Book f^tQ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/navajocountrygeoOOgreg DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEI.:OR Franklin K. Lane, Secretary United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY GEOGRAPHIC AND HYDROGRAPHIC RECONNAISSANCE OF PARTS OF ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, AND UTAH BY HERBERT E. GREGORY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1916 i. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Franklin K. Lane, Secretary United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director Water-Supply Paper 380 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY A GEOGRAPHIC AND HYDROGRAPHIC RECONNAISSANCE OF PARTS OF ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, AND UTAH BY HERBERT E. GREGORY WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1016 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE "WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 80 CENTS PER COPY D« Of D. to -i CONTENTS. ^. ^ Page. Intkoduction 9 A personal word 9 History and scope of investigation 9 Acknowledgments 10 Suggestions to travelers 11 Part I. Geography 13 Location and extent of the reservations 13 Note on the map 14 Historical sketch 15 Topographic outline 21 Geographic provinces 22 Basis of subdivision 22 Button Plateau 23 Chaco Plateau 24 Chuska Valley 24 Manuelito Plateau 26 Chuska Mountains 27 Nomenclature 1 27 Eastern edge ^ 28 Western edge 28 The mountain top _ 29 Carrizo Mountain 30 Gothic Mesas 31 San Juan Valley 31 Black Creek Valley .. 32 Defiance Plateau 34 Chinle and Pueblo Colorado valleys 36 Hopi Buttes 37 Tusayan Washes 38 Moenkopi Plateau 39 Black Mesa -i --J 40 Kaibito Plateau 41 Painted Desert 42 Shato Plateau 43 Rainbow Plateau 44 Navajo Mountain 45 Segi Mesas 47 Monument Valley 48 Climate 49 General conditions 49 Precipitation 50 Records 50 Geographic distribution 59 Variation from year to year 60 Seasonal distribution 61 Character of rainstorms 63 Temperature 63 Wind 67 3 CONTENTS. 5 Paet II. Surface waters — Continued. Utilization of streams — Continued. Page. Irrigation by storage 107 General conditions 107 Government projects . 109 ■ Red Lake L 109 Reservoir Canyon 109 Wheatfields reservoir ^ 109 Ganado reservoir 110 Projects awaiting development 111 Leupp reservoir 111 Additional prospects ' 112 Quartzite Canyon : 112 Buell Park 112 Lokasakad 112 Marsh Pass region 112 Segihatsosi 112 Miscellaneous 113 Storage of surface water for stock 113 Essential conditions 113 Small reservoirs or tanks 114 Sites 114 Dams . ■ 114 Wasteways 116 Water power . 116 Lakes .. 116 Lakes of the Chuska Mountains " 116 Tolani lakes -117 Lakes formed by drifting sand 117 Ephemeral lakes 118 Other lakes 118 Utilization of lakes 118 Water holes in the washes 119 Direct utilization of rainfall 119 General conditions 119 Water catches : 120 Paet III. Ground water 123 Source of the ground water 123 Ground-water reservoir 124 Nature of the reservoir 124 Capacity of the reservoir 125 Variation in porosity 125 Bedrock 125 Unconsolidated deposits 126 Method of filling the ground-water reservoir 126 Directly from the rainfall 126 Percolation from stream channels 127 Percolation from flood waters 127 Depletion of the reservoir 127 Processes of depletion 127 Evaporation from the ground 129 Evaporation of springs and seeps 129 The water table 129 Quality of ground water 131 Artesian water 131 6 CONTENTS. Paet III. Ground water — Continued. Page. Springs 132 Distribution and character 132 Springs in unconsolidated .deposits 133 General relations 133 Methods of improvement 134 Springs between alluvium and bedrock 136 General relations 136 Method of development 136 Springs between rock strata ^ 137 General relations 137 Springs of the Hopi Buttes province 139 Springs of Chuska Mountain 140 Methods of improvement 141 Springs within a stratum 142 Fault springs - — 143 Springs of the Tuba district 143 General relations — 144 Origin of the springs 144 Methods of improvement 146 Spring records 147 Wells 159 General conditions 159 Wells in unconsolidated sediments 160 Character of the sediments 160 Location of wells 161 Wells along the axes of the washes 161 Wells on alluvial mesas or bench lands 162 Wells in high valleys 163 Wells in the Tusayan washes 164 Construction of wells 166 The problems 166 Dug wells 167 Driven wells 170 Drilled wells 171 Wells in bedrock 173 Artesian wells 176 Essential conditions 176 Wells in unconsolidated deposits 177 Wells in bedrock .. 178 Fallacies regarding artesian waters 178 Artesian areas 179 Determining factors 179 Upper Chuska Valley 180 Dutton Plateau and southern Chaco Plateau 180 Lower Chuska Valley 180 Upper Chinle Valley 180 Middle Chinle Valley ^ 180 Middle Tyende Valley 181 Monument Valley 182 Black Mesa 182 Gothic Mesas 182 Other areas , 182 Records of wells 183 Part IV. Geographic terms 1 189 Paet V. Bibliography 1 199 Index 209 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Map of the Navajo country In pocket. II. Map of the geology of the Navajo country In pocket. III. A, Bennett Peak and vicinity ; typical view in middle Chuska Valley ; B, Shiprock and vicinity, typical view in lower Chuska Valley 26 IV. Crest of Washington Pass, Chuska Mountains ; looking east 27 V. Carrizo Mountain from the east 30 VI. A, San Juan Valley at Shiprock; B, San Juan Canyon 3 miles below Goodridge, Utah 31 VII. San Juan Valley at Bluff, Utah, looking south 32 VIII. A, Defiance monocline at head of lower Black Creek canyon; B, Red Lake, Black Creek Valley, looking southeast toward Zilditloi Mountain . 33 IX. A, North wall of Canyon de Chelly between Canyon del Muerto and Monument Canyon ; B, Cliff house in Canyon de Chelly at junction with Canyon 'del Muerto ^ 36 X. A, Pueblo Colorado Wash below Twin Mesas ; B, Volcanic necks at west edge of Hopi Buttes, on Chandler's ranch 37 XI. A, Coal Mine Canyon, at north edge of Moenkopi Plateau; B, Effects of wind erosion, Kaibito Plateau ; C, Dune and wind- scoured floor, Kaibito Plateau 40 XII. Grand Falls, Little Colorado River 41 XIII. A, Rainbow Bridge, Bridge Canyon; B, Vegetation at Nasja (Owl) Bridge, on the north slope of Navajo Mountain 46 XIV. A, Comb monocline, east of Marsh Pass ; B, Keet Seel cliff ruin, in branch of Laguna Canyon 47 XV. A, Mitten Butte, Monument Valley ; B, Agathla, a volcanic neck, Monument Valley . 48 XVI. Diagram showing distribution of daily rainfall in the Navajo country : 62 XVII. A, Wind-swept rocks. Rainbow Plateau, north of Navajo Moun- ' tain ; B, West slope of Defiance Plateau 68 XVIII. A, Piute Canyon at upper crossing ; B, Typical view in zone of pinon and cedar, 6,000 feet above sea level 69 XIX. Forest map of Navajo Reservation . 74 XX. Walpi, a Hopi pueblo 76 XXI. Generalized section of formations represented in the Navajo country 78 XXII. Structure sections across the Navajo country .' 80 XXIII. A, Rock covered by thin soil in forest of Defiance Plateau; B, Navajo cornfield 100 XXIV. A, Laguna Canyon, showing recent trenching ; B, Reservoir Canyon, Tuba, Ariz., in process of filling by wind-blown sand- 101 7 8 ILLUSTEATIONS. Plate XXV. A, Little Colorado River at Tanner Crossing after heavy showers ; B, Red Lake reservoir, looking south toward Page, outlet 110 XXVI. A, Outlet of Buell Park, looking downstream ; B, Springs at St. Michaels , 111 XXVII. Map of Tuba and vicinity showing distribution of springs 144 XXVIII. Stereogram illustrating the character and distribution of materials filling the larger washes of the Navajo country and favorable locations for wells 160 XXIX. Sections showing conditions favorable for artesian wells 180 Figure 1. Map showing location of area considered in this report 14 2. Diagrams showing monthly distribution of rainfall in the Nav- ajo country 61 3. Diagram showing seasonal distribution of rainfall in the Nav- ajo country 62 4. Map and section illustrating features of the Black Falls project- 106 5. Map of Ganado irrigation project 110 6. Map of proposed irrigation works at Leupp, Ariz 111 7. Diagram of water catch with cistern excavated in rock 120 8. Diagram of water catch with cistern excavated in alluvium at base of a slope 121 9. Diagram of water catch constructed in rock on top of a mesa_ 122 10. Diagram showing distribution of ground water and the posi- tion of the water table 124 11. Diagram illustrating method of constructing a kariz 135 12. Diagram illustrating the conditions producing the springs in the Hopi Buttes region 139 13. Map of a part of the Hopi Buttes province, showing the dis- tribution of lava and sedimentary rock with reference to the position of springs . 140 14. Diagram illustrating the conditions producing springs on the east flank of Chuska Mountain 141 15. Diagram illustrating method of combining several small scat- tered flows from rock 141 16. Map of Echo Cliffs between Lyon ranch and Willow Springs, showing distribution of springs 145 IT. Section across Kaibito Plateau, illustrating the conditions which determined the distribution of springs at Tuba__ 146 18. Sections of wells in unconsolidated deposits, Tusayan Washes- 164 19. Section of a wash showing location of shallow dug wells 167 20. Diagram illustrating method of constructing a well in the mouth of a rock canyon filled with coarse alluvium 169 21. Section illustrating method of obtaining water from the satu- rated rocks and unconsolidated deposits beneath a wash 169 22. Diagram showing method of recovering ground water from underflow in Chinle Wash 170 23. Homemade horsepower pump . 172 24. Section of well in Chinle Valley 175 25. Sections of well in rock at Keams Canyon 176 26. Diagram illustrating occurrence of artesian water at St. Michaels, Ariz 177 27. Diagram illustrating occurrence of artesian water at Gallup. N. Mex 177 28. Well sections, Chaco Plateau 181 29. Sections of flowing wells at Bluff, Utah 183 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. A GEOGRAPHIC AND HYDROGRAPHIC RECONNAISSANCE OF PARTS OF ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, AND UTAH. By Herbert E. Gregory. INTRODUCTION. A PERSONAL WORD. To my mind the period of direct contact with nature is the true " heroic age " of human history, an age in which heroic accomplish- ment and heroic endurance are parts of the daily routine. The activities of people on this stage of progress deserve a place among the cherished traditions of the human race. I believe also that the sanest missionary effort includes an endeavor to assist the uncivilized man in his adjustment to natural laws. With these ideas in mind the opportunity to conduct exploratory work in the Navajo country appealed to me with peculiar force. Within this little-known re- gion are the remnants of an almost extinct race whose long occupa- tion of the country is recorded in ruined dwellings and abandoned fields. This country is also the home of the vigorous and promising Navajos — a tribe in remarkably close adjustment to their physical surroundings. To improve the condition of this long-neglected but capable race, to render their life more intelligently wholesome by applying scientific knowledge, gives pleasure in no degree less than that obtained by the study of the interesting geologic problems which this country affords. HISTORY AND SCOPE OE INVESTIGATION. The work on which the present report is based was begun in 1909 at the request of the United States Office of Indian Affairs. In May of that year, in company with M. E. Campbell and W. C. Mendenhall, of the United States Geological Survey, and under the intelligent guidance of H. F. Eobinson, irrigation engineer of the Indian Office, I made a rapid trip to points in the southern portion of the Navajo and Hopi reservations, including Leupp, Tuba, the Hopi villages, Keams Canyon, Ganado, Chinle, and Fort Defiance, Ariz. Field work was continued until late in September. 9 10 THE KAVAJO COUNTKY The working season of 1910 was reduced to three weeks on account of illness contracted in the field. During the summer of 1911 work was confined to the southern and eastern portions of the reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. The particular problem for 1913 was an examination of the region along Little Colorado Eiver, but studies were made also in the area adjoining Navajo Mountain and along the Santa Fe Eailway. A detailed study of Carrizo Mountain was made during this year by my assistant, W. B. Emery. From time to time reports have been submitted to the Indian Office on various phases of the work, including irrigation projects, well construction, and sites for schools and for hospitals. These reports are of such a nature as not to find place in printed public documents and are therefore not included in the present paper. With the time at our disposal the field work was necessarily recon- naissance because of the large area to be covered, the great diversity of topographic and geologic features, and the difficulties presented by scarcity of water and of forage. Moreover the literature covering this area relates chiefly to archeologic details of a few accessible places, and oral information obtained from the few men who know the region through personal experience was so fragmentary and con- tradictory that a large part of our work was essentially exploratory. The future of the Navajo country depends fundamentally on the solution of one problem — ^the water supply — and therefore both re- connaissance and detailed work were designed to procure data bear- ing on this problem. The geography of the region was also studied, with a view to preparing a description of this little-known part of the United States — an account designed to facilitate the work of those wdio are to supplement our preliminary examination by de- tailed studies. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In a region which has previously been unexplored and in which the Indians are none too cordial the successful prosecution of field work is to a large degree dependent on the assistance rendered by Gov- ernment authorities and the few local men who are acquainted with the country and its uncivilized inhabitants. In this connection it is a pleasure to acknowledge the hearty cooperation of officials of the Indian Office, both in Washington and in the field. In particular the friendship and assistance of Peter Paquette, superintendent of the Navajo Eeservation, and of H. F. Robinson, superintendent of irrigation, has substantially increased the value of our studies. To the fact that Mr. Paquette, Mr. Hubbell, one of the Indian traders, and Father Weber, a Franciscan priest, believed in our work and explained our mission to the Navajos is due the friendly attitude of the Indians, which was very evident, especially after the first season. The loyalty and efficiency of my scientific assistants, J. E. Pogue, INTRODUCTION. 11 W. B. Emery, and especially K. C. Heald, all of whom unflinchingly endured the hardships and uncertainties of desert travel over little- known trails, is recorded with peculiar gratitude. The devotion of our Navajo assistants, Grover Cleveland, Eugene Sosi, Denet Bahe, and John Sheen, added much to our comfort and at times saved us from disagreeable experiences if not from disaster. The Indian traders, particularly the Hubbells, Wetherill & Colville, Mr. Pres- ton, and the Mannings, greatly facilitated our work by helpful ad- vice and by direct financial assistance. The store of linguistic knowl- edge accumulated by the Franciscan fathers was freely placed at our disposal, as were also the results of their studies of the conditions and needs of the Navajos. Acknowledgment is thankfully made of the assistance given by the fathers in regard to the spelling and in- terpretation of Navajo place names used in this paper. SUGGESTIONS TO TRAVELERS. The following information, acquired by personal experience, may be found helpful for those who desire to leave the main traveled roads in this region. The Navajo is vigorous, intelligent, and capable of hard work if it is not too continuous. He will render assistance for pay, fre- quently for friendship, and is loyal and cheerful when fairly treated. He is, however, independent, and will desert with scant ceremony when unjustly treated. He will help himself to interesting trinkets and to food but may be trusted with valuable things and with important missions. He is a past master at driving a bargain. He is an expert horseman but knows little of harness, wagons, and pack outfits. His knowledge of distances and of directions is of such nature as to be of little use to a white man. It is essential to suc- cess that the Navajo should understand and approve of you and of your mission, and therefore frankness should characterize all dealings with him. A Navajo, preferably a school boy recommended by a superintendent, should be a member of each party, -not only to serve as guide and interpreter but to obtain advance information regarding water and forage and to establish friendly relations with those Indians who have slight acquaintance with the whites. The Hopi is indifferent toward you and your mission. He offers no aid, and yet rarely refuses to lend assistance when called upon. He looks after his own affairs with intelligence and devotion but takes little interest in yours. His chief desire is to be let alone. The Piute, in my opinion, is less trustworthy and less skillful than his Navajo and Hopi neighbors. The prevalent Indian diseases are tuberculosis and trachoma, a fact which should be kept in mind when hospitality is extended or accepted. 12 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. The Indian schools of Fort Defiance, Keams Canyon, Crown Point, Leupp, Tuba, and Shiprock are connected with the railroads by roads which, judged by pioneer standards, may be classed as good. The better-known features of interest. Canyon de Chelly and the Hopi villages, are also accessible by wagon. " Roads," in the local sense — that is, routes over which a staunchly built, lightly loaded wagon drawn by two, four, or more horses may be taken by skillful drivers — may be found here and there, especially in the southern and eastern parts of the reservations. The land of the Navajos is, however, preeminently a " horseback country," and a pack train is the only type of outfit which offers freedom of movement. Quick- sand is to be expected in all stream channels and in the beds of " dry lakes," and crossings should be tested before wagons or pack trains are intrusted to them. Owing to sudden rises of water, streams and dry washes should be crossed at the earliest favorable opportunity, and camp should never be pitched on the floor of even the most innocent looking dry stream bed or adobe flat. Suitable outfits and guides for scientific exploration and tourist travel may be obtained from Wetherill & Colville, at Tyende, and under certain circumstances from J. L. Hubbell, at Ganado. Unless, how- ever, arrangements have been previously made, equipment should be procured at Gallup, Holbrook, Winslow, Flagstaff, Farmington, or other points on the railway. The location of camps is necessarily controlled by the distribution of water, and the traveler should have reliable information regarding water holes and springs for the particular month during which he proposes to make his expedition. Grain for horses should be pro- vided, as very few places afford the essentials of camp — ^water, wood, and forage — and barren zones surround most of the water supplies. Not all stores carry grain, and inquiries as to the amount available should be made beforehand. Fuel is lacking at many camp sites or is limited to yucca, grass, and annuals. Under such circum- stances the abandoned "hogans" appear tempting; but some of these deserted huts have housed dying persons, and are therefore taboo, and their use may lead to trouble. The traveler should never leave camp without a supply of water and should keep in mind the deceptive character of mirages. The danger from lightning may be minimized by avoiding the shelter of trees during the thunder- storms that almost invariably accompany summer rains. Reliable information may be obtained from the officials at the various Government schools and from thos^ traders and missionaries who have been long in contact with the Navajos. Part I. GEOGRAPHY. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF RESERVATIONS. The Navajo and Hopi Indian reservations, though officially dis- tinct, are treated as a unit in this report. They lie approximately between parallels 35° 10' and 37° 17' and meridians 108° 15' and 111° 45'. (See PL I, in pocket.) The lands reserved for the Indians embrace parts of Coconino, Navajo, and Apache counties, in Ari- zona; parts of McKinley and San Juan counties, in New Mexico; and the southern part of San Juan County, Utah. For purposes of administration the Indian lands are divided into reservations— the Pueblo Bonito, San Juan, Navajo, Navajo Extension, Western Navajo, and Hopi — each in charge of a superintendent or agent. The area of the reservations is 14,333,354 acres, or about 22,400 square miles, an area larger than Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachu- setts, and New Hampshire combined. The distance across the res- ervations in an east- west line from Crow^n Point, N. Mex., to Black Falls, on the Little Colorado in Arizona, is about 190 miles, and from Bluff, Utah, southward to Chambers, on the Santa Fe Rail- way, is approximately 140 miles. Administrative centers are reached from the railway as follows: Pueblo Bonito (Crown Point), from Thoreau, N. Mex., 29 miles; Fort Defiance, from Gallup, N. Mex., 35 miles; Keams Canyon, from Gallup, N. Mex,, 107 miles^ or from Plolbrook, Ariz., 65 miles; Leupp, from Canyon Diablo, Ariz., 12 miles; Tuba, from Flagstaff, Ariz., 90 miles; Shiprock, from* Farmington, N. Mex., 35 miles. The Chinle School is 95 miles from the railway, and the most remote point to which mail is reg- ularly carried is Tyende, 165 miles from the nearest railway sta- tion. The northwestern part of the Western Navajo Reservation, beyond the farthest outpost, is singularly inaccessible. The roads leading from New Mexico and Arizona settlements to the chief points within the reservations, though rough, are feas- ible for wagons. Roads have also been established along selected routes to reach newly established schools and trading posts and important centers of Indian population. The larger part of the reservations is, however, accessible only by trails, and in the rougher areas no recognized routes of travel are to be found. Saddle horse and pack train capable of making long day's marches are neces- sary for the prosecution of geographic or geologic field work. 13 14 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. NOTE ON THE MAP. The area described in this report includes not only the Navajo and Hopi reservations as officially limited but also four adjacent areas: One extending eastward in New Mexico from the reservation line to the 108th meridian; one bordering the Santa Fe Kailway; one along the lower part of San Juan River ; and a small area near the mouth of the Little Colorado. (See fig. 1.) These strips, though Figure 1. — Map showing location of area considered in this report, not specifically set aside for the Indians, are in part allotted to them and in still larger part utilized by them, and the district cov- ered by the map, bounded by San Juan, Colorado, Little Colorado, Puerco, and San Jose rivers and the 108th meridian, has long been known as the " Navajo country." That term is used in this report to cover the entire area represented by the map. As thus outlined the Navajo country contains 25,725 square miles — an area that is larger than the State of West Virginia and that constitutes the most exten- sive tract of undeveloped reservation land within the United States. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 15 The following reconnaissance maps, made by the United States Geological Survey in 1882-1886, were used as the base for the present map : Echo Cliffs, Marsh Pass, Canyon de Chelly, San Francisco Mountain, Tusayan, Fort Defiance, Holbrook, and St. Johns, Ariz. ; Escalante, Henry Mountains, and Aba jo, Utah; Chaco and Wingate, N. Mex. Manuscript maps made for the War Department and for the Ofiice of Indian Affairs have been consulted, as well as pub- lished maps from other sources. In so far as the map differs from those previously published it embodies the results of my four seasons' field work. Since the publication of maps made by the Survey this region has undergone many changes, and an effort has been made to record those brought about by man and also to represent with a greater degree of accuracy the position and character of surface and ground water supplies. Many new names have been added to the map, and in selecting them the following rules were adopted: Use all names found on older maps and in the writings of earlier ex- plorers, so far as such names have been applied to features whose position has been determined; Navajo and Hopi terms so far as they have definite application; terms in common use by Mexicans and white men; and terms that have been applied by archeologists who have written of the Navajo country. In the spelling of Indian names care has been taken to approach as nearly as possible the native pronunciation without introducing needless complications; for Spanish terms the ordinary rules of that language have been fol- lowed. To facilitate description it has been found advisable to outline and name a number of geographic provinces and many prominent topographic features. For such names descriptive terms have been used, and also names of early explorers and of other men who have been connected in some fundamental way with the history of the Navajo country. Detailed information regarding geographic terms and their application will be found in Part IV (pp. 199-208). It is too much to hope that the map (PI. I, in pocket) as presented has a high degree of accuracy, but I believe that it will be found useful by those whose interests call them to this fascinating region. HISTORICAL SKETCH. After the occupation of central Mexico by the Spanish in 1514, exploring parties were sent northward toward the Kio Grande and the Gila. The first of these expeditions, under Nino de Guzman (1530), succumbed to the hardships of travel on the arid plateau without reaching the present Mexican border. When Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca arrived at Mexico City after his six years' memor- able wanderings along the Gulf coast through Texas and southern New Mexico, bearing reports of gold and silver, turquoise and emer- 16 THE ITAVAJO COUNTRY. aids, elaborate plans for exploration were earnestly considered.^ But though the lure of sudden wealth aroused the enthusiasm of officials and soldiers alike, the saner minds hesitated to weaken their hold on Mexico by dispatching large bodies of soldiers into unknown desert regions occupied by hostile tribes. At this crisis the church stepped in. Marcos de Niza, a Franciscan friar, obtained permission to depart on the long journey to the north with the hope of enrolling an unknown people under the banner of the church. Accompanied by three other priests, the Barbary negro Estevanico, and a small body of soldiers, Fray Marcos reached Zuni by way of Sonora and western Arizona. A careful reading of Fray Marcos's diary gives little basis for the cupidity excited by his narrative, but to minds already warped by lust of gold and conquest the picturesque de- scriptions of the Indian spokesmen became literal accounts of fact, and plans were made to conquer and convert this marvelous country of wealthy towns. Thus originated the well-known expedition of Francisco Vazquez de Coronado, president of New Spain, who in 1540 organized a well-equipped band of soldiers, priests, and wealthy adventurers, supported by two ships heavily laden with supplies, which were to ascend the Eio de Tizon [Colorado] and await the expedition near the thirty-sixth degree of latitude.^ After innumerable hardships and discouragements the remnant of this cavalcade, spurred on by the imaginary tales of Friar Mar- cos, reached Cibola [Zuni], only to recoil in disgust at finding a group of squalid houses perched high on a rock mesa. In the words of the faithful historian of the expedition, Pedro de Castaiieda de Nagera : " The army broke forth with maledictions on Friar Marcos de Niza ; God grant that he may feel none of them ! " ^ From Zuni expeditions were sent out in various directions, two of them into the region now known as the Navajo and Hopi reservations. The first expedition (1540), under Friar Juan de Padilla and Don Pedro de Tovar, discovered the Province of Tusayan, consisting of seven villages similar to Zuni, and gave the civilized world its first knowledge of the unique group of Hopi clans. It is interesting to note that among the presents made to the conquerors were tanned skins, pinon nuts, native fowl, turquoises, corn, and cotton cloth. The information gained at Tusayan was used in equipping a second expedition, under Don Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, which was sent 1 The journal of Alvar Nftiiez Cabeza de Vaca, 1528-1536, translated by Fanny Bande- lier, edited by A. F. Bandelier, A. S. Barnes & Co., 1905. - The most accessible English edition of the original Spanish reports, by Coronado and his followers is " The journey of Coronado, 1540-1542, translated and edited by George Parker Winship,"' A. S. Barnes & Co., 1904. See also Hodge, F. W., Narrative of Corona- do's expedition by Castaiieda : Spanish explorers in the southern United States, pp. 275-287, Scribner's, New York, 1907. 3 The story of Coronado's expedition as written by Castaueda is the most direct and trustworthy of all documents relating to this period of Spanish exploration. (See p. 208.) HISTOBICAL SKETCH. 17 out to the northwest, probably along the ancient Hopi trail. After 20 days' marching through desert lands this party came to a great river whose banks extended " three or four leagues into the air " and were "1)roken into pinnacles higher than the tower of the Cathedral of Seville." Because of its red, muddy waters, this stream was christened Rio Colorado. There can be little doubt that Cardenas was the first white man to see the Grand Canyon, but his exact view- point probably will never be known, for the recorded description is applicable to almost every cliff face between the mouth of Grand Wash and the head of Marble Canyon. The time consumed by Cardenas in making this journey was ample to reach any point on the canyon rim. Without further attempts to explore the country north of the present Santa Fe Railway line, Coronado's party passed eastward through Acoma, Laguna, and the pueblos along the Tiguex [Rio Grande]. After excursions eastward beyond Santa Fe the expeditions, discouraged in mind and diminished in numbers, re- turned to New Spain [Mexico] over the route by which they had entered the country. After the lapse of more than 200 years, interspersed with desultory missionary and trading enterprises, the Hopi region was again visited by devoted scouts of the church. In 1776 Fray Garces,^ whose name is inseparably linked with missionary enterprises in the Gila and San Gabriel valleys, arrived at Tusayan [Hopi villages], where he spent several weeks before starting on the return journey to Yuma. During this same year (1776) Hernando d'Escalante Fontafieda, a zealous priest, made his memorable journey from Santa Fe through southwestern Colorado and eastern Utah, returning to the Spanish settlements across the present Western Navajo Reserva- tion to Hopi and Zuni. Tradition states that Escalante crossed the Glen Canyon section of the Colorado at a point designated on the map as the " Crossing of the Fathers." If this is true, Escalante should be credited with the most daring adventure of all the early explorers, for this route presents formidable difficulties. As is to be expected, the diaries and letters of these early Spanish fathers con- tain meager information regarding the country and its people, ex- cept in matters relating to religious enterprises. The century following the exploits of Garces and Escalante has left little recorded history of Spanish missionary activity among the Hopis and Navajos. Travel and study were, however, continued by the priests, and accounts of more or less scientific value have ap- peared from time to time. In 1860 the results of seven years' travels and studies in the Southwest were published in a two-volume work 1 Coues, Elliott, On the trail of a Spanish pioneer — The diary of Francisco Garces, 1768- 1776, 2 vols., 1900. 33033''— wsp 380— 16 2 18 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. by Abbe Domenech. Though cluttered with far-fetched philosophic and archeologic theories, this book has value as an attempt to inter- pret Navajo and Pueblo customs and industries in the light of physical environment. Fauna, flora, and water supply are discussed in detail, and a description of Little Colorado Eiver from its source to Tanner Crossing is given for the first time. The best traditions of the Roman Catholic Church are maintained by the Franciscan fathers at St. Michaels, from whose press have come two notable publications.^ The barrenness of the country, combined with the hostility of the Indians, has sufficed to make northeastern Arizona an unprofitable field for trapper and prospector, and the influence of these pioneers, who have played so prominent a part in other regions of the West, has left little trace on the history of the Navajo country. Much geographic material was collected by the numerous military expeditions directed against the Navajos between the years 1845 and 1860, but nearly all of it remains unpublished. In a report of Capt. Doniphan's expedition ^ may be found the first recorded descrip- tions of Tchensca [Chuska] Mountains, the Canyon El Challe [de Chelly], and Laguna Colorada [Red Lake] north of the present Fort Defiance. In 1850 Simpson's report of an expedition into the Navajo country was issued by the Government.^ I have followed Simpson's route through Washington Pass, along the Sierra de Tumecha [Tunitcha Mountain] and Chuska Mountain, along the Canyon de Chelly, past the present Fort Defiance to Puerco River, and found little to add to the descriptions of topography, fauna, flora, and climate. Influenced by the creation of the Territories of New Mexico and of Arizona by congressional enactment in 1850 and 1863, respec- tively, and by the increasing importance of California, the demand for suitable wagon roads and for a railroad through the Southwest became insistent. The most feasible location for a transcontinental line was by no means evident, and many topographic surveying par- ties under military escort were sent into the region embracing Colo- rado, Utah, Nevada, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. During the years 1851 and 1852 Capt. Sitgreaves,* with Lieut. Parks, topographer, and Dr. S. W. Woodhouse, naturalist, under the guid- ance of Antoine Leroux, mapped a route from Zuni along Zuni River, down the Little Colorado to Gi^nd Falls, and thence west- ward through the San Francisco: Mountains to Colorado River above the mouth of the Mohave. 1 An ethnologic dictionary of the Navajo language, 1910. A vocabulary of the Navajo language, vol. 1, English-Navajo ; vol. 2, Navajo-English, 1912. 2 Hughes, J. T., Doniphan's expedition, 1847. 3 31st Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc. 64, pp. 55-168, plates and maps appended, 1850. * Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado rivers : 32d Cong., 2d sess., Ex. Doc. 59, 1854. HISTORICAL SKETCH. 19 The 12 large volumes of the report on the Whipple expedition^ contain the results of one of the most elaborate field reconnaissances ever undertaken by the Government. The geographic descriptions of the southern edge of the Navajo Keservation are unusually com- plete. The rail route recommended by Whipple extends from Albu- querque, N. Mex., through Laguna, over the Continental Divide at Campbell Pass, down the Puerco to the Little Colorado, and across the Little Colorado to Flagstaff, Ariz., and westward. Along this line the Atlantic & Pacific Eailroad, now the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, was constructed in 1883. A geologic map of the route and a chapter on the geology by Jules Marcou ^ constitute the first geologic studies of any part of the Navajo country. Unlike the other exploratory expeditions which were sent into Arizona from the east, the party commanded by Lieut. Ives (1857-58)^ ascended Colorado Eiver in boats as far as possible. Leaving the river at Diamond Creek, Lieut. Ives, with J. S. New- berry, geologist; F. F. W. von Egloffstein, topographer; and H. B. MoUhausen, artist, traveled eastward to the Rio de Liiio [Little Colorado] , below the present site of Winslow, and thence proceeded to Oraibi and eastward along the well-marked trail to Pueblo Colorado [Ganado] , and Fort Defiance. Newberry's comments on the geology of the route traversed, together with the geologic map of a strip from Oraibi to Fort Defiance, call attention for the first time to the presence of widely extended Cretaceous and Triassic sediments in the Navajo country and to the salient features of the Defiance monocline. Newberry also served as geologist to the Macomb expedition (1859) into Colorado and Utah, which on its return followed San Juan River from a point near the present site of Bluff, Utah, to Canyon Largo. In the map, text, and sections published in the Macomb report the areal extent of the Mesozoic formations is out- lined. The fossils collected were described and figured by Meek and Newberry. Though the scientists of the Macomb expedition confined their w^ork to the north bank of the San Juan, beyond the area covered by the present report, the map published contains all available topographic data and records the first attempt to rep- resent the entire area now occupied by the Navajo Reservation.* 1 Whipple, A. W., Report of explorations and surveys to ascertain the most practical and economical route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the ocean, 1853-54, Wash- ington, 1856. 2 Resume of a geological reconnaissance from the junction of the Arkansas with the Mississippi to the Pueblo of Los Angeles in California: Whipple's report (cited above), vol. 3, pt. 4 ; published also in Geology of North America, Zurich, 1858. 3 Ives, J. C, Report upon the Colorado River of the West : 35th Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc, 1858. * Newberry, J. S., Geological report of an exploring expedition from Santa Fe, N. Mex., to the junction of the Grand and Green rivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1859, under the command of Capt J. N. Macomb, 148 pp., 11 pis., Washington, 1876. 20 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. The loosely written account of an expedition conducted by Beale* down Black Creek and the Puerco to the Little Colorado and beyond is interesting chiefly because of its statement that camels were used as pack animals and found to be entirely satisfactory. The geologists of the Wheeler Survey^ visited the southern and western portions of the Navajo country, Marvine and Howell de- scribed the route along the Little Colorado Valley, chiefly with reference to the geology. The traverse of Howell from the Little Colorado to Fort Defiance by way of the Hopi villages added strati- graphic and structural details " to the account of Newberry, who followed essentially the same route. The investigations of Oscar Loew,^ mineralogist and chemist of the Wheeler Survey, dealing with conditions affecting grazing, water supply, and fuel, though limited in scope, are of direct geographic value. A reconnaissance map of the Carrizo Mountains was made in 1875 by Holmes,* who included in his report one of those unique pano- ramic sketches for which he is famous. Two reports by Dutton relate to portions of the Navajo Reserva- tion. The well-known volume on the Grand Canyon ° includes a map of the Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic strata along Echo Cliffs ; and the report on the Zuni Mountains*^ contains an account of the scenery and geology of Dutton Plateau and locates the Tertiary and igneous deposits of Chuska Mountain. The results of recent geologic expeditions along the borders of the Navajo Reservation have been issued by the United States Geo- logical Survey. The studies of Ward'' in 1899 and 1901, in the Little Colorado Valley, resulted in a stratigraphic table in which, for the first time, the terms Moencopie, Lithodendron, and Leroux are introduced. The reconnaissance traverses of Schrader^ and of Shaler^ in northwestern New Mexico revealed the presence of an extensive coal field, which has been examined more fully by Gardner.^^ 1 Beale, E. F., Surveys for a wagon road from Fort Defiance to the Colorado River : 85th Cong., 1st sess., House Ex. Doc. 124, 1858, 2 Wheeler, G. M., U. S. Geog. and Geol. Expl. W. 100th Mer. Kept., vol. 3, Geology, 1873. 3 Idem, pt. 6. * Holmes, W. H., Geological report on the San Juan district : U. S. Geol. and Geog. Sur- \?ey Terr., Ninth Ann. Kept, (for 1875), pp. 237-276, pis. 34^9, 1877. c Dutton, C. E., Tertiary history of the Grand Canyon district : U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 2, 1882. « Dutton, C. E., Mount Taylor and the Zuni Plateau : TJ. S. Geol. Survey Sixth Ann. Rept, pp. r05-198, 1885. 7 Ward, L. F., Status of the Mesozoic floras of the United States : TJ. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 48, pp. 37-41, 1905. 8 Schi-ader, F. C, The Durango-Gallup coal field of Colorado and New Mexico : TJ. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285, pp. 241-258, 1906. » Shaler, M. K., A reconnaissance of the western part of the Durango-Gallup coal field of Colorado and New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, pp. 375-426, 1907. " Gardner, J. H., The coal field between Gallup and San Mateo, N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 341, pp. 304-378, 1909. TOPOGRAPHIC OUTLINE. 21 It will be noted that the geologic studies in northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southeastern Utah have been con- fined heretofore to the borders of the Navajo and Hopi reservations, except for the traverses of Newberry and of Howell along the lati- tude of Fort Defiance. My own work, designed to cover those por- tions of the Navajo Reservation which had not been previously ex- amined by scientific parties, was begun in the spring of 1909. Since that date several papers have appeared.^ Barton's reconnaissance is of general interest, for it was essentially a reexamination of the route traversed by Whipple, Beale, and other explorers and there- fore substantially replaces the publications of previous workers along the line of the Santa Fe Railway. TOPOGRAPHIC OUTLINE. In its larger topographic relations the Navajo country is part of the Colorado Plateau province, a region of flat-lying or slightly tilted rocks cut by canyons and surmounted by mesas and buttes. About 32 per cent of the Navajo country lies between 6,000 and 7,000 feet above sea level, and 10 per cent between 7,000 and 9,000 feet. Only 156 square miles out of a total of 25,725 square miles lies below 4,000 feet, and only 42 square miles exceeds 9,000 feet. The extremes of relief are Navajo Mountain, 10,416 feet, and the mouth of Little Colorado River, 2,800 feet above sea level. Along the line of Bridge Canyon an extreme range in elevation of 7,000 feet is attained in a distance of 8 miles. Broadly characterized, the region is a plateau in which the depth of canyons about equals the height of mountains ; in other words, the downward departures from a general surface at about 5,500 feet are nearly equal in amount to the upward departures. Two of the mountain masses, Carrizo and Navajo, are laccolithic in origin and rise domelike above the sur- rounding country. Chuska Mountains, Black Mesa, and Segi Mesas are essentially mesas slightly modified by folding of strata and are bordered by sheer cliffs of commanding proportions. Mesas of the second and third order and innumerable buttes, of both igneous and sedimentary origin, are characteristic features of the country. Mesa, butte, volcanic neck, canyon, wash, repeated indefinitely, are the ele- ments of the Navajo landscape. Alcoves, recesses, and miniature 1 Darton, N. H., A reconnaissance of northwestern New Mexico and northern Arizona : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 435, 1910. Campbell, M. R., and Gregory, H. E., The Black Mesa coal field, Ariz. : U. S. Geol. Sur- vey Bull. 431, pp. 229-238, 1 pi., 1911. Gregory, H. E., The San Juan oil field, San Juan County, Utah : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 431, pp. 11-25, 1 pi., 1 fig., 1911. Woodruff, E. G., Geology of the San Juan oil field, Utah : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 471, pp, 76-104, 2 pis., 1 fig., 1912. Gregory, H. E., The Shinarump conglomerate : Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 35, pp. 424-^38, 1913. 22 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. erosion forms of great variety and rare beauty stand as ornamental carvings on the larger architectural features, and over all is spread an unevenly developed sheet of wind-blown sand. So numerous and so closely interlaced are the canyons in some portions of this singular region that they have displaced all but scattered remnants of the original plateau, leaving narrow walls, isolated ridges, and spires so slender that they seem to totter upon, their bases, shooting up to an enormous height from the vaults below/ The main surface slopes of the country descend northward to the San Juan and southward to the Puerco and Little Colorado from a dividing line extending from Button Plateau to Echo Peaks. Down these slopes the surface drainage is carried in broad washes, here and there trenched by sharply cut canyons. About 14,000 square miles of the area under discussion drains into the San Juan; the Little Colorado receives water from about 9,900 square miles; and 1,880 square miles is directly tributary to the Colorado by way of the deep canyons that traverse the Rainbow Plateau. Topographic features of all grades show the influence of aridity. The stream channels are generally without water, yet enormous accumulations of coarse alluvium, the product of floods, are to be seen on all sides. In many places bedrock is swept clean by winds; elsewhere it is covered with dunes; talus slopes are in general replaced by bare rock walls. The desert, however, is a " painted desert." The gray tones of many other regions are lacking. In their place are reds and browns, blues, and greens, in masses miles in extent, or mingled to form the " variegated shales " of the earlier explorers. To those unaccustomed to desert lands the Navajo country presents in form and color and grouping of topographic features a surprising and fascinating variety ; those familiar with arid regions will find here erosion features of unusual grandeur and beauty. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. BASIS OF SUBDIVISION. The Navajo country is too large and too diversified an area to be treated as a geographic unit. Only in the broadest sense are the various parts of the reservations alike, and the discussion of prob- lems of water supply will be better understood when local geographic conditions are kept in mind. It has therefore been found advisable to divide the country into geographic provinces or subprovinces sug- gested by topography, vegetation, and other features, which have influenced the manner of life of the native population. The prov- inces thus outlined, 22 in number, are briefly described on the fol- lowing pages. 1 Ives, J, C, op, cit., p. 6. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 23 BUTTON PLATEAU.' The south face of Dutton PL^teau is a line of recessed cliffs which bound the flat-floored valley extending from Bluewater, X. Mex., westward across the Continental Divide at Campbell Pass.- This border wall of bright-red massiAX sandstone, rising 600 feet above a base of purple shales and limestones and continued upward by the greenish ^white towers of Xavajo Church, is one of the most admired scenic features along the Santa Fe route. Back of the two giant steps of Powell Mountain the plateau surface descends gently, open- ing up a mesa-dotted valley 3 to 5 miles broad and 50 miles long. Xorth of this inner valley the plateau character is again assumed for a distance of 10 miles, at which point the northern bounding wall of Dutton Plateau may be descended by a series of short steps to Chaco Plateau, 600 feet below. From a distance the west border of the plateau also appears to rise abruptly, but a nearer view reveals foothills and wide canyon floors interrupting the mural escarpment. Throughout its extent Dutton Plateau maintains an average height of about 7,500 feet. Innumerable detached mesas rise above this level, and Powell Mountain and Hosta Butte culmi- nate at 8.861 and 8,837 feet, respectively. From selected viewpoints, as Hosta Butte and Pyramid Butte, prominent topographic features of the surrounding country are revealed in a panorama, mcluding the forest-covered Zuni Mountains, the volcanic pile of Mount Taylor, the Chaco Plateau stretching northward to the San Juan, the white face of Chuska Mountain, and the varied features of the Manuelito Plateau on the west. Dutton Plateau is drained westward by the Puerco into the Little Colorado, and northward to the San Juan through Chaco Canyon or along the poorly marked channels of Chuska Valley. The waters from about 120 square miles are carried eastward by the San Jose into the Eio Grande. Short spring-fed streams are to be found in Satan Pass and in several of the canyons that notch the northern and northwestern face of the plateau. Four permanent lakes, in- cludmg the artificial pond at Smith Store, and a number of ephemeral water bodies supplement the water supply obtained from 15 or 20 springs. Some of the springs rise from Mancos shale, and their waters are unpleasant to taste but not unwholesome. Pinon and jimiper, with scattering yellow pines, are interspersed with sage and greasewood on the lower slopes, and on the higher mesas form continuous forests which are interrupted by grass-floored parks. 1 Named in memory of Capt. Clarence E. Dutton, whose report on Mount Taylor and the Zuni Plateau (TJ. S. Geol. Survey Sixth Ann. Rept., pp. 105-198. 1885) includes the first interpretation of the geology of this plateau. " Named in honor of its discoverer, A. H. Campbell, topographer of Whipple's expedition, 1853-54. 24 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Grass covers the plateau in sufficient amount to provide grazing for many sheep, and the water from various sources suffices to enable the Indians to use the forage, even during the dry season. Soil weathered from Cretaceous shales and sandstones has accumulated on the flatter slopes and valley bottoms and readily responds to agri- cultural treatment. Many small Navajo cornfields were noted. Un- developed coal beds are widely distributed over the plateau. Trading posts at Smith Lake, Dalton, Navajo Church, and two other points on the plateau, together with stores along the railroad, supply the simple needs of the Indian. Crown Point, reached from Thoreau by way of San Antonio Spring and picturesque Satan Pass, is the administrative center for the Pueblo Bonito Keservation, and is provided with school, hospital, and stores. CHACO PLATEAU. From the base of the north wall of Button Plateau the Chaco Pla- teau extends northward to San Juan Eiver. Westward it descends by low, broad steps to Chuska Valley, and its eastern border is marked by the line of elevated mesas adjoining Canyon Largo beyond the limits of the area studied. Its surface maintains an elevation of 5.500-6,500 feet, with a general slight slope toward the San Juan. Many low, flat tables of horizontal rock diversify the surface, and isolated buttes form prominent landmarks. The valleys are pre- vailingly wide, flat-floored swales, trenched by shallow, sharp-cut canyons. Even the Chaco and the Gallego valleys, which drain the plateau and present formidable canyons at their headwaters, de- velop open floors and sides broken into masses of low hills along their lower reaches. Chaco Plateau is for the most part bare of trees, except for clumps of pinon and juniper, but it is well supplied with grass and admir- ably adapted for stock raising. A number of small lakes contain water throughout the year, and most of the wells sunk have proved satisfactory. The results obtained in irrigated gardens and small fields attest the fertility of the soil. Numerous ruins in Chaco Canyon and its branches, including the famous Pueblo Bonito at Putnam, point to a long occupation by an agricultural race. Wells for oil in the Seven Lakes region may yet prove of commercial value, and the coal included in the Cretaceous sandstone remains an un- developed asset. CHUSKA VALLEY. Between the Button and Chaco plateaus on the east and the moun- tains along the New Mexico- Arizona boundary is the wide, open lowland that has received the name Chuska Valley. Its length from the Puerco divide to the San Juan is 85 miles and its width GEOGRAPHIC PEOVINCES. 25 varies from 10 miles near its head to nearly 40 miles in the latitude of Carrizo Mountain, the average being about 15 miles. The gradient of the valley floor, about 10 feet to the mile, is broken at many points by wide alluvial flats and short stretches of canyon, and in places the stream channels are obliterated by wind-blown sand. In geologic structure Chuska Valley is a syncline composed of stratified sand- stones, shales, and coals. The western limb rises by regular grada- tion to the summit of the Chuska Mountains ; the east side of the valley is marked by a labyrinth of broken mesas, flat-topped ridges, and low hogbacks eroded into fantastic knobs and pinnacles. Be- sides the clusters of low mesas two prominent hogbacks, one crossing the San Juan at Liberty, the other, facing Carrizo Mountain, rise from the valley flat to heights of 1,000 feet and 800 feet, respectively. Of several igneous dikes and necks which rise abruptly from the broken floor, Bennett Peak (PL III, A) (" Peaks of the Ojos Calien- tes"^) and Shiprock^ (PI. Ill, B) have long served as land- marks. In fact Shiprock, which thrusts itself into the air to a height of 1,400 feet above its base, is one of the most remarkable igneous masses to be found in the Southwest. Redrock Valley (Navajo, Tselichi) lies between Lukachukai and Carrizo Mountains. Unlike the main Chuska Valley, to which it forms a sort of tributary bay, its floor is carved in colored rocks of Triassic and Jurassic age and traversed by many short, bare- walled canyons arranged according to an intricate pattern. Many springs and a few short streams emerge from canyoned recesses only to lose their way before joining Standing Eedrock Creek and Black Horse Creek, which carry the flood waters through Red Wash to the San Juan. The run-off from 5,790 square miles is drained through Chuska Valley to the San Juan, but as none of the twenty-two large and over one hundred small tributaries supply a continuous stream, the valley is dry during a large part of the year. Springs along the valley axis serve for watering places on the long road from Gallup to Shiprock and determine the location of stores. To recover the large underflow in the gravel-floored washes a number of successful shallow wells have been dug. The geologic structure is favorable also for flowing wells, and development of water by wells would enable Chuska Valley to support two or three times the present Indian population. 1 Simpson's map, 1857. 