ilHi: ■^-^~ ^-^ l--;:^- _1^-- H**? % fer'*''?. m^ ^i^^a^ :-^«iE-^^^^^^^ ^Mi^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. i^apl^.l /^opi|ng{|{ :^tt UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PE Ift ^3 m ^ i J^^ ^ i ^^^ rmmr^-' HT>--g^gs.«> i^ -^— ^'"'' Ma>l«— (MR COLUMBIAN EDITION UNITED STATES A HISTORY THE MOST COMPLETE AND MOST POPULAR HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FROM THE ABORIGINAL TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY EMBRACING AN ACCOUNT OF THE ABORIGINES ; THE NORSEMEN IN THE NEW WORLD ; THE DISCOVERIES BY THE SPANIARDS, ENGLISH, AND FRENCH; THE PLANTING OF SETTLEMENTS; THE GROWTH OF THE COLONIES ; THE STRUGGLE FOR LIBERTY IN THE REVOLUTION ; THE ESTABLISH- MENT OF THE UNION ; THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION ; THE CIVIL WAR ; THE CENTENNIAL OF independence; and THE RECENT ANNALS OF THE REPUBLIC JOHN CLARK RIDPATH, LL. D. AUTHOR OP RIDPATH's SCHOOL HISTORIBS OF THE UNITED STATES, ANO A CYCLOPEDIA OF UNIVERSAL HIS IReviseb anb jenlargeb THE COMPLETE CENSUS OF 189O AND OTHER VALUABLE STA' 'STICS, MAGNIFICENTLY ILLUSTRATED IN COLORS, WITH FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS, PORi. "OF ALL THE PRESIDENTS, SEALS OF ALL THE STATES, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS Dh. .ivlBING THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION ^ PUBLISHED AND MANUFACTURED BY THE UNITED STATES HISTORY CO. NEW-YORK CITY \ Copyright, 1889, by No-w York. Copyright, 1891, by THE UNITED STATES HISTORY CO. New York. PRESS AND BINDERY OF HISTORICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, PHILADEI-PHIA, PA. 1892. PREFACE. Dear People op the United States: — By this, my Preface, I offer to you a New History of your coun- tty — and mine. The work is presented in the form of an abridged narrative. My reasons for such a venture are brief, but, I trust, sat- isfactory : Fh-st, to every American citizen some knowledge of the history of his country is indispensable. The attainment of that knowledge ought to be made easy and delightful. Second, the Centennial of the Republic furnishes an auspicious oc- casion for the study of those great events which compose the warp and woof of the new civilization in the West. This book is intended for the average American; for the man of business who has neither time nor disposition to plod through ten or twenty volumes of elaborate historical dissertation ; for the prac- tical man of the shop, the counter, and the plow. The work is dedicated to the household and the library of the working man. It is in- scribed to the father, the mother, the son, and the daughter of the American family. If father, mother, son, and daughter shall love their country better — if they shall understand more cleai-ly and ap- preciate more fully the founding, progress, and growth of liberty in the New "World — the author will be abundantly repaid. (iii) IV PREFACE. In the preparation of the work the following objects have been kept in view: I. To give an accurate and spirited Narrative of the principal events in our National history from the aboriginal times to the pres- ent day. II. To discuss the Philosophy of that history as fully as possible within the narrow limits of the work. III. To avoid all Partiality, Partisanship, and Prejudice, as things dangerous, baneful, and wicked. IV. To preserve a clear and systematic Arrangement of the sev- eral subjects, giving to every fact, whether of peace or war, its true place and importance in the narrative. V. To give an Objective Representation by means of charts, maps, drawings, and diagrams, of all the more important matters in the history of the nation. VI. To secure a Style and Method in the book itself which shall be in keeping with the spirit and refinement of the times. Whether these important ends have been attained, dear People, it is not my province but yours to decide. I have labored earnestly to reach the ideal of such a work, and if success has not rewarded the effort, the failure has been in the execution rather than in the plan and purpose. I surrender the book, thus undertaken and completed, to You — for whom it was intended. With diffidence I ask a considerate judg- ment and just recognition of whatever worth the work may be found to possess. J. C. R. OOKTEISTTS. INTRODUCTION. What constitutes a period in history. — The period of the Aborigines. — The aecond period in the history of the United States. — Extends from the discovery of the conti- nent to the establishment of permanent settlements. — The third period. — Reaches from the first colonies to the war of the Revolution. — The fourth period. — Embraces the Revolution and the consolidation of the government. — The fifth period is most im- portant. — Extends from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time. — The names and dates of the several period* 39, 40. PART I. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. CHAPTER I. THE RED MEN— ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. The Indians. — Their name accounted for. — Diflferences between them and the Asiatics. — The origin of the Indian races unknown. — Theories controverted. — The question likely to remain unsolved. — Language may give us light. — The Red men Gan- owanians. — Habits of that race. — Divisions of the aboriginal nations. — The Esqui- maux. — Their manner of life. — The race of Algonquins. — Their distribution. — And character. — The Huron-Iroquois. — Their domain. — Nature of their confederation. — Their influence and character. — The Southern races. — Cherokees. — Mobilians.— Man- ners and characteristics. — The Dakotas. — Their limits. — The Comanches. — The na- tions beyond the Mountains. — Shoshonees. — Selish. — Klamaths. — Californians. — Aztecs and Toltecs of old. — The Indian character in general. — Sense of personal inde- pendence. — Passion for war.— Principles of war. — And of peace. — The Indian unsocial and solitary. — His family organization. — The European family. — Diagram thereof.