alone is powerless to 
 correct often force the expense to 25 per cent to secure 
 safety. 
 
 The location of a house in its relation to place of 
 business, school, etc., should be considered. If at a dis- 
 tance so that carfares are necessary these should be 
 reckoned as a part of the rent. In considering the rent 
 of a heated apartment about $5 per month should be 
 credited for the heat, in addition to janitor service and 
 hot water if these are furnished. 
 
 SuTjreme 
 
 Tescs of the 
 
 Housewife 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES 
 
 Operating expenses consist, for the most part, of 
 the necessary expenditure to keep a house warmed, 
 lighted, clean and in repair. The skill with which 
 these expenses are managed is the supreme test of 
 the ability of the housewife, materially speaking. 
 Other decisions may be turned ofif more easily or at- 
 tended to once for all, and there is some end to them. 
 In these the highest success can only be realized by 
 the woman who has a genius for details, who will 
 allow nothing to escape her consideration, yet who has 
 the ability to carry them with a degree of ease and 
 
 426 
 
OPERATING EXPENSES 
 
 27 
 
 mastery so that it will not be apparent to others, at 
 least, that she finds them perplexing or burdensome. 
 The over-anxious, wearied woman is as lacking in the 
 element of success as the careless and heedless one. 
 She may be able, through her greater watchfulness, to 
 save more money, but family happiness is perhaps 
 more endangered, through the depression of spirits and 
 the friction which result, than in the other case. To 
 remove friction and reduce to a harmonious unit are 
 parts of what she must accomplish through the direc- 
 tion of the operating expenses. 
 
 The same standards should control in deciding the 
 avenues of expenditure here as in selecting a house or 
 deciding any of the other divisions. Health, comfort 
 and happiness in the highest and broadest conception 
 of these words should be the only factors having 
 weight. Whether my neighbor has a maid should be 
 nothing to me in my decision as to the necessity of 
 having one. To be met at the door by a suitably at- 
 tired official ought not to be as important as it would 
 sometimes seem to be, in leading us to decide whether 
 we have had a pleasant and profitable call on a friend. 
 All these things are well in their place, but they are 
 by no means so vital that one should sacrifice far more 
 important things and magnify these out of all propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Much of the necessary operating expense is deter- 
 mined when the house is selected, and the two should 
 always be considered together. If the number of 
 
 V/orry 
 
 Determining 
 Factors 
 
 427 
 
28 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Cost for 
 
 Service 
 
 Wage 
 
 rooms Is limited, the expense of caring for them will 
 be correspondingly less. If the house is conveniently 
 arranged so that the work may be swiftly performed, 
 the work of each helper will ''go further" than if much 
 time is wasted through unnecessary steps or move- 
 ments. So, also, in the expense of heating. One 
 should consider whether the house is arranged com- 
 pactly or not, what the loss of heat through exposure 
 of rooms will be, etc., so that the cost of heating can 
 be correctly reckoned with. 
 
 It has been estimated that, for an ordinary city 
 house, the sum paid annually for wages of servants 
 should be equal to one-half the rental value of the 
 house. This can only be realized, however, by those 
 who are willing to simplify their manner of living so 
 as to reduce expenses more than the average at the 
 present time, or by those who give assistance in the 
 duties. . 
 
 When servants are kept the cost of the other operat- 
 ing expenses will be increased without corresponding 
 satisfaction. In general, they should be kept equal to 
 the amount paid as wages. An excellent standard to 
 keep in mind is the maintenance of the ''maximum of 
 efficiency at minimum cost." It is true economy to 
 expend for what will remove friction or prove time- 
 saving. 
 
 The wages of a general helper for housework vary 
 according to location, from $3.00 per week or less in 
 some small towns in the East and through the middle 
 
 428 
 
Hour 
 Work 
 
 OPERATING EXPENSES 29 
 
 West to $4.00 or $5.00 in the larger cities. This must 
 be doubled in allowing for board and room and for 
 the additional outlay because of more wasteful cook- 
 ing and more careless handling of furnishings. One 
 housekeeper who kept a careful record of expenses 
 both when with and without help, found the weekly 
 expense from one-fourth to one-third more when help 
 was employed. 
 
 The average cost of hiring by the hour for work 
 done in the house is from 15 to 25 cents per hour in- 
 cluding the midday meal, if the helper remains over 
 that time. Laundry work for unstarched, flat pieces, 
 averages 25 cents per dozen. 
 
 When all the main avenues of expense have been 
 carefully considered to eliminate excessive or unnec- wastM 
 essary expenditure, there remains for the thrifty 
 housewife the daily exercise of much watchful care 
 over the "littles" which otherwise astonishingly run 
 up the expense. A three-burner chandelier ablaze in- 
 stead of one Welsbach burner which would give better 
 light at less than a third the cost ; a range fire opened, 
 at the loss of at least a hod of coal, to prepare a 
 warm dish for supper when the use of a gas or oil 
 stove for a short time would accomplish the desired 
 result much more cheaply; daily orders in piece-meal 
 over a limited telephone service, because the difference 
 is not considered sufficiently important to necessitate 
 the thought required to combine all the orders for that 
 day, or for several days, in one message: these are 
 
 Small 
 
 429 
 
30 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 all trifles in themselves, but five cents here and ten 
 there make a surprisingly large difference in the sum 
 total The difference between skilful, thoughtful out- 
 lay and careless spending, is to be measured in the 
 added comforts to be secured by the one who learns 
 the secret of successful management in this group 
 of expenses. 
 
 FOOD 
 
 The influence of food upon the welfare of the house- 
 hold must be first considered in apportioning the 
 share of income rightly devoted to it. In referring 
 to the budgets w^e find that as the income decreases the 
 percentage devoted to food increases. Why is this, or 
 why should it be so? It is because the life of the in- 
 dividual depends upon his nourishment. His shelter 
 may be poor, his clothing inadequate • for his needs, 
 but food he must have and upon proper food depends 
 his capacity for doing work and doing it well. 
 Proper The child must be properly nourished that it may 
 
 be a strong little animal, growing into healthy happy 
 youth. The adult must be well nourished to be an ef- 
 ficient member of the community, whether as a wage- 
 earner or as a household spender. The food supply 
 must be right for errors and wrong doing here show 
 their effects in a weakened power to perform work 
 or resist disease. In this lies the justificatoin of the 
 poor man who possibly spends two-thirds of his in- 
 come for food. 
 
 Food 
 
 430 
 
FOOD 
 
 31 
 
 The wide variation, however, as shown in the bud- 
 gets, does not indicate proper nourishment in one case, 
 improper food in another. Over-nutrition is often as 
 dangerous as under-nutrition and the cost of food does 
 not determine its nutritive vakie. It by no means fol- 
 lows that because a family has large butcher's and 
 grocer's bills it is therefore better nourished. The 
 same causes affect the cost of foods as influence the 
 price of other commodities. The demand for and 
 scarcity of any article; being in or out of season; cost 
 of transportation; loss through waste in foods that 
 deteriorate quickly ; fancy price asked for certain rare 
 flavors, all these determine price outside of any con- 
 sideration of nutritive value. 
 
 Bullock gives five ways in which he estimates that 
 one-fifth of the money expended for food is actually 
 wasted. 
 
 1. Needlessly expensive material, providing little 
 nutrition. 
 
 2. A great deal thrown away. 
 
 3. Bad preparation. 
 
 4. Failure to select rightly according to season, 
 j. Badly constructed ovens. 
 
 In 1900 when Mrs. Richard's book on The Cost of 
 Living was published experiments in dietaries were 
 made and the cost of the raw material required for so 
 many persons a day estimated. The conclusions 
 reached at that time were that twenty-five or thirty 
 cents per person a day is ample to supply all the 
 
 f'^urces 
 of Wide 
 Variation 
 
 Waste of 
 Money 
 in Food 
 
 Cost per 
 Person 
 
 431 
 
32 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 High Cost 
 of Food 
 
 Sources 
 •f Waste 
 
 physical demands of one whose tastes have not been 
 perverted by wrong habits of eating. Good, sub- 
 stantial living, meeting all the needs of people of sim- 
 ple habits, can be secured at less than that. When 
 the expense exceeds that sum it is due to one or more 
 of the following reasons: 
 
 1. Waste. 
 
 2. Buying out of season. 
 
 3. Choice of food of which there is a limited sup- 
 ply therefore price is high. 
 
 4. Perishable food stuffs. 
 
 5. Fads or fashions in dishes. 
 
 6. High priced products because of choice flavors 
 as ''Gilt Edged Butter," or food which is ''in season" 
 but a short time, as venison. 
 
 Since the year in which the experiments and in- 
 vestigations were carried on certain staple food stuffs 
 have increased nearly twenty per cent in price, so 
 that the margin for the same bill of fare now should 
 be wider, or from twenty-five to thirty-five cents per 
 person a day. 
 
 The housewife should carefully consider these esti- 
 mates and the causes most fruitful of waste in the 
 household. Far too lavish provision is often made in 
 ordering. Study and observation must be given to the 
 necessary quantity of meats, vegetables, etc., to be pro- 
 vided and served. Large portions are left to be improp- 
 erly warmed over, wasted in the kitchen, or thrown 
 away altogether. Waste in the household arises mainly 
 
 432 
 
FOOD 33 
 
 from lack of thought, planning, or carefulness In de- 
 tail, just as in any other business. A study of foods 
 and food values is necessary in order to know what 
 less expensive material may be provided to sup- 
 ply the same need, but above all else must the house- 
 wife who desires to make a study of these things, 
 and reduce the waste in the household realize that no 
 waste is greater than poor material, illy prepared. The 
 more knowledge, the more science used in the selec- • 
 
 tion and preparation of food for the table should mean 
 more, not less appetizing results. 
 
 It is of course easier to provide a good table for Numbers 
 eight people on $2.40 per day than for four people at 
 $1.20. It must be remembered that many people live 
 well on less ; many more are well nourished on much 
 less. 
 
 The pecuniary economy of food is seen in the ac- 
 companying charts, and those articles which would be 
 classed under unnecessary expense may be easily sepa- 
 rated from the more legitimate. 
 
 Of course the price paid for food cannot be regu- Aesthetic 
 lated entirely by a consideration of nutriment alone. 
 It must satisfy aesthetic demands as well. Food must 
 be enjoyed in order to be thoroughly well digested. 
 This is a strong argument in favor of a moderate use 
 of animal foods. Although vastly more expensive 
 than vegetable foods, they do gratify the palate of 
 most people in ways which vegetable foods do not. 
 This fact together with their superiority in being more 
 
 Demands 
 
 433 
 
34 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 Chart of Composition of Foods 
 
 Nutrients. 
 
 Protein. Fats- Carbo- Mineral 
 hydrates, matters. 
 
 Non-nutrients. 
 
 Water. Refuse. 
 
 Fuel value. 
 Calories. 
 
 'WUfioulbone. 
 
 434 
 
FOOD 
 Chart of Pecuniary Economy of Food 
 
 I^vtei/t. faia Carhohydtata FXul FaltU^. 
 
 35 
 
 From Farmers' Bnlletin, No. 142. 
 
 435 
 
36 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Real 
 Purpose 
 
 Legitimate 
 Expenditure 
 
 easily and completely digested are valid reasons for 
 paying somewhat more for the sake of securing them. 
 
 CLOTHING 
 
 Clothing, like food, should be considered first of 
 all in its relation to the possible increase of health and 
 efficiency. Like the function of food, this is too much 
 lost sight .of at the present time while the aesthetic 
 side of the subject is receiving an undue share of 
 emphasis. The cost of clothing is too largely the re- 
 sult of an attempt to gratify the desire to please the 
 world at large, rather than of protecting the body. 
 We all know too many instances of the rashest ex- 
 cesses to which this may lead, destroying all hope of 
 realizing higher and worthier ideals. A safe-guard 
 to such excess lies in an intelligent training and 
 thoughtful study of these things. 
 
 Sufficient and suitable protection from clothing, so 
 that one is enabled to meet the varying changes of cli- 
 mate without loss of energy, is a distinct advantage, 
 olTering grounds for reasonable expenditure. This 
 should debar either too scant provision, or too great 
 excess, which weakens power of resistance. The 
 aesthetic has a legitimate place in the consideration, 
 but should be subordinate to health, if the two ever 
 seem to conflict. There is, as we know, the greatest 
 possible difference in people in ability to "make a lit- 
 tle go a long way" in providing satisfactorily for cloth- 
 ing. Knowledge and care will aid greatly in helping 
 
 436 
 
HIGHER LIFE 
 
 Z7 
 
 one to conform to the laws both of health and beauty. 
 A pleasing, becoming color or style is little, if any, 
 more expensive than one which is unbecoming. One 
 should seek to develop true individual taste and ex- 
 pression, relying less upon the not infallible dictum 
 of dress-makers. To secure clothing, then, which shall 
 be a protection from heat and cold should be the first 
 motive. Along with this should go a recognition that 
 the outer garments may be and should be a means of 
 contributing to the pleasure of others, through a cor- 
 rect selection of pleasing colors and graceful forms. 
 Both these may be entirely legitimate considerations, 
 but there should not result, from over emphasis, a 
 dwarfing of the more important things in life. 
 
 HIGHER LIFE 
 
 The preceding divisions have to do chiefly with 
 those things which support and protect the physical 
 well-being. The fifth important provision should be 
 for the higher life, or the demands of the intellectual 
 and spiritual nature. The most important business 
 of any life is to develop this side to its highest possi- 
 bilities and to find its fullest expression. Other con- 
 siderations are in reality subordinate to this. 
 
 Unless a definite allowance is set aside for the pur- 
 pose material demands encroach until all is spent. 
 Even if something more is realized each year than is 
 spent, the money itself seems too often to be the 
 most valuable possession, rather than the comforts and 
 
 Good 
 Taste 
 
 Necessary 
 Consideratiop 
 
 Value 
 
 of Definite 
 
 Allowance 
 
 437 
 
38 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Realizing 
 Ideals 
 
 Wide 
 Range 
 
 aesthetic ideals which it might secure. It is a battle, 
 in these days of materialism, to reserve one-fourth of 
 an income for the satisfaction of the needs of the 
 higher nature, yet there is no greater need in our 
 nation than that of more families \vho realize the im- 
 perativeness of doing it, and who independently insist 
 upon proving it to be possible. Those who resolutely 
 decide upon this course tend to more refined living, 
 give ''more thought to the meaning of life, to the object 
 for which all exertion should tend, more thought for 
 the manner of accomplishing a given result, less for 
 the money value of it." 
 
 It means making a place for ideals, recognizing their 
 necessary place in life, and resolutely setting one's face 
 toward realizing them. Such a purpose serves as an 
 admirable check to the gratification of lower desires 
 and unnecessary spending, while whatever is found 
 to be necessary and worthy will have a double value 
 because of the thought and care exercised in the de- 
 cision. 
 
 There is a very wide range possible for different 
 tastes in ministering to the higher life. One will pre- 
 fer travel, another literature, a third art, while church 
 and charity must find place in all higher life. It mat- 
 ters, perhaps, less what particular side is developed 
 than that there shall be conscious effort toward a 
 higher and a fuller life, and that choice rather than 
 idle drifting rules. It is true that all altruistic motives 
 wliich look to the good of another, be he kin or other- 
 
 438 
 
HIGHER Ul'E 
 
 39 
 
 wise, are more full of elevating" influence upon a life 
 than those which seek merely one's own highest good. 
 One should gain the habit of choosing those things 
 that endure, and have abiding value rather than those 
 of momentary or temporary advantage. 
 
 Even when guided by an impulse to make provision 
 for one's family, it is to be borne in mind that the best 
 possible investment which can be made for a child is 
 a liberal education. All that anyone in normal health 
 and strength should need is a thorough preparation 
 to do his or her work efficiently, with motives toward 
 the best things which life has to offer and the possi- 
 bilities of a better life than his parents have had. 
 Too liberal provision is often seen to destroy incentive 
 and the things of highest value are cheapened when 
 they cost little effort. Progress can only be made 
 through striving. Conscious effort is as necessary for 
 the health of mind as for health of body. For this 
 reason it is best that what we enjoy should be the 
 result of choice and denial, and we should learn early 
 to pay for what we get. A surplus should be reserved 
 against emergencies, that a feeling of independence 
 may be fostered, yet this should not be insisted upon 
 to the point of crippling life. 
 
 As to ways of saving, the field is large. Some 
 methods employed at the present time are to be com- 
 mended in highest terms. Against others too severe 
 condemnation cannot be passed. Among those forms 
 which are safe may be classed life insurance, savings 
 
 Wise 
 Investment 
 
 Ways of 
 Saving 
 
 439 
 
40 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Life 
 Insurance 
 
 Railroad 
 Securities 
 
 banks, loans on real estate and investments in stocks 
 and bonds. 
 
 In selecting, one should consider whether the busi- 
 ness which the company is transacting is legitimate 
 and also whether it is probably permanent because 
 it serves a real public use with elements of growth 
 and lasting development, or whether it is merely a 
 "flash in the pan" scheme. Again, it is important to 
 know whether the company has sufficient capital to 
 make the business a safe one, and whether the man- 
 agement, so far as can be determined, is wise and 
 honest. 
 
 Life insurance is becoming an increasingly popular 
 form of saving. With a reliable company, and under 
 some of the favorable arrangements possible at the 
 present time, such as terminal endowment policies, 
 yielding a fair interest for money invested, as well 
 as insurance, it is without doubt one of the best 
 methods. Some find the imperative demand to meet 
 the annual payments a ver}- helpful check upon ex- 
 penditure. There is not the risk of loss through fail- 
 ure to pay at any time which formerly existed, since, 
 in emergencies, money can be loaned on the insurance 
 or one can secure at some sacrifice the return of the 
 amount paid in. 
 
 Railroad securities are possibly first in value, such 
 lionds, if good, being unquestionable security and 
 yielding good return. There is little fluctuation in 
 value, and the rei)orts are frequent and controlled by 
 
 440 
 
]II(,HI:I< JJJIi 
 
 4r 
 
 state law, so that one may know the exact condition 
 of the investment at any time. 
 
 Loans on buildings, or real estate are excellent 
 forms of investment, if one knows beyond qi^estion the 
 value of the property secured. These may not be as 
 readily transferred or their value realized, as with 
 stocks and bonds. 
 
 In general it may be said that for the ordinary in- 
 vestors in our country any investment }'ielding over 
 4 1-2 or 5 per cent is to be classed as a risk, and is 
 not consistent with sound finance. A safe investment 
 yielding that return is far wiser than a (juestionable 
 one promising more. A high interest rate is' almost in- 
 variably, in the very nature of things, a warning of 
 insecurity. Shrewd capitalists of the country are cer- 
 tain to know of any especially favorable opportunities 
 and seize upon them, if desirable, so that the small 
 investors should not look for phenomenal returns. 
 
 The frequent reports of failures, and cases of those 
 involved who have met with pitiable losses emphasizes 
 the danger and evils of speculation. These often rise 
 in the form of local crazes, with heated booming for 
 a short lived career, or as investment m some gold or 
 copper mines at too great distance to be personally 
 investigated. These should be condemned and avoided 
 as almost without exception dangerous. Women are 
 found to be particularly susceptible to such alluring 
 opportunities to ''get rich quick" because of failure in 
 training in sound business principles. 
 
 Mortgagee 
 
 Safe 
 Interest 
 
 Get-Rich- 
 Quick 
 Ventures 
 
 441 
 
Value 
 and Necessity 
 
 What 
 
 Accounts 
 
 Should 
 
 Show 
 
 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 
 
 The management of tlie money affairs of a family is 
 usually the most perplexing part of its domestic prob- 
 lem. Yet, in spite of this fact, the least candid study 
 and thought are given to it. The value of accurate 
 accounts, as well as their necessity, is recognized in 
 the entire business world. Few associations of indi- 
 viduals are organized for any specific purpose without 
 careful regard to the maintenance of the proper rela- 
 tion of income and outgo. The value and importance 
 of this is no less to the housekeeper than to the banker 
 or grocer. The appallingly frequent examples of reck- 
 less disregard in this respect, leading to a constantly 
 increasing number of unpaid bills and final ruin, ought 
 to teach the sad lesson of the unthrifty. Yet statisti- 
 cians tell us that at least one-half of our w^ll-to-do 
 families are seriously handicapped by debt. Along 
 with that fact should be emphasized another — the 
 number of families in which accounts of personal and 
 family expenses are kept is astonishingly small, and 
 in few instances where such records are keot i<^ suffi- 
 cient study given to them to lead to advance in stand- 
 ard of living from year to year. 
 
 In conducting any business it is of the greatest 
 importance (i) to follow the receipts and expenses, 
 (2) to keep a record of investments and (3) to deter- 
 mine at the end of the year, or shorter period, the 
 results of the business and the exact condition of the 
 
 42 
 
 442 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 43 
 
 capital. The modern household is an intricate business 
 concern. Its financial administration demands as per- 
 fect exactness, order and method as any other, if it is 
 to attain in any degree its possible efficiency. Such 
 exactness alone renders the accounts of an\' real worth. 
 They may be made of priceless value in directing the 
 activities and ministering to the comfort of all in the 
 home. 
 
 The question who shall be head bookkeeper and ^j^^ 
 director of the household expenditures will probably Keeper* 
 be best decided by determining which grown member 
 of the family has a genius for accounts. It naturally 
 falls to the housekeeper as the one who can manage 
 best and has the most intimate acquaintance with the 
 entire situation. In any case, it should be one who 
 loves it or who sees in it possibilities large enough to 
 create a willingness to give the necessary thought and 
 time to make it a success. It has been made a profitable 
 and interesting business training in some families for 
 growing boys and girls. Possibly promotion from 
 the keeping of their own personal accounts to those 
 of the houj-ehold might be made an excellent stimulus. 
 With a clear, convenient system, adapted to the needs 
 of the particular records to be kept, and with a busi- 
 ness-like promptness in entering each night the trans- 
 actions of the day while fresh in mind, what is often 
 looked upon as a perplexing hardship may become an 
 interesting study. A helpful aid to memory is a card 
 neatly fitted into the purse, upon which sufficient entry 
 
 443 
 
44 
 
 lIOUSIillOLI) MANAGEMENT 
 
 Systems 
 
 Envelope 
 Method 
 
 may be made at the time of the expenditure to assist 
 in recalhng the details when they are wanted for enter- 
 ing in the account. A shopping list filled out with 
 prices as one purchases is a useful aid to memory. 
 
 The system employed in keeping the accounts may 
 be very simple. The only necessary requirement is 
 that it be sufficiently complete to record in concise, 
 available form the necessary facts to indicate clearly 
 the details of income and outgo. It must be possible 
 to compare these two sides of the account at any time 
 in order to prove that the balance as shown by the 
 account corresponds with the cash on hand. 
 
 Various systems have been devised and successfully 
 used. The efficiency of anyone depends quite as much, 
 perhaps, upon the thorough, painstaking effort of the 
 user to bring it to its utmost point of efficiency and 
 utility as upon the system itself. 
 
 Some find a series of envelopes a very convenient 
 form of keeping the records. Each envelope is labeled 
 with the name of the particular division of the 
 expenses which it is to hold. After it has been decided 
 what proportion shall be spent for each division the 
 sum is ])ut into its envelope, to l)c drawn as needed. 
 
 A slip of paper or card in the envelope records each 
 addition, and the expenditures from that envelope 
 during the week or month, or a cash account is also 
 kept of the household expenses and personal account. 
 Any division like the following may be made wifli the 
 envelopes : 
 
 444 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 45 
 
 Suppose a family consisting of a man and wife live 
 in a steam-heated flat and have an income of $30 a 
 week. The following divisions might be made each 
 week : 
 
 Rent $7.00 
 
 Household expenses 7,00 
 
 Fuel and light i.oo 
 
 Man's personal allowance and expcni>es, 
 
 including lunches and car fares 5.00 
 
 Madam's personal allowance 4.00 
 
 Extras and emergencies, including dentist, 
 
 doctor, etc 2.00 
 
 Church and charities i .00 
 
 Insurance and savings bank 3.00 
 
 $30.00 
 
 For anuisements there may be a separate envelope, 
 or, as there are four months in which there will be 
 five payments to the envelope, these extra four pay- 
 ments may be used for amusements in connection with 
 household expenses. 
 
 A system like this has the advantage of keeping 
 always before one just what is at hand to draw from. 
 The leading disadvantages over other methods is its 
 cumbrousness. It involves the keeping of a considerable 
 amount of money on hand and also presents a great 
 temptation to borrow from one envelope to .another 
 for making change, etc., which is likely to lead to 
 confusion of accounts. 
 
 Example 
 
 Advantages 
 and 
 
 Disadvan- 
 tages 
 
 445 
 
-16 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGliMENT 
 
 Cards 
 
 and 
 
 Envelopes 
 
 Journal 
 
 If the records for the envelopes were kept on cards, 
 these niii];-ht he filed in a card index for comparison 
 and permanent reference as explained later. 
 
 On the whole, a system l)y which the accounts arc 
 finally entered in l)0()ks intended for that purpose 
 proves most satisfactory. Such hooks may he pro- 
 cured already ruled for entries, or a hlank hook can 
 easily he ruled as desired. For a complete record the 
 same hooks are useful as for other accountants — a 
 ■journal, ledger and 1)alance sheet. The journal and 
 ledger may well he comhined in one hook, as will be 
 explained in connection with Table III. 
 
 The household account records exchanges whereby 
 the housewife ouys the goods or services which her 
 household needs, giving- in exchange of her means. 
 The simplest statement of such exchanges is made in 
 a journal. A single ])age is used to enter both receipts 
 and expenses. Thus : 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 1904. 
 
 Jan. 1 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 .•> 
 
 8 
 • 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 Received. 
 
 Paid. 
 
 Cash ill hand 
 
 ?30.00 
 50.00 
 
 $70.00' 
 84.30 
 
 ?1.50 
 8 00 
 
 14.00 
 4.75 
 
 .50 
 1 35 
 1,10 
 1 50 
 1.70 
 
 Washlnj,' 
 
 Grocer 
 
 (\)al 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Salary 
 
 Car fares 
 
 C -leaning 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Washing 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 HalaiUT on linml 
 
 $34.30 
 
 $35.70 
 
 446 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 
 
 47 
 
 If purchases are itemized elsewhere for reference, 
 such an account as this may contain sufficient data. 
 It is possible to itemize more fully in this journal 
 record if desired, as is illustrated in Table II. 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Itemized 
 Accounts 
 
 1903. 
 
 Feb. 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 By balance bi'ought forward . . . 
 To washing 
 
 " 2 tons coal at $7 per ton 
 
 " 3 bu. potatoes at 80c. per bu. 
 
 '• 5 doz. eggs at 22c. per doz. . . 
 
 '• cleaning one day. 
 
 ' ' rent for January 
 
 " 8 lbs. beef at 14c. per lb 
 
 " washing 
 
 By salary 
 
 To car fares — 
 
 Totals 
 
 (Balance, ff8T.23.) 
 
 Cr. 
 
 Dr. 
 
 Daily 
 Totals. 
 
 $75.70 
 
 ifl..50 
 
 
 
 14.00 
 
 $15.50 
 
 
 2.40 
 
 
 
 1.10 
 
 3. 50 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 
 
 15.00 
 
 
 
 1.12 
 
 17.37 
 
 
 1.50 
 
 1..50 
 
 50.00 
 
 
 
 
 ,60 
 
 .60 
 
 !rl25.70 
 
 
 $38.47 
 
 In the second table it will be noted that the terms 
 usually employed in bookkeeping are introduced. 
 These are easily understood. The term "By" intro- 
 duces all terms belonging to the credit or receipt 
 column ; the "To," items of the debit or expense col- 
 umn. The abbreviation "Cr." for credit heads the 
 column of receipts, indicating that the house account 
 has that much more to its credit, while the "Dr." 
 abbreviation for debit shows to what extent the house 
 has become indebted or has placed itself under obliga- 
 tion for benefits received. 
 
 Table II also includes a column for daily totals, 
 which carries the account a step further in efficiency. 
 In the final footing up of the columns these totals are 
 
 Terms 
 
 Daily 
 Totals 
 
 447 
 
48 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Use of 
 Ledger 
 
 Credit 
 Accounts 
 
 a convenience, since it is always easier to add a short 
 list of large figures than a long column of small items. 
 It is sometimes helpful also to be able to refer to the 
 entire day's expenditures. 
 
 As will be readily seen, the details of expenditures, 
 when entered as above in the journal, are not easily 
 referred to. One could at any time make a summary 
 of any division which would show the amount spent 
 for any one class of purchases, as clothes, rent or food. 
 As a matter of fact, few seem to make such reviews 
 when the accounts are kept in this way, finding it a 
 seemingly endless task to assort the different items 
 after they have become so thoroughly confused as 
 they do in the journal account. In this way the great- 
 est benefit of an account is lost. Their highest value 
 is in one's being able to bring each set of expenses 
 together, so that comparison of different divisions may 
 be made, and a proper proportion maintained. It is 
 far better to transfer the details of an account to a 
 second book, called a ledger, which may for conven- 
 ience be divided into sections, each devoted to its par- 
 ticular class of items. 
 
 The number of credit accounts should be limited to 
 as few as possible, usually to grocer, butcher and doc- 
 tor. Frequent settlement of such accounts should 
 be made. The family physician has too frequent occa- 
 sion to comment upon the unbusiness-like way that 
 family bills are allowed to accumulate from year to 
 year without attention. If a physician is tardy on his 
 
 448 
 
Ledger 
 
 HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 49 
 
 side and does not present bills promptly he is usually 
 agreeably surprised to have it called for, as it should be. 
 
 The most complete and concise way of recording the combination 
 facts to be preserved is to be found in the combination J^"""^ 
 of journal and ledger, such as is illustrated in Table 
 III. This will prove in the end to be one of the most 
 convenient, suggestive and helpful arrangements yet 
 devised. Opposite pages of an account book may be 
 used, the left-hand page for the journal record, the 
 right-hand for the ledger. The ledger items are 
 classified under a few typical heads and the amounts 
 expended for each are entered apart from the whole. 
 This tenders it very easy at any time to consult any 
 one division, where all the record is clearly before one. 
 The divisions used correspond to those suggested in 
 the discussion of Division of Household Expenditures, 
 page 21. These are optional both in character and 
 number, but will in the main prove to be excellent 
 general heads. Others may suggest themselves as 
 desirable for an individual familv. Multiolication of 
 details must be avoided as far as possible, to avoid 
 confusion. Particulars as to prices paid may well be 
 left to the pass books or bills of butcher or grocer, or 
 in a separate memorandum book. 
 
 449 
 
50 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 ts and 
 littire. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Sum. 
 
 c 
 
 >> 
 
 1 
 
 ) 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 ■J-. 
 
 0; 
 
 .^* Operating 
 g Expenses. 
 
 bii 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 $6.00 
 
 ^ 
 2 
 
 Date o 
 Receip 
 Expenc 
 
 Sources 
 
 Sums. 
 
 u 
 
 a; 
 
 1995. 
 Jan. 1 
 
 " 2 
 
 Cash in 
 hand . 
 
 $90.00 
 
 Flour 
 
 Dress Ma- 
 terial. . . . 
 
 Meat 
 
 Coal and 
 Oil. 
 
 $4.75 
 
 6.00 
 1 25 
 
 7.50 
 
 $19.50 
 
 2 30! 
 35. -lo' 
 
 $4.75 
 1.25 
 
 1.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 3 
 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Car Fares . 
 Washing.. 
 
 Rent 
 
 Car Fares. 
 
 1.10 
 
 .30 
 
 1.00 
 
 35~00 
 .40 
 
 3.25 
 1.10 
 
 20 
 
 $35.00 
 .40 
 
 1.00 
 
 $6.00 
 
 ■ 
 
 " 4 
 
 Salary 
 
 150.00 
 
 
 " 5 
 
 
 Groceries.. 
 
 Meat 
 
 Church 
 Collect'n. 
 
 4.35 
 
 3.25 
 
 1.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 8 
 
 1.00 
 $62.55 
 
 1.00, 
 $62.55 
 
 $11.45 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 1 00 
 
 
 $240.00 
 
 
 $35.60 
 
 $8.50 
 
 $1.00 
 
 Ir 
 
 1 earn 
 
 ,ing 
 
 on week 
 
 ly 
 
 r mo 
 
 nthl\ 
 
 ' accounts with 
 
 Balancing 
 
 butcher, grocer or at dry goods stores various methods 
 are employed for keeping a memorandum of the char- 
 acter and size of purchases made. If shps are sent 
 with the goods when delivered they should be pre- 
 served on file, to be compared with the bill when ren- 
 dered. Pass books are sometimes used. In that case 
 the entries should be made in the nresonrc of the pur- 
 chaser, to avoid error or deception. 
 
 Household accounts should be balanced at least 
 every week. A dail}' verifying with cash on hand is 
 
 450 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS $1 
 
 easiest and saves time in the end. These daily bal- 
 ances may be indicated in pencil as the aim is to prove 
 the account to be correct, thus showing that no item 
 has been omitted. Every month's accounts should 
 be balanced on the last day of the month and a new 
 page opened for a new account for the next month. 
 The first iteni un the new page should read as in 
 Table II, ''By balance brought forward " 
 
 One should set a time for the final balancing of Yearly 
 accounts and opening a fresh record. This is usually 
 done at the close of the calendar year, although 
 another time might be more convenient, as the holiday 
 season brings other extras demanding time. 
 
 The facts to be preserved on a balance sheet are Balance 
 available after this summary of the year's expenses 
 is made. The purpose of a balance sheet is to preserve 
 from year to year a statement of the final condition at 
 the end of each year for helpful comparison. It may be 
 that the income has not been sufficient to meet the de- 
 mands upon it, when a deficit with appear. Or the in- 
 come may be just enough to cover expenses, or there 
 may be a balance of the credit side. A properly man- 
 aged household will show a steadily increasing gain of 
 this nature, provided no exceptional and unexpected 
 bills arise such as result from long illness and the like. 
 
 An example of a properly managed entry and a 
 satisfactory showing is given in Table IV. 
 
 Household Account Book, with division of income, 64 page, cloth bound, 30 cents, from 
 the School. 
 
 451 
 
52 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Income for year 1902 
 
 Expense for year 
 
 Cr. 
 
 *2.500 
 
 ee.-'soo 
 
 Dr. 
 
 ^2,350 
 350 
 
 *3,500 
 
 Balance in hand. 
 
 
 Card Index ^^^^ liouseholcl accouiits may be kept by means of 
 System [\^^. Q^^iX index system, which is perhaps the best meth- 
 od of kee])in£^- any and all sorts of records, such as 
 addresses, invoices and miscellaneous memoranda. 
 
 CARD INDEX BOXES. 
 
 A small linen or pasteboard box containing a set 
 of alphabetical guide cards and some two hundred 
 ruled cards in sizes 5x3 or 6x4 inches may be pur- 
 chased for from fifty cents to a dollar. These cards are 
 ruled horizontally and perpendicularly as in a cash 
 book, or come without the perpendicular rulings. 
 Various systems may be used. The most concise and 
 
 452 
 
HO USEH OLD A CCO UN TS 
 
 53 
 
 simple is invariably the best, and it may be so done 
 as to make further entering in a book superfluous. 
 
 One plan now being used is as follows : Under the 
 letter C in the alphabetical index are three cards for 
 
 Typical 
 Method 
 
 JAn. 
 
 CAsw Received 
 
 
 1 
 
 Cash o/? f?a/?a 
 
 37.64 
 
 6 
 
 salarv <^^^^^ 
 
 eo.ao 
 
 16 
 
 From J^Mf^.oo^^a/eofdooHS^" 
 
 14.00 
 
 23 
 
 " Mat/a^/r?e A/oyJrt/de 
 
 7.50 
 
 F£B. 
 
 
 t53J4 
 
 G 
 
 Salary 
 
 SOMO 
 
 20 
 
 Extra work tor Sterlfr?(^ 
 
 10.00 
 243S4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CARD CASH ACCOUNT. 
 
 cash, (i) an account of cash received, (2) an account 
 of cash disbursed and (3) the cash balance. It may 
 take a card for each month for Cash Received or not, 
 depending upon the items. In the case cited the num- 
 ber of cards used during the year for Cash Received 
 was six, two months on each. 
 
 Cash disbursed takes at least one card a month, 
 possibly more if there are many classified accounts. 
 The items on this card are the totals of items on single 
 cards devoted to daily or less frequent purchases. That 
 is, under the letter R, as indicated by the index at the 
 
 Cash Paid 
 Card 
 
 453 
 
54 
 
 HO USEHOL D MA NA GEMENT 
 
 right on the Cash Disbursed card, ilkistrated, is found 
 the card ''Rents'' with record of rental payments, when, 
 to whom, and how paid, if by check or cash. Market- 
 ing inckides both the grocer's and butcher's accounts, 
 hence the index letters G and B. These arc itemized 
 
 \905 
 
 3/ 
 
 n 
 
 i> 
 
 CA5\j DiSBURSEp. 
 
 Mef7t 
 
 u^7</er R, 
 
 Gas 
 
 It 
 
 G, 
 
 M///C. 
 
 M^ 
 
 3er^/ce^Uf^."i:' n Lfc 
 
 suppi/es 
 
 s. 
 
 Car fare 
 
 C. 
 
 Persarra/ 
 
 P. 
 
 /r7c/^errea/5 
 
 MarUetwgr 
 
 a^aih 
 
 IGSO 
 
 U70 
 
 2.80 
 
 6.00 
 
 2J4 
 
 3,3S 
 
 8jm 
 
 i,?5 
 
 22.^Z 
 
 64,3S 
 
 CASH PAID CARD. 
 
 Bank 
 
 Account 
 
 Card 
 
 on the cards "Groceries" and "Butcher." If the ac- 
 counts are heavy it would be better to devote three 
 cards to these items divided into groceries, meats, and 
 vegetables. 
 
 The illustrations will probably make the divisions 
 clear, but these divisions are not arbitrary, the person 
 keeping the household accounts can adapt her own 
 system. 
 
 Tf the housekeeper has a bank account a card should 
 be devoted to this to check up with bank book and 
 
 454 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 
 
 55 
 
 checks cashed and used for casli. This card should be 
 as follows : 
 
 1905 
 
 JAM. 
 
 Bank /Account 
 
 
 J 
 
 Or? hand 
 
 582J6 
 
 
 Deposited m fanuary 
 
 80,00 
 
 
 
 662./fc 
 
 Feb, 
 
 Drew c/^ecks asipetdpaA 
 
 33^2 
 
 1 
 
 O/? ^ancf . 
 
 e28S4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BANK ACCOUNT CARD. 
 
 With this card system a weekly balance may be kept 
 instead of the monthly balance as illustrated. The ac- 
 counts are so arranged that items may be found or 
 traced with c^sc. For instance if in comparing the 
 January expenditures on the Cash Balance card, it is 
 found that it is much more than for February, it is 
 desirable to know zcJiy. We take the two cards of 
 Cash Disbursed, the one for January and the one for 
 February and compare the items. There it mav be 
 found that the gas bill in January was more than in 
 February, that more car fare was used, and evidently 
 some extra supplies purchased. By turning to the 
 card devoted to Supplies, these may be noted and the 
 extra amount used at once found. 
 
 Balance 
 Card 
 
 455 
 
5^> 
 
 / / ( )USEH OLD MA XA GUM UN T 
 
 Advantag'es 
 
 Filed for 
 Reference 
 
 The entire account, daily, weekly and yeari\, is in 
 compact form and if mistakes occnr it is a more simple 
 matter to destroy and make a new card than to fix a 
 Look. Like any system of keepin^i;- accounts to be 
 accurate and lielpful (liis one demands promptness and 
 accuracy in puttiuL; down items. 
 
 In order to he c^f use from year to year in comparini^- 
 the increase or lesseniui^ of expenses the accounts 
 must he hied away for reference. A set of cards takes 
 up not more than six inches in lenqth, four in height 
 
 1905 
 JAh. 
 
 Cash B>ALyANCE: (mouthly) 
 
 
 1 
 
 On hand 
 
 5/. 64 
 
 TAN. 
 
 /deceived 
 
 10 1.50 
 
 II 
 
 
 IJS.l^ 
 
 IP 
 
 spetft 
 
 e>4.3e 
 
 FEBX 
 
 On hand 
 
 88.7S 
 
 •1 
 
 Rece/i/eof 
 
 90.00 
 
 ff 
 
 
 1 78.78 
 
 It 
 
 Spent 
 
 S3AS 
 
 MAf<,i 
 
 On hand 
 
 12S.3e 
 
 
 
 
 IWSH 15ALANCE CAKD. 
 
 and less than two inclies space in thickness. The 
 entire set can he put in a desk drawer or pigeon hole 
 ready for easy reference, (^r if preferred a small 
 tin or wooden hox designed for such purpose and 
 made the exact size, may be purchased iov the filing 
 awa\' of the year's accotmts. 
 
 456 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 
 
 57 
 
 Unless desired for some special purpose it is not 
 necessary to save the entire itemized account for the 
 year, for the weekly or monthly grocery, butcher's, 
 gas, milk and other accounts may be brought together 
 each on a single card and kept with the cards devoted 
 to the cash and bank accounts for future reference. 
 
 \905 
 
 10 
 
 // 
 
 13 
 
 lb 
 
 17 
 
 ie 
 
 GffOCrff/f/^CCt.Vl^tTHKQLBE.') 
 
 3 DOZ. eggs ^32Sf(>S^ITj 5 
 
 1 Bottle van)Uaj5 6 lemonsjs 
 
 4- Lbs. Coffee 
 
 1 Box t?omtno 3u(7ar 
 
 A Lbs, /putter J2 
 
 to ids . granytateci sugar 
 
 3 " 
 
 12 OfqjK^es 
 
 torcf ,30 I tu.potatOiT t7o 
 
 Pafcf bjr c/jeck.No. ^^i 
 
 1.U 
 
 30 
 
 ]A0 
 
 .50 
 
 128 
 
 .GO 
 
 35 
 
 6iP^ 
 
 GROCERY ACCOUNT CARD. 
 
 The chief disadvantage of the card system outlined, 
 in comparison with the book system, is that the cash 
 balance on hand is not so easily ascertained. 
 
 In any system, it is necessary to compare frequently 
 the amount of cash actually in the purse (or purse and 
 bank combined) with the balance as shown by the 
 accounts. If this is not done there is usually an unac- 
 counted for shortage which must be charged to "sun- 
 dries," "miscellaneous," and the like — a most unsatis- 
 factory procedure. 
 
 Necessity 
 
 of 
 
 Balancing 
 
 457 
 
58 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Classifica- 
 tion 
 
 Alcott Stockwell, in discussing "The Keeping of 
 Household Accounts" in the April, May and June 
 (1904) numbers of The Home Science ^Magazine, 
 gives three tables of classification which may be help- 
 ful in suggesting headings for divisions of expendi- 
 ture in the accounts. These are as follows : 
 
 TABLE I 
 
 Classification of Houscliold Expenses. 
 
 Housekeeping 
 
 a. Provisions 
 
 b. Ice 
 
 c. Fuel 
 
 d. Rent 
 
 e. Dometic Service 
 
 f. Miscellaneous 
 House-furnishing 
 
 a. General (including all fur- 
 niture 
 
 b. Kitchen and Dining-room 
 Library Siipplies 
 
 a. Books and Periodicals 
 
 b. Stationery and postage 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 a. Sundries (expressage. flow- 
 er for house, thread, etc.) 
 
 b. Other (fire insurance, mov 
 ing. telephone service, etc.) 
 
 Gifts 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 Classification of Personal Expenses {in faniily). 
 
 Clothing 
 
 a. New clothing. Foot wear, 
 and Furnishings 
 
 b. Repairs to clothing and 
 Foot wear 
 
 Transportation (street car , rail- 
 road, hack fares, etc.) 
 Personal Services 
 
 a. Toilet 
 
 b. Medical 
 
 c. Dental 
 Recreation 
 
 a. Outings (includiaig bicycle, 
 pony, canoe, camera and "sup- 
 plies, etc.) 
 
 b. Entertainment (may in- 
 clude anything as medium of 
 diversion. ;is amateur pho- 
 tography, musical instrti- 
 :nents, 
 
 Education 
 
 a. Books, Stationery and Sup- 
 plies 
 
 b. Tuition and Lectures. 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 a. Sundries (soda water, con- 
 fectionery, cigars, etc.) 
 
 b. Other (any large expense 
 not included) 
 
 458 
 
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 59 
 
 Classiiication of Personal Expenses {single individual) 
 
 1. Clothiug 
 
 a. New Clothiug. Foot wear, 
 and Furnishiugs 
 
 b. Repairs to clothing and 
 Foot wear 
 
 I. Board and Lodging 
 3. Transportation 
 1. Personal Services 
 
 a. Toilet (shampoo, manicure, 
 chiropodist, etc.) 
 
 b. Medical 
 
 c. Dental 
 
 5. Library Supplies 
 
 a. Books and Periodicals 
 
 b. Stationery and Postage 
 3. Recreations 
 
 a. Outings 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 b. Entertainments 
 Education 
 
 a. Books, Stationery and 
 Supplies 
 
 b. Tuition and Lectures 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 a. Sundries 
 
 b. Others 
 
 Total Expenses 
 
 Gifts 
 
 Investments 
 
 a. Bank 
 
 b. Other 
 
 On hand at end of month 
 
 In following these headings it would be well for 
 Table I to include a division for investments, unless 
 a separate small account book is left for these with 
 such heading as: 
 
 a. Savings Banks 
 
 b. Life Insurance 
 
 c. Real Estate 
 
 d. Loans 
 
 Charities and Church may be classed under gifts or 
 investments, preferably the latter, as they indicate 
 within proper limits the most commendable form of 
 investment. 
 
 Division 
 
 for 
 
 Investments 
 
 459 
 
Advantages 
 
 Pass 
 Book 
 
 Deposit 
 Ticket 
 
 THE BANK ACCOXJNT 
 
 Comparatively few women appreciate the advantage 
 and convenience of having a bank account. There is 
 a mistaken idea current that banks are solely for those 
 who have a balance to invest. This is true only of 
 savings banks ; with this exception, the housewife 
 may select the most convenient bank of whose financial 
 soundness she is assured and open her account. In 
 this way the bank becomes merely a temporary safe 
 deposit vault, and checks, the easiest and safest way 
 of making all except small cash payments. 
 
 Having become identified, with her account accepted, 
 the depositor is presented with what is called a pass 
 book. This she keeps and presents with each amount 
 of money to be deposited. The receiving teller makes 
 a record of each deposit on the left-hand page of this 
 book, and when the book is balanced from time to 
 time a statement is inserted, on the right-hand page, 
 of the amount drawn out and the balance remaining. 
 
 In depositing, the housewife or her messenger fills 
 out what is known as a deposit ticket, which is always 
 to be found provided at the bank. If it is necessary 
 or more convenient at any time to send the deposit by 
 a messenger he should always fill out this blank in 
 the name of the depositor, since it is not necessarily 
 her signature, but merely a record of her deposit. If 
 there be checks to be indorsed before depositing, that 
 is a different matter. Those must be Indorsed before 
 delivering them to the messenger, and should be made 
 payable to the bank ; they are then payable only to the 
 
 60 
 
 460 
 
THE BANK ACCOUNT 
 
 6i 
 
 DEPOSITED IX THE 
 
 .\forrixyilff.)/ . •W^^ /Q / fOS 
 
 gJiiJF^t:^>S£ "MST EACH CH£CK SEPARATEIx" 
 
 bank. The deposit ticket is a printed form indicating 
 deposits in specie, bills and checks. Sometimes the 
 ticket reads for gold and 
 silver, instead of specie, 
 as is seen in the following 
 form, illustrating a de- 
 posit ticket properly filled 
 out for presenting to the 
 receiving teller. This is 
 handed in with pass book 
 and deposit at the window 
 marked "Receiving Tell- 
 er/' where the deposit is 
 counted and the amount 
 compared with the de- 
 positor's figures, checks 
 examined to ascertain 
 whether they have been 
 properly filled out and in- 
 dorsed and, last of all, the 
 amount of the deposit is 
 entered in the pass book, 
 which is returned to the 
 one presenting it. 
 
 Checks, drafts, money orders or express money 
 orders can always be sent by mail for deposit with 
 safety if properly indorsed. 
 
 BiUs . 
 
 DoNars 
 
 Cenrs 
 
 CoU . ^ . 
 
 
 
 i>ilvcr ...... 
 
 
 Ya 
 
 Checks . .- 
 
 
 
 ^HUcJ^^s:;^(!(t,'^<a. 
 
 /J- 
 
 ff-(f 
 
 (^ajU/- P/aJ: i^/au4^ 
 
 JLiT 
 
 i^9 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 6 
 
 ^d 
 
 Deposit Ticket Properly 
 Filled Out. 
 
 Depositing 
 by Mail 
 
 461 
 
62 
 
 llOUSlillOlJ) MANAi;iiMli\''r 
 
 Checks 
 
 Indorsement 
 
 Every depositor is presented with a check book. 
 This is a book of blank checks, arranged either several 
 on a page, attached by a perforated line to a side, 
 which is called a stub, or, as in "pocket" check book, 
 with a single check forming the page. In this case 
 
 t rw : 
 
 y^i<^9(c'yl^^Lhh. 
 
 Tort Dearborn ]Nali6iialUaiili 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 '5\tx>ovAXt~(j 5 G'-'-'-^'^ 
 
 A CHECK Fir.LRD OUT. 
 
 pages are inserted between each second and third 
 check, or between every check, upon which a record 
 may be kept, as upon the stubs. A check is a written 
 order, dated and numbered, directing the bank in 
 which the writer's money is deposited to pay the sum 
 stated to the bearer of the check, some person named, 
 or 'to the order of the person indicated. 
 
 This check is equivalent to the sum of money named 
 upon it anywhere the rightful bearer presents it. It 
 may be deposited, presented in payment of bills or 
 cashed upon being indorsed. 
 
 To receive the money on a check it is necessary for 
 it to be indorsed by the person to whom it is made 
 payable. To indorse a check properly it should be 
 held by the upper left-hand corner, turned and the 
 
 462 
 
THE BANK ACCOUNT 
 
 O3 
 
 name written across the back about on-third down 
 the length of the check. Other indorsements should 
 follow the first, in order. The signature used in 
 indorsing a check should always conform exactly to 
 that on the face, even if that should by mistake be not 
 correct. The simple signature across the back makes 
 it possible for anyone to draw^ its value who may come 
 into possession of it. For the sake of safety it is 
 always well to limit the payment by making it payable 
 to the order of anyone to whom it is desired to transfer 
 it. It is best to observe this under all circumstances, 
 unless one presents the check in person for cashing, or 
 must send it to be cashed by someone not known. It 
 niakes it impossible for it to be of an\- value to a 
 chance finder should it be lost. Thus : 
 
 John L. BenUey 
 
 Simple Indoi'senieiit. 
 
 Fay to the order of 
 Henry E. Johnpon 
 John L. Bentley 
 
 Safe Indorsement . 
 
 Sometimes a check is made out so that the payee's 
 name dififers from that used in the bank. This will 
 happen frequently with married women. In such case 
 it is usually necessary to sign both names. For 
 example, a check made payable to Mrs. Henry Couch 
 would be indorsed "Mrs. Henry Couch,'' followed by 
 the proper signature, "Harriet B. Couch" underneath, 
 since the given name of a depositor is preferred at 
 the bank. 
 
 r?ul)le 
 Indorsement 
 
 "463 
 
64 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Vouchers 
 
 Over- 
 drawing 
 
 Counter- 
 manding 
 
 Stubs 
 
 If for any reason one desires to draw cash on her 
 own account it may be done by making out a check, 
 using the word ''Cash" or ''Myself" in place of other 
 name. 
 
 A check eventually returns to the depositor's own 
 bank, is paid, cancelled and returned to her when her 
 pass book is balanced, as a voucher or receipt of pay- 
 ment. The vouchers are perfect receipts of all pay- 
 ments made by check. 
 
 Care must always be exercised not to overdraw in 
 checks the amount of one's deposit in the bank. When 
 this is done one suffers the humiliation of having the 
 bank refuse to honor the check, and the person infring- 
 ing is open to the criticism of being unbusiness-like at 
 least, and there is usually a small extra charge to pay. 
 
 Should one desire to countermand the order of pay- 
 ment on a check after it is issued the payment can 
 usually be prevented by notifying the bank in suffi- 
 cient time. 
 
 Stubs are the inner margin of a check book, from 
 which the checks are detached as used. Upon either 
 these or the inserted pages of the pocket check book 
 data should be recorded concerning the check which 
 is detached. Space is given for noting the data, num- 
 ber of the check, amount, the name of the person to 
 whom it is made payable and that for which it is given. 
 These facts serve as guides in proving the vouchers 
 when returned from the bank. Properly kept, the 
 stubs indicate at a glance the amount still remaining 
 in the bank. 
 
 464 
 
THE BANK ACCOUNT 
 
 From the preceding facts it will be seen that the valuable 
 bank may be made as valuable aid to the housewife in Housewife 
 conducting her business as for anyone else who has 
 exchanges to effect. By means of checks money may 
 
 OATE,l9oX DEPOSITS. 
 
 JiLul 
 
 -Balamcs Brot. FOnWARO, 
 
 JL 
 
 ^,<i^LxA^ 
 
 jE 
 
 f- 
 
 yLATl'Vt^ 
 
 r^ <«^^ 
 
 a-r c 
 
 f 
 
 Total Ocposits. 
 DsoucT Chicks Ouawn, Noa. ' J * "* 3 > 
 
 DACANCe FonWARO, 
 
 ^6 
 
 131 
 31 
 
 97 
 
 00 
 
 ou. 
 ou 
 
 
 f-J 
 
 JiA. 
 
 DATt ^«'^^,c/j:_^.,aor ronJ^-^ C T.<zX^oXt^:^ 
 
 ■-■.'- ' PAY TO Cy^t/i^ ^. /t^^JzA^.*^ 
 
 -i4^i90>~ FPU "T' O^e^ 
 
 -JJlL 
 
 E-:^^^/!^^.9or ^vonJt 
 
 /rUA^ 'j- S JujiXtrt^ 
 
 'yA,<rrUA^U-^ 
 
 -ii: 
 
 Ciu-^^yk. 
 
 -^a^ ^'^ ,^oS- r... IaAv^^/ 
 
 ID 
 
 JJ 
 
 00 
 
 Sf 
 
 THE TWO SIDES OF AN INTERLEAVED POCKET CHECK BOOK, 
 FOUR CHECKS TO A LEAF. 
 
 be more easily and safely transferred than in any other 
 way, since they can be enclosed in letters, if necessary, 
 and they avoid the danger of mistakes in ''making 
 change," or of loss of money. Since they may be 
 made payable to a stated person only, if lost they are 
 of little value to the finder. Even if lost after indorse- 
 
 465 
 
66 
 
 H O USE HOLD MA NA GEM EN T 
 
 Vouchers 
 
 as 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Comparing 
 
 Vouchers 
 
 with Stubs 
 
 ment, the payment may be withheld by notifying the 
 bank. 
 
 A check eventually becomes all the receipt necessary 
 in paying bills, thus saving any further trouble of 
 receipted bills. If checks are used entirely in pay- 
 ments, the vouchers constitute a comparatively com- 
 plete household account in themselves, but this is 
 rarely feasible, as employees find checks an inconven- 
 ient form of payment, since they are often not iden- 
 tified so that they can get them cashed ; besides, checks 
 are quite unknown to them, so that they are slow in 
 appreciating them as money equivalent, and their 
 hours arc such as not to conform well with banking 
 hours. 
 
