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Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1988 
 
 Mine Safety Education and 
 Training Seminar 
 
 Proceedings: Bureau of Mines Technology 
 Transfer Seminar, Pittsburgh, PA, May 17, 
 1988; Beckley, WV, May 19, 1988; St. Louis. 
 MO, May 24, 1988; and Reno, NV, May 26, 
 1988 
 
 Compiled by Staff, Bureau of Mines 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
Information Circular 9185 
 
 Mine Safety Education and 
 training Seminar 
 
 Proceedings: Bureau of Mines Technology 
 Transfer Seminar, Pittsburgh, PA, May 17, 
 1988; Beckley, WV, May 19, 1988; St. Louis, 
 MO, May 24, 1988; and Reno, NV, May 26, 
 1988 
 
 Compiled by Staff, Bureau of Mines 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 Donald Paul Hodel, Secretary 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES 
 T S Ary, Director 
 
-$&> 
 
 
 qt^ 
 
 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: 
 
 Mine Safety Education and Training Seminar. 
 
 Mine Safety Education and Training Seminar. 
 
 (Information circular;9185) 
 
 Includes bibliographies. 
 
 Supt. of Docs. no. 128.27:9185. 
 
 1. Mine safety— Study and teaching— Congresses. I. United States. 
 Bureau of Mines. II. Title. III. Series: Information circular (United 
 States. Bureau of Mines);9185. 
 
 TN295.U4 
 
 622 s 
 
 [622'.8'071] 
 
 88-600107 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In May, 1988, the Bureau of Mines held technology transfer seminars on mine safety education 
 and training at Pittsburgh, PA, Beckley, WV, St.Louis, MO, and Reno, NV. The papers presented 
 at those seminars are contained in this Information Circular, which serves as a proceedings volume. The 
 papers highlight the Bureau's most recent research aimed at improving the effectiveness of mine 
 safety training in order to reduce workplace accidents. Areas addressed by this research and published 
 in this volume include training strategies for SCSR donning, a work crew performance model, hazard 
 recognition, human factors contributions to accidents, a blasters training manual, simulated mine 
 emergency problems, and first aid role play simulations. 
 
 The technology transfer seminar used as a forum for the transfer of this research is one of the many 
 mechanisms used by the Bureau of Mines in its efforts to move research developments, technology, 
 and information resulting from its programs into industrial practice and use. To learn more about the 
 Bureau's technology transfer program and how it can be useful to you, please write or telephone: 
 
 Bureau of Mines 
 
 Office of Technology Transfer 
 
 2401 E Street, NW. 
 
 Washington, DC 20241 
 
 202-634-1224 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 Preface i 
 
 Abstract 1 
 
 Effect of training strategy on self-contained self-rescuer donning performance by C. Vaught, M. J. Brnich, 
 
 and H. J. Kellner 2 
 
 The work crew performance model: Linking training, assessment, and performance by W. J. Wiehagen, 
 
 M. J. Brnich, H. J. Kellner, and W. E. Lacefield 15 
 
 Roof and rib hazard recognition training using 3-D slides by E. A. Barrett, W. J. Wiehagen, and C. Vaught 23 
 
 Human factors contributing to groundfall accidents in underground coal mines: Workers' views by R. H. Peters 
 
 and W. J. Wiehagen 31 
 
 Blasters training manual for metal-nonmetal miners by M. A. Peltier, L. R. Fletcher, and R. A. Dick 40 
 
 Operations-based training strategy for longwall mining by R. L. Grayson, M. J. Klishis, R. C. Althouse, 
 
 and G. M. Lies 45 
 
 Miner and trainer responses to simulated mine emergency problems by H. P. Cole and Staff, 
 
 University of Kentucky 56 
 
 First aid role play simulations for miners by H. P. Cole, R. D. Wasielewski, J. V. Haley, and P. K. Berger 78 
 
UNIT OF MEASURE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT 
 
 ft 
 
 foot 
 
 pet 
 
 percent 
 
 h 
 
 hour 
 
 s 
 
 second 
 
 in 
 
 inch 
 
 St 
 
 short ton 
 
 min 
 
 minute 
 
 yr 
 
 year 
 
MINE SAFETY EDUCATION AND TRAINING SEMINAR 
 
 Proceedings: Bureau of Mines Technology Transfer Seminar, 
 Pittsburgh, PA, May 17, 1988; Beckley, WV, May 19, 1988; 
 St. Louis, MO, May 24, 1988; and Reno, NV, May 26, 1988 
 
 Compiled by Staff, Bureau of Mines 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Education and training research is a major component of the Bureau of Mines human factors 
 research program. The goal of human factors research i's to enhance human performance for the purpose 
 of improving both safety and the profitability of the minerals industries. This is achieved through the 
 design of mining equipment, work tasks, management procedures, and development of human 
 resources. This proceedings volume presents several new developments that are helping to improve the 
 quality and efficiency of health, safety, and occupational skills training in the mining community. 
 Several papers address the issue of how to teach and assess miner abilities to deal with underground 
 mine emergencies. Other papers examine practical procedures for defining and cost-justifying the in- 
 tegration of structured training and other performance improvement strategies to enhance the 
 proficiency of the work system. 
 
EFFECT OF TRAINING STRATEGY ON SELF-CONTAINED SELF-RESCUER 
 
 DONNING PERFORMANCE 
 
 By C. Vaught, 1 M. J. Brnich, 2 and H. J. Kellner 3 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The purpose of this Bureau of Mines study was to assess the impact of three different instructional 
 strategies upon trainee ability to don self-contained self -rescuers. The strategies, designed to deliver 
 the same introductory content, were a live demonstration, a structured lecture, and a computer-based 
 format. One hundred fifty-five subjects were randomly assigned to groups that had their initial 
 donning instruction conveyed by one of the three strategies. The trainees performances were then 
 assessed using a number of different measures. It was found that delivery strategy had a modest initial 
 influence upon how well people did, but that this effect tended to disappear after one initial hands-on 
 experience. It was also noted that a significant amount of skill degradation occurred during the first 
 3 months following training. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Since 1940, there have been over 1 8 major explosions and 
 more than 1 ,000 fires in underground coal mines in the United 
 States (McDonald and Baker Q), 4 and Richmond, Price, 
 Sapko, and Kawenski (2)). In a majority of these incidents, 
 loss of life and property were minimized by the exercise of 
 good judgment and the effective use of mining skills on the 
 part of workers in the situation (McDonald and Baker Q)). 
 This conclusion is in agreement with much of the recent 
 literature dealing with human actions in emergencies, which 
 suggests that people do not necessarily panic and become 
 incapable of taking effective action (Sime (3J). Rather, they 
 engage in adaptive behavior based on choices made from 
 
 among those perceived to be available at any particular time 
 during the emergency. The variable factor is how well a 
 person uses all available information to arrive at a choice. 
 That is one of the elements of judgment and decision making. 
 Once a decision is made to implement a specific corrective, 
 the variable factor may become one's ability to carry out that 
 course of action successfully. The problem of whether an 
 individual has the necessary procedural skills involves the 
 area of task competency. A case in point is provided by a 
 series of recent studies undertaken by the University of 
 Kentucky and the Bureau of Mines. 
 
 'Research sociologist, Pittsburgh Research Center, Bureau of 
 Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 2 Mining engineer, Product Research Incorporated, Pittsburgh, 
 PA. 
 'Industrial engineering technician, Pittsburgh Research Center. 
 
 'Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 references at the end of this paper. 
 
BACKGROUND 
 
 In open-ended interviews with more than 50 mine safety 
 experts, Cole (4) recorded several accounts of worker failure 
 to use self-contained self-rescuers (SCSR's) to escape toxic 
 mine atmospheres. The prevailing assumption among those 
 respondents offering such accounts appeared to be that work- 
 ers are generally proficient in donning SCSR's. All new 
 miners are given training, which includes a demonstration of 
 the respiratory devices used at their mine. In addition, each 
 8 h annual refresher class includes a course on the use, care, 
 and maintenance of self -rescue and respiratory apparatus. In 
 the absence of empirical evidence to the contrary, that instruc- 
 tion has been accepted as being sufficient. Reputed failures of 
 workers to don the devices in situations calling for their use 
 were most often attributed to poor judgment, panic, or both. 
 Other evidence from the investigations, however, has cast 
 doubt on the adequacy of current SCSR task training and 
 suggests that lack of procedural skills may be an important 
 consideration. 
 
 The researchers conducted an extensive review of exist- 
 ing training materials and found logical inconsistencies that 
 suggest that a task analysis might not have been done prior to 
 training material development. Task analysis would begin 
 with the function of the apparatus — to enable a miner to 
 isolate his or her lungs from the ambient air — and determine 
 empirically the most effective sequence of actions for getting 
 the SCSR into operation. The following problems, which are 
 discussed in detail elsewhere (Vaught and Cole £5J), run 
 counter to that protocol: First, the recommended donning 
 position is difficult under most mining conditions, and impos- 
 sible for miners working in low coal. Second, the donning 
 sequence appears inefficient, placing nonessential and time- 
 consuming tasks such as strap adjustment ahead of some of the 
 steps necessary to isolate one ' s lungs from the ambient atmos- 
 phere. Third, the materials do not present a simplified, easy- 
 
 to-remember set of procedural rules to help miners order the 
 complex array of tasks needed to get the apparatus on in an 
 emergency. 
 
 In the opinion of the investigators, those logical prob- 
 lems with instructional content were not the only indicators 
 that generally available SCSR task training may be insuffi- 
 cient. Summary statistics from 15 mine trainer workshops 
 supported the widely held notion that a majority of under- 
 ground miners never have hands-on experience with the 
 apparatus (Cole and Vaught (£)). This was a cause for concern 
 in view of the evidence suggesting that infrequently used 
 procedural skills must be overlearned if proficiency is to be 
 maintained, and that the overlearning of procedures having a 
 motor component requires hands-on training (Johnson Q) and 
 Hagman and Rose (8)). Given the critical nature of SCSR 
 donning as a corrective action, the industry tendency to rely 
 upon films, slide-tape programs, or demonstrations by an 
 instructor instead of upon performance trials by the trainees 
 seemed less than optimal. 
 
 As part of their effort to show what an optimized SCSR 
 training program might include, the researchers conducted a 
 detailed task analysis using a controlled experiment in which 
 36 working miners who had recently gotten refresher training 
 were videotaped in performance trials with the SCSR model 
 in use at their mine. Assessment of the tapes allowed the 
 investigators to target those steps in the procedure where most 
 errors occurred and where most time was lost. It was found 
 that individuals spent a majority of their time adjusting straps 
 and locating goggles that had been dropped on the floor. In 
 addition, many of the subjects became confused and omitted 
 tasks such as putting on the nose clips. Only 22 individuals (6 1 
 pet) were able to complete the minimum of steps necessary to 
 isolate their lungs, and approximately half of these required 
 over a minute to do so. 
 
 RESEARCH PROBLEM 
 
 Based on the experimental findings, an instructors man- 
 ual and short videotape demonstration were prepared for field 
 testing. This package presents a generic procedure for the four 
 SCSR's in common use (CSE, Draeger, MSA, and Ocenco). 
 It offers the following: (1) a donning position (kneeling) that 
 is easy and efficient, (2) a donning sequence that moves 
 critical steps (those tasks necessary to isolate one's lungs) 
 ahead of the others, and (3) a set of "chunked" procedural rules 
 that facilitate easy retention. The present study focuses upon 
 two aspects of the effectiveness of training strategies used to 
 deliver this new donning method. First, the effect of "front- 
 
 end" complexity and feedback capability was investigated 
 using three different treatments. Each of these treatments 
 required differing levels of involvement on the part of the 
 subjects. The second part of the study deals with the impact 
 of the three treatment strategies upon trainee ability to retain 
 and demonstrate procedural skills 90 days after initial fram- 
 ing. It was expected that the type of involvement required to 
 learn the procedure would affect the subject's proficiency 
 with the motor tasks during initial performance trials, as well 
 as his or her capacity to remember and do the procedure at a 
 later date. 
 
METHOD 
 
 During a 2- week period in July 1986, professional and 
 technical employees at the Bureau's Pittsburgh Research 
 Center, many of whom make regular visits to mine sites, were 
 given 8 h of annual refresher training for underground miners. 
 This training was performed according to a plan filed with the 
 Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), pursuant to 
 title 30 Code of Federal Regulations, part48. Theclasses were 
 conducted by two MSHA approved instructors, and the cur- 
 riculum conformed generally with that required of the indus- 
 try. As part of the course of instruction, the students received 
 task training in the new method of donning an SCSR. 
 
 TASK CONTENT 
 
 The actual training scheme involved having each subject 
 put on a Draeger OXY-SR 60B as if he or she were trying to 
 escape a fire or explosion. There are 19 discrete steps in this 
 activity, and as might be inferred, it comprises a number of 
 possible procedural sequences with an extensive motor com- 
 ponent. Although there are necessary conditions for begin- 
 ning certain steps, each step in any possible sequence is 
 relatively simple from the standpoint that it does not have to 
 mesh with other steps in order to be completed. The task itself 
 is potentially confusing, however, because there are several 
 sequences in which the complete procedure could be done. 
 Nevertheless, as was stated earlier, there is a sequence which 
 is most logical. For the present research the task was made 
 exacting by the fact that it had to be performed without 
 prompting, in the sequence that prior analysis had determined 
 to be most efficient, and within a specific timeframe. 
 
 The new 3+3 (three critical and three secondary actions) 
 donning method taught to the trainees contains a chunked 
 sequence of actions that imposes a uniform structure upon the 
 variable discrete steps that combined make up a particular 
 action (depending upon the SCSR model being donned). For 
 example, to fully activate oxygen on the Draeger one is 
 required to (1) lift the opening lever, (2) remove the metal 
 closing clamp, (3) grasp the lid and pull until the split pin is out 
 of the chlorate starter, (4) insert the mouthpiece, and (5) 
 exhale into the breathing bag to activate the bed of potassium 
 superoxide. To fully activate oxygen on the Ocenco, a person 
 would (1) pull the latch rod, (2) release the latches, (3) open 
 the case, (4) open the oxygen valve, (5) inserting the mouth- 
 piece and (6) inhale deeply to open the demand valve and fill 
 the breathing bag. The structure that the generic method 
 imposes upon the donning task not only presents the chunked 
 actions in a logical sequence, but also constrains the discrete 
 tasks to be performed in a consistent order. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONAL CONTENT 
 
 The core of information deli vered to trainees learning the 
 new method provides a two-stage approach to the donning 
 task. First, it presents an efficient position and orientation of 
 apparatus designed to make the chunked sequence possible. 
 Directions for the first stage are as follows: (1) Kneel. — place 
 the SCSR on the floor in front of you — lay your miner's cap 
 on the floor and shine the lamp on the SCSR — work with both 
 hands; and (2) Loop. — quickly loop the neckstrap over your 
 head in order to position it and the case — leave the strap loose 
 so you will have room to work — now you are ready to begin 
 the 3+3 donning procedure. Directions for the second stage 
 divide the chunked sequence into the three critical actions 
 necessary to isolate one's lungs, and the three secondary 
 actions needed to prepare an individual to escape: (1) activate 
 the oxygen, (2) insert the mouthpiece, (3) put on the noseclips, 
 (4) then put on the goggles, (5) adjust straps, and (6) replace 
 miner's cap. The strategies for transmitting this message were 
 varied for purposes of the present study, but the content 
 remained the same. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE 
 INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES 
 
 Treatment A was a computer-based training program that 
 presented the 3+3 method as sequential blocks of information, 
 each block followed by a series of questions designed to 
 determine whether the individual had learned and retained the 
 material. Wrong answers were remediated by looping the 
 respondent back through the block from which the question 
 was taken. At the end, a short review exercise reiterated the 
 critical and secondary donning actions. This approach re- 
 quired the most active involvement in terms of verbal learn- 
 ing, not only because of the amount of interaction necessary 
 to obtain the front-end information, but also because the 
 subjects were not cued by either the actual apparatus or the 
 paper-and-pencil configuration. In order to reinforce what 
 had been learned, instruction was followed by a videotape 
 demonstration of a trainer putting on an SCSR as if he were in 
 an actual emergency. 
 
 Treatment B was a structured lecture that utilized an 
 advance organizer. Using overhead transparencies, the in- 
 structor presented the two stages of the new method and 
 discussed the rationale behind each chunked action. Students 
 were next familiarized with an evaluation form that utilized a 
 connect-the-dots configuration and was designed to help 
 
individuals reproduce the procedure on paper. Trainees were 
 then given copies of the form and prepared to watch video- 
 taped demonstrations of two trainers donning the apparatus in 
 real time. Active participation was required in that the 
 students were asked to evaluate the first performance by 
 drawing a line to each dot in succession as the trainer com- 
 pleted the action that particular dot represented. In a sense, 
 this activity competed with the visual stimuli, although it had 
 the desired goal of involving the students. At the conclusion 
 of the first demonstration the tape was stopped and feedback 
 given by the instructor, who accompanied his discussion with 
 an overhead transparency depicting an accurately completed 
 evaluation form. The trainees were offered another oppor- 
 tunity to practice the sequence by following the actions in the 
 second performance. Feedback was again provided. The 
 instructor closed the lecture with an overhead transparency 
 representing a hypothetical evaluation of a poor donning trial, 
 and stressed the consequences of doing the critical actions 
 incorrectly. 
 
 One of the simplest ways to introduce a procedural task 
 is to have a competent person demonstrate the routine. In- 
 deed, much SCSR instruction, especially in the context of 
 hazard training, consists of just that Accordingly, treatment 
 C involved having the trainer who had helped perfect the 3+3 
 method talk groups of subjects through the task, step-by-step, 
 as he slowly donned the apparatus. This live demonstration 
 was followed by a videotape performance of the same individ- 
 ual putting on an SCSR as if he were preparing to escape a 
 mine fire or explosion. The purpose of the videotape was to 
 give the trainees a sense of how a proficient donning execution 
 appeared in real time. As is evident, this approach offered 
 nothing but the basics. First, it did not require the active 
 participation of the trainee in obtaining the front-end knowl- 
 edge necessary to carry out the procedural task. Second, it did 
 not provide any type of advance organizer to help cue the 
 person's memory when it came time for his or her perform- 
 ance trial. Third, there was no feedback in terms of reiteration 
 of correct steps, or additional information about the conse- 
 quences of doing a step incorrectly. 
 
 PERFORMANCE CRITERION 
 
 Ultimately, the act of donning an SCSR is a motor task. 
 Therefore, it was determined that the subjects must demon- 
 strate proficiency by donning the apparatus. In the real world, 
 whether or not one would be considered competent might 
 actually be decided by whether one could use the SCSR to 
 escape a toxic mine atmosphere. The experimental corollary 
 to this practical criterion would probably entail checking to 
 see if an individual could isolate his or her lungs and secure the 
 SCSR adequately within an acceptable length of time, regard- 
 less of the sequence of discrete steps. There were two 
 problems with using this sort of indicator in the present study. 
 First, an important part of the research focuses upon skill 
 retention. It would be very difficult to suggest forgetting as a 
 
 cause of sequencing change or errors if it could not be shown 
 that the subject had at least one systematic and error-free 
 performance. Second, and just as important, it is known that 
 large skill decrements exist with seldom-used procedural 
 tasks (Hagman and Rose (8)). It seemed advisable, within the 
 constraints of the training situation, to allow as much learning 
 to take place as possible. The proficiency level established for 
 the annual refresher trainees was a perfect sequence to be 
 completed in 90 s or less, with the critical part of the sequence 
 to take no more than 45 s. The first trial in which the subject 
 recorded a perfect sequence within the acceptable time was 
 designated the criterion. It was against this criterion that all 
 subsequent performance would be measured. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOL 
 
 One hundred fifty-five subjects are included in the ongo- 
 ing training experiment of which this study is a part. None had 
 extensive prior experience with any type of self-contained 
 breathing apparatus and had never received hands-on SCSR 
 training. In this respect, at least, they were considered to be 
 somewhat like working coal miners; there was no preexisting 
 procedural knowledge that might influence their perform- 
 ance. 
 
 At the beginning of each training class individuals were 
 given serial numbers that were to be used to identify them for 
 various purposes throughout the course of the research. The 
 first use of the serial numbers was to enable the trainers to 
 draw lots for random assignment of subjects to groups that 
 would have their initial donning instruction conveyed by 
 different delivery strategies. Following instruction on general 
 hazards, mine maps and escapeways, checkin and checkout 
 procedures, and personal protective equipment, class mem- 
 bers were randomly divided into two groups and sent to 
 separate classrooms. There, they were rotated through three 
 assignments: a first aid simulation using either computer- 
 based training or a paper-and-pencil format; roof and rib 
 hazard identification utilizing stereoscopic viewers and three- 
 dimensional slides; and one of the three instructional treat- 
 ments for SCSR donning. Each classroom was the site of a 
 different delivery strategy. 
 
 An alternating protocol had been designed that would 
 enable the trainers to present any two of the three treatments 
 to each training class. The treatments being given on a 
 particular day depended upon the rotation plan in effect. For 
 instance, plan A, which was implemented on the first day, 
 specified that the structured lecture would be used in one room 
 and the computer-based training presentation would be used 
 in the other. Plan B, in effect on the second day of classes, 
 offered the computer-based training and the live demonstra- 
 tion. Plan C, the strategy for the third day, made provision for 
 the live demonstration and the structured lecture. On the 
 fourth day the rotation was repeated. 
 
 Immediately following instruction the subjects were 
 taken, one at a time, to an isolated room for a donning trial. 
 
This performance was to serve three purposes. First, an 
 analysis of initial attempts would permit an evaluation of the 
 effectiveness of the strategy used to deliver the front-end 
 donning instruction. Second, the donning trial would provide 
 the motor component, which was considered to be crucial for 
 proficiency at the procedural task. Third, by requiring each 
 person to perform to criterion, the researchers were establish- 
 ing a baseline from which to assess the magnitude of forget- 
 ting over time. 
 
 Prior to the performance trial, each individual was 
 equipped with a miner's belt, cap, and caplamp. An SCSR, 
 with its neck strap adjusted all the way out, was placed on the 
 floor approximately four case lengths in front of the subject 
 The trainee was requested to await a signal from the trainer, 
 and at this signal to put the SCSR on as if he or she were in an 
 actual mine emergency. No questions were answered or 
 information given at this stage of the process. During the 
 donning trial, which was performed with no prompts, the 
 trainer evaluated the subject's proficiency by means of a 
 specially designed connect-the-dots evaluation form intended 
 to show sequencing errors and actions that were done incor- 
 rectly (fig. 1). A helper recorded times for both the critical 
 actions and the secondary actions. At the end of the trial, if an 
 error had been made, the instructor pointed it out and ex- 
 plained how to do that particular step correctly. The apparatus 
 was repacked and the student was asked to try again. This 
 procedure was repeated until each individual reached the 
 criterion of a perfect sequence within the specified times. 
 
 At the conclusion of the 1986 annual refresher training 
 period, individuals' serial numbers were again randomly 
 drawn (by treatment) to designate subjects who would get 
 followup training and a 90-day retention evaluation. The 
 training, given to half the subjects in each treatment group 
 who had been selected for the 90-day recall, consisted of a 
 quick and simple refresher. The refresher was administered 
 30 days before the recipient was to have his or her 90-day 
 evaluation. People who had originally received the com- 
 puter-based format were brought to a training room where 
 they worked through an abbreviated version of their original, 
 instruction. Individuals who had gone through the structured 
 lecture were visited in their workplaces by a trainer who gave 
 each person a copy of the evaluation form and asked him or 
 her to reproduce the procedure on paper. After the subject had 
 connected the dots to indicate the order of actions he or she 
 believed to be the correct sequence to follow, the trainer 
 pointed out any sequencing errors and reiterated the correct 
 procedure. For those who had originally gotten the talk- 
 through and live demonstration, the refresher entailed having 
 a trainer visit each person's workplace and do the live dem- 
 onstration once again. 
 
 Seventy-two subjects were chosen to participate in the 
 90-day retention evaluation. There were 24 individuals for 
 each of the three treatment conditions: 12 who had been 
 refreshed and 12 who had not. Each person in the sample was 
 scheduled to be recalled on or about the 90th day following the 
 
 date on which he or she had been initially trained. At the 
 determined time, the subject was taken to a laboratory room 
 which contained a videocamera. The purpose of the study was 
 explained briefly, and a one-page interview schedule was 
 administered by a researcher (fig. 2). Following completion 
 of the interview, the subject was outfitted with a miner's belt, 
 cap, and caplamp. An SCSR, with its neck strap adjusted all 
 the way out, was placed on the floor approximately four case 
 lengths in front of the trainee. The individual was instructed 
 to await a signal from the trainer, and then to put the SCSR on 
 as if he or she were in a mine fire or explosion. During the 
 performance trial, which was done with no prompts, one 
 trainer evaluated the process while another trainer recorded 
 critical and secondary times and videotaped the activity. 
 Following the donning trial, the subject reviewed the evalu- 
 ation form and then watched his or her videotaped perform- 
 ance. A trainer pointed out any errors and suggested ways to 
 correct them. The dial was not repeated. 
 
 PROFICIENCY MEASURES 
 
 There were three means of evaluating the performance 
 trials. Taken together, they provide a good assessment of the 
 effectiveness of those training strategies used to deliver the 
 initial donning instruction. First, it was possible to record both 
 the number and types of errors committed. This includes se- 
 quencing errors, omissions, and incorrect execution of par- 
 ticular steps. Second, there were two measures of time: the 
 number of seconds a subject required to isolate his or her 
 lungs, and the amount of time he or she took to complete the 
 entire procedural task. Third, the number of trials necessary 
 for each individual to reach criterion were recorded. For 
 purposes of this study, data on these variables were obtained 
 for the initial donning trials and the 90-day evaluation. Data 
 management techniques are discussed in the following sec- 
 tion. 
 
 DATA MANAGEMENT 
 
 During the initial phase of the SCSR donning study, 262 
 records were obtained for the 155 subjects included in the 
 ongoing training experiment The reason there are more data 
 records than subjects is that some trainees required more than 
 one trial to reach criterion. In addition to these initial records, 
 the project staff planned to collect further information on the 
 performance of the trainees at predetermined dates during the 
 course of the experiment. For this reason the person- oriented 
 information system for educators (POISE) data management 
 software was chosen. POISE permits ready expansion so that 
 additional data may be added, and is flexible enough to allow 
 easy interfacing with a statistical package for the social 
 sciences (SPSSx), the statistical package selected for use in 
 the analysis. Three files are needed to make use of the POISE 
 data management system: a description file, a data file, and a 
 screen format file. For the present experiment however, it 
 
 
Performance Evaluation for 
 
 Date 
 
 1. Did the miner answer the following? 
 
 A. Name the exact place where you started working last shift. 
 
 Yes No 
 
 B. Tell me how to get to the nearest SCSRs from that place. 
 
 Yes No 
 
 2. Connect the dots in the diagram below to show the steps the miner 
 took in donning the SCSR. DO NOT TOUCH THE DOT IF HE OR SHE 
 DID THE STEP INCORRECTLY. 
 
 Total Time (seconds) 
 Oxygen 
 
 Hat on 
 
 O 
 Start 
 
 Mouthpiece 
 
 Loop 
 
 Straps 
 
 Goggles 
 
 Noseclips 
 
 Part Time (seconds) 
 
 3. After the task is completed please list any errors that need to be 
 corrected and then correct them. 
 
 Trainer's Signature 
 
 FIGURE 1.— Evaluation form for use in teaching and assessing the 3 + 3 donning method. 
 
Interviewer Date Time 
 
 Subject Name Serial No. 
 
 Treatment Refresher (if yes, date from records) 
 
 1. Person's Age 2. Gender 3. Education (yr) 
 
 4. Person's Job Classification 
 
 5. How many times have you put an SCSR on....... 
 
 a. Like this model? 
 
 b. Another model? (specify all) 
 
 6. Explain the circumstances under which it was donned (emergency, training, etc.) 
 
 7. Have you ever used any other type of oxygen or compressed air breathing apparatus 
 such as 
 
 a. Mine rescue gear? 
 
 b. Firefighting gear? 
 
 c. Scuba gear? 
 
 d. Other (explain) 
 
 8. If yes to the above, please explain the circumstance. 
 
 9. Have you ever put on and breathed through a FSR? (include no. of time) 
 
 10. If yes to the above, please give model and explain circumstances 
 
 11. Date of last donning (from records) 12. No. of days ago 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Interview schedule designed to elicit information about trainee background and prior experience with breathing 
 apparatus. 
 
was necessary to have a way to identify individual records. As 
 a result, field 1 of the data file was designated a key field, and 
 each record was assigned a key number. A key file was then 
 created in the add option of the describe program. This file 
 made it possible to identify each student and the correspond- 
 ing trial number for a particular treatment 
 
 When the POISE files were created, 31 data fields were 
 delineated to accommodate the information collected. The 
 described fields occupied columns 1 through 438 in the data 
 file. Major fields originally defined include those allocated 
 
 for student name, identification number, date of training, 
 treatment, trial number, donning sequence, and errors made. 
 Fields for recording critical times, escape times, and narrative 
 comment were also included. An additional 37 fields were 
 added later in order to provide for data gathered during 
 subsequent phases of the study. Included are fields for demo- 
 graphic information, whether or not the subject had followup 
 training, the number of days since his or her last donning 
 performance, and numerous flags to indicate any other types 
 of breathing apparatus the trainee might have been familiar 
 with. 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 It was originally expected that delivery strategy would 
 have an impact upon the subjects first donning trials, but that 
 the act of putting on an SCSR would override and confound 
 the effects of the front- end strategy. It was further expected 
 that the method of giving the brief refresher would influence 
 trainees' performances on the 90-day trials. Specifically, the 
 live demonstration was hypothesized to have the greatest 
 short-term benefit, because that approach, although the same 
 in content as the other approaches, was the only one that 
 of ferded the students a live view of the internal components of 
 the case as they were talked through the procedure. Also, it 
 was the only condition that did not have a competing task as- 
 sociated with it. In the area of retention, however, the com- 
 puter-based training treatment was hypothesized to have the 
 most impact, since it required the highest degree of involve- 
 ment in getting the necessary verbal information and was 
 followed by a motor performance. Ideally, involvement is 
 expected to foster retention (Johnson Q)). Additionally, it 
 was expected that the computer-based training refresher, 
 being the most thorough, would have a significant influence 
 on subjects performances at their 90-day trials. 
 
 INITIAL PERFORMANCE 
 
 In order to begin an exploration of the results, subjects 
 performances on the initial trials following instruction were 
 divided into three categories: (1) failures — those who did not 
 get their lungs isolated from the ambient atmosphere, 
 
 (2) survivors — those who succeeded in getting their lungs iso- 
 lated, but who did not record a perfect sequence (the criterion) , 
 and (3) criterion performers — those who had a perfect se- 
 quence on the first trial. Table 1 is a contingency table that 
 presents the observed (or actual) and expected frequencies of 
 performances by each delivery system. The expected fre- 
 quencies are those that one would expect to occur by chance, 
 given the number of people exposed to each treatment and the 
 number of performances that fall into each of the three 
 categories. 
 
 It is instructive to examine the data in the table. Essen- 
 tially, there were more perfect sequences than expected for the 
 live demonstration, more survivors than expected for the 
 lecture format, and more failures than would be expected for 
 the computer-based treatment. Conversely, there were fewer 
 than the expected number of failures among those who had re- 
 ceived the live demonstration, and greater than the expected 
 number of failures among performances following the com- 
 puter- based delivery. It should be noted that this phenomenon 
 lies in the expected direction: individuals receiving the live 
 demonstration were hypothesized to do somewhat better 
 initially, while those who were more involved would be less 
 likely to forget what they had learned. 
 
 A chi-square (X 2 ) test for independence was applied to 
 performance by treatment condition in order to test the null 
 hypothesis of no association between delivery system and 
 how well subjects did on their initial donning trials. The chi- 
 square value of 13.88 is sufficiently large to enable rejection 
 
 
 TABLE 1. - Chi-square test of performance by delivery 
 (X 2 = 13.88, P < 0.01, Cramer's V = 0.212) 
 
 
 Performance 
 
 Computer-based 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Lecture 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Demonstration 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Total 
 observed 
 
 Failure 
 
 Survivor 
 
 Criterion 
 
 Totals 
 
 17 11.9 
 
 20 18.1 
 
 19 26.0 
 
 7 8.7 
 18 13.2 
 16 19.0 
 
 9 12.3 
 12 18.7 
 37 26.9 
 
 33 
 50 
 72 
 
 56 NAp 
 
 41 NAp 
 
 58 NAp 
 
 155 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 
 
 
 
10 
 
 of this hypothesis at the 0.01 level of significance and con- 
 clude that there is, in fact, a relationship between the variables 
 which is not due to chance. The magnitude of evidence for the 
 existence of a relationship does not indicate anything about 
 the strength of that relationship, however. Accordingly, 
 Cramer's V, a measure of association suitable for nominal 
 level data, was computed in order to assess how strongly the 
 variables are interrelated. The coefficient, 0.212, represents 
 approximately a 5 pet association. Thus, although chi-square 
 was found to be highly significant, there is only a very weak 
 association between the way in which the 3+3 method was 
 presented to the subjects and how they fared in their initial 
 hands-on attempts. 
 
 A second measure of performance immediately follow- 
 ing treatment is the amount of time it takes individuals to get 
 the apparatus on. Given what is known about human behavior 
 in fires (Marchant (9J), it is quite likely that most of the time 
 available to don an SCSR in an emergency will be spent in 
 deciding to take action. When one actually begins the task, 
 therefore, he or she should be able to do it rapidly. The most 
 important, or critical, steps are those that are necessary to 
 isolate one's lungs from the ambient atmosphere. Table 2 
 provides information about how quickly these critical steps 
 were performed by those who were able to do them on the first 
 trial. It should be remembered that those who were not able 
 to complete the three critical steps do not enter into this part 
 of the discussion. 
 
 A preliminary analysis of the time data was conducted in 
 order to test the homogeneity of variance assumption. In 
 analyses using the real times, it was found that the null 
 hypothesis of equal variances could be rejected. For this 
 
 reason, the time measures were transformed into reciprocals 
 (1/X). There is evidence to suggest that reciprocal transfor- 
 mation of time measures is inherently good procedure, be- 
 cause for some subjects the time taken to complete a task 
 might be overly long. A few extreme measures in any one 
 group would increase the variance for a particular treatment, 
 while the variance for the other treatments would not be 
 affected. Transforming the times to reciprocals would tend to 
 make the variances more homogeneous (Edwards Q0J). 
 Table 2 includes transformations below the actual means and 
 standard deviations. 
 
 As can be seen, those in the live demonstration group 
 required approximately 3 s less (on average) to get their lungs 
 isolated than did those in the other two treatments. An analysis 
 of variance (ANOVA) test for differences between means was 
 performed in order to determine if there was a statistically 
 significant difference in times. The ANOVA model essen- 
 tially allows a comparison of the magnitude of heterogeneity 
 within samples to the heterogeneity between samples. The 
 rationale is that if subjects are given a treatment that is the 
 same for everyone in their group, but that this treatment is 
 different from the treatment given others, subjects within 
 groups will be more alike on that variable than subjects 
 between groups (Loether and McTavish (ID). All this as- 
 sumes, of course, that the treatments make a difference in the 
 first place. 
 
 The F-ratio (table 3), which indicates the region of a theo- 
 retical sampling distribution in which two sample variances 
 would reside, is calculated by dividing the between-group 
 variances by the within-group variances. The larger the F- 
 ratio, the farther out on the tail of a particular F-distribution an 
 
 TABLE 2. - Basic statistical data for critical task donning times 
 
 Computer-based 
 
 Lecture 
 
 Demonstration 
 
 Total observations 56 
 
 Students successfully 
 completing critical tasks 39 
 
 Mean critical time, s: 
 
 Actual 18.13 
 
 Transformation 0.0595 
 
 Standard deviation, s: 
 
 Actual 5.67 
 
 Transformation 0.015 
 
 41 
 
 58 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 19.12 
 
 15.23 
 
 0.0590 
 
 0.0705 
 
 8.69 
 
 4.74 
 
 0.0168 
 
 0.0175 
 
 TABLE 3. 
 
 - Summary ANOVA for critical task donning times on transformed scores 
 
 Source 
 
 Degrees of 
 freedom 
 
 Sum of squares 
 
 Mean square 
 
 F-ratio 
 
 F-probability 
 
 Between 
 
 Within 
 
 20 
 
 119 
 
 .0037 
 .0325 
 
 0.019 
 .003 
 
 6.854 
 NAp 
 
 0.0015 
 NAp 
 
 Total 
 
 121 
 
 .0362 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
11 
 
 occurrence would fall. At a certain point in the critical region 
 of the distribution's tail, one is justified in rejecting the null 
 hypothesis that two sample variances estimate a common 
 population variance. At this stage, one may conclude that 
 some type of difference exists between some pairs of groups 
 in the study. As with the chi-square test, however, the 
 existence of a significant F- score does not indicate the reason 
 for that score. A second analysis must be done in order to de- 
 termine which pairs of group means are significantly different 
 from each other. For thepresentresearch,Fisher'sLSD(least 
 significant difference) test was used, because it is the most 
 sensitive to small differences between means. Table 2 reveals 
 that two of the possible pairs of means are the cause of the 
 significant F. The pairs are computer-based and demonstra- 
 tion, and lecture and demonstration. Computer-based and 
 lecture were not significantly different from each other. 
 
 Tables 4 and 5 present the same information for escape 
 times (the number of seconds trainees required to complete all 
 six tasks in the donning procedure) that table 2 and 3 contain 
 
 TABLE 4. - Basic statistical data for escape times 
 
 Computer- Lecture Demonstration 
 
 based 
 
 Total observations 56 41 
 
 Students success- 
 fully escaping 25 23 
 
 Mean critical time, s: 
 
 Actual 65.28 63.94 
 
 Transformation 0.0170 0.0166 
 
 Standard deviation, s: 
 
 Actual 24.88 18.52 
 
 Transformation 0.0052 0.0037 
 
 58 
 
 41 
 
 53.49 
 0.0203 
 
 15.76 
 0.0059 
 
 for critical times. These tables are self-explanatory and will 
 not be discussed in detail. It should be noted, however, that the 
 degrees of freedom for the within- subjects source of variation 
 is 86 rather than 1 19, as given in table 3. Degrees of freedom 
 for within-subjects variation are calculated by taking the 
 number of subjects minus the number of groups. The differ- 
 ence in degrees of freedom, then, reflects the fact that fewer 
 people were able to complete all the procedural tasks than 
 were able to Complete just the critical steps. It might also be 
 noticed that the total number of criterion performances listed 
 in table 1 is different from the total number of people recorded 
 
 as successfully escaping in table 4. This is because a different 
 logic was used in compiling the data. The criterion was a 
 perfect performance. However, some subjects completed all 
 six tasks, thereby receiving an escape time, but did some of the 
 tasks out of order. Hence, their initial performance was not 
 their last, or criterion performance, although they were con- 
 sidered to have escaped. 
 
 A third measure of performance is errors. Table 6 
 provides an accounting of errors made on each task by 
 treatment condition. An examination of the table shows that 
 the two areas where people seemed to have the most trouble 
 
 TABLE 6. - Portion of each group making errors in 
 initial donning trial by delivery, percent 
 
 Error Computer Lecture Demon- X 2 P 
 
 based stration 
 
 Loop 1.8 9.8 3.4 3.73 0.155 
 
 Activate 19.6 14.6 10.3 1.95 .377 
 
 Mouthpiece 5.4 12.2 5.2 2.19 .333 
 
 Noseclip 7.1 9.8 1.7 3.12 .210 
 
 Goggle 21.4 26.8 19.0 .88 .644 
 
 Strap 12.5 22.0 5.2 6.29 .043 1 
 
 Hat 7.1 14.6 8.6 1.64 .441 
 
 'Significant at or below P <0.05. 
 
 were in activating the oxygen and in donning the goggles 
 correcdy. Both of these omissions are relatively serious. 
 Failure to activate the chlorate candle on the Draeger means 
 that the apparatus does not provide an initial burst of oxygen 
 that the miner uses while activating the bed of potassium 
 superoxide with his or her breath. The bed of potassium 
 superoxide must then be activated by breathing in and out of 
 the air bag several times without the benefit of a fresh oxygen 
 supply. Rebreathing one's own air while waiting for the bed 
 of potassium superoxide to begin delivering oxygen presents 
 the danger of oxygen depletion, which would lead to uncon- 
 sciousness. In the same vein, failure to put the goggles on 
 properly would result in eye irritation in heavy smoke, and 
 might impair a person's ability to escape. A series of signifi- 
 cance tests were performed on the errors reflected in table 6 in 
 order to ascertain if there were any differences in proportions 
 of errors by treatment. As can be seen, the only chi-square 
 score large enough to justify rejection of the null hypothesis 
 of independence was in the number of errors made in trying to 
 adjust the neck and waist straps. 
 
 
 TABLE 5. - Summary ANOVA for escape times on transformed scores 
 
 Source 
 
 Degrees of 
 freedom 
 
 Sum of squares 
 
 Mean square 
 
 F-ratio 
 
 F-probability 
 
 Between 
 
 Within. 
 
 Total 
 
 2 
 
 86 
 
 0.0003 
 .0023 
 
 0.0001 
 .0000 
 
 4.973 
 NAp 
 
 0.0090 
 NAp 
 
 88 
 
 .0026 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
12 
 
 NINETY-DAY TRIALS 
 
 As with the initial trials, subjects performances 90 days 
 after having received their hands-on training were divided 
 into failures, survivors, and those recording criterion se- 
 quences. Table 7 presents the observed and expected frequen- 
 cies of performances by delivery strategy. The effect of front- 
 end treatment was expected to disappear following the train- 
 ees hands-on experiences. The chi-square test for independ- 
 ence suggests that this is what happened. An unexpected 
 finding is that the brief refresher given 30 days before the 
 students were brought back in had minimal impact upon those 
 who received it. As can be seen in table 8, there is almost no 
 difference between observed and expected performance in 
 any of the categories. Although not anticipated, the absence 
 of a refresher effect on performance has a straightforward 
 explanation: (1) the researchers deliberately kept the re- 
 fresher presentation at the level one might reasonably expect 
 to be given at a monthly safety meeting, (2) the refresher was 
 administered to allow a long period of forgetting under the 
 assumption that if workers received these presentations 
 monthly, the worstcase would be a disaster just before the next 
 scheduled refresher, and (3) everyone in the sample had gotten 
 the best hands-on training possible just 90-days before these 
 trials. Therefore, most people did relatively well, refresher or 
 not 
 
 Time is the second indicator of training effectiveness 
 examined in this section. Table 9 shows comparisons between 
 how rapidly subjects were able to complete their criterion 
 trials and how they did when they were recalled 3 months later. 
 As the left half of the table indicates, 58 of the 72 trainees were 
 able to complete the tasks necessary to isolate their lungs. The 
 standard deviation for their 90-day trials reveals that not only 
 had their average critical time increased, but that they were 
 much more variable in the amount of time taken to complete 
 the tasks. This finding was expected, and reflects what is 
 known about skill degradation: forgetting invariably takes 
 place over time, especially the forgetting of nonroutine tasks. 
 A repeated-measure ANOVA test for differences between the 
 two means resulted in a significant F ratio. 
 
 The right half of table 9 follows a different logic in the 
 compilation of data, and must be interpreted cautiously. The 
 mean times and standard deviations denote how all 72 subjects 
 in the sample did from the time their hands touched the case 
 of the SCSR until they signalled that they were ready to 
 escape. Since the comparisons are being made between 
 criterion trials and 90-day performances, the numbers under 
 the heading original are derived from a complete and perfect 
 sequence achieved by each trainee. The numbers under the 
 heading 90-day are, with the exception of 13 individuals, 
 obtained from incomplete and imperfect sequences. The 
 difference between the two means in this case is not statisti- 
 cally significant, but it is qualitatively significant. 
 
 TABLE 7. - Chi-square test of 90 day trial performance by delivery 
 (X 2 = 6.40, P r 0.1712, Cramer's V = 0.218) 
 
 Performance 
 
 Computer-based 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Lecture 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Demonstration 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Total 
 observed 
 
 Failure 
 
 Survivor 
 
 Criterion 
 
 8 4.7 
 
 14 15.0 
 
 2 4.3 
 
 4 4.7 
 
 14 15.0 
 
 6 4.3 
 
 2 4.7 
 
 17 15.0 
 
 5 4.3 
 
 14 
 45 
 13 
 
 Totals 
 
 24 NAp 
 
 24 NAp 
 
 24 NAp 
 
 72 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 TABLE 8. - Chi-square test of 90 day trial performance by comparing refreshed and nonrefreshed subjects 
 
 (X 2 = 0.892, P = 0.6401, Cramer's V = 0.1113) 
 
 Performance 
 
 Refreshed 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Nonrefreshed 
 Observed Expected 
 
 Total 
 observed 
 
 Failure 
 
 Survivor 
 
 Criterion 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 7.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 7.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 14 
 45 
 13 
 
 Totals 
 
 36 
 
 NAp 
 
 36 
 
 NAp 
 
 72 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
13 
 
 TABLE 9. - Repeated measures of critical and 
 secondary donning times 
 
 Critical 
 Original 90-day 
 
 Observations 58 
 
 Mean, s: 
 
 Actual 15.22 
 
 Transformation 0.069 
 
 Standard deviation, s: 
 
 Actual 3.690 
 
 Transformation 0.052 
 
 F ratio: 
 
 Actual 20.14 
 
 Transformation 49.97 
 
 Probability NAp 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 A series of ANOVA tests were run to determine the net 
 effect of the treatment and refresher factors on both critical 
 and secondary donning times. The proportion of variation 
 explained by the additive effects of training strategy and 
 whether or not subjects had received a refresher presentation 
 was negligible, and will not be discussed further. 
 