— Indian method. — And diagram. — Aboriginal government. — Powers and limitations. — Native religion. — Beliefs of the Red men. — Their arts. — Rudeness of the same. — The Indian house. — Utensils. — Weapons. — Clothing. — Decorations. — Paint. — And writing. — The savage tongues. — Peculiarities of Indian speech. — Personal appearance of the aborigines. — Stature. — Features. — Bodily habit. — Indian amusements. — The dance. — Other sports. — Gaming. — The use of tobacco. — Strong drinks. — Indian prospects.— IU;flections 41-50, (V) CONTENTS. PART II. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. A. D. 988—1607. CHAPTER II. THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. Herjulfson is driven by a storm to the American coast. — Lief Erickson discovers America. — Thorwald and Tliorstein Erickson make voyages. — Thorfinn Karlsefne ex- plores the shores of Maine and Massachusetts. — Other voyages are made by the Norse- men. — The name of Vinland. — Character of the sea-kings. — Voyages in the following centuries. — No practical results from the Icelandic discoveries. — Their authenticity. — Note 51-54. CHAPTER III. SPANISH DISCOVERIES. Spain makes the New World known to Europe. — Old ideas about the figure of the earth. — Columbus. — Sketch of his life. — The favor of Isabella. — Columbus departs on his first voyage. — Discovers San Salvador, Cuba, and Hayti. — Second voyage of Co- lumbus.— Third. — He discovers South America. — Fourth voyage. — Columbus's misfort- unes and death. — Wrong done to his memory. — Vespucci makes two voyages to South America. — Excitement in Europe on account of discoveries. — Colony planted on the Isthmus. — Balboa discovei-s the Pacific. — Ponce de Leon makes explorations in Flor- ida. — Is killed in a fight with the Indians 54-58. CHAPTER IV. SPANISH DISCOVERIES — CONTINUED. Cordova discovers Yucatan. — Grijalvaexplores Mexico. — Cortez lands at Tabasco.— Terror pervades the country. — The natives are beaten back. — Cortez proceeds to Vera Cruz. — Montezuma sends embassies and presents.— The Spaniards march towards the capital. — And are forbidden to approach. — The Mexican tribes revolt. — Cortez reaches the city. — And enters. — His critical situation. — He seizes Montezuma. — Who acknowl- edges the king of Spain. — The governor of Cuba sends forces against Cortez. — He over- powers them. — Returns to the capital. — The struggle for possession of the city. — Mon- tezuma is wounded. — And dies. — The Spaniards are victorious. — Mexico becomes a Spanish province. — Magellan sails around South America. — Crosses the Pacific. — la killed at the Philippines. — His crew reach the East Indies. — Double the Cape of Good Hope. — Return to Europe. — De Narvaez is appointed governor of Florida. — Ex- plores the country around the Gulf.— The company embark in boats, and are wrecked. — Four men reach San Miguel. — De Soto sets out on an expedition to explore and con- quer Florida. — Arrives at Tampa Bay. — Marches into the interior. — Spends the winter on Flint River. — The company march into South Carolina. — Cross into Georgia. — Capt- ure Manville. — Spend the next winter on the Yazoo. — Discover the Mississippi. — Ex- plore Arkansas and return to the Mississippi. — De Soto dies. — His men again march westward to the mountains. — Return to the mouth of Red River. — Build boats and descend the Mississippi. — Reach the Spanish settlements in Mexico. — Melendez comes CONTENTS. vii to Florida, and founds St. Augustine. — Murders the Huguenots on the St. John's. — Massacres the crews of the French vessels.— Extent of the Spanish explorations.— The Portuguese voyage of Gaspar Cortereal.— He sells a cargo of Indian slaves in Portu- gal 61-69. CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. First acquaintance of the French with America. — Verrazzani is sent out to make ex- plorations. — Arrives on the coast of Korth Carolina. — Explores the shores of the country as far north as Newfoundland. — Cartier is sent on a voyage to America.— Reaches Newfoundland and enters the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence.— Returns to Europe.— Sails on a second expedition.— Ascends the St. Lawrence to Montreal.— His crew are attacked with scurvy. — He passes the winter near the site of Quebec. — And returns to France. — Roberval undertakes to colonize the country. — Cartier joined to the under- taking. — Prisons of France are opened to furnish emigrants. — Expedition reaches the St. Lawrence. — The leaders quarrel, and Cartier goes back to France. — The whole colony returns. — Roberval sails with another fleet. — And is lost at sea. — Ribault con- ducts a band of Huguenots to Port Royal.— Builds Fort Carolina.— The settlement is abandoned. — The enterprise renewed by Laudonniere. — A Huguenot colony estab- lished on the St. John's River. — But destroyed by Melendez. — De Gourges takes venge- ance on the Spaniards. — La Roche is commissioned to plant colonies in America. — French prisons, again opened. — A settlement is made on Sable Island. — The company rescued and carried to France. — De Monts made viceroy of New France. — Departs with a colony. — Reaches the Bay of Fundy. — Port Royal founded by Poutrincourt, and the St. Croix settlement by De Monts. — The country named Acadia. — Champlain receives a commission. — Sails with a colony to the St. Lawrence. — Goes against the Iroquois. — Returns and founds Quebec 70-76, CHAPTER VI. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. Henry VII. commissions John Cabot. — Who discovers North America. — Is re- commissioned. — Sebastian takes charge of the expedition. — Explores the American coast from Labrador to Cape Hatteras. — Leaves England to become pilot of Spain. — The notable year 1498. — Causes which impeded English discovery. — Maritime enter- prise revives under Elizabeth. — Frobisher sails to America and discovers Meta Incog- nita.— Takes spurious ore to London. — A new voyage is planned. — Frobisher conducts a fleet to Meta Incognita. — The expedition proves a failure. — Sir Francis Drake cap- tures Spanish merchantmen. — Goes to the Pacific coast. — Attempts the discovery of a north-west passage. — Gilbert forms a plan of colonization. — Is assisted by Raleigh. — Conducts a fleet to Newfoundland.