 The pass book is important as a record of the 
 depositor's standing at the bank. That this record 
 may be kept accurately, it is necessary to present the 
 book with each deposit. The depositor is never at 
 liberty to make entries in it herself; that can only be 
 done by the receiving teller. The pass book should 
 be presented when called for and should be balanced 
 as often as once a month if a considerable business is 
 done through the bank ; even if the pass book is lost, 
 the money may still be drawn out at will. 
 
 Returned vouchers should always be compared care- 
 fully with their stubs. Should there be any discrep- 
 ancy between the balance as given by the bank and 
 that shown in the check book, one should determine 
 wdiether this corresponds exactly with the amounts of 
 anv checks issued, but not returned. 
 
 466 
 
THE BANK ACCOUNT 
 
 6? 
 
 Neither check nor pass book need affect in any way 
 the household account book, except as they are made 
 to be vakiable aids. They form a very convenient 
 department of the cash drawer, the cash in hand and 
 cash balance in the bank together making- up the sum 
 total on hand. 
 
 In some cases if a bank account is properly kept 
 it may serve as a fairly complete system of book- 
 
 
 
 o. 
 
 rort Jlcarborn National Itank 
 
 
 Ih^^^^^^tlSLCp^cA. 
 
 Bank 
 Account 
 Book- 
 keeping 
 
 A CHECK WITH STUB ATTACHED. 
 
 keeping in itself. In such a system it is necessary to 
 deposit all money received, making careful record on 
 the blank sheets of the check book of the date, amount, 
 source, etc. Then all bills possible should be paid by 
 check. The vouchers are a receipt in themselves. 
 These returned checks, with the receipted bills, filed 
 in an ordinary 25-cent bill file, give a safeguard 
 against paying the same bill twice. All bills should, 
 of course, be checked up before being paid. The stubs 
 of the check book show for what the money was 
 spent — so much for groceries, so much for the butcher, 
 for gas, milk, rent, dress goods, etc. When cash is 
 
 467 
 
68 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Better 
 than 
 None 
 
 Financially 
 
 Organized 
 
 Family 
 
 necessary, as in paying employees or small incidentals, 
 this can be drawn from the bank, or in some cases 
 obtained from an obliging tradesman, who will 
 exchange cash for checks. Memorandnm should be 
 made on the stub as to how the cash drawn is expend- 
 ed, or, much better, a petty cash account can be kept in 
 a book or on cards. At stated periods a summary may 
 be made from the stubs and from the receipted bills 
 as to how the money has been expended. 
 
 This system is not, to be recommended for those 
 who should look after the pennies carefully. The inci- 
 dentals will be found to foot up to a surprising 
 amount and it is always better to pay cash for gro- 
 ceries, meat, etc. However, such a system is better 
 than none, and as it is practically automatic, it can be 
 followed throughout the year with very little effort. 
 The poorest system, kept accurately from year to year, 
 is better than the most perfect system kept only inter- 
 mittently. 
 
 in a family which is properly organized financially 
 there is a definite idea as to how the income shall be 
 divided. A certain proportion is allowed for rent, 
 food, saving, etc., as already indicated. Then each 
 member of the family should have a personal allow- 
 ance, to include definite expenses, of which a personal 
 account is kept. As soon as a child is old enough to 
 trust with 5 or lo cents of its own he should be given 
 such allowance regularly and taught how to spend as 
 well as to keep account of expenditure. Only by 
 experience can one learn how to spend wisely. 
 
 468 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 PART I 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an- 
 swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
 answering" the questions. Ansiver fitUy. 
 
 1. What do you understand by the terms production 
 
 and consumption in economics? 
 
 2. Compare their relative importance in Home Eco- 
 
 nomics at the present time. 
 
 3. What is true economy? 
 
 4. What do you consider valid reasons for main- 
 
 taining individual homes ? 
 
 5. (a) What do you understand by the term Stand- 
 
 ard of Life? 
 
 (b) How are you conscious of such a guide in 
 your own life? Have you been conscious of 
 your standard changing from time to time? 
 
 6. What vakie do you see in a Division of Income 
 
 along some such lines as are indicated in the 
 text? 
 
 7. Comment upon the examples of both Typical and 
 
 Ideal Budgets in the light of your own expe- 
 rience. 
 
 469 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 8. What do you consider a desirable division of a 
 
 salary of $1,500 a year, the family, occupation 
 and location to be chosen as you please? Indi- 
 cate clearly and fully both conditions and divi- 
 sions. 
 
 9. Estimate as nearly as possible the division of the 
 
 income in your own household and criticise. 
 
 10. Why are household accounts essential ? 
 
 11. How many housekeepers of your acquaintance 
 
 keep careful household accounts? Do you dis- 
 cover any indications of greater success be- 
 cause of it when compared with those who do 
 not? 
 
 12. What system of account keeping do you find most 
 
 usable? Give details. 
 
 13. Explain "Balancing an Account." 
 
 14. What is meant by "Indorsing a check?" Illus- 
 
 trate and explain value. 
 
 15. (a) What arc stubs? How valuable? (b) 
 
 What are vouchers? 
 
 16. In what lines of expenditure does there seem to 
 
 be especial lack of thrift at the present time? 
 Suggest causes and corrections. 
 
 17. What do you consider the chief cause of the in- 
 
 creased distaste for housekeeping among 
 women and of the tendency to give up indi- 
 vidual homes in favor of apartments? How 
 do you regard the change? 
 
 470 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 1 8. To what extent have any subjects which you 
 
 studied during your school life been directly 
 and practically helpful to you in your home- 
 making- experience ? 
 
 19. Is there any additional training or subject wdiich 
 
 it seems to you might be profitably added to 
 the curricula of our schools or colleges for 
 young women? 
 
 20. Have you gained any new or helpful suggestions 
 
 for the more successful management of your 
 home as a result of this study? If so, what? 
 
 21. What additional suggestions can you make on 
 
 any of the topics taken up in this paper as a 
 result of your experience or study? 
 
 22. Ask two or more questions on the subjects con- 
 
 sidered in this lesson. 
 
 Note. After completing; the test sign your full name. 
 
 471 
 
M Y 
 
 Y M P H O N Y 
 
 O live content with small 
 means ^ to seek elegance 
 rather than luxury, and 
 refinement rather than fash- 
 ion ^ to be worthy not 
 respedable ^ to be wealthy, 
 not rich ^ to study hard, 
 think quietly, talk gently, 
 ad frankly ^ to li^en to the 
 ^ars and birds, babes and 
 sages, with open heart ^ to 
 bear all cheerfully ^ to do 
 all bravely, await occasions, 
 hurry never ^ in a word, 
 to let the spiritual unbidden 
 and unconscious, grow up 
 through the common fl this 
 is to be my symphony. 
 
 William Ellery Channing 
 
 472 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 PART i;i 
 
 ORaANIZATION AND DIVISION OF LABOR 
 
 Few things in life are more patlietic than a house- order 
 hold in whieh no organization exists, no systematic 
 direction of activities, no appreciation of Heaven's first 
 law, order. The haphazard, aimless living in such 
 homes leaves an unmistakable stamp upon the inmates. 
 Without knowing it, the housewife in such a home 
 suffers infinitely more friction, loss of time, strength 
 and money than it would cost her to keep her house- 
 keeping better in hand. 
 
 To have sufficient system and organization so that 
 one knows (i) what is to be done, (2) who is to who 
 
 ^ ^ ^^ When 
 
 do it, and (3) when is it to be done, is to have the 
 chief requisites for the successful working out of 
 ideals, coupled with ease and comfort of mind. Apply- 
 ing this knowledge each day, one may utilize whatever 
 time is at her disposal for other enjoyments, conscious 
 that she is not thereby neglecting what should ever 
 constitute her first duty — the care of her home and 
 family. Tt makes little difference whether it be the 
 mother of several boys with limited means at her 
 command or the woman who can afTord to hire sev- 
 eral helpers ; there is keen pleasure and satisfaction for 
 
 71 
 
 473 
 
72 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Requisites 
 
 Brain Power 
 
 Knowledge 
 
 Health 
 
 all in work so carefully divided that each has the 
 gratification of knowing the importance of his portion 
 and feels a commendable pride in his own contribution 
 toward the whole. This gratification may be made 
 as real for the helpers as for the one for whom the 
 work is performed. The joy of definite duties care- 
 fully related to the whole, in contrast with the lifeless 
 routine of ill-defined, meaningless details, appeals to 
 the one as truly as to the other. 
 
 Each thoughtful housekeeper finds her own best 
 methods of accomplishing this organization. Some 
 general suggestions as to necessary equipments may 
 be an aid. Certain things are absolutely essential for 
 success, such as the following: 
 
 Brain Pozver with Mental Alertness and Activity. 
 IMethod is impossible to one unwilling to contribute 
 these. 
 
 A Knoidcdgc as to how to perform the details of 
 housework in a superior manner. Unless one under- 
 stands what is necessary in the preparation of a certain 
 dish, or the length of -time it ought to require to clean 
 a room properly, it is quite impossible to direct it so 
 that the requisite amount of time and strength shall 
 be expended upon it, and no more. 
 
 Health plays no small part. Much failure has poor 
 physical conditions at the foundation. No truer 
 criticism has been made of American women in gen- 
 eral than that of a leader in the study of home prob- 
 lems, when she af^rms that too many are content to be 
 
 474 
 
ORGANIZATION 
 
 73 
 
 "just able to be about." Home is the plaee where 
 suffering resulting- from this low standard is certain 
 to be most keenly felt. Without excellent physical 
 vitality, the cares of a house must, perforce, seem 
 mountain-high. The exuberance of spirits of one full 
 of life and energy is transmitted like an electric cur- 
 rent to all who come in contact with it, and inspiration, 
 each for his task, is the inevitable result. Yery unfor- 
 tunately, the reverse is equally true. Failure to 
 possess the cheerfulness and optimism born of per- 
 fect health creates conditions well suited to spread a 
 contagion of a very depressing nature. Inability on 
 the part of a leader to do his share is soon followed 
 by a lessening of interest on the part of the helpers. 
 A dropping off of punctual and hearty performance 
 of duties results. 
 
 Self-control is another necessity. Ability to think 
 coolly and calmly, even under pressure, and to plan 
 carefully and intelligently at all times, goes a long 
 way in directing others. This characteristic is too 
 often thought to be entirely a matter of temperament, 
 beyond individual control. It is a great mistake. In- 
 dividuals do differ in a marked degree, it is true, in 
 the natural possession of it ; nevertheless with good 
 normal conditions of health, especially of "nerves," 
 that bane of w^oman's existence, this virtue is as possi- 
 ble of attainment as any other and well worth a strug- 
 gle to secure. 
 
 A large Sympathy, which appreciates the difficulties 
 
 Self-Control 
 
 Sympathy 
 
 475 
 
74 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Forethoucht 
 
 Routine 
 
 Written 
 Notes 
 
 encountered in doing the work, proves a priceless aid 
 to the successful superintendent. 
 
 Forethought is an important requisite. One must 
 have in mind a broad survey of the work to be ac- 
 complished. The outline of at least a week at a time 
 should be clearly defined to oneself, each day being 
 assigned its special work in addition to a regular rou- 
 tine preserved from week to week. In this scheme 
 all work such as washing, ironing, sweeping, cleaning 
 and the like w^ill find a place, if these are all done in 
 the home. The routine should not be infringed upon, 
 unless extraordinary emergencies arise . A system 
 broken is hard to restore, and something is sure to be 
 crowded out, if postponed. Each day's work should 
 l)e so planned that the menu w^ill be given to the cook, 
 It one is employed, at least the day before, and market- 
 ing will be attended to, so as to secure early and 
 prompt delivery next morning. A careful mental, or 
 better, zvrittcii note should be made of all details liable 
 to escape notice at the proper time. This avoids a con- 
 fusion in the morning of being needed in several places 
 at once, while the machinery wall not be at a stand- 
 still, waiting to be set in motion again. It avoids 
 waste of time at a very valuable part of the day. The 
 early hours count for much in starting the work so 
 that tiring haste and over-pressure may be prevented 
 later. If helpers know, when they arise, what the 
 day's work is to include, they can plan to far greater 
 advantage, saving time and strength. Written orders 
 are a great help here. 
 
 476 
 
ORGANIZATION 
 
 75 
 
 Adaptability of means to ends is a thing that the 
 would-be organizer may well study in successful busi- 
 ness men. A business man's office is so arranged that 
 it is to the highest degree labor and time-saving. It is 
 compact, orderly, simple, with nothing unnecessary 
 filling space. Every thing is at hand and adapted to 
 make his work swift and easy. The successful work- 
 man's tools are good in quality, in perfect order, and 
 so arranged that every motion counts. He knows that 
 it is economy to have them so. How many of our 
 kitchens would stand the test satisfactorily in these 
 particulars? Most kitchens, pantries and laundries 
 are so arranged that there is a prodigal waste of time 
 and strength in passing from one thmg to another. 
 One should see to it that the cooking table is not on 
 the side of the kitchen opposite the pantry of supplies 
 or cooking utensils, and both as far as possible from 
 the stove. A little trouble and perhaps no expense 
 will often better conditions. 
 
 It would seem far more ideal a condition than has 
 yet been reached were it possible to give certain fixed 
 standards for the division of the work of a house so 
 that helpers going from one to another would find 
 practically the same duties expected of them. To at- 
 tempt such outline, would be too hazardous to under- 
 take. Were housewives who employ, asked to define 
 the duties of "second girl," "nursery maid," or even 
 of laundress or cook, hardly two would be found to 
 agree, so individual has been the assignment according 
 to the particular needs of each household. One ex- 
 
 Adaptability 
 
 Division 
 of Labor 
 
 477 
 
1(^ 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Diversity of 
 Requirement 
 
 Study 
 the Only 
 Solution 
 
 The Right 
 
 to Servants 
 
 pects assistance in one line of work, another in another. 
 In one house the housewife rarely appears, gives no 
 assistance and maintains the most formal relations 
 with those employed. In another she prefers to direct 
 minutely and to assist in the performance of portions 
 of the work, attempting at the same time to make her 
 helpers feel a home-like enjoyment of what she is 
 able to provide them. Such diversity renders it im- 
 possible to arrive at any general plan or division for 
 each helper which shall be adapted to meet the needs 
 of all who employ. 
 
 Even in homes where several are employed some- 
 thing of the same irregularity is found, A ''second 
 girl" at one place is expected to look after the door- 
 bell, wait on table and do nursery work. Perhaps 
 with her first change of place she is asked to assist the 
 cook by preparing vegetables and does laundry work. 
 
 The best guide at present is a patient, thoughtful 
 study of the problems of one's own house until as 
 equitable and consistent division is attained as can be 
 made, meanwhile praying for speedy release from a 
 condition so unsystematic and chaotic as that of the 
 present time, and resolutely setting one's face toward 
 the ultimate solution of some, at least, of the diffi- 
 culties through better adaptation of household manage- 
 ment to the demands of the age. 
 
 A woman has no right to a servant until she knows 
 the value of time and strength in relation to the work 
 to be done. She cannot understand her servant's prob- 
 lems until she understands a servant's duties. 
 
 478 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 Even the most fortunate housekeeper recognizes in 
 the present situation of domestic service a state of 
 affairs sadly chaotic, perplexing and deplorable. 
 Merely to cry out against it is futile and would be but 
 adding to an already long list of complaints. The 
 following pages are intended rather as an Indicator of 
 some indisputable facts, to be recognized and dealt with 
 by would-be successful employers. 
 
 Domestic service in the United States has passed 
 through great changes in the last fifty years. Condi- 
 tions, in some respects, were never like those in any 
 other country. Until within a few years in New Eng- 
 land and the Northwest whatever assistance was 
 needed in performing the work of the household beyond 
 that rendered by the members of the family was 
 secured by empfoying a neighbor's wife or daughter, 
 who shared in all particulars the interests and privi- 
 leges of the family in which she was employed. She 
 was recognized in every way as an equal, sitting at the 
 family table, sharing the common sitting room, often 
 marrying into the family. While this continues to be 
 true to a slight extent in rural districts to-day, there 
 has been, generally speaking, an entire change, the 
 present being a period of transition and reconstruction. 
 The two factors which have had the greatest influence 
 upon the domestic situation are immigration and the 
 changes in the industrial system. 
 
 77 
 
 Chaotic 
 Conditions 
 
 Changes 
 
 479 
 
78 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Influence of 
 Immigration 
 
 Rural 
 Supply- 
 
 Industrial 
 Changes 
 
 The influence of immigration upon domestic service 
 has been more or less similar to its influence upon 
 occupations for men. As the unskilled labor of the 
 ignorant immigrant has entered into competition with 
 the labor of the more skilled and Intelligent native 
 workers the native employes have progressed, pushing 
 up and out into lines of work which have been deemed 
 higher, more lucrative, pleasanter. This has happened 
 in domestic service until very few native Americans 
 can be secured for housework at the present time. 
 
 Rural districts have suffered a surprising falling off 
 in supply due to this change, as the immigrants tend 
 to congregate in the large cities, especially those who 
 come to us from the countries of the principal supply of 
 domestics — Ireland, Germany, Sweden, Canada and 
 Newfoundland — and the country girl has learned to 
 seek the city also. 
 
 Manufacturing industries have a large influence in 
 determining the number of women engaged in domestic 
 service in any city or community, as they seem to prove 
 more attractive than housework at the present time. 
 Whenever there is competition with other kinds of 
 employment housework is inevitably the lesser attrac- 
 tion. It is done. If at all, only when there is no other 
 alternative ; a last resort rather than a choice. It Is 
 not surprising, in the light of these facts, that the kind 
 of service rendered by those who are engaged in It is 
 not as satisfactory as it should be and that the stand- 
 ards in the service are very low, with little apparent 
 
 480 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 79 
 
 spirit of emulation or progress. Let us consider the 
 leading elements in the problem from the point of view 
 of both employer and employee, seeking to ascertain 
 the real and alleged causes of this marked preference 
 on the part of employees, and if there are any remedies 
 which may be applied to the immediate relief of the 
 situation. 
 
 If we turn to consider, first, the advantages of 
 domestic service over other forms of labor open to 
 women of the class thus employed, there are several 
 decidedly advantageous conditions peculiar to the 
 work. The conditions for preserving good health are 
 superior to those in almost any other occupation. The 
 work is normal, with greater variety, better provision 
 of light and pure air and more consideration in case 
 of temporary illness. Steady employment is afforded 
 in work for the most part congenial to those who have 
 any understanding of it. In spite of much said to the 
 contrary concerning irregularity of hours, there is less 
 rigid confinement than in most occupations. 
 
 It affords more home life than other kinds of work, 
 although this is in the home of the employer and is not 
 considered as home life by the employee. The degree 
 in which tfie employee is allowed or made to feel this 
 differs greatly, as all know, with employers and, to 
 a certain extent, the number of employees. That 
 there is far less difficulty where there are many em- 
 ployees is shown in the fact that the majority of state 
 institutions have no difficulty in obtaining help of all 
 
 Advantagea 
 of Domesti( 
 Service 
 
 Home 
 Life 
 
 481 
 
8o 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Disadvan- 
 tages 
 
 Loneliness 
 
 kinds. Even insane asylums, where the work is very 
 hard, can actually make a choice of applicants for 
 housework instead of having to seek for them. Even 
 under the worst circumstances a certain sense of pro- 
 tection and comfort is offered in connection with the 
 work, and at its best the comforts and positive luxuries 
 which surround the maids far exceeds those they could 
 have in their own homes. 
 
 In spite of these important advantages, the work is 
 most universally unpopular. All are familiar with the 
 reasons offered for this. Irregularity of hours is a 
 point frequently urged. It is true that the hours of 
 labor are so loosely defined in most households that 
 employees have little sense of having completed the 
 work of the day. This is true to some extent in well- 
 regulated households on account of the nature of the 
 work. Lack of system and care in this respect too 
 often unduly increases the irregularity and makes what 
 might be a reasonable amount of work unreasonably 
 heavy. 
 
 It is also true that the employee, although nominally 
 in the family, is in no sense a part of it. This is a 
 position infinitely lonelier than to be outside it alto- 
 gether. Very few employes feel free to' receive or 
 entertain personal friends in a manner natural or 
 pleasant to them, nor are they expected to do so. 
 Attempts to secure personal improvement or pleasure 
 are perhaps ridiculed. This is probably not inten- 
 tional on the part of the employer, but seems to be the 
 
 482 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 8i 
 
 result of failure to appreciate the needs of the 
 employees or to provide suitably for meeting them. 
 
 Opportunities for promotion and advancement, 
 which play a very important part in stimulating to 
 effort in other employments, are almost wholly lacking 
 in the present methods of conducting domestic service. 
 The most that can be hoped for through a change is 
 an easier place, a slight increase in wages, a pleasanter 
 employer or some trival gain. The work is so ungraded 
 that the unskilled, inefficient worker receives practically 
 the same wages as the skilled and capable. 
 
 Disparity in wages is sometimes offered as a reason 
 for the choice of other w-ork, but this is readily proved 
 to be invalid. A comparison w^ith the pay in any 
 other form of employment would be favorable for the 
 wages of the domestic employee at the present time. 
 Wages differ greatly in different sections, vet they 
 bear sufficiently close relation to other expenses so 
 that general comparisons may be made. Miss Salmon 
 in her admirable work on Domestic Service makes the 
 comparison between the average wages received by 
 the domestic employee and the school teacher. In this 
 she clearly shows that, considering the fewer demands 
 made upon the domestic emplo}'ee in maintaining her 
 position in contrast with those made upon a teacher, 
 and ,'dso the many aids and comforts which are not 
 easily measured in full money values, such as board, 
 lodging, laundry and the like, the average wages of the 
 domestic employee is higher by a generous margin. 
 
 Promotion 
 
 Wagee 
 
 483 
 
82 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Social 
 Stigma 
 
 Smployer's 
 Standpoint 
 
 The average salary of women teachers is $545 a year ; 
 $260 must be deducted for board and lodp-inp- and $25 
 for laundry. There is left $260 with which she must 
 meet such necessary expenses as clothing, traveling, 
 social obligations and working capital, as books, etc. 
 If one considers in addition, as is certainly legitimate, 
 the necessary outlay for training in the one case, in 
 contrast with the low requirements in the other, it 
 becomes very apparent that one must look elsewhere 
 for an explanation of the great popularity of the one 
 form of service and the unpopularity of the other. 
 
 There remains a final objection, which is in reality 
 first in importance and which has more to do with 
 keeping desirable helpers from choosing this kind of 
 employment than any other. It is the reason invariably 
 given first by those who express their feeling frankly 
 and unreservedly. This is the social disadvantage 
 experienced by those who engage in such service. This 
 stigma is subtle, but very real in its resultant evils. It 
 takes its rise in the false attitude of many employers 
 toward housework, and the utterly false idea of what 
 equality in this free American country really means 
 by those whose limitations of ignorance or opportunity 
 have led them to take a wrong view of the entire 
 matter. 
 
 When we turn to the employer's point of view there 
 is much to be said considering- the unsatisfactory situa- 
 tion. Taking the present-day emplovee into the home 
 is attempting to introduce into the life there one who 
 is of different nationality and who has little in common 
 
 484 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 83 
 
 with the other members of the family from any point 
 of view. Inheritance, former environment and experi- 
 ences could hardly be more unlike in the majority of 
 cases. There can be little expectation of accomplish- 
 ing or even approximating perfect assimilation. 
 
 As there is no opportunity, in the majority of house- 
 holds, to rise in this employment, the desire for change 
 or betterment finds lively expression and diversion 
 through new places. . As a result the employer is put 
 to her wit's end to cope wdth this tendency, and is 
 often exasperated, and rightly, by her neighbor, who 
 resorts to illegitimate means of influence by over- 
 paying, and who ignores the fact that she is thereby 
 only multiplying the difficulties. Much selfishness is 
 revealed in the methods employed bv harassed employ- 
 ers, who are often placed in so hard a position that it 
 becomes a supreme test of character to decide what to 
 do to secure and keep the needed help. The majority 
 of employees are astonishingly oblivious to real present 
 opportunities, so eagerly do they grasp after vague 
 advantages through change. As a result, the average 
 length of service in one place is less than one and a 
 half years in cities, and in towns where the desire 
 to go to the cities is strong it is still shorter. 
 
 The ignorance of the average employee of the 
 present time is profound and very exasperating, the 
 more difficult to cope with because of the assumed 
 intelligence in most cases. The perplexities and trials 
 of being forced to employ untrained helpers for work 
 
 Irresponsi- 
 bility 
 
 Ignorance 
 
 485 
 
«4 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MAXACliMliMT 
 
 Summary 
 
 Time 
 Off 
 
 which requires skilled labor can hardly he exagger- 
 ated. That more of this crudeness is to be found in 
 this line of work than in any other is indisputable. It 
 is accounted for parth' in the present failure to show 
 appreciation of good work or to properly reward it. 
 This is one of the greatest menaces to satisfactory 
 service. 
 
 These, then, are the objections to household service: 
 Tt provides no real social life; it takes the worker 
 from her own home and places her where, however 
 comfortable she may be, she is an alien, often losing 
 caste among her friends, hence having no social place; 
 it offers no incentive to rise, no spur to ambition, 
 except that of personal pride or desire to please, and 
 this, if not lacking in the first place, may cease, because 
 there is no real competition. 
 
 Also, it should be stated that all places are not com- 
 fortable ; a cold, cheerless, illy furnished room cannot 
 seem a rest or refuge after a hard day's work. Work 
 over a hot stove, however neatly done, certainly does 
 seem to demand for the person engaged in it proper 
 hot water bathing facilities. 
 
 Fresh air is an essential to haj^py, healthy living. 
 (Jne afternoon weekly cannot enable the maid to store 
 away sufficient fresh air to keep her through the fol- 
 lowing six days. 
 
 Simply from the selfish standpoint, that of getting 
 the best work from the machine, reasonable fore- 
 thought should be given, not only for the comfort, but 
 
 486 
 
DOMESTIC SLRl'ICli 85 
 
 for the personal freedom of the employee. This 
 means that if the best work is expected from the 
 worker an endeavor should be made to keep her in 
 the best physical condition for that work. When the 
 prescribed work is finished it is normal for anyone to 
 desire to get out and away from the place in which 
 she has been working. If a maid's sitting room were 
 or could be a part of every house there would not be 
 the temptation to seek the street or a friend's kitchen 
 for rest and recreation. This sitting room is often an 
 entire impossibility ; it is frequently considered in that 
 light Ijecause it entails a sacrifice of space or some 
 expense. There is far too frequently an utter disregard 
 of the actual condition of what may be termed the 
 rolling stock of this business. It is economy to keep 
 the machine well oiled, well repaired and well housed. 
 Pleasant surroundings do much to lighten labor 
 and make it attractive, whatever kind of work it may 
 be. This fact large manufacturers and merchant's 
 have recognized and utilized to their great advantage. 
 The liousekeeper may learn the same lesson, and a 
 maids' sitting room may become the rule rather than 
 the exception. 
 
 Reasonable forethought entails a recognition of the 
 fact that as there are now few standards of work or 
 methods of doing it, so that the new cook or maid, no 
 matter how well recommended or even equipped, has 
 no idea of how you desire your work done or how you 
 wish it .systematized. Proper and sufficient directions 
 
 Pleasant 
 Surroundings 
 
 Standards 
 of Work 
 
 487 
 
86 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Written 
 Directions 
 
 Daily 
 Outlines 
 
 should be given and proper care that they should 
 not be presented in a confused manner all at once. 
 Perhaps they can be given best in writing, a type- 
 written sheet placed in the kitchen or some suitable 
 place and used for reference. To this can be attached 
 the special direction for the following day each night 
 or afternoon, and the chances are this plan will aid 
 very materially in the smooth running of the ma- 
 chinery of the household. Such a plan need not be in 
 too great detail, unless the maid be very untrained. 
 Miss Parloa suggests such a daily outline in her 
 work on Home Economics, as follows : 
 
 1. Make the fires, air the dining room and hall. 
 
 2. Prepare the breakfast and set the table. 
 
 3. Put the bedrooms to air while the family is at 
 breakfast. 
 
 4. Remove the breakfast dishes ; put away the food. 
 Sort the dishes and put to soak all dishes and utensils 
 that have had food in them which is liable to stick. 
 
 5. Put dining room and sitting room in order, airing 
 them well. 
 
 6. Wash dishes, put kitchen and pantries in order. 
 Prepare dishes that require slow cooking and put them 
 to cook. 
 
 7. Make beds and put sleeping rooms and bathroom 
 in order. 
 
 8. Trim lamps. 
 
 9. Dust halls and stairs ; sweep piazzas. 
 
 This plan is for a maid of all work, and naturally 
 would be varied in many households, but indicates the 
 
 488 
 
Personal 
 
 DOMESTIC SERVICE 87 
 
 idea. The more definite the work can be made, the 
 better. 
 
 Personal freedom for the maid means about what 
 it does for the mistress ; freedom to choose and have freedom 
 her own friends, to have them call and visit with her ; 
 to receive them without unnecessary and seemingly 
 impertinent interruption or surveillance; freedom to 
 come and go within reasonable limits without asking 
 permission or giving explanation each time. In short, 
 it is an application of the Golden Rule, and means 
 such treatment as will insure the respect, if not the 
 liking, of employee for the employer. This may seem 
 revolutionary, actually impossible to many, and prob- 
 ably is where there is a succession of unknown, un- 
 tried, unreferenced maids passing through the kitchen 
 every four to six weeks. This plan, however, has 
 been tried with success in many places. 
 
 In a small city in Northern New York, where the a case 
 majority of people are in the maelstrom of the domestic 
 situation, there is a family that secures help readily 
 and whose maids remain with them until a proper rea- 
 son, such as marrying, causes a change. The em- 
 ployer in this case considers that she employs the maids 
 to do the work, not simply to be in the house. When 
 the work is finished the maids are at liberty. If two 
 are in the house, one is expected to be ready to answer 
 the bell ; if one only is employed, there never has been 
 trouble or even necessity of making any rule about 
 this mooted point. This housekeeper has argued that 
 
 in Point 
 
 489 
 
HS HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 in general she would j)refcr to answer her own door 
 • bell and have the real work cheerfully, faithfully and 
 well done, and that to get out of doors undoubtedly 
 Avould be better for maid and work than staying in 
 would 1)C. This mistress has provided her maids with 
 suitable reading matter for their leisure time, and 
 shows that she is interested in the outside life of the 
 girls without unduly interfering with it. Tn conse- 
 (juence she has good service, the maids are well and 
 l^appy, and so is she. for friction is almost unknown 
 in the running machiner) of that home. Perha])S this 
 should be noted, that in general the mistress does not 
 have to answer the door bell, and manv little thought- 
 ful services are performed for her not nominated in 
 the bond. 
 Reorganiza- The real qucstiou is not the reason for the dearth 
 
 ^^^'^Home •-^ good houschold workers, but what suggestions may 
 be made to assist the housewife in this trying situation. 
 Tn its ultimate effects the domestic situation of 
 to-day will probably bring about a reorganization of 
 ihe home. This is to be hoped and desired, if that 
 reorganization means raising the work of the home 
 to its proper position as a recognized business affair, 
 whose director is re([uirec' to have a knowlccg? and 
 skill somewhat commensurate with the issues at stake, 
 the interests involved. It is absolutely necessary that 
 the director of the home should know and be trained 
 for her business if she is to demand and obtain skill 
 and training in those she directs. The recognition of 
 this need is the first great ste|) toward reform. 
 
 490 
 
DOMLSriC SliKVICli 
 
 89 
 
 The sccfiiid is llie acknowledgment of the fact that 
 in general the housekeeping of to-day is run on an 
 antiquated plan, one not even fulfilling the needs of 
 an earlier generation and entirely inadequate to cope 
 with the tendencies of to-day. The plan has to be 
 changed. Xo progress will be made if women .spend 
 their time in bewailing the present condition only; wc 
 must jjut our wits to work to better it. 
 
 These, then, are suggestions: First, that there 
 should be more univer.sal efifort made, particularly 
 in communities where clubs discuss these things, 
 to secure certain just standards of work to be done 
 for a certain just wage, 'i he work of each household 
 should not vary between unknown limits anrl the 
 wages still be the same in each. 
 
 Co-operation in establishing standards of work is 
 much needecl. Why should the cook who prepares 
 three elaborate meals daily for a family of six adults, 
 who often entertain, be paid the same wages as the 
 cook next door, who prepares simjjle meals for three 
 people who live most quietly and rarely have a guest? 
 Workers in factories and stores at least are governerl 
 by the same number of hours. Ju.st as the life, num- 
 bers and demands of different families vary, .so does 
 the work vary. A standard of wage cannot be estab- 
 lished without a corresponding standard of work. 
 
 Secondly, that housekeepers should bring themselves 
 to a willingness to adopt the hour plan, the worker 
 coming in, and work being done and paid for by the 
 
 Sufgeation- 
 
 Establish 
 Standard! 
 
 Work by 
 the Hour 
 
 491 
 
Expense 
 
 of the 
 
 Hour 
 
 Plan 
 
 An 
 
 Actual 
 
 Experience 
 
 90 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 hour according to kind or skill involved in accom- 
 l)lishing it. 
 
 The immediate objections to this plan are, first, its 
 expense, and then the seeming strain upon the house- 
 keeper, who must either piece out or piece together 
 this patchwork scheme. Then arises the question : 
 "Where shall we get the workers?" for in many places 
 this is a problem. 
 
 As to expense, in only a few cases has it been com- 
 pared, hence there is a lack of sufficient data. In 
 general it may be computed in this way : Take first 
 into account the wages of the maid or maids, add 
 board and what may be called room rent, including 
 light, etc., used. One family living in the West has 
 carefully kept account of the expenses with and with- 
 out a maid and have concluded that in general a maid 
 of all work costs $5 a week above her^ wages. This is 
 higher than Mrs. Abel's estimates, which w^ere based 
 on the actual experience of a family of seven. 
 
 The family lived in a small town in New^ York, and 
 consisted of five men and boys and two women. These 
 estimates are the comparison of two successive sum- 
 mers. In both cases the laundry was done outside, 
 hence has no place in the comparison. 
 
 First Sum uicr. 
 
 Wages of maid per week $3-00 
 
 Board per week 2.50 
 
 Rent of bedroom 50 
 
 $6.00 
 
 492 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 91 
 
 The exact amount of room rent could be known, as 
 the house was too small for the maid and a room was 
 rented outside for her. 
 
 Second Siiinjjier. 
 
 (Work done by the hour.) 
 
 Dishwashing, two and a half hours for six days 
 
 (fifteen hours) $i-5o 
 
 Cleaning (15 hours) 1.50 
 
 Dinner service, three hours for six days (eigh- 
 teen hours) 1.80 
 
 Sunday dinners at hotel, seven, at 25 cents (less 
 
 estimated cost of food material) 88 
 
 $5.68 
 
 From these and other data it might be determined 
 that in general a maid costs her wages ; that is, if paid 
 $5.00 a week, the conditions are such that the probable 
 cost for her board and lodging is $5.00 also ; if paid 
 $3.00, it cost another like amount for her "keep." 
 
 In Chicago so many of the very good apartment Apartments 
 houses are constructed without accommodation for 
 maids that the hour plan is popular. The general con- 
 census of opinion is that the hour plan is less, not 
 more, expensive, and has advantages not reckoned in 
 dollars and cents. By those who have tried it the 
 advantages of the hour system are stated to be that 
 the work is in general better and more rapidly done ; 
 there is not such waste of material, and that the free- 
 dom from the responsibility and presence of an actual 
 
 493 
 
92 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Where to 
 
 Obtain 
 
 Workers 
 
 Natural 
 Progress 
 
 alien in the house, especially in an apartment, is incal- 
 culable. 
 
 The question of where to get these workers remains 
 to be solved. That is a very individual one, belonging 
 to the conditions of each city or town. As club women 
 take this up, bureaus such as the Plousehold Aids 
 Company of Boston will be established, and even now 
 from guilds and industrial unions, often from bureaus 
 of charity, such workers are easily obtainable. 
 
 One young woman in Brooklyn, after desperate 
 times with incompetent help, advertised for a married 
 woman with children who could leave her home for a 
 certain number of hours a day. She obtained a refined 
 woman in reduced circumstances, untrained for any 
 definite work, whose experience made her of the great- 
 est assistance. She goes to the house for a stated 
 number of hours each day to care for the babies, while 
 the mother performs her social duties. This mother 
 does her own cooking, having the dishwashing done 
 by the hour. The expense is lessened, her home is 
 charming, she feels she is leaving the children in safe, 
 "grammatical," understanding hands, and she has 
 leisure for profit and pleasure, for the higher life, 
 which she says she never had in the old plan, even 
 with a smaller family. 
 
 We must realize that natural, industrial progress 
 has taken one by one from the home the occupations 
 formerly carried on there, until housekeeping no 
 longer means the making of many things, but the 
 proper expending of money for things already made. 
 
 494 
 
DOMESTIC SERVfCE 
 
 93 
 
 We should not resist this tendency, but recognize and 
 fit into it. 
 
 It must be remembered that the sanctity of the home 
 is not preserved by the industries carried on there. To 
 preserve one home at the expense of several others is 
 neither economic nor ethical. When clubwomen talk 
 about the sanctity of the home they should ask the 
 question, ''Whose home ?" 
 
 Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, who is a close student 
 and a wise observer of economic conditions as they 
 affect the home, says that the solution of present 
 troubles must come in part from reducing the kinds of 
 work done in the home. This is along the line of 
 industrial progress as well as that of the least resist- 
 ance in this case. 
 
 The laundry is disappearing from the house, follow- 
 ing soap and candle making. True, there are many 
 more poor laundries than good ones, but that there 
 are good ones, and that these have been run with a 
 profit, proves there can and should be more. 
 
 The establishment of laundries is one step, and a 
 perfectly possible one. A well-educated Southern 
 woman, after taking a course in household science at 
 a Northern institution, started a laundry in a Northern 
 city. The work was entirely done by hand and a fair 
 price charged for it. She supervised the work and 
 employed competent people to do it. It paid well in 
 every sense for both owner and patrons. When cir- 
 cumstances forced her to lay aside the work her 
 customers were as homeless people ; they had no other 
 
 Sanctity 
 of the . 
 Home 
 
 Establishment 
 of Laundries 
 
 495 
 
94 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Good 
 
 Employment 
 
 Agencies 
 
 The 
 Future 
 
 place to go. What one woman has done other women 
 can do, and it should be emphasized that this woman 
 was well born, delicately brought up, educated and a 
 Southerner, with the inevitable shrinking from labor 
 outside that such a bringing up entails. She says that 
 her patrons became her friends, that w'ork she took 
 up with shrinking became really delightful, simply 
 because it w^as w^ell done. 
 
 Another step is the establishment of more properly 
 run employment agencies. Too many cases are known 
 of employment agencies that encourage their maids to 
 change often, to the end that they may gain additional 
 fees. Employment agencies where references are 
 required and looked up, where the maid is actually 
 investigated and known as well as the housekeeper, 
 where honesty is considered not only the best but the 
 only policy are not castles in Spain. They can be 
 established, supported and run by women and women's 
 clubs. 
 
 Whatever solution the future may hold, employers 
 are beginning to realize that it is not through greater 
 individual indulgences, more equality or higher wages 
 that the problems are to be solved. Employees do 
 not ask to be admitted to the family circle. Self- 
 respecting helpers would not feel comfortable were 
 this provision made, nor is it a practical way of 
 removing the difficulty. What they desire as a class 
 is, rather, the opportunity of independence which other 
 forms of employment afiford and w^hich Is missed in 
 this — a chance to perform their work and, apart from 
 
 496 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 95 
 
 that, to live their own Hves in their own way. 
 
 However desirable any opening or advantage, the 
 spirit of liberty demands that it be chosen rather than 
 forced upon one. What domestic service is really 
 claiming for itself is some adjustment whereby definite 
 hours shall be secured, and, outside that, free choice of 
 amusement, personal improvement, friendships — life. 
 
 This, when secured, will prove one of the most 
 reasonable and satisfactory aids to the solution of 
 difficulties of both employers and employees. The 
 final adjustment to the same basis as all other indus- 
 trial and business activities will be a work of time, no 
 doubt, but it seems to be the inevitable goal. 
 
 As employers and the world at larg-e erain and keep 
 in mind a truer conception of the importance of house- 
 hold employment in the economic world there will 
 follow better practical results. As long as employers 
 express scorn of these duties little can be hoped for in 
 the way of ''dignifying labor'' in the home. The 
 efficiency of the housework cannot be expected to rise 
 above that of the mistress as manager. There is deep 
 significance in the words of one who wTote : "To know 
 the workman one must have been a workman himself, 
 and, above all, remember it." The housekeeper must 
 know the household affairs and respect them if she 
 w^ould have others do the same. 
 
 There are some experiments being carried on at the 
 present time that all ' should follow with interest. 
 These go far to prove that the preceding statements 
 are not without foundation. Notable among;- these is 
 
 Deflnito 
 Hours 
 
 Industrial 
 Basis 
 
 Dignity 
 of Labor 
 
 497 
 
Household 
 
 96 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 the attempt which has heen made in Boston to create 
 
 an attractive home center for helpers, from which they 
 
 Aid po each day for a definite number of hours for employ- 
 Society ^ . -^ . t • 1 J • ^1 • 
 
 ment in various homes which desire their services. 
 
 The helpers are classified and graded, as already sug- 
 gested, according to efficiency, the wages paid corre- 
 sponding to the degree of skill attained. There is 
 adequate stimulus to advancement, as instruction is 
 given at the home center. The home life is natural 
 and congenial, every attempt being made to enhance 
 the wholesome pleasure to be derived from such a 
 place. The rapidly increasing popularity of the experi- 
 ment shows that no mistake has been made in the 
 diagnosis of the employee's point of view. For the 
 employer there is the difficulty of arranging the work 
 to fit such a plan so that the desirable work shall be 
 secured at a price not exceeding the expense of resi- 
 dent help. This is a difficult thing to do, a thing not 
 yet accomplished, but which the ingenuity of woman 
 will yet solve. Without doubt i<" will mean the simpli- 
 fying of life in some homes, but if this is wisely 
 arranged it will be a gain rather <^han a loss. 
 
 498 
 
BUYING SUPPLIES 
 
 Women, as a usual thing, spend such small sums of 
 money at a time in their purchases for the house, that 
 they are apt to lose sight of the size of the total amount 
 expended in a year. Not realizing the value of the ag- 
 gregate it follows that they hesitate and study returns 
 far more carefully and intelligently in investing one 
 hundred dollars in any other way than in placing the 
 same amount in household supplies. Those who real- 
 ize the importance of economic buying follow cur- 
 rent prices and buy when the market offers the best 
 inducements. The difference in time expended in ex- 
 ercising this care is not as great as is fancied. Watch- 
 fulness and interest count chiefly. There are times of 
 legitimate annual or clearance sales when real bar- 
 gains may be secured. These should be watched for 
 and taken advantage of in buying yearly supplies of 
 things which may be safely stored. If the articles to 
 be purchased are such as suffer from the competition 
 of ''style" one is especially enabled, with a slight sac- 
 rifice of style to quality, to reap a rich harvest at the 
 expense of the foolish of the world who must have 
 the very latest fad at whatever cost. The extremes 
 of fashion are folly economically, in that they make it 
 impossible to realize nearly the value of money ex- 
 pended. 
 
 There is only a small range of supplies in which 
 there is a marked style. Individual preference controls 
 
 97 
 
 Relative 
 Importance 
 
 Legitimate 
 Bargains 
 
 Buying in 
 Quantity 
 
 499 
 
98 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Small 
 Quantities 
 
 Storage 
 
 in the selection of most, so that when one has de- 
 termined upon the most desirable brand, variety, etc., 
 there are left but three things which must be weighed 
 in deciding the amount to be bought. These are ( i ) 
 room for storage, (2) ready money for the purchase, 
 and (3) the perishable nature of the article. The 
 economy of buying in quantity must, necessarily, de- 
 pend to a large extent upon these points. When these 
 can be satisfactorily met there is great advantage in 
 buying in quantity. Thereby one has the advantage of 
 wholesale prices or great reduction over retail prices 
 on quantities not too large for a moderate-sized fam- 
 ily to dispose of within desirable limits of time. 
 
 The family that finds it necessary to buy its supply 
 of coal by the fraction of a ton and flour by the pound, 
 suffers great loss through the increased expense, pay- 
 ing often very nearly twice as much as the same grade 
 would cost in larger quantity, and w^ith no gain since 
 these products gain in value rather than lose, by stor- 
 age. Buying in small quantities at retail means pay- 
 ing a generous profit for grocer or messenger boy's 
 wages in delivering the small amounts. Again, one 
 suffers from having to look her supplies over fre- 
 quently or has the annoyance of finding something 
 missing when wanted. 
 
 The changed conditions of modern life from those 
 of our grandmothers affect our habits in regard to 
 storing supplies. Now that a large number of homes 
 are rented, each room counting and swelling the 
 
 500 
 
Purchaser 
 
 • BUYING SUPPLIES 99 
 
 monthly bill, it has naturally led to economy of space. 
 The uncertainty of residence with some has its effect 
 also, as the expense of moving is increased by quantity, 
 and the danger of injury and breakage all have to be 
 reckoned with. One great misfortune which results 
 from these considerations is the inclination to turn to 
 cheap grades which are more readily disposed of at 
 such a time or cause less regret if injured. Thereby 
 we are losing some of the refining influences of acquir- 
 ing and possessing the best. This applies especially 
 to furniture and utensils, which ought to be bought 
 as though they were to last a lifetime. 
 
 There is a happy medium between the huge chests Medium 
 of linen in former time which held supplies not used 
 for years, yellowing with age, and the modern ten- 
 dency of hand-to-mouth provision, satisfying only the 
 weekly demand. There should be always a small 
 emergency store of linen. Additions can be too easily 
 made to require that it be very large. In fact, since 
 it may be added to, usually, any day, the principal 
 gain is realized by being able to buy better at certain 
 seasons, as in January, than others, and the same 
 reduction in price by buying in quantity may be real- 
 ized in this as in groceries. Dish toweling by the roll 
 at 13^ cents instead of 15 cents a yard, sheeting by 
 the web or piece at a similar reduction, etc., are illus- 
 trations of the benefits to be derived through such 
 methods of buying. An especial reason for buying 
 table linens in January, in addition to any attractive 
 
 501 
 
Requirements 
 
 loo HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 prices which may be found at that time, is that the 
 fresh supply of goods is in then and one may so 
 secure a better selection. For storing linens a special 
 chest or linen closet is very desirable and should be 
 included in planning a house, but when not provided, 
 an ordinary closet may be used, drawers, a trunk or 
 a home-constructed box, any of which answers every 
 purpose if well cared for. 
 storage For Storing groceries the requirements are a light, 
 
 dry, cool room, as near the kitchen and pantries as 
 possible. It should be supplied with lock and key, 
 which the housekeeper or a trusted helper controls. 
 Large quantities may so be put into it and smaller 
 portions given out as needed for use. This is both 
 an aid to economy (since the tendency is to use more 
 liberally if there is a large amount at hand) and 
 prevents such supplies as baking powder, tea, spices, 
 etc., from losing in value through standing open. A 
 year's supply is usually as large an amount as it is 
 well to buy at a time. This is especially true of 
 canned goods. These should be bought in the fall 
 after the fresh supply is in market. By the dozen, or 
 better yet, by the case of two dozen, canned goods 
 may be secured at a reduction of from ten to twenty- 
 five per cent. The same is true of the pack- 
 ages of cereals, although for small families cereals 
 cannot be used rapidly enough to buy in large quan- 
 tity. It will be found to be well worth while for those 
 of limited space to attempt to make space somewhere 
 for some storage room. With a large number of 
 
 502 
 
BUYING SUPPLIES 
 
 lOI 
 
 families that are not cramped for room it should be a 
 matter of more consideration to utilize a portion for 
 this purpose. 
 
 It is only the very poor who have an excuse for 
 being too limited in ready money for such advance 
 purchasing. It is but thrifty to see to it that there 
 is at least a small capital which may be used for such 
 advantage. When once started it is a simple matter, 
 since after that the woman of forethought will look 
 ahead and plan so that the funds will be at hand as the 
 supply-time comes around. Of course there is no 
 economy in buying at a reduction a supply which is 
 so rapidly perishable in nature as to cause a loss of 
 enough to off-set, or more, the gain through getting 
 in large amount. This is but a waste of time and 
 energy as well as money. Vegetables are much 
 cheaper by the bushel or barrel, and fruit, as oranges, 
 by the box, but one must have a cold storage room to 
 insure the safe keeping of either for any length of 
 time. Even then there must be care in looking them 
 over frequently to remove any that are decayed. For 
 most families, therefore, it proves more satisfactory to 
 buy perishable articles as needed. 
 
 A great difficulty confronts the would-be-wise buyer 
 to-day in the fact that it is hard to establish standards 
 of quahty without some sad experience. When the 
 housewife manufactured her own soap she knew be- 
 yond a question what constituted an excellent article. 
 Through handling different kinds of cloth, in weaving 
 
 Ready- 
 Money 
 
 Perishable 
 Supplies 
 
 Quality 
 
 503 
 
102 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 or sewing, standards were created in that direction. 
 Ignorance of real value makes the thriving ''bargain 
 Remnants counters" possible with their "remnants" cut from the 
 webs on the shelves and offered at a price equal or 
 even in excess of that for which the same goods may 
 be bought by the yard elsewhere in the same store. 
 Shrewd, not over-scrupulous merchants are bound to 
 take advantage where it is possible, and the ignorant, 
 unsuspecting purchaser pays a dear price for his or 
 her ignorance, 
 utensils In buying utensils the maxim, "The best is the 
 
 cheapest," is an excellent one to bear in mind. One 
 who makes a trial of different grades has ample oppor- 
 tunity to prove its truth. Cheap goods often increases 
 the expense lOo per cent, while at no time does one 
 secure anything of the satisfaction in use that is 
 secured in the better class goods. Cheapness means, 
 perforce, haste or flaw in manufacture. This results, 
 naturally, in ill-shaped, defective ware. Durability 
 seems to be a thing no longer estimated, so little does 
 it enter into account in manufacture or purchase. No- 
 where is the difference more marked than in kitchen 
 utensils. Spoons with soldered or riveted handles, 
 ready to part company with the bowls on the first real 
 test of strength or heat, are poor economy. The same 
 is true of the enamel ware which crackles and chips 
 off with the first accidental heating or ''sticking on" 
 of food, after which it is unfit for use. So one might 
 enumerate manv illustrations of false cconomv of this 
 
 504 
 
BUYING SUPPLIES 
 
 103 
 
 nature. It is the part of wisdom to pay a little more 
 at the time and thus secure better wearing qualities 
 and far greater satisfaction. The cheapest is rarely 
 wise. 
 
 On the other hand, a medium-priced article in many 
 things has real worth to recommend it to one prac- 
 tising close economy. Jn such purchases as 1)ed or 
 table linen and toweling, for example, the difference 
 between a medium and high-priced grade may repre- 
 sent the difference between hand work and machine, 
 between embroidered or hemstitched articles and 
 plainer. Since this is not a question of durability, a 
 purchaser has a legitimate right to weigh the differ- 
 ences in the light of her allowance and decide in favor 
 of the plainer if it be wiser. It should, however, 
 always be a decision based on an intelligent considera- 
 tion of values. One should never be at a loss when 
 detecting coarse, loosely woven and shoddy fabrics 
 or other evidences of cheap work. Other differences 
 she may be justified in weighing, never that. 
 
 One may purchase most supplies either in a depart- 
 ment store or in one devoted to a single or limited 
 line of goods. There is, on the whole, a difference 
 to be found both in quality and price of the stock in 
 the two places. The grade of goods in the specialty 
 store is usually better and the price somewhat higher. 
 The department store has gained great popularity 
 because of the convenience of purchasing everything 
 in one place and because of competition in prices 
 
 Medium 
 
 Priced 
 
 Articles 
 
 Department 
 and Specialtj 
 Stores 
 
 505 
 
104 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Classes of 
 Supplies 
 
 "Must Haves" 
 and "May Haves" 
 
 which seem at sight to favor trading there. The 
 careful buyer will frequently find the difference in 
 price more than equalized in the quality of the pur- 
 chase. This is especially noticeable in kitchen fur- 
 nishings. The sharpness of the competition has tend- 
 ed to lower prices in the specialty store as far as the 
 quality of the wares will allow. 
 
 Supplies may be classed as (i) furnishings or 
 utensils which are subjected to wear and consequently 
 must be replenished from time to time, as furniture, 
 bedding, carpets, kitchen, laundry and dining-room 
 furnishings; (2) such supplies as are consumed in 
 one way or another and so must be replenished, as 
 fuel, food, soap and the like, and (3) such miscel- 
 laneous supplies as daily newspapers, magazines, 
 plants, flowers, etc. 
 
 In buying these supplies one may divide them into 
 essentials or "must haves" and accessories or "may 
 haves:' The first division one must secure at once. 
 It is well to leave the second list to be remodeled 
 after one has lived in a house for a while. 
 
 It is surprising to one who has some experience 
 like camp life to find how few the absolute essentials 
 really are. Many accessories have come to be looked 
 upon as ''must haves" through long use. The evi- 
 dence of some utility in everything, together with 
 refinement of taste in every selection, are the great 
 essentials in giving a home the subtle charm and 
 comfort which we covet. Furnishings need not be 
 many in number nor elaborate in quality to satisfy 
 
 506 
 
BUYING SUPPLIES 105 
 
 these requirements. The greater the simplicity the 
 more satisfactory, usually. 
 
 The following are lists of kitchen, laundry, dining- i-i^t* 
 room and bed-room furnishings, with average prices. 
 The amount of equipment required is determined by 
 the size of the family and its demands. For two peo- 
 ple of simple tastes the kitchen utensils may be quite 
 limited and the dining-room furnishings few. The 
 same things are required in bed-room fittings as for a 
 large family, but not in such numbers. 
 
 KITCHEN UTENSILS 
 
 Range $30.00 and up 
 
 Coal hod! • • • • .75 
 
 Shovel, poker, lifter -50 
 
 Towel rack 25 
 
 Teakettle 1 . 25 up 
 
 3 Stew pans, 1 quart to 8 quarts 75 to 13.50 
 
 Frying pan 60 up 
 
 Double boiler 1 50 • 
 
 Broilers, fish, meat and toaster 90 
 
 Frying basket 20 to .35 
 
 Muffin pan 50 up 
 
 Colander -10 '• 
 
 Coffee pot ^ ^^ " 
 
 Teapot '5 " 
 
 Chopping knife and bowl "5 
 
 Meat chopper 1 .00 up 
 
 Strainers '0 
 
 Bread pans, 2 or more 50 
 
 Bread board 50 
 
 Meat board 50 
 
 Rolling pin 25 to 1.00 
 
 Flour sieve |0 '* .25 
 
 Scoops for flour, sugar, meal, etc 10 ' .50 
 
 Pans or basins, 2 or more ^9 "^ 
 
 Bowls, about five in assorted sizes 75 *| 
 
 Dlshpans |^ *' 
 
 Drainer ]jl 
 
 Dish cloths 25 
 
 Floor and stove brushes 
 
 Broom ^ 
 
 Dustpan 25 
 
 Meat and bread knives ^^^ 
 
 Case knives and forks ^ 
 
 Vegetable knives *0 
 
 Dripping pan * ^ 
 
 Egg beaters 2, Surprise and Dover ^ 
 
 507 
 
I'X. //( >/',s///( »/ /> 1/ /,v ii.i.]ii\'r 
 
 Kircni'.N ii'n;Nnii,M (»N.i>(iinio.n 
 « JriUcrM , , , lift 
 
 Moir.minm'tipN,.,,,,,,., ...,",,. ,M i i i !!!!! iiii i i ! ' y^ 
 
 I lOmnll N(HI(H>(f,«>r . . , , , , 1 , III , , ,, , , , II 10 
 
 nut«n<, uranllo , ,,.,', .|ii 
 
 suovvoi'N . . , nil 1 II.. 1..1 ,11, , yft 
 
 Spoons ,,,,.,,,,, ..1.1111,1,', I "0 lo a (H) 
 
 1!'""'*'.'.'"*^ •;>.....■-,"•• " •'^"1' 
 
 iiiiMti ittiNin foi'NlnU , I ,,.,,,, :io 
 
 l''»iim(>l ,,,,,,, ,,, ,.,,,1 10 
 
 \'oH«'it»l>U»ov fMi(t«ilntf(ttNht>N, ttoi' move ,, M \i|> 
 
 I'oiMio uu\'ihov 1,1 1,.., I, an '^ 
 
 Uin'l>i»K«< pMll ,,, ,1, ,,,,,,,,, ,1 ,, I . ,1 ,,,,,,,,,, , Tft " 
 
 IColrlH'M-Mlor , ,,,,,,, ,, th 0(1 
 
 IC<'t>op(m'|i>'i lo\' lliUM", HlimU', COI'PIiIn, MlllO«>H, coii.llni. 111., 
 
 iMolii'iMi'-i, ritv 
 (Mtali'M, Nlool, Initio. 
 