2 Erroneously named Wilson's Peak on the Land Office map. This dike or neck of basic rock attracted the attention of Newberry (1859), who saw it from the north side of the San Juan at a distance of 10 miles. On Newberry's map the term " Needles " is used. Holmes, in his report on Carrizo Mountain (1877), also speaks of the " Needles," " a mass of volcanic rock which terminates in a cluster of needlelike points or spires." The term applied by Newberry and by Holmes has been discarded and Shiprock is now universally used. The name is peculiarly applicable, since the rock has the appearance of a ship under full sail. The Navajo name, Tsebidai, signifies " the winged rock." 26 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. The flora of sage and of greasewood is interspersed with solitary piiions and junipers, which become plentiful along the valley sides. Grass is of good quality and fairly abundant, except near the perma- nent watering places. Groups of Navajos have more or less perma- nent habitations along the tributary washes, and by means of dry farming supplemented by flood irrigation raise crops of corn. Trading posts have been established at Sheep Spring, Crozier, Tuntsa [Captain Tom's Wash], Noel's, Eedrock, and Biltabito, and these, with missionary establishments at Tohachi, Liberty, Jewett, and Toadlena, the stores and Government school at Tohachi, and the fully equipped agency at Shiprock on the San Juan, complete the list of stations where Navajos and whites come into contact. A wagon road traversing the valley joins Gallup with the towns on the San Juan; roads also run from Fort Defiance to Tohachi, and con- nection with the upper Black Creek Valley may be made by way of Washington Pass. MANUELITO PLATEAIT." The series of flat-topped hills outlined by the 7,000-foot contour and lying between Puerco River and Chuska Mountain may be grouped under the name of the Manuelito Plateau. In this area the high points are remnants of horizontal sandstone beds and are usually sharply defined by cliffs on all sides. The valleys are broad, open, flat-floored washes, in many places trenched by narrow arroyos cut in material which covers the rock floor. The valley slopes are gentle, and gullies rather than hills impede progress. Piiion and juniper with yellow pine clothe the mesas; sagebrush and greasewood cover the lower slopes, and a variety of rank weeds have obtained posses- sion of the sand and adobe flats to the exclusion of forage plants. Tracts of the most valuable timber have been set aside as national forests. Grass, though limited in quantity and much overgrazed, is fairly satisfactory in normal seasons, but water is very scarce. Be- tween the railroad at Gallup and Fort Defiance (35 miles), along the most generally used road in northern New Mexico and Arizona, only one permanent water supply (Rock Spring) is to be found. Sheep raising occupies the time of the Navajo inhabitants. A few farms have been located near the railroad by the whites ; and the extensive mining operations near Gallup give employment to several hundred men. Coal for Fort Defiance and St. Michaels is also mined at the western edge of the plateau. 1 Manuelito was a famous Navajo chief who rendered helpful service to the exploring parties of early days. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE II A. BENNETT PEAK AND VICINITY. Typical view in middle Chuska Valley. B. SHIPROCK AND VICINITY. . Typical view in lower Chuska Valley. Photograph by M. K. Shaler. U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE IV CREST OF WASHINGTON PASS, CHUSKA MOUNTAINS, LOOKING EAST. Photograph by Mrs. H. E. Gregory. GEOGEAPHIC PROVIKCES. 27 CHUSKA MOUNTAINS. NOMENCLATURE. Along the New Mexico- Arizona boundary lies a range of moun- tains which extends from the mesas of Manuelito Plateau north- ward to Bedrock Valley. Though essentially uniform in geologic structure and topographic expression, it is separated in the minds of the Navajos into a number of indefinitely outlined parts. In the earliest map of this range (Simpson, 1851) the northern portion is labeled " Sierra de Tumecha," and the part south of Washington Pass, " Sierra de Chusca." This practice was generally followed by map-makers connected with military expeditions until the publi- cation by the United States Geological Survey of the Canyon de Chelly topographic map in 1892. On the map of that date a third division of the range — " Lukachukai " — was added to " Choiskai " and "Tunitcha." These terms were supposed to embody Navajo usage, which they do in a broad sense. The lack of topographic significance of the terms is shown by translation. Lukachukai means patches of white reeds ; Tunitcha, large or much water ; and Chuska, white spruce. My Navajo guides informed me that these terms refer to particular spots rather than to areas, a reasonable explana- tion in view of the fact that on each of the subdivisions of this con- tinuous range spruce and reeds are to be found in several localities, and that each is about equally well supplied with both lakes and running streams. In the introduction to an ethnologic dictionary of the Navajo language, published by the Franciscan fathers of St. Michaels, Ariz., in 1910, the northwestern end of the range is called " Lukachukai Mountains," the central part is called the " Tunicha Range," and the southeastern end the " Chuska Range." In a report on life zones and crop zones of New Mexico, Vernon Bailey^ applies the name " Chusca Mountains " to the entire range, giving the follow- ing information in a footnote : The name Chusca, or Choiskai, is generally applied to the southern half, and Tunicha, or Tunitcha, to the northern half of this perfectly continuous and nearly uniform range. There is certainly not room for two names, and I have used the one that seems better known and in its shorter form, which is in common use among local residents. This use of Chuska for the entire range has been approved by the United States Geographic Board, but the subdivisions Lukachu- kai, Tunitcha, and Chuska are retained for purposes of description as well as for historical reasons. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Survey North Am. Fauna No. 35, p. 60, 1913. 28 THE NAVAJO COUNTBY. EASTERN EDGE. The eastern flank of the Chuska Mountains is an imperfectly graded slope which rises from Chuska Valley at the rate of 200 to 300 feet per mile up to the 8,000-foot contour, above which steep and frequently precipitous cliffs extend to the edges of the plateau-like summit. Stream channels, spaced 1 mile to 3 miles apart, gash the surficial debris and in places cut into bedrock. Many of these chan- nels contain water in their upper courses, and a line of springs, each surrounded by a small meadow, is found near the base of the upper cliffs. The slopes are covered with piiion and juniper, with alder, willow, and aspen along the short streams, and oaks and a few mag- nificent yellow pines along the higher benches above 7,000 feet. The scrub oak attains sizes up to 15 inches in diameter and is plentiful enough for corrals and house timbers; pines 8 inches to 2 feet in diameter were noted.^ The Navajos here are prosperous; they raise corn, wheat, potatoes, and garden truck, and bale hay for market by pressing it into holes in the ground and tying with yucca or willow withes. Several well- made log cabins were noted between Tohachi and Washington Pass. The Indians along the east base of the Chuska Mountains have ready access to the school and subagency at Tohachi, the Mission station at Toadlena, as well as the stores in Chuska Valley. Nu- merous trails, in addition to the wagon road through Washington Pass,^ lead to Crystal and to Fort Defiance. WESTERN EDGE. Unlike the eastern border of the Chuska Mountains, their western edge presents a nearly vertical escarpment, continuous except for the mouths of numerous canyons which reach into the heart of the mountains. Another distinguishing feature is the type of drainage. Most of the streams scarring the eastern flank rise on the immediate rim and collect little water from the mountain top; those flowing west extend nearly across the mountain summit. Because of this enlarged drainage area the streams emerging from the red bound- ing cliff wall are perennial. Upper Black Creek, Simpson Creek,^ 1 Simpson (1850) mentioned pine trees 8 feet in circumference and 80 feet high. 2 This pass, named by Simpson in honor of Lieut. Col. John M. Washington, governor of New Mexico and commander of the " Expedition against the Navajos " in 1849, is definitely located on Simpson's map and figured as plate 45 of the oflBcial report. The location of Washington Pass on the Canyon de Chelly topographic map of the United States Geological Survey is erroneous. The local name for this pass, " Cottonwood," is not only confusing but inappropriate, because of the absence of cottonwoods at this elevation (8,500 feet). ^ Simpson Creek is proposed as the name of the stream rising in Washington Pass and flowing west to Black Lake. Capt. Simpson's expedition was the first party of white men to cross the Chuska Mountain by this route. The Navajo term (Besth-kli-chee-begez = stream running from two peaks) is considered too awkward for map use, and the local name " Cottonwood " has no significance. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 29 Whiskey Creek, Palisade Creek, Wheatfields Creek, Spruce Brook, and Lukachukai Creek are beautiful streams of water, all capable of more extended use in irrigation. Prosperous groups of Navajos live on Simpson Creek and in Todilto Park (Navajo, sounding Avater) , on upper Black Creek, where conditions for both agriculture and stock raising are very satisfactory. The flora along the westward-flowing streams presents a variety even greater than that found on the eastern flank of the mountains. In addition to yellow pine and spruce and fir and the ever-present pinon and juniper, oaks, aspens, birch, and willows are plentiful. Hops and briars are twined about the shrubs, and flowers grow in profusion. The Indians cultivate gardens and raise patches of corn and of wheat and have a practice of fencing choice meadow lands in which native grass is allowed to reach maturity. Except for the lack of outlook no more desirable camping spots could be found. Stores at Crystal, at Greasewood, and at Round Rock supply local needs, and fairly good wagon roads lead to Fort Defiance and to Chinle. THE MOUNTAIN TOP. The wall forming the upper portion of the slopes flanking the Chuska Mountains rises to an altitude of about 8,000 feet. Above this point the range spreads out as a plateau with a relief of approxi- mately 1,000 feet. The summit plateau is developed partly in Ter- tiary sediments and partly in lava (PL IV), and erosion has pro- duced wide grass-covered valleys above which rise small mesas and irregularly shaped buttes capped by more indurated portions of the sandstone strata. Two large areas on Chuska Mountain and one on Tunitcha Mountain present flat surfaces at 8,800 to 9,000 feet. On Chuska Mountain these elevations mark the summit. The culminat- ing points on Tunitcha Mountain are Matthews Peak^ (9,403 feet) and Roof Butte (9,575 feet) . The highest level on Lukachukai Moun- tain is reached at View Point (9,430 feet). From this mesa an unob- structed view may be obtained of the gorgeous panorama of Redrock Valley, Carrizo Mountain, and the lands beyond the San Juan. The Ute, La Plata, Aba jo, Henry, and Navajo mountains are clearly visible ; and in the middle distance are displayed the canyoned valley of the Chinle and the red-walled Monument Valley, dominated by the towering Agathla Peak. In the immediate foreground the eye rests on 14 lakes, bordered by grass and flowers and shaded by pines and oaks. This mesa is an ideal camp spot, well supplied with water, wood, and forage. 1 Named in memory of Dr. Washington Matthews, author of many papers on Navajo anthropology. 30 THE NAVAJO COUNTBY. Beyond the heads of the canyons the top of the Chuska Mountains is imperfectly drained. The streams meander through wide grass- covered floors, and swamp-bordered lakes are common. These minia- ture lakes, of which 41 are mapped on Chuska Mountain alone, exceed 100 in number and constitute a remarkable feature for these altitudes in the arid southwest. The flora covering the mountain top is prevailingly yellow pine, but oak, fir, spruce, black birch, aspen, alder, and willow are com- mon. Raspberries and wild currants are present; and among the flowers noted are roses, Mariposa lily, geranium, bluebells, wild flax, and foxglove. Grass is abundant and of good quality — a fact which makes these mountains the goal of the Navajo herdsmen when water fails in the lower lands. CARRIZO MOUNTAIN". Carrizo Mountain rises, a solitary mass, above the floor of the Chuska and San Juan valleys (PI. V).^ It is separated from its nearest neighbor, Lukachukai Mountain, by the beautiful Bedrock Yalley. Unlike Lukachukai and other subdivisions of the Chuska Mountains, Carrizo owes its position and form to the intrusion of igneous rock which has flexed the sedimentary strata into a dome. The top of the mountain presents a roughly flat surface at an eleva- tion of 8,000 to 8,500 feet; other plateaus stand at 9,000 feet, and above them rise rounded peaks reaching their greatest height at Zilbetod (9,400 feet) and Pastora Peak^ (9,420 feet). The moun- tain sides are gashed by valleys which reach well into the body of the mass. Near their heads these valleys are bordered by nearly vertical walls ; farther down the canyons are replaced by wide-floored washes. Permanent streams occupy portions of these valleys and, together with springs perched high upon the mountain flanks, fur- nish sufficient water for the needs of the Navajo. Where the moun- tain is not overgrazed grass is found over the top and sides among thinly spread groves of yellow pine. Search for mineral wealth on Carrizo has resulted in failure, and the Navajo tends his sheep un- disturbed by other interests. Stores at Tisnasbas, at the north base of the mountain, at Biltabito, and in Redrock Yalley supply local needs and, with the mission at Tisnasbas, include all the white inhab- itants of the Carrizo Mountain area. Until recently Carrizo Moun- tain was forbidden ground to the whites, but no obstacles are now placed in the way of scientists whose mission is understood by the Navajos. 1 The Navajo name for Carrizo Mountain is the picturesque term Dzil naozili=the mountain surrounded by mountains. 2 Named by W. H. Holmes in 1875. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE VI A. SAN JUAN VALLEY AT SHIPROCK. Photograph by W. B. Emery. B. SAN JUAN CANYON 3 MILES BELOW GOODRIDGE, UTAH. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 31 GOTHIC MESAS. The area south of the San Juan, extending to the base of Carrizo and Lukachukai mountains, and inckided between Chuska and Chinle valleys, is cut into an intricate mass of mesas of various sizes and shapes, carved from massive red sandstone. For this geographic province the name Gothic Mesas is proposed. The complicated topo- graphic pattern of the region was noted by Macomb, who gave the name Gothic Wash^ to the wide-mouthed canyon which joins the San Juan above Comb Eidge. This mesa land is drained directly into the San Juan or into that river by way of the Chinle. The principal streani is Walker Creek,^ which carries the water from more than twenty sharply cut canyons heading in Carrizo and Lukachukai mountains. Two of the upper canyons tributary to Walker Creek — Alcove and Seklagaideza — are unusually labyrinthine in character and are deeply cut into brightly colored strata, whose precipitous edges are elaborately carved into alcoves and recesses. The protection afforded by these overhanging cliffs attracted an ancient people whose ruined homes are to be seen along the canyon wall. Arido and Desert creeks are typical of the short canyons that carry flood waters directly to the San Juan. A large part of this area is floored with bare rock, swept clean by the wind. Here and there isolated pinons and fields of sage indicate the presence of soil, and along the canyon bottoms groups of Indians have sheep corrals and small patches of corn. Trading posts at Mexican Water (No- kaito), at Tisnasbas, and at Bluff supply a market for wool and blankets, the products of Navajo sheep husbandry. The old Mor- mon road from Bluff passes Tohanadla and Totocong springs on its way to Tyende and Tuba. Gothic Mesas may be reached from the railroad at Farmington, N. Mex., over an ancient trail now developed into an execrable wagon road. SAN JUAN VALLEY.^ Between Farmington, N. Mex., and Goodridge, Utah, the San Juan occupies a flood plain 1 to 2 miles wide (PI. Y1,A) ; below Goodridge the stream follows the floor of a narrow meandering can- yon, 1,200-2,500 feet deep, to its junction with the Colorado (PI. VI, 5). In general, tributaries from the north join the San Juan as wide-mouthed washes; those from the south occupy canyons; the arable land is therefore confined to cottonwood-covered flats on the north side of the river, and here also are the villages of Farmington, 1 Gothic Wash as indicated on the Canyon de Chelly topographic map occupies the posi- tion of Walker Creek. On the present map Gothic Wash is given the location originally assigned to it by Macomb in 1860. 2 See footnote, p. 90. 3 This province is not outlined on the map (PI. I, in pocket). 32 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Fruitland, Liberty, Jewett, the Indian agency at Shiprock, the farmer station at Aneth, and the prosperous Mormon settlement at Bluff, Utah (PL VII). At a number of points along the river aban- doned machinery and miners' huts mark the site of gold prospects, and the oil field at Goodridge has been extensively developed. Few Indians occupy the south bank of the San Juan west of the Colorado line. The alluvial flats on the north bank are dotted with hogans, the homes of Navajos who combine stock raising with agriculture. Along the river above the mouth of the Chinle the Navajos and Piutes are found together; from Goodridge to Piute Canyon the widely scattered families belong to the Piute tribe. Below Piute Canyon no Indians were seen, either on the San Juan or the Colo- rado. Cottonwood trees are found on the flood plain all along the river ; pinon and junipers protrude from cracks in the canyon walls ; and shrubs of several varieties occupy rock benches bordering the stream. Driftwood is piled high at favorable localities. The San Juan is spanned by a bridge at Goodridge, and a second bridge is being constructed at Shiprock. The treacherous character of the river tends to discourage crossing at points between Farmington and Goodridge. A trail at the mouth of Copper Canyon leads north- ward into Utah ; elsewhere on the deeply intrenched lower San Juan crossing is precarious. BLACK CREEK VALLEY. Between the Chuska Mountains and Defiance Plateau, extending from Black Lake to Houck station, lies Black Creek Valley. The average slope of the valley floor is about 25 feet per mile for its length of 60 miles. Throughout its course it presents widely differ- ent aspects. In the vicinity of Crystal its floor is flat and occupied by ephemeral lakes. Beginning at Hunter Point the valley narrows to 1 mile, then increases in width to Oak Spring, at which point it is replaced by a red- walled canyon, 600 feet deep and less than half a mile wide, cut through the Defiance monocline (PL Ami, A). Below the canyon the valley gradually increases in width until it joins the Puerco. Black Eock near Fort Defiance, The Beast, and several other necks and dikes, at the foot of Red Lake, rise 100 to 300 feet above the valley floor and contrast strongly with the bright- colored sediments which surround them (PL VIII, B). Also above the floor of the valley rise long, low ridges of shale and mounds of variegated, friable materials, which are cut into "badland" forms. One of these ridges, behind which lies Fort Defiance, is so placed as to afford a magnificent view of the valley, including the massive red walls of sandstone displaying alcoves and curtains, the detached "haystacks," and the purple and ash-gray shales intricately carved into a fascinating variety of form. These beautifully colored strata GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 33 appear as a frame for the picturesque Zilditloi Mountain. Interest- ing minor features are the Natural Bridge west of Black Eock, and the well-known window southeast of Fort Defiance. The valley is drained by Black Creek, which enters Black Creek Valley at Eed Lake, 12 miles below the valley head. The water in the upper part of the valley flows out on a flat from which it escapes only at exceptionally high stages. One permanent stream, upper Black Creek, enters the valley from the east; from the west the Bonito at Fort Defiance and the Cienega at St. Michaels contribute small but constant supplies. The outlet stream from Buell Park also reaches Black Creek during part of the year. The supplies from these tributaries, supplemented by a large underground flow, serve to make Black Creek a living stream through a large portion of its course. That Black Creek Valley is fertile is amply demonstrated by the successful agriculture carried on at Fort Defiance, St. Michaels, Houck, and a few other points. The storage reservoir at Bed Lake and the proposed reservoir at Oak Spring afford opportuni- ties for more extensive development. The flora of the valley is primarily sage, greasewood, and hardy annuals. Juniper and pihon in large numbers occupy the ridges and are sparingly distributed over the lower flats. The scant grass of the valley shows the effect of overgrazing. In Black Creek Valley are the oldest permanent white settlements within the Navajo Reservation. Simpson^ in 1850 appears to have first called attention to the attractive features of Fort Defiance and St. Michaels.- Soon after Simpson's visit Fort Defiance was estab- lished as a military post and became a way station for early explora- tory expeditions, beginning with Whipple (Marcou, geologist), 1853-54. During the wars with the Navajos Fort Defiance was the center of considerable military activity, and the name of Kit Carson is closel}^ associated with its history. At a much later date Fort Defiance became the Navajo agency from which a limited and in- effectual control over the Indians was exercised. Under the guidance of efficient superintendents Fort Defiance has become, within the last 10 years, the most influential center Avithin the Indian country. The work of Government schools and hospitals and farms has been sup- plemented by the establishment of a private hospital and a Protestant mission. A Roman Catholic school and a Franciscan establishment at St. Michaels (Navajo, Tso hotso=yellow meadow, the Cienega Amarilla of the Mexicans) still further increase the civilizing in- fluences within Black Creek Valley. The response of the Navajos 1 Simpson, Lieut. J. H., An expedition into tlie Navajo country : 31st Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc. G4, 1850. 2 Simpson's route from ttie mouth of Canj^on de Chelly led past " Sandstone column " (Carson's Monument), " Cafioncito Bonito " (Fort Defiance), " Sieneguilla de Maria " (St. Michaels), and thence down Black Creek valley to Zuni. 33033°— wsp 380—16 3 34 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. to these opportunities is shown by the large number of permanent homes and cultivated fields distributed along the valley from Red Lake southward to the railroad. DEFIANCE PLATEAU." The eastern border of Defiance Plateau is sharply defined by Black Creek Valley and the escarpment of Tunitcha and Lukachukai mountains. Its western boundary is the Chinle and Pueblo Colo- rado Valley. From Round Rock to Sanders, Defiance Plateau is nearly 100 miles long. Its average width is about 40 miles, except along Puerco River, where it is 60 miles. The plateau is essentially an elongated dome rising above a rim which stands at an altitude of 7,000 feet on the eastern border of the plateau and at 6,000 feet on the western border. The dome flattens toward the north, where the descent is gradual to 5,500 feet; at the southwest also the plateau surface drops below 6,000 feet and reaches its lowest elevation (5,200 feet) in the cliffs facing Puerco River at Holbrook. About 20 square miles of the flat summit northwest of Fort Defiance is bounded by the 7,800-foot contour. The plateau as a whole is free from mesas and buttes which interrupt the skyline, but those which are present assume unusual prominence. Round Rock (Navajo, Tsenakani), 6,020 feet high, is an example of a small group of buttes carved from massive sandstone, but most of the landmarks rising out of the plateau floor are igneous in origin. Black Pinnacle, Sezhini, and Sonsela (Navajo, twin stars) Buttes, the last named reaching 9,000 feet in elevation, are prominent features in the upper Canyon de Chelly region; and Pilot Rock (6,600 feet), northeast of Holbrook, is a landmark on the southwest edge of the plateau. The highest point (8,600 feet) on the central portion of the plateau is the well- known Fluted Rock (Navajo, Zildasaani). Padres Mesa and other highlands overlooking the Puerco Valley, and drained by Chambers, Lithodendron,^ Wide Ruin, and Leroux washes,^ present long slopes leading southward and sharply trun- cated on their northwest edges. They are traversed on intercanyon spaces by open valleys, interrupted by areas of dunes which together form a topography without sharp relief. Bare rock is rarely ex- posed and soil is apparently deep. The surface of Defiance Plateau is drained by wide, flat-floored valleys trenched by narrow, shallow canyons. The general slope of the plateau is westward, becoming southwestward at the southern 1 In the absence of any Navajo, Mexican, or English term now in use the name Defiance (after Fort Defiance) is proposed for this well-defined geographic unit. 2 This name Lithodendron was applied to this wash by Whipple (1853-54), who dis- covered the fossil forests at this locality. Lithodendron Creek appears also on the official Army map of 1883. Whipple applied the name " Carrizo Creek " to the short wash next east of Lithodendron. 3 Named by Whipple (1853-54) "Leroux Forks." Antoine Leroux served as guide for Whipple and for Sitgreaves. GEOGRAPHIC PEOVINCES. 35 and northwestward at the northern margins. The eastward-flowing streams tributary to Black Creek are accordingly short and carry little water; those trending westward are long and many of them are perennial. At the south, Chambers Wash, Lithodendron Wash, and the 50-mile long Wide Kuin Wash^ are examples of valleys which have developed extensive floo^ plains across which wander the seasonal streams. The Pueblo Colorado and Nazlini, together with many smaller channels, traverse the western slopes in canyons 100 to 300 feet deep. The northern slope is drained by Lukachukai, Agua Sal, and Sheep Dip creeks. The largest stream on the plateau, and the one which has cut the deepest canyon, occupies the famous Canyon de Chelly,^ and its tributary Canyon del Muerto (PI. IX, A). These streams carry a large portion of the run-off from Chuska and Tunitcha mountains, which insures a permanent flow. They occupy canyons cut in red sandstone, bounded by walls 800 feet high, from which project enormous pinnacles, buttresses, and towers. In niches carved in the canyon walls stand buildings of an ancient race, which have held the attention of archeologists and explorers since their discovery by Simpson in 1850 (PL IX, B). Except at its southern end water may be found on Defiance Plateau at points rarely more than 8 to 10 miles apart, even during the dry season. Between Wide Euin Wash and the Santa Fe Eailway line permanent water occurs only at a few localities, but grass is abundant. Forests of yellow pine cover the higher parts of the plateau and furnish the lumber locally used. With the pines are groves of scrub oak, and along the margins of the plateau pihon and jumper form continuous forests or solitary groups standing in the midst of extensive tracts of sage, which here attains a height of 4 to 6 feet. Within the canyons cottonwood, oak, and hackberry are found ; and in Canyon de Chelly and Nazlini Canyon seedling peach trees form an unexpected phase of the flora. Natural agriculture, chiefly limited to the raising of corn, is practiced in Wide Ruin, Pueblo Colorado, and other Avashes where flood irrigation is feasible. Along Simpson Creek, Wheatfields Creek,^ Spruce Brook, and Lukachukai Creek many Indian farms are located, and at Lukachukai the Xavajos have developed the most successful farms observed on the reservation. Corn, wheat, alfalfa, potatoes, and melons are raised here, both with and without the aid of irrigation. The Government irrigation projects at Ganado and at Wheatfields are designed to in- 1 wide Ruin is the remains of a prehistoric " palace," 400 feet square, built across a narrow wash, and containing a rock-walled well. 2 The orthography Canyon de Chelly (pronounced de Shay) was obtained by Simpson (Expedition to the Navajo country, p. 69) from Senor Donaciano Vigil, secretary of the Province of New Spain, who states that it is of Indian origin. The word is probably a Spanish corruption of the Navajo term Tse-yi — that is, " in the rock canyon." Tsa lee is the term applied to the head of Canyon del Muerto, an English form of the Navajo Sehili — that is, " it flows into the canyon." Chinle signifies " it flows from' the canyon." 3 Cieneguilla de Juanito of Simpson. 36 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. crease the acreage at points where agriculture is now carried on by in- telligent Navajos. Trading posts on Defiance Plateau are located at Wide Euin, Cross Canyon, Saw Mill, Nazlini, Sheep Dip, Crystal, and Eound Eock, and a Government farmer is stationed at Wheatfields. The Indians, however, most frequently visit the stores at Fort De- fiance, St. Michaels, Ganado, and Chinle, where schools and mis- sions and Government officers are located. The beginning of per- manent white settlement at Lukachukai is marked by the erection of a Franciscan chapel. Nearly all the Indian settlements on De- fiance Plateau are now accessible by reasonably good roads. Eegular mail stages ply between St. Michaels and Ganado, and the Fort Defiance-Chinle road is in constant use except during the winter, when heavy snowfalls block the way. CHINLE AND PUEBLO COLORADO VALLEYS. The Chinle and Pueblo Colorado washes, though carrying water in opposite directions, form a continuous valley traversing the entire width of the Navajo Eeservation and separating areas of unlike character. Chinle Wash heads in a flat divide at Ganado and re- ceives drainage from Defiance Plateau and the Gothic Mesas on the east, and from Black and Segi mesas on the west. In its length of over 100 miles it descends at the rate of 13 feet per mile from 6,700 to 4,400 feet, where it joins the San Juan. South from the divide at Ganado, the Pueblo Colorado Wash extends to the Puerco at Hol- brook, dropping 1,700 feet in a distance of about 90 miles. Neither wash receives water with sufficient regularity to insure permanent flow, but the gravel floors of both carry large quantities of under- ground water, which comes to the surface for short stretches. Dur- ing the dry season the Pueblo Colorado Wash is without water, and along its lower reaches becomes the playground of drifting sands. During normal years the Chinle is a permanent stream from the mouth of T^^ende Creek to the San Juan, but its upper part becomes dry between showers. Even the Nazlini, the De Chelly, and the Lukachukai lose their waters before joining their master stream. During the rainy season and following showers both the Pueblo Colorado and the Chinle washes are flooded and in their flatter portions form shallow lakes a mile or more in width. The most reliable stream in the whole system is the Tyende, which, flowing from Marsh Pass, collects the w^aters from the southern part of the Segi Mesas. The immediate valley of Chinle Wash is walled in on the west, from its head to Bekihatso Lakes, by broken mesas and gentle slopes reaching back to Black Mesa. From Bekihatso Lakes to Setsiltso there is an inner wall of limestone and shales, which forms the front of Carson Mesa. Back of the edge of Carson Mesa an intricately carved region of mesas, flat-topped ridges, valley flats and slopes ex- U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE IX A. NORTH WALL OF CANYON DE CHELLY BETWEEN CANYON DEL MUERTO AND MONUMENT CANYON. Height of wall may be judged from size of horse and buggy in middle distance. Photograph by W. C. Mendenhall. B. CLIFF HOUSE IN CANYON DE CHELLY AT JUNCTION WITH CANYON DEL MUERTO. Photograph by W. C. Mendenhall. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE X A. PUEBLO COLORADO WASH BELOW TWIN MESAS. Cliffs of Chinle strata. B. VOLCANIC NECKS AT WEST EDGE OF HOPI BUTTES, ON CHANDLER'S RANCH. GEOGEAPHIC PROVINCES. 37 tends to Black Mesa and up the T^^ende to Segi Mesas. Pillars, col- umns, needles, and natural windows set in the midst of dunes and bare rock domes are attractive features of this little known area. From Setsiltso Spring to the mouth of the Tyende, Chinle Creek flows through easily eroded materials in which it has cut a wide canyon which maintains a depth of 100 to 200 feet. Below Mexican Water the creek follows a canyon sunk 100 to 300 feet in massive red sandstone, and after cutting its path across Comb Kidge it joins the San Juan at grade. The Pueblo Colorado Wash nowhere assumes the proportions of a canj^on, but precipitous slopes rise on its western side to heights of 400 to 500 feet (PL X, ^) . The valley of Tyende Creek, the chief western tributary of the Chinle, is walled on the north by Comb Eidge, south and east of which it spreads widely until limited by broken mesas and ridges extending northeast from Black Mesa. East of Tyende School the valley is flat except for Church Rock and other igneous masses which rise abruptly from the floor. About 15 miles above its junction with the Chinle, Tyende Creek drops into a canyon with alluvial walls, which farther down are replaced by red sandstone. Between the Tyende-Chinle and Comb Ridge the Arizona-Utah line is crossed by Garnet Ridge. The surface of the ground at this locality is covered with erratics and strewn with garnets in unbelievable quantities, the source of the Arizona " rubies " of commerce. Sage and greasewood, with scattering pifions, rare junipers, and occasional groves of cottonwood make up the flora of these washes. Forage, except along the immediate stream channels, is fairly abun- dant. The Navajos utilize these valleys for agriculture, relying on the seasonal rains for irrigation. Several hundred Indians groiiped at "cornfields," particularly below Chinle School, along the Tyende, and between Ganado and Sunrise Springs, have made permanent homes and carry on successful agriculture. White settlements are situated at Sunrise Springs, Cornfields (6 miles below Ganado), Ganado, Chinle, and Tyende. HOPI BUTTES. South of Black Mesa and crossed by the southern boundary line of the Hopi Reservation, is an area of lava-capped mesas, igneous dikes and volcanic necks, which, since the days of the Spanish ex- plorers, has been known as the Hopi ^ Buttes (PL X, 5). Topographically the area consists of a platform of sedimentary rock whose edges are exposed in cliffs facing the Pueblo Colorado and the Little Colorado. The platform is tilted slightly toward the 1 The term Hopi is preferable to the better known Moki or Moqni. The remnants of the ancient cliff dwellers now on the reservation call themselves Hopi. Moqui is a term of derision meaning- " dead ones," applied to the Hopi by the, Navajo. Hopi Bnttes is an older and more appropriate name for this area than Rabbit Ear Mountain, which first appeared on the Tusayan topographic map of the United States Geological Survey. 38 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. south, SO that a surface elevation at the base of Black Mesa of 6,000 feet becomes 5,600 feet at Ives Mesa and Marcou Mesa, 40 miles farther south. Above this floor rise more than 100 lava-capped mesas and buttes of igneous material, from 100 to 1,200 feet in height. Volcanism has long been extinct here, and ash cones and flows of recent date, such as are abundantly displayed^ about San Francisco Mountain, 70 miles to the west, are absent. The walls of the washes and of the mesas, as well as of the intervalley spaces, are cut in Triassic and Jurassic shales, which favor the production of erosion features of exceptional variety. All the types of " bad- land " topography find here their full expression. This intricate ero- sion fabric, brilliantly colored and strewn with petrified wood, gives to the area a striking individuality. There are no perennial streams in the whole Hopi Buttes province, and except for the floods of August the wide washes are deserts of drifting sand. The Hopi Buttes provide good grazing, which the numerous springs issuing from the lava enable the Indians to utilize, and the juniper and pinon clothing the mesas supply materials for corrals and semiperma- nent hogans. The Hopi Buttes are partly outside the Indian res- ervation, but allotments have been made to the Navajos on general public lands, and grazing and water are reserved for Indian use. Trading posts have long been situated at Indian Wells and at Cedar Springs, and in recognition of the growing importance of this district a Government farmer station has been established re- cently at Maddox (Stiles ranch. Castle Buttes), and a Protestant mission has been located at Indian Wells. TUSAYAU WASHES. The area south of Black Mesa and included between the Hopi Buttes and the Moenkopi Plateau is relatively simple in structure. Its principal topographic features are the four long Tusayan washes — Jadito, First Mesa (Polacca), Oraibi, and Dinnebito — which serve as channels to carry the waters from Black Mesa and the western half of the Hopi Buttes to the Little Colorado. Sepa- rating Jadito and First Mesa washes, Tovar Mesa ^ tapers south- westward, rising 100 to 400 feet above the valley floor. The flat terraced land which forms the divide between Oraibi and Din- nebito washes is wider and higher. Its southern extension, New- berry Mesa,^ faces the Little Colorado with a 200-foot cliff ; the two terraces of Garces Mesa^ have a combined height of 800 feet; the ^ Pedro de Tovar was the leader of an exploring party sent out by Coro ado to investi- gate the Hopi pueblos in 1540. 2 Named in honor of J. S. Newberry, who visited and described this mesa in 1858. 3 Fray Garces journoyod back and forth in Arizona and California for several years, and his experiences arc related in the diary referred to elsewhere (p. 17). GEOGEAPHIC PEOVINCES. 39 isolated Padilla Mesa/ an outlier of Black Mesa, rises 1,000 feet aboA'e the floor of the Dinnebito Wash. All the dividing mesas descend by a series of steps to the Little Colorado, but the floors of the washes descend gradually from elevations of 5,800 feet at the Hopi villages to 4,800 feet on the fiats along the river. Din- nebito Wash maintains its individuality from source to mouth, reaching the Little Colorado after a journey of 60 miles, in which distance it falls 1,400 feet. The other three washes have gentler gradients and unite at Tolani Lakes (Navajo, many waters), be- yond which point their waters are carried by Corn Creek. First Mesa Wash receives accessions from Second Mesa Wash, Wepo Wash, and Keams Canyon; Jadito Wash is joined by tributaries from the northwestern front of the Hopi Buttes, and Corn Creek has direct connection with Bardgeman and Coyote washes. All these valleys are marked by alluvial floors 1 to 5 miles wide, in the midst of which sharply cut, alluvium-walled arroyos carry flood waters from flat to flat. In many places channels are absent and waters poured from narrow arroyos spread widel}^ to form epheme- ral lakes. Tolani Lakes, a group of permanent fresh-water bodies in the lower Oraibi Wash, constitute a unique feature of the topog- raphy (p. 117). Trees are scarce in this area except on the higher mesas, but sage and greasewood are vigorous. The northern part of the Tusayan Washes has been utilized by the Hopis since days long antedating the Spanish conquest. Corn is cultivated by flood irrigation, usually by families whose homes are in the distant mesa villages. In the southern portion of the washes and on the intervening mesas Navajos have formed nomadic settle- ments where the water supply permits. Roads to Leupp and to Winslow furnish an outlet to white settlements, and stores at Tolchico, Cedar Springs, Oraibi, Toreva, Polacca, and Keams Can- yon, as well as along the railroad, furnish centers for trade. MOENKOPI PLATEAU. The triangular area bounded by Dinnebito and Moenkopi washes and the cliffs facing the Little Colorado is the least known part of the southern Navajo Reservation. From the west it is reached by ascending four terrace steps, each 400 feet high, finally attaining an elevation of 5,800 feet above sea. Howell Mesa^ stands alone on the plateau surface, above which it rises to a height of 800 feet. At the north edge of the Moenkopi Plateau a drop of 600 feet brings one to an extensive terrace 600 feet above the Moenkopi Wash, iJuan de Padilla, a Franciscan priest, discovered ttie Province of Tusayan (Hopi vil- lages) in 1540 and was finally killed by the Indians in a revolt against tbe white people and their religion. 2 Named in honor of E. B. Howell, who made the first geologic traverse of this portion of the Navajo Reservation. 40 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. which here flows between banks whose height eqnals the terrace front. The Moenkopi Plateau is drained ahnost wholly into the Little Colorado through deep gashes cut in the terrace steps, or into the Moenkopi through canyons, 600 to 800 feet deep, whose sides are formed of gray, green, pink, and white strata of singular beauty (PL XI, ^). Pinon and juniper, arranged in groves or standing as individuals, rise out of the sage and grass-covered floor. Ward Terrace^ is utilized for grazing, and a few small fields west of Howell Mesa are tended by Navajos, but the plateau as a whole is little used. The plateau is crossed by a trail and a difficult wagon road be- tween Oraibi and Tuba, along which lies the mine which supplies coal to the Government school. BLACK MESA. A topographic map of the Navajo country shows Black Mesa as an island with a circumference of about 250 miles, and sharply defined on all sides by cliifs overlooking the surrounding geographic provinces. Its unity is broken toward the southeast, where Salahkai Mesa is partly disconnected and where a canyoned bordering shelf between Ganado and Keams Canyon forms a sort of lower step to Black Mesa proper. The east, northeast, and northwest sides of Black Mesa are defined by a cliff which, with minor notching, ex- tends continuously for 110 miles, as a wall rising 1,200 to 2,000 feet above the flattened slopes at its base. The southwestern and south- ern margins are made extremely sinuous by the development of long, scalloped mesas, which project like withered fingers into the Tusayan washes. The mesa attains its greatest elevation facing the Chinle valley, where, for a distance of 40 miles between Yale Point and Lolomai Point, a height of 8,000 feet above sea is maintained. From this high rim the surface of the plateau descends gradually to the south and southwest until its average elevation is 6,500 feet. A few detached messas, as Zillesa and Ziltahjini, rise above the surface, but in general the plateau presents an even sk}^ line broken by wide flat- tened valleys in the floors of which shallow rock can^^ons have been cut. The upper Moenkopi valley is an exception to the rule, and presents a formidable canyon, 400 to 600 feet in depth, with tribu- taries only slightly less prominent. The water which falls as rain on Black Mesa is carried south- westward into the Tusayan Washes and the Moenkopi by streams which rise on the most distant rim of the plateau, Avhereas the run-off received by the Chinle originates on the immediate face of the mountain. Black Mesa is rather thickly covered by forests of piiion and juniper, with pine on the higher portions and in certain sheltered ^ Named for Lostor F. Ward, wlioso work in the Painted Desert region marked the boginninj? of detailed stratigrapliic studios for the Navajo Keservation. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XI A. COAL MINE CANYON, AT NORTH EDGE OF MOENKOPI PLATEAU. B. EFFECTS OF WIND EROSION, KAIBITO PLATEAU. a DUNE AND WIND-SCOURED FLOOR, KAIBITO PLATEAU. GEOGRAPHIC PEOVINCES. 41 canyons. Sagebrush attains large size and grass of excellent qual- ity is abundant. At Tahchiio and elsewhere along the upper valleys Navajos and Hopis practice agriculture, but the principal occupation here, as elsewhere on the reservation, is sheep raising. Perched high on the southern extremities of Black Mesa are the villages of the Hopis — a singular people of ancient lineage, first made known to the world by Pedro de Tovar and Juan de Padilla of Coronado's expedition in 1540. Sichomovi, Hano, and Walpi, on the " First Mesa," Shipolovi, Mishongnovi, and Shongopovi on the " Second Mesa," Oraibi and Bacobi on the " Third Mesa," and the recently established Hotevila farther north enroll together about 2.000 souls, the -remnant of a race whose ruined cliff houses, plains houses, and fields widely distributed over the reservation speak of a large and cultured population. Trading posts, schools, and missions at the Hopi villages and the agency and stores at Keams Can3^on bring the whites into contact wdth this race, which has resisted attempts at civilization ever since the fruitless labors of the early Spanish padres. Corn, melons, and peaches are the crops raised in sand dunes, along washes, and on artificially terraced slopes by a system of agriculture developed through centuries of experiment. KAIBITO PLATEAU. North of the Moenkopi Wash, extending to Navajo Canyon, and sharply defined on the west by the line of Echo Cliffs, is an area of geographic unity which may be termed the Kaibito Plateau. Its eastern boundary is in part the escarpment of Black Mesa and in part Eed Lake Wash, whidi trends southward from the rim of Navajo Canyon to join the Moenkopi at Blue Canyon. Its domi- nating point is White Mesa, a flat-topped, white-walled mass of sandstone, which is notched by picturesque box canyons and attains an elevation of 6,800 feet. Westward from White Mesa, Mormon Ridge, the drainage divide between Navajo and Moenkopi creeks, maintains an elevation of 6,000 to 6,400 feet to its junction with Echo Cliffs. A mesa of equal height stands south of Mormon Ridge, and east of it the igneous needle. Wildcat Peak (Navajo, Nishduitso; 6,648 feet), rises from the plateau surface in such a manner as to be visible for distances of more than 50 miles. The floor of the plateau stands 4,400 feet above sea level at Tuba, and, passing the divide at 6,000 to 6,400 feet, descends to the rim of Navajo Canyon at 5,200 feet and to the Glen Canyon of the Colorado at 4,000 feet. Grass- covered, open valleys supporting sage and pihon mark the northern slopes of the plateau, but the southern slope is under the control of the wind, which has swept bedrock bare and piled dunes high in the lowland (PI. XI, B and C). The only permanent streams on Kaibito Plateau are the Moenkopi and the lower stretch of Red Lake Creek, but springs at Kaibito and about l^Tl^ite Mesa furnish 42 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. supplies for stock, and water is abundant in the Tuba district. Red Lake always holds water, though of poor quality, and sand-bound pools in Begashibito Valley stili further increase the supply. The water of Moenkopi Creek, supplemented by water from springs, furnishes a supply for the most extensive farming carried on wdthin the limits of the Navajo Reservation. In the vicinity of Moenkopi village the ancient cliff dwellers, Hopi Indians, Mormon pioneers, and Government farmers have in turn produced corn, Avheat, oats, and fruits beyond their own immediate needs. The oasis of Tuba, settled by the Mormons in 1878 and purchased by the Government for an agency and school site in 1903, has orchards and vineyards, gardens and farms which make this spot, in spite of its desert-like surroundings, the most highly developed section of the reservation. Tuba is accessible from Flagstaff, 90 miles distant, by a road suitable for wagons or automobiles; and from Tuba as a center Lee Ferry, Red Lake, Tyende, or Oraibi may be reached by difficult roads leading across the desert. PAIISTTED DESERT. From Holbrook to the Colorado Can} on the Little Colorado flows through a brightly colored desert valley whose northern side is bounded by the cliffed edge of Ives and Newberry mesas and the walled fronts of Ward Terrace and Kaibito Plateau. This line of cliffs, trenched by Cottonwood, Oraibi, Dinnebito, and Moenkopi washes, and many minor valleys, stands within a mile of the river at Holbrook, below which point it follows the river at a distance of 8 to 10 miles, returning to within 5 miles at Black Point. From Tanner Crossing to Lee Ferry the valley border, continued as Echo Cliffs, again recedes, leaving an irregularly dissected low^land 20 to 25 miles broad. The river itself has developed extensive flood plains between Flolbrook and Wolf Crossing and above Grand Falls, and to a less extent between Black Falls and Tanner Crossing. A short canyon below Tolchico and a canyon between Grand and Black Falls confine the stream to narrow limits, and at Tanner Crossing the stream bed is sunk between rock walls which become higher and steeper until a canyon 3,000 feet deep joins the canyon of the Colo- rado. Low, broken mesas, surrounded by scattered dunes and intri- cately carved by wind and by water, add relief to the valley floor above Tanner Crossing. North of Moenkopi Wash, Cedar Mesas and Bodaway Mesa extend westward from Echo Cliffs and form a flat divide separating Roundy Creek,^ which enters the Colorado, and Hamblin Creek,^ which fol- 1 Named for Bishop Rofindy, au explorer who lost his life at Lee Ferry in 1876. -Jacob Hamblin, of the Church of the Latter-Day Saints, had charge of the early colonization projects in the Little Colorado Valley. He gujled Maj. Powell over the Lee Ferry and Echo Cliffs route in 1871. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 43 lows the base of Echo Cliffs to its junction with the Moenkopi. Overlooking Marble Canj^on the remnant of eroded sandstone, known as Shinumo Altar occupies an isolated position, rising 600 feet above the surrounding surface. Lavas, which are abundantly displayed west of Little Colorado Eiver, reach the stream at Grand Falls, Black Falls, Black Point, and at the mouth of Cedar Wash.^ The lava flow at Grand Falls has produced the picturesque cataract formed at this place (PL XII). The only large igneous mass east of the river is Black Knob, a well-known landmark on the lower Little Colorado. Notwithstanding its large drainage area, the Little Colorado pre- sents a dry bed below Winslow for several months in the year, and whether dry or filled to overflowing, this stream must be crossed with care because of quicksands that have made the river a byword since the days of early exploration. The long stretch from Holbrook to the Colorado was without bridges until 1912, when the Govern- men suspension bridge on the Flagstaff-Tuba road put an end to the precarious travel required to reach the western side of the reser- vation. The Little Colorado Valley is the most arid portion of northern Arizona, and the valley flats and rock slopes between Wins- low and the Moenkopi assume the character of a true desert with restricted and specialized plant and animal life.- Water is alkaline or is lacking except immediately along the stream, and the Navajo side of the river is accordingly not populated. The only compensa- tion for bare rock and gravel floor, intense heat, sand storms, and lack of vegetation is the magnificent coloring of cliffs and floor which justifies the name Painted Desert.^ The superintendents of the Western Navajo and the Navajo Extension reservations have joint charge of the few Indians who use the Little Colorado Valley as a grazing ground. Schools at Leupp and at Tu^ba and the mis- sion stations at Lyons ranch, Moenkopi, and Tolchico enlarge the sphere of influence exercised by the white man. SHATO PLATEAU. The long Klethla Valley, extending westward from Marsh Pass, forms the southern margin of a group of canyons and mesas which extends northward to the head of Piute Canyon and westward to Eed Lake Valley and the south branch of Navajo Canyon. Near the center of this area is the well-known spring Shato (Navajo, the mirror), whose name is here applied to the plateau on which 1 Gregory, H. E., A reconnaissance of a portion of the Little Colorado Valley, Ariz. : Am. Jour. ScL, 4th ser., vol. 38, pp. 491-501, 1914. 2 This term was applied by Ives and Newberry to the east side of the Little Colorado Valley between Sunset Crossing (Winslow) and Tanner Crossing, and the geologic forma- tion name "Painted Desert" was used by Ward (U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 48) for strata in this same area. It is here proposed to extend the term to include the region of identi- cal character between tiie INIoenkopi Wash and the Colorado. - The use of Painted Desert as a geographic term in portions of the Pucrco Valley is not justified. 44 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. this spring is found. This region has an average elevation of 7,000 feet, reaching 6,000 feet at its southwestern edge and 7,800 feet on its northern border. The Shato Plateau forms the water parting for streams flowing northward into the San Juan, westward into the Colorado, southwestward via Red LaKe and the Moenkopi into the Little Colorado, and eastward through Tyende and Chinle creeks into the San Juan. It thus becomes the four-sided roof of the reser- vation. The surface of the plateau is marked by wide, flat-floored valleys with intervening poorly dissected mesas. At its edges deeply cut, box-headed canyons project into the area from all sides. Spring-fed streams start at nearly all the canyon heads and continue Avith more or less interrupted flow until their master streams are reached. The valleys trending south, particularly Shato and Be- gashibito, present the abnormal feature of a string of lakes and pools separated by drifts of sand. Other pools and tanks occur in the washes near the divide. The plateau therefore is provided with sufficient water to enable the Indians to utilize the forage which is fairly plentiful among the sage and piilon. No white men in- habit Shato Plateau and no feasible road traverses it. Ruined buildings and abandoned fields of an ancient people are to be found along the watercourses, and within the National Monument on Keet Seel is included one of the best-preserved cliff villages so far described.