 58 
 
 23.76 
 0.015 
 
 15.56 
 0.020 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 <0.01 
 
 Secondary 
 Original 90-day 
 
 72 
 
 54.68 
 0.020 
 
 16.48 
 0.005 
 
 10.77 
 2.24 
 NAp 
 
 72 
 
 66.20 
 0.018 
 
 33.95 
 0.007 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 <0.05 
 
 The third variable of interest from the 90-day trials is the 
 percent of each group making at least one error. Table 10 
 shows that, as with the initial attempts after instruction (see 
 table 6), the trainees consistently had difficulty activating the 
 oxygen and donning their goggles. Strap adjustment was also 
 a problem at the 3-month interval, especially for the com- 
 puter-based training subjects, and resulted in the only signifi- 
 cant chi-square score in the table. Adequate strap adjustment 
 is important, because the SCSR must be secured in order to 
 allow the maneuverability necessary to enable a miner to 
 escape once he or she has succeeded in isolating his or her 
 lungs from the ambient atmosphere. 
 
 TABLE 10. - Portion of each group making errors 
 in 90 day donning trial by delivery, percent 
 
 Error Computer Lecture Demon- X 2 
 
 based stration 
 
 Loop 16.7 0.0 8.3 4.36 
 
 Activate 20.8 16.7 8.3 1.50 
 
 Mouthpiece 12.5 16.5 4.2 1.27 
 
 Noseclip 4.2 0.0 0.0 2.03 
 
 Goggle 25.0 20.8 20.8 .16 
 
 Strap 66.5 12.5 20.8 15.84 
 
 Hat 20.8 12.5 0.0 5.34 
 
 'Significant at or below P<0.05. 
 
 0.113 
 .472 
 .531 
 .363 
 .963 
 .0004 1 
 .069 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 This paper has dealt with one of the most critical and 
 nonroutine of all mine health and safety skills: the ability to 
 put on an SCSR in the event of an emergency. The results 
 clearly illustrate that donning an SCSR is not easy, and that 
 miners must have hands-on training if the apparatus is to be of 
 any benefit when circumstances dictate its use. What the 
 content of this training should be has been resolved through 
 extensive field testing: the new 3+3 method has shown itself 
 to be an efficient and highly effective procedure. The question 
 of how the 3+3 method should be delivered has been ad- 
 dressed here: it seems to make little difference (Zsiray (12)) 
 as long as the content is presented thoroughly and systemati- 
 cally, and followed up with hands-on experience. The prob- 
 lem of how often, and at what level, miners should be re- 
 freshed is still open to exploration. 
 
 As was mentioned in the "Experimental Protocol" sec- 
 tion, there was no overlearning involved in the initial training. 
 Once a subject had reached criterion, he or she was dismissed. 
 There is evidence that overlearning increases retention, and 
 that had the subjects in this study been required to repeat their 
 criterion (or perfect) performances several times, there would 
 have been fewer failures and fewer errors on the 90-day trials 
 (Hagman and Rose (£)). What is not so evident is whether 
 anything short of relearning the task, in the same way it was 
 
 learned the first time (by hands-on training), would have 
 resulted in significant differences between refreshed and 
 nonrefreshed trainees on any of the performance measures 
 used here (Johnson (7)). 
 
 There are some interesting implications in both of these 
 observations. First, if overlearning is the key to proficiency in 
 SCSR donning, there must be a substantial front-end invest- 
 ment of both time and effort on the part of trainers and trainees 
 alike. With the time constraints of annual refresher training, 
 and the scarcity of either training models or real SCSR's used 
 for training, the logistics of making this investment become 
 challenging. A hands-on session, with remedial instruction 
 following the trial, takes from 5 to 10 min per trainee, and 
 requires the participation of at least one trainer. Cleaning, 
 sanitizing, and repacking the apparatus in order to get it ready 
 for the next student entails another 5 min or more (depending 
 upon the model being used). When the overtraining factor is 
 added in, this time cost increases significantly. Second, if 
 hands-on relearning is the key to skill maintenance, it may 
 have to be done more often than once a year. Almost 20 pet 
 of those recalled for their 90-day trials failed by not complet- 
 ing one or another of the critical tasks. The encouraging note 
 is that almost 20 pet were still able to do a perfect sequence; 
 In a mine fire or explosion, however, a trainer undoubtedly 
 
14 
 
 wants no failures, and many more people in the perfect 
 category. This goal may well require giving at least some of 
 the workforce additional training during the year. 
 
 Given the findings of this series of studies to date, there 
 are some obvious areas for further research. First, of course, 
 the forgetting curve needs to be charted in order to assess the 
 magnitude of skill degradation between one annual refresher 
 class and the next. Second, the benefits of overtraining must 
 be investigated. Third, a determination should be made as to 
 what kind of interim refresher, up to and including hands-on 
 relearning, would be effective in helping miners retain their 
 proficiency in donning the SCSR. Fourth, and most impor- 
 tant, a device should be developed that would allow some of 
 the training burden to be assumed outside the traditional 8-h 
 annual refresher session (if that is needed). There are at least 
 two components to this device: (1) an instructional package 
 
 (perhaps a videotape and short computer-based training pro- 
 gram) that would enable miners to take self-paced remedia- 
 tion; and (2) a simple, durable, hygienic, inexpensive dummy 
 SCSR that would have the adaptability to be practiced with in 
 situations ranging from annual refresher training classes to 
 preshift safety talks. 
 
 In the coming months, the Bureau will be addressing 
 each of these problems. The aim is to discover a training 
 regimen that will allow miners to achieve and retain profi- 
 ciency in donning SCSR's while not intruding unduly upon a 
 mine's production activities. It is expected that a major focus 
 of this future research will be on the development of a means 
 for integrating certain aspects of SCSR training with estab- 
 lished practices such as scheduled fire drills and walking the 
 escapeways. In this way, not only will SCSR training be 
 strengthened, but the routine preparation for emergency es- 
 cape procedures will take on an added dimension. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. McDonald, L., and R.Baker. An Annotated Bibliography 
 of Coal Mine Fire Reports (contract J0275008, Allen Corp. of 
 America). BuMines OFR 7(l)-(3)-80, 1979, 1 147 pp.; NTIS 
 PB 80-140197 (set). 
 
 2. Richmond, J. K., G. C. Price, M. J. Sapko, and E. M. 
 Kawenski. Historical Summary of Coal Mine Explosions in 
 the United States, 1959-81. BuMines IC 8909, 1983, 53 pp. 
 
 3. Sime,J. The Concept of "Panic." Ch. in Fires and Human 
 Behaviour, ed. by D. Cantor. Wiley (Chichester), 1980, pp. 
 63-81. 
 
 4. Cole, H., C. Vaught, H. Kellner, and E. Chafin. Miner's 
 Proficiency in Donning SCSR's. Pres. at the 13th Conference 
 on Training Resources Applied to Mining, Wheeling, WV, 
 Aug. 17-20, 1987; available upon request from H. Cole, Univ. 
 KY, Lexington, KY. 
 
 5. Vaught, C, and H. Cole. Problems in Donning the Self- 
 Contained Self-Rescuer. Paper in Mining Applications of 
 Life Support Technology. Proceedings: Bureau of Mines 
 Technology Transfer Seminar, Pittsburgh, PA, November 20, 
 1986. BuMines IC 9134, 1987, pp. 26-34. 
 
 6. Cole, H., and C. Vaught. Training in the Use of the Self - 
 Contained Self-Rescuer. Paper in Mining Applications of 
 Life Support Technology. Proceedings: Bureau of Mines 
 Technology Transfer Seminar, Pittsburgh, PA, November 20, 
 1986. BuMines IC 9134, 1987, pp. 51-56. 
 
 7. Johnson, S. Effect of Training Device on Retention and 
 Transfer of a Procedural Task. Human Factors, v. 23, No. 3, 
 1981, pp. 257-272. 
 
 8. Hagman, J., and A. Rose. Retention of Military Tasks: 
 A Review. Hum. Factors, v. 25, No. 2, 1983, pp. 199-213. 
 
 9. Marchant, E. Modelling Fire Safety and Risk. Ch. in 
 Fires and Human Behaviour, ed. by D. Cantor. Wiley (Chich- 
 ester), 1980, pp. 293-314. 
 
 10. Edwards, A. Experimental Design in Psychological 
 Research. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1972, p. 107. 
 
 11. Loether, H, and D. McTavish. Inferential Statistics for 
 Sociologists. Allyn and Bacon, 1974, p. 176. 
 
 12. Zsiray, S. A Comparison of Three Instructional Ap- 
 proaches in Teaching the Use of the Abridged Reader's Guide 
 to Periodical Literature. J. Ed. Technol. Systems, v. 12, No. 
 3, 1984, pp. 241-247. 
 
15 
 
 THE WORK CREW PERFORMANCE MODEL: 
 LINKING TRAINING, ASSESSMENT, AND PERFORMANCE 
 
 By William J. Wiehagen, 1 Michael J. Brnich, 2 
 Henry J. Kellner, 3 and Warren E. Lacefield 4 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This paper discusses a conceptual model developed by the Bureau of Mines for evaluating the 
 training and performance of underground equipment operators. The need for such a model is 
 demonstrated by a review of the limitations of present industrial skills training and performance 
 evaluation procedures, particularly as these relate to cost-justifying performance improvement 
 strategies. A computer simulation program to profile the performance of underground shuttle car 
 operators was developed. Implications are drawn for use of the simulation program as a practical 
 diagnostic and prescriptive tool for structured on-the-job training, job design, supervision, and 
 management policy. Current avenues of joint research with a cooperating coal company to apply and 
 further develop the model are discussed. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 McKeon (l) 5 estimates that organizations in the United 
 States annually spend at least $137 billion for training. This 
 training, commonly referred to as human resource develop- 
 ment (HRD), is broadly intended to enhance the profitability 
 of organizations and improve the quality of worklife (2). 
 While the training literature abounds with testimonials re- 
 garding the value of HRD efforts, few studies have attempted 
 to tie that training specifically to the performance of the 
 workers and to ways improvements in performance translate 
 into additional profits and/or cost savings within their organi- 
 zations {3J. As Cascio (4) points out, "the adage 'millions for 
 training but one cent for evaluation' may be an exaggeration 
 but is not altogether an untrue characterization of many 
 organizations." 
 
 Conducting tightly controlled studies of training value is a 
 formidable and expensive task for any organization and the 
 shortage of such studies is certainly understandable. Why, for 
 example, should a company that has just spent $10,000 
 
 'Supervisory industrial engineer, Pittsburgh Research Center, Bu- 
 reau of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 2 Mining engineer, Product Research Inc., Pittsburgh, PA. 
 'Industrial engineering technician, Pittsburgh Research Center. 
 "Research psychologist, Pittsburgh Research Center. 
 
 defining needs and developing and conducting a well- 
 thought-out training program spend additional dollars for a 
 structured evaluation that goes beyond perhaps a question- 
 naire assessing the reaction of participants? Simply defining 
 the value of additional information provided by the formal 
 evaluation is , by itself, a speculative and somewhat qualitative 
 task. If one cannot define the benefit, then there is little 
 incentive to spend the money. For those organizations that 
 rely on informal on-the-job training (OJT), either for the sake 
 of tradition or economies of scale, there is little chance that 
 money will be allocated for evaluation. However, money 
 saved by taking training outcomes on faith (i.e., not establish- 
 ing empirical links between training and profit) oftentimes 
 results in HRD activities being the first to be cut when profits 
 decline (4). As Campbell (£) points out, the recurring admo- 
 nition to 'evaluate' training programs is a gross misrepresen- 
 tation of the empirical question. It strongly implies a dichoto- 
 mous outcome; to wit, either the program has value or it 
 
 'Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to the items in the list of 
 references at the end of this paper. 
 
16 
 
 doesn't. Such a question is simple-minded, unanswerable, 
 and contributes nothing to practical or scientific understand- 
 ing. 
 
 These remarks imply that more useful and realistic training 
 and performance assessment methods need to be developed. 
 More attention should be given to the use of dependent 
 variables that reflect cost-benefit components of investments 
 
 in performance improvement strategies (training, job design, 
 environmental modification, supervision, etc.) within the 
 context of organizational performance. Modeling an individ- 
 ual worker's performance within the context of the work crew 
 and linking that performance to organizational accomplish- 
 ment is one approach that appears to hold much promise from 
 both the viewpoint of the individual and the organization. 
 
 MINE TRAINING ISSUES 
 
 Safety and skills training activities have long been recog- 
 nized as essential elements in programs for reducing injuries 
 and improving productivity within the minerals industry (6_). 
 Unfortunately, as in other work organizations as well, the 
 impact of mine training investments on injury rates and 
 productivity is largely unknown. 
 
 Most mine managers recognize that training is a funda- 
 mental condition of organizational life. But the failure to 
 allocate the resources to establish the connection between 
 training outcomes and organizational goals (e.g., improving 
 profit, reducing injuries), over time, diminishes the training 
 function and its respect within the organization. This often 
 leads to a cyclical pattern of training investments paralleling 
 the profit curve. Training becomes a useful notion for creative 
 ways to spend or invest money when profits are high. Like- 
 wise, when profits decline, many organizations view training 
 as an expendable item since it does not pay wages and can be 
 purchased if really necessary. 
 
 Perhaps the problem is not so much the role of in-house 
 training or the philosophies of management, but rather more 
 with how the effectiveness of training is demonstrated. Again, 
 the issue is not whether to evaluate but perhaps what are 
 suitable criterion outcome measures (i.e., dependent vari- 
 ables) when evaluation is done. Typical bottomline evalu- 
 ations of training in the mining environment (e.g., Morris (7), 
 Adkins (£)) tend to focus on improving both profit (measured 
 through productivity) and the quality of worklife (measured 
 through injury frequency, severity, and health risk). Often, 
 however, these measures are simply too generic and broadly 
 defined for single-site studies to be useful in justifying long- 
 term, performance improvement programs. The following 
 discussion illustrates these points. 
 
 INJURY DATA 
 
 A fundamental problem with injury data as measures of 
 training effectiveness is the appearance that the attempt is to 
 teach miners not to have accidents. In fact, injuries are rare 
 events for particular mine sites. For example, the expected 
 frequency rate for a lost- time injury in an underground coal 
 mine is approximately 0.06. This means that an underground 
 mine employing 100 miners would be right at the national 
 average if 6 of those miners sustained a lost-time injury for a 
 given year. With such small samples and expected frequen- 
 
 cies, even if statistically significant changes could be shown, 
 the generalization of the results would be suspect at best. 
 Moreover, using injury data collected long after training to 
 measure the effectiveness of that training would imply a belief 
 that the treatment (whatever it was) would have more impact 
 on performance than extended practice and day-to-day rein- 
 forcements that are part of the normal work environment This 
 "necessary but not sufficient" rule of training has been redis- 
 covered and described by many researchers and practitioners. 
 
 Organizations do depend on bottomline evaluations and 
 rightfully should expect training to influence injury rates. 
 However, proving this impact is another matter (2), especially 
 where experienced miners and machine operators are in- 
 volved. The basis for HRD investments needs to be more in 
 tune with real purposes for training, e.g., to develop a capabil- 
 ity that does not yet exist or maintain and reinforce an existing 
 high level of skill. 
 
 For example, Adkins (&) conducted an aggregate assess- 
 ment of mine safety training on the frequency and severity of 
 lost-time injuries. Using first aid training as a case in point, 
 one could reasonably hypothesize that increasing the invest- 
 ment in first aid training should have some effect on the 
 severity of mining injuries. However, in Adkins' study shown 
 in figure 1 , no clear relationship existed at the aggregate level 
 to support this hypothesis. In fact, until the characteristics of 
 successful training programs are determined, the data provide 
 little insight as to why training did or did not appear valuable. 
 
 The data in figure 1 show that there is considerable vari- 
 ance from one year to the next in injury rates after adjusting for 
 production differences. Clearly, concomitant changes in the 
 number of training courses offered do not appear to be 
 significant factors helping to explain this variance. While one 
 could argue that it is not what you do but how you do it, the 
 facts remain that injury data are (1) too broad and too easily 
 influenced by other effects and (2) too rare for easy capture 
 and explanation using simple analytical methods. 
 
 Many alternative factors that could markedly influence 
 injury rates other than training could be advanced. For 
 example, a mining firm could significandy reduce its injury 
 rate simply by working with the local medical and mining 
 communities to encourage individuals to return to the work 
 site at the earliest possible date. Differential utilization of 
 human factors technologies to reduce or eliminate the conse- 
 quences of human error would influence the exposure of 
 
 
17 
 
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 CHANGE IN EMPLOYEE COURSES PER 1,000 st 
 
 FIGURE 1 .—Changes (1 973 minus 1 972) in lost days as a func- 
 tion of rates of training (7). 
 
 miners to environmental and task-specific hazards at the work 
 site and hence the likelihood of injuries. On the other hand, a 
 mining firm could have an outstanding training program 
 solidly based on job skills and worker competence, yet still 
 show no statistical changes in injury patterns. This could be 
 due to an already low injury rate or to the law of diminishing 
 returns from training or practice, or any one or combination of 
 other possible explanations completely divorced from train- 
 ing issues. These arguments simply point out the difficulties 
 in designing studies focusing upon injury rates. Even well- 
 designed research efforts can lack the resolution necessary to 
 separate effects due to training and those due to other interven- 
 ing variables. 
 
 PRODUCTIVITY DATA 
 
 Mine productivity measures — tons of coal per shift or per 
 full-time equivalent employee — are as problematic if not 
 more so than injury and loss time measures when used as 
 assessments of training effects. A key problem is that produc- 
 tivity measures are often based on estimates of efforts rather 
 than on calculations of actual costs of producing. Too often, 
 only aggregate measures are available. Frequently, this infor- 
 mation is based on poorly organized data and/or merely 
 reflects static, cross-sectional conditions at specific points in 
 time. Moreover, such measures are notoriously insensitive to 
 differences in training and provide no help to identify areas 
 where human performance could or should be improved or 
 
 where specific methods for upgrading performance might be 
 better employed. They provide no clues as to whether a 
 performance improvement strategy should be based on better 
 teacher training, modified training content and/or methods, 
 more frequent skill maintenance training, increased supervi- 
 sion, job analysis and redesign, better equipment, or modified 
 company policies. Compounding the problem is the observa- 
 tion that actual improvements in production and safety are 
 rarely the result of a single treatment implemented in isola- 
 tion. 
 
 For example, a study conducted by McDonnell Douglas 
 (Morris (2)) under contract with the Bureau of Mines, exam- 
 ined production rates of continuous miner operators who 
 participated in a highly structured training program utilizing 
 a part-task trainer in conjunction with structured OJT. Gen- 
 erally following Kirkpatrick's model (10) . four different 
 training outcomes were studied: (1) reaction (questionnaire), 
 (2) learning (pretests and posttests), (3) behavior or training 
 transfer (section supervisor evaluations), and (4) results 
 (productivity, downtime, and product quality). These re- 
 searchers reported significant improvements in organiza- 
 tional performance (fig. 2) as well as favorable employee and 
 supervisor reactions. 
 
 
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 ELAPSED TIME, months 
 
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 FIGURE 2.— Effects of highly structured training program on 
 downtime (top), productivity (middle), and product quality 
 (bottom). 
 
18 
 
 In spite of these positive findings, limitations in using these 
 data as measures of training effect include the following: 
 
 1. Performance of other crew members. — For example, 
 the miner operator, independent of his or her skill level, cannot 
 (and should not) mine coal if the roof bolting operation is not 
 providing a secure and safe work environment. 
 
 2. Machine maintenance,. — Factors such as the age of 
 equipment and policies and practices regarding preventive 
 maintenance also influence downtime, productivity, and 
 quality. 
 
 3. The effect of supervision. — In the study (2), section 
 supervisors also received instruction regarding operation of 
 the equipment and were acutely aware of the type of training 
 provided to their employees. In part, this training feature (a 
 good management practice highlighted by the needs assess- 
 ment procedure) helped assure the success of the program as 
 reflected in the data. 
 
 4. Possible changes in the mining environment. — Chang- 
 ing roof conditions as mining operations progressed could 
 easily have been a more persuasive alternative explanation for 
 the data trends shown in figure 2. 
 
 This list represents only a few of the possible threats to the 
 validity of an experiment like this one. Many arguments like 
 these can be (and were) addressed by good research design 
 and prior attention to possible intervening factors. Neverthe- 
 less, the need for efforts to control other factors that can affect 
 traditional measures, such as safety and productivity, intro- 
 duces many difficulties when attempting to use these vari- 
 ables as measures of training effectiveness. 
 
 The uncertain impact of training on classic measures of 
 organizational performance calls into question traditional 
 methods for evaluating training and cost-justifying perform- 
 ance improvement strategies. Production and safety statistics 
 
 collected at the job site for the purpose of assessing organiza- 
 tional accomplishment are not useful indicators of training 
 effectiveness unless they can be broken down and shown to be 
 logical antecedents of still more specific sets of employee 
 competencies and skills upon which training objectives, in- 
 structional methods, and performance evaluation techniques 
 are based. This is not usually the case. Instead, job site 
 measurements too often tend to reflect not only the perform- 
 ance of an individual machine operator but also variability in 
 the work environment (e.g., roof condition, seam height, etc.), 
 the condition of machinery and equipment, the performance 
 of other crew members, the availability of supplies, and so on. 
 What is needed for measurement and evaluation purposes 
 are cost-related variables that reflect individual competencies 
 but also are relatively independent of day-to-day circum- 
 stances. Such variables would be related to the primary job 
 accomplishment defined for a specific job role or position. For 
 example, the primary job accomplishment of a shuttle car 
 operator might be described in terms of productivity, as hauls 
 300 tons per shift. However, a better measure is, simply, mini- 
 mizes the miner operator's waiting time for an empty shuttle 
 car. The problem can then be defined in terms of operations 
 research and performance improvement strategies (including 
 training and evaluation). A cost-benefit assessment of 
 operator skill would be based on observing those activities 
 under the direct control of the equipment operator that in- 
 crease or reduce waiting time for the miner operator. An 
 analysis of error patterns and associations between errors and 
 factors related to injuries, downtime, and property damage 
 becomes a critical element in such an assessment These 
 considerations provide the basis for the work crew perform- 
 ance model described in the following section. 
 
 WORK CREW PERFORMANCE MODEL 
 
 The work crew performance model (WCPM) seeks to in- 
 tegrate procedures for conducting job analyses, evaluating 
 worker performance, and using cost information as a basis for 
 decision making within the context of organizational goals 
 (e.g., profit, safety, growth). Since profit, for instance, is 
 directly tied to production cost per unit, key variables used to 
 define, measure, and evaluate worker performance should 
 emphasize those specific behaviors that can have marked 
 impact on the unit cost. Of specific interest are behaviors 
 under an individual crew member's control that can be de- 
 scribed in terms of deviations from a criterion (e.g., normative 
 error profiles or prescribed proficiency standards) and corre- 
 sponding probabilities of downtime, injuries, and/or damaged 
 property. In effect, the WCPM seeks to focus attention on the 
 criticality of performance errors for individual jobs within the 
 work crew. By successfully modeling an individual worker's 
 performance and linking that performance to the accomplish- 
 ments of the work crew, the WCPM provides a potentially 
 
 strong empirical foundation on which to base decisions con- 
 cerning improvements in training, supervision, job design, 
 management policy, or modifications to the working environ- 
 ment (11) . 
 Implementation of the model includes provisions for 
 
 1 . Job definition through task, skill, context, and perform- 
 ance analyses. 
 
 2. Observational techniques to establish performance 
 baselines useful for the conduct of performance evaluations or 
 measuring learning outcomes. 
 
 3. Cost linkages between performance profiles and resul- 
 tant costs (measures of injuries, downtime, and maintenance 
 overhead). 
 
 4. Intervention strategies concerning improvements in 
 training, supervision, job design, management policy, or 
 modifications to the working environment 
 
 This approach is unique in that it seeks to integrate these 
 typically exclusive provisions within a work organization. 
 
19 
 
 For example, common methods used to define standard oper- 
 ating procedures, establish job performance requirements and 
 evaluate operators' work behaviors have been based primarily 
 on activities deemed necessary to accomplish the job, i.e., 
 checklists of appropriate or desired behaviors. Such lists of 
 behaviors have been prepared by many developers and users 
 of industrial training programs but are typically divorced from 
 day-to-day records of production downtime, lost-time inju- 
 ries, and maintenance overhead. The WCPM provides a 
 framework for integrating various types of data and using 
 information from a variety of sources to guide decisionmak- 
 ing. An integrated approach also allows the model to be used 
 as an evaluation tool with veteran as well as novice equipment 
 operators. 
 
 ASSUMPTIONS 
 
 The WCPM rests on a set of assumptions about the nature 
 of the worker and the job that need to be made explicit. A key 
 assumption is that performance errors lie outside the person. 
 This is to say that for the most part individuals make errors 
 without intent to incur personal injury, induce downtime, or 
 damage property. In other words, employees come to work to 
 be productive. Performance differentials between individuals 
 are often nebulous and ill-defined (12)- The model does not 
 simply attempt to classify individuals as exemplars or average 
 performers, but seeks to attend to those common errors or 
 differences in error profiles that can markedly affect the unit 
 cost Use of the model to profile operational errors and the 
 selection of an intervention strategy are tempered by making 
 the following realistic assumptions regarding work: 
 
 1. All individuals will make errors, regardless of the level 
 of training or experience. Error rates of individuals are 
 dependent upon a host of things that may or may not relate to 
 the quality of initial training. 
 
 2. Error rates can be observed, measured, and managed. 
 Although there may be cognitive components such as errors in 
 judgment and decisionmaking, resultant behaviors and out- 
 comes can, in most cases, be observed and quantified in terms 
 of cost consequences to the organization and the individual. 
 
 These assumptions are the basis for the WCPM and paral- 
 lel research work conducted by the U.S. Department of 
 Transportation to develop methods for visual detection and 
 discrimination of driving errors committed by individuals 
 driving while sober versus errors committed by those driving 
 under the influence of alcohol (12). 
 
 Thus, at a minimum, the WCPM can be thought of as a 
 visual detection method to identify critical components of 
 complex job performances such that wide differentials in 
 performance for high-consequence tasks are identified and 
 treated. Viewed this way, it is possible that the total set of 
 errors of the exemplar may exceed the error rates of average 
 operators, but the types of errors committed may be quite 
 different 
 
 MODEL COMPONENTS 
 
 Taking the operation of a shuttle car in an underground coal 
 mine as an example, a job analysis might reveal as many as 40 
 to 80 specific activities an operator is to perform in order to 
 fulfill the job requirement. The result of the analysis would be 
 organized into hierarchies of task and subtask categories, with 
 descriptions of the skills involved and the typical working 
 conditions for each task. A performance criterion for each 
 category, based on typical, practical, or ideal work standards, 
 should also be included in the analysis Q4J. 
 
 Job Definitions 
 
 Examples of major task categories for shuttle car operation 
 might include preshift inspections, tramming, loading, idle- 
 time activities, etc., whereas a subtask in the tramming cate- 
 gory might be switching the headlights to the opposite direc- 
 tion after reaching the continuous miner. However, the 
 practical utility of these lists is limited without associated 
 information about the relative frequencies of these behaviors 
 and the probabilities that deviations in performance will have 
 a direct and important impact on safety and on the unit cost of 
 the underground mine section. For these and other reasons, a 
 comprehensive model of worker or work crew performance 
 must look ahead to the consequences of performance errors 
 and the accumulated effects of these consequences on organ- 
 izational goals within which work performances take on 
 meaning. 
 
 Behavioral Observations 
 
 Behavioral observation is a technique for systematically 
 monitoring performance over a period of time and during 
 typically variable work conditions. This procedure can pro- 
 vide detailed and accurate estimates of proficiency but re- 
 quires observers with knowledge of the nature of the job or 
 task and experience to make sound judgments about the 
 quality of observed performances. In addition, observers 
 should be persons whose presence is unobtrusive in the 
 workplace. In underground mines, the supervisor or section 
 boss is the individual best situated to observe members of the 
 work crew. 
 
 Unfortunately, frontline supervisors have limited re- 
 sources for the evaluation of performance. Observing and 
 rating an operator's performance on 40 to 80 steps repeatedly 
 during day-to-day operations strains the supervisor's time and 
 opportunity and may not efficiently focus attention on those 
 areas of performance that most significantly affect unit cost 
 (including safety). As a result, supervisors often evaluate 
 performance at the level of tasks rather than subtasks, e.g., the 
 conduct of a preshift inspection (10-25 steps), tramming (10- 
 20 steps), loading (8-12 steps), dumping (10-15 steps), etc. 
 
20 
 
 Assuming enough observations are made, evaluating per- 
 formance at the task level can yield good estimates of profi- 
 ciency, adequate for administrative purposes and for estab- 
 lishing benchmark criteria and charting changes in profi- 
 ciency as a function of experience or training. Too often, 
 however, this sort of aggregate information is of little value to 
 the trainer or the employee without further attention to the 
 components of proficient performances and the identification 
 and consequence of critical errors. It is only through an 
 increasing awareness of mistakes and methods to avoid them 
 that workers become able to assess and improve their own 
 behavior on the job. The WCPM provides a rational and 
 efficient means for identifying costly errors and relating these 
 to production variables and matters of safety and health. 
 
 Cost Linkages 
 
 A key issue for WCPM development concerns the identifi- 
 cation and ranking of observable behaviors that affect unit 
 cost A useful performance evaluation model would account 
 for correlations and causal relationships among observable 
 behaviors and general competencies that contribute to reduc- 
 tions in the unit cost and lead to improvements in traditional 
 measures of safety and productivity. Such a model would not 
 only identify errors, but also suggest the monetary value of 
 concrete solutions that could be implemented to enhance 
 performance via the elimination of costly errors. In the case 
 of the shuttle car operator, the goal is to minimize the amount 
 of time that a continuous miner operator has to wait for an 
 empty shuttle car. Factors that have negative impacts on 
 waiting time include errors (behaviors) that, only as a matter 
 of chance, lead to injuries, downtime, excessive maintenance, 
 and property damage. Once these factors are identified, the 
 task becomes one of (1) enhancing supervisor's abilities to 
 discriminate between significant and nonsignificant perform- 
 ance errors by associating those errors with their cost conse- 
 quences and (2) identifying performance improvement strate- 
 gies to reduce the frequency of costly errors at the work site. 
 The latter might involve job redesign, supervision and coach- 
 ing, formal training and OJT, corporate policy or modifica- 
 tions to the work environment 
 
 Computer Simulation 
 
 A computer simulation was developed for use in profiling 
 and evaluating shuttle car operator performance. The simula- 
 tion is designed to accept input on operator performance 
 collected during observations at the work site. The simulation 
 begins with a series of questions about each activity associated 
 with shuttle car operation. The activities are grouped under 
 six major task categories: preshift activities, tramming, load- 
 ing, dumping, idle-time activities, and end-of-shift activities. 
 After completing one sequence of questions about one activ- 
 ity, the user is prompted to respond to the next sequence. The 
 simulation requires the user to respond to all questions about 
 
 each activity. The user is prompted to check entries and make 
 changes or correct errors within each sequence of questions 
 before advancing to the next activity area. 
 
 For each shuttle car operation step, a probability is as- 
 signed to reflect the likelihood of a costly consequence if that 
 activity is not performed correctly. These probabilities were 
 derived through observations, time-and-motion studies, and 
 discussions with experienced shuttle car operators and super- 
 visors. For each step, a downtime value also is assigned to 
 reflect the potential production loss associated with the occur- 
 rence of a costly error. Based on descriptive data about 
 specific operations at the mine site and on input performance 
 data (from observations) as well as the probability and cost 
 value associated with each activity, the simulation estimates 
 the number of costly errors that an operator may incur over a 
 specified time period. Likewise, total estimated downtime for 
 the period, along with anticipated resultant costs, can be 
 predicted. 
 
 Two versions of the computer simulation have been writ- 
 ten in FORTRAN. One operates on a Digital Equipment 6 
 VAX minicomputer while the other is designed to operate on 
 IBM and IBM compatible personal computers. Both versions 
 of the simulation prompt the user for the name of the shuttle 
 car operator and for information about the operator ' s perform- 
 ance by asking concise questions about each specific activity. 
 The user is offered six response choices and selects the one 
 that most accurately reflects his or her own level of perform- 
 ance. Alternatively, the section supervisor can use the obser- 
 vation system and enter this information direcdy as data about 
 individual employees. The user is then told what error proba- 
 bility and production downtime values have been assigned for 
 each particular operation and is offered the opportunity to 
 modify one or both of these values. Figure 3 illustrates a 
 typical question sequence. 
 
 TASK AREA: 
 Activity: 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Pre-Shift Activities 
 Checks cable snub location 
 
 Never ( 2% ) 
 Seldom (30%) 
 Half time (50%) 
 Nearly always ( 70% ) 
 Always (98%) 
 Does not apply 
 
 Please select a number and press return key ==> 
 
 Error probability is 1/100 
 
 Do you think it is correct ? (type Y or N) ==> 
 
 An error will cause 17 minutes of delay 
 
 Do you think this is correct? (type Y or N) ==> 
 
 FIGURE 3.— Typical activity question sequence. 
 
 'Reference to specific products does not imply endorse- 
 ment by the Bureau of Mines. 
 
 . 
 
21 
 
 After the questions related to shuttle car operation have 
 been answered, the simulation prompts the user to enter the 
 number of shifts the simulation is to run. Next, the user is 
 asked for the number of loads the operator being studied hauls 
 on an average shift Finally the user is asked to input the 
 average cost of a lost minute of production downtime at his or 
 her mine. (The default value is $12 per minute.) At this point, 
 the simulation input is complete and the routine begins proc- 
 essing the information entered. Once processing is completed, 
 the output is available as a screen display, text file written to 
 disk, or as a printout for later study. 
 
 The output text consists of four pages. The first is a 
 summary page (fig. 4) that provides information on the 
 following variables: 
 
 1. Total number of shifts. 
 
 2. Total number of trips. 
 
 3. Estimated number of errors. 
 
 4. Estimated number of cosdy errors. 
 
 5. Estimated total downtime (in minutes). 
 
 6. Estimated monetary loss (in dollars). 
 
 The remaining output provides a detailed analysis of the 
 simulation run that lists each shuttle car task area and activity 
 and indicates the probable number of errors and number of 
 cosdy errors projected for that activity. The information 
 provided in the detailed output (figure 5) consists of: 
 
 Column 1. Activity description. 
 
 Column 2. Performance rate (rank assigned by observer). 
 
 Column 3. Accident-error (probability of cosdy error 
 occurring assigned to each activity). 
 
 Column 4. Number of errors made (estimated totalerrors). 
 
 Column 5. Number of accidents happened (est. costly 
 errors). 
 
 Column 6. Downtime loss (in minutes). 
 
 SHUTTLE CAR OPERATOR PERFORMANCE 
 
 Operator: 
 Total shifts: 
 
 Paul 
 100 
 
 Total tramming, loading, 
 and dumping trips: 
 
 5000 
 44460 
 78 
 84 
 
 3770 
 
 Estimated error total: 
 Estimated total costly errors: 
 Estimated total downtime (minutes): 
 Estimated total downtime loss ($): 
 See next page for detail 
 
 FIGURE 4.— Typical summary printout. 
 
 This detailed analysis permits the user to rank errors and 
 establish a cost base for a proposed treatment. Possible 
 performance improvement strategies might consist of combi- 
 nations of training, environmental modifications, and 
 changes in job design, equipment, supervision, or manage- 
 ment practices. 
 
 TRAMMING OPERATIONS 
 
 ACTIVITY 
 
 PERFORMANCE 
 RATE 
 
 ACCIDENT 
 /ERROR 
 
 ERROR 
 MADE 
 
 ACCIDENT 
 HAPPENED 
 
 DOWNTIME 
 LOSS(MIN) 
 
 Trams appropriately for haul road 
 
 conditions; rounds corners smoothly; 
 
 uses care to prevent banging ribs. .70 
 
 Trams carefully watching for CM 
 
 cable and water hose, roof-bolter, 
 
 and other cables. .70 
 
 Makes certain there is sufficient 
 
 cable on reel to reach CM. .98 
 
 1/1800 
 
 1/100 
 
 1/1500 
 
 1489 
 
 1192 
 
 190 
 
 51 
 
 Slows shuttle car when approaching 
 the CM. 
 
 .50 
 
 1/1000 
 
 2200 
 
 2 
 
 Stops behind CM when the boom 
 is low. 
 
 .98 
 
 1/1000 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 Watches for the ventilation curtain. 
 
 .70 
 
 1/5000 
 
 1835 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 FIGURE 5.— Typical detailed printout: Tramming activities section. 
 
22 
 
 EXTENDING AND APPLYING THE WCPM 
 
 The development of the WCPM, first for shuttle car 
 operations and later for other mining machinery and work 
 crews, is part of an ongoing Bureau program of research. This 
 paper is the second in a planned series of research reports 
 describing the development and validation of model compo- 
 nents and potential applications for training, supervision, job 
 design, and management policy. 
 
 In 1987, with the support and cooperation of a medium- 
 sized coal company in eastern Kentucky, Bureau researchers 
 completed an initial time-motion study of underground 
 shuttle car operations in these particular mines. A thorough 
 job analysis was prepared and shared with experienced equip- 
 ment operators, trainers, supervisors, and other experts. 
 These persons assisted in the identification of critical activi- 
 ties and errors with high likelihoods of downtime, injury, or 
 otherwise costly consequences. A behavioral observation 
 system has been developed and tested to provide an efficient 
 way to gather onsite performance data for analysis and profi- 
 ciency estimation. In addition, preliminary studies of mining 
 company records and data collection methods are underway to 
 
 examine relationships among operator, equipment, produc- 
 tivity, and safety variables. The WCPM computer simulation 
 has been field tested during regular and special training 
 sessions and revisions are planned to improve the speed, 
 interactivity, and instructional potential of the program. Other 
 components for implementing performance improvement 
 strategies that have extended duration and involve structured 
 training, OJT, supervision and coaching emphasis, and fol- 
 lowup activities are being assembled. 
 
 These developments and extensions of the WCPM are 
 leading to a full-scale, longitudinal study and field test in 
 several mines with the cooperation of several shifts of miners, 
 their supervisors, and the training staff at the eastern Kentucky 
 site. This study will involve three 3-month periods of behav- 
 ioral observation and productivity data collection and two 
 different training intervention strategies. It is hoped that this 
 work will further demonstrate the validity of WCPM concepts 
 and will provide supervisors and trainers with useful tools to 
 assist equipment operators improve safety, proficiency, and 
 productivity in their working environments. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 
 1. McKeon, W. J. How to Determine Off-Site Meeting 
 Costs. Train. Dev. J., May 1981, pp. 116-122. 
 
 2. Mills, T. Human Resources- Why the New Concern. 
 Harvard Bus. Rev., March- April 1975, pp. 120-134. 
 
 3. Goldstein, I. L. Training in Work Organizations. 
 Annu. Rev. Psychol., v. 31, 1980, pp. 229-272. 
 
 4. Cascio.W. F. Costing Human Resources: The Finan- 
 cial Impact of Behavior in Organizations. Kent Publ. Co., 
 1982, 244 pp. 
 
 5. Campbell, J. P. Personal Training and Development. 
 Annu. Rev. Psychol., 1971, pp. 565-602. 
 
 6. National Research Council, Committee on Under- 
 ground Coal Mine Safety. Toward Underground Coal Mine 
 Safety, NAS, 1982, 190 pp. 
 
 7. Morris, C. W., and E. Conklin. Development and Fab- 
 rication of a Continuous Miner Training System. Volume 2 
 (contract HO377025, McDonnell Douglas Electronics Co.). 
 BuMines OFR 140(2)-83, 1982, 79 pp. 
 
 8. Adkins, J., R. Akeley, P. Chase, L. Marrus, W. Prince, 
 R. Redick, C. Rogne, J. Saalberg, and L. Szempruch. Review 
 and Evaluation of Current Training Programs Found in Vari- 
 ous Mining Environments; Volume I, Summary, (contract 
 SO144010, Bendix Corp.) BuMines OFR 110(l)-76, 1976, 
 67 pp;NTISPB 259410. 
 
 9. Kirkpatrick, D. L. Evaluating Training Programs: Evi- 
 dence vs. Proof. Train. Dev. J., v. 31, No. 1 1, 1977, pp. 9-12. 
 
 10. Kirkpatrick, D.L. Evaluating Training Programs. Am. 
 Soc. Train, and Devel., 1975, 318 pp. 
 
 11. Wiehagen, W. J., R. M. Digman, and P. E. Goeke. A 
 Method for Assessing Equipment Operator Training and Per- 
 formance. Soc. Min.Eng. AIME Preprint 83-349, 1983,8 pp. 
 
 12. Gilbert, T. F. Human Competence: Engineering Wor- 
 thy Performance. McGraw-Hill, 1978, 376 pp. 
 
 13. Harris, D. E. Visual Detection While Driving While 
 Intoxicated. Hum. Factors, v. 22, 1980, pp. 725-732. 
 
 14. Salvendy, G. The Prediction and Development of In- 
 dustrial Work Performance. Wiley, 1973, 351 pp. 
 
 ' 
 
23 
 
 ROOF AND RIB HAZARD RECOGNITION TRAINING 
 
 USING 3-D SLIDES 
 
 By Edward A. Barrett, 1 William J. Wiehagen, 2 and Charles Vaught 3 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Unplanned falls of roof and rib have been historically a leading cause of work-related deaths in 
 the underground coal mining industry. One possibility for a reduction in roof-fall fatalities is to 
 improve the ability of miners to recognize salient visual cues associated with geologic or mining- 
 induced irregularities. Such perceptual skills are generally acquired through underground experience 
 and/or training and, consequently, will vary considerably among miners. The hazard recognition skills 
 of underground workers may be improved in the classroom through effective training if instructional 
 aids are used that realistically portray the actual mine environment. Because stereoscopic (3-D) slides 
 are a high-fidelity medium that can accurately represent real underground conditions, they are an 
 excellent proxy for miners to learn to recognize the characteristics of unstable mine roof and rib. 
 
 Even though worker knowledge of ground hazards may be extensive due to years of mining 
 experience, workers may not be competent in assessing potentially hazardous conditions. The truly 
 competent miner in the area of ground hazard awareness must have the ability to perceive, recognize, 
 and correct dangerous groundfall conditions. 
 
 The state-of-the-art of 3-D photographic equipment and procedures for documenting under- 
 ground roof and rib conditions has been significantly advanced by the Bureau of Mines. Most mine 
 training departments can now independently provide and regularly update their own 3-D instructional 
 materials at minimal cost. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The roof and ribs of an underground coal mine confront 
 management and workers with a transient situation that re- 
 quires constant vigilance. For example, slickensides or slips 
 (smooth, polished, and sometimes striated surfaces that result 
 from movement of rock on either side of the surface) are one 
 of the most common geologic hazards in coal mine roof. The 
 normal roof control plan may provide for adequate control of 
 small slickensides extending less than 3 ft. However, large 
 slickensides must receive additional support, such as wood 
 headers, straps, extra bolts, etc. Slips may be exposed during 
 mining or develop at a later time, but in either case, they are 
 potentially very dangerous and should be treated with extreme 
 caution. Remedies for this type of roof hazard and most others 
 
 'Mining engineer. 
 Supervisory industrial engineer. 
 
 'Research sociologist. Pittsburgh Research Center, Bureau of 
 Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 are seldom total or final, and corrective procedures change as 
 mining conditions change. 
 
 In room-and-pillar mining, falls of roof and rib may be 
 either planned, as in the case of retreat mining, or unplanned. 
 Obviously, it is the unplanned failures that present the greatest 
 concern. The problem is to anticipate the failure and deal with 
 it in such a way that a margin of safety can be maintained. 
 Limited data exist with respect to the frequency of the un- 
 planned failure. In a study conducted by Peters and 
 Wiehagen, 88 of 143 miners interviewed reported that they 
 had either been injured or startled by a rockfall at least once 
 during the past year (l)- 4 This suggests that unplanned rock 
 falls are a relatively common event. 
 