 Vrtou riu- iiIi'iimI;. <mi .ilioxc Iisl iii,i\ he » oiiMtlci cd "imr.l 
 
 h.ivt's " I Iir |MUf,". ol IIk" N.iiHMis llim;;'. \.ii\ w illiiii 
 t|iiilc wiilr Iiiiiils. .IS Will lu' sriMi. I lie In Mi',(ki'c|>{M 
 sIlouM Ivtiow (MH>ll;'.ll nl (lir iii.iliM i.il:. coniiuisin}; llkMl 
 sil.s \o i;ui(K" Iin in llu iliouc i>l m.ilcri.il .niil prii'c. 
 rilis slu' c.imiol Know willuMil vomc know lril:;r ol 
 tlir .ulioii ol (lie oidiii.iiN .K !>!-■ .iiitl .ilk. ill.', ii.-.rd in 
 rookins; .md i liMnin:', opiM.ilions imi lin. iion. pon'c 
 l.iin. .i!',.ilr. (•(» To llir IinI jirst jL;i\i'n m.i\ Im* added 
 nianv (>tliri llnnj'.s. m.iin ol wliiili wcuild \h' "innsi 
 li.ivrs" in soiiu' kihluns 
 jfiHtiintUo A I. lit (•'.(nn.ilr loi lillm:'. a kidluii willi niensils 
 
 j;iviMi is hiMii $^i,.0(> lo ^v|i).0(>. nu liidin:; i eh ij'/m .iloi . 
 luit no! iiu Indiii;', i.in;;r. ^j^iiu>i>o i;. not [yn) \A\i\c .i 
 Mini l«» .ippoiiion lo piopci kih lu'ii lillnij^s il llic r.inj;i' 
 l>r iiuhuird, .iiid il 1'. dr-.ind lo luipn willi (Mion|',li 
 ^ooil ntiMisil;. lo ni.iki' llu- wi>ik imsv. 
 
 .St)H 
 
liijyiNC ';rjpprrFS 
 
 107 
 
 i'>,v.,u,'dt)'i V';K*HatI< I'"-- 
 
 :>;ill Jiox- 
 
 Meat Otopiittr 
 
 f 
 
 
 _*i 
 
 Slaw Cuit':f, ki..U^ a4ju«t'4W« U> 
 cut fin'r or iJMrhi:. 
 
 Sink StrairwT ; k*«i>« z»r^*»%* 
 
 HOMK "MAV MAVJ/- 
 
 
 509 
 
io8 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT 
 
 Tubs, I or 2 $3.00 
 
 soapstone 7.00 oif 8. 00 each 
 
 Washboard 25 to .50 
 
 Wringer 2.75 " 4.50 
 
 Boiler 1.75" 3.00 
 
 Pails, 2 or more, "Fibrotta" 50 
 
 Baskets, 1 or 2 1.25 to 2.50 
 
 Dipper 15 
 
 Soap dishes 15 
 
 Clothes stick 10 
 
 Clothes line and reel for same 50 to 1.10 
 
 Clothes pins, 1 gross 25 up 
 
 Skirt board 1.25 " 
 
 Bosom " 25 
 
 Whisk 10 
 
 Sad-irons, 3 at least 60 
 
 Iron stand or asbestos mat 15 
 
 Holders 20 
 
 Clothes horse 75 
 
 Small vegetable or nail brush 10 
 
 Scrubbing brush 15 
 
 Ironing sheet 30 
 
 Blanket or felt 1.00 up 
 
 Watering pot 15 " 
 
 Average Estimate ^18.00 
 
 ADDITIONAL UTENSILS FOR SEPARATE LAUNDRY 
 
 Stove $8.00 to J25.00 
 
 Coal hod 25 •' .75 
 
 Shovel, poker lifter. 25 
 
 Basins, 2 50 
 
 Saucepan or kettle for starch 50 
 
 Strainer 10 
 
 Pans or tub for starch 30 
 
 Earthen bowls. 3 or more 30 
 
 Wooden or agate spoons, 2 30 
 
 Table or laundry settle 2.00 to 6.75 
 
 Case knife 15 
 
 Broom or floor brush 50 " 2.00 
 
 >imall brush 50 
 
 Dustpan 25 
 
 Scrub brushes, 2 80 
 
 Chair 70 
 
 Total Estimate, liberal $40.00 
 
 •« " fair 4.00 to $5.00 
 
 510 
 
BUYING SUPPLIES 109 
 
 LAUNDRY SUPPLIES 
 
 ( soft, 
 Soap, \ hard, and 
 
 I sand. 
 
 Borax 07 per lb. 
 
 Washing soda 03 
 
 Chloride of lime .10 
 
 Alum 07 
 
 Paraffin or Spermaceti 15 
 
 Beeswax (pure) 35 
 
 Gum Arabic 50 
 
 French ball blue or ultramarine 25 
 
 Ammonia (pure) 25 per qt. 
 
 Alcohol •••• .40 
 
 Kerosine 09 to . 15 per gal. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 10 "• oz. 
 
 Acetic acid 10 " 
 
 Oxalic acid (crystals) 05 " 
 
 Starch 10 " pkg. 
 
 Salt Sewing materials 
 
 Sandpaper Buttons 
 
 Bags for boards, line and pins Pins and cushion 
 
 Bags for small articles in boiler Scissors 
 
 Bags for lace curtains Twine 
 
 Cloths for covers Newspapei's 
 
 " scrubbing Thin paper 
 
 Clock Old sheets and flannel 
 
 DINING ROOM FURNISHING 
 
 Rug9xl2ft ^10.00 to $100.00 up 
 
 Shades 90 per window. 
 
 Table 6.00 to $50.00 up. 
 
 Chairs, common 1.75 " tO.OO 
 
 arm,high 3.00" 15.00 
 
 Sideboard 15.00 " 50.00 
 
 Serving table 4.00 " 30.00 
 
 Table linen, 3 cloths 9.00 
 
 4 doz. napkins 10.00 
 
 2 carving cloths 2 . 00 
 
 Tableware (Dinner set, or its equivalent 12.00 to 40.00 
 
 stock pattern) . semi-porcelain China 25. 00 up 
 
 Glassware 2.00 " 
 
 Cutlery, knives, 1 doz. steel blades 3.50 to 8.00 
 
 Carving set 3.00 " 10.00 
 
 Silver-plated, quadruple 
 
 knives per doz 3.50 " 6.00 
 
 forks '' " 4.50" 6.00 
 
 tablespoons " " 5.00 up 
 
 dessertspoons " •' 4.50 " 
 
 teaspoons " " 3.00 " 
 
 Silence cloth 4.6x8 100 
 
 Average Estimate for small family, $75.00 to $150.00 
 
 511 
 
no HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 BED ROOM FURNISHING 
 
 Matting $10 00 
 
 Rugs 5.00 
 
 Shades and draperies (3 windows) 3 . 00 
 
 Enameled bed with spring 8 . 00 
 
 Mattress 5 00 
 
 2 Pillows 5.0C 
 
 5 Sheets 2.00 
 
 3 Pairs Pillow cases 50 
 
 4 Blankets 10.00 
 
 2 Counterpanes 3 00 
 
 Mattress cover 1 00 
 
 Bureau 10 00 
 
 Washstand 4 . 00 
 
 Table 1 75 
 
 Rocker 2 00 
 
 2 Chairs 3 00 
 
 Couch 8 00 
 
 Toilet set 3 00 
 
 1 doz. Towels .75 
 
 4 Bath Towels 50 
 
 Average Estimate .¥60.00 to $90.00 
 
 up 
 
 to $50.00 
 np 
 
 to 75.00 
 
 " 25.00 
 
 " 10.00 
 
 up 
 
 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 Floor 
 Covering 
 
 Stove 
 
 Utensils 
 
 In selecting kitchen furnishings it will be found 
 that a linoleum covering for the floor will give the 
 greatest satisfaction, preferably one which is entirely 
 plain or with a pattern which extends all the way 
 through. Next to linoleum, a hardwood floor. An 
 oilcloth is unsatisfactory, unless it be, perhaps, the 
 best quality, for a small family which will not give it 
 hard wear. A painted floor is hard to care for and is, 
 in many respects, least desirable. 
 
 In selecting a stove a steel range is by far the most 
 desirable, if possible. It is more expensive in first cost 
 than a cast-iron stove, but this difference is more 
 than offset by efficiency, economy of fuel and dura- 
 bility. 
 
 Galvanized iron is the most desirable material for 
 such utensils as coal hod, garbage and ash cans and 
 
 512 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 III 
 
 the like, being superior because of its light weight, 
 durability and cleanliness. 
 
 A nickeled teakettle with copper bottom is very sat- 
 isfactory for general use, costing about $2.50. Alumi- 
 num ware is increasing in favor. Its price alone 
 limits its use. The price of a teakettle is from $2.25 
 up, but the aluminum teakettle wears a lifetime. 
 Stransky ware is, next to aluminum, the most durable 
 of any for cooking utensils. It is moderate in price, 
 the teakettles being $1.75 to $2.25. Tin is very unde- 
 sirable for almost all cooking utensils, as water and 
 acids act upon the tin, forming unhealthful chemical 
 compounds. For such uses as are allowable, one 
 should buy block tin with rolled edge. The grade is 
 readily seen by markings on the back. The cheapest 
 is marked X, medium XX, best XXX or XXXX. 
 Those tins which have fewest crevices and seams are 
 best. 
 
 Sheet-iron bread tins with dull surface are excellent. 
 
 Woodenware should be used as little as possible, 
 as it is difficult to keep it sweet, dry and free from 
 odors and insect life. Bread and meat boards and 
 chopping trays are usually of wood. These should 
 never be cheap in quality, as the w^ood of such is 
 soft and not well seasoned, so that it cracks and peels 
 easily. Wooden spoons should be those designated as 
 the French holly. 
 
 Glass or porcelain jars are excellent for spices 
 and such articles as rice, tapioca, coffee, tea, etc. 
 
 Materialg 
 
 Wooden 
 Ware 
 
 513 
 
112 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 A MOVABLE KITCHEN CABINET, USEFUL WHEN THERE 
 IS NO BUILT-IN CABINET. 
 
 514 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 113 
 
 These should be neatly labeled and conveniently ar- 
 ranged in order on shelves in a cupboard near the 
 cooking table. 
 
 Iron for cooking utensils is almost a thing of the iron 
 past. Although most durable, the weight is sufhcient utenSS 
 to banish it. Agate or Stransky have taken the place 
 to a great extent. Agate ware has depreciated greatly 
 in quality since first introduced. The best of it is 
 more durable and safer than enamel ware. Sheet 
 iron frying pans are best, as they endure the highest 
 heat. Steel is next. Agate may be used for certain 
 things. 
 
 Chairs should be tested for comfort. Wooden ones, ' chairs 
 if properly constructed, may be very comfortable. 
 The shape and length of back, seat and legs greatly 
 affect the comfort. A high stool is a strength saver 
 when working at the table. 
 
 Tables constructed for kitchen use are a great addi- Tables 
 tion in modern furnishings. They are supplied with 
 drawers for knives, spoons and such small utensils. 
 Those of white wood are cheapest, pine being about 50 
 I)er cent more. The drawer increases the expense 
 slightly, but this will not be grudgingly paid by one 
 who has once enjoyed the advantage secured. The 
 top should be unfinished, very smooth and even. It 
 should be made of one piece of wood to avoid cracks. 
 Oilcloth may be used as a covering, although less 
 convenient because of the care necessary to avoid 
 setting anything hot on it. Paivit is altogether unde- 
 sirable for the same reason. 
 
 515 
 
TABLE AND BED LINEN, TOWELLING, ETC. 
 
 In buying cotton and linen material for the various 
 needs of the house, one must consider the use to be 
 made of it and select accordingly. Towelling suitable 
 for glass and silver is not suitable for cooking uten- 
 sils, and vice versa. If cast ofif garments, old bed 
 linen and the like are thriftily cherished and pre- 
 served, much exDense is saved and frequently better 
 cloths secured than in using new. For scrubbing 
 purposes a soft cloth that will not scratch is desirable, 
 at the same time it must have a certain firmness and 
 roughness for the friction necessary. One of the best 
 materials for general purposes of this kind is the 
 woven underwear. Outing flannel and ''mill ends" 
 are also excellent. 
 
 For drying, cloth with good absorbing quality is 
 necessary. Cotton is undesirable, especially if new 
 and not worn until softened. Linen is best for the 
 purpose and is easiest to care for. It gives off less 
 lint than cotton. Cheap qualities are less well pre- 
 pared and scratch. 
 
 For dish towels, a medium light weight linen towel- 
 ling is best, a still heavier for the china dishes, while 
 a firm, heavy crash, like the Royal Russian, is service- 
 able for cooking utensils. The latter is also excel- 
 lent for kitchen hand towels. 
 
 For washing dishes the small mops are excellent 
 for glassware and are preferred by many for the 
 
 114 
 
 516 
 
TABLE AND BED LINEN 115 
 
 entire dish washing. Thcv are inexpensive and are 
 not difficult to keep sweet with proper care. Cheese- 
 cloth is very satisfactory for silver and glass. 
 
 Cheesecloth should be kept on hand for various 
 purposes, as wiping meat, drying lettuce when washed, 
 tying up fish to boil, straining soups and jellies, dust 
 cloths and many other uses. It is easily cleansed, is 
 soft and readily absorbent when old and is free from 
 lint. For drying windows and lamps cheesecloth is 
 excellent, or old napkins rough dried. Old cotton, as 
 sheets and pillow cases, is fairly good. 
 
 Hand towels may be of crash, damask or huckaback. 
 If the latter, the Scotch or Irish is the best. The 
 choice of material depends upon individual preference 
 of smooth or rough surface. The damask is soft, fine 
 and smooth, the huckaback rougher. The Irish hucka- 
 back is woven with smooth dots for overthreads and 
 is a fine grade. The Scotch is woven looser and is 
 more showy. It is cheaper, but is good when washed. 
 The damask toweling is a poor absorbent, because 
 of its smooth, satiny surface. It is cheapest to buy 
 huckaback by the yard and hemstitch it. Fringed 
 towels should be avoided, as they are difficult to iron 
 well and the fringe eventually wears off, leaving un- 
 sightly ends. If fringed at all it should be tied. 
 
 Turkish toweling of good quality is best for bath 
 towels. Although cotton, it is so woven as to be 
 readily abs^^rbent. 
 
 517 
 
Sheeting 
 
 Bleach 
 
 Brands of 
 
 Cotton 
 
 Cloth 
 
 Size of 
 Sheets 
 
 BED LINEN 
 
 Sheeting was formerly woven in narrow widths 
 only one yard wide, necessitating laborious seaming in 
 the middle of a sheet. At the present time it is pos- 
 sible to secure sheeting woven for single, two-thirds 
 or double beds, so that hems at top and bottom are 
 the only needful sewing. Ready made sheets and 
 pillow cases may also be bought in most places, less 
 carefully made than home-made, but temptingly inex- 
 pensive, and conveniently ready for use. In provid- 
 ing in either way one should have the size of the bed 
 carefully in mind and secure sheets and pillow cases 
 ample in size. 
 
 Cotton suitable for this purpose comes bleached, 
 half-bleached or unbleached. The unbleached is two 
 or three cents per yard cheaper than the bleached, 
 and is more durable, this being due to the fact of 
 chemicals being used in the process of bleaching which 
 affect the fibre. This is, however, not often selected 
 on account of the color. The half -bleached is less 
 objectionable. 
 
 There is considerable choice in the different brands 
 of cotton. Among the best are the Wamsetta, Fruit 
 of the Loom and Pequot. 
 
 For a full sized double bed, one should buy the 
 lo quarters width of sheeting, for a two-thirds width 
 bed 8 quarters, and for a cot or single bed 6 quarters. 
 Pillow casing will vary to fit the size of the pillow, 5 
 
 116 
 
 518 
 
TABLE AND BED LINEN 117 
 
 quarters or 45 ins. being a large size and 42 ins. 
 medium. 
 
 • The price depends upon tbe brand and size. The i*ri»e 
 best Wamsetta in the 10 quarters width is 40c per 
 yard, 5 quarters width i8c, while cheaper grades may 
 be had at 28c for the 10 quarters width and 12 i-2c for 
 the 5 quarters. 
 
 Made sheets, entirely plain, in the best Wamsetta 
 brand are about as follows: 
 
 90 in. X 99 in 85c 
 
 y2 in. X 99 in 75c 
 
 Cheaper : 
 
 90 in. X 99 in 75c 
 
 72 in. X 99 in 55c 
 
 The tubing for pillow slips, woven without seams, 
 are about : 
 
 45 in 14c 
 
 42 in 13c 
 
 36 in I2C 
 
 Made up 15c each, up 
 
 The unbleached may be secured of Pequot cotton in 
 the made sheets, largest size, 55 cents each. 
 
 TABLE LINEN 
 
 Most of the material sold as table linen is imported. 
 Its manufacture has been attempted in this country, 
 but the temperature is unfavorable, so that the result 
 is an inferior quality. 
 
 There are three leading supplies — the Irish, Scotch 
 and German, "^^'e Belgian, Austrian and French being 
 
 Gradei 
 
 519 
 
ii8 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Hints on 
 Selecting 
 
 included under the latter. The Irish is considered the 
 best and is most expensive. 
 
 Bleaching Thc tinic of l)leaching- is a large factor in deter- 
 
 mining the value of the linen. Bleaching takes from 
 the weight. The natural and best method is the grass 
 bleaching in summer; next to that the snow. Arti- 
 ficial methods take from the strength of the fabric. 
 It is difficult even for experts to detect the method. 
 It is known by the times of coming into market. The 
 grass bleached comes into the retail market about the 
 middle of December, making this the desirable time 
 to purchase. 
 
 A fine thread damask may not be a superior wear- 
 ing fabric. The weight is the criterion. The best 
 fabrics are not too fine, firm but not stifif and heavy 
 with starch. Those w^ith a more elastic, leathery ap- 
 pearance are better. Those patterns are less durable 
 which have long unbroken threads. 
 
 Thc German damask has a closer, harder twisted 
 thread than the others, making it a very durable 
 linen. The Germans cater less to variety of pattern 
 and therefore produce less showy cloths, but they are 
 very durable and are also less expensive. 
 
 Patterns In selecting a pattern a medium-sized pattern, as the 
 
 tulip is very satisfactory. It is a matter of taste to a 
 great extent. Large patterns are more effective than 
 small but the latter are good taste. Some patterns are 
 so generally liked as to become stock patterns, as the 
 snowdrop. Tliesc can be found in all stores. Wit'- 
 
 German 
 Damask 
 
 520 
 
TABLE AND BED LINEN 
 
 121 
 
 other patterns only a few are woven and these are 
 distributed to a few stores or a few of each to each 
 store. The Scotch have excellent patterns, are finished 
 about as w^ell as the Irish and cost less. 
 
 In buying one should, if possible, have the exact 
 measurements of the table on v/hich a cloth is to be 
 used. An average length is 21-2 yards, 1-4 to 1-3 
 yard should be allow^ed to drop at each end if the table 
 be square. Two dozen napkins should be allowed for 
 each cloth. 
 
 Material may be purchased by the yard or in pattern 
 lengths. The latter are 50-75 cents per yard more. 
 The German linen runs from 50 cents to $1.50 per 
 yards. The Scotch in the bleached run from 50 cents 
 to $2.00 or over per yard. The Irish even in un- 
 bleached begins at 75 cents or $1.00 per yard and may 
 be $2.50 or $3.00. The latter are, of course, very 
 beautiful goods, but for common use and durability a 
 good quality may be secured for $i.oo-$2.oo per yard. 
 
 Napkins vary in size from 5-8, as they are termed at 
 the store (17-22 in.) known as breakfast size, to 3-4 
 (23-27 in.) and 7-8 (29-31 in.), the latter being 
 very large. 
 
 There is less difference in the price of napkins in 
 the different makes. In either the 20 in. napkins vary 
 in price from $1.75 per dozen up. Good ones are 
 $3.oo-$3.50 per dozen. 
 
 A heavy cloth* known as the silence cloth, is an es- 
 sential accompaniment to a well appointed table. This 
 
 Size 
 
 Price 
 
 Napkins 
 
 Silence 
 Cloth 
 
 521 
 
122 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 may be of felt, or two faced cotton flannel or may be 
 a quilted or knitted cloth on purpose. 
 
 Canton flannel, 54 inches wide, 50c yard ; quilted, 54 
 inches wide, 62 i-2c yard; knitted, 62 inches wide, 75c 
 yard give relative prices. 
 
 CARPETS AND RUGS 
 
 A square of carpet with a border of hard wood 
 brought to a high polish, or even a i)ainted border or 
 denim or some similar material is preferable to a carpet 
 covering the entire floor and tacked down, besides 
 the greater attractiveness it is much more cleanly, as 
 this can be taken out of doors for frequent beating. 
 Grades Of the different grades Ingrain is the cheapest. It 
 
 is loosely woven, and although its wearing qualities 
 are surprising considering the price, it is not the wisest 
 choice for those who may choose. The dirt goes 
 through it easily. Pleasing colors are difficult to se- 
 cure as these carpets are colored with chemical dyes 
 which are less soft and pleasing in effect than the 
 vegetable dyes, which are used in the best grades. In- 
 grain carpeting is more suitable and serviceable for 
 chaml)ers than for living rooms. It is reversible. 
 
 Tapestry comes next in value, resembling Brussels 
 on the right side but having a canvas back with colors 
 on one side only. This wears fairly well. 
 
 Brussels carpeting is heavy, with colors on both 
 sides. It wc.'irs excellently well and generally proves 
 best for ordinary use. The Brussels carpeting has an 
 uncut pile Cut pile carpets are called velvet carpets, as 
 
 522 
 
CARPETS AND RUGS 
 
 125 
 
 the Axminster and Wilton. The Wilton wear ad- 
 mirably well, and are very satisfactory in colors and 
 patterns. 
 
 In buying by the yard the Ingrains are usually a 
 yard wide, while Tapestry, Brussels and Velvets are 
 but 3-4 of a yard. In practicing strict economy much 
 may be saved by buying short lengths, small patterns 
 or old styles. 
 
 Small patterns, sober colors and indefinite designs 
 are more artistic, cheaper and more serviceable than 
 the opposite. One should endeavor to secure a gen- 
 erally pleasing effect irt a carpet so that the room for 
 which it is designed will be made attractive without 
 one's being especially conscious through what means 
 the effect is produced. A carpet with striking pattern 
 and color which arrests and holds attention is not 
 pleasing. 
 
 Rugs or squares should not have borders seamed 
 at the corners. The joining should rather be directly 
 across, thus: 
 
 Suggestion 
 for Buying 
 
 Patterns 
 
 and 
 
 Color 
 
 Engt 
 
 523 
 
126 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Re-made 
 Carpets 
 
 Kensington 
 Squares 
 
 Smyrnas 
 
 Persians 
 
 A good old carpet can be utilized very satisfactorily 
 by being re-woven by some of the reliable firms which 
 have taken up the business. Even carpeting of dif- 
 ferent kinds may be used together in this way, if 
 they are all-wool. A difference in color does not 
 matter as the material is recolored as desired. 
 
 Ingrain or Kensington squares, as they are often 
 called, are more expensive when real and imported 
 than the American squares. The price is by the yard. 
 The usual size of 6 or 7 1-2x9 ^^^^ (2 or 2 1-2x3 
 yards) costs $4.00 or $4.75 up. By the square yard 
 for carpeting a floor the Ingrain is 70"75c per yard. 
 
 Smyrna rugs are alike on both sides and are very 
 serviceable. They cost $20 for a rug, 9x12 feet 
 (9'xi2'), $8.oo-$9.oo for a rug, 2x3 feet (2'x3'). 
 
 Wilton's are most nearly like the Oriental rugs, 
 and are better than some cheap Persian rugs. 
 
 Persians, 6'x9' cost $30.00 up indefinitely ; Wiltons, 
 6'x9' cost $22.00 up; 9'xi6' cost $36.00 up. 
 
 The prices given arc not exact for all times and 
 places, of course, but may serve as an indication of 
 relative costs. 
 
 524 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 PART II 
 
 Read CafefuIIy. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. L/eave space between an- 
 swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
 answering- the questions. Answer fully. 
 
 1. What is the value of system in house work? 
 
 2. OutHne in detail a system for the household with 
 
 which you are most familiar. 
 
 3. Judging from your own experience, how long 
 
 should it take to perform the daily tasks of 
 house work, such as dusting the living room, 
 washing the dinner dishes, sweeping a bed 
 room, etc? 
 
 4. If you have employed servants, have you met 
 
 with satisfactory results? 
 
 5. If so, what do you regard as the causes of your 
 
 success ? 
 
 6. Have you made any observations in general, of 
 
 aid in the study of domestic service problems? 
 
 7. Do you know of any efforts among women to 
 
 correct the situation, either as steps toward 
 solution, or study of the situation ? 
 
 8. What is your attitude toward non-resident labor 
 
 in the home? 
 
 525 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 9. Taking into account fuel, supplies, and your own 
 time and labor, what can you say of the rela- 
 tive cost and results of laundry work done in 
 and outside the house? 
 
 10. What constitutes a legitimate bargain ? 
 
 11. What elements aid the flourishing ''bargain'* 
 
 counters of our stores? 
 
 12. What has been your experience in buying as to 
 
 "the best is the cheapest?" 
 
 13. Give a list of what you regard as ten real and 
 
 profitable conveniences in kitchen furnishing. 
 
 14. Give a similar list of uneconomical articles, be- 
 
 cause rarely used or not as useful as supposed 
 when purchased. 
 
 15. What kinds of linen are there? 
 
 16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
 
 rugs ? Of carpets ? 
 
 17. Add any suggestions arising from the study of 
 
 this section. 
 N jte — After completing the test, sign your full name. 
 
 526 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 PART III 
 
 MARKETING 
 
 A practical knowledge of marketing on the part 
 of the housewife affects to a marked degree both the 
 comfort and expense-book of the family. Intelligence 
 and skill in buying are only secured by careful prac- 
 tice. The purchaser must not fear to ask questions. 
 Most men with whom she will have to deal will be 
 found to be patient, helpful, painstaking and reliable, 
 yet she must make sure by sufficient trials that the 
 cuts of meat, etc., recommended are, all things con- 
 sidered, those that are best adapted to meet the needs 
 of her family. 
 
 It is usually greatly to one's advantage to select a 
 regular place for marketing. Greater consideration is 
 shown such customers and better satisfaction results. 
 Time is saved, and usually it proves to be quite a? 
 economical, often more so. Disappointments are less 
 liable to occur than in buying more generally. 
 
 The fact of buying regularly at the same place 
 should not, however, lead to the erroneous idea that 
 a telephone may be substituted for frequent visits to 
 the market. This is a mistake which is increasing 
 rapidly in America. Orders given in this way, by note, 
 
 127 
 
 Buying 
 
 Regular 
 Customers 
 
 Use of 
 Telephone 
 
 527 
 
128 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 B.easonable 
 Time 
 
 Supply 
 of Meats 
 
 or to the driver at the door are hable to be less 
 satisfactory than those which are given at the store 
 where selection can be made by the purchaser. 
 The telephone may be resorted to occasionally 
 in cmerg-encies, but should not take the place of regu- 
 lar visits. The greater satisfaction to be secured 
 through personal selection, the greater variety secured 
 by seeing otherwise unthought-of articles and the 
 closer economy possible more than offset the additional 
 time consumed. 
 
 More than a single day's order may be given at a 
 time. All orders needing prompt filling, as meats and 
 vegetables, should be given in ample season, usually 
 the day before, so that there may be sufficient time to 
 fill the order without discomfort to those who serve. 
 This is only reasonable consideration for others, be- 
 sides securing for one's self the avoidance of disap- 
 pointments which are very apt to occur when too 
 limited time is allowed in filling the order. It is evi- 
 dence of an inexcusable lack of foresight when a 
 housewife plans so little beyond the immediate need 
 as to leave the ordering of roast beef for a twelve- 
 o'clock dinner until lo o'clock of the morning it is 
 desired. 
 
 Meats are, perhaps, the most difficult to understand 
 and to buy to advantage. A few }Tars ago the sup- 
 ply of meats was practically all local, but at the present 
 time only veal and lamb are supplied locally in places 
 of any considerable size. The supply of beef and pork 
 
 528 
 
BEEF 129 
 
 for the United States is almost wholly from the West, 
 Chicago being the chief center, especially for the 
 wholesale beef trade. Some of the objections raised 
 by those who oppose the consumption of meat because 
 of supposed unwholesome and unsanitary conditions 
 of killing, storing and transporting, are practically 
 without foundation at the present time. Conditions 
 have been greatly improved within the last few years 
 and great sanitary precautions are exercised. The 
 large houses of Chicago are rendered thoroughly sani- 
 tary and are carefully inspected by United States of- 
 ficers who also inspect every animal killed, and tag the 
 meat for shipping. Each quarter is numbered, the 
 car in which it is shipped is also numbered and a rec- 
 ord made of the meat sent. In this way any com- 
 plaints can be readily traced. The transportation is 
 now done by the use of refrigerator cars. 
 
 BEEF 
 
 The quality of beef depends upon several conditions. Quality 
 The age of the animal when killed, the breed, the man- 
 ner of fattening, the amount of exercise and the length 
 of time the beef is allowed to cure before using, all ef- 
 fect the quality of the meat to a marked degree. The 
 "prime" age of an animal for killing is 4 years, but 
 the beef of a creature from 4 to 8 years of age is 
 good. Beyond that age meat is apt to be tough and 
 unsatisfactory. Although grass-fed animals are 
 healthier than stall-fed, the latter is customarv, or, at 
 
 529 
 
130 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Texture 
 
 and 
 
 Color 
 
 Position 
 of Bones 
 
 least, a combination of the two. Exercise toughens 
 the muscles but if moderate, is considered desirable in 
 rendering an animal healthier and the meat finer fla- 
 vored. Beef has the finest flavor and is most tender 
 when kept as long as possible before using. Three 
 weeks is usually the shortest time allowed for this 
 curing when conditions of storage are such as to per- 
 mit. 
 
 Meat should be selected which is firm and fine- 
 grained. The color should be bright red, the fat yel- 
 lowish white. The flesh and fat of old beef is darker, 
 dry and coarser. Beef becomes dark through stand- 
 ing exposed to the air. One should distinguish care- 
 fully between a mere surface discoloration which may 
 be trimmed off and the rest of the cut found to be en- 
 tirely fresh and suitable to use, and the decomposition 
 which gives a taint to the entire piece. 
 
 In buying, economy demands in general, that the 
 amount of bone in a cut should be small in proportion 
 to the amount of meat. In order to buy wisely and 
 successfully it is necessary to have in mind a clear 
 idea of the anatomy of the animal, also the muscle- 
 fibre arrangement. These are seen in the beef in 
 the illustrations. The vertebrae making up the back- 
 bone differ sufiiciently so that wnth study one may 
 recognize the different ones in the cuts of meat. The 
 backbone is split in dividing the body into halves so 
 that but one-half will be found in a joint of meat 
 Study the illustrations carefully. 
 
 530 
 
BEEF 
 
 SKELETON OF BEEF. 
 
 !, Neck; 2, Six Chuck Ribs; 3, Seven Prime Ribs and Loin; 4, Thick or 
 
 Hip Sirloin; 5a, Top of Rump; 6a, Aitch Bone or Rump Piece; 
 
 b, Cartilage; c, Shoulder Blade; d. Cross Ribs. 
 
 MUSCLE ARRANGEMENT OF BEEF. 
 
 3, Head; 2, Neck; 3, Chuck Ribs and Shoulder Blade; 4, Seven Prime 
 
 Ribs; 5, Loin; 6, Thick Sirloin, called Boneless Sirloin in Chicago, 
 
 Back of Rump in Boston; 7-8, Rump Piece in New York; 8, Aitch 
 
 Bone; 9, Round; lO, Leg; a. Top of Sirloin; b, Flank; 
 
 c, Plate; d, Brisket. (Redrawn from Ilo?ne 
 
 Economics by Miria Parloa.) 
 
 531 
 
Arrangement 
 of Muscles 
 
 Carving 
 
 132 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 A knowledge of the muscle fibres and their arrange- 
 ments is as important in buying, cooking and carving 
 meat as familiarity with the location of the bones. 
 The lean of meat is made up of muscular tissue. This 
 consists of prism-shaped bundles, divisible under the 
 microscope into minute tubes or muscle fibres. These 
 fibres are held together in bundles by connective tissue 
 which is readily distinguished by 
 holding up a loosely connected 
 piece of meat and noting the thin, 
 filmy membrane. When meat is 
 cut "across the grain" these bundles 
 of fibres are severed and the ends 
 appear. The membrane forming 
 the walls of these tubes is very deli- 
 cate and elastic. 
 
 Carving has a great effect upon 
 the apparent toughness of the cut 
 of meat. In the accompanying il- 
 lustration, a shows the muscular 
 bundle, a fibre partially separated into its minute tubes, 
 while b shows the fibre cut across the grain as it should 
 be in carving. In this way the fibres are broken into 
 smaller pieces as an aid to digestion and the contents 
 of the tubes are set free, thus being more accessible 
 for the digestive juices than when the meat is carved 
 lenofthwise of the fibres. 
 
 Fibres of Meat. 
 
 532 
 
BEEF 
 
 133 
 
 In cutting up a beef 
 the body is first cut 
 through the backbone 
 laying it open in ''sides" 
 or halves. Each half is 
 then divided into quarters, 
 called the fore quarter 
 and the hind quarter, as 
 will be seen in the illus- 
 tration. The muscle fibres 
 run very irregularly in 
 the fore quarter. This, to- 
 gether with the fact that 
 they are coarser and have 
 on the whole more exer- 
 cise than those of the hind 
 quarter to toughen them, 
 renders the meat of the 
 fore quarter of a less de- 
 sirable, cheaper grade. 
 The finest cuts of an ani- 
 mal come from the middle 
 of the creature, in the 
 most protected, least ex- 
 ercised parts, decreasing 
 in value as they lie to- 
 ward either extremity. 
 Cuts differ somewhat in different cities 
 
 Cutting' 
 Up 
 
 SIDE OF BEEF. 
 aa. Suet; h. Thin Eixd of Tender- 
 loin; ad. Thick End of Tenderloin ; 
 e. Inside or Top of Round ; /, Best 
 Part of Round; g. Sternum; 
 h. Thick Brisket: ?. Thin 
 Brisltet; j. Flank. 
 
 According to 
 the Boston cut, for instance, three ribs are left on the 
 
 533 
 
134 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 hind quarter, ten on the fore quarter. In New York 
 all the ribs are cut on the fore quarter. Beef is best 
 from a creature weighing 800 to 900 pounds. 
 
 CUTS OF BEEF ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT 
 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Fore Quarter 
 
 Weight An average fore quarter weighs about 200 pounds. 
 It is divided into : 
 
 1. Neck. 
 
 2. Chuck. 
 
 3. Ribs. 
 
 4. Sticking piece. 
 
 5. End of ribs. ) Sometimes called together 
 
 6. Brisket. \ Rattleran. 
 
 7. Shin or shank. 
 
 The fore quarter as a whole being coarser is used 
 chiefly for canned meat, stews, soup meat and corned 
 
 534 
 
BEEF 
 
 135 
 
 covid Cut 
 found 
 
 beef. The neck is best used for mince meat. Prices 
 on all meats differ too widely to make it possible to 
 state with accuracy for all 
 places, but that we may be 
 guided somewhat by price 
 in estimating values, aver- 
 age prices will be given. 
 For this cut 8 cents a pound 
 .is an average price. 
 
 The Chuck lies just be- 
 hind the neck, including the 
 first five ribs. This cut may 
 be used in a variety of 
 ways, as cheap steak, roast, 
 pot roast or stew. Several 
 of the cheaper cuts indi- 
 cated as possible roasts or 
 steak cuts were formerly 
 used much more commonly 
 than now for such pur- 
 poses. As our country has 
 grown more prosperous 
 there has been a great in- 
 crease in the demand for 
 
 the better cuts until many markets are forced to buy 
 extra loins, etc., to meet the demand. A very fair 
 small one rib roast may be cut from this portion. The 
 chuck sells for about 12 1-2 cents a pound. 
 
 The Ribs are used chiefly for roasts and constitute 
 the best of the fore quarter. The portion lying nearest 
 
 The Neck 
 
 kci 
 
 h*nK 
 
 SIDE OF BEEF, U. S. DEPT 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Chuck 
 
 The Ribs 
 
 535 
 
136 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 First Cut 
 of the Ribs 
 
 Sticking 
 Piece 
 
 End of 
 the Ribs 
 
 the hind quarter is very nearly the same in quaHty. 
 There is a decided preference in the rib roasts. The 
 "first cut of the ribs," as it is called contains the first 
 two or three ribs from the hind quarter, differing ac- 
 cording to the size of roast desired. Cut long, that is 
 with the thin end pieces left on, such a roast brings 
 as high as 17 to 27, cents a pound, while "cut short," 
 that is with the thin rib ends removed, it sells in some 
 places as high as 20 to 30 cents a pound. Following 
 this cut are the second and third cuts, the third join- 
 ing the "first cut of the chuck. These are not as high 
 in quality or price, 15 to 18 cents a pound. The sec- 
 ond cut is a very good roast. 
 
 The Sticking Piece is a cut between the neck and 
 brisket, so called from the custom of bleeding there 
 after killing. Although the fibre is coarse and tough 
 in this piece it is an excellent piece when properly 
 used. It is especially fine for beef tea, since for that, 
 one should select as juicy a piece as possible. From 
 the method of bleeding much blood collects in this 
 piece and it is particularly juicy. It may be used for 
 stews also where long, slow cooking renders the mus- 
 cle fibre tender and sets free a portion of the rich 
 juices. 
 
 The End of the Ribs is often called the plate piece 
 or rattleran. Although this portion has a liberal sup- 
 ply of bones they are thin, and generous allowance 
 is made for that fact in the price. It is an especially 
 desirable piece for corned beef if it is to be pressed 
 
 536 
 
BEEF 137 
 
 and served cold, as it has a good supply of fat blended 
 with the lean and hardens to cut well. 
 
 The Brisket is much preferred for corned beef by The 
 some. It is a more solidly lean piece on the whole, 
 thus carving better when hot. It is to a large extent 
 a matter of choice as regards the amount of fat de- 
 sired. There is a difference recognized at markets be- 
 tween the thick end of the brisket, called "fancy 
 brisket," and the thinner end, the former being con- 
 sidered superior. The brisket corned brings as high 
 as 15 cents a pound where there is good demand, while 
 the rib piece is not over 8 cents, sometimes as low as 
 6 cents. 
 
 The Shin is used for soup meat. It is divided into The shin 
 three pieces, more meat being found on the upper 
 piece. Many make a great mistake in throwing away 
 the smallest, most bony part supposing it to be value- 
 less, w^hich is far from true. It is rich in gelatin and 
 those properties which are desired in soup stock. The 
 shin usually sells for not over 5 cents a pound. 
 
 The Hind Quarter 
 
 While there is a great variety in the possible cuts of ^^^^ 
 the hind quarter they may be classed in general as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Loin. 4. Shin. 
 
 2. Rump. 5. Flank. 
 
 3. Round. 
 
 537 
 
138 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Sirloin 
 
 Tenderloin 
 
 Fillet 
 
 The location of these sections will be seen by con- 
 sulting page 135. The entire loin is frequently called 
 the "sirloin." The choicest steaks and roasts are cut 
 from this part. The first two slices from the end 
 where the loin joins the ribs are called the first cuts of 
 the sirloin. These are not as tender or desirable as 
 those which follow. After these are removed, the 
 tenderloin begins to appear which lies on the under or 
 inside of the loin and being so protected is very tender. 
 The slices which include the largest portions of 
 tenderloin are considered the best and bring the high- 
 est price. Some of these slices when trimmed bring 
 as high as 35 or 40 cents a pound. 
 
 It would seem that the tenderloin is greatly over- 
 rated in some instances, since, except for the fact 
 of its being especially tender, it is not more desirable. 
 It is not as rich in juices or flavor as the rest of the 
 loin. The entire tenderloin is used for what is known 
 as a "fillet." When removed and sold separately for 
 this purpose it costs as high as 60 cents to $1.00 a 
 pound since the remainder of the loin is rendered 
 thereby far less salable. On the other hand, for one 
 who washes a delicious roast at moderate expense this 
 loin with the tenderloin removed is very desirable. 
 
 In buying for a fillet roast it is far the wisest plan to 
 buy the entire loin or section necessary to give the size 
 desired, at 35 cents a pound, have the tenderloin re- 
 moved for the fillet roast and the rest reserved for 
 other uses, as steaks or later roasts. The thinner end 
 
 538 
 
BEEF 139 
 
 of the tenderloin which extends into the rump is 
 cheaper, about 35 cents a pound. Some cheaper fillets 
 are sometimes to be found in the markets but are not 
 desirable, as they are from inferior beef. 
 
 The Rump lies back of the loin. As a whole it The 
 
 ^ Rump 
 
 weighs about 52 pounds. It is divided into three sec- 
 tions, known as back, middle cut and face. This por- 
 tion is sometimes called hip or thick sirloin. It may 
 be used for steaks or roasts, while some of the less de- 
 sirable parts are used for pot roasts, braising, etc. 
 The part nearest the loin is termed the back ; it is 
 the best part for all uses except for steaks. Next to 
 that, the middle, the face having more muscle. 
 
 A cut from the rump which is excellent for a variety Aitch 
 of uses in the Aitch bone. It is satisfactory for a cheap 
 roast, braising and the like. It weighs about six 
 pounds usually and may be bought for 7 to 12 cents a 
 pound. There is not enough bone included to offset 
 the difference between this price and the 25 cents a 
 pound which portions of the rump may bring, as the 
 middle cut. The face makes a good piece for corning. 
 
 The Round is divided into top and bottom, so called Th® ^ 
 
 ^ Round 
 
 because of the way in which the leg is laid upon the 
 block to be cut up. The outside, being laid down, is 
 called the bottom round, while the inside, being on 
 the top as it is laid down is called the top round. The 
 difference in quality to be found between the two 
 divisions is what would be expected from the rule 
 stated earlier concerning the greater toughness of the 
 
 539 
 
140 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 more exposed and exercised parts of the animal. The 
 bottom of the round being nearest the skin is the 
 tougher and cheaper meat. The top round is used for 
 a very fair quaHty of steak. The bottom round is 
 better for braising, stews, etc. A vein divides the two 
 sections so that it is easy to separ^^te them. The top 
 may bring 22 to 25 cents a pound, while the poorest 
 parts may be secured for 12 1-2 cents. 
 Shin The Shank or Shin is used as that of the fore 
 
 Flank quarter, for soup. The Flank is usually corned, sell- 
 ing for 7 to 10 cents a pound. It is a thin piece and 
 has a good mixture of fat. 
 
 Summary of Cuts of Beef 
 
 Passing over the various cuts of beef in review, then, 
 we may consider the cuts most desirable for the dif- 
 ferent methods of cooking which we employ in the 
 order of their desirability, regardless of cost. 
 Small The selection of a roast of meat for a small family 
 
 Roasts ,.-^ 1 . . . 
 
 is the most difficult, since the larger the roast the bet- 
 ter. Nothing smaller than a two-rib roast is very sat- 
 isfactory to attempt to roast. Unless one is willing 
 to roast less thoroughly the first day and reroast the 
 second, or is willing to serve cold roast, the selection 
 is very much limited. For such a family a rump fillet 
 or Aitch bone is, perhaps, most satisfactory. The finest 
 larger roasts are to be obtained from the first three 
 cuts of the sirloin, and next to these the first cut of 
 the ribs. Following these are the second and third 
 
 540 
 
BEEF 
 
 141 
 
 cuts of the ribs, the back of the rump and a chuck 
 roast. A rib-roll is a roast prepared by removing the 
 bones, rolling and tying. It is thus made easier to 
 carve. If one has a roast prepared in this way, she 
 should have the bones sent home to be used in the 
 soup kettle. 
 
 There is little to be said in addition concerning the 
 selection of cuts for steak, since in general meat that is 
 especially desirable for roasts is equally good for slic- 
 ing for steaks. The best is especially desirable here, 
 since there is less opportunity to practice skill in cook- 
 ing, which in other modes of preparing may avail 
 greatly to improve an otherwise undesirable piece. It 
 is not as pleasing to the majority of people to have 
 meat served as steak unless it be fairly tender and 
 juicy. In the main it is more satisfactory to those 
 who should economize closely to rely upon other cuts, 
 buying an occasional good steak for variety and espe- 
 cial luxury. 
 
 While it is true that the better the piece of meat 
 the better the result as a general thing, it is possible 
 and desirable to save expense to some extent where 
 it may be done without serious loss. The meat to be 
 cut for Hamburg steak need not be of the best, since 
 it is rendered more digestable by the mincing. The 
 top of the round is quite good enough, while the bot- 
 tom round or even the shoulder and flank are used, al- 
 though less satisfactorily. 
 
 The top of the round, eighth to the thirteenth ribs, 
 first cut of chuck, the cheaper of the rump cuts, the 
 
 Selection 
 of Steaks 
 
 Cheaper 
 Cuts 
 
 541 
 
142 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Braising 
 Cuts 
 
 Corned 
 Beef 
 
 Cuts for 
 Stews 
 
 Beef 
 
 Heart 
 
 flank and leg may all be used for braising or pot roasts. 
 By this method of cooking much is done to soften 
 tough pieces, rendering them more digestible and ac- 
 ceptable, so that the cheaper cuts are made very palata- 
 ble in the hands of a skillful cook. 
 
 The order of preference for corned beef might be, 
 brisket, rump, piece from the chuck, plate, shoulder. 
 Others would select the shoulder or chuck first for the 
 reasons already mentioned. The flank is sometimes 
 corned, but it is not considered a wise choice since it 
 is not well protected by fat or bone as meat for corn- 
 ing should be to prevent the loss of the juices in the 
 process of corning. 
 
 For stews it is desirable to extract some or all the 
 juices from the meat. The meat is finely divided be- 
 fore cooking and the methods applied are those of 
 slow, long cooking. The flank, leg and sticking piece 
 are found to be very good for these purposes. Thus 
 we find that all the animal may be used to good pur- 
 pose in one or another of the ways indicated. The 
 family that lives in the country and raises and provides 
 its own supply finds it necessary to utilize all the parts. 
 Those that depend on city markets are more ignorant 
 of the different cuts and are as a result inclined to be 
 much more extravagant, not having as wide experi- 
 ence in learning to prepare the cheaper cuts in an ac- 
 ceptable way. 
 
 Beef Heart is an economical and palatable meat. It 
 is solid, and a good sized heart will serve fourteen 
 
 542 
 
BEEF 143 
 
 people. There is nothing to be feared in having some 
 left, as it is even better to serve cold for a breakfast or 
 supper dish than when hot. The most satisfactory way 
 of cooking is to boil it three or four hours, cool, clean 
 of coagulated blood, stufif and bake slowly for three 
 hours. It may be braised or stewed. It is one of the 
 most inexpensive meats, costing not over 5 cents a 
 pound usually. 
 
 One should be very careful in using liver to deter- Liver 
 mine that it is in a healthy condition, as it is an organ 
 which is not infrequently diseased. It should be clear, 
 smooth and without spots. Spots and streaks indicate 
 a dangerous condition. Calf's liver is usually preferred 
 as more tender and delicate, but the liver from good 
 beef is cheaper and satisfactory. There is a great dif- 
 ference in it, some being hard and tough. Pig's is 
 preferred by some. Calf's bring from 16 to 20 cents a 
 pound, while beef's may be procured at from 8 to 10 
 cents. 
 
 Kidneys are cooked by some, although not as ex- Kidneys 
 tensively as the organs already mentioned. They may 
 be stewed or braised. Care should be used in select- 
 ing, as in liver. Calf's are preferred, next lamb's, 
 mutton and beef. Those weighing from one to two 
 pounds may be bought for 8 cents each. 
 
 In selecting a tongue for cooking one should be Tongue 
 chosen which is firm and thick, with plenty of fat, as 
 the lean and flabby ones do not cook satisfactorily. 
 Those of all animals are used, the beef more often, be- 
 cause of its size. They may be bought fresh, smoked 
 
 543 
 
144 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 or corned. Tongues weighing from four to six 
 pounds may be bought at from i6 to i8 cents a pound 
 Tripe Tripe is taken from the lining of the stomach of 
 
 the animal. It is sold either simply cleaned or pickled. 
 The honey-comb is the better. It is white and tender 
 when taken from a healthy animal. The honey-comb 
 costs about 10 cent a pound; the plain is a little 
 cheaper. The cost of many of these things depends al- 
 most wholly upon the demand for them. 
 Sweetbreads Swcctbrcads cousist of the pancreas and thymus 
 
 glands of the young calf or lamb which later in its 
 life are absorbed or changed so as not to be edible. 
 Those from a milk-fed animal are far superior, being 
 white, firm and plump, while those from an improperly 
 fed animal are dark, flabby and tough. They are 
 generally sold in pairs. The pancreas is larger and 
 better. They range from 25 or 35 cents to 50 or 75 
 cents a pair. What are known as Chicago sweetbreads 
 may be bought in Eastern markets at times for $1.50 
 a dozen. These are packed on ice. Where the de- 
 mand for sweetbreads is great, pork sweetbreads are 
 often substituted. These are coarse and dark colored. 
 The buyer should learn to distinguish these from 
 calves' sweetbreads and refuse them. 
 
 544 
 
BEEF 145 
 
 Table of Cuts and Uses of Fore and Hind Quarters of Beef 
 
 FORE QUARTERS. 
 
 4 Ribs Good roast. 
 
 6 Chuck Ribs Small steaks, pot roast, stews. 
 
 Neck Cheap Hamburg steak, mince meat. 
 
 Sticking-Piece Mince meat, beef tea, stews. 
 
 ^ Thick end » 
 
 Rattle Rand ] Second cut ,- Corned, especially cold sliced. 
 
 <• Thin end ' 
 
 ( Navel end 1 
 Brisket \ Butt end or |- Excellent for Corning. Perhaps best. 
 
 ' Fancy Brisket ' 
 Fore-shin Soiip stock, stews. 
 
 HIXD QUARTERS. 
 
 3 Ribs Excellent roast. 
 
 , Tip Finest roast, steaks. 
 
 Loin < Middle Sirloin and porter house steak. 
 
 ( First cut Roast and steaks. 
 
 Tenderloin , „ ^ ^, °^ Larded and roasted, or broiled. 
 
 ' Steaks 
 
 f Back Best large roasts and cross-cut steaks. 
 
 j Middle Roasts. 
 
 ^™P I Face Inferior roasts and stews. 
 
 t Aitch Bone Cheap roast, corned, braised 
 
 . \ Top Steaks, excellent for beef tea. 
 
 I Bottom Hamburg steak, curry of beef. 
 
 Flank Stuffed, rolled and braised or corned. 
 
 Shin or Shank Cheap stews or soup stock. 
 
 545 
 
YEA3 
 
 Season 
 of Veal 
 
 Bob Veal 
 
 While veal is in season all the year in many markets, 
 it is best in spring and summer, being at its prime in 
 May. The quality of the veal depends to a considera- 
 ble extent upon the age and manner of feeding. Six 
 
 CUTS OF A^EAL. ACCORDING TO THE U. S. DEPARTMENT 
 OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 to ten weeks is the preferable age at the time of kill- 
 ing. When the calf is killed under four weeks of age 
 the meat is injurious, so that it is not allowed to be 
 sold, such being known as "bob veal." The flesh of 
 such immature calves is soft, flabby and gelatinous, 
 blue and watery in color instead of fine-grained, tender 
 and white with a tendency to pink, as in the healthy 
 meat. The meat is best of calves which have been fed 
 entirely upon milk. Grass-feeding is the poorest of aR 
 
 146 
 
 546 
 
VEAL 
 
 H7 
 
 shonK 
 
 In France an especially fine quality is secured by care- 
 ful feeding, raw eggs being included in the feed. 
 
 The cuts of veal are similar to those of beef, except Cuts 
 simpler. The fore quarter includes only five ribs and to Beef 
 is so small that it is easily 
 boned and rolled for a good 
 sized roast. The entire fore 
 quarter weighs 6 to 12 
 pounds, and costs 8 to 10 
 cents entire or with neck 
 removed 10 to 14 cents. 
 The neck can be used for 
 stew. The head and brains 
 are esteemed by many, the 
 head being used for soup, 
 and the brains cooked in 
 various ways. 
 
 The loin includes all that 
 is divided into loin and 
 rump in the beef. This is 
 an excellent roast, the leg 
 alone being considered bet- 
 ter. The leg is the choicest 
 for roasts or for cutlets. 
 The shoulder when boned, 
 rolled and stuffed makes a 
 veal roast. The breast 
 
 sh&TtK 
 
 SIDE OF VEAL. 
 
 IS 
 
 very acceptable cheap 
 good for Stew. The 
 "knuckle" of veal corresponds to the shin in the beef 
 and is especially fine for soup, being highly gelatinous. 
 
 547 
 
MUTTON AND LAMB 
 
 Mutton is, for most, a most nutritious and easily 
 digested meat when of good cjuality and ])roj)erly pre- 
 pared, but it may be very uninviting through careless- 
 ness in cooking and serving. For this reason, no 
 
 CUTS Ol-' I.AMH, n. S. J)l<:i'AHTJVlKN'r OI'^ A(JUl('UI/rUKK. 
 
 doubt, il is less in favor in this country than beef, 
 l.amb is the name ap])lied to the animal until one year 
 old, after that it is proi)erly mutton. The age is told 
 by the bone of the fore leg, being smooth in the young 
 animal but showing ridges which grow deeper and 
 deeper with age. Mutton and lamb are in season the 
 year n^und. The best mutton is from an animal not 
 over 5 years old, ])lumi) with small bones. T.ike the 
 beef long curing before consumption is desirable. 
 
 148 
 
 548 
 
MUTTON AND LAMB 
 
 149 
 
 The usual cuts of mutton are the leg, loin, shoulder, 
 neck, breast and flank. The leg is, all things consid- 
 ered, the best roast. The fore quarter, or the shoulder 
 boned and rolled as in veal, is an excellent cheap 
 roast, the choice depending on 
 the size of the family. The ribs 
 and loin may be used for roasts 
 for a small family, but are more 
 frequently cut into chops. The 
 rib chops are smallest and, there- 
 fore, more expensive. They 
 must, in fact, be regarded as a 
 
 great luxury, considering the 
 
 price and the proportion of 
 
 bone, but they are much in favor 
 
 for their delicious delicacy and 
 
 fine flavor. The shoulder, breast, 
 
 and best part of the neck are 
 
 excellent for stews, pot pies or 
 
 for boiling. The portion of the 
 
 neck nearest the head is tougher 
 
 anrl is best used for broth for 
 
 which it is especially desirable, 
 
 being rich in flavor and nutriment. 
 
 dey 
 
 SIDE OF LAMB. 
 