^ BAINBOW PLATEAU. The most inaccessible, least known, and roughest portion of the Navajo Reservation is bounded by the Navajo, Colorado, San Juan, and Piute canyons. The region is essentially an area of bare red rock forming narrow divides between innumerable canyons 200 to 2,000 feet deep, which lead directly or by way of Navajo, Piute, and San Juan canyons into Colorado River. The plateau is carved with incredible intricacy and presents a picture very inadequately repre- sented on the Echo Cliffs, Marsh Pass, Henry Mountains, and Esca- lante topographic maps of the Geological Survey. Flat-topped mesas, standing at 6,000 feet in the vicinity of Tower Butte, between Navajo Canyon and the Utah line, mark the old surface into which the canyons have been sunk, and above the plateau surface rises the solitary dome of Navajo Mountain to a height of 4,000 feet — 10,416 feet above sea level. The canyons cut in the red sandstone of the La Plata group are 600 to 1,000 feet deep and are so closely spaced that interstream mesas are but slightly developed. Buttes, mesas, and small domes predominate and are so tightly packed that the base of one flattened dome of erosion butts against that of its neigh- bor. The deep canyon trenches are practically impassable and the 1 Fewkes, J. W., rreliminary report on a visit to the Navajo National Monument, xlriz. : Bur. Am. Ethnology Bull. 50, 1911. GEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES. 45 buttresses flanking the cathedral spires are so narrow, smooth, and rounded that passage from one to another and access to the capping mesas have so far not been attained. Whether the ancient cliff dwellers made use of these mesa tops is yet undetermined. The bare red rock walls of many of the canyons are beautifully carved. Among the features represented are natural bridges, one of which spans Bridge Canyon (Navajo, Nonnezoshiboko, great arch) as a symmetrical arch of red sandstone and has received the Piute name of Barohoini, the Kainbow.^ The bridge has a span of 274 feet and rises 308 feet above the canyon floor (PI. XIII, A). Water is plentiful in the streams flowing north from Navajo Mountain, and springs occur at long intervals about the moun- tain's base. Water may be found also in Piute and Navajo canyons and about the ancient ruins between the heads of these canyons. Elsewhere water, when present, is hidden away in almost inaccessible spots, and the experience of my party indicates that exploration in this canyoned land may be accompanied by hardships. Probably 40 per cent of the Kainbow Plateau is practically without vegetation, but between the ledges grass grows luxuriantly, except near the springs at the southwest base of the mountain. Scattering pihons find room on mesa and canyon walls, and a variety of shrubs are found along the floor of the deep canyons. NAVAJO MOUNTAIN-. Navajo Mountain is the commanding feature of Rainbow Plateau.^ Under the name "" Sierra Panoche " this eminence is indicated on the Macomb-Newberry map of 1859. These explorers saw the moun- tain from a distance of 75 miles at a point between Monticello and Bluff. Button describes the setting of Navajo Mountain as seen from the Utah plateaus: Far to tlie southeastward, upon tlie horizon, rises a gigantic dome of wonder- fully symmetric and simple form. It is the Navajo Mountain. Conceive a segment of a sphere cut off by a plane through the seventieth parallel of lati- tude and you have its form exactly. From whatsoever quarter it is viewed, it always presents the same profile. It is quite solitary, without even a foothill for society, and its very loneliness is impressive.^ At nearer approach the sides are seen to be cut into vertical canyons and deep gorges by drainage lines. In places, particularly on the 1 The existence of this bridge was reported to me in July, 1909, by John Wetherill, who received his information from a Piute herdsman. A visit to this locality during this year was prevented by other obligations. In August, 1909, Mr. W. B. Douglass, of the General Land Office, in company with Prof. Byron Cummings, of the University of Utah, were con- ducted to the bridge by Wetherill and Colville, of Oljeto. So far as known the Rainbow had not been viewed by white men before that date. This bridge has been described by my assistant, Joseph E. Pogue (The great Rainbow Natural Bridge : Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 22, pp. 1048-1056, 1911). 2 The topographic map of Navajo Mountain gives a very imperfect representation of its contour. 3 Button, C. E., Geology of the high plateaus of Utah : U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey Rocky Mtn. Region, pp. 290-291, 1880. 46 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. southeast, the outline is subdued because of the presence of enormous deposits of material in the form of fans, alluvial slopes, and rock streams. The less eroded parts of the top of the mountain present a plateau with flaring edges Avhich are scalloped by canyon walls. The short canyons, with steep gradients, leading northward and northwestward removed about equal amounts of material, so that these sides of the mountain present a sloping plain. A stream lead- ing southwest has cut far into the heart of the mass, so that the top presents the outlines of a gigantic horseshoe. The higher parts of the mountain consist of low ridges, imperfectly drained flats, small cliffs, and miniature canyons cut in quartzite, and this material has been so broken along joint planes by frost that areas acres in extent are covered with piles of angular blocks so large as to practically pro- hibit travel over them. The slopes of the minor ridges are strewn with bowlders, and in three localities these fragments of quartzite are arranged as rock flows, extending down the slope for 200 to 300 feet and forming at the base ridges with much the appearance of glacial moraines. In addition to being the highest point on the reservation, the position of Navajo Mountain on the very edge of the Glen Canyon of the Colorado (3,400 feet above sea) gives its summit the advan- tage of a wider viewpoint than that afforded by any other height on the Colorado Plateau. The grandeur and beauty of the erosive work of streams can nowhere be better observed. The panorama observed from the top of the mountain leaves a lasting impression on the mind. From selected spots an uninterrupted sweep of vision may be had of all points of the compass. Lookout Ridge, extending westward from the mountain summit, is particularly well placed for comprehensive views. Toward the northeast the highland sur- mounted by the beautiful dome of Aba jo is plainly visible at a dis- tance of 80 miles; on the north the Henry Mountains dominate the landscape, and a little to the west the great cliff-bordered table of the Aquarius Plateau stands outlined against the higher plateau districts of central Utah. Nearer at hand in the same dire^l^on is the little-known Kaiparowitz Plateau, and in still nearer view the canyons of San Juan and Colorado rivers are so clearly outlined that sand bars and patches of vegetation are distinctly visible from this distance. To the west are seen the Vermilion Cliffs, the tangle of canyons at the junction of the Little Colorado with its master stream, and the blue sky line of the Coconino and Kaibab plateaus. Still farther toward the southwest San Francisco Moun- tain stands high above its plateau floor and justifies its position in Navajo myths as one of the supports on which the vault of heaven rests. To the south and southeast the Black Mesa forms the horizon, while nearer at hand Segi IMesas and the labyrinth of canyons tribu- U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XIII A. RAINBOW BRIDGE, BRIDGE CANYON. B. VEGETATION AT NASJA (OWL) BRIDGE, ON THE NORTH SLOPE OF NAVAJO MOUNTAIN. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XIV A. COMB MONOCLINE EAST OF MARSH PASS. B. KEET SEEL CLIFF RUIN, IN BRANCH OF LAGUNA CANYON. GEOGEAPHIC PEOVINCES. 47 tary to the Piute and Navajo cut the surface into tables, ridges, and minute domes of painted rock. In marked contrast to the Eainbow Plateau, Navajo Mountain is covered with vegetation. Above an elevation of 7,000 feet there is an open stand of yellov7 pine, with trees ranging in diameter from 6 inches to 2 feet, averaging perhaps 10 inches, and attaining a height or 50 or 60 feet. Pihon and juniper form a belt surrounding the mountain at an elevation below 7,000 feet. The yellow pine covers the mountain, in general, and is particularly well developed on the eastward and northward facing slopes and in open swales below 9,000 feet. This forest could furnish a timber supply if needed, but there is no likelihood that it will ever be made of use. Eed fir is found in a few localities, and Rocky Mountain fir was noted on some of the higher slopes. Aspen is fairly abundant in side valleys and rock slopes, and trees of this species 1 inch to 10 inches in diameter occur even on the extreme top. Willows are found in the wetter valley basins. Wild roses, manzanita, a primrose of unusual beauty, flax, the Indian paintbrush, sage, and clematis indicate that this is but an island in the sea of vegetation characteristic of the Southwest, and the ground juniper gives a suggestion of the flora of New England. (See PI. XIII, B.) War God Spring, on a bench facing the southeast at an elevation of 8,600 feet, is an excellent water supply. Its source is in deep talus at the head of a broad, flat valley. The water is clear, has a tempera- ture of 47°, and flows in sufficient abundance to supply a small stream, which, however, continues but a short distance down the mountain flank. The spring with its small stream furnishes an ideal camping spot. In 1910 our party had the pleasure of making the first geologic study of Navajo Mountain, a project not heartily approved by the Indians. To the Navajo the mountain has sacred associations, and the presence in this vicinity of a few renegade Piutes still further tends to discourage settlement.^ No Indians were seen about Navajo Mountain in either 1910 or 1913, and it is probable that less than 100 Indians make their home on Eainbow^ Plateau. SEGI MESAS. The highland between Piute and Laguna (upper Tyende) canyons on the west and Monument Valley on the east reaches its highest point in Skeleton Mesa (7,790 feet). The summit mesa is flanked on the east by Tyende, Azansosi, and Hoskininni mesas, lying 1,000 feet below the upper level. These mesas in turn lie 1,000 feet above the floor of upper Moonlight Valley (Navajo, Oljeto). The east face of Segi Mesas thus presents the appearance of a stairway of two wide treads separated by tw^o risers 1,000. feet in height. The 1 The Navajo term for the mountain is Na-dis-an, "the enemies' hiding place." 48 THE I^AVAJO COUNTKY. whole region is a series of mesas piled on mesas, surrounded and in- tersected by chasms attaining maximum depths exceeding 1,200 feet. Both the north and south ends of the long, narrow mesas are pene- trated by canyons, and the streams flowing eastward have cut far back, leaving but fragments of the tables in place. Between the heads of Tyende and Piute creeks the surface is marked by shallow Avide-floored canyons, above which rise Zilnez and similar erosion remnants, whose preservation is due to resistant strata of limestone. A perennial stream occupies Laguna, Copper, and Nokai canyons, and living water, fed by springs, flows for short distances in many other channels. At the time the topographic map was made (1883) , Laguna Canyon held a number of lakes which have disappeared in consequence of recent deep trenching of the alluvial fill. The can- yons of Segi Mesas were the home of the most populous center of cliff dwellers to be found on the Navajo Eeservation (PL XIV, B). Many of the houses are in an excellent state of preservation, and few of them have been studied by archeologists.^ The descendants of the cliff dwellers n© longer occupy this country. In their place are groups of Navajos who use the excellent forage of the mesas to sup- port thousands of sheep. The Segi Mesas may be reached readily from Tyende, and offer an attractive field for geographic and arch- eologic research. MONUMENT VALLEY. Monument Valley is triangular in shape. Its north boundary is San Juan River, and its west, Segi Mesas. The triangle is closed by Comb Ridge, a remarkable wall formed of the upturned edges of strata extending in a curved line from Marsh Pass to the mouth of ^he Chinle (PI. XIV, A). The floor of the valley is a dome rising gradually from 4,800 feet in Gypsum Valley to 5,200 feet at the Monuments, then again descending, toward the west, to 4,800 feet in the upper Moonlight Valley, following the dip of the strata. On the valley floor rest mesas and buttes ranging from spires to flat- topped masses several square miles in area. The most conspicuous erosion features are the " monuments," Avhich rise nearly 1,000 feet above the crest of the dome (PI. XV, A). Igneous masses also dot the surface and find their best expression in Agathla, a spire which rises 1,225 feet above the plain at its base — the most impres- sive of all volcanic necks within the Navajo country (PI. XV, B). Monument Valley is well supplied with grass, but poorly supplied with w^ater suitably located for sheep raising. As a cattle country, hoAvever, it has no superior within the limits of the reservation. The water from Segihatsosi and Moonlight, from the Tyende, and from the few^ springs is highly satisfactory, but the water in the chief 1 For a description of three large cliff ruins of this region, and for a map showing the correct location of canyons tributary to Laguna, see Fewkes, J. W., Navajo National Monument, Ariz. : Bur. Am. Ethnology Bull. 50, 1911. CLIMATE. 49 stream of the valley, Gypsum Creek, is unpalatable for man or beast. No white settlements exist within Monument Valley, but stores and the Government station at Tyende and the trading posts at Mexican Water and Round Rock are within reach of the few Navajos and Piutes, who make this valley their home. CLIMATE. GENERAL CONDITIONS. As the Navajo Reservation is outside the usual path of cyclonic storms the procession of high and low barometer, warm and cold " spells," and wet and dry periods which characterizes the climate of most other parts of the United States is absent. There is a difference of about 2° 21' of latitude between the southern and the northern edges of the area, but the influence of this factor is so completely nullified by topography that Hite, 40 miles north of the reservation line, in latitude 37° 50', is warmer and dryer than Holbrook, in lati- tude 34° 55'. Topography, in fact, may be considered the primary factor in the climate of the Navajo country. Fort Defiance, eleva- tion 6,900. -± feet, is colder and wetter than Holbrook, Tuba, and Aneth, at an elevation 2,000 feet lower. In the Little Colorado Valley group of meteorologic stations. Flagstaff, elevation 6,907 feet, has Si rainfall of 23.87 inches and a mean annual temperature of 44.7° ; Holbrook, elevation 5,069 feet, has 9.16 inches of rain and a mean annual temperature of 54.2° ; and Winslow, elevation 4,853 feet, follow^s with an annual rainfall of about 7 inches and a mean annual temperature of over 55°. A snowfall of 2 inches per year is normal for Holbrook, eleva- tion 5,069 feet; the corresponding figure for St. Michaels, elevation 6,900 feet, is 46.1 inches. At elevations on the reservation above 7,000 feet snow may fall at any time between October 1 and June 1, and may remain on the ground for days or even weeks. My Indian guide states that in some years snow lies on Navajo Mountain, 10,416 feet, well into July, and San Francisco Mountain, 12,611 feet, retains its snow in protected places throughout the year. The general effect of elevation is greatly modified by secondary topographic features. The climate of the floor of a canyon may be quite unlike that of the canyon rim, and the cliff dwellers long ago learned that one canyon Avail offers favorable home sites not afforded by the opposite wall. Clear skies prevail in this region. Flagstaff, 40 miles west of the reservation line, receives 81 per cent of the possible sunshine, and it has been estimated by the United States Weather Bureau that north- ern Arizona as a whole has, on the average, 210 clear days, 85 partly cloudy, and 70 cloudy days in the year. During May, June, October, and November the skies may be cloudless for 5 to 15 days in succes- sion. In the sun the heat of summer is intense; in the shade of a rock or tree coolness prevails; and, unlike humid regions, the line 33033°— wsp 380— 16 4 50 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. between scorching heat and delightful temperatures is sharply draAvn at the edge of a. shadow. The topography is so varied that in the absence of cyclonic storms the region may be said to have a group of local climates of widely dissimilar aspect. The daily range of temperature is over 40°, and usually exceeds the difference between the means of the warmest and of the coldest months in the year, and, consequently, cool or even uncomfortably cold nights follow the heated day. In general, the keynote of the climate of the Navajo country is variability. Canyon adjoining plateau, two adjoining valleys, the opposite sides of mountains and mesas, and even opposing canyon walls may have different climates. The summers are very hot ; the winters are very cold ; daylight is accompanied by heat ; darkness by chilliness. The annual, seasonal, monthly, and daily rainfall is sub- ject to wide variations. During July and August rain falls in quan- tities sufficient to flood the country ; in other months precipitation is deficient. PRECIPITATION. RECORDS. Miscellaneous observations on rainfall for the Navajo country are contained in the reports of the earlier scientific explorers and the records of the War Department. After the army post was estab- lished at Fort Defiance, in 1852, rainfall was measured for eight years (1853-1860). At this place or at St. Michaels complete records are available for the 16-year period 1898 to 1913. If Fort Defiance and St. Michaels are treated as one station, they furnish a longer con- tinuous record than any other station in the Navajo country. At Holbrook the precipitation was recorded for 19 years, including one period of 12 consecutive years (1888 to 1899). The records for Keams Canyon include 5 complete years, of which 4 are consecutive ; those for Winslow include 4 complete and 2 consecutive years; Tuba, 7 complete, 5 consecutive years; Fruitland, 5 complete, 2 consecutive years ; Aneth, 5 complete, 3 consecutive years ; and Plite, 9 complete, 4 consecutive years. These records are too fragmentary for general climatic studies; they suffice, however, to indicate the quality of the rainfall. Care has therefore been taken to obtain from published and unpublished documents significant material relating to precipita- tion in this area. It should be remembered that all observations have been made by voluntary observers, without whose unselfish services a discussion of the climate of northern Arizona and southern Utah would be wholly speculative. These records enable those interested in water development and agriculture to plan intelligently, for they indicate in a general way the total precipitation, its distribution with reference to the growing season for crops, and whether showers of brief duration or long-continued " soaking '' rains normally occur. CLIMATE. 61 Records of precipitation in the Navajo country. Fort Deflance and St. Michaels. Ariz. [On tbe edge of Defiance Plateau. Elevation, 6,900 ± feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1853 13.87 1854 22.44 1855 17.07 1856 11.63 1857 . . 13.06 1858 11.97 1859 11.44 i860 11.84 1881 0.98 0.70 0.84 0.67 0.52 2.44 0.00 1.42 1.97 4.03 .20 2.24 .22 .55 2.51 1.11 1.13 1.92 .79 2.46 3.01 4.17 1.33 .95 2.73 1.36 2.53 1.73 .62 .99 2.81 4.03 3.34 .98 2.08 3.70 2.96 5.75 1.04 1.35 1.11 3.18 i.S6 3.06 .16 .78 1.82 .35 1.00 2.51 .55 2. .55 1.70 .56 1.18 1.87 .67 1.88 Tr. 3.50 0.70 1.53 .00 1.05 .65 .65 .50 .00 .20 .13 ^ .45 2. 10 .39 .09 1.13 2.65 2.03 1.25 1.16 .46 1.10 .60 .70 .40 1.80 .00 .00 3.58 1.37 .56 .74 .48 .84 Tr. Tr. 1.55 0.87 1.15 1.40 .80 Tr. .43 1.05 .02 .87 1.21 1.93 .60 1.80 1.66 1.26 .65 .05 1.74 14.21 1897 1898 2.00 .80 Tr. 1.40 1.31 .42 .00 2.20 .13 .89 .50 .60 .74 1.87 Tr. .08 .25 2.20 Tr. 2.40 .65 2.47 .42 3.62 1.13 .79 1.59 .68 .13 2.36 .10 5.81 1.04 .25 .80 .17 1.03 1.85 .75 1.76 1.41 1.13 .66 .61 .50 1.91 1.77 .94 .31 Tr. 1.36 .90 .30 .85 .05 2.61 .33 .74 .86 .31 .38 .74 .55 .37 .28 .02 .17 3.38 1.50 1.14 1.90 .20 .17 .34 .53 .08 .05 Tr. Tr. Tr. .75 .37 .20 .02 .70 4.67 .55 .70 .00 .34 .15 Tr. .76 .70 .96 Tr. 11.78 1899 12.63 1900 1901 6.52 13. 33 1902 1903 12.87 18.51 1904 11.14 1905 1900 20. 65 11.83 1907 1908 13.67 12.15 1909 . - 14.59 1910 10. 51 1911 18 28 1912 7.90 1913 19.37 Mean .82 1.49 1.02 .66 .60 .78 1.11 2.22 1.48 .86 .85 .91 12.80 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amoimt for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December 0.91 .82 1.49 Tr. Tr. Tr. 1.21 2.20 3.62 5.4 6.3 February . 5 6 Winter mean 3.22 Tr. 7.03 17.3 March 1.02 .66 .60 0.80 1.36 .17 1.76 2.61 .20 3 6 April 2.3 May.. . Spring mean . 2.28 2.33 4.57 5 9 .78 1.11 2.22 .20 .20 .62 .70 1.11 .98 July Summer mean 4.11 1.02 2.79 September 1.48 .86 .85 1.82 .65 .70 2.55 .13 3.58 October . ... 1 2 November 2.2 Fall mean 3.19 3.17 6.26 3.4 Annual mean, . . . 12.80 6.52 20.65 26 6 Note.— The records for the years 1853 to 1905 are for Fort Defiance. In 1905 the station was removed to St. Michaels. The two places are 8 miles apart and are closely similar in topographic environment. 52 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Keams Canyon, Ariz. [In a narrow canyon cut in the southern edge of Black Mesa. Elevation, 6,600 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1894 1895 0.17 2.73 0.63 1.02 1.01 .98 1.73 .91 .30 1.92 Tr. 1.71 0.56 .09 3.21 1.17 .31 .47 .35 1.57 2.86 .38 0.22 .19 .66 .63 .57 .15 1.50 "."ss' .13 0.40 .44 .05 .59 .28 Tr. Tr. .00 .11 Tr. 0.00 .02 Tr. .56 .00 Tr. .37 2.26 .34 .01 1.18 .97 1.61 .38 .78 2.91 3.84 1.87 2.78 .87 1.01 1.59 1.76 2.09 2.30 4.14 1.71 .89 .83 1.87 0.30 0.73 0.00 1.78 6.98 1906 .83 .18 1.41 .80 1.23 1.55 .01 .10 1.93 1.63 .00 .84 2.18 3.17 2.33 .63 .43 .90 1.73 .05 2.99 .30 3.76 2.15 .68 .48 .25 1907 1.14 .91 .55 1.30 1.29 .15 .60 .88 10.58 1908 14.11 1909 12.98 1910 - - 13.85 1911 1912 1913 Mean 1.02 1.09 .49 .18 .35 1.71 1.71 .63 1.05 .60 1.23 10.94 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December. 1.23 .88 1.02 1.78 .17 .63 3.76 .91 1.73 5 7 January 1 February . . . 1 5 3.13 2.58 6.40 8 2 March .. ... . 1.09 .49 .18 .56 .22 .40 .31 .57 .28 7 6 April 1 6 May-. Spring mean 1.76 1.18 1.16 9.2 .35 1.71 1.71 .00 1.18 1.01 .00 .78 2.30 July .. 3.77 2.19 3.08 .63 1.05 .60 .30 .73 .00 1.41 1.63 .43 October 4 November 5 3 2.28 1.03 3.47 9 3 Annual mean 10.94 4.98 14.11 26 7 CLIMATE. 53 Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Holbrook, Ariz. [On the flood plain of Little Colorado River. Elevation, 5,069 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 1888 1.00 .30 .60 .20 1.10 .10 .02 2.46 .15 1.63 1.00 .40 .04 L18 .29 .25 1.78 .90 .02 .61 .22 .23 .67 .11 .17 .14 1.24 .80 .75 1.24 !44 .16 Tr. .17 .48 .90 .03 .68 0.76 .10 1.01 .00 .19 .00 .57 .30 .17 .16 .76 .00 1.51 0.29 .09 .00 .52 .17 L39 .11 .31 Tr. .13 .26 .10 .09 0.05 .20 .00 .00 Tr. .04 .13 .11 .06 .08 .53 .30 .05 0.68 2.06 1.32 .36 1.64 1.65 1.01 .85 2.36 .77 1.33 L18 0.74 1.20 2.57 .99 .47 2.76 .88 .70 .63 .45 1.96 .98 0.87 .67 1.32 .78 .11 .95 1.48 .62 1.33 L58 .08 .05 0.50 .49 .62 .00 .74 .03 .83 1.24 1.51 .91 .00 .65 2.20 .50 2.08 .00 .14 .30 .00 3.58 .02 Tr. .13 .42 1.31 .91 1.82 .89 .16 .08 .43 .00 .38 .34 1.15 .30 10.82 1889 7.61 1890 12.34 1891 5.76 1892 .... 6.31 1893 7.75 1894 6.23 1895 10.39 1890 7.01 1897 7.20 1898 1899 8.21 4.58 1900 1901 1902 . 1903' ... i.27 Tr. 1.37 .34 .43 .26 .31 .07 2.70 .00 1.13 .00 .19 .05 Tr. 3.44 1.31 .00 .09 1.07 1.80 .67 .00 .00 3.82 1.22 1.40 .20 .15 1.33 .00 .10 1.11 2.32 Tr. 1904 .19 1.29 1.12 1.64 .67 .44 1.12 .72 .37 2.98 .23 .44 1.49 .17 .16 1.10 .05 1.48 .28 2.93 .46 .71 .52 .35 .54 .18 1.03 .02 .00 L57 .50 .85 .87 .67 .55 .55 1.44 Tr. .61 Tr. .17 .73 .66 .00 .00 .00 Tr. Tr. .10 .00 .54 .24 .02 .41 .32 .60 Tr. .06 1.65 1.11 3.09 2.15 3.99 2.63 4.04 2.27 2.04 3.30 .76 1.25 1.89 2.71 2.70 1.03 .74 L72 .50 5.20 1905 17.63 1903 8.72 1907 15.16 1903 1903 1.27 .21 10.07 1910 1911 8.14 1912 .00 .30 .11 1913 .12 6.26 Mean .75 .65 .63 .54 .24 .16 1.75 1.41 .81 .74 .86 .61 9.15 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December 0.61 .75 .65 0.30 .40 .17 1.11 1.29 2.98 1.80 January .50 February .50 Winter mean 2.01 .87 5.38 2 80 March .63 .54 .24 .03 .00 .10 2.93 1.57 Tr. 1 20 April 6.00 May Spring mean 1.41 .13 4.50 7.20 .16 1.75 1.41 .30 L18 .98 .10 L65 .76 July August Summer mean . . . . 3.32 2.46 2.51 September .81 .74 .86 .05 .65 .42 1.37 .05 3.82 October November Fall mean 2.41 1.12 5.24 Annual mean 9.15 4.58 17.63 10.00 54 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Winslow, Ariz. [On a terrace about 50 feet above the bed of Little Colorado River. Elevation, 4,853 feet. Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1892 .... 1.20 0.75 Tr. 0.40 0.20 0.80 Tr. 0.55 0.10 1898 0.85 Tr. Tr. 4.38 1.74 .20 .20 1899 1900 1.07 .06 .30 .44 Tr. .40 .00 .84 Tr. .53 .75 .08 Tr .20 1.07 1.73 0.10 .46 .98 .89 1.18 .00 .03 .18 .20 .15 .75 .86 4.45 5.83 190S . . . 1909 1.48 1.66 .84 .00 .00 .85 .40 1.35 .00 .49 .40 1.33 1.30 .03 .13 .20 .36 .70 .02 Tr. .00 .00 Tr. .41 1.75 .60 2.79 2.52 1.28 .22 .13 2.41 10.22 1910 7 41 1911 1912 1913 Mean .73 .57 .59 .32 .13 .36 .67 1.34 .47 .52 .32 1.05 7.07 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. 1.05 .73 .57 Tr. 1.07 .30 1.74 1.48 .85 January February Winter mean 2.35 1.37 4.07 March .59 .32 .13 Tr. .00 Tr. .49 .13 .. . May .02 Spring mean 1.04 .00 .64 1 June .36 .67 1.34 .75 Tr. 1.07 Tr. 1.75 2.79 July 2.37 , 1.82 4.54 .47 .52 .32 .10 .98 .18 .22 .00 .75 October 1.31 1.26 .97 7.07 4.45 10.22 CLIMATE. 65 Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Tuba, Ariz. [On the edge of Kaibito Plateau overlooking the T;ittle Colorado Valley. Elevation, about 4,700 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1897 0.09 ".'56' 0.26 .75 .00 Tr. 0.19 0.25 1.34 1.73 0.55 .06 .26 Tr. Tr. .97 0.25 .58 Tr. .00 .00 .15 ISO'^ 0.78 .04 .15 .83 .10 .00 0.12 .02 Tr. .73 Tr. .20 Tr. .20 .60 .20 .45 .44 .16 .96 1.59 .23 '"."37' .44 .92 1.43 .31 ISC'* .49 Tr. .87 .00 .25 1.46 .30 8 38 1901 1901 "".'66' .38 .00 2.58 .19 Tr. .15 Tr. .15 Tr. Tr. .75 .11 .45 .37 .60 .96 .09 .67 .00 .08 1902 1903 190 ^ 1.59 .20 .30 .00 2.32 2.92 1905 1.45 .53 2.00 .40 .62 .25 .87 Tr. .34 1.21 .34 .38 1.61 .72 .53 1.14 Tr. 2.03 .90 2.23 .42 1.77 1.54 .39 .05 .82 .42 190;'. -. 1907 .34 .00 1.73 1.26 1.37 .07 12.57 190S .63 .41 .42 .05 .86 .12 .16 .20 .05 .00 .02 Tr. .32 Tr. .75 .39 .15 -.17 .35 .54 .89 1.90 .98 .58 1.24 1.66 .34 .37 .35 .49 .27 .56 .16 1.98 .03 .62 .30 1.10 .15 1.46 1.84 .66 .37 .30 1.23 Tr. .01 .85 1909 8 32 1910 5.60 1911 8 33 1912 6.49 1913 6.69 Llean .49 .52 .48 .37 .11 .18 .56 .54 .35 .56 .58 .56 5.30 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December. 0.56 .49 .52 0.39 .25 .53 2.23 .53 .34 10.0 January February 6.2 1.57 1.17 3.10 16.2 March .48 .37 .11 .44 ..42 .05 1.59 .19 .34 April May Spring mean .96 .91 2.12 June .18 .56 .54 .75 .89 .34 .00 1.73 1.26 July August Summer mean . 1.28 1.98 2.99 September . . . . .35 .56 .58 .16 .15 1.23 1.37 .07 2.92 October TTT. Fall mean 1.49 1.54 4.36 Annual mean 5.30 5.60 12.57 16.2 66 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Chinle, Ariz. [At the east side of Chinle Valley at the base of Defiance Plateau. Elevation, about 5,200 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1909 0.14 .48 .03 .15 0.25 1.44 Tr. .74 0.68 1.44 .94 0.20 .19 .65 .89 0.01 .01 .03 .02 Tr. .97 .71 .26 2.14 3.59 1.02 1.28 3.67 1.40 1.77 .51 1.63 2.80 .14 1.13 0.00 1.23 1.16 1.56 0.47 .05 .26 .81 1.43 3.96 .12 .45 11 62 1911 1912 17. 56 5 83 1913 7 SO Mean .20 .60 .76 .48 .01 .48 2.00 1.83 1.42 .96 .39 1.49 10.62 Period. Mean. Total amoimt for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December 1.49 .20 .60 0.12 .03 Tr. 3.96 .48 1.44 4 9 Januarv 2 February 2 9 Winter mean 2.29 .15 5.88 9 8 March .76 .48 .01 .14 .65 .03 1.44 .19 .01 .8 April 1 5 Mav Tr 1.25 .62 1.61 2 3 June .48 2.00 1.83 .11 1.02 1.77 .97 3.59 1.40 July .0 August 4.31 3.50 5.96 •" 1.42 .96 .39 .14 1.16 .26 2.80 1.23 .05 .0 October 1.7 FaU mean 2.77 .56 4.08 1.7 10.62 5.83 17.56 13.8 CLIMATE. 57 Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued, Fruitland. N. Mex. [On the flood plain of San Juan River. Elevation, about 5,200 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual . 1903 0.09 .12 .56 Tr. .12 .32 .31 .29 .48 .00 Tr. 0.75 Tr. 1.15 .30 .22 1.57 .42 .22 1.44 .13 .87 0.10 .07 .64 1.91 .14 .01 .57 .05 .69 1.07 "Tr." 2.39 1.43 '".'37" 'i.'oi' .50 .52 Tr. 0.03 1.10 Tr. .06 .55 .36 Tr. .00 Tr. Tr. .00 ■■fr.'" 0.95 .00 .52 Tr. Tr. .25 .37 .32 Tr. 0.09 .03 1.26 1.05 1.52 1.44 .31 .90 4.50 2.29 1.57 0.00 1.16 Tr. .13 1.30 .03 .02 1.45 1.50 'i."87' 0.00 .00 1.75 1.18 .20 Tr. .05 .67 .25 Tr. 1.87 Tr. 0.26 .15 1.31 .44 .85 .94 .32 .17 .12 1.20 1904 0.06 .09 ■2.'26' 1.06 2.25 .48 .30 .60 .51 0.53 .23 1.47 .20 Tr. .95 .42 2.88 .01 1.42 3 33 1905 9.17 1906 1907 1908 6 01 1909 1910 6 09 1911 13.08 1912 1913 Mean .22 .63 .47 .67 .19 .21 1.34 .69 .73 .67" .54 .53 6.89 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. 0.53 .22 .63 0.26 .12 Tr. 0.17 .48 1.44 5 20 January ... 1 10 1 00 1.38 .38 2.09 7 30 March .47 .67 .19 .07 Tr. 1.10 .69 .50 Tr. 1 00 April 2 00 May 15 1.33 1.17 1.19 3 15 June ... .21 1.34 Tr. .03 .06 .37 4.50 .30 July August Summer mean . 2.24 .09 5.17 September .73 .67 .54 .53 1.16 .00 2.88 1.50 .25 October November 90 Fall mean. . 1.94 1.69 4.63 20 Annual mean 6.89 3.33 13.08 10 65 58 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Aneth, Utah. [On a terrace overlooking San Juan River. Elevation, about 4,700 feet.] Year. Jan. reb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual 1901 1.06 .06 .11 .05 1.67 .29 .85 .51 .09 .25 0.86 .19 .50 .07 1.71 Tr. .41 .83 .05 1.12 0.33 .46 1.54 .10 1.02 1.06 .72 .85 1.57 .68 0.18 .01 .59 .03 1.40 .55 .52 ■■.■28' .10 0.30 .37 .12 .62 .39 .25 .85 .00 .04 .20 0.51 .00 .51 Tr. Tr. .00 .54 .29 .02 .00 1.05 .19 .38 1.46 1.22 .04 0.00 .35 .93 0.36 .00 .06 .50 .00 .11 0.00 1.36 .00 .00 1.96 1.01 0.01 1.09 .02 .28 .20 1.08 6 12 1902 1903 1904 5.30 4. SO 1905 190n .37 1.20 .49 2.40 .56 1.02 .07 .54 2.39 .71 .30 1.95 ".■35' ".'66' 10.74 1907 191 ( 2.48 .97 .12 .02 .16 .10 191 J igia 4.00 Mean .49 .58 .83 .26 .31 .18 .15 .66 .35 .44 .44 .27 4.96 Period. Mean . Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December 0.27 .49 .58 0.10 .09 .05 0.20 1.67 1.71 February Winter mean 1.34 .24 3.58 March .83 .26 .31 1.57 .28 .04 1.02 1.40 .39 May Spring mean 1.40 1.89 2.81 1 .18 .15 .66 .02 .56 .30 Tr. .37 .07 July August Summer mean .99 .88 .44 .35 .44 .44 .00 .97 .02 1.95 .00 1.96 October 1.23 .99 3.91 4.96 4.00 10.74 CLIMATE. 59 Records of precipitation in the Navajo country — Continued. Hite, Utah. [In the canyon of Colorado River at the mouth of Trachyte Creek. Elevation, about 3,500 feet.] Year. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual. 1902 0.60 .24 .60 1.52 .22 .45 1.43 .84 .21 .78 .34 .81 0.40 .23 .84 1.58 .45 1.41 .28 .06 Tr. .00 .12 Tr. 0.00 .50 .08 Tr. Tr. .48 .14 .00 .77 1.22 .03 .05 0.09 .63 .15 .45 .45 1.21 1.06 .36 Tr. .04 .47 .44 0.87 Tr. 1.06 .19 1.28 1.31 1.14 1.05 .58 .20 .14 .50 0.65 .32 .55 1.59 1.84 .21 .63 1.70 .22 1.12 .08 .62 Tr. Tr. 0.36 .15 .11 .62 1.29 Tr. .67- 2.92 2.25 .58 1.29 .00 .00 3.83 ".'45' .18 .10 .85 .15 .14 .66 0.20 .00 .25 Tr. .76 .30 1.83 2.27 .74 .68 .48 .77 1903 0.30 .10 .76 .74 .53 .31 1.27 .97 0.64 .45 1.31 1.42 .51 .84 .43 .87 .53 2.28 .28 0.26 Tr. .98 .39 .82 .20 .63 .12 .35 .44 .14 3.12 1904 1905 4.44 12.36 1906 1907 . . 8.30 1908 9.33 1909 3.71 1910 6.00 1911 1912 .08 .31 6 85 1913 5. 16 Mean .48 .67 .87 .39 .45 .27 .38 .61 .73 .74 .64 .69 6.92 Period. Mean. Total amount for driest year. Total amount for wet- test year. Mean snowfall. December . 0.69 .48 .67 0.00 .30 .14 Tr. 0.76 1.52 January . February Winter mean 1.84 .54 2.28 March.. .87 .39 .45 .64 .26 .23 1.31 .98 1.58 April Mky Spring mean 1.71 1.13 3.87 June .27 .38 .61 .50 .63 Tr. Tr. .45 .19 July August Summer mean 1.26 1.13 .64 September .73 .74 .64 .32 Tr. .00 1.59 .15 3.83 October November. Fall mean 2.11 .32 5.57 Annual mean 6.92 3.12 12.36 GEOGRAPPIIC DISTRIBUTION. The influence of geographic position on distribution of rainfall is apparent on comparison of records of the various stations. In the valley of the Little Colorado rainfall is low; at Holbrook, Wins- low, and Tuba, with altitudes of 5,069, 4,853, and 4,700 feet, the mean annual rainfall is 9.15, 7.07, and 5.30 inches, respectively. At stations in the center of the reservation precipitation is heavier than the nor- mal for the Little Colorado Valley. The records for Fort Defiance- St. Michaels (6,900 feet), Chinle (6,600 feet), and Keams Canyon (5,200 feet), on the southern edge of Black Mesa, show, respectively, 12.80, 10.62, and 10.94 inches. San Juan Valley resembles Little Colorado Valley in amount and distribution of rainfall. Fruitland, 5,200 feet above sea level, receives 6.89 inches of rain : at Aneth, 60 60 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. miles farther down the stream and 500 feet lower, the record shows 4.96 inches. The stations at Holbrook, Winslow, Tuba, Aneth, and Friiitland are in the plant zone of cottonwood and yucca. Chinle, Keams Canyon, and Fort Defiance are in the pihon zone, Fort De- fiance being on the immediate border of the zone of yellow pine. It is probable that stations on Defiance Plateau, Black Mesa, and in the Chuska Mountains would record about 15 inches of rain, and the vegetation of Navajo Mountain suggests a rainfall exceeding 20 inches. On the other hand, the precipitation along the lower course of the Little Colorado probably does not exceed 3 inches a year. VARIATION FROM YEAR TO YEAR. The variation in amount of rainfall from year to year ranges be- tween half the normal and twice the normal, measured through a period of years (fig. 2). For Fort Defiance the wettest year on record is 1854, when 22.44 inches of rain was measured. In the last 10 years at this station 3 years — 1905, 1911, and 1913 — have been wet, the heaviest fall coming in 1905, when the precipitation (20.65 inches) exceeded the normal by more than 60 per cent. This wet 3^ear was followed by 3 years of rainfall below the normal. The driest season in the last 10 years — 1912, with 7.90 inches — was pre- ceded by a 37'ear in which 19.37 inches fell. At Holbrook, where the mean of the annual rainfalls is 10.94 inches, 5.20 inches was recorded for 1904, and more than three times as much (17.63 inches) for 1905. The corresponding figures for Fruitland are 3.33 and 9.17 inches, and for Hite 4.44 and 12.36 inches. Over the entire plateau province 1905 and 1911 were seasons of excessive rainfall, causing in the latter year destructive floods in all the larger valleys. It is interesting to note, however, that during the flood year of 1911 the rainfall at Tuba was about normal. For a region whose maximum precipitation is insufficient for ag- riculture and in places for grazing without irrigation these great variations from year to year are matters of concern. Of even greater significance are the differences in amount received in corre- sponding months from year tO' year (fig. 2). At Fort Defiance the precipitation for January ranges from to 2.20; for May, from a trace to 3.38; and even for August, the wettest month in the year^ from 0.62 to 4.03 inches. At Fort Defiance June is one of the three driest months, but the wettest month on record at this station is June, 1903, wdien 4.67 inches fell. At Holbrook the precipitation in April for different years ranges between and 1.51 inches; the July measures are 0.16 and 4.44; and the December precipitation of 2.32 for 1906 is represented by a " trace " in 1907. At Tuba the differ- ence for the months of various years is as follows : January, to 2 CLIMATE. 61 inches; February, " trace " to 2.03 ; March, O.IG to 1.59 ; April, to 2.58 ; May, to 0.75 ; June, to 0.75; July, 0.19 to 1.90; August, 0.09 to 1.66; September, to 1.98; October, 0.15 to 1.84; November, to 2.92; December, to 1.77. Similar contrasts occur in the records of other stations. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION. The diagrams of seasonal distribution of rainfall (fig. 3) show that for the Navajo country in general summer is the rainy season and spring the dry season, and that fall and winter occupy intermediate positions. Tuba, Aneth, and Hite are exceptions to this rule. There is in reality one dry season, followed by one wet period, with two seasons of inter- mediate grade, which, however, do not corre- spond with the seasons as that term is conven- tionally used. The period including July, August, and September is the season of maxi- mum precipitation, during which time 37 per cent of the total rain falls ; and the months of April, May, and June constitute the driest group, with 12 per cent of precipitation. Kain- fall during the period January to March is slightly greater than for October, November, and December, these seasons receiving, respec- tively, 25 and 26 per cent of the annual pre- cipitation. It will be noted that the season of least rain- fall, April to June, is the growing season for most crops, and that therefore the seasonal distribution of rain is unfavorable for agricul- ture or for the vigorous reproduction of many grasses. Half an inch of rain per month for the period April, May, and June is an unusu- ally large precipitation for most parts of the reservation, and during many years the com- bined precipitation of these three months is less than one-half inch. Moreover, plants obtain only a portion of this meager supply, for evaporation is most effective during the clear, dry, hot days of early summer. The moisture in the ground, supplied by the rains of winter supplemented by the scattered showers of JAN. ""■ 1 FEB. MAR. MBaM APR. naiB MAY m^ JUNE i^B^ I JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. ■i^^B NOV. ■^^^ DEC. B^wa J JAN. — ■ FEB. ^^■^H MAR. §■■^■■1 APR. H^ MAY- ■ JUNE JULY AUG. " ^ SEPT. ■■■i o OCT. ■■■^^B n NOV. ma^ f3 DEC- H lO JAN. ■■MB 1 ■l FEB. ^^^ 1 O MAR. mt^ APR. aiBi p' MAY ■ ^13 JUNE ■ JULY AUG. SEPT. EB^^ w OCT. ^■■Ki U NOV. ■■■■i" o DEC. w^im ^ JAN. ■■■ 1 FEB. Mas B MAR. ■■■ o APR. ■B P MAY ■ F JUNE ■ JULY 1^^ ^ AUG; ^mm p, SEPT. ■■ OCT. a^^ NOV ^■^ DEC. ■■■ JAN. ■ o' FEB. ^■a MAR. ^^^m o APR. ^^ MAY ■ JUNE' i^ia i-i JULY AUG. SEPT S B' E OCT i^^^i^ NOV. '"' DEC, p MAR. ■■i 2 APR. MHS pa MAY ■i < JUNE M [ P JULY ■OIHi^BB 1 o' AUG. i^BB o o SEPT. ■naa OCT. ■^■B c NOV. BB^ p DEC. ■Boa* i-S V! JAN. ■■■ FEB. Bl^B MAR. ^amam APR. ■■ MAY na JUNE ■ JULY ■ AUG. ■^■B SEPT ^ OCT ^■1 NOV a^m DEC. ■ ' JAN. ■a FEB. 1^1^ MAR. ^i^^a APR ■■i MAY IHB JUNE HB JULY mm AUG. m^m SEPT. mm^ OCT. ^■BB NOV. ^■Bi DEC. ■MB 62 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. spring, is sufficient to allow seeds to germinate and to send their stalks above ground, but is insufficient to bring a crop to maturity. The rainfall of July becomes therefore the critical climatic factor in the life of the Navajo. If his prayers to the rain gods are ansAvered his corn crop is assured, and grass springs up from the li ilLll ll _" >- o >■ fS < =:> O r>-"cJ > tfSfe3< $S;5^2 $S<^2: 5Sg2 5S5S2 SSsriS 5«5 Figure 3. — Diagram showing seasonal distribution of rainfall in the Navajo countrj-. desert floors; if his prayer is denied the crop is a failure. The tables show that for the periods under observation less than 1 inch of rain falls during July in 6 years out of 18 at Fort Defiance and St. Michaels, 4 out of 10 at Keams Canyon, 5 out of 22 at Holbrook, 4 out of 5 at Winslow, 11 out of 13 at Tuba, 4 out of 11 at Fraitland, and 5 out of 9 at Aneth. For a large part of the reservation corn, without irrigation, fails to mature every second to every fourth year. JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBB b I 5 .11 .161 lit ^ 11, . < e . . Ii 1 iL t U 1 .1.1. . ^ s ft II 1 ii 1 .11. 1. .1. 1 Ih.l.l ., 1 „ 1 . 1 1 ■ 1 . 1 ..1 .1 F BA .ILY RAIN Fi U.L I N T] HE NAVAJ ro COUNTRY . GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Jl WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE : Jl LL ; . 1. J. .1. 1. 1 , 1. ., L.L. .1.1.1. . 1 .1 I.I...I .ill 1 1 ii • 11. ..Il, I,. , J ,l l l I ■ JOJ 11. I I .1. ; II ji . Ill .1 1. .1, 1 -J ■ 1. 1 II 1 .1 Ml. 1 _L '- DIAGRAM SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF DAILY RAINFALL IN THE NAVAJO COUNTRY 1 Doc. : 64th Cong., CLIMATE. 63 In the Painted Desert and on Kaibito Platean natural agriculture is not attempted even by the optimistic Navajo. At Chinle, on the other hand, an inch or more of rain falls each July, and total fail- ures of crops at this point are of rare occurrence. CHARACTER OF RAINSTORMS. Gentle rains lasting more than 24: hours are of very rare occur- rence in the Navajo country. Only one such was experienced dur- ing my four seasons' work. The characteristic storm is the thunder- shower of extreme violence, lasting usually less than an hour. The area covered by the shower is frequently only a few square miles, and on two occasions showers of 20 to 30 minutes' duration resulted in wetting less than 300 acres. Many of the showers result in a heavy downpour, and the total precipitation for a month is not infre- quently the result of a single shower. (See PL XVI.) On the other hand, during the month of August, 1911, our party experienced show- ers for 22 days in succession. These showers occurred regularly be- tween 11 o'clock and 1 o'clock, and the precipitation from each shower ranged from 0.01 to 0.20 inch. Generally the intense heat preceding a shower is reestablished within an hour or two after rain has ceased, especially at elevations below 6,000 feet. So quickly is cloth- ing dried after one of these showers that it was found unnecessary to carry tents even during the rainy season. Lightning is the almost invariable accompaniment of summer showers and constitutes a real danger to travel. During August, 1911, six Indians were killed b}^ lightning and on two occasions my camp equipage was hit by a bolt. Lightning ranks first as a cause of forest fires in this region, and partly burned trees are everyday sights in the highland forests. The Weather Bureau station at Flag- staff has recorded more than 50 thunderstorms a year for the period 1904—1911. My records of thunderstorms for the Navajo Reserva- tion during the field seasons 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1913 are 38, 26, 33, and 23, respectivel}^, and it is believed that the annual number ex- ceeds 40 — an estimate much in excess of the figure (20) given by the Weather Bureau.^ TEMPERATURE. The elements of most significance in the temperature of the Navajo country are given in the following tables compiled from records ob- tained through the United States Weather Bureau, at stations within or on the immediate border of the Navajo and Hopi reservations. All these stations are in charge of voluntary observers, and many of the records are incomplete and some may be inaccurate. The data at 1 Climatology of the United States : U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. Q, pi. 28, 1906. 64 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. hand, however, are considered snfRcient to indicate the value to be given to the temperature element in the climate of the Navajo Eeservation. The figures represent degrees Fahrenheit. Temperature at Fort Deflance-St. Michaels, Ariz., 1899-1913 (except 1910). [On the edge of Defiance Plateau. Elevation, 6,9(X)±- feet.] 1 '53 i l-s ^ < 4J o o i 1 < Mean 14 14 14 12 12 27.9 35.6 20.0 57 -12 30.9 37.4 19.8 65 -24 38.3 43.2 33.4 75 1 43.8 48.2 42.2 78 12 52.8 56.8 49.4 85 20 62.9 66.5 58.4 98 26 68.2 72.4 64.4 97 31 66.9 70.3 64.6 96 39 54.6 70.5 53.7 86 22 44.3 64.9 43.0 78 10 38.4 59.4 33.2 65 -6 27.1 51.6 18.6 59 -20 47 6 Highest monthly mean Lowest monthly mean Highest temperature.. Lowest temperatiire . . 63.6 44.1 98 -24 Note.— Records for the years 1899-1905 were taken at Fort Defiance; those for 1906-1913 at St. Michaels. The two stations are 8 miles apart and have nearly identical altitude and topographic setting. Days on which temperatures above 90° were recorded are distributed as follows: 1910, May, 2 days; June, 3 days; July, 14 days; August, 3 days; September, 1 day. 1911, July, 1 day; August, 5 days. Days with temperatures below 15° are: 1910, December, 4 days; January, 18 days; February", 10 days. 1911, November 8 days; December, 25 days, including a consecutive period Dec. 13-30; January, 7 con- secutive days; February, 5 consecutive days. Temperature at Holhrook, Ariz., 1891-1900, 1904-1913 (except 1910). [Little Colorado Valley. Elevation, 5,069 feet.] >-i H^ i ^ ^ < H^ 1-5 O > o 1 Mean 20 33.1 38.7 45.6 ,'>2.6 60.2 65.4 74.8 74,5 67 53.9 42.6 33.0 54.2 Highest monthly mean 20 41.8 44.8 49.6 56.6 64.2 72.4 79.1 79.2 70.5 56.6 47.0 39.2 63.3 Lowest monthly mean 20 22.0 34.2 41.2 50.2 57. 65.0 71.6 72.2 64.6 .52.0 38.2 18.6 51.9 Highest temperature. . 18 66 78 89 94 97 105 106 103 100 89 81 73 106 Lowest temperature . . 18 -11 -6 —4 13 21 29 44 45 27 16 -8 -21 -21 Temperature at Reams Canyon, Ariz., 189Jf-95, 1906-1909, 1911-1913. [In a narrow canyon cut in the southern edge of Black Mesa. Elevation, 6,600 feet.] >-< < ^ § t-5 >. S < O i d ft < Mean Highest monthly mean Lowest monthly mean Highest temperature Lowest temperature 9 9 9 3 3 31.4 36.8 25.5 55 -2 34.5 41.6 27.8 67 -8 33.9 4.5. 1 35.7 77 10 48.5 49.8 44.1 79 20 5.5.7 58.8 51.7 80 27 61.8 71.0 61.8 90 28 60.6 76.4 68.0 101 43 69.4 74.3 69.0 92 43 61.6 65.0 58.0 90 25 52.6 55.6 47.8 89 17 40.4 45.5 37.0 72 9 30.2 36.4 21.7 60 3 51.8 62.7 48.2 101 -8 Temperature at Tuba, Ariz., 1897-1913 (except 1910). [On the southwest < of Kaibito Plateau in the midst of a desert overlooking the Little Colorado Valley. Elevation, about 4,700 feet.] Mean Highest monthly mean . . Lowest monthly mean. . . Highest tom])erature Lowest temperature 32.7 4.3.2 23.2 38.5 45.4 30.2 73 -3 46.1 54.4 40.7 85 12 53.8 58.4 48.6 88 21 6L6 65.4 55.6 70.9 76.4 66.8 104 34 77.0 82.6 72.6 105 40 75.2 77.1 73.2 108 48 67.1 76.5 61. '9 100 28 54.4 58.8 49.4 95 18 43.2 48.3 35.6 81 10 30.5 39.2 21.7 52.1 61.5 34.0 108 -13 CLIMATE. 65 Temperature at Chinle, Arts;., 1909, 1912, 1913. [On the east side of the broad Chinle Valley, at the mouth of Canyon de Chelly. Elevation, about 5,200 leet.] 4 1 -1^ 1 1^ 1 i 1 i 1 i Mean 3 3 3 29.9 37.2 23.2 33.2 35.6 30.6 26.8 41.6 38.9 47.2 47.9 46.0 57.0 59.0 54.9 66.8 69.2 64.6 70.4 74.9 66.4 69.6 72.8 65.6 58.3 62.8 53.4 33.8 52.4 49.0 40.4 42.0 38.0 23.6 25.8 21.3 49.1 Highest monthly mean . . . Lowest monthly mean 50.8 47.8 Temperature at Fruitland, N. Mex., in San Juan Valley, 1903-1909, 1911-1913. [Elevation, about 5,200 feet.] Mean Highest monthly mean. . Lowest monthly mean . . Highest temperature Lowest temperature 30.8 35.6 25.7 71 35.2 43.4 26.8 86 -14 43 47.7 39.6 83 55.6 52.8 46.2 92 11 52.1 61.0 54.4 97 18 67.3 68.8 66.3 108 31 72.5 74.6 7L2 110 34 71.5 74.0 70.0 101 41 62.5 67.1 61.0 95 27 50.5 52.6 39.3 41.8 36.0 90 -1 26. 35.0 18.0 79 46.1 52.6 43.7 110 -14 Temperature at Hite, Utah, 1900-1909, 1911. [In the canyon of the Colorado at the mouth of Trachyte Creek. Elevation, about 3,500 feet.] > d i 1 < 1 5 1-3 <1 1 o > o 1 < Mean 11 11 11 9 9 32.5 41.0 33.5 63 2 43.0 51.4 32.4 81 6 51.2 54.6 47.0 86 18 59.2 61.8 56.2 94 28 66.9 72.8 63.1 98 48 68.2 83.0 72.4 111 59 84.2 89.6 82.1 115 65 82.5 86.1 80.2 110 62 72.5 75.6 71.8 104 48 53.9 64.0 55.1 91 29 45.9 47.8 44.3 76 20 31.1 42.2 33.2 76 7 60 6 Highest monthly mean Lowest monthly mean Highest temperature Lowest temperature 65.1 58.2 115 2 Temperature at Aneth, Utah, in San Juan Valley, 1901-1907, 1911-1913. [Elevation, about 4,700 feet.] i i 4 i Ck ^ i H-5 i ^ t . i i >< >^ \^ i4 < )4 < czj o ^ « < Mean 10 30.3 37.8 46 2 49 1 62 8 72 2 78.8 81.6 77.5 79.7 67.3 55.4 64.1 42.3 43.9 23.8 39.0 54.0 61.3 Highest monthly mean... 10 38.3 44.4 51.4 57.0 66.3 74.8 Lowest monthly mean . . . 10 21.0 27.2 41.6 53.0 60.2 70.5 74.4 76.2 64.2 52.4 39. 5 25.0 50.8 Highest temperature 8 63 77 83' 86 93 105 104 106 100 88 67 67 106 Lowest temperature 8 -10 2 14 19 31 38 45 42 32 22 11 -2 -10 Frost record in the Navajo country a Place. Years. Average date of first killing frost in autumn. Average date of last kaiing frost ia spring. Earliest date of killing frost in autumn. Latest date of killing frost in spring. Fort Defiance 7 5 9 16 20 2 10 10 12 Sept. 17 Sept. 13 Sept. 23 Oct.'ii" Sept. 25 Sept. 20 Sept. 21 Oct. 20 June 11 June 15 June 10 May 13 May 11 May 23 Apr. 13 'Mar.' "2i" Sept. 15 Aug. 29 Sept. 13 Sept. 19 Sept. 17 ...do ...do.... Sept. 12 Oct. 19 July 7 June 23 June 14 June 5 June 13 May 31 Apr. 27 May 13 May 24 St. Michaels Keams Canyon Tuba Holbrook Chinle Fruitland Aneth Hite o Computed from miscellaneous records in annual reports of United States Weather Bureau. 33033°— wsp 380—16 5 66 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. The influence of elevation and topographic position on tempera- ture is shown by a comparison of the tables for Fort Defiance-St. Michaels with those for Holbrook, Aneth, and Hite. Fort Defiance- St. Michaels, at an elevation of nearly 7,000 feet, has a mean annual temperature of 47.6°. The thermometer rarely goes above 90°, and the highest temperatures recorded for 12 years are June, 98° ; July, 97° ; Augiist, 96° ; while for four or five months in a year the ther- mometer falls below 20°, and —24° has been recorded. Holbrook, elevation 5,069 feet, has an annual mean of 54.2° ; for Aneth, eleva- tion 4,700 feet, the mean is 54.0° ; and for Hite, elevation 3,500 feet, 60.6°. At this last station zero temperatures are not recorded. The range between the highest and the lowest monthly means is lowest for Chinle, 3°, followed in order by Hite, 4.9° ; Fruitland, 8.9° ; Aneth, 10.5°; Holbrook, 11.4°; Keams Canyon, 14.7°; Fort Defiance-St. Michaels, 19.5° ; and Tuba, 27.5°. These figures of mean annual tem- perature and the range between the lowest and the highest average monthly means are not unlike those generally prevailing in temper- ate latitudes, and give, therefore, little indication of the temperatures experienced in this region. The annual and daily ranges of temperature are of greater sig- nificance. The maximum annual range recorded for Keams Can- yon is 109° (101° to —8°) ; for Hite, 113° (115° to 2°) ; for Aneth, 116° (106° to —10°); for Tuba, 121° (108° to -13°); for Fort DeSance-St. Michaels, 122° (98° to -24°); for Fruitland, 124° (110° to —14°). The greatest range (127°) is at Holbrook, where a July temperature of 106° is offset by the low December record of 21° below zero. At all points on the reservation below 7,000 feet, tem- peratures exceeding 100° normally occur for 10 to 20 days each year, and in the Painted Desert, in the lower San Juan Valley, and along the Colorado Canyon such temperatures were experienced by our party for 3 to 6 days in succession. At such times the temperatures in the sun are almost intolerable. The surface soil reaches 140°-160°, and instruments, saddles, notebooks, and camp utensils can not be handled without pain. Except within the Little Colorado and San Juan valleys, and to a less extent in other canyons, temperatures below zero are normal for December, January, and February, and at Fort Defiance and Holbrook zero weather for 5 to 6 days in succes- sion has been experienced. High annual temperature ranges are accompanied by great daily range. A daily range of about 40° is probably common to the whole reservation; ranges of 50° have frequently been experienced; and on a few occasions my party has worked at temperatures exceeding 80°, only to find ice in the camp buckets on the following mornings. A worker in this field soon learns that an ample supply of bed CLIMATE. 67 blankets is required even during the scorching summer months. Sudden changes during daytime are infrequent, except when thunder- showers cool the air for a few hours. On one occasion during July, a temperature of 96° at 2 o'clock was followed within an hour by a hailstorm, which whitened the ground and lowered the temperature to a point where vigorous exercise was required to keep our limbs from becoming numb. Fortunately for man and beast, high temperatures and great daily range are accompanied in this region by dry air and cloudless skies. The mean relative humidity at Flagstaff^ is 62 per cent, being lowest (39 per cent) during June, the driest and, during some years, the hottest month. For the Navajo Eeservation these figures are doubt- less even lower. High humidity and high temperature were found not to be contemporaneous, with the result that heat, though distress- ing, is not enervating and oppressive. A hot air bath, not a steam bath, is part of the daily routine. The average date of first killing frost of autumn ranges from September 13 at St. Michaels, to October 20 in the Colorado Valley ; and the average date of the last killing frost of spring ranges from March 21 at Hite, to June 15 at St. Michaels. The stations under observation (see pp. 64^65), therefore, have in normal years a grow- ing season as follows : St. Michaels, 89 days ; Fort Defiance, 98 days ; Keams Canyon, 105 days; Chinle, 124 days; Holbrook, 127 days; Tuba, 133 days; Fruitland, 161 days; Aneth, 161 days; and Hite, 201 days. This long growing season, where water has been made available as at St. Joseph, Fruitland, and Tuba, coupled with high temperatures, has favored alfalfa, corn, and fruit raising on an extensive scale. When, however, a period of several years is con- sidered, it appears that the normal length of the growing season may be much shortened. Thus the growing season may be reduced to 96 days at Holbrook, and shortened by two weeks at Tuba; and Fort Defiance may have killing frost during every month of the year except August. The bearing of these figures on agriculture and irrigation may be seen from the fact that corn requires, on the average, 90 to 150 days, and fruit an even longer time to reach maturity. WIND. Extensive areas of dunes and rippled flats eolian sands, widely spread over the Navajo Reservation, bear witness to the presence of winds. Eocks polished and etched by wind-blown sand (PL XVII, J.), vegetation buried waist deep, and fields of corn with leaves cut into shreds, are everyday sights. Sand storms are fre- 1 United States Weather Bureau Bull. W, vol. 1, 1912. 68 THE ITAVAJO COUNTRY. quent and whirling columns of dust reaching high into the air may be counted by the dozens on clear summer days. During the larger storms the sky is darkened and the swiftly driven sand grains impel man and beast to seek shelter in some friendly arroyo. These storms are at their worst in the Painted Desert, along the Tusayan Washes, and on the Kaibito Plateau. The oasis of Tuba is walled in on the west by sand, piled against a windbreak made of trees, and the school grounds at Leupp are alternately buried and reexcavated. Fine sand, driven by strong winds, finds its way into the best con- structed buildings. The nervous irritation caused by the hot, stifling winds calls to mind the Spanish proverb : "Ask no favor while the solano blows." In the picturesque Navajo mythology the Wind People were sent to dry up the earth and " Wind and Night" (sand storm) is the most dreaded expression of these powers foi- evil. The records available for the Navajo Reservation show that the prevailing direction of wind is southwest for all stations on the reservation except Keams Canyon, where the low winds measured are directed eastward by a narrow, rock-w^alled gorge. Wind velocity has been recorded at Flagstaff, 40 miles beyond the Navajo Reserva- tion line. Prevailing direction and velocity of wind. Direction. Place. Length record in years. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. An- nual. Holbrook... Tuba St. Michaels. Keams Can- yon 9 12 12 3 sw. sw. sw. sw. sw. N... SW. W... SW. SW. SW. w... SW. sw. sw. w... sw. SW. sw. w... SW. sw. SW. SW. SW. SW. SW. w... SW. sw. SW. s.... SW. SW. SW. W... SW. SW. sw. w... SW. SW. sw. SE.. SW. SW. SW. E... SW. SW. SW. w. Average velocity in miles per hour. Flagstaff.... 