- -The crews find spurious minerals. — The voyage is continued to Massachusetts. — Gilbert loses his best ship and a hundred men. — Starts home, and is lost at sea —Raleigh sends Amidas and Barlow with a colony. — They reach Roanoke Island and begin a settlement. — The place is abandoned. — Raleigh sends a second colony under Lane. — The colonists reach Roanoke and begin to build. — DiiBcullies arise with the Indians. — The settlement is broken up. — The colony taken home by Drake. — A new charter granted by Raleigh, and White chosen governor. — The new emigrants arrive at Roanoke. — The foundations of a town laid on the Island. — Troubles with the Indians. — Manteo is made a peer. — -White returns to. England. — Birth of Virginia Dare. — The fate of the colony never ascertained. — Condition''of aflfairs in England. — White returns, and finds Roanoke deserted. — Raleigh assigns his patent to yiii CONTENTS. London merchants. — Gosnold makes a voyage directly across the Atlantic. — Attempts to form a settlement on Elizabeth Island. — The place is abandoned. — Gosnold trades with the natives. — The crew demand to return. — Flattering accounts are given of the country. — An expedition is sent out under Pring. — He explores a part of the New England coast, and returns to Bristol. — Waymouth sails on a voyage. — Trades with the Indians of Maine. — Keturns to England 76-85b CHAPTEE VII. ENGLISH DISCOVERIES AND SBITLEMENTS. — CONTINUED. King James issues patents to the London and Plymouth Companies. — The London Company to plant colonies between the 34th and the 38th parallels. — The Plymouth Com- pany to make settlements from the 41st to the 45th degree. — Gosnold, Smith, Hakluyt and Wingfield lead the affairs of the Southern Company. — No democratic principles are recognized in the charter. — A ship is sent out by the Plymouth Company. — A second vessel is dispatched to America. — A settlement is attempted at the mouth of the Kennebec. — Is abandoned in the summer of 1608. — A fleet with a colony is sent out by the London Company. — ^Newport commands. — They arrive in the Chesapeake. — Enter James Kiver. — Make a landing and lay the foundations of Jamestown. — The affairs of the Plymouth Company are revived by vSmith. — He explores and maps the coast of Maine and Massachusetts. — Several attempts are made to form a colony in New Eng- land. — The Plymouth Company is superseded by the Council of Plymouth. — A new plan of colonization is made, and Smith appointed admiral. — The Puritans arise in the North of England. — They remove to Amsterdam and Leyden. — Determine to remove to America. — Ask permission of the king and the Council of Plymouth. — Meet with dis- couragements. — Procure two ves.sels at their own expense. — Sail from Leyden, and after- ward from Southampton. — The Speedwell is found unfit for the voyage, and the Pilgrims depart in the Mayflower. — The Pilgrims have a stormy voyage. — Come in sight of Cape Cod. — They make a frame of government. — Carver is elected governor. — The landing is delayed by bad weather. — The ship is driven by storms. — Enters Plymouth harbor. — The Puritans go ashore on the 11th of December.— Begin to build. — Are attacked with diseases. — Many of the colony die. — An early spring brings them relief. . 85-91. CHAPTER VIII. VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. Dutch settlements in America result from the voyages of Hudson. — He is employed by London merchants to reach the Indies. — Sails into the North Atlantic. — Fails in hi* effort. — Is sent on a second voyage. — -And fails. — Goes into the service of the Dutch East India Company. — Sails on a third voyage. — Is driven back by the icebergs. — Turns to America. — Beaches Newfoundland. — ^Sails southward to the Chesapeake. — Then north- ward to New York harbor. — Discovers the Hudson River. — Explores that stream as far as Albany. — Returns to Dartmouth. — Is detained by the English government. — Is sent on a fourth expedition. — Discovers Hudson Strait and Bay. — Is overtaken by winter. — The crew mutiny. — Hudson is cast off among the icebergs. — Dutch vessels begin to trade at the mouth of the Hudson. — The states-general grant a right to trade. — A settlement is made on Manhattan Island. — Block explores Long Island Sound. — Christianson builds Fort Nassau. — May explores the coast of New Jersey. — Holland claims the country from Delaware Bay to Cape Cod , . . 92-94 CONTENTS. PART III. COLONIAL HISTORY. A. D. 1607—1776. PARENT COLONIES. CHAPTER IX. VIRGINIA. — THE FIRST CHARTER. The progress of Virginia is hindered.— First settlers are of bad character.— Necessity drives them to labor.— The king gives sealed instructions.— Smith is arrested.— And ex- cluded from the council.— He and Newport explore the James.— Return to Jamestown. —Newport goes to England.— The colonists are discouraged.— Disease ravages the settle- ment.— Gosnold dies.— Wingfield embezzles the funds.- And is removed from office.— Ratcliflfe succeeds.— And is also impeached. — Smith takes control of the colony.— Sketch of his life.— The settlement flourishes under his care.— He explores the country, and pro- cures supplies.— The Indians furnish provisions.— Smith explores the Chickahominy.— Is captured by the Indians.— Saves his life by stratagem.— Is carried to Orapax.— Thence to Pamunkey.— Is condemned to death.— And saved by Pocahontas.— He remains in Powhatan's household.— Is liberated.— Returns to Jamestown.— Terrifies the savages.- Deplorable condition of the settlement.— Plot to abandon the place.— Newport arrives with new immigrants.— Who are as bad as the others.— The gold-hunters go abroad.— And find mica in the sand of James River.— A ship is loaded with dirt and sent to Eng- land.— The planting season goes by.— Smith makes his great exploration of the Chesa- peake.— And maps the country.— Returns.— Is elected president.— Newport arrives with more immigrants and supplies. — Progress of the colony 95-104. CHAPTER X. VIRGINIA. — THE SECOND CHARTER. King James grants a new charter. — Changes are made in the form of government. — A new council is organized. — Delaware is chosen governor. — The other officers. — A fleet with five hundred emigrants sails for America.— Encounters a storm.— Two vessels are ■wrecked. — Seven ships reach Jamestown. — The commissioners are left on the Bermuda Islands.