 "•Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 references at the end of this paper. 
 
24 
 
 In a recent review of Mine Safety and Health Administra- 
 tion (MSHA) accident and fatality reports, it was noted that 
 groundfall accidents may have been prevented in many of the 
 cases had the worker been able to detect the presence of 
 potentially hazardous features and properly assessed the risk. 
 For example, the following conclusions were filed by MSHA 
 inspectors following two investigations: "the accident oc- 
 curred when a piece of undetected roof (horseback formation) 
 fell from between the roof bolts causing fatal injuries to the 
 victim" and "the contributing factor to the accident and 
 resultant fatality was the presence of an undetected kettlebot- 
 tom near the face of no. 5 entry". 
 
 Of course, it is impossible to ascertain the perceptual 
 capabilities of the persons involved with any degree of accu- 
 racy. The visual information available to the miners at the 
 moment of the accident may have been occluded (rock dust, 
 bad viewing angle, inadequate lighting, etc.), or perhaps the 
 persons did indeed recognize the hazards but failed to assess 
 the degree of danger. This suggests, then, that the opportunity 
 may exist for improvement in the perceptual skills of the 
 
 persons involved in recognizing and responding to hazardous 
 roof conditions. 
 
 This paper is concerned with the visual skills of under- 
 ground miners in the recognition of roof, rib and floor hazards 
 and the utilization of stereoscopic slides for improving their 
 ability to perceive these hazards. Hazardous ground condi- 
 tions, in most cases, have cues or warning signs associated 
 with them and the safety of the worker is highly dependent on 
 his or her ability to observe these warning signals. Under- 
 standably, miners possess varying degrees of hazard recogni- 
 tion skills that have been acquired throughout their working 
 years from both job experiences and training. Of course, new 
 miners must rely almost entirely on training, at least initially, 
 for the acquisition of adequate hazard recognition skills 
 needed to safely perform work duties underground. It is 
 important for the health and safety of the miner that hazard 
 recognition skills be taught and reinforced on a regular basis. 
 The manner in which this can be accomplished more effec- 
 tively is the subject of this paper. 
 
 GROUND-CONTROL PERFORMANCE DOMAINS 
 
 In any problem solving situation where information must 
 be gathered and action taken, the persons involved must 
 coordinate and use a number of learned capabilities. Gagne 
 and Briggs have summarized these capabilities into five major 
 areas: (1) the gathering and recall of information, (2) the use 
 of intellectual skills, (3) the development of cognitive strate- 
 gies, (4) attitudes, and (5) the possession of requisite motor 
 skills (2). The existence and correct use of these capabilities 
 as they relate to roof and rib control would lead to the 
 anticipation and correction or avoidance of the impending 
 fall; the absence or incorrect use of these capabilities would 
 result in human error, and as a matter of chance, perhaps result 
 in a serious lost-time accident or fatal injury. The following 
 account of a fatal accident will be used to illustrate this 
 concept. 
 
 On April 2, 1985, a miner helper was killed by a fall of 
 roof while installing temporary support for setting line brat- 
 tice inby permanent support. The accident involved a 7-ft by 
 7-ft by 7-in-thick slab of the immediate roof shale. Investiga- 
 tors reported that although the fallen slab was not a true 
 kettlebottom, it was similar in shape. It was nearly circular in 
 plan view and was bounded on one edge by a slickensided 
 surface. One side of the slab coincided with a portion of a 
 flattened, carbonized fossil tree trunk that was oriented paral- 
 lel to the shale bedding and was approximately 20 in wide. It 
 appeared that the rock separated along the outby (slicken- 
 sided) edge, along the plant fossil, and along a shale lamina. 
 The rock then sheared along the inby edge near the rib. The 
 investigators concluded that the victim, who had 36 yr of 
 mining experience, failed to detect the loose rock and placed 
 himself in an unsafe position while advancing the line brattice. 
 
 The victim, for whatever reason, did not bring an 
 
 adequate combination of capabilities to that particular situ- 
 ation to allow him to perceive a warning, recognize the 
 warning, assess the risk adequately, and respond in an appro- 
 priate manner. Consider how a better mastery of the skills 
 patterned from Gagne's performance domains might have 
 prevented the accident. Obviously, the following discussion 
 is based on speculation. None of the authors was present at the 
 scene of the fatality, and the investigators did not couch their 
 report in terms of the quality of performance across skill 
 categories. In other words, it is not known, empirically, at 
 what stage in the process the m iner's failure actually occurred. 
 
 First, a worker obtains certain information from the 
 work activity. This information may be gotten by associating 
 the present circumstances with prior learned information 
 about such circumstances, or it may be derived from the task 
 itself, in the form of visual or audible stimuli. In the case being 
 discussed, kettlebottoms, while not common, had been en- 
 countered on the section. The section was also known to 
 contain slickensided roof. Therefore, the victim should have 
 associated that knowledge with the fact that he was preparing 
 to move past permanent support. It is not known whether the 
 slip was clearly visible, but in most cases there is some 
 "potting" along a slickenside Q). It is likely that a kettlebot- 
 tomlike slab would provide some visual stimuli to the attuned 
 observer. 
 
 Second, a worker must use his or her intellectual skills in 
 the discrimination of relevant cues inherent in the situation 
 and in the recall and identification of an appropriate ordering 
 of rules for dealing with those cues. The fallen slab was 
 bounded on one side by a fossilized tree trunk, which was 
 probably visible, and on another side by a slickenside. The 
 visual stimuli should have warned the victim that he was 
 
encountering a section of nonuniform or discontinuous top. In 
 addition, it is customary to sound the roof before entering a 
 place beyond the last row of permanent support. Sounding the 
 roof may well have provided an audible indication that the 
 rock was loose. Assuming that a warning was perceived, the 
 next step would have been to recognize it for what it was: an 
 indication that the victim should not go past the permanent 
 supports because roof conditions had changed. 
 
 Third, a worker must develop cognitive strategies that 
 allow him or her to evaluate the consequences of alternative 
 actions. There are two types of actions the victim might have 
 taken if he had recognized the warning: (1) effective direct 
 action or (2) secondary action. One direct action could have 
 been to place the head of the continuous miner against the roof 
 for extra support, as mandated by company policy. This was 
 not done. A secondary action would have entailed issuing an 
 appropriate warning to some other worker, such as the miner 
 operator. This was not done, presumably because the miner 
 helper did not recognize the warning. In sum, the victim took 
 no action, although there were almost certainly some cues that 
 might have served as an indication that potentially hazardous 
 conditions had developed. 
 
 Fourth, a worker possesses attitudes that are brought into 
 play in choosing to act on a specific alternative. In this 
 incident, it is not known whether the victim examined the roof 
 before going inby permanent support. It is known that he did 
 not place the head of the mining machine against the top for 
 additional protection (a safety procedure that was supported 
 by company policy). It is also known that the victim was 
 working further from the rib than allowed by the roof control 
 plan at the time he was killed. It might be inferred, therefore, 
 that the individual chose to take shortcuts, either for personal 
 convenience or in order to finish the task more quickly. 
 
 Fifth, a worker must have, to some degree, the motor 
 skills necessary to carry out a particular procedure. The miner 
 helper obviously had the skill required to set temporary 
 supports and hang curtain. More importantly, however, he 
 had the skill to operate the continuous miner. Therefore, he 
 could have taken the extra precaution of placing the machine 
 head against the roof while he was setting the jacks. What is 
 not revealed in the investigation is any information about the 
 victim's physical condition. It is possible that the manner in 
 which he was working was partially to compensate for a 
 relative lack of mobility or agility, as he did not restrict himself 
 to the limited workspace allowed by the roof control plan, or 
 perhaps the task at hand could not be performed within the 
 restricted workspace. 
 
 The victim did not, for whatever reason, exhibit mastery 
 of the immediate task with which he was confronted, thus 
 leading to a fatal error. The question naturally arises as to 
 whether he could have been trained to a level of skill in all five 
 domains that would have prevented his making the error that 
 
 25 
 
 led to his death. Theoretically, the answer is yes. However, 
 simply giving him more training than he had already received 
 would not have sufficed. Gagne established conclusively that 
 training without evaluation, or a training and evaluation 
 program that does not cover performance across the five 
 capability domains, tends to be inadequate. Applied to roof 
 and rib training, a teaching and testing situation would need to 
 allow the full exercise of intellectual skills, cognitive strate- 
 gies, and attitudinal capabilities that involve hazard percep- 
 tion, recognition, assessment, variable response to a warning, 
 and the consequences that these responses produce (4). 
 
 But how can a teaching and evaluation program be 
 carried out - especially one that deals with situations as fluid 
 as the underground environment? Cole, using Gagne's para- 
 digm, began by defining people's task performance in terms 
 of verbs that describe the necessary capabilities and the 
 conditions under which the performance is to occur (5_). These 
 capability verbs show what it is the trainee must do in order to 
 perform a particular task to a criterion of mastery. A listing of 
 these verbs as they apply to desired performance will clearly 
 outline the instruction needed to teach the targeted skill and 
 will also reveal the means for evaluating the student' s compe- 
 tence. In terms of a problem scenario based on the fatal 
 incident discussed, the trainee would exhibit mastery when he 
 or she could, among other things: (1) perceive a warning 
 embodied in the potting along a slickensided slip, (2) recog- 
 nize the warning by defining the condition as a slickenside, (3) 
 assess adequately the risk of venturing past permanent sup- 
 port at that point, and (4) demonstrate an appropriate response 
 in that situation. 
 
 The appeal of designing a training program using a 
 paradigm adapted from Gagne is that there is no distinction 
 made between teaching and testing. They are one and the 
 same. Only the emphasis changes: if the trainer is interested 
 primarily in enhancing trainee skill in a given domain, the task 
 is instruction. If the instructor is concerned with assessing 
 trainee level of proficiency, the task is evaluation. Research 
 has shown that administration of tasks that give the instructor 
 information about the present proficiency of students, while at 
 the same time providing them an opportunity to practice (and 
 get better at) the capabilities demanded by the task, is a valid 
 approach in several technical fields. Recent studies supported 
 by the Bureau have shown that it is an equally valid approach 
 in mine training (£). However, providing this instruction 
 systematically in a fluid, on-the-job training environment is 
 not always practical, nor is it very efficient, particularly for a 
 large class of trainees or for the small mine operator. In 
 addition, teaching and testing on the job carries certain risks, 
 as the penalty for errors may be extremely high. The problem, 
 then, becomes one of how to transfer real-world conditions to 
 the classroom and selecting an aspect of those conditions on 
 which to focus. 
 
26 
 
 TEACHING AND ASSESSING HAZARD PERCEPTION IN THE CLASSROOM 
 
 In a South African study of 405 fatal gold mining acci- 
 dents, Lawrence noted that 75 pet of the fatalities were the 
 result of rockfalls Q). In addition, the single biggest category 
 of error (36 pet) involved failures to perceive warnings. 
 Although it is not known precisely what percent of error 
 involves failures to perceive warnings, the same sort of 
 situation seems to prevail in underground coal mining in this 
 country. During the 5-yr period 1980-84, for instance, 16,352 
 groundfall accidents were reported to MSHA. These acci- 
 dents resulted in 181 fatalities and caused 5,323 nonfatal 
 injuries (8_). It would seem, therefore, that a fruitful area for 
 systematic training and assessment in the classroom would be 
 the perception and recognition of roof and rib hazards. 
 
 The expected benefit from such an effort would be fewer 
 unplanned falls of roof and rib, resulting in fewer production 
 delays and, more importandy, a base reduction of injury risk. 
 Ideally, there would be a more efficient transfer of learned 
 skills and knowledge from the classroom to the mine if 
 training were to be focused on the developmentand evaluation 
 of specific skills (perception, recognition, and action) com- 
 posing competence in the performance of the underground 
 task. Since the miner must constandy divide his or her time 
 between the task at hand and environmental conditions affect- 
 ing both personal safety and the safety of the crew, considera- 
 tions of task loading are important. Teaching miners to effi- 
 ciently "read" the underground environment, including the 
 use of cognitive strategies to direct the decision for action, 
 then becomes an important training objective. 
 
 Most safety training programs teaching hazard recogni- 
 tion are based on the ideal of enhancing miner knowledge of 
 underground hazards, with little if any emphasis on skill 
 evaluation. The lack of rigor in pursuing a competency-based 
 program aimed at perception and recognition skills has re- 
 sulted in a training system overly dependent on real-world 
 conditions to both teach and assess the ability of miners to deal 
 with roof and rib problems. The only viable dependent 
 measure in this case would be the use of injury data and 
 investigations of fatalities, as noted in the introduction to this 
 paper. There are certain limitations to the use of these kinds 
 of data as an index of training effect. For instance, injuries are 
 
 ■ 
 
 fairly rare events for any particular mine site; the average 
 frequency rate for a lost-time injury in an underground coal 
 mine is 0.06. Obviously, an attempt to show the effect of a 
 training treatment on these small numbers would be suspect 
 and would be very difficult to prove. 
 
 Ideally, the best way to assess the effect of a training 
 treatment would be to sample a person's performance in the 
 work setting. In the case of ground hazards, however, assess- 
 ing an individual's perceptual, recognition, and decisionmak- 
 ing skills would be difficult at best The training and evalu- 
 ation task would be totally dependent upon the existence of an . 
 adequate and representative sample of roof and rib hazards. 
 Observer error would be a major obstacle as the behavioral 
 implication of perceptual and recognition skill domains are 
 not always obvious. 
 
 What is needed in the training and assessment of ground 
 hazard perception and recognition, men, is a training device 
 that will simulate, to a high degree of fidelity, ground condi- 
 tions that the trainees are intended to perceive and recognize. 
 The need for classroom simulations of real conditions has long 
 been recognized. Gibson for instance, suggested that in 
 industrial training there should be devices that would simulate 
 particular dangers while allowing subjects to act safely or 
 unsafely (9_). The problem with simulations, however, is that 
 they often have an artificiality that is difficult to surmount 
 Confounding the simulation problem is the enormously 
 complex mine environment where the visual cues, in many 
 cases, are subde and not readily apparent to the observer. 
 These cues may be inhibited because of severe angles of sight 
 (common in low-coal mine roof), abundance of rock dust, 
 insufficient lighting, etc. 
 
 One attempt to simulate ground hazards in mining was 
 carried out by Blignaut, who had subjects perform motor tasks 
 while simultaneously looking for "loose rock" in a stope 
 simulator (10). Although Blignaut reported that the simulator 
 was viewed as realistic by the participants, such a device 
 would be relatively difficult and expensive to build with any 
 degree of fidelity. A second attempt to simulate ground 
 hazards, also by Blignaut in 1979, appears to offer more 
 promise to mine safety trainers. 
 
 STEREOSCOPIC SLIDES 
 
 Blignaut attempted to simulate ground hazards using 
 stereoscopic slides for training underground miners. The 
 results of his study, involving South African gold miners, 
 suggest that the ability of underground miners to discriminate 
 between dangerous and safe rock conditions can be signifi- 
 cantly improved by exposing them to stereoscopic (3-D) 
 slides of groundfall hazards. Although Blignaut's results 
 were encouraging, they failed to provide a setof guidelines for 
 the use of 3-D training aids to teach recognition skills and 
 measure perceptual competence. Therefore, the Bureau 
 
 undertook a pilot study to determine the efficacy of using 
 stereoscopic slides for ground-hazard awareness training. 
 
 The first step was to generate a set of (3-D) slides of 
 hazardous roof and rib conditions typically found in mines 
 throughout the major coal producing areas of the eastern 
 United States. For example, 3-D slides were taken of specific 
 geologic features, such as joints, bedding planes, and ketde- 
 bottoms; inadequate support conditions, such as spading ribs. 
 loose or hanging bolts, and incorrect bolting patterns: and 
 loose rock occurrences such as overhangs. 
 
27 
 
 These 3-D slides were then used in an experiment involv- 
 ing a group of 20 experienced miners (minimum 1 yr at the 
 face) and 20 persons with very limited or no underground 
 experience. The slides with embedded hazards were judged 
 to be rather common and somewhat obvious hazards by roof 
 and rib experts. The subjects were presented with 15 slides of 
 varying roof and rib conditions and asked to describe what, if 
 anything, in the slide appeared hazardous. Half of each of 
 these two groups of miners were shown the areas of roof and 
 rib using 3-D slides, and the other half were shown the same 
 areas using identical, standard two-dimensional (2-D) slides. 
 A 2 by 2 analysis of variance was applied to determine the 
 significance of the main effects of level of experience and 
 mode of stimulus presentation. Both main effects were found 
 to be highly significant (p <0.01), indicating that (1) in 
 comparison to the group of persons with very limited or no 
 underground experience, the proportion of correct responses 
 was significantly higher among those with at least 1 yr of 
 experience working at the face, and, (2) in comparison to the 
 
 group who viewed the 2-D slides, the proportion of correct 
 responses was significantly higher among those who viewed 
 the 3-D slides. 
 
 The first of these two findings suggests that significant 
 differences exist between the ability of new versus experi- 
 enced miners to correctly identify groundfall hazards. How- 
 ever, on the average, even the experienced miners failed to 
 correcdy identify 2.5 out of 15 hazards. These data suggest 
 that better training in recognizing groundfall hazards could be 
 beneficial for all miners, and that it would have the greatest 
 impact on miners who have little or no experience working at 
 the face. 
 
 The second finding strongly suggests that 3-D slides are 
 more effective than 2-D slides for the purposes of illustrating 
 groundfall hazards. Combined, the findings suggest that 3-D 
 slides are a more effective tool for illustrating groundfall 
 hazards than 2-D representations and, therefore, offer promise 
 for enhancing the perceptual skills of the miner. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC EQUIPMENT 
 
 Authentic commercially available stereoscopic-slide 
 cameras are 35-mm slidefilm cameras (print film cannot be 
 used in these cameras to make stereoprints) that have dual, 
 matched objective lenses with mechanically coupled iris 
 diaphragms. The distance between the lenses is fixed at 2.75 
 in. They have a normal range of aperture settings, shutter 
 speeds, hot-shoe adapters for flash cords, and focus adjust- 
 ments . The slidefilm is commercially developed and mounted 
 by an experienced person who is familiar with left and right 
 balance of stereo pairs. 
 
 Stereoscopic slides can either be projected on a screen or 
 viewed through hand-held devices. The equipment required 
 to project 3-D slides on a screen includes a 3-D slide projector 
 and a lenticular beaded screen. The projected image is not as 
 clear as that observed in a hand-held 3-D viewer. Polarized 
 glasses must be worn to see projected slides in 3-D, but the 
 glasses are not required with a hand-held viewer. 
 
 Because of decreasing demand as well as limited utility, 
 the manufacture of 3-D slide cameras terminated over 30 yr 
 ago. However, the cameras may still be purchased from used- 
 equipment and secondhand photographic supply stores; some 
 have even become collector's items among camera enthusi- 
 asts. In addition to uncertain availability, the original 3-D 
 cameras have several operational limitations. These include 
 built-in lenses that cannot be interchanged, antiquated manual 
 controls, and difficult focusing adjustments (particularly in 
 the minimally lighted underground environment). 
 
 To overcome the limitations of 3-D cameras noted above, 
 the Bureau designed and fabricated a stereoscopic 35-mm 
 camera slide bar for producing 3-D slides using just one 35- 
 mm, single lens reflex camera. This apparatus can be used to 
 take pairs of individual slide chips (left slide and right slide) 
 from two preset locations that correspond exacdy to the 
 interocular distance (2.75 in) used on the dual lens stere- 
 ocameras. 
 
 The unit basically consists of three horizontal bars situ- 
 ated one above the other (fig. 1). The lower bar is used for 
 mounting on a tripod and for holding a simple line level. The 
 middle bar holds the 35-mm camera, which is attached to a 
 track-mounted sliding plate, and the upper bar supports the 
 strobe light that is secured at a location central to each camera 
 position. 
 
 The 35-mm slide chips can be mounted individually in 
 slide holders, in the conventional manner, or combined in 
 specially made stereomounts for viewing in the hand-held 
 viewer. The matched slide pairs can be projected on a 
 lenticular screen, from any convenient distance, using two 
 conventional slide projectors positioned vertically (fig. 2). 
 The lenses used on the projectors should be identical and 
 polarizing filters are required for each lens. If hand-held 
 viewers are used, then the 35-mm film chip pairs are mounted 
 in aluminum stereoslide holders and cardboard stereomounts. 
 Both of these items are available in photographic supply 
 stores. The mounting procedure is quite simple and can be 
 accomplished with very few problems by a novice. 
 Alignment of the film chips in the mounts is critical and must 
 be done carefully. It will be obvious when the proper stereo 
 balance of the slide chips is achieved because the image in the 
 viewer will have depth and be clear throughout. 
 
 The equipment and procedures for generating stere- 
 oscopic slides are quite basic and involves just a minimum 
 investment of resources. Fabrication of the Bureau-developed 
 slide bar is relatively simple and inexpensive (detailed design 
 drawings can be obtained from the author). The slide bar, 
 unique in its own design, has several operating features that 
 insure quality slides that have proper lighting and adequate 
 stereo-balance. These include a central, fixed flash or strobe 
 light location, a track-mounted camera slide plate, use of a 
 single 35-mm camera, and a leveling device. 
 
28 
 
 FIGURE 1 .—Slide bar for use in generating stereoscopic slides 
 with conventional 35-mm camera. 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Two slide projectors positioned vertically on two- 
 tier stand. 
 
 USING STEREOSCOPIC SLIDES IN THE CLASSROOM 
 
 In order to create optimum interest among trainees and to 
 motivate them for maximum involvement in the learning 
 process, mine trainers may prefer to generate customized sets 
 of 3-D slides of the groundfall hazards found throughout their 
 own mines. The customized slides, perhaps even depicting 
 hazards that exist in the current working sections, could be 
 assembled and updated to meet training objectives by in- 
 house personnel. 
 
 A typical classroom training session could begin with 
 each trainee having a hand-held viewer and the same set of 
 slides depicting the ground hazards selected for study. In a 
 group discussion format, everyone would observe the same 
 slide and talk about the important features. For example, a 
 kettlebottom is defined as a smooth, rounded, sometimes oval 
 piece of rock, cylindrical in shape, the surface of which 
 usually has a striated or slickensided appearance. From this 
 definition, the cues that the miner would be taught to look for 
 in recognizing this potentially hazardous feature are as fol- 
 lows: rounded piece of rock within mine roof, different in 
 nature from surrounding roof material, and shining or glossy 
 edge. Since kettlebottoms can range from a few inches in 
 diameter to more than 4 ft, it is important for the worker to be 
 
 cognizant of the entire viewing area of mine roof in order to, 
 perhaps, notice one small, isolated kettlebottom. To address 
 this latter concern, expanded views, beyond the individual 
 feature, may need to be developed (not necessarily 3-D) and 
 used to supplement the training lesson. This would likely 
 involve different angles, different degrees of lighting, and 
 multiple distances from the target area. 
 
 In addition to being used for training, 3-D slides could be 
 utilized for screening miners, before or after instruction, to 
 determine their level of competence in recognizing roof and 
 rib hazards. By asking miners to identify the presence of 
 hazards in a series of 3-D slides, one can determine (1) which 
 types of hazards are not recognized by a significant number of 
 people, and (2) which miners seem to be particularly deficient 
 in their ability to recognize groundfall hazards. Given this 
 baseline information, the trainer can better determine which 
 types of groundfall hazards need to be emphasized in the 
 present or future training, and which miners need additional 
 instruction to become proficient at recognizing the hazards. 
 Because of the high fidelity of 3-D slides and the realism thus 
 portrayed, there can be no confusion in the process of accu- 
 rately identifying hazards. 
 
 
29 
 
 DISCUSSION 
 
 The fact that mine workers can improve their ground- 
 hazard awareness skills for recognizing potentially dangerous 
 conditions was demonstrated by Blignaut using 3-D slides as 
 an experimental tool. This development, combined with the 
 experimental results in the Bureau's field evaluation studies, 
 indicates that 3-D slides have the potential to be a very 
 effective training aid. It is unlikely that conventional means 
 for representing roof and rib hazards would provide similar 
 results. Drawings, photographs, and standard slides provide 
 visual cues in two dimensions only; consequently, realism is 
 lost The only other alternative for transferring basic concepts 
 of ground control to the miner is to go to the underground 
 workplace and point out each detail as it is encountered. Of 
 course, the dilemma here is that many hazards will never get 
 taught simply because they do not exist in a particular mine or, 
 if they do exist, their nature will be different from that under 
 study. For example, consider the condition known as cutter 
 roof. Cutter roof will initially appear as a short separation in 
 the mine roof running in the direction of the opening along the 
 rib line and will eventually develop into much longer separa- 
 tions that run on both sides of the entry. Ultimately, an entire 
 area affected by cutter roof could fail in shear and fall in at the 
 roof bolt horizon level. Obviously, all stages of this hazard do 
 not exist in any given mine at one particular time. 
 
 The miner who is competent in all aspects of ground 
 control is one who consistently demonstrates knowledge, 
 procedures, and skill in the perception, recognition, and 
 correction of every potentially hazardous condition. Using 
 the preceding example, the miner must be able to observe the 
 preliminary indicators of cutter roof as well as any of the 
 
 intermediate signs, and then respond appropriately. This 
 pattern of performance corresponds with that developed by 
 Gagne and, in effect, suggests the structure necessary for 
 completely training the miner. 
 
 Training for competency in this expanded mode has 
 further payoffs. The obvious benefit of improved safety in the 
 mine is amended by a more accurate account of the allocation 
 of training resources. Management can see where the empha- 
 sis is being placed and what the results are. 
 
 The use of 3-D slides for conducting ground-hazard 
 training in the classroom presents an ideal learning situation. 
 No other inexpensive and readily available classroom training 
 aids that have the same fidelity as 3-D slides could be utilized 
 for this purpose. The slides ostensibly take the miner into the 
 mine without leaving the classroom. This feature makes them 
 valuable as a training aid because training effectiveness and 
 training transfer depend on materials that physically simulate 
 the real-world environment. 
 
 Once an acceptable level of proficiency is established, 
 poor recognition skills can be ruled out as a reason for 
 continuing groundfall hazard problems in the working area. 
 Other causes would then need to be considered. For example, 
 miners may not know when to correct groundfall hazards or 
 may be insufficiently motivated to correct them. Strategies 
 for dealing with these problems include training designed to 
 ensure that miners know when potential hazards become 
 actual problems, training designed to emphasize how danger- 
 ous it is if they fail to correct such hazards, and establishing a 
 system of rewards to motivate miners to take the time to look 
 for groundfall hazards and correct them. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Evidence exists that miners often fail to recognize areas 
 of hazardous roof and rib. Mine safety and training personnel, 
 miners, and ground- control specialists who have examined 3- 
 D slides of groundfall hazards report that the slides could 
 significantly improve miner ability to identify hazardous roof 
 and rib. There are a number of advantages to using 3 -D slides 
 instead of conventional slides or other two-dimensional tech- 
 niques for illustrating groundfall hazards to miners. Perhaps 
 the most important advantage is that 3-D slides provide a more 
 realistic and accurate representation of roof and rib hazards. 
 
 From a motivational standpoint, another advantage to 
 stereoscopic slides is that, because of their novelty, they are 
 intrinsically interesting to most viewers. Miners are more 
 
 enthusiastic about training that involves 3-D slides and seem 
 to enjoy looking at this type of slide. Based on the responses 
 of various miners and mine trainers, it appears that 3-D slides 
 would be very well received as a training aid throughout the 
 industry. Also, the equipment needed to generate and use 
 stereoscopic slides for training is relatively inexpensive and 
 easy to obtain and operate. 
 
 In conclusion, the information the Bureau has gathered 
 on the feasibility and effectiveness of using 3-D slides as a 
 training aid strongly suggests that it is both feasible and 
 advisable for the coal mining industry to use stereoscopic 
 slides of hazardous roof and rib conditions as an aid to 
 improving miner ability to recognize potential hazards. 
 
30 
 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Peters, R. H., and W. J. Wiehagen. Human Factors 
 Contributing to Groundfall Accidents in Underground Coal 
 Mines: Workers' Views. BuMines IC 9127, 1987, 24 pp. 
 
 2. Gagne.R. M., andL. J. Briggs. Principles of Instruc- 
 tional Design. Holt, 2d ed. 1979, pp. 117-135. 
 
 3. Chase, F. and G. Sames. Ketdebottoms: Their 
 Relation to Mine Roof and Support. BuMines RI 8785, 1983, 
 12 pp. 
 
 4. University of Kentucky. Exercises for Teaching 
 and Assessing Non-Routine Mine Health and Safety Skills. 
 Ongoing BuMines contract HO348040; for inf. contact W.J. 
 Wiehagen, BuMines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 5. Methods for Assessing Critical Non-Routine Mine 
 Health and Safety Skills. Ongoing BuMines contract 
 H0348040; for inf. contact W. J. Wiehagen, BuMines, Pitts- 
 burgh, PA. 
 
 6. DiCanio, D. G., A. H. Nakata, D. Colvert, and E. G. 
 
 LaVeque. Accident Cost Indicator Model To Estimate Costs 
 to Industry and Society From Work-Related Injuries and 
 Deaths in Underground Coal Mining. Volume III. Support- 
 ing Data (contract J0255031, FMC Corp.). BuMines OFR 
 39(3)-77, 1976, 104 pp.; NTIS PB 264 440. 
 
 7. Lawrence, A. C. Human Error As a Cause of 
 Accidents in Gold Mining. J. Saf. Res., 1974, pp. 74-88. 
 
 8. Barrett, E. Behavioral Aspects of Roof/Rib Injuries 
 - Implications for Training Utilizing Stereoscopic Photogra- 
 phy. Paper in Proceedings of Fifth Conference on Ground 
 Control in Mining (WV Univ., Morgantown, WV., June 1 1- 
 13, 1986). WV Univ., 1986, pp. 213-220. 
 
 9. Gibson, E.J. Principles of Perceptual Learning and 
 Development Meredith, 1969, pp. 163-193. 
 
 10. Blignaut,C. The Perception of Hazard: The Contri- 
 bution of Signal Detection to Hazard Perception. Ergonom- 
 ics, v. 22, 1979, pp. 1177-1183. 
 
 
31 
 
 HUMAN FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO GROUNDFALL ACCIDENTS IN 
 UNDERGROUND COAL MINES: WORKERS' VIEWS 
 
 By Robert H. Peters 1 and William J. Wiehagen 2 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Groundfall accidents are the most common cause of accidental death among underground coal 
 miners, and in many mines, they are a significant part of the total cost of operating the mine. This paper 
 presents results of a Bureau of Mines study on barriers that may prevent miners from correcting and 
 avoiding groundfall hazards. Such barriers stem from four basic types of problems: (1) inability to 
 recognize groundfall hazards, (2) inability to correct groundfall hazards, (3) lack of motivation to 
 search for groundfall hazards, and (4) lack of motivation to correct groundfall hazards. 
 
 Interviews were conducted with 143 miners and 9 Mine Safety and Health Administration (MS HA) 
 coal mine roof and rib inspectors to determine the perceived importance of these four categories of 
 barriers, and what should be done to overcome them. The issues covered in these interviews were (1) 
 why miners sometimes fail to do anything about potential roof hazards, (2) walking beneath 
 unsupported roof, and (3) what should be done to help miners to avoid rock fall injuries. Participants' 
 beliefs about these issues were determined by asking them to respond to a series of open-ended and 
 forced-choice questions. The frequencies with which response categories were chosen to reply to 
 each question are presented. It is concluded that those who work underground consider all four types 
 of barriers to be important contributors to groundfall accidents. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 In many underground coal mines, the economic costs 
 associated with falls of roof and rib are a substantial propor- 
 tion of the total costs of operating the mine. During the 1982- 
 86 5-yr period, 14,863 groundfall accidents were reported to 
 the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). 
 
 These accidents often require that labor, supplies, and 
 equipment be diverted from coal production and used for 
 cleanup, recovery and repair of mine equipment, and resup- 
 port of the mine roof. The costs of these activities are quite 
 substantial. But of even greater significance are the intangible 
 losses and the emotional anguish suffered by the families of 
 miners who have been killed or seriously disabled by ground- 
 falls. During the 1982-86 period, groundfall accidents 
 
 claimed the lives of 154 coal miners and caused 4,249 nonfatal 
 injuries. According to an accident cost model, the direct cost 
 of these fatalities and injuries alone exceeds $200 million. 3 
 (Clearly, there is a great need to further reduce the number of 
 miners being injured and killed by groundfall accidents.) 
 
 The Bureau performed the research described in this 
 report in order to (1) better define the types of barriers 
 preventing miners from correcting or avoiding groundfall 
 hazards, (2) provide direction for future research, and (3) 
 identify promising approaches for preventing this type of 
 accident. Data were collected using structured interview 
 guides. Interviews were conducted with various personnel 
 from three underground coal companies (nine sites) and with 
 MSHA coal mine roof and rib inspectors. 
 
 'Research psychologist. 
 'Supervisory industrial engineer. 
 Bureau of Mines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 Pittsburgh Research Center, 
 
 'DiCanio, D. G., A. H. Nakata, D. Colvert, and E. G. LaVeque. 
 Accident Cost Indicator Model to Estimate Costs to Industry and 
 Society From Work-Related Injuries and Deaths in Underground 
 Coal Mining. Volume DI. Supporting Data (contract J0255031, 
 FMC Corp.). BuMines OFR 39(3)-77, 1976, 104 pp.; NTIS PB / 
 264 440. 
 
32 
 
 BARRIERS TO MINER PREVENTION OF GROUNDFALL ACCIDENTS 
 
 Geological factors relating to the inherent stability of the 
 roof and rib influence the likelihood of a groundfall accident 
 Although geological history cannot be changed, there are 
 several other factors that influence the probability of ground- 
 fall accidents over which people potentially have some con- 
 trol. This study focuses primarily on assessing the things 
 miners can potentially do to avoid groundfall accidents, and 
 on gaining a better understanding of the types of barriers that 
 prevent them from performing these activities. 
 
 Figure 1 highlights a conceptual framework for address- 
 ing these barriers. The model assumes that in order for miners 
 to do an effective job of preventing groundfall injuries, they 
 must not only recognize the existence of the hazard but also 
 must be willing and able to take corrective action. Barriers can 
 be differentiated on the basis of whether they occur at the stage 
 of hazard recognition or hazard correction, and on the basis of 
 whether they are due to miner lack of ability or lack of moti- 
 vation." Data were collected to determine whether the people 
 who work underground consider the barriers identified in 
 figure 1 to be important contributors to groundfall accidents. 
 
 Source of 
 barrier 
 
 Ability 
 
 Motivation 
 
 Stage of barrier's occurrence 
 Recognition Correction 
 
 Inability to 
 
 recognize 
 
 groundfall hazards 
 
 Lack of motivation 
 
 to search for 
 groundfall hazards 
 
 Inability to 
 
 correct 
 
 groundfall hazards 
 
 Lack of motivation 
 
 to correct 
 groundfall hazards 
 
 FIGURE 1.— Barriers to miner prevention of groundfall 
 accidents. 
 
 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 
 
 Miners and MSHA inspectors were asked to respond to a 
 variety of questions about the causes and prevention of 
 groundfall accidents in one-on-one interviews. Interviewers 
 asked questions concerning the following issues: (1) Recent 
 experiences with roof falls, (2) why miners sometimes fail to 
 do anything about potential roof hazards, (3) walking beneath 
 unsupported roof, (4) the degree to which various changes 
 would help miners to avoid rock fall injuries. Participants 
 were asked to respond to both open-ended and forced-choice 
 questions. 
 
 Data were collected from February 1984 to April 1985. A 
 total of 143 employees from three underground coal mining 
 companies located at nine sites in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and 
 Kentucky participated in the study. All mines in this study 
 were using the room-and-pillar method of extraction and 
 continuous mining machinery. Table 1 breaks down the total 
 sample of mine employees by job title. The average length of 
 time spent working as an underground coal miner was 10.5 yr. 
 Of the 143 employees in the sample, 85 pet had some experi- 
 ence working as a bolter or bolter helper. All 143 employees 
 work underground on a daily basis. Data were also collected 
 from nine MSHA coal mine roof and rib inspectors using the 
 instruments and methods previously described. 
 
 4 For a more detailed discussion of this model see: Peters, R. H., and 
 W. J. Wiehagen. Human Factors Contributing to Groundfall Acci- 
 dents in Underground Coal Mines: Workers' Views. BuMines IC 
 9127,1987,24 pp. 
 
 TABLE 1. - Breakdown of mine employees 
 interviewed, by job title 
 
 Job title 
 
 Number 
 
 Belt worker 4 
 
 Bridge worker 2 
 
 Continuous miner operator 16 
 
 Continuous miner operator helper 10 
 
 General inside labor 10 
 
 Mechanic 1 1 
 
 Roof bolter operator 27 
 
 Roof bolter helper 10 
 
 Scoop operator 2 
 
 Section supervisor 14 
 
 Shuttle car operator 25 
 
 Supply worker 2 
 
 Timber worker 5 
 
 Utility worker 5 
 
 Total 143 
 
 ; 
 
33 
 
 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 
 
 This section presents participants' responses to interview 
 questions concerning nonresponse to possible roof hazards, 
 walking beneath unsupported roof, and the effect of various 
 changes on preventing groundfall accidents. Simple frequen- 
 cies of the response categories miners chose to answer each 
 forced-choice question in the interview are presented. Sum- 
 maries of responses to several open-ended questions are also 
 presented. 
 
 NONRESPONSE TO POSSIBLE ROOF 
 HAZARDS 
 
 Each participant was initially asked to respond to an open- 
 ended question on this topic. This question was followed 
 by eight forced-choice questions. 
 
 Open-Ended Questions 
 
 Participants were asked for their opinions about why 
 miners sometimes neglect correcting hazardous roof condi- 
 tions. This question was asked as follows: 
 
 At one time or another, most miners have seen 
 areas of the roof that look like they may not be 
 entirely safe, but for some reason, do not do 
 anything about it. What are the major reasons 
 why miners sometimes fail to do anything about 
 potential roof hazards? 
 
 The miners' replies and (in parentheses) number of 
 respondents were — 
 
 In a hurry (22) 
 
 Laziness (15) 
 
 The area is traveled infrequently (11) 
 
 Too busy doing other work (10) 
 
 Don't want to delay production (10) 
 
 Careless or don't care (8) 
 
 Don't believe it's hazardous (7) 
 
 It's not their job (7) 
 
 Complacency (6) 
 
 I know it's there so I'll just stay away from it (4) 
 
 Tools or supplies not readily available (4) 
 
 Afraid of getting hurt (4) 
 
 Put off doing it but forget (3) 
 
 Lack of knowledge or experience (2) 
 
 Taking shortcuts (2) 
 
 Not important; it's just "extra work" (2) 
 
 Inspectors gave several different types of responses to 
 this question. The most common response was that miners do 
 not think it is worth the time and effort required; i.e., they are 
 insufficiently motivated to perform this type of activity. 
 
 Another reason frequently mentioned by mine inspectors 
 was that miners do not realize how dangerous the hazard really 
 is. Several inspectors also said that because nothing usually 
 happens to miners who occasionally decide to risk working 
 beneath hazardous roof, many tend to become complacent. 
 Apparently, the failure to experience negative consequences 
 for deviating from a safe work practice may promote contin- 
 ued deviation. Other factors believed by mine inspectors to 
 contribute to miner failure to correct roof hazards were (1) 
 miner inattentiveness caused by preoccupation with off-the- 
 job problems (e.g., family, medical) and (2) the temptation to 
 let the next shift deal with the hazards when it is close to 
 quitting time. 
 
 Forced-Choice Questions 
 
 Miners were asked to indicate the extent to which they 
 agreed or disagreed that each of a list of reasons explains why 
 miners might sometimes decide not to do anything about 
 potentially hazardous roof conditions. The reasons were ~ 
 
 1 . They do not have the tools or materials with them that 
 are needed to correct the roof problem. 
 
 2. They think it is someone else's responsibility to take 
 care of roof problems. 
 
 3. They do not want to risk getting hurt while fixing the 
 roof. 
 
 4. They dislike doing the type of work necessary to 
 correct the roof problem. 
 
 5. They believe that their supervisor thinks that taking 
 care of roof problems is unimportant. 
 
 6. They do not know how to correct roof problems. 
 
 7. They do not realize how dangerous roof problems 
 really are. 
 
 8. They do not take enough time to look for roof prob- 
 lems. 
 
 A six-point rating scale ranging from strongly agree to 
 strongly disagree was used to respond to each statement. The 
 rating scale contained the following options: 
 
 Strongly agree 
 Agree 
 
 Slightly agree 
 Slightly disagree 
 Disagree 
 Strongly disagree 
 
 The number of miners who chose each point on the rating 
 scale to respond to each of the eight questions in this section 
 is presented in table 2. The percentage of miners in each 
 subgrouping who chose slightly agree, agree, or strongly 
 agree to answer the question are summed to allow one to 
 
 L 
 
34 
 
 TABLE 2. - Rank ordering of reasons for neglect of roof fall hazards, according 
 to percentage of persons expressing agreement 
 
 Total 
 
 agree 
 
 responses 
 
 Strongly Agree Slightly Slightly Disagree Strongly 
 
 agree agree disagree agree 
 
 A-8. They do not take enough 
 time to look for roof problems 80.7 
 
 A-7. They do not realize how 
 dangerous roof problems really are 68.4 
 
 A-4. They dislike doing the 
 type of work necessary to 
 correct the problem 57.7 
 
 A-2. They feel it is someone 
 else's responsibility 51.5 
 
 A-l. They do not have the 
 tools or materials to 
 correct the problem 51.0 
 
 A-3. They do not want to 
 risk getting hurt 47.9 
 
 A-6. They do not know how 
 to correct the roof problem 36.5 
 
 A-5. They believe that their 
 section supervisor thinks that 
 taking care of roof problems is 
 unimportant 11.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 13.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 7.1 
 
 5.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.7 
 
 55.0 
 
 43.2 
 
 31.1 
 
 32.4 
 
 32.6 
 
 25.0 
 
 20.7 
 
 7.8 
 
 14.3 
 
 11.5 
 
 18.5 
 
 11.3 
 
 17.9 
 
 12.9 
 
 2.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 5.2 
 
 9.9 10.6 
 
 7.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 5.7 
 
 2.8 
 
 14.3 
 
 20.9 
 
 33.3 
 
 31.7 
 
 32.6 
 
 40.0 
 
 45.7 
 
 56.7 
 
 0.0 
 
 7.9 
 
 3.7 
 
 6.3 
 
 8.5 
 
 5.7 
 
 12.1 
 
 29.1 
 
 quickly understand the general results of the data without 
 having to perform additional calculations. 
 
 With the exception of statement A.5, a significant num- 
 ber of miners agreed that each of the factors listed in this 
 section are important deterrents to the prevention of ground- 
 fall accidents. This suggests that further attention should be 
 given to devising better ways to lessen the influence of these 
 seven barriers. 
 
 WALKING BENEATH UNSUPPORTED 
 ROOF 
 
 The victims of roof falls are often found in areas of 
 unsupported roof. MS HA fatality reports indicate that more 
 than half of the 97 deaths due to groundfalls in coal mines 
 during 1979 and 1980 occurred in areas of unsupported roof. 
 This series of questions were directed toward better defining 
 the reasons why miners fail to avoid unsupported roof, how 
 many miners go beneath unsupported roof, and how often. 
 
 Reasons for Going Beneath Unsupported 
 Roof 
 
 MSHA roof and rib inspectors were asked what moti- 
 vates miners to illegally go beneath unsupported roof (the only 
 legally permissible reason for going beneath unsupported roof 
 is to set temporary supports before installing permanent 
 supports). The most common reply to this question was that 
 miners do it to save time and/or effort; i.e., they want to take 
 a shortcut. 
 
 Inspectors mentioned several factors that sometimes 
 contribute to miner willingness to risk working beneath un- 
 supported roof. Among them are the following: 
 
 They are in a hurry to get more coal out, especially if they 
 think they are behind. 
 
 They want to cut down the walking distance to a place 
 they need to go. 
 
 They think that the unsupported roof looks good. 
 
35 
 
 They do it inadvertently. 
 
 They have done it before without getting hurt. 
 
 They are unwilling to set temporary supports. 
 
 In order to finish loading a shuttle car, continuous miner 
 operators might go a little beyond the edge of properly 
 supported roof. 
 
 Proportion of Miners Going Beneath 
 Unsupported Roof 
 
 In order to roughly estimate the proportion of miners who 
 go beneath unsupported roof, miners were asked, "During a 
 typical month, what percent of miners who work at the face go 
 beneath unsupported roof for reasons other than to set tempo- 
 rary supports?" Miners' responses to this question are given 
 in table 3. The median of the estimates for the percentage of 
 miners who go beneath unsupported roof during a typical 
 month was 10 pet. This means that half of the estimates were 
 greater than lOpctand half the estimates were less than lOpct. 
 This suggests that the percent of miners going beneath unsup- 
 ported roof is relatively low. 
 