 549 
 
Season 
 of Pork 
 
 PORK 
 
 Pork is good only in autumn and winter. A large 
 part of the animal is so fat that instead of being sold 
 fresh it is salted and sold as salt pork. The ribs and 
 loin are the most desirable fresh cuts, being used either 
 
 CUTS OF PORK, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Bacon 
 
 for roasts or chops. Care is needed to select a whole- 
 some piece, suitable fresh pork having firm, clear and 
 white fat and pWk lean, while in the salted pork, one 
 should select either a pinkish piece or one without 
 color, a yellow appearance not being a good indica- 
 tion. A thick, mediumly fat piece of salt pork is bet- 
 ter to buy than the thin flank pieces. 
 
 Bacon is secured by smoking the fat pork in addi- 
 tion to the salting process. It is a most digestible form 
 of fat and is enjoyed by many who do not care for 
 
 150 
 
 550 
 
POULTRY 
 
 iSi 
 
 other forms of salt pork. It is somewhat more expen- 
 sive, salt pork selling for ii to 15 cents, bacon for 15 
 to 18 cents per pound. 
 
 Sausages are made either of 
 pork alone, or beef and pork, 
 or of veal and pork together. 
 Those sold in the market are 
 usually put up in skin-s. In 
 buying sausage one should be 
 especially careful to buy a known 
 and approved brand. Otherwise 
 they are an untrustworthy form 
 of meat, as fragments of all 
 kinds are easily disposed of in 
 this way. The price of sausage 
 varies from 12 to 20 cents per 
 pound. 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 There is perhaps no other kind 
 of meat in which there is more 
 need of skill and care in select- 
 ing than poultry. Great care is 
 
 necessary in handling, as the flesh easily becomes 
 tainted or rendered unhealthful. Some states allow 
 fowl to be kept for sale undrawn. This is not only a 
 great menace to health, but a thing no thoughtful buyer 
 will desire. The excess price charged for what are 
 called Philadelphia Chickens comes from the method 
 of killing and preparing for market. An improperly 
 
 SIDE OF PORK. 
 
 Care in 
 Selecting 
 
 551 
 
-152 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Method of 
 Plucking 
 
 Tests 
 
 drawn chicken is nearly as bad as one sold undrawn, 
 in some cases may be even worse. The laws regulat- 
 ing the sale of poultry in New York state are such 
 that in the majority of cases chickens and turkeys are 
 most miserably prepared for market. 
 
 The flavor of the flesh is also afifected by the method 
 of plucking, the dry picking being much to be pre- 
 ferred, although the appearance of the fowl may be 
 less attractive. While scalding aids in removing the 
 feathers it also affects the flavor, so that dry-picked 
 sell at a higher price. 
 
 In young fowl and turkey the breast bone is soft, 
 bending readily, and the flesh is smooth. Hairs over 
 the flesh are an indication of age, pin-feathers of a 
 young bird. The body should be plump and fat. A 
 poor bird is bluish white, thin and often too liberally 
 supplied with pin-feathers. Scaly legs are a further 
 indication of age, the young having smooth legs. 
 While the preference is always for chickens, especially 
 for roasting, a good fowl may be thoroughly steamed 
 before roasting and so rendered tender and very ac- 
 ceptable. It is much greater economy to buy fowl 
 as one secures far more meat in proportion to bone, 
 and fowl is considerably cheaper. The West has be- 
 come a large source of our supply as in meat, espe- 
 cially in turkeys. Certain Eastern states like Ver- 
 mont and Connecticut have acquired in the past an en- 
 viable local reputation, but at the present time a large 
 part even of the Eastern trade is in Western turkeys, 
 
 552 
 
FISH 153 
 
 shipped East in refrigerator cars. Methods of cold 
 storage have advanced so far that turkeys may be 
 kept a year or more, but not without losing in quality. 
 
 FISH 
 
 Fish deteriorates and becomes injurious sooner than 
 any other animal food. Great care should be taken 
 to select that which is strictly fresh. It is impossible 
 to transport it a great distance and keep it as fresh 
 as is necessary for health. For this reason it is not 
 wise for those who live inland to rely upon this class 
 of food, except such as may be secured from bodies 
 of water near home. Fresh fish is firm, with no evi- 
 dence of discoloration. Scales and eyes should be 
 bright, gills red and fins firm. One should study the 
 comparative value of the different varieties, as there 
 is great difference in nutritive worth, largely due to 
 the greater amount of fat in some, such as salmon. 
 
 In general white fleshed fish has the oil confined in 
 the liver and is therefore apt to be a little more digesti- 
 ble than the dark fleshed fish where the oil is distribu- 
 ted throughout the body. Note: Whitefish, halibut, 
 etc. ; salmon, mackerel and bluefish. There is a decided 
 difference in texture, firmness and price. 
 
 Haddock is an excellent cheap fish for frying, be- 
 ing firmer than cod. It is usually from 8 to 10 cents a 
 pound. Halibut is the preference of the more expen- 
 sive, costing from 14 to 18 cents. There is less waste 
 in halibut, as the slices are from so large a fish that 
 
 Selecting" 
 
 Kinds 
 
 Haddock 
 
 553 
 
154 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 i^aking 
 
 Boiling 
 
 Local 
 Varieties 
 
 the head and tail are not included as in smaller fish. 
 This should be taken into account in ordering. 
 
 Cod and bluefish are usually selected from the cheap 
 fish for baking. Haddock is also good. The bluefish 
 is preferred by most, being somewhat dry and of sweet 
 flavor. It is always to be distinguished by a dark 
 line running along each side from head to tail. 
 While cod and haddock are in season throughout the 
 }'ear, bluefish are in season only from May to October 
 except as they are frozen and kept in cold storage. A 
 frozen fish is not as desirable as fresh, so that the sea- 
 son will govern choice somewhat. Halibut and mack- 
 erel are good to bake. 
 
 In selecting fish for boiling it is desirable to secure 
 a firm fish and a solid piece which can be wrapped in 
 cheesecloth and cooked without breaking in pieces. 
 Halibut and salmon are especially good for this pur- 
 pose. Haddock is the best of the three cheaper fish 
 already mentioned. 
 
 The fish already mentioned are those which are best 
 as ordinarily found in the city markets. IMany other 
 varieties which are very delicious when freshly caught 
 lose in flavor so much that it is not very satisfactory 
 to try to serve them except when one may secure them 
 strictly fresh. Trout, flounders and perch are ex- 
 amples. It is an excellent plan to have some system 
 of tables showing the season of such foods as have 
 a distinct season which can be hung on kitchen wall 
 or other available place to show at a glance the most 
 
 554 
 
FISH 
 
 desirable times to buy the various foods, 
 ample, for fish : 
 
 The Season of Fish 
 
 155 
 
 For ex- 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Price. 
 
 t-5 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 pi 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 (V 
 
 Q 
 
 Bass— Striped 
 or black 
 
 (To be 
 filled in 
 from lo- 
 cal mar- 
 ket.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blueflsh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cod 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Flounders 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Haddock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Halibut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Herring. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lobster.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mackerel . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Perch 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pickerel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salmon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shad 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Smelts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sword 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trout 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weak 
 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The same general directions hold for buying shell 
 fish. Clams, oysters and lobster are not suitable to be 
 eaten unless strictly fresh and procured from sources 
 of which the healthfulness of the supply is assured. 
 Injurious preservatives are sometimes used in shipping 
 to the middle and Western states. Clams and lobster 
 may be purchased the year round. Oysters, scallops 
 and shrimps are in season from September to March. 
 Fish is not a substitute for meat in nutritive value, be- 
 cause it has less fat but makes a pleasant change for 
 those who are able to purchase under favorable con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Season 
 of Fisb 
 
 Shell 
 Fish 
 
 555 
 
VEGETABLES 
 
 Season 
 
 and 
 
 Prices 
 
 Liberal 
 Supply 
 
 Vegetables arc classified according to their form as 
 follows : 
 
 Koots iuul Tubers 
 
 Sahul Plants 
 
 Potatoes 
 Turnips 
 Parsnips 
 IJeets 
 Onions 
 Radishes 
 L Carrots 
 
 ( Lettuce 
 -, Chicory 
 Romaine 
 
 Fruit Vegetables 4 
 
 Corn 
 Pumpkin 
 Peas 
 Beans 
 Squash 
 Tomato 
 Cucumbers 
 { Egg Plant 
 
 Flower Vegetables ] gji^JJ^^^^^ 
 
 In buying one should watch the market for the sea- 
 son, as it will vary somewdiat. Vegetables which were 
 formerly confined very exclusively to their season are 
 to be purchased now at almost any time in large city 
 markets which are supplied by hot houses and l)y ship- 
 ping from greater distances than was possible before 
 methods of shipping became so superior as at the 
 present time. Yet the higher prices which prevail for 
 fruit and vegetables which are out of season prevent 
 a great number from buying except when the prices 
 are normal. Nor is this a thing altogether to be de- 
 plored. It is a great mistake to rely to any large 
 extent upon such products since the quality is never 
 equal to that of products grown under natural condi- 
 tions, while the frequent use of a vegetable throughout 
 the year takes away the keen enjoyment to be realized 
 by those who are content to take each as its season 
 brings it. Vegetables are a very important article 
 of diet and should be liberally supplied at all times. 
 For those who have learned to eat all varieties there 
 
 156 
 
 556 
 
VEGETABLES 
 
 157 
 
 is very fair variety of those which keep through the 
 winter. The different varities with season and aver- 
 age price will be found in the following table : 
 
 Season of Vegetables 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Price 
 
 .5c qt 
 1.5c pk. 
 
 5c b'nch 
 10c head 
 10c •' 
 
 3c b'nch 
 
 8c head 
 IGc " 
 
 8c doz. 
 
 2c each 
 10c " 
 
 15c peck 
 
 30c lb. 
 40c hun. 
 15c peck 
 
 15c b'nch 
 3c lb. 
 10c peck 
 
 ';.5c bu. 
 
 2clb. 
 
 3'? b'nch 
 
 2c lb. 
 10c head 
 15c peck 
 
 3c each 
 2c lb. 
 10c qt. 
 5c qt. 
 2olb. 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 
 P. 
 < 
 
 X. 
 
 d 
 
 •-5 
 
 d 
 
 >-3 
 
 d 
 <^ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 Q 
 
 Artichokes. 
 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Beets.. 
 
 
 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 
 Cauliflower. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Carrots 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Celery 
 
 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 .... 
 
 x. 
 
 
 'x. 
 
 .X. 
 .X 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 Chicory 
 
 Corn. 
 
 
 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 Egg Plant 
 
 Greens — 
 
 ';Beet,... 
 
 '' Dandelion 
 
 Mushrooms. 
 
 
 Okra 
 
 Onions 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 x. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oyster Plant or 
 Salsify 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x. 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 
 
 
 Peas (fresh) 
 
 Potatoes- 
 Sweet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Irish 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 
 
 Pumpkins ... . 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Radishes . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhubarb. 
 
 
 Romaine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sninach 
 
 x. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Squash- 
 Summer 
 
 Winter ,. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x. 
 
 . X. 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 String Beans 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turnips 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .X. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X marks the height of the season, or when it is at its best. 
 
 The prices given are the lowest, or those at the height of the season. 
 
 557 
 
158 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Quantity 
 for Serving 
 
 Selecting 
 Vegetablei 
 
 It is sometimes puzzling to determine the quantity 
 to order for the number of persons to be served. The 
 following estimates may be a guide : 
 
 Artichokes, 1 quart will serve £ people. 
 
 Asparagus, 1 bunch 
 
 Beets, 1 bunch (5) 
 
 Cabbage, 1 good, solid 
 
 Cauliflower, 1 small 
 
 '• good size 
 
 Carrots, 1 large one 
 
 small bunch 
 
 Celery, 1 head (3 bunches) 
 
 Chicory, 1 head 
 
 Corn, 1 doz 
 
 Cucumber, .1 (in salad) . . 
 
 " (sliced).. 
 
 Egg Plant, medium 
 
 Greens, 1 pk 
 
 Onions, 1 qt 
 
 Oyster Plant, 5 stalks 
 
 Parsnips, 2 (1 lb.) 
 
 Peas, 1 pk 
 
 Radishes, 1 bunch 
 
 Rhubarb, 1 lb (in sauce) . . 
 
 Romaine, 1 head 
 
 String Beans, 1 qt 
 
 Tomatoes, 1 qt. (.5) 
 
 Turnips, 1 (2% lbs.) 
 
 4 
 ' 6-8 
 
 8 
 ' 4-6 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 ■ 8-12 
 
 4 
 11-12 
 
 4 
 2-3 
 6-8 
 6-8 
 4-6 
 6-8 
 4-6 
 4-6 
 4-6 
 
 6 
 4-6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 4-8 
 
 All vegetables should be fresh, as it is very difficult 
 to cook those that are wilted and they lose much in 
 flavor. Greens and salad plants should be crisp and 
 tender without evidences of lying until bruised and 
 partially decayed. Cabbage and cauliflower should 
 have solid heads and not be discolored. Medium-sized 
 vegetables are preferable to either extreme, usually. 
 If small there is large waste, while too large ones are 
 apt to be coarse and woody in texture. This applies 
 especially to beets, parsnips, peas, beans, rhubarb, etc. 
 The heavier potatoes are in proportion to their size 
 the better, but medium sized ones are less likely to 
 have hollow hearts. The varieties differ greatly as 
 
 558 
 
VEGETABLES 
 
 159 
 
 the dark green Hubbard is the best 
 hard and good sized 
 
 to quality. One must, in general, learn by trial the 
 best to be obtained in the local market. The Early 
 Rose is an excellent variety. 
 
 In selecting pumpkins choose a heavy one with 
 hard shell and deep yellow color. Of winter squashes. 
 
 It should be very 
 The crooked neck is the best 
 variety of summer squash. The evergreen and coun- 
 try gentleman are excellent varieties of sweet corn. 
 Spanish onions are the best, being more delicate than 
 native but are somewhat higher in price. 
 
 ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
 
 Butter, milk and eggs are all of a nature to require 
 the utmost care in purchasing and in storing before 
 use. They are easily tainted so as to be spoiled for 
 one of sensitive taste, while milk, especially, is proba- 
 bly the most frequent transmiter of disease, with the 
 exception of water, of all our foods and drinks. Butter 
 should be of the best, but a high price is not always a 
 test of merit. While some creamery butters bring a 
 very high price and take high awards for flavor, so 
 that creamery butter as a whole commands a higher 
 price than dairy butter, it is not the most desirable. All 
 good creameries maintain a high sanitary standard 
 and conditions under which the butter is made are 
 doubtless superior to' those in the majority of private 
 dairies, yet one must go back of the creameries to the 
 farms from which the creameries are supplied to de- 
 termine the final healthfulness of the product. It is 
 
 Squashes 
 
 and 
 
 Pumpkins 
 
 Butter 
 
 Milk 
 
 Eggs 
 
 559 
 
i6o 
 
 UOUSIUIOI.I) MANACEMIiNT 
 
 Source 
 of Milk 
 Supply 
 
 Testing 
 EgKS 
 
 here that llic dirticulty lies with creamery Inttter, since 
 th« farmers that keep the j)oorest cows and who do not 
 understand dairying iiiider ri^ht contHtions arc those 
 that supply the creameries, so that one cannot be sure 
 that butter made from the cream produced under such 
 conditions is healthful. Tt is far better, so far as is 
 possible, to buy from an ai)proved private dairy. 
 
 The same may be said of the milk supply. One 
 should follow to its source and know without a ques- 
 tion that there can be no j)ollution if any milk is con- 
 sumed in a raw state by the family. This becomes 
 doubly imperative where there are children in the 
 family. Jf necessary, a cent or two more in price per 
 bottle is little for the sake of safety. 
 
 Eggs are highest in price in winter. A housekeeper 
 may take advantage of low prices in the spring or 
 fall by buying a supply in advance, l)ut she cannot do 
 this unless she can be sure of a cool place to store 
 them and is willing to take the trouble to coat each 
 Q^g over so that the air may not penetrate the shell. 
 Wrapping each in separate paper is a fairly good pro- 
 tection. Care must be used not to use anything that 
 will cause an unpleasant flavor, as the shells are very 
 porous and the contents readily acquire odors of any- 
 thing near. A lo per cent solution of silicate of soda 
 is an excellent preservative. 
 
 A salt solution is a good test of the freshness of an 
 vgg. Two tablespoon fuls of salt for a quart of water 
 may be used. If fresh, the Qgg will sink in it; if not 
 
 .S6() 
 
DRY GROCERIES 
 
 i6[ 
 
 perfectly fresh, will show signs of rising, while a bnd 
 egg will float at once. 
 
 DRY GROCERIES 
 
 While most of what has been discussed in the pre- 
 vious pages relates to food which must be purchased 
 as needed, because perishable, there is a class in buy- 
 ing which much time and thought may be saved by 
 supplying enough for at least a month in advance. 
 This is dry groceries such as sugar, flour, cereals, 
 flavorings, coffee (unroasted), tea, chocolate, spices, 
 soap, starch, and all like necessities. 
 
 A store-closet large enough to allow the purchase 
 of these things at a wholesale store, and so arranged 
 as to temperature, dryness, light and ventilation as to 
 keep them in perfect condition is a saving so great 
 as to astonish one who trys the method for the first 
 time. Often the difference amounts to twenty per cent. 
 
 Sugar should be bought by the hundred weight at 
 least, flour by the barrel, canned goods by the dozen 
 or better by the case, cereals by the dozen packages 
 after the fresh fall supply is in, vanilla by the quart 
 (at the drug store to secure better quality), baking 
 powder by the 5-pound box from which smaller quan- 
 tities are transferred as needed to the box in use, soap 
 by the box, that it may have a chance to dry out thor- 
 oughly and so waste less readily, and so on through 
 a long list. For a very small family the list would 
 naturally be shorter. Anything that does not deteri- 
 
 Storag* 
 
 Quantities 
 
 561 
 
1 62 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 Irrand 
 of Goods 
 
 Adulterations 
 
 Percentage 
 in Saving 
 
 Judgment 
 
 orate in storage can be bought to much greater advan- 
 tage in quantity. 
 
 In groceries it is not well to bivy an inferior grade. 
 Here the best is the cheapest and wisest, especially in 
 these days of intense competition dnd fraud. It is well 
 to know a good brand and insist upon having it. For- 
 eign labels are not a surety of a good grade of goods, 
 in fact some of our best American firms put up their 
 best quality of spices, for instance, under their own 
 name and the poorer grades are labeled with French 
 labels and sold to firms that deal in a cheaper line of 
 goods. 
 
 Through the reports of the Government upon adul- 
 teration as given in the Bulletins and the report of 
 different state and city inspectors one may ascertain 
 to some extent which are reliable and which are not. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 The household manager should learn to think in 
 percentages. One cent less on a ten cent article seems 
 a trivial saving, yet it is ten per cent — ten dollars in 
 every hundred. It is fair to state that there will be a 
 difference in money paid of from ten to twenty per 
 cent between careless and careful purchases. 
 
 It should be remembered that the customer who 
 knozvs and is particular receives the best of goods and 
 services. 
 
 The successful business man is an expert in judging 
 the materials in which he deals ; he is perfectly familiar 
 with the range of prices and quick to take advantage 
 
 562 
 
DRY GROCERIES 163 
 
 of all favorable conditions. The household manager 
 needs to be just as familiar with all the goods which 
 relate to the home and with their prices. 
 
 One becomes an expert only through experience, but The Expert 
 
 ^ . J HousenoiQ 
 
 experience is not gained simply by ordermg goods; Manager 
 appearance must be noted carefully and results com- 
 pared intelligently to acquire the trained eye and the 
 trained judj^ment necessary to the successful house- 
 hold manager. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Art of Right Living ($0.50), Ellen H. Richards. 
 
 Cost of Living ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. 
 
 Cost of Food ($1.00), Ellen H. Richards. 
 
 Domestic Service ($2.00), Lucy M. Salmon. 
 
 Economic Fmiction of Woman ($0.15), E. T. Divine. 
 
 Family Living on $500 a Year ($1.25), J. Corson. 
 
 Home Economics ($1.50), Maria Parloa. 
 
 Household Economics ($1.50), Helen Campbell. 
 
 The Woman Who Spends ($1.00), B. J. Richardson. 
 
 Toilers in the Home ($1.50), Lillian Pettengill. 
 
 Woman and Economics ($1.50), Charlotte Perkins Oilman. 
 
 Woman's Share in Primitive Culture (•''^175), Otis T. Mason. 
 
 IT. S. Government Bulletins 
 
 Farmer's Bulletin, No. ij2, The Nutritive and Economic Value 
 
 of Food (Free). 
 Farmer's Bulletin, No. 183, Meat on the Farm. 
 Reprint Year Book 1902, The Cost of Food as Related to its 
 
 Nutritive Value (Free). 
 Office of Experiment Stations, No. 129, Dietary Studies in 
 
 Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia and Chicago (10 cents, 
 
 coin). 
 Farmers' Bulletin, No. 391, Economical Use of Meats in the 
 
 Home (Free) 
 
 563 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 PART III 
 
 Read Carefully* Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Leave space between an- 
 swers. Read the lesson paper a number of times before 
 answering- the questions. Answer fully. 
 
 1. What factors combine to make meat suitable for 
 
 the table? 
 
 2. (a) By what should one be governed in select- 
 
 ing a cut of beef? (b) What cuts have you 
 found especially satisfactory? 
 
 3. How is a side of beef cut up in your own mar- 
 
 ket? What are the prices? 
 
 4. Describe the "bottom round," stating its location 
 
 in the animal, quality, suitable uses, approxi- 
 mate value, etc. 
 
 5. Compare with "top round." 
 
 6. Compare a cut from the brisket with the flank 
 
 cut. 
 
 7. What cuts of beef have you never used? 
 
 8. Have you any especially satisfactory methods of 
 
 preparing cheap cuts, other than noted in these 
 books ? 
 
 9. Describe a desirable piece of salt pork. 
 
 564 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 10. A satisfactory fowl to roast. 
 
 11. A satisfactory roast of pork. 
 
 12. The best cut of steak. 
 
 13. French lamb chops. 
 
 14. What objections are there to canned meats? 
 
 15. Compare fish with meat as a food. 
 
 16. Make a table giving the season and prices of 
 
 vegetables to be obtained in your local market 
 similar to that on page 137. 
 
 17. State objections for excessive use of vegetables 
 
 out of season. 
 
 18. What answer would you give a mother who 
 
 states that her children like no vegetables ex- 
 cept canned tomato, preferring it to the fresh 
 fruit even in season, and asks if there is any 
 harm in letting them have it exclusively, every 
 meal? 
 
 19. Have you tried buying any groceries in quantity : 
 
 If so, with what success in price, quality, and 
 keeping ? 
 
 20. What purchases do you find hardest to make? 
 
 Why? 
 
 21. Can you add any suggestions or comments to 
 
 help others? 
 
 22. Are there any questions you would like to ask 
 
 relating to Household Management? 
 
 Note. — After completing this test, sign your full name. 
 
 565 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR 
 CLASS STUDY ON 
 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 By Bertha M. Terrill, A. B. 
 
 MEETING I 
 Place of Home and Home-maker in the Economic "World. 
 
 (Study pages 1-8.) 
 1. Economic Function of Woman, Divine. ($0.15, postage 
 2c.) 
 Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
 Standards of Living, Chapters I and II. 
 Household Expenditures, Chapter I. 
 
 3. The Standard of Life, Bosanquet. (1.50, out of print.) 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 4. Household Economics, Helen Campbell. ($1.50, postage 
 
 16c.) Household Industries, Chapter VII. 
 
 5. See works on Political Economics on place of Consump- 
 
 tion in discussion of Wealth. 
 
 MEETING II 
 
 (Study pages 9-41.) 
 Division of Incomes. 
 
 1. The Woman Who Spends, Bertha J. Richardson. ($1.00, 
 
 postage 10c.) 
 Chapters on Needs, Choices, Imitation versus Inde- 
 pendence, Satisfaction, Responsibility. 
 
 2. Cost of Living, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 8c.) 
 Housing, Chapter IV. 
 
 Operating Expenses, Chapter V. 
 
 Food, Chapter VI. 
 
 Clothing, 
 
 Higher Life. 
 S. Cost of Shelter, Ellen H. Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
 4^ Cost of Food, Ellen Richards. ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
 
 See articles on "Increase in Household Expenses." Har- 
 per's Bazar, Sept. -Dec, 190G. 
 
 566 
 
HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 MEETING III 
 
 (Study pages 42-68.) 
 
 (a) Household Accounts. 
 
 (a) Value — Worth the time and effort? 
 
 (b) Different Methods. 
 
 (e) Discussion of Personal Choices. 
 Reference— How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. 
 ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
 
 (b) Banking. 
 
 (a) Use to housewife; opinion of members. 
 
 (b) Varieties of Banks. Local Banks. 
 
 (c) IIow made most useful? 
 
 Reference— How to Keep Household Accounts, Haskell. 
 
 ($1.00, postage 10c.) 
 See article on Finance, by Dr. Campbell, in Cosmopolitan 
 
 Magazine. 
 (Select answers to test questions on Part I.) 
 
 MEETING IV 
 
 (Study pages 71-96.) 
 
 (a) Organization in the Home. 
 
 1. Household Economics, Chapter XII. Campbell. 
 
 2. Cost of Living, Chapter IX. Richards. ($1.00, postage 
 
 10c.) 
 
 3. Cosmopolitan Magazine — April, May and June, 1899. 
 
 4. "The Eight Hour Day in Housekeeping." American 
 
 Kitchen Magazine, Article in January, February 
 and March, 1902. 
 See Supplement, pages 181-191. 
 
 (b) Domestic Service. 
 
 1. Domestic Service, Salmon. ($2.00, postage 18c.) 
 
 2. Household Economics, Chapter XI, Camgbell. ($1.50, 
 
 postage 16c.) 
 
 567 
 
PROGRAM 
 
 MEETING V 
 
 (Study pages 97-125.) 
 Buying Supplies. 
 
 (a) Bargains — real and fictitious. 
 (I)) Grades — best, the cheapest? 
 
 (c) Comparison of Department and Specialty Stores. 
 
 (d) Seasons for buying supplies. 
 
 (e) Buying in quantity. 
 
 (f) Local stores. 
 
 (Select answers to test questions on Part II.) 
 
 MEETING VI 
 
 (Study pages 127-163.) 
 Marketing. 
 
 (a) Meats — Local cuts. 
 
 (b) Vegetables. 
 
 (c) Groceries. Get estimates in quantity from whole- 
 
 sale store. 
 
 (d) Comparison of local markets in sanitary conditions 
 
 and practices, cold storage facilities, cuts of meat, 
 
 prices, etc. 
 Reference — Home Economics. Chapter on Marketing. Maria 
 
 Parloa. ($1.50, postage IGc.) 
 (Select answers to test questions on Part III,) 
 
 568 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 By Bertha M. Terrill, A. B. 
 
 A rare opportunity is afforded us, through these 
 correspondence courses, of sharing the experiences oi 
 many different housekeepers of widely differing loca- 
 ations and conditions. Through this supplement I 
 am glad to have the opportunity of passing on the 
 most valuable contributions, and I anticipate that they 
 will amplify helpfully the material of the text. 
 
 DIFFERING OPINIONS 
 
 In some points there has seemed to be universal 
 agreement. In others, there have been flatest contra- 
 dictions of opinions, amusingly so, sometimes, if one 
 could forget the trials and struggles involved. One, 
 for instance, affirms with much positiveness that help 
 by the hour, in place of resident labor, is entirely im- 
 possible. "How can shop and store hours be com- 
 pared with those in a house, or the work be re- 
 adjusted to conform to such a plan? Hasn't the prob- 
 lem two sides? Is it unreasonable of me to desire a 
 late dinner when we are hurried at breakfast, irregu- 
 lar for luncheon, and dinner at night is the only meal 
 the family may take together and enjoy leisurely?'* 
 The next paper taken up assured me, no less posi- 
 tively, that the plan is admirable, the writer has tried 
 
 167 
 
 569 
 
i68 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 it and finds it a great relief and no more expensive, all 
 things considered. 
 
 LAUNDRY WORK 
 
 ■The question of laundry work, done in the house 
 or sent out, brought forth as contradictory views, al- 
 though such conclusions could easily be derived as 
 that all would find it a relief to send laundry work out 
 if it could be done as well, under as sanitary condi- 
 tions, and no more expensively. (Not many seemed 
 to have much .idea of the actual difference in expense.) 
 It was easy to sr<^, also, that in practically no com- 
 munity thus far reported from, are there satisfactory 
 laundries, and prices are reported as too high to be 
 tolerated. Where are the clubs ready to devote some 
 of their time and attention to the solution of this 
 problem for their communities? One has done so, 
 very satisfactorily. 
 
 These differences of opinion spring largely from the 
 great differences in local conditions and in personal 
 experiences, yet they emphasize the fact that each 
 home has its own peculiar problems to be worked out, 
 and the most that can be hoped for from suggestion 
 from without is the laying of fundamental principles, 
 together with opportunity of studying the experience 
 of others as a guide in deciding our own course of 
 action. 
 
 DIVISION OF INCOME 
 
 There is less material contributed on Household 
 Accounts than 1 could wish, less, I hope, than may 
 
 570 
 
DIVISION OF INCOME 169 
 
 be in a few years, if all the housekeepers who have 
 registered resolves to know more of this side of their 
 business in future, live up to their intention. Evi- 
 dently one in fifty would be a generous estimate of 
 those who keep anything bordering upon helpful ac- 
 counts at present, even among our students. 
 
 Fortunately some have been keeping careful rec- 
 ords and the papers of such have been full of in- 
 terest. They show that the budgets given in the text 
 are fair — both the actual and the ideal, for some 
 rarely wise, able women are finding the ideal budget 
 possible today and are living close to its standard. 
 
 I w^ish it were possible to present every detail of 
 the management of such, that "he who runs may read'' 
 their valuable lessons. There is no evidence of un- 
 worthy curtailment. One catches, on the contrary; , 
 the spirit of highest, worthiest enjoyments and con- 
 tentment. 
 
 Here is one in a city of an Eastern state, where 
 husband and wife without children have an income of 
 $1,200 in yearly salary, paid monthly, 
 
 MONTHLY BUDGET, FAMILY OF TWO 
 
 OUTGO. 
 
 Rent $16.00 
 
 For 3 rooms and bath on 2nd floor, with 
 
 storage and cellar privileges. Low for 
 
 location. 
 
 Car fares $3-50 
 
 Food $22.50 
 
 Average per year not over $15.00. 
 
 Operating expenses $6.50 
 
 Gas, light and heat, average 3.50 
 
 571 
 
\yo iions/'.noi n min-K^IiMunt 
 
 Liiinulry • ■ 1.50 
 
 (^leaiiinK» 2 half dayn i.^o 
 
 Life Insurance 7.00 
 
 Invcshiicnt 10.00 
 
 rcrsonal allowances 30.00 
 
 Inciflciil.ils 4.50 
 
 'I ol.il .$100. 00 
 
 P^acli is ;ill«)\vt<l ."j^i^.o^) foi- clolliiii;.^, }-;ifls, cliarily, 
 lii^;lici" life .iiid personal saving;'. 
 
 A pliysiciaiTs lainily of four in Sonllicrn California 
 vvilli inconic of $1,500, sptiid for rcnl 10 \n-v cvnt, 
 opcralinL; expenses i^i, \)v\ (cnl, lood J5 \)vv cent, 
 (lolhinj^ 15 per cenl, and Inidier life 17 per cent, 
 while a laniily ol l(»ni in Montana willi llie same in- 
 come {$1,500) rent a i;ood si/ed lionse vvilli yard 
 lar^e enon,i;Ii lor kilclien jvarden and small |)onItrv 
 
 yard foi- $iS a 1 lli, oi- i.| j 5 per cenl, and si)end 
 
 'for operalin^ expenses 15 per cenl, food jo per cent, 
 clolliin^- iS \)vv cenl and liijL;li(.i" \\U- j^i) \k'1 cent. 
 
 'riiese llnce are inlerestinq* taken toi^ctlicr, as sIkjw- 
 lu^ some conditions \\ln(li lie praclicall\' hevond in- 
 dividnal conliol, \cl wliicli may have decided ellect 
 nj)on the ri'snlt. The opeialinL; expenses in the physi- 
 cian's faniil\', lor instance, have lo cover olllce icnlal. 
 care, lij^htinj;, healing, telephone, etc., which is 
 in reality not a part of tlu' honsehold expenses. ( un- 
 Irasl als(» tiie accommodations possihK' in the h'ast- 
 ern city at $i^ rent per nioiilh, and that very low 
 lor the |>laci', and those a\ailahle in Montana for a 
 similar price. 
 
 572 
 
DIVISION OF INCOME 171 
 
 It has long been observed that salaries and wages 
 do not vary in diflercnt localities in any way com- 
 mensurate with the great difTerencc in living expenses. 
 
 In Washington, D, C, a family of husband, wife 
 and four children, aged 6 to 16 years, with income 
 of $1,500, spend for rent $360, operating expenses 
 $80 to $90, food $400, clothing $350, with balance 
 of $300 for higher life. 
 
 MONTHLY DIVISION OF $125 
 
 Rent $25 
 
 P'ood 30 
 
 Fuel and (Jas 10 
 
 Clotliing . 10 
 
 Laundry 5 
 
 Furniture 10 
 
 Higher Life 10 
 
 Bank Account 25 
 
 ''Three members of the family who are not at 
 home during midday take lunch consisting of buttered 
 toast or bread and preserves that I had put uj) fhir- 
 ing the summer. We do not use cereal at every 
 breakfast nor do we have dessert after every clinner, 
 but about four times a week. I have used tomatoes 
 rather frequently, although they are high in price, 
 but we enjoy them and prefer them to something else 
 costing less. I 'can' my own fruit which can be used 
 in many ways as a dessert. 
 
 "Out of $30 1 spend $io for such jjhj visions as 
 sugar, tea, coffee, butter, flour, meal, lard, yeast, 
 powder, salt, pei)per, cereals, starch, blue, soap, etc. 
 
 573 
 
172 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 This gives $20 for meats and vegetables and the 
 family is thus maintained on $5 a week. 
 
 "My son makes all fires and goes errands, cleans 
 front and back yard. My daughter arranges the 
 table, airs bed rooms and puts them in order before 
 going to school. Once a week my laundress scrubs 
 kitchen and cleans vestibule, front porch and batii 
 room. I superintend the cooking and house in gen- 
 eral. My husband frequently aids in marketing." 
 
 MENU FOR A WEEK 
 
 Sunday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Fruit — Oranges (Two cut in half) 
 
 Sliced 11am (broiled) Scrambled Eggs (two) 
 
 Hot corn bread (two eggs) 
 
 Coffee (with cream ) 
 
 (Dinner) 
 
 Roast of Beef 
 
 Mashed potatoes Cream of asparagus on toast, 
 
 Bread — with butter. Lettuce Salad. 
 
 Rice pudding. 
 
 Monday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Cream of Wheat. 
 
 Scrapple (fried crisp) 
 
 Hot Biscuits. Sliced Tomatoes. 
 
 Coffee. 
 (Dinner) 
 Sliced l)eef heated in meat sauce. 
 
 Boiled Onions Cream Sauce (a la cream) 
 
 Rice. Celery Salad (celery, eggs, spring onions and parsley) 
 
 Bread. Tea. 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Oat Meal. 
 
 Bacon. Kgg Omelet (with parsley) 
 
 Wheat Muffins. Coffee. 
 
 574 
 
DIVISION OF INCOME 173 
 
 (Dinner) 
 
 Clear Soup. 
 
 Brown Hash. Beauregard Eggs on toast. 
 
 Sliced Oranges and bananas with cocoanut. 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Sausage Corn Muffins, with butter. 
 
 Poached Eggs. Coffee. 
 
 (Dinner) 
 
 Ham (Boiled) Spinach with Egg (hard cooked). 
 
 Bread. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes Delmonico (potatoes and cheese) 
 Prunes. Tea or Cocoa. 
 
 Thursday 
 (Breakfast) 
 Cream of Wheat with bananas and milk. 
 Frizeled Beef. Toast (buttered) 
 
 Sliced Tomatoes. 
 (Dinner) 
 Soup. (Vegetable). 
 Ham Croquettes with Tomato Sauce. 
 
 Macaroni with Cheese. 
 
 Pickle. Bread. Celery Salad. 
 
 Canned Peaches (Home Made.) 
 
 Friday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Cream of Salmon. Potato Chips. 
 
 Hot Biscuits. Coffee. 
 
 (Dinner) 
 
 Baked Shad, or Trout. Mashed Potatoes. 
 
 Sliced Tomatoes with Salad Dressing. 
 
 Corn Bread. Tea. 
 
 Saturday 
 
 (Breakfast) 
 
 Mush with milk. 
 
 Bacon. Scrambled Eggs. Potato Chips. 
 
 Plain Bread or Toast. Coffee. 
 
 (Dinner) 
 
 Sliced Ham. Creamed Cabbage. 
 
 Boiled Potatoes. Bread. 
 
 Apple Sauce. Tea. 
 
 575 
 
1/4 HOUSEHOLD MAXAGEMENT 
 
 DIVISION OF $4,5oo 
 
 Family in Providence, R. L, physician, wife, two 
 children, two maids, laundress one and a half days a 
 week: 
 
 Rent, 10 per cent $4 50. 
 
 Food. 14 per cent 6 30 
 
 Operating expenses. 20 per cent.... Q 00 
 
 Clothing. 9 per cent .^405 
 
 hicidentals, 2 per cent 90 
 
 Office Expense, 25 per cent 112$ 
 
 Higher Life, savings, etc.. 20 per cent 9 00 
 
 Total $45 00 
 
 DETAILS CF OrERATING EXPENSES. 
 
 Services (including wages of 2 
 maids, laundry, ashes removed, 
 snow shoveled, rugs beaten, win- 
 dows washed, etc "* $5 50 
 
 Fuel I 30 
 
 Lighting 60 
 
 Telephone 64 
 
 Water tax 16 
 
 Ice . . . • • 20 
 
 Household Supplies 60 
 
 Total $9 00 
 
 She says: "Nothing is more helpful to the practice 
 of economy than a record from year to year of all 
 expenditures. I have been a more successful house- 
 keeper since I began keeping careful accounts. I have 
 reduced my monthly food bill from $60 to $50 and less 
 since I oflfered my cook 10 per cent on what we 
 saved each month." 
 
 576 
 
DIVISION OF INCOME 173 
 
 FOOD ECONOMY 
 
 The practice of wise economies has been so success- 
 ful anrT gratifying in one family of my acquaintance 
 within the past few years that I must share some of 
 the details with those interested. 
 
 The mother has succeeded in saving enough in four 
 years to take herself and son on a European trip as a 
 supplement to his education. The family live in the 
 middle West and consist of three ladies and a boy of 
 eighteen. 
 
 The mother writes : 'T am ahiiost ashamed to 
 mention the small sum we live on. It is by saving all 
 left-ov«^rs, and by the exercise of quite a little fore- 
 thought and some self-denial that it is accomplished. 
 I do not mean to practice economy at the expense of 
 health, however." The daily average for each person 
 for the year for good material was 12 ^-5 cents one 
 year, 86 4-5 cents a week, another, 85 1-6 cents. 
 
 A small garden, cared for on shares, aided some- 
 what, although not largely. It supplied apples and 
 pears in season and for preserving and a part of the 
 summer vegetables and potatoes. 
 
 Sample menus with the hints accompanying them 
 will b'j; as suggestive as anything could be, to show 
 the methods of economy. 
 
 On A. basis of 85 to 90 cents per person a week : 
 
 Wifier — Breakfast, 6 130 a. m. 
 
 Oatmeal with cream and sugar. 
 Bread of Franklin mills and Pillsbury flours mixed. 
 
 77 
 
J7fc HOUSLllOLU MANAGEMENT 
 
 Muffins or pancakes. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Postiim with 1-3 hot skimmed milk. 
 
 Jflly or fruit syrup. 
 
 In summer various wheat cereals are used, as Ral- 
 
 ston's Breakfast Food, Cream of Wheat and the like. 
 
 Jn the si)rin,i;- toast and e<^j.;s cjccasionally. 
 
 I )iiiii( r I J 111. 
 
 1. Sliillcd h((l's heart. 
 
 Stewed onions. Mashed potatoes. 
 
 Spiced pears. 
 
 Ivnlire wheal hitad and Ijiitter. 
 
 Gelatine dessert with whipped cream. 
 
 2. Remains of heef's heart warmed. 
 
 ("reamed turnips. 
 
 J'ried mashed potatoes. Green tomato |)i(dvles. 
 
 Kice with hiilter and sugar. 
 
 Not more than two he.irts are serve<l in a year. 
 They are exeellenl for variety, hut not desirahle too 
 rjften. A variety uf meats and vegetahles is given. In 
 a three weeks' menu a chi("ken appears, serving tw(3 
 meals, roast porlv, imillon (■hoi)S, oysters, Ilamhurg 
 steak, creanie*! (hied heef, cod fish, salmon with 
 white sauce, heef steak and hoiU-(I h.ini. The meat 
 from soiip hones is used in a pii' or seasone(l well and 
 serve(l on loast. 'i\vo turkeys are served in a season. 
 A good roast once a month and steal-, or chops once 
 a week. 
 
 (Jccasionall)' a hiscpie or other sonj) is served wdien 
 
 578 
 
FOOD ECONOMY 177 
 
 the materials are at hand, but, as a rule, the soup 
 '.'ourse is omitted with meats, being reserved for days 
 when fish or lighter courses are served. 
 
 There is never a spoonful of anything wasted. A 
 cupful of corn left from one dinner is scalloped for 
 the next. A little tomato may be added to it for a 
 change. Spoonfuls of fruit left from suppers are 
 made into dumplings for dessert. Pies are seldom 
 served. Hickory nuts and dates are a favorite dessert. 
 Tomatoes are home-canned. Lima beans are used oc- 
 casionally as one vegetable. 
 
 When spring comes and eggs are plentiful omelettes 
 are used, milk and agg puddings and custards. 
 
 Supper — 5 p. m. 
 
 Bread and butter. 
 Buns, cinnamon rolls, etc., cookies, gingersnaps or 
 
 cake. 
 
 Fruit. Cheese. 
 
 Peanut butter or a little cold meat. Sometimes milk 
 
 toast, warmed potatoes or macaroni. 
 
 If for guests, pressed veal, scalloped oysters with 
 olives and jelly in addition. 
 
 A great variety of fruits is used. All varieties arc 
 preserved. In summer and fall fruit is a frequent 
 dessert. 
 
 We are all more or less familiar with the enforced 
 economies of life, but this is an example of voluntary 
 curtailing for a larger good, without harm. Would that 
 more homes could catch the spirit of this housekeeper 
 
 579 
 
178 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 who writes : ''There are so many things I rather 
 spend money for than for food I" 
 
 In a study of present standards of Hfe as interpreted 
 through facts in regard to food (Report of Lake 
 Placid Conference on Home Economics, 1902) some 
 things are emphasized which many housekeepers are 
 ignoring, wilfully or otherwise, and which affect the 
 cost of living seriously as well as the comfort and 
 health of the family. 
 
 The data was gathered from homes in which the 
 wage-earners were professional men. Wherever sev- 
 eral maids were employed the increase in expense of 
 food is disproportionately large. A family of three 
 is instanced. 
 
 With three employes, cook, waitress and companion, 
 with income of $3,400, 26.5 per cent is spent for food. 
 In contrast, a family of the same size with $100 less 
 income, that employs a nurse maid and one general 
 helper, spends only 13.9 per cent for food. In the 
 first case much of the ordering and preparation of the 
 food is left to employes ; in the latter the housekeeper 
 attends to the ordering and plans the meals herself. 
 
 The menus submitted at that time show a surprising 
 lack of variety and an ignorance of simple, inexpensive 
 foods that can be used interchangeably. ''Soups were 
 very little used. Cheaper cuts of meat almost invari- 
 ably took the form of stews. In no case were lentils 
 or peas substituted for beans. Fish, which is one of 
 the less expensive and most digestible foods, was 
 
 580 
 
FOOD ECONOMY 17$ 
 
 used sparingly. Macaroni, spaghetti, rice, hominy and 
 other cereals were almost never substituted for pota- 
 toes. The possibilities of cheese seemed quite unex- 
 plored. There was very little variety in vegetables in 
 spite of the fact that in almost every case the families 
 lived in large cities where the markets were bewil- 
 deringly rich with a great variety." 
 
 These facts are but further evidence of the mis- 
 conception in these days on the part of many, of the 
 duties of the housekeeper. What greater duty can 
 she have than looking after her share of the business 
 engagement entered into when she assumed the re- 
 sponsibilities of a home and pledged herself to faith- 
 fulness in her part? 
 
 These duties are worthy of, yes, require, if properly 
 attended to, the mental ability and intelligent care and 
 interest of the trained, skillful women who assume 
 them, and it is a pity that so many homes are being 
 wrecked and others falling far short of their finest 
 possibilities because of such neglect. I sometimes try 
 to picture the outcry there would be if the wage- 
 earners in our homes were equally lax in their respon- 
 sibilities of providing ! And yet, as I have tried to 
 point out in the text, care in the consumption is as 
 important in the home-finance as is providing, and 
 the difference in comfort is greater, proportionately. 
 
 What is to start a great wave of pride over our 
 land that shall stir every home-maker who is at pres- 
 ent indifferent to, or ignorant of these great facts, 
 
 581 
 
i8o HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 with an ambition to prove her right to her position 
 and make her a wortliy partner in her home-world, 
 not a mere enjoyer of another's strenuous labor! 
 
 I know protest will at once arise in the form of such 
 questions as "Where is the overworked home-maker 
 to find time to do any more?" "What if the hus- 
 bands prefer to hire help that their wives may have 
 freer, happier lives?" "What can women do wdio 
 haven't strength to assume such duties?" 
 
 If you ask, I must answer frankly, that the noble 
 home-makers whom I look upon with unbounded re- 
 spect, and whose homes and lives are a constant uplift 
 to all who know them, never seem to have difficulty in 
 adjusting these matters. Do w^e not all know, in 
 reality, that time is ours, after all, to spend as we 
 choose to spend it. We may have fallen into the poor 
 method, have followed the way of all about us until 
 it seems imperative to spend it all as we do, but if 
 wx looked at these matters as really serious we should 
 find adjustment some way. Health and strength arc 
 so largely in our keeping, also ! Confusion of too 
 many outside interests, over excitement, lack of well- 
 ordered, systematic living are depriving many a woman 
 of the life rightfully hers. Lack of sufficient healthful 
 exercise does the same for others. How few seem to 
 understand it ! At least the results would seem to 
 indicate it. 
 
 582 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE i8i 
 
 DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 
 And now wc come to the perplexing, annoying 
 problems of Domestic Service ! We wish we had some 
 effective solutions to offer! Some women, in dis- 
 cussing the condition, have contributed valuable hints 
 regarding successful methods employed which, if not 
 wholly new, might well be reconsidered by many an 
 employer. 
 
 Hugo Miinsterberg, contrasting conditions in Amer- 
 ica and Germany, writes: 'The conviction of every 
 American girl that it is dignified to work in a mill, 
 but undignified to be a cook in any other family, would 
 never have reached its present intensity if an anti- 
 domestic feeling were not in the background. If we 
 seek for the most striking features of woman's work 
 here and abroad, it would seem that the aim of the 
 Geiman woman is to further the interests of the house- 
 hold and the American to escape from the household." 
 
 It is a striking fact that in almost every instance 
 the students who have written on the subject place the 
 lion's share of the fault with the employer. What 
 inference shall we draw? It reminds us of a School 
 of Housekeeping which was started to train employes, 
 but after a two years' study of conditions it was 
 changed to a course for employers in recognition of 
 the fact that they, first, needed training. 
 
 I quote below from a few of the papers : 
 
 ''All who have help do not need it, many can ill 
 afford it. Some time ago I heard the eldest daughter 
 
 583 
 
i82 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 of a family of five girls urging her mother to get a 
 servant since they were now in a large house. The 
 mother asked what a servant would do in a family 
 of so many girls. In reply the girl said, 'we shan't 
 be considered anybody if we don't have a servant.' 
 
 ''It is in a spirit like this that much of the trouble 
 lies. When women are willing themselves to learn 
 the art of good housekeeping and are willing to do a 
 part of it, no matter how small the share, to show the 
 interest, and then by kindness, gentleness and thought- 
 fulness seek to help the servants along in the world, 
 the situation will be greatly improved." 
 
 It is the women with this spirit and attitude who 
 are having least trouble. 
 
 "I always employ intelligent help and do by them 
 as I wish to be done by. When a young girl is intel- 
 ligent one has- splendid material to work with in train- 
 ing her to do as you would your own daughter. 
 
 'T have had help, who, after leaving my home when 
 I needed help no longer, would return at odd times 
 for a half day when they thought I stood in need 
 and offer to give me their time without pay, wishing 
 thus to show their appreciation of my kindness toward 
 them. I believe my success is due to consideration 
 and thoughtfulness of their little fancies. 
 
 "Thoughtfulness goes a great way in winning the 
 love of one's help. When I do my shopping I always 
 remember my help as any other member of my family, 
 not with the thought of being repaid in services, but 
 through kindness. I have no patience with the person 
 
 584 
 
DOMESTIC SERVICE 183 
 
 who does another a kindness merely to gain some 
 selfish point." 
 
 One woman attributes her success to personal at- 
 tachment and a consequent desire to please. She 
 says : 
 
 "So few have any idea of how to buy clothes or get 
 any value for their money that I made it a point to 
 show them how they could have good clothes inside 
 and out instead of the showy things they were hav- 
 ing. They appreciated the interest I took in them. 
 I think that women who employ are themselves largely 
 responsible for the conditions of domestic affairs. 
 Reprimanding before others, constant nagging and 
 giving few liberties are the methods of many." 
 
 "Most women in service change in the hope of 'bet- 
 tering' themselves, which is laudable but often disap- 
 pointing. It would seem profitable for employers to 
 devise a scheme of increasing wages at stated inter- 
 vals until a certain point is reached, after that a sum 
 as yearly reward for continued service. I knew a 
 family where some such plan has been followed for 
 a number of years with great success. The lack of 
 promotion in household service must be deadening to 
 ambition." 
 
 An Iowa student writes : 
 
 "My observation has been that well ordered house- 
 holds and households where the servants know just 
 what they must do and be held responsible for, have 
 been more successful even though the work was more 
 
 585 
 
i84 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 arduous than homcG where there was no system, the 
 mistress capricious and all sorts of personal service 
 was required. I believe that when housekeeping be- 
 comes a business, women will have trusted and valued 
 employes as do their husbands." 
 
 HELP BY THE HOUR 
 
 Here is an interesting experience of help by the 
 hour contributed by the Director of the School. "After 
 our raw boned, unprepossessing, though faithful Irish 
 girl married a German with four children (to her 
 subsequent regret) we had the usual string of unsatis- 
 factory maids, so we decided to try help by the hour 
 as recommended in Household Management. The fol- 
 lowing *ad' was put into an evening paper : 
 
 "Wanted — A helper for light housework from 8 
 to 12 every morning. No washing. Pay $4.50 a week. 
 Extra pay for extra time. 
 
 "We expected to have only a few applicants, but 
 that same evening, which was cold and rainy, ten ap- 
 l)lied and during the next two days the number was 
 raised to over fifty. The first applicant was accepted 
 and while she proved fairly satisfactory, some of the 
 others who applied looked more promising. After 
 about two months wc put in another advertisement 
 asking for service from 7:30 to 12:00; pay, $4.00 a 
 week. This time we had forty applicants. After 
 about six months we advertised again, making the 
 hours from 7:30 to 12:30, pay $3.50 per week. This 
 third time wc had about ihirty applicants. Under the 
 
 586 
 
HELP BY THE HOUR 185 
 
 last conditions the rate of pay comes down to 10 cents 
 an hour. 
 
 "This experience would seem to prove conclusively 
 that, in Chicago at least, there is no lack of women 
 willing to do housework, while it is almost impossible 
 to obtain a satisfactory servant at $5.00 a week. Over 
 120 women in our locality were anxious for practically 
 the same employment under different conditions. 
 
 "The arrangement was not satisfactory as to hours, 
 so we made the arrangement with the present helper to 
 come at 8 o'clock and stay until 11 and come again 
 from 4 :30 to 7 :30 p. m. every week day, and on" Sun- 
 day from 10 until 2 o'clock. This makes forty hours 
 per week regularly, the rate of pay being as before, 
 10 cents per hour. The w^orker lives within a ten- 
 minute walk. 
 
 "We have a laundress one day a week who does 
 the washing and makes a start on the ironing, which 
 the helper finishes during the week. She receives 
 $1.50 for nine hours' work. 
 
 "Breakfast is a simple meal with us. When we 
 have cooked cereal it is cooked the night before. 
 Fruit, eggs or bacon, cofifee and toast complete the 
 meal, which is easily prepared in less than half an 
 hour. 
 
 "Breakfast is finished when the helper arrives in 
 the morning. She makes the beds, dusts the floors 
 and cleans the bath room. Then clears ofif the break- 
 fast dishes, washes them and straightens the kitchen 
 
 587 
 
i86 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 and dining room and is ready for the ironing or for 
 any special cleaning. She leaves the table set for 
 lunch and goes home to her own lunch. In the after- 
 noon the helper washes up the luncheon dishes which 
 have been rinsed and left in the kitchen ; prepares 
 dinner and serves it at 6:15. She usually gets the 
 dinner dishes washed and leaves the table set for 
 breakfast by 7 130, but sometimes has to stay half an 
 hour extra if dinner is late. 
 
 ''When we wish to go out in the evening we have 
 to leave someone with the children, so the helper is 
 kept until we return, or if especially late, she stays 
 all night for 25 cents extra. The extra time runs from 
 nothing to $1.00 a week, according to circumstances. 
 
 ''Our experience has been that this is a much less 
 expensive arrangement than paying a maid, who sleeps 
 and eats in the house and does the laundry work, $5.00 
 a week. The helper has no meals in our house unless 
 she stays over time, in which case 10 cents is deducted 
 for the food and time spent. 
 
 "According to the prize schedules published in the 
 department of 'The Housekeeper and Her Helper' in 
 the Ladies' Home Journal for September, '06, in a 
 one-servant household the working time of the maid 
 was about 70 hours per week — a fair average. This 
 allows for two afternoons a week off and the even- 
 ings after the evening meal is cleared away but does 
 not take into account the time spent by the maid in 
 eating her own meals. This might fairly be reckoned 
 
 588 
 
HELP BY THE HOUR 187 
 
 at seven hours a week, leaving a balance of 63 hours 
 spent in actual work. In most households the food 
 which the maid consumes could not be reckoned at less 
 than 30 cents a day or say $2.00 a week. If the maid 
 receives $5.00 or even $4.50 a week in wages, it is ap- 
 parent that her services cost over 10 cents an hour 
 for the time actually spent in work, allowing nothing 
 for the rent of her room and extra supplies and waste. 
 
 "Our experience has been that food bills are a third 
 less ($10 to $12 per month) than when we had a resi- 
 dent maid. This is accounted for in part from the 
 bills have averaged $1 a month less than before. Then 
 we have the use of the room which the maid would 
 occupy and do use it. The proportional rental for the 
 room might be reckoned at $4 or $5 per month. 
 