— Smith retains the presidency.— New settlements are projected.— Smith is wounded.— Delegates his authority to Percy.— Returns to England.— Colony suflers after his departure. — The starving time. — Gates and his companions reach Virginia. — The settlement is abandoned.— Delaware meets the colony.— And persuades them to return.— Prosperity begins.— But Delaware falls sick.— And returns to England.— Percy is deputy. —Dale arrives as governor.— Brings immigrants.— Writes for supplies and new colo- nists.— Who arrive.— The colony improves.— Gates is made governor.— The right of private property is recognized. — And the settlements enlarged. . . . 104-107 xu CONTENTS. mission of the tribes. — Losses of New England. — The English government refuses help. — Eandolph comes to abridge the liberties of Massachusetts. — And is defeated. — Mas- sachusetts purchases Maine of the heirs of Gorges. — Difficulties concerning New Hamp- shire. — A royal government is established in the province. — Cranfield's administration. — The king's hostility. — The charter of Massachusetts is annulled. — King Charles dies. — James 11. appoints Dudley governor. — And then Andros. — The liberties of the peo- ple are destroyed. — The government of Andros is extended over New England. — But the charter of Connecticut is saved. — The Kevolution of 1688. — Andros is seized, and imprisoned. — And the colonies restore their liberties. .... 139-147. CHAPTER XVI. MASSACHUSETTS. — WAR AJJD ■WITCHCRAFT. King William's War begins. — The causes. — Dover is attacked and burned. — Pema- quid is destroyed. — And then Schenectady. — And Salmon Falls. — An expedition is planned against Canada. — Phipps takes Port Royal. — But fails at Quebec. — And re- turns. — Paper money is issued. — Failure of the expedition against Montreal. — Phipps goes to England. — And returns as royal governor. — Oyster River is destroyed. — Haver- hill is attacked and burned. — Mrs. Dustin's captivity. — The treaty of Ryswick. — The witchcraft excitement begins at Salem. — The cau.ses.— Parris and Mather. — The trials. — Convictions. — Executions. — The reaction. — Mather's book. — Reflections. 147-153. CHAPTER XVII. MASSACHUSETTS. — WARS OP ANNE AND GEORGE. Causes of Queen Anne's War. — Field of operations in America. — A treaty is made with the Five Nations. — The conflict begins. — Deerfield is burned. — And the inhab- itants carried captive to Canada. — Barbarities of the Indians. — An expedition is sent again.st Port Royal. — The attempt fails. — Is renewed in 1710. — Port Royal is taken. — And named Annapolis. — Preparations are made for invading Canada. — Nicholson com- mands the land forces. — And Walker the fleet. — The squadron is delayed. — Stops at Gaspe Bay. — Is shattered by a storm in the St. Lawrence. — Returns in disgrace. — The expedition by land is abandoned. — A treaty is made at Utrecht. — A separate peace is concluded with the Indians. — The people of Massachusetts resist the royal governor. — Causes of King George's War. — The conflict begins. — Importance of Louisburg. — Its conquest is planned by Shirley. — The colonies contribute men and means. — The expe- dition leaves Boston. — Is detained at Canseau. — Joined by Warren's fleet. — Reaches Gabarus Bay. — Invests Louisburg. — The siege.— The surrender. — Cape Breton submits. — France attempts to reconquer Louisburg. — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — Cliaracter of the Puritans 153-160. CHAPTER XVIII. NEW YORK. — SETTLEMENT. Character of Sir Henry Hudson. — The East India Company govern Manhattan. — A colony is sent fi-om Holland. — A charter is granted to the West India Company. — The Walloons arrive at New Amsterdam. — May builds Fort Nassau.— And Joris, Fort Orange. — Civil government begins in New Netherland. — M.ay is governor. — And then Verhulst. — And Minuit. — Manhattan is purchased.— And fortified. — Friendly relations are established between the Walloons and the Puritans. — The Dutch devote themselves to the fur-trade. — Growth of the colony. — A charter is granted. — The patroons. — Five manors are laid out. — Delaware is colonized. — And then abandoned. — Van Twiller sue- CONTENTS. xiii ceeds Minuit. — A fort is built at Hartford. — Tlie Englisli claim the Connecticut.— Swe- den purposes to plant an American colony. — The project is delayed. — But renewed by Minuit. — A Swedish colony reaches the Delaware. — Settles at Christiana. — Is prosper- ous. — And Xew Netherland is jealous.— Fort Nassau is rebuilt. — Printz removes to Tin- icum. — The Indians are provoked by the Dutcli. — War breaks out. — A desultory contest. — The Mohawks come. — Kieft massacres the Algonquins. — Tiie war continues. — Fate of Mrs. Hutchinson. — Underbill conquers the_ Indians. — Kieft the author of the war. — DeVries succeeds him. 160-167. CHAPTER XIX. NEW YORK. — ADMINISTRATION OF STUYVESANT. Stuy vesant is appointed governor. — Peace established with the Indians. — Free trade succeeds monopoly. — Growth of the colony. — A boundary is established between New England and New Netherland. — The Dutch again claim New Sweden. — Build Fort Casimir.— The place is captured by the Swedes. — Stuyvesant conquers and annexes New Sweden. — The .Vlgonquins rebel. — And are subdued. — The Indians of Ulster rise. — Burn Esopus. — Are punished. — Stuyvesant is troubled about his boundaries. — Domes- tic difficulties. — New Netherland lags. — The Dutch prefer English laws. — The province is granted to the Duke of York. — The duke makes good his claim. — Sends out Nieolls. — And conquers New Netherland. 