 In order to estimate the frequency with which miners go 
 beneath unsupported roof, miners were asked, "Considering a 
 typical crew of miners who work at the face, how often does 
 someone go beneath unsupported roof for reasons other than 
 to set temporary supports?" Miners' responses to this ques- 
 tion are listed in table 4. Forty-four percent indicated that they 
 believed that someone goes beneath unsupported roof at least 
 once per shift! 
 
 Twenty-five percent indicated that they believed that 
 someone goes beneath unsupported roof at least once per 
 week but not as often as once per shift. 
 
 TABLE 3. - Estimates of the percentage of miners who 
 go beneath unsupported roof during a typical month 
 
 Participant 
 
 Frequency of 
 
 Frequency, pet 
 
 estimates, pet 
 
 estimates 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 27.2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 7.2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6.4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 7.2 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 16.8 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 5.6 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 5.6 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 3.2 
 
 35 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 50 
 
 13 
 
 10.4 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 1.6 
 
 100 
 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 .8 
 
 125 
 
 100.0 
 
 TABLE 4. • Estimates of the frequency with which 
 
 someone in a typical crew of miners goes beneath 
 
 unsupported roof 
 
 Participant 
 estimates 
 
 Frequency of 
 estimates 
 
 Frequency, 
 pet 
 
 At least once 
 
 per shift 48 
 
 At least once per week 
 
 but less often than once 
 
 every shift 28 
 
 At least once per month 
 but less often than once 
 every week 16 
 
 Less than once per month 18 
 
 Total 110 
 
 43.6 
 
 25.4 
 
 14.6 
 16.4 
 
 100.0 
 
 These estimates suggest that going beneath unsupported 
 roof is not an uncommon event in a typical mining crew, and, 
 that more attention should be given to preventing miners from 
 engaging in this practice. In conjunction with the data from 
 table 3, these estimates suggest that (1) few miners are going 
 beneath unsupported roof, but, (2) those who are going be- 
 neath unsupported roof are doing it rather often. 
 
 EFFECT OF VARIOUS CHANGES ON 
 PREVENTING GROUNDFALL ACCIDENTS 
 
 Each participant was initially asked to respond to an 
 open-ended question on this topic. This question was fol- 
 lowed by nine forced-choice questions. 
 
 Open-Ended Questions 
 
 Miners were asked for their opinions about what should 
 be done to reduce the number of rock fall accidents in the coal 
 industry. 
 
 Their replies and (in parentheses) number of respondents 
 were — 
 
 Better training (19) 
 
 Inspect the roof more often (14) 
 
 Don't make entries too wide (7) 
 
 Drill test holes more frequently and deeper (7) 
 
 Always set temporary supports before walking beyond 
 bolts (7) 
 
 Put more emphasis on the dangerousness of groundfall 
 accidents (7) 
 
 Follow the roof control plan/bolting 
 pattern more closely (6) 
 
36 
 
 Use more of the automated temporary roof support 
 
 (ATRS) type bolter (5) 
 Recheck existing supports more often (5) 
 Add more supports to bad areas (5) 
 Stricter supervision (4) 
 Use more bolts (4) 
 Use longer bolts (4) 
 Don't rush (4) 
 
 Put less emphasis on production (3) 
 Scale the roof better (2) 
 Check the torque on roof bolts more often (2) 
 Sound the roof more often (2) 
 More safety talks (2) 
 
 Other responses included putting canopies on roof 
 bolters, operating equipment by remote control, offering 
 bonuses for good roof support, installing roof supports more 
 quickly after the area is mined, installing bolts closer to the rib, 
 encouraging communication between miners about the exis- 
 tence of new roof problems, and explaining some of the 
 theoretical principles behind roof support. 
 
 MSHA inspectors were also asked what they thought 
 needs to be done to prevent more roof fall accidents in the coal 
 industry. The most common response was that the use of 
 ATRS systems on bolters should be mandatory. Such systems 
 are expected to significantly reduce the amount of time miners 
 spend beneath unsupported roof. Other responses include 
 
 Use remote sensing devices to check for gas at the face. 
 
 Do not assign inexperienced crews to perform retreat 
 mining. 
 
 Encourage continuous miner operators to report roof 
 problems to bolters. 
 
 Avoid letting sections stand idle during pillar recovery. 
 
 Ensure closer compliance with the roof control plan and 
 other safety rules. 
 
 Improve training. 
 
 With regard to the improvement of training, inspectors 
 recommended the following: 
 
 Supplement classroom training with structured on-the- 
 job training in roof control and the identification of groundfall 
 hazards. 
 
 Explain the theoretical principles of roof support to 
 bolters in laymen's terms. 
 
 Limit the size of training classes to encourage more dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 Increase miner awareness of the consequences of roof 
 falls by showing slides of roof fall accidents and relating the 
 details of how people have been injured by them. 
 
 MSHA inspectors were asked two questions regarding 
 the identification of groundfall hazards. They were asked to 
 list the types of cues that can warn miners that a piece or an 
 area of the roof is about to fall, and then to choose which of 
 
 these warning signals would be most difficult for inexperi- 
 enced miners to recognize as an indicator of danger. The 
 following visual cues were mentioned: 
 
 Cracked, bent or broken support posts. 
 
 Cracks, gaps, slips, cutters, and clay veins in the roof and 
 
 rib. 
 
 Heaving of the floor. 
 
 Loose rock lying on the floor. 
 
 The absence of rock dust on previously dusted surfaces. 
 
 Bent plates around bolts. 
 
 Cracked, bent, broken or squeezed cap blocks, crossbars 
 or cribs. 
 
 Sags in the middle of the roof or crossbars. 
 
 Reduction in the clearance between tops of equipment 
 and the roof over time. 
 
 Dust trickling down from the roof. 
 
 Water seeping out of roof bolt holes. 
 
 Kettle bottoms and other fossils. 
 
 The following auditory cues were mentioned: 
 
 Sounds associated with sounding the roof. 
 
 Noise caused by shifts in the stress distribution on various 
 layers of rock, i.e., when the roof is working. 
 
 Cracking of wooden supports due to stress concentra- 
 tions. 
 
 Pinging noises from roof bolts caused by increased roof 
 loading. 
 
 It was noted that roof bolter operators receive several 
 types of cues about the stability of the roof when drilling bolt 
 holes. It was also noted that these warning signals are not 
 universal, but may vary with the type of coal seam and 
 geological conditions. 
 
 Responses to the question, "Which types of warning 
 signals are more difficult for inexperienced miners to recog- 
 nize than miners with several years of experience?" include 
 the following: clay veins, cutters, sloughing of the ribs, 
 cracking or heaving of the floor, the presence of sandstone 
 channels, and the pinging noises produced by bolts. 
 
 Forced-Choice Questions 
 
 Miners were asked to indicate the degree to which various 
 changes would help miners avoid rock fall injuries. The 
 changes were 
 
 1. Better lighting. 
 
 2. Less noise. 
 
 3. Supervisor putting greater emphasis on correcting 
 roof hazards. 
 
 4. Better training in the identification of roof hazards. 
 
 5. Better training in proper methods of supporting the 
 roof. 
 
37 
 
 6. Reprimanding or penalizing those who repeatedly go 
 beneath unsupported roof. 
 
 7. Better scaling of the roof. 
 
 8. Adding more support to bad areas of the roof. 
 
 9. Better installation of roof bolts. 
 
 A six-point rating scale ranging from a very small degree 
 to a very large degree was used to respond to each statement. 
 The rating scale contained the following options: 
 
 A very small degree 
 
 A small degree 
 
 A somewhat small degree 
 
 A somewhat large degree 
 
 A large degree 
 
 A very large degree 
 
 Each of nine items were inserted into the blank as the 
 following statement was read: To what degree would 
 
 help miners avoid rock fall injuries? The percent of 
 
 miners who chose each point on the rating scale is presented 
 in table 5. The first column of numbers indicates the percent 
 
 of participants who chose a large degree or a very large degree 
 to answer the question. 
 
 Table 5 rank orders the nine statements in this section in 
 terms of the highest to lowest percent of persons who re- 
 sponded to the questions with large or very large. In order of 
 descending rank, the top three items are adding more support 
 to bad areas of the roof, better training in proper methods of 
 supporting the roof, and better training in the identification of 
 roof hazards. Except for better lighting, the majority of the 
 miners indicated that all the proposed changes would help 
 miners avoid rock fall injuries to a large or very large degree. 
 (The corresponding percentage for better lighting was 44 pet.) 
 These data suggest that, because of their perceived impor- 
 tance in reducing rock fall injuries, further consideration 
 should be given to the possibility of implementing all of the 
 nine changes proposed in this section. 
 
 Items B-l , B-2, B-7, B-8, and B-9 all refer to changing the 
 physical work environment, whereas items B-3, B-4, B-5, and 
 B-6 all refer to changes in miner training and supervision. 
 Note that there is a tendency for the percentages of responses 
 in the large or very large degree categories to be higher for the 
 proposed changes in training and supervision than for the 
 proposed changes in the physical work environment. 
 
 TABLE 5. - Rank ordering of questions about degree to which various changes would help miners to avoid rock fall 
 Injuries, according to percentage of persons who chose large or very large degree responses 
 
 Reason Large or Very Small Somewhat Somewhat Large Very large 
 
 very large small small large 
 
 B-8. Adding more support 
 
 to bad areas of the roof. 78.9 
 
 B-5. Better training in proper 
 methods of supporting the roof. ....69.2 
 
 B-4. Better training in the 
 identification of roof hazards 68.4 
 
 B-6. Reprimanding or penalizing 
 those who repeatedly go beneath 
 unsupported roof. 60.0 
 
 B-7. Better scaling of the roof 56.7 
 
 B-3. Supervisor putting greater 
 
 emphasis on correcting roof 
 
 hazards 56.3 
 
 B-2. Less noise 56.0 
 
 B-9. Better installation of 
 
 roof bolts 53.1 
 
 B-l. Better lighting 44.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 5.3 3.8 
 
 11.3 3.0 
 
 6.0 6.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 14.3 
 
 15.8 
 
 39.8 
 
 43.6 
 
 45.1 
 
 39.1 
 
 25.6 
 
 23.3 
 
 10.4 
 
 14.8 
 
 5.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 28.9 
 
 31.1 
 
 2.2 
 
 17.2 
 
 8.2 
 
 15.7 
 
 37.3 
 
 19.4 
 
 6.7 
 
 15.6 
 
 4.4 
 
 17.0 
 
 37.8 
 
 18.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 19.4 
 
 6.0 
 
 11.2 
 
 38.1 
 
 17.9 
 
 6.1 
 
 25.8 
 
 5.3 
 
 9.8 
 
 25.8 
 
 27.3 
 
 14.2 
 
 26.9 
 
 9.7 
 
 5.2 
 
 30.6 
 
 13.4 
 
38 
 
 MINER EXPERIENCES WITH ROCK FALLS 
 
 The miners interviewed for this study were asked to 
 provide information about their recent experiences with rock 
 falls that is not typically collected by MSHA. Miners were 
 asked for detailed information about either recent injuries that 
 they had suffered as a result of a rock fall, or incidents in which 
 they were startled because of their close proximity to large 
 pieces of falling rock. 
 
 Miner responses indicate that unplanned rock falls in 
 underground coal mines are a somewhat common event Of 
 the 143 miners interviewed for this study, 88 reported that they 
 had either been injured or startled by a rock fall at least one 
 
 time during the past year. Eighty-one percent of those who 
 reported that they had been recently startled by large pieces of 
 falling rock said that such an incident had happened more than 
 once within the past year. The median of the answers was 
 three times. S ixty-five percent of the miners who reported that 
 they had recently suffered an injury caused by a groundfall 
 said that they had been near the location of the rock fall for 
 only a few minutes prior to the accident This suggests that 
 most rock fall accidents could be avoided if miners would 
 always check the roof before beginning to work in a new area. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 The data collected for this study suggest that most people 
 who work underground agree that the factors listed in figure 
 1 are significant barriers to coal miner prevention of ground- 
 fall accidents. The evidence supporting this assertion is 
 reviewed in the following sections. 
 
 INABILITY TO RECOGNIZE 
 GROUNDFALL HAZARDS 
 
 The reasons for an individual's inability to recognize 
 groundfall hazards may be an attribute of the person or of the 
 environment. Data supporting the importance of this set of 
 factors comes from miners' responses to questions B-l, B-2, 
 and B-4 (table 5). Forty-four percent said that better lighting 
 would help miners avoid rock fall injuries to a large or very 
 large degree. This implies that miners may often fail to 
 recognize hazardous roof conditions because the illumination 
 is not good enough to be able to detect them. Fifty-six percent 
 said that less noise would help miners to a large or very large 
 degree. This implies that there may often be too much noise 
 for miners to hear sounds that could warn them that a hazard- 
 ous roof condition exists. Sixty-eight percent said that better 
 training in the identification of roof hazards would help 
 miners to a large or very large degree. This suggests that 
 miners sometimes fail to recognize certain types of hazardous 
 roof conditions because they are not aware that these roof 
 conditions should be considered hazardous. 
 
 INABILITY TO CORRECT GROUNDFALL 
 HAZARDS 
 
 Data supporting the importance of this set of factors 
 comes from miners responses to questions A- 1 and A-6 (table 
 2) and B-6 (table 5). Fifty-one percent agreed that one of the 
 main reasons that miners sometimes neglect correcting roof 
 hazards is because they do not have the tools or materials with 
 them that are needed to fix the roof problem. Thirty-seven 
 
 percent agreed that one of the main reasons that miners 
 sometimes neglect correcting roof hazards is because they do 
 not know how to correct roof problems. This suggests that 
 miners sometimes fail to correct certain types of hazardous 
 roof problems because they have never learned how to correct 
 them. Sixty-nine percent said that better training in proper 
 methods of supporting the roof would help miners avoid rock 
 fall injuries to a large or very large degree. 
 
 LACK OF MOTIVATION TO SEARCH FOR 
 GROUNDFALL HAZARDS 
 
 Data supporting the importance of this set of factors 
 comes from miner responses to questions A-8, A-7 (table 2) 
 and B-3 (table 5). Eighty-one percent agreed that one of the 
 main reasons that miners sometimes neglect correcting roof 
 hazards is because they do not take enough time to look for 
 roof problems. One reason that miners might not take enough 
 time to look for roof problems is that they do not realize how 
 dangerous roof problems really are. In response to question 
 A-7, 68.4 pet agreed that one of the main reasons that miners 
 sometimes neglect correcting roof hazards is because they do 
 not realize how dangerous roof problems really are. Another 
 reason that miners might not take enough time to look for roof 
 problems is that they do not think that their supervisor wants 
 them to devote much time to this activity. In response to 
 question B-3, 56 pet indicated that supervisors putting greater 
 emphasis on correcting roof hazards would help miners avoid 
 rock fall injuries to a large or very large degree. 
 
 LACK OF MOTIVATION TO CORRECT 
 GROUNDFALL HAZARDS 
 
 Data supporting the importance of five types of factors 
 within this category come from miners' responses to ques- 
 tions A-2, A-3, A-4, and A-7 (table 2) and B-3 (table 5). Fifty- 
 two percent agreed that one of the main reasons that miners 
 
 • 
 
39 
 
 sometimes neglect correcting roof hazards is because they 
 think that it is someone else's responsibility to take care of 
 roof problems. Forty-eight percent agreed that oneof the main 
 reasons that miners sometimes neglect correcting roof haz- 
 ards is because they do not want to risk getting hurt while 
 fixing the roof. Fifty-eight percent agreed that one of the main 
 reasons that miners sometimes neglect correcting roof haz- 
 ards is because they dislike doing the type of work necessary 
 to correct the roof problem. Sixty-eight percent agreed that 
 one of the main reasons that miners sometimes neglect cor- 
 recting roof hazards is because they do not realize how 
 dangerous roof problems really are. Fifty-six percent indi- 
 cated that supervisors putting greater emphasis on correcting 
 roof hazards would help miners avoid rock fall injuries to a 
 large or very large degree. 
 
 PREVENTING GROUNDFALL ACCIDENTS 
 
 When asked about what should be done to reduce the 
 number of rock fall accidents in the coal industry, both miners 
 and inspectors frequently cited the need for better training in 
 this area. Several other strategies for improving training were 
 also suggested. 
 
 A significant number of miners agreed that each of the 
 changes proposed in statements B-l through B-9 (table 5) 
 would significantly help miners to avoid rock fall injuries. 
 The three highest ranked changes were adding more support 
 to bad areas of the roof, better training in proper methods of 
 supporting the roof, and better training in the identification of 
 roof hazards. 
 
 RECOMMENDATION TO COLLECT 
 SURVEY INFORMATION 
 
 In order to formulate a good strategy for preventing roof 
 and rib falls at a particular mine site, one needs to get an 
 accurate diagnosis of the types of barriers that people are 
 facing at that mine. Barriers that are quite significant in some 
 mines are not at all a problem in other mines. Therefore, mine 
 
 safety and training professionals should consider collecting 
 survey information from the people who work at their mine to 
 find out which barriers need to be overcome. The people who 
 work underground every day are in the best position to help 
 diagnose which barriers are the most troublesome, and they 
 may also have some very good ideas about how these barriers 
 can be overcome. 
 
 The Bureau of Mines has developed a detailed survey 
 guide for collecting information about miner beliefs concern- 
 ing the causes and prevention of roof and rib fall accidents. 
 This guide contains a set of survey forms, and a set of detailed 
 instructions about how to use these forms to conduct one's 
 own survey. The survey requires approximately 30 min for 
 participants to complete, and is designed for collecting infor- 
 mation from groups of miners in a classroom setting (e.g., as 
 part of annual refresher training). 
 
 The information one obtains from this survey can be used 
 for a variety of purposes. The survey results can be used by 
 trainers to help them determine the adequacy of the training 
 they are giving miners on the prevention of roof and rib fall 
 accidents, and how they might make improvements to this 
 material. The survey results can be used in subsequent 
 training sessions as an excellent source of material for group 
 discussions. The survey results can also be used to help 
 formulate recommendations to mine managers about what 
 should be done (in addition to training) to prevent roof and rib 
 fall accidents. 
 
 MSHA has assembled a set of materials to assist those 
 interested in finding out how to collect survey information 
 concerning roof and rib fall accidents from the miners at one's 
 own mine site. These materials include: 5 
 
 1 . A survey guide that contains survey forms and detailed 
 instructions about how to use these forms to conduct a survey 
 of one's own miners. 
 
 2. A Bureau of Mines Information Circular that presents 
 substantially more information about groundfall accidents 
 than could be covered in this paper. 
 
 3. A 20 min videotape presentation of the research 
 findings contained in this paper. 
 
 5 To obtain copies of any of these materials, write to: National 
 Mine Health and Safety Academy, Business Office, P.O. Box 1 166, 
 Beckley, WV 25802-1 1 66. If you have any questions concerning the 
 survey guide's use, contact the training specialist at the MSHA office 
 in your district. 
 
40 
 
 BLASTERS TRAINING MANUAL FOR METAL-NONMETAL MINERS 
 
 By Michael A. Peltier, 1 Larry R. Fletcher, 2 and Richard A. Dick 3 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 The Bureau of Mines has developed blasters training material for the metal-nonmetal mining 
 industry. The material is divided into 6 chapters and 47 modules, with each module covering a single 
 topic. For example, the second chapter, which covers initiation and priming, is subdivided into nine 
 modules. There is a module covering initiations systems in general, another module covering delay 
 series, and one discussing priming. The remaining six modules deal with each of the six initiation 
 systems. 
 
 The modules were structured to enable the mine training personnel to easily develop a site-specific 
 blasters training program. Each module contains text material that comprehensively covers the topic, 
 as well as a paraphrased section highlighting the major ideas of the text. Also included with each 
 module are line drawings and test questions with answers. 
 
 The objective of this material is to increase hazard awareness and foster the use of safe blasting 
 practices with the anticipated end result being accident-free and productive blasting. 
 
 ; 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Based on accident data obtained from the Mine Safety 
 and HealthAdministration (MSHA), most blasting accidents 
 are caused by human error, lack of hazard awareness, or lack 
 of general blasting knowledge.A lack of understanding as to 
 how explosives function can contribute to higher mining costs 
 because of inadequate fragmentation or lost production. 
 
 Federal regulations require that every person who uses or 
 handles explosive materials shall be experienced and under- 
 stand the hazards involved. Trainees shall do such work only 
 under the supervision of and in the immediate presence of 
 experienced miners. Federal regulations also require hazard 
 and task training for miners. Most training given on mining 
 
 'Mining engineer. 
 2 Mining engineering technician. 
 'Staff engineer. 
 Twin Cities Research Center, Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN. 
 
 property is based on experience at that mine and is done 
 without the aid of adequate training materials. An improved 
 and more meaningful blasters training program is essential in 
 assisting operators to properly train blasters and meet MSHA 
 training regulations. 
 
 The blasters training material was developed to aid indus- 
 try in the preparation of a site-specific training course, and is 
 based on a previous Bureau report 4 It is the intent of the 
 blasters training material to help the individual using explo- 
 sives and blasting agents to develop a better understanding of 
 the various aspects of blasting that contribute to a safe and 
 efficient blast. 
 
 "Dick, R. A., L. R. Fletcher, and D. V. D 'Andrea Explosives and 
 Blasting Procedures Manual. BuMines IC 8925. 1983. 105 pp. 
 
41 
 
 PREPARING A TRAINING COURSE 
 
 The blasters training materials have been developed to be 
 easily constructed into a site-specific and comprehensive 
 blasters course. The material consists of discrete modules that 
 contain text material, a paraphrased section, line drawings, 
 and test questions with answers. 
 
 Individual pages have been divided vertically with the 
 comprehensive text material on the left-hand side of the page. 
 Each paragraph of the text material is numbered for quick 
 reference. The right-hand side of the page consists of para- 
 phrased text material with a main heading and a paragraph 
 number. The person preparing the training course can read the 
 paraphrased material quickly in order to grasp the main ideas 
 of the text material. If an explanation is needed, the individ- 
 ual, by noting the paragraph number, can go directly to the 
 paragraph that discusses a particular point. 
 
 Line drawings are included with the material to help illus- 
 trate specific concepts. The line drawings can be easily 
 converted to overhead transparencies for use in the training 
 course. 
 
 The first step in preparing a blasters training course is to 
 determine what material must be covered. This can be accom- 
 plished by talking with the blasting supervisor and blasters, 
 and by observing the blasting operation. To help determine 
 what topics need to be covered in the course, a checklist is 
 included with the material. The checklist is arranged to 
 
 parallel the chapters. By completing the checklist the trainer 
 will be able to locate the modules to be included in the course. 
 For example, under the "Chapter One — Explosives Prod- 
 ucts" section of the checklist, if ANFO and emulsion are noted 
 next to the subsection "Blasting Agents," by reading the list of 
 modules in the table of contents under the "Chapter One — Ex- 
 plosives Products" section, the trainer will notice that module 
 4 discusses ANFO and module 5 discusses emulsions. 
 
 The second step is to gather the training material needed. 
 The information gathered from the blasting personnel through 
 the use of the checklist will indicate which modules should be 
 included in the course. In addition to the modular material, 
 slides and other visual aids from the actual operation should 
 be used. Additional technical information concerning spe- 
 cific blasting products can be obtained from either the explo- 
 sives supplier or manufacturer. 
 
 The third step is to write lesson plans for the course and 
 arrange the training material into a cohesive unit. The writing 
 of the lesson plans can be simplified by making extensive use 
 of the paraphrased section in the modules. 
 
 Since the experience, knowledge, and ability of individual 
 blasters vary widely, both the length and amount of material 
 to be included in the course will have to be determined by mine 
 management. 
 
 CHAPTER CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER ONE— EXPLOSIVES 
 PRODUCTS 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to help the blaster develop an 
 understanding of various types of explosives. Chemical and 
 physical properties of seven types of explosive products are 
 discussed. Additional information explaining nine properties 
 of explosives, used to determine how an explosive product 
 will function under field conditions, is also covered. Material 
 explaining how to select an explosive product is included in 
 this chapter. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to— 
 
 1. Give a concise explanation of the nature of various 
 explosive products; 
 
 2. List the basic reactive ingredients of an explosive prod- 
 uct; 
 
 3. Explain how the detonation pressure and explosive 
 pressure cause the rock to be broken; 
 
 4 . Explain the importance of oxygen balance as it relates to 
 both the energy released and to the formation of toxic gases; 
 
 5. Describe the individual characteristics of the explosive 
 products the blaster may be using; 
 
 6. Briefly explain why a particular product is being used at 
 his or her operation; 
 
 7. State and explain nine basic properties of explosive 
 products; and 
 
 8. Relate the basic properties of explosives with the types 
 of explosive products being used on the job. 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 7. 
 
 Chemistry and Physics of Explosives 
 Types of Explosives and Blasting Agents 
 Nitroglycerin-Based High Explosives 
 Ammonium Nitrate-Fuel Oil (ANFO) 
 Slurries, Water-Gels, Emulsions 
 Heavy ANFO 
 Primers and Boosters 
 Liquid Oxygen Explosives 
 Black Powder 
 
 10. Properties of Explosives 
 
 11.- Explosives Selection Criteria 
 
 9. 
 
42 
 
 CHAPTER TWO— INITIATION 
 AND PRIMING 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to help the blaster develop an 
 understanding of six initiation systems. The blaster will learn 
 the various components of each initiation system, how the 
 individual system functions, and the advantages and disad- 
 vantages of the six systems. Information about the two basic 
 delay series and material concerning priming is also included 
 in this chapter. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to— 
 
 1 . Name the three basic parts of an initiation system; 
 
 2. Explain the difference between high explosives and 
 blasting agents as to their sensitivity to initiation; 
 
 3. State the difference between an instantaneous and a 
 delay detonator; 
 
 4. List the various components of the initiation system he 
 or she will be using; 
 
 5. Explain how the initiation system functions; 
 
 6. Explain how to check the final hookup of the system; 
 
 7. Discuss the potential hazards to the initiation system; 
 
 8. Give the definition of a primer; 
 
 9. Name some types of explosives used as primers; 
 
 10. Explain the proper procedure for making primers; 
 
 11. Explain why the proper location of the primer in the 
 borehole is important. 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 12. Initiation Systems 
 
 13. Delay Series 
 
 14. Electric Initiation 
 
 15. Detonating Cord Initiation 
 
 16. Detaline Initiation System 
 
 17. Cap-and-Fuse Initiation 
 
 18. Hercudet Initiation 
 
 19. Nonel Initiation 
 
 20. Priming 
 
 CHAPTER THREE— BLASTHOLE 
 LOADING 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to examine proper blasthole 
 loading techniques. The chapter discusses loading procedures 
 for both small- and large-diameter blastholes. Also included 
 in the chapter is material that not only discusses how to check 
 blastholes for proper depth, water, voids, and obstructions, but 
 how to mitigate these problems. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to— 
 
 1 . Explain why blastholes should never be loaded and why 
 workers should retreat from the blast area during the approach 
 or progress of an electrical storm; 
 
 2. Describe how to check the borehole for proper depth, 
 obstructions, water, and voids; 
 
 3. Explain how to remedy problems, such as, improper 
 borehole depth, obstructions, water, and voids; 
 
 4. State why stemming is important and how to estimate 
 the amount of stemming needed; 
 
 5. Explain when plastic borehole liners or water-resistant 
 cartridges should be used; 
 
 6. Explain proper technique for loading the explosive or 
 blasting agent he or she will be using; 
 
 7. Describe the characteristics of the type of pneumatic 
 loading he or she will use; 
 
 8. Explain the potential problem of static electricity if he or 
 she is going to use a pneumatic loader; and 
 
 9. List the advantages and disadvantages of using bulk- 
 loaded products in large-diameter blastholes. 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 21. Introduction 
 
 22. Checking the Blasthole 
 
 23. General Loading Procedures 
 
 24. Small-Diameter Blastholes 
 
 25. Large-Diameter Blastholes 
 
 CHAPTER FOUR— BLAST 
 DESIGN 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to examine the factors that 
 influence safe and effective blast design. In addition to the 
 discussion of design factors for surface and underground 
 blasting, four controlled blasting techniques are also covered. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 • 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to — 
 
 1 . Discuss how geology affects fragmentation; 
 
 2. Name the most significant geologic features to con- 
 sider when designing a blast; 
 
 3. Discuss the importance of a well-detailed drilling log; 
 
 4. Explain how to determine the burden; 
 
 5. Explain why geologic structure is the major factor in 
 determining blasthole diameter, 
 
 6. Explain how collar distance affects fragmentation size; 
 
43 
 
 7. Explain the relationship of collar distance to airblast 
 and flyrock; 
 
 8. Explain the relationship between burden flexing and 
 rock fragmentation; 
 
 9. Discuss the problem with either excessive or insuffi- 
 cient subdrilling; 
 
 10. Explain how spacing is determined; 
 
 1 1 . Explain the advantages of millisecond delays; 
 
 12. Discuss two classifications of opening cuts; 
 
 13. Explain how to design an angled cut; 
 
 14. Explain how to design a parallel hole cut; 
 
 15. Discuss the two types of delays for underground blast- 
 ing; 
 
 16. Name the two main advantages of using controlled 
 blasting; 
 
 17. List the four primary methods of controlled blasting; 
 and 
 
 18. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the vari- 
 ous methods of controlled blasting. 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 26. Introduction to Blast Design 
 
 27. Properties and Geology of the Rock Mass 
 
 28. Surface Blasting 
 
 29. Underground Blasting 
 
 30. Controlled Blasting Techniques 
 
 CHAPTER FIVE— ENVIRONMENTAL 
 EFFECTS OF BLASTING 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to examine the environ- 
 mental effects of blasting. The material will discuss flyrock, 
 ground vibrations, airblast, and dust and gases. Methods to 
 reduce the potential healthand safety hazards they may pres- 
 ent will be discussed. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to— 
 
 1. Explain the importance of conducting a preblast sur- 
 vey, maintaining comprehensive records, and good public 
 relations; 
 
 2. Discuss the causes of flyrock; 
 
 3. Discuss methods to alleviate flyrock; 
 
 4. Discuss the causes of ground vibration; 
 
 5. Discuss design techniques to minimize vibrations; 
 
 6. State some methods to monitor ground vibrations; 
 
 7. Discuss the causes of airblast; 
 
 8. Discuss methods to monitor airblast; 
 
 9. List techniques to reduce airblast; 
 
 10. Explain why an adequate amount of time must be given 
 for dust and gases to be diluted before returning to the blast 
 site; and 
 
 1 1 . List the two common toxic gases produced by blasting 
 and list techniques to reduce them. 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 31. Introduction to Environmental Effects of Blasting 
 
 32. Flyrock 
 
 33. Ground Vibrations 
 
 34. Airblast 
 
 35. Dust and Gases 
 
 CHAPTER SIX- 
 BLASTING SAFETY 
 
 Purpose and Description 
 
 The purpose of this chapter is to help the blaster develop 
 a better understanding of blasting safety. This will be accom- 
 plished by examining a number of auxiliary blasting func- 
 tions. A number of precautions related to previous modules 
 are mentioned. Four accident types that occur frequently are 
 also discussed. 
 
 Objectives 
 
 Upon completion of this chapter, the blaster should be able 
 to— 
 
 1 . Explain why a knowledge of all current blasting safety 
 regulations is important; 
 
 2. Name the agencies that regulate and enforce the use 
 and storage of explosives and blasting agents; 
 
 3. Describe the requirements for vehicles used to trans- 
 port explosives and blasting agents from the magazine to the 
 job site; 
 
 4. Explain the importance of marking the blast area, and 
 keeping nonessential personnel away; 
 
 5. Explain when to check for extraneous electricity; 
 
 6. Discuss why electrical storms are a hazard regardless 
 of the type of initiation system; 
 
 7. Explain the importance of proper primer makeup; 
 
 8. List a number of checks to be made before borehole 
 loading begins; 
 
 9 . Describe various methods to check column rise during 
 borehole loading; 
 
 10. Describe some precautions to consider before and dur- 
 ing the hookups; 
 
 11. Explain some good methods for blast area security; 
 
 12. Describe the potential hazards to check for when reen- 
 tering the blast site after the shot has been fired; 
 
 13. Discuss methods for disposing of misfires; and 
 
 14. Discuss the principal causes of blasting accidents. 
 
44 
 
 Chapter Modules 
 
 36. Introduction to Blasting Safety 
 
 37. Explosives Storage 
 
 38. Transportation From Magazine to Job Site 
 
 39. Precautions Before Loading 
 
 40. Primer Safety 
 
 41. Borehole Loading 
 
 42. Hooking Up the Shot 
 
 43. Shot Firing 
 
 44. Postshot Safety 
 
 45. Disposing of Misfires 
 
 46. Disposal of Explosive Materials 
 
 47. Principal Causes of Blasting Accidents 
 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 Training material for metal and nonmetal mining has been 
 developed by the Bureau. This program consists of 47 mod- 
 ules or topics under 6 major headings (chapters). The mod- 
 ules consist of a text and outline on a single blasting topic plus 
 questions and answers. Supplementing the modules are a 73- 
 item bibliography, a list of regulatory authorities and their 
 responsibilities, additional information on MSHA and Office 
 
 of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Enforcement, glossary, 
 and 65 illustrations suitable for duplication and use as over- 
 head transparancies. 
 
 Developed material will soon be available through 
 MSHA's National Mine Health and Safety Academy, Beck- 
 ley, WV. 
 
 
45 
 
 OPERATIONS-BASED TRAINING STRATEGY FOR LONGWALL MINING 
 
 By R. Larry Grayson, 1 Michael J. Klishis, 1 
 Ronald C. Althouse, 1 and George M. Lies 2 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 A system that can be used to pinpoint the specific training needs of operations and assist in the 
 design and upgrading of focused training approaches can benefit longwall mining. It can be directed 
 at systematically correcting performance discrepancies at an individual, crew, or mine level, and also 
 to challenge workers and management toward attaining improved performances. Such an approach 
 involves a combination of features, such as diligence in monitoring and evaluating performances, 
 thorough coordination in implementing changes, and effective use of operational data. 
 
 The Bureau of Mines, through contract with the Mining Extension Service of West Virginia 
 University, has developed such a system, the training in operations program (TOP), that combines 
 these features and ties longwall training directly to operational performance requirements. 
 
 The TOP provides a practical five-step system for managers to implement a focused training 
 program that coincides with longwall productivity and efficiency goals. The system permits manage- 
 ment to plan, organize, and schedule task training, cross training, and specialized longwall skills 
 training of regular crews and backup personnel. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Managers in the coal industry often wish they had a fool- 
 proof system for managing operational performance and 
 managers in safety, training, and operations would like a 
 system for upgrading training to match operational needs. A 
 practical approach for managing operations and upgrading 
 worker skills involves a combination of features, such as 
 diligence in monitoring and evaluating performances, thor- 
 ough coordination in implementing changes, and effective 
 use of operational data. 
 
 The training in operations program (TOP) is a manage- 
 ment system that combines these features so that managers 
 can plan, organize, and direct longwall training efforts. It is 
 an operations-based strategy that ties longwall training di- 
 rectly to operational performance requirements and guides 
 management step-by-step in using operational data for im- 
 proving safety and efficiency through training. 
 
 In a manner similar to the way management seeks to 
 allocate and use human, technical, and support resources for 
 more efficient longwall operations, this approach: 
 
 1. Provides an operator with an organized way to plan 
 and execute training for developing proficient workers and for 
 improving work practices on the longwall face, 
 
 2. Introduces guidelines and schedules for training of 
 longwall workers and workers from different areas of the mine 
 who are often reassigned to nonroutine tasks, and 
 
 3. Establishes operational performance criteria that 
 guide the training of workers assigned to longwall panels and 
 allow for timely evaluation of their individual performances. 
 
 This approach can benefit longwall operators threefold. 
 First, it incorporates a problem -solving method for assisting 
 management in pinpointing trainable operational concerns. 
 Second, it helps managers make better use of training re- 
 sources for upgrading and maintaining worker skills in a 
 systematic way. Last, it emphasizes collection and analysis of 
 data for assessing the impact of training on operational per- 
 formances. 
 
 'Assistant professor. 
 2 Curriculum designer. 
 
 Mining Extension Service, West Virginia University, 
 Morgantown, WV. 
 
46 
 
 TRAINING IN OPERATIONS PROGRAM: A METHODOLOGY 
 
 The Mining Extension Service of West Virginia Univer- 
 sity, under contract with the Bureau of Mines, developed the 
 concept for the TOP on the basis of an 18-month assessment 
 of training needs in longwall mining. 
 
 This operations-based training concept fits the tradi- 
 tional mine management system for controlling operational 
 performances, but it directs managers in using operational 
 data for improving worker proficiency and, hence, reducing 
 downtime and accidents. 
 
 The model (fig. 1) consists of a five-step methodology 
 that guides managers in developing a specific training strat- 
 egy for resolving operational areas of concern. 
 
 The five steps, which will be described in more detail, 
 are — 
 
 1 Developing a training strategy. 
 
 2. Planning the training program. 
 
 3. Scheduling and executing training. 
 
 4. Evaluating impact of training on operations. 
 
 5. Obtaining feedback and adjusting training strategies. 
 
 Through this process, TOP provides a practical way for 
 managers to maintain compatibility between training and 
 operations and to implement training according to established 
 company policy, particular on-the-job training (OJT) prac- 
 tices, and operational timetables. Also, this system permits 
 management to plan, organize, and schedule task training, 
 crosstraining, and specialized skills training of longwall 
 crews and otherworkers who are assigned intermittently to 
 longwall tasks. 
 
 The model can direct management in making the best use 
 of current longwall training options (Harold (l), 3 Jackson (2), 
 Sprouls Q), and Riddell and Savage (4J). Also, it can help 
 longwall operators bridge the gap between initial training by 
 the manufacturer of the longwall equipment, which extends 
 from installation of equipment and the first few weeks of 
 operations, and task training or annual refresher training, 
 which may meet the coal operator's cross-training require- 
 ments. 
 
 1 — ► 
 
 — ► 
 — ► 
 
 Develop 
 training strategy 
 
 <4— 
 — ► 
 
 " 
 
 Plan the training 
 in operations program (TOP) 
 
 w 
 
 Schedule training 
 and execute TOP 
 
 
 \r 
 
 
 Evaluate impact of training 
 on operations and achieving 
 objectives 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Obtain feedback. 
 
 Make adjustments in TOP 
 
 and/or operations 
 
 FIGURE 1.— Training in operations program (TOP) model. 
 
 TOP AND OPERATIONS-BASED DATA MANAGEMENT 
 
 As a systematic approach to longwall training, the TOP 
 involves the use of operational data and related information 
 for training purposes. Analysis of such data can help manag- 
 ers pinpoint real training needs and project operational bene- 
 fits. With this strategy, mine management can also capitalize 
 on existing knowledge and experience — often lost with infor- 
 mal training — and adjust training plans to meet operational 
 demands. 
 
 The program organizes pertinent operational information 
 according to three facets of longwall mining: 
 
 'Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 references preceeding the appendix at the end of this paper. 
 
 1. Work practices that often change according to the 
 requirements of a system's technology and equipment modi- 
 fications; panel design and dimensions, and mining or physi- 
 cal conditions. 
 
 2. Work (shift) organization that depends on the amount 
 of time used for performance of production-related tasks, 
 nonroutine tasks associated with downtime, and tasks re- 
 quired for servicing and maintenance of equipment 
 
 3 . Workforce requirements that derive from staffing and 
 crew configuration, demographic trends of longwall crews, 
 and the general or specialized training needs of machine 
 operators and selected workers. 
 
47 
 
 The three facets of longwall mining provide a useful 
 framework for organizing data and information that affect 
 longwall training. Each facet consists of several factors that 
 influence both the content of training and the level of perform- 
 ance. 
 
 LONGWALL WORK PRACTICES 
 
 Work practices may vary widely according to technol- 
 ogy, panel dimensions, and face conditions, although long- 
 wall operators have sought to standardize operational proce- 
 dures over the years. Mine operators generally prefer a 
 double-ended ranging drum shearer and shields for their 
 longwall systems (table 1). This type of installation now 
 accounts for nearly 85 pet of all longwall panels operating in 
 1986 according to analysis of recent studies (Sprouls (5J). 
 
 Preferred work practices often change as management 
 makes modifications in the longwall system for safety and 
 efficiency. Longwall operators also tend to implement new 
 technology as it becomes available, phase out labor to reduce 
 mining costs, and usually standardize work practices as 
 changes are made in the system. 
 
 Longwall systems, which generally handle adverse 
 physical conditions better than other mining methods, are still 
 characterized by a number of common problems affecting 
 work practices. These areas of concern are congested walk- 
 ways, which restrict movement, especially at the headgate, 
 flying and falling rocks, especially at shearer operator and 
 shield worker locations; and tight clearance for workers as- 
 signed to cleaning rock-coal spillage, transporting supplies 
 along the face, and performing nonroutine maintenance work 
 (especially during downtime periods). 
 
 TABLE 1 - Longwall equipment utilization, 1974-84 
 
 New installations 
 1974 1975-77 1978-82 
 
 Number pet Number pet Number pet 
 
 All installations operating 
 
 in 1984-85 period 
 
 Number pet 
 
 DOUBLE-ENDED RANGING SHEARER 
 
 Chainless haulage: 
 Shield support , 
 Chock support . 
 
 Chain haulage: 
 
 Shield support , 
 Chock support , 
 
 Chainless haulage: 
 Shield support . 
 
 Chain haulage: 
 
 Shield support . 
 Frame support , 
 
 Chainless haulage: 
 
 Shield support . 
 Chain haulage: 
 
 Shield support . 
 
 Chock support . 
 Rope haulage: 
 
 Chock support . 
 
 Chain haulage: 
 
 Shield support . 
 
 Chock support . 
 
 Frame support . 
 Rope haulage 
 
 Chock support . 
 
 Frame support , 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 88 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 53 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 SINGLE-DRUM RANGING SHEARER 
 
 NAp NAp 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 SINGLE FIXED DRUM SHEARER 
 
 NAp 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 COAL PLOW 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 
 
 NAp 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 NAp 
 NAp 
 
 Total 
 
 48 
 
 ALL CUTTING MACHINE SYSTEMS 
 
 100 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 49 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 NAp: Not applicable 
 
48 
 
 TABLE 2. - Overview of longwall crew responsibilities 
 
 
 Scope of 
 activity 
 
 Service- 
 maintenance 1 
 
 Startup 2 
 
 On-shift duties 
 
 Cutting time 
 
 Downtime 
 
 End of shift 
 
 HEADGATE OPERATOR 
 
 Communications, 
 
 Service duties, vis- 
 
 Coordinates startup 
 
 Coordinating role with 
 
 Special duties and 
 
 All shutdown tasks 
 
 coordination, trans- 
 
 ual housekeeping. 
 
 with shearer 
 
 supervisor and shearer 
 
 tasks as instructed. 
 
 (except hydraulic 
 
 portation. Performs 
 
 
 operator who gives 
 
 operator. Performs all 
 
 
 pumps), does deener- 
 
 all tasks. 
 
 
 OK and startup or- 
 
 tasks. Monitors cutting 
 
 
 gize. 
 
 Alignment done by 
 
 
 ders. 
 
 speed communicates 
 
 
 
 a supervisor- 
 
 
 
 with headgate operator 
 
 
 
 shieldman. 
 
 
 
 on pass, both ways. 
 
 
 
 SHEARER OPERATOR 
 
 Sequence of activi- 
 
 Service duties, vis- 
 
 Coordinates with 
 
 Discuss cuts with super- 
 
 None. 
 
 All shutdown tasks 
 
 ties coordinates 
 
 ual monitoring. 
 
 headgate operator 
 
 visor, coordinates with 
 
 
 (except deenergize 
 
 with many (e.g., 
 
 
 key steps (e.g., all 
 
 supervisor. Performs all 
 
 
 shearer and powerwa- 
 
 startup, alignment, 
 
 
 clear, panline, ener- 
 
 tasks. Monitors cutting 
 
 
 ter, done by headgate 
 
 deenergize shearer, 
 
 
 gize) under instruc- 
 
 speed, communicates 
 
 
 operator). 
 
 hydraulic hoses, fit- 
 
 
 tions from supervi- 
 
 with headgate operator 
 
 
 
 tings). Shields pres- 
 
 
 sor. 
 
 on pass, both ways. 
 
 
 
 surized by shield 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mover. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coordinates, 
 checks activities 
 with many workers 
 at the face. Runs 
 face equipment. 
 
 PLOW HEAD-TAIL OPERATOR 
 
 Usually mechanic- 
 electrician or main- 
 tenance shift. 
 
 Coordinates startup 
 with supervisor and 
 electrician-me- 
 chanic, functioning 
 as headgate 
 operator. Informa- 
 tion on height- 
 depth from supervi- 
 sor, tailgate 
 operator, jacksetter. 
 