 "With our family of five — two children and a baby 
 — housekeeping is a much more difficult problem than 
 in the average household. We live in a heated seven- 
 room apartment, hot water and janitor service fur- 
 nished. In summer the washing is appalling and 
 sometimes the flat work is sent to the laundry. It 
 seems as if double the amount of cleaning were neces- 
 sary in a soft coal city like Chicago compared with that 
 in a suburb of Boston. Certainly a third more clean- 
 ing is required. 
 
 **Our experience has been that those who apply 
 for work are much more intelligent as a class than the 
 general run of servants and that they work very much 
 more rapidly and efficiently. More careful planning 
 
 589 
 
i88 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 and more forethought is necessary than with 'all the 
 time' help. The feeling of relief comes, however, be- 
 cause we know, and our helper knows, that plenty 
 others to fill her place can be found if she is not satis- 
 fied with the work, or if she does not come up to our 
 requirements. So far as our family is concerned we 
 feel that the servant problem has been solved." 
 
 SYSTEMS OF WORK 
 
 Two systems of work for the week have seemed 
 especially suggestive. In the first the housekeeper 
 does her own work. I am particularly impressed with 
 the wisdom of the plan for Monday. It is always 
 harder to have washing come on Monday than on any 
 other day. It is simply a long-honored custom. We 
 need to break away from such if they are not sensible. 
 Extra cleaning is needed Monday when none is done 
 on Sunday. 
 
 SCHEDULE 
 
 Monday — Pick-up day after Sunday. Brush Sunday clotKes 
 and put away. Clean bath room and put clothes to soak 
 for washing. 
 
 Tuesday — Washing and cleaning kitchen. 
 
 JVcdnesday — Ironing, and arranging clothes to be mended. 
 
 Thursday — Clean bed rooms and hall. Sew or mend. 
 
 Friday — Clean sitting room, parlor and dining room. P>ake 
 bread. 
 
 Saturday — Clean kitchen, lamps. Cooking. 
 
 Most households consist of several departments. In 
 this there arc two maids and a laundress once a week. 
 The duties of the housemaid are : Every day (if win- 
 ter), close ventilators, see that registers are open. Get 
 
 590 
 
SYSTEMS OF IVORK 189 
 
 dining room ready for breakfast, taking out to kitchen 
 dishes needing to be heated. If summer, open win- 
 dows, arrange Hving room. Serve breakfast. Clear 
 table, leaving dishes rinsed and prepared to be washed. 
 The bed rooms, which have been left ready, bed 
 clothes, airing and windows opened by occupants are 
 put in order. Breakfast dishes washed. 
 
 SCHEDULE 
 
 Monday Morning — Two of the bedrooms are swept and 
 
 "thorough cleaned." 
 Tuesday Morning — This maid irons the table line, small pieces, 
 
 napkins, doileys from her own choice. 
 Wednesday Morning — Bathroom and another bedroom 
 
 "thorough cleaned." 
 Thursday — Silver cleaned. 
 Friday — Drawing room. 
 Saturday — Library and dining room and hall. 
 
 "Luncheon served at i, dinner at 6. Each girl has 
 every other evening. Each has an afternoon. We 
 have dinner on Sunday at i 130, after which both maids 
 have the rest of the day and evening, only on extraor- 
 dinary occasions being asked to return for any sup- 
 per. Then if possible, each is asked in turn. The 
 housemaid is responsible for keeping the china closets 
 in order and her kitchen (in other houses it would be 
 'butler's pantry.') 
 
 'The cook prepares three meals per day, breakfast 
 at 7:45, luncheon at i, dinner at 6. She is responsible 
 for the cleanliness and order of the kitchen, the ad- 
 joining pantry and ice closet, the back porch and 
 maid's water closet. She assists the laundress with 
 
 59rl 
 
190 HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT 
 
 the ironing. She arranges her own time for her clean- 
 ing, reserving Saturday for extra baking. The fur- 
 nace man cares for the furnaces, sifting also ashes 
 from range and cares for walks, shoveling snow in 
 winter, cutting grass in summer, also works by hour 
 at washing windows, beating rugs, etc." 
 
 VALUE OF THE INDIVIDUAL HOME 
 
 ''The home is the center of all that is best in life. 
 It is the greatest moulder of character. All the quali- 
 ties of Christian manhood and womanhood, love, rev- 
 erence, unselfishness, forbearance, order, regard for 
 property and for the rights of others, should find their 
 beginnings here. The strength of civic and natural 
 life, respect for government, honest administration of 
 public trusts, depend in large degree upon the high 
 ideals of the home life. Family traditions are better 
 fostered. The home is the housewife's 'place of busi- 
 ness.' 
 
 "Whatever afifects the home afifects the state. The 
 moral standing of a nation depends upon the home life 
 of its individuals. We cannot get a true idea of the 
 sacredness of life without having some place, however 
 humble, where high standards of living govern the ac- 
 tions of its individuals. We have poems that stir the 
 emotions and quicken into activity the best interests 
 on the subject of 'Home,' but what poet ever attempted 
 to stir the hearts of a nation to heroic deeds by writ- 
 ing a poem on the 'Boarding House.' " 
 
 592 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK. 
 
 TT IS the minority, not the majority of people, who 
 can afford the kixury of a trained nurse, especially 
 in cases of protracted and chronic illnesses. 
 
 These lessons are intended to help those who cannot 
 always command the services of a trained nurse, to 
 teach how to carry out the doctor's orders, what to 
 look for and observe in his absence, so that by giving 
 him a definite report of what the patient's condition 
 has been he may be able to work more understand- 
 ingly, be able to diagnose the disease more quickly, 
 be surer of how the patient is progressing, and of the 
 influence the medicine ordered is having. And to 
 teach above all how to handle and move patients with- 
 out tiring them, how to render them comfortable, there- 
 by ensuring rest of nerve and body. 
 
 What to do in illness is purposely omitted in these 
 lessons, except in very simple troubles and in cases of 
 emergency. The "what to do" is for the doctor to de- 
 cide, the "how to do" for the mother to know. Incal- 
 culable harm is continually being done by the latter 
 encroaching on the doctor's prerogative. Many a 
 mother has treated .her child for supposed colic and 
 only called the doctor in after some days when the 
 pain has refused to yield to her treatment. In very 
 
 Aims of 
 the Lessons 
 
 The Doctor's 
 Province. 
 
 593 
 
HOME CARE OP THE SICK 
 
 What 
 
 the Mother 
 
 Should 
 
 Know 
 
 many cases the treatment has heen the worse thing 
 possible for what has proved to be appendicitis, gastro- 
 enteritis, or other serious abdominal trouble. 
 
 There are few who can afford to run up the doctor's 
 bill by calling him in unnecessarily. To avoid this, 
 and yet not run the risk of endangering the lives of 
 those entrusted to her care, especially the little chil- 
 dren who cannot tell clearly where the pain is or how 
 badly they feel, it is imperative that every mother 
 should know how to count the pulse, take the tempera- 
 ture, and be cognizant of at least a few of the primary 
 symptoms of the most common diseases, especially the 
 contagious ones, where the lack of early recognition 
 and isolation may imperil the health or life of others. 
 
 The following table gives the primary symptoms, 
 period of incubation, and usual time required for iso- 
 lation of the most common contagious diseases. The 
 number of days between exposure to and the develop- 
 ment of a disease is called the period of incubation. 
 
 FIRST SYMPTOMS IN SOME OF THE MOST COMMON 
 
 DISEASES 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 
 
 DISEASE 
 
 PERIOD OF 
 INCUBATION 
 
 SYMPTOMS 
 
 Mumps Days 14-21 Swelling of the 
 
 average 18 glands between 
 
 ear and jaw, on 
 
 either side or 
 
 both. 
 
 TIME OF 
 ISOLATION 
 
 From day when 
 swelling first ap- 
 pears till 10 days 
 after, usually 3 
 weeks. 
 
 594 
 
FIRST SYMPTOMS OT DISJL4STS 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) 
 
 riSEASE 
 
 PERIOD OF 
 INCUBATION 
 
 SYMPTOMS 
 
 pox 
 
 Chicken- Days 12-16 Slight fever, after 
 average 14 24 hours small 
 pimples appear 
 on back and 
 face. 
 
 German 
 
 Measles 
 
 Days 6-18 
 average 14 
 
 Measles Days 9-16 
 average 12 
 
 Sm all- 
 pox 
 
 Days 9-16 
 average t6 
 
 Very slight fever, 
 rash (if any) 
 appears first on 
 face, may only 
 last a few hours. 
 There may be 
 headache and 
 nausea. 
 
 Sneezing, running 
 from eyes and 
 nose, face swol- 
 len, sore throat, 
 cough, f e V e r 
 gradually rising, 
 rash appears 
 first on face and 
 neck. 
 
 « 
 
 Chill, rapidly ris- 
 ing temperature, 
 intense head- 
 ache, pain in 
 back and legs, 
 rash, small, red, 
 hard pimples, 
 appearing first 
 on face and 
 wrists. 
 
 TIME OF 
 ISOLATION 
 
 From onset until 
 last crust has 
 fallen, usually 14 
 days. 
 
 From 2 days be- 
 fore rash till 
 symptoms are 
 gone. S o m e - 
 times 2 weeks. 
 
 From first ca- 
 tarrhal s y m p - 
 toms until des- 
 quamation ceas- 
 es, usually 24 
 days. 
 
 From onset until 
 last crust has 
 fallen, usually 6 
 weeks. 
 
 595 
 
Children's 
 Diseases 
 
 HOME CARE OP THE SICK 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (Continued) 
 
 DISEASE 
 
 PERIOD OF 
 INCUBATION 
 
 Scarlet- Days 1-7 
 fever average 7 
 
 TIME OF 
 ISOLATION 
 
 From appearance 
 of rash till des- 
 quamation has 
 entirely ceased ; 
 usually 6 weeks. 
 
 Diph- 
 theria 
 
 Days 1-6 
 average 6 
 
 From onset till 
 germs have en- 
 t i r e 1 y disap- 
 peared. 
 
 SYMPTOMS 
 
 Sudden vomiting, 
 sometimes chill 
 or convulsions, 
 high tempera- 
 ture, sore throat, 
 tongue coated on 
 edges, hright red 
 in center, gener- 
 al malaise, typ- 
 ical rash appear- 
 ing first on chest 
 and shoulders. 
 
 Especially in the 
 beginning of the 
 disease the tem- 
 perature is not 
 as high as in 
 tonsillitis ; head- 
 ache, nausea, 
 sore throat, with 
 white patches on 
 the tonsils. 
 
 As it is sometimes difficult even for the physician to dis- 
 tinguish between diphtheria and tonsillitis without taking a 
 culture for examination, when white patches appear on a 
 child's throat it should be isolated and a doctor called in 
 at once. 
 
 DISEASES NOT CONTAGIOUS 
 
 Colic. Give castor oil, then a few drops of pepper- 
 mint in hot water (never soothing syrtip) ; keep the 
 baby warm and lying on his abdomen. Gentle rubbing 
 in a circular direction, and the application of hot flan- 
 nels will generally relieve it. If not, a physician 
 
 596 
 
FIRST SYMPTOMS OF DISEASES S 
 
 should be notified as continued abdominal pain is a 
 symptom of many serious disorders. 
 
 Cholera Infantum. Caused by over or improper 
 feeding, heat and impure air. Symptoms : Diarrhoea 
 and intestinal pain, excessive thirst, but no appetite. 
 Try no home remedies, seek medical aid at once. 
 
 Intestinal Obstruction. Symptoms : Obstinate con- 
 stipation, followed by vomiting and abdominal disten- 
 tion ; usually not much temperature. Get medical ad- 
 vice promptly, as immediate operation may be im- 
 perative. 
 
 Convulsions. Caused by indigestion, worms, difficult 
 dentition, or fright. Muscular twitchings coming on 
 suddenly, sometimes even during sleep. Send for the 
 doctor immediately, but do not await his arrival to put 
 the baby in a hot bath. Give castor oil and an enema, 
 according to directions given on page 55, using, if 
 the child is small, a rubber catheter for a rectal tube. 
 
 Pneumonia. Primary symptoms: Chill followed 
 by high temperature, cough, pain in chest, expectora- 
 tion which gradually becomes rust colored and bloody. 
 Put patient to bed and send for the doctor imme- 
 diately. 
 
 Typhoid Fever. Primary symptoms : Temperature 
 rising a little higher each day, nausea, headache, pain 
 in back and limbs, nose bleed, sometimes -constipation, 
 sometimes diarrhoea, watery, yellow stools, abdominal 
 pain. Put patient to bed and only allow liquid diet 
 until the doctor comes. 
 
 597 
 
6 HOME CAN I'. ()!■ I III'. SICK 
 
 M oiiiii^itis. May dcvclo]) suddenly with c(jntinuous 
 convulsions, or come on j^radually with synii)toms of 
 fretfulness, restlessness, headache, voniitinf^^, and in- 
 tolerance of li^ht and noise. Put patient to hed in a 
 quiet, dark, well-aired room and only allow liquid 
 diet till the doctor comes. 
 
 Croup. There are two forms (jf croup — the true or 
 membranous and the false or spasmodic. The former 
 is always associated with diphtheria, hut since the use 
 of antitoxine it has become a much rarer com])lication, 
 seldom ()ccurrin<4 when antitr)xine is used. It comes 
 on jij'radually. 
 False Croup h\'dse cHJUp couics ou suddenly, j^enerally in the 
 
 middle of the nij^hf; it is as a rule the result of ex- 
 posure to damp and cold, excitement, or indigestion. 
 
 The spasm is the result of the spasmodic closing of 
 the glottis. Though not dangerous, it is very distress- 
 in|>- and calls for immediate treatment. Relief usually 
 can be obtained best by applying hot fomentations to 
 the throat, inducinj>- vomiting by j:i;^ivinp;- a drink of 
 tepid water and salt — a teasi)Oonful to the glass — and 
 by steam inhalations. 
 
 'JMie most effective way of j^ivin^ inhalations is with 
 the croup kettle and canoi)y. The (ptickest way to im- 
 provise these is to tie an umbrella to the top of the 
 child's crib and over this drape two sheets, pinninic;' 
 them to the sides of the bed. They must overlap 
 about one inch and hanj^'" down far enouj^^h over the 
 sides and back of the bed to be tucked under the mat- 
 
 598 
 
DISEASES , 7 
 
 tress. The lower third of the front space is left open 
 for the admission of fresh air. Water is kept boiling 
 in a kettle at the back of the bed by a gas or oil stove 
 
 Canopy for Giving Steam Inhalations Made with a Sheet 
 and Umbrella 
 
 and a cone of cardboard or stiff paper is attached to 
 the spout and inserted between the overhanging sheets 
 to carry the steam over the child's head. 
 
 599 
 
Minor 
 Troubles 
 
 8 HOME CARE or THE SICK 
 
 In nearly all cases of slight indisposition, even 
 diarrhoea, a cathartic such as castor oil or calomel, fol- 
 lowed by salts such as Uochelle salts, magnesium sul- 
 
 Kear Viiivv of (Jruiip Canopy Showing Stove, Kettle, and Tube 
 
 for Steam 
 
 ])hate, or seidlitz powder, five or six hours later, to- 
 gether with rest and lluid or soft diet is indicated. 
 Give as little medicine as possible ivithoiit a doctor's 
 order. 
 
 600 
 
THE CHOICE, FURNISHING AND CARE OF THE SICK> 
 
 ROOM 
 
 Sunshine, pure fresh air, and freedom from noise 
 and odors are the principal things to be considered in 
 choosing the sick-room. When possible it is advisa- 
 ble to have a room with a southern exposure. If there 
 is a fireplace or grate in the room so much the better, 
 as a chimney is an excellent medium for ventilation. 
 
 Despite the fact that the sick-room at the top of 
 the house gives many stairs to climb, it is better to 
 have it there. It is> further removed from the noises 
 of the street and house and the air is generally purer. 
 
 Only necessary articles of furniture should be re- 
 tained ; all heavy hangings, draperies, and upholstered 
 furniture must be removed. Care must be taken, how- 
 ever, that the room is not made too bare and unat- 
 tractive. Short,, washable curtains ; clean, white linen 
 covers for the tables ; a few fresh flowers will help 
 to make the sick-room bright and cheerful. Flowers 
 should be removed at night, the water they are in 
 changed daily, and they should never be tolerated after 
 they begin to fade. 
 
 The ideal bed is iron or brass ; single or three- 
 quarter width. The double bed is unadvisable, for 
 owing to its width, the mattress is apt to sink in the 
 middle and it is then almost impossible to keep the 
 under sheets drawn tightly enough to prevent wrinkles. 
 The bed should be at least twenty-five inches in 
 
 Furnishings 
 
 The Bed 
 
 601 
 
10 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 The 
 Mattress 
 
 Lighting 
 
 height, but if it is not, can easily be made so by plac- 
 ing heavy blocks of wood under each leg. Hollows 
 about two inches in depth should be made in the 
 blocks to fit the ends of the legs. , Especially if the 
 patient is liable to be ill long, the trouble of doing this 
 is well repaid by the added convenience in lifting and 
 working over the patient. 
 
 A hair mattress is by far the best kind to have ; the 
 feather one the worst. Not only is the latter too heat- 
 ing, but when occupied it is almost impossible to make 
 the bed properly. 
 
 The bed should be placed far enough from the walls 
 to give access on all sides, care being taken to avoid 
 having the light in the patient's eyes. 
 
 The best plan is to have the window behind the 
 bed ; then more sun and light can be admitted without 
 disturbing the patient. Except in certain cases, it is 
 a mistake to keep the sick-room darkened. 
 
 Besides the bed, there should be two or three chairs 
 in the room ; one a comfortable arm chair with high 
 back. If upholstered, it should be encased in a pretty, 
 light. Washable cover. Rocking chairs should never 
 be permitted in the sick-room ; when sitting in them 
 one is almost sure to rock, and the motion is very 
 apt to irritate the patient. 
 
 Two tables are necessary ; on one should be kept 
 writing material, where the doctor can write his orders 
 and the nurse keep the record of the patient's condi- 
 
 602 
 
Table 
 
 THE SICK ROOM ii 
 
 tion. The second table can be near the bedside to hold 
 the patient's bell ; also her food-tray ; the latter must 
 always be removed as soon as the meal is finished. 
 Never leave empty or half empty glasses of milk, cups 
 of broth, etc., standing by the patient. 
 
 There is a bedside table — made on purpose for use Bedside 
 in the sick-room — which is very convenient. The top 
 extends over the bed in front of the patient ; it is ad- 
 justable and has a foot piece which goes under the 
 bed and keeps the table from upsetting. (See page 30.) 
 
 Medicine bottles and all necessary utensils should 
 be kept in an adjoining room, if possible. 
 
 The floor should be swept with a soft broom cov- 
 ered with cheese cloth, or other soft material which 
 is free from lint. Carpets are very objectionable ; 
 small rugs which can be removed and shaken daily, 
 being preferable. If the carpet must remain, see that 
 it is kept well dusted, and that no dust is raised while 
 doing so. The best way to do this to to sweep with 
 a damp broom, going over it afterwards with a damp 
 cloth pinned over the broom. Do not have this too wet 
 or it will injure the carpet. 
 
 When it is necessary for the nurse to sleep in the 
 room, the cot is the most convenient arrangement, as 
 it is comfortable, inexpensive and can be easily re- 
 moved in the day time. 
 
 Never use a feather duster but clean, soft dust cloths 
 which may be washed out every day. Except for the 
 
 Dusting 
 
 603 
 
12 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 Airing 
 
 vaniisliod furniture, it is l)etter to have the (Ulster 
 shghtly damp, as this will prevent scattering of the 
 dust. 
 
 The air in the sick-room must be as pure as the air 
 outside. The value of fresh air as an aid to recovery 
 is sadly underrated. The open fireplace is one of the 
 best methods of ventilation. A current of air can be 
 created in summer by placing a lamp or a candle in 
 the chimney place, and in winter a wood or a coal fire. 
 Next to a fireplace, an open stove gives the best means 
 of ventilation. 
 
 Window ventilation is best obtained by double win- 
 dows with double sashes. The lower sash of the outer 
 window is raised about two feet ; the upper sash of 
 the inner window lowered about the same distance. 
 The ])assage of air being thus directed upward, a di- 
 rect draught upon the patient will not be produced, if 
 windows and doors on the opposite side of the room 
 are kept closed. Where there are single windows, the 
 same eflfect can be obtained by tacking the lower end 
 of a piece of cotton, about twelve inches in depth, to 
 the frame of the upper sash and to the top of the win- 
 dow frame ; then lower the sash about ten inches. 
 When less air is desired the lower sash can be raised 
 and a board fitted to the o])ening ; the air then passes 
 upward between the sashes. 
 
 In addition to this slight continuous ventilation, the 
 window must be opened and the entire air of the sick- 
 roon) changed at least twice a day. In doing this, be 
 
 604 
 
CARE OF THE PATIENT 
 
 13 
 
 careful that there is no draught and that the patient 
 has extra blankets. If there is no screen at hand, a 
 large umbrella will prove quite effective in protecting 
 the patient's head from the direct current of air. If 
 it is necessary to warm the air before it enters the 
 patient's room, the window in an adjoining, well-heat- 
 ed room may be opened, the door between the rooms 
 being left slightly ajar. The corridor or bath room 
 (especially the bath room) should not be used for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Hard coal should be used if the room is heated by 
 a stove on account of its freedom from dust. 
 
 In removing the ashes, they should be sprinkled with 
 water first to prevent flying, then quietly shoveled up. 
 The coal can be added in paper bags filled outside, 
 thus avoiding all noise likely to disturb the patient. 
 
 The temperature of the sick-room should be 68 de- 
 grees F at night and 70 degrees F during the day. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 and 
 
 Ashes 
 
 CARE OF THE PATIENT 
 
 A few essential points to be remembered in caring 
 for the sick may be stated briefly. 
 
 To properly care for a patient those undertaking the 
 responsibility of the nursing must take proper care of 
 thonsek'cs. Rest, recreation, and out of door exer- 
 cise are positive necessities. 
 
 If the same member of the family has both day and 
 night nursing to do she should always dress herself 
 as comfortably as possible for the night. A cold bath 
 
 Care of 
 the Nurse 
 
 605 
 
14 HOMU i AKl: ()!• I JIJi M( K 
 
 ill llu' iiioniiii^, with roiiipK-U' clianj^c- of tlolliin^', will 
 l)c' loiiiid very rcfrt'shinj^. 
 
 1 )rt'sscs of ii^lit wash iiiaU'iial slioiiM always 1)C 
 worn wiuii atU'iKJiii^ llu- sick, hill dresses ainl skirts 
 must never he stil'lly starehed, as the rustling ncjise 
 Ihey make is very annoying to patients. S(|iieakin^ 
 shoes are another ahomination. 
 "Nnvers" Never whisper in or near the siek-room. 
 
 Never disenss tlu' patient's eondition with her, or 
 with anyone else in her hearinj^'. 
 
 Never tell the patient what her teniperalnre, pulse, 
 etc., are, not even when they are normal. 
 
 Never tell the patient what medication you are j^iv- 
 inj4" her. 
 
 Nt'ver lean iioi' sit on the i)atient's hed, and he care- 
 ful not to knock aj^ainst it in i)assin^. 
 When When si)eakinj^ to a patient always stand in front 
 
 of her, where she can see you; he j)artieularly careful 
 not to speak to her suddenly from hehind, for when 
 people are ill and nervous they are easily startled. 
 
 Keep door and window hiuja^es well oiled; nothing is 
 more a^^ravalini; than a S(|ueakinj4 door. 
 
 When windows rattle, wed^c them a|)art hctweeii the 
 sashes with piec'cs ol wood or newspaper. 
 
 h'.specially at nij^hl, or. rather, when j^ctlinq' ready 
 for the nij.;ht, attention must he |»aid to anything likely 
 to i)rove a disturhinj.; clement to the patient's rest. 
 
 Ik- fore the- patic-nt ^oes to sleep see that N'ou have 
 ever\thiii,L; at hand that nou are likely to nee(l for the 
 
 Speaking 
 
 M Night 
 
 606 
 
CARE 01' run I'ATlLiNT 
 
 15 
 
 night: Extra blankets — a shade for the liglit, if neces- 
 sary — coal prepared in paper bags, as previously de- 
 scribed — milk — water — all the medicines you will re- 
 01 lire — ice, etc. Wrapping the ice in flannel or news- 
 paper will keep it from melting. A hat pin makes an 
 excellent and noiseless ice-pick. A large tin pan, en- 
 veloped in a blanket, will make a serviceable refriger- 
 ator in which to keep your ice, broth, milk and water. 
 
 A shade for the lamp or gas can be easily made out 
 of green or other dark colored cambric, but be sure 
 that the globe over which it is pinned is far enough 
 from the flame to avoid scorching the cambric. 
 
 An uncomfortable bed is a great addition to the mis- 
 eries of an invalid, therefore, one of the first essentials 
 to be learned is how to make a bed. 
 
 The mattress is covered by a sheet, stretched tightly 
 and tucked firmly as far under it a*s possible ; folding 
 the corners like an envelope helps to keep it firm. 
 
 Another sheet called the ''draw sheet" is also used 
 under the i)atient ; this is put on with the length across 
 the bed, thus allowing a considerable fold under the 
 mattress, thereby securing a further means of keep- 
 ing the sheet tight. When putting the draw sheet on 
 care must be taken to have it perfectly straight ; it is 
 first tucked in on one side, well under the mattress. 
 In tucking in the second side it is best to begin in the 
 middle, going first towards the bottom, then from 
 the middle to the top, pulling it very tightl\'. The top 
 sheet and blankets (single blankets arc j^refcrable to 
 
 Bed 
 Making 
 
 The 
 
 Draw Sheet 
 
 607 
 
i6 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 double) should be put on separately, the corners being- 
 folded in, in the same manner as the under sheet. If 
 it is not convenient to obtain a spread of dimity, or 
 other light material, it is better to use a sheet, as the 
 ordinary spread is heavy and gives comparatively lit- 
 tle warmth. 
 Protecting When it is necessarv to protect the mattress a rub- 
 
 the Mattress . ' 
 
 ber sheet is placed between the lower and draw sheets. 
 White double faced rubber is the nicest for home use. 
 The single faced rubber will answer the purpose and 
 is cheaper, but it is not so easily kept clean. Either 
 can be obtained at any rubber store. 
 
 When impossible to get the regular rubber sheet- 
 ing thin oil cloth, such as is used for covering tables, 
 will serve. In cases of emergency, several thicknesses 
 of newspapers may be used until something better can 
 be obtained. 
 
 CHANGING THE BED OF A HELPLESS PATIENT 
 
 Before starting to change the bedding be sure that 
 you have everything necessary near at hand, and that 
 the bed clothes are all well aired, perfectly dry and 
 warm. 
 
 First take off the spread, fold it neatly ; next take 
 off the top blanket, and hang it out to air. Fold the 
 other blanket and upper sheet over the patient, leav- 
 ing the ends just long enough to cover her when you 
 turn her over. This method answers a threefold pur- 
 pose: (i) it has a neat appearance; (2) it replaces the 
 
 608 
 
CHANGING THE DRAW SHEET 
 
 609 
 
i8 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 discarded blanket, and (3) the clothes are not in the 
 way while you work. Loosen the lower sheets by rais- 
 ing the mattress with one hand while drawing out the 
 sheets with the other. Raising the mattress is impor- 
 tant, because the draw sheet has been tucked so far 
 under the mattress that otherwise you risk not only 
 jolting the patient but also tearing the sheets. Re- 
 move the pillows and if the patient does not object 
 to lying flat for a while leave them out; if she does, 
 one can be replaced. It is necessary to take them out 
 to turn them and to make sure that there are no crumbs 
 caught between them or in the pillow cases. 
 Changing ^^^^ night gowu is the next thing changed. Have 
 
 Night Gown ^^^^ patient lie on her back and flex her knees ; if she 
 is well enough she can easily raise herself while in this 
 position ; if not, place one hand under the buttocks 
 and raise her, as you draw the gown up with the- other 
 hand, then raise the shoulders in like manner, drawing 
 the gown up over them and the head l^cfore taking 
 out the arms. 
 
 In putting on the clean gown roll the skirt up, and 
 put the patient's head through the hole. Putting your 
 hand through one sleeve grasp the patient's hand and 
 draw it through ; then do likewise with the other sleeve. 
 The gown is then pulled down in the same manner as 
 the soiled one was taken off. 
 
 The easiest way to change the under sheets is first 
 to turn the patient on her side. 
 
 To do this, stand on the side towards which you will 
 
 610 
 
CHANGING THE BED 
 
 19 
 
 turn her, slip one hand over and under her, with your 
 arm shghtly crooked, so that the hand and forearm 
 will support and control one shoulder, the elbow sup- 
 port the back of the head, and the arm the other shoul- 
 der. Slip your other arm under the patient slantwise 
 across the buttocks, so that the hand is under the 
 small of the back. In this v/ay the patient is well sup- 
 ported as you gently turn her towards you. If there 
 is an assistant, one can hold her thus while the other 
 manipulates the sheets ; if not, and the patient needs 
 to be supported, a pillow placed wtU up against her 
 back will answer the purpose. 
 
 The sheets to be changed are folded close to the 
 back of the patient, making the fold as flat as pos- 
 sible. The clean sheet is either folded fan shape or 
 rolled to its centre, the roll or fold, as the case may 
 be, is placed close to the sheet being removed, the 
 loose edge is tucked in, as far under the mattress 
 as possible, the patient is then rolled gently over on 
 to the clean sheet, the soiled one removed, and the clean 
 sheet well stretched, and tucked in according to the 
 directions given in the making of the bed. 
 
 The top sheet is next changed. Placing the clean 
 sheet over the sheet and blanket which are still over 
 the patient ; on top of this put the blanket which has 
 been airing, draw the other blanket and sheet from 
 underneath, then tuck in the clean ones, put on the 
 second blanket, if one is necessary, then the spread, 
 and arrange the pillows. 
 
 Turning 
 
 the 
 
 Patient 
 
 Changing 
 
 the 
 
 Draw Sheet 
 
 Changing 
 
 the 
 
 Top Sheet 
 
 611 
 
20 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 The draw sheet, upper sheet, and night gown should 
 be changed twice a day when the patient is not too 
 ill ; if they are not soiled when removed, air them 
 well, after which they may be used again. 
 
 When the patient is not allowed to be bathed, her 
 back should be washed with soap and warm water, 
 rubbed with alcohol and powdered with talcum pow- 
 der. This should be done while she is turned on her 
 side for the changing of the sheet. When the night 
 gown is closed in the back it is sometimes more con- 
 venient not to put the clean gown on until the pa- 
 tient's back has been washed. In such circumstances 
 wrap a small shawl around the patient. 
 Special When for any reason it is inadvisable to move the 
 
 patient, and it is necessary for her to lie on her back, 
 it is convenient to have short gowns, open in the 
 back, buttoned at the back of the neck and shoulders. 
 The skirts can be drawn from under the patient, enab- 
 ling her to lie on the sheet, wdiich it vs comparatively 
 easy to keep free from wrinkles. Another important 
 advantage of the short gown is the ease with which it 
 can be changed. Large collars or ruffles at the neck 
 of the gown are very objectionable in illness. 
 
 When changing the gown of a patient whose arm is 
 disabled, the sleeve should be taken from the affected 
 arm last, and the sleeve of the fresh gown put on first. 
 
 LIFTING AND HANDLING THE PATIENT 
 
 When lifting a patient it is important to stand 
 firmly ; to do this the feet should be placed well apart, 
 
 Gowns 
 
 612 
 
LIFTING THE PATIENT 21 
 
 bracing one foot against the leg of the bed. Try to 
 bend the back as little as possible, make the knees 
 do the bending. In lifting, endeavor to have the 
 weight come on your shoulders, not on your back. For 
 example, when a patient is to be helped into a sitting 
 position, bend your knees till your shoulder is only 
 
 A BACK REST, CANVAS COVERED. 
 
 slightly higher than the patient's, then have her put her 
 arm across your shoulders, have your shoulder di- 
 rectly under her armpit, your elbow supporting her 
 head, your hand under her other armpit — your other 
 hand is thus free to arrange the pillows. Now raise 
 the patient. By using this method your shoulder 
 bears the burden, whereas if you attempt to raise the 
 patient by bending your back, or if you have the pa- 
 tient's arm around your neck, the entire weight must 
 
 613 
 
22 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 The 
 Back Rest 
 
 Foot Brace 
 
 Change of 
 Position 
 
 be sustained by your 1)ack, whicb will soon become 
 strained. 
 
 A back rest should always be provided when the 
 .patient sits up in bed for the first time. Many varieties 
 of these are to be had, and they are inexpensive ; some 
 are made entirely of wood, others have a wooden 
 framework with canvas stretched across it. A good 
 substitute for the back rest is a straight back chair 
 turned upside down. The pillows should be placed 
 across the rest in such a way that the head will not 
 be thrown forward and that the small of the back will 
 be well supported. 
 
 When the patient is obliged to sit up all, or nearly 
 all the time, something should be provided for her 
 
 to brace her feet against. 
 
 A convenient arrangement 
 
 for this purpose is a board the same length as the 
 width of the bed and about twelve inches wide, placed 
 between double folds of strong muslin which must be 
 long enough to tie around the head of the bed when 
 the board is supporting the patient's feet. The board 
 may be padded on one side if desired. 
 
 When a patient has slipped down in bed and needs 
 to be draw^n up, place one arm under the shoulders 
 in the usual crooked position so that your elbow may 
 support her head, and taking a firm grip under the up- 
 per part of her arm, put your other arm under the 
 thighs, and move the patient gently upwards. If well 
 enough the patient can flex her knees and help in the 
 movement. 
 
 614 
 
HANDLING THE PATIENT 23 
 
 If a patient is so heavy "that two persons are re- 
 quired to move her, they should stand on opposite sides 
 of the bed and reaching across the patient's back firmly 
 grasp her under the armpits, their crossed arms thus 
 forming a \^-shaped rest for her head while they clasp 
 each other's hands under her thighs. 
 
 When the patient is well enough to help herself, put- 
 ting a stout, broad piece of muslin round the foot of 
 the bed with the ends long enough to be grasped, will 
 help her to assume a sitting position ; one round the top 
 of the bed will help her to pull herself up higher in 
 bed. 
 
 If necessary to change your charge from one bed 
 to another, place the beds about five feet apart, parallel 
 with each other, with the head of one on a line with 
 the foot of the other. Unless the patient is very light 
 there should be two to lift, both standing on the same 
 side (between the beds). One puts her arms under 
 the shoulders and buttocks, the other under the back 
 and thighs. If possible have the patient hold herself 
 stiff. Lift her gently in unison, turn round and place 
 her on the fresh bed. 
 
 If the patient is heavy three may be required to do 
 this well. Under these circumstances the first lifter 
 supports the head and small of the back, the second 
 the shoulders and thighs, the third the buttocks and 
 under the knees. 
 
 ^ When the lighting of the room or other considera- 
 tions render it unadvisable to change the position of 
 
 Changring: 
 the Patient 
 from One Bed 
 to Another 
 
 615 
 
616 
 
CHANGING THE MATTRESS 25 
 
 the head of the bed, t^hey are placed near together with 
 the heads on a hne. The patient is Hfted from the far 
 side of the first bed, carried around between the two, 
 and laid down in the second bed. This entails a 
 longer carry, but if all work in unison it is not dif- 
 ficult. 
 
 TO CHANGE THE MATTRESS WITH THE 
 PATIENT IN BED 
 
 To the uninitiated this seems an almost impossible 
 feat. In reality, if done according to rule, it is not 
 much harder than changing the under sheets. If the 
 patient is heavy four people will be required to ac- 
 complish this deftly, two on either side of the bed. 
 The sheets are loosened on all sides ; the top sheets 
 and the blankets treated in the same manner as when 
 the bed clothes were changed ; the under sheets are 
 rolled tightly up to the patient's side (the roll being 
 undermost). Using these rolls for support, the patient 
 is moved to one side of the mattress ; this side is then 
 pulled to the centre of the bed, curving the mattress 
 upwards ; the fresh mattress is placed alongside, the 
 patient lifted by the bed-clothes on to it, the dis- 
 carded mattress removed, the fresh one drawn into 
 place, and the patient lifted to the centre ; the sheets 
 are again unrolled and tucked in place. 
 
 THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF BED SORES 
 
 A bed sore is gangrene, or death of the tissue of 
 the affected parts. The bony prominences such as the 
 lower part of the spine, the shoulder blades, elbows, 
 
 617 
 
618 
 
BED SORES 
 
 27 
 
 and heels are the parts most likely to be affected. 
 Moisture, wrinkles, crumbs, and a too long continu- 
 ance in one position are the pre-disposing causes, 
 therefore these conditions must all be guarded against. 
 The presence of moisture is generally due to per- 
 spiration, or discharge from wound, bowels or blad- 
 der. When the two latter are the causes pads made 
 of oakum or jute placed in cheese-cloth or old muslin, 
 put on the patient like a child's diaper, will save the 
 bed linen. These must be changed as often as neces- 
 sary, and the patient well washed with warm water 
 and soap ; dusting with a little talcum, starch, or rice 
 powder will help to keep the skin dry and soft and it 
 will also prevent chapping. Crumbs and wrinkles 
 must also be guarded against. By keeping the draw 
 sheet tightly drawn and tucked far under the mattress 
 the latter will be overcome ; the former must be looked 
 for after every meal ; brushing them out with the hand 
 is the most efficient way, but a small whisk-broom may 
 be used. 
 
 At least twice a day all parts likely to be affected, 
 especially the back, should be washed with warm water 
 and soap, rubbed with 50 per cent alcohol, and dusted 
 with talcum. This not only helps to prevent bed- 
 sores but is unspeakably refreshing to the weary in- 
 valid. Avoid using too much powder or it will cake 
 and do more harm than good. 
 
 A preparation of equal parts collodion and castor 
 oil painted over the surface will often prevent a break- 
 down of the tissue, by forming an artificial skin. 
 
 Avoid 
 Moisture 
 
 Artificial 
 Skin 
 
 619 
 
28 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Relieving 
 Pressure 
 
 Care of 
 a Sore 
 
 Frequent change of position is another important 
 means in the prevention of bed-sores. Prop the pa- 
 tient over on her side by putting a couple of pillows 
 lengthwise behind her, one under her shoulders, the 
 other under the lower part of her back. Rings made 
 of batting or sheet wadding wound with bandages ar( 
 excellent mediums for relieving pressure. They should 
 
 be made with the hole just 
 large enough to permit of 
 the bony prominence fitting 
 into it. When the patient 
 has to lie for some time on 
 her back, often consider- 
 able relief is given by flex- 
 ing the knees. They can be 
 supported either by a pillow 
 doubled and tied to hold it 
 so (the pointed side placed 
 next the body), or a cylin- 
 drical pillow made like the old-fashioned bolster, only 
 smaller and stuffed with hair. Small pillows or hot 
 water bags filled with cool water, placed under the 
 small of the back, will help to make a long continu- 
 ance of the dorsal position bearable. 
 
 All pillows should be shaken and turned frequently. 
 If the skin should become broken, the resulting sore 
 should be washed daily with bichloride of mercury 
 I-2000, and a dressing applied. Gauze soaked in 
 balsam of- Peru or an ointment made of castoroil and 
 zinc oxide powder are generally found efficacious. 
 
 Wadding King, 
 to Relieve Pressui-e 
 
 620 
 
CONVALESCENCE 
 
 The most anxious moments in nursing are certainly 
 when the disease is at its hei^^ht, but by far the most 
 trying are, as a rule, during the time of convalescence. 
 It is then that the greatest exercise of tact, discern- 
 ment, self-control and patience on the part of the at- 
 tendant are necessary. 
 
 Relapse, except in the 
 germ diseases, is* nearly al- 
 ways due to over-feeding, 
 over-exertion, or nervous 
 excitement. 
 
 The diet is a very impor- 
 tant factor in the treatment 
 of convalescents. Carry out 
 the doctor's orders minute- 
 ly regarding it. Have, so 
 far as you can, things that Rubber Air Cushion 
 
 you know the patient likes. If she expresses a prefer- 
 ence for a certain dish have it if allowable, but as a 
 rule it is not wise to consult her on the subject. 
 
 Always serve your patient's meals as daintily as pos- 
 sible ; have the tray covered with a spotless table nap- 
 kin or tray cover; use the prettiest china available; 
 even one bright flower with a little green is a great 
 attraction. But above all see that the food is properly 
 cooked and properly served; that all hot things are 
 very hot, and cold ones really cold. More salt and 
 less sugar will generally be wanted than when in 
 
 29 
 
 Serving 
 of Meals 
 
 621 
 
30 HOME CARE OP THE SICK 
 
 health. Highly seasoned food is not advisable or often 
 desired even by those who like it when well. 
 
 It is better to set before the invalid too little than 
 too much, for it is easy to get more, and the sight of 
 too much food on the tray is apt to imbue anyone 
 
 Ul 
 
 A Bedside Table Convenient for Serving Meals 
 
 whose appetite is poor with a dislike for it. Besides, 
 as the digestive functions are weakened during and 
 after illness, it is better for a time to serve food in 
 smaller quantities and oftener ; for instance, give an 
 Qgg nog, milk punch, egg lemonade, egg albumen, or 
 other light, easily digested drink between breakfast 
 
 622 
 
CONl'ALESCliNCE 31 
 
 and the noonday mieal, and again at three or four 
 o'clock in the afternoon. A glass of hot milk given at 
 bed-time will often induce sleep. 
 
 Keeping the patient amused is another important 
 item in the care of the convalescent. A few visitors 
 (provided they do not stay too long, talk too much, 
 or give any worrying or disagreeable news) will of- 
 ten help to brighten up the patient. Playing cards or 
 games, reading aloud to her, etc., will help to pass 
 away the time and tire her less than talking. 
 
 When people have been ill for some time the muscles 
 of the eyes are apt to be weak and will be easily 
 strained, so they ought not to be allowed to read much 
 themselves, especially while they are In the recum- 
 bent positk)n. 
 
 Those who are strong and well little realize the ex- 
 ertion and excitement caused by the first sitting up, 
 after being confined to the bed for some time. 
 
 The period is usually limited to half an hour the 
 first day, gradually increasing the time as the patient 
 can stand it. Do not wait for her to complain of 
 fatigue; on showing the first signs of it she should 
 be put to bed. Of course jthere are patients who think 
 themselves a great deal worse than they really are, 
 and who have to be encouraged to sit up longer than 
 they think they can. At such times the pulse is a 
 good guide. 
 
 Do not really dress the patient until she is well 
 enough to walk around. Warm stockings, bed slip- 
 
 Amusing 
 
 the Patient 
 
 Sitting- Up 
 for the 
 First Time 
 
 623 
 
32 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 pers, a warm wrapper and blankets are all that are 
 necessary. 
 Lifting If the patient has been seriously ill she should not 
 
 a Chair be allowed to stand or exert herself in the least when 
 sitting up the first few times. If not too heavy she 
 can be lifted by one person. The arms of the patient 
 are locked about the neck of the attendant, who, plac- 
 ing one arm under the thigh, the other under the back, 
 lifts the patient into the chair, the back of which is 
 parallel with the foot of the bed. 
 
 When two people are required to do the lifting they 
 should stand at the same side of the bed, placing the 
 hands, one under the shoulders and buttocks, the 
 other under the thighs and ankles, and lifting in uni- 
 son, turn and seat the patient gently in the chair. The 
 chair should be made comfortable with pillows, and 
 the patient kept warm with blankets. When possible 
 the chair should be carried carefully into an adjoining, 
 w^ell-aired room. The sick-room and bed should be 
 w^ell aired and made ready immediately for the patient's 
 return, as it may be necessary for her to be put back 
 to bed sooner than expected. 
 
 CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 
 
 While caring for the hair protect the pillow-case 
 with a towel. When the hair is tangled always hold 
 it between the tangle and the head to avoid pulling it. 
 Rubbing" a little vaseline into the scalp will help to 
 get the snarls out more easily. To avoid tangles the 
 
 624 
 
CARE OF THE HAIR, MOUTH, TEETH 
 
 33 
 
 hair should be brushed twice daily and braided in two 
 plaits. 
 
 If the scalp is kept clean by rubbing it occasionally 
 with a little alcohol and water (equal parts) the hair 
 always well brushed, and rubbed once in a while be- 
 tween a damp wash-rag, it may not be necessary to 
 wash it for quite a while. 
 
 When it must be washed, protect the pillow and 
 upper part of the bed with a rubber sheet covered 
 with a bath towel. Pull the pillows down under the 
 back so that the head extends somewhat beyond them 
 and over a basin of water. Have a slop jar at hand 
 in which to empty the water, and plenty of warm 
 water to wash the soap out thoroughly. Support the 
 head with one hand while you wash it. Dry the hair 
 well after washing. A little alcohol or hair tonic con- 
 taining it, well rubbed into the scalp, will lessen the 
 chance of the patient taking cold. 
 
 When the patient is unable to brush her own teeth 
 it is often easier to do it for her with clean gauze 
 wrapped around the index finger or the end of a piece 
 of whalebone, than with a tooth-brush. In illness 
 sordes (tartar) is apt to collect between the teeth un- 
 less they are very frequently and carefully cleansed. 
 
 Clean not only the teeth but also the gums, the roof 
 of the mouth and the tongue. Whalebone and gauze 
 are far better for this purpose than the brush. When 
 a patient is on milk diet her tongue and mouth should 
 be cleansed after each feeding. 
 
 Washing 
 the Hair 
 
 Care 
 of the 
 Teeth 
 
 Care 
 of the 
 Mouth 
 
 625 
 
34 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Some good month zvasJies are: 
 
 (i) Equal parts of listerine, boric acid 4 per cent, 
 lemon juice and water, 
 
 (2) Listerine, one ounce; peroxide of hydrogen, 
 three drachms ; alboHne, one drachm. 
 
 (3) Tincture of myrrh, half a drachm; soda bi- 
 carbonate, grains twenty ; aboline, one drachm. 
 
 (4) Listerine and water, equal parts. 
 
 BATHS AND BATHING 
 
 Perhaps there is nothing that will give greater re- 
 freshment to the invalid, obliged to He in bed day 
 after day, than a bath. Unless contrary to the physi- 
 cian's orders, one should be given every day. If given 
 in a warm room, without exposure, there is absolutely 
 no danger of the patient taking cold. To make mat- 
 ters doubly sure, before taking out of the bath blank- 
 ets, rub the patient all over with 50 per cent alcohol. 
 The Never give a bath until an hour after a meal. Be- 
 
 ^^Isath fore beginning see that the room is not only warm but 
 free from draughts, also that you have everything 
 needed at hand. It is best to have the water in a foot 
 tub ; it will keep warm longer than in a shallow basin. 
 Have a pitcher of hot water to keep the bath the re- 
 quired temperature. 
 
 A large blanket, face and bath towels, wash cloths, 
 alcohol and powder are the other necessary articles. 
 Slip the blanket under the patient. If it is not wide 
 enough to come well round her and also for the ends 
 
 626 
 
BATHS AND BATHING 35 
 
 to overlap, use two. The blanket may be covered by 
 a sheet if necessary but the wool next the body is de- 
 sirable. 
 
 Take off the night-gown and fold down the upper 
 bed clothes — the face and neck are washed first and 
 well dried, then the arms and hands. Be particular 
 about drying between the fingers, also around and in- 
 side the ears. Especially while washing the face have 
 a firm touch. Expose only one portion of the body 
 at a time, and that not longer than necessary. Dry 
 each part well before going on to the next ; in order 
 not to fatigue the patient, work as quickly as possible. 
 It should be necessary to turn her only once. The 
 towels should be warmed by wrapping them around a 
 hot water bottle. It is well to give hot broth or milk 
 soon after the bath. 
 
 To give a foot bath, loosen the bed clothes at the 
 bottom, protect the bed with a blanket, put the foot root Bath 
 tub, half full of water lengthwise on the bed, flex 
 the patient's knees, raise her feet with one hand while 
 you draw the tub under them with the other ; wrap 
 a blanket round tub and knees. 
 
 When mustard is desired, make a paste of the 
 mustard — about two tablespoonsful to a large foot 
 tub. The feet remain in about twenty minutes, the 
 bath being kept at the same temperature by the addi- 
 tion of hot water from time to time. Be careful in 
 adding the hot water not to pour it in near the feet. 
 
 The 
 
 627 
 
3^) 
 
 HOMIi CAIUi Ol' rilli SICK 
 
 Baths for 
 Reduction of 
 Temperature 
 
 "Brand" 
 Treatment 
 
 When the hath is over wraj) the feet in the hianket for 
 a few niinntes, then (hv. 
 
 To ^ive a halh h)r the icfhiclion of temperature a 
 lar^e rnhher (covered with a sheet) is necessary to 
 protect the hed, as a considerahle amount of water must 
 he used. 
 
 There are several (Ulferent kinds oi \)cx\ haths j^iven 
 for this j)urpose. Sometimes the patient is simply 
 s])on^ed off with cold water, at others a hot sponge 
 comes first, followed hy the cold which often consists 
 of equal parts of alcohol and water, made colder at 
 times hy the addition of ice. 'The doctor always orders 
 the temperature of the hath, and also the duration, 
 which is ^'■enerally from ten to twenty minutes. 
 
 in .i^ivini^- these l)aths, use slow, lon^-, cnrvinj^-, down- 
 ward strokes, and plenty of water. Where there is a 
 liij^h lemi)eratnre there is no dauj^-er of catchinj^;' cold, 
 and as eradiation of heat is the effect sout^ht, the pa- 
 tient should he exposed as much as ])Ossil)le. It is 
 olten desirahle, when the sponj^'in;^' is over, to ruh the 
 l^atient with alcohol, and fan till dry. 
 
 When ])ossiI)le, the "Ih-.'md" treatment is used for 
 the reduction of temperature (es])eciallv in txphoid). 
 Vov this, a porlahle tuh, which can he wheeled to the 
 hedside, is re(|uired. It would not he safe to ^\vq sucli 
 a bath without the assistance of a doctor or trained 
 nurse; it is, therefore, not worth while S"^in.q- into de- 
 tails, and, except in cases of lonq" continued fever, 
 the hed hath is c^enerally all that is necessary^ 
 
 628 
 
BATHS AND BATHING 
 
 37 
 
 When given a hot bath in a tub, fill the tub three- 
 fourths full of water ; the exact temperature will be 
 ordered by the doctor, usually it is from io6 degrees 
 F to 1 lo degrees F. The doctor also states how long 
 he wishes the patient to remain in the bath. When 
 giving a hot bath of any kind, for any purpose, al- 
 ways apply cold cloths or an ice cap to the head. A 
 hot drink given either while the patient is in the tub 
 
 Hot Baths 
 to Induce 
 Perspiration 
 or Quiet 
 the Nerves 
 
 BATH THERMOMETER 
 
 or after the return to bed will further induce perspira- 
 tion. Mustard is sometimes added to these baths, just 
 as it is to the foot bath. 
 
 While in the tub the patient's pulse must be noted 
 carefully, as such baths are sometimes very depressing 
 to the heart. After the bath the patient must go to 
 bed immediately, and remain there well covered, and 
 care must Idc taken to have warm clothing going from 
 the bath to the bed. These baths are also given to 
 children in convulsions. 
 
 The hot-pack, or sweat, is generally considered a bet- 
 ter medium for inducing i)erspiration. To give this 
 protect the bed with a rubber sheet or oil cloth, wring 
 out two old blankets in water 130 degrees F, put one 
 under the patient and around one arm and leg, the 
 
 Precautions 
 
 The Hot pai 
 or Sweat 
 
 629 
 
38 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 other over the patient and around the other arm and 
 
 GIVING A HOT-PACK 
 
 leg; put an ice cap or cold compress on the head, a 
 hot water bag at the feet, another over the heart, 
 
 HOT-FACK COMPLETEIJ 
 
 others along the side, over all wrrap a couple of dry 
 blankets; give a hot drinks The patient generally re- 
 
 630 
 
BATHS AND BATHING 
 
 39 
 
 mains in the pack from twenty minutes to half an hour. 
 The pulse should be taken every five minutes, and as 
 
 HOT WATER BOTTLES 
 
 the hands are under the blankets it must be taken at 
 the temporal artery. 
 
 HOT WATER BOTTLE FOR THE SPINE 
 
 After being taken out of the pack the patient should 
 be rolled in a dry blanket and remain so for an hour. 
 
 631 
 
40 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Salt Baths 
 
 Water Bottle for the Throat 
 
 Except where a light weight is desirable, as over 
 the heart and abdomen, a good substitute for the rub- 
 ber hot water bag is a stone bottle ; even a glass one can 
 be used, and if a wire a couple of inches longer than 
 
 the bottle is put into it 
 to act as a heat con- 
 ductor, it can be filled 
 with quite hot water 
 without breaking. When 
 using hot water bags or 
 bottles of any kind, pre- 
 cautions must be taken 
 to avoid burning the 
 patient, which is very easily done, especially with old 
 people, or where from any cause, the circulation of the 
 blood is sluggish or the tissues in poor condition ; 
 therefore, see that the bottles are tightly corked, that 
 they are well and securely covered (flannel bags slight- 
 ly larger than the bottles make the best covering) ; 
 never put them too near the patient, and remember that 
 when the patient is restless the bags are apt to slip 
 nearer than you intended them to be. 
 
 Salt baths are given for their tonic effects. A bath 
 sufficiently strong to redden the skin and have an ex- 
 hilarating effect will require ten pounds of ordinary 
 sea salt to a bath tub about half full of water. 
 
 The average standard temperature for baths is as 
 follows : 
 
 632 
 
SICK ROOM METHODS 41 
 
 Cold 33°-65° Fahr. Tepid.85°- 92° Fahr. . 
 
 Cool 67°-75° Fahr. Warm92"- 98° Fahr. 
 
 Temperate. 75°-85° Fahr. Hot. .98°-! 12° Fahr. 
 
 The regular bath thermometer is encased in wood 
 to protect it from hard usage, but the ordinary atmo- 
 spheric thermometer will answer the purpose just as 
 well. Mix the water well before taking the temper- 
 ature. 
 
 SICK ROOM METHODS 
 
 Taking and Recording Temperature, Pulse and Respiration 
 Observation and Recording of Symptoms 
 
 • The heat of the blood is ascertained by means of the ciinicai 
 clinical thermometer. These thermometers are self Thermometer 
 registering and vary in delicacy, the finest ones regis- 
 tering in one minute, others in from three to five min- 
 utes. The more expensive ones magnify the scale, 
 and are therefore easier for the novice to read. Hick's 
 thermometer is probably the best. 
 
 The temperature is taken either in the mouth, rec- 
 tum or armpit. Before using the thermometer the 
 mercury must be shaken down to 95°. Be careful not 
 to shake it into the bulb, or the thermometer will be 
 rendered useless and also be careful not to hit it 
 against anything, as it will break very easily. While 
 in constant use it is best kept in a glass containing a 
 little boric acid or listerine, with some soft cotton in 
 the bottom of the glass. 
 
 633 
 
4-i 
 
 HOME CARE or '11 IE SICK 
 
 VVIicii l.ikiii'' llic IciiipiTaliirc l)v inoiilli he sure 
 
 J eniperature ^ • 
 
 i,y Mouth (|,.^j ,1,^. p;iij,.,,| |,;is not liad aiiytliin^ lo cat (^r drink 
 
 recently. I'lace the end of llie instrnment 
 containing' the mercury under the tongue, 
 on either sidi-. See that the hps are tiglitly 
 closer] all the time the therniometer is in the 
 iHonlh, and do not leave it in place longer 
 than necessary. 
 