167-171. CHAPTER XX. NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. Nieolls settles the boundaries of New York. — New Jersey is granted to Berkeley and Carteret. — Is claimed by Nieolls. — But the claim is set aside. — The Territories. — The Dutch claim liberty. — Are disappointed. — New land-titles are issued. — Lovel.ace succeeds Nieolls. — And is resisted by the people. — His tyranny. — Friendship of the English and the Dutch. — War with Holland. — Evertsen reconquers New York. — But the province is restored to England. — Andros begins his government. — Proves himself a despot. — Claims the country from the Connecticut to Maryland. — Goes to Saybrook. — Is baiHed by Cajitain Bull. — Attempts to overawe New Jer.sey. — And fails. — Delaware is separated from New York. — And joined to Pennsylvania. — Dongan becomes gov- ernor. — The right of representation is conceded. — Character of the Constitution. — A treaty is made with the Iroquois. — The Duke of York becomes king. — And overthrows colonial liberties. — Andros is sent out as governor of New England. — Usurps the gov- ernments of all the colonies north of the Delaware. — Leisler's insurrection. — The prov- ince yields to his autliority. — Schenectady is burned. — Ingoldsby arrives as governor. — Leisler and Milborne are arrested. — Tried. — And hanged. — The Irourchase. — New Jersey is divided. — Line of division. The proprietors of West Jersey issue the Concessions. — The Quakers colonize West Jersey. — The Duke of York claims the country, — f?ir Wil- liam Jones decides against him. — .\ndros's claim to East .Jersey is annulled. — The Qua- kers convene an assembly.— And frame a constitution. — East Jersey is purchased by the Friends. — Barclay is governor. — The two Jerseys submit to Andros. — And afterward regain their liberties. — Conflicting claims to the country. — Di.scord. — The proprietors surrender their rights of government to the Crown. — New Jersey becomes a royal province. — Is attached to New Y'^ork under Cornbury. — The people petition for a sepa- ration. — Which is granted. — Morris becomes governor. — New .Jersey not injured by Indian wars. — Reflections 203-208. CHAPTER XXV. PENNSYLVANIA. The Friends are persecuted in Europe. — Penn designs to plant a Quaker State in America. — Charles II. grants the charter of Pennsylvania. — Penn relinquishes his claims on tlie British government. — Declares his purposes. — Writes a letter to the Swedes. — Invites emigration. — A colony departs under Markham. — Tbe Indians are assured of friendship. — Penn frames a constitution. — The Duke of York surrenders Delaware. — E.xtent of Penn's dominion. — He leaves England with a second colony. — oketch of his life. — He addresses the people at New Castle. — Pas.ses through the Jerseys to New Y'^ork.— Returns. — Makes the great treaty with the Indians. — Which is kept inviolate. — A convention is held at Chester. — A provisional constitution is adopted. — Penn visits Lord Baltimore. — Philadelphia is founded. — Growth of the XVI CONTENTS. city. — Penn sails for England. — Lloyd remains as governor. — Delaware secedes. — PenB adheres to the Stuarts.^Is imprisoned. — His province is taken away. — But afterward restored. — Penn revisits America. — The constitution is modified. — Delaware is finally separated. — Penn returns to England. — Condition of his province. — Hamilton and Evans deputy governors. — Conduct of the latter. — He is removed from office. — Succeeded by Gookin. — Penn's trials in England. — He dies. — His sons become proprietors of Penn- sylvania. — The province is purchased by the colonial assembly. — Reflections. 209-215, COLONIAL HISTORY— Continued. MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. CHAPTER XXVI. MARYLAND. Clayborne is commissioned by the London Company. — Explores the Chesapeake. — Establishes trading-posts. — Sketch of Sir George Calvert's life. — He plans a Catholic colony. — Sends a company to Newfoundland. — Goes to Virginia. — Refuses the oath. — Returns to England. — Obtains a charter. — Character and extent of the patent. — Calvert dies. — Sir Cecil succeeds him. — The name of Maryland. — A colony is sent out under Leonard Calvert. — Reaches the Chesapeake. — Ascends the Potomac. — Returns. — And founds St. Mary's. — Friendly relations are established with the Indians. — Growth of the colony. — An assembly is convened.— Clayborne incites an insurrection. — Is beaten. — Escapes into Virginia. — Is .sent to England. — Representative government is estab- lished. — An Indian war breaks out. — Clayborne returns to America. — Leads a second insurrection.— Overthrows the government.— The. rebellion is suppressed.— Tolerant character of the laws. — Divi.sion of the legislature. — Commissioners are appointed by Parliament.- Dissensions of Stone and Clayborne.— The civil war between the Catholics and Protestants.- Fendall's rebellion.— Maryland declares independence.— Fendall is condemned.— Charles Calvert is governor.— The Protestants gain control of the State. — Maryland becomes a royal province.— The heir of i^ord Baltimore is restored to his rights.— The Calverts rule the colony until the Revolution.— Reflections. . 216-224. CHAPTER XXVII. NORTH CAROLINA. The name of Carolina.— Early explorations.— The country is granted to Clarendon and others.— Albemarle and Clarendon colonies are founded.— Cooper and Locke frame the grand model.— Its establishment impossible.— Clarendon county is aban- doned.— The proprietors oppress the colonists.— A rebellion ensues.— Governor Cul- pepper goes to England.— And defends the people.— Clarendon .sells his rights.— Sothel is sent out as governor.— His tyranny.— He is overthrown.— Ludwell succeeds.— And then Walker.— The colony pro.spers.— Decline of the Indian tribes.— A war breaks out. — Barnweir.s expedition.— Peace.— And war again.— Moore invades the country of th« Tuscaroras.— The savages are beaten.— The nation Ls divided.— The Tuscarora migra- tion.— Division of the Carolinas.— Character of the people. . . • 224-229- CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVIII. SOUTH CAROLINA. A colony is sent out under West and Sayle. — Reaches Beaufort. — Bat settles on Ashley River. — Locke's constitution is rejected. — And a simple government adopted. — West becomes governor. — And then Yeamans. — Slavery is introduced. — Rapid immi- gration. — Charleston is founded. — \.n Indian war arises. — Immigrants arrive from England, Scotland, and Ireland. — The Edict of Nantes is revoked. — Tlie Huguenots flock to South Carolina. — Colleton becomes governor. — Declares martial law. — Is over- thrown. — Sothel takes the office. — Is banished. — Ludwell next. — Who retires to Vir- ginia. — The priiprietors abrogate the grand model. — The Quaker Archdale. — His wise administration. — Moore succeeds. — The war with Florida. — Moore and Daniel attempt to take St. Augu.stine. — And fail. — Moore makes a successful campaign against the In- dians.