 Monitors sequence 
 movement of panline, 
 but not alignment, face 
 crew aligns. Methane 
 supervisor checks, re- 
 ports to supervisor, face 
 crew. 
 
 None. 
 
 Coordinates shutdown 
 with supervisor, me- 
 chanic-electrician, 
 and utility workers 
 (deenergize locally). 
 
 
 
 SHIELDMAN-JACKSETTER 
 
 
 
 Coordinates with 
 
 Usually, hydraulic 
 
 Preoperational du- 
 
 Coordinate-communi- 
 
 Special concerns. 
 
 Communicates with 
 
 supervisor and oth- 
 
 supervisor, electri- 
 
 ties apply here too. 
 
 cate between headgate 
 
 
 headgate operator and 
 
 ers on face. Per- 
 
 cian-mechanic, util- 
 
 
 operator, shearer -plow 
 
 
 shearer operator (ex- 
 
 forms all tasks. Of- 
 
 ity worker. 
 
 
 operator, moving shields 
 
 
 cept hydraulic pumps. 
 
 ten OK's with hy- 
 
 
 
 and moving panlines 
 
 
 electrician-mechanic- 
 
 draulic supervisor 
 
 
 
 (following operators). 
 
 
 utility worker or su- 
 
 or mechanic, 
 
 
 
 
 
 pervisor turns off 
 
 headgate operator, 
 
 
 
 
 
 pumps). 
 
 electrician. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MECHANIC-ELECTRICIAN 3 
 
 Special skills, 
 
 Mechanic or 3d 
 
 Does ongoing per- 
 
 Does ongoing permissi- 
 
 Performs tasks as 
 
 None. 
 
 qualifications. 
 
 shift maintenance 
 
 missibility checks. 
 
 bility checks, repairs 
 
 needed or in- 
 
 
 
 often does work. 
 
 repairs equipment 
 (as needed). 
 
 equipment (as needed). 
 
 structed. 
 
 
 
 
 UTILITY WORKERS 
 
 
 
 Directed in- 
 
 As directed may do 
 
 Involved with other 
 
 Assist as ordered these 
 
 As directed, may 
 
 Directed instructed 
 
 structed, assigned 
 
 spot tasks (e.g., get 
 
 workers. 
 
 workers headgate 
 
 do servicing. 
 
 assigned to help head 
 
 by supervisor. Per- 
 
 materials). May as- 
 
 
 operator - shieldman 
 
 housekeeping, spe- 
 
 gate operator, shield- 
 
 forms all tasks. As- 
 
 sist servicing (e.g., 
 
 
 tailgate operator - stage 
 
 cial instructions. 
 
 man, (tailgate opera- 
 
 sists operators, sh- 
 
 grease, rockdust 
 
 
 loader operator (con- 
 
 
 tor) (e.g., shovels. 
 
 ieldman. Performs 
 
 bits). 
 
 
 struction crew stallman). 
 
 
 rockdusts, servicing). 
 
 housekeeping setup 
 
 
 
 May relieve shieldman. 
 
 
 
 tasks. 
 
 
 
 Performs tasks at all 
 places on face or outby. 
 
 
 
 'Permissibility check, 
 includes preoperational checks. 
 3 Or 3d shift maintenance 
 
 , 
 
49 
 
 LONGWALL WORK (SHIFT) 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 Productivity and costs of a longwall system are tied in 
 part to the efficient organization of work across shifts. The as- 
 signment of labor on a typical shift depends on the amount of 
 time longwall crew members perform work related to produc- 
 tion, downtime, and maintenance activities. Table 2 shows 
 the responsibility of a longwall crew across a shift. 
 
 Longwall mining requires a great deal of coordination 
 among workers and continuity in the performance of tasks. 
 Workers have to perform assigned tasks in a prescribed way 
 to achieve and maintain optimal operational efficiency. 
 During downtime periods, work activities are influenced by 
 the fact that the supervisor has to reassign workers and 
 redistribute workloads. 
 
 Mechanical breakdowns, nonmechanical delays, and 
 accidents can affect productivity drastically. The amount of 
 available cutting time, according to an analysis of recent 
 productivity studies (Peake, (6-7) ). as shown in figure 2, 
 company data, as shown in figure 3, and on-site observations 
 ranges on the average from only 100 to 170 min per shift. 
 
 Based on productivity figures, mine operators generally 
 must reassign workers a lot of the time to nonroutine tasks and/ 
 or maintenance work. Production periods still incur more 
 injuries than startup or end-of-shift periods. However, 
 nonroutine tasks during downtime can account for as much as 
 41 pet of reported longwall accidents. 
 
 LONGWALL PRODUCTIVITY 
 
 FIGURE 3.— Monthly summary of production and downtime 
 for sample longwall mine. 
 
 Equipment-related work and environmental hazards af- 
 fect the longwall crew generally across a typical shift. Falls 
 of coal, pans-conveyors, roof support, and mining machinery 
 are common agents causing bodily injury to the longwall 
 miner. About 40 pet of the injuries were due to lifting, trips, 
 falls, or handling materials. 
 
 LONGWALL PRODUCTION 
 
 av ton per shift 
 
 94-in seam 
 height 
 
 64-in seam 
 height 
 
 45-in seam 
 height 
 
 1 ,307 tons 
 
 934 tons 
 
 739 tons 
 
 ggy. Estimated ^^ Estimated &%& 
 downtime Xfff{fti face time r ' * * 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Average longwall production per shift by steam height, and estimated production and downtime. 
 
50 
 
 LONGWALL WORKFORCE 
 REQUIREMENTS 
 
 Longwall mining is characterized by a veteran and expe- 
 rienced labor force. The average age among longwall workers 
 studied is 35 yr and their average total mining experience is 
 10 yr. 
 
 A longwall crew (table 3) constitutes a relatively stable 
 work group that remains intact over a long period of time (i.e., 
 14 to 16 yr), spanning a series of longwall panels and moves. 
 Crew sizes range from 4 to 13 workers, down from 30 workers 
 on pre- 1970 panels, depending on the degree of control 
 technology. Recent technological advancements (e.g., sen- 
 sors, microprocessors) suggest that future longwall panels 
 may require significantly fewer face workers. 
 
 Generally, workers tend to remain on the longwall panels 
 in various occupations, often cross training among these jobs 
 and bidding on other longwall jobs but not bidding off the 
 longwall panel. These workers, however, experience a sub- 
 stantial number of injuries as they move from job to job on the 
 longwall. 
 
 A range of accidents occurs to those workers who, on the 
 average, have less than 5 yr experience (fig. 4) in their current 
 job. This suggests that a worker may have extensive longwall 
 experience with skills in one job, but may not possess the skills 
 required of a new job assignment. This pattern holds true for 
 all longwall workers, except mechanics, electricians, and 
 supervisors. 
 
 Based on an analysis of accidents reported by 34 West 
 Virginia mines operating 42 longwalls in the 1983-84 period, 
 the cumulative lost time for reported injuries can result in a 
 substantial loss. Nonfatal days lost (NFDL) at mines studied 
 totaled 89 person-months in 1 yr and ^3 person-months the 
 other year or about 7 to 8 employee-years or more of work 
 annually. 
 
 These facets of longwall mining provide a useful way to 
 arrange and analyze operational data for determining specific 
 training responses. In using these operational indicators, 
 
 50 
 
 LjJ 
 
 rr 
 
 Q 
 Ld 
 H 
 rr 
 o 
 
 Q_ 
 
 UJ 
 
 rr 
 
 rr 
 
 Ixl 
 CD 
 
 40- 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 I ■ i ■ 
 KEY 
 Years in present occupa- 
 tion (present experience) 
 
 — — Total years in mining 
 (total experience) 
 
 -L 
 
 JL 
 
 r 
 
 4 6 8 10 12 
 EXPERIENCE, yr 
 
 14 
 
 FIGURE 4.— Longwall experience versus overall experience 
 in relation to nonfatal days lost (NFDL) injuries for miners in 
 longwall occupations, 1983-84. 
 
 company personnel from various departments can define 
 training strategies and choose the most appropriate options for 
 improving operational performances. 
 
 Next, this paper uses a scenario to show how managers 
 can incorporate TOP into their normal decisionmaking struc- 
 ture and improve safety and efficiency of a longwall system 
 through an operations-based training strategy. 
 
 ; 
 
 Table 3. - Demographic characteristics of longwall workers experiencing injuries, 1983-84 
 
 Age 
 
 Average, yr 
 
 
 Mining 
 
 Present 
 
 11.3 
 
 4.9 
 
 9.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 11.0 
 
 5.1 
 
 9.2 
 
 4.2 
 
 8.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 6.1 
 
 11.8 
 
 6.9 
 
 Injuries, 
 
 Average lost 
 
 pet 
 
 days per injury 
 
 16.3 
 
 18.7 
 
 21.3 
 
 13.2 
 
 5.8 
 
 36.0 
 
 15.9 
 
 23.4 
 
 11.6 
 
 18.7 
 
 16.3 
 
 14.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 20.4 
 
 Shear, plow operator 36 
 
 Shield, jacksetter 32 
 
 Headgate operator 38 
 
 Utility worker 36 
 
 Other labor 33 
 
 Electrician-mechanic 36 
 
 Management-salaried 37 
 
 Average or total 35 
 
 10.4 
 
 5.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 18.7 
 
 
51 
 
 LONGWALL MANAGEMENT AND TRAINING 
 
 Longwall mining, as in most other mining methods, re- 
 quires management to plan, organize, and control operations 
 through the exchange of information in both formal and 
 informal meetings. To allocate and use resources efficiently, 
 managers must deal with data and information affecting labor, 
 equipment, utilities, supplies, materials, and mine-specific 
 conditions. Much of this information, as will be shown, may 
 also be used and applied to develop a focused training effort 
 (as needed) for company personnel. 
 
 For comparison purposes, a scenario will be used here to 
 show the differences in using data between a traditional 
 management system and a management system employing 
 the TOP. The scenario will illustrate a problem discovered by 
 a manager of mines on a routine, biweekly visit to a mine's 
 longwall panel, which is equipped with a double-ended rang- 
 ing drum shearer and two-legged shields. 
 
 First, a description of the problem: The manager of mines 
 is observing production work along the panel, and notes that 
 a shield mover is having trouble with baseplates digging into 
 soft bottom, and that this problem, on occasion, leads to 
 downtime. Also, the manager discovers that the worker is not 
 placing crib blocks under the shields to help them stay on 
 bottom, and tends to keep hydraulic valves open too long 
 when resetting shields against the roof. 
 
 The manager learns from the longwall supervisor that this 
 particular employee is a fill-in for the regular shield worker, 
 that the worker had some previous experience as a fill-in for 
 other members of the longwall crew, and that the worker was 
 trained on moving shields for 2 h at the beginning of the shift. 
 The supervisor, however, acknowledges that this fill-in 
 worker has not mastered many of the fine points of the job. 
 
 At end of day, the manager notes that a total of 40 min of 
 downtime occurred because of this problem, and that the fill- 
 in shield worker was injured when a shield mashed the 
 worker's foot into the bottom after it slid off the baseplate of 
 an adjacent shield. First aid treatment and transportation from 
 the panel interrupted production for another 30 min. 
 
 Now, compare the approaches as managers attempt to 
 resolve the longwall problem. 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND INFORMAL 
 TRAINING 
 
 Management decisions, including both immediate and 
 deferred responses to a problem, may require training of 
 hourly or supervisory personnel. Managers usually approach 
 training within the traditional decisionmaking structure, and 
 such training, which can be critical to cost-efficient longwall 
 operations, often defaults to informal or impromptu methods 
 (usually involving a supervisor), which often lack new infor- 
 mation, effective communications, and guidelines for evalu- 
 ation of performances. 
 
 Consider the case of the manager of mines from the 
 scenario above. The manager recognizes several problems, 
 such as costs of downtime, direct and indirect costs of acci- 
 dents, and the company's practice of using partially trained 
 workers as fill-ins for regular longwall crew members. What 
 does the traditional management system offer, in the way of 
 information, in order to solve the dilemma? What tools are 
 available to help managers develop a planned, focused train- 
 ing effort to make operations more cost efficient? 
 
 Taking the problem back to the company's monthly 
 review meeting, the manager of mines has to deal with the 
 following: 
 
 The coal mine management system typically consists of 
 three levels at which managers consider data and/or informa- 
 tion regarding mining operations: 
 
 1. Monthly Divisional or Corporate Meeting s. — Here 
 managers review operational performances, discuss costs and 
 productivity, determine capital and staff support of major 
 work requirements, and analyze operational problems that 
 potentially impact productivity. 
 
 Types of data and information generated for and by this 
 level includes comparisons between established goals and 
 present performance levels, labor assignment and supply 
 delivery schedules, equipment maintenance and utilization 
 plans, and other operational data (e.g., machine-panel de- 
 signs, work practices). 
 
 2. Weekly Mine Planning Meetings.— These are de- 
 signed to coordinate various work requirements among de- 
 partments, to plan new jobs and weekend or idle work, follow 
 up on progress of projects, and to examine operational prob- 
 lems and determine solutions. 
 
 At this level, information reflects operational perform- 
 ances, which may be directed at supporting a particular 
 manager ' s position regarding a problem , costs of mining, and 
 accomplishment of work according to new or revised sched- 
 ules. Performance measures usually include productivity 
 figures, downtime hours worked on support and maintenance, 
 consumption of supplies, accidents and violations, and a line 
 item summary of mining costs. 
 
 3. Informal Mine Meetings.— At this level, meetings 
 may involve preshift coordination sessions at the supervisor 
 staging area, where personnel relate and transfer information, 
 generally in an unsummarized format, which bears directly on 
 the previous shift's impact on the present status of sections 
 and jobs. 
 
 Specific information exchanged includes physical condi- 
 tions, equipment locations on sections or panels, status of 
 supplies, materials, mechanical availability of equipment, and 
 status of ongoing work (e.g., track-belt installation or re- 
 moval, cable power center moves, construction of stoppings). 
 At this level, such information determines jobs that must be 
 accomplished simultaneously with production to ensure 
 
52 
 
 uninterrupted operations, and assists managers in updating 
 and revising work schedules for efficiency. 
 
 At each stage in this decisionmaking process, personnel 
 handle and review different kinds of data and information. 
 Each level involves assignment of jobs, scheduling of work, 
 or adjusting schedules based on updated information and 
 input from various personnel to comply with operational 
 objectives. 
 
 The manager of mines, given this system, has many ways 
 to turn to resolve the recognized problem. However, how does 
 the manager begin to state the case for either training of fill- 
 ins or reduction of accidents to avoid unplanned downtime? 
 What information is required to make the decision? Who does 
 top management charge with the responsibility for training? 
 
 Without guidelines for incorporating operational data 
 into decisions for training, managers may discuss a problem 
 and then defer action or take immediate, ineffective steps to 
 remedy the situation. If they make an immediate decision to 
 train workers as fill-ins, how do they implement their plan? If 
 they defer action because they need additional information, 
 what helps them determine the types of data needed to be 
 collected? 
 
 Here is what might have transpired in the scenario: 
 
 After considering the problem, top manage- 
 ment decides to train additional workers to serve 
 as substitutes for regular longwall crew mem- 
 bers. In so doing, the management team charges 
 the supervisor with the training responsibility. 
 With time at a premium, especially on the part of 
 the supervisor, operational limitations often re- 
 sult in transfer of only the most basic aspect of 
 job requirements to the worker (i.e., the func- 
 tional aspects of performing a task or operating 
 machinery). 
 
 Training of this nature quite often falls short on followup 
 evaluation. Also, misinterpretation of intent, inability to 
 implement actions, or inattention to detail may prevent proper 
 implementation of desired instructions. 
 
 The training experience, hence, becomes one of self- 
 learning. As the worker encounters problems, he or she 
 focuses only on those essentials needed to maintain 
 operational performance. Often, the trainee may have to ask 
 the supervisor or a fellow worker for the proper way to handle 
 a problem. Or, unfortunately, this person may use faulty 
 reasoning in order to accomplish a sequence of tasks. Such an 
 informal approach often leads to shortcuts as the worker tries 
 to get the job done without understanding the potential for 
 mishaps, which may result in downtime and/or injury. 
 
 FORMALIZING TRAINING WITH TOP 
 
 Features of the TOP provide a way for managers, begin- 
 ning at the monthly review meeting, to focus on a specific 
 
 concern such as the problem observed by the mine manager in 
 the shield mover scenario. Working within the traditional 
 management system, here is how TOP can systematically 
 address the problems raised by the mine manager. 
 
 1. Developing a Training Strategy— Step 1 of TOP f fig. 
 5) is initiated when the mine manager and other key personnel 
 discuss the observed problem at the monthly review meeting. 
 Only this time, managers have access to the TOP system and 
 program guidelines. Here is what may transpire: 
 
 At the monthly review meeting, the manager of mines 
 states the case for developing the skills of fill-in workers 
 through training. The manager relates the issue to key person- 
 nel at the meeting: the superintendent of the mine, director of 
 safety and training, controller, and the chief engineer. 
 
 The manager presents the facts: The injured worker was 
 off 18 days and the accrued costs of the accident (e.g., direct 
 and indirect expenses) is $4,600 so far, and the 70 m in of 
 downtime translates into nearly a $9,000 cost considering idle 
 equipment and personnel. Then, the manager charges the 
 mine superintendent with the responsibility to train a number 
 of employees to be proficient as fill-ins for all longwall jobs, 
 and asks for a report on progress in 1 month. 
 
 2. Planning Training and Evaluation . — Given an area of 
 focus, commitment by upper level management, and keeping 
 projected benefits in mind, key mine-level personnel initiate 
 step 2 (fig. 6) and begin to formulate specific objectives. 
 These objectives should be quantifiable as far as possible to 
 permit evaluation of progress. 
 
 At the weekly planning meeting, the superintendent ex- 
 plains the situation and costs incurred to key personnel: 
 longwall coordinator, general mine supervisor, chief electri- 
 cian, outside sueprvisor, trainer and others. "Does a problem 
 exist and, if so, how many workers should we train as fill-ins?" 
 the superintendent asks of the group. The longwall coordina- 
 tor suggests that four workers be trained as fill-ins for various 
 longwall jobs, and that the mine could gain much operational 
 flexibility as well as guard against a recurrence of the previous 
 experience. 
 
 After obtaining a consensus, the superintendent charges 
 the trainer and safety director to draw up a plan for training 
 four workers and estimate total costs. The superintendent will 
 choose the trainees after consulting with the mine supervisor, 
 longwall coordinator, shift supervisor, and the mine commit- 
 tee. 
 
 In a related move, the superintendent requests the chief 
 engineer to project potential benefits of this training approach 
 (i.e., training employees as fill-ins for regular workers who 
 were off or sick). "How much could we have saved over the 
 past 3 months, in terms of production time lost and costs of 
 accidents, if we already had well-trained workers to fill in as 
 needed?" 
 
 Next, the trainer assesses training resources and their 
 compatibility with specific objectives, tailors materials, and 
 develops a tentative training plan and timetable. Also, man- 
 agement determines specific information and data to be col- 
 
53 
 
 lected during and after training, so that the company will 
 obtain an accurate evaluation of the impact of training on 
 operations and achievement of objectives. 
 
 This step requires thought on how and when to obtain 
 data, analyze and summarize it, and present it to personnel 
 throughout the organization. At this point, data and informa- 
 tion must reflect performance levels resulting from changes 
 and allow for comparisons between new performance levels 
 and acceptable standards. (Types of data are referred to under 
 weekly planning meetings.) 
 
 Consider: 
 
 1. Overall goals 
 
 2. Existing training 
 
 3. Changes in operations 
 
 4. Operational problems 
 
 5. Worker or supervisor needs 
 
 6. Feedback 
 
 Areas of focus 
 Improve an operational area 
 Reduce risks 
 New skills 
 Upgrade skills 
 Cross training 
 Transfer job knowledge 
 
 Determine commitment 
 Training resources 
 Planning and scheduling 
 Evaluation tools 
 Money 
 Personnel 
 Communications and feedback 
 
 I 
 
 Project benefits 
 
 To planning phase 
 
 3. Scheduling Training and Data Collection .— This 
 planning process then leads to step 3 (fig. 7) of TOP. Manage- 
 ment schedules and executes training plans, bearing in mind 
 the need for types of training, specific times and trainees, 
 operational contingencies, and potential revisions of the plan. 
 Also, a schedule is set for specific data collection activities, 
 which may require coordination between training and 
 operations personnel. 
 
 4. Evaluating Data and Information . — This step (fig. 8) 
 involves evaluation of the training impact on operations and 
 in achieving specific objectives. Decisions focus on applica- 
 tion of specific data analysis methods, and use of summary 
 statistics or information for assessing the training impact 
 
 Input: training strategy 
 components 
 
 Focus areas: commitments; projected benefits 
 
 Develop specific objectives 
 examples: 
 Control roof behavior on headgate area 
 Train mechanics on circuitry 
 Retrain in work area preparation 
 Cross train fill-in workers as shield 
 movers 
 
 Focus on training 
 
 1. Analyze resources 
 
 2. Address specific objectives 
 
 3. Match specific requirements 
 
 4. Select appropriate trainer 
 
 5. Make tentative plan 
 
 I 
 
 Focus on evaluation 
 
 Data and information required 
 
 Data collection and evaluation methods 
 
 Feedback process 
 
 I 
 
 To scheduling phase 
 
 FIGURE 5.— Developing a training strategy. 
 
 FIGURE 6.— Planning TOP. 
 
54 
 
 Scheduling training sessions 
 
 Specific times 
 
 General timetable 
 
 Period for selected workers 
 
 Schedule data collection 
 
 Performance monitoring 
 Information gathering 
 Analysis period 
 
 Followup visits 
 Reporting dates 
 Feedback meetings 
 
 Perform training 
 
 As scheduled 
 
 collect data 
 
 Revise as needed 
 
 Update resources 
 
 To evaluation phase 
 
 ^.>>^»^AA^^^^-AC^:^^r:^vr 1 x.sW^^v:^>;^V^v.»^;Av^.»^^a 
 
 FIGURE 7.— Scheduling TOP. 
 
 Afterwards, the results of evaluation will be presented in 
 various visual and graphic forms to distinct audiences within 
 the company. Care must be taken to ensure that methods of 
 presentation are compatible with the audience in order to elicit 
 appropriate feedback. 
 
 5. Feedback and Adjustment— Feedback from person- 
 nel at various levels is a critical function of the TOP system. 
 This effort (fig. 9) provides information to operating and staff 
 personnel regarding results from training and attainment of 
 objectives, and obtains constructive comments from them 
 
 Input: actual training data and information 
 collected; pending schedules 
 
 Assess and adjust evaluation methods 
 
 Perform evaluations and summarize 
 
 Effectively display results of evaluations 
 
 Determine methods of presentation 
 
 ' j.kumw^w/Ji ' !■' - «' i. » *ui ' ■ ■ T' '|W^»J ' ..i. i i. « M < 
 
 !«^*T 
 
 — BWB ;*«v — . « l— ■ ».*.", ' i. p y*"-',W£ 
 
 To feedback and adjustment phase 
 
 FIGURE 8.— Evaluation in TOP. 
 
 Input: Evaluations of training impact on 
 
 operations and in achievement of 
 
 objectives 
 
 Give and receive feedback 
 
 Analyze results of evaluations 
 and feedback sessions 
 
 Disseminate results 
 
 Develop new strategies 
 
 MWrwfiii? , tAva;-if--vffi<-*»ri-ft : fri-i^-f-iHW« , i«ii , v,;ir ^vjii^irr.v'.'rhv««.v,Tr^-it-»'»r.ii 
 
 FIGURE 9.— Feedback in TOP. 
 
55 
 
 regarding shortcomings of training, the TOP methodology, 
 formulation of plans or schedules, or practicality in tackling 
 other areas of concern. 
 
 Following this interaction, managers can make adjust- 
 ments to improve the program, amend objectives, continue as 
 planned, or concentrate more heavily on other operational 
 problems. Finally, dissemination of results to all appropriate 
 levels in the organization ensures commitment from various 
 personnel and keeps them abreast of results. Hence, this 
 process will lead to new strategies (involving other areas of 
 focus), new plans, and updated schedules in a systematic and 
 continuous manner. 
 
 As the scenario depicts, TOP guides managers toward the 
 achievement of safer and more efficient operations through a 
 process aimed at mastering longwall changes or innovations 
 and monitoring performance requirements. This leads to 
 
 better control of operational performances and an effective 
 way for measuring the training impact on operations. 
 
 In mastering changes, managers can adjust training to 
 match anticipated modifications in work practices. This 
 permits development of specific objectives which translate 
 operational needs into training plans and schedules. By 
 monitoring performance levels, management can evaluate 
 results and make adjustments in training to meet operational 
 needs. This results in the continuous use of operational data 
 for upgrading the skills of the longwall workforce. 
 
 Thus, TOP provides managers with a way to better 
 control operational conditions for high performance of a 
 longwall system. It gives mine operators a perspective for 
 developing a specific operations-based training strategy and 
 for assessing the impact of training on safety and efficiency. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 The characteristics of U.S. longwall mining, coupled 
 with global coal market conditions, emphasize a necessity for 
 management to plan and organize training to reduce and make 
 effective use of unplanned downtime, develop worker profi- 
 ciency and eliminate performance errors, and improve both 
 the efficiency and safety of longwall technology. These are 
 imperatives managers cannot afford to forfeit. 
 
 Longwall productivity and accident experience, as dis- 
 cussed in this paper, indicated that management can reduce 
 downtime and lost workdays by paying close attention to 
 detail and developing an operations-based training strategy to 
 address operational problems in a systematic fashion. 
 
 The TOP offers a formalized methodology for guiding 
 and assisting management in the application of data and infor- 
 mation to improve operational performances as part of a 
 company's normal decisionmaking process. It can provide 
 
 benefits by allowing management to create a schedule of 
 training requirements directed at — 
 
 • Individual or crew work practices, 
 
 • Familiarization of crew members with new or modified 
 machinery or changing physical conditions, and 
 
 • Development of auxiliary personnel to perform longwall 
 operational or support activities. 
 
 This operations-based strategy provides managers with a 
 tool for improving operational safety and efficiency and for 
 accomplishing various types of training as described in this 
 paper. This approach to longwall operations can ensure ac- 
 complishment of intended objectives for developing profi- 
 cient longwall workers and, in the end, higher productivity. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Harrold, R. Jim Walters' Training Program. Ch. in 
 Coal Age Second Operating Handbook of Underground 
 Mining, ed. by N. P. Chironis. McGraw-Hill, 1980, pp. 390- 
 395. 
 
 2. Jackson, D. Emery Mining Turns to Longwalls. Ch. 
 in Coal Age Second Operating Handbook of Underground 
 Mining, ed. by N. P. Chironis. McGraw-Hill, 1980, pp. 72-75. 
 
 3. Longwall Training Smooths Start-up. Coal Min. and 
 Process., v. 19, No. 2, 1982, pp. 46-48. 
 
 4. Riddell, M., and J. Savage. The Introduction of 
 Mechanised Longwall Systems — An Integrated Approach to 
 
 Training. Paper in Proceedings, Second International Sympo- 
 sium on Training in the Prevention of Occupational Risks in 
 the Mining Industry, ed. by F. L. Misaqi. MSHA (U.S. Dep. 
 Labor), 1981, pp. 51-65. 
 
 5. Sprouls, M. W. Longwall Census '87. Coal Min. 
 Process., v. 24, No. 2, 1987, pp. 26-41. 
 
 6. Peake, C. V. Longwall Output Continues to Rise. 
 Coal Age, v. 91, No. 8, 1986, pp. 58-60. 
 
 7. Longwall Productivity in U.S . Mining Contin- 
 ues to Climb. Coal Age, v. 90, No. 8, 1985, pp. 68-69. 
 
56 
 
 MINER AND TRAINER RESPONSES TO SIMULATED MINE EMERGENCY 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 By Henry P. Cole 1 and Staff, University of Kentucky 2 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 This paper reports the results of a Bureau of Mines sponsored field test of 1 8 exercises intended 
 to teach and assess miner proficiency in dealing with simulated mine emergencies. The problems are 
 written from the perspective of the person working the exercise, and use latent image ink to provide 
 feedback on any course of action listed as an alternative for each question. In this manner, the exercise 
 takes the miner through decision points much like the ones he or she would be faced with in an actual 
 emergency. Data collected from 1,500 underground miners in six States indicate that trainees over- 
 whelmingly judged the exercises as being realistic and authentic, helpful in reminding miners of 
 important things and in learning something new, of a suitable length, and highly enjoyable to work. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 When an emergency situation develops in the isolated 
 environment of an underground coal mine, the well-being of 
 the miners and the mine depends upon the early recognition of 
 the problem and prompt responses to prevent, limit, or escape 
 from the emergency. Civil and military aircraft flight crews 
 face similar problems during inflight emergencies. Research 
 suggests that paper and pencil and/or computer presented 
 simulations of inflight emergencies can better prepare air- 
 crews to recognize and cope with actual nonroutine critical 
 events (Brecke (l), 3 Flathers (2), Giffin Q), and Jensen (4)). 
 Similar extensive research suggests that training physicians 
 and other medical personnel in medical diagnostic judgment 
 and decisionmaking can be facilitated by simulation exercises 
 (Babbott (5_),Berner (£), Dugdale (7), Elstein (8J, Gilbert (2), 
 Jones QP_),McGuire (11-131 . and Rimoldi (14)). These types 
 
 of simulations have come to be used extensively in the training 
 of many kinds of military personnel in a wide range of 
 problem solving tasks (Halff Q5J). Simulation exercises are 
 sometimes constructed using latent image (invisible) ink and 
 paper and pencil tests. When the person makes a choice in a 
 simulated diagnostic procedure, a special pen is used to mark 
 in a space on the paper. A message appears and tells the test 
 taker the consequences of his or her decision or action. 
 Computers, role playing, physical models (manikins), and 
 case reviews are also used to teach and assess proficiency in 
 medical diagnostic and decision making skills. The extensive 
 research literature about these simulations provides much 
 information about how to teach and assess proficiency in 
 fields where critical judgment and decision making are re- 
 quired for health and safety. 
 
 'Educational psychologist 
 
 2 R. D. Wasielewski, G. T. Lineberry, A. Wala, L. Mallett, J. V. 
 Haley, W. E. Lacefleld, and P. K. Berger, University of Kentucky, 
 Lexington, KY. 
 
 'Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 references preceding the appendix at the end of this paper. 
 
57 
 
 LATENT IMAGE SIMULATION EXERCISES FOR COAL MINERS 
 
 Under a Bureau of Mines contract, researchers at the 
 University of Kentucky Institute for Mining and Minerals 
 Research, Behavioral Research Aspects of Safety and Health 
 working group have developed similar simulation materials 
 for underground coal miners. The materials are problems that 
 require miners to recognize and cope with developing emer- 
 gency events in underground mines. 
 
 Problem scenarios are developed based upon actual mine 
 emergencies involving fires, explosions, water and gas inun- 
 dations, roof falls, equipment failures, serious injuries, and 
 sudden illnesses. The scenarios are authentic with respect to 
 both the language and context of underground mining. As a 
 problem unfolds miners must first gather information. They 
 must then make judgments and decisions about what addi- 
 tional information they need, how to obtain the information, 
 and ultimately what actions to take in what order. Proficient 
 
 and efficient responses result in miners working the problem 
 to prevent or minimize the accident or emergency. Errors in 
 information gathering, interpretation, judgment, and deci- 
 sionmaking lead to actions that worsen the situation. Thus, in 
 the safety of a training room, miners experience vicariously 
 the consequences of good and bad judgment and decision- 
 making. It is not uncommon for a miner working the problem 
 to end up "dead" or in deep trouble. When this happens, the 
 miner is attentive to the information and procedures that are 
 included in the remediation portion of the exercise. The 
 remediation is intended to correct errors miners make in re- 
 sponding to the simulation problem. The intention is to 
 improve the ability of miners for coping with the judgment 
 and decisionmaking aspects of actual mine emergencies that 
 may be encountered in the workplace. 
 
 TRADITIONAL ANNUAL REFRESHER TRAINING 
 
 For the past several years, members of the research 
 project have attended many annual refresher training classes 
 at many sites in several States both as observers and as par- 
 ticipants. Observations of these sessions are sufficiently 
 varied and lengthy to support the following generalizations: 
 
 1 . Instruction for rote learning of information is the most 
 common technique used by trainers. 
 
 2. There is a heavy reliance on the same sets of training 
 films from year to year. 
 
 3. Trainees frequently fail to attend to the problem at 
 hand, often dividing their attention between what is going on 
 at the front of the room and interpersonal interactions with 
 those around them. 
 
 4. When games are used, they usually focus on low-level 
 factual recall of information — in addition, the mechanics of 
 the games tend to compete for the miner and instructor atten- 
 tion and often detract from the content. 
 
 5. Many classes are characterized by relatively great 
 amounts of time wasted, in the sense that it is spent on pursuits 
 that are not goal oriented. 
 
 6. Parts of the typical daily program sometimes degen- 
 erate into complaint sessions with little of a concrete nature 
 being accomplished. 
 
 7. The times when miners are most task oriented, atten- 
 tive, and involved is when there is opportunity to discuss and 
 resolve a problem in work procedures, or in discussing a 
 hypothetical or actual first aid, fire, or other emergency. 
 
 8. Class members also tend to be alert and involved 
 when opportunity exists for hands-on practice of specific 
 skills or tasks such as simulated first aid treatment of victims, 
 or the use of mine rescue equipment, or firefighting apparatus. 
 
 Instructional materials that have good potential use often 
 fail to achieve that potential. For example, the Mine Safety 
 and Health Administration (MSHA) Fatal Illustrations pro- 
 gram has the potential to involve miners and instructors in 
 productive indepth discussion, analysis, and planning. How- 
 ever, this potential is possible only when one or two fatal 
 illustrations are selected for indepth attention. Yet, it is not 
 uncommon for an instructor to show 20 to 30 of these fatal 
 illustrations one after the other with an accompanying audio- 
 tape that presents the narrative for each accident. This method 
 presents too much material, too rapidly, with little or no 
 opportunity for miner involvement Heavy use of training 
 films one after the other, without time to think and talk about 
 the film content, presents similar problems. Many studies 
 have shown it is far more effective to focus on one or two 
 issues that have direct relevance for the learners, and to en- 
 courage their dialogue and active involvement about these 
 issues (Bransford (16), Cole (12). and Halpern Q8J). 
 
 In summary, the content of annual refresher training is 
 usually important and relevant. The opportunity for miners to 
 become interested in the content presented and actively in- 
 volved in discussing, debating, and generalizing it to their own 
 experience is often limited. There tends to be little focus on 
 problem solving and decisionmaking. There are, of course, 
 exceptions and very capable instructors who teach effectively 
 using a variety of methods that interest and involve miners. 
 
 Even when annual refresher classes are dull and uninter- 
 esting, in almost all cases the instructors are technically com- 
 petent and respected by the miners in their classes. But both 
 instructors and miner often appear bored by the typical pace, 
 method, and topics of instruction. 
 
58 
 
 DEVELOPING LATENT IMAGE SIMULATION EXERCISES ABOUT MINE EMERGENCIES 
 
 Using accident reports and the help of experienced mine 
 safety personnel, a number of simulation exercises have been 
 developed for teaching and assessing miner skills for respond- 
 ing to underground coal mine emergencies. The exercises are 
 similar in structure to those used successfully to train for 
 judgment and decisionmaking skills in emergency situations 
 in medicine, aviation, and the military. 
 
 Problem scenarios accompanied by maps and illustra- 
 tions are developed from reviews of actual mine emergencies 
 reported in accident investigations. Sometimes scenarios are 
 developed from the experience of miners, mine rescue team 
 members, and mine inspectors. Usually, as a scenario unfolds 
 there are predicaments. At some stages in the problem it is 
 often unclear what series of correct actions is necessary to 
 avoid or lessen the impact of an ongoing or impending acci- 
 dent. Each exercise presents a problem that unfolds over time. 
 Just as in real life, the miner knows something of what has 
 happened in the past, but cannot know what the future holds. 
 However, just as in life, wise and canny miners can anticipate 
 what actions, choices, and failures to act will likely alter 
 future events, for better or worse. Constructing such infer- 
 ences about a best course of action based on available data is 
 what real life problem solving requires in mine emergencies. 
 The simulation exercises are designed to approximate this 
 situation. 
 
 Once they are developed, the realistic exercise scenarios 
 are then discussed in small groups of experienced miners, 
 emergency medical technicians, and mine rescue personnel. 
 As the discussion progresses, good and bad options for coping 
 with the problem at each of several stages emerge. This 
 information is recorded and later used to construct individual 
 questions and correct and incorrect answers to these questions 
 for each scenario. Once developed, these prototype latent 
 image format exercises are authenticated with small groups of 
 other experts. The exercises are then revised, produced, and 
 field tested with working miners in annual refresher training 
 classes. All the exercises concern either first aid or self-rescue 
 and escape situations. 
 
 The exercises are written as if the problem were develop- 
 
 ing and unfolding for the person who completes the exercise. 
 The appendix to this paper shows the beginning of one first aid 
 exercise. The basic background and problem information is 
 presented succinctly in simple language. Simple line drawing 
 illustrations appear in the printed exercise booklet and help to 
 further describe the problem. 
 
 After studying the problem situation and illustrations, 
 miners work the problems by reading a series of multiple 
 choice type questions that appear in a problem book, with one 
 question per page. A separate answer sheet contains sets of 
 brackets that enclose each latent (invisible) image message for 
 each course of action listed as an alternative for each question. 
 When the miner makes a decision and selects a particular 
 alternative, he or she colors between the brackets with a 
 special marking pen. Immediately, the invisible ink becomes 
 visible, and the miner is informed of the correctness or incor- 
 rectness of the response. Often, additional information that 
 would normally result from that action is also presented. 
 Thus, miners soon learn the consequences of their choice, the 
 inadequacy or the value of a particular response, again similar 
 to the manner in which such feedback is received for decision 
 points and choices in actual mine emergency situations. In 
 this manner, the exercise takes the miner through from 6 tol2 
 steps in the problem where information must be gathered, 
 decisions made, or action taken. The exercises are designed 
 to teach as they simultaneously assess miner proficiency in 
 dealing with the problems presented. 
 
 The appendix to this paper also illustrates part of another 
 exercise, this one dealing with escape from smoke and gases 
 originating in an unknown area of a mine. It too presents a 
 complex problem in simple language and makes use of mine 
 section maps to provide information needed to make decisions 
 as the problem unfolds. 
 
 Thirty exercises like these have been developed to date. 
 Once an exercise is developed in a latent image format it can 
 be converted to a computer-administered format Some exer- 
 cises, especially in the first aid area, also lend themselves to 
 role playing simulations with miners acting out the role of 
 victim and first-aiders. 
 
 RESULTS OF FIELD TESTING 
 
 In 1986, 18 exercises were field tested in 84 annual re- 
 fresher training classes at 20 sites" in six States with approxi- 
 mately 1,500 underground coal miners. Large and small 
 mines, union and nonunion companies, high and low coal 
 seam mining conditions, and various mining methods and 
 techniques are represented in the sample. The basic demo- 
 graphic characteristics of this group of miners are presented in 
 
 "The 20 sites were distributed across the Kentucky, West Virginia 
 Pennsylvania, Virginia, Tennessee, and Illinois coalfields. 
 
 table 1 . The distribution of age, gender, and job classification 
 in this sample closely matches the observed distribution of 
 these characteristics in other national samples of miners 
 (Rockefeller (19)). The job classification miner includes all 
 persons in regular and direct coal production jobs under- 
 ground. The maintenance-technical classification includes 
 mechanics, electricians, masons, carpenters, belt setup crews. 
 surveyors, inspectors, engineers, geologists, and others who 
 work underground but not directly in production. The super- 
 visory-management classification includes all managers from 
 
 
59 
 
 TABLE 1. - Basic demographic characteristics of 
 underground coal miners from 6 states, 20 sites, and 
 84 annual refresher training classes In 1986 
 
 Number 
 
 Age 1,298 
 
 Experience 1,219 
 
 Number 
 Gender distribution: 
 
 Male 1,256 
 
 Female 35 
 
 Job classification: 
 
 Miner 1,031 
 
 Maintenance/ 
 
 technical 197 
 
 Supervisory/ 
 
 management 146 
 
 Other ....191 
 
 Total 1,565 
 
 Mode Mean Std dev 
 
 35 
 10 
 
 37.0 
 12.2 
 
 9.0 
 7.0 
 
 Frequency, pet 
 
 97.3 
 2.7 
 
 65.9 
 
 12.6 
 
 9.3 
 12.2 
 
 100.0 
 
 the section foreman up through general mine foreman, super- 
 intendent, and top company management. The other classifi- 
 cation includes clerical and office personnel, preparation 
 plant and surface mine workers, accountants, laboratory 
 workers, and others who work on the surface, but who some- 
 times participate in annual refresher training. Generally the 
 classes were small, averaging about 16 miners (see table 2). 
 
 In addition to completing the exercise answer sheet, 
 miners also completed a rating form and made written com- 
 ments about the exercise. Miners at all sites judged the 
 exercises very favorably, as can be seen by inspection of 
 table 3 . In particular, exercises were judged as being realistic 
 and authentic, helpful in reminding miners of important things 
 and in learning something new, to be about the right length, 
 and enjoyable. In addition to the instructor's directions, the 
 exercise written directions and graphics were judged as easy 
 to comprehend, and the entire exercise as easy to read. 
 
 About 19 pet of the sample reported difficulty in under- 
 standing how to score their performance. Subsequent revi- 
 sions of exercises have simplified scoring procedures and 
 eliminated this problem. Inspection of individual exercise 
 data revealed little variation in ratings of miners across the 
 judgment categories. Generally, all exercises were rated 
 
 TABLE 2. - Typical number of miners per class 
 
 Statistic Value 
 
 Mode 17.0 
 
 Mean 15.5 
 
 Standard deviation 8.7 
 
 uniformly high on all categories, except for clarity of scoring 
 procedures. 
 
 For each class administration, the instructor also com- 
 pleted a questionnaire that solicited information about(l) how 
 the exercise was introduced and administered, (2) if the 
 instructor modified the exercise in any way, (3) the observed 
 frequency of reading problems among miners in the class as 
 they worked the exercise, and (4) the instructor's judgment 
 about key aspects of the exercise. The judgment categories 
 included the degree to which miners were able to understand 
 the instructor's directions, the clarity of written directions and 
 graphics in the exercise, and the scoring procedures. The 
 instructor also was asked to judge the appropriateness of the 
 performance objectives, the relevance of the exercise for the 
 annual refresher training class, and whether more exercises 
 like these should be used in the future in other classes. Instruc- 
 tors also were asked to make comments to improve the exer- 
 cise, and many did so, usually indicating they also would like 
 to have more exercises developed for use in the future. 
 
 TABLE 3. - Rating of the validity, relevance, quality, 
 and utility of 18 exercises in 6 States, 20 sites, and 
 84 annual refresher training classes in 1986 
 
 (Completed data sets, 1,213) 
 
 Miner judgment category 
 
 Yes No 
 
 Exercise content is authentic 97.4 2.0 
 
 Working exercise will help me 
 
 to remember important things 95.4 3.9 
 
 Learned something new from 
 
 working the exercise 86.3 12.8 
 
 The exercise was too long 15.9 83.2 
 
 Liked working the exercise 89.0 10.1 
 
 Instructor directions clear 94.3 4.8 
 
 Written directions in the exercise are clear 86.1 13.0 
 
 Graphics in exercise are easy to understand 92.1 7.0 
 
 The procedures for scoring my performance 
 
 are easy to understand 79.3 18.5 
 
 The exercise is easy to read 92.8 6.4 
 
 The summary data for the instructor's questionnaire are 
 presented in table 4. Most instructors administered the exer- 
 cise individually, in large part because they were requested to 
 do so, to enable the correlation of miner performance scores 
 with their questionnaire data. Given a free choice, the major- 
 ity of instructors report they prefer to administer the exercises 
 in small groups of from three to five miners per group. There 
 are three reasons for this. First, the latent image answer sheets, 
 which are consumable, last longer this way and more classes 
 of miners can be taught with fewer of these materials. Second, 
 most individual class members prefer to work the exercises 
 cooperatively in small groups rather than individually. Once 
 
60 
 
 TABLE 4. - Percentages of instructors in 84 classes 
 responding to questions about exercise administra- 
 tion options 
 
 Administration format: 
 
 Administered individually, 1 exercise 
 
 booklet per miner 77.2 
 
 Presented exercise on transparencies 
 
 while each miner responded individually 15.8 
 
 Presented exercise on transparencies 
 
 while class members responded as a group 5.3 
 
 Used 1 exercise per small group 
 
 in several groups per class 1.8 
 
 Used computer-aided instruction 
 
 format 0.0 
 
 Explanation or direction provided: 
 
 Explained how to work the exercise 
 
 and use the latent image pen 90.5 
 
 Made general comments about the 
 
 exercise problem prior to miners working the 
 
 exercise 69.0 
 
 Answered some questions as 
 
 they worked the exercise 57.1 
 
 Led miners through the exercise 
 
 questions, page by page 14.3 
 
 Provided other types of explanations 
 
 and direction for working the exercise 3.6 
 
 Instructor action: 
 
 Instructor did not modify 
 
 the exercise 93.7 
 
 Instructor did use the discussion notes 
 
 after the miners finished workingthe exercise ..83.2 
 
 miners have worked an exercise as part of a small group, they 
 usually resist attempts to have them work a second exercise 
 individually. Third, in actual mine emergencies and in routine 
 mine work, miners are generally required to work together. 
 Working the simulation exercises in small groups may actu- 
 ally be more valid for teaching and assessing miner judgment 
 
 TABLE 5. -Frequency of miners who had difficulty in 
 reading the exercise as reported by instructors, 51 
 classes 
 
 Miners with 
 
 Classes 
 
 
 
 reading problems 
 
 Number 
 
 pet 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 54.9 
 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 27.5 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 11.8 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5.9 
 
 
 and decisionmaking skills than having them work independ- 
 endy. Just as in real life the opportunity exists for the group 
 decision at critical points to be informed or misinformed by 
 members of the group with special status, authority, and 
 expertise. 
 