5 6 7 9 9 10 9 7 5 7 6 7 7 SOIL. On the Navajo Reservation tw^o types of soil are found — residual or local soils, which have resulted from decomposition of the rocks immediately underlying the surface; and transported soils, which have been carried by natural agencies from their place of origin and redeposited elsewhere. Scantiness of vegetation, severe showers, rapid run-off, and strong winds — features characteristic of this part of the country — are unfavorable for the development and retention of soil in place, and accordingly transported soil predominates. Soil U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XVII A. WIND-SWEPT ROCKS, RAINBOW PLATEAU, NORTH OF NAVAJO MOUNTAIN. Photograph by A. R. Townsend. i mj% 'j-'-mL^s^&mi^is^^immm ^ ''-^mm^^. B. WEST SLOPE OF DEFIANCE PLATEAU. Typical view in zone of sage and greasewood, with scattered groves of pinon and cedar; elevation 5,200 feet. U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XVlll A. PIUTE CANYON AT UPPER CROSSING. U. TYPICAL VIEW IN ZONE OF PINON AND CEDAR, 6,000 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL. Photograph by Schwemberger. SOIL. 69 weathered directly from the underlying rock forms a mantle a few inches thick on the broad interstream spaces which mark the flat tops of the Chuska Mountains, of Defiance, Button, and Chaco plateaus, and of Black and Segi mesas. Large patches of residual soil may be found also on Carrizo and Navajo mountains, in Monument and Chuska valleys, and to a less extent elsewhere. Bare rock, however, predominates on the tops and slopes of the smaller mesas and ridges ; the canyon walls are generally without soil ; and hundreds of square miles along the Little Colorado and San Juan rivers, on Kaibito and Rainbow plateaus, and in the Hopi Buttes province, have pre- vailingly bare rock floors. It is probable that the reservation could be traversed along a selected route from Carrizo Mountain to Lee Ferry and from Grand Falls to Bluff without setting foot on soil of local origin. Transported soil, however, is widespread. The broad washes and their innumerable tributaries are flooded with stream-borne debris to depths exceeding 100 feet. Alluvial soil is also displayed in fans and slopes along the valley sides and in terraces clinging to canyon walls, and a small amount of transported soil marks the beds of extinct and ephemeral lakes. Wind also has played a part in distributing surface materials. Eolian soils in the form of dunes, ridges, and rippled flats are prominently displayed along the Little Colorado, in the Tusayan Washes, on Moenkopi, Kaibito, and Shato plateaus, and to a less degree in the Chinle Valley. The west and south sides of the reservation are most heavily coated with wind-blown soil, but "blow dust" is found on highland and lowland alike, and it is probable that the strong prevailing south- west winds carry impalpable dust to all parts of the reservation. The soil of the Navajo country is derived from rocks relatively poor in mineral plant food. Limestone underlies probably less than 5 per cent of the area, occurring only in the strata of Carboniferous age and in certain beds of the Chinle formation and of the La Plata group.^ The shales and sandstones of the Moenkopi formation contain relatively little plant food and are in most places charged with gypsum and other objectionable salts. The Shinarump con- glomerate furnishes no soil of value to plants, and the shales of the Chinle formation develop characteristically into infertile "bad- land" areas. The sandstones of both the La Plata group and the McElmo formation are prevailingly quartzose and are therefore sparingly provided with plant food. The Cretaceous strata — Da- kota, Mancos, and Mesaverde — contain a higher proportion of min- eral plant foods than any of the other formations represented on the reservation, and the lavas (largely basaltic) furnish a soil of high fertility. However, in spite of its origin, the soil of the reservation 1 The distribution of the rock formations is shown on the geologic map, PI. II, in pocket. 70 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. is not lacking in fertilit}^ — a condition which is due largely to the arid climate. The bits of plant food sparingly distributed in the rocks are accumulated in the soils of the washes and alluvial fans. Here the food is stored in large quantities and for long periods, be- cause continuous, vigorous ground-water movement is lacking, and the leaching of soluble constituents is correspondingly checked. No detailed studies of the soils of the Navajo country have been made, but incomplete analyses of several samples collected in hap- hazard fashion from Chuska Valley, Chinle Valley, and the Tusayan Washes revealed lime, potash, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and nitrogen in amounts fairly typical for soils of the arid Southwest. The following analyses of soils were made by Dr. Loew.^ The first is a sample of the soil cultivated by the Hopis in the vicinity of Oraibi; the sample from Chevelon Fork^ is from deposits weath- ered from sandstones of "Triassic age" (Chinle formation?). Analysis of soils from Hopi villages. Potash 0. 072 Carbonate of lime ( lime = 1.665 ) 2.970 Ptiosplioric acid .031 Soda Trace. Litliia Trace. Alumina, oxide of iron and magnesia 2. 327 Total extract by hydrochloric acid 5. 40 Insoluble 94. 60 Analysis of soil from Chevelon Fork. Sand 53. 10 Silt with clay 43. 55 Hygroscopic moisture 1. 89 Chemically bound water and organic matter 1.46 100. 00 Potash - 0.092 Soda - .010 Lime . 319 Phosphoric acid . 070 Sulphuric acid, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron 2. 559 Insoluble in hydrochloric acid (chiefly quartz sand) 93.550 That the soil of the reservation possesses fertility is amply demon- strated by the vigorous natural growth of perennials and annuals where water is present and by the fact that the Hopis and their ancestors, the cliff dwellers, have cultivated crops of com, peaches, and melons without irrigation, and even in sand dunes. The fer- 1 Loew, Oscar, U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Rept., vol. 3, pp. 585, 586, 1875. 2 Chevelon Fork, according to Sitgreaves, received its name from a French trapper " who died upon its banks from eating some poisonous root." FLORA. Yl tility of the soil is renewed by continuous redistribution of alluvium, by showers and seasonal rains, and by wind — a process which tends also to incorporate within the soil the vegetation which springs up rapidly where conditions allow. Large quantities of sheep manure, at present little used, are available for fertilization. As in other arid regions, the ingredient lacking in Navajo soils is water. The dry air and loose soil allow the ready passage of moisture to the surface, and during the dry season the water table sinks to a depth which makes natural farming in this region un- profitable. Experiments in dry farming have produced fairly satis- factory results, and where water is applied systematically the soil responds with alacrity, as has been abundantly demonstrated by the Mormons at Bluff, Tuba, and St. Joseph, and by the Government farmers at Fort Defiance, Chinle, Shiprock, and elsewhere. In planning for the future of this country it should be borne in mind that the " dull, lifeless soil," " hopelessly barren land," and " worth- less, bare stretches " of the early explorers and chance tourists are terms not necessarily synonymous with infertility. On the other hand, it appears that the available supply of water is insufficient, even after full development, to reclaim any large part of this other- wise fertile land. FLORA. GENERAL RELATIONS. The barrenness of the Navajo region impressed itself on the early explorers. Simpson^ pays his respects to the Chuska Mountains and Chuska and Chinle valleys in the following terms: The primary mountains are generally destitute of other sylva than pine and cedar, most frequently of a sparse and dwarfish character. * * * The sedi- mentary rocks are almost universally bare of vegetation, except that of a sparse, dwarfish, sickening-colored aspect, and can not be regarded as a gen- eral thing * * * without a sensation of loathing. Sitgreaves ^ states : " I can add very little to the information afforded by the map, almost the entire country traversed being bar- ren and without general interest." Whipple ^ classifies the land in a belt 30 miles wide and 110 miles long, between Campbell Pass and Flax RiA^er (Little Colorado) as follows : " Woodland, one-tenth ; cultivatable soil, one-thirtieth ; rock hills, one-tenth; prairies and pasture, seven-tenths." The vegetation of the country traversed by Simpson, Sitgreaves, and Whipple has doubtless changed little during the last 60 years. 1 Expedition into the Navajo country : 31st Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc. 64, 1850. ^ Expedition down the Zuni and Colorado rivers : 33d Cong., 1st sess., Ex. Doc, 1854. s U. S. Pacific R. R. Expl., vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 50, 1854. 72 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. Further acquaintance with the reservation, however, brings to view a widely distributed and widely varied flora of peculiar ecologic interest, which remains a virgin field of study. Within the limits of the Navajo country the factor of latitude has little effect on plant life. Topography and altitude with their attendant climatic controls determine the character of the plant life and the boundaries of ecologic provinces. For the region as a whole four zones of vegetation are readily distinguished : 1. Zone of Cottonwood, cactus, and yucca; altitude, 3,600-6,000 feet ; type area, Little Colorado Valley. Within this zone vegetation is scanty and over large areas very inconspicuous. "Flat-leaved" and "globular" cacti are abundant; yucca is common; grass is scanty and commonly in detached tufts; sage and greasewood are of small size; scrub juniper and pinon are relatively rare. Durhig the rainy season there is a profusion of annuals, among which Mari- posa lily, yellow sunflowers, and related Compositas are abundantly represented. In places fields several acres in extent of yellow flowers were noted. Wild flax is common.^ 2. Zone of sagebrush (Artemisia) and greasewood (Sarcobatus) ; altitude, 6,000-6,000 feet ; type locality, upper Pueblo Colorado Wash. Sage within this zone attains heights of 4 or 6 feet and in places is so closely spaced as to render travel difficult and may occupy the surface to the exclusion of trees. Besides the ever-present sage and greasewood, grass is fairly abundant in this zone. Patches of pinon and juniper are irregularly distributed, usually along rocky ridges, but are in general of "scrub" size (PI. XVII, B^ p. 68). 3. Zone of piiion {Firms edulis) and juniper {Juniperus mono- sperma) ; altitude, 6,000-7,000 feet, the juniper in general occurring at lower altitudes than the pinon ; type locality, south edge of Black Mesa. Much of the pinon and juniper is of scrub size, but trees 12 to 20 inches in diameter are not uncommon and would yield 1 to 26 cords of firewood per acre. Sagebrush, and to a less extent grease- wood, usually of strong growth, occupy open spaces. Groves of pinon surrounding parks of sage is the ordinary arrangement. Scrub oak and box elder are also found. Pine and juniper {Juni- perus scopularum) and aspen {Populus tremuloides) are found in a few well-watered canyons. Grass in tufts and scattered mats grows everywhere except in the densest shade (PL XVIII, 5, p. 69). 4. Zone of yellow pine; altitude, 7,000-8,600 feet; type locality, Defiance Plateau (PI. XIX). The pines form solid forests over many square miles. The trees stand far apart and, as was long ago noted by Loew,^ there is a singular absence of trees of intermediate heights. Englemann spruce and Douglas fir in groves of a few indi- 1 An early Spanish name for the Little Colorado River is Rio de Liflo. Ives (1861) uses the term Flax River. The Navajo name is Tolchico, "red Avater canyon." 2 U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Rept., vol. 3, pp. 603-604, 1875. FLOE A. 73 viduals are found here and there clinging to canyon walls, especially on north slopes, and Gambel oak {Quercus gamhelii) in close-set patches attains considerable prominence. Quaking aspen commonly occurs in the upper mountain valleys. Fine grass is common. Yellow pine is practically absent from the higher parts of Black Mesa and the Segi Mesas at altitudes where they are to be expected. Lack of water rather than unfavorable temperature is believed to account for the absence of pine at elevations between 7,000 and 7,700 feet on Black Mesa. In support of this view, the presence of fir and aspen at this elevation is cited by Mr. Johnson.^ An additional bit of evidence is the fact that in the canyon of Segi Mesas and in sharp indentations on the side of Black Mesa pines grow vigorously. 5. Zone of Engelmann spruce; altitude, 8,500 to 10,416 feet (the highest summits) ; type locality, Navajo Mountain. Outside of the type locality small groves of spruce were noted on Carrizo Mountain and the Chuska Mountains, and on Dutton Plateau. Within the Xavajo Mountain forests are spruce trees 12 to 30 inches in diameter and 70 to 80 feet high. In open spaces beneath the trees blackjack, oak, willow, poplar, ground juniper, manzanita, sage, gooseberry, and raspberry attain luxuriant growths, while flowers in large variety are embedded in the grass. The profusion of flowers at moderate altitudes is remarkable for variety of species and abundance of in- dividuals. On the Chuska Mountains Simpson ^ collected 90 varie- ties within 24 hours, and 22 plants were found in blossom on Navajo Mountain. The boundaries of the zones roughly outlined above are subject to considerable shifting in harmony with topographic position. In general the zone boundaries descend on the north and east, but plant societies characteristic of one zone may be found within another zone, appearing strangely out of place. Pinon represented by individuals was found in the Glen Canyon at 3,500 feet and on Carrizo at 9,000 feet; cacti are found at all elevations, and the cottonwood, abundant along the San Juan and the Little Colorado, reappears up to 6,000 feet. Cotton was cultivated by the cliff dwellers and their descendants, and the corn frequently found in ruins testifies to the antiquity of agriculture in this region.^ Peaches growing wild in Nazlini and de Chelly canyon^ were probably introduced by the Spaniards. Beale* reports that potatoes were found growing wild at Fort De- fiance. 1 Personal communication f ram Mr. Don B. Johnson, of the Forest Service. 2 Expedition to the Navajo country, p. 96, 1850. 3 In an ancient ruin near Tolchico burned corn is embedded in fragments of porous, baked adobe, locally called " lava." Similar occurrences may have given rise to a popular notion, often repeated in books of travel, that the homes of the cliff people were destroyed by volcanic eruptions. *Beale, E. F., Surveys for a wagon road from Fort Defiance to the Colorado River pp. 36-37, 1858. 74 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. FORESTS. A map of the forests on the Navajo and Hopi reservations, pre- pared by G. A. Gutches, supervisor of forests, is reproduced as Plate XIX with the permission of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. The following notes on the map are abstracted from Mr. Gutches's manuscript: The area of spruce on Navajo Mountain is 4,500 acres, and will cut approximately 12,000,000 feet. The inaccessibility of this timber renders it of little value. "Merchantable yellow pine" occupies 235,500 acres, 80 per cent of which is covered by a good stand of mature timber averaging 21 inches in diameter breast high, and 80 feet in height, and will cut about 850,000,000 board feet of lum- ber. Roads for logging may be cheaply constructed. " Scattered yellow pine" on the Chuska Mountains and Defiance Plateau will yield 700,000,000 board feet of lumber in addition to 250,000 cords of fuel. "Piiion and scattered juniper" covers 1,250,000 acres. A denser growth of pinon at 7,000 feet thins out at about 6,200 feet, at which elevation juniper begins and constitutes about 20 per cent of the cut; 6,900,000 cords of fuel may be obtained from this forest type. " Scattered juniper and pinon " cover about 60 per cent of the area (3,400,000 acres) indicated on the map; 70 per cent of the stand is juniper and 30 per cent pinon. The two species together will yield 2,000,000 cords of fuel. "The reproduction of yellow pine over the yellow-pine types is very poor and scattered. For the most part the reproduction can be considered as nil. This is due to sheep and goat grazing. There are no signs of reproduction on the cut-over areas about the Navajo and San Juan Agency mills." The wide spacing of trees and the absence- of underbrush and of heavy grass practically eliminate the danger of forest fires arising from the usual causes. The region is, however, within the zone of maximum danger from lightning; 42,081 trees in the national for- ests of western New Mexico, northern Arizona, and southern Utah, including the plateau province, are reported to have been struck by lightning during a three-year period of observation.^ On the Navajo Reservation trees broken or shattered or killed by lightning are common. FAUNA. Among the larger indigenous animals most frequently seen in the Navajo country are the rabbit, prairie dog, coyote, trade rat, field mouse, snakes of several species, including abundant rattlers, and a large variety of lizard; brown squirrels and chipmunks are found in the forests, where also wild cat, porcupine, wolf, fox, and bear are occasionally met. The Spanish padres, Sitgreaves^ (1854), 1 Plummer, F. G., Lightning in relation to forest fires : TJ. S. Forest Service Bull. Ill, 1912. 2 Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado rivers, 1854. ^K ] I MEXIC' so Miles I i. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Base from U, S. FOREST MAP OF THE NAVAJO COUNTRY, ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, AND UTAH Forest areas by G. A. Gulches, Supervisor of Forests U, S, Office of Indian Affairs FAUNA. 75 Lethermann^ (1858), and Beadle ^ (1873) found antelope and black tailed deer in abundance. Beadle mentions also the gray fox and the beaver. The horns of mountain sheep were found at Navajo Mountain. The principal birds noted during the years 1909 to 1913 are the eagle, hawk, nighthawk, raven, wild turkey, crow, two species of duck, white and sandhill crane, pinon jay, three species of owl, catbird, swallow, and rock wren. On Navajo Mountain the robin, woodpecker, junco, woodthrush, tree sparrow, nutcracker, bluebird, and humming bird were seen. Insects, including tarantula and scorpion, are too common. Nearly the entire native fauna enters into Navajo animal worship. The eagle (Navajo, Atsa dine, the eagle people, who inhabit Yaghahoka, the heaven above), the owl (Navajo, Nasja, which plays the role of a spy), the bear (Navajo, Shash, the descendant of mythical monsters) , and the snake are ob- jects of special reverence. The attitude of the Navajo toward ani- mals has resulted in the protection of many harmful species. Previous to the Spanish invasion the natives appear to have had no domesticated animals except the dog. Navajo horses, obtained at first by raids upon Mexican settlers, are now abundant, and wild herds are occasionally seen. Burros, especially among the Hopis, are widely used; and nearly every Indian family has its flock of sheep and goats. Cattle raising is not as yet an important industry. The introduction of sheep greatly modified the dietary of Navajo and Hopi alike, and, with the occasional use of the horse, has re- placed the deer and antelope, which are no longer seen in this region. MINEHAIi WEALTH. Prudden^ states that no metal tools or utensils have ever been found in cliff ruins, and nowhere within the reservation have bodies of ores of high value been located. Mining camps established at various times have had short lives. The useless shaft on Carrizo Mountain, discarded machinery along the San Juan, and the aban- doned workings west of White Mesa testify to the lack of com- mercial value in the widely distributed occurrences of gold and copper. The oil fields at Goodridge and Seven Lakes and recent locations on the Little Colorado have so far failed to justify the expenditure of large funds. Jewel garnets from the lower Chinle Valley and peridots from Buell Park and elsewhere find a ready market. The extensive coal fields of Black Mesa and of western New Mexico are of high value.* 1 Smithsonian Inst. Tenth Ann. Kept, 1855. 2 The undeveloped West, 1873. 3 Prudden, T. M., The Great American Plateau, 1907. * Shaler, M. K., A reconnaissance survey of the western part of the Durango-Gallup coal field of Colorado and New Mexico : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 316, pp. 376-426, 2 pis., 1907. Gardner, J. H., The coal field between Gallup and San Mateo, N. Mex. : U. S. Geol. Sur- vey Bull. 341, pp. 364-378, 1 pi., 1909. Campbell, M. R., and Gregory, H. E., The Black Mesa coal field, Ariz. : U. S. Geol. Sur- vey Bull. 431, pp. 229-238, 1 pi., 1911. 76 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES, The population of the Navajo and Hopi reservations estimated for 1912 is 32,488 Indians and 521 whites, distributed as follows: Population, Navajo and Hopi reservations, 1912. o ! 1 P. •S o 1 h !l II 1 .1 ft 02 White popula- tion. i Agency. 1 O f o 1,200 10,000 2,685 8,000 6,131 2,000 1,200 10,000 2,685 8,000 6,535 4,068 1,200 9,990 02,680 8,000 6,535 4,064 20.83 15.00 53.32 22.00 6.54 61.45 4.08 11.00 1.71 25.00 8.27 4.57 800 2,500 1 o Leupp 20 500 10,000 5 (a) 10,000 5,000 400 1,000 4,000 («) 2,000 1,000 200 400 1,500 (a) 5.00 5.00 2.00 2.50 2.67 "%,m 162, 100 1,338 10,100 22,000 75,000 4,990,000 3,810,000 1,500,000 3,020,347 1,588,820 283,340 358, 860 Navajo 5,000,000 3,815,000 1,500,100 3,379,347 2,472,320 5,000 (^) 1,000 10 100 ' ' V 45 d50 Pueblo Bonito 12,000 (&) 7,300 3,999 Western Navajo 338,700 720,000 6,030 22,500 11,299 200 20,400 5,100 3.43 201,938 14,992,667 1,342,040 16,525,627 a Not reported. b Unknown. c Estimated. d Navajo and Hopi together. GEOLOGIC SKETCH. In its broad outlines the geology of the Navajo country involves the geologj^ of the Colorado Plateau province, and the problems of physiography, stratigraphy, structure, and volcanism relating to the region as a whole have been discussed by various writers. For 1 The geology of the Navajo country is discussed in another volume now in pi*eparation for publication as Professional Paper 93 of the Geological Survey. Only comprehensive relations and such geologic features as have direct bearing on the problem of water supply are considered in the present paper. 78 THE NAVAJO COUNTKY. those who find interest in such studies the following reports are suggested : Gilbert, G. K., Marvine, A. R., and Howell, E. E., U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Rept., vol. 3, 1875. Dutton, C. E., Tertiary history of the Grand Canyon district: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 2, 1882. Dutton, C. E., Mount Taylor and the Zuni Plateau : U. S. Geol. Survey Sixth Ann Rept., 1885. Cross, Whitman, Red beds of southwestern Colorado and their correlation: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 16, pp. 442-498, 1905. Ward, L. F., Status of the Mesozoic floras of the United States : U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 48, pt. 1, pp. 13-46, 1905. Darton, N. H., A reconnaissance of parts of northwestern New Mexico and northern Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull, 435, 1910. Woodruff, E. G., Geology of the San Juan oil field : U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 471, pt. 2, 1911. Robinson, H. H., The San Franciscan volcanic field ; U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 76, 1913. Gregory, H. E,, The Shinarump conglomerate : Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 35, pp. 424-438, 1913. STRATIGRAPHY. The sedimentary strata within the limits of the Navajo country are of pre-Cambrian ( ? ) , Pennsylvanian, Permian ( ? ) , Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary ages. The relations of these systems and series and the formations which they embrace are represented in the generalized section (PI. XXI). Pre-Cambrian(?). — Within the area studied the oldest sedimen- tary formations whose age has been definitely determined are lime- stones of Carboniferous age. The lower contact of the Carbon- iferous is not exposed, but at Quartzite Canyon (locally called Blue Canyon) near Fort Defiance, quartzite unconformably underlies strata of Permian ( ? ) age. In composition, structure, and degree of metamorphism this quartzite mass appears to be identical with the pre-Cambrian quartzite of the Colorado Canyon and is believed to be of equivalent age. . Pennsylvanian. — Within the canyon of the San Juan and at Grand Falls and several other points along the Little Colorado strata of buff and brown limestone are well exposed for study, and in the canyon Avails this limestone (Kaibab) is underlain by other formations of the Aubrey group. Fossils collected at Goodridge, Utah, in 1909, and on the lower Little Colorado in 1910, taken in connection with later collections by Woodruff, have served to estab- lish the Pennsylvanian age of these beds. The exposed Pennsyl- vanian strata — the Kaibab limestone and the Goodridge formation — differ materially in lithologic features. Permian {?). — The beds between the Pennsylvanian limestone and the Shinarump conglomerate are assigned to the Permian (?) on the basis of Walcott's studies in the Kanab Valley and the discovery U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY System and series Formation QUATERNARY >- i i Chuska sandstoiw UNCONFORMITY Tohachi shale 2 o o f O 1 Mesaverde and later formations Mancos shale Dakota sandstone — ) McElmo formatioi O CO i — > Q. 1 TO Navajo sandstone Todilto formation Wingate sandstone < Chinle formation _ — UNCONFORMITy Shinarump conglomeral CO ID o LU z g 2 c .2 E De Chelly sandstoi Moenkopi formatioi c 'c J 1 1 Aubrey group in Little Colorado River region, and Goodridgt formation in San Juai River region (relatior unknown) ! _ 1 INCONFORMITY PRE- CAMBRIANC?) Ouartzite GENERALIZ ,f,&Te, McEimo consisting mostly of quartzlte pebbles, largely buff or gray, t , and Goodrid JonmSanJii GENERALIZED OF FORMATIONS REPRESENTED IN THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. GEOLOGIC SKETCH, 79 of Permian plants in Quartzite Canyon in 1913. Within the limits of the Navajo Reservation these beds prevailingly consist of arena- ceous shales and thin-bedded sandstone, brown to chocolate in tone, charged with lime and gypsum. For these beds the term Moenkopi formation, proposed by Ward, is retained. In a few localities the upper portion of the Permian sediments is represented by massive cross-bedded sandstones, for which the name De Chelly sandstone has been adopted. An unconformity limiting the upward extension of the Moenkopi strata has been observed at several localities and is believed to repre- sent an erosion surface of wide extent.^ Triassic. — The unconformity at the base of the Shinarump con- glomerate appears to mark the base of the Triassic in northeastern Arizona. The Lower and Middle Triassic are probably not present, as the Shinarump conglomerate and the Chinle formation are be- lieved to be of Upper Triassic age. The Shinarump conglomerate consists of conglomerate and coarse sandstone arranged in cross-bedded lenses. Both pebbles and cement are prevailingly siliceous and the universal presence of fossil wood gives this formation a unique appearance. The Chinle formation consists of calcareous shales and sandstones including lenses and beds at varying horizons of limestone conglom- erate. The strata are highly colored in pink, purple, gray, and brown, and eroded into badland forms of singular beauty. Fossil wood is present in this formation and becomes unusually abundant at the various " fossil forests." Vertebrate remains collected at a number of localities fix the date of deposition of the beds. The Chinle is equivalent in part to the " Leroux formation " of Ward and the Dolores formation of Cross. Jurassic. — The strata assigned to the Jurassic belong to the La Plata group, and consist typically of two formations of massive, cross-bedded, friable sandstones, ranging in thickness from 100 to 1,000 feet. The upper formation is the Navajo sandstone and the lower the Wingate sandstone. A band of limestone or of calcareous shale and sandstone — the Todilto formation — in many places sepa- rates the Navajo and the Wingate sandstones. The great thickness of the strata constituting the La Plata group, their red tone, and their wide distribution give these beds a conspicuous position among the formations represented on the reservation. Windows, alcoves, and natural bridges are typical erosion features. Jurassic (?) . — Above the La Plata group lies a series of green- ish-white sandstones with subordinate amounts of shales classed as 1 Gregory, H. E., The Shinarump conglomerate : Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 35, pp. 424-438, 1913 ; Reconnaissance of a portion of the Little Colorado Valley : Idem, vol. 38, pp. 401-501, 1914. 80 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. the McElmo formation. The grains of the sandstone are siliceous and the cement is ferruginous calcareous, so that the rock is friable and readily eroded into scalloped and curtained cliffs. The shales are in some places intricately dissected into bizarre forms of "bad- land " type. Cretaceous. — The Cretaceous formations exposed on the reserva- tion correspond with the subdivisions of this system recognized in southwestern Colorado.^ The Dakota sandstone unconformably overlies the McElmo formation and consists of conglomerate and sandstones, lenticular and cross-bedded. The Mancos shale is pre- vailingly argillaceous but contains many beds of sandstone and numerous thin seams of coal. The Mesaverde formation, consisting of sandstones, shales, and coal, is widely extended in northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. The tops of Black Mesa, of Dutton, Chaco, and Manuelito plateaus, and the floor of Chuska Valley are formed of the resistant sandstone members of the Mesa- verde. Within this formation are found deposits of coal of high commercial value. Cretaceous strata younger than the Mesaverde are represented on the reservation but have not been differentiated. Tertiary. — Strata of Tertiary age cap the Chuska Mountains and cover a portion of Black Mesa. Two formations are recognized — the Tohachi shale and a group of porous, friable gray sandstones for which the term " Chuska sandstone " has been adopted. The Tertiary formations rest unconformably on the eroded surface of Cretaceous and of older beds. Volcanic flows of Tertiary age are represented by caps on the Chuska Mountains and by numerous fragments in the Hopi Buttes region and along the Little Colorado Eiver. Volcanic necks and dikes are distributed widely over the reservation. Quaternary. — The products of post-Tertiary erosion are repre- sented on the Navajo Eeservation by extensive deposits of alluvium forming the floor of wide washes and fringing canyon and mesa walls. Wind has also played an active part, and dunes ranging in size from small mounds to crescentic ridges 30 to 50 feet in height are found at all points except over the forested highland areas. STRUCTURE. The fundamental structural features of Navajo geology are shown on the accompanying sections, Plate XXII, and require little fur- ther description for our present purposes. The departures of strata from horizontality are the results of folds rather than of faults, 1 Cross, Whitman, U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, La Plata folio (No. 60), 1899. PAINTED DESERT KAIBITO PLATEAU BLACK MESA CHINLE VALLEY DEFIANCE PLATEAU CHUSKA MOUNTAINS CHUSKA VALLEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE CHACO PLATEAU ! S RAINBOW PLATEAU NAVAJO MOUNTAIN .4. SECTION FROM COLORADO RIVER THROUGH LOHALI TO CHACO RIVER MONUMENT VALLEY CHINLE VALLEY GOTHIC MESAS CARRIZO MOUNTAIN CHUSKA VALLEY B. SECTION FROM COLORADO RIVER THROUGH NAVAJO AND C/lRRIZO MOUNTAINS TO CHACO RIVER GEOLOGIC SECTIONS ACROSS THE NAVAJO COUNTRY GEOLOGIC SKETCH. 81 which have such a commanding influence in the plateau region farther west. In fact the fault in Monument Valley/ described by Woodruff as having a maximum throw of 200 feet, is the only example of faults exceeding 100 feet in vertical displacement so far known on the reservation. In the eastern part of the district the structural feature of primary importance is the De Chelly upwarp, which includes the elongated dome of Defiance Plateau, from which Tertiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, and the larger part of Triassic sedi- ments have been stripped. The western limb of the De Chelly up- warp in many places dips gently beneath the Chinle Valley ; else- where it drops abruptly westward, forming the Ganado monocline. The eastern limb is sharply downfolded in the Defiance monocline with dips between 20° and 70°. The upturned and eroded edges of strata forming the Defiance monocline may be traced northward from the Santa Fe Eailway, along the west front of Manuelito Plateau, until they disappear beneath the Chuska Mountains. Emerging from the base of Chuska Mountain at Toadlena, the monocline continues across Chuska Valley, reaching the San Juan at Hogback Mountain. A minor dome, Todilto Park, interrupts the regularity of the prevailing eastward dip. At the southern border of the reservation the dips of the monocline flatten, and the structure probably disappears some distance beyond Zuni. (See PL VIII, J., p. 33.) Eastward from the Defiance monocline an extensive coal field occupies the Gallup syncline, the eastern limb of which is the Nutria monocline, represented by a hogback bordering the Zuni Moun- tains. North of Manuelito Plateau the Chaco syncline extends to San Juan Eiver. Black Mesa occupies the center of the Tusayan downwarp, a shal- low synclinal structure extending from the Chinle Valley to Echo Cliffs, a distance of nearly 100 miles. The Echo monocline is crossed by the section shown in Plate XXII a few miles north of Willow Springs. Southward from this point the monocline appears to die out gradually, but northward it extends as a bold escarpment, Echo Cliffs, which crosses Colorado Eiver and continues northward to the west base of Kaiparowitz Plateau. Along the Little Colorado anticlines with small dips are to be seen at Wolf Crossing and below Grand Falls. Black Point, pro- jecting into Little Colorado Eiver from the west, is a lava-capped monocline, produced by a vertical displacement of "not less than 800 feet." 2 1 U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 471, p. 93, 1911. 2 Robinson, H. H., The San Franciscan volcanic field : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 76, p. 35, 1913. 33033°— wsp 380—16 6 82 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Along the northern border of Arizona two laccolithic mountains, Carrizo and Navajo, rise high above the surrounding surface. West- ward from Carrizo Mountain the strata of the Gothic Mesa form a sj^nclinal basin, the western limb of which is the Comb monocline, which extends as a curved wall from Marsh Pass to and beyond San Juan River. Monument Valley, bisected by San Juan Eiver, is carved from the Monument upwarp, an anticlinal dome, the Avestern limb of which passes downward into the narrow and shalloAV Oljeto syncline. The eastern wall of Segi Mesas is formed by the Hos- kinnini monocline, Avhich gives a rise of 1,200 feet in a distance of about 2 miles. The structural features outlined above indicate the presence of a series of synclinal basins wdth long dip slopes, which offer suitable conditions for the storage of artesian water. GEOLOGIC HISTORY. The record of pre-Cambrian time within the limits of the Navajo country is exceedingly fragmentary, and is exposed for examination at only one point, namely, Quartzite Canyon, near Fort Defiance. At this locality a mass of quartzite in sharp unconformity Avith the overlying shales of the Moenkopi formation is revealed by erosion. Where the original bedding is decipherable the mass is seen to con- sist of coarse sandstone with interspersed lenses of conglomerate. The abundant ripple marks and sun-baked surfaces and the few mud cracks observed suggest subaerial deposition. Since deposition during Carboniferous time was continuous in adjoining areas, it is probable that this mass of quartzite remained as an island through Pennsylvanian and possibly through all earlier Paleozoic time. During Permian time the land was near sea level and w^as prob- abl}^ repeatedly submerged to no great depth. The invertebrate fossils so far collected are of marine types, but plant remains are abundant, and many of the beds exhibit subaerial features, and sug- gest a landscape of little relief exposed to an arid climate. Conditions prevailing during early Triassic time are unknown, and whether sediments of this age were deposited in the Mavajo country is only a matter of speculation. The first recorded deposit of Triassic age is the Shinarump conglomerate, which followed the Permian ( ? ) deposits after a long erosion interval. The coarse sili- ceous conglomerates of this formation, carrying a large proportion of fossil wood fragments, are probably of subaerial origin. After the Shinarump conglomerate had been laid down the region pre- sented a landscape marked by fresh and brackish water bodies, inter- laced with low-lying lands dotted with trees. Arid or semiarid GEOLOGIC SKETCH. • 83 climates prevailed. This interpretation is based on the composition and structure of the sediments of the Chinle formation and on the evidence of fossils. What part, if any, was taken by the sea remains undetermined. With increasing aridity and elevation the Navajo country became a desert, with dunes piled high and with restricted and specialized animal and plant life. These conditions probably prevailed during the deposition of strata of the Jurassic La Plata group, the arrange- ment of which indicates eolian as well as fluviatile deposition. Aridity may have continued throughout Jurassic time, and the lands at this period probably extended over the area included in the Navajo and Hopi reservations. Bodies of water — salt, brackish, and fresh^ were present, and were apparently sparsely inhabited by fish and by invertebrates. That sufficient forage and water for animals were available is indicated by the skeletons of dinosaurs embedded in the rocks and by the footprints of those animals discovered in Navajo Canyon and elsewhere. That land at the close of Jurassic time was extensively developed is shown by the widespread erosional uncon- formity which separates strata provisionally assigned to this age from those of the overlying Cretaceous. This period of vigorous erosion, marked by the unconformity at the base of the Dakota, has removed all traces of deposits laid down during Comanche (Lower Cretaceous) time, if, indeed, any strata of this age were ever present. At the beginning of Upper Cretaceous time streams were active and portions of the area were represented by water bodies, which were swampy or estuarine in character. The heterogeneous material classed as Dakota sandstone appears to have been laid down mainly by streams. The sea was also present but appears to have confined its activities chiefly to the reworking of sediments previously deposited. For a long period after the deposition of the Dakota sandstone the land was alternately submerged and reelevated, so that shales and sandstones containing marine fossils alternating with beds of lig- nitic coal were deposited. The series thus formed has been named the Mancos shale. Throughout Mesaverde time also the sea and the land were alternately dominant in northeastern Arizona. With the coming of the Tertiary the sea is believed to have been permanently excluded from the area included in the Navajo country. Lacustrine deposits containing fresh-water shells tell of the pres- ence of lakes and tangentially cross-bedded sandstones suggest the work of winds. Volcanism was also active during this period and probably continued into the Quaternary. From the beginning of the Tertiary period date the major folds represented in the region and the consequent uplifts which, several times repeated, have 84 ' THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. brought the land to its present position with respect to the sea. At one stage during late Tertiary time (Pliocene) erosion became domi- nant and reduced parts of the area to a peneplain. The gradient of the streams was later increased by a regional uplift, which enabled them greatly to reduce the area occupied by Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. Other uplifts, amounting to 3,000 to 4,000 feet, still further augmented the power of the streams and enabled them to cut the canyons which form so conspicuous a feature of Navajo topography. Part II. SURFACE WATERS. STREAMS. MASTER STREAMS OF THE REGION". Three large rivers — ^the Colorado^ the San Juan, and the Little Colorado, with its tributary, the Puerco — mark the borders of the Navajo country. The Colorado, the master stream of the plateau province, eventually receives the surface water from the entire region except for an insignificant amount carried to the Rio Grande. From the mouth of the San Juan to Echo Cliffs the Colorado flows between the brightly colored walls of Glen Canyon ; below Lee Ferry it occupies the still more profound Marble Canyon. Throughout its course in the Navajo country it flows as a powerful stream whose moderate grade is interrupted by few rapids. The San Juan is a perennial stream. Along its upper course it receives the waters of vigorous tributaries which have their sources in the San Juan and La Plata mountains. Within the 90-mile stretch of winding channel from Bluff to Colorado River it receives no continuous supply of importance, but maintains a depth of 3 to 5 feet even in the dry season.^ Measurements of flow taken at Farmington, N. Mex., gave the following results : Monthly discharge, in second^feet, of San Juan River at Farmington, N. Mex.^ Month. Maximum. Minimum. Mean June (12 days) . July August September October November December January... February.. March April May June July August.... September. October... November. December.. 1904. 1905. 1906. May Jime4 June 8 (station discontinued) . 1,300 1,578 4,980 8,625 20,000 1,695 780 338 2,582 3,410 7,460 19, 100 24,800 8,240 3,740 4,870 4,635 2,708 1,300 780 20 1,450 400 2,625 630 90 40 230 780 1,085 4,635 10,960 2,180 840 1,180 1,180 1,085 840 1,030 375 2,627 1,375 5,935 1,087 348 242 682 1,625 4,290 10, 110 18,270 3.604 i;747 1,673 1,690 1,306 1,084 11,700 9,090 12,800 all. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 133, pp. 180-183, 1904; Water-Supplv Paper 175, p. 134, 1906; Water-Supply Paper 211, p. lOi, 1908. 1 The course of the San Juan below Blufl, as shown on published maps, is correct only with respect to general direction. 85 86 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. The T^iieico-Little Colorado is an intermittent stream. From its source on the Continental Divide in New Mexico to Holbrook in Ari- zona it is marked at low water by a dry bed interrupted by stretches of stream rarely exceeding a mile in length. I have been informed that during parts of certain years no flowing water is to be found in the Puerco from Gallup westw^ard to its mouth. At Holbrook it joins the upper Little Colorado, a perennial stream from the White Mountains. Between Hardy and Winslow the Little Colorado receives the waters of Chevelon Fork and Clear Creek/ tributaries from the central Arizona highlands which give to the Little Colorado its perennial character throughout the 33-mile course from Holbrook to Winslow and make this section, including the settlements at Holbrook, St. Joseph, and Winslow the only part of the Puerco-Little Colorado Valley that has attained commercial importance. From Winslow to Colorado River, a distance of over 100 miles, the flow of the Little Colorado is seasonal, and during years of normal precipitation it reaches a stage where no running water is to be found except on the floor of the canyon near the junction with its master stream. The quantity of water it carries at Holbrook. where its continuous flow is largest, is given in the following table : MontMy discharge, in second-feet, of Little Colorado River at Holbrook, Ariz.^ Month. Maximum. Minimum. 1,190 718 2,075 504 1,055 145 145 44 488 5 1,200 33 1,760 15 220 19 20,180 30 325 45 1,330 165 325 73 3,540 60 987 100 150 5 5 3 140 3 275 15 600 4 250 5 63 4 890 25 1,000 90 380 73 2,100 115 573 290 March (15 days). April May (25 days)... June July August September October November December ;. 1905. January . . . February.. March April May June July August September. Octolier November. December . 1906. January . . February. March . .". . April 1907. 863 915 353 82.6 67.9 163 302 50.7 ,159 113 452 170 621 245 54 4.1 24.9 71.5 26. 11. 181 276 176 444 401 aU. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 133, pp. 180-183, 1904; Water-Supply Paper 175, p. 134, 1906; Water-Supply Paper 211, p. 101, 1908. 1 In 1906 the ma.'cimum flow of Chevelon Fork near Winslow was 3,870 second-feet (in March), the minimum was 0.25 second-foot (September to November), and the mean for the year was 110 second- foot; from June 3 to December 31 of the same year the maximum discharge of Clear Creek near Winslow was 2,245 second-feet (in December), and the minimum was 3 second-feet (in A-Ugust) : U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 211, pp. 117, 119, 1908. The mean discharge of Clear Creek for the period has been computed as 52.9 second-feet. STREAMS. 87 THROUGH-FLOWING STREAMS. The Colorado^ the San Juan, and the Little Colorado are the only streams of the Navajo country that carry water from areas beyond the limits of the reservation. Within the reservation the drainage from 9,897 square miles, an area which contains no perennial through-flowing streams, is directed toward the Puerco and Little Colorado. The Colorado receives the waters from Navajo Creek, a perennial stream through the 54 miles of its canyoned course and carrying at low stages nearly 2 second-feet of water. Several of the short, deep canyons entering the Colorado from the Rainbow Plateau contain minute streams; Oak Creek and Nasja furnish perennial supplies; and a rill of clear, pure water finds its way down Bridge Canyon, passing beneath the Rainbow Arch. The San Juan is the goal of Junction, Cha, and Desha creeks, which drain the northern slopes of Navajo Mountain and maintain a flow of 10 to 100 gallons a minute, even during the season when precipitation is lacking and evaporation assumes excessive proportions. The San Juan also receives perennial supplies from Piute Creek, which drains a narrow strip of land immediately adjoining its can- yoned valley. ( See PI. XVIII, J. , p. 69. ) In July, 1910, the estimated flow of Piute Creek 6 miles above its mouth was 0.20 second-foot, and the average of two estimates made in June, 1913, at points near the head of the canyon was 0.15 second-foot. Nokai, Copper, and Moonlight canyons hold trickling rills of water which find their way into the San Juan. Gypsum Creek, which drains the eastern half of Monument Valley, is rarely dry. The longest stream of perennial flow which finds its way to the borders of the reservation is Tyende Creek. This stream emerges from the many-branched Laguna Can- yon at Marsh Pass, winds its way through the hogback rim of Monument Valley, traverses Sahotsoidbeazhe Canyon, and enters Chinle Valley, which it follows to the San Juan. At Marsh Pass the discharge during the dry season is about 1.70 second-feet, which is the largest flow noted at any point along the stream during the months of June and July, 1909, 1910, and 1913. INTERMITTENT STREAMS. Within the liiAits of the reservation are a number of intermittent streams that occupy well-defined drainage channels but reach their master streams only during the rainy season. Three of these streams, the Moenkopi, Black Creek, and the Pueblo Colorado, are tributary to the Puerco and Little Colorado. MOENKOPI CREEK. Of all the tributaries of the lower Little Colorado the Moenkopi (Hopi, running water) flows most continuously and responds most 88 ^HE NAVAJO COUNTEY. readily to seasonal precipitation. Topographically it is separable into three sections of subequal length. The upper third (25 miles) is intrenched in the Cretaceous strata of Black Mesa, forming a nar- row, steep-walled canyon, joined by tributaries that occupy valleys of similar shape. The terraces and flats on the canyon floor are a few acres in extent and are discontinuous. The stream is fed during the dry season by a few springs and seeps distributed along its course, which supply an interrupted flow of 10 to 30 gallons a minute. At Blue Canyon (Navajo, Bokogo dotklish) the intermittent stream emerges from the dark-gray rocks of the upper canyon and enters the second part of its course, where it is confined between low walls of brilliantly colored sandstones of Jurassic age. During this stretch of 30 miles, between Blue Canyon and the cliffs west of Tuba, the stream is alternately buried by sand and brought to the surface by ledges of rock. Patches of alluvium, 10 to 50 acres in extent, flanking the stream channel, from time to time have been reclaimed by irriga- tion, occasionally at considerable expense. Near Moenkopi village the underflow of the stream is brought to the surface by exposed rock ledges and is supplemented by supplies from Eeservoir Canyon and from numerous springs of the vicinity. The combined flow of water from these sources amounts, even in dry seasons, to perhaps 5 second-feet and exceeds that at any other locality on the reservation. Fortunately wide valley flats below Moenkopi village are favorably situated for irrigation, and agriculture has here reached a higher stage of development than elsewhere in the Navajo country. The Spanish pioneers found at Moenkopi cultivated fields of corn and of cotton, and the Mormon settlers of the Tuba oasis used these same fields for corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa. Under the direction of the Indian Office, Hopi, Navajo, and white men now work side by side in cultivating this garden spot surrounded by an inhospitable desert. The lower part of the Moenkopi wanders for 20 miles through the Painted Desert to join the canyon of the Little Colorado. Through- out this stretch of subdued topography its flow is intermittent and the Triassic shales which form its bed yield alkali which renders the water unpalatable. BLACK CREEK. From its source in Chuska Mountain to Eed Lake the waters of Black Creek are in view except for stretches of a fraction of a mile. Swamps and seeps mark the sources of the various branches, and flat valley floors, susceptible of irrigation, line the stream for several miles. The run-off from 230 square miles, constituting the drainage area of this portion of Black Creek, including Red Lake, was found by the engineers of the Indian Service to be 33,328 acre-feet a year. From Red Lake to St. Michaels Black Creek occupies a shallow arroyo cut in the floor of a wide, flat-bottomed valley. Within this STEEAMS. 89 distance water is present even in the dry season, as short stream stretches, interrupted by expanses of dry sandy floor. The stream is also intermittent along its course from St. Michaels to Oak Spring, below which it becomes perennial while passing through lower Black Creek Canyon, assuming once more an intermittent character in the 10-mile stretch ending at Puerco Eiver. Two short tributaries to Black Creek, one from Buell Park, the other at St. Michaels, are perennial for a mile or so of their upper courses and reach their master stream for about six months in a year. A third tributary, Bonito Creek, rising in Quartzite Canyon, discharges at low water 0.87 second-foot,^ and though only about 5 miles long has determined the location of Fort Defiance and made possible the irrigated fields and gardens which give to this spot its attractive features. PUEBLO COLORADO WASH. Nearly 1,250 square miles of the Defiance Plateau is drained by the Pueblo Colorado Wash, the upper 18 miles of which, from its source to Ganado, is a perennial stream, its discharge at low water being perhaps 2 second-feet. (See p. 110.) From Ganado to Holbrook, a distance of more than 100 miles, the stream flows only in response to showers. The terraces along the canyon in the upper portion and the wide flats below the mouth of the canyon have been cultivated by means of irrigation since the days of the cliff dwellers, and this per- manent supply of water in the midst of an arid expanse has made of Ganado an important center of agricultural and commercial activity for the Navajos and the white traders. CHINLE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. The 4,790 square miles of the Navajo Reservation included in the Chinle drainage area comprises a region intimately associated with the life of the Navajo race and with the history of the prehistoric populations of the plateau province. Cliff ruins are found in nearly all the canyoned tributaries and traces of ancient irrigated fields are distributed far and wide through the valleys. Following the cliff dweller and the Hopi, the Navajo has occupied the favorable spots within the Chinle basin and practiced agriculture by irrigation and dry farming, making use of his knowledge of fluctuation in stream flow. The main Chinle is ephemeral in its flow from its head, 6 miles northwest of Ganado, to Chinle, a distance of 38 miles. From Chinle to the mouth of Tyende Creek the stream is ephemeral or in rare years intermittent during the dry season, with the proportion of waterless bed much in excess of flowing stretches. Below the mouth of the Tyende the flow of the Chinle is permanent, except where obstructed for short distances by accumulations of wind- 1 Measured by Lieut. H. C. Brown, October, 1892. 90 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. blown sand. Above the Tyende the western tributaries of the Chinle contain no perennial waters except for stretches usually less than a mile in length immediately below the springs which supply them. Some of these short streams have their origin in the Mancos shale or Chinle formation, and contain an amount of salts which renders their waters unfit for domestic uses. From the east the Chinle re- ceives the drainage from Nazlini Canyon, Canyon de Chelly, Can- yon del Muerto, Lukachukai Valley, and Walker Creek valley — channels whose upper parts, at least, are occupied by perennial streams. The Nazlini, at the exit from its canyon, has, in the dry season, a small j)ermanent discharge, which decreases downstream Until the flow becomes intermittent and finally disappears. The De Chelly is fed by small perennial streams — ^Whiskey Creek, Palisade Creek, and Wheatfields Creek — which rise in the Chuska Mountains and furnish Canyon de Chelly with a supply of water that is aug- mented by springs distributed along its course. Where measured, 6 miles from its mouth, the De Chelly, in May, 1909, had an estimated flow of 0.60 second-foot. Canyon del Muerto is the lower part of Spruce Brook, which emerges from Tunitcha Mountain as a clear stream of pure water with a discharge exceeding 1 second-foot. Spruce Brook drops into Canyon del Muerto at Sehili,^ and continues with more or less inter- rupted flow to its junction with Canyon de Chelly. Along the lower reaches of Whiskey, Palisade, and Wheatfields creeks and Spruce Brook, the flats adjoining the streams are favorably situated for irrigation. Below the mouth of Canyon del Muerto the De Chelly is normally without flowing water during the dry season. Lukachukai Creek forms the division line between the Tunitcha and Lukachukai mountains. From its source at the crest of the moun- tains to the Lukachukai settlement, at the mountain base, the stream occupies a narrow wooded valle}^ and carries even in the dry season 2 or 3 second-feet of water. For 6 or 8 miles below Lukachukai the creek maintains a perennial flow but assumes an intermittent char- acter in the vicinity of Eound Eock. Below this point the bed is normally dry for a few months each year. The colony of enterpris- ing Navajos at Lukachukai make use of the waters of this stream to irrigate about 200 acres of corn, alfalfa, and garden lands. The west side of Carrizo Mountain is drained by Walker Creek.