 Never take the temperature of a de- 
 lirious patient nor a child hy the mouth; 
 (hey are likely to l)ite off ihe hulh and 
 swallow the mercury. If this accident 
 should occur give white of c^^ immediately 
 and nolify the ])li\sician. In such cases it 
 is always safer to take the temperature hy 
 rectum and il is also expedient to take a 
 rectal lemperature when the patient is very 
 ill, for this is the most accurate metluMl. 
 
 Tie fore inserting the thermometer, the 
 
 hull) should he oiled and precautions taken 
 
 to have the rectum free from faeces. Five 
 
 minutes should he allowed for registration. 
 
 The temperature will he one degree higher 
 
 ciiiiiciii lli'iii when taken hy mouth. 
 
 Tii.Tiuonirtcr 'rile axillary temperature will he from 
 
 tluce-tenths to half a degree lower than the mouth. 
 
 The anii|)il must he wij)ed thoroughly hefore taking; 
 
 the thermometer is (hen |)laci"d in the hollow, and kept 
 
 in place hy holding the arm close to the side and Ilex- 
 
 
 634 
 
SICK ROOM METHODS 
 
 43 
 
 ing the elbow so that the liand rests on the opposite 
 shoulder. It will take ten minutes for the thermometer 
 to register. 
 
 The normal temperature of the human body is from 
 98° F. to 99° F. The temperature is apt to be high- 
 est between 4 p. m. and 8 p. m. and it reaches the 
 lowest ebb about 3 a. m. This fact makes it essential 
 that special care be taken of the sick m the early hours 
 of the morning, the lowering temperature indicating 
 a lower vitality. 
 
 Though a rise of temperature is always to be re- 
 garded with suspicion it must be remembered that 
 many causes (especially with children) may create a 
 slight deviation from the normal, without anything 
 serious being the matter. Constipation will often cause 
 a rise of temperature, sometimes even a slight cold, 
 attack of indigestion, or undue excitement will do the 
 same, while profuse perspiration or diarrhoea is apt 
 to cause a sub-normal temperature. 
 
 A sub-normal temperature is far more dangerous 
 than the same number of degrees above normal. If a 
 patient's temperature drops to 97.5" or 97"^ she should 
 be rolled in blankets, a hot water bag put at the feet, 
 another over the heart, and a cup of hot coffee or milk 
 given. If the temperature does not soon respond to 
 this treatment the doctor should be notified. 
 
 The following table gives the different variations 
 of temperature : 
 
 Normal 
 Temperature 
 
 High 
 Temperature 
 
 Sub -Normal 
 Temperature 
 
 635 
 
44 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Hyperpyrexia. . . .105° and over, extremely dangerous 
 
 High Fever 103° 105° 
 
 Moderate Fever 101° 103° 
 
 Sub-febrile 99/^" 101° 
 
 Normal 98° 99^° 
 
 Subnormal 97° 98° 
 
 Collapse 95° 97° 
 
 Algid Collapse Below 95°, extremely dangerous 
 
 Temperature A record of the temperature is of great value, not 
 
 only in diagnosis, but also in watching the course of 
 the disease ; it should therefore be charted every time 
 it is taken. This can be done in figures, but the reg- 
 ular clinical temperature chart conveys a clearer idea 
 of how the temperature is running. The temperature 
 should Ijc taken at the same time each day ; when it 
 does not deviate much from the normal twice a day, 
 morning and evening, is sufficient ; otherwise it should 
 be taken every three or four hours, according to the 
 nature of the case. 
 Che Pulse A thorougli knowledge of the pulse can only be 
 
 gained by constant study and practice. It takes many 
 months of careful observation of the numerous cases 
 in the hospital ward, before the medical student or 
 nurse can readily discern between the various charac- 
 teristics of the different pulses. It is, therefore, im- 
 possible to go very deeply into the subject here. 
 
 The three principal things to be learned are: (i) 
 How to count it; (2) to discern if it is regular or ir- 
 regular; (3) if strong or weak. 
 
 636 
 
.SVCVs' NOOM MI'/J I/OUS 45 
 
 To count llic jnilse places the index and middle fin- to count 
 gcrs on the wrist, on tlie thunih side, where the ra^hal 
 artery can easily Ix- felt, ("mint it for a full miiintc, di- 
 viding llic iiiiiinh- inio (juarters, as you can tlien tell 
 if the fr(f|neney oi the pulse is regular or irrej.(ular. 
 lor instance, if you count fifteen heats in one (juarter 
 and twenty in another, you will know that the fre- 
 (juency of the ])ulse is irrej^^ular. 
 
 If some l)eats are strong- and others weak the (|ua!- 
 ily of the i)ulse is irrej^'ular. 15y careful considera- 
 tion of the pulse every time you take it, it soon hecomes 
 jKJSsiljle to realize where there is a difference in ihe 
 quality of the pulse; that is, when it is stronger or 
 weaker. 
 
 The pulse can he taken at the temporal .irtery when ^ , 
 
 ' ' ■' Pulsft by 
 
 for any reason it is impossihle to take it at the wrist, Tejnporai 
 it also can Ijc felt in the ^rr^in. 
 
 The averaj^e nrjrmal ])ulse is: 
 
 In men from 60 to 70 heats per minute 
 
 Jn wrjmen from 65 to Ho heats per minute 
 
 In childrcMi from 90 to 100 heats per minutct 
 
 Just as the temi;erature, even in health, is affected 
 by certain conditions, so is the pulse; food, exercise, 
 excitement, will all cause an increase in tlic ]julse rate. 
 
 The ]ju]se should al\va\s he taken and recorded al 
 the samct time as the tem]>erature. The pulse is gen- 
 erally written in figures. When there is any differ- 
 ence in the fjuality, or if it is irregular this also should 
 be recorded. 
 
 637 
 
The 
 Respiration 
 
 46 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 A record of the respiration is also often required. 
 The respiration being more or less under the control 
 of the patient it is never wise to let her know that you 
 are taking it ; therefore, keep hold of her wrist, as 
 though you were still counting her pulse, and watch 
 the rise and fall of the chest. If you find it hard to 
 
 Keeping 
 Records 
 
 Jfame .iJiiamjai—Tord 
 
 .._ 
 
 
 Z)afe Janu. ar\^ 1 <l a 4, 
 
 _ 
 
 Hour. 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
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 ^ . -,- 
 
 t 
 
 
 Houi- 
 
 * s ♦* s 
 
 *-*5t»<; 
 
 t * <! +« i 
 
 **4V« i 
 
 
 
 
 :' .:^; 
 
 
 . . 1 . , , 
 
 
 1 . , 
 
 
 Tmp. 
 Iu9 
 
 
 ■ ;„ ''■•-. 
 
 
 
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 TEMPERATURE, PULSE, AND RESPIRATION CHART 
 
 count by simply looking, hold the patient's hand on 
 her chest, then you can feel the motion as well. This 
 is generally the easier method for the beginner. Count 
 it as you do the pulse, for a full minute in quarters. 
 The inspiration and expiration count as one breath. 
 
 Besides the temperature, pulse and respiration, a 
 record must be kept of all medication given, and also 
 of all changes in the patient's condition. If the pa- 
 tient has pain note it, stating where the pain is and 
 
 638 
 
SICK ROOM METHODS 47 
 
 if it be continuous or only in paroxysms. When medi- 
 cine is given to relieve the pain state with what re- 
 sult. When the patient is on liquid diet, the amount 
 of fluids taken during the twenty-four hours should 
 be charted every morning. 
 
 Mark every movement of the bowels ; observe the 
 
 U.ne Dr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , fc^lioveS. :>c><f.e» 
 
 
 -cS>.-, 
 
 .-.V.^^l. •^Iv.'c.t c. ..t'.oK- 
 
 ^. Ov^vi^^A.-v-«->.OlV\X. c)\3i,.\Xv^^-^ 
 
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 A '^^.'v^^C?^^^.^<, ^ Jt^?Vt.\V ^■< V" «» " ' 
 
 
 BEDSIDE NOTES AS MADE IN A HOSPITAL 
 
 movements carefully to see if there is anything abnor- 
 mal in their appearance. If so, not only describe it in 
 your record, but save the movement for the doctor's 
 inspection. The same thing should be done if the 
 patient vomits. 
 
 When there is not sufficient urine voided, report it ; 
 also if there is anything untoward in its appearance. 
 
 639 
 
48 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Important 
 Items 
 
 Forty ounces is the amount that should normally be 
 voided in twenty-four hours. In fevers there is apt 
 to be less, and what is passed will be hig-hly colored. 
 In nervous diseases, on the contrary, there is likely 
 to be a larger amount of a pale color. Perspiration, a 
 chill or chilly feeling, coughing, expectoration, restless- 
 ness, the amount of discharge from wounds, are all 
 items of import of which the doctor must know the 
 details to treat the patient understandingly. He never 
 will fully know them unless they are clearly and con- 
 cisely written down at the time they happen. 
 
 The accompanying temperature chart and record is 
 an example of hospital practice. 
 
 Rules 
 
 THE GIVING OF MEDICINE 
 
 A few rules to be remembered in giving medicines 
 are: 
 
 1. Always give exactly wdiat the doctor orders, 
 neither more nor less. 
 
 2. Always give medicine on time — if a dose is due 
 at twelve, give it at twelve and not at half past. 
 
 3. Medicines intended to be taken before meals 
 should be given twenty minutes before meal-time, 
 those to be taken after eating, twenty minutes after 
 the meal is finished. 
 
 4. Never give medicine without reading the label 
 on the bottle twice ; before and again after pouring 
 it out. 
 
 640 
 
GIVING OF MEDICINE 49 
 
 5. When pouring medicine always hold the label 
 on the upper side, to avoid defacing it. 
 
 6. Do not use spoons for measuring for they are Measuring 
 never accurate; small graduated glasses, which are 
 infinitely better, can be bought at any drug store for 
 
 about ten cents. 
 
 7. When pouring hold the mark of the quantity you 
 require on a level with your eye. 
 
 8. Always shake the bottle before pouring out the 
 medicine. 
 
 9. The bottle should always be recorked immedi- 
 ately after use, for many medicines contain volatile 
 substances and are apt to become either stronger or 
 weaker than intended, if left uncorked. 
 
 10. Medicines containing iron shoulo be taken 
 through a glass tube or straw, as they discolor the 
 teeth. 
 
 1 1 . Some medicines, notably several that are given 
 for coughs, should be given undiluted, while others 
 on account of their irritating properties should be 
 very w^ell diluted. Never dilute more than necessary, 
 for the addition of a large quantity of water often 
 renders a disagreeable dose still more unpleasant to 
 take. 
 
 12. Holding a piece of ice in the mouth for a short 
 
 time before taking medicine will often render a dis- away 
 
 ^ the Taste 
 
 agreeable fla^^or less noticeable ; a drink of seltzer aft- 
 erward will help to ''take away the taste." Castor oil 
 given with lemon juice, a piece of ice small enough to 
 
 641 
 
so 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Powders 
 and Fills 
 
 Injections 
 
 swallow, seltzer added just before taking, and a drink 
 of seltzer after, is not at all unpalatable. Holding 
 the nose while taking medicine will also diminish the 
 taste. 
 
 13. Insoluble powders such as calomel, bismuth and 
 acetanilid should be placed far back on the tongue 
 and washed down with a swallow of water. Those 
 with a disagreeable taste can be given in jam or bread 
 or encased in w^afers or capsules which can be bought 
 for the purpose. 
 
 14. Pills also can be made easier to swallow by 
 giving in bread or jelly. Unless pills are freshly made, 
 they should l)e pulverized, as they soon become so dry 
 and hard that they will not readily dissolve in the 
 stomach. 
 
 15. Never buy a large quantity of medicine at a 
 time, there are very few kinds that will not deteriorate 
 by keeping; and because a medicine is beneficial in 
 one case, do not imagine that you can give it to every- 
 one whom you may think has the same ailment. 
 
 16. Medicines should be kept in a cool, dry place 
 and properly labeled. All poisons should be marked as 
 such and kept under lock and key. 
 
 Medicine is occasionally given by rectum, either 
 when a local effect is desired or when the stomach is 
 unable to retain it. 
 
 When medicine is given by rectum it is generally or- 
 dered well diluted. The water, added for this purpose, 
 should be warm enough to make the injection about 
 
 642 
 
GIVING OF MEDICINE 
 
 51 
 
 100° F. A rubber rectal tube, or a large size rubber 
 catheter, connected by a glass connecting tube with a 
 piece of rubber tubing about eighteen inches long, 
 into the further end of which has been fitted a small 
 glass funnel, are the best in giving medicinal enemata. 
 
 Let warm water run 
 
 through the tube to be sure 
 
 that it is in working order ; 
 
 this will also heat it and 
 
 thus avoid cooling the med- 
 
 Porceiain Feeding Cup ication. Grease the tube 
 
 well, with oil or vaseline, and before inserting it fill 
 
 the funnel with the solution, allow half of it to run 
 
 GLASS DRINKING CUP 
 
 through, back into the pitcher, pinch the rubber to pre- 
 vent the rest running through. This is done to avoid 
 getting air into the intestine. 
 
 I^Vjr sedative enemata (these generally consist of 
 bromide or chloral) the tube is only inserted about six 
 
 643 
 
5-; 
 
 no Ml'. ( .iKi: or I III' .\i( K 
 
 Nutiitiv«i 
 Kiit^iiiiita 
 
 SiippoNitorlMH 
 
 iiicliis, lull Ini ;,liiiiiil.il iii}^ ('iiciii.'il.'i (l)i";iii<lv <»r wliisky 
 and sail sniiilioii ) aii<l mil rilivc i-iiciiiala, llic liihc is in- 
 st'i"l((| ahniil loinlrcii iiK Iks, and a small pillow placccl 
 Ixiii-alii llic liips lo lu-l|) IIh- ni)vvar(| llovv. WIkmi ^\v- 
 iii^; liu'sc ('iK'iiias have llic |)ali(iil li<- <»ii licr hack. 
 Molding'; a lidded lowcl l«» llu- aims, alltr llic iciiMival 
 ol llic liil)i', will lulp llu- |)ali(iil to rclaiii llu- iii- 
 
 jc(li< )!l. 
 
 Niiliilivi' ciu'iiiala i^ciicrallv coiisisl ol" |)( ploiii/fd 
 
 milk, wliilc ol c^K, •'''''' '""' *'"*■ •'' '''*■ '"■'■' |"<piii"it- 
 lioiis made csprriallN' loi llial ptiiposc; l)iil every 
 doctor lias liis (»wii lormiila and will specih liow lie 
 wishes it prepared. When patients are having niitrr- 
 li\'e eiiemata eoiislaiilh llie\ iiiiisl lia\c a ( leaiisin^ 
 enema dail\, and this iiinsi he ^iven al least an lionr 
 heloif llie iie\l iiiilrilivc one is due, and not till two 
 or tlii'ee hours altiT the last one has heen ^ivcn. 
 
 Staitli and other eiiiollieiil eiiemata are sometimes 
 j;iveii in diarrhoeas ami d\seiiler\. To prepare ihi' 
 starch mix a teaspooiiliil ol l:iiiiidr\' starch in (oM 
 water, add a Icacnplnl ol hot water, let it <(tiiic to the 
 lioil. .\ lew dro|)S ol laiidanmn are soiiieliiiics addi-d 
 to this; when it is oidcicd, he very aeemalc in count- 
 iiit- the drops. 
 
 The suppositoiN' is another method ol jiMvini; reital 
 iiieduatioii. This is a conical shape<l pre|>aialion ol 
 eocoa hiillei in which the re(|uired drii^ is incoipo- 
 laled. It IS oiled and i;eiill\ insciti-d, pointed end lore- 
 most, the paliciil hiiii; on the lell side-. 
 
 ()'1'1 
 
(,/riN(j ol' MI'.DICINI: 
 
 5.^ 
 
 Medicalioi) for llic tliroal is (jftcii given by means 
 of the at(>nn/( r. V\ li< ii using tliis see that the pa- 
 tient's tongue is held (i<nvn sufficiently in allow ihe 
 spray to reach the affected parts, and Ije careful not 
 1() 1(1 the cud of the atomizer touch Ihc hack of the 
 l)atient's throat, as this tends to induce vomiting. 
 
 The inhalation of vapor is another method of con- 
 veying medication to the throat and also to tiie bron- 
 chial tubes and lungs. Mix the medicine with boiling 
 
 1 1 Y I »ODRRMIC SYRINO E 
 
 water and j^nt in a small kettle over an alcohol lamp. 
 .With stiff brown |>ajj(T, make a cone, one <-iid to \\\ 
 over the month and nose, the other over the spout of 
 the kettle. 
 
 When rapid absorption is necessary medicine is 
 sometimes given hypodermically. The hyj)odermic is 
 a graduaterl syringe to which a hollow needle is at- 
 tached. As hy])odermic injections are attended with 
 great clanger unless properly given, no one should at- 
 tempt to administer medicine this way witiiout being 
 |>ersr>nally instructed l)y a physician or nurse. In 
 giving medication hyj)odermically, the greatest clean- 
 liness should be (jbserved ; the flesh, where the injec- 
 
 Inhalatione 
 
 Hypodermic 
 Iiij«<;tions 
 
 645 
 
54 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 tion is to be made, must be well washed with alcohol, 
 the needles should be attached to the syringe and alco- 
 hol drawn into the syringe and expelled several times 
 before the medicine is drawn in. When the syringe is 
 filled with the required amount, expel the air by point- 
 ing the needle upward and gently pressing the piston 
 till a drop appears at the point of the needle. Be care- 
 ful not to let the needle touch anything after it has 
 been cleaned — if it should, hold it in the alcohol again 
 for a minute before inserting. The injection may be 
 given in the outer side of the arms, thighs or abdomen. 
 Hold the flesh between the thumb and first finger of 
 the left hand, plunge the needle in with one quick 
 downward movement, inject the fluid slowly by gently 
 pressing the piston. Draw the needle out quickly. Rub 
 the spot where the injection was made for a few sec- 
 onds to hasten absorption. 
 
 Clean the instrument with alcohol before putting 
 it away. 
 
 PURGATIVE, ENEMATA, DOUCHES AND CATHETER- 
 IZATION 
 
 Cleansing The purgative, or as it is also called, cleansing en- 
 
 ema, is given as its name indicates for the purpose of 
 washing out the intestines. It is generally resorted to 
 when cathartic medicine fails to act, when immediate 
 catharsis is necessary, or when for any reason the pa- 
 tient is unable to take a cathartic by mouth. 
 
 The long rubber rectal tube is the best appliance for 
 
 Enema 
 
 646 
 
ENEMAS 
 
 55 
 
 the giving of such enemata; the water is injected 
 higher into the bowel and there is a steadier flow than 
 when any of the bulb syringes are used. This can be 
 attached by means of a connecting tube to the tube of 
 the ordinary fountain syringe bag. See that the stop 
 cock is on the tube. 
 
 The cleansing enema generally consists of a soap 
 
 Soap Enema 
 
 GLASS DOUCHE NOZZLES 
 
 suds made with ''ivory" or castile soap; the froth of 
 which should be removed as it contains too much air ; 
 the temperature should be about 98° F. Make the soap 
 suds in a pitcher, pour it into the bag, let some run 
 through the tube to warm it and expel the air, shut 
 the stop cock, grease the rectal tube. Hang or hold 
 the bag not more than three feet higher than the 
 patient. 
 
 The bed should always be protected with a rubber 
 sheet and large towel, the patient lies on her left side 
 with the knees well flexed. The tube should be in- 
 
 647 
 
56 HOME CARIi OP Tllli SICK 
 
 serted very |:^cntly, never use force, let the water run 
 in slowly. If much ])ain is f^iven shut the water off 
 occasionally, for a minute or two. When a sufficient 
 quantity has heen jL;iven (two to three ])ints for an 
 adult, one for a child) remove the tube {|uickly, l)ut 
 j:;;"ently, and press a folde(l towel lo the anus. The 
 lluid to do much t^ood should he retained from fifteen 
 to twenty minutes. 
 
 After use the tube must be carefully cleansed, wash 
 it in warm soap suds and water, afterward let a (|uan- 
 tity of hot water run through it, hang- it up lengthwise 
 to drip till perfectly dry. 
 
 When used for more than one person the tube 
 should always be boiled for five minutes after use. 
 
 Douches are given, as a rule, either for cleanliness 
 Douches ,)j- ^(^ relieve inflammation. When used for the former 
 j)urpose the solution should be of a temperature rang- 
 ing from ioo° F. to iio° ¥. When given to relieve in- 
 dammation it is generally re(iuired very hot even ii8° 
 or 120° P., and great care nuist then be taken not to 
 l)urn the patient by having it any hotter; mix the 
 water well before you test it. Some disinfectant is 
 often added, carbolic or Ijichloride being the ones most 
 frequently used ; they should, however, never be used 
 without a doctor's order. In giving, the patient lies 
 on her l)ack, have the douche i)an ])laced under her 
 ])roperly so that the return (low of the water will run 
 into it. Put a ])ill()w under the small of the back. 
 Pefore insertin<j- the nozzle let the water How through 
 
 Vaginal 
 
 648 
 
DOUCHES 57 
 
 llic tube, to expel the air. Insert j^cntly and move 
 it around wliile in. 
 
 'I'lie douclie nozzle should always he hoiled (jr 
 washed in l)oric acid, or other disinfectant, after use. 
 (jlass douche nozzles are preferable to any other. They 
 can be attached to the ordinary fountain syringe. 
 
 Catheterization inipro])erly performed is fraught catheterizatio] 
 with so much danger to the patient that it must not be 
 
 GLASS CATHETER 
 
 attempted till further instruction than can be given in 
 writing is obtained. 
 
 Catheterization is necessary when the patient is un- 
 able to void urine naturally, but there are many simple 
 devices which should all be tried before this is resorted 
 to; for instance, put hot water in the l)ed pan, allow 
 water to run frr)m a faucet within hearing (if this is 
 impossible pour water fn)m one vessel to another), 
 squeeze a sponge dipped in warm water over the lower 
 part of the abrlomen, or hot stupes can be applied, and, 
 this failing, the stupes can ])e alternated with ice. 
 
 649 
 
be Taken 
 
 58 IlOMli CARU 01' 'J'JJJt .SJCK 
 
 111 |)rci)ariii^ to catlic'tcrizc it is necessary to exer- 
 cise not only the greatest cleanliness but asepsis. The 
 catheter (j^lass ones are preferable for women) should 
 be l)oilt'(| for five minutes. Have at hand some small 
 sterile swabs (see chapter on ase])sis) in a solution of 
 boric acid. ]*ut the patient on the bed pan (leavinj^ it 
 furtlu-r in front than for ordinary use), have the ])a- 
 ticnt's kiu'c'S Hexed and separated, drape a sheet 
 around her legs, leaving the vulva exposed. Then 
 wash llic hands well with soap and hot water, soaking 
 Caro to them afterwards in a solution of bichloride of mer- 
 cury, i-iooo. With the left hand se])aratc the labia, 
 and carefully wash all around the meatus ( the o])en- 
 iiig to lilt' urethra, the tube leading to the bladder) ; 
 into this oj)eiiing the catheter is then carefully intro- 
 duced, il must not be forced forward if any obstruc- 
 tion is met with, but withdrawn slightly and the course 
 changed. 
 
 When the bladder is very much distended it should 
 not be em])tied entirely at one time; when a pint or 
 a i)iiil and a half has l)een withdrawn remove the 
 catheter and insert it again four or five hours later. 
 
 Before removing the catheter, the index finger is 
 placed over the end ; this j)revents drops of urine 
 falling upon the bed. 
 
 650 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 POULTICES AND FOMENTATIONS 
 
 59 
 
 Poultices and fomentations are applied for the relief 
 of localized pain, when caused by inflammation. The 
 heat, by dilating the superficial blood vessels, draws 
 the blood from the congested area. 
 
 The linseed poultice is the one most generally used. 
 To make it, stir the meal slowly and evenly into water 
 while it is boiling. When it is thick enough not to 
 run, boil it a minute more ; remove from the fire and 
 beat it briskly. When properly made it is perfectly 
 smooth, and just stiff enough to drop away from the 
 spoon. Spread it on a piece of muslin the required 
 size and shape, leaving an inch margin all round to 
 turn over. The side which is to go next to the patient 
 is best covered with cheesecloth or gauze. This is cut 
 slightly larger than the muslin, so as to turn back 
 over it to keep the contents of the poultice in place. 
 • Few poultices should be more than half an inch 
 thick. They should always be a])plied as hot as the 
 patient can possibly stand them. To keep the poultice 
 warm while taking it to the bedside it can be placed 
 between two hot plates or rolled in a piece of hot 
 flannel. The flannel can be left over it when applied 
 if there is no oil muslin or oil paper to be obtained ; 
 these latter are preferable, however, as they are very 
 light and keep in the heat and moisture better. 
 
 The poultice is kept in place by a bandage. A muslin 
 binder is the best means for keeping a chest poultice 
 in place. Poultices should always be shaped to fit the 
 
 Linseed 
 Poultice 
 
 Applying 
 
 651 
 
Sinapisms 
 
 6d home care OE the SICK 
 
 affected part They shoukl l)e changed at least every 
 two hours, 
 starch Starch poultices are used in certain skin diseases. 
 
 Poultice q^|-j^. starch is mixed with a little cold water, then 
 enough hoiling water added to make a thick paste. 
 It is hoiled, spread and applied in the same manner as 
 the flaxseed. 
 
 The cotton jacket or "dry poultice" is made by 
 lacking a layer of non-absorbent cotton or wadding 
 between two pieces of cheesecloth, shaped for the 
 chest, and is excellent to keep on for a few days after 
 other poultices have been discontinued. 
 
 Sinapisms relieve ])ain through the agency of the 
 mustard which, by irritating the sensory nerves, causes 
 the dilatation of the su])erficial blood vessels — under 
 the point of application — and the consequent lessening 
 of the congestion in the inflamed tissue. Sinapisms 
 are made of flour, mustard, and tepid water, in vary- 
 ing ])roportions. Those for a man are generally made 
 one ])art mustard to four of flour ; for a woman one 
 ])art nuistard to six of l]our ; for a child one part 
 mustard to ten of flour. The water used should always 
 be tepid ; cold water feels uncomfortable to the pa- 
 tient, while hot destroys the virtue of the mustard. 
 The flour and mustard are first mixed well together, 
 care being taken to crush all lumps of mustard ; enough 
 water is then slowly added to make a thick paste, 
 which is spread on muslin and covered with gauze. 
 The sinapism is generally left on from fifteen to 
 
 652 
 
FOMENTATIONS 
 
 6i 
 
 twenty minutes, Init it must be watched carefully, and 
 removed as soon as the surface of the skin is well 
 reddened, as otherwise it will blister. After the re- 
 moval of the sinapism the skin must be washed, and 
 if a little vaseline be rubbed on, this will allay the 
 irritation. 
 
 The usual method of applying fomentations is to 
 have two pieces of flannel in use, applying them alter- 
 nately and changing every three minutes for twenty 
 minutes. The easiest way is to have the water boiling 
 over an alcohol or gas lamp near the bedside. 
 
 Put two layers of coarse, soft flannel (an old blanket 
 is good) in the center of a towel ; dip this into boiling 
 water, wring it out by twisting the ends of the towel, 
 give the flannel a quick shake, and apply the flannel ; 
 cover with oiled muslin or oiled paper. 
 
 As hot applications promote suppuration there are 
 conditions when their use is contra-indicated and cold 
 applications are ordered. 
 
 The most effectual way of applying continuous cold 
 is by means of the ice cap. The pieces of ice put into 
 the cap should be about the size of a walnut ; it should 
 never be more than half filled, and the air should be 
 expelled before putting on the cover. Salt is some- 
 times mixed with the ice to intensify the cold. The 
 cap should be tied in an old handkerchief or piece of 
 gauze to prevent the rubber from coming next the skin, 
 as the extreme cold is very irritating, and may even 
 produce frost bites. 
 
 Fomentations 
 
 Cold 
 Applications 
 
 653 
 
62 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Ice Caps When ice caps arc being- used all the ice must not 
 
 be allowed to melt before the cap is refilled, as the 
 reaction caused by the resulting- change of temperature 
 is very injurious, especially if there is any inflamma- 
 tion. 
 
 ICE CAPS 
 
 Compresses For the application of cold to the head, old hand- 
 
 kerchiefs or pieces of soft gauze can be used, folded 
 so that they will come down well over the temples, but 
 not touch the pillow. They must not be wide enough 
 to wet the hair, or come far down over the eyes. Com- 
 presses should not be made too wet. The best scheme 
 is to have a piece of ice in a basin, and two compresses, 
 then while one is on the forehead the other can remain 
 rolled round the ice. 
 
 Compresses for the eye should be small and very 
 light. If both eyes need the compresses two separate 
 ones should be used. If only one eye is afifected be 
 careful that the compress on it does not touch the 
 other, lest it should become infected. If gauze is used 
 for compresses always turn the ends in, that the 
 ravellings may not annoy the patient. 
 
 654 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK. 
 
 PARTI. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a lig"ht g-rade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
 the lesson paper . Use your own words, so that your in- 
 structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry 
 out the directions given in the text, if possible, before answer- 
 ing the questions. 
 
 1. What is expected of the nurse? 
 
 2. Give the period of incubation, first symptoms, 
 
 and time required for isolation for: (a) 
 Mumps, (b) Measles, (c) Smallpox, (d) 
 Scarlet fever, (e) Diphtheria, 
 
 3. What are the causes of cholera infantum? 
 
 Symptoms? What are the symptoms of in- 
 testinal obstruction ? 
 
 4. What are the most common causes of convul- 
 
 sions in children ? What should be done ? 
 
 5. What are the primary symptoms of typhoid 
 
 fever? Of pneumonia? Of meningitis? 
 
 6. Wliat is the difference between false croup and 
 
 true croup in symptoms, danger, and treat- 
 ment ? 
 
 7. Describe the ideal sick room. 
 
 8. How should the sweeping and dusting be done? 
 
 How prepare for the night? 
 
 9. Why is ventilation in the sick room important? 
 
 Describe different methods. 
 10. Make the bed as explained in the lesson and then 
 describe the process. 
 
 655 
 
HOME CARE OE THE SICK 
 
 11. Endeavor to change the bedclothes with a per- 
 
 son in bed and report your success. 
 
 12. The points suggested in the section on the ''Care 
 
 of the Patient" are all essential. What ones 
 might you neglect if you had no experience? 
 
 13. What must be guarded against in lifting and 
 
 moving a helpless patient ? 
 
 14. How would you change a patient from one bed 
 
 to another? 
 
 15. What are bed sores and how can they be guarded 
 
 against ? 
 
 16. How would you wash the hair? 
 
 17. Describe the process of giving a bath in bed. 
 
 18. How can the heat of the blood be found? Why 
 
 is it important? 
 
 19. How would you count the pulse? 
 
 20. Mention some of the points in a patient's condi- 
 
 tion that should be noted and recorded ? 
 
 21. What rules should be observed in giving medi- 
 
 cines ? 
 
 22. What are the different kinds of enemata? How 
 
 given ? 
 
 23. What devices can be tried before catheterization 
 
 is attempted ? 
 
 24. How is a linseed poultice made and applied ? 
 
 25. What is a sinapism? A fomentation? 
 
 26. How is cold applied to relieve pain? 
 
 27. Do you understand everything in this lesson? 
 
 What questions occur to you? 
 
 Note.— After completing the test sign your full name. 
 
 656 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 PART II 
 
 CONTAGION; DISINFECTION— NUHSING IN CONTA- 
 GIOUS DISEASES 
 
 We have learned in our study of Household Bac- 
 teriology that nearly all diseases, especially those com- 
 ing under the head of infectious and contagious, are 
 caused by certain species of bacteria. 
 
 If we would be immune from these diseases, then 
 we must do everything in our power to exclude these 
 germs. Cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh air, 
 are the first requisites for their exclusion ; and, wher 
 disease has entered, proper isolation and disinfection to 
 prevent their spread. 
 
 By disinfection we mean destruction of the bacteria 
 by use of certain chemicals or heat. Heat, when it 
 can be used, is always the surest and quickest method. 
 The rules for disinfection, or sterilizing by heat, will 
 be given under the head of ''Surgical Operations at 
 Home." 
 
 The disinfectants most commonly used in illness 
 are bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, for the hands and 
 utensils, and carbolic acid, 1-20, for the clothes, instru- 
 ments, etc. Bichloride is the stronger disinfectant, 
 but as it discolors clothes and instruments it should 
 not be used for them. 
 
 Disinfection 
 
 657 
 
Bichloride 
 of Mercury 
 
 Carbolic 
 Acid 
 
 Infection 
 
 and 
 
 Contagion 
 
 64 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 MAKING DISINFECTANT SOLUTIONS 
 
 A bottle of blue bichloride tablets can be bought at 
 any chemist's ; this is the safest form to use it in the 
 home, as the tablets make a blue solution. The bi- 
 chloride is perfectly odorless, and if the clear, uncol- 
 ored solution were used it might be mistaken for 
 water. As this is a very strong poison the tablets 
 should be kept always under lock and key, and out of 
 the reach of children. It is well to have a bottle 
 of tablets in the house at all times, to use in case of 
 cuts, etc. They contain salt, which is aUvays required 
 in making bichloride solution. 
 
 To make bichloride solution dissolve one tablet in 
 a quart of hot water. 
 
 When a large quantity of carbolic acid solution 
 will be required continually, it is cheaper to buy the 
 95 per cent solution, which can be reduced as needed 
 to the required strength. To make five pints of 1-20, 
 mix four ounces of the 95 per cent carbolic with five 
 pints of boiling water and shake the bottle well. 
 
 As 95 per cent carbolic is not only a strong poison, 
 but also very corrosive to the skin, so be careful not to 
 spill even a drop on your hands, but if you should, 
 wash the spot immediately with alcohol or warm w^ater 
 and soap. 
 
 An infectious disease is not always a contagious 
 one; that is, .it cannot be contracted by being in the 
 same room with the patient, but it is transmittable 
 by some intermediate means of communication. 
 
 658 
 
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 
 
 65 
 
 Tuberculosis is not contracted by coming in contact 
 with a patient suffering from that disease, but by 
 inhaling dust containing the germs derived from the 
 dried sputa of some consumptive person. 
 
 The germs of typhoid fever are disseminated when 
 the stools and other excreta of the patient are not 
 I)roperly disinfected by those in charge. 
 
 It is not necessary to isolate patients suffering from 
 diseases of this kind, but it is necessary to disinfect, 
 according to the nature of the infection; thus, know- 
 ing that the germ of typhoid fever is in the stools, 
 and to some extent in the urine, the stools and urine 
 must always be disinfected by covering with bichloride, 
 I -1000, and letting stand half an hour before empty- 
 ing. The bed pan must be well washed and disin- 
 fected afterward. It is also a wise precaution to 
 disinfect the bed-clothes by soaking in carbolic, 1-20, 
 for twelve hours, and then boiling; also to keep uten- 
 sils and dishes used for the patient separate, boiling 
 them before they are again mixed with the household 
 supply. 
 
 Consumption, or tuberculosis of the lungs, is per- 
 haps the most dreaded disease of the present day. 
 There are more deaths from it than from any other, 
 except in times of epidemic. The sputum of patients 
 suffering from this disease contains many millions of 
 the bacilli. If this is deposited in places where it is 
 allowed to dry and become pulverized, it is a source of 
 danger to others. The sputum must, therefore, be 
 disinfected. 
 
 Disinfection 
 
 Without 
 
 Isolation 
 
 Consumption 
 
 659 
 
66 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Patients suffering from this disease should be pro- 
 vided with sanitary cups. The best for this purpose 
 are made of prepared paper and are 
 very cheap. These should be burnt 
 after being in use for twelve hours 
 at most. If these cannot be obtained, 
 porcelain ones with covers may be 
 used, but bichloride or carbolic must 
 always remain in the cup, and it 
 should be emptied and scalded frequently. The patient 
 should not use ordinary handkerchiefs, but gauze or 
 Japanese paper, which should be burnt. All clothing 
 
 Sanitary Cup. 
 
 Paper Sanitary Cup. 
 
 and bedding soiled by the sputa should be disinfected 
 in the usual manner, and the sufferer should wash 
 and disinfect the hands frequently. 
 
 Perfect cleanliness, plenty of sunlight and fresh 
 
 660 
 
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 
 
 67 
 
 air, and nourishing food are the most important points 
 in the modern treatment of consumption. Special care 
 should be taken by consumptives to smother every 
 cough when close to other people. 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 
 
 Measles, scarlet fever, smallpox and diphtheria are 
 not only infectious but also contagious, and can be 
 taken by touching the person or anything that has 
 come in contact with the patient. 
 
 Anyone who has been in the room with a patient 
 suffering from any one of these diseases can scatter 
 the germs far and wide ; this must be remembered, 
 especially by those who do the nursing. It is an abso- 
 lute necessity for them to go out every day, but before 
 doing so they should change all their clothes, and wash 
 face and hands with bichloride, i-iooo. As it would 
 be impossible to wash the hair every time, it should 
 be covered by a cap, while on duty. Even when all 
 these precautions have been taken, shops, theaters, and 
 street cars should be avoided. 
 
 The rules of isolation are these : 
 
 (i) The patient should be removed to a room as 
 remote as possible from the rest of the house. 
 
 (2) No one should be allowed to enter the room 
 except the physicians and attendants. 
 
 (3) Long-sleeved aprons and caps which will cover 
 the hair should be worn by physicians and attendants 
 while in the room. (These can be made of cheap 
 muslin.) 
 
 The Spreading 
 of Germs 
 
 Rules of 
 Isolation 
 
 661 
 
of Clothes 
 
 68 UOMli CAR Li ()!• '1 illl SICK 
 
 (4) A soliiti(jn of bichloride, 1-1000, should be 
 kej)! by the wasli l)asin for the disinfection of hands, 
 and Ihcy should be disinfected every time after t(juch- 
 in^" or doin^;" anythinj^ for the ])atient. hOr ])r()|)er 
 isolation there should be two rooms, — the wash stand, 
 j^owns, disinfectants, etc., beini:;- kept in the outer 
 room. 
 Disinfection (s) A foot tul) or otlicr rcceptaclc containini>- car- 
 
 bolic, 1-20, should be ])laced near the bedside when 
 the clothes are about to be chanj^ed, and they should 
 ])e put immediately into this, remainini^;" there well 
 covered for twenty-four hours. They should, even 
 then, be l)oiled before beini:!;" washed. 
 
 (6) The advice j^iven earlier as to the furnishing 
 and care of the sick-room is especially applicable in 
 cases of conta^"i(Xis diseases. When dustini;, the 
 duster should be dampened in 1-40 carl)olic. As bare 
 iloors are apt to be noisy, a small r\\^ or two may be 
 retained, but they should be old ones, as they ouc^ht 
 to be burned at the termination of the disease. They 
 must not be shaken, as at other times, but kept well 
 dusti'd with the damp duster. 
 
 (7) It is ^vell t(^ keep sheets, w rmii^" out in car- 
 l)olic, 1-20, both between the two rooms set apart for 
 the nursini;- and at the entrance of tlie outer room. 
 The door of the latter nnist be kept closed. 
 
 (8) The dishes .-md utensils used l)y the patient 
 ;iiid .iltend.-mls must not hv removed from the room; 
 they must be washed there, the i)atient's always being" 
 
 Dishes 
 
 and 
 
 Utensils 
 
 662 
 
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 
 
 69 
 
 washed and kept separate. When food is brought it 
 should be left at the door of the outer room. The 
 attendant, first taking off her cap and apron and disin- 
 fecting her hands, should remove the food from those 
 dishes to the ones she has in the room; the others 
 should be removed immediately. 
 
 (9) Whenever it can be managed the isolated 
 rooms should be in close connection with a bath-room, 
 which should be set apart for the use of the inmates 
 of the sick-room. When this is impossible the attend- 
 ant must, when it is necessary to go there, first remove 
 her cap and apron and disinfect her hands. When her 
 object is to empty the slop jar or bed pan they should 
 be completely covered with a large towel wrung out in 
 carbolic. 
 
 (10) The bed pan should always have bichloride, 
 I -1000, in the bottom, and after use more of the same 
 solution should be added. It should stand thus for 
 half an hour before being emptied. When there is no 
 separate bath-room a tightly covered box nailed on the 
 outside window sill of the outer room will be found 
 convenient to hold the bed pan, while its contents are 
 being disinfected. 
 
 Besides the general rules for disinfection there are 
 in some contagious diseases special rules, incidental to 
 the nature of the disease. 
 
 In scarlet fever the greatest danger of infection lies 
 in the dissemination of the skin, while it is peeling. 
 To prevent this the patient should be rubbed all over, 
 
 Separate 
 Bath Rooiij 
 
 Special 
 Rules 
 
 663 
 
70 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 night and morning, with carboHzed vaseline or boric 
 ointment. 
 
 In diphtheria the most virulent contagion is in the 
 expectoration, especially when the membrane loosens. 
 Soft gauze should be used instead of handkerchiefs, 
 and if there is no grate in the room a pan must be at 
 hand, in which these can be burnt immediately after 
 use. 
 
 DISINFECTION AT THE TERMINATION OF THE DISEASE 
 
 Time of 
 Quarantine 
 
 I)isinfecting 
 the Patient 
 
 Even after the fever has abated it is necessary to 
 keep the patient isolated, or "in quarantine," as it is 
 called, for some days. A rough estimate of the time 
 required for quarantine in the dififerent diseases is 
 given in the table in the first section, but the doctor 
 should always be the one to decide when it may be 
 raised, as circumstances or complications may arise 
 which might make it allowable to shorten or neces- 
 sary to lengthen the time. 
 
 When the doctor does allow the patient to be moved, 
 a warm cleansing bath (including the washing of the 
 hair) must be given. This is followed by a bichloride 
 bath, i-iooo, and an alcohol rub. The patient is then 
 wrapped in a clean sheet and taken to a different 
 room, where fresh clothes which have not been in the 
 sick-room are put on. Those who have done the nurs- 
 ing must go through the same procedure. 
 
 664 
 
CONTAGION AND DISINFECTION 71 
 
 THE DISINFECTION OF THE ROOM AND ITS CONTENTS 
 
 The use of sulphur fumes as a disinfectant has been 
 proved to be practically useless, and formaldehyde has 
 almost entirely replaced it. The easiest form of using 
 this is the 'Ture Formaldehyde Gas" put up by Sea- 
 bury & Johnson. It can be procured at most drug- 
 gists. In appearance it looks like a stone, cone shaped. 
 There are two sizes ; the smaller, 2 inches square, will 
 disinfect a room 500 cubic feet, and the larger one, 
 1000 to 1500 cubic feet. Close the windows, pasting 
 paper over all the cracks ; pull down the blinds ; open 
 cupboards, drawers, bundles, etc., that everything may 
 be exposed to the fumes of the gas ; place the fumi- 
 gator on the top of an inverted pail — it must not be too 
 near the floor, or it may scorch it — set fire to the top 
 of it, and leave the room; lock the door and paste up 
 the cracks and key hole. 
 
 Leave the room thus for five or six hours, then 
 open all the windows, if possible allowing them to 
 remain open for twelve hours. 
 
 Books and toys used in the sick-room should be 
 burned, as they are hard to disinfect. 
 
 Unless the mattress can be baked it should be 
 opened, so that the formaldehyde can penetrate 
 through to its center. In all large cities there are bake 
 houses where such things may be sent for disinfection 
 at comparatively small cost. They should be carefully 
 wrapped up. 
 
 Disinfecting 
 with Formalde 
 hyde 
 
 The 
 Mattress 
 
 665 
 
iOisinfection 
 
 72 HOME CARE 01' THE SICK 
 
 PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THOSE NURSING 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 
 
 (i) Take sufficient sleep and rest; never in the 
 patient's room. It is when the muscles are relaxed, 
 as they are when resting, that the greatest danger of 
 infection comes. 
 
 (2) A daily walk in the fresh air is necessar}'. 
 
 (3) A daily hath ; change of all clothing at least 
 three times a week. The clothing must he disinfected. 
 
 (4) When working over the patient never stoop 
 so that you inhale her hreath. Never kiss your pa- 
 tient. 
 
 Personal (s) Never put your hands to your face, especially 
 
 your mouth or eyes, without first disinfecting them. 
 
 (6) Disinfect your IkjkIs frequently in hichloridc 
 of mercury, i-iooo. Keej) the nails short and scrupu- 
 lously clean. When washing the hands w^ash the 
 soap ofif before ])utting tliem into l)ichloridc, or they 
 will soon become sore. 
 
 (7) Before meals wash and disinfect your hands 
 well, rinse your mouth with boric acid solution or 
 listerine. Never eat in the patient's room. 
 
 (8) When irrigating a diphtheria patient's throat 
 tie a handkerchief over your mouth, and wear glasses 
 to protect the eyes. 
 
 The nursing in infectious and contagious diseases 
 is the same as in all other cases of fever. While the 
 temperature is high the ])atient should he kept in the 
 recumbent position to avoid strain upon the heart. 
 
 666 
 
SUKdlCAL oriiKATIONS 
 
 73 
 
 In Ivjjlioid this position is particular!)' ncccssar}', as 
 hemorrhage from the intestines is hable to occur if it 
 is not strictly adhered to. 
 
 Nourishment and medication must be given exactly 
 as ordered. When the doctor orders fluids give noth- 
 ing solid; many a life, especially after ty])hoid, has 
 been lost by so doing. 
 
 Except when the patient is nauseated, unless con- 
 trary to orders, give i)lenty of water, every two hours 
 at least. See that the patient drinks it slowly. 
 
 Remember the rules already given about the care of 
 the mouth, especially with typhoid patients. Vaseline 
 applied to parched lips gives relief. 
 
 In measles and scarlet fever the eyes are apt to be 
 affected, so the room should be kept darker than in 
 other cases, and the eyes should be washed with boric 
 acid, always 1)athing fnjni the inner angle outward. 
 
 In all diseases where the skin is not working ])rop- 
 erly, as in measles, scarlet and other eruptive fevers, 
 be especially observant of the urine as various kidney 
 complications are liable to ensue. 
 
 11iere is little danger of the patient catching cold 
 while the temperature is high, but when it begins to 
 lower be doubly careful. 
 
 SURGICAL OPERATIONS AT HOME* 
 
 For twenty-four hours previous to operation the 
 
 patient should be given broths every two hours, but 
 
 neither milk nor solid food. A cathartic is given, if 
 
 possible, thirty hours prior to operation, and repeated 
 
 *This section is optional. 
 
 Nourishment 
 
 Care of 
 the Eyes 
 
 667 
 
74 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 in six hours ; a soap suds enema is given three hours 
 after the first cathartic, and repeated twelve hours 
 before operation. A bath is also given the afternoon 
 before, and after the bath the field of operation is 
 Preparation shaved, then thoroughly cleansed with green soap, 
 for an and a compress wet with green soap solution, 25 per 
 cent to 50 per cent, applied (the liquid green soap 
 which is used for this purpose can be obtained at any 
 druggist's) ; this is covered with a protector — oil mus- 
 lin or oil paper — and left on from three to six hours, as 
 the skin will bear. When removed, the surface is 
 washed in the following order, with green soap, ether, 
 alcohol, and solution bichloride of mercury, i-iooo; a 
 compress wet in the latter is applied covered with a 
 protector, and left on till an hour before operation, 
 when the process is repeated and the fresh bichloride 
 compress is left on till the doctor removes it, on the 
 operating table, after the patient is under the influ- 
 ence of the anaesthetic ; then he re-scrubs it, and the 
 ether, alcohol, and bichloride must be ready for him 
 to use. All these precautions are taken to kill or re- 
 move every bacterium or spore. 
 
 For a vaginal operation the rules for diet, catharsis, 
 enemata and bathing are the same as for any other. 
 In addition a green soap douche is given on the pre- 
 ceding day, followed by one of bichloride of mercury, 
 1-5000. The vulva is then covered with a pad wet in 
 solution of bichloride of mercury, i-iooo, until two 
 hours before operation, when another bichloride douche 
 
 668 
 
SURGICAL OPERATIONS 
 
 73 
 
 is given, the parts cleansed and a fresh bichloride pad 
 applied. 
 
 Just before the anaesthetic is given, the patient 
 should void urine. If she has false teeth they should 
 be removed. 
 
 The Room. In the choice of the room the light is 
 one of the first considerations, a good light being a 
 positive necessity. If possible the operation should 
 take place in a different room from the one the patient 
 is occupying beforehand. Remove rugs, carpets, all 
 unnecessary furniture, curtains and draperies. A piece 
 of cheesecloth tacked across the lower sash of the 
 windows will keep the light from being too glaring 
 and obstruct the view from outside. 
 
 The day before the operation the walls should be 
 dusted, especially the cornices and mouldings; the 
 floor should be scrubbed if possible, or at least wiped 
 with a damp cloth and it should be washed over again 
 the morning of operation after the furniture is in 
 place. 
 
 If the patient is to remain in the room after the 
 operation, have the bed as nearly in the position it is to 
 occupy later as possible, but out of the way. 
 
 Protect the floor under and around the operating 
 table with several thicknesses of paper, covered with a 
 sheet tacked down at the corners. 
 
 A kitchen table covered w4th a couple of old blankets 
 protected by a rubber pinned or tacked under the 
 table will answer for the operating table. Three small 
 
 The Room 
 
 Operating 
 Table 
 
 669 
 
76 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 tables should be at hand, protected with papers, cov- 
 ered with large sterile towels. On one table, con- 
 venient to his right hand, the surgeon will need his 
 instruments. On the second table have three bowls 
 which have been well washed first with soap' and hot 
 water, then bichloride, i-iooo. The inside of the 
 bowls should not be dried. One bowl is intended to 
 hold the solution for the disinfection of the surgeon's 
 and his assistant's hands, the other two for washing 
 the sponges. The third table is required for the 
 dressings and sterile towels. The former, the doctor 
 will provide or tell you where to get them. Very 
 reliable sterile dressings are now put up by Ellwood 
 Dressings Lee, and can be procured at any drug store. They 
 are really better than anything that can be prepared 
 without a sterilizer. If it is impossible to obtain these, 
 the dressings should be prepared in the same manner 
 as the towels, namely, rolled in bundles not more than 
 9 inches square (or the heat will not penetrate) and 
 steamed in the clothes boiler for at least one hour. 
 If there is no tray to keep them out of the water a 
 hammock of gauze will answer the purpose. They are 
 then dried in the oven, which must not be hot enough 
 to scorch them. 
 
 At least a dozen and a half towels will be required. 
 The surgeon will bring the instruments and anaesthetic. 
 If chloroform is administered, some vaseline will be 
 required to grease the patient's face. 
 
 sterile 
 
 670 
 
SURGICAL OPERATIONS 
 
 77 
 
 An ether cone can be made out of paper, covered 
 with a towel. 
 
 An irrigator or douche bag must be at hand for the 
 irrigation. This should be sterilized by boiling for five 
 minutes, as are also the surgical instruments. 
 
 There must be plenty of sterilized water prepared, 
 six gallons at least, two gallons 
 of which must be boiled long 
 enough beforehand to be cold. 
 This must be kept tightly cov- 
 ered after it is boiled, or it will 
 not remain sterile. Water must 
 boil at least thirty minutes to be 
 properly sterilized. 
 
 Bichloride, carbolic and salt 
 solutions may be needed and 
 must be at hand, as well as two 
 sterile pitchers, a pus basin, a 
 chair, a blanket or two to cover the patient, two rub- 
 bers to protect the blanket, a slop jar, hypodermic 
 syringe, and stimulants — the doctor will give definite 
 instructions regarding the last. 
 
 The bed is made according to the directions already 
 given for bedmaking, with the exception that no pillow 
 will be required as the patient's head must be kept low. 
 Instead, a small rubber covered by a towel is desirable 
 to protect the bed if the patient is nauseated. A 
 blanket is put over the patient, before the upper sheet ; 
 hot water bottles should be in the bed all the time she 
 
 Ether "Cone, made from stiff 
 
 paper, covered with 
 
 a towel. 
 
 Sterilized 
 Water 
 
 The Bed 
 
 671 
 
sterilizing: 
 the Hands 
 
 78 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 is on the table ; a couple of towels and pus basin 
 should be on a table near the bed in case of nausea, 
 also small pieces of gauze to wipe the mucus out of 
 the mouth, and a wedge-shaped piece of wood to put 
 between the teeth if they become clenched. 
 
 If necessary to assist the surgeon during the opera- 
 tion, scrub the hands for ten minutes with hot water 
 and soap, using a new stiff nail brush which has been 
 
 After the 
 Operation 
 
 PORCELAIN BED PAN 
 
 soaked in carbolic, 1-20. Be particularly careful of the 
 finger nails, which should be cut very short. After 
 scrubbing, the hands should be soaked in bichloride, 
 I -1000. 
 
 Nobody, whose hands have not been so treated, 
 must touch the dressings or instruments, and after 
 washing nothing but the sterile things must be touched. 
 
 When the operation is over, if the patient's night- 
 gown is wet it must be changed. She is then covered 
 with a warmed blanket, and put into bed. She should 
 lie on her back without pillows and be kept very quiet. 
 
 672 
 
SURGICAL OPERATIONS 
 
 79 
 
 If she vomits, hold her head on one side to prevent 
 strangulation. 
 
 Washing the mouth out, as previously directed, will 
 help to relieve the thirst which is generally intense 
 after an anaesthetic. 
 
 After a few hours either crushed ice or very hot 
 water, in teaspoon doses, may be given. 
 
 Bed Pan, '■'Eureka" Pattern 
 
 The pulse must be watched carefully, and if its rate 
 increases should be reported to the doctor, as this, 
 together v/ith pallor, restlessness, longing for fresh air, 
 sighing respiration, and fall of temperature is a sign 
 of hemorrhage. As the hemorrhage does not always 
 show through the dressing these signs must be watched 
 for. 
 
 For treatment of hemorrhage see the section on 
 "Emergencies." As the after treatment depends alto- 
 gether on the nature of the operation, and subsequent 
 condition of the patient, no rules for it can be given 
 here further than to emphasize the fact that the first 
 requisite for success in surgical work is perfect clean- 
 liness. The gauze used for dressing the wound after 
 the operation, the instruments and the hands of those 
 
 The Pulsfc 
 
 Perfect 
 Cleanlinebs 
 
 673 
 
8o HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 touching these things, must always be as carefull}' 
 s.teriHzed for the dressing as for the operation. 
 
 The diet, Hke the treatment, will depend upon cir- 
 cumstances. For the first day or two the patient is 
 generally on fluid diet, and care must be taken thai: it 
 is given slowly and in small quantities, but as soon as 
 possible plenty of nourishing food should be given to 
 build up the system. 
 
 OBSTETRICS 
 
 The average duration of pregnancy is 280 days. 
 The most accurate way of calculating the probable date 
 of confinement is by counting back three months from 
 the date of the cessation of the last menses and adding 
 seven days. 
 Preliminary The expectant mother should place herself under 
 
 the doctor's care in the early stages of pregnancy, as 
 not only her own but the infant's after health depends 
 largely on the care the mother takes of herself at this 
 time. The principal rules of hygiene to be followed 
 are: 
 
 1. Daily exercise in the open air. 
 
 2. At least eight hours' sleep out of twenty-four. 
 
 3. A daily bath, a sponge bath if the tub bath is 
 too exhausting. A brisk rub after the bath will cause 
 a good reaction. 
 
 4. The bowels should be moved daily, with mild 
 cathartics if necessary. 
 
 Care 
 
 674 
 
OBSTETRICS 8i 
 
 5. The urine must be carefully watched and any 
 abnormality reported to the doctor. Frequent speci- 
 mens should also be sent him, as there may be danger 
 of serious kidney troubles. 
 