 As shown by table 4, before administering the exercise 
 about 91 pet of instructors explained the mechanics of work- 
 ing the exercise, and 69 pet commented on the problem. In 
 about 57 pet of the classes, instructors reported answering 
 some questions by miners as they worked the problem. Obser- 
 vation of field sites suggest most of these questions by miners 
 concerned matters of procedure and clarification of the mean- 
 ing of specific words and phrases to be consistent with local 
 conventions, e.g. "Is a belt control line the same as our Air 
 Alert system?" or "Is the expression dinner hole what we call 
 the kitchen?" Only about 14 pet of the classes had an instructor 
 who led the miners through the exercise in a lockstep fashion, 
 a method that is generally distracting and annoying to trainees. 
 About 94 pet of class instructors reported making no modifi- 
 cations to the exercise, and 83 pet reported using the instruc- 
 tor discussion notes provided with the exercise (see table 4). 
 These data and many field observations suggest instructors 
 administered the exercises as intended. 
 
 Instructors' observations also verified that miners have 
 few problems in reading the exercises (see table 5). Instruc- 
 tors from 51 classes reported on this topic. These instructors 
 reported that 55 pet of classes had no miners who experienced 
 difficulty in reading the exercises. In about 28 pet of these 
 classes, one miner experienced reading difficulty. Classes in 
 which two miners experienced reading difficulty constituted 
 11.8 pet of these 51 classes. Only 5.9 pet of the classes 
 reported three miners who experienced reading problems. No 
 more than three miners with reading problems were ever 
 reported. Table 5 summarizes these results of instructor 
 observations of the frequency of miners' reading problems. 
 
 TABLE 6. - Amount of time needed by the slowest 
 class member to complete the exercise, as reported 
 by instructor, 84 classes, minutes 
 
 Mode 30.0 
 
 Mean 43.1 
 
 Standard deviation 22.9 
 
 Inspection of table 7 reveals that instructor judgments of 
 the relevance, quality, and clarity of exercise content parallel 
 those of the miners. With the exception of clarity of scoring 
 procedures, all aspects of the exercises were rated highly, as 
 can be seen in the small standard deviations for each variable 
 in table 7. The appropriateness of the performance objectives, 
 the use of the exercises in annual refresher training classes, 
 and the judgment that more exercises like these should be 
 developed and used in the future received exceptionally high 
 ratings from instructors. 
 
 
TABLE 7. • Instructor ratings of exercise clarity, quality, objectives, and relevance, 84 classes 
 
 61 
 
 Rating category Strongly agree Strongly disagree 
 
 4 3 2 1 
 
 Miners understood-- 
 
 Instructor directions 52.6 43.6 2.6 1.3 
 
 Written directions in exercise 46.8 44.3 8.9 0.0 
 
 Graphics in exercise 65.4 33.3 1.3 0.0 
 
 Scoring procedures 26.9 29.5 24.4 17.9 
 
 Performance objectives are 
 
 appropriate 72.2 25.3 2.5 0.0 
 
 Exercise fitted well with annual 
 
 refresher training 87.2 10.3 2.6 0.0 
 
 More exercises like these should 
 
 be used in the future 91.0 7.7 1.3 0.0 
 
 TABLE 8. - Exercise list and word count 
 
 Exercise 1 HT OBJ 2 PB MAS 
 
 Apparent Diving Accident 306 217 938 496 
 
 ArnelVBeam 1,218 267 728 471 
 
 Bob Hall 2 300 147 1,134 570 
 
 BennieJFloyd 308 169 665 407 
 
 Bubba 295 234 1,786 1,372 
 
 CleoCPike Rev 
 
 Geo C Pike Simulation 3 3,011 NAp 
 
 Cecil 278 228 1,766 1,114 
 
 Cutthrough Ventilation Arrangement ....3 12 408 2,140 1,225 
 
 Douglas O Tacket 278 142 950 506 
 
 Delta Mine Cutthrough 4 NA 262 1,974 NAp 
 
 Drainway Entry 294 264 1,208 840 
 
 Fix-It 309 287 668 612 
 
 Harry Hastings 295 PB 1,264 566 
 
 Harry Harlan 299 163 985 447 
 
 Harry Harlan Simulation 3 3,222 NAp 
 
 Hot Shuttle Car 308 141 1,151 929 
 
 J.J.Johnson 309 200 1,159 663 
 
 J.J.Smith 300 201 1,227 790 
 
 Jupiter Mine Fire Inc 
 
 Low Coal Fire 315 271 1,699 1,312 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher 309 316 1,829 971 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 3 3,587 NAp 
 
 Persephone Mine Explosion 300 148 966 497 
 
 Roof Fall Entrapment 308 160 1,706 793 
 
 Thurman "HAP" Anderson 309 320 2,553 1,474 
 
 Traumatic Head Injury 316 194 1,383 827 
 
 Vulcan Mine Ignition 308 258 2,308 1,279 
 
 Vulcan Mine Recovery 1,295 323 2,395 1,449 
 
 Water Line Repair 309 408 1,538 894 
 
 Mean 
 
 Std 
 dev 
 
 3.47 
 
 .62 
 
 3.38 
 
 .65 
 
 3.64 
 
 .51 
 
 2.63 
 
 1.11 
 
 3.67 
 3.84 
 3.90 
 
 .52 
 .43 
 .35 
 
 DN 
 
 2 AS 
 
 ^IA 
 
 1,068 
 
 203 
 
 300 
 
 1,098 
 
 185 
 
 294 
 
 918 
 
 244 
 
 333 
 
 798 
 
 181 
 
 230 
 
 1,850 
 
 226 
 
 1,172 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,393 
 
 248 
 
 872 
 
 2,951 
 
 473 
 
 807 
 
 915 
 
 219 
 
 294 
 
 3,121 
 
 500 
 
 NAp 
 
 932 
 
 176 
 
 671 
 
 1,108 
 
 114 
 
 507 
 
 1,232 
 
 223 
 
 353 
 
 1,150 
 
 199 
 
 254 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,206 
 
 228 
 
 708 
 
 1,219 
 
 140 
 
 530 
 
 1,365 
 
 243 
 
 555 
 
 1,843 
 
 306 
 
 1,097 
 
 2,002 
 
 167 
 
 810 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 685 
 
 199 
 
 305 
 
 1,122 
 
 267 
 
 533 
 
 2,247 
 
 193 
 
 1,288 
 
 1,085 
 
 234 
 
 1,288 
 
 1,755 
 
 158 
 
 1,128 
 
 3,638 
 
 199 
 
 1,257 
 
 962 
 
 138 
 
 763 
 
 AS Answer sheet. 
 DN Discussion notes. 
 HT How to use this exercise. 
 Inc Exercise is incomplete. 
 LIA Latent image answers. 
 
 PB Problem booklet. 
 
 Rev Exercise under revision. 
 
 MAS Master answer sheet. 
 
 NAp Not applicable. 
 
 OBJ Performance objectives. 
 
 "Except as noted, all exercises have a latent image format. 
 2 Only parts read by trainees. 
 3 Role play simulation format. 
 4 Essay format. 
 
62 
 
 When developing the exercises, a major concern was to 
 keep them short. Most similar simulation exercises used in 
 other fields tend to be much longer and often require as much 
 as 2 or 3 h to complete. In annual refresher training classes 
 the available yearly time for instruction is only 8 h. Any 
 materials that are likely to be used must be well-organized, 
 brief, and time efficient The exercises meet these criteria 
 Instructors reported the time required for the slowest member 
 of their classes to complete the exercise. The mean time of 
 
 about 43 min reported in table 6 is actually longer than the 
 typical time needed by the typical miner. The standard 
 deviation for this variable is large for two reasons. First, 
 exercise length varies quite a bit Some exercises are long and 
 others are short, as can be seen from inspection of table 8. 
 Second, there is wide variation in the reading speed and com- 
 prehension of any group of adults, including underground 
 coal miners. 
 
 WHY THE EXERCISES ARE EASY TO READ 
 
 Another major concern early in the project was that many 
 miners would not be able to or would not want to read long 
 written paper and pencil exercises. From the beginning, the 
 exercises were designed to minimize demands upon reading 
 speed and comprehension. Their design was also informed by 
 the large amount of recent research in the area of story 
 grammar and reading comprehension. This research has 
 established that the structure and organization of written 
 passages is more critical to a person's motivation to read the 
 material and the ability to comprehend it, than the particular 
 words used in the passage. Basically, well-organized prose 
 materials that have a story line or plot, that deal with emotive 
 laden content, that present dilemmas and predicaments, and 
 that are cast with contexts that are common to the reader's 
 own life experience are compelling reading and result in good 
 comprehension (Anderson (20) . Bower (21) . and Mayer 
 (22)). All exercises developed were designed to meet these 
 criteria for the design of good prose material. 
 
 Other information also explains why the exercises are 
 easy to read. First, although the problem content is often 
 complex, the exercises are written in simple and direct lan- 
 guage. Experienced specialists in the design of instructional 
 materials typically rewrite and simplify exercise wording 
 after these are initially developed by technical personnel such 
 as engineers, emergency medical personnel, and experienced 
 mine rescue specialists. The rewriting of initially developed 
 exercises to conform with standards of good narrative struc- 
 ture, clarity and simplicity of language and directions must 
 not alter, change, or detract from the technical content and 
 purpose of the exercise. A team effort and a willingness to 
 cooperate in exercise construction is essential. 
 
 An analysis of the readability level of three early but 
 representative exercises was carried out using the University 
 of Kentucky Composite Readability Analysis program. This 
 program carries out seven independent estimates of the com- 
 pleted school grade level equivalent required to comprehend 
 
 TABLE 9. - Estimated reading difficulties In grade level equivalence of 
 representative exercises compared to MS HA Fatal Illustration program 
 
 narratives 
 
 Estimation 
 formula 
 
 Harry 
 Harlan' 
 
 Water line 
 repair problem 2 
 
 Vulcan mine 
 ignition 5 
 
 MSHA fatal illustration 
 program 
 
 Spache 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Dale-Chall 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Raygor 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Fry 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Flesch 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 o 
 
 Gunning-Fog 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 SMOG 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 ( 4 ) 
 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 11th grade. 
 
 Estimate not valid. 
 
 Professional. 
 
 College senior. 
 
 College. 
 
 College. 
 
 'First aid exercise. 
 
 2 Self -rescue and other rescue and escape exercise. 
 'Methane ignition, rescue, escape, and first aid exercise. 
 4 Below formula range and cannot be calculated. 
 'Above formula range, and cannot be calculated. 
 
 : 
 
63 
 
 the samples of text material analyzed. A fourth analysis was 
 carried out on the narrative portion of samples from the 
 (MSHA) Fatal Illustrations program. The results of these 
 analyses are shown in table 9. The three representative exer- 
 cises were found to have reading difficulties at the upper 
 elementary and junior high school level, while the MSHA 
 Fatal Illustrations narratives were found to require eleventh 
 grade or higher educational levels of reading skill. It should 
 be noted that all samples were corrected for the specialized 
 mining jargon words that appear in both the simulation exer- 
 cises and in the MSHA Fatal Illustration narratives. The 
 difference in reading levels between the simulation exercises 
 and the MSHA narratives are not related to the absence or 
 presence of special technical words, but to the simplicity, 
 directness, and clarity with which complex ideas are ex- 
 pressed. 
 
 Table 8 provides yet additional evidence that helps ex- 
 plain why the exercises are easy to read. The number of words 
 per exercise is small. Little reading is required to work com- 
 pletely through an exercise. This is accomplished by precise 
 use of simple and direct language, and by the use of appropri- 
 ately placed graphics throughout the exercise as the problem 
 unfolds. Furthermore, the bulk of the entire exercise compo- 
 nent is not read by the miner in the annual refresher training 
 class. Rather, the trainee reads only the problem booklet 
 questions, the answers from which to select, and those latent 
 image messages from the answers selected. The alternative 
 choices to a question, as well as the invisible latent image 
 feedback on the answer sheet, also are terse and to the point. 
 Much effort is required during the design phase of an exercise 
 to achieve this cogency. 
 
 INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS OF EXERCISE ACCEPTABILITY 
 
 Throughout the field testing, a primary problem faced by 
 the project staff was to supply company management and in- 
 structors with the number of exercises and answer sheets they 
 desired. For research and development purposes, only about 
 100 to 200 data sets were needed for each exercise. Yet 
 company trainers often wanted from 500 to 2,500 copies of 
 specific exercises, so that all miners in their organization 
 could be trained. It is clear that the exercises are perceived as 
 appropriate, worthwhile, and effective instructional tools by 
 those who plan and teach annual refresher training classes. 
 
 Frequent observation of refresher training classes by 
 project staff members also independently confirm the sum- 
 mary data presented in tables 2 through 5. Miners almost 
 always are very attentive and interested in the problem being 
 worked. During the discussion period that follows working 
 the exercise, miners actively participate, often challenging 
 points and choices made in the exercise itself, or those made 
 by their colleagues and the instructor. Members of the class 
 almost always explicitly relate and generalize the content and 
 predicaments presented in the exercise problem to their own 
 mines and experiences. The class frequently runs overtime 
 extending into the lunch break, the end of the day, or the next 
 class as miners continue to engage in lively debate and 
 discussion about the problem. During breaks and lunch hour, 
 miners have frequently been observed to continue their dis- 
 cussion of the exercise problem. 
 
 Another observation relates to the emotive involvement 
 of miners in the exercise problem. The level of thinking and 
 dialogue stimulated by the exercises is almost always sophis- 
 ticated and technical. Yet, it is also passionate and emotional 
 as miners and trainers debate what should or should not be 
 done, under various circumstances, and why or why not. In 
 short, the exercises engage the full attention of miners and 
 stimulate high levels of thinking about, and discussing, ways 
 to cope with and prevent mine emergencies. 5 Many studies 
 
 have shown it is precisely these types of emotional and 
 cognitive involvement with classroom presented material that 
 learners see as authentic and relevant. Furthermore, while 
 most classroom learning tends to be inert and not applied by 
 the student to real life situations, classroom instruction that 
 engages the active interest and involvement of learners makes 
 what is learned accessible to the learner. When the content is 
 accessible the learner tends to apply skills and knowledge 
 learned in class to relevant aspects of his or her personal work 
 and life (Bransford Q6_) and Halpern Q8J). 
 
 In summary, both miners and trainers are fascinated with 
 the exercises, would like to have more of these included in 
 annual refresher training, become emotionally and intellectu- 
 ally involved in the problems, easily generalize and relate the 
 problem content to their own experiences, and believe work- 
 ing the simulation exercises will help them cope more effec- 
 tively with similar real-life emergencies. Company manage- 
 ment and instructors would like more exercises, feeling that 
 they stimulate high levels of interest, motivation, and involve- 
 ment of the miners in annual refresher training classes. 
 
 Two broad generalizations can be drawn from the obser- 
 vations and data from the initial field test sites. First, the 
 exercises are time efficient. An entire problem from introduc- 
 tion to feedback can be completed in approximately 1 h, with 
 little or no time wasted on non-goal-directed activity. Second, 
 exercises are motivating to the miners who work them. At 
 each site, regardless of physical conditions or competing 
 concerns, the part of the program devoted to exercise admini- 
 stration was characterized by concentrated effort and a high 
 level of interest on the part of both trainers and trainees. There 
 are three possible reasons for these observations. 
 
 5 A more detailed account of the effects of the exercises on miner 
 and instructor interactions and behavior is presented by reference 23 . 
 
64 
 
 First, the technique used in presenting the problems is 
 intriguing. Although latent image technology has been in 
 existence for several decades, few individuals are exposed to 
 it on a regular basis. Therefore, it is novel and perhaps 
 physically appealing to those who are interested in how 
 objects work. However, there is no doubt that the novelty 
 would soon wear off if that were all the exercises offered. The 
 latent image technique can be considered an attention getter, 
 but it is not the reason miners are willing to spend 1 or 2 h 
 working and debating a problem. The major appeal of the 
 exercises derives from the conformity to good instructional 
 design criteria for both the construction of narrative materials, 
 and for the effective presentation of classroom learning activi- 
 ties and materials. 
 
 A second factor in the apparent success of the exercises 
 is that they provide concrete things for the trainees to do. 
 Unlike training films and rote instruction, the problems do not 
 allow passivity on the part of the miners. In order to get the 
 task completed, class members must become involved. In ad- 
 dition, each person soon finds out that his or her opinion 
 matters. The trainee owns the problem, in a sense, and the 
 outcome depends very much on that person's judgment and 
 
 choices. As in the workplace, the exercises allow the partici- 
 pants to exchange ideas and debate courses of action; either 
 before or after the fact The entire mode, therefore, evokes 
 some of the same intensity of behavior that occurs in real-life 
 situations where miners seek to anticipate, cope with, or 
 reflect upon an emergency situation. 
 
 The preceding point underscores a third aspect of the 
 exercises being field tested. They reflect authentic situations- 
 the same kinds of predicaments miners talk about in the 
 workplace and in other settings where they get together. Field 
 observations indicate miners continue discussing facets of the 
 exercises during breaks and at slack moments in other phases 
 of the training program. This indicates that just as the workers 
 do not tire of speculating on the things that went wrong when 
 actual accidents or disasters occur, they do not grow tired of 
 working exercises such as those now being developed. An ad- 
 vantage of the exercises over real situations is that each 
 problem contains solutions and recommendations based on 
 factual knowledge and expert authority, whereas informal 
 efforts to reconstruct actual accidents after they have hap- 
 pened are often based on incomplete or erroneous informa- 
 tion. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 Simulation exercises for teaching and assessing profi- 
 ciency in coping with underground coal mine emergency 
 situations are a novel approach for annual refresher training 
 classes. Yet, similar though longer and more open ended 
 simulations have been used for years for training mine rescue 
 teams and mine management personnel in mine emergency 
 response procedures. The present project draws upon previ- 
 ous research in simulation problems in medicine, aviation, 
 and the military. It includes as well the expertise in coping 
 with underground mine emergencies that is found among 
 experienced miners and mine rescue personnel. It also draws 
 heavily from the recent research concerned with the construc- 
 tion of motivating and easy to comprehend narrative materi- 
 
 als, as well as other research about the design of instructional 
 strategies that make learning interesting and what is learned 
 accessible to the learner in practical contexts. The simulation 
 exercises that result are intended for working miners. They 
 focus on the perceptions, information, judgments, decisions, 
 and actions working miners must exhibit to prevent, recog- 
 nize, and control nonroutine emergency situations. The 
 setting is at the working section. The options are those 
 available to working miners. Initial field test results of these 
 18 exercises have been encouraging. These latent image and 
 other formats for simulation exercises have potential for 
 increasing the relevance and quality of annual refresher train- 
 ing. 
 
65 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Brecke, F. H. Instructional Design for Aircrew 
 Judgment Training. Aviation, Space, and Envir. Med., v. 53, 
 No. 10, 1982, pp. 951-957. 
 
 2. Flathers, G. W., Jr., W. C. Giffin, and T. J. Rockwell. 
 A Study of Decision Making Behavior of Pilots Deviating 
 From a Planned Flight. Aviation, Space, and Envir. Med., v. 
 53, No. 10, 1982, pp. 958-963. 
 
 3. Giffin, W. C., and T. H. Rockwell. Computer-Aided 
 Testing of Pilot Response to Critical Inflight Events. Human 
 Factors, v. 26, No. 5, 1984, pp. 573-581. 
 
 4. Jensen, R. S. Pilot Judgment: Training and Evalu- 
 ation. Human Factors, v. 24, No. 1, 1982, pp. 61-73. 
 
 5. Babbott, D., and W. D. Halter. Clinical Problem- 
 Solving Skills of Internists Trained in the Problem-Oriented 
 System. J. Med. Educ, v. 58, No. 12, 1983, pp. 974-953. 
 
 6. Berner, E. S. Paradigms and Problem-Solving: A 
 Literature Review. J. Med. Educ, v. 59, No. 8, 1984, pp. 625- 
 633. 
 
 7. Dugdale, A. E., D. Chandler, and G. Best. Teaching 
 the Management of Medical Emergencies Using an Interac- 
 tive Computer Terminal. Med. Educ, v. 16, No. 1, 1982, pp. 
 27-30. 
 
 8. Elstein, A. S., L. S. Shulman, and S. A. Sprafka. 
 Medical Problem-Solving [Letter to the editor]. J. Med. 
 Educ, v. 56, No. 1, 1981, pp. 75- 76. 
 
 9. Gilbert, G. G. The Evaluation of Simulation for Skill 
 Testing in the American National Red Cross First Aid and 
 Personal Safety Course. Ph.D. Thesis, OH State Univ., 1975, 
 264 pp.; University Microfilms No. 76- 997. 
 
 10. Jones, G. L., and K. D. Keith. Computer Clinical 
 Simulations in Health Sciences. J. Computer-Based Instr., v. 
 9, No. 3, 1983, pp. 108-114. 
 
 11. McGuire, C. H. Medical Problem-Solving: A Cri- 
 tique of the Literature. Paper in Research in Medical Edu- 
 
 cation 1984 Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Annual Con- 
 ference. Assoc. Amer. Med. Colleges, 1984, pp. 3-13. 
 
 12. McGuire, C. H., and D. Babbott. Simulation Tech- 
 nique in the Measurement of Problem-Solving Skills. J. Educ. 
 Measurement, v. 4, No. 1, 1967, pp. 1-10. 
 
 13. McGuire, C.H..L. M. Solomon, and P. G. Bashook. 
 Construction and Use of Written Simulations. Psychological 
 Corp. (New York), 1976, 307 pp. 
 
 14 Rimoldi, H. H. A. The Test of Diagnostic Skills. J. 
 Med. Educ, v. 36, 1961, pp. 73-79. 
 
 15. Halff, H. M., J. D. Holan, and E. L. Hutchins. 
 Cognitive Science and Military Training. Amer. Psych., v.41, 
 No. 10, 1986, pp. 1131-1139. 
 
 16. Bransford, J., R. Sherwood, N. Vye, and J. Rieser. 
 Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving: Research Founda- 
 tions. Am. Psychol., v. 41, No. 10, 1986, pp. 1078-1089. 
 
 17. Cole, H. P. Process Education. Educational Tech. 
 Publ., 1971, 261 pp. 
 
 18. Halpern, D. F. Thought and Knowledge: An Intro- 
 duction to Critical Thinking. Erlbaum (Hillsdale, NJ), 1984, 
 402 pp. 
 
 19. Rockefeller, J. D. IV. The American Coal Miner: A 
 Report on Community and Living Conditions in the Coal 
 Fields. The President's Commission on Coal, 1980,233 pp. 
 
 20. Anderson, J. R. Cognitive Psychology and Its Impli- 
 cations. Freeman, 1985, 472 pp. 
 
 21. Bower, G.H. Experiments in Story Comprehension 
 and Recall. Discourse Processes, v. 1, 1978, pp. 211-231. 
 
 22. Mayer, R. E. Thinking, Problem Solving, Cogni- 
 tion. Freeman, 1983, 426 pp. 
 
 23. University of Kentucky. Exercises for Teaching and 
 Assessing Nonroutine Mine Health and Safety Skills: Ongo- 
 ing BuMines contract H0348040; for inf. contact W. J. 
 Wiehagen, TPO, BuMines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
66 
 
 APPENDIX. - PORTIONS OF A FIRST AID 
 AND A MINE EMERGENCY EXERCISE 
 
 
67 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Exercise 
 
 Background 
 
 8 entries are being driven in 42 inch coal. 
 
 Eleven miners are working on Section 001 . 
 
 The portal is 4,000 feet outby the face. 
 
 It is just after lunch. (Marvin ate a big meal.) 
 
 The EMT normally on this section is absent today. 
 
 You are trained in basic first aid but not as an EMT. 
 
 The top in this section is generally drummy and poor. 
 
 The roof bolter has an ATRS. 
 
 Problem 
 
 You are the pinner operator. You are bolting the roof in the 
 #2 entry at the face. Your helper, Marvin R. Letcher, has 
 gone out ahead of the bolter to mark the roof. You yell at 
 him to get back. He almost gets back to supported roof 
 when a piece of draw slate falls trapping both his legs. (See 
 Figures 1 & 2 on page 9.) Marvin is lying face down 
 screaming. The roof is dribbling across the whole entry just 
 past the last row of bolts. Now, turn to page 4 and answer 
 the first question. 
 
 2 
 
68 
 
 FIGURE 1 .—Draw slate falls from roof. 
 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Draw slate hits Marvin's legs. 
 
69 
 
 Marvin 
 
 -h 
 
 + 
 
 -f + 
 Crosscut (bolted roof) 
 
 + H- 4- + -h 
 
 Top 
 working 
 
 + 
 
 Stretcher and first-aid kit at the dinner hole 
 dinner hole 240 ft away. 
 
 Mine pager at tailpiece 200 ft away. 
 
 FIGURE 3.— Details of Marvin's position. 
 
70 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher 
 Question A 
 
 You yell for help. Three other miners come quickly. Marvin's legs are under the slate. 
 His head is near the left rib. The roof bolter is outby his position about six feet. The 
 ATRS is in place. (See Figure 3 on page 5.) The top continues to work. What would 
 you do now? (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 1. Grab a couple of slate bars. Have the other three miners help you pry the rock off 
 Marvin's legs. 
 
 2. Get the head of the roof bolter under the corner of the rock and lift it gently off 
 Marvin's legs. 
 
 3. Move close to Marvin to check his injuries and begin first aid immediately. 
 
 4. Leave the bolter and the ATRS where they are. Set roof jacks and timbers from the 
 ATRS toward and around Marvin. 
 
 5. Lower the ATRS on the bolter. Tram the bolter ahead and then raise the ATRS 
 over Marvin. 
 
 6. Tram the roof bolter out of the entry. Then tram a scoop in so you can lift the rock 
 off Marvin with the scoop bucket. 
 
71 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher 
 Question B 
 
 You have now supported the roof with two jacks and three posts. Using slate bars and 
 a jack, the three of you have lifted the slate just enough to free Marvin's legs. The top 
 continues to dribble across the whole entry. What should you do now? (Choose only 
 ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 7. Have your buddies grab Marvin by his belt and shirt while you grab his pants leg 
 above and below his left knee. Pull together and slide him out from under the rock 
 sideways on his stomach. 
 
 8. Get a board or some other object to serve as a splint. Put the board between his 
 legs. Then gently tie his legs together before moving him. 
 
 9. Reach under the slate. Grab him by his boots and jerk him out sideways by his 
 feet. 
 
 10. Leave Marvin under the rock. Give him first aid in this position until he has been 
 fully immobilized and can be moved without further injury. 
 
 6 
 
72 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher 
 
 Master Answer Sheet for Marvin R. Letcher Exercise 
 
 Use this answer sheet to mark your selections. Rub the special pen gently and 
 smoothly between the brackets. Don't scrub the pen or the message may blur. Be sure 
 to color in the entire message once you have made a selection. Otherwise you may not 
 get the information you need. 
 
 Question A (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 1 . [ Risky! This may hurt you, the others, and Marvin. Try again! ] 
 
 2. [ Good idea, but the head is too big to fit under the rock. If you try to lift the rock 
 [ this way it may slide, slip, or fall and hurt Marvin more. Try again! 
 
 3. [ This action places you and Marvin in danger. Try again! 
 
 4. [ Correct! With the roof supported, you can now help Marvin. Do next question. 
 
 5. [ When you start to lower the ATRS, more slate falls. This action places you and 
 [ Marvin in danger. Try again! 
 
 6. [ When you lower the ATRS and begin to tram the bolter outby, more slate falls. 
 [ Now Marvin is in more trouble and you can't get to him. Try again! 
 
 Question B (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 7. [ Correct! This procedure would be the fastest and least harmful way to move 
 [ him. Do next question. 
 
 8. [ This would endanger him and you. Try again! 
 
 9. [ This method of moving Marvin could cause further injury. Try again! 
 
 10. [ Risky and impossible. You can't work on him under the rock. This action also 
 [ places you and him in danger. Try again! 
 
 Question C (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again !") 
 
 11. [His airway has to be O. K. He is screaming. There is a more important first 
 [step. Try again! 
 
 12. [ Marvin probably needs help before being transported. Try again! 
 
 13. [ Correct! This protects everyone. Color the box under answer 14. 
 [ 
 
 21 
 
73 
 
 Cecil 
 
 Cecil Exercise 
 
 Background 
 
 The mine, which is above the water table, is wet and has a 52 inch seam. 
 
 This is an 8 entry supersection, with 2 continuous miners, and 2 shuttle 
 cars. 
 
 You (Cecil) are a continuous miner operator on the West Mains Section. 
 
 You are slim, strong, and in good shape (5' 10" and 145 lbs). 
 
 Big Tim, your helper, is overweight and in poor physical condition (6' 2" 
 and 275 lbs). 
 
 The shuttle car roadway is littered with a large accumulation of loose 
 coal and coal dust. 
 
 Problem 
 
 You and Big Tim have just trammed the continuous miner to the face of the 
 #1 entry. Your boss comes by and tells you that one shuttle car with a 
 damaged cable is stalled between #3 and #4 in the last open crosscut, and 
 the other is stuck near the feeder. You and Big Tim decide to replace a few 
 worn bits while waiting. While pulling the bits, you smell something burning. 
 Tim tells you the smell is probably just from heat shrinking the boot over 
 the splice on the shuttle car cable. After installing the bits, you go to the 
 mouth of the #1 entry to establish face ventilation. Your eyes begin to burn 
 and water. You look down #1 and across to #2 and see a cloud of thick, 
 black smoke. The smoke is going by the mouth of #1 and out the return. 
 You immediately yell to Tim and tell him about the smoke. 
 
 After studying the map on page 8, turn the page and answer the first 
 question. 
 
74 
 
 « 
 
 O 
 
 E 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 ca 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 .a 
 
 8. 
 
 09 
 (0 
 
 c 
 u 
 
 3 
 O 
 >- 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 O 
 U 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 E 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 c 
 o 
 
 09 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 0) 
 
 ■o 
 c 
 
 ■ti 
 
 c -* 
 
 !< 
 
 o • 
 
 >• 3 
 
 => • 
 
 Ox 
 
 LIS 
 
 E 
 
 
75 
 
 Cecil 
 
 Question A 
 
 After telling Tim about the smoke, what should you do first ? (Choose only ONE 
 unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 1 . Take your filter self-rescuer off your belt and have it ready in case you need it. 
 
 2. Sit down and wait for instructions from your face boss. 
 
 3. Put on your filter self-rescuer and tell Tim to do the same. 
 
 4. Take a deep breath and head for intake air quickly. 
 
 9 
 
76 
 
 Cecil 
 
 Question B 
 
 As you are putting on your filter self-rescuer (FSR), Big Tim tells you that he has left 
 his FSR on the other miner, which is broken down in the #6 entry. What would you do 
 now? (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 5. Finish putting on your FSR, but stop and think before taking further action. 
 
 6. Share your FSR with Tim by taking turns breathing through it, and dash 
 through the smoke. 
 
 7. Tell Tim to stay put. Finish putting on your FSR and go across the section to get 
 Tim's FSR. 
 
 8. Leave your FSR off and wait for help with Tim. 
 
 9. Offer your FSR to Big Tim and have him go for help. 
 
 
 10 
 
77 
 
 Cecil 
 
 Master Answer Sheet for Cecil Exercise 
 
 Use this answer sheet to mark your selections. Rub the special pen gently and 
 smoothly between the brackets. Don't scrub the pen or the message may blur. Be 
 sure to color in the entire message once you make a selection. Otherwise you may 
 not get the information you need. 
 
 Question A (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 1 . [ You shouldn't do this unless you plan to put it on now. Try again! ] 
 
 2. [ He's probably down at the feeder. You need to act now. Try again! ] 
 
 3. [ Correct! Carbon monoxide may be present. Do next question. ] 
 
 4. [ This is very dangerous! You and Big Tim may die. Try again! ] 
 Question B (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 5. [ Correct! A "snap" decision could prove fatal to both of you. You are not yet in ] 
 [ smoke. Do next question. ] 
 
 6. [ This would be difficult to do, and you would likely become separated in the ] 
 [smoke. Try again! 
 
 7. [ There is a more critical first step. Try again! ] 
 
 8. [ Although "misery loves company," it is important that at least one of you is ] 
 [ protected from carbon monoxide. Try again! 
 
 9. [ Should it be necessary for someone to get through the smoke quickly, it should 
 
 ] 
 
 [ be you rather than Tim. Try again! ] 
 
 Question C (Choose only ONE unless directed to "Try again!") 
 
 10. [ The effects of carbon monoxide do not depend on physical condition. Try ] 
 [ again! ] 
 
 1 1 . [ This will not protect him from carbon monoxide. You still don't know the ] 
 [ source or extent of the smoke. Try again! 
 
 12. [ Smoke is slowly drifting in toward the face. Tim would soon be overcome. Try ] 
 [ again! ] 
 
 22 
 
78 
 
 FIRST AID ROLE PLAY SIMULATIONS FOR MINERS 
 
 By H. P. Cole, 1 R. D. Wasielewski, 2 J. V. Haley, 3 and P. K. Berger 4 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Simulation exercises designed to strengthen miners first aid patient evaluation, problem identi- 
 fication, and first aid treatment skills were developed and evaluated over a 2-yr period. The exercises 
 are based on the work of Ohio State University and University of Kentucky researchers under Bureau 
 of Mines contract The design characteristics of these simulations are described in this paper. An 
 example exercise is provided as an appendix to this paper. Using these materials, instructors can adapt 
 the procedure and methods to develop a wide variety of other effective first aid simulation exercises. 
 
 Field tests of the new exercises suggest that the simulations (1) are seen as authentic and realistic 
 problems by miners and instructors, (2) actively engage the interest and participation of miners, and 
 (3) teach important first aid diagnostic and problem identification skills, as well as standard first aid 
 treatment procedures. Performance data from the exercises confirm miners lack of proficiency in first 
 aid diagnostic and evaluation skills. Training with realistic simulations, like those researched and 
 described in this report, may increase miner proficiency for coping with actual first aid emergency 
 situations. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 This paper provides practical information for instructors 
 who teach first aid to miners in annual refresher training 
 classes. After reading the paper and examining the materials 
 in the appendix, instructors who choose to do so can develop 
 similar simulation exercises for other first aid problems. The 
 paper also provides background information about the design 
 of these types of simulation exercises and presents data about 
 their effectiveness. 
 
 The first section reviews the role of simulation exercises 
 in teaching critical skills. Miner experience with simulation 
 exercises, like mine rescue contests, is then discussed. Then, 
 the inexpensive Ohio State University simulation method 
 developed by Gilbert (1-2) 5 is described. Its potential appli- 
 cation to the training of miners is noted. Results of the Uni- 
 versity of Kentucky studies of miner first aid strengths and 
 
 weaknesses are then presented. Implications of these findings 
 for the improvement of first aid training of miners are dis- 
 cussed. 
 
 The next part of the paper describes the design of new first 
 aid simulation exercises for miners. The exercises emphasize 
 initial diagnostic evaluation of the victim's injuries through 
 hands-on primary and secondary surveys, as well as the per- 
 formance of standard first aid treatment procedures once the 
 injuries have been identified and treatment priorities deter- 
 mined. Then, the field testing procedures used to evaluate one 
 exercise are described. The miner evaluations of the exercise 
 are presented along with information about the miner per- 
 formance. 
 
 The last part of the paper interprets the data from the field 
 tests of the new simulation exercise. Suggestions for the use 
 of such exercises are provided. 
 
 'Professor, Department of Educational and Counseling Psy- 
 chology. 
 
 2 Associate professor, Lexington Community College. 
 'Professor, Department of Behavioral Science. 
 
 4 Professor, Martin School of Public Administration. Univer- 
 sity of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 
 
 Underlined numbers in parentheses refer to items in the list of 
 references at the end of this paper. 
 
79 
 
 SIMULATION EXERCISES FOR TEACHING AND TESTING CRITICAL SKILLS 
 
 Simulation tests of real life problem solving are often an 
 effective way to train and assess proficiency for dealing with 
 emergency situations. Simulated emergencies can be realistic 
 and motivating. They can also demand a broad range of 
 responses from the individual including (a) recognizing cues 
 that indicate an emergency is developing or underway, (b) 
 gathering additional information to diagnose the nature and 
 extent of the emergency, (c) making decisions about various 
 courses of action that should be taken, and (d) implementing 
 and carrying out appropriate procedures to alleviate or control 
 the emergency (Distlehorst (3J). For these reasons, well- 
 designed simulation exercises can mimic many aspects of 
 emergency situations. Consequently, a simulation exercise 
 can provide opportunity for persons to learn and practice 
 critical skills needed to cope with actual emergencies. 
 
 Because of these characteristics, simulation exercises are 
 widely used in training professional and technical persons for 
 responding to emergency situations. Elaborate interactive 
 computer-controlled human patient simulators, patient actors, 
 computer-generated patient evaluation problems, and paper 
 and pencil latent image patient care and management prob- 
 lems (PMP's) are frequently used for training physicians, 
 nurses, and dentists to diagnose and treat medical illnesses and 
 emergencies (Babbott (4), Dugdale (5J, Farrand (6J, Fleisher 
 (2), Jones (8), McGuire (9-101 Norman (11), Pryor Q2), 
 Saunders (13) . and Umbers (14)). Similar simulation tech- 
 niques are used in assessing proficiency of emergency skills 
 of aircrews (Flathers (15) . Giffin (16) . Jensen (17)). power 
 plant operators (Hunt (18V). and other technical personnel 
 (Olsen Q9J). 
 
 Figure 1 outlines a simulation exercise developed for the 
 proficiency testing and refresher training of industrial and 
 laboratory workers (Olsen (19)). The simulations are carried 
 out as staged accidents in actual work locations. Human 
 actors and simple props are used to stage a more or less 
 realistic accident scene. (In one training program described 
 by Olsen (19) . animal blood and entrails obtained from 
 slaughterhouses are used as props to simulate major injury 
 accidents to workers.) 
 
 The simulation begins when workers discover the simu- 
 lated accident and begin first aid care for the victim. The 
 discovery may be with or without prior knowledge of the 
 trainees as part of a planned training activity. Although they 
 may provide a realistic context for teaching and assessing 
 proficiency in critical first aid skills, such full-scale work 
 location simulation exercises are difficult and costly to ar- 
 range. Yet these and other types of simulation exercises 
 provide experience with situations workers and first-aiders 
 rarely encounter otherwise. A main purpose of such simula- 
 tions is to maintain proficiency in nonroutine, infrequently 
 used, but critical skills. 
 
 Other types of simulation exercises can often be even 
 more expensive, especially when they involve complex inter- 
 active computers in combination with mechanical mockups of 
 human patients, aircraft cockpits, or other equipment. How- 
 ever, simpler paper and pencil simulations are often used for 
 teaching and assessing proficiency in critical skills, especially 
 those involving problem recognition, information gathering, 
 and decisionmaking (Giffin (16J). 
 
 Paper and pencil simulations of this type have recently 
 been developed for teaching coal miners how to cope with 
 underground mine emergency situations (Cole (20-21) and 
 Lacefield (22)). Knowledge gained from constructing and 
 field testing these types of simulations can contribute directly 
 to the design of effective role play simulation exercises. As 
 McGuire (23) notes in a review of medical simulation re- 
 search, it is not the format of problem presentation but the 
 content and logic of the simulated problem that is basic to an 
 effective exercise for testing proficiency in such skills. Simu- 
 lations may take many formats including computer admini- 
 stration, paper and pencil exercises, gaming situations, full- 
 scale drills and contests in the workplace, or structured class- 
 room role playing activities. This paper deals with the latter 
 type of simulations. However, the principles noted often 
 apply to other types of simulation problems, including the 
 latent image paper and pencil format exercises developed in 
 this project and described in other reports (Cole (24)). 
 
 MINER EXPERIENCE WITH ROLE PLAY SIMULATIONS 
 
 If designed appropriately, role play simulations are mo- 
 tivating and effective means for teaching and assessing prob- 
 lem solving skills needed to cope with emergency situations. 
 If they are not carefully designed, classroom role play simu- 
 lation exercises fail to achieve their potential. Both well 
 designed and poorly designed role play simulations have been 
 experienced by most miners and trainers. The simulations 
 experienced by most miners fall into three general categories: 
 Mine rescue contest exercises, first aid contest exercises, and 
 impromptu and less complete classroom role playing situ- 
 
 ations that are usually carried out in the context of teaching 
 interpersonal dynamics. This generalization is based upon 
 visiting and observing many of these types of training activi- 
 ties in the mining industry in 6 States over a 4-yr period. 
 
 Mine rescue training exercises are widely used in the 
 mining industry. These are elaborate and detailed problem 
 solving exercises that involve the use of actual mine rescue 
 equipment and many props to simulate an underground mine 
 environment Sometimes the exercise is carried out under- 
 ground in an actual mine. During the exercise some persons 
 
80 
 
 SCENARIO 
 EMERGENCY RESPONSE TRAINING 
 
 DATE TIME 
 
 NATURE OF EMERGENCY: Acid battery explosion 
 
 TRAINING TO BE UTILIZED/TESTED: First aid in acid environment 
 LOCATION OF EXERCISE: Emergency generator building 
 
 NOTIFICATIONS OR SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS: Fire Department. Request that the 
 fire department take information from the plant emergency response team and advise 
 
 that no ambulance is available for transport of injured. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF INCIDENT: A maintenance man is checking the bearings on the 
 emergency generator. Batteries are being charged. Upon completion of his job, he 
 lights a cigarette. The flame ignites hydrogen which is trapped in the area because of 
 
 a ventilation problem. 
 
 The battery explodes. 
 
 The man is hit by flying debris. 
 
 His head is cut. 
 
 His hand is burned by the exploding hydrogen gas. 
 
 He is covered with acid. 
 
 PROCEED AS IF THIS SITUATION WERE AN ACTUAL EMERGENCY. 
 
 FIGURE 1.— Example of realistic simulation exercise (Olsen (79) ). 
 
81 
 
 play the role of injured or trapped miners while others adopt 
 the multiple roles of the mine rescue team and its support staff. 
 The exercise is structured around a complex and realistic 
 problem, such as a mine fire or explosion. The simulated 
 victims and the mine rescue team do not know all of the 
 problem structure as the exercise begins. Rather, they know 
 only the information that would typically be available to them 
 in a similar actual mine emergency. Thus, as in real life, 
 details of the problem become known to the role players only 
 as they develop a plan, enter the simulated mine and attempt 
 to locate and rescue the missing miners. 
 
 The problem unfolds and changes as the rescue team 
 explores the mine, gathers information, encounters barriers 
 and hazards, and modifies strategy to achieve the goals of 
 locating and evacuating trapped and/or injured miners and 
 restoring the mine to a safe condition. Although there are 
 well-established procedures and protocols for mine rescue 
 work, every mine exercise is a different problem. A good 
 solution (rescue) requires a flexible and unique combination 
 of prior knowledge and skills. The development and execu- 
 tion of constantly changing plans and strategies is required. 
 Standard protocols must be recalled and applied when appro- 
 priate. As the rescue proceeds, inferences must be constructed 
 about mine conditions based on available information. A 
 good solution creatively integrates the large amount of infor- 
 mation and the many procedures basic to any problem . Miners 
 and trainers enjoy these elaborate simulations and learn much 
 from them. 
 