^ The upper portion of the stream, emerging from the narrow, steep- 1 Sehili in the Navajo language means the place where water disappears into a canyon ; Chinle, the place where water emerges from a canyon mouth. 2 In the absence of a recognized name for this stream the liberty is taken of naming it Walker Creek in honor of Capt. Walker, of Macomb's expedition of 1859. Capt. Walker crossed the stream at Ojo de Casa (Navajo: Hogan sa-a-ni, lone house in the desert). The term Gothic Wash, used on many maps, is discarded, as this name was given by Macomb to a dry canyon entering the San Juan below Bluff. See map accompanying report on the exploring expedition, etc., in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. Macomb, Eng. Dept., U. S. Army, Washington, 1876. STREAMS. 91 floored canyon, is called by the Navajos Chinlini (place where water comes out of a canyon) ; the lower middle portion is sometimes spoken of as Mexican Water, a name still retained for the store at the point where the Mormon Road of 1879 crossed the creek. Walker Creek is perennial, except for widely separated short stretches. After leaving its upper canyon at Chinlini the stream occupies a trench cut in the alluvial floor of a rock- walled canyon and in many places rests on rock. Near its junction with the Chinle the canyon is wide and the stream finds its way with more or less interrupted flow between terraces which indicate the level of a previous stage of water. The flow of Walker Creek at Chinlini as estimated is 0.70 second-foot, and I am informed that at the Mexican Water store the discharge during the summer season is about 500 gallons a minute. In addition to the streams mentioned, two short creeks. Sheep Dip, about 12 miles north of Chinle School, and Agua Sal, entering Luka- chukai Creek north of Round Rock, flow intermittently toward their master streams. The water of Sheep Dip Creek is palatable, but that of Agua Sal is said to be unfit for general use. To the Chinle system belongs also Simpson Creek, which rises in the meadows as Washington Pass and crosses the New Mexico- Arizona boundary line near Crystal, on its way to Black Lake. The New Mexico portion of the stream is perennial and increases the attractiveness of the Washington Pass route from Fort Defiance to the San Juan. Before reaching Black Lake, however, Simpson Creek becomes intermittent and the extreme lower part flows during the dry season only in response to showers. STREAMS TRIBUTARY TO CHUSKA VALLET. On the eastern flanks of the Chuska Mountains are a number of short, perennial, or intermittent streams which occupy the upper portions of canyoned valleys whose ultimate goal is the poorly de- fijied drainage system of the Chuska Valley. The southernmost of these streams, Figueredo Creek, crossed by the Fort Defiance- Tohachi Road, is perennial for about 5 miles of its course, with a volume in dry seasons of about 30 gallons a minute. In the gap west of Chuska Peak another small stream of permanent flow was noted, and along the rim of Chuska Mountain, between Tohachi and Wash- ington Pass, are several rills, each less than a mile long, which repre- sent the overflow from springs. At Washington Pass a brook 2 miles or more in length discharges 20 to 25 gallons a minute through all seasons. At Toadlena is another short brook, and in the wide amphitheater south of Beautiful Mountain short streams with permanent or intermittent flows emerge from the plexus of profound canyons which gash the east face of Tunitcha Mountain. The 92 THE N^AVAJO COUNTRY. largest of these, Tseanazti Creek, has long been used for irrigation by cliff dweller and Navajo. Toward the Chuska Valley are di- rected also several short intermittent streams which rise on the northwest front of Dutton Plateau. Five visited by my party were all more or less alkaline, but not to an extent which rendered them useless for watering sheep. Selukai Creek, on which is located the Government sheep dip, is usually dry except during the rainy season. ADDITIONAL STREAMS. In the canyons of Redrock Valley short streams of intermittent flow were found to furnish sufficient supplies for camp and for wan- dering bands of sheep. Eleven valleys on the slopes of Carrizo Mountain hold in their upper courses tiny rills of perennial flow. Only three of these — Walker Creek, Biltabito, and Tisnasbas — flow continuously from the top to the base of the mountain during the dry season, and the discharge from the largest of these streams, Tisnasbas, was found by Dr. Emery, in July, 1913, to be 0.20 second- foot. On Black Mesa one permanent stream was observed, in addi- tion to several short trickling rills, the outflow from springs. This stream, the Tahchito, maintains a flow of 20 to 30 gallons a minute for a distance of about 5 miles. DRAINAGE OBSTRUCTED BY DUNES. Valleys trending southwest from Shato Plateau furnish a resting place for the wind-blown sand stripped from the surface of Kaibito Plateau, and the streams in the valleys are accordingly blocked from place to place. After rains Shato and Begashibito brooks are merely a series of lakes and pools tied together by streams. During the dry season the valley axis resembles a string of beads and the flow of the stream is so completely interrupted that lakes bordered by vegetation are separated from one another by stretches of dry floor heaped with dunes. EPHEMERAL STREAMS.* The through-flowing and intermittent streams described above traverse less than 1 per cent of the linear extent of drainage chan- nels in the Navajo country. During the dry season the ratio of valleys occupied by streams to vallej^s without water is, for channels exceed- ing 25 miles in length, about 1 : 100, and for channels between 5 and 10 miles in length about 1 : 340. Except during the rainy season the area drained by perennial surface waters is perhaps less than 5 per cent of the 25,725 square miles constituting the area under * On the map (PI. T) ephemeral streams are not separately indicated. The longer ones are included with " intermittent " streams ; most of them are not shown. STREAMS. 93 discussion. No permanent stream, except the Moenkopi, was found west of the Chinle Valley and south of latitude 36° 14', a district constituting about one-half of the reservation. The Kaibito Plateau and a large part of the Gothic Mesas are also without perennial drainage. With the coming of the rains conditions are radically modified and the dry valley floors are covered with rivers and tributary brooks. A single shower may convert any one of a score of intermittent rills into a through-flowing stream, and raise a group of dry washes to the dignity of rivers. During the season of daily rains, the last part of July and August, the aspect of the country is entirely changed. The Chinle system becomes integrated, and tributaries of the third and fourth degree contribute their daily supply. During this period the forbidding dry, hot valleys leading to the Little Colorado are transformed into a series of silt-laden rivers exceeding 100 miles in length, and the Little Colorado itself becomes a river of command- ing proportions, ranking with the Gila and the San Juan in the volume of water carried to the Colorado. Throughout the extent of the Navajo country the ephemeral or seasonal stream is the pre- vailing type, and all studies relating to the development of water resources in the Colorado Plateau province should include this factor of primary importance. SUMMARY TABLE OF STREAMS. The drainage area, length, and type of stream on the reservation are indicated in the following table. Distances and areas and the relation of tributaries to master streams are based on the recon- naissance topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey ; statements regarding the characteristics of the streams are taken from field notes, supplemented by information supplied by Navajos, Indian traders, and Government officers. Principal streams of the Navajo country. Name. Puerco and Little Col- orado. Puerco River Black Creek Bonito Creek.. Lithodendron Creek Little Colorado below junction with Puerco. Leroux Wash Pueblo Colorado Wash. Drainage area. Sq. miles. 9,897 1,326 272 38.5 156 ,571.5 203.5 1,247 Length. Miles, 252 4 28 156 Type. Intermittent Perennial 16 miles at head; peren- nial for 6 miles below Oak Spring; remainder intermittent. Perennial Ephemeral Perennial between Holbrook and Winslow; intermittent for 5 miles below Winslow; ephem- eral 92 miles. Ephemeral Intermittent 10 miles at upper end; perennial for 8 miles above Ga- nado; ephemeral from Ganado to mouth. Character of water. Heavily silt laden ex- cept at low water. Clear, fi-esh. Muddy except at ex- tremely low water; slightly allcaline and salty. 94 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Principal streams of the Navajo country — Continued. Name. Wide Ruin Wasli Cottonwood Wash Corn Creek (from To- lani Lakes to mouth). Coyote Wash Jadito Wash First Mesa Wash Wepo Wash Second Mesa Wash Oraibi Wash Dinnebito Wash Moenkopi Creek, not inchiding Red Lake Valley drainage. Moenkopi Wash (Tuba to mouth). Red Lake and Klethla valleys. Colorado River di'ainage Navajo Creek Bridge Creek San Juan River drain- age (San Juan River below Farmington). Piute Creek Nokai Creek ra Copper Creeko Moonlight Creek (in- cluding Segihatsosi drainage). Gypsum Creek Chinle Creek (or wash) . Walker Creek Tyende Creek Lukachukai Creek Agua Sal Creek Canyon de Chelly Creek Spruce Brook Canyon del Muert oCr eek Wheatfields Creek...... Palisade Creek Whiskey Creek Simpson Creek Monument Creek Nazlini Creek Beautiful Valley Wash. Gothic Wash Desert Creek Arido Creek. Tisnasbas Creek Biltabito Creek Red Wash..... Standing R e d r o c k Creek. Blackhorse Creek Rio Chaco. Drainage area. Sq. miles. 445 527.5 338.5 623 672. 5 179 67 652 872 367 312 ,877 770 23 13,951 285 246 26 477 169 ,790 387 975 325 103.5 162.5 73 107.5 87 16 49 80.5 100 243 155 197 87 166 73.5 521 67 4.791 Length. Miles. 38 58 13 28 50 56 21 30 85 100 76 162 54 7 220 30 104 38 62 30 Type. Ephemeral. do ....do .do. Perennial 35 miles; intermittent 18 miles; ephemeral 23 miles. Perennial except for short stretches Ephemeral except at lower end. . . PerenniaL ....do..... .do. .do. .do. Perennial 4 miles; intermittent 18 miles; ephemeral 20 miles. Perennial, lower portion Ephemeral 86 miles; intermittent 18 miles. Perennial do Perennial 10 miles; intermittent 14 miles. Ephemeral 6 miles; intermittent 8 miles; ephemeral 16 miles. Perermial 15 miles; intermittent lower 5 miles. Perennial Intermittent Perennial ...do ...do Perennial 10 miles; ephemeral 2 miles. Intermittent Perennial 9 miles; intermittent 3 miles; ephemeral 12 miles. Ephemeral do ....do Ephemeral or intermittent Perennial 6 miles; intermittent 2 miles; ephemeral 10 miles. Perennial 3 miles; intermittent 4 miles; ephemeral 8 m-iles. Intermittent; ephemeral Perennial 9 miles; intermittent 2 miles; ephemeral 2 miles. Perennial 3 miles; intermittent 9 miles. Ephemeral with intermittent stretches. Character of water. Alkaline. Heavily silt laden. Clear, fresh, except in flood seasons. Clear, fresh. Silt laden except at low water. Fresh, clear, except in flood seasons. Do. Fresh, clear. Clear, fresh, in upper portions. Alkaline; mipalatable. Silt laden except at lowest stages. Clear, fresh. Do. Clear, fresh from source to Round Rock; slightly alkaline be- low. Reported to be alka- line. Fresh, clear, except in flood. Clear, fresh. Do. Do. Do. Do. Fresh, clear, except lower 4 miles. Fresh, clear. Fresh, clear, in can- yoned portion. Fresh, clear, in upper portion. Fresh, clear, in peren- nial portion. Slightly alkaline ex- cept at head tribu- taries. Clear, fresh. Do, a The area drained and the length of Nokai Creek are rough approximations only. The topography of this area as shown on the Marsh Pass and Henry Mountains maps gives an en'oneous idea of the drainage relations of Copper, Nokai, and Piute canyons. THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. 95 FACTORS INFLUENCING STREAM FLOW. PRECIPITATION. AMOUNT. With the exception of the San Juan, the Colorado, and the Little Colorado, the streams of the Navajo country are fed by water that falls Avithin its borders. The annual mean precipitation has been determined at a few points (see pp. 50-59) and found to be small in amount and to vary widely at different localities. The records for Fort Defiance and St. Michaels, at elevations of about 6,900 feet, giving a mean annual fall of 12.80 inches, represent fairly the combined rainfall and snowfall for Defiance Plateau, Black Creek Valley, Manuelito Plateau, and Dutton Plateau, are doubtless somewhat too low for the Chuska Mountains and Carrizo Mountain and are probably slightly too high for Black Mesa. The mean annual precipitation of 10.62 inches at Chinle (elevation about 6,400 feet) is probably higher than for Chinle Valley as a whole, as well as for Monument Valle}^ and the Gothic Mesas. The average annual precipitation at Holbrook is 9.15 inches. It may be noted that evaporation at Holbrook during this same period aver- aged 46.32 inches, that is, more than five times the amount of rainfall. These figures may reasonably be extended to cover the Hopi Buttes, the Tusayan Washes, and the upper Puerco and Little Colorado Valley. The area centering at Tuba is the most arid part of the Navajo country. The records of rainfall at this station give an average pre- cipitation of 5.30 inches, a figure that may be extended to cover the Kaibito Plateau, and possibly also the Moenkopi Plateau and a large part of the Rainbow Plateau. Judging from the vegetation, Shato Plateau and Segi Mesas receive 20 to 30 per cent more rain than is recorded at Tuba. On the other hand the precipitation in the Painted Desert below Grand Falls probably reaches, on the average, less than 3 inches, and in some years the total rainfall has been insuffi- cient to produce run-off. On one occasion, according to reports of a Navajo headman, two years in succession were marked by the absence of rain at Tanner Crossing. Navajo Mountain, which rises 4,000 feet above its plateau base, is visited by rainclouds which pass unchanged across the lower lands to the west and probably receives precipitation, including snow, of more than 20 inches, sufficient to support a relatively luxuriant vegetable cover. A mean annual precipitation of 6.92 inches at Hite, Utah, 40 miles north of the mouth of San Juan Eiver, may be taken as representative of the immediate valley of Colorado River from Lee Ferry to the mouth of Fremont River. The rain- fall along the middle and upper San Juan Valley is fairly repre- 96 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. sented by the records at Aneth, which give a mean annual precipita- tion of 4.96 inches, and at Fruitland, which receives on the average 6.89 inches of rain a year. Carrizo Mountain, like Navajo Mountain, rises as a solitary mass to a height of 9,420 feet, and receives probably more than twice the rain that falls in San Juan Valley at its base. DISTRIBUTION IN TIME. The average of the means of annual precipitation for Fort Defiance and St. Michaels, Keams Canyon, Holbrook, Winslow, Tuba, Chinle, Aneth, Fruitland, and Hite is 8.29 inches, a figure which, for present purposes, may be considered as the annual rainfall for the Navajo country as a whole. It will be readily understood that this amount is scarcely sufficient to maintain permanent flow even if the rain were evenly distributed throughout the year and from year to year, thus giving a mean monthly precipitation of about 0.62 inch. Any opportunity, however, which the rainfall might otherwise have of furnishing the watercourses with continuous small flows is offset by the nature of the precipitation in which the following elements are dominant. VARIATION THROUGHOUT THE YEAR. When records for all stations are compared, it appears that the rainfall of the reservation is characterized by a maximum during July, August, and September and a minimum during April, May, and June. January and February and, to a less degree, December are months in which a small amount of rain is to be expected ; Octo- ber and November are nearly always dry. The seasonal variation at Holbrook is as follows : Spring, 1.41 inches ; summer, 3.32 inches ; autumn, 2.41 inches; and winter, 2.01 inches. In descending order of the amount of rainfall at Holbrook the months may be arranged as follows: July, August, November, September, January, October, February, March, December, April, May, and June. The figures for Keams Canyon are: Spring, 1.76 inches; summer, 3.77 inches; autumn, 2.28 inches; winter, 3.13 inches. July and August are the wettest months, followed in turn by December, March, October, February, January, September, November, April, June, and May. Chinle receives 2.29 inches of rain during the winter, 1.25 inches in the spring, 4.31 in summer, and 2.77 in the autumn. The greatest precipitation occurs during July, that of August, December, Septem- ber, October, March, February, April, June, November, January, and May following in descending order. The fact that the months group themselves naturally into wet and dry seasons results in a higher percentage of run-off for the Navajo country than if rain were evenly distributed throughout the FACTOES INFLUENCING STREAM FLOW. 97 year. During periods of concentrated rainfall evaporation is less- ened and the amount of water absorbed by the ground is decreased. Slight continuous precipitation at intervals favors the maximum accumulation of ground water and consequent decrease in amount of run-off. VARIATION FROM YEAR TO YEAR. Dry years and relatively wet years are indicated by the records of stations in the Navajo country, and great inequalities in the monthly precipitation from year to year are also noticeable. (See dis- cussion under " Climate," pp. 60-61.) The run-off increases with an increase in the amount of precipitation, but is not directly propor- tional to the rainfall. In fact, the difference between maximum and minimum run-off may exceed the difference betAveen maximum and minimum of mean annual precipitation by several hundred per cent. VIOLENT SHOWERS OF SHORT DURATION. The rain in the Navajo country falls in violent showers, which may last a few hours or only a few minutes. Rains that fall as gentle downpours and continue for a day or more are rare. Thunder- showers during which clouds gather, rain falls, and the sky again clears, all within the space of half an hour or less, are typical. Snow falls in winter at all elevations above 5,000 feet and in some years at lower elevations. Hailstorms are not uncommon. Sudden heavy showers tend to increase the proportion of the total rainfall that is carried away by streams. An inch or so of the ground may become saturated during the first few minutes of such storms and the water which later falls may nearly all form part of the run-off. (See p. 63.) EVAPORATION. The mean annual temperature for the coldest station on the Navajo Reservation proper, namely. Fort Defiance, is 47.6°, the winter mean being 28.6°, and the summer mean 66°. For Holbrook the figures are annual mean 54.2°, winter mean 34.9°, summer mean 71.6°. Be- cause of the arid conditions the nights on the reservation are prevail- ingly cool and the relatively low mean annual temperatures recorded give little indication of the almost continuous high temperatures of the day. Temperatures exceeding 100° may be experienced for 15 or 20 days each year at Holbrook, Winslow, Tuba, Chinle, Fruitland, Aneth, and Hite. During the summer months the day temperatures in the lower San Juan Valley, the Painted Desert, the Chinle Val- ley, the Hopi Buttes, and the Tusayan Washes rarely fall below 90°. 33033°— wsp 380—16 7 98 THE IsTAVAJO COUNTEY. The mean relative humidity at Flagstaff, the only station in this region for which records are available, is, for the years 1905 to 1911, 66, 62, 63.5, 59, 73, 57.5, and 51 per cent, respectively, an annual mean of 61.8 per cent. The figures for June drop below 40 per cent. It is colder and much wetter at Flagstaff than in the region to the east, and the relative humidity is consequently higher. For the Navajo Eeservation as a whole the estimate of relative humidity may safely be placed below 50 per cent. High temperature and low humidity are the chief causes for the high figures assigned to evaporation in the Navajo country. At Holbrook the measured amount of evaporation was for 1906, 49.81 inches; 1907, 42.07 inches; 1908, 48.62 inches; 1909, 45.38 inches; a mean of 46.41 inches — that is, the evaporation was 300 to 400 per cent greater than the rainfall (9.15 inches) at this station. In the lower Lattle Colorado Valley, where the daily range of tempei^ature exceeds 50° and where temperatures of over 100° are not uncommon, rough measurements indicate an annual evaporation of over 60 inches. Since evaporation is directly proportional to the temperature the amount of water capable of being dissipated into the air is greater during the summer, the time when the maximum amount of water is needed for the support of vegetation and to maintain the flow of dwindling streams. The seasonal distribution of evaporation for Holbrook for the four-year period 1906 to 1909 is: Winter, 6.34; spring, 11.20; summer, 18.67; fall, 10.20. Streams therefore are likely to flow with greater regularity during the fall and winter than during the other two seasons of the year. The influence of evaporation is strikingly shown by the well-known phenomenon of increased surface flow during nighttime. In early morning rills are found to have lengthened and to have increased in volume and intermittent stretches to have become through flowing. The amount of stream lengthening, as noted by members of my party, varies be- tween 20 and 1,000 feet. The wiser heads among the Navajos take advantage of this fact and water their herds before the sun's heat has affected the flow. SOIL. Bare rock constitutes a large proportion of the surface of the Navajo Reservation outside the larger washes. On the Eainbow Plateau and among the Gothic Mesas 20 to 40 per cent of the surface is bare or strewn only with loose gravel; in the other provinces the amount of exposed rock surface may equal 3 to 10 per cent. The flat tops of the Chuska Mountains and of Dutton and Moenkopi plateaus, Black Mesa, and Segi Mesas are covered with thin soil of high porosity, resulting from local disintegration of sandstone. For the region as a whole the soil is, however, mainly accumulated in the FACTORS INFLUENCING STEEAM FLOW. 99 washes and along the smaller stream channels, where deposits ex- ceeding 50 feet in depth are not unusual. The relatively small amounts of limestone and shale contributed by decomposing ledges gives to these alluvial deposits a composition almost wholly of sand and gravels. Evaporation dries the sands between showers and the streams accordingly find along their courses porous material which imbibes flowing water with avidity. VEGETATION. Approximately 5 per cent of the Navajo country may properly be called " forested " in the sense of extensive areas of trees, chiefly yellow pine, exceeding 40 or 50 feet in height. An additional area, perhaps 20 per cent, is covered with pinon and juniper 10 to 20 feet high and numbering 100 to 200 individuals per acre ; probably one-half of the remaining 75 per cent of the total area of the reserva- tion is marked by scattered pihon and juniper, with 5 to 20 trees per acre. Sage, greasewood, and grass, widely variable in amount and luxuriance of growth, are found among the trees and between the bare stretches of rock and soil outside the forested areas. The general effect of vegetation is to lower evaporation by shut- ting out winds and sunshine, to facilitate the accumulation of snow- drifts, and to retard run- off. The influence thus exerted partly com- pensates for the loss of water occasioned by transpiration* The nature of the cover of vegetation is, however, a matter of prime im- portance and the character of the flora on the Navajo country is such that the effect of vegetation on stream flow is not that noted in more humid regions. Leaf mold and forest litter is practically absent except on the Chuska Mountains, Button Plateau, and at the heads of valleys on Carrizo and Navajo mountains. At these and other localities similarly situated the horizontal attitude of strata rather than the presence of trees is responsible for the retention of vegetable debris. In the forest on Defiance Plateau (the most extensive area of merchantable timber on the reservation) the trees are wide spaced, and bare rock floor or rock coated with a thin soil deficient in organic material is more extensive than areas covered by pine needles (PL XXIII, A). On several occasions it was noted that the first shower of summer stripped the ledge bare and filled the watercourses with quantities of cones and other debris. Along the steep slopes trees commonly emerge from cracks in bare ledges. The run-off is somewhat retarded by these open forests and to an even greater extent by the tangle of oak and pinon in the small valleys at the bases of cliffs. Taken as a whole, sagebrush and grass tufts appear to be much more effective than trees in retarding run-off and facilitating soil absorption in this region. At no place observed was the perma- 100 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. nence of stream flow affected by forests to any large extent, and it is probable that if the forests of the reservation were replaced by fields of sage and grass and shrubs the behavior of the streams would not be appreciably affected. The storage of ground water likewise ap- pears to be relatively little influenced by the presence of forest cover, and it is believed that for the Navajo country the amount of water which is absorbed by rock and soil, and w^hich later appears as springs at lower levels, depends more on flatness of slope and local depressions than on the distribution of vegetation. This belief is strengthened by a study of the Hopi Buttes, where water falling upon the fissured, roughened surface of lava-capped mesas is led with unusual directness to the springs issuing at the base of the cliffs. On Chuska Mountain, also, the porous Tertiary sandstone dotted with pits and hollows produces the line of springs which emerge at the mountain base. EROSION or THE VALLEY FILL. During the last 20 or 30 years, in consequence of overgrazing and probably, too, of climatic change, the alluvial floors of canyons and washes have been trenched by streams, and the normal valley profile has been changed from a flat-floored, rock-walled gorge to a valley, including an inner canyon 10 to 50 feet deep, whose walls are of allu- vium (PL XXiy, A ) . This new development has resulted in enlarg- ing the amount and increasing the permanence of stream flow. A number of perennial springs and seeps issuing from the base of the alluvium in the new-made can^^ons and arroyos have been added to the reservation within the last 30 years, and the amount of surface water has been increased accordingly at the expense of the ground- water supply. My Navajo interpreters state that the flow of Tyende Creek and of the lower Chinle is more regular than formerly, and Mr. A. B. Eandall, wlio has been familiar with the conditions at Tuba since its colonization by the Mormons in 1876-1878, informed me that since 1880, when the Moenkopi began to intrench itself in the alluvium, the permanent flow of that stream has increased 600 to 800 per cent. WORK or THE WIND. Wind-blown sand has affected stream flow on the Kaibito, Shato, Rainbow, and Moenkopi plateaus, in the Little Colorado Valley, and in a lesser degree at other localities. Shallow basins in bare rock, depressions formerly connected w^ith drainage systems, were observed in many places. Dune areas, both shifting and stationary, in the Chinle Valley, the Tusayan Washes, as well as over the western portion of the reservation, have completely masked the normal drain- age and in many places hold short-lived pools of water in the hollows between the wind-formed mounds. In the southwestward-trending U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XXIll A. ROCK COVERED BY THIN SOIL IN FOREST OF DEFIANCE PLATEAU. Showing absence of forest litter and hunnus. B. NAVAJO CORNFIELD. Photograph by A. C. Vroman, U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XXIV A. LAGUNA CANYON, SHOWING RECENT TRENCHING. u ■^" • . ' K li, «Si^,\ :r./^w ^'x_?'> "i " •' .^''^%r'~' B. RESERVOIR CANYON, TUBA, ARIZ, IN PROCESS OF FILLING BY WIND-BLOWN SAND. FLUCTUATION IX STEEAM VOLUME. 101 valleys of the Shato Plateau and in the Klethla and Red Lake val- leys the streams are broken into a series of pools and swamps sepa- rated by mounds of shifting sands. Parts of valleys leading south to the Moenkopi are completely effaced by sands vhich have filled the trough to the level of the surrounding country. The process whereby this change is effected may be observed at Reservoir Can- yon, near Tuba, which is losing its identity year by year (PL XXiy, B), The net result of wind erosion and deposition appears to be an increase in quantity of ground water at the expense of sur- face supplies. FliUCTUATION IN STREAM VOLUME. The amount and quality of rainfall and evaporation, the nature of the soil and of vegetation, the effect of recent erosion, and the work of the wind combine to produce great and sudden fluctuation in volume of water carried by the streams of the Navajo country. In general the canyons and washes are alternately flooded and nearly dry during the rainy season and are without water during the spring and fall. On July IT, 1909, the San Juan w^as 3 inches deep at Four Corners, and July 23 the water at Mexican Hat was 3 feet deep. Following rains of the night of July 24 the river rose 8 feet. During the flood of 1911 the water at Shiprock stood 18 to 20 feet above low- water mark, and in the lower San Juan attained a height of 30 feet above low water. During this year the agency grounds at Ship- rock were flooded, and the bridge at that place and also the one at Goodridge, Utah, were destroyed. In narrow, deep canyons the rise of water supplied b}^ some in- significant tributary is sufficient to render the can3^on impassable, a change which may come without warning and necessitate skillful and rapid movements to transfer one's outfit to some shelf of rock beyond the reach of the temporary flood. In May, 1909, water to the amount of about 300 gallons a minute was flowing over Grand Falls on the Little Colorado. In June the stream was dry; by July 20 it had risen 6 feet and attained in places the width of one-half mile. Dur- ing the course of field work, July 10-21, 1913, no flowing water Avas found in the Little Colorado between Sunset Crossing and Black Knob. At noon on July 21 the water began to rise and by night had reached a stage where crossing was dangerous. The appearance of this stream at high water is seen in Plate XXY, A (p. 110) . During August, 1911, the Pueblo Colorado was observed to rise 13 feet in 4 hours, and in August, 1909, the lower Oraibi Wash, which had been dr}^ for six months, rose during one night to a height which necessitated swimming with the horses. After rains, the Tusayan, Pueblo Colorado, Wide Ruin and Chinle washes, and the streams in Black Creek and Chuska valleys expand in places to form sheets of water ranging in extent from 100 to more than 1,000 acres. Frequently 102 THE l^AVAJO COUNTEY. the rise of water is unconnected with rainfall in the vicinity. The fluctuations in volume of stream are greatest and most sudden in the smaller channels ; that the larger streams possess the same character is shown by quantitative measures on the through-flowing streams bordering the reservation. The San Juan in January, 1905, dis- charged a minimum of 40 second-feet; in June of the same year a maximum flow of 24,800 second-feet was recorded. In July, 1904, this stream reached a minimum discharge of 20 second-feet, as con- trasted with 20,000 second- feet in October. The Little Colorado at Holbrook, where this stream is perennial, had a mean discharge of 4.1 second-feet in June, 1906, preceded by 621 second-feet in March. During this year the maximum discharge was 3,540 second-feet, and the minimum 3 second-feet. For November, 1905, the difference be- tween maximum and minimum flow was 20,150 second- feet. Not only is there a great difference between maximum and minimum dis- charge for each month, but the flow during corresponding months of different years varies from 500 to 1,500 per cent for the San Juan. For the Little Colorado the maxima for November, 1905, and Novem- ber, 1906, were, respectively, 20,180 and 63 second-feet, a difference of nearly 2,000 per cent. Engineers of the Indian Office and Eeclamation Service need no description of the behavior of fluctuating streams in this region. Gages have been repeatedly washed out or rendered useless by shift- ing channels. "A gaging station was established on the Pueblo Colorado in November, 1910, but the sandy nature of the river caused a complete change in the channel after every high-water period. Since then the gage has been replaced three times, but the records are incomplete, for the reason that after every change either the gage was washed out or the channel changed so materially that the read- ings are valueless as to exact quantity." ^ Those who are acquainted with this region retain vivid impressions of the rapid and unjDredict- able fluctuations of stream volume — impressions based on experiences which involve both hardships and danger. One soon learns to re- spect the most innocent-looking dry channel and faithfully to fol- low the rule "Always camp on the other side of a wash" whenever crossing is possible. UTILIZATION OF STREAMS. NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS TO BE STUDIED. The scanty rainfall (see pp. 63-59) considered in connection with its uneven distribution and with the high evaporation and soil ab- sorption indicate the limits within which studies relating to the utilization of streams are to be confined. 1 Robinson, IT. F., superintendent of irrigation, letter to tlie Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Jan. 29, 1912. UTILIZATION OF STEEAMS. 103 A second consideration is the purpose for which surface water is to be used. If the region is designed for stock raising on open ranges there is little to be gained by increasing the supply of water in the present living streams. For this purpose many small supplies dis- tributed in such manner as to utilize the natural forage is the essen- tial requirement. If the region is to be reclaimed for agriculture, water from streams should be impounded for distribution during the spring and early summer — the growing season — in months which are practically rainless. Because of its elevation (about 43 per cent of the reservation is above 6,000 feet), the alkaline character of the soil over considerable areas, and the lack of plant food in other large tracts probably 60 to 70 per cent of the reservation is at present unsuited to agriculture, and if varied agriculture by irri- gation is to be undertaken on a large scale much study needs to be given to the treatment of soil as well as to the utilization of water. Attention must also be directed to the selection of plants adjusted to extremes of temperature, for within the valleys of the most vigorous perennial streams, particularly those of the Defiance Plateau, Chuska Mountains, and Carrizo and Navajo mountains, frost is liable to occur any month in the year. Even if agriculture is to be confined to the cultivation of forage plants similar problems are to be solved. Again, the future of the district as regards character of the popu- lation is an item which must be taken into account. According to the census of 1912 the Navajo and Hopi reservations are occupied by 2,272 Hopis, who are primarily agriculturists but who also prac- tice sheep husbandry; by 30,016 Navajos, who are unusually skillful stockmen ; by 200 Piutes, who raise sheep and cultivate small patches of corn ; by a few white cattlemen, who use the range outside the reser- vation lines ; and by about 500 officials, missionaries, and traders, pres- ent because of the Indians. If the region is to remain as Indian land, the problem is to procure water for stock and, in a minor degree only, for agriculture. The Navajo needs irrigated land in places where he may live the year round, not in mountain districts where corn will not mature and where sheep are driven only when forage is scarce in the lowlands. FLOOD mmGATION. The streams of all classes are at present partly utilized both for flood irrigation and for irrigation by storage, and improvement and extension of both these methods of increasing the available sup- ply of surface water may be accomplished without prohibitive ex- pense. The use of flood waters for irrigation has been a feature of agri- cultural practice in this section of the Plateau .province for perhaps a 104 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. thousand years. Fragments of check dams of loosely piled stone ar- ranged on sloping rock benches and on the terraced floor of washes may be seen near many of the ruins of the ancient cliif and plateau dwellers. It is probable also that temporary earth dams were con- structed by these farmers of early days. The Hopis, the remnants of this nearly extinct race, follow the methods of their ancestors with slavish regard for tradition. The Navajos in turn use the ac- cumulated experience of cliff dweller and Hopi, following irrigation methods centuries old. From experience and tradition the Indians have learned to know the areas liable to be flooded during occasional showers as well as those annually inundated by the successive 'rains of July and August. Along the flood plains of the larger washes the practice is to plant corn at intermediate levels in widely spaced holes 12 to 16 inches deep. The grain germinates in the sand and rises a foot or more above the surface before the July rains begin. With the coming of the flood the field is wholly or partially sub- merged. After the water has receded parts of the field are found to have been stripped bare of vegetation and other parts to have been deeply buried by silt; the portion of seeded ground remaining constitutes the irrigated field from which a crop is harvested. (See PL XXIII, ^, p. 100.) The Hopis, and to a less extent the Xavajos, sometimes endeavor to direct the floods and to prevent excessive erosion within the fields by constructing earthen diversion dams a few inches to a foot or more in height — dams which require renewal each season. Along the smaller washes and in places where the slope of the ground is moderate the common practice of the Xavajo is to build a series of check dams 50 to 200 feet apart and 2 to 5 feet high, which not only retard the run-off but also serve to form temporary ponds for stock watering. Earely the valley sides are terraced so that flood waters pass from field to field without developing arroyos. Much work is done by the Indians while the flood is in progress, and an everyday sight during showers is the irrigator at work with hoe or stick, or even with his hands, constructing ridges of earth or laying down sagebrush in such a manner as to insure a thorough soaking of his planted field. By these methods of flood irrigation the Navajo and Hopi together cultivate about 20,000 acres of land widely distrib- uted over the reservation in fields about 3 acres in average size, rarely exceeding 200 acres. Considering the size of fields, the nature of the soil, the fluctuating flow of streams, and the large amount of debris carried in the flooded channels, this method of control by inexpensive dams, rebuilt each season, is satisfactory, but the amount of water lost is enormous. It is estimated that the unutilized flood waters in the Tusayan Washes is 99.5 per cent, a figure which probably also rep- resents the conditions in Wide Ruin, Pueblo Colorado, and Chinle UTILIZATION- OF STREAMS. 105 washes. For the Chuska Yalley the estimate is 92 per cent. A part of this water now running to waste could be rechiimed by systematic construction of checks over larger areas and by completely sur- rounding fields with low earth Avails which are designed to retain surplus water for a few days. The use of a road grader would greatly reduce the large amount of manual labor at present expended by the Indians. IRRIGATION BY DIVERSION. AREA IRRIGATED. Along some of the perennial streams of the Navajo country lie alluvial deposits formed of soil suitable for agriculture. In several such places the waters have been diverted by dams and led out onto the adjoining flats. In Piute Canyon, at the Lower Crossing, the waters of a spring-fed tributary are led through a ditch one-half mile long to irrigate 2 acres of garden and orchard owned by a Piute stockman. Standing Bedrock Creek, in Eedrock Valley, is diverted to water more than 100 acres of cornfield. Lukachukai Creek supplies, through a series of short ditches, water to cover 300 to 400 acres and makes this place one of the most prosperous Navajo settlements in Arizona. Ditches were also noted along the Tisnasbas, Nazlini, and Wide Ruin washes, and at several other localities on the reservation. The Indian dams are all temporary affairs, constructed of earth or of earth, rock, and brush, and rebuilt many times each year. The ditches, too, usually require cleaning after heavy showers. The problem confronting the Indian in reclaiming land by diver- sion of streams is twofold: The difficulty of securing a permanent intake and the necessity of building sluiceways across innumerable arroyos. This latter difficulty has so far proved insurmountable; inany fields have been abandoned as the cutting of gulches has ad- vanced, and it is probable that the mileage of Indian-owned ditch is less at the present time than it was 20 years ago. PROJECTS DEVELOPED BY WHITE MEN. Where the Indian has failed the white man has been able to suc- ceed in maintaining irrigation works based on stream diversion. By the use of grading machinery, blasting powder, masonry, wooden and metal flumes, properly constructed head gates, and by systematic attention to repairs, irrigation farming has reached a high stage of development at Shiprock, Fruitland, and Bluff, along the north bank of the San Juan, and at St. Joseph on the Little Colorado. On Wheatfields Creek works designed to supply water for about TOO acres were constructed and later allowed to become useless for lack 106 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. of repair. Many failures are, however, to be recorded. Money ex- pended on the Little Colorado below Winslow has been wasted, and attempts to divert the lower Chinle have so far resulted disastrously. Even on the Moenkopi, where rock floor may be obtained for the base of the dam and where satisfactory sites for ditch headings may be obtained, ten or twelve trials have not produced a satisfactory scheme. The most successful irrigation project on the reservation, based on direct utilization of stream flow, is at Fort Defiance, where practically the entire low- water discharge of Bonito Creek is made available. It is significant that at this point the diversion dam is of the simplest type — a low ridge of earth capped by bags of sand — a structure destroyed at each stage of high water, but capable of renewal in a few hours. It appears to me probable that dams of this type, ac- companied by headings in rock or masonry and per- manent ditches, will be found most suitable for ir- rigation projects not in- volving storage. PROJECTS AWAITING DEVEL- OPMENT. In the course of my travels through the reser- vation I noted a number of places where topography, soil, climate, amount of 4,oooTeet Figure 4.- -Map and section illustrating features of the Black Falls project. water, and conditions controlling dam and ditch construction were such as to repay further study with a view to irrigation. In the Tyende Valley below Marsh Pass opportunities for the diversion of the stream are afforded at j)oints where bedrock floors the channel and where, by deep ditches, water could be led to lands favorably sit- uated for irrigation. At Sehili, where some work has already been done, a ditch heading in the mouth of Spruce Brook should reclaim 400 to 450 acres. At Tseanazti, on a stream of the same name flow- ing eastward from Tunitcha Mountain, there are ancient ditches abandoned because of the headAvard recession of several arroyos. UTILIZATION OF STEEAMS. 107 Lieut. W. C. Brown, who has investigated the possibilities of irri- gation at this point, shows that a ditch 4 miles long would serve to reclaim 1,000 acres of fertile lands.^ Lieut. Brown has also drawn plans for an irrigation project on Standing Redrock Creek in Eed- rock Yalley at a point where a 20-foot waterfall furnishes a favor- able site for an intake. The plans include the construction of a cement dam 2 feet high and 25 feet long and the improvement of the present Indian ditch to cover 2,500 acres of corn land. It is the belief of Lieut. Odon Gurovits that 260 acres could be reclaimed at Tohonadla by the construction of 3 miles of inexpensive ditch. Upper Black Creek in Todilto Park, Nazlini Creek, Tahchito Creek, Shato Canyon, and Figueredo Creek are worthy of further study. Black Falls, on the Little Colorado, is the center of a wide expanse of desert in which the rainfall probably does not exceed 3 inches a year. The climate and soil, however, favor the practice of agricul- ture, and at the request of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs an examination was made of this locality.^ The plan proposed is to divert a part of the flow of the Little Colorado during the months when water is sufficient to form a stream, and to supplement the supply by pumping during May and June. The place selected for ditch head is 2^ miles above the falls at a point where lava forms the immediate bank. Ko dam is required, and at low-water stages the stream is relatively free from silt. The plan recommended involves the construction of 11 miles of ditch and of an infiltration gallery to recover the underflow of the valley. The water to be recovered will be capable of irrigating 1,200 acres of a 2,000-acre tract which lies east and north of Black Falls at an estimated cost of $25 an acre. (See map, fig. 4.) IRRIGATION BY STORAGE. GENERAL CONDITIONS. At first sight it appears that the Navajo country, with its innu- mperable narrow rock canyons, its score or more of short perennial streams at high altitudes, and its rapid run- off, offers opportunity for the construction of many storage reservoirs, by means of which the widely extended alluvial plains may be intensively cultivated. When, however, the region is examined the following general con- ditions are found to prevail : 1. The storage grounds along the perennial streams of the Chuska Mountains and of the Carrizo and Navajo mountains are at altitudes which prohibit the cultivation of crops other than those which sur- vive large ranges in daily temperature and can endure frost at any 1 52d Cong., 2d sess., Senate Ex. Doc. 68, 1893. 2 The reports on the engineering problems of the Black Ealls project by H. F. Robinson and a report on the geologic features are on file in the Office of Indian Affairs. 108 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. month in the year. Water from reservoirs thus located must be carried 10 to 30 miles before it can reach large tracts suitable for general agriculture. In general the largest tracts of irrigable land are farthest from permanent streams. 2. The deeper canyons — Navajo, Piute, Laguna, upper Moenkopi, Del Muerto, and others now occupied by streams — contain little arable land. 3. The construction of dams for storage of flood water in the wide alluvium-filled washes presents engineering difficulties surmountable onl}^ at prohibitive cost — a statement amply supported by a formid- able catalogue of failures. 4. The amount of silt carried along the large valleys is sufficient to cause embarrassment, since no satisfactory method has yet been devised for clearing silt-laden streams. Studies of silt at the Zuni Reservoir, 30 miles south of Gallup, N. Mex., where conditions are similar to those in the Navajo country, have been made by Rollin Eitter.^ At this point, during the years 1912 and 1913, a run-off of 14,450 acre-feet gave a silt deposit of 1,070 acre-feet, having a solid content of 7.4 per cent. During the eight years since the chan- nel was closed the reservoir capacity has been diminished 4,249 acre- feet, an average of 531 acre-feet per year. At this rate the life of this expensive reservoir is 12 years. The proportion of silt, by volume, found in water at the spillway outlet was 16 per cent after the muddy water had been allowed to settle for four months. When first collected a bottle test showed 55 per cent of silt. Because of the nature of the rainfall the water impounded at Zuni and at other localities in northwestern New Mexico and northern Arizona is necessarily that from sudden, violent floods, which carry the maxi- mum amounts of silt. Mr. Robinson found that water collected from the Pueblo Colorado at Ganado and allowed to stand for 30 days carried 2.5 per cent of silt by volume when the stream delivered 15 second-feet of water, and 6.5 per cent when the run-off had in- creased to 1,940 second-feet. Samples collected by Mr. Robinson in August, 1904, from flood waters of Bonito Creek at Fort Defiance contained 13.5 per cent of mud by volume after a lapse of one month. At various times during the course of our work tests were made of flood water taken from the larger washes and allowed to settle from 12 to 36 hours. Eight such tests gave an apparent percentage of sediment ranging from 6 to 25. One record of 34 per cent was obtained, and a sample taken from a tributary of the Little Colorado was found after 16 hours to have deposited nearly half its bulk. 5. The alluvial filling of washes and canyons is, in general, fine and coarse sand, rather than silt and clay ; the soil absorption and under- 1 A copy of the report of Mr. Ritter lias been kindly furnished me by Mr. H. F. Kobia- son, superintendent of irrigation. UTILIZATION OF STREAMS. 109 ground flow is correspondingly large. As stated by Lieut. Baker in a report to the Secretary of War : ^ " Officers should be cautioned in reporting upon the feasibility of any site for a dam, reservoir, or irrigation system that the sandy and porous nature of the soil should be taken into consideration, as well as the limited amount of rainfall and high evaporation, and consequently the difficulty not only of filling a reservoir but also of preserving the water until the irrigation season begins." A preliminary study of the reservation, supplemented by the ex- perience of settlers in the arid Southwest, indicates that wisely located irrigation works costing between, $10,000 and $40,000 may justify their construction, provided the problems which they present have been carefully studied. More expensive projects are of doubtful expediency. GOVERNMENT PROJECTS. Red Lake.— The storage reservoir of Red Lake (PI. XXV, ^), 12 miles north of Fort Defiance, was designed to irrigate several hun- dred acres of land in the middle of Black Creek Valley. The " lake," 59.82 acres in extent, receives short, ephemeral tributary streams but is mainly supplied by upper Black Creek, whose waters are di- verted by a fiume and dam. The drainage area, calculated by H. F. Robinson, is 230 square miles, and the run-off is 2.5 inches, or 33,325 acre-feet per year. The reservoir is well placed and well designed, but the ditches have been neglected until they are washed out or filled with sand. The only use to which this body of stored water has been put in recent years is for flood irrigation along Black Creek Valley, and at critical times to supply Indian farms located at Houck, 48 miles below the reservoir. Reservoir Canyon. — Two miles east of Tuba is a spring-fed can- yon containing three lakes. The upper and middle lakes (respec- tively 10 and 6 acres in area) are caused largely by wind-blown sand, which is gradually filling the canyon. The waters of the lower " lake " or reservoir, with an area of about 15 acres, are retained by a dam 350 feet long and 5 feet high. About 75 acre-feet is drawn off during the growing season. Plans formulated by the irrigation engineers of the Indian Office involve iinpounding about 150 acre- feet, and the construction of ditches to irrigate lands in Moenkopi Wash, as well as within the canyon itself. (See map, PI. XXVII.) Wheat-fields reservoir. — A ditch leading water from Wheatfields Creek was constructed by the Indian Office in 1885-86 and utilized to irrigate a few acres of land. Later it was decided to construct a diversion dam, reservoir, and the necessary ditches to irrigate 700 acres on the south side of the creek. The reservoir, completed in 1 53d Cong., 2d sess., S. Ex. Doc. 68, 1893. 110 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. 1909, has a capacity of 1,300 acre-feet. At the time of my visits, in 1909 and 1911, the works were out of repair and had apparently been aban- doned. In a report to the War Department in 1893 Lieut. W. C. Brown called attention to the fact that 10,000,000 gal- lons of water could be impounded on upper Wheatfields Creek by an earth dam 300 feet long and 20 feet high. G an ado reservoir. — Ganado is a short dis- tance below the mouth of the canyon portion of Pueblo Colorado Wash. The stream at this point is perennial, and exten- sive flats below consist of fertile soil well situ- ated for irrigation. Three miles above Ga- nado is a natural lake which rarely becomes en- tirely dry. From time to time the waters of this lake, supplemented by flow from the Pueblo Colorado, have been uti- lized by means of low earth dams and distrib- uting ditches constructed by the local trader, Mr. J. L. Hubbell. Since the water to be stored at this place is for the benefit of the Navajos my recom- mendation (report for 1909) was added to that of other Government offi- cers that a suitable dam, U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER A. LITTLE COLORADO RIVER AT TANNER CROSSING AFTER HEAVY SHOWERS. Photograph by Stephen Janus. B. RED LAKE RESERVOIR, LOOKING SOUTH TOWARD OUTLET. UTILIZATION OF STREAMS. Ill headgate, and ditches be constructed according* to plans outlined by Mr. H. F. Robinson, irrigation engi- neer, and it was gratifying to see this work near com- pletion at my visit in 1913. (See fig. 5.) The drainage area above the reservoir, comprising about 205 square miles, is in large part forested and grass covered. The storage basin is designed to hold 4,438 acre-feet of water, which, on the assumption of a duty of water of 2.5 feet, is sufficient to irrigate 1,775 acres of tilled land with each filling of the reservoir. By storing the water at low stages of the creek the diffi- culties arising from deposits of silt are largely elimi- nated. The system is capa- ble of expansion, and Mr. Robinson has devised plans for disposing of a large part of the silt if it should be found desirable to utilize flood waters. The estimated cost of the Ganado project is $35 an acre. PROJECT AWAITING DEVELOP- MENT. Leupp reservoir. — The im- practicability of utilizing the flood waters of the Lit- tle Colorado for irrigation at Leupp has led to a study of a scheme whereby the flood water of Canyon Di- ablo and tributary streams, draining an area of about 'Ike No. 4 112 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. 