 6. Freedom from excitement, worry, hurry, and 
 too heavy manual labor. 
 
 7. The clothing should be worn loose enough to 
 allow of free circulation. 
 
 8. A nourishing, but not too stimulating diet . 
 should be adhered to. 
 
 9. The nipples require attention, especially during 
 the last two months, and should be washed twice daily 
 with boric acid solution and treated with fresh cocoa 
 butter or albolene. 
 
 What to provide: ^ ,^ 
 
 ^ For the 
 
 1. Two large rubber sheets. Mother 
 
 2. If possible, a Kelly Pad, if not, make an obstet- 
 rical pad, consisting of four thicknesses of cotton wad- 
 ding, covered with a layer of absorbent cotton, the 
 whole encased in absorbent gauze and tacked to keep 
 the cotton in place. This pad should be three-quarters 
 of a yard square. 
 
 3. Two dozen pads for dressings, half a yard long, 
 ten inches wide and two inches thick, made of the 
 same materials. 
 
 4. Two dozen smaller pads. 
 
 5. Five boxes of sterile gauze (each containing one 
 yard of gauze), to be used both for the mother's 
 dressing and to cover the babv's cord. 
 
 675 
 
82 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 6. One roll of adhesive plaster. 
 
 7. Six abdominal binders of unbleached muslin. 
 
 8. Six breast binders of unbleached muslin. 
 
 9. One pair long stockings made of flannel or an 
 old blanket. 
 
 10. Two dozen paper bags in which soiled dress- 
 ings can be put and burnt. 
 
 11. At least two hot water bottles. 
 
 KELLEY PAD. 
 
 12. Red pan — "Perfection" is the best. 
 
 13. Douche pan. 
 
 14. Douche can or new fountain syringe bag. 
 
 15. Two glass douche nozzles. 
 
 16. Two glass catheters. 
 
 17. One agate basin to boil nozzles and catheters in. 
 
 18. Two large agate pitchers in which water can 
 be sterilized, solutions made, etc. 
 
 19. Clinical, room, and hath thermometers. 
 
 20. One bottle carbolic, 4 per cent. 
 
 21. One bottle Lysol. 
 
 676 
 
For the 
 
 OBSTETRICS 83 
 
 22. One bottle bichloride tablets. 
 
 23. New nail brush and fresh cake of soap for the 
 doctor's use. 
 
 For the baby: 
 
 1. A tube of sterile tape. ^^.by 
 
 2. A rubber sheet, or, preferably, a nursery cloth 
 to protect the crib mattress. 
 
 3. Talcum powder. 
 
 4. Sweet oil or sterile vaseline. 
 
 5. Pure castile soap (never use perfumed soap of 
 any kind). 
 
 6. Bath tub — good rubber ones are the best. 
 
 7. Old table linen makes excellent towels and wash 
 cloths for the baby. 
 
 8. A large square of soft, thick flannel to roll baby 
 in after it is greased. 
 
 9. Basket containing sewing materials and safety 
 pins. 
 
 10. Crib and bedding. 
 
 11. Scales to weigh the baby in are very desirable. 
 
 12. A rubber or padded lap protector for the at- 
 tendant to use while bathing the baby. 
 
 13. A large flannel apron for the same purpose. 
 The latter is especially desirable as the baby can be 
 rolled in it, when taken from the bath. 
 
 14. Baby's clothing: Six flannel bands, not 
 hemmed, 6 inches wide, three-quarters of a yard long. for Baby 
 Four knitted or woven shirts. Six flannel petticoats. 
 Six white petticoats ; these should all be made without 
 
 Clothing 
 
 677 
 
84 
 
 HOME CARE Of THE SICK 
 
 Ihe Bed 
 
 Doctor's 
 Table 
 
 Nurse's 
 Table 
 
 bands, and the fastening on the shoulders, running a 
 draw tape through the hem of the flannel petticoat, 
 will keep the baby's feet warm without confining them. 
 Six slips for night wear. Six dresses. Diapers, two 
 sizes, eighteen and twenty-two inches square. 
 
 As in other cases of sickness, the room should be as 
 large, light, and airy as possible, scrupulously clean, 
 and have no superfluous furniture. 
 
 In this instance the foot of the bed should be to- 
 wards the light. It should be made as shown in the 
 section on bed-making, with the addition of a second 
 rubber covered with a clean sheet, and either a rubber 
 Kelly pad or an obstetrical pad (made as already 
 described). 
 
 The furniture and floor should be protected in the 
 same manner as they are for operations. 
 
 Besides the bed a table for the doctor, wash stand, 
 nurse's table, extra table or bureau and chair will be 
 required. See that there is a hook on which to hang 
 the douche bag. 
 
 On the wash stand have hot and cold water, soap, 
 nail brush, scissors, and nail cleaner, towels, and bowl 
 of bichloride, i-iooo. 
 
 On the doctor's table, bowl of bichloride, 1-3000, 
 with towels and sponges in it ; bowl of lysol, sterile 
 towels, sterile douche tip, also rubber and glass 
 catheter. 
 
 .On the nurse's table have (for baby) sterile scis- 
 sors and tape wipes in boric acid (these consist of 
 
 678 
 
OBSTETRICS 85 
 
 small squares of gauze), two large squares of gauze 
 to put over the baby's mouth if necessary to blow into 
 it, soft flannel square to wrap baby in, dressing for 
 cord as ordered by the doctor. 
 
 For the mother — chloroform, mask, pus basin, ster- 
 ile dressing and pads. Under the table the douche pan 
 (which has been washed in bichloride and- kept cov- 
 ered with towel, wrung out in same), slop pail and 
 basin, paper bags for soiled dressings and placenta, 
 foot tub, hot and cold water. 
 
 On the bureau — room, bath and clinical thermom- 
 eters ; salt, vinegar, alcohol, whisky, hypodermic 
 syringe, binders, pins, hot water bag, tray and alcohol 
 lamp. 
 
 The signs of beginning labor are pains in the lower 
 part of the abdomen and back, occurring at regular Signs 
 intervals, about once every half hour, and a discharge 
 of mucus tinged with blood from the vagina. 
 
 True pains can be distinguished from false by plac- 
 ing the hand over the lower part of the abdomen ; in 
 true pains the contractions of the uterus are to be 
 readily felt through the abdominal wall. As the labor 
 advances the pains grow more severe and the intervals 
 shorter. The first stage of labor consists in the dila- 
 tion of the uterus, and ends when the membranes have 
 ruptured and the uterus is completely dilated. 
 
 The second stage or stage of expulsion ends when 
 the child is born. 
 
 First 
 
 679 
 
86 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 The third stage ends when the placenta is expressed 
 and the uterus contracted to the size of a closed hand. 
 
 At the beginning of the first stage, the patient 
 should have a bath, and her hair braided in two 
 braids. Her bowels are emptied by the giving of a 
 soap suds enema. After this the external parts are 
 washed with bichloride solution, 1-5000, and a pad 
 wet with bichloride solution, i-ioooo, or boric acid 
 applied. She is as a rule allowed t© walk around 
 the room during the first stage, which may last from 
 ten to twelve hours, and even longer. 
 
 She is best clad at this time in a night gown, warm 
 wrapper, and long stockings made of flannel or an old 
 blanket, coming well up over the thigh. 
 
 Milk and broths should be given every two hours ; 
 alcohol and other stimulants must be withheld. 
 
 The patient must be instructed not to bear down 
 during the pains of this stage, and to sit or lie down 
 v.'hen a pain occurs. 
 ^^^ During the second stage the patient must be kept 
 
 ^stage strictly in bed. The wrapper is removed and a short 
 dressing sack put on in its place, the night gown is 
 tied up under the arms, and with it a sheet, the end 
 of which comes down over the legs covering the 
 blanket stockings, which are left on ; it can be folded 
 up in the center when necessary. 
 
 The patient usually lies on her back. A strong band 
 of muslin around the foot of the bed, with the ends so 
 that she can hold them to pull on, will help the patient 
 during pains. 
 
 680 
 
OBSTETRICS 87 
 
 The attendant's hands must be well scrubbed and 
 disinfected with bichloride, i-iooo, that she may be 
 ready to help the doctor. 
 
 If the doctor does not arrive in time, the attendant, 
 taking all antiseptic precautions, must place her hand 
 against the head as soon as it appears and hold it 
 back during the pains, thus preventing too rapid 
 descent. When the head is delivered insert the finger 
 into the passage to see if the cord be around the neck, 
 if so, pull it carefully over the head. The right hand 
 supports the child as it comes, and the other is placed 
 on the abdomen and pressed firmly but gently down- 
 ward till the child is expelled. One hand must be held 
 over the uterus from this time until at least half an 
 hour after the placenta is expelled. 
 
 Place the child on its right side between the mother's ^^^ ^^ 
 thighs, wipe out its eyes and mouth with swabs wet *^® ^^^^^ 
 in boric acid ; place gauze over the mouth and blow 
 into it ; if it does not cry, slap it on the back and chest ; 
 if the color does not improve the cord will have to be 
 tied and cut immediately (it is generally better to wait 
 five minutes before doing this) and the child plunged 
 into a hot bath. It is rarely necessary to do this, how- 
 ever. The cord should be tied tightly with the sterile 
 tape about an inch and a half from the navel, and 
 again an inch further on; it is then cut (with sterile 
 scissors) between the two knots. The baby is rubbed 
 with vaseline or olive oil, rolled in the flannel square, 
 and a warmed blanket, then put in its crib with at least 
 
 681 
 
88 
 
 HOME CARE 01' THE SICK 
 
 The 
 Third 
 Stage 
 
 one hot water bottle until the mother is attended to. 
 The placenta is generally expressed about fifteen or 
 twenty minutes after the birth of the child ; but even 
 if it take longer, the cord should not be pulled upon — 
 it is better to gently manipulate the abdomen above 
 the uterus, and continue doing this very gently with 
 one hand as the placenta comes out, while with the 
 other hand twist slowly to aid its coming. Even after 
 
 The 
 Binder 
 
 KNDS OF THE Y UKEAST BINDER 
 
 the placenta is expressed, the hand must remain 
 pressed downward over the uterus iintil it feels hard 
 and firm. An assistant can in the meantime be wash- 
 ing the i)atient with bichloride, 1-2000, and removing 
 the soiled linen. When the uterus is firm and hard a 
 binder should be api)lied, a dressing of sterile gauze 
 and a pad being first placed over the vulva ; this is 
 afterward j^inned on to the binder to keep it in place. 
 11ie binder is best made of unbleached muslin. One 
 for a medium size woman should be a yard and a 
 
 682 
 
OBSTETRICS 
 
 89 
 
 quarter long- and half a yard wide. It should, when 
 pinned in place, extend from the border of the ribs 
 to below the prominence of the hips, and should be 
 made to fit the contour of the body by taking in darts 
 over the hips on the upper and lower edges. 
 
 \ l)inder is also used to make compression upon 
 the breasts. There arc a variety of these, but the Y 
 
 Y Breast 
 Binder 
 
 Y BREAST BINDER (a) AND ABDOMINAL 
 BINDER (h) IN PLACE 
 
 breast binder originally used in the l>oston Lying-in 
 Hospital is perhaps the easiest one to manage, and 
 has the advantage of leaving the nipples exposed. A 
 l)andage shaped like a T is made by folding muslin 
 lengthwise and pinning it at right angles to another 
 strij) folded in the same way. 'J1ie T is then made into 
 a Y by making a diagonal fold in the middle of the 
 cross piece and fastening the middle of the plait with 
 safety pins. 
 
 To api)ly, dust the surface of breasts with powder, 
 draw base of Y beneath the patient's back until apex 
 
 683 
 
90 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 of the fork is external to the outer edge of breast. 
 Lift breasts upward and toward each other. Draw 
 lower arm of fork snugly across chest beneath breasts, 
 the inferior border of this arm extending at least one 
 inch below margin of breasts-; the end of arm is 
 pinned to end of strap, which has been passed beneath 
 back ; the lower border is pinned in the center to 
 abdominal binder. The upper arm of fork is then 
 drawn across chest above the breasts and pinned like 
 the lower to the main strap. 
 Hemorrhage Watch for the signs of hemorrhage already de- 
 
 scribed. Should hemorrhage occur send for the doctor 
 immediately ; induce contractions of the uterus by 
 grasping the fundus and employing a firm but gentle 
 kneading (no doctor would leave the case in your 
 charge without showing you exactly how to do this). 
 Elevate the foot of the bed, and give a hot douche of 
 sterile water, 120° F. Sometimes astringents such as 
 vinegar are added to the douche, but unless the case 
 is very urgent it is best not to use it without the 
 doctor's order. 
 
 The patient must be kept quiet and on her back for 
 the first six or seven hours, afterward she can turn on 
 her side but should not sit up for at least five days. 
 She is generally allowed to sit up on fourteenth day, 
 if all discharge has ceased. In no case should the 
 usual routine of life be resumed under four weeks. 
 
 The diet is usually liquid for the first twenty-four 
 hours, after which all symptoms being normal, the 
 patient is allowed almost any easily digested food. 
 
 684 
 
CARE OF THE CHILD 91 
 
 The dressing and pad should be changed every two 
 hours until the discharge diminishes, later every three 
 to five, as the case demands. After the third day it is 
 usually necessary to change it only after it has been 
 removed for the requirements of the patient. These 
 dressings must all be sterile and the hands disinfected 
 before applying them. If douches are ordered, boil 
 the douche nozzle for five minutes before and after use. 
 
 The breasts must be washed with boric acid solution 
 before and after nursing. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE CHILD 
 
 After its birth the child's eyes and mouth are 
 cleansed with 2 per cent boric acid solution and its 
 whole body greased with sweet oil or sterilized vase- 
 line. It is then wrapped in warm flannel, put in a crib 
 or basket, heated with hot water bags if necessary, and 
 covered with a warmed blanket. It can then be left 
 until the mother is cared for. Watch the cord care- 
 fully as there is danger of hemorrhage. 
 
 The first bath is often given at once, although some 
 doctors prefer to have the baby rubbed with oil only Bath 
 for the first few days. Before beginning have every- 
 thing necessary together — a foot tub containing water, 
 100° F., bath thermometer, warm, soft towels, wash 
 cloth, castile soap, dusting powder, a dressing for the 
 cord, boric acid solution, small squares of gauze, a 
 rubber lap protector, two diapers, flannel band, shirt, 
 flannel petticoat, and a simple, soft white dress. 
 
 685 
 
Navel 
 
 92 HOME CARli 01' TUB SICK 
 
 ^Vhv liead is first washed, usinj^- very little soap, 
 rinsed and thorouj^hly dried ; then wash behind the 
 ears, the crevices r)f llie neck, axilla, joints, and be- 
 tween the bnttocks and thighs carefnlly. Only the 
 part beinjT^ 1)athed shonld be exposed. The baby is 
 now pnt down into llie lub and rinsed, snpportinii; the 
 head and back linnly vvilh tlie left hand and arm. 
 Cover the lap protector with llannel a])ron or warm 
 towel and when you lift the baby out, roll this around 
 it. Dry by ])attin^; use very little i)owder and only 
 when it is necessary to prevent chafint;. Some doctors 
 consider it better not to put llie baby in the tub until 
 after the cord is off. 
 
 The navel is now dressed 1)y cutting" a hole with 
 Dressing stcrilc scissors in a ])iece of sterile jj^auze, which is 
 slii)pcd over the cord and folded about it. ' The cord is 
 laid toward the left side and a pad of sterile absorbent 
 cotton put over it. A soft flannel binder holds the pad 
 in place and must be put on firmlN' and smoothly, but 
 not too tii;lilly. It is best sewn on with a few large 
 stitches. After the bath- the baby should be rolled in 
 warm llannel and laid on its rii;ht si<le in its crib. 
 NurBinp ' bc lax'diu.i;-. 'llie Hist si X weeks tlu> baby should 
 
 nurse every two hours duriniL;" the day and every three 
 hours at ni^ht ; afterward this may be chani^ed to every 
 three hours duriiii;- tlie (la\' and twice at nii;lit. These 
 hours should be rij^idly adhered to. If the baby seems 
 thirsty between meals a little plain water may be given. 
 
 The baby's mouth should be washed with 2 per cent 
 l)oric acid solution before and after feeding and also 
 the mother's nipples. 
 
 686 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 93 
 
 When for any reason it is impossible for the mother 
 to nurse the child, great care must be exercised in the 
 ])reparation of its food. First the bottle and nipples 
 must be thoroughly cleansed immediately after each 
 feeding by rinsing in cold water, then washing in hot 
 water and soap suds and rinsing in hot water. The 
 bottle is kept turned upside down and the nipples in 
 a 2 per cent solution of boric acid. Both bottle and 
 nipples should be boiled for five minutes twice a day. 
 
 Every doctor has his own formula for prepared 
 milk, but whatever the preparation used it is best 
 pasteurized if not above suspicion. 
 
 FOOD FOR THE SICK 
 
 In many diseases, especially those accompanied by 
 fever, the powers of digestion are much impaired. For 
 this, as well as other reasons, it is necessary that all 
 food given should be in a liquid form. Milk, except ^^j, 
 under certain conditions, is at such times considered 
 the best food, as it contains in a dilute form all the 
 constituents of the solids, namely : albumen, fat, sugar, 
 the inorganic salts of lime and potash, and water. 
 
 If curds appear in the stools, or vomiting ensues, 
 it shows that the milk is not being properly digested. 
 This difficulty may often be overcome by diluting it 
 with seltzer or other effervescent water, by the addi- 
 tion of lime water or bicarbonate of soda (ten grains 
 to a pint), or by peptonizing the milk. (The recipe 
 for the latter will be found at the end of the section.) 
 
 687 
 
94 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Amount 
 
 and 
 
 Frequency 
 
 Feeding 
 Cups 
 
 A g-ood substitute for milk is white of Qgg, beaten 
 to a froth, diluted with an equal quantity of water, 
 and flavored with lemon juice. 
 
 Beef tea and broths contain very little nourishment, 
 and should, therefore, be given only occasionally, for 
 a change. 
 
 Patients on fluid diet should, as a rule, be given six 
 ounces every two hours, or half the quantity every 
 hour. Of course there are times — as after operation, 
 or when the patient is nauseated — wdien less must be 
 given. 
 
 When a patient is on liquid diet it is especially im- 
 perative to give her nourishment at stated times and 
 regular intervals. In giving see that it is taken very 
 slowly. 
 
 As a rule, when a patient is sick enough to be on 
 lluid diet it is necessary for her to maintain the re- 
 cumbent position, even while drinking, and there are 
 several devices to facilitate this. There is the old- 
 fashioned feeder with the spout, but the drinking tube 
 or ''ideal glass" are preferable. When raising the 
 head slip the arm under the pillow ; take care not to 
 throw the head forw^ard, and by so doing make it 
 difficult to swallow. Never bring a glass to the patient 
 in your hand, but on a small tray or plate, and with 
 it a napkin to f(jld under the patient's chin and pre- 
 vent drops soiling the sheet. 
 
 When a patient is on milk diet her mouth should be 
 washed out after every feeding, with listerine or 1)oric 
 
 688 
 
Food 
 
 FOOD FOR THE SICK 95 
 
 acid, otherwise it will soon become coated and sore. 
 Directions for doing this were given in the section 
 on the care of the teeth. 
 
 A convalescent patient should be given solid food solid 
 only by degrees, beginning with the so-called soft diet, 
 which includes broths, strained vegetable soups, soft 
 cooked eggs, milk toast, junkets, custard, jellies, and 
 raw beef sandwiches. Then comes "light diet," which 
 means the addition to the "soft diet" of underdone 
 steak, chops, chicken, baked potatoes, and farinaceous 
 puddings. 
 
 Pastry and all rich or highly seasoned food should 
 be avoided until the patient has, in every respect, re- 
 sumed her usual routine of life. 
 
 In diseases such as rheumatism, Bright's disease, gpeciai 
 diabetes, dyspepsia, etc., where fever is not the most 
 important symptom, but where the effect of certain 
 foods must be taken into account, a special diet is 
 prescribed. As the patient's general condition must 
 be considered in the prescribing of such, I think 
 it wise to make only a few general remarks on the 
 subject, as a great deal of harm is frequently done by 
 following set rules for medication and food, by those 
 who are unable to recognize symptoms contra-indi- 
 cating their use. 
 
 In many forms of febrile disease, as for instance 
 tuberculosis, light diet can be given even while there 
 is fever, nourishing food being a most important item 
 in the treatment. 
 
 Diet 
 
 689 
 
96 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 In diabetes, sugar and starchy foods, most fruits, 
 and alcoholic drinks must be avoided. Gluten bread 
 should be used, and that not too fresh ; saccharine 
 should be used instead of sugar for sweetening not 
 only tea arid coffee, etc., but also in cooking. Fresh 
 milk should not be taken, but buttermilk and koumyss 
 are allowed. 
 
 In rheumatism and gout, as in diabetes, all sweeten- 
 ing should be done with saccharine, and sweets of all 
 kinds are prohibited, also pastry, puddings, jellies, 
 pork, veal, and all fried meats. Fruit except straw- 
 berries and bananas, is allowed. 
 
 Dainty 
 Serving 
 
 TRAY WITH FEET 
 
 Too great stress cannot be laid on the necessity for 
 a dainty serving of the patient's meals. They should 
 be either very hot or perfectly cold, as the case re- 
 quires. Have clean napkins, spotless china, and shin- 
 ing silver and glass. Be careful in carrying the tray 
 not to spill any of the fluids, and, as has been said 
 before, do not have too much on the tray at a time. 
 
 Furthermore, that the patient may thoroughly enjoy 
 the meal, it is necessary that she should be perfectly 
 
 690 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 
 
 97 
 
 comfortable. Therefore, before bringing in the tray, 
 wash her face and hands, shake up the pillows, and 
 decide where it is best to set the tray. If there is no 
 bedside table or tray with feet, it is a good plan to 
 have two blocks of wood to put on each side of the 
 patient. They should be about the width of the tray, 
 and high enough to hold it off the patient's chest. 
 Magazines will answer the purpose if the blocks can- 
 not be obtained. Always protect the night-gown and 
 bed clothes with a towel or table napkin. 
 
 RECIPES 
 
 Milk 
 
 In warming milk for drinking never allow it to 
 boil, and always keep it covered. It is the coagula- 
 tion of the casein by boiling, and the evaporation of 
 certain gases, that renders it indigestible. 
 
 Brandy Milk with Egg 
 
 Beat one ^gg with one tablespoonful of sugar ; add 
 two tablespoonfuls of brandy and a cup of cold milk. 
 
 Koumyss 
 
 I qt. perfectly fresh milk. 
 
 I -5th of a 2-cent cake of Fleischmann's yeast. 
 
 I tablespoonful of sugar. 
 
 Dissolve the veast in a little water ; mix it with the 
 sugar and milk. Put the mixture into strong bottles ; 
 cork them with tightly fitting stoppers ; tie down se- 
 curely with stout twine. Shake the bottles for a full 
 
 Never 
 Boil 
 
 Five 
 Days 
 Required 
 
 691 
 
98 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 minute; place them on end in a refrigerator; at the 
 end of three days lay them on their sides ; turn them 
 occasionally. Five days will be required to perfect 
 fermentation. Kept in the refrigerator and well corked 
 koumyss will keep indefinitely. 
 
 Iklilk Lemonade 
 
 I tablespoon ful sugar. 
 I cup boiling water. 
 ^ cup lemon juice. 
 34 cup sherry. 
 ili cups cold milk. 
 
 Pour the boiling water over the sugar; add the 
 ' lemon juice and sherry. Stir it until the sugar dis- 
 solves ; add the cold milk ; stir again until the milk 
 curdles ; strain through muslin. 
 
 Milk Punch 
 
 Sweeten i cup- of milk with i teaspoonful of sugar; 
 stir in 2 tablespoon fuls of brandy ; beat with egg- 
 beater ; pour into glass and grate nutmeg over the top. 
 
 Milk Rennet 
 
 ^gg Stir I teaspoonful of rennet and 2 teaspoonfuls of 
 
 ^China sherry together with i teaspoonful of sugar. Heat i 
 pint of milk until it is exactly 100° F. ; pour into bowl 
 containing rennet and wine ; stir quickly and only 
 enough to mix ingredients ; grate nutmeg over the top, 
 and set on ice till solid. 
 
 692 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 99 
 
 Peptonized Milk 
 
 Mix 5 grains of pancreatic extract and 15 of soda 
 bicarbonate with cold milk ; warm a pint of milk and 
 add; stir well and put on ice to cool. 
 
 Barley Gruel 
 
 Mix I tablespoonful of Robinson's barley-flour with 
 half a teaspoonful of sugar ; pour over this a cup of 
 boiling water ; boil ten minutes ; add a cup of milk ; 
 bring to boiling point ; serve very hot. 
 
 Arrowroot Gruel 
 
 Mix half a tablespoonful of arrowroot with i salt- 
 spoonful of salt, half a teaspoonful of sugar, wet with 
 2 tablespoojifuls of cold water ; pour on a cup of boil- 
 ing water, stirring constantly. Boil for twenty min- 
 utes ; add the milk, and bring to boiling point ; strain ; 
 serve immediately. A little port wine is often added. 
 
 Oatmeal Gruel 
 
 Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, half a teaspoonful 
 of sugar and a saltspoonful of salt. Pour this slowly 
 into boiling water; cook in a saucepan for thirty 
 minutes, or, preferably, in a double boiler for two 
 hours ; strain ; add the milk, and bring to boiling 
 point. 
 
 Cracker Gruel 
 
 Mix 2 tablespoonfuls of cracker crumbs with half a 
 saltspoonful of salt and half a teaspoonful of sugar. 
 Pour over this a cup of boiling water, add one cup of 
 milk and simmer for two minutes. 
 
 GrueU 
 
 693 
 
100 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Beef Tea 
 Cut two pounds of round steak into half-inch 
 squares; put into double boiler and add one quart of 
 water; let stand one hour, then place over fire and let 
 simmer two hours ; flavor to taste. 
 
 Chicken Broth 
 
 Broths Cut up a fowl (which has been properly cleaned) 
 
 into small pieces ; add a quart or a quart and a half of 
 cold water, according to size of fowl. Let stand for 
 one hour and simmer for two hours, then boil slightly 
 for one. Strain it, rem.ove fat, and flavor to taste. 
 
 Mutton Broth 
 
 Cut one pound of loin or neck of mutton into small 
 pieces ; put with one teaspoonful of chopped onion 
 into one quart of water. Let stand one hour, and 
 simmer three ; strain ; let cool ; then remove the fat 
 which rises to the top. Heat when ready to serve ; 
 season with salt and white pepper. 
 
 Flaxseed Tea 
 
 Drinks Boil oue tablespoonful of flaxseed in a pint of water 
 
 for one hour ; strain ; add one tablespoonful of lemon 
 juice and one tablespoonful of sugar; serve either hot 
 or cold. The loss by evaporation should be made good 
 from time to time, so that at the end of the cooking 
 there shall be one pint of tea. 
 
 Coflfee 
 For every cup of water use a heaped tablespoonful 
 of cofifee. Soak the cofifee for several hours in cold 
 
 694 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK loi 
 
 water; bring to boiling point and let simmer for a 
 few minutes ; let stand on the back of the stove for a 
 minute to settle before serving. 
 
 Caudle 
 
 To a cupful of thin oatmeal gruel add a tablespoonful 
 of sherry, one tgg well beaten, sugar to taste ; it can 
 be served either hot or cold. 
 
 Toast Water 
 
 Toast till dry three slices of bread an inch thick; 
 break into small pieces; add a pint of cold water; soak 
 for an hour; strain, and squeeze the water out of the 
 toast with the back of a spoon. Serve cold ; if desired 
 a little cream and sugar may be added. 
 
 Barley "Water 
 
 Boil one tablespoonful of barley flour, a teaspoonful 
 of sugar, a saltspoonful of salt and a quart of water 
 together for fifteen minutes ; strain ; it can be flavored 
 either with lemon juice or port or sherry wine. 
 
 Rice "Water 
 
 This is made in the same manner as barley water, 
 except that two tablespoonfuls of rice will be required 
 to a quart of water. 
 
 Oyster Soup 
 
 Heat a cup of milk; add two tablespoonfuls of 
 cracker crumbs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of 
 pepper, a fourth of a teaspoonful of butter ; when this 
 is warm through add a cup of fresh oysters and juice; 
 
 695 
 
102 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 allow to simmer for about two minutes, or till the gills 
 of the oysters curl. 
 
 Milk Toast 
 
 Toast three slices of bread a delicate brown ; butter 
 them and put them into a covered dish. Cover them 
 with milk which has been brought almost to boiling 
 point. 
 
 Soft Custard 
 
 Beat together the yolks of two eggs, a saltspoonful 
 of salt, and two tablespoonfuls of sugar ; add this 
 slowly to a pint of milk which has been brought to 
 boiling point ; boil three minutes. Flavor with vanilla 
 or sherry wine ; serve cold. 
 
 Egg-nog 
 
 Egg Break one tgg into a bowl ; add one saltspoon- 
 
 ful of salt and two teaspoonfuls of sugar ; beat 
 until light ; add one cup of milk, one or two tablespoon- 
 fuls of good brandy or whisky; serve immediately. 
 
 Sherry and Egg 
 
 Break an (tgg into a bowl ; add a teaspoonful of 
 sugar ; beat the two together until well mixed ; add 
 two tablespoonfuls of sherry wine and a fourth of a 
 cup of cold water ; mix thoroughly ; strain, and serve 
 immediately. 
 
 Scrambled Eggs 
 
 Beat two eggs, a saltspoonful of salt, a sprinkle of 
 white pepper, wnth a Dover egg-beater, until quite 
 light; add four tablespoonfuls of sweet cream or milk; 
 
 696 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 103 
 
 turn the mixture into a double boiler; cook, stirring 
 constantly until the albumen is coagulated. 
 
 Foamy Omelet 
 
 Separate the yolks from the whites of two eggs. To 
 the yolks add a saltspoonful of salt and one-fourth of 
 a saltspoonful of pepper. Beat with a Dover egg- 
 beater until light ; add two tablespoonfuls of milk. 
 Beat the whites until fairly stiff, and fold them into 
 the yolk; pour the mixture into a hot buttered omelet 
 pan ; cook for about two minutes ; put into the oven for 
 one minute to cook the upper surface. 
 
 Egg Cream 
 
 Separate the yolks of two eggs from the whites; 
 add two tablespoonfuls of sugar to the yolks ; beat 
 until well mixed ; add the juice and grated rind of half 
 a lemon ; place the bowl in a dish of boiling water on 
 the fire ; stir slowly until the mixture begins to thicken ; 
 add the beaten whites of eggs, and stir for two minutes. 
 Serve cold. 
 
 Poached Eggs 
 
 Pour some boiling water into a small saucepan ; salt 
 it and add half a teaspoonful of vinegar ; break a fresh 
 egg gently into this. As soon as the white is firm lift 
 out the egg with a skimmer, and put on crustless but- 
 tered toast. 
 
 Soft Cooked Eggs 
 
 Never boil eggs for the sick. Boil enough water to 
 cover the eggs ; put them in ; reniove the saucepan to 
 
 697 
 
Jellies 
 
 104 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 the back of the stove where the water will not lose its 
 warmth too soon, and let them stand ten minutes. 
 
 Jellies 
 
 The order for making nearly all jellies is as follows: 
 The gelatine is hydrated, or softened, by soaking in the 
 cold water for half an hour. The boiling water, sugar 
 and flavoring are then added, in the given order. 
 Strain and cool. 
 
 Lemon Jelly 
 
 yi box of gelatine. 
 
 y^ cup of cold water. 
 
 lyi cups of boiling water. 
 
 3^ cup of sugar. 
 
 ^ cup of lemon juice. 
 
 I tablespoon ful of brandy. 
 
 Orange Jelly 
 
 % box of gelatine. 
 34 cup of cold water. 
 y2 cup of boiling water. 
 3/2 cup of sugar. 
 I cup of orange juice. 
 Juice of half a lemon. 
 
 As soon as the latter begins to stiffen it can be 
 whipped till stiff, making orange sponge, which, 
 served with custard, makes a very dainty dish. 
 
 Velvet Cream 
 
 Soak 34 box of gelatine in 34 cup of cold water for 
 half an hour; then p"our in 34 cup of sherry wine; set 
 
 698 
 
FOOD FOR THE SICK 105 
 
 the bowi in a dish of boihng water over the fire. When 
 the gelatine is dissolved add a teaspoonful of lemon 
 juice and ^ a cup of sugar ; strain ; set the bowl in a 
 dish of ice and water to cool. As soon as it begins to 
 thicken turn in the cream. Stir this until it also thick- 
 ens ; mould and put on ice. Serve with cream. 
 
 Wine Jelly 
 
 % box of gelatine. 
 
 yi cup of cold water. 
 
 1^4 cups of boiling water. 
 
 ^2 cup of sugar. 
 
 ^ a square inch cinnamon. 
 
 I clove. 
 
 3^ cup of sherry wine. 
 
 Coflfee Jelly 
 
 %. box gelatine. 
 ^4 cup of cold water. 
 I cup of boiling water. 
 ^ cup of strong cofifee. 
 3/2 a teaspoonful of vanilla. 
 ^ a cup of sugar. 
 
 EMERGENCIES. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 
 
 In all emergencies one of the chief requisites is 
 coolness. Do not get excited, or you will be perfectly 
 useless. When the doctor's services are necessary send 
 him a zvrittcn statement of the case, that he may come 
 prepared with the proper appliances. Severe injury 
 
 699 
 
the Air 
 
 lob HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 of any kind is apt to be followed by that complete 
 prostration of the vital powers known as "shock." 
 Therefore, after such, the patient should be put into a 
 warm bed, and hot water bags applied to the feet and 
 over the heart. 
 
 Exclude Scalds and Burns. In the treatment of scalds and 
 
 burns the first object is to allay the pain by excluding 
 the air. This is done best by the application of clean, 
 soft, white linen or cotton cloths wrung out in a solu- 
 tion made by dissolving a tablespoonful of bicarbonate 
 of soda (baking soda) in a pint of boiled water. This 
 treatment can be continued for the first few days ; 
 afterwards boric acid ointment spread on lint or soft 
 sterile cotton will be found healing. Do not try to 
 treat a burn of any extent without a doctor's advice, 
 as many complications are likely to ensue. In fact, in 
 such cases, it is always best to send for the doctor 
 immediately, as many people have died from shock 
 after comparatively small burns. 
 
 Frost Bites. Rub with snow, or cloths wrung out in 
 ice-water. The rubbing must be very light at first, and 
 the patient kept away from the heat. 
 
 Syncope or Fainting. Place the head lower than the 
 feet if possible; give plenty of fresh air. Ammonia 
 may be given by inhalation, but it should not be very 
 strong, as it is irritating to the bronchial tubes. If 
 these measures are not successful treat as in case of 
 shock. 
 
 700 
 
EMERGENCIES 107 
 
 Shock. Put the patient into a warm bed ; undress 
 and roll in blankets ; apply heat to the extremities and 
 over the heart; raise the foot of the bed, so that the 
 patient's head will be considerably lower than the feet. 
 If possible avoid giving stimulation till the doctor 
 arrives ; if, however, he cannot be found, and the case 
 is urgent, give a rectal injection of whisky i oz., 
 water 5 ozs. (105° F.), salt 5 grains. Coffee may be 
 used instead of water and salt. 
 
 Epilepsy. Loosen all clothing; put something be- 
 tween the teeth to prevent the tongue being bitten ; 
 have the head on a level with the feet ; give plenty 
 of fresh air but no stimulants. 
 
 Drozvning. In cases of drowning where a person is 
 apparently lifeless, efforts to restore life should be 
 commenced at once by loosening all tight clothing 
 around neck, chest, and waist. Turn the patient over 
 quickly on his face, raising the body slightly at the 
 waist to allow any water in the throat or air passages 
 to run out. Wrap a handkerchief or a towel around 
 the forefinger and gently cleanse the mouth. All this 
 should take only a minute or two. Place the person 
 upon his back with a folded coat or a firm pad of any 
 kind under his shoulders to raise them a little. Be 
 careful that the tongue does not slip back and shut 
 off the air from the trachea. If it shows any tendency 
 to do so, have some one hold it out, or tie a hand' 
 kerchief around it and then around the neck. 
 
 701 
 
io8 
 
 HOME CARE OE THE SICK 
 
 Artificial 
 Respiration 
 
 Now artificial respiration should be produced until 
 the natural breathing is restored. To do this kneel 
 
 ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION (First Movement) 
 
 behind the patient and grasping his arms just below 
 the elbows, draw them slowly upward above his head 
 until they nearly touch. Give a firm pull for a mo- 
 ment. This movement tends to fill the lungs with air 
 by raising the ribs and increasing the chest cavity. 
 
 ARTIFIC^IAL RESPIRATION (Second Movement) 
 
 Then carry the arms slowly back* to the sides of the 
 body and press them against the ribs. This movement 
 forces out the air which was drawn into the lungs and 
 makes artificially a complete respiration. These two 
 
 702 
 
EMERGENCIES. 109 
 
 movements should be repeated slowly and steadily 
 about sixteen times in a minute, until respiration takes 
 place naturally. This may require an hour or more. 
 
 Asphyxiation, Caused by Gas, Smoke, etc. Remove 
 the patient into the fresh air, loosen the clothing, 
 throw cold water in the face, neck, and chest ; apply 
 heat to the feet and over the heart. If respiration is 
 
 Guarding 
 
 EXPELLING THE AIR (Third Movement) 
 
 shallow, artificial respiration should be performed, and, 
 if necessary, treat as for shock. 
 
 Contusions, or Bruises, are best treated by rest and 
 cold applications. 
 
 Wounds. When there is a cut, the first procedure, 
 provided there is no hemorrhage, is to wash out the gfooJ^* 
 wound well with bichloride, 1-5000, and bind it u]) Poisoning 
 with* sterile gauze. A wound will heal without the 
 formation of pus if all bacteria arc killed or kept out. 
 When the cut is long, or the ends of the wound do not 
 come together well, the doctor should be summoned, 
 as putting in a few stitches may prevent an unsightly 
 
 703 
 
110 
 
 HOME CARli Ol' THE SICK 
 
 Tourniquet 
 
 scar, (llavinj^ bichloride and sterile ^auze always in 
 the honse would save many a case of hlood poison, 
 infected lingers, etc.) Collodion is useful in keeping 
 bacteria out of small cuts and in ap[)lying absorbent 
 cotton over wounds in place's where bandages cannot 
 be used. 
 
 flciiiorrJidi^i'. I'dev.ile llie alTeclt'(l pari ; make com- 
 j)ression over the wound by applying clean compresses 
 and bandaging lighlly. If this does nol c^berk il, and 
 you do not know the ccjurse of the arteries well enough 
 
 Manner of compressing an artery witli a Imndkcrchicf and ntick. 
 
 to make comj)ression upon the re(|uired one, tie on a 
 bandage very tightly above the wound. A ])eniil or a 
 piece of wood stuck under this, and turned around, 
 will act as a touruicjuet. When possible, in addition 
 to this it is always better to i)lace a hard pad over the 
 course of the artery. A doctor's aid must be sought 
 immediately, for if the blood is shut off in this manner 
 longer than an hour gangrene is likely to set in. 
 
 704 
 
EMERGENCIES 
 
 III 
 
 Epistaxis (bleeding from the nose). Make the pa- 
 tient stand or sit erect ; throw the head back and 
 elevate the arms, while you apply ice or ice-cold com- 
 presses to the forehead and back of neck. If the 
 bleeding still continues the nostrils should be syringed 
 with salt and water, ice cold. Avoid blowing the nose, 
 and so disturbing the formation of clots. 
 
 Hemorrhage from the Lungs. Keep the patient 
 quiet, give crushed ice, and put ice-cap on chest. Salt 
 solution made by dissolving a teaspoonful of salt in a 
 small cup of water may also be given. 
 
 Sprains occur most frequently at the wrist and ankle 
 joint. Soak the afifected part in hot water, or apply 
 hot compresses. The joint should then be supported 
 by strapping, and given moderate use. A surgeon 
 should do the strapping, for if it is not properly done 
 serious trouble may result. 
 
 Fractures. It is a mistaken impression that a frac- 
 ture must be set immediately. It will do less harm 
 for it to be left a day or two without splints than for 
 them to be applied awkwardly. Handle the injured 
 limb as little as possible, and keep the patient quiet 
 until a competent surgeon can be obtained. Temporary 
 splints made of pasteboard, shingles, etc., may be 
 bound on to prevent the spasmodic twitching of the 
 muscles ; cold or hot compresses applied will keep 
 down the swelling and relieve the pain. 
 
 Dislocations should be reduced as soon as possible, 
 but only a surgeon can do this properly. 
 
 Cold 
 Applications 
 
 Strapping: 
 
 Fractures 
 Need 
 
 Not Be Set 
 At Once 
 
 705 
 
But Water 
 
 112 HOMh CAKt Ut IMh MLK 
 
 FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE, EAR, NOSE, THROAT 
 
 The Eye. If anything gets under the lower lid, draw 
 the lid down by the lashes, direct the patient to turn 
 the eyeball toward the nose, and the offending body 
 can then be wiped out with a soft handkerchief. If it 
 is under the upper lid, this can be turned up over a 
 thin pencil or knitting needle, and treated in the same 
 way, except that the patient is directed to look down. 
 Always wipe the eye towards the nose. If the particle 
 is imbedded in the surface of the eyeball a surgeon 
 must be notified immediately ; do not make any effort 
 to get it out. 
 Use Nothing I'orcii^u Body in the Ear. Unless the object is 
 
 something that will swell with moisture, syringe gently 
 with warm water, taking care not to close the opening 
 with the nozzle of the syringe. If this method fails go 
 to a doctor ; any unskilled effort to poke or probe the 
 object out is likely to result in permanent injury to 
 tne ear. 
 
 The Nose. When a foreign body is in the nostril 
 make the patient take a full breath, then close the 
 mouth and the other nostril firmly — the air will prob- 
 ably expel the obstruction. If this fails, and the object 
 is in sight, compress the nostrils above and hook it 
 out with a hairpin or piece of bent wire. 
 
 A Eoreii^n Body in the Throat may be hooked out 
 in the same way; if not, a ])iecc of bread should be 
 swallowed ; this may carry down the obstruction. Do 
 not give purgative medicine, as is often done, but 
 
 706 
 
POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 113 
 
 rather plenty of solid food, especially potatoes and 
 bread. 
 
 'A Foreign Body in the Windpipe will usually be 
 dislodged by the coughing which its presence excites ; 
 if not, a blow on the back, or, in the case of a child, 
 holding it up by the feet and administering a succes- 
 sion of blows between the shoulders will generally 
 produce the desired effect. 
 
 POISONS AND ANTIDOTES 
 
 The treatment has three objects in view: to re- Give an 
 move the poisonous substance, neutralize its further A?^once 
 action, and remedy the ill effects already produced. 
 An emetic is the first consideration. A tablespoonful 
 of salt or mustard stirred into a glass of lukewarm 
 water will usually prove effective. This dose should be 
 repeated three or four times. An enema should also 
 be given, the patient kept warm, and, as soon as vomit- 
 ing ceases, the chemical antidote given. 
 
 The following table of the chemical antidotes and 
 further treatment of the most common poisons should 
 be learned and remembered. 
 
 Carbolic Acid. Lime water and milk, equal parts, 
 a pint to a pint and a half. Atropine and heart stimu- 
 lants, such as whisky and strychnine, may be required, 
 given hypodermically. 
 
 Nitric or Oxalic Acid. Chalk or whiting, the plaster 
 from walls, milk and lime water. Give whichever can 
 be obtained quickest. 
 
 ;o7 
 
114 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Ammonia. Vinegar or lemon juice, followed by 
 castor or olive oil. 
 
 Arsenic. The best antidote is tincture of iron, di- 
 luted with v/ater, and either baking or washing soda. 
 Lacking this, or till it can be obtained, give milk and 
 white of Qgg, or flour and water. 
 
 Aconite or Belladonna. Strong, hot coffee. Give 
 artificial respiration if necessary. 
 
 Bichloride of Mercury (corrosive sublimate). White 
 of Qgg — white of two eggs to a pint of water. 
 Calomel. The same as bichloride of mercury. 
 
 Opium. Strong, hot coffee. Keep the patient 
 awake, using artificial respiration when necessary ; 
 permanganate of potash and tannic acid are the best 
 chemical antidotes, but they can rarely be obtained 
 in a hurry. 
 
 BANDAGES AND BANDAGING. 
 
 Materials ^^^^ materials most commonly used for making 
 
 bandages are either unbleached muslin or gauze. Mus- 
 lin bandages are best when necessary to keep a splint 
 in place, or make firm pressure. Gauzes are infinitely 
 preferable when the object is only to keep a surgical 
 dressing in position ; they adapt themselves more 
 neatly to the part, and are much cooler. 
 
 Bandages should be six to eight yards long; they 
 vary in width from one inch to four ; one inch for 
 finger bandages, two for hands and feet, two and a 
 
 708 
 
BANDAGING 
 
 "S 
 
 half to three for head and arms, three to four for legs, 
 spicas, etc. 
 
 The three fundamental forms of bandaging are : the 
 spiral, reverse, and figure eight. 
 
 The figure eight principle is the one most used, and 
 is the easiest method to learn. It is made by turning 
 the bandage round the limb in the form of the figure 
 8, each figure being higher than the preceding one, 
 but overlapping it one-third of its width. A bandage 
 must lie smoothly without wrinkles, making an even 
 but not too severe pressure. It must not be loose 
 enough to slip, yet not tight enough to be painful or 
 impede the circulation. 
 
 When finishing a bandage always put the pin on the 
 outer side of a limb, and in all cases where it will 
 least interfere with the patient's comfort. Safety pins 
 should always be used. 
 
 In bandaging a limb begin at the extremity, and 
 work upwards from left to right. Hold the bandage 
 with the roll side upward. 
 
 To bandage a foot start the free end of the bandage 
 at the instep, make a turn around the base of the toes, 
 carry the bandage diagonally over the foot, across the 
 point of the heel, and back from the other side till it 
 coincides with the first turn. Cover this, and carry a 
 second turn around the heel, half an inch higher than 
 the first. Continue making alternate turns under the 
 sole and behind the heel, crossing over the instep, until 
 the foot is covered. Finish with a couple of circular 
 
 Figure 
 
 Eight 
 
 Bandage 
 
 Finishing 
 
 Foot 
 Bandage 
 
 709 
 
ii6 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Legr 
 Bandage 
 
 turns around the ankle, or, if desired, continue up the 
 leg. 
 
 The beginning of the leg bandage is placed obliquely 
 across the leg above the ankle ; a circular turn keeps 
 it in place ; then the bandage, is inclined up the leg, 
 and a turn taken around it. It is then brought down- 
 ward, and another turn taken around the ankle. Suc- 
 
 FIGURE 8 OF THE FOOT. 
 
 cessive turns are to be made, each one higher than 
 the preceding, till the entire limb is covered. 
 
 To bandage a hand begin at the top of the first 
 finger and cover it by a succession of oblique circular 
 turns, or figures of eight, to its base. Then make a 
 turn around the wrist to keep these from slipping, and 
 return to the root of the second finger. Lead the 
 
 710 
 
BANDAGING 
 
 117 
 
 bandage by one or two spirals to the top of this, then 
 proceed down it, as upon the first finger, concluding 
 with another turn upon the wrist. Cover each finger 
 successively in the same way; then take a wider 
 bandage, start at the back of the 
 hand and wind it around the base 
 of the fingers, carry it obliquely 
 across the back of the hand around 
 the wrist, back to the further side, 
 and again around the palm. Con- 
 tinue these turns alternately till the 
 hand is covered. The arm is ban- 
 daged in the same manner as the 
 leg. 
 
 When it is only necessary to cover 
 the forehead or back of the head the 
 figure-of-eight is all that is required. Figure 8 of the Leg 
 Start the bandage over the ear, carry it across the 
 eyebrows and around the back of the head as high as 
 possible. Continue to wind it round thus, making 
 
 FIGURE 8 OF THE ARM. 
 
 each turn a little higher in the front, and lower in the 
 back, until you have covered as much surface as 
 required. When the whole head needs covering 
 the capeline is better. This is put on by a 
 
 Forehead or 
 Back of Head 
 
 The 
 Capeline 
 
 711 
 
ii8 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 double roller (join two bandages by rolling). Stand 
 behind the patient, and, taking one roll in each hand, 
 begin low on the forehead and carry them round the 
 head, far down on the nape of the neck ; then transfer 
 the bandage in the left hand to the one in the right, 
 and continue it round, while the other is folded over 
 at right angles with it, and brought across the top of 
 the head to the front. Here it meets the other and 
 crosses it again, running backward and overlapping 
 the former folds. These turns are continued until the 
 
 Four Tailed 
 Bandages 
 
 Bandage of the Hand 
 
 whole head is covered, one bandage going round and 
 round it, and the other going back and forth across 
 it ; all the folds leading from the front of the head to 
 the back should be on the left of the middle, while 
 those leading toward the front should be on the right. 
 Finish with a circular turn around the head ; fasten 
 with a safety pin in front. 
 
 The tailed bandages arc often found very convenient, 
 especially for keeping poultices and the like in posi- 
 tion. 
 
 The four tailed bandage of the head is made from 
 a piece of muslin eight inches wide and long enough 
 
 712 
 
BANDAGING 119 
 
 to go over the scalp and tie under the chin. It is torn 
 from each extremity to within three or four inches 
 of the middle. The body of the bandage is placed on 
 
 FIGURE 8 OF THE HEAD 
 
 the top of the head, the two posterior tails tied under 
 the chin, and the two anterior ones around the back of 
 
 THE CAPE LINE 
 
 the neck. If it is desired to cover the front of the 
 head the body of the bandage is placed at this point, 
 the two anterior tails are fastened at the back of the 
 head, and the two posterior ones down under the jaw. 
 
 713 
 
120 
 
 HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 A four tailed bandage for the knee is made by 
 splitting a strip of muslin at each end, to within two 
 or three inches of the center. Place the body of the 
 
 FOUR-TAILED BANDAGE OF THE HEAD 
 
 bandage over the knee, carry the tails under the knee, 
 cross them so that the lower ones will come above the 
 joint, and the upper ones below ; bring 
 them around, and tie in front. 
 Scuitetut A scultetus, or many tailed, is used 
 
 on the abdomen, to obtain pressure, to 
 keep a surgical dressing or poultice in 
 place, etc. To make it take four or five 
 strips three inches wide and a yard and 
 a quarter to a yard and a half long, sew 
 them together in the center for a quar- 
 ter of a yard, each one overlapping the 
 other by two-thirds of its width. To 
 apply, pass the bandage under the pa- 
 tient, so that the sewed part is under 
 her back ; fold the strips alternatelv 
 
 ' Four Tailed Band 
 
 over the abdomen, from below upward, age of the Knee 
 
 714 
 
BANDAGING 
 
 121 
 
 To make a sling take a square yard of muslin and 
 cut it across diagonally; this makes two slings. When 
 the fore-arm is injured its whole extent should be 
 supported equally. Put it in the center of the sling; 
 carry its outer end around the neck on the side of the 
 injured arm, and the end between the arm and the 
 
 Slings 
 
 SLINGS FOR LOWER AND UPPER ARMS 
 
 chest around the other side, tying them at the back. 
 The third end is brought around the elbow and fas- 
 tened in front. 
 
 If the injury is of the upper arm the sling should 
 support the wrist only, making no pressure on the 
 elbow. Turn the hand palm inward, fold the apex 
 of the bandage in place, the arm just above the wrist 
 in the center of the sling, cross the ends and tie them 
 around the neck. 
 
 The student should practice the various bandages 
 and slings described on some member of the family 
 or a friend. Some little experience is required before 
 they can be applied securely and neatly. The illustra- 
 tions will help to make the matter clear. 
 
 Sling for 
 Upper Arm 
 
 715 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 PART II 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
 the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that your in- 
 structor may know that you understand the subject. Carry 
 out the directions given in the text, if possible, before 
 answering the questions. 
 
 1. How are infectious and contagious diseases alike? 
 
 How do they differ? Name some of each. 
 
 2. What precautionary measures should be taken 
 
 with typhoid fever? With consumption? 
 
 3. What are the rules when isolation is necessary? 
 
 4. What precautionary measures should be taken 
 
 by the attendant while nursing in a contagious 
 disease? 
 
 5. How disinfect (a) the patient, (b) the room, 
 
 (c) the furnishings at the termination of a 
 contagious disease? 
 
 6. Why are the many precautions taken in surgical 
 
 operations and in childbirth? 
 
 7. What can you say of diet for the sick? Why 
 
 should special care be taken in serving? 
 
 8. What should the medicine closet contain in prepa- 
 
 ration for emergencies and accidents? 
 
 9. How would you treat a scald or burn? Frost 
 
 bite? A wound? 
 10. What is shock and how should this condition be 
 treated ? 
 
 716 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 11. Why should written directions be sent to the 
 
 doctor in accidents? 
 
 12. What would you do for a sprain? Fractures? 
 
 In case of hemorrhage from an arm or leg? 
 
 13. What should be done at once for one who has 
 
 fainted? One apparently drowned? Asphyxi- 
 ated? 
 
 14. Give the rules of hygiene in pregnancy. 
 
 15. Name some of the things to be provided for child- 
 
 birth. How should the room be prepared? 
 
 16. Describe the stages of labor. 
 
 17. What should be done if the doctor does not ar- 
 
 rive in time? 
 
 18. How should the child be cared for directly after 
 
 birth ? 
 
 19. How would you remove a foreign body from the 
 
 eye? Ear? Nose? Throat? 
 
 20. In case of poisoning, what objects has the treat- 
 
 ment in view? 
 
 21. What would you do for carbolic acid poisoning? 
 
 Bichloride of mercury? Arsenic? Opium? 
 
 22. Of what material are bandages made? How 
 
 should they be applied and fastened? 
 
 23. Bandage a foot as shown 'in the illustration and 
 
 then describe the process. 
 
 24. Try some of the other bandages described and 
 
 report, 
 
 25. Make and adjust a sling for the forearm. When 
 
 should it be used? 
 
 26. What questions would you like to ask in connec- 
 
 tion with these lessons ? Tell of any experience 
 that you may have had in nursing and of meth- 
 ods that were helpful. 
 
 Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 
 
 717 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR CLASS 
 
 STUDY ON 
 
 HOME CARE FOR THE SICK 
 
 MEETING I 
 
 (Study pages 1-13) 
 
 Symptoms of Disease 
 
 See Care of Children, pages 153-159, for children's dis- 
 eases. (Vol. XI of the Library of Home Economics.) 
 The Sick-Room. 
 
 See Household Hygiene, Ventilation and Heating, 
 Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 1-13. ($1.00, post- 
 age IOC.) 
 
 MEETING II 
 
 (Study pages 13-34) 
 Care of the Patient 
 
 Make bed with draw-sheet, as described in the text. 
 
 Change the bed as described. 
 
 Lift patient to sitting position. 
 
 Make back rest and foot brace. 
 
 Change patient from one bed to another, two methods. 
 
 Change mattress with patient in bed. 
 
 •Make a wadding ring to relieve pressure. 
 
 If possible, get a trained nurse to show how these things 
 are done. 
 Convalescence 
 
 Lift patient into a chair. 
 
 Topic — Amusing the convalescent and sick children. 
 
 MEETING III 
 
 (Study pages 34-62.) 
 Baths and Bathing 
 
 Make up pitcher of water, cool, tepid, warm, etc., of 
 the various degrees of temperature given on page 41. 
 
 183 
 
 718 
 
HOME CARE OF THE SICK 
 
 Test with a bath or other thermometer and with the 
 hand. Note how unreliable the hand may be; after 
 the hand has been in the cold water, the tepid water 
 feels warm, and after having been in the hot water, 
 the tepid water feels cold. 
 
 Home Nursing, Harrison, pages 63-73. ($1.00, post- 
 age IOC. 
 