 First aid exercises and contests are also widely used in the 
 mining industry, often in conjunction with mine rescue con- 
 tests. These exercises also involve miners who role play 
 injured accident victims and others who adopt the roles of a 
 first aid team. The simulated injuries are usually severe. First 
 aid kits and supplies normally available in mines are available 
 to the first aid team. However, unlike mine rescue exercises 
 that require problem solving activity, most mine first aid 
 exercises and contests place less emphasis upon initial prob- 
 lem identification and formulation. The nature and extent of 
 the victim's injuries are usually given to the first-aiders, often 
 printed on a piece of paper. The exercise usually focuses upon 
 the skill of the first aid team in applying standard procedures 
 to stop bleeding, dress and bandage wounds, splint and ban- 
 dage fractures, and immobilize the victim on a stretcher. 
 These types of exercises present the first-aiders with an 
 already well-defined problem. The emphasis (and scoring) is 
 upon the rapid and skillful application of first aid procedures 
 according to standard protocols. The early and crucial infor- 
 mation gathering, problem formulation, and strategy develop- 
 ment aspects of the problem are ignored. These include (1) 
 the first-aider's initial evaluation of the accident scene to 
 determine if it is safe to treat the victim, or if some other 
 action(s) must be taken first; (2) the approach to and removal 
 of the victim, once the mine area in which the victim is located 
 is judged safe for the first-aiders to enter; (3) the evaluation of 
 the victim's injuries through a detailed primary and secondary 
 
 survey; (4) the use of information from the primary and 
 secondary surveys to construct inferences about what injuries 
 are present, which should be treated, in what order, and by 
 what methods; (5) the planning and implementation of com- 
 plex details of communicating with surface personnel and 
 transporting the victim to the portal. 
 
 The third type of role play simulations with which many 
 trainers and miners are familiar are designed for inclusion in 
 annual refresher training and similar classroom settings. 
 Constraints of time and location generally require these simu- 
 lation exercises to be brief, perhaps no longer than 20 min, and 
 to not require elaborate props or equipment. Often the content 
 of these role play simulations concerns interpersonal dynam- 
 ics among miners and their supervisors. Sometimes the 
 content is technical, such as the role playing of a mine 
 inspector and a mine supervisor conversation about a list of 
 violations found by the inspector in a current visit to the mine. 
 If carefully planned, developed, and introduced at the appro- 
 priate time and in an appropriate manner, these types of 
 shorter simulations can also be engaging and elicit the full 
 participation of miners. However, even short classroom 
 simulation exercises are more difficult to design and structure 
 than they may at first appear. 
 
 It has been observed that many mine trainers have tried to 
 use role play simulations like these in their classes, but with 
 poor results. Often there is too little planning and preparation 
 on the part of the instructor. Skillful and experienced instruc- 
 tors who can use impromptu role play situations effectively 
 tend to be few and far between. Frequently the method fails 
 to achieve its potential because the trainer fails to select and 
 structure an authentic problem that challenges participants 
 present levels of knowledge and skill. Oftentimes the problem 
 structure is not clear to the trainer or to the miners. The content 
 and logic of the problem is often not well articulated. The 
 roles of the players are often not specified clearly, and class 
 members feel uncertain and uneasy about what they are to do. 
 Sometimes, little thought is given to what the members of the 
 class who are not involved in the role play situation are to do 
 during the activity. Usually there are no objective criteria for 
 evaluation of the role play performance. Following the 
 activity, it is easy for the persons who observed to be critical 
 of the actors. Thus, the role players may feel uneasy and de- 
 fensive. One or two experiences with role play simulations 
 like these serve to disenchant both miners and trainers. In the 
 future, both will tend to avoid similar classroom simulation 
 exercises or activities that they perceive as similar to these 
 simulations. 
 
 Much preparation prior to the simulation is necessary if 
 the instructor is to present the simulated problem in a realistic 
 and time efficient manner, and if trainees are to become fully 
 and quickly engaged in the activity. Effective role play 
 simulation exercises incorporate a number of components. 
 These include (1) simple props that simulate key aspects of the 
 problem setting, (2) carefully chosen graphics and illustra- 
 tions that help describe the problem, (3) a brief written 
 
82 
 
 description that clearly presents the initial problem, (4) brief 
 and clear instructions to the individual class members who 
 play various roles in the simulation (and to those who observe 
 the role play simulation), and (5) a means to evaluate specific 
 aspects of the problem solving performance of the partici- 
 pants. Role play simulations that are usually designed and 
 used by classroom instructors tend to be more impromptu and 
 less complete with respect to these design criteria. 
 
 First aid classroom role play simulations that meet good 
 design criteria and that are known to be motivating and 
 effective instructional tools have been developed and re- 
 searched with college student populations at the Ohio State 
 University (Gilbert (D). This earlier research was used to 
 design the first aid simulation exercises discussed in this 
 paper. 
 
 GILBERT FIRST AID SIMULATION TECHNIQUE 
 
 In his dissertation, Gilbert Q) set out to develop an inex- 
 pensive, easy to use, and effective simulation method for 
 teaching basic first aid skills. His review of the earlier 
 research categorized simulation exercises into eight different 
 approaches. Many of these approaches, such as computerized 
 mechanical models of injured human victims, full-scale field 
 simulations of accidents with injury makeup kits and human 
 actors (as often used in the military), and complex flight or 
 other equipment simulators are not available to instructors in 
 typical first aid courses. Other methods, such as those de- 
 scribed by Olsen (19) using human actors with animal blood 
 and entrails to simulate industrial accidents at actual work 
 stations, are difficult to stage, very time consuming, and 
 fraught with potential ethical and legal problems. 
 
 Using ideas and techniques from simulation methods and 
 research across the eight approaches, Gilbert developed an 
 inexpensive, simple, but effective simulation approach. The 
 procedure provides short verbal descriptions of the problem 
 situation, brief written instructions for human actors (victims 
 and bystanders) in brief role playing situations, injury tags 
 placed on the victim, and a performance scoring sheet The 
 simulation is presented to the trainee as if he or she had 
 suddenly encountered an accident victim. 
 
 The trainee must first gather information from the victim 
 and bystanders, by observation and questioning. Information 
 about the nature and extent of injury to the victim is partially 
 revealed by the trainee's primary and secondary surveys of the 
 victim. Bleeding, puncture wounds, dislocations, fractures, 
 and other injuries are not fully simulated with makeup kits. 
 However, they are simulated by the victim actor and by injury 
 tags placed on the victim's body at appropriate places; e.g., a 
 small label stuck to the patient's ear that says "small amount 
 of clear, slightly yellow fluid running out of ear," a small label 
 on the upper left chest that says "puncture wound (about the 
 size of a pencil) making a sucking noise," or a large red card 
 on a limb or the floor that says, "large pool of dark red blood 
 and blood-soaked clothing." 6 
 
 The size, location, and prominence of the injury tag is 
 related to the size, location, and prominence of actual injury 
 cues on real victims with the types of injuries being simulated. 
 
 To perform effectively, the trainee must find and make 
 use of all the cues (position of victim, bystanders observa- 
 tions, injury card cues located on the victim, etc.). He or she 
 must then decide upon a course of action and administer first 
 aid. For each simulation exercise there is a performance check 
 list that is used by the instructor to score the proficiency of the 
 trainee. An example of a Gilbert simulation exercise and a 
 performance scoring sheet is given in figures 2 and 3, respec- 
 tively. 
 
 Gilbert tested his simulation method in a large experi- 
 mental study with college students. He found the method to 
 be highly motivating to students, inexpensive, and effective in 
 teaching basic first aid skills as outlined in the "First Aid and 
 Personal Safety Course of the American Red Cross" (25) . He 
 also found his method was effective in measuring student 
 knowledge of first aid skills as validated by the "Ohio State 
 University First Aid and Personal Safety Achievement Test" 
 (Gilbert (1)). The Ohio State test is a standardized 100 item 
 multiple choice test. More recently Gilbert (2) has further 
 refined and validated his simulation method with other 
 samples of persons and with the "Burkes Emergency Care 
 Knowledge Test" (Burkes (26)). 
 
 From his research, Gilbert concluded that persons trained 
 in the method were able to learn to perform procedures 
 correctly and that they achieved mastery of verbal knowledge 
 about first aid procedures. However, his study did not deter- 
 mine how long trainees retained this proficiency and knowl- 
 edge, or how well this procedural proficiency in first aid 
 generalized to actual first aid practice. 
 
 
 6 These injury labels are similar to the labels used in surface 
 simulations of mine rescue contests where printed material on cards 
 placed on the ground or simulated rib disclose information to the 
 team as it advances (water, methane level, roof fall, etc.). 
 
83 
 
 Situation #7B: Industrial Accident 
 
 Situation: 
 
 You are working on a construction project when there is a cave-in and material 
 strikes a co-worker. 
 
 Where: 
 
 Ground level of a new building project 
 Miscellaneous Information: 
 
 You fear the building will continue to cave in. 
 
 Position of Victim: 
 
 On back 
 Special Instructions for Victim: 
 
 You are Unconscious and remain so. 
 Supplied Materials: 
 
 1 . Assorted bandaging materials 
 
 2. Coat 
 
 Tags: 
 
 1 . Moderate bleeding (1 )-f ront of scalp 
 
 2. Mild bleeding (1)-nose 
 
 3. Mild bleeding (1)-back of neck 
 
 4. Moderate bleeding (l)-front of left lower leg 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Example of Gilbert simulation exercise. 
 
84 
 
 Name of First Aider 
 
 Grader 
 Situation #7B: Industrial Accident 
 
 Yes 
 Well Done 
 
 Yes 
 
 Adequate 
 
 No 
 
 1 . Was the victim removed from the dangerous 
 
 area in proper fashion? 3 , 2 
 
 2 . Was the victim properly examined for all 
 
 injuries? 2 
 
 3. Was moderate bleeding of leg controlled and 
 bandaged properly? 4,3 
 
 A. Direct pressure and elevation (1) 
 
 B. Pressure point (1) 
 
 C. Proper bandage and dressing (2) 
 
 4. Was moderate bleeding of scalp controlled by a 
 loose bandage and dressed so as not to stop flow 
 completely? 4,3 
 
 5. Was concussion suspected and victim thus 
 
 handled very carefully? 2 
 
 6. Was mild bleeding of neck controlled and 
 
 bandaged properly? 3,2 
 
 A. Direct pressure (1) 
 
 B. Proper bandage and dressing-non-circular (2) 
 
 7. Was mild bleeding of nose controlled in an 
 appropriate fashion? 2 
 
 8. Was victim treated for shock? (In this case 
 elevation of feet is inappropriate and elevation of 
 
 upper body is acceptable.) 2 
 
 2,1 
 
 2,1 
 
 Comments: 
 
 Add 
 
 Deductions. 
 Total 
 
 Fbssfcte 
 
 _22_ 
 
 FIGURE 3.— Example of Gilbert simulation exercise performance scoring sheet. 
 
85 
 
 POTENTIAL OF GILBERT SIMULATION METHOD FOR MINER TRAINING 
 
 Prior to the work of this project, it appeared that the 
 Gilbert method for teaching and assessing proficiency in first 
 aid skills had not been applied to miner training. However, for 
 a number of reasons, the method was judged to have promise 
 for teaching first aid skills to miners in annual refresher 
 classes. 
 
 First, it is relatively easy to develop and use simulation 
 exercises patterned after the Gilbert method. Neither the 
 development of the exercises nor their use requires any special 
 equipment beyond that typically available to annual refresher 
 class instructors. 
 
 Second, the method is adaptable. Where miners might be 
 inhibited about doing a full body survey in a suspected spinal 
 injury victim (including checking for penile erection and toe 
 flexure), a manikin rather than a human actor might be 
 substituted. 
 
 Third, the method is brief and time efficient. A single 
 simulation can be completed, evaluated, and critiqued in a 20- 
 or 30-min period. Multiple role play simulations of the same 
 or different problems may be undertaken with small groups of 
 trainees in the same classroom, thus involving all participants 
 in hands-on skill building activities. 
 
 Fourth, the Gilbert method has proven to engage the full 
 attention and participation of college students and others in 
 learning first aid skills, and it has also been shown to increase 
 their first aid knowledge and skills. 
 
 Fifth, many of the simulation exercises developed by 
 Gilbert and his colleagues may be easily adapted to first aid 
 problems that are common in underground mines. 
 
 Sixth, the method can be used to present realistic prob- 
 lems that mimic well the full range of problem solving activity 
 required in actual mine first aid emergencies, much more so 
 than first aid team contest exercises, or refresher class first aid 
 instruction that presents a well-defined first aid injury case 
 and focuses mainly on performance of first aid procedures. 
 
 Seventh, field interviews revealed that miner first aid 
 skills and knowledge were weakest in critical information 
 gathering, judgment, and decisionmaking. These specific 
 skill areas are emphasized by the Gilbert simulation method. 
 
 For these reasons the Gilbert simulation method was 
 studied and adapted to the production of classroom simulation 
 exercises for use in annual refresher training. 
 
 MINER FIRST AID STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES 
 
 A study of miner performance of first aid skills as 
 practiced on injured fellow miners was undertaken (Cole, 
 (21)). Medical personnel and miners trained as emergency 
 medical technicians (EMTs) were sampled from four coal- 
 producing regions in Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia. 
 The sample included those first aid experts who first see and 
 treat injured miners who have earlier received first aid from 
 their fellow miners. The observations of these experts were 
 gathered from interviews. Interviewers used critical incident 
 and structured interview forms designed to elicit from these 
 experts their direct observations of what first aid tasks miners 
 usually perform well and what tasks they often perform 
 poorly. One hundred twenty first aid experts were inter- 
 viewed, some in group settings. Reports from 77 experts who 
 
 made individual responses were collected and tallied. Table 1 
 describes the geographic distribution and the types of experts 
 involved in this sample. In the interviews it was made clear 
 that the expert' s frame of reference should be the strengths and 
 weaknesses of miner actual first aid performance. The quality 
 of performance was to be judged by the expert's examinations 
 of the victims, following initial first aid treatment by non- 
 EMT trained miners. 
 
 The working EMT's shown in table 1 included five 
 underground coal miners who routinely are called to the scene 
 of underground first aid emergencies, and seven EMT ambu- 
 lance personnel who routinely meet injured miners at the 
 portal. The 33 EMT miner trainees are all experienced 
 miners, many of them supervisors, who had nearly completed 
 
 TABLE 1. - Types of first aid experts interviewed and their geographic distribution 
 
 Expert type 
 
 Eastern KY 
 
 Western KY 
 
 Central WV 
 
 Southwest VA 
 
 Total 
 
 Emergency MD 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 Emergency room RN 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 EMT instructors 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Working EMT's 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 EMT miner trainees 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 Other 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Totals 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 77 
 
86 
 
 16 weeks of EMT training but who had not yet passed the 
 certification examination. 
 
 The experts interviewed reported miners were strongest 
 in following standard procedures for treating obvious inju- 
 ries, especially splinting and bandaging simple fractures, 
 caring for cuts, abrasions, and sprains, and controlling bleed- 
 ing. Miners were reported as most often making serious errors 
 when (1) immobilizing and transporting victims with back 
 and neck (spinal) injuries, (2) dressing and immobilizing 
 compound fractures, (3) rushing to move an injured miner 
 without first immobilizing and stabilizing the victim, and (4) 
 failing to do a victim evaluation through a primary and 
 secondary survey. 
 
 Poor performance on these tasks was reported to be 
 caused primarily by failure to discover hidden or nonobvious 
 injuries. Missing hidden injuries was said to result from miner 
 failure to conduct an adequate initial hands-on patient evalu- 
 ation. Thus, the victim's injuries, unless obvious, tend to 
 remain unidentified. Properly evaluating the victim for inju- 
 ries tends to improve first aid care because hidden injuries 
 may be found and treatment priorities established. 
 
 Analysis of the data suggested there is a consensus among 
 the experts on both first aid treatments performed well and 
 those performed poorly. Obvious injuries are generally 
 treated well, hidden injuries and illnesses are not, with a major 
 exception that obvious compound fractures are often not 
 treated well because the treatment procedures are difficult 
 
 Sometimes obvious and hidden injuries are combined in 
 the same victim. Table 2 reports the experts' estimated 
 percent of injuries miners treat well or poorly when the 
 injuries are obvious, hidden, or combined. Table 3 shows 
 there is a strong positive correlation between those first aid 
 treatments miners do well-poorly and the obvious-hidden 
 nature of the injury. The observed correlation between these 
 two dimensions is 0.53 . When the obvious but difficult to treat 
 injuries (compound fractures and amputations) are omitted 
 from the obvious-done poorly cell, the relationship is stronger 
 and the correlation increases to 0.64. 
 
 What differentiates miner treatment of obvious and hid- 
 den injuries? It appears that treatment of obvious injuries 
 requires knowledge of technique and appropriate use of first 
 aid equipment, the skills that are emphasized in annual re- 
 fresher first aid training and first aid contests. Appropriate 
 treatment of hidden injuries or illnesses appears to require 
 more emphasis upon gathering information, evaluating the 
 accident scene and victim, constructing inferences about what 
 the probable injuries are, and prioritizing first aid treatment 
 and procedures. 
 
 TABLE 2. - Obvious, hidden, combined, and 
 other injuries treated well-poorly 
 
 First aid 
 
 Obvious 
 
 Hidden Combined Other 
 
 Cases reported 117 41 43 9 
 
 Treated well pet 68 7 26 (') 
 
 Treated poorly., pet 32 93 74 (') 
 
 1 These frequencies were too small to compute meaningful 
 percentages. 
 
 Interviews with the 120 experts also yielded other infor- 
 mation, including a consensus that miners often failed to 
 communicate clearly and effectively with each other and with 
 surface personnel when they are involved in a first aid emer- 
 gency. Lack of clarity in communication, or failure to com- 
 municate the details of an injury accident can have severe 
 consequences for a victim. Examples cited include (1) a 
 mantrip bringing out an injured miner being forced to wait for 
 the track to be cleared of other equipment, when an appropri- 
 ate call earlier could have cleared the track all the way out, 
 (2) an injured miner who had been brought 4 miles to an 
 elevator and had to be transported back in the same direction 
 from which he had started, plus an additional 4 miles, to 
 another elevator because the first elevator was temporarily in- 
 operative while being repaired, and (3) getting an injured 
 
 TABLE 3. - Relationship between first aid done well-poorly and obvious-hidden injuries 
 (Reported frequencies of well-poorly done first aid) 
 
 Done well 
 
 Done poorly 
 
 Total 
 
 Including compound fractures and amputations: 1 
 
 Obvious 79 
 
 Hidden ..3 
 
 Total 82 
 
 Excluding compound fractures and amputations: 2 
 
 Obvious 79 
 
 Hidden ...3 
 
 Total 82 
 
 38 
 38 
 
 76 
 
 23 
 38 
 
 61 
 
 117 
 
 41 
 
 158 
 
 102 
 41 
 
 143 
 
 1 Chi square = 44.09, 1 degree of freedom; P = <0.001; phi coefficient = 0.53. 
 
 2 Chi square = 58.81, 1 degree of freedom; P = <0.001; phi coefficient = 0.64. 
 
 
87 
 
 miner to the surface promptly and into the company ambu- 
 lance but not being able to leave the mine property for the 
 hospital because the very long surface unit train was blocking 
 the single roadway to the mine. 
 
 After the field interviews of the 1 20 first aid experts from 
 the underground coal mine industry were completed, a meet- 
 ing at the National Mine Health and Safety Academy was 
 convened with 13 additional experts familiar with medical 
 emergencies in underground coal mines in six States. These 
 experts, who routinely teach first aid as well as provide first 
 aid and emergency medical treatment to miners, were also 
 asked to identify the most common and most serious errors 
 made by miners in first aid treatment of fellow accident 
 victims. The group members identified most serious and 
 frequent errors as failure to do a careful injury assessment, 
 failure to prepare and stabilize the victim prior to transport to 
 the surface, and failure to monitor the victim during the 
 transport period. 
 
 Miners were said to often act too quickly, moving the 
 victim out without first searching for and identifying the 
 extent and nature of injuries. More extensive injuries and 
 complications frequently result for the victim because first- 
 aiders fail to conduct critical injury evaluation, fail to find and 
 care for serious injuries, and hurry transport. These 13 experts 
 
 reviewed the findings from the field interviews and independ- 
 ently judged them to be valid. The results of the field inter- 
 views of first aid experts, and the independent observations of 
 the 13 experts, are also consistent with an earlier set of 
 findings and recommendations from a study concerned with 
 the first aid needs and skills of miners (Pickar (22)). 
 
 In summary, good first aid in underground mine emer- 
 gencies requires a broad problem solving focus, not only 
 knowledge of specific first aid procedures. Good first aid 
 simulations should be structured much like good mine rescue 
 contest problems. They should present a simulation that 
 mimics the complexity of problem identification, information 
 gathering, decisionmaking, communication, strategy devel- 
 opment, rapidly changing conditions and unknowns, and the 
 application of specific first aid techniques required to admini- 
 ster effective first aid in actual mine emergencies. These 
 research results from studies of miner needs for first aid 
 training, and the practical knowledge gained from studies by 
 Gilbert and his colleagues, contributed to the development of 
 short and time efficient first aid simulations for use in annual 
 refresher training classes. A sample exercise that resulted 
 from this integration of research and practice is included as an 
 appendix to this paper. It can serve as a model for others who 
 are interested in developing additional first aid simulation 
 exercises for miners. 
 
 NEW FIRST AID SIMULATIONS FOR MINER TRAINING 
 
 Many of the approximately 50 simulation exercises in the 
 Gilbert (2) manual are relevant to underground coal mine first 
 aid situations and can be used with little modification. (All of 
 Gilbert's simulations are available for duplication without 
 copyright restrictions.) Other Gilbert type simulations of coal 
 mine medical emergencies can easily be developed from real 
 past accident situations. The example simulation exercise and 
 scoring sheet in figures 4 and 5 illustrate this. The graphic 
 depiction of the accident situation (fig. 6) is taken from the 
 MSHA "Coal - Underground Fatalities" (28J. The problem 
 situation, injury tags, and scoring sheet are designed for this 
 case. Although the miner in the accident case was fatally 
 injured, for purposes of the exercise, the miner's injuries are 
 severe, but not necessarily fatal if he is given prompt and 
 proper first aid care. Many other problem situations can be 
 taken from the MSHA "Fatal Injury Abstracts and Illustra- 
 tions" program, as well as from MSHA and State accident 
 investigation reports. Consequently it is a relatively easy task 
 to make up an array of Gilbert type simulations based on real 
 case materials. 
 
 The first aid simulation exercise (fig. 4), and two others 
 involving other mine injury first aid situations were distrib- 
 uted to a group of instructors who routinely teach annual 
 refresher training classes. While these persons found the 
 content of the exercises to be of interest, they were unsure 
 about how effective the exercises might be in their classes and 
 
 also unsure how to go about presenting the material. Some 
 thought miners in their classes might be unwilling to partici- 
 pate in such an activity. Others thought the simulation would 
 require too much preparation, or would be too difficult to carry 
 out. Subsequent to these meetings, the Gilbert method was 
 modified to make the exercise purpose more explicit, to make 
 it easier for trainers and miners to use the simulations, and to 
 produce a realistic simulation similar in many ways to the 
 traditional mine rescue exercise simulations popular with 
 miners and trainers. 
 
 Examination of the sample exercise in the appendix to 
 this paper illustrates all the basic features of the Gilbert 
 method have been retained, while additional design features 
 have been added that make the simulation easier for miners 
 and instructors to use. 
 
 The following is a list of the design guidelines for these 
 newer role play simulations. 
 
 1. The problem should challenge participants present 
 levels of first aid knowledge and skill. There should be an 
 opportunity for the trainees to identify and solve problems, not 
 only the opportunity to demonstrate first aid procedures such 
 as giving artificial respiration or bandaging a wound. 
 
 2. The problem context should be authentic with respect 
 to the trainees workplace experiences. The problem, the 
 language used to describe it, the roles and relationships of the 
 victim and role players, the graphic illustrations and the props 
 
Situation #1 : Roof Fall Injury 
 
 Situation: 
 
 A miner is hit by 12 inch thick, 4x5 foot kettle bottom while shoveling coal 
 Where: 
 
 48 inch coal near a continuous miner 
 
 Miscellaneous Information: 
 
 There are two other members in the crew and you are the most experienced. 
 Nearest phone 5 minutes away. It is twenty minutes to portal by mantrip. 
 
 Position of Victim: 
 
 Lying on side under part of broken kettle bottom 
 Special Instructions for Victim: 
 
 You can talk but are dazed and cannot move your arms and legs. 
 Special Instructions for Crew Members: 
 
 Act excited but do what you are told. 
 Supplied Materials: 
 
 Mine first aid kit and stretcher (5 minutes away). 
 Tags: 
 
 1 . Part of kettle bottom on top of miner (Simulate with cardboard box or other 
 similar object) 
 
 2. Left upper chest pulls in when miner breathes in. (Apply label to left chest under 
 shirt) 
 
 3. Bones of upper spine are out of line. (Apply label to upper spine under shirt) 
 
 FIGURE 4.— Sample Gilbert-type exercise simulation modeled after a coal mine accident. 
 
89 
 
 Name 
 
 Grader 
 Situation #1 : Roof Fall Injury 
 
 Yes 
 Well Done 
 
 Yes 
 Adequate 
 
 No 
 
 1 . Was the kettle bottom promptly, gently, 
 and properly removed from the victim? 
 
 2. Was the victim properly examined and 
 questioned for all injuries? 
 
 3. Was the victim not moved unnecessarily? 
 
 4. Was the victim given verbal encouragement? 
 
 5. Was crushed chest properly diagnosed and 
 splinted? 
 
 6. Was possible spinal injury properly diagnosed 
 and victim handled correctly? 
 
 7. Was victim treated for shock? 
 
 8. Was help sent for? 
 
 9. Was victim properly immobilized and moved 
 properly? 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Add 
 
 Deduclions. 
 Total 
 
 FbssUe 
 
 21 
 
 FIGURE 5.— Sample Gilbert type exercise simulation performance scoring sheet for roof fall accident situation. 
 
90 
 
 ^M£> 
 
 FIGURE 6.— Depiction of roof fall accident situation {28). 
 
91 
 
 used to help present the problem, the types of injuries simu- 
 lated, as well as their cause, must all be seen as authentic and 
 realistic by the trainees with respect to their workplace expe- 
 riences. 
 
 3. The initial problem situation, descriptions of addi- 
 tional background information, and instructions to the role 
 players, should all be brief and articulate statements written in 
 simple language. Drawings, diagrams, graphics, and simple 
 props should be used along with verbal descriptions to present 
 the main aspects of the problem and its context. 
 
 4. The initial problem situation needs to be described 
 adequately. Relevant background information that would be 
 known to the persons in an actual problem situation should be 
 briefly presented. However, only that information that would 
 be immediately available to the first-aiders from the emer- 
 gency scene itself, from the victim or witnesses, should be 
 available in the initial problem narrative statement. Other- 
 wise, the simulation does not provide the opportunity for the 
 trainee to identify the problem(s), establish treatment priori- 
 ties, and select and apply relevant first aid procedures. 
 
 5. The simulation exercise should be designed to reveal 
 additional information to the problem solvers role playing the 
 first-aiders as the simulation unfolds. The instructions to the 
 victim, the placement of injury and accident scene cues, and 
 all other aspects of the problem should be designed to release 
 additional relevant information to the problem solvers as 
 appropriate inquiries are made as the problem is worked. 
 
 6. Simple props that simulate the key elements of the 
 accident scene, the injuries to the victim, the materials and 
 resources at hand, and any special conditions in the specific 
 accident situation need to be developed and presented 
 throughout the exercise as the problem unfolds. These props 
 can include simple drawings and diagrams of the accident 
 scene including the location and appearance of equipment and 
 the victim, depictions of obvious and hidden injuries through 
 the appropriate placement of injury tags and simulated inju- 
 ries, special instructions to the victim about how he or she 
 should act or speak, as well as collections of equipment and 
 materials that would usually be available at or near to the 
 accident scene, e.g., other persons, telephones, first aid kits, 
 jackets, tools, etc. 
 
 7. The brief printed instructions to those class members 
 who are to role play the victim (s), witnesses, and/or the first- 
 aiders need to be prepared on separate cards and presented to 
 the role players when the simulation is introduced. Similar 
 sets of brief instructions need to be prepared and given to 
 trainees who are not involved as actors but will observe the 
 simulation. Prior to the simulation, each group of trainees, 
 victim, first-aiders, and observers need their own set of 
 instructions to define their role in the activity. 
 
 8. A performance evaluation sheet by which to rate the 
 effectiveness of the first aid treatment administered to the 
 victim by the first-aiders should be prepared. All the key steps 
 in proper first aid treatment for the case in the simulation 
 
 should be listed and followed by a short and easy to use rating 
 scale. Following the simulation, all the members of the class 
 including the instructor, the victim, the first-aiders, and the 
 observers should rate the first aid performance on the rating 
 scale. Discussion of the ratings awarded by the instructor and 
 the class members should be used as aids for correcting errors, 
 reinforcing correct performance, and illustrating first aid 
 concepts, procedures, and techniques. 
 
 In addition to the materials to be used with the miners in 
 the classroom, a carefully designed instructor's guide should 
 be prepared for the trainer. The following is a list of design 
 guidelines for the instructor's guide: 
 
 1. The instructor's guide should present the problem 
 situation in a brief narrative and graphic form that will also be 
 used to help present the problem situation to the miners. This 
 helps the instructor to grasp quickly the content and context of 
 the problem. (See pages 3-5 of appendix.) 
 
 2. The instructor's guide should describe in a clear and 
 logical manner what the instructor must do before the simula- 
 tion to prepare for class, what he or she must do during the 
 simulation to ensure an effective session, and what must be 
 done after the simulation to help class members profit from the 
 exercise. This type of detail in the instructor's guide makes it 
 easy for the instructor to prepare for class. Uncertainty about 
 how to proceed is avoided. Detailed prior preparation and 
 planning is assisted by such directions. (See pages 6-10 of 
 appendix.) 
 
 3. The instructor's guide should be designed so that 
 everything the instructor needs to prepare for and carry out the 
 simulation is provided. This includes the narrative descrip- 
 tion and graphics used to present the problem situation to the 
 miners (prepared in large type suitable for copying to readily 
 visible overhead transparencies); injury tags, instructions to 
 the victim, first-aiders, and observers all printed neatly on 
 cutout cards that may be quickly clipped out and used as is; the 
 performance rating form; additional diagrams, charts, and 
 pictures to be used following the simulation; suggestions 
 about how to adapt, modify, and enhance the exercise; etc. 
 Those props and materials that cannot be included in the 
 instructor' s guide should be commonly and easily available in 
 typical annual refresher training classes. These things include 
 first aid kits, blankets, jackets, tools, and objects like desks 
 and tables used to simulate equipment like roof bolters, 
 continuous mining machines, and such things as rolled up 
 newspapers taped with masking tape to simulate an amputated 
 arm. 
 
 4. The instructor's guide and the simulation activity 
 itself should both be designed such that once the instructor 
 prepares for one class, he or she can save the props and 
 materials and use them again to teach other classes for the 
 same simulation, with minimum new preparation time. 
 
 5. The instructor's guide and the simulation activity 
 itself should be designed to help instructors generalize these 
 instructional design principles to the planning, development, 
 
92 
 
 and use of other effective simulation exercises generated by 
 instructors themselves. 
 
 There are two primary instructional design differences 
 between the Gilbert simulations and these newer first aid 
 simulations. First, with the new method the presentation of 
 the problem scenario is more detailed and complete, but still 
 short and time efficient. In the Gilbert method, the problem 
 presentation is accomplished through brief verbal statements 
 and descriptions along with the physical role playing presen- 
 tation of the accident scene complete with the role playing 
 victim and injury tags. (See figure 1.) In the new method the 
 problem situation is presented in more detail. A one-page, 
 large-type description of the problem and its background 
 features is presented on an overhead transparency. (See page 
 3 of appendix.) In addition, detailed drawings and graphics 
 are presented on overhead projector transparencies. (See 
 pages 4-5 of appendix.) These diagrams and drawings quickly 
 convey details of the accident scene that would normally be 
 available in an actual emergency, but that are difficult to 
 describe in verbal statements. It is also easy for the instructor 
 to set up the simulated accident scene with reference to the 
 written and graphic depiction of the problem. This simulta- 
 neous multiple presentation of the problem through verbal, 
 graphic, and physical simulation of the accident scene and 
 injuries helps make the exercise more realistic and meaning- 
 ful to the miners who enter the classroom in the role of first- 
 aiders or observers. 
 
 A second instructional design difference between the 
 Gilbert simulations and the newer method concerns the degree 
 to which the instructor is provided details and assistance in 
 preparing for and carrying out the classroom simulation 
 activity. In typical Gilbert simulation exercises the instructor 
 is provided with little specific information about how to 
 prepare for the simulation, conduct the activity, or engage in 
 fruitful followup discussion. (See figure 1.) The new method 
 makes these matters explicit. Consequently, instructors who 
 are not skilled in using classroom role play simulations as an 
 instructional method may be expected to do a better job of 
 preparing for and conducting their class. Examination of the 
 instructor's guide for the sample simulation exercise included 
 in the appendix illustrates the explicit nature of the assistance 
 to the instructor in planning and conducting the exercise. 
 
 First, the guide presents the problem situation to the 
 instructor in verbal and graphic form. (See pages 3-5 of 
 appendix.) Thus, the instructor immediately knows what the 
 problem is and has information about how the accident scene 
 must be simulated. 
 
 Second, the instructor is told how to prepare for the 
 simulation using the materials in the instructor's guide and 
 locally available resources. Specific suggestions include a list 
 of materials and props that must be gathered prior to the 
 simulation, details of how to stage the simulated accident 
 scene, how to recruit the role players, and how to present the 
 role players and the observers their individual tasks and 
 
 instructions. (See pages 6-8 of appendix.) Additional direc- 
 tions are provided that explain what the instructor should do 
 during the simulation, and how to conduct an effective correc- 
 tive feedback and discussion session after the simulation 
 including using the performance evaluation ratings by all 
 class members, victim, first-aiders, and observers. (See pages 
 9-10 of appendix.) Tips are also provided concerning how 
 long the exercise will take, how to save the injury tags and 
 props to make teaching subsequent classes with the same 
 simulation exercise an easy task, and how to adapt and modify 
 the exercise to local situations and needs. (See pages 10- 1 1 of 
 appendix.) 
 
 Third, the guide provides the instructor with many of the 
 materials he or she needs to conduct the simulation. A set of 
 performance objectives that define what the class members 
 are to learn and do is helpful to instructors in clarifying their 
 own thinking about the activity and may be used to report to 
 superiors the purpose and contentof the activity. (Seepage 13 
 of appendix.) Ready to use materials needed for the simula- 
 tion are provided. These include the performance rating form 
 (see pages 14-15 of appendix), a trainee questionnaire that 
 allows the miners to evaluate the exercise (see page 16 of 
 appendix), and a similar instructor's evaluative questionnaire. 
 The instructor need only duplicate these materials. 
 
 In addition, the instructions to the victim and the first aid 
 role players, the injury tags, and prop tags are all prepared in 
 final form and sufficient number (see pages 17-20 of appen- 
 dix.) Again, the instructor need only make one copy of these, 
 cut out the tags, and mount them on a card. Once this is done 
 the same tags can be used repeatedly in new classes with the 
 same simulation activity. Additional diagrams and drawings 
 are included that may be useful to the instructor when discuss- 
 ing the problem and providing corrective feedback after the 
 simulation. These need only be copied to overhead transpar- 
 encies to be used by the instructor (see pages 21-23 of 
 appendix.) Finally, the reference sources are provided for the 
 first aid techniques and procedures used in the simulation 
 problem (see page 24 of appendix). 
 
 Earlier observations and studies suggested that mine 
 health and safety trainers are quite competent in the technical 
 aspects of what they teach, but less informed about how to 
 design and use effective classroom simulations. An addi- 
 tional important design characteristic of these newer simula- 
 tion exercises is their capability to teach instructors how to 
 plan and conduct classroom simulations. Once an instructor 
 has used one or two simulation exercises like the one in the 
 appendix to this paper, he or she should learn specific tech- 
 niques that may be applied to the development and use of 
 similar simulations for annual refresher training classes. The 
 instructor's guide is deliberately designed to serve as a model 
 to which instructors can refer as they develop, plan, and carry 
 out their own simulation exercises for annual refresher train- 
 ing classes. 
 
93 
 
 FIELD TESTING AND NEW SIMULATION EXERCISES 
 
 The sample simulation exercise in the appendix to this 
 paper has been field tested in 3 States at 6 training sites. To 
 date, data from 3 classes at 3 sites in 2 States have been 
 collected and analyzed. Additional field tests of this exercise 
 and other first aid simulation exercises are in progress. 
 
 The basic characteristics of the miners involved in the 
 field test for which these results are reported are described in 
 table 4. Although there were 59 miners involved in these three 
 classes, the variable number of persons reported in table 4 and 
 later tables reflects missing data in specific categories. Table 
 5 describes the three classes for which these data are reported. 
 The number of first-aiders is the number of persons who role 
 played the first aid care givers. The first class had four first- 
 aiders, two of whom are State mine inspectors with mine 
 foreman certification, a mine equipment sales representative 
 with advanced first aid training, and an engineering techni- 
 cian. The five first-aiders in the second class included three 
 mine health and safety instructors (two with advanced training 
 in first aid and who routinely teach first aid), one mine 
 supervisor, and one miner. The three first-aiders in the third 
 class included two miners with only the usual training in first 
 aid, and a mine supervisor with advanced first aid training. 
 None of the first-aid role players were trained or certified as 
 EMT's. Observers from the University of Kentucky were 
 present in the first and second classrooms. 
 
 The data gathered from these three classes were analyzed 
 and used to report two basic types of findings. These are (1) 
 miner evaluation of simulation exercise based upon the 
 pooled ratings by all class members on specific criteria (see 
 the trainee's questionnaire, page 16 of appendix), and (2) 
 
 miner performance ratings of the first aid skills of the three 
 groups of persons who role played the first-aiders in each 
 classroom. 
 
 TABLE ^-Characteristics of the three-site, three-class 
 field test sample for a first aid simulation exercise 
 
 (56 male miners — mean age, 36.4 yr; 
 mean experience, 8.3 yr) 
 
 Number Frequency, pet 
 
 Job classification: 1 
 
 
 
 Miner. 
 
 28 
 
 51.8 
 
 Maintenance-technical. 
 
 12 
 
 22.2 
 
 Supervisory-management. 
 
 13 
 
 24.1 
 
 Other. 
 
 1 
 
 1.9 
 
 Training Certification Performance 
 Category, pet: 2 
 
 Supervisor 17.9 16.1 1.8 
 
 Mine safety committee. ... 3.6 8.9 1 .8 
 
 Mine rescue 5.4 3.6 1.8 
 
 CPR 17.9 26.8 12.5 
 
 Advanced first aid 25.0 10.7 8.9 
 
 EMT 7.1 12.5 1.8 
 
 Advanced life support 7.1 3.6 0.0 
 
 Other 3.6 7J 5.4 
 
 'Information not provided by 2 class members, 
 frequency of self-reported level of expertise. 
 
 TABLE 5. - Class size and number and qualifications of first-aiders at three sites 
 
 Number of first-aiders and qualifications 
 
 Observer present 
 
 Class 1,18 persons 
 Class 2, 7 persons 
 Class 3, 31 persons 
 
 A — 2 State mine inspectors, 1 sales representative 
 with AFAT, 1 engineering technician. 
 
 5 — 3 instructors, 2 with AFAT, 1 mine 
 supervisor, 1 miner. 
 
 3 — 2 miners, 1 mine supervisor with AFAT. 
 
 Yes 
 
 Yes 
 
 No 
 
 (AFAT - self-reported advanced first aid training.) 
 
94 
 
 MINER EVALUATION OF THE SIMULATION EXERCISE 
 
 The results of miner evaluations of the exercise are 
 presented in table 6. All the miners reported the exercise 
 content to be authentic and realistic. Over 98 pet reported the 
 exercise would help them remember important first aid 
 knowledge in the future. Over 87 pet reported they learned 
 something new from the simulation. About 35 pet thought the 
 exercise was too long, but over 92 pet reported they liked 
 working the exercise. Approximately 94 pet of the miners felt 
 the instructor's directions were clear and 96 pet felt that the 
 exercise directions were clear. Approximately 93 pet judged 
 the graphics as easy to understand and 89 pet found the 
 
 exercise performance scoring procedures to be easily under- 
 stood. 
 
 The results in table 6 and observations by project mem- 
 bers in two of the classes indicate that both miners and instruc- 
 tors were able to use the simulation effectively. Miners were 
 willing and able to carry out their role play assignments. Both 
 the miners and instructors were able to execute all aspects of 
 the activity as planned in the printed instructor's guide. Both 
 the miners and instructors were able and willing to use the 
 performance evaluation form properly as a positive teaching 
 tool. 
 
 TABLE 6. • Miner ratings of exercise validity, relevance, quality, and utility (n = 59) 
 
 Content Definitely 
 
 4 
 
 Problem could happen 94.4 
 
 Help remember important things 78.2 
 
 Learned something new 60.0 
 
 Exercise too long 14.8 
 
 Liked working the exercise 67.3 
 
 Instructor directions clear 72.7 
 
 Written exercise directions clear 59.3 
 
 Graphics easy to understand 58.2 
 
 Scoring easy to understand 67.3 
 
 yes 
 
 3 
 
 Definitely no 
 2 1 
 
 Mean 
 
 S.D. 
 
 5.6 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 3.94 
 
 0.23 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 .0 
 
 3.76 
 
 .47 
 
 27.3 
 
 10.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.46 
 
 .77 
 
 20.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 51.9 
 
 1.98 
 
 1.16 
 
 25.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 .0 
 
 3.60 
 
 .63 
 
 21.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 .0 
 
 3.67 
 
 .58 
 
 37.0 
 
 3.7 
 
 .0 
 
 3.56 
 
 .57 
 
 34.5 
 
 5.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 3.49 
 
 .69 
 
 21.8 
 
 3.6 
 
 7.3 
 
 3.49 
 
 .88 
 
 MINER FIRST AID PERFORMANCE ON THE SIMULATION EXERCISE 
 
 The analyses that follow are based on the performance of 
 the first-aiders in each class. Fifteen aspects of first-aider 
 performance were rated on a common rating form . Each of the 
 15 scales on the form was designed to evaluate key aspects of 
 rescue and first aid procedures needed to cope with the 
 simulation problem. The problem involved a miner whose 
 legs were crushed by a roof fall after he went under unsup- 
 ported top to mark up the bolt pattern for the roof bolter. A 
 proper performance requires the first-aiders to assess the 
 accident scene, support the top, remove the rock from the 
 injured miner, and rapidly move the miner out of this danger- 
 ous area. Only then is it appropriate to evaluate the victim for 
 injuries, communicate with the surface, provide first aid care, 
 and prepare to transport the victim to the surface. The problem 
 and the performance rating form are described in the appendix 
 to this paper. All members of the class, including the victim, 
 the first-aiders, the observers, and the instructor rated first- 
 aider performance on the form. 
 
 The performance rating form was found to be a reliable 
 measure. Table 7 presents the internal consistency reliability 
 estimates of the form for the miners from all three classes and 
 with the miners from all three classes pooled. Thirteen of the 
 fifteen scales on the performance rating form were signifi- 
 
 cantly and positively correlated with the total score on the 
 form. Items 9 and 10 (sending for help and communicating 
 clearly to the surface) were not significantly correlated with 
 the total performance rating score. 
 
 TABLE 7. • Internal consistency reliability estimates 
 of the performance rating form 
 
 
 
 Complete 
 
 First- 
 
 Generalizability 
 
 
 ratings 1 
 
 aiders 
 
 coefficient 
 (alpha) 2 
 
 Class 1 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 0.69 
 
 Class 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 .64 
 
 Class 3 
 
 26 
 
 3 
 
 .77 
 
 Classes pooled, 
 
 49 
 
 12 
 
 .80 
 
 'Only those rating forms that contained a complete set of ratings 
 on all 15 questions were included. 
 
 2 An estimate of the internal consistency or reliability of the scale. 
 The maximum possible value is 1 and the minimum value is 0. 
 
 ■ 
 
95 
 
 Comparison of the within classes and between classes 
 sums of squares revealed that 52 pet of the variance in per- 
 formance scores among the three classes can be attributed to 
 differences in first-aider performance in the three classes. The 
 remaining 48 pet of the observed variance in performance 
 scores is attributed to variations in miner individual ratings of 
 the same observed performance. 
 
 The performance rating total score for the first-aiders in 
 each class was summed across the 1 5 scales for each rater. The 
 average rating was then computed for each group (class) of 
 first-aiders. Large significant differences were observed in 
 the total performance scores earned by the first-aiders in each 
 class (F = 24.80; df = 2.46; p = less than 0.0001). These results 
 are reported in table 8. 
 
 The difficulty of each part of the first aid performance 
 required by the simulation may be estimated from the raw 
 scores of the 15 individual scales found on the performance 
 rating form. Table 9 presents a description of the performance 
 content of each scale on the rating form along with the 
 
 TABLE 8. - Mean scores and standard deviations 
 of total performance score by class 
 
 
 Complete 
 ratings 
 
 First- 
 aiders 
 
 Mean 
 score 
 
 S.D. 
 