1,220 square miles, may be impounded. Completed plans for this project have been submitted to the Indian Bureau by the district supperintendent of irrigation, Mr. H. F. Eobinson. The reservoir as designed covers 980 acres, has a capacity of 11,617 acre-feet, and the run-off is estimated as sufficient to fill it 14 to 19 times per year. The area for which irrigation is desired is 8,000 acres, requiring 28,000 acre-feet of water, or 2.4 times the capacity of the proposed reservoir. Fourteen miles of ditch on the north side of the Little Colorado and 10 miles on the south side, including a siphon under the river bed, are a part of the plan. Preliminary estimates place the cost of the Leupp project at $282,786, or $35.35 per acre. (See fig. 6.) ADDITIONAL PKOJECTS. The following localities, briefly examined by me, are suggested as worthy of detailed study: Quartzite Canyon. — A perennial stream, flowing about 0.15 sec- ond-foot during dry seasons, emerges abruptly from high walls of quartzite and enters an alluvial flat. Back of the canyon gates the valley widens. A dam 30 to 60 feet long-and 10 to 20 feet high, at one of several sites, would serve to increase largely the acreage now cultivated at Fort Defiance. Buell Park. — Buell Park is a rock-walled depression, 10 square miles in area, which receives the waters from 40 square miles of surrounding country. The park has but one outlet, a canyon about 70 feet wide at the base, cut in solid rock with flaring walls 200 feet high. A permanent stream discharging 0.05 a second-foot at low water occupies the canyon floor. Land suitable for irrigation borders the valley below. (See PL XXVI, A.) Lokasakad. — A group of springs issuing from the lava 5 miles west of Indian Wells feeds a perennial stream which enters a wide, flat-floored, rock-walled valley, from which it emerges through a cleft 300 feet wide. The spring flows at the rate of 10 to 15 gallons a minute. Other small springs discharge into the valley, which during rains is filled to overflowing. The valley floor is relatively free from silt. More irrigable land than can be supplied with water is conveniently situated. Marsh Pass region. — The mouth of Laguna Canyon, as well as points lower down on Tyende Creek, where this stream passes from rock canyon to open flat in its sinuous course through Comb Kidge, is worthy of examination with a view to the construction of storage reservoirs. Segihatsosi.- — A running stream, discharging about 0.20 second- foot during dry seasons, occupies Segihatsosi Canyon, and numer- ous springs are found along its course. At its head is a rock- walled STORAGE OF SURFACE WATER FOR STOCK. 113 amphitheater entered by a canj^on 200 to 300 feet wide, below which the tiny stream is bordered by alluvial terraces, which increase in area downstream. Irrigation is practiced here on a small scale by a group of industrious Navajos. Miscellaneous. — The drainage areas of several ephemeral and in- termittent streams which flow westward from Defiance Plateau into Wide Euin Wash and into Nazlini Valley are forested and furnish only a moderate supply of silt. Narrow canyon mouths are abruptly followed by irrigable flats. Along both the north and south edges of Button Plateau and on Shato Plateau similar conditions prevail. Flood waters from canyon heads on Carrizo and Navajo mountains may be stored for distribution to lands 2,000 feet below. The eastern half of Monument Valley contains a number of satisfactory sites for reservoirs, but the alkaline content of the soil in this area may render agriculture unprofitable. Two small reservoirs at Toadlena admit of further improvement. STORAOE OF SURFACE WATER FOR STOCK. ESSENTIAL CONDITIONS. The Navajo is a herdsman; the Navajo country is primarily a sheep range; and for the present generation — probably for many generations to come — agriculture will play a decidedly subordinate part in the life of the natives. The problems to be solved, therefore, relate to forage and animals on unpeopled stretches rather than to agriculture and markets and cities. Water for stock rather than water for crops is demanded by the Indian ; not a few large supplies, but many small ones ; not an increased amount of water where water is, but an increase in the number of places where water may be found. Sheep do not travel far to water, and the Navajo and Hopi practice of returning their flocks tO' their fold each night requires water so located as to take advantage of the natural feed on the reservation. Under the present conditions the Navajo saying is appropriate : ^' Where feed is there is no water ; where water is there is no feed." Moreover, especially on the lowlands, forage is scant, even as measured by semiarid standards. For horses, and in many places for sheep and goats, the search for grazing ground must often be satisfied by the discovery of places where animals may keep from starving. Water holes should therefore be widely distributed, and the ideal method of development is to provide moderate supplies at points not to exceed 8 miles apart over the entire reservation, each supply sufficient to care for 500 to 1,000 head of sheep. To fulfill these conditions the storage of surface waters and the recovery of ground water are essential. 33033°— wsp 380— 16 8 114 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. SMALL RESERVOIRS OR " TANKS." SITES. The larger washes, particiihirly those through which great volumes of water rush in times of floods and those whose banks consist of sand or adobe, are to be avoided in the construction of ponds or catches. The great and fluctuating volume of water, the character of the stream bed, and the presence of silt, present problems which have not yet been satisfactorily solved by hydraulic engineers. In- expensi^e storm-water reservoirs may, however, be constructed in many places by pajdng careful attention to the selection of sites, the construction of the dam, and the position of the wasteways. Sites for a small reservoir should be selected near the heads of washes or on tributaries, especially those which do not have steep gradients. In fact, the flatter the valley the better. A valley covered with grass, sunflowers, sagebrush, or greasewood, backed by slopes forested with piiion and juniper, should be selected if possible. The reservoir should be so located that the prevailing southwest winds will not have an opportunity to drive waves against the embankment, a matter which is often overlooked, but is of consider- able importance, even in a small reservoir where the dam is con- structed of earth. Care should be taken also not to place the reser- voir directly across the valley axis, but slightly to one side so that the rush of storm water does not spend its full force against the embankment. By keeping this fact in mind, it is possible to place reservoirs along the sides of the larger washes where they may be filled b}^ a part of the storm water without danger of destruction. In some places, also, a ditch may be dug to conduct the water from the main wash to the reservoir and the temporary head gates may be renewed after each storm. A number of places were noted where natural depressions in bare rock could be utilized by constructing small dams across poorly defined outlets. DAMS. Suitable material for earth dams is not abundant in this region, and more than ordinary care should therefore be exercised in their construction. After the site has been chosen ground should be cleared by removdng the porous top soil, together with weeds, plant roots, etc., and the material thus removed should be taken outside the reservoir basin. A trench or series of trenches 4 to 10 feet wide and about 2 feet deep may then be dug along the axis of the pro- posed dam and the entire surface over which the dam is to be built roughened. Such procedure improves the chance of securing a tight bond between the earth and the dam, thus decreasing the seepage along the natural water channel. STORAGE OF SUEFACE WATER FOR STOCK. 115 The dirt from the dam should be put on carefully and spread evenly in layers 12 to 18 inches in thickness, and each layer should be tamped by hand or by driving horses back and forth over it. This method of treatment tends to prevent the formation of horizon- tal and vertical seams. No dirt for the embankment should be taken below the dam, for the holes thus made may fill with water, which by percolation may weaken the foundation of the dam. Where bor- row pits are made inside the reservoir, care should be taken to leave a berm at least 8 feet from the foot of the slope in order to prevent sliding. If built of loose earth the dam should be at least 10 feet wdde at the top and the slopes should be less than those of ordinary dirt banks. Hydraulic engineers have found that a slope of 3 to 1 on the side next the reservoir and of 2 to 1 on the outside will give satisfactory results. Personal experience in j^lanning reservoirs for stock on the Great Plains suggests that an earth dam in an exposed sit- uation should be as wide and as flat as the local conditions will allow. The material used in the construction of the embankment must necessarily be that which can be obtained near at hand. Many places on the Navajo and Hopi reservations, as in the Chinle, Black Creek, and Little Colorado valleys, furnish clay from decomposed shale. In other places nothing but sand is at hand. Where material may be selected it is of course more important to place the imper- vious material on the inside of the dam. Care should be taken to avoid soils which contain alkali, salts, or other materials which may be readily dissolved by the water. Where the material is not satis- factory it can be much improved by puddling. Horses or cattle or sheep driven through the reservoir and over the dam when in process of construction help much in producing water-tight material. A dam may be further strengthened by facing with rock and in a number of localities abundant thin slabs of sandstone and shale are at hand for this purpose. The most satisfactory small dam seen on the reservation is on the trail between Ganado and Keams Canyon and w^as constructed by an Indian, as follows: Two rows of posts 10 feet apart were made into fences by weaving brush from post to post. The space between the fences was filled with sand and clay collected from neighboring slopes and puddled by driving sheep back and forth between the fences. A spillway leading across bare rock into an adjoining gulch accommodates the surplus water. Many such dams built with the aid of wheelbarrows or scrapers are in use by stockmen on the Coconino Plateau and generally throughout the semiarid portions of the United States. Immediately below the dam constructed to hold the surface water will usually be found a favorable site for a shallow well suitable for domestic supplies. 116 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. WASTEWAYS. Natural wasteways should be selected where possible and care taken not to allow too much fall between the point where the water leaves the reservoir and where it reenters its old channel. This fact should also be kept in mind when an artificial wasteway is to be constructed, for the fall which forms at the lower end of the waste channed may eat backward with great rapidity. Where feasible wasteways may be provided in the direct line of the natural stream flow, though they should be placed not on or near the earth dam but rather as far away as the topography will permit and at least 5 feet below the top of the dam. Brush checks made of mattresses of greasewood, sagebrush, piiion, and cedar fastened by wire may be constructed along the spillway, and in favorable localities drifting sand may be directed to build dunes which may accomplish the same result. The following publications will be found helpful to those charged with the responsibility of assisting the Indian in developing water for stock: Herman, T. C, Small reservoirs in Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakotia: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 179, 1907. Fortier, Samuel, and Bixby, F. L., Earth-fill dams and hydraulic-fill dams: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 249, pt. 1, 1912. WATER POWER. A small mill for grinding grain, driven by water power, may be constructed along any one of the several perennial streams descend- ing from the mountains. I am informed by Mr. Randall that such a mill was formerly in operation at Tuba. In the canyon of the San Juan, beginning 3J miles below Good- ridge, is a series of closely set meanders intrenched over 1,000 feet below the surface. The necks between the several meanders vary from 5Q0 to 1,000 feet, and the gradient of the stream is such that at one point the opposite ends of a tunnel 840 feet loBg would rest, respectively, 10 and 85 feet above low-water level. An engineer's report on a project at " Gooseneck" indicated that a' tunnel 600 feet long would serve to develop 710 horsepower at low-water stage.^ LAKES. LAKES OF THE CHUSKA MOUNTAIN'S. Basins occupied by permanent or by short-lived Avater bodies are found on the Chuska Mountains and also on the floors of a few of the larger washes. The basins on the Chuska Mountains are more than 100 in number and vary in size from shallow depressions 10 to 1 Data supplied by Mr. A. L. Raplee, of Bluff, Utah. LAKES. 117 20 feet in diameter to bodies of water covering 1 to 3 acres. Many of the lakes rest in rock-rimmed hollows in sandstone or lava ; others are bordered by meadows; and a few are set in the midst of groves of oak and pine and willow, constituting attractive camp sites. In none of the lakes examined did the water exceed 10 feet in depth, and in many of them the water forms merely a sheet 1 to 2 feet deep, covering a flat-floored hollow. During the rainy season most of the lakes form part of drainage systems whose low gradients are determined by the horizontal attitude of the strata along their courses; a few lakes retain their individuality throughout the year. All the mountain lakes fluctuate in volume, but probably half the basins retain water during the dry season. In July, 1909, the lakes at Roof Butte were dry; in July, 1911, 14 water bodies were noted on the Lukachukai Mountains. Lieut. Gurovits reports that the seven lakes seen by him on Tunitcha Mountain in October, 1892, were only water holes and that two of them were nearly dry. Judging from reports of Navajos and Government officials, about one-third of the 41 lakes mapped on the Chuska Mountains are liable to disappear during the spring and early summer. TOLANI LAKES. On the route from Leupp to Oraibi there is a group of lakes known to the Navajos as Tolani (many water bodies). The group con- sists of seven basins in addition to several adobe flats. They are set in the midst of a most forbidding expanse of sands deposited by flood waters of the Tusayan Washes and redistributed by the winds. The lakes occupy a divide at the junction of several washes and are separated from the normal drainage by banks of alluvium and wind- blown sands. They are fed by flood waters supplemented by under- ground seepage, and downward percolation is prevented by a floor of shale and of adobe. Four of the lakes, so the Navajos state, each 6 to 15 acres in extent, are never dry, in spite of excessive evapora- tion, and three others are filled by early rains. During the rainy season the low-water depth of 3 to 8 feet is more than doubled and the lakes expand, submerge the adobe flats, and reach the outer strand 300 to 1,000 feet back from the line marking the low- water stage. The lakes form the home of a group of Indians whose flocks graze in the neighborhood. LAKES FORMED BY DRIFTING SAND. On Kaibito and Shato plateaus, and to a less extent elsewhere, stream channels have been divided into segments by drifting sands. Eed Lake Valley, Klethla Valley, Shato and Begashibito valleys, and Reservoir Canyon, are occupied by ephemeral streams which find themselves unable to contend successfully with the sediments 118 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. deposited by the wind. Lakes are accordingly strung along these canyons at irregular intervals. These water bodies are narrow, attain lengths of 30 to 200 feet and in general are clear, fresh, and bordered by zones of reeds and water grass. About one-half of the 10 or 15 lakes observed are perennial; the others become marshes or playas during the dry months. The largest of the group is Red Lake, two partly detached bodies of brackish water about one-half mile in total length, whose volume and area varies widely wdth the seasons. EPHEMERAL LAKES. Numerous depressions floored by adobe or sand and cut off from drainage lines by deposits of sediment from tributary washes or by sand dunes are to be found along the borders of the larger valleys. These hollows contain shallow water bodies for periods ranging from a few days to six or seven mxonths in each year. The water is often turbid from stirring of the bottom by waves and in places is brackish or alkaline. Several such "dry lakes" are found in the Chinle Valley, the largest of which, Bekihatso, has been known to hold water throughout the summer months. Beds of ephemeral lakes were also noted along the southern edge of Black Mesa, within the Hopi Buttes, the Tusayan Washes, and the Chuska Valley provinces ;" and the glistening, burning floors of three ephemeral lakes in the Little Colorado Valley were crossed during the early summer of 1913. OTHER LAKES. Three lakes on Button Plateau and nine lakes on the Chaco Pla- teau were found to contain water during the driest part of 1911. The floors of these lakes are formed by shales of the Cretaceous period and their waters are confined by widespread deposits of silt and sand in the form of low-grade fans, which change in position from year to year. Two small ponds of the same nature were seen on Black Mesa and one on the Shato Plateau. UTILIZATION OF LAKES. As reservoirs for irrigation the lakes of the Navajo country have little value. The}'' are too low set for use on lands in the imme- diate vicinity, and their volume of water is too small to justify the expense of transportation by ditches. Moreover, the lakes on the Chuska Mountains are at too great an altitude (9,000 feet) to be used for crops requiring a long growing season. They, however, furnish sites for the construction of storage reservoirs. The basin is ready prepared, and an increase in the amount of water im- pounded may be obtained by constructing a suitable dam. Two DIRECT UTILIZATION OF RAINFALL. 119 storage reservoirs constructed by the Government — Red Lake and Ganado — make use of natural lakes. Bekihatso Lake and an ephemeral lake bed about 6 miles northwest of Sunrise Springs, and two of the Seven Lakes group on Chaco Plateau, are worthy of study with irrigation in view. At the present time the lakes of all types are utilized for stock watering, and from several of them greater permanence and increased volume could be obtained by means of inexpensive dams — a method employed by cattlemen on the lands adjoining the reservation. WATER HOLES IN THE WASHES. Eock-floored channels are in a number of places marked by pot- holes and cavities produced by widening of joints and by solution. They are particularly likely to be found immediately above and be- low dry waterfalls. In some of these pockets water remains through- out the year and constitutes a reliable supply in an otherwise desert stretch. Water from such rock holes was used by my party at Agathla, at Keams copper mines, at the north base of Dutton Pla- teau, on Defiance Plateau, at Grand Falls, and at a few other places. After floods in the washes pools of water remain for weeks and some- times throughout the year. Such water holes are distributed along the dry bed of the Little Colorado, where their preservation is due to scour, which forms a depression below the water table. Depres- sions floored with a film of silt or adobe, which prevents percolation, may likewise hold remnants of a flood for long periods. Abandoned high-level meanders in adobe flood plains observed along the Chinle, the Dinnebito, and Steamboat washes were found to contain water even during the dry season. These supplies are not, however, to be relied upon, for their position and permanence may vary widely during the season. DIRECT UTILIZATION OF RAINFALL. GENERAL CONDITIONS. In parts of the reservation where surface water and springs are absent and where wells are too expensive to justify construction supplies for domestic use and for small flocks may be obtained by storing rain water. Cisterns for travelers and for teams might be constructed on the long roads which must be traversed on entering the reservation and in going from place to place across it; and the amount of water available at stores, missionary settlements, and Government headquarters might be increased by similar means. Collected rain is particularly desirable where the present water supply, though sufficient in amount and available for stock, is unsuited 120 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. for man because of the presence of alkali or salt. For instance, at Red Lake, northeast of Tuba, the surface, spring, and well waters are unfit for drinking, but an ample supply for household use is obtained by impounding the water which falls on half the store roof. At this place the water is conducted into a cement-lined cistern 6 feet in diameter and 11 feet deep. Every building on the reservation should be supplied with rain troughs and cisterns, for there are few places where rain water is not more desirable for domestic use than the supplies now at hand. Clean rock surfaces may also be used to collect rain water by constructing small cement dams at the foot of slopes; and it is en- tirely feasible to clear off hillsides, cover them with cement, and make a shallow collecting basin from which water may be directed to a suitably constructed cistern or closed basin below. Eain water, if kept clean, is palatable and entirely wholesome, and its storage offers one of the best opportunities to meet the demand for good drinking water in this region. WATER CATCHES. Water catch is a term in use in Bermuda, India, and other Eng- lish colonies for a natural or artificially constructed surface from Figure 7. — Diagram of water catch with cistern excavated in rock. which rain water is collected. This system of recovery of rainfall involves the selection of a suitable site and the selection or con- struction of a catchment or collecting area and the building of a cistern. On the Navajo Reservation sites for water catches are recommended in the following order : 1. Sites at which the natural dip of the strata is from 10° to 30° and erosion has cut the upturned beds into a series of hogbacks. Ex- pense is lessened by the selection of places where the inclined rock surface is free from vegetation or accumulated debris. Such situa- tions are found in the valleys along the western edge of Manuelito Plateau, the west base of Chuska Mountain, in Monument Valley, in DIRECT UTILIZATION OF EAINFALL. 121 middle Chinle Valley, and along the west side of the Little Colorado, in all of which places water is difficult to obtain. 2. Slopes formed of rock thinly covered with soil or with vegeta- tion. 3. The sloping bare rock walls of canyons cut in a single sand- stone stratum. Hundreds of such sites may be found on the Moen- kopi, Kaibito, and Rainbow plateaus, on Segi Mesas, in Monument Valley, and in smaller numbers elsewhere. 4. Exposed edges of a series of horizontally bedded rock forming the sloping flank of mesas and buttes and ridges. In such places the edges of strata should be leveled to an even surface — a somewhat ex- pensive operation. By this method supplies of pure water could be developed in the " badlands " of the Hopi Buttes province, in the Painted Desert, and in Gypsum Valley — regions now almost useless because of scarcity and unwholesomeness of both surface and under- ground waters. 5. Slopes of material other than rock, involving coating the hill- side with a layer of cement. Figure 8. — Diagram of water catch witli cistern excavated in alluvium at base of a slope. Construction work on the catchment area is of a very simple char- acter. Bare rock cleaned or rock coated with cement will receive the rain. Smoothing of the rock is desirable but not essential. Bound- ing walls a few inches in height to turn off water not falling on the cleaned area, and a fence to ward off stock should be provided. The cistern may be constructed either below or above ground and either within or without the catchment area. Cisterns sunk into rock or into alluvium at the base of the inclined collecting area and lined with cement are subject to only slight losses from evaporation; those built above ground are easier to clean and may be so placed as to be drawn off by pipes to troughs located farther down the slope. (See figs. 7 and 8.) Water catches may be built of any desired size, and in considering the requirements for a given place or a particular purpose the fol- lowing estimate may be used : One inch of rainfall will yield about 122 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. half a gallon of water to the square foot of horizontal catchment area. On the island of Bermuda, where the entire population is supplied by water catches, the hill slopes are cleared of soil and vegetation and the bare rock is smoothed and frequently whitewashed or cemented. The cisterns are built with thick stone walls, are kept dark and tightly closed from wind-blown sand, and some are white- washed or painted to retard evaporation. The water is cool and is pure so long as the tanks are kept clean. If it should be found desirable to store rain water in places where long, sloping surfaces are not available, a modification of the design Figure 9. — Diagram of water catch constructed in rock on top of a mesa. for the tj^pical catch is suggested, as shown in figure 9. The essen- tial features of this design are a shaft or well sunk into rock and a* gallery or drift leading from it. The gallery may be made as spacious as desired, but the shaft should have the smallest cross section con- sistent with the demands of construction. The loss from evaporation is thus reduced to a minimum. The catch or cistern should be placed in a depression surrounded by bare rock, but the catchment area need not be large, as the water falling on a cleared space only 100 by 200 feet in area with a rainfall of 8.29 inches, the annual average for this region, would amount to about 83,000 gallons. Part III. GROUND WATER. SOURCE OF THE GROUND WATER. Of the annual precipitation a part finds its way directly into stream channels and constitutes the run-off; a second part is lost through evaporation; the remainder is absorbed by the ground, in which it remains indefinitely as ground water or finds its way to the surface through springs, or seeps, or wells. The proportionate amount of water which is retained by soil and rock varies widely and depends on the relative values of several factors, chief among which are the amount of precipitation, the nature of the precipitation, the rapidity of run-off, the amount of evaporation from both water and ground surface, and the absorbent capacity of soil and rock. In the Navajo country the average mean annual precipitation is about 8.29 inches. Were other conditions favorable, this amount of rainfall would be sufficient to saturate the ground and to maintain a water table at moderate depth beneath the surface. The rain, however, occurs as sudden showers of short duration, and days or weeks or even months may intervene between falls of rain sufficient to wet the ground. Moreover, the water w^hich falls as rain is in many places hurried away through thousands of ready-prepared channels of steep gradient, with the result that the rocks over per- haps 50 per cent of the reservation are permitted to imbibe an inap- preciable amount of the rainfall. It is for this reason that the snow which falls each winter over about half of the reservation has high value, since melting of snow is a relatively slow process and the water resulting is given an opportunity to find its way downward through cracks and pores into the rock. The numerous springs on Chuska Mountain and other flat-topped highland areas are in part traceable to waters originally accumulated as snow. Evaporation is a factor of prime importance when the final dis- position of precipitation is considered. The measurements at Hol- brook show that 46.4 inches of the upper surface of a standing body of water may pass into the air each year, and that the rainfall of a day may be dissipated by evaporation within the same length of time. Just what proportion of the rainfall on the Navajo Reservation is lost through evaporation is unknown, for no formulae have been con- structed which make it possible quantitatively to divide precipitation into run-off, ground water, and vapor. For this region run-off prob- 123 124 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. ably averages between 14 and 25 per cent of the total rainfall, and evaporation disposes of most of the remainder. A portion of the water contained in the soil and rock of the Navajo country finds a source beyond its borders. An unknown amount is fed into the strata buried beneath the northern part of the Gothic Mesas, and the Pennsylvanian and Permian ( ? ) rocks dipping north Irom the Zuni Mountains doubtless carry water beneath the Button Plateau. It is probable also that the sandstones and porous lime- stones of Carboniferous age underlying the Little Colorado Valley contain water that enters these beds in the well-watered area about San Francisco Mountain. With these exceptions the water found in bedrock and in unconsolidated material probably has its source in the rain and snow falling within the borders of the reservation. GROUND-WATER RESERVOIR. NATURE OF THE RESERVOIR. The surface of the ground is the top of a vast underground storage reservoir, or the outer surface of a sponge whose pores are more or less completely filled with water. The surface of this gigantic sponge or reservoir is by no means level and even, but coincides with Perched water table Figure 10. — Diagram showing distribution of ground water and tlie position of tlie water table. the surface of the ground, reaching an elevation of more than 10,000 feet on Navajo Mountain and sinking to 2,800 feet at the mouth of the Little Colorado. Even if the reservoir were filled the surface of the water would not attain a uniform level, because free adjustment among water particles is prevented by the presence of impervious areas and by the fact that much of the water is in control of capil- larity rather than of gravity. The bottom of this underground reservoir is likewise highly uneven, for the water in the ground can extend downward only so far as openings exist and to the point at which the strata are water-tight. In some parts of the reservation there is a second reservoir, a deep- seated sponge separated from the upper ground-water reservoir by an impervious bed of shales or other materials, and receiving its water supply from some distant source. (See fig. 10.) GKOUN^D- WATER EESERVOIR. 125 CAPACITY OF THE RESERVOIR. VARIATION IN POROSITY. Water is held in the ground-water reservoir in cracks and in open spaces between the constituent grains and in zones between strata. The amount of water that may be held is determined by the number and size of all void spaces within the soil and rock in which the water is stored. The percentage of void space, called "porosity," varies greatly in different materials and is largest in rocks composed of imperfectly cemented, rounded grains, and in rocks shattered and broken and traversed by cracks. The porosity of a rock or soil is expressed as a percentage of the entire volume. Thus, if 100 cubic feet of sandstone can absorb one-fifth of this volume, or 20 cubic feet of water, the rock is said to have a porosity of 20 per cent. On the Navajo Eeservation the bedrock consists of sandstones and shales with lesser amounts of lava and of limestone. The water-holding capacity of the various strata whose extent and outcrops are indi- cated on the geologic map (PI. II, in pocket) is roughly estimated in the following paragraphs. BEDROCK. The Pennsylvanian formations consist of sandstones and lime- stones with variable amounts of shale. The sandstone will absorb about 12 per cent of its volume ; the limestones and shales are prac- tically impervious. The Moenkopi (Permian?) formation, of shales and thin sand- stones, has been found to contain water between the beds wherever these rocks have been penetrated below the water table. The massive sandstone beds overlying the Moenkopi formation have a porosity of about 15 per cent. The quality of water from the shales of the Moenkopi formation is liable to be unsatisfactory. The Shinarump conglomerate is capable of holding about one- fourth gallon per cubic foot, and the plane of division between the Moenkopi and the Shinarump is one of the best saturated zones within the region and gives rise to many springs. The Triassic beds overlying the Shinarump conglomerate are com- posed largely of shales and massive limestones and have a small water capacity. Large parts of them hold no water in available form. The massive sandstones of the La Plata group have high porosity, and tests made on average specimens indicate that these sandstones may hold 1 quart of water per cubic foot. That these beds contain water in large amounts and that movement within the rock is easily 126 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. accomplished is shown by the numerous seeiDs and springs emerging from the rock face. The McElmo formation is closely similar to the upper sandstone of the La Plata group as regards porosity. The Dakota sandstone has large capacity for holding water, both between the constituent grains and within its innumerable open cavities. The Mancos formation is essentially shale with subordinate amounts of sandstone. The shales are practically impervious and two samples of sandstone tested showed a porosity of about 10 per cent. The sandstones of the Mesaverde formation have a porosity of 8 to 12 per cent, and constitute one of the chief water carriers of the Navajo country. The Chuska (Tertiary) sandstone ranks next to the Dakota in its capacity to hold water. The lavas of the Chuska Mountains and of the Hopi Buttes are practically water-tight but are so intersected by joints as to absorb nearly all the water which falls directly upon them. UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS. The unconsolidated mass of bowlders and gravel which flank the mesas at a few localities on the reservation are capable of holding large quantities of water. Samples from the alluvial deposits filling the larger washes were found to range in amount of pore space be- tween 6 per cent for loess and clay silts and 40 per cent for coarse gravels. The average for all the alluvial materials examined is probably not far from 25 per cent of pore space in total volume. METHOD OF FILLING THE GROUND- WATER RESERVOIR. The vast underground reservoir, consisting of the aggregate void space in rocks and unconsolidated sediments, may be filled, partly filled, or empty, for the capacity of rock and soil to hold water by no means insures the presence of water. Like other reservoirs, water must be put into them if water is later to be taken out. Ground-water reservoirs are filled by percolation — that is, the tendency of water falling. on a porous surface to pass doAvnward to the surface below which the soil or rock is already saturated. The percolating w^aters found within the ground may originate in one of several ways: Directly from the rainfall. — The amount of rain water that passes into the ground is subject to wide variation. On steep slopes rain forms rills which carry the water away so rapidl}^ that little opportunity is given for downward percolation. On surfaces of GROUND-WATER EESEEVOIK. 127 gentle slope, and especially those with minor inequalities, such as sand dunes, rock pockets, and also on gi^ass-covered areas, the rain- fall remains on the ground long enough to find its way downward into cracks and pores. Where snow replaces rain the percentage of precipitation which enters the ground is still further increased. In some places the total precipitation is either absorbed or evaporated and none is left to form streams. On certain gravel slopes all the water contributed by a brief shower may pass directly into the soil. On the other hand, where rain falls on bedrock, percolation assumes low values and may not take place at all before evaporation and run- off remove the water from the surface. Percolation from streafn channels, — Perennial streams passing through arid districts lose water by percolation into the surrounding soil and rock. The same process is going on in intermittent streams and also in ephemeral streams. In certain localities on the reserva- tion the major portion of the permanent ground water has its origin in streams. Percolation from flood waters. — During the month of August, most of the great washes are at flood stage and the waters in the nor- mal channels with slight or no flow at other times of the year spread hundreds and even thousands of feet beyond the valley axis. These waters percolate downward into the porous alluvium and become part of the ground water. Of the three sources of ground water mentioned, percolation from stream flow appears to yield the greatest amount, followed in turn by direct precipitation and percolation from flood waters. DEPLETION OF THE RESERVOIR. PROCESSES or DEPLETION. "Water that percolates into soil and rock and is stored in voids between the grains and in open cavities and in cracks and joints constituting the ground-water reservoir does not remain undisturbed, sealed beyond the reach of other agents. The reservoir is continu- ously drawn upon and tends to become depleted by soil evapora- tion, transpiration, evaporation from seeps, and discharge from springs. In order that the processes whereby depletion is affected may be understood it should be remembered that water exists in the ground in two forms, " capillary water " and " gravity water." Capillary water occupies minute pores and forms thin films surrounding soil grains. It does not form part of the water that emerges as springs and it can not be recovered by means of wells. Some clays and fine silts may be saturated with water and yet yield no water to wells 128 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. sunk in these materials because the cavities containing water are all of capillary size. " Gravity water " occupies those open spaces in the rock and soil which exceed capillary size. The water is free to move among the grains, through the rock or soil, in any direction determined by gravity. " Gravity water " may flow from the rock as springs or find its way into holes dug for wells or, like capillary water, may be removed directly by evaporation. EVAPORATION FROM THE GROUND. The depletion of the ground-water supply is in large measure effected by evaporation from the upper surface of the reservoir. Evaporation is facilitated by high temperature of soil and of air and by dryness of air and by winds. In all these respects the cli- matic conditions of the Navajo country favor high evaporation, particularly during the summer months. The amount of moisture in the surface layers of the soil is also an important factor and depends on the capillarity of the soil and the depth to water. In fine-textured soils water may be drawn upward from a greater depth than in coarse-textured soils. The disastrous results of excessive evaporation as observed in the Navajo country have one compensat- ing advantage. The loss of water in the upper part of the soil is so much more rapid than at points a short distance below the surface that a layer or mulch of dry soil is formed over moister portions beneath. The effect of this mulch of dry soil is to greatly retard evaporation. An understanding of this process explains the ap- parent contradiction that soils of arid regions taken a short distance below the surface may hold more moisture and retain the moisture longer than do soils of humid regions. Over parts of the reservation the water absorbed by the ground and having its origin in precipitation is returned to the air before it reaches the permanent ground-water reservoir. After single showers, and twice after a month of rain estimated at 2 inches, it was noted that test wells sunk in the Tusayan Washes encountered water or damp soil at depths between 1 and 4 feet, below which zone the alluvial sands were dry to depths exceeding 20 feet. During June these same places showed no water from the top to the bottom of the drill holes. In the sand dunes about the Hopi villages water sufficient for corn and for peach trees is found in a narrow zone 4 to 6 feet beneath the surface. The sand is without moisture, both above and below this zone. C. H. Lee ^ found in Owens Valley that ground water to a depth of 8 feet below the surface was continually drawn upon by evaporation. 1 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294, 1912. GEOUND-WATER RESERVOIR. 129 An undetermined portion of the soil water reaches the air indi- rectly through plants which absorb moisture at their roots and release it from their foliage by the process known as transpiration. The results of all experiments indicate that the amount of soil water consumed by a growing plant is very large. For example, in the production of a ton of alfalfa about 400 tons of water is used by the plant, and 200 to 300 tons of water is required to produce a ton of corn. An average for the ordinary farm crops is 325 tons of water to 1 ton of dry matter.^ Though no figures are available for the Navajo country, it is probable that the amount of water tran- spired by plants during the growing season exceeds the amount directly evaporated. EVAPORATION OF SPRINGS AND SEEPS. Water issuing as springs further depletes the ground-water reser- voir. Strong springs transfer certain quantities of ground water to the surface supply. Many springs, however, merely serve to bring ground water within the sphere of action of evaporation, thus de- creasing the quantity of water available for man. The effect of evaporation on the flow of springs in this region, though not quanti- tatively determined, is readily observed. I have noted that in several springs yielding each a gallon or less a minute the flow during the night has nearly doubled, and my Navajo guides have pointed out places where springs that flow in dry but cold winter months cease to flow during the equally dry but warm summer months. Seeps show even more marked fluctuation in response to evaporation. In the early morning, before sunrise, wet spots were frequently observed on the face of sandstone ledges and occasionally w^ere found to exude sufficient water for camp use. During the heat of the day, however, all trace of seepage may disappear. On one occasion our party reached a " spring " late in the evening, only to find it practically dry. To our great surprise sufficient water was flowing next morning for eight horses which had been 24 hours without w^ater. THE WATER TABLE. The various processes at work to deplete the ground-water reser- voir result in leaving it only partly filled. The water in the upper layers of rock or soil is in many places drawn off, so that the top of the ground water is therefore not at the surface of the ground, but stands at a variable distance below it. The top of the ground water is known as the water table. (See fig. 10, p. 124.) Below the water table the ground is saturated; above it the soil or rock is relatively free from water except immediately after rain 1 King, F. H., The soil, p. 156, 1908, 33033°— wsp 380—16 ^9 130 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. falls. The water table is not a horizontal plane, but roughly par- allels the surface of the land, rising and falling with surface eleva- tions and depressions. It reaches its highest elevations underneath hills and its lowest beneath valleys but is farthest from the sur- face on hills and comes nearest to the surface in depressions. At the margin of perennial lakes and streams the water table coincides Avith the surface-water level. These relations may be better understood if we keep in mind the fact that ground water, like surface w^ater, is under the control of gravity, which causes Avater to flow both underground and on the surface from the hills toward the valleys or washes. The movement of the surface Avater is unrestrained, and the Avater Avhich falls as rain immediately runs from the highlands; but the movement of ground Avater is very slow, less on the average than a mile a year. Because of this sloAvness of movement streams may haA^e constant flow, springs may yield water throughout the dry season, and in many places shallow Avells may obtain Avater even on hilltops. The position of the Avater table is determined by noting the level at which Avater stands in those wells Avhich are unaffected by artesian conditions. Wells of this type, exceeding 50 feet in depth, have been dug or drilled in connection Avith the plans for developing water for the NaA^ajo and Hopi Indians, and a few wells previously constructed are available for study. The wells are grouped in four localities — at Leupp in the Painted Desert, along the Tusayan Washes, in up- per Chinle Valley, and on the southern margin of Chaco Plateau. For the remaining 70 or 80 per cent of the area under discussion no records are available. It has been found that wells sunk in the im- mediate channels of the larger alluvium-filled Avashes yield supplies satisfactory in quantity and in quality at depths of 10 to 20 feet and in many places less than 6 feet. On the flat slopes leading to the Avashes the Avater table is reached at depths betAveen 50 and 60 feet. These figures, obtained from Avells sunk in unconsolidated deposits along the Little Colorado, the Pueblo Colorado, and the Tusayan Washes, are probably applicable to similar situations throughout the reservation. In several places Avater is found at the top of the first rock stratum reached in digging the well. For Avells in rock the figures indicating the position of the water table have local application only, for the impervious or pervious character of the rock traversed and the number and opening of joints are subject to Avide variation, even in neighboring localities. The popular belief that certain trees and bushes indicate depths to Avater is not borne out by field observations. The distribution of vegetation with reference to depth of water table is, however, a topic of interest. Studies in Owens Valley, Cal., where the mean annual precipitation is less than that for the Navajo country, have shown ARTESIAN WATER. 131 that fresh-water grass thrives where the depth to ground water does not exceed 3 feet; that m general grass is absent from areas where the water table is depressed below 8 feet. Sagebrush, greasewood, rabbit bush, and bunch grass survive where the water table lies 12 to 20 feet below the surface.^ So far as fresh-water and salt-water grass and plants adjusted to alkali soils are concerned, the conditions on the Navajo Keservation duplicate those in Owens Valley; but sage and a variety of grasses and annuals grow about well sites, where the permanent water table lies 30 to 50 feet below the surface. Even the Cottonwood, whose presence usually indicates a depth to water not exceeding 20 feet, is found growing in the lower Oraibi Wash at a spot where the water table is at least 50 feet below the surface! The explanation of these phenomena appears to be that a saturated zone produced by percolation rests, for part of the year at least, between the ground surface and the water table. The fluctuation of the water table with the seasons and from year to year must be considerable, but the wells have been in existence for too short a time to give significant data. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. No chemical studies have been made of the waters of the Navajo Reservation, but the following statements are believed to be of gen- eral application. Springs and wells observed in the Moenkopi for- mation except two, in Bonito Canyon and Box Springs, yield alka- line water. Water from this formation at Douglass Camp is unfit for man or beast. Most of the springs in the uppermost Triassic formation (Chinle) and in the Mancos shale are also unpalatable. Water from the Triassic shales at Chinle School is of such quality as to merit condemnation. Springs in other formations furnish supplies suitable for all purposes. Only about 2 per cent of the wells and shallow pits sunk in the alluvial fills of the washes were found to have water unfit for use. ARTESIAN WATER. The ground-water reservoir ordinarily is filled by percolation at or near the place where ground water occurs. The water, therefore, is not confined under pressure but moves more or less freely, and the water table rises and sinks in accordance with climatic changes in the immediate vicinity. There is, however, another ground-water storage reservoir in which the waters are not affected by climatic changes in the region immediately overlying them and may find their sources in regions many miles distant. Such waters are under pressure, being held by a cap of impervious material. When the 1 U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 294, p. 77, 1912. 132 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. pressure is released by puncturing the roof of the reservoir, as by a well drill, the water rises through the impervious stratum which hitherto has confined it. The pressure may be sufficient to force to the surface the water from this deep-seated reservoir or may be only enough to cause a rise of a few feet. In either event the water is " artesian," for this term is applied to all ground waters that show an appreciable rise when struck, whether or not the pressure is sufficient to produce floAvs at the surface. In the Navajo country artesian water has been found on the Chaco Plateau and is believed to be present in Chuska Valley, the upper Chinle Valley, in the northern part of Gothic Mesas, and to a less extent elsewhere. Such areas are reserved for description in connection with a discussion of wells (pp. 176-183). SPRINGS. DISTEIBUTION AND CHARACTER. One of the surprises that awaits the traveler in the Navajo country' is the large number of springs widely distributed over the reserva- tion. Tucked away in alcoves in the high mesa walls or issuing from crevices in the canyon sides or bubbling up through sands in the long wash floors, these tiny supplies of water appear to be dis- tributed in haphazard fashion. Few of the hundreds of little springs yield more than a gallon a minute ; some of them are charged with salts, and many of them are accessible only to a man on foot. Safe traveling in this region involves a knowledge of the location of these springs, and exploration consists essentially in directing one's course from spring to spring. The ancient cliff dweller was well aware of the desirability of these small permanent supplies as centers for settlement, and many of the present-day Indian trails owe their position to the location of springs rather than to topography or to length of route. The chief reason why the springs of the reservation are so clearly defined is the boldness of the topography. Valley floor meets can- yon wall or mesa face or mountain border abruptly. High walls of bare rock in many places join the alluvial fill of washes at angles approaching 90°. There is a singular absence of talus and of fans flanking the highlands. Springs therefore emerge directly from rock walls without the intervention of a cloak of sands, gravels, and bowl- ders, which tend to conceal the opening by which ground water leaves the rock. Also the recent cutting of the floors in alluvium-filled can- yons has exposed the point of emergence of water formerly hidden from vieAV. An additional reason for the individuality of springs is their more or less complete separation from the perennial drainage and their independence of the short-period fluctuations in rainfall and SPRINGS. 133 ephemeral stream flow. In general the springs flow from a definite spot rather than from an undefined area of swamp, and their waters rarely extend far from the exit. Nearly all the springs on the reservation are of the normal type — that is, they mark points of escape of ground water which has entered the rock or alluvium at higher levels and found its way downward and outward through cracks, between grains, and along bedding- planes. A few springs are artesian in character and reach the sur- face only after finding an opening in impervious beds through which the water is forced upward by pressure exerted at some distant locality. The Boiling Spring (Navajo, Tohalushi) in Laguna Canyon and the Mud Springs at Tuye on the Chaco Plateau illustrate flows which escape under pressure from retaining beds of clay and silt. With respect to mode of origin the springs of the Navajo country may be grouped in five classes, namely, springs in unconsolidated materials, springs between ledge and alluvial cover, springs emerging from the contact of two rock strata, springs within a single stratum, and springs emerging from fault lines. SPRINGS IN UNCONSOLIDATED DEPOSITS. GENEKAL RELATIONS. Springs issuing from unconsolidated deposits are found in the bottoms of the main washes and their tributaries, on slopes buried with talus, or within materials of alluvial fans. An alternation of porous and relatively impervious layers is essential, otherwise the percolating water tends to sink downward to join the permanent ground-water reservoir from which it may be recovered only by means of wells. The most favorable arrangement is a series of beds of clay and adobe interstratified with sands or gravels — a series of strata whose edges are exposed by erosion. Springs of this type emerge on flat or sloping surfaces, or directly from alluvial walls bounding arroyos, and their presence is indicated by bogs or by areas of sand through which water bubbles continuously or intermittently in response to precipitation and evaporation. In many places the water feeding the spring is held near the surface; elsewhere the water-bearing bed lies some distance below the surface and the out- let slopes obliquely upward, traversing porous lenses in the alluvium. At St. Michaels two short canyons with numerous tributaries unite to form a wash whose floor is so thoroughly saturated with water that native grass has a luxuriant growth. This is the well-known meadow Cienega Amarilla. From the walls of arroyos in the meadow springs issue at a definite horizon between coarse and fine sands. (See PI. XXVI, B^ p. 111.) The supply from these springs 134 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. and from shallow flowing wells in the garden is sufficient for the uses of the large school conducted at this place. Similar conditions have given rise to Manuelito and other springs within Chuska Valley, where layers of adobe underlie deposits of gravel and of wind-blown sand. In Segihatsosi Canyon, where the terraced valley fill is 40 to 50 feet deep, many springs emerge from the alluvial strata at the base of the lower terraces and also from the arroyo walls. Near Fluted Eock several springs emerge from the alluvium of the flat- floored valleys. Awatobi Springs form the outlet for waters confined in alluvium and dunes which cover the canyon floor. Because of their relatively large flow (6 to 10 gallons a minute) the springs at this place have served in turn as a center of residence for cliff dweller, Hopi, and Navajo. The springs about the flanks of the Hopi Mesas and the War God Spring on Navajo Mountain are examples of outflows of water confined in talus and landslide mate- rials. METHODS or IMPR0\T:MENT. The purpose of development of springs is twofold — to increase the available supply and to improve the quality of water for domestic uses. In respect to both these purposes the springs on the reserva- tion are susceptible of great improvement. When my studies were begun in this region (1909) probably not more than a dozen springs had received proper attention. During the last few years much work has been done by the Indian Office, particularly on the Hopi Ees- ervation, and in imitation of the white man's work the Indian has undertaken development on his own account. Under the guidance of Government officials the condition of springs throughout the entire Navajo country will probably be much improved during the next decade. No spring can be said to be fully developed until a large part of its flow is recovered, provision is made for the storage of surplus waters, and part, at least, of its waters has been protected from contamination. Under present conditions few springs recover more than 50 per cent of the flow, many of them less than 10 per cent, and several springs capable of furnishing 1 to 3 gallons per minute are represented by useless seeps or areas of moist sand. Many of the springs are in a filthy condition, and the droppings of stock and of wild animals not uncommonly are included in the water used by man. For springs and seeps in unconsolidated materials on valley floors or gentle slopes the simplest method of development is to sink boxes of wood or tile or cement at the point where water emerges most freely from the ground. These boxes should have a large cross sec- tion, perhaps 10 or 15 by 5 feet, and should be set at right angles to SPRINGS. 