— The Church of England is established. — The dissenters are disfranchised. — But the act is revoked by Parliament. — The Spaniards besiege Charleston. — And are re- pelled. — War with the Yamassees. — The savages are conquered. — Popular revolution in South Carolina. — Nicholson is governor. — The proprietors sell Carolina to the king. — A royal government is established.^Character of the people. . 230-237. CHAPTER XXIX. Georgia founded in benevolence. — Oglethorpe the founder.— Sketch of his life. — He leads forth a colony. — And founds Savannah. — The friendly natives. — A treaty is made with the Muskhogees. — Immigrants arrive from various parts of Europe. — Ogle- thorpe goes to England.— Returns.— The Moravians.— The Wesleys.— And Whitefield.— Conflicting claims of Georgia and Florida. — Oglethorpe builds forts. — Is commissioned as general. — War breaks out. — The governor besieges St. Augustine. — And fails. — The Spaniards invade Georgia. — Oglethorpe's stratagem. — The battle of Bloody Marsh. — The Spaniards are defeated. — And retreat to Florida. — The governor returns to Eng- land. — Slavery is introduced. — The prohibitory law is repealed. — Growth of Georgia. — Reflections on tlie thirteen colonies 238-244 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CHAPTER XXX. CAUSES. The colonies begin to act together. — A sense of common danger unites them. — The French and Indian War arises. — Causes considered. — Conflicting territorial claims.^ English colonies on the sea-board.— French colonies in the interior.— France purposes to confine the English to the Atlantic slope. — French settlements result from the effort* 2 xviii CONTEXTS. of tlie Jesuits. — Missions are establislied on the lalies. — Joliet and Marquette discover the Mississippi. — Descend the river. — Return to Michigan.— La Salle passes through the lakes. — Descends the Illinois. — Goes to Canada. — Returns. — And explores the Missis- sippi to the gulf. — Sails for France. — Returns with a colony. — Reaches Texas. — Sets out for Canada. — Is murdered. — French posts are established. — The Ohio valley to be occupied. — The animosity of France and England leads to war. — The frontiersmen of the two nations come in conflict. — The Ohio Company is organized. — Obtains a grant of land. — Bienville explores and claims the Ohio valley. — Gi.st traverses the country to the falls of the Ohio. — The French fortify Le Boeuf and Venango. — Attack a British post. — Gist makes a second exploration. — An English colony on the Youghiogheny. — The Indians favor the English. — The Half-King goes to Erie. — The chiefs confer with Franklin. — Dinwiddle sends a despatch to St. Pierre. — Washington is chosen for the mission. — Sets out by way of Will's Creek to the site of Pittsburg. — .-^nd thence to Le Boeuf. — Washington confers with St. Pierre. — And returns to Virginia. — Hardships of the journey. — Trent begins a fort at the fork of the Ohio. — The French capture the place. — And build Du Quesne. — Washington is sent to retake the fort. . 24.5-255. CHAPTER XXXI. CAMP.\IGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. Washington marches to Great Meadows. — Builds Fort Necessity. — Attacks and defeats Jumonville.— Extends the road toward Du Quesne. — De Villiers approaches. — Attacks Fort Necessity. — And compels a surrender. — An American congress as.sembies at Albany. — Franklin plans a union. — The colonies reject the constitution. — France sends soldiers to America. — Braddock is sent by England. — He confers with the gov- ernors. — Plans four compaigns. — Marches his army to Fort Cumberland. — Proceeds against Du Quesne. — Approaches the fort. — Meets the French and Indians. — And is terribly defeated. — Washington saves the remnant of the army. — Death of Braddock. — Dunbar retreats. — Destroys the stores.— Evacuates Fort Cumberland. — Retires to Philadelphia 2.5.5-261. CHAPTER XXXII. RUIN OF ACADIA. Nova Scotia under English rnle.^Lawrence fears an insurrection.-^Is authorized to subdue the French inhabitants.— The English fleet leaves Boston.— The French forts on the Bay of Fundy.— The fleet arrives at Beau-Sejour.— The place is besieged. —And obliged to surrender.— The other forts capitulate.— The British officers deter- mine to exile the inhabitants. — The country is laid waste. — And the people carried into banishment 261-264. CHAPTER XXXIII. EXPEDITIONS OP SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. A campaign is planned against Niagara. — Shirley commands. — Proceeds to Os- wego. — Wastes the time. — Marches homeward.^Oswego is rebuilt. — Johnson and Ly- man go against the French on Lake Champlain.— Build Fort Edward.— Form a camp on Lake George. — Dieskau approaches. — Proceeds by way of Wood Creek against Fort Edward.— Meets the English.— And drives them to the camp.— The battle.— The French are defeated.— Dieskau is killed.— The English lose heavily.— Johnson builds Fort William Henry. — The French reinforce their forts 264-266. CONTENTS. ■ six CHAPTER XXXIV. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. Shirley becomes commander-in-chief. — Washington repels the Indians.— Franklin defends Pennsylvania.— The campaigns of 1756 are planned.— The military forces of America are consolidated.— Loudoun is commander-in-chief.— He and Abercrombie arrive in New York with soldiers and supplies.— England declares war.— Abercrombie goes to Albany.— And stays there.— Montcalm besieges and captures 0.swego.— The Delawares revolt.— And are punished.— Loudoun burrows at Albaaj^;- The French strengthen their forts.— The conquest of Louisburg is planned.— Loudoun proceeds to Halifax.— Holbourn joins him.— They muster and do nothing.— Loudoun returns to New York.— Montcalm and the Iroquois besiege and capture Fort William Henry.— The Indians massacre the prisoners.— Review of the situation. 267-270. CHAPTER XXXV. TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. Pitt becomes prime minister.— Loudoun is deposed.— Abercrombie succeeds.— An able corps of generals sent to America.— Three campaigns are planned.— Amherst and W' olfe proceed against Louisburg.