 Class 1 
 Class 2 ... 
 Class 3 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 5 
 3 
 
 55.34 
 73.52 
 35.37 
 
 11.15 
 13.09 
 15.45 
 
 'Total raw scores were converted to a scaled to 100 score. 
 
 maximum score for that scale, the mean score observed, and 
 the standard deviation. These data are pooled across all three 
 classes from a total of 49 ratings for the 12 role players. 
 
 Table 10 presents the same data, but broken down for 
 each of the three classes. The large significant differences in 
 observed total scores for the three classes are reflected in the 
 differences in raw scores on the individual scale items. 
 
 TABLE 9. - Difficulty for each of 15 rescue and first aid performance tasks 1 
 
 Scale and performance dimension 
 
 Max 
 
 Raw score statistics 
 Min Mean 
 
 S.D. 
 
 l.Support mine roof before entering face area 3 
 
 2.Safely remove draw slate from victim 2 
 
 3.Properly remove victim from under slate 3 
 
 4. Verbally encourage victim 2 
 
 5.Promptly rescue-drag victim under good top 3 
 
 6.Handle victim properly when rescue dragging 3 
 
 7 .Conduct primary and secondary survey 3 
 
 8.Find and treat both leg injuries 3 
 
 9.Send for help promptly and properly 2 
 
 lO.Communicate clearly and accurately to the surface 2 
 
 lLProperly position and lift victim to stretcher 3 
 
 12.Properly immobilize victim on back on stretcher 3 
 
 13.Examine and treat victim for shock 3 
 
 14.Maintain unconscious victim's airway 3 
 
 15.0rganize overall first aid and rescue efforts well and efficiently 3 
 
 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.40 
 
 
 
 1.12 
 
 .99 
 
 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.14 
 
 
 
 1.08 
 
 .73 
 
 
 
 2.45 
 
 1.00 
 
 
 
 1.57 
 
 1.15 
 
 
 
 .55 
 
 .79 
 
 
 
 .47 
 
 .87 
 
 
 
 1.67 
 
 .55 
 
 
 
 1.08 
 
 .76 
 
 
 
 1.35 
 
 1.13 
 
 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.11 
 
 
 
 1.33 
 
 1.20 
 
 
 
 1.27 
 
 1.29 
 
 
 
 .90 
 
 .85 
 
 'Performance data are raw scores for 3 first aid teams rated by 49 miners on all 15 performance items. 
 
 INTERPRETATION OF MINER PERFORMANCE SCORES 
 
 Four features of the performance results stand out: 
 (1) The total performance scores are low for all groups, (2) all 
 groups did an adequate job on only two scales, (3) the worst 
 performance of the first-aiders was in conducting the victim 
 evaluation and treating hidden injuries, and (4) large differ- 
 ences exist in the performance scores of the first-aiders in the 
 three classes. 
 
 The overall scores are low for each group of first-aiders. 
 (See table 8.) When the same exercise is given as a latent 
 
 image test, miner scores are typically higher. The role play 
 simulation version of the exercise requires miners to problem 
 solve with less guidance than is offered in the latent image 
 version of the exercise, which provides corrective feedback 
 revealed through the latent image answers as the exercise is 
 worked. Thus, miners learn and correct first aid procedural 
 errors as they work the latent image exercise. In the role play 
 simulation exercise, just as in real life, there is no corrective 
 feedback, beyond that available from others present. If the 
 
96 
 
 TABLE 10. - Differences in difficulty of 15 performance tasks by first aid group (class) 1 
 
 
 Item 2 no. 
 
 Class 1 
 Mean S.D. 
 
 Class 2 
 Mean S.D. 
 
 Class 3 
 Mean S.D. 
 
 Significance, 
 p less than 
 
 1 
 
 3.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 1.57 
 
 0.98 
 
 0.34 
 
 0.85 
 
 0.0001 
 
 2 
 
 1.94 
 
 .25 
 
 1.71 
 
 .76 
 
 .46 
 
 .86 
 
 .0001 
 
 3 
 
 2.88 
 
 .50 
 
 2.43 
 
 .98 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.23 
 
 .0012 
 
 4 
 
 69 
 
 .70 
 
 1.86 
 
 .38 
 
 1.12 
 
 .65 
 
 .0028 
 
 5 
 
 2.44 
 
 1.03 
 
 2.71 
 
 .76 
 
 2.38 
 
 1.06 
 
 .6496 
 
 6 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.20 
 
 2.14 
 
 1.07 
 
 1.23 
 
 1.07 
 
 .1448 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 .48 
 
 1.43 
 
 1.13 
 
 .46 
 
 .71 
 
 .0538 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 .48 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.41 
 
 .42 
 
 .86 
 
 .0319 
 
 9 
 
 1.50 
 
 .63 
 
 1.86 
 
 .38 
 
 1.73 
 
 .53 
 
 .1259 
 
 10 
 
 69 
 
 .60 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.35 
 
 .69 
 
 .0155 
 
 11 
 
 1.25 
 
 .93 
 
 2.71 
 
 .76 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.08 
 
 .0138 
 
 12 
 
 1.06 
 
 .85 
 
 2.14 
 
 1.46 
 
 .69 
 
 .97 
 
 .0060 
 
 13 
 
 2.06 
 
 1.12 
 
 2.43 
 
 .98 
 
 .58 
 
 .70 
 
 .0001 
 
 14 
 
 1.88 
 
 1.20 
 
 2.71 
 
 .76 
 
 .50 
 
 .86 
 
 .0001 
 
 15 
 
 81 
 
 .40 
 
 2.43 
 
 .98 
 
 .54 
 
 .51 
 
 .0001 
 
 'Performance data are raw scores for the first aid teams at each site on each performance item. 
 2 See table 9 for description. 
 
 first- aiders make errors they may not know it at the time. In 
 addition, unlike the paper and pencil latent image version, the 
 role play situation exercise requires not only knowledge of 
 what to do and when to do it, but also skill in performing actual 
 first aid procedures without life situations, which is more 
 difficult than the latent image version. Like a well-designed 
 mine rescue contest, the first aid simulation is a good test of 
 knowledge, skill, and actual performance capability. 
 
 The first-aiders in all three classes did a good job on only 
 two tasks, properly removing the victim from under the slate 
 (item 3), and promptly rescue-dragging the victim outby the 
 face to get under supported mine roof (item 5) (see table 9). 
 Both of these tasks are rescue activities and both are obvious 
 actions. 
 
 The worst performance for all three groups of first-aiders 
 involved conducting a victim evaluation through a primary 
 and secondary survey (item 7), and finding and treating both 
 leg injuries (item 8) (see tables 9 and 10). The first-aiders in 
 class 1 and class 3 did not carry out an adequate hands-on 
 primary and secondary survey. Consequently, they never 
 found the compound fracture of the femur, even though it was 
 simulated with a broken broom handle taped to the victim's 
 right front thigh along with a large injury tag that said "MUCH 
 BLOOD AND BONE STICKING OUT." This simulated 
 
 injury was concealed underneath a pair of coveralls, and the 
 injured miner was lying face down. Another large injury tag 
 that said "BLOOD SOAKED CLOTHING" was attached to 
 the outer coveralls directly over the simulated fracture. Even 
 a cursory hands-on and/or careful visual primary survey 
 would have quickly revealed the presence of these injury tags 
 and the simulated compound fracture. The injured miner was 
 loaded and tied onto the stretcher face down. Consequently 
 the injury remained undiagnosed and untreated. 
 
 The first-aiders in class 2 carried out a victim injury 
 assessment. Because of their survey they found, and treated, 
 both simulated leg fractures. However, they had difficulty in 
 properly bandaging and splinting the compound thigh frac- 
 ture. The types of errors made by these miners in this realistic 
 simulation are precisely those tasks that the 120 experts 
 identified as weaknesses in miner actual first aid performance 
 they had witnessed in the field (see tables 2 and 3). 
 
 Large, statistically significant differences were observed 
 in the total performance and the individual scale scores of the 
 three groups of first-aiders (see tables 8 and 9). The groups 
 with the greater number of first-aiders with self-reported 
 advanced first aid training, and with first aid instructors, 
 performed better than the less well trained groups without first 
 aid instructors. 
 
97 
 
 LIMITATIONS AND GENERALIZABILITY OF FINDINGS 
 
 These results are based on the performance of only 12 
 miners who role played first-aiders coping with one complex 
 and realistic underground coal mine first aid problem. The 
 performance results observed may not generalize to other 
 groups of miners or to other first aid simulation problems or 
 actual emergencies. Additional data from the first aid simu- 
 lation described in this paper, as well as from other similar 
 simulations, are currently being collected and analyzed. 
 These additional data will help determine the generalizability 
 of the findings reported here. 
 
 Some additional observational data are available at the 
 present Two additional first aid simulation exercises have 
 been observed during administration to two classes. In these 
 classes the miners role playing the first-aiders also performed 
 poorly and made the same types of errors as those reported 
 previously. Thus, even though the sample is small, the 
 findings from this initial study may be generalizable to the 
 broader domain of first aid performance of miners in general. 
 
 The simulations are carefully designed to be authentic 
 and realistic, and over 94 pet of the miners viewed them as 
 such (see table 6). Performing the first aid procedures in front 
 of a classroom, without any prior warning or preparation, is 
 stressful for the first aid role players. Yet, the classroom role 
 play situation can never be as difficult, stressful, and demand- 
 ing as is coping with a similar serious injury accident in an 
 underground mine. If miners perform poorly in realistic 
 classroom simulations of first aid emergencies, they may 
 perform even less well in actual mine first aid emergencies. 
 The poor performance is probably related to lack of training 
 in these types of first aid skills, particularly in the skills 
 required for patient evaluation needed to define first aid 
 treatment needs. Miners who are frequently exposed to 
 realistic first aid simulation problems, like those described in 
 this paper, may become more skilled in their responses to both 
 simulated and actual first aid emergencies. 
 
 SIMULATION EXERCISES AS TEACHING AND TESTING DEVICES 
 
 Although the miners role playing the first-aiders in these 
 three classes may not have performed well on the simulation 
 exercise, they probably learned a great deal, as they them- 
 selves reported (see table 6). The purpose of these exercises 
 is primarily to teach miners to be better first-aiders. The 
 realistic nature of the exercises engages the emotional and 
 cognitive participation of the role players and the observers. 
 At the end of the simulation, the role players, the victim, and 
 the observers are anxious to critique the performance, to 
 discuss and correct errors, and to repeat and practice difficult 
 parts of the performance until these have been mastered. 
 
 The exercises are most effective as tests in a personal 
 sense. When the first-aider role players perform poorly, plac- 
 ing themselves in great danger to rescue the victim, or failing 
 to do an evaluation of the victim's injuries, these and other 
 errors and their potential consequences become starkly appar- 
 ent in the corrective and discussion session that follows the 
 simulation. A properly designed simulation presents a realis- 
 tic problem. The problem demands the full range of perform- 
 ance skills required in a similar actual emergency. For this 
 reason, working the simulation exercise tends to be a memo- 
 rable experience. Many studies have shown that knowledge 
 and skills acquired in realistic problem solving situations tend 
 
 to be remembered well and are likely to be applied in actual 
 problem situations encountered later. Knowledge and skills 
 presented piecemeal, without being embedded in realistic 
 problem contexts, tend to become inert. Inert knowledge fails 
 to generalize to real world problem solving and also tends to 
 be rapidly forgotten (Bransford (29), Gagne and Briggs (30) , 
 Halpern QV)). 
 
 It is important for miners to learn how to place and tie 
 dressings and bandages, and to remember first aid facts and 
 information. The teaching of first aid procedures like these, 
 and drilling miners on recall of first aid facts, are popular 
 instructional methods in annual refresher training classes. 
 When these facts and procedures are presented in fragmented 
 ways, without being placed in the context of first aid cases or 
 problems, instruction cannot be expected to adequately pre- 
 pare miners to cope with actual first aid emergencies. First aid 
 facts and knowledge, as well as first aid skills in bandaging, 
 controlling bleeding, and other procedures, need to be taught 
 in the framework of realistic problems. Skills of accident 
 scene evaluation, patient evaluation, and the identification of 
 victim treatment needs and priorities need to be practiced. 
 Well-designed simulation problem exercises provide one 
 means for the realistic teaching and assessment of a wide 
 range of first aid problem solving behaviors. 
 
98 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Well-designed simulation exercises have the capability 
 to teach miners what they do not yet know how to do well. The 
 research reported in this paper, as well as earlier research by 
 Pickar (22). suggests miners need more training in informa- 
 tion gathering, victim evaluation, and first aid problem iden- 
 tification and prioritization skills. Simulation exercises like 
 those discussed in this paper can be used to teach and assess 
 proficiency in these and other skills. Data from the field 
 studies at Ohio State University and the University of Ken- 
 tucky also suggests that college students and miners enjoy and 
 
 value realistic first aid simulation problems. Length of time 
 to conduct such realistic simulations need not be a barrier. The 
 simulation described in this paper can be completed in a 20- 
 to 30-min period. Knowing how to design and conduct an 
 effective first aid simulation also need not be a barrier. The 
 guidelines set forth in this paper, and me sample exercise with 
 its easily adaptable format, can serve as a model for first aid 
 instructors who wish to extend the procedures to other first aid 
 skill areas and problems. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Gilbert, G. G. The Evaluation of Simulation for Skill 
 Testing in the American National Red Cross First Aid and 
 Personal Safety Course. Ph.D. Thesis, Ohio State University, 
 1975, 264 pp.; University Microfilms No. 76-9974. 
 
 2. Gilbert, G. G. Teaching First Aid and Emergency 
 Care. Kendall- Hunt (Dubuque, IA), 1981, 231 pp. 
 
 3. Distlehorst, L. H., and H. S. Barrows. A New Tool for 
 Problem-Based, Self-Directed Learning. J. Med. Educ, v. 57, 
 No. 6, 1982, pp. 486^88. 
 
 4. Babbott, D., and W. D. Halter. Clinical Problem- 
 Solving Skills of Internists Trained in the Problem-Oriented 
 System. J. Med. Educ, v. 58 No. 12, 1983, pp. 947-953. 
 
 5. Dugdale, A. E., D. Chandler, and G. Best. Teaching 
 the Management of Medical Emergencies Using an Interac- 
 tive Computer Terminal. Med. Educ, v. 16, No. 1, 1982, pp. 
 27-30. 
 
 6. Farrand, L. L., W. L. Holzemer, and J. A. Schleuter- 
 mann. A Study of Construct Validity: Simulations as a 
 Measure of Nurse Practitioners' Problem-Solving Skills. 
 Nursing Res., v. 31, No. 1, 1982, pp. 37-42. 
 
 7. Fleisher, D. S., J. Schwenker, and M. Donnelly. 
 Isomorphic Patient Management Problems: A Counterpart to 
 Parallel Multiple Choice Tests. Papers in Research in Medical 
 Education, Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Confer- 
 ence Assoc. Amer. Med. Colleges, 1982, pp. 143-148. 
 
 8. Jones, G. L., and K. D. Keith. Computer Clinical 
 Simulations in Health Sciences. J. Computer-Based Instr., v. 
 9, No. 3, 1983, pp. 108-114. 
 
 9. McGuire, C. H, and D. Babbott. Simulation Tech- 
 nique in the Measurement of Problem-Solving Skills. J. Educ. 
 Measurement, v. 4, No. 1, 1967, pp. 1-10. 
 
 10. McGuire, C. H, L. M. Solomon, and P. G. Bashook. 
 Construction and Use of Written Simulations. Psychological 
 Corp. (New York), 1976, 307 pp. 
 
 11. Norman,G.R.,P.Tugwell,andJ.W.Feightner. A 
 Comparison of Resident Performance on Real and Simulated 
 Patients. J. Med. Educ, v. 57, No. 9, 1982, pp. 708-715. 
 
 12. Pryor, H. G., and G. Racey. Minicomputer Simula- 
 tion of Medical Emergencies and Advanced Life Support. J. 
 Dental Educ, v. 46, No. 1 1, 1982, pp. 657-660. 
 
 13. Saunders, N. A., and B. J. Wallis. Learning Decision- 
 Making in Clinical Medicine: A Card Game Dealing With 
 Acute Emergencies for Undergraduate Use. Med. Educ, v. 
 15, No. 5, 1981, pp. 323-327. 
 
 14. Umbers, I. G. A Study of Control Skills in an 
 Individual Task, and in a Simulation, Using the Verbal Proto- 
 col Technique. Ergonomics, v. 24, No. 4, 1981, pp. 275-293. 
 
 1 5. Hamers.G.W., Jr., W.C.Giffm, and T.H.Rockwell. 
 A Study of Decision Making Behavior of Pilots Deviating 
 From a Planned Flight. Aviation, Space, and Envir. Med., v. 
 53, No. 10, 1982, pp. 958-963. 
 
 16. Giffin.W.C, and T.H.Rockwell. Computer-Aided 
 Testing of Pilot Response to Critical In-Flight Events. Human 
 Factors, v. 26, No. 5, 1984, pp. 573-581. 
 
 17. Jensen, R. S. Pilot Judgment: Training and Evalu- 
 ation. Human Factors, v. 24, No. 1, 1982, pp. 61-73. 
 
 18. Hunt, R. M., and W. B. Rouse. Problem-Solving 
 Skills of Maintenance Trainees in Diagnosing Faults in Simu- 
 lated Powerplants. Human Factors, v. 23, No. 3, 1981, pp. 
 317-328. 
 
 19. Olsen, W. C. Once Upon a Time (Training for 
 Emergency Situations). Presented at Health Physics Society 
 Meeting, Honolulu, HI., NTIS CONF-79 1203-6, Dec 1979, 
 6 pp. 
 
 20. Cole, H. P., G. T. Lineberry, and L. G. MalletL A 
 New Technique for Teaching and Testing Mining Engineer- 
 ing Concepts. Paper in Proceeding of the Fifth Annual 
 Meeting of the Collegiate Association for Mining Education, 
 MSHA, Beckley, WV, October 2-3, 1986, pp. 153-174. 
 
 21. University of Kentucky. Miner and Trainer Re- 
 sponse to Paper and Pencil Simulated Mine Emergency Prob- 
 lems. Ongoing BuMines contract HO348040; for inf., contact 
 W. J. Wiehagen, TPO, BuMines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
99 
 
 22. Lacefield, W. E., and H. P. Cole. Principles and 
 Techniques for Evaluating Continuing Education Programs. 
 The Military Engineer, v. 78, No. 511, 1986, pp. 594-600. 
 
 23. McGuire.C. Medical Problem-Solving: A Critique 
 of the Literature. Paper in Research in Medical Education: 
 1984 Proceedings of the Twenty-Third Annual Conference. 
 Assoc. Amer. Med. Colleges, 1984, pp. 3-13. 
 
 24. University of Kentucky. Measuring Mine Health and 
 Safety Skills. Ongoing BuMines contract HO348040; for inf. 
 contact W. J. Wiehagen, TPO, Pittsburgh Research Center, 
 BuMines, Pittsburgh, PA. 
 
 25. American Red Cross. First Aid and Personal Safety 
 Course of the American Red Cross. Doubleday, 1981,269 pp. 
 
 26. Burkes, M. E. (undated). Burkes Emergency Care 
 Knowledge Test H Available upon request from OH State 
 Univ., Columbus, OH. 
 
 27. Pickar, E. R. Emergency Medical Needs of Coal 
 Miners. Orkand Corp., (Silver Spring, MD), NTIS PB 80-194 
 651,1977,159 pp. 
 
 28. Mine Safety and Health Administration (Washing- 
 ton, DC) Coal-Underground Fatalities. First and Second 
 Quarter. 1984,30 pp. 
 
 29. Bransford, J., R. Sherwood, N. Vye, and J. Rieser. 
 Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving: Research Founda- 
 tions. Am. Psychol., v. 41, No. 10, 1986, pp. 1078-1089. 
 
 30. Gagne, R. M., and L. J. Briggs. Principles of 
 Instructional Design. Holt (New York) 2d ed., 1979, 321 pp. 
 
 31. Halpern, D. F. Thought and Knowledge: An 
 Introduction to Critical Thinking. Erlbaum, (Hillsdale, NJ), 
 1984, 402 pp. 
 
100 
 
 APPENDIX. - SAMPLE EXERCISES 
 
101 
 
 MARVIN R. LETCHER FIRST AID SIMULATION 
 
 A Training Activity 
 
 Behavioral Research Aspects of Safety and Health Group (BRASH) 
 
 Institute for Mining and Minerals Research (IMMR) 
 
 University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 
 
 November 1987 
 
 This role play simulation exercise was developed and field tested under U. S. Bureau of Mines research 
 Contract No. HO348040. Information about the design and characteristics of the exercise and the field test 
 results are available in the project technical reports filed with the Bureau of Mines Research Center in 
 Pittsburg, PA. This is one of more than 30 exercises designed for use in annual refresher training to teach 
 and test critical skills for coping with mine emergency situations. The views and conclusions contained in 
 this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the 
 official policies or recommendations of the Interior Department's Bureau of Mines or the U. S. Government. 
 
102 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Contents 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation Problem 3 
 
 Accident Scene Illustrations (Figures 1 and 2) 4 
 
 Accident Scene Illustration (Figure 3) 5 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher First Aid Simulation 6 
 
 Becoming Familiar with the Exercise 6 
 
 How to Use this Exercise 7 
 
 Before the Simulation 7 
 
 During the Simulation 9 
 
 After the Simulation 9 
 
 Other Information and Ideas 10 
 
 Time 10 
 
 Replications 10 
 
 Alternative Methods 1 
 
 Appended Materials 1 1 
 
 Performance Objectives 1 3 
 
 Performance Rating Form 14 
 
 Trainee's Questionnaire 1 6 
 
 Special Instructions for the "Victim" and "Rescuers" 1 7 
 
 Tags 1 8 
 
 Additional Illustrations (Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7) 21 
 
 References 24 
 
 
103 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 MARVIN R. LETCHER SIMULATION PROBLEM 
 
 Background 
 
 You are driving 8 entries in 42 inch coal. 
 
 Eleven miners are at work on the section. 
 
 The portal is 4,000 feet outby the face. 
 
 It is just after lunch. (Marvin ate a big meal.) 
 
 The EMT normally on this section is absent today. 
 
 The top is drummy and poor. 
 
 Problem 
 
 You are the pinner operator. You are bolting the roof in the 
 #2 entry at the face. Your helper, Marvin R. Letcher, has 
 gone out ahead of the bolter to mark the roof. You yell at 
 him to get back. He almost gets back to supported roof 
 when a piece of draw slate falls trapping both of his legs. 
 (See Figures 1 & 2.) Marvin is lying down, screaming. The 
 roof is dribbling across the whole entry just past the last row 
 of bolts. 
 
104 
 
 FIGURE 1 .—Draw slate falls from roof. 
 
 <o 
 
 FIGURE 2.— Draw slate hits Marvin's legs. 
 
Hill 
 seam 
 
 105 
 
 Marvin 
 
 -+ 
 
 + 
 
 
 — Draw slate J 
 
 V-—Automatic j 
 \ temporary \ 
 \ roof support/ j 
 
 f-Top 
 working 
 
 T WW 4 
 
 4- 4- 
 
 Roof bolts ( 
 
 
 [ J- 
 
 — Roof bolter ) 
 
 
 + + 
 
 + + ( 
 
 
 Crosscut (bolted roof) 
 
 
 + ■+ 
 
 + + -t- 
 
 -h 
 
 Stretcher and first-aid kit at the dinner hole 
 dinner hole 240 ft away. 
 
 Mine pager at tailpiece 200 ft away. 
 
 FIGURE 3.— Details of Marvin's position. 
 
106 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 Marvin R. Letcher First Aid Simulation 
 
 This is a companion exercise to the Marvin R. Letcher latent image exercise. It uses the 
 same problem. While the latent image exercise teaches and assesses judgment and 
 decision making skills, this exercise is designed to teach and assess proficiency in first 
 aid care for a miner with injuries like Marvin's. 
 
 This exercise can be used without using the latent image exercise. If so, it will be more 
 like the situation miners would face in an actual emergency. If used after the latent 
 image version of Marvin R. Letcher, the class members will be informed about the 
 problem and know the first aid procedures. They will also be motivated to practice the 
 procedures. Used either way, this simulation exercise provides hands on practice in 
 carrying out the first aid procedures needed to help a miner with injuries like Marvin's. 
 
 The activities for carrying out this simulation are simple and easy to use. After you have 
 read through the materials it is easy to prepare for class. Once you have prepared for 
 one class, you can use the simulation repeatedly in other classes without additional 
 preparation. 
 
 Becoming Familiar with the Exercise 
 
 This document is an instructor's guide. It provides not only the simulation exercise, but 
 detailed instructions, procedures, and materials needed to prepare for class and carry 
 out the activity. There are five things you can do to become familiar with the exercise if 
 you decide to use it in your classes. 
 
 First, look over the Table of Contents found just after the exercise title page. All the 
 parts of the instructor's guide are listed here and you can quickly see what these are 
 and where they are located. 
 
 Second, read the "Marvin R. Letcher Simulation Problem" on page 2 and look at 
 Figures 1 and 2 (page 3) and Figure 3 (page 4). Think about this situation and how you 
 would deal with it. 
 
 Third, read through the remainder of this instructor's guide. It tells you how to prepare 
 for class. 
 
 Fourth, read the "Performance Objectives" and the "Performance Rating Form." These 
 are found in the appendix. They tell you what your class members should be able to do 
 when the exercise is completed. 
 
 Fifth, if you have a master copy of the Marvin R. Letcher latent image exercise, look at 
 the questions, the answers, and the "Instructor's Discussion Notes." Although you do 
 not need to do this to prepare for this class, it may provide you with additional ideas. 
 
107 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 How To Use This Exercise 
 
 This section lists the directions for carrying out the simulation. There are three parts. 
 These explain what to do before , during , and after the simulation. Each step is 
 numbered. 
 
 Before the Simulation 
 
 1. Gather all the materials you need for the simulation. These include: 
 
 -slate bar (simulate or use a real bar) 
 
 -roof bolting machine (simulate with a desk or similar object) 
 
 -four temporary roof jacks or timbers (simulate with appropriate lightweight 
 objects such as styrofoam blocks, or cardboard tubes) 
 
 -large old trousers or coveralls that can be slipped over the "victim's" regular 
 clothing 
 
 -large flat cardboard box (to simulate the draw slate on Marvin's legs) 
 
 -broken wooden dowel, 6 to 7 inches long and one inch in diameter (taped over 
 Marvin's pants on his right upper front thigh to simulate a compound fracture of 
 the femur) 
 
 -a mine first aid kit and stretcher (Place these out of sight in another room 
 or at the back of the room so the "first aiders" will have to go get them or send 
 someone for them.) 
 
 -a mine phone (Use a real phone or simulate with a small object. Place the 
 "phone" at the back of the room at the "tailpiece.") 
 
 -tags (These are in the appendix. Copy them, cut them out, and laminate 
 them so they can be used again. Attach these to Marvin and the objects.) 
 
 -"Instructions for the Victim" & "Instructions for the Rescuers" (These are in the 
 appendix. Copy them, cut them out, and laminate them so they can be 
 reused.) 
 
 -Performance Rating Form, one copy for each class member (Make an 
 overhead transparency of this form so you can use it after the simulation in the 
 discussion.) 
 
108 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 -overhead projector and screen 
 
 -overhead projector transparencies of the Marvin R. Letcher Simulation Problem 
 and Figures 1, 2, and 3 (These are found on pages 2, 3, and 4. They 
 are printed in large type for easy reading.) 
 
 2. Get a volunteer to play the part of Marvin, the "victim." (Give "Marvin" the 
 "Instructions for the Victim" so he will know his role. If no miners are willing, get 
 another instructor to play the role of Marvin.) 
 
 3. Select two or three miners to serve as the first aiders. (Give them a copy of 
 "Instructions for Rescuers." Then send them out of the classroom so they won't 
 see Marvin's injuries while you set up the accident scene. They should find the 
 injuries on their own.) 
 
 4. Set up the accident scene. (Simulate the accident scene depicted in Figures 2 
 and 3 as closely as possible. Have Marvin lie down on his stomach with his head 
 about 2 feet from a wall (mine rib), with his left side facing the class. Simulate the 
 draw slate on Marvin's legs with a cardboard box. Simulate the roof bolter with a 
 desk or similar object. Label both objects with the appropriate tags.) 
 
 Have Marvin tape a broken wooden dowel and the "MUCH BLOOD AND BONE 
 STICKING OUT" injury tag to his right upper front thigh on top of his pants. Then 
 have him put on an additional pair of old pants or coveralls that can be cut. Put 
 the "BLOOD SOAKED CLOTHING AND CROOKED LEG" injury tag on the outside 
 of the old coveralls on top of the broken wooden dowel. Put the "CROOKED AND 
 BRUISED" injury tag on the rear of the lower left leg on top of his coveralls, about 
 midway between his ankle and knee. Place the cardboard box over the back of 
 both legs so that it covers the injuries. Tape the injury tag "PULSE RAPID (120) 
 AND WEAK" to Marvin's neck over the carotid artery. Use transparent tape. Keep 
 the injury tag "VOMIT FLUIDS AND STRINGY MEAT" in your pocket. Tape to 
 Marvin's cheek after the first aiders have him fully immobilized and he is ready to 
 be transported. 
 
 5. Give every class member (except the "victim" and the "rescuers") a copy of the 
 Performance Rating Form. Ask each class member to look over the form. This will 
 alert them to watch for key first aid actions during the simulation. Do. npi give the 
 form to the miners playing the "first aiders." This would tell them what the injuries 
 are and what they should do. 
 
109 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 Purina the Simulation 
 
 6. Bring the "first aiders" in and have them stand at the back of the room. 
 
 7. Introduce the problem to the "first aiders" and other class members by showing the 
 overhead transparencies of the "Marvin R. Letcher Simulation Problem" and 
 Figures 1, 2 and 3. Explain the problem and point out that the "victim" is in the 
 same position as shown in Figures 2 and 3. (Don't tell the class and the "first 
 aiders" about Marvin's injuries. Just explain the accident scene as it is described. 
 Point out the "mine phone" at the "tailpiece" and explain that a first aid kit is at the 
 "dinner hole.") 
 
 8. Tell class members to move to a position where they can see the "first aiders" and 
 the "victim." Ask them to watch carefully and not to prompt the first aiders. 
 
 9. Start the simulation. Tell the "first aiders" to take care of Marvin. (During the 
 simulation, do noj. interrupt the performance of the "first aiders." In the real 
 situation there might not be anyone to correct their errors or to tell them what to do. 
 Interrupt only if they do something that might hurt the person playing the "victim.") 
 
 After the Simulation 
 
 10. Give each of the "first aiders" and the "victim" a performance Rating Form. Then 
 ask these people and all the other class members to complete the form. Have 
 everyone complete the whole form including the information at the top of the page. 
 (This activity will help the "first aiders" evaluate their own performance and correct 
 errors. Completing the rating form will also help the other class members learn 
 the correct first aid procedures. This is an important part of the exercise.) 
 
 11. Complete your own Performance Rating Form, including the information at the top 
 of the page. 
 
 12. Discuss the performance of the "first aiders" with the whole class. (Put a 
 transparency of a blank Performance Rating Form on the overhead projector. Talk 
 about each procedure and your rating of the "first aiders." Compare your ratings 
 with those of the "first aiders," the "victim," and the other class members. Be alert 
 to the observations, ideas and disagreements among class members. Discussion 
 of these matters can be an effective method of instruction.) 
 
 13. During the discussion, correct any errors that were made. Show the "first aiders" 
 and other class members the proper way to carry out any first aid procedures that 
 were done wrong or omitted. (Let the "first aiders" demonstrate the correct 
 procedure under your direction. This will help them learn.) 
 
 9 
 
110 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 14. Encourage class members to practice particular first aid procedures until they 
 master them. 
 
 15. When you have finished the discussion and demonstrations, have all class 
 members complete the Trainee's Questionnaire. It is attached to the Performance 
 Rating Form. After the class, look over the completed Trainee Questionnaires. 
 These can be used to summarize the miners' evaluation of the exercise. This 
 information may assist you in improving the exercise in the future, and in reporting 
 the effectiveness of your classes to superiors. If you have ideas for improving the 
 exercise write these down and send them to the following address. 
 
 IMMR/BRASH 
 
 201 Porter Building, University of Kentucky 
 
 Lexington, Kentucky 40506-0205 (606) 257-3796 
 
 Other Information and Ideas 
 
 This section contains additional information about the exercise. It can help you plan 
 the amount of time you need to present the exercise, how to prepare the exercise for 
 several replications, and assist you in thinking about other ways to present the 
 exercise. 
 
 Time 
 
 The whole simulation exercise should not take very long. In a real emergency, miners 
 would need to act proficiently and quickly. The discussion, practice, and demonstration 
 of procedures after the simulation may require somewhat more time. Overall, the 
 activity can be completed in approximately one hour. 
 
 Replications 
 
 Once you have used the exercise, all materials can be kept together and used again 
 with another class. This will minimize preparation time. You may also improvise and 
 add new ideas and procedures in replications of the exercise. 
 
 Alternative Methods 
 
 Some trainers report miners do not like to role play situations like this one. If this is true 
 in your classes there are some alternatives. First, a colleague can play Marvin's role. 
 You can yourself play the role of a first aider and have two or three class members help 
 
 10 
 
Ill 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 you. While it is better to perform these skills than to watch others do so, class members 
 can still learn a lot from watching and using the Performance Rating Form. If you follow 
 this procedure, make sure everyone practices those particular skills you think are 
 critical, e.g. proper movement and lifting, proper treatment for shock, proper procedures 
 for immobilization, etc. You may wish to do this to ensure that all class members have 
 a chance to practice critical skills. With larger classes you might have several small 
 groups carrying out the simulation or parts of it all at the same time. 
 
 There are four other points worth noting. First, after working and discussing the latent 
 image version of the exercise, miners are excited and attentive to the problem. 
 Therefore, they are more likely to participate in and attend closely to the simulation. 
 Second, you may wish to point out that exercises similar to these are routinely used to 
 train and test EMTs, military and medical personnel, and mine rescue groups. 
 Experience suggests that such activity is helpful in building and maintaining proficiency 
 in the skills needed in actual emergencies. Third, no individual miner's performance is 
 being rated. Rather, it is the quality of care the "victim" receives that is being assessed. 
 The information gathered is for instructional purposes. Fourth, you and individual 
 class members can learn much about the degree to which they are informed about 
 proper first aid procedures from examining the completed Performance Rating Forms. 
 If ratings of the class members differ greatly from your expert rating, you should 
 determine where the disagreements lie. Then you can correct any errors or 
 misunderstandings among class members. 
 
 Appended Materials 
 
 This appendix contains seven items. These materials are needed to carry out the 
 simulation and the class discussion. The first item is a list of the performance 
 objectives for this exercise. The objectives for the latent image version of the Marvin R. 
 Letcher exercise are similar to, but are not the same as the objectives for this simulation 
 exercise. The objectives for this exercise deal with hands on performance of first aid 
 skills needed to rescue and care for a person with injuries like Marvin's. 
 
 Next is the Performance Rating Form. It is to be used by each member of the class to 
 rate the adequacy of first aid procedures carried out on Marvin. You also need to 
 complete one of these forms yourself so you can use it during the discussion period. 
 
 Next is the Trainee's Questionnaire. After the exercise is completed each miner should 
 complete this questionnaire. It is helpful to collect these and review the class members 
 reaction to the exercise. 
 
 The next item is the instructions for the "victim" and the "rescuers." These are printed 
 within boxes. They are designed to be duplicated, cut out, and mounted on a card to 
 be reused. These are the special instructions given to the persons who participate in 
 the simulation activity. 
 
 11 
 
112 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Next are the tags. These are also printed within boxes so that they may be copied, cut 
 out, and mounted on cards for reuse. Some tags are large and have large bold type. 
 Others are small and have small type. The size of the tag and its type are related to the 
 obviousness of the injury or item. For example, the pulse rate tag is small and 
 inconspicuous while the much blood and bone sticking out tag is large and noticeable. 
 
 The next items are Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7 and may be useful in the class discussions. 
 Finally, you will find included the references used in the design of this exercise. 
 
 12 
 
113 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 Performance Objectives for Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Objective 
 number 
 
 Capability 
 verbte) 
 
 1 FA/EE* 
 
 Remove 
 Extract 
 
 2 FA 
 
 Demonstrate 
 Perform 
 
 3 FA 
 
 Simulate 
 Demonstrate 
 
 4 FA 
 
 Describe 
 Communicate 
 
 5 FA 
 
 Identify 
 Treat 
 
 6 FA 
 
 Demonstrate 
 
 7 FA 
 
 Demonstrate 
 Execute 
 
 8 FA 
 
 9FA/EE 
 
 Demonstrate 
 Simulate 
 
 Demonstrate 
 
 Description of desired performance and 
 
 conditions under which it is to occur 
 
 A victim from under a roof fall while minimizing 
 risk to self and victim 
 
 Clothing drag procedures for the rapid but gentle 
 removal of a victim from a dangerous place while 
 minimizing risk of further injury 
 
 Primary and secondary survey first aid procedures 
 given a simulated victim 
 
 To surface personnel the nature and extent of injuries 
 of a simulated victim 
 
 Compound and regular fractures of the upper and 
 lower legs of a simulated roof fall victim 
 
 Proficiency in use of a mine first aid kit and a mine 
 stretcher 
 
 Procedures for positioning and lifting a simulated 
 victim on a stretcher, supporting and immobilizing 
 fractured legs, bandaging wounds, and full body 
 immobilization on a stretcher prior to transporting 
 
 Procedures for identifying and treating shock, 
 maintaining an open airway in an unconscious 
 person who is vomiting, using a simulated victim 
 
 Skill in organizing and directing rescue and first aid 
 activity in a group setting of three or more persons 
 given a simulated victim 
 
 'Skill and knowledge domain abbreviation: 
 FA = first aid 
 EE = emergency evacuation and escape 
 
 <3 
 
114 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 Performance Rating Form for Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Instructor 
 
 Company 
 
 Date 
 
 In this problem I was a(n): (Check the appropriate space(s)) 
 Victim First Aider Observer 
 
 Class Instructor 
 
 Circle the number that best describes the quality of first aid treatment you observe. 
 Procedures are assigned a maximum value of 2, if they are expertly performed. 
 Adequate, but not expert performance is rated a 1. Performances not attempted or 
 poorly completed are rated 0. Add the numbers circled to obtain the total score. Look 
 over the entire form before you begin. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 1 . Was the mine roof properly supported before 
 the first aiders moved to and worked on the 
 victim? 
 
 2. Was the draw slate promptly and properly 
 removed from the victim? 
 
 3. Was the victim properly moved from under 
 the draw slate to minimize further injuries 
 to him and avoid risk to rescuers? 
 
 4. Was the victim given verbal encouragement 
 during rescue and care? 
 
 5. Was the victim promptly moved from the entry 
 to an area of well supported roof? 
 
 6. Was the victim positioned, handled, and moved 
 properly when moved from the entry to an area 
 of supported roof? 
 
 7. Was the primary survey properly carried out? 
 
 Yes 
 Done wel 
 
 Yes 
 Adequate 
 
 No 
 
 
 14 
 
115 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Yes 
 
 Done well 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Procedure 
 
 8. Was the secondary survey properly carried 
 out? 
 
 9. Were both leg injuries immobilized? 
 
 1 0. Was help sent for promptly and properly? 
 
 1 1 . Was communication about the injury to the 
 surface clear, accurate, and complete? 
 
 1 2. Was the victim properly positioned and 
 lifted onto the stretcher? 
 
 1 3. Was the victim properly immobilized on the 
 stretcher on his or her back? 
 
 1 4. Was the victim treated for shock? 
 
 15. Was the immobilized victim's airway maintained 2 
 even when vomiting? 
 
 1 6. Overall, were the rescue and first aid efforts 2 
 well organized and efficient? 
 
 Yes 
 
 Adequate 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sum 
 
 Total Score = 
 
 Highest Possible Score = 32, lowest = 
 
 Comments : 
 
 15 
 
116 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 TRAINEES QUESTIONNAIRE (Simulation Exercise) 
 
 1) 
 
 name of exercise 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2) 
 
 your age 
 your job title 
 
 3) 
 
 your sex M 
 
 F 4) years 
 
 underground coal miner 
 
 
 
 5) 
 
 
 
 Che 
 
 6) 
 
 ck aJi the areas in which 
 
 Mine Foreman 
 
 Mine Safety Committee 
 
 Mine rescue 
 
 CPR 
 
 Advanced first aid 
 
 EMT 
 
 Advanced life support 
 
 Other 
 (describe) 
 
 you have special training. 
 
 certification, and/or that vou routinelv perform. 
 
 Special Rout 
 Training Certification Perfo 
 
 nely 
 
 rm 
 
 7) 
 
 
 
 
 
 8) 
 
 
 
 
 
 9) 
 
 
 
 
 
 10) 
 
 
 
 
 
 11) 
 
 
 
 
 
 12) 
 
 
 
 
 
 13) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Think about the exercise you just finished. Circle the number which tells how much you agree or disagree 
 with the following statements. 
 
 14) This problem could happen in real life. 
 
 15) This exercise will help me remember something 
 important if I am ever in a similar situation. 
 
 1 6) I learned something new from the exercise. 
 
 1 7) The exercise took too long to complete. 
 
 18) I liked working the exercise. 
 
 1 9) The instructor's directions were clear. 
 
 20) The written directions in the exercise were easy 
 to understand. 
 
 21 ) The diagrams and tags were easy to understand. 
 
 22) The scoring procedures were easy to understand. 
 
 Definitely Yes 
 4 3 
 
 Definitely No 
 
 If you have anything more to say about the exercise, please write on the back of this page. Thank 
 
 
 ou. 
 
 16 
 
117 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE VICTIM 
 
 1 . Scream for help and pretend to struggle to get out 
 from under the draw slate. 
 
 2. After your buddies get the rock off you get weaker. 
 
 Moan and say your legs hurt. 
 
 3. As your buddies move you, act dazed and sleepy. 
 Then you act like you are passed out. 
 
 4. When your buddies have you fully tied down on the 
 
 stretcher, pretend you are vomiting but still passed out. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE RESCUERS 
 
 1. You are upset by Marvin's screaming and the accident. 
 
 2. Use good first aid procedures to rescue and care for 
 Marvin and take care of yourselves. 
 
 17 
 
118 
 
 DRAW SLATE 
 
 (Put on box.) 
 
 ROOF BOLTER 
 
 (Put on desk.) 
 
 ROOF JACK 
 
 (Put on simulated jack.) 
 
 ROOF JACK 
 
 (Put on simulated jack. 
 
 
 18 
 
119 
 
 ROOF JACK 
 
 (Put on simulated jack.) 
 
 ROOF JACK 
 
 (Put on simulated jack.) 
 
 MUCH BLOOD AND 
 BONE STICKING OUT 
 
 (Put on right front thigh on victim's pants under coveralls.) 
 
 BLOOD SOAKED 
 CLOTHING 
 
 (Put on right front thigh on top of coveralls.) 
 
 19 
 
120 
 
 MINE PHONE 
 
 (Put on phone at back of room) 
 
 BRUISED & CROOKED 
 
 (Put on Marvin's left rear lower 
 leg outside coveralls.) 
 
 Rapid weak 
 pulse (120) 
 
 (Put on Marvin's neck 
 over the carotid artery.) 
 
 VOMIT FLUIDS & 
 STRINGY MEAT 
 
 (Keep in your pocket until Marvin is 
 
 fully tied down on the stretcher. 
 
 Then attach to his cheek.) 
 
 
 20 
 
121 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 
 Additional Illustrations 
 
 Use overhead transparencies of these illustrations during the discussion to help 
 demonstrate proper techniques for moving, lifting and immobilizing Marvin. 
 
 ^*Jt*-9*Jfi*: 
 
 FIGURE 4.— Emergency one-rescuer clothing drag. 
 
 -21 
 
122 
 
 FIGURE 5.— Emergency clothing drag with three rescuers. 
 
 22 
 
123 
 
 FIGURE 6.— Three-person lifting procedure for moving injured person. 
 
 FIGURE 7.— Ties for immobilizing Marvin's leg fractures. 
 
 23 
 
124 
 
 Marvin R. Letcher Simulation 
 References 
 
 American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons. (1981). Emergency care and 
 transportation of the sick and injured (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: Author. 
 
 American Red Cross. (1981). Standard first aid & personal safety (2nd ed.). New York: 
 Doubleday. 
 
 Aaron, J.E., Bridges, F. A.., & Ritzel, D. O. (1972). First aid and emergency care 
 prevention and protection of injuries. New York: Macmillan. 
 
 Bergeron, J. D. (1982). First responder. Bowie, MD: Robert J. Brady Co. 
 
 Mine Safety and Health Administration. (1980). First aid book. Washington, DC: 
 U.S. Government Printing Office. 
 
 24 
 
 INT.-BU.OF MINES,PGH. ,PA. 28713 
 
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