135 the immediate slope of the surface. They should be tightly covered to retard evaporation and to prevent contamination, and water for stock should be piped to troughs or basins at lower levels. It is highly desirable to have some method of shutting off the flow when water is not being used. At a few places the Navajos have exca- vated holes, cribbed them with cedar poles, and led the overflow through ditches to pools. The method is correct, but the loss from evaporation and soil absorption could be greatly reduced by substi- tuting covered concrete boxes, iron pipes, and cement or wood troughs. In those places w^here seeps or springs occur within arroyos subject to flood it is usually advisable to sink a well on the bank to a depth below the point of emergence of the spring. The supply yielded by springs that emerge on talus slopes, on landslides, and on the steeper parts of alluvial fans may in many places be greatly increased by constructing tunnels and galleries. (See fig. 11.) Figure 11. — Diagram illustrating method of constructing a kariz. The spring or seep determines the heading of the tunnel, which should be projected backward into the loose material with a slight upward slope. The length of such tunnels may be limited only by the rock slope encountered, and groups of lateral galleries may be provided. In Persia and Turkestan, where, under the name " kariz," such horizontal wells are in common use for stock and for irrigation, the galleries are not uncommonly several miles long. The method of construction adopted in Persia is to sink shafts at intervals of 100 to 200 feet along the axis of the kariz. From the bottom of each shaft the tunnel is driven in both directions. The Persian prac- tice is to leave the tunnels and shafts open and to clean out each year the material which slumps into the kariz. An equally satisfactory method, and one which would obviate the annual cleaning would be to fill the tunnels and laterals with cobbles, through which the water could circulate freely. In developing springs in unconsolidated materials it should be remembered that strata of silt, gravel, sand, and clay are rarely continuous for more than 100 feet — at most a few himdred feet — and that therefore it is seldom possible to determine accurately the extent of the underground reservoir or the quantity of water available. 136 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. SPRINGS BETWEEN ALLUVIUM AND BEDROCK. GENERAL RELATIONS. In contrast with soils, sand dunes, and the filling of the washes bedrock retards the downward percolation of water; in fact, some types of rock, particularly shale, are so impervious as to prevent it. The top surface of rock ledges buried under unconsolidated mate- rials becomes therefore in many places a water-bearing horizon of considerable importance. Where conditions are favorable water finds its way along the rock surface and emerges as springs. The per- manence and yield of springs of this origin depend on the amount of water stored in the overlying sands and gravels, the degree of per- meability of the underlying rock stratum, and the extent to which evaporation succeeds in depleting the supply. In the Navajo coun- try springs issuing between bedrock and alluvial cover occur most commonly in two situations — in rock-floored, alluvium-walled can- yons and in shallow flats ad joining, areas where wind-blown sand combines with stream deposits to form a good collecting area. At the base of alluvial banks in the recently cut inner canyon of the Tyende springs issue along the rock surface at a number of places and for stretches of hundreds of feet a continuous line of seeps may be ob- served. In Black Creek Valley, at Hunter Point, and at Oak Spring the top of the ledge beneath the alluvium is coated with a film of water. At White's trading post, where the water table is 20 feet below the surface, water emerges as springs on top of a rock ledge and continues to flow throughout the dry season. Coyote Springs, near Pyramid Butte, consist of seeps extending along a shallow wash for a distance of 300 to 400 feet. The overlying beds are lenticular masses of gravel, sand, and adobe and the beds below are red shales. At Chandler ranch the rainfall is collected on a low mesa covered with wind-blown sands overlying coarse alluvium, which in turn rests on shales. A seepage line marked by grass and " water bloom " extends with interruptions about 1,000 feet along the mesa wall. Excavation at one point produced a flow of IJ gallons a minute where previously only seepage reached the surface. The large Tan- ner Spring and its smaller companions emerge at the top of shale ledges and the supply at Tyende has a similar origin. METHOD OF DEVELOPMENT. In planning improvements for springs issuing between alluvium and bedrock it should be borne in mind that the ground water forms a thin sheet of great horizontal dimensions; that a zone of seepage marked only by damp soil or a narrow band of luxuriant vegetation may represent flows of considerable volume, now checked by evapora- SPEINGS. 137 tion. The object of development is to collect at one point the waters now widely distributed. Various methods have been devised to ac- complish this purpose. At Coyote Spring a box is sunk into the ground at the point of greatest flow. At Chandler ranch a basin is excavated in the rock below the zone of flow. At Tyende a ditch has been dug along the line of seepage and the water directed into reservoirs at lower points. Comar Springs flow from the contact of rock with coarse sand and volcanic ash. The porosity of the surface material and the large collecting area cause the strong flow at this point. Where the unconsolidated deposits are not too thick, subsurface dams of board, clay, cement, or other impervious materials, placed either at right angles to the direction of underground flow or built in the form of a broad V may be constructed. A tight contact between dam and rock and an outlet for the water are the only requisites. Where the materials are of such nature that water per- colates slowly, ditches filled with bowlders, among which water may pass freely, may be substituted for the subsurface dam. Where the rock consists of talus or slide debris the extent of the film of water is difficult to determine. For such places the supply may be increased by digging a ditch or driving a tunnel directly into the hillside at the point where the largest amount of water emerges, and construct- ing laterals leading from it. The ditch may be covered or filled with cobbles. By this method the outlet is brought nearer the chief supply, and the heads of a number of small seeps may be combined into one flowing stream. The water supply at Sunrise Spring (Navajo, Kaiso-an, place where trees have been set out), at Indian Wells, and at Maddox (Stiles ranch) illustrate the successful application of this principle. If a large amount of water is desired the rock ledge may be followed back for hundreds of feet and a kariz constructed as was recommended for springs in unconsolidated materials. (See p. 135.) Where the unconsolidated materials overlying rock are relatively thin, the construction of a well back of the zone of seepage may be found less expensive than the excavation necessary to develop the spring. SPRINGS BETWEEN ROCK STRATA. GENERAL RELATIONS. Springs at the contact between strata of solid rock constitute the largest and most valuable source of water in the Navajo country. They range in yield from mere seeps to 20 gallons a minute, and are least liable to fluctuation of all the classes represented. Like springs issuing between rock ledge and cover of unconsolidated 138 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. material, their position is determined by the relative permeability of strata, and the amount of water recovered by them depends on the extent and character of the collecting area, the porosity of the overlying rock, and the tightness of the underlying beds. The quality of water depends on the composition of the strata through which the rain finds its way downward. The beds of high porosity through which water may pass with relative ease are the sandstones ; shales and limestones, on the other hand, serve to intercept percola- tion. In the sedimentary rocks of the Navajo country there are seven well-marked spring horizons. 1. The contact between the Moenkopi formation and the Shin- arump conglomerate. The conglomerate is more or less pervious and is broken by numerous joints. The water escapes downward until intercepted by shales or fine sandstones. The plane on which the film of water rests is irregular, and the incipient channels formed lead in most places to definite outlets rather than to lines of seepage. The water is invariably of good quality, as shown by Janus Spring, Tucker Springs, and the springs about 4 miles east of Agathla. 2. The contact between the Chinle formation and the Wingate sandstone. The sandstone possesses high porosity; the shales and limestones of the Chinle are much less pervious. The water from this source is of excellent quality. 3. The contact between the Todilto formation and the Navajo sandstone of the La Plata group. The Todilto limestone, the middle formation of the La Plata group, is not everywhere present, but where it occurs it constitutes a stratum that is unusually water-tight. The overlying Navajo sandstone imbibes water freely, and the wide expo- sures of this formation make it one of the chief water carriers of the region and one from which water of excellent quality may be obtained. 4. The contact between the McElmo formation, of fine sandstone and shales, and the overlying Dakota sandstone which is noted for its porosity. The springs of the Steamboat Canyon district and those near Bitsihuitsos Butte illustrate' this class. The supplies from this horizon range in quality from water adapted for all pur- poses to that with a fairly high content of iron. 5. The contact between the Mancos shale and the sandstones of the widespread Mesaverde formation. Water of good quality issues from this horizon at 30 or 40 springs about the edge of the Black Mesa and at other localities where Cretaceous strata are represented. The agency and schools at Keams Canyon and in part the Hopi vil- lages are supplied by springs of this type. 6. The contact between the Chuska sandstone and the underlying Tohachi shale. (See pp. 140-141.) SPRINGS. 139 7. The contact between the lavas and ash of the Hopi Buttes region and the underlying sedimentary rocks. (See below.) Water also issues in a few places between strata forming parts of a single formation. Half a dozen springs are found between the sand- stones and shales within the Moenkopi formation. One of these, Box Springs, on the Little Colorado, yields water of satisfactory quality, but most of the springs of Gypsum Valley are highly charged with alkali. The Chinle formation and the Mancos shale likewise are represented by a few springs, but the quality of the water recovered is such as to render them of little value. The Mesaverde formation, on the other hand, is composed of a series of sandstones and shales and has within itself the requisite conditions for the production of a few springs, both of pure water and of water charged with sulphur. SPRINGS OF THE HOPI BUTTES PROVINCE. The Hopi Buttes embrace a group of volcanic necks and of lava- capped mesas which rise sheer above the flat-floored washes at theii' base. The mesa caps range in size from a few acres to the large central area of partly connected tables, Hauke Mesa, nearly 100 Figure 12. — Diagram illustrating the conditions producing the springs in the Hopi Buttes region. square miles in extent. The mesa sides are made up of sandstone and shales of various ages; their tops are formed by sheets of lava 20 to 100 feet thick. Within the lavas and in certain localities be- neath them are beds of volcanic ash and of tuff. The surface of the lavas is roughened by pits and cracks and shallow depressions which retain the rainfall to a large degree and direct it downward instead of outward through established drainage channels. The circulation of water within the mesas follows therefore a simple plan. The rain percolates into and through the porous and fissured lava, into the ash, only to be arrested by the more impervious sedimentary strata be- low, along which it passes to the mesa edge (fig. 12). The result is a series of springs emerging at the base of the lavas, springs whose volume is directly related to the size of the lava field from which their supply is drawn. The large central mass produces many springs, the smaller groups of mesas have fewer springs with less total yield, and most of the isolated mesas an acre or two in surficial extent have one or more tiny springs or seeps (fig. 13). 140 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. At the old stiles ranch (Maddox) there are three sets of springs floAving, respectively, 2, 4J, and 5 quarts a minute, as measured in June, 1909. They all emerge from the base of the lava. At Cotton- wood Spring the water escapes from an ash bed at its contact with underlying shale; at Cedar Springs about a gallon a minute is re- covered from tuff. At Lokasakad the water from the lava contact passes into the soil and emerges as a bubbling spring yielding 8 to 10 gallons per minute. At Indian Wells water is recovered by a group LEGEND Lava SediTnentar^ rock' Figure 13. — Map of a part of the Hopi Buttes province, showing the distribution of lava and sedimentary rocls with reference to the position of springs. of shallow pits and tunnels sunk in an alluvium-filled swale between lava cliffs, but its ultimate source appears to be the contact of the lava and the sandstone. SPRINGS or CHUSKA MOUNTAIN. Along the eastern front of Chuska Mountain, at an elevation of about 8,200 feet, a rough-floored terrace extends for several miles. The inner edge of the terrace is marked by cliffs of sandstone 200 to 500 feet high; its outer edge is littered with landslide debris and breaks off by a series of steps to join the lower slope of the moun- tain. The terrace is occupied by prosperous Navajo farmers whose fields are well watered by springs that emerge at the base of the precipitous sandstone wall. I am informed that 11 of these springs are utilized for irrigation and that there are more than 30 springs at this horizon between Tohachi and Washington Pass. The largest SPRINGS. 141 of these springs observed by me is Nikehoshi (Navajo: One eye; named after the self-styled owner), which issues at two points and Figure 14. -Diagram illustrating tlie conditions producing springs on tiie east flank of Chuska Mountain. yields 30 gallons a minute. About half this amount is utilized in irrigating fields for 14 Navajo families (fig. 14). METHODS or IMPROVEMENT. Plans for increasing the flow of springs emerging between rock strata involve the following fundamental considerations. The water resting on the impervious bed forms a thin sheet of large dimensions ; the porous bed above is more or less saturated with water; water percolates outward from the face of the rock as well as downward to the confining bed; springs and seeps and wet rock surfaces, as well as rock faces, moist only during the night, may derive their Figure 15. — Diagram illustrating method of combining several small scattered flows from rock. waters from a common source, and all tend to deplete the supply ; the amount of water evaporated from heated rock faces may equal the flow of a spring of moderate size. The purpose of developing springs of this class is to recover all the water possible from a given length of cliff line, to convert a series of seeps and small springs into one large spring, and to reduce the amount of water lost by evaporation. One method of accomplishing this result is to drive a tunnel into the water-bearing strata, using 142 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. the top of the impervious bed as the floor of the tunnel. Lateral drifts from the central tunnel would recover water otherwise lost by evaporation. Another method is to construct a covered ditch along the rock face at the level where seeps occur in order to combine several small supplies into a single larger one. Open trenches may give satisfactory results, but a large loss from evaporation must be expected. An unfailing supply has been obtained at Tucker Springs by tun- neling beneath the conglomerate forming the cap of a local mesa and the only reliable supply of water between Gallup and Fort Defiance is obtained from a series of tunnels about 150 feet long driven along the contact between strata of shale and of sandstone. At Burro Springs, which makes the Winslow-Oraibi road feasible for travelers, tanks have been sunk in the rock at the base of porous sandstone. A cover of poles protects the supply not only from stock but from rapid eva^Doration. At Lizard Spring, about 6 miles north of Ganado, a trench 20 feet long and 1 foot to 10 feet deep would con- vert several tiny springs into a satisfactory supply. (See fig. 15.) The yield of the spring at the Lower Crossing of Piute Canyon could probably be increased to 60 or 80 gallons per minute by a shallow rock trench 500 feet long. The springs at Keams Canyon, Wepo, Howell Mesa, Hopi Buttes, Monument Valley, Moonlight Valley, Tyende, and other localities are susceptible of improvement by inexpensive ditches and tunnels. Of the many springs issuing between rock strata none were ob- served which yield their maximum supply; 25 to 50 per cent of the water is recovered from about half of the springs now utilized, and at several places noted the entire flow is lost by absorption in sands. This proportion of water recovered to the amount available holds true of all classes of springs on the reservation. At a point on Carson Mesa a few minutes' digging in wind-blown sands resulted in exposing a water horizon in rock from which a flow of a gallon a minute was obtained. On the west slope of Tunitcha Mountain, Lieut. Gurovits reports that by digging with branches broken off trees the flow of a spring was increased from about 30 quarts a minute to 16 gallons a minute.^ SPRINGS WITHIN A STRATUM. The water stored within the massive beds of sandstone may find its way to the surface before reaching an impervious layer below. The Navajo sandstone in particular gives rise to numerous springs of this sort. The water emerges between cross-bedding laminae on oblique or curved or horizontal planes and at a few places — for example, at Tunnel Springs — ^has enlarged joints and interstratum 1 52d Cong., 2d sess., Ex. Doc. 68, p. 20, 1893. SPRINGS. 143 spaces into alcoves and tunnels large enough to allow the entrance of a man. Sixteen springs issuing from the sandstones of the La Plata group and yielding from half a pint to several gallons a minute of clear, pure water were utilized by members of my party for camp supplies; and more than 100 tiny seeps in the Navajo sandstone were found hidden away in alcoves and under shelves, many of them in places difficult of access. On one occasion disaster was averted by the knowledge that seeps may be found on the sheer bare walls of dry- floored canyons carved in cross-bedded sandstones. Springs of this type may be developed by artificial tunnels driven along the water- bearing contact in accordance with the plan suggested by the natural openings. PAULT SPRINGS. Many springs of all classes utilize joints within the rocks, and the underground flow of some springs is greatly facilitated by the presence of open fissures, along which water finds its way. Fault springs are, however, rare, for faults with a throw of more than a few feet are recorded for less than a half dozen places on the reser- vation. In fact, the only spring noted which unquestionably has its origin in a fault zone is found in Junction Canyon, at which place 1 gallon of water a minute issues from a fault of 6 feet displacement in the Navajo sandstone. SPRINGS OF THE TUBA DISTRICT. GENERAL RELATIONS. Tuba is a veritable oasis — a patch of green in the midst of a most forbidding desert. Surrounded on all sides by stretches of bare red rock, across which dunes are continually driven by southwest winds, this spot has been the seat of an agricultural population since times long antedating the discovery of America. The Spanish padres found the ancestors of the present Hopis cultivating cotton and corn in fields centuries old ; explorers of later days have known the spot, and its advantages were recognized by the Mormon pioneers. About 1878 a group of Utah Mormons made their way across the Colorado and established a permanent settlement on this site, which, under the guiding hand of these skillful irrigators, soon reached a high stage of cultivation. The Mormon colonists who replaced the Hopi and Navajo were in turn replaced by Government officials, who have made Tuba the administrative and educational center of the Western Navajo Reservation. One giant spring, with a smaller companion, is the reason for the position of Tuba itself, but more than 30 addi- tional springs account for the presence of fields and homes in the vicinity. Tuba may be said to rest near the edge of a table, two 144 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. sides of which are marked by cliffs from whose base emerge springs a short distance apart ; a third side is a canyon, through Avhich flows a spring- fed brook; on the fourth side, the north, an unbroken desert reaches the very edge of the irrigated fields. The positions of the springs of the Tuba district are indicated on the maps (PL XXVII and fig. 16), which in slightly modified form are those kindly furnished by H. F. Robinson, superintendent of irrigation for the Indian Office. The discharge of the springs is shown by the following table: Discharge of springs of the Tuba district. [Observer, R. Ritter.] Discharge. Date of record. Name. Gallons mmute. Second- feet. Remarks. Springs on the Tuba school groxmds: A 1 44.8 35.8 224.4 72 25 42 79 100 0.1 .08 .5 .16 .055 .093 .17 .20 May, 1908. ...do ...do. ...do ...do ...do ...do The combined flow of A, B, and C as given by Ritter in 1908 was 80.6 gallons per minute. Robinson, measuring the two large springs, probably A and B of Ritter, reports a combined flow amount- ing to 112.5 gallons per minute (1914). B C Springs in Reservoir Canyon . Springs along Echo Cliffs: Lyon ranch Combined flow of springs from east and south. Combined flow of all springs at this place. Willow Springs. Combined flow of all other springs within the Echo Cliffs area. Not measured; estimate based on the Springs in Moenkopi Wash . . statement that "the flow from these springs is about half that from Reser- voir Canyon." 623 1.36 ORIGIN OF THE SPRINGS. In unpublished reports on file in the Indian Office and the Forest Service the springs of the Tuba district are stated to have their origin in faults which are assumed to outline Echo Cliffs and to traverse the Government school grounds. This hypothesis was kept in mind during my brief examination of this area, and step faulting on a minute scale was noted at Moa Ave; but no faults of more than a few inches displacement — faults of a type found in the sandstones at many places on the reservation — were observed. The strati- graphic succession — massive, cross-bedded Navajo sandstone overly- ing thinner bedded sandstones and arenaceous shales — is esssentially unbroken, and the arrangement of beds is apparently identical with that south of the Moenkopi Wash. The massive cross-bedded sandstone, as well as thin strata of shale and sandstone, are, however, traversed by joints, in many places U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 380 PLATE XXVII SPRINGS. 145 open, and there is a well- marked plane of sepa- ration between the lam- inae of cross bedding in the Navajo sandstone. At Moa Ave, Lyon ranch, and the Govern- ment farm the water issues from the base of a 100-foot cliff of sand- stone at its contact with red shales. At Willow Springs and in Reser- voir Canyon the water emerges from joints and at the junction of two sets of cross-bedded strata, and the big School Spring appears to have the same origin. The geologic struc- ture favorable for the accumulation of ground water at Tuba is as fol- lows: The Navajo sand- stone, which forms the surface rock on Kaibito Plateau, has high poros- ity, and its surface is so completely occupied by wind - scoured depres- sions and irregularly placed dunes that run- off is almost entirely prevented. Tuba is sit- uated on the western limb of a flat syncline at a point where the dips of 15° ± shown in the northern Echo Cliffs flat- ten to 3° and then to 1°. Moreover, the axis of the syncline pitches south- 33033°— wsp 380—16— Approximate scale 2,000 4,000 Feet Figure 16. — Map of Echo Cliffs between Lyon ranch and Willow Springs, showing distribution of springs. -10 146 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. ward toward Moenkopi Wash. The consequence is that water falling on a well- displayed collecting basin is imbibed by rocks of high water-holding capacity and is directed southward and southwest- ward by the structural arrangement of the sedimentary beds (% 17). At first sight it would appear that the precipitation on the Kaibito Plateau is insufficient to supply the numerous springs in the vicinity of Tuba. If, however, we assume that the catchment area for the spring waters is the portion of the Kaibito Plateau which slopes toward the Moenkopi and that the average annual rainfall is 5.30 inches, the amount for Tuba, we find that 93,000,000,000 gallons of water falls on the collecting area each year, sufficient to provide for a flow of 170,000 gallons a minute. As the conditions for absorption are unusually favorable, and as the combined flow of the springs Springs- Springs ■§ cc^ Springs Figure 17. — Section across Kaibito Plateau, illustrating the conditions which determine the distribution of springs at Tuba. in the Tuba district is only about 623 gallons a minute, it is obvious that no distant or deep-seated source need be ascribed to the springs of the Tuba district. METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT. N'one of the springs along the 7-mile stretch from Lyon ranch to Willow Springs are utilized to their full capacity. The water emerges as strong flows but is soon absorbed by the sand. At Lyon ranch are several undeveloped seeps in addition to four good springs. The water from one of these springs flows at the rate of IJ gallons a minute but is lost in sand within 200 yards of its source. At this place, at Moa Ave, and, in fact, at all the springs issuing from the base of Echo Cliffs, the available supply could be increased perhaps 100 per cent by constructing concrete reservoirs at the point of greatest flow and adding to this supply the flow of adjoining seeps by a series of covered ditches. The construction of tunnels and gal- leries would further increase the yield. At the Government farm a concrete reservoir 25 by 27 by 6 feet has been constructed at a spring on the cliff slope, and the water delivered by 3,000 feet of If-inch pipe. A similar plan has been followed at the Moenkopi Mission and may serve as a guide in developing other springs feeding directly into the Moenkopi Wash. The water from three large springs and several seeps in Reservoir Canyon is impounded by dams. This canyon is doomed to extinction by filling with wind-blown sand. The time is ripe for completing the sj^stem of galleries and tile drains SPRINGS. 147 and stone culverts on and beloAv the present floor of the canyon and leading the combined flow of all the springs to fields in the wash below. If this is done the obliteration of the canyon by filling will work no injury and may result in increasing the supply by retarding evaporation. The combined flow of the springs in Eeservoir Canyon is placed by Mr. Bitter at one-half second-foot, or 224 gallons, a minute, a most important supply available for use in addition to, or as a substitute for, the mud-laden flood waters of the Moenkopi. The tliree springs on the Tuba Agency grounds have a combined flow, as measured by Mr. Eitter, of 0.18 second-foot, or nearly 80 gallons, a minute, about half of which issues from the School Spring. The water is impounded by, a series of reservoirs and used to irrigate about 40 acres of field and orchard but is allowed to go to waste dur- ing five months of the year, when water is not needed for crops. Ten to eighteen per cent of the discharge from springs on the school grounds is lost before reaching the reservoir. It is estimated that by means of a properly constructed storage system water may be recovered in sufficient quantity to irrigate 100 to 125 acres in addition to supplying the school with an adequate amount. SPRING RECORDS. The springs listed in the following tables include most of those visited by members of my party during the years 1909, 1910, 1911, and 1913. Mr. George A. Keepers, allotting agent, has kindly fur- nished the location of springs for Tps. 23 and 24 N"., K. 21 E., and at other points in the southern part of the Hopi Buttes area. Mr. J. W. Bush, acting agent at Leupp, has also taken pains to furnish a list of springs, arranged by sections, part of which has been used in the tables. To Mr. Matthew M. Murphy, allotting agent, I am indebted for the precise location of 21 springs in the Tusayan Washes province. Information regarding many springs has been obtained from Navajos and Hopis and from traders and Govern- ment officials. The list is, however, incomplete and doubtless con- tains errors due to misinterpretation of the statements of the In- dians and to other causes. Moreover, with the base map used, all locations are necessarily approximate. The springs were visited at various times, and few of them were seen more than once. Some of them were measured during May, June, and the first part of July, the dry season; and others after the annual rains had begun. The records obtained have, therefore, only qualitative value. The yield of the springs at Tuba was meas- ured by engineers of the Indian Office; on the other hand, the flow of certain springs not visited by members of my party has been estimated from statements made by Navajo guides. 148 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. In the accompanying tables the springs are arranged by geo- graphic provinces (see PL I, in pocket), as follows: Nos. 1-10, But- ton Plateau; 11-12, Chaco Plateau; 13-40, Chuska Valley; 41-62, Chuska Mountains; 63-65, Manuelito Plateau; 66-69, Black Creek Valley; 70-93, Defiance Plateau; 94-120, Pueblo Colorado and Chinle Valley; 121-159, Hopi Buttes; 160^169, Tusayan Washes; 170-225, Black Mesa; 226-228, Moenkopi Plateau; 229-239, Kaibito Plateau; 240-245, Eainbow Plateau; 246-247, Navajo Mountain; 248-249, Shato Plateau; 250-258, Segi Mesas; 259-262, Monument Valley; 263-267, Gothic Mesas; 268-276, Carrizo Mountain; 277-283, Painted Desert. SPRINGS. 149 a f^ CO O f^ 'X O O O P* o : : : m tJ c3 a> a) if S go ^ O o -•-* tt) Pi c3 o o .fig O OQOQ .3 I fld 03 O oS'^pCl OT 5iSe:g C b! 05 4J fi S OT <» 5=" a;^ ^° fl o "^ QJ CO C all •a^§ 2 d S d S j« CO o o dS g'SSS§ S— 1 l<^ I-H l-H t^ co5 ills ^1 go ,=) O IS a| 00 OQ .g'S I? 5g i 11 <« Or- 1 a -i4^ ^ s| O OQ S ^ «« ft tuObO .a .a OhPh DQCQ -fi^d -fi,o o o :d o3i -saa^ Eh i:^i>. II IS 0)0 00 Oi o »H N ec 'siioot^ oooi 150 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. CO __, Q, n3 • 72 ® fl M S go i «s1 ft . t>>S !=* o o ^2 -^ I? 2 2-C^ " o w © '-' TttCQ ^ci.g "go .s d ^ > » ■£ g - 3 2 CO '•-I fS ..-H "J y ^ « flft^o^ Sxi-S-Sd^ o (h d o+^^ fl 03 "^ I o. I o S -•^ S d ® ® 5" 1 cc"'d-u p s d ® S H ^ O o §2^ ft-2^^ •-H\d 2 2g§° M rd ® i^ -r" 4j r/2 .TJ :3 " Ig o o fl =3 d a a oa .'SS 'o i i 0) © oj a> -t-a W PQ M a-s 15 § ^a^ . CO I »H P< !h c3 pj p5 ta ai ai 6-^ 0° o : T3 ;3 0*^0 1% Sa bxi-r: " MO -2 .a+^ ■I -§§ ■•■311 -^^ ;o^.a ^ gaft a ;S^aa§ ■2 ° .-sa i^a ■ CQ O o 1-2 §11 a ^o° .S o d o o > ^ -^ ^ ^ |§ogg - ^ ft « flJ ^ o o i el ?; 2|5,g| l^gSl W+j flT3 (B ^ s^ " 2 a c3 « _| '-I !=J W S CC fl O ■^^.al' ■ » " ^ ^ fl^fl o^ fqpqOH^lfq 2 o 0I °o § ■SO |o w fl pj w o-go 4^<(^o '^ai °w-a O o ^ pi! '§1 ® P CO " fl w5 ^li -a ^ [2 ^ a g fl ^ CO W G? § (^ o o © §^ -I fi'-a Si If 30 a 0^ .a "s lis fl 03 ft O ^ ',2 ^ ft+J «2fl ,M O pqW fl cQ.a fl^ 03 03 ^ ft bX)bD it ftft mm -S© bCfl (D O CGM t^ l>t^ t^ t^ 00 152 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. I 1 fe -a, •eft ft W PI r-( O +3 PI »^ O o &>•" ;fl > .JO W S 3 ;^ .al •a o g 03 O Of5 ""5 s ^^ o rf iC- n o w § a w Ph ^o PI cS pl^ w O m .§aa Pl^^ 2 3"^^ PI II .2. :'3 ID' OQ H « a ^.a J a "^ og I i .3 iL p-g .a^.a^3 >^ P^ >g >go ^ •<-i ^1^, ^al w fe d ^ "^ (D Plc§ . o ^ raa^^g^ ■^ 3 ^ Pi ^ -=1 '^§^"%| : s fl s a a O M ■ o a> aoa s ^ ^ ^ +3 :p .•"3 OJ ..-3 a s O c3 a> .^jm If "a o;3 op> ®G 3 d1n © ^a^2|p5 >a 3 ^ "S .2 3 40 -tj .1-1 ij's- -g^ o o o S -r) r-H ''-I +^ Mom Wo ^ ® .2 -d 1 a § '. .a *. '. ■'-' SPRINGS. II i ^1 'S '- Pi flg 5^ II oi 1 ^% ft -S ^■i§ CQ PI CD ^« 33 ii tl 3 g ft Do. any seeps base of la mesa; ecu P m PMflH ft Ph S 153 ■I w w O ri ^ ■s'^^Sl^ 'd -; 43 -3 * 2 "d ;o : s cc o II o o^^ o o c> w ^ w fl d -I ^ : d o o <^ '-' I o ooeo .o c^§dod^5« .Ph O .H O ;rt P^ )C0 d S-d ^ « d d§ WP5 d ® Ki,d M1^:^- la ^-^- -. ^ S§o§g W W OT '-* OT >> a> 5 w o3 6^ ^iS-^ sa CQcO WtIhO 1.^ a^d S^d •S Mm doi O 00 g o ® ® !d d ^P5 i^al C3CQ O ©^ o rd o OT d_gd ag*& 02 d*^ i-a das OKI's Ord o^ o o dd ® ID W I d « '-' ft •d <« 2 d -d , aogg-d 'og^g§ • d M ® j^ <» ra w ® » 05 L^aaalS.1 • OOCOr-l IMC W)d .a"S ■ . -d C ft 'J ^'.d ^.s'Si-ag^ 'gp!"-!^^ g -B a bOft OQ © (S Sa-9 OcO^ d s o ft t>CQ 'O I (M d O H 0.!h O :p^ : w fl ^ c .9 i I Bs 6'^ ■■=< •d 0-2 C " «fcj g-B -<0 O Q o ^3 w 03 o3 !-( OT bX),2 P< m ©CI, PhO ft pi iiif^iiUi^s > d "^ ® o) o) (D ;3 +j S^' 'fit d d^ J^a^ C o >0 CO CO -<1< (M .-H as2 d S.Z co^ o Otj.O'^wOWwOOd CO M WpH O) CO O) QJ OT W S iC ■<* »0 C^l »0 CO 00 Tf< Tf I— I CB O PI « d CO CO c« 11 I Ills fl „ ft '-' l°o d ^ CO CO >> O p: P 2 56 .gs. «2p, . •f ft ft «^ w d <1 e >0 lO CO CO CO CO CO c SPRINGS. 155 ■p IS o >i . o5 fl-i«< m S sh P*» orjcs-'-iaa. 0> O5O5O30^OiOiG5< 8 S § I .-I --< i-H 1-4 (M > o w >^ 1^ H -< OQ(N I 03 » s Fm<>1 .a O.JH .j;;^ 8 I o 'C| : , tJ cS oj aj " H O O 3 2 s S O f* g o O o 0,«2 " ^t^'^a^^^ §.a ■ C3 d M C3 rd krij H ^ ■sS6n^'s|2 3§ jS ac d fl3 g^;^ .. ri? f' Q in H . ,„ ^^'*r' O rn rri ri^ . f»-* ^ 5§| a a| o §5 g g^s a a a co^ g^, g ;^ ^^ fs =*Sa M CJ M c* c* c< CI ;^ > t) W o ^ O P o X ■ « o q o q O ><1 o « OHO W o : O St3 03 Pw O Q r=! 2 S ® sg ^ 3 1^ !* - =* fl^ te- « O is o O C5 P m C?fl i-O P, O-r-c +J ra!3i^ Ph W Eh o . . 03+3 o na oj 9 9 OT B .3 w).3 a a 03 rj "Sa'E :w- I • o 1/1 o ! a 03 fl 03 'S 32 3 1+^ o+^ o ©"ti) •^ o rt "^ • 03 ftd §a-2 oi 03 y O O M o o n 03 03 g i! :p^ ; o 2 .-5 ®H ^ ^5 ^ « d ^ m g M o ^^ fer2 ® c3 arjrd •Srg-^^d^ -1^ d os-i-s d o+^ ^0®o3 0>;.g ^"2ag§^ dd a d drS d g fed t>. ©3 § ^1 o ^^ ■2 w^ d^-3-2 d.>;a^ ^PS-it^ d o o ■B .d o d t>> d S d "'So rd d iS a^S'S s ft d d o o 1 1- M 73 o. lip ^°dO o^d w 5 g 'So'bO • d fcCO ^^ ^ 3 02 I "I a 1*^ o X2 oj .73 03 =d a® d (N iC dS a^s^r^. ; d s I sills a o a|g-aijd^ •S§>^ s d .cc 5,ft d .cc 5,ft •"^ d 3:3 •3 E-i(M O . >0 rH(NeO Ttno <0 t^ CO Ol O 1-1 c5 c5 c5 e5 ?5 c5 S ^ Tfi in lo lo lO lO lO CO 158 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. ft <» Sg -d So •9.3 —I "H 05 O s 8 o m d ;^ +-• .g II ft Or • m rrt O a> fe ^ •S^ h-l CQ s S S "3 o "^+^ (-1 »H 33 7* "O OiTS d o" -Si's .5 Q,+j S o o It 02 ; toe's '^ jfg : CO m > ^ oJfl ftS " -^^ (.■3 oi2 3 « if fl Mi> w o ^<^ fl o o ® o o Woo ■+J o .Sao rT-< H rr-l +3 O 5 5 a _ o OP e g 6X32 ^ o< ©CM mE-i 9^9p Eh S 2 W?d'9 Fii fed®p52 oco O S «3.9 ^1^ «w^ d ||a III -d^ o "S+j ® d 1/1 M O *( lO e<) (N IM (N cs (U £1 +J C o (/) § c o o (U (/) (A (D (U E CO en ==£:^=e ^^^ -"— - " ■ ^^ ' ^ -j;_ ^oiSTo -- '949' 1.000'- 'M^: Fine brown sandstone Fine sandstone ^M ~~~-Fine sandstone (water)- Light-red shale Figure 1,325' -Sections of flowing wells at Bluff, Utah. minute, and a 305-foot boring at Adamana yields salt water from Moenkopi beds at the rate of 25 gallons a minute. RECORDS OF WELLS. Records of wells sunk in the Navajo country are presented in the following table. The numbers correspond with those shown on the map (PI. I, in pocket). 184 THE NAVAJO COUNTRYc 1 1 Small supply of poor' water. Supply insufficient. 1 i + CO Cv c s c c C -d If m s . If 1 5 i 1 i 1 1 J i fi5 ^g g 3 1 g g 6 ft o o ^ ;t -H o>oo>oo o >oio»o s § § s ?s ^ ^s 1 < > 1^ c c 1 1 'a c ■ 1 c pr. c c •t O 1 ? 11 ^ 1 o ■ 121 3 g ;^ 2 rA" s § &■ < 1 < iz c 1 ■ O ll 11 ll.i c 1 pl C C c: C c c c c C c 1 1 1 i " 6 - ■) o- . ^ c c^ f -^ >r cr g <2 a- ^ . 1 «g <3=l .3 -S %^ te .9-=! s -^ 9 t § WELLS. s^ g b ^- M-r ^ Seep. 169. Several flowing we Strongest flow depth of 800 feet. Three wells. a5 III III sliable; d 13. veils; 3 wed at fir Water highly saline Slightly salty. Did not obtain a sa factory supply. 1 |i o3 >> Usually r June, 19 Several i them flc ft . CQ Ph IZi 185 a^o 1^-^- t^8^-^ ecor sand t mit -w throng Ph J3 '^o ;-H •CO t3 (S nn "73 c 2 <» 1^ ^ o o c3 S' C3<2 d c3 >« eoc<> T-l 1H O (N r-l [^ O M <^ j:^.-^ (DO rd WW 1^ ® & - 3^ fl d td « ft fl d ts ■e o §.a|.aft||- S pq cc CO CO n3 d CO ll •-^ pq I'd" 1^) Igg^ ! d 5? do) So 5^ > 4 CO !>• 00 0> O 186 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. ' cii— I .g^-a o PI- CO &5i ^o M cS c3 1^ P) 3 3.^:2 o ^ •A Ti OT "^ ^4^ > fi M w5.« g o PhS d.ri o COCO 03 0--< !2; - ..■»l .a ft c« fe-^. c« > ■ >i^-Q- O ^;SoO : s"^ : : : PM ; : O T-( (M CO rf >0 C^ Ol CS (N IM CSl WELLS. 187 ■H -S . % ^ V "S ?. ^d 1 1 on "A .g ^ ^ :;^§ 1^ leet. Water could no veloped on of fine sand. 1' o o o fififl ap< •4^0 8g -d o ^ o 9'^ ►r 'd ■sa o c O pq '5 6 -S'P^ a|ap° o C3^ .^S ; rac^. cS m c3 ^ S^ CD CU V ^ ^ f^ f^ ^ •'3 :o •So 'H i-ga :o ^ "C -2 ^ rS — '^ '^ a^j'gagg a^^ as O M £3 O C3 I I' O ^<; 5f _^J N O O O g M 'H ^3 't3 -d _... .. . -fMco-^io o i>.ooaso .-Hcsii CO M CO cocoon -^ '^ Tfi Tti -a< rf ■* ^ Tfi lo lO lo lo lo -"O lo >o lO lO o 'io^a< 188 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY -g 4iJ o ^ § ® _g o O ^. g fe ^ a1 i? ^ go Q So ^" 0+3 § V O LSbss a pf e H^l I rd c/5 Mo ' § 2 !=; 1^ ^3 001 tS 0) Sh ..sis* !=! as 05 i=l S 1^ lal CO -^ ^ 3 &,s rd O o d a W O rd O P^ O P§ ^- 05 O mPhM Part IV. GEOGRAPHIC TERMS. The Navajo language possesses a number of sounds unfamiliar to the English ear, and for this reason the spelling of Navajo place names varies with different authors. Heretofore there has been no escape from this confusion, for no comprehensive study of this difficult language had been made. Recently, however, two scholarly works have been published by the Franciscan fathers — "An ethnologic dictionary of the Navajo language" (1910) and "A vocabulary of the Navajo language" (1912) — and the worker in this field is pro- vided with a better standard than his untrained ear. In the follow- ing table these volumes are treated as authoritative for all terms con- cerning which doubt has arisen. The Hopi language is better known, and the publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology furnish a reliable guide for both the spelling and the meaning of place names. Spanish and English terms offer few difficulties, although names in these languages have suffered mutilation to some extent. Some terms, for example. Canyon de Chelly, the product of erroneous translation, are too firmly fixed in the literature to justify recon- struction. In the subjoined table all names appearing on the geographic map have been listed except such as are well established both in spelling and in application and a few about which no satisfactory information could be obtained. 189 190 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. 22 §1 93. I (S M t^ W Ah PQPQPhN lilili a.s| -^s OT ft ^ fj ^'d OJ II , O V M > ^ J3 CJ o Xi o .o _o _o _o 03 ^3 o3 cS' '^ > > > o3 c^ o3 c3 So "-^ ^ m ^^1 S f^ 03 fl h-HI— ll^l— I c3 03 O C3 P- 03 a § Ill a C d m 1^ c a !=! PI 43 w M Q. 03O Ph c^i ScF' ®5 f^® ft ft Mot 03 -^^i biOO o oj g ft -oft m ft bO ft c3 O 02 e •> CO OJkH 03 OJ C3 OT (1 -7-1 ®OAh ^^ o ccWco QQ KooW >T3 If c« fi rt a "^^a ;^.f ©2 QfiW S ri^ SO • • .a'j:! .^- 03g ^ OJ (» S , <» ^ r3 ^q fi^ Ah WdaWS dH :offl o >> M© o "^ «j .a >> '^ p3 ftS > 020 £^ if. 03 73 ^J0 N (P T So o ft M ffl is: :^§ o o y~ J ^ c3 o3 ^ 'S !> 1> > t> S 03 CS 03 C3 t,\3 (-\ >H ''V i-^J "-U ».y !z;6 w^;^^^:^; PI O 03 ^1 03 > O 03 fcb® O o HO " ft !^^ bC b^ PhO^ ta a ^ o d «| OPh +^ CI O IS o o oi ft 2S t3 _o _o _o o^_o "t? '^ •-? 03 '^ at.o '*\i t-y 1-y > > > > 03 c3 03 c3 c3 o3 !2^^5^ Cj CB S CD g? ® -(^ ojM 03 S O ^ :^ pq ' i;ft ftS ® S^ tl 5,^3 ft ft f-^ c3 ft : jj o.a :a oc+3 ..S illll : OT Id ftbxjfto) ftO CO O CO W ft 03 a ll, ftbC •3 ft ^ O ft^_^ fti^flS o ft 5?^' -*- -ft^.^ ft '^ CO 'O S^o P^o a > o PI * O o3 +^ if CO o3 ft O -rt, r-J fflScoo o 1^ :^ ^ 03^ OPq -pjt: g to 03 pT-t^Qj O t/T<'~' 03 o3 ©n, ^'^S i=l ©.i^i'^ g o ^ ^ -s >-.a ^ O PoPhoOH fqfi ft .a : 03 ►/iJ !^^ft 1^ o ft oe ^ o3 03 03 CO o3 CO' •-5 s^. ^ P-lWcQOO 02 «^ a -a a gj~ .-bo •as Ph O J^ •sa • 03 tt) ;pja *-| ft""' -P ® P-ICCP^CQOQ ft'^ -^-^ 03 .g P- n o3 Oft! S P^ .a -3 i 03 03 ®:;1 lOOOO ll... I ^ ) o saag§ jd o o o S C3 O) 03 « ftp ,2 a-pi c3 c a ^^ss.a.a -^ p! ft-§ O d US U) PPPH 192 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Ji >^^^ S^ ,0+3 te a o " &><^ f^o 5 ^•'^ S « m w g o 5 ri '^ > Eh O O "^ O rn ■ 03 M -rt " ; S'^ ^--^ '^1 la I . o f3 p s ^ ^ c3 o3 c3 tj f^ O e3 00" o o 000 w a o S •t^ 03 ^ a ftS oi O 00 H W WW ^1 ft-^+S 000 WWW M MM GEOGRAPHIC TEEMS. 193 ■3 to s. IS o '^ So 3^1 :1 :l S !S^ •S 'I' CD 3 !^ -^ d C3 OCtuog H > > d) o3 o3 o o ft s - -I •^^ 3"! od4 OS'S I— 1 4, +J 03 O PH« o > it. pa 03 03 ^ O m •Wc^ - a. Ah o -^a-la^l-al^H^. 03tJ003+3piOw.yo f-<+5 o ^ a!;=?a w . ° o ^ j3^ ^ 5 ;^e !zi .S QQ ti ^E-iE^ Eh ftcS-3 - J^ bJ0+JC5 6C (S-Pioc c3 ^ a fto ^t^ H Eh P)EH Hi 03O ft SB to U k2 cs.al o3 -t-s ■*:; O !«-< ajr-H o3 m a, r^ m II Spq Pi o I 1^ >Ph aj Ml o w § ^ Hi Hi 55 o3 ^ c3 ^ h^h^lt-? Hi H 33033°— wsp 380—16 13 p aa s s;^ o :p^ fl 1=1 •s s o o c PI Pi a o o o a .^% d o s- o o o • o 194 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. GEOGEAPHIC TERMS. 195 S ^ . o W 05 O It • C3 O > g > > &> 03+s (S iS 03 c3 55 S n :o o S ^ O c^ ra ^ ^3ph ® 2 P P-o a? 03 03 sits C3 bJO S^g3-2 > > O o3 03 O M Eh ^.2 " o >-< -S J ^ 6i •-; O . -^ « ^ P, febaSo O M o o,Q o 5cd o ® Oft pHg>§ pq oj O 03 C3 « a pq W ft pq c3 >H 03 :a ._o I'm c3 O SO ^ Art 9 © ® O <» 03 -' Ah D2 02 m £oS d>pq a? O) 03 ® 03 4) 0 2 03 © rd &He Eh 196 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY. L^ CO P( eS 03 ^^ 2 X So H H H • o ® " ^.s> o o"-* o o 6-1^ o3 w ;i S ri ..03 ^ d S) d 03 1-^ 1 ai oft ® rd' Izi^ c3 bC -§1 o'o" > > 03 03 03 03 > ^ IS a ^5 .11 ti 03Q 5ort3^ .o .2 o ■o3''C! "S" > 2 >^ 2 R c3rQ C3 d 03 'A ^ ^ 43 Pi 2 03 3 ass a "J o oj 3 o3 tw ""-^ d^^Sg " t'-> C! 03 O > d t> d o^ S '5.'' !-i ® g^ O ^ _ 05 05 II -t^ R "^ 5mS^ ^■" ^3 d hi' i Ord "^^ _ > > oS "s! 03 03 I g 03 CO > 03 •^ CO d S 03 S >^ o«.a5^4^ ^^-l ft 5 T3 3 ■^ ,S !d o o ^ -^.2 WO moo d -(^ C3+^ d^ d 03® <^ oMo ^>fs^:d W Wo O ■ ® p O 'bB^ tJD o" o 1-^ OQ dS^ So S H e o.d o <^ bJOXi O O 'O CO d c3 03 O .d^-d 000 HH E-iEHE-t Eh H e H S.^ (=1 w d 13 Eh e II S Be > GEOGEAPHIC TEKMS„ 197 a2 CO Ph ft o QQ W GQ e3 j3 SO w 2 oj c3 « o (iH iz; iz; o3 O . C3 O ce II o -S.2 Ti a a c3 ^rt -^ K? II ^ 2 o rt •^ d M g ' Si ^ !? !z; .6 g. P e .9 ra ^ m pq ^ 1^ ^s pq p : M mo f^ o m S P4 > :9ft . • : ..2 tsB-^ ■ S 03 fl aOT +^ P +J J5 wp; S 1^ 13 ■ft -s ^ ^ ^ ft.g Ph3 :§ >^N N N N Part V. BIBLIOGRAPHY. WORKS EXAMINED. In connection with geographic and geologic studies in the Colo- rado Plateau province it has been found advisable to examine nearly 500 books and pamphlets, including many unpublished reports filed in the Government archives. The list given below is believed to in- clude the most important publications relating to the geography and water resources of the Navajo country. In the first group are those works which have resulted from first-hand study; in the second are standard treatises based on a critical study of original material ; in the third group are titles selected from a long list of articles descrip- tive of adjoining regions similar to the Navajo Reservation, and also from publications which are helpful in visualizing the environment of the Indian. A list of the principal Spanish documents relating to this region is also given. Anthropologic works of a technical na- ture by Gushing, Dorsey, Fewkes, Hodge, Voth, and others have been omitted, as have also geologic reports that have little geographic significance. WORKS BASED ON FIRST-HAND STUDY. Arizona. Annual reports of the superintendents of the Navajo and Hopi Indian reservations to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Contain general Information as to the condition of the Indians and their country. Bailey, Vernon, Life zones and crop zones of New Mexico: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Survey North Am. Fauna No. 3.5, pp. 7-100, ills., map, 1913. Bandelier, a. F., Final report of investigations among the Indians of the south- western United States, carried on mainly in the years from 1880 to 1885: Archeol. Inst. America Papers, series 3, pts. 1 and 2, pp. 305, 325, 1890- 1892. Bartlett, John Russell, Personal narrative of explorations and incidents in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua, 1850-1853. 2 vols., map and ills., 1854. Mr. Bartlett was the United States boundary commissioner during these ex- plorations, and the hook forms a journal of his observations on soil, water supply, Indians, animals, vegetation, topography, and climate. Volume 2 contains a dis- cussion of the introduction of camels as a means of transportation on our western prairies and deserts, Beadle, J. H., The undeveloped West, or five years in the Territories. Cincin- nati, 1873. Western wilds and the men who redeem them. Map, ills. Cincinnati, 1878. These volumes, the result of seven years' travel by a correspondent for the Cincinnati Commercial, are two of the most interesting hooks of travel in print. 199 200 THE KAVAJO COUNTEY. Bell, W. A., New tracks in North America ; a journal of travel and adventure while engaged in surveying for a southern railroad to the Pacific Ocean during 1867-68. 2 vols., Ixv, 236 pp., 1869. Illustrated by lithographs, woodcuts, and botanical plates. Describes the physical geographj'^ of the Colorado basin ; New Mexico and Arizona as the Spaniards found them. Btckford, F. T., Prehistoric cave dwellings : Century Mag., vol. 18, pp. 896-911, 1890. Containsi notes on forests, water supply, and other features of Canyon de Chelly, Bonito, Del Arroyo, and other canyons. BoTJRKE, J. G., The. snake dance of the Moquis of Arizona; being a narrative of a journey from Santa Fe, N. Mex., to the villages of the Moqui Indians of Arizona, with a description of the manners and customs of this peculiar people, and especially of the revolting religious rite, the snake dance ; to which is added a brief dissertation upon serpent worship in general, with an account of the tablet dance of the Pueblo of Santo Domingo, N. Mex. London, 1884. Capt. Bourke was for several months aide-de-camp to Maj. Gen. Crook, selected by Lieut. Gen. Sheridan to make examination of Indians of the South- west. The narrative is a well-written, well-illustrated, accurate, and interesting account, based on first-hand information. Route described from Port Defiance to Keams Canyon and Hopi villages ; thence to Sunset Crossing at Winslow. Brandegee, T. S., Tlie flora of southwestern Colorado: U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr. Bull., vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 227-248, 1876. Brevoort, Elias, New Mexico, her natural resources and attractions, being a collection of facts, mainly concerning her geography, climate, population, schools, mines, and minerals, agricultural and pastoral capacities, pro- spective railroads, public lands, and Spanish and Mexican land grants. 176 pp., Santa Fe, 1874. The author was for 24 years a land-grant agent in the Territory, and the chapter on this business contains much information. His descriptions of climate, water supply, topography, and natural resources are very detailed and fairly accu- rate, in spite of his evident desire to urge settlement within the Territory. Bbown, W. C, Suplee, E. M., and Gurovits, Odon, Message from the Presi- dent of the United States transmitting certain reports upon the condi- tions of the Navajo Indian country : 52d Cong., 2d sess., S. Doc. 68, 1893. Fifty pages with general map and 16 sketches of proposed Irrigation works. Discusses water supply, possibilities of irrigation, and related subjects. Chapin, Frederick H., The land of the cliff dwellers. 188 pp., maps, illustra- tions from photographs by the author, 1892. A semipopular work on the San Juan region, which the author explored, dis- covering some canyons and ruins previously unknown. Infrequent notes on soil fertility, water supply, and rainfall. Chittenden, George B., Topographical report on the San Juan district: U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr. Ninth Ann. Kept, for 1875, pp. 351-368, 1877. Contains notes on topography, crops, stock, vegetation, climate, roads or trails, drainage systems, and stream courses. Cozzens, S. W., The marvelous country; three years in Arizona and New Mexico. Boston, 1874. A breezy description of Arizona life and Indians. Cummings, Byron, The ancient inhabitants of the San Juan Valley: Utah Univ. Bull., vol. 3, No. 3, p. 2, 1904. The great natural bridges of Utah : Utah Univ. Bull., vol. 3, No. 3, pt. 1. BIBLIOGEAPHY. 201 CuETis, Edwaed S., The North American Indian : Being a series of volumes picturing and describing the Indians of the United States and Alaska. Foreword by T. Roosevelt; field research conducted under patronage of J. Pierpont Morgan. Written, illustrated, and published by Edward S. Curtis, of Seattle, Wash. Edited by F. W. Hodge. 20 vols. In volume 1 the Indians of Arizona and New Mexico and their conditions of. life are described. Particularly valuable for its excellent full-page illustrations. Gushing, F. H., New adventures in Zuni: Century Mag., vol. 3, pp. 195-207, 500-511, 1882-83. Popular description of Indian pueblo life. Mentions fact that women at Zuni had to raise sand dams in order to make river sufllciently deep to wash garments. Daeton, N. H., a reconnaissance of parts of northwestern New Mexico and northern Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 435, 88 pp., 17 pis., colored map in pocket. 1910. Describes geology along the Santa Fe Railway and contains brief statements regarding geography and underground waters. Dellenbatjgh, F. S., A canyon voyage. Ills. New York and London, 1908. Contains the story of Powell's second expedition in 1871—72 and describes this remarkable journey in detail. Also briefly describes Navajos. DoMENEcii, Abbe Em., Seven years' residence in the great deserts of North America. 2 vols., ills., map. London, 1860. A comprehensive study of the early people of America and their climatic environment, early explorations by the white race, physiography of country, with especial attention to the deserts west of ^he Mississippi, canyons, rivers, petrified forests, and Indian villages. Donaldson, Thomas, Moqui pueblo Indians of Arizona: Extra Census Bull., Eleventh Census, 1893. Contains map and stereogram of Hopi country. Discusses exploration and present environment. One of the best sources. DoESEY, Geoege a., Indians of the Southwest. 1903. One of the guidebook series prepared for the Santa Fe Railway, which con- tains considerable interesting material and admirably fulfills its purpose. Button, Maj. C. E., Mount Taylor and the Zuni Plateau: U. S. Geol. Survey, . Sixth Ann. Rept., pp. 111-198, ills., 1885. Accurate and clearly expressed observations and conclusions regarding the physical character of the southeastern part of the Navajo country. Fewkes, J. W., Preliminary report on a visit to the Navajo National Monu- ment, Ariz. : Bur. Am. Ethnology Bull. 50, 1911. Contains useful geographic information regarding region along the route from Flagstafie to Marsh Pass. Feanciscan Fathees, St. Michaels, Aeizona, An ethnologic dictionary of the Navajo language. 1910. " — Vocabulary of the Navajo language, vol. 1, English-Navajo ; vol. 2, Nava jo-English. 1912. These three volumes contain a large amount of geographic material and are the must authoritative publications relating to the Navajo thus far issued. ■ The San Franciscan missions of the Southwest, pp. 4-58, 1913. A brief history of the work of the Franciscan order in the Southwest, includ- ing a summary of early exploration by the Spaniards. GaeciSs, Feancisco, On the trail of a Spanish pioneer ; the diary of Francisco Garc^s, 1768-1776 ; edited by Elliott Coues. 2 vols., 1900. Contains notes on vegetation, topographic features, rivers, water supply, and Indian customs. An exceedingly interesting account of wanderings to and fro over a then unknown country. 202 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Gilbert, G. K., and others (including E. E. Howell), Report on the geology of portions of New Mexico and Arizona examined in 1873 : U. S. Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Kept., vol. 3, pp. 503-567, 1875. Chiefly geologic. Howell traversed the Navajo country from Lee Ferry through Oraibi to Fort Defiance. .Heap, G. H., Central route to the Pacific from the valley of the Mississippi to California : Journal of the expedition of E. F. Beale, Superintendent of Indian Affairs in California, and G. H, Heap, from Missouri to Califor- nia, in 1853. 136 pp., 13 pis. Philadelphia, 1854. Holmes, W. H., Geological report on the San Juan district: U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr. Ninth Ann. Rept. (for 1875), pp. 237-275, with maps and diagrams, 1877. Includes an account of the exploration of Carrizo Mountain. Hough, Walter, Pueblo environment : Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Proc, Fifty-fifth meeting, held at New Orleans, 1905-6, pp. 447-454, 1906. Contains valuable and interesting discussion of the influence of climatic and topographic environment on the life and institutions of the pueblo Indian. Hough, Walter, Environmental interrelations in Arizona : Am. Anthropologist, vol. 11, pp. 133-155, 1898. A study of the adaptation of plants to geographic conditions. Hughes, John T., Doniphan's expedition ; containing an account of the con- quest of New Mexico ; Gen. Kearney's overland expedition to California ; Doniphan's campaign against the Navajos, his unparalleled march upon Chihuahua and Durango; and the operations of Gen. Price at Santa Fe, with a sketch of the life of Col. Doniphan. 