— Besiege and take the fortress.— Abercrombie attacks Ticonderoga.— And is repulsed with great loss.— Bradstreet takes Fort Frontenac— Montcalm advises peace.— Forbes marches against Du Quesne.— Grant is defeated.— Washington leads the advance.— The French abandon and burn Du Quesne.— The place named Pittsburg.— Amherst commander-in-chief.— Relative .strength of the Eng- lish and the French.— Pitt plans the conquest of Canada.— Prideaux defeats the French before Niagara.— And captures the fortress.— Amherst takes Ticonderoga and Crown Point.— Wolfe proceeds against Quebec— Reaches the Island of- Orleans.— Besieges the citv.— The Lower Town is destroyed.— Montcalm's position.— The battle of Montmor- enci.— AVolfe's fever.— He ascends the river.— Plans an assault.- Discover's Wolfe's Cove.— Gains the Plains of Abraham.— Fights a decisive battle.— Defeats the French.— Is slain.— Quebec capitulates.— And then Montreal.— The Cherokee revolt is quelled.— The effect of the conquest of Canada. The French outposts are included in the sur- render of Montreal.— Rogers is sent to take possession of the forts.— He reaches De- troit.— Receives the surrender of Forts Miami and Ouatanow.— Mackinaw, Green Bay and St. Marie aftenvard capitulate.— The English treat the Red men badly.— The lat- ter become revengeful.— They make an attempt against Detroit.— And are baffled.— Conspiracies grow rife.— Pontiac organizes a confederacy.— Makes a plot for the cap- lure of Detroit.— And fails.- An unsuccessful siege ensues.— The savages are victorious in other quarters.— They capture most of the western forts.— The confederacy breaks up.— Pontiac is abandoned.— And killed.— The war continues on the ocean.— England 970—279 is victorious. — A treaty of peace. — The terms i.i\j i.ia. CHAPTER XXXVI. CONDITION OF THE COLONIES. The thirteen colonies.— Institntions.—Population.— Distribution of the same.— Growth of a national character and sentiment.— Education.— Character of the same in New England.— In the South.— Colleges.— Newspapers.— Books and men.— Absence of roads.— Agriculture the predominating pursuit.— Ship-building and manufactures.— What the Britisli Board of Trade was good for.— Reflections on the character of the Anglo-American colonists 280-284. CONTENTS. PART IV. REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION. A. D. J775— 1789. CHAPTER XXXVII. Importance of the revolution. — The question decided by it. — Character of the con- test. — The causes. — Great Britain claims the right of arbitrary government. — France incites the rebellion. — The disposition of the Americans encourages independence. — Public opinion leads to the same result. — The king provoltes a conflict. — Parliament passes oppressive acts. — The question of taxation. — Nature of the dispute. — The Im- portation Act.— Its provisions. — Writs of Assistance are issbed. — And resisted. — Tlie eagar and wine duties. — The colonists refuse to pay them. — A Stamp Act is proposed. — Indignation in the colonies. — The question of the Indian war-debt arises. — The Stamp Act is p.assed. — Its provisions. — The news is received in America. — The wrath of the people. — Scene in the House of Burgesses. — Patrick Henry's speecli. — Pas.sage of tlie resolutions. — Other assemblies pursue a similar course. — The first Colonial Congress. — A declaration of Eights is adopted. — Memorials to the king and Parliament. — Tlie Stamp Act is resisted. — And the stamps destroyed. — Suspension of business. — The Sons of Liberty. — A non-importation agreement is made. — The wrath of England. — Camden and Pitt defend tlie colonists. — Repeal of the Stamp .\ct. — Joy folIow.s. — Townshend re- ■ews the scheme. — Secures tlie passage of a glass and tea-tax.— Tlie Americans resist the act. — Circular of Massachusetts. — Seizure of a sloop at Boston. — Insurrection of the people. — Gage takes possession of Boston. — Is ordered to arrest tlie patriots. — Rebellion of Virginia and North Carolina. — Conflict at New York. — The Boston massacre. — Re- peal of the duties. — Passage of the Salary Act. — Burning of the Gaspee. — Stratagem •f the ministry. — Tea is shipped to America. — Is spoiled at Charleston.— Refused at New York and Philadelphia. — And poured overboard at Boston. — Passage of the Port Bill. — Opposition of the Burgesses. — The charter of Massacliusetts is annulled. — The people declared rebels- — The second Congre.is assembles. — Resolutions and addresses. —A British army is ordered to America. — Boston Neck fortified. — Military stores re- moved. — The assembly refuses to disband. — War becomes inevitable. . 285-296. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE BEGrNNING. The patriots remove their stores. — Gage plans to destroy them. — Pitcairn is sent for tiiat purpose. — Dawes and Revere arouse the people. — The Britisli reach Lexington. — Kre on the patriots. — Proceed to Concord. — -Ransack the village. — Are attacked. — And driven back to Boston. — The country is fired. — The patriots gather at Cambridge. — Allen and Arnold march against Ticonderoga. — And capture the fortress. — The British are reinforced. — Proclamation of Gage. — His plans. — The Americans fortify Breed's Hill. — Amazement of the British-T-The battle. — Excitement of the people. — The North Carolinians declare independence. — The Colonial Congress assembles. — An appeal to the king. — Washington commander-in-chief. — Sketch of his life. — ^His duties and em- CONTENTS. xxi barrassments.— Organization of the army.— Royal rule is overthrown.—Struggle with Dunmore.— Expedition against Quebec— Leil by Schuyler, Montgomery and Arnold.— Schuyler falls sicic.— Montgomery takes Montreal.— Hardships of Arnold's march.— He and Montgomery unite against Quebec.— The town is invested.— The assault and defeat.— Fall of Montgomery.— The expedition is abandoned.— Sketch of Montgomery. 297-305. CHAPTER XXXIX. THE WORK OF '76. The king answers the colonies.— Howe succeeds Gage.— Siege of Boston,— The Brit- ish evacuate the city.— The Americans enter.— Public rejoicings.— Washington goes to New York.- Clinton threatens the city.— Cornwallis and Parker proceed against Charleston.— Rising of the Carolinians.— The attack on Moultrie.— Repulse of the Brit- ish.