 Practical Points in Nursing, Emily Stoney, pages 83-93 
 ($1.75, postage 20c.) 
 Temperature, Pulse, Giving Medicine, etc. 
 
 Obtain a clinical thermometer and take temperature a 
 number of times, having all read the thermometer 
 to i-ioof a degree, and write the reading on slips of 
 paper. Compare results. If there is any difficulty 
 in shaking down the mercury, get a physician or 
 nurse to show how it is done. A clinical thermometei 
 may be purchased through the School for $1.25, 
 or will be loaned for loc. 
 
 Count the pulse in quarters for a second, as described, 
 and compare results as in the taking of temperature. 
 
 Count the respiration, as directed. 
 
 Have an exhibit of medicine glasses, feeding cups, 
 syringes, ice-caps. 
 
 Make poultices, sinapisms, flannel for fomentations, 
 compresses. 
 
 (Select answers to the Test Questions on Part I and send 
 to the School. Report on Meetings I, II, and III.) 
 
 MEETING IV 
 
 (Study pages 63-73) 
 Contagious Diseases: Disinfection 
 
 See article in the supplement, also send for and read 
 some of the following Bulletins issued by State 
 Boards of Health: 
 
 719 
 
PROGRAM 185 
 
 Lansing, Michigan, "Dangerous Communicable Dis- 
 eases." 
 Concord, New Hampshire, "Consumption."' 
 Springfield, Illinois, "Consumption'' also "Practical 
 
 Disinfection.' ' 
 Augusta, Maine, "Contagious Diseases.'' 
 Trenton, New Jersey, "Restriction of the Spread of 
 
 Infectious Diseases." 
 These Bulletins are sent free, or for a 2c stamp. Send 
 to your own State Board of Health, if not included 
 in the above; to your capital city, for any Bulletins. 
 
 MEETING V 
 
 (Study pages 73-105) 
 Surgical Work: Obstetrics 
 
 Practical Points in Nursing, Stoney, ($1.75, postage 20c.) 
 Food for the Sick 
 
 Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent. 
 ($1.50, postage i8c.) 
 
 Food for the Sick, French, ($1.00, postage loc.) 
 
 Hand Book of Invalid Cookery, Boland, ($2.00, post- 
 age 1 6c. 
 
 Collect appropriate recipes in addition to those given 
 in the text. 
 
 Show dainty and suitable serving for the sick. 
 
 MEETING VI 
 
 (Study pages 1 05-1 21) 
 Emergencies 
 
 Practice artificial respiration, as described. 
 Make a tourniquet. 
 Bandaging and Bandages 
 
 Practice all the bandages described. If possible, get 
 
 a trained nurse to show methods. 
 (Select answers to the Test Questions on Part II and 
 report on Meetings IV, V, and VI.) 
 
 720 
 
HOME CARE OE THE SlCR 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent ($1.50) 
 
 Fannie M. Farmer, 
 Food for the Sick ($1.00). Edward C. French. 
 Home Nursing ($1.00). Eveleen Harrison. 
 Nursing ($2.00). Isabel A. Hampton. 
 
 Practical Normal Histology ($1.25). T. Mitchell Prudden. 
 Practical Points in Nursing ($1.75). Emily A. N. Stoney. 
 Text Book of Nursing ($1.75). Clara Week Shaw. 
 
 MAGAZINES 
 
 The American Journal of Nursing. 
 The Trained Nurse. 
 
 Note.— For the convenience of students the School will purchase and 
 forward any of the above books on receipt of the price given. 
 
 721 
 
ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 "LESSONS IN COOKING, THROUGH THE PREP- 
 ARATION OF MEALS." 
 
 THIS new correspondence course in cookery has been 
 prepared to meet the needs of home-makers who have 
 had Httle or no systematic training in modern methods 
 of cooking but who desire to provide for their famihes sim- 
 ple, yet appetizing and wholesome meals, with the last ex- 
 penditure of time, effort and money. 
 
 The ordinary cook book, with its numerous and compli- 
 cated recipes, is of little help to the beginner. It does not 
 answer the oft occurring question, "What shall I provide for 
 today, tomorrow, for next week"? It gives no hint of 
 wholesome food combinations or balanced diet. 
 
 The problem of home cooking is not only how to cook 
 various separate dishes but how to prepare whole meals. 
 The plan of ''Lessons in Cooking" is unique and original in 
 that a systematic course in cooking is taught through a series 
 of menus, with detailed directions, not only for cooking the 
 separate dishes, but also for preparing and serving each meal 
 as a zchole. The course is divided into twelve parts, in each 
 of which is given the recipes for a week's menu, typical of 
 one month of the year — over 250 meals in all. In the first 
 lessons, simple operations of cooking are described and 
 gradually the more difficult and complicated recipes are in- 
 troduoed, leading to advanced work in the later lessons. 
 Throughout the course the question of wholesome food com- 
 binations and balanced meals is carefully considered and 
 special emphasis is given to economy of time and money. 
 
 All available authorities have been consulted and the 
 assistance of a number of prominent teachers of cookery 
 has been obtained in the preparation of this course, which 
 presents the best modern methods and the latest scientific 
 discoveries relating to the "Fine Art of Cooking." 
 
 lUillctin of sample ])ages sent on rccjuest from School 
 of Home Economics, Chicago. 
 
 722 
 
INDEX TO 
 THE PROFESSION OF HOME MAKING 
 
 HOME-STUDY COURSE 
 
 As this Course or book is made up of four different 
 books, the pages are re-numbered at the foot of the pages 
 to provide a complete index. In using this index refer 
 only to the mmibers at the bottom of the pages. 
 
 Emergencies, accidents, poisons and antidotes, etc., are 
 printed in black-faced type as an aid to ''quick reference." 
 
 Absorbents of grease, SS 
 Accidents, 699 
 Account, bank, 4G0 
 
 overdrawing. 464 
 Accounts, 442-571 
 
 balancing, 4.'50 
 
 card systems, 446 
 
 credit, 44S 
 
 envelope method, 444 
 
 itemized, 447 
 
 systems. 444 
 
 table of, 4."0 
 
 weekly, 450 
 Acetylene gas. 115 
 
 generators, 116 
 .\cid— definition of, 6S 
 
 test f<ir. OS. i:>,2 
 Aconite, poisoning, 708 
 Adaptability. 447 
 Adai)tatiiin to conditions, 411 
 Adulterations, .■'>(i2 
 Advance purcliasing, ."o.T 
 Advantages of domestic service, 481 
 
 of owning home, 422 
 Air, 22, 107 
 
 as food. :!.S 
 
 composition of, 24, P,0 
 
 pressure, 2.*> 
 
 properties of, 22 
 
 Air cushion — rubber. 621 
 Airing the sick room. 604 
 Aitch bone, use of, .539 
 Albumin. 54 
 Alcoliol as fuel, .•128 
 Alkali, 68, 83, 133 
 Alkali, effect on paint, 98 
 Alkali metals, 7<) 
 Alladin oven, 188 
 Allowance for higher life, 437 
 
 personal, 468 
 Alum, 136 
 Ammonia, 70. 136 
 
 poisoning, 708 
 
 use of, 83, 126 
 Amusing i)atient. 623 
 Aniline, 114 
 Animal food, comparative composf- 
 
 tion of, 248 
 Animal productions, 5."7 
 Anthracite coal. 2~> 
 Antidote for poisons, 707 
 Apartment life, 4!l3 
 Ai'gon, 2(1 
 
 Arsenic poisoning, 708 
 Artificial breathing, 702 
 
 skin, 019 
 Ashes — removing, 005 
 Asphyxiation, 703 
 Atniosi)bere, 20-22 
 Atinos|)lieric i)ressure, 23, 154 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 
 
 723 
 
INDEX 
 
 Atoms, 128 
 All gratin, oOS 
 
 Baby, care of. GS5 
 Back rest.s, G14 
 Bacon, 550 
 Baked beans. 397 
 Baking bread. 290 
 
 powder mixing, 294 
 
 powder — strength of. 290 
 Baking, dofinitidn of. ?,GS 
 Baking powder. G.". 123, 1 r)G, 175 
 
 chemistry of. 105 
 Balance sheet, 451 
 Bananas, 369 
 Bandages. 708-715 
 
 f'apeline, 711 
 
 foot, 709 
 
 forehead, 711 
 
 fore-tailed, 712 
 
 leg. 712 
 
 materials for. 7<iS 
 
 of the hand. 712 
 Bandaging. 70S 
 
 kinds of, 7<)9 
 Bank acconnt. 460 
 
 acconnt bookkeeping. 467 
 
 aid to house wife. 46." 
 Bargains — legitimate, 499 
 Basting. 191 
 Baths. G26 
 
 cleansing. G26 
 
 foot, 627 
 
 hot, 629 
 
 salt, 632 
 
 temperature for, 633 
 
 to reduce temperature, 62S 
 Bath thermometer, 629 
 Batteries, 123 
 Bavarian cream, 3S0 
 Beans, 269, 369 
 Beating eggs. 246 
 Bed linen, 51S 
 
 room furnishings — cost of, 51 
 B(>d sores, 617 
 
 care of, 62() 
 Bed. the. 601 
 
 changing, 6nS 
 
 height of, 601 
 
 making, 607 
 
 size of. 601 
 Berf. .369 
 Beef, corned. 542 
 
 fore quarter, 534 
 
 heart. ■)42 
 
 hind (luarter. 537 
 
 (luallty of, 529 
 
 ribs of, 5.35 
 
 steak cuts of. 538 
 
 table of cuts of, 545 
 Bc(>f braising. :'.94 
 Belladonna — poisoning, 708 
 Bibliography. 16."!, 322, 563 
 
 Bichloride of mercury disinfectant, 
 6.5S 
 
 poisoning, 708 
 Biscuits, 288, 387 
 Bituminous coal. .33 
 Blanc Mange. 379 
 Bleaching, 94 
 
 jiowder, 94 
 Bleeding or hemorrhage, 704 
 Blood poisoning, 703 
 Blue tlame oil stove, :\7> 
 Blueing, 145 
 
 clothes, 81 
 Blueing stains, 86 
 Bob veal, 546 
 Boiler, double, 2(11 
 Boiling, 190, 202, .368 
 Boiling clothes, 81 
 
 point. 19. lG(i 
 Bone black, .32 
 Bones — nutriment in. 254 
 Books, for reference on Home Mak- 
 ing. 163. .322. 563 
 Borax. 75. S3, 133 
 
 use of, S3 
 Boston baked beans. .397 
 Boston brown bread. 388 
 Bouillon. 377 
 Braising. 200. .3GS 
 Bran treatment, G28 
 Bread, 283, 391 
 
 Boston brown. 3S8 
 
 baking of. 290 
 
 digestibility of, 50 
 
 double process. 28G 
 
 fancy. 289 
 
 flavoring of. 49 
 
 ideal, 47 
 
 kinds of, 46 
 
 loft overs, 310 
 
 making, 4S, 155 
 
 mixing, 281 
 
 short iirocess, 2S6 
 Breakfast. .320 
 
 foods, 277, 396 
 Breathing, artificial, 702 
 Brisket, use of, 537 
 Broiling. 190 
 Broiling. dcHuition, .368 
 Broken hones, 705 
 Broth. .58 
 Brown sauce, 227 
 Brushing woolens, 83 
 Brussels carpet, 522 
 Budgets— ideal, 419 
 
 tyiiical, 417 
 T'.uilding, cost of. 455 
 Bulletins, bv V. S. (iovernment, free, 
 
 164. :;22, 56:! 
 Burns, 700 
 
 r.usiuess, principles in home making, 
 40S 
 
 side of home making. .504 
 
 j^oie. — For page nuinhcrs, sec foot of pages. 
 
 724 
 
INDEX 
 
 Butter. 224, 3G9, "j9 
 
 couii)ositlon of, 22G 
 
 for flavoring, 225 
 
 precautions in use, 22S 
 
 rancid, 22!J 
 Buying, 20.j 
 
 (luantities, 499, 561 
 
 supplies, 499, 524 
 
 C 
 
 Caffein, 55 
 Cake, 297. 345 
 
 coffee. 391 
 
 flavoring of, 299 
 
 ingredients of, 299 
 
 maliing, 345 
 
 proportions in, 300 
 
 sponge, 242, 385 
 
 sweetening of. 300 
 Calomel poisoning, 708 
 t'andle flame, clieuiistry of, lOS 
 Cane sugar, 40 
 Canned foods, 211 
 Canning foods, 217 
 Caramel. 39S 
 Carbohydrates. 3S, 217 
 Carbolic acid disinfectant, 658 
 Carbolic acid poisoning, 707 
 Carbon, 25 
 
 dioxide of, 20, 168 
 
 monoxide of, 29 
 Carbonates, test for, i;'>5 
 Card index system. 452 
 Cure of bed sores. 617 
 Care of nurse. 6(»5 
 
 of patient. 605 
 
 of sick room. 601 
 Carpets, brnssels, 522 
 
 grades of, 522 
 
 ingrain, 522 
 
 re-made. 524 
 
 tapestry. 522 
 Carrots. comi)ositiou of, 369 
 Carving. .532 
 Casein. 54. 57 
 Catlieterization. 649 
 Caustic potash. 70 
 Caustic soda. 70 
 Cell. dry. 124 
 
 leclanclie. 122 
 
 voltaic, 121 
 Cells in series. 123 
 Cellulose, 39. 42. 263 
 
 where found, 369 
 Cement. 120 
 
 hydraulic. 120 
 
 Portland. 120 
 Cereals, cooking, 276. 396 
 Chafing dish, iss 
 
 Changing mattress, pjitient in bed, 
 617 
 
 patient, one bed to another. 615 
 
 position of iiatieut. 614 
 Charcoal, 31, ISO 
 
 Charcoal, making of, 31 
 
 use of. 32 
 Chairs, kitchen, 515 
 Cliart. composition of food, 435 
 
 division of inc<ime, 420 
 
 econom.\' of food. 435 
 Cheap cuts of beef. 541 
 Checks, 462 
 Cheese, 220, 229, 369 
 
 composition of, 229 
 
 nutritive value of, 229 
 Chemicals, care of, i;:.2 
 
 closet for, 134 
 
 household. 131 
 
 signs. 12s 
 
 terms. 127 
 Chemistry of a match. 29 
 
 of baking powder. 1<)5 
 
 of brea<l making, 48 
 
 lauudrv. 78 
 
 of candle. 108 
 
 of cooking, 370 
 Chicken, roasting, 262 
 Chickenpox, 595 
 Chill, cause of, 27 
 Chloride of lime, 95 
 
 test for, 136 
 Chloride, action of. 95 
 Chlorophyl, 125 
 Choice of sick room. 601 
 Cholera infantum, 697 
 Chops, 393 
 Chowders. 3<i7 
 Chuck, use >->f, 535 
 Classification of expenses, 458 
 
 value of, 413 
 Cleaning, 67. 102, 111 
 
 metal. 99 
 
 porcelain. 100 
 
 with gasoline. 146 
 
 woodwork, 98 
 Clothing, cost of, 430 
 Coal. 32. 327 
 
 anthracite. 33 
 
 nituniinous. 33 
 
 distillation of. 113 
 
 fuel value of 36, 325 
 
 gas. 113. 1.30 
 
 tar products, 114 
 Coffee, making, 202, 376 
 Coke. 33 
 Coking coal. 33 
 Cold storauc 204 
 Colic, treatment for, 596 
 Collagen, 55 
 Collodi.)n, 619 
 Color of beef. 530 
 ( ()nd)Ustion. 28. 37 
 
 in body. 38 
 
 spontaneous. 160 
 Comparison, testing by. 131 
 Composition of air, 24, 30, 176 
 
 of butter, 226 
 
 of cheese, 229 
 
 Note. — For page nunihers, see foot of pages. 
 
 725 
 
INDEX 
 
 Composition of fats. .'2 
 
 of foods, table, 3G9 
 
 of gas, 158 
 
 of grains, 274 
 
 of milli, 219 
 
 of soaji, 71 
 
 of sugar, 10 
 
 of water, 16 
 Compounds, 14 
 
 chemical, 69 
 
 washing, 73. 137, 173 
 Compresses, 6."4 
 Condiments. 313 
 Conservation of energy, 126. 160 
 
 of matter. 31 
 
 l)rincipl(> of, 126 
 Constants in food. 317 
 Consumption. (i.jO 
 
 definition of, 401 
 Contagion. 657 
 
 Contagious diseases, 594, 661 
 Conval(>scence. 621 
 
 diet in. 621 
 Convulsions, 597 
 Cook l)ooks, use of. 340 
 Cookery, art of, 2ir>, 315, 343 
 
 fanc.v, 304 
 Cookies, 301, 389 
 Cooking, cereals. 4.", 276 
 
 co-oi)erative. 336 
 
 effects of, 59. 189 
 
 fats. 51 
 
 in milk. 222 
 
 in water, methods of, 196 
 
 object of. 59 
 
 soda, 105 
 
 temperature in. 199. 370, 372 
 
 vegetables, 270 
 
 with water, 199 
 Cooking, free-hand. 367 
 Co operative cooking. 336 
 Corned beef. 542 
 Corn cake, 38S 
 Corn meal. 369, 396 
 Corrosive sublimate, poisoning. 
 Cost for service. 428 
 
 of building. 425 
 
 of food, 241. 318. 431. 577 
 
 of living. 417. 571 
 Cottage pudding. ;!01 
 Cotton cloth, brands of, 518 
 
 cloth, price of. 519 
 
 fibres, structiu'e of, 78 
 Creamed dishes. 228, 305, 377 
 
 vegetables, 273 
 Cream of tartar, 107 
 Cream puffs. 245, 385 
 Cro(iuettes. .308 
 Croup, 598 
 
 false, .598 
 
 membraneous, 598 
 Croutons, .392 
 Cr.vstals. shape of, 14 
 
 water in, 165 
 
 708 
 
 Crumbs, 392 
 Custards, 380 
 Cuts, of beef. 533 
 
 of beef steak. 538 
 
 of mutton. 549 
 
 of pork. 550 
 
 of roast beef, 527 
 
 of veal. 547 
 Cutting up beef, 533 
 
 D 
 
 Daily outline, 488 
 Damask, 520 
 Decay, 62 
 
 cause of, 62 
 Department stores, 505 
 Depositing in bank, 461 
 Desserts, 382 
 
 Destructive distillation, 33, 157 
 Dew point, 27 
 Diet in convalescence, 621 
 
 special, 691 
 Differing oi)inions, ."(iO 
 Digestibility of vegetables, 288 
 Digestion of fats, 51 
 
 of proteids, 59 
 
 of starch. 43, 170 
 
 of vegetables. 268 
 Dining room — furnishing. 511 
 Dinner, 320 
 Diphtheria, 596 
 
 cause of, 596 
 Disadvantages of buying home, 422 
 
 of domestic service, 482 
 Diseases, children's. 596 
 
 contagious. 594 
 
 not contagious, .596 
 Dishes, names of. 307 
 Dishwashing. 76. 149, 194 
 
 machines, 77 
 Disinfectants, 657, 661 
 Disinfection. 63. 65. !»7. 657. 659 
 
 at termination of disease, 664 
 
 of clothes. 662 
 
 of dishes. 662 
 
 of patient. 664 
 
 of room. 665 
 
 personal. 666 
 
 special rules for, 663 
 Dislocations, 705 
 Distillation. 10. 113 
 
 destructive. 33, 157 
 
 factional, 157 
 Distilled water, 10 
 Division of income 415, 517 
 
 of labor. 477 
 Doctor, province of. 593 
 Domestic service, 479. 498 
 
 advantages of. 481 
 
 cost of. 428 
 
 disadvantages of, 482 
 
 notes on, 582 
 
 objections to, 484 
 
 Note. — For pnr/e niinihers, sec foot of pages. 
 
 726 
 
INDEX 
 
 Domestic in-obleni, solution of, 490 
 Double process — bread, 2S6 
 Douches, G48 
 Doughnuts. 301. 390 
 Doughs. 281. 386 
 
 manner of mixing, 129, 281 
 
 (|uick. 386 
 
 yeast. 39ri 
 Draw sheets. 607 
 
 changing. 608. 611 
 Dress. -437 
 
 Dressing, mavonnaise. 400 
 Dried foods. 2<l9 
 Drip coffee, 202. 376 
 Drop cakes. 3S7 
 Dropped egg. 238 
 Drowning, 701 
 Dr.v steaming, 868 
 Dumplings. 387 
 Dusting, 603 
 
 Ear, foreign bodies in, 706 
 Economic position of women, 4113 
 Economics, divisions in. 401 
 Econom.v, aims of. 402 
 
 of food. 435, 577 
 
 true, 409, 571 
 Education of home maker, 406 
 Eggs. 235, 369. 384, 559 
 
 beating of. 246 
 
 combined with other foods, 240 
 
 effect of heat on, 236 
 
 in doughs. 243 
 
 poached. 238 
 
 ju'eserving. 239. 560 
 
 temperature for cooking, 237 
 
 testing, 560 
 
 timbals. .381 
 
 value of. 230 
 
 with cheese. 241 
 
 with starch. 238 
 
 with white sauce. 241 
 Electric batteries, 123. 176 
 Electricit.v. 121 
 Elements, chemical, 30 
 
 table of. 128 
 Emergencies, 699 
 Employment agencies. 496 
 Emulsions. 71 
 Enema, cleansing, 646 
 
 soap. 647 
 Enemata. nutritive, 644 
 Energy, 53 
 
 conservation of, 126, 160 
 
 source of. 5:5 
 Entrees. 306 
 
 Envelope method of accounts, 444 
 Epilepsy, 701 
 
 Epistaxis (nose bleed), 705 
 Essentials. 423 
 
 Established standards of work. 491 
 Estimate of kitchen utensils, 508 
 Estimation of values, 406 
 
 Evaporation, 198 
 
 Expenditure for clothing, 430 
 
 classifieation of, 414 
 
 division of household, 421 
 
 home. 409 
 
 legitimate, 423 
 
 record of. 414 
 Expense of help by hour, 432 
 
 operating. 426 
 Experience of students with servant 
 
 problem. 584 
 Experiments with acids, 172 
 
 alkalis. 172 
 
 alum. 13 
 
 baking powder, 291 
 
 bluing, 174 
 
 bones. 61 
 
 breakfast food. 364 
 
 butter. 226 
 
 dishwashing, 77 
 
 eggs. 237 
 
 flame. I<i9 
 
 gluten. 57 
 
 hard water. 173 
 
 iron rust. 175 
 
 .ielly. 196 
 
 manufacturing water, 167 
 
 meat. 58 
 
 potato, 204 
 
 pressure of air, 168 
 
 salts, 172 
 
 soap. 173 
 
 soda. 107. 200 
 
 starch, 170 
 
 taking temperature, 719 
 
 water. 1<». 197. 198. 718 
 Experiments, value of. 129 
 Explosions, cause of. 110 
 Explosive mixtures, llo 
 Extractives. 55 
 Extravagance. 418 
 Eyes, care of. 667 
 Eyes, foreign bodies in, 706 
 
 F 
 Fainting, 700 
 Fanc.v cooking. 304 
 Fats. 51. 69, 217. 2.53, 369 
 
 composition of. 52 
 
 cooking of. 51 
 
 digestion of. 51 
 
 heat from, 53 
 
 to clarify. 393 
 
 u.se of, 356 
 Ferments. 44 
 Fei-tilizers. 125 
 Fever, scarlet. 596 
 
 typhoid. 597 
 Fibres, 78 
 
 chemical action on, 79 
 
 cotton. 78 
 
 linen. 78 
 
 silk. 79 
 
 structure of, 77 
 
 wool, 78 
 
 Note. — For page numl>ers, see foot of pages. 
 
 727 
 
INDEX 
 
 Fillet of beof, 53S 
 
 Filling:. .3i>2 
 
 Filtering, 15 
 
 Financially organized family, 4GS 
 
 Fire, 177, 192 
 
 Fire tests for kerosene, 3G 
 
 Fireless cookers. '!,30 
 
 liome made, 330 
 First aid to injured, 699 
 Fish balls, 395 
 baking, 554 
 boiling. 554 
 kinds of, 553 
 local varieties of, 554 
 loaf, 395 
 
 methods of cooking, 257 
 proper ni)iiear:uice of, 257 
 .sauces with, 25S 
 scalloped, 305 
 season of, 55.t 
 selecting. 553 
 shell, 555 
 Flank, use of, 540 
 Flash point, 36 
 Flavor, 01, 312, 375 
 
 blended, 314 
 Flavoring material. 313. 314 
 Floor of sick room. 603 
 Flour, kinds of, ,284 
 Flowers in sick room, 601 
 Fomentation. G53 
 Fondant. 399 
 Food. 43o-:{7 
 
 aesthetic demands for, 433 
 air as, 3S 
 canned, 211 
 choice of, 215 
 classification of, 216 
 cost per iierson, 316, 431 
 dried. 209 
 economy, 577 
 for the sick, 687 
 highly seasoned, 622 
 nitrogenous, 53 
 ])reserving, 208 
 proper, 4.3<l 
 starchy, 369 
 time of cooking. .372 
 nncooked. 208 
 use of, 37 
 
 varied with seasons, .353 
 variety of. 304 
 Avaste of money in. 431 
 Foot brace, <J14 
 Forefpiarter of beef. 534 
 Foreign bodies, in ear, 706 
 in eye, 7C6 
 in nose, 706 
 in throat, 706 
 in windpipe, 707 
 Fowl, itreparing for fricassee, 259. 
 
 368 
 Fractures, 705 
 Free hand cooking, 367 
 
 Freezing, 21 
 
 latent heat of, 21 
 French dressing, 400 
 Fricasseeing. defjnilion of, 
 Frost bites, 7C0 
 Frost ings, .399 
 Fruits. 208-.39 
 
 coml)inations. 309 
 
 dried, how to cook, 377 
 
 368 
 
 of, ,39 
 368 
 
 food yalue 
 
 stains, 89 
 P>ying. 254, 
 Fuel, 179 
 
 comparative value of, 325 
 
 comparison of, 36 
 
 cost of, 36. 326 
 
 for sick room. 605 
 
 value. .•',6 
 Furnishings, kitchen, 
 
 sick room. 601 
 
 G 
 
 337 
 
 Garnish. 31(1 
 
 Cas, 113, 184, .327 
 
 asphyxiation, 703 
 
 acetylene, 115 
 
 burners, 184 
 
 coal, 113 
 
 composition of, 158 
 
 from candle, 108 
 
 gasoline'. 117 
 
 meter. 186 
 
 natural, 115 
 
 stoves, 185 
 
 water, 114 
 Gasoline, cleaning witli, 35, 146 
 
 stoves, 187 
 (;elatine, 310, 380 
 
 .ielly, 196 
 Gelatinoids, 54 
 Gems, 388 
 
 (Jerman measles. 595 
 Get-rich-(piick schemes, 441 
 (Jinger bread. 3S9 
 Glucose, 40 
 (Jluten, 54, 57, 170 
 Government Bulletins, free, 164, 322, 
 
 563 
 Gowns, .short. 612 
 Grains, comi)Osition of, 274 
 (Jrape. sugar, 41 
 (iraphile. 32 
 (irease spots. 87 
 Griddle cakes. 388 
 Groceries, brand of. 562 
 dry, 561 
 
 H 
 
 Haddock. .5.53 
 Hair, care of. 624 
 
 washing, 625 
 Hard coal. ]8<) 
 
 water, 15, 74, 142, 173 
 
 Note— For page nuiiihcr,s, sec foot of pages. 
 
 728 
 
INDEX 
 
 Hard water, cooking with, 75 
 
 water, with soap," 75 
 Hash, S()7, ;}!t8 
 Hay box, :v.iO 
 use of, v,:y.\ 
 Health, value of, 474 
 Heat, 20 
 
 Heat, effect on foods, .'{(j!) 
 effect of, on albiiniiu, '.\(j\) 
 effect of, on baking- powder, .370 
 effect of, on cellulose. ;5(j!) 
 effect of, on f.-its. .•]7<) 
 effect of, on food materials, 36!i 
 effect of, on jrelatine. .•;70 
 effect of, on suirar, .370 
 effect of, on starch. .•;<!!) 
 latent. 20. 152. IOC 
 transmission of. i;)() 
 Help, by the hour. 4!,'(i ."sfj 
 Hemorrhage (bleeding), 704 
 in child birth. 684 
 from lungs, 704 
 signs of, 673 
 High cost of food. 4.32 
 High temperature, G35 
 Higher life, 4.37 
 
 allowance for, 4.37 
 Hindquarter of beef. 5.37 
 Home, advantages of owning 42'^ 
 expenditures, 40iJ. 441 
 sanctity of. 405 
 .soap making. 147 
 Hcmie maker, education of. 400 
 Home making, business side of, 404 
 
 right spirit in, 408 
 Hot i)ack, 02!) 
 Hour work, 490, 5S0 
 Household accounts, 432, 571 
 chemicals. 131 
 aid society, 408 
 Household expenses, classification of 
 458 
 manager, expert, 5G3 
 Housekeeper's laboratorv, 120 
 
 library, 102 
 Housekeeping, a profe.s.sion. 405 
 
 on business-like basis, 407 
 Housewife, tests of good, 420 
 Housework helper, wages of, 428 
 Hydro-carbons, 33, 144 
 Hydrogen, 17 
 
 peroxide, 98 
 Hydraulic cement. 120 
 Hypodermic injections, G45 
 
 Ice, 204 
 
 cai)s, 053 
 
 cream, .382 
 
 cieam free7.er, 207 
 Ideals, realizing. 4.38 
 Ignorance of servants. 
 Immigrants' help, 480 
 Impurities in water, 141 
 
 485 
 
 Income, divisions of. 415 511 
 
 regular. 415 
 Incubation, period of. TMi 
 Indorsement of checks. 402 
 Industrial clianues, 4.si'i 
 Infectious diseases, 658 
 Ingrain carpet, grades of. .-.22 
 Inhalations. 045 
 
 steam, 508 
 Initiative in the home, 4(i5 
 Injections, 042 
 
 hyjiodermic. 045 
 Injuries, 699 
 Ink. 01 
 
 colored. 02 
 indelible. 00 
 on cai'iiets. 02 
 removal of. !)1 
 Insurance, life. 440 
 Intentions, good, 4ii» 
 Intestinal obstructions. .507 
 Investments, divisions for wise 430 
 Iron cooking utensils, 5i;; 
 Iron rust, removing, 02 174 
 Isolation, 001 
 time of, 505 
 
 .Tavelle water, 00 
 Jellies, 211, .383 
 Judging meat. 240 
 
 poultry, 259 
 Junket, 220, 3S2 
 
 K 
 
 Keeping fire, 183 
 
 Kensington sqnares, cost of 5''4 
 
 Kerosene, 34, ,320 
 
 flash point of. 30, 100 
 
 lamps, 112, 320 
 
 stoves, 187 
 
 use in cleaning, 00, 134 
 
 washing with.^ 145 
 Kidneys, beef, .543 
 Kindling fires, 183 
 
 point, 28 
 Kisses, 395 
 Kitchen cabinet, 514 
 
 chairs, 515 
 
 floor covering. 512 
 
 furnishings. 337, 512 
 
 scales, 311 
 
 stove, 512 
 
 tables, 515 
 
 utensils, 507 
 Kneading. 288 
 Kromeskies, 308 
 
 L 
 
 Labor, cost of, 318 
 
 division of, 473 
 
 organization of, 473 
 Laboratory, acids for, 132 
 
 iKiusekeeper's. 129 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 
 
 729 
 
INDEX 
 
 Lactose, 40 
 Lamb. 250. 548 
 
 chops, 549 
 Lamps. 112 
 
 kerosene, 112 
 
 safety. 112 
 Lard. 369 
 
 Latent heat. 20. 152, 160 
 Laundry. 78, 141 
 
 chemistry of. 78 
 
 equipment cost of. 510 
 
 establishment of, 495 
 
 work, 141, 174. 570 
 Laws of expenditure. Dr. Engel's, 
 
 419 
 Lead pipes, 15 
 Leaven. 47 
 
 Leaving materials. 'M:\, 374 
 Ledance cell. 122 
 Ledger, use of, 448 
 Left-overs, use of. .318. :>51 
 Liiritimate bargains, 499 
 Legumes, 267 
 Legumin, 54 
 Lemon ice, 382 
 Levulose, 41 
 Life insurance, 440 
 Lifp, standards of. 410 
 Lifting patient, 612, 615, 624 
 Lighting. 108 
 
 methods of, 282 
 
 of sick-room. 6()2 
 Lightning cake, 389 
 Lime, 118 
 
 quick. 119 
 
 slaked. 119 
 
 soap, 75 
 
 test, 136 
 
 water, 119 
 Linen, bed, 518 
 
 fibres, structure of, 78 
 
 table, 516 
 Litmus for testing, 68 
 Liver, beef. 542 
 Living, style of. 413 
 Location of cuts of beef, 533 
 
 M 
 
 Maltose, 41 
 
 Marketing, 527 
 
 Match, chemistry of. 29 
 
 Materials of kitchen utensils, 512 
 
 Matter, conservation of, 31 
 
 Mattresses, 601 
 
 changing, 617 
 
 protecting, 608 
 ^L^yonnaise dressing, 400 
 Meals, serving, 621 
 Measles, 595 
 
 German, .595 
 Measures, 367 
 Measuring glasses. 641 
 Meat.s. 57. 247, 250, 394 
 
 boiled, 393 
 
 Meats, braised, 252 
 
 choice of, 247 
 
 cost of, 248 
 
 effect of temperature on, 57, 369 
 
 .iudging, 249 
 
 left-overs, 309 
 
 loaf, 395 
 
 preparation of, 251 
 
 stew, 394 
 
 supply of, 528 
 
 timbals. 395 
 
 toughness of, 249 
 Medicines, giving of, 640 
 Meningitis. 598 
 Menu making, 346, 358, 575 
 Menus for special occasions, 358 
 
 planning. 321 
 Mercerization, 80 
 Meringues, 385 
 Mildew, 89 
 Milk. 218. 559 
 
 composition of, 219 
 
 concentrated, 223 
 
 cooking in, 222 
 
 skimmed, 224 
 
 sour, 220 
 
 .sugar, 41 
 
 supply, source of, 560 
 
 use of, 218 
 Mineral matter, 60 
 
 water, 193 
 Molasses, 40 
 
 with soda. 292 
 Molecules, 127, 129 
 Money, use of. 404 
 Monthlv budgets, 572 
 Mortar, 120 
 
 IMother, province of, 593 
 Mousse, or Parfait, .382 
 Mouth, care of. 625 
 
 waslies. 626 
 Muffins. 387 
 Mumps, .594 
 
 Muscle arrangement uf beef, 531 
 Mushes, 275 
 
 corn meal, 396 
 Mustard plasters, 652 
 Mutt(m, 250, 548 
 
 cuts of, 549 
 
 N 
 
 Nnjikins, 521 
 
 Natural gas. 115 
 
 Neck, use of. 5:>5 
 
 Needs vs. wants. 411 
 
 Neutralizing acidity of milk, 221 
 
 Night gown, clianying. <!1(> 
 
 Night nursing. G(Mi 
 
 Nitric acid poisoning, 707 
 
 Nitrogen, 24 
 
 for i)Ianls, 126 
 
 properties of, 24 
 
 use of, 53 
 
 Note. — For pcuje niinihcrs, .see foot of pages. 
 
 730 
 
INDEX 
 
 Nitrogonous foods, 53 
 
 foods, cooking of, 54 
 Noodles, 244 
 
 Norwegian cooking box, ISO, 330 
 Nose bleed, 705 
 
 foreign bodies in. 706 
 Nnrse, caro of. (JiKj 
 
 clothing of. (50G 
 
 duties of. 593 
 
 night, 606 
 Nursing the baby, 6S6 
 Nuts. .300 
 
 as food, 210 
 
 01)jectious to domestic service, 4S4 
 
 Obstetrics, 674 
 
 Oil stoves, 35, 320 
 
 Oils, 00 
 
 Olive oil, .309 
 
 Omelets. 3S4 
 
 Operating room. 660 
 
 expenses. 426 
 
 table. 060 
 Operations at home, 667 
 
 lirecautions when ov(»r, 672 
 
 preparation for, OOS 
 Opium poisoning, 708 
 Ordering by te]ei)li<>ne, 351 
 
 time for, .3.51, .528 
 Order in housework, 4~'] 
 Organizations of household labor, 
 
 473 
 Oriental rugs, 524 
 Oven, temperature of, 303, 372 
 
 thermometer. 302 
 Ovens, first. ITS 
 Oxalic acid poisoning, 707 
 Oxide of calcium, US 
 Oxides. 10 
 Oxygen in air, IS. 167 
 
 Paint, removal of, 00 
 Paraffin. .34 
 
 in washing, 144 
 Parfait, .3S2 
 Parsnips, 360 
 
 I'astenrization of milk, 221 
 Pastry. 207. .300 
 I'atient, amusing, 623 
 
 care of, 005 
 
 lifting. 612. 624 
 Peas, 268, 360 
 Peat, 23 
 Peptones, 50 
 Perishable supplies. 503 
 I'eroxide of hydrogen. OS 
 Personal expenses, classiticatiou, 458 
 
 freedom of maid, 489 
 Petroleum, .34 
 Phosphates, 36 
 Pies, 297 
 
 Pillows, 620 
 
 Pills, 642 
 
 Plain cakes, 290, .380 
 
 Planning meals, 310 
 
 menus, .331 
 
 work, 476 
 Plant fertilizers, 125 
 
 foods, 124 
 Plants, 124 
 
 !h)US(>, 124 
 Pl.ister, 120 
 Pneumonia. 507 
 
 .symi)toms of. .507 
 Poached eggs, 3.3S 
 Poisoning, blood, 703, 704 
 Poisons, 707 
 Popovcrs. 245 
 Pork, 5.50 
 Potash. 70 
 
 ciiustic. 70 
 Potatoes, 260. 360, 308 
 
 baked, .307 
 
 boiled. 200, .307 
 
 croquettes, 308 
 
 loss in prep.-iring, .307 
 
 mashed. .307 
 
 ricod. 307 
 
 stuffed, on half shell, 398 
 
 with meat. 270 
 Poultices. 651 
 
 applying, 651 
 
 linseed, 651 
 
 mustard, 652 
 
 starch, 652 
 Poultry, 259 
 
 care in selecting. .551 
 
 methods of plucking, 552 
 
 tests for, 552 
 Powders, giving. 042 
 Prepared food, 318 
 Preserve jars, 213 
 I'reserving eggs, 2.39 
 
 food. 208 
 
 in sugar, 212 
 Pressure of air, 23, 168 
 , relieving, 620 
 Prevention of bed sores. 617 
 Principle of contrast. 306 
 Production, detinltion of, 4<ll 
 Profession of house keeping, 40." 
 Program for class study. 165, ;!5!! 
 
 .360, 500 
 Promotion for hel])er, 483 
 Proportions, table of, 386, 300 
 Proteids, 54 
 
 digestion of, 59 
 Proteins, 216, 369 
 Ptyaliu, 44 
 I'uilding, cottage, 301 
 
 fruit, 3S0 
 
 snow. 380 
 I'Tiffs, pastry, 296, 385 
 I'ulse, 6.36 
 
 counting the, 637 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 
 
 731 
 
10 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pulses or legumes, 1^07 
 Pump, 23 
 
 force, 24 
 
 suction, 25 
 
 Q 
 
 Quarantine. 064 
 Quicli lime. 110 
 Questions (see "test") 
 
 R 
 
 Ragouts or stews. :10T 
 
 Railroad securities, 440 
 
 Rain water. 121 
 
 Rancid butter, 229 
 
 Ranges, ISl 
 
 Rarebit, Welsh, 378 
 
 Ration. 317 
 
 Raw foods, composilion of, 369 
 
 Real estate loans, 441 
 
 Receipts, 376 
 
 Recipes, G91 
 
 Records, keeping-. 63S 
 
 Refrifierator. 205 
 
 care of. 2<i0 
 Refuse, 31 7 
 Regular income, 415 
 Relapse, cause of. 621 
 Remnants, value of. 504 
 Rent. 421 
 Rental. 425 
 
 Reorganization of the home. 490 
 Respiration, or breathing, 638 
 
 artificial, 702 
 
 chart. 638 
 Rih roasts. 536 
 Ribs of beef, 535 
 
 use of, 535 
 Rice. 276. 396 
 
 croquettes, 396 
 Rinsing clothes, 81 
 Rissoles. .308 
 Roasts, small. 394, 540 
 Roasting. 190, 251, 368 
 Rochelle salt. 107 
 Rolls. 289, 391 
 Rosin soap, 147 
 Round, use of, 539 
 Routine, 476 
 Riibber air cushion, 621 
 
 sheet. 608 
 Rugs. .523 
 
 kinds of. 518 
 Pump, use of. 5.39 
 Rust, iron, 92, 174 
 
 Safe interest, 441 
 Safet.v lamps. 112 
 Salads, 274. .308 
 
 French dressing for, 400 
 Saleratus, 105 
 
 Salmis or stews, 307 
 Salt, 69, 172 
 common, 60 
 Rochelle, 107 
 Salt meats. 252 
 
 to d(>velop flavor, .312 
 Saturated solution, 13 
 Sauce, brown, 227, 378 
 
 white, 226, 377 
 
 white fish. 215 
 Sausages, 551 
 Sauteing, 368 
 Saving, percentage in, 562 
 
 wavs of. 4.39 
 Scalds, 700 
 Scales, kitchen. 311 
 Scalloi)s. ,308 
 Scarlet fever, 596 
 Schedul(> of work, .591 
 Scultelus bandages. 714 
 Seasons, food varied with, 353 
 Securities, railroad, 440 
 Selecting beef. 5.30 
 Self control, necessity for. 475 
 Servant problem. .584 
 Servant, ignorance of. 485 
 
 irresponsibility of. 485 
 Service, domestic. 479. ,583 
 Serving. 357 
 
 dainty. 621. 690 
 Shank, use of. 540 
 Shaping dough. 289 
 Sheet, changing, 610 
 
 draw. 607 
 
 rubber. 608 
 
 size of. 518 
 Sheeting, kinds of, 518 
 Sherbet. 382 
 Sliin. the. .537 
 Shock, 701 
 Shortcake, 387 
 Shortening. 296. 374 
 Short process bread, 286 
 Sick room. 601 
 
 airing. 604 
 
 care of. 601 
 
 choice of. 601 
 
 don'ts, 6116 
 
 dusting. 603 
 
 floor of. 603 
 
 furnishing of. 601 
 
 lighting of. 602 
 
 methods. 633 
 
 sweeping. 603 
 
 temperature of, 605 
 
 ventilation of, 699 
 ' Silence cloth. .521 
 Silver ))()lish. 101, 137 
 
 suliihide. HO 
 Sina])isms. mustard plaster, 652 
 Sirloin, location of, 5.38 
 Skin, artiflcial, 619 
 
 care of. 619 
 Slings, 705 
 
 Note. — For paac niinihcrs, sec foot of pages. 
 
 732 
 
INDEX 
 
 11 
 
 Smallpox. 595 
 Small wastes, 429 
 Smoke. ;>4 
 
 asphyxiation. 703 
 nature of, 110 
 Smyrna riiffs. !524 
 Soakinc: clothes. 80 
 Soap. 69, 172 
 
 action of. 71 
 
 composition of, 71 
 
 kinds of. 72 
 lime. 75 
 making. 146 
 
 rosin, 147 
 
 solution. S3 
 
 with hard water. 75 
 Soda. 105 
 
 ash. 7.3 
 
 caustic. 70 
 
 cooking. 1<I5 
 
 washing. 73 
 
 with acids. 290 
 
 with cream ol tartar, 291 
 
 with molass.^s. 292 
 
 with sour milk, 292 
 Soft coal. ISl 
 Softening: water. 74, 143 
 Solubility of water, 13 
 Solution saturated, 13 
 Solvents, 1.34 
 Souffles. .308. 385 
 Soup. 58, 307 
 
 names of. 256 
 
 stock, 256, .376 
 
 vegetable. 272 
 Sour milk with soda, 292 
 Specialtv stor.-s, ."n.^ 
 Spices. .313 
 
 Sponge cake, 242, 290, .385 
 Spongy mixtures. 246 
 Spontaneous combustion, 100 
 Sprains, 705 
 Stains, 82 
 
 bluing, 88 
 
 ooCf(>e, 89 
 
 fruit, 89 
 
 removal of. ,87 
 
 vaseline. 89 
 Stale bread, use of, .391 
 Standards, differing, 412 
 
 of life, 410 
 
 of (|ualitv of goods, 403 
 
 of work, established, 487, 491 
 Starch. 41, 137 
 
 ch.-inged to sugar, 43 
 
 roiuersion of, 43 
 
 cooking of, 45, .3f)9 
 
 digestion of, 43, 45 
 
 tests foi'. 1.37 
 
 source of. 42 
 
 nncdoked. 86 
 Starching clothes. 86 
 Steaks, sclcclion of, .393, 541 
 Steam cooker, 188, 203 
 
 Sleamiug. .368 
 Slcrilized water. 671 
 Sterilij^ing dressings, 670 
 
 the hands, 672 
 Stewing, 2()0. .368 
 Stews. 3(17, 394 
 
 cut -for, 542 
 Sticking piece, location of, 536 
 Still. 12 
 
 Stora'ge. 500, 561 
 cold. 204 
 
 re(piirenients, ,502 
 Stoves, ancient, 177 
 gas. 1,85 
 gasoline. 187 
 kerosene, 187 
 modern, 181 
 Stubs of check book, 464 
 Stutling. 262 
 Style of living. 413 
 Sucrose, 40 
 Sugar, 40 
 as flavoring, .303 
 brown, 40 
 cane, 40 
 digestion of, 43 
 fruit, 41 
 grape, 41 
 maple, 40 
 milk. 41 
 starch, 41 
 Sulphur candle, 97 
 
 dioxide, 96 
 Suliihurous acid gas, 133 
 Sujiper. 321 
 Supi>lies, bnving, 499 
 lists of. .506 
 lK'risli;il)l('. 503 
 Suppositories. 644 
 Surgical ojierations. 667 
 Sweeping. 603 
 S\\eetbreads. 544 
 Symiitoms of diseases, 594 
 Syncope or fainting, 700 
 Svrup. 399 
 
 caramel, .398 
 System of accounts, 444 
 of work, .590 
 value of, 319 
 
 Table, bedside, 603 
 Table linen, 516 
 
 examples of, 521 
 
 grades of. 519 
 
 kinds of. .520 
 
 price of, 521 
 
 size of. 521 
 Table of common substances, 1,30 
 
 of contagious diseases, .594 
 
 of elements. 12.S 
 
 of cuts of beef, 545 
 
 of proportions, doiisrbs, 386, 300 
 
 of temperatures, 372 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, sec foot of pages. 
 
 733 
 
12 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Tablo service, 357 
 
 time of cookiiiff. 372 
 Tiil)les, kitelioii, 51." 
 Tannic acid. 55 
 Tapestry carpets, 522 
 'I'arnish, TOO 
 Tea, making, 202, 376 
 Teeth, care for, 625 
 Telephone, use for buying, 527 
 Temperature, 635 
 
 for cooking eggs, 237 
 
 high, 6:!5 
 
 in cooking, 190, 370, 371, 372 
 
 normal, 635 
 
 of boiling point, 20 
 
 of oven, .303 
 
 of sick room, 605 
 
 records, 636 
 
 siib-noi-mal. 6.35 
 
 taking. Ilie. 634 
 
 testing fat, 254 
 
 vital. :5S 
 Tenderloin. 5.'!S 
 Test questions. 64. 103. 231 278' 323 
 
 460. .525, .564, 6.55, 716 
 Tests. 1.35 
 
 for poultry. 552 
 
 .sample. 1.3S 
 Testing by comparison. 131 
 
 colors. 12!) 
 Theoretical division of income, 415 
 Thein. 55 
 Thermometer, 20 
 
 ba-th, 62!) 
 
 clinical.- 633 
 
 oven. .302 
 
 use of. 1,54 
 Thickening, methods of. 377 
 
 materials. 373 
 Timbales. 244 
 Time of cooking, .370 
 Time table for cooking, 372 
 Tongue, beef, .543 
 Tougji meat. 251 
 
 Tourniquet (to stop bleeding), 704 
 Transmission of heat. 19i> 
 Tripe. 544 
 Tuberculosis, 6.59 
 Turning patient. 611 
 Turni))s, composition of, 369 
 Typhoid fever, .597 
 
 IT 
 
 Use of money. 404 
 
 Utensils. adapta!)ilily of. 311 
 
 aluminnm. 513 
 
 buying, .5<H 
 
 choic(> of. 19S 
 
 estimate of kitchen, .506 
 
 for canning, 21:! 
 
 iron, 515 
 
 kitchen, .507 
 
 materials for kitchen. 512 
 
 Value of classification, 41.3 
 
 of individual home, 592 
 Values, estimate of, 406 
 
 real, 416 
 Vapor, water, 25 
 Variety in foods. 305 
 Varnisli stains, !);) 
 Vaselene, 34 
 Vaseline, 34 
 
 Stains. S9 
 Veal bob, 546 
 
 cuts of, 547 
 
 season of. 546 
 Vegetable left-overs, 309 
 
 soups, 272 
 Vegetables, 263, .396 
 
 classification of. 265 
 
 combinations of. 270 
 
 composition of, 263 
 
 cooking. 270 
 
 creamed. 273 
 
 digestibility of. 26S. 272 
 
 dried. 265 
 
 how to cook, 377 
 
 mashed. 273 
 
 l)repa ration of. 271 
 
 prices of. 557 
 
 quantity for serving, 558 
 
 season of, 556 
 
 selecting. ,558 
 
 strongly flavored, 265 
 
 wilted, 2<i7 
 
 young, 267 
 Ventilation. 23. 604 
 
 of sleeping rooms, 26 
 
 window. 604 
 Vital temperature, .38 
 Voltaic cell. 121 
 Vouchers, 466 
 
 W 
 
 Wadding ring, 620 
 
 Waffles, 3SS 
 
 Wage of helper. 428 
 
 Wages of domestic helper, 483 
 
 Wiishing colored goods, 82 
 
 Iiowders, l.",7. 173 
 
 soda. 73 
 
 soda, use of, 149 
 
 woolens, 82 
 Waste, 317 
 
 of money in food, 4.31 
 
 sources of, 4.32 
 Wastes, small, 429 
 Water, S, 22, 141, 165 
 
 as temperature regulator, 21 
 
 lioiling point of, 19 
 
 bread, 4!) 
 
 conuiosilion of, 16 
 
 distilled, 10 
 
 effect of freezing, 21 
 
 effect of heating, 19 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 
 
 734 
 
INDEX 
 
 13 
 
 Wator. effect on load, IG 
 
 effect oil metals. 14 
 
 filtered, 15 
 
 ilavor of. 194 
 
 ftas. 114. 15!) 
 
 hard, 15. 74, 142, 173 
 
 lieat, absorption of, 21 
 
 impurities in, 141 
 
 impnrities in, 142 
 
 lime, 119 
 
 manufacturing, 167 
 
 mineral, 193 
 
 natural. 10 
 
 of crystallization. 10. 1G5 
 
 permanent hardness, 74 
 
 rain. 12 
 
 softening, 36, 73, 143 
 
 solubility of, 13 
 Wealth expander, office of. 403 
 Weights and measures. 307 
 Weight of beef, 534 
 
 Welsh rarebit. 37<S 
 
 Wlieat flour, composition of, 284. .369 
 
 White sauce, 226, 228, 373, 377 , 
 
 Whitewash. 121 
 
 Whiting. 101 
 
 Windpipe, foreign bodies in, 706 
 
 Wood as fuel, 179, 326 
 
 Wooden ware, 513 
 
 Wool tibre.s, structures of, 78 
 
 Work by hour, 429, 491, 586 
 
 schedule of. 491 
 
 standards of. 427 
 Worrv. harm of. 427 
 Wounds, 703 
 
 Yeast. 47. 282 
 amount of, 286 
 cakes, 283 
 doughs, tiible of, 39C' 
 
 Note. — For page numbers, see foot of pages. 
 
 735 
 
COMPLETE COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 This course covers, systematically, in an interesting and practical way, the new 
 "Profession of Home-making" and "Art of Right Living." It is divided into forty 
 lesson pamphlets of fifty to one hundred pages each. 
 
 (1) 
 (3) 
 (5) 
 (7) 
 
 REGULAR ORDER IN WHICH 
 
 FOOD SUBJECTS 
 Chemistry of the Household 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 Principles of Cookery 
 
 Parts I. II, III, IV. 
 Food and Dietetics 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 Household Management 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD ART 
 
 (9) The House — Its Plan, Deco- 
 ration and Caro, I, II, III. 
 (10) Textiles and Clothing 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 PARTIAL LIST 
 
 ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. 
 
 Professor of Household Science, 
 
 University of Illinois 
 S. MARIA ELLIOTT 
 
 instructor in Home Economics, 
 
 Simmons College, Boston 
 BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. M. 
 
 Professor of Home Economics, 
 
 University of Vermont 
 KATE HEINZ WATSON 
 
 Formerly Instructor Lewis Insti- 
 tute, Chicago 
 MARGARET E. DODD, S. B. 
 
 GradiiateMass. Inst, of Technology 
 ANNA BARROWS 
 
 Teacher of Cookery, Columbia 
 
 University, Director Chautauqua 
 
 School of Cookery 
 
 THE LESSONS ARE TAKEN 
 
 HEALTH SUBJECTS 
 (2) Household Bacteriology 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 (4) Household Hygiene 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 (6) Personal Hygiene 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 (8) Home Care of the Sick 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 (11) Care of Children 
 
 Parts I. II, III. 
 
 (12) Study of Child Life 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 OF INSTRUCTORS 
 
 ALFRED C. COTTON, A. M., M. D. 
 Proiessor Diseases of Children, 
 Rush Medical College, University 
 of Chicago 
 
 ALICE PELOUBET NORTON,M.A. 
 Assistant Professor of Home Eco- 
 nomics, University of Chicago 
 
 MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE 
 Editor of "The Mothers' Magazine" 
 
 AMY ELIZABETH POPE 
 
 Instructor in Nursing, Presby- 
 terian Hospital, N. Y. City 
 
 CHARLOTTE M. GIBBS, A. B. 
 Director of Household Art, Uni- 
 versity of Illinois 
 
 MAURICE Le BOSQUET, S. B. 
 Director American School of Home 
 Economics, Cliicago 
 
 BOARD OF 
 
 Mrs. a. COURTENAY NEVILLE 
 President of the Board; First Chair- 
 man Home Economics Committee, 
 G. F. W. C. 
 
 Mrs. ELLEN M. HENROTIN 
 
 Organizer and Honorary President 
 General Federation Women's Clubs 
 
 Mrs. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF 
 President National Congress of 
 Mothers 
 
 Mrs. LINDA HULL LARNED 
 Past President National Household 
 Economics Association 
 
 Miss ALICE RAVENHILL 
 
 Commissioner of the British Gov- 
 ernment on Domestic Science in 
 the United States 
 
 TRUSTEES 
 
 Mrs. MARY HINMAN ABEL 
 
 Editor "Journal of Home Eco- 
 nomics" ; Author U. S. Government 
 Bulletins 
 
 Miss MARIA PARLOA 
 
 Founder of the Original Cooking 
 School in Boston; Author, etc. 
 
 Mrs. J. A. KIMBERLY 
 
 Vice-President of National House- 
 hold Economics Association 
 
 Mrs. JOHN HOODLESS 
 
 Government Supt. of Domestic 
 Science of the Province of Ontario 
 
 Mrs. WALTER McNAB MILLER 
 Chairman of the Food-Sauitatign 
 Committee, G. F. W. C. 
 
 736