407 pp., ills., map. Cin- cinnati, 1848. Written by a hero maker but contains first-hand descriptions of scenery of the southeastern portion of the Navajo country, and also notes on customs and manner of life of the Indians. Ives, J. C, Report upon the Colorado River of the West, explored in 1857 and 1858; 36th Cong., 1st sess., S. Doc, 1861. Pt. 1, General report; pt. 2, Hydrographic report ; pt. 3, Geological report by J. S. Newberry ; pt. 4, Botany, by Professors Gray, Torrey, Thurber, and Dr. Engelmann ; pt. 5, Zoology, by S. F. Baird. The route followed begins at the mouth of the Colorado, crosses the San Francisco Plateau, the Little Colorado, and the Hopi country to Fort Defiance. Volume contains an account of the first scientific work undertaken within the Hopi Reservation. It has high value. Jackson, W. H., Report on ancient ruins examined in 1875 and 1877 : U. S. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr. Tenth Ann. Report (for 1876), pp. 411- 450, with maps and diagrams, 1878. Describes, with special reference to ruins, the San Juan Valley in the vicinity of Bluff, the lower Chinle, De Chelly, and Chaco valleys, and the Hopi Mesas. Letherman, J., Sketch of Navajo tribe of Indians: Smithsonian Inst. Tenth Ann. Rept., pp. 283-297, 1856. Deals with geography of region inhabited by Navajos, and discusses their customs and industries. Loew, Oscar, Report upon mineralogical, agricultural, and chemical conditions observed in portions of Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona in 1873 : U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer. Rept., vol. 3, pp. 573-661, 1875. Macomb, Capt. J. N. See Newberry, J. S. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 203 Matthews, Washington, Navajo names for plants : Am. Naturalist, vol. 20, pp. 767-840, 1886. Author has made a special study of the Navajo. His papers, chiefly anthro- pologic but containing also geographic material, have been published by the Bureau of American Ethnology, the American Anthropologist, the American Mu- seum of Natural History, and elsewhere. MiNDELEFF, CosMos, The Cliff ruins of the Canyon de Chelly : Bur. Am. Eth- nology Sixteenth Ann. Rept. (for 1894-95), pp. 73-198, p. pis., 83 figs., 1897. Contains map of ancient pueblo region. Discusses history, geography, and physical surroundings of various pueblo villages. MuNK, Joseph A,, Arizona sketches. 1905. Briefly discusses climate and desert vegetation. Newbeeky, J. S., Geological report, chaps. 1-6, in Report of the exploring ex- pedition from Santa Fe, N. Mex., to the junction of the Grand and Green rivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1859 ; under the com- mand of Capt. J. N. Macomb, pp. 15-152, ills., 1876. Discusses geography and conditions along San Juan and Colorado rivers. PoGUE, Joseph E., The great Rainbow Natural Bridge of southern Utah: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 22, No. 11, pp. 1048-1056, 1911. Pbudden, T. Mitchell, The prehistoric ruins of the San Juan watershed in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico: Am. Anthropologist, new ser., vol. 5, pp. 224-288, map, ills., 1903. The great American plateau. New York, G. P. Putnam & Sons, 1907. Relates chiefly to the Indians of the country and their physical environment. A well-written, semipopular account by one familiar with the San Juan Valley. Rtjffner, E. H., Annual report upon explorations and surveys in the depart- ment of the Missouri, being Appendix SS of the annual report of the Chief of Engineers for 1878. 118 pp., maps, sketches, ills. Washington, 1878. Describes the San Juan country, its rivers, altitude, surface character, climate, floods, soil fertility, agriculture, opportunities for grazing and irrigation. Much excellent material. Simpson, J. H., Report of an expedition into the Navajo country: 31st Cong., 1st sess., S. Ex. Doc. 64, pp. 56-159, 1850. A most accurate and detailed account, full of geographic material. Simpson's route led across Chuska Valley and the Chuska Mountains to Canyon de Chelly, thence to Zuni via Fort Defiance. This book ranks first among the reports of early explorations in the Navajo country. SiTGKEAVEs, Capt. L., Report of an expedition down the Zuni and Colorado rivers: 32d Cong., 2d sess., S. Ex, Doc. 59, 190 pp., ills., maps. 1853. Rgprint 33d Cong., 1st sess. In addition to Capt. Sitgreaves's diary,, pp. 4-24, the volume contains reports on natural history, with detailed descriptions of plants, mammals, and birds, by Dr. S, W. Woodhouse and collaborators, a map, and remarkably good cuts of plants, animals, and some of the physical features of the region. Stephen, Alexander M., The Navajo: Am. Anthropologist, vol. 6, pp. 345-362, 1893. Author has published relatively little, but his large store of information has been freely used by other workers in the field, and data collected by him have found place in numerous anthropologic reports. United States Geological Suevey, Water-Supply Papers 133, 1905 ; 176, 1906 ; 211, 1908; 249, 1910; 269, 1911; 289, 1912. Records of measurements of San Juan and Little Colorado rivers. 204 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. Wheelee, Geokge M., Geographical report : U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 1, Appendix F, pp. 481-745, 1889. A valuable study of voyages, explorations, and surveys west of the Mississippi from 1500 to 1880. Whipple, A. W., Report of explorations for a railway route near the thirty- fif til parallel of latitude, from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean : 37th Cong., 2d sess.. House Doc. 129, vol. 4, 154 pp., ills., Washington, 1853-54. The route near the thirty-fifth parallel was reported on by "Whipple, that near the thirty-eighth parallel by Beckwith, and that near the thirty-seconxi parallel by Emory. This series of reports is one of the most comprehensive and valuable dealing with this region, and has served as a foundation for later exploration and study. WORKS BASED ON STUDY OF ORIGINAL MATERIAL. Arizona, Clason's industrial map of Arizona ; mineral features by 0. F. Tolman, jr., 1908. Clason Map Co., Denver, Colo. Map is on scale 1 : 770,000, and printed in 7 colors. Shows roads, trails, Irri- gated lands, mineral regions, and other details. Is the most reliable map of the State. Bailey, L. H., Encyclopaedia of agriculture, vol. 4, chap. 2, pp. 34-35. Agriculture of southwestern Indians, including the Hopi and other tribes. Bancroft, George, History of the United States, vol. 1, The Spaniards in the United States. 1876; revised edition, 1883. Describes early explorations. Bancroft, H. H., Arizona and New Mexico : Works, vol. 17. A comprehensive history and study of the Pueblos and other Indians, native and white industries, agriculture, early trade and traders, native and introduced products, stock raising, boundaries and areas of. counties and towns. Contains comprehensive bibliography including privately printed works and manuscripts inaccessible to most readers. Bandelier, A. F., The gilded man, and other sketches. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1893. Essays on the Southwest, embracing a discussion of the mythical " Seven Cities " and of Coronado's wanderings. The discovery of New Mexico by Fray Marcos de Niza: Mag. Western History, vol. 4, pp. 659-670, 1886. Blackmar, Frank S., Spanish institutions of the Southwest: Johns Hopkins Univ. Hist. Studies, vol. 8, pp. 121-193, 1891. Spanish occupation of Arizona and New Mexico. A study of the mission system of colonization and its results. Deals chiefly with Mexico and California. CoMAN, Katherine, Ecouomic beginnings of the far West ; vol. 1, Explorers and colonizers; vol. 2, American settlers; pp. 418, 450, ills. New York, Macmillan Co., 1912. Discusses primitive irrigation and agriculture, and the Indian's use of his water supplies. Both volumes contain good bibliographies. Hodge, F. W., editor, Spanish explorers in the southern United States, 1528- 1543, pp. 275-387, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1907. The narra- tive of the expedition of Coronado, by Pedro Castaneda de Nagera. Mr. Hodge uses here Buckingham Smith's translation of Castaneda's narrative. Book contains same material as Winship's " Journey of Coronado." Handbook of American Indians: Bur. Am. Ethnology Bull. 30, 2 vols., ills., 1912. An encyclopedia of Indian history, names, customs, and places. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ^ 205 Lewton, F. L., The cotton of the Hopi Indians : Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 60, No. 6, 1912. Lipps, OscAE H., The Navajos. 136 pp., 18 ills. Cedar Rapids, 1909. Contains a brief account of general geographic features of the Navajo country, LowEEY, WooDBUKY, The Spanish settlements within the present limits of the United States, 1513-1561. 515 pp., 2 ills., 2 maps. G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1901. Discusses topographic features, rivers, rainfall, forests and other vegetation, and animal life. Plummek, F. Gr., Lightning in relation to forest fires: U. S. Forest Service Bull. Ill, pp. 1-39, 1912. Simpson, J. H., Seatch for the seven cities of Cibola (by Coronado) and discus- sion of their probable location: Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept., pp. 309- 340, map, 1871. Particularly valuable as a clear history of this early exploration of the country ; makes numerous references to older records and maps. Map gives the route in considerable detail. WiNSHip, G. P., The journey of Coronado, the first explorer of the West. Map. A. S. Barnes, Philadelphia, 1904. Published also in Bur. Am. Ethnology Fourteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 1, pp. 329-613, pis. 38-84, 1896. The best work on the Coronado expeditions, using Spanish narratives and making a careful attempt to correlate the names of the places with present place names. ARTICLES ON ADJOINING REGIONS. CoYNEE, David H., The lost trappers. 1858. A semipopular account of early traders and the fur trade. Describes water supply, mountains, vegetation, and other features. Gives an account of Work- man and Spencer's trip down the Colorado on a raft or boat which they made on its banks, supposing themselves to be on the Rio Grande headed toward Santa Fe. Daeton, N. H., The Southwest; its splendid natural resources, agricultural wealth, and scenic beauty : Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. 21, pp. 631-665, 1910. Describes geography and geology of New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. Davis, W. H. H., The Spanish conquest of New Mexico. 1869. A popular history of exploration and conquest. Dellenbaugh, F. S., The true route of Ooronado's march : Am. Geog. Soc. Bull., December, 1897, pp. 399-431. freaking the wilderness. 360 pp., numerous ills. 1905. General descriptions of exploration and conquest and of Indian life ; interest- ing ; not critical. Dunn, J. P., jr.. Massacres of the mountains ; a history of the Indian wars of the far West. 784 pp., illus., map of Indian reservations of the United States. 1886. Includes a brief description of the Navajo country, its vegetation, climate, soil, and crops. Fountain, Paul, The eleven eaglets of the West. 1905. Chapters VII-XI contain notes on the animal and bird inhabitants of Colo- rado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, and Nevada, and are of interest to young people. The great forests and deserts of North America. A popular work of considerable interest to young people. 206 THE NAVAJO COUNTRY. FowLEE, Jacob, The journal of ; narrating an adventure from Arkansas through the Indian Territory, Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico to the sources of the Rio Grande del Norte, in 1821-22. Edited, with notes, by Elliott Coues. 174 pp. New York, F. P. Harper, 1898. Fowler was a trapper and reached in his journey the San Juan Mountains, probably being the first white American to approach the sources of the Rio del Norte. The account is printed exactly as written by Fowler, with quaint capitali- zation and frontiersman speech, making an unusual volume. He describes trees and other vegetation, water supply, animals, clouds, temperature, winds, and gives the latitude of each camp or topographic feature that he notes. Fynn, a. J., The American Indian as a product of environment. Boston, 1907. Contains comments on physical conditions of Indian country as indicated by Indian habits of life, religion, and industries ; also brief notes on atmosphere, vege- tation, animal life, storms, petrified forests, springs and streams, and soil. Geegg, Josiah, Commerce of the prairies. 2 vols. 1844. The journal of a Santa Fe trader, which is very interesting ; contains a careful, unexaggerated description of the Santa Fe trade and its environment. Geey, Zane, The heritage of the desert. 1910. Riders of the purple sage. 1912. • The Rainbow Trail. 1915. Fiction ; give a clear impression of the conditions of life in the arid Southwest ; scenic descriptions of the Colorado and San Juan valleys are particularly vivid. Hall, Feank, History of Colorado, vol. 1, 1889 ; vol. 2, 1890. Contains a - comprehensive account of the history, geography, and ethnology of the State ; discusses early Spanish explorations, ancient reservoirs and irrigation works, and the attractions of the San Juan region. Hamilton, Pateick, The resources of Arizona. 414 pp., map, and ills., 3d ed. 1884. Intended as a guide and information book regarding climate, minerals, farming, grazing, timberlands, and other resources. HiGGiNs, C. A., To California and back. To California over the Santa Fe Trail. These little volumes were issued by the Santa Fe Railway passenger department as guidebooks to the region crossed by that system. Good illustrations and inter- esting text furnish fundamental information for the traveler in the Southwest who does not expect to depart from the beaten path. HiNTON, RicHAED J., The handbook to Arizona. Map, ills. New York, American News Co., 1878. A guidebook to the Southwest, discussing history, topography, geology, agricul- ture, climate, animal life, Spanish explorers, and Indians. HoENADAY, W. T., Camp fires on desert and lava. Ills., maps. 1908. A popular description of the southern Arizona desert, with particular reference to its vegetation and animal life. James, Geoege Whaeton, Indians of the Painted Desert region. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1903. Ladd, Hoeatio O., The story of New Mexico. Ills. A semipopular history of the beginnings of civilization in New Mexico and its colonization by the white people ; describes the life and customs of the Indians and the present geographical conditions. A chapter is devoted to the consideration ot irrigation. Laut, Agnes C, Through our unknown Southwest. 1913. Describes national forests, petrified forests, the Grand Canyon, and the pueblo of Taos. Contains some excellent illustrations. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 207 Leibeeg, J. B., RixoN, T. F., and Dodwell, Arthue, Forest conditions in the San Francisco Mountains Forest Reserve, Ariz. : U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 22, 95 pp., 7 pis., map, 1904. Deals with soil, drainage, tree species, opportunities for grazing, and commercial and agricultural value of lands. LuMMis, Chaeles F., Some strange corners of our country. Ills. 1892. Popular description of canyon and desert. Maecy, R. B., Border reminiscences, 396 pp., ills., pis. New York, Harper & Bros., 1872. A popular book based on Marcy's exploration in New Mexico. Discusses possi- bilities of irrigation and agriculture, and concludes that aridity and sterility make the region unfit for permanent habitation. MoEGAN, L. H., in W. W. Beach's " Indian miscellany," 200-202 pp. Albany, J. Munsell, 1877. Describes pueblo system of irrigation and introduction of agriculture into the San Juan region. New Mexico Bueeau of Immigeation, New Mexico resources — climate, geogra- phy, and geological conditions. Edited by Max Frost. 1890. A guidebook for prospective settlers ; deals with the general geographic features of the State, its water supply, irrigation, possibilities of agricultural development, and stock raising. Pattie, James O., Personal narrative of James O. Pattie, of Kentucky, during an expedition from St. Louis through the vast region between the plains and the Pacific Ocean, and then back through the City of iviexico to Vera Cruz. Edited by Timothy Flint, 1833. Edited with notes by Reuben Gold Thwaites, 1905. Gives an idea of early trade and travel across the wilderness ; chief value is for local color of Pattie's time. Petees, DeWitt C, Life and adventures of Kit Carson, with notes on Indians. Hartford, 1875. Describes the water supply of early pueblos and Mexican towns. A popular story of a popular hero, apparently intended to amuse the casual reader. Powell, J. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Eleventh Ann. Rept., pt. 2, Irrigation, pp. 215- 231, 305-308, 1891. A general description of the arid Southwest and its climatic conditions, with some details of the work done in New Mexico in developing irrigation. --^ Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and its tributaries ex- plored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Interior. 291 pp., ills. Washington, 1875. Contains the history of exploration of this river, with a description of the physical features of the country and its fauna. Peince, L. B5ADF0ED, Historical sketches of New Mexico from the earliest records to the American occupation. Kansas City and New York, 1883. Contains an interesting discussion of early exploration. Mr. Prince was Governor of New Mexico. ScHooLCEAFT, Heney R., History of Indians of the United States. 6 vols., 1854. Contains short articles by students of Indian life and describes the sur- roundings and life of the Navajos and Hopis. A discussion of early Spanish ex- plorations is accompanied by a map of Coronado's route (1540). Squiee, E. G., New Mexico and California : Review, vol. 8,. pp. 503-528, 1848. Contains abstract of early Spanish explorations and notes on surface water and agriculture ; quotes liberally from Emery, Abert, Gregg, and others who previously visited the country. 208 THE NAVAJO COUNTEY„ Stevenson, James, Ancient habitations of the Southwest: Am. Geog. Soc. Bull. 4, 1886. Contains general account of explorations at Canyon de Chelly and elsewhere. Party included J. K. Killers, photographer, whose views have been widely re- produced. Thayee, William M., Marvels of the new West. Ills. 1888. Popular account of the most striking physical features of the Southwest, with some excellent illustrations. ToDD, John, The Sunset land. 1869. Popular account of sights and incidents in the great western country. Whiting, Lilian, The land of enchantment. Ills. 1906. Popular account of New Mexico, Arizona, and the Grand Canyon, as a vaca- tion wandering place. WiLBY, T. W. and A. A., On the trail to Sunset. 1912. Fiction. Contains some excellent descriptions of the desert and mountains, including a sandstorm. Winsoe, Justin, Critical history of North America, vol. 2, pp. 573 et seq., 1886. Early explorations of New Mexico, followed by a critical essay on the sources of information by Henry W. Haynes. Contains practically the same material as Winship's " Journey of Coronado." PRINCrPAIj SPANISH SOURCES. Oastaneda de Nagera, Pedro de, Relation du voyage de Cibola enterpris en 1540 (oil Ton traite de toutes les peuplades qui habitent cette contree, de leurs moeurs et coutumes). A French translation of Castaneda's narrative, in Ternaux-Compans, Henri, Voyages, relations et memoires originaux pour servir a I'histoire de la d^couverte de I'Am^rique, vol. 9, Paris, 1838. This is the most complete account of Coronado's expedition. The Spanish original is not known to be in existence. GARcifes, Francisco TomAs Hermenegildo, Diario y derrotero que sigui6 el M. Fra. Garces, en su viaje hecho desde octubre de 1775 hasta 17 de setiembre de 1776. In Documentos para la historia de Mexico, 2d ser., vol. 1, pp. 225-374, Mexico, F. Escalante & Co., 1854. Marcos de Niza, Relacion del descubrimiento de las siete ciudades. In Pacheco and Cardenas, Coleccion de documentos, vol. 3. Pacheco, J. F., and CArdenas y Espejo, Francisco de, Coleccion de documentos ineditos relatives al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las antiguas posesiones espanolas de America y Oceania, sacados de los archivos del reino, y muy especialmente del de Indias. Competentemeote autorizada. 42 vols., Madrid, 1864-1884. Smith, Buckingham, Colecci6n de varios documentos para la historia de la Florida, vol. 1, 1857. INDEX. A. Page. Access, routes of 13 Acknowledgments of those aiding 10—11 Adamana, Ariz., wells near 163, 174,183,185 Administration, centers of 13 Agathla, Ariz., description of 48 spring near 138,157 view of 48 Agriculture, duty of water in 129 factors in 103 irrigation for. See Irrigation. progress of 77 Agua Sal Creek, Ariz., description of 35, 91,94 Alamo Spring, Ariz., description of_ 152 Alcove Canyon, Ariz., description of ^ 31 Allantown, Ariz., wells at 174,184-185 Al Ranch Sp'i'ing, Ariz., description of 158 Aneth, Utah, farmer stations at 32 precipitation at 50, 58, 62, 96 temperature at 65-67, 97 Animals, wild, character of 74—75 Antelope Spring, Ariz., description of 155 Arido Creek, Utah, description of_ 91, 94 Artesian wells, essentials for 176-179 Artesian water, areas of 132,179-183 areas of, sections showing 180 fallacies concerning 178-179 nature of 131-132 Awatobi Springs, Ariz., description of 134,154 B. Bacobi, Ariz., wells near 166, 187 Bailey, Vernon, on Chuska Mountains 27 Bardgeman Wash, Ariz., wells in_ 161, 187 Beale, E. P., explorations by 20 Beautiful Mountain, Ariz., springs on 1_ 151 Beautiful Valley Wash, Ariz., de- scription of 91, 94 spring near 152 •Bedrock, springs from 137-143 springs from, improvement of 141-142 improvement of, figure showing 141 surface of, springs from 136-137 springs from, improvement of 136-137 wells in 173-176, 178 Beelzebub, N. Mex., spring near 150 33033 °~wsp 380—16 14 Page. Bekihatso Lake, Ariz., location of_ 118, 119 well near 185 Bench lands, wells on 162-163 Bennett Peak, N. Mex., nature of 25 springs near 150 view of 26 Bermuda Island, W. I., water catches on 122 Bibliography 199-208 Bidahochi Spring, Ariz., description of 153 Bidahochi well, Ariz., description of_ 173 Big Spring, Ariz., description of 153 Biltabito Creek, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 92, 94 Biltabito Spring, N. Mex., description of 149 Bitsihuitsos Butte, Ariz., springs near 152-153 Bitter Spring, Ariz., description of_ 158 Black Creek, Ariz., description of_ 28-29, 83, 88-89, 93 discharge of ._ 88 springs on 151 views on 33 Black Creek Valley, Ariz., N. Mex., description of 32-34 irrigation in 109 precipitation in 95 springs in 136, 148, 151 streams of 33, 101 views in 33 wells in 163, 185 Black Falls, Ariz., irrigation project at 107 irrigation project at, map of_ 106 Blackhorse Creek, Ariz., descrip- tion of 25,94 Black Mesa, Ariz., artesian water on_ 182 coal on 75 description of 40^41 farming on 42 precipitation on 60, 95 section of, figure showing 180 soil on 98 springs on 138, 148, 154-156 vegetation on 40, 41, 72 water supply of 92 wells on 187-188 Blue Canyon, Ariz., springs near_ 155, 156 Blufe, Utah, irrigation at 105 view at 32 wells at 182 sections showing 183 Boiling Spring, Ariz., description of_ 157 209 210 INDEX. Page. Bonito Creek, Ariz., description of— 89, 93 ii-rigation from 106 silt from 108 springs near 151 Box Springs, Ariz., description of_ 139, 158 Bridge, natural. See Rainbow Bridge ; Owl Bridge. Bridge Creek, Utah, description of 87, 94 view of 46 Buell Park, Ariz., description of 112 peridots at 75 storage in 112 stream from 33, 89, 112 view of 111 Buell Park Spring, Ariz., desci'ip- tion of .- 151 Burro Spring, Ariz., description of_ 142, 154 spring near 154 C. Cactus, range of 72, 73 Camps, location of 12, 102 Canella Spring, Ariz., description of_ 155 Canyon de Chelly Creek, Ariz., de- scription of 35, 36, 90, 94 name of 35,189 ruins in 35 springs in 151 views in 36 Canyon del Muerto, Creek, Ariz., de- scription of 35, 90, 94 ruins in 35 Capillary water, nature of 127-128 Cardenas, G. L. de, explorations by_ 16-17 Carrlzo Mountains, Ariz., descrip- tion of 30 precipitation on 95, 96 springs on and near 148, 149, 158 storage on 113 vegetation on 99 view of 30 water supply on 92 Carson Mesa, Ariz., spring on 142 Castaneda de Nagera, Pedro de, history hy 16 Cedar, zone of, view in 69 Cedar Spring, Utah, description of — 157 Cedar Springs, Ariz., nature of 140, 153 springs near 154 Chaco Plateau, N. Mex., artesian water on 180 description of 24 lakes on 118, 119 mineral resources of 24 sections of, figures showing 180 springs on 148, 149 wells oa 184 depth to water in 130, 184 sections showing 181 Chaco River, N. Mex., spring on 150 Cha Creek, Utah, flow of 87 Chaistla, Ariz., spring near 152 Chambers, Ariz., well at 185 Chambers Wash, Ariz., description of_ 35 Page. Chandlar ranch, Ariz., springs at 136, 137, 153 view at 37 Chaves, N. Mex., well at 184 Chezhindeza Mesa, Ariz., springs near 158 Chezhindeza Valley, Ariz., springs in_ 150 Chevelon Fork, Ariz., soil on, anal- ysis of 70 Chief Spring (Black Mesa), Ariz., description of 154 Chief Spring (Segi Mesas), Ariz., description of 157 Chilchinbito Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 155 springs near 155, 156 Chinle, Ariz., agency at 36, 37 precipitation at 56, 59-63, 95 springs near 151, 152 temperature at 65-67, 97 wells at 185 Chinle and Pueblo Colorado Valleys, Ariz., description of_* 36-37 drainage of 89-91, 93 lakes in 118 precipitation on 95 soil of 70 springs of 148, 152-153 temperature in 97 springs from 139 wells in 174-175, 182 section showing 175 water holes in 119 wells in 152-153 depth to water in___ 130, 152-153 Chinle formation, character of 79 correlation of 79 deposition of 83 Chinle Creek, Ariz.-Utah, descrip- tion of_ 36-37, 89-90, 94, 101 irrigation from 106 valley of, artesian water in 180—181 sections of, figures showing- 180 water wasted in 104-105 wells on 169-170, 175, 185-186 figures showing 170, 175 Chuska Mountains, Ariz.-N. Mex., de- scription of 28-30 forests on 74 lakes in 116-117, 118 nomenclature of 27 precipitation on 60 soil on 98 springs of 140-141, 148, 150-151 figure showing 141 vegetation on 28-30, 73, 74, 99 view in 27 water supply on 28-29, 30 water wasted on 105 well on 185 Chuska Peak, N. Mex., springs near_ 150 Chuska sandstone, character of 80 porosity of 126 springs from 138 water in 174 INDEX. 211 Page. Chuska Valley, N. Mex., artesian water in 180 description of 24-26 section of, figure showing 180 soils of 70 springs in 134, 148, 149-150 streams of 25, 91-92, 101 view in 26 well in 184 Cibola, N. Mex., ancient, character of 16 Cienega Amarilla, Ariz., springs of__ 133 Cienega Canyon, Ariz., wells in 164, 166, 187 Cisterns, water catches for 120-122 water catches for, figures show- ing^ 120, 121, 122 Cliff houses, views of 36, 47 Climate, nature of 49—68 Coal, occurrence of 26, 75, 70, 81 Coal Mine Canyon, view of 40 Colorado River, description of 85, 94 precipitation on . 95 Comar Springs, Ariz., nature of 137, 153 spring near 153 Comb monocline, Ariz.-Utah, de- scription of 48 view of _ 47 Copper Creek, Utah, description of 87, 94 Corn, antiquity of . 73 Corn Creek, Ariz., description of 39, 94 Cornfields, Ariz., springs near 151 wells at and near 163, 186 Coronado, F. V. de, explorations by_ 16 Cotton, cultivation of 73 Cottonwood, range of 72, 73 Cottonwood Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153 spring near 153 Cottonwood Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 140, 149 Cottonwood Tank, Ariz., well near_ 168- 169, 188 Cottonwood Wash, Ariz., description of 94 wells in 163 Coyote Springs (Hopi Buttes), Ariz., description of— 136-137, 153 Coyote Springs (Ttisayan Washes), Ariz., description of 154 Coyote Wash, Ariz., description of 39, 94 wells in 161 Cretaceous rocks, deposition of 83 occurrence and character of 80 Cross Canyon, Ariz., springs near 151 wells at 174, 185 Crossing of the Fathers, Ariz., diffi- culty of 17 Crown Point, N. Mex., administra- tive center at 24 wells near . 184 D. Dadasoa Springs, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 150 Page, Dakota sandstone, character of 80 deposition of — . 83 porosity of 126 springs from 138 water in 174-176, 179,180, 182 Dams, construction of 114—116 De Chelly, derivation of 35 De Chelly Canyon. See Canyon de Chelly. De Chelly sandstone, character of 79 De Chelly uplift, Ariz., character of- 81 Defiance Mesas, Ariz., spring at 150 Defiance monocline, Ariz., character of 81 view of 33 Defiance Plateau, Ariz., description of : 34-36 drainage of 34-35 forests on 74 precipitation on 60, 95 sections of, figures showing 180 springs on 148, 151—152 storage on 113 vegetation on 35,72-74,99 view of 100 views on 68,100 wells on 185 Desert, coloring of 22 Desert Creek, Utah, description of — 31, 94 Desha Creek, Utah, flow of 87 spring on 157 Deza Peak, N. Mex., spring near 150 Dike Spring, N. Mex., description of_ 149 Dinnebito Spring, Ariz., description of 154 springs near 154 Dinnebito Wash, Ariz., description of 39,94,164 water holes in 119 Domerech, Abbe, history by 17—18 Doniphan, A. W., explorations by 18 Douglas Camp, Utah, wells at 164, 188 Dove Spring, Ariz., description of 157 Drainage, description of 22 Drilled wells, construction of 171-173 Driven wells, construction of 170-171 Dry Lake, Ariz., well near 185 Dug wells, construction of 167-170 figures showing 167, 169, 170 Dunes. See Sand dunes. Dutton, C. E., explorations by 20 on Navajo Mountain 45 plateau named for 23 Dutton Plateau, N. Mex., artesian water on 180 description of 23-24 drainage of 23 lakes on 118 precipitation on 95 section of, figure showing 180 soil on 98 springs on 148, 149 storage on . 113 vegetation on 99 wells on 184 Duty of water, data on 127 212 INDEX, E. Page. Eagle Crag, opening near 155 Echo Cliffs, Ariz., springs at 144, 146-147, 156 Echo monocline, Ariz., character of_ 81 Egloffstein Butte, Ariz., spring near_ 153 Emery, W. B., work of 10-11 Endischee Spring, Ariz., description of 157 Evaporation, effect of, on ground water 123-124, 128-129 effect of, on stream flow 97-98 statistics of 97-98 Farming, dry, success of 71 Farmington, N. Mex., San Juan River at, discharge of_ 85 Faulting, occurrence of 81 springs from '. 143, 144 Fault Spring, Utah, description of_ 157 Fauna, character of 74-75 Figueredo Creek, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 91 First Mesa, Ariz., springs at and near 155 well on 187 First Mesa Wash, Ariz., descrip- tion of 39, 94, 164 wells in 164, 166, 177, 186, 187 section of, figure showing 164 Five Houses, Ariz., wells at and near 186,188 Flagstaff, Ariz., temperature at 98 Floods, percolation from 127 Flora, distribution and character of_ 71—74 Fluted Rock, Ariz., springs at and near 134,151-152 Folding, description of 81-82 Fontaneda, H. d'E., explorations by_ 17 Fords Peak, N. Mex., opening near_ 150 Forests, distribution of 74, 99 distribution of, map showing 74 Fort Defiance, Ariz., history of 33 irrigation at 106 precipitation at 50, 51, 59-62, 95 temperature at 64-67,97 springs near 151 wells near 185 French Spring, Ariz., description of_ 153 springs near 153 Frosts, occurrence of 65, 67 Fruitland, N. Mex., irrigation from_ 105 location of 32 precipitation at __ 50, 57, 59, 60-62, 96 temperature at 65-67, 97 Gallup, N. Mex., artesian water at_ 176-177 artesian water at, figure show- ing 177 filling at 160 spring near 149 wells at-— 176-177, 179, 183 Page. Ganado, Ariz., irrigation at 89, 110-111 location of 110 springs near 151, 152 wells at 163,186 Ganado reservoir, description of_ 110-111, 119 map of 110 Garces, Francisco, explorations by 17 Garces Mesa, description of 38, 39 Garnet Ridge, Ariz.-Utah, garnets on 87,75 Garnets, occurrence of 37, 75 Geographic terms, glossary of 189-197 Geographic provinces, description of_ 23-49 segregation of .22 Geography, description of 13-84 Geologic history, outline of 82-84 Geology, columnar section 6t 78 map showing In pocket outline of 77-84 reports on 78 Giants Chair, Ariz., springs near 154 Goat Spring, description of 155 Goodridge, Utah, oil at 32 view near 31 wells at 174 Goodridge formation, occurrence of_ 78 water in 182 Gothic Mesas, Utah, artesian water on 182 description of 31 precipitation on 95 soil of . 98 springs on 148, 157-158 wells on 185 Gothic Wash, Utah, description of 94 identity of 31, 90 Grand Canyon, discovery of 17 Grand Falls, Ariz., origin of 43 spring near 158 view of 41 Greasewood Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 150 Greasewood Springs, Ariz., descrip- tion of 152,161 wells near 186 Ground, evaporation from 128-129 Ground-water reservoir, capacity of 125-126 depletion of 127 nature of 124 figure showing 124 supply to 123-124,126-127 surface of. See Water table. Guam, N. Mex., well at 184 Gutches, G. A., map by 74 Gypsum Creek, Ariz.-Utah, descrip- tion of 48, 87, 94 springs of 139 H. Hamblin, Jacob, colonization by 42 Hano, Ariz., springs near 155 Hasbidito Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 152 spring near 150 INDEX. 213 Page. Heald, K. C, work of 11 Historical geology, outline of 82-84 History, outline of 15-21 Hite, Utah, precipitation at 50, 59 60-62, 95 temperature at 65-67, 97 Hogansaani Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 158 Hogback Mountain, N. Mex,, spring near 150 Holiwassbahan Spring, Ariz., de- scription of 157 Holbrook, Ariz., evaporation at 98 Little Colorado River at, dis- charge of 86, 102 location of 86 precipitation at— 50, 53, 59-62, 95, 96 temperature at 64-67, 97-98 wells at 162, 171, 186, 188 wind at 68 Holmes, W. H., mapping by 20 Honani Spring, Ariz., description of_ 154 Hopi Buttes, Ariz., description of — 37-38 map of 140 precipitation on 95 springs at_ 134, 138-139, 148, 153-154 figures showing 139 temperature at 97 volcanic necks on, view of 37 Hopis, character of 11, 76, 139 irrigation by 104 language of 189 number of 76, 103 villages of 41 evaporation at 128 soils from 70-71 analyses of 70 view of 76 Horses, feed for 12 use of 12,13 Hotevila, Ariz., springs at and near_ 155 Houck, Ariz., irrigation at 109 Howell, E. E., geologic exploration by 20,39 Howell Mesa, Ariz., springs near 156 Hunter Point, Ariz., springs at and near 136,151 Indian Affairs office, request of, for investigation 9 Indians, attitude of 10-11 irrigation by 103-105 Indian Wells, Ariz., springs at and near 137,140,153,154 storage near 112 wells at 186 Investigation, history and scope of_ 9-10 Irrigation, diversion, attempts at_ 105-107 undeveloped projects for 106-107 Irrigation, flood, antiquity of 103-104 methods of 104-105 Irrigation, storage, conditions for_ 107-109 projects for 109-113 Ives, J. C, explorations by 19 on topography 22 J* Page. Jadito, Ariz., springs at and near — 154 -Tadito Wash, Ariz., description of — 39, 94, 164 springs in and near 155, 156 .JanUs Spring, Ariz., nature of 138, 158 Jesus Lake, N. Mex., spring near 149 Jewett,, N. Mex., spring near 150 Junction Creek, Utah, flow of 87 spring on 143, 157 Jurassic rocks, occurence and char- acter of 79-80 K. Kaibab limestone, character of 78 Kaibito Plateau, Ariz., artesian water on 183 description of 41-42 precipitation on 95, 145-146 section of, figure showing 146 springs on 148, 156-157 views of 40 Kariz, construction of 135 figure showing 135 Keams Canyon, agency at 41 precipitation at 50, 52, 59-62 springs at and near 138, 154, 156 temperature at 64-67 water in 39 wells in 164, 166, 175, 179, 182, 187-188 section of 175, 176 wind at 68 Keepers, G. A., aid of 147 Keet Seel, Ariz., clifC houses at, character of 48 cliff houses at, view of 47 spring at 157 Klethla Valley, Ariz., flow in 94 Kydestea Spring, Ariz., description of 155 Laguna Canyon, Ariz., description of 48 ruins in 48 view of 47 spring in 157 trenching in, view of 101 Lakes, distribution and character of 116-118 utilization of 118-119 La Plata group, character of 79 deposition of 83 porosity of 125-126 springs from 143 water in 180 Lavas, porosity of 126 Lava Spring, Ariz., description of — 153 Leaden, Tom, work of 168, 169 Lee, C. H., on evaporation 128 Lee Ferry, Ariz., springs near 158 Leroux Wash, Ariz., character of 93 name of 34 wells in 163, 186 214 INDEX. Page. Leupp, Ariz., filling at 160 storage at 111-112 wells at 172-173, 188 depth to water in__ 130, 173, 188 Lightning, prevalence of 63, 74 Limestone, wells in . 174 Literature, lists of 199-208 Lithodendron Wash, Ariz., character of 35,9a name of 34 Little Colorado River, description of 43,86,93 discharge of 86 evaporation in 98 falls on 43 view of 41 fluctuations in 101-102 irrigation from 105-106,107 silt in 108 valley of, filling in 160 precipitation in 59, 60, 95 vegetation in 72 wells in___ 162-163,170-171 view of 110 water holes along 119 wells on, depth of water in 130 Tiizard Spring, Ariz., description of 141, 151 Loew, Oscar, explorations by 20 on soils 70 Lohali, Ariz., springs near 152, 155 Lokasakad, Ariz., springs at and near 140, 153-154 storage at 112 Lokasakal Spring, description of 155 Los Gigantes Buttes, Ariz., spring near 152 Lower Crossing Spring, Utah, de- scription of 157 Lukachukai Creek, Ariz., description of 29,35,36,90,94 irrigation from 105 spring on 150 Luckachukai Mountains, Ariz., lakes in 117 Lyon Ranch, Ariz., springs at 144, 145 M. McComb, J. N., explorations by 19 McElmo formation, character of 79-80 porosity of 126 McKinley County Oil Co.'s well, N. Mex., section showing- 181 Maddox, Ariz., springs at and near — 137, 140, 153 Maito Spring, Ariz., desci'iption of 152 Mai Pais Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153 Mancos shale, character of 80 deposition of 83 porosity of 126 springs from 138 well in 174 Manila, Ariz., well at 188 Manuelito, N. Mex., well at 184 Page. Manuelito Plateau, Ariz.-N. Mex., de- scription of 26 mining on 26 precipitation on 95 springs on 148, 151 wells on 184-185 Manuelito Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 149 Map In pocket. Map, forest, of area 74 Map, index, of area 14 Map, geologic, of area In pocket. Maps, base, use of 15 Marcou, Jules, geologic exploration by 19 Marsh Pass, flow at 8T storage near 112 view at 47 Martys Spring, description of 154 Marvine, A. R., exploration by 20 Mason Spring, description of 153 Matthews Peak, Ariz., spring near — 150f Meinzer, O. E., on water table 163 Mesaverde formation, coal in 80 porosity of 126 springs from 138 water In 178, 180, 182 wells in 174 Mexican Water, Ariz., spring near — 152 well at 185 Midget Mesa, N. Mex,, spring near. 149 Minerals, distribution of ^ 75 Mishongnovi, Ariz., well near 186 Missionaries, explorations by 15-18 Mission Spring, Ariz., description of 149 Mitten Butte, Ariz., view of 48 Mitten Rock, N. Mex., spring near_ 150 Moa Ave Spring, Ariz., description of 144-146, 156 Moenkopi, Ariz., irrigation at 88 Moenkopi Creek, Ariz., description of 42,87-88,94 discharge of 88,100 effect of wind-blown sands on — 101 irrigation fvom 106 Moenkopi formation, character of — 79 porosity of 125 water from 182, 183 quality of 131, 139 well in 174 Moenkopi Plateau, Ariz., descrip- tion of , 39-40 precipitation on 95 soil on 98 springs on 148, 156 view o^ 40 Moenkopi Wash, Ariz., description of 40.94 irrigation in 109 springs in 144, 146-147 Moki, meaning and use of 37 Monument Canyon, Ariz,, spring in_ 152 Monument Creek, Utah, description of 94 Monument Point, Ariz., wells near 186- 187 INDEX. 215 Page. Monument Valley, Utah-Ariz., ar- tesian water in 182 description of 48-49 precipitation on 95 section of, figure showing 180 springs in 148, 157 storage in 113 structure on 81, 82 views in 48 wells in 164, 188 Moonlight Creek, Utah-Ariz., descrip- tion of 87, 94 Mud Spring, N. Mex., description of_ 149 Muencovi Spring, Ariz., description of 154 Mulch, natural, effect of 128 Murphy, M. M., aid of 147 Myrick Corral Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153 N. Names, adoption of, rules for 15,189 spelling of 14, 189-197 aid in 11 Nasja Bridge, Utah, view of 46 Natural bridge. See Rainbow Bridge ; Owl Bridge. Navajo Church, N. Mex., well at 184 Navajo cornfield, view of 100 Navajo country, geology of, map of In pocket map of In pocket Navajo Creek, Ariz., description of_ 87, 94 Navajo Mountain, Utah-Ariz., ani- mals on 75 description of 45-47 forests on 74 precipitation on 95 springs on 148, 157 storage on 113 vegetation on 47, 73, 74, 99 view from 46 Navajos, character of 11, 76-77 irrigation by 104 irrigation needs of 103 language of 189* number of 76, 103 Navajo sandstone, character of 79 springs from 138, 142-147 water in 174 Navajo Springs, Ariz., descrip- tion of 158 Nazlini Creek, Ariz., description of_ 36, 90,94 irrigation from 105 springs on 152 Newberry, J. S., geologic explora- tion by 19, 38 Newberry Mesa, Ariz., descrip- tion of 38, 39 Nikehoshi Springs, N. Mex., nature of i41, 150 Niza, Marcos de, explorations by 16 Nokai Creek, Ariz.-Utah, descrip- tion of 48, 87, 94 Page. Notatasaca Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153 Nottahandelit Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 155 O. Oak Spring, Ariz., nature of 136, 151 storage at 33 Oil, occurrence of 24, 32, 75, Ojo Azufre, N. Mex., description of- 149 Onion Springs, Ariz., description of_ 155 spring near 156 Onaibi, Ariz., springs at and near_ 154, 155, 156 wells near 186,187 Oraibi Butte, Ariz., spring near 155 Oraibi Wash, Ariz., description 39, 94, 164-165 filling in 160, 165 fluctuations of 101 section in 165 spring in 155 wells in 163-166, 177, 186-187 sections of, figures show- iug 164 Owl Bridge, Utah, view of 46 Padilla, Juan de, explorations by 16, 39 Padilla Mesa, Ariz., spring near 154 Painted Desert, Ariz., descrip- tion of 42-43 drainage of 43 name of 43 precipitation in 95 springs on 148> 158 temperature in 97 wells on 188 depth to water in 130, 188 Palisade Creek, Ariz., description of 29,90,94 Paquette, Peter, aid of 10 Pastora Peak, Ariz., springs near 158 Pennsylvanian rocks, occurrence and character of 78 porosity of 125 Peridots, occurrence of 75 Peruvian rocks, deposition of 82 occurrence and character of 78-79 porosity of 125 Pine, yellow, zone of 72-74 Piiion, zone of 72, 73 zone of, view in 69 Pintado Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 149 Piute Canyon, Ariz., N. Mex., flow in 87, 94 irrigation in 105 springs in 142, 157 view of 69 Piutes, character of 11 number of 103 Pogue, J. E., work of 10-11 Polacca, Ariz., wells near . 164 216 INDEX, Page. Population, statistics of 76, 103 Porosity of rocks, differences in 125 Pre-Cambrian rocks, deposition of 82 occurrence and cliaracter of 78, 82 Precipitation, cliaracter of 63 distribution of, in time 96-97 effect of, on stream flow 95-97 geographic distribution 59-60 ground water supplied by 123-124 mean annual amount of 96, 123 records of 50-59 variation in, annually 60-61,97 daily, chart showing 62 seasonally 61-63, 96-97 Preston Mesa, Ariz., pools near 156 Prudden, T. M., on use of metals 75 Pueblo Bonita, N. Mex., springs near_ 149 wells at and near 184 wells at and near, sections showing 181 Pueblo Colorado Wash, Ariz., de- scription of___ 37, 89, 93, 102 fluctuations of 101, 102 silt of 108 wells in 161-162 vegetation in 72 view of 37 water wasted on 104 wells in 186 depth to water in 130, 186 See also Chinle and Pueblo Colo- rado Valleys. Puerco River, N. Mex., description of 86, 93 valley of, filling in 160 precipitation in 95 wells in 162 Pumps, character of 172—173 figure showing 172 Pyramid Butte, Ariz., spring near 153 Pyramid Rock, N. Mex., spring near_ 149 Q. Quartzite Canyon, Ariz., spring in 151 storage in 112 Quaternary deposits, occurrence and character of 80 Quicksand, difficulty with 167, 168 R. Railroad, transcontinental, explora- tions for 18 Rainbow Natural Bridge, Utah., de- scription of 45 view of 46 Rainbow Plateau, Utah-Ariz., de- scription of 44-45 natural bridge at 45 precipitation on 95 soil of 98 springs on 148, 157 view on 68 water supply on 45 Page. Rainfall, character of 63, 97 direct utilization of 119-122 percolation of, to ground wa- ters 123-124, 126-127 daily distribution of, chart showing 62 /See also Precipitation. Red Lake, N. Mex., description of 94, 118, 119 reservoir at 33, 109 views of 33, 110 Red Rock, N. Mex., springs near 149, 150 Red Rock Valley, Ariz.-N, Mex., de- scription of . 25 irrigation in 25 water supply of 92 Red Wash, Ariz.-N. Mex., description of 94 spring in 150 Relief, nature of 21-22 Reservations, area of 13, 14 location of 13 map showing 14 subdivisions of 13 Reservoir Canyon, Ariz., burial of_ 101, 109 burial of, view of 101 springs in 144-147, 156 storage in 109 Reservoirs, possible sites for 111—113 See also Tanks. Reservoir, government, description of— 109-111 Reservoirs, ground - water. See Ground - water reser- voir. Rio Chaco, N. Mex., description of 94 Ritter, Rollin, on silt 108 Roads, character of 12, 13 Robinson, H. P., work of_ 10, 108-112, 144 Rock House Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 149 Rocks, plant food in 69 porosity of 125 Rock Spring, N. Mex., description of_ 26, 151 Rock strata, springs between 137-142 springs between, improvement of 141-142 figure showing 141 water in 173-174 Roof Butte, Ariz., spring at 151 Round Rock, Ariz., springs near — 152, 153 S. Sahito, Ariz., wells at 175 Sagebrush, zone of 72 Sahotsoidbeazhe Canyon, Ariz., spring in 152 St. Joseph, Ariz,, irrigation at 105 wells at 162,188 St. Michaels, Ariz., artesian water at 176-177 artesian water at, figure show- ing 177 description of 33 INDEX. 217 Page. St. Michaels, Ariz., precipitation at 50-51, 59, 95 springs at 133-134 view of 111 temperature at 64-67 wells at and near 176-177, 185 wind at 68 St. Michael Spring, description of — 151 Salt Spring, description of 155 San Antonio Spring, description of 149 Sand, lakes due to 117-118 stream obstruction by 92, 100-101 Sand Cone spring, description of 152 Sand dunes, building and effects of 92, 100-101 view of 40, 101 Sandstone, wells in 174 Sand storms, occurrence of 67—68 San Jose Valley, wells in 184 San Juan River, character of_ 32, 85, 87, 94 discharge of 85,94 fluctuations in 101-102 water power on 116 San Juan Valley, description of 31-32 mineral resources of 32 precipitation in 59, 95—96 temperature in 97 views in 31, 32 wells in 171, 182 Santa Fe Railway, wells of 168-169, 170, 183 Satan Pass, N. Mex., spring in 149 Schools, access to 12 Schrader, F. C, geologic exploration by 20 Sebito Wash, Ariz., well in 185 Second Mesa Wash, description of 39, 94 Seeps, evaporation from 129 Segetoa Spring, description of 151 Segi Canyon, Ariz., spring in ' 157 Segihatsosi Canyon, springs in 134, 157 storage in 112-113 Segi Mesas, Ariz.-Utah, description of 47-48 precipitation on 95 ruins at , 48 soil on 98 springs on 148, 157 water supply of 48 Sehili, Ariz,, irrigation at 106 Seklagaideza Canyon, Ariz., descrip- tion of 31 Senatoa Springs, Ariz., description of 154 Sethlekai Spring, description of 157 Setsiltso Spring, Ariz., description of 152 Seven Lakes, oil at 24, 75 Shaler, M. K., geologic exploration by 20 Shales, wells in 174 Shato Canyon, Ariz., springs in 157 Shato Plateau, Ariz., description of- 43-44 di'ainage from 44 precipitation on 95 springs on 148, 157 storage on 113 Shato Spring, Ariz., description of- 43, 157 Page. Sheep Dip Creek, Ariz., description of 35,91 Sheep Spring, N. Mex., description of_ 149 spring near 140 Shinarump conglomerate, character of . 79 deposition of 82 porosity of 125 springs from 138 water in 180-182 wells in 174, 175 Shipolovi, Ariz., spring near - 155 well near 187 Shiprock, N. Mex., agency at 26 description of 25 irrigation at 105 springs near 149, 150 views of . 26, 31 Shongopovi, Ariz., spring at 155 well near 186 Silt, difliculty in disposing of 108 Simpson Creek, Ariz.-N. Mex., de- scription of 28-29, 91, 94 name of 28 on vegetation 71 Sitgreaves, L., railroad mapped by 18 Smith Butte, Ariz., springs near 153 Smith Spring, Ariz., description of 153 Snowfall, ground-water supply from. 123 records of ■.— 49 See also Precipitation. Soils, character of 68-71 derivation of 69-70 effect of, on stream flow 98-99 evaporation from 128-129 views of 100 Solomy Spring, Ariz., description of_ 155 Sonsela Springs, Ariz., description of 151 Spanish, explorations by 15-18 Springs, character of 133 evaporation from 129 number and distribution of 132-133 records of 147-158 source of 133-143 See also Kariz ; Unconsolidated deposits ; Bedrock ; Rock strata. • Spruce, Engelmann, zone of 73 Spruce Brook, Ariz., description of 29, 90,94 irrigation from 106 springs on 150 Standing Redrock Creek, Ariz., de- scription of 25, 94 irrigation from 107 Steamboat Canyon, Ariz., springs in 138,154 Steamboat Wash, Ariz., water holes in___: 119 Stock raising, future of 77 water storage for 103, 113-116 conditions controlling 113 See also Tanks. Storage, water, facilities for 107-109 Stratigraphy, outline of 78-80 section showing 78 218 INDEX. Page. Stream flow, factors influencing 95-101 fluctuation in 101-102 percolation from 127 utilization of 102-113 Streams, crossing of 12 ,102 See also Waters, surface. Streams, ephemeral, origin of 92-93 Structure, outline of 80-82 sections showing 80 Sulphur Spring, N. Mex., description of 149 Sunrise Spring, Ariz., description of 137,152 spring near 152 Sunshine, records of 49-50 Surface waters. See Waters, sur- face. T. Taboo, trouble from 12 Tahchito Creek, Ariz,, description of_ 92 Talahogan Springs, Ariz., descrip- tion of 154 spring near 154 Tanks (for stock), construction of- 114-116 literature concerning 116 sites for 114 Tanner Crossing, Ariz., description of 42 springs near 158 view at 110 Tanner Spring, Ariz., nature of 136, 151 Teadepatho Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 155 spring near 156 Temperature, records of 63-67 variations in, daily. 66-67 Tertiary rocks, deposition of__ 83-84 occurrence and character of 80 porosity of — 126 Tewa Spring, Ariz., description of — 155 The Beast, N. Mex., description of — 32 view of 33 Tishepi Spring, Ariz., description of_ 154 Tisnasbas, Ariz., well at 184 Tisnasbas Creek, Ariz., description of 92,94 irrigation from 105 Tisnasbas Spring, Ariz., description of 149 Toadlena Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 150 Todilto Park, N. Mex., location of 29 spring at 150 Todilto formation, character of 79 Todokozk Spring (Chinle Valley), Ariz., description of 152 Todokozk Spring (Defiance Plateau), Ariz., description of 151 Todokozk Spring, Utah, description of 158 Togoholtsoe Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 155 Tohachi, N. Mex., springs near 149, 150 wells at 163, 169, 185 Tohachi shale, character of 80 Page. Tohadistoa Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 155 Tohasged Springs, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153 Tohasged Spring, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 149 Tohonadla, Utah, irrigation at 107 springs at 158 Tolani Lakes, Ariz., description of_ 39, 117 Tolchico, Ariz., wells at 162, 188 Topography, effect of, on stream flow 100 outline of 21-22 Tovar, Pedro de, explorations by 16, 38 Tovar Mesa, Ariz., description of 38, 39 Travel, suggestions for 11-12 Triassic rocks, deposition of 82-83 occurrence and character of 79 porosity of 12.5-126 water from, quality of 131 Trout Spring, Ariz., description of 152 spring near 152 Tseanatzi Creek, N. Mex., descrip- tion of 92 irrigation from 106-107 Tsehili, N. Mex., spring near 150 Tuba, Ariz., cultivation at 42, 143 description of 143-144 map of 144 precipitation at 50, 55, 59-62, 95 rain water saved at 120 springs at and near 143-147, 156 improvement of 146-147 maps showing 144, 145 temperature at 64-67 view near 101 wind at 68 Tucker Springs, nature of 138, 142, 158 Tunitcha Mountain, Ariz., lakes in 117 springs on 142 Tunnel Springs, nature of 142-143, 151 Tusayan Washes, description of 38-39 evaporation in_ 128 . fluctuation in 101 precipitation in 95, 165 soil of-— 70 springs in 148, 154 temperature in 97 water wasted in 104 wells in 164-166, 170, 186-187 depth to water in__ 130, 186-187 sections of, figures show- ing 164 Tuye Spring, Ariz., description of 154 spring near 154, 156 Tuye Spring, N. Mex., description of 149 Twin Buttes, Ariz., spring near 153 Tyende, Ariz., springs at and near 136, 137, 155, 156 Tyende Creek, description of_ 36-37, 87, 94 flow of 87, 100 irrigation from 106 valley of, artesian water in 181 Tyende Mesa, Ariz., spring near 157 INDEX. 219 U. Page. Unconsolidated deposits, character of 160-161 porosity of 126 springs from 133-135 water in 160-161 wells in 160-173,177 construction of 166-173 location of 161-164 Upper Crossing, Ariz., spring at 157 view at 69 V. Vaca, A. N. C. de, explorations by — 15 Valley fill, depth of 160-161 erosion of, effect of, on stream flow 100 Valleys, high, wells in 163-164 Vegetation, distribution and char- acter of 71-74 effect of, on stream flow 99-100 evaporation from 129 relation of, to water table— 130-131 Ventana Mesa, Ariz., spring near 152 Vento Spring, Ariz., description of — 149 View Point, Ariz., spring near 151 W. Walker Creek, Ariz., description of — SI, 90-91, 94 name of 90 Walpi, spring at 155 view of 76 wells near 186, 187 Ward, L. F., geologic exploration by_ 20, 40 War God Spring, Utah, description of 47, 134, 157 Warner Wash, Ariz., springs in 158 Washes, filling in 160-161 stereogram showing 160 water in 160-161 wells in 161-162, 164-166 Washington Pass, N. Max., location of 28 spring near 151 stream in 91 view in 27 Wasteways, construction of 116 Water, lack of 71 storage of. See Irrigation, storage. Water, ground, quality of 131 source of 123-124 See also Ground-water reser- voir ; Artesian water ; Springs ; Wells. Water, surface, description of 85-122 Water catches, construction of 120-122 figures showing 120, 121, 122 Water holes, distribution of 119 Water power, use of 116 Water table, nature of 129-130 position of 124,130 figure showing 124 relation of, to vegetation 130-131 Page. Wells, character of 160-166, 173-176 conditions concerning 159-160 construction of 166-173 importance of 159 locating of ^ 161-164 stereogram explaining 160 records of 183-188 water of, quality of 159-160 See also Artesian wells ; Un- consolidated deposits ; Bed- rock. Wepo Spring, Ariz., description of — 155 spring near 156 Wepo Wash, Ariz., description of . 39, 94 spring in 155 wells in 166, 187 section showing 164 Wheatfields, Ariz., farming at 35-36 reservoir at 109—110 Wheatfields Creek, Ariz., description of 29,90,94 irrigation from 105-106, 109-110 Wheeler, G. M,, surveys by 20 Whipple, A. W., on flora 71 railroad mapped by 19 Whiskey Creek, Ariz., description of 29, 90, 94 White Cave Spring, Ariz., descrip- tion of 153,155 spring near 154 White Mesa, Ariz., springs on 157 Whitmore Pools, Ariz., description of 156 Wide Ruin, Ariz., description of 35 Wide Ruin Wash, Ariz., description of 35,94,101 irrigation from 105 springs in 151 water wasted on 104 wells in 163, 164, 185 Wildcat Peak, spring near 156 Willow Springs, Ariz., description of 144, 145, 156 Wilson's Peak. See Shiprock. Wind, character and occurrence of_ 67-68 erosion by, views of 40, 68 modification of stream flow by_ 100-101 soil transported by— 68, 69, 100-101 Wingate sandstone, character of 79 springs from 138 wells in 174 Winslow, Ariz., irrigation near 106 precipitation at 50, 54, 59-60 spring near 158 temperature at 97 Y. Yucca, zone of- 72 Z. Ziditloi Mountain, location of 33 view of 33 Zillesa Mesa, Ariz., springs near 155, 156 Ziltahjini Peak, Ariz., spring near — 156 Zuui reservoir N. Mex., silt in 108 O '"h 14 iSnL (\ I \ ; \ \