— Distresses of the array.— Great Britain hires the Hessians.— And makes new lev- ies.— Exasperation of the patriots.— The question of independence.— Lee's resolutions. —Debates.— A committee is appointed.— The Declaration of Independence adopted.— And received with enthusiasm.— Its leading principles.— Howe returns.- Lands an army.— Attempts to open negotiations.— And fails.— The British advance on Long Is- land.— Fight a battle.— And defeat the patriots.— Washington saves the army.— Dis- couragement of the people.— The British take New York.— Negotiations are again at- tempted.— But fail.— Movements of the two armies.— Battle of White Plains.— Dispo- sition of the American forces.— Notice of Hamilton.— The capture of Fort Washington —Fort Lee is taken.— The Americans retreat across New Jersey.— The pursuit ends.— Enlargement of Washington's powers.— British successes in Rhode Island.— Lee's cap- ture.— Washington recruits liis army.— Recrosses the Delaware.— Defeats the British at Trenton.— Effect of the battle.— Alarm of the British.— Robert Morris to the rescue- Washington threatens the British posts 305-317. CHAPTER XL. OPERATIONS OF '77. The British advance against Trenton.— AVashington withdraws his forces.- Attacks Princeton.- And wins a victory.— Takes post at Morristown.— The British at New Brunswick.— Cornwallis on the defensive.— Destruction of stores at Peekskill.— Lincoln attacked at Boundbrook.— Tryon burns Danbury.— Is attacked and driven away.— Meigs takes Sag Harbor.— Washington advances into New Jersey.— The British threaten Philadelpliia.— Retire to Amboy.— Leave the State.— Barton captures Prescott. — Congrc-ss returns to Philadelphia.— Help from France.— Coming of La Fayette and De Kalb.— Plan of Burgoyne's campaign.— The invasion begins.— Fall of Crown Point and Ticonderoga.— The battle of Hubbardton.— Capture of Whiteliall.— Fort Edward is taken.— Schuyler retreats to the Mohawk.— The British advance is impeded.— Tlie battle of Bennington.- St. Leger besieges Schuyler.— Herkimer brings relief.— And is .defeated.- Arnold advances.— The Indians desert the British.— St. Leger retreats.— Dis- couragement of Burgoyne.— Gathering of the Americans.— Burgoyne at Sarntosa.- The first battle.— Critical condition of tlie British.— A diversion is attempted by Clinton.— But fails.— The second battle.— Tlie Americans victorious.— Burgoyne is surrounded.— And driven to surrender.— The army of the North relieves Washington.— The move- ment of Howe against Philadelphia.— He enters the Cliesapeake.— The battle of Brandy- wine.— Retreat of the Americans.— Washington advances to Warren's Tavern.— A storm prevents the battle.— Countermarching of the armies.— The British capture Phil- adelphia.- Congre.ss adjourns to Lancaster.— Washington on Skippack Creek.— The xxu CONTENTS. battle of Germantown.— Capture of Forts Mercer and Mifflin.— The Americans a* Whitemarsh.— Adventure of Lydia Darrali.— The British winter at Philadelphia.— The Americans at Valley Forge. — Sorrows of Washington 317-328. CHAPTER XLI. FRANCE TO THE BESCUE. Silas Deane is sent to France. — His mission. — France favors the Americans. — Sup- plies are sent to the patriots. — Steuben arrives. — Lee and Franklin are appointed to negotiate a treaty. — Franklin's influence at the French court.— A treaty is concluded.; — Sketch of Franklin. — Arrival of D'Estaing's fleet. — War threatened between France and England.— Eff'ort of Great Britain fur peace.— The British fleet at Philadelphia.— With- drawal of the squadron. — The city evacuated. — Washington pursues. — The buttle of Monmouth. — Lee disobeys orders. — Is court-martialed and dismissed. — British concen- trate at New York. — The city threatened by D'Estaing. — He sails against Rhode Island. —Sullivan co-operates against Newport. — Howe follows D'Estaing. — Both squadrons shattered by a storm. — The siege of Newport. — Abandonment of the enterprise. — De- struction of American shipping. — Byron succeeds Howe. — Marauding of the British. — The Wyoming massacre. — Ruin of Cherry Valley. — The expedition of Major Clarke. — The French and British fleets sail away. — A force is sent against Savannah. — Capture of the city. — The situation 328-333. CHAPTER XLII. MOVEMENTS OF '79. Hardships of the soldiers. — T-yon's expedition. — Is attacked by the militia. — Put- aam's exploit, — Fall of Stony Point and Verplank'.s. — Insurrection in Virginia. — Tryon invades Connecticut. — Destruction of East Haven, Fairfield, and Norwalk. — Stony Point is retaken by Wayne. — I/ee captures Jersey City. — An American flotilla sails to the Penobscot. — Is ruined. — Sullivan ravages the Indian country. — The British evacuate Rhode Island. — War in the .South. — Fort Sunbury is taken. — Fall of Augusta. — Ander- son defeats the tories. — Pickens gains a victory. — Augusta is evacuated. — Defeat of Lincoln's army. — The militia rally. — Lincoln takes the field. — Threatens Augusta. — Returns to Charleston. — Is beaten at Stono Ferry. — Suspension of activity. — D'Estaing arrives. — Siege of Savannah. — The unsuccessful assault. — Paul Jones's victory. — Re- flections 334-339. CHAPTER XLIII. REVERSES AND TREASON. Operations in the North suspended. — Ternay's fleet arrives. — Campaigns are planned. — Arbuthnot and Clinton besiege Charleston. — The city is taken. — Ravages of Tarleton. — Plan of the British to conquer South Carolina. — Capture of Ninety-Six. — CornwallLs'.si success. — Tarleton's mas.sacre. — South Carolina is subjugated. — Clinton returns to New York. — Marion and Sumter's bands. — They scour the country. — Their victories. — Gaten takes command. — The British at Camden. — Gates advances against them. — Is met and defeated. — Is superseded by Greene. — Sumter's corps is broken up. — Cruelty of the British. — Rawdon advances into North Carolina. — Ferguson's tories are defeated. — Financial distresses. — Sacrifices of Morris. — The treason of Arnold. — Sketch of his career. — Andr€ is sent to a conference. — The interview. — Andr^ attempts to return to New York. — Is captured, condemned, and executed. — Treaty with Holland. 339-345. CONTENTS. CHAPTER XLIV. Desperate condition of tlie army.— The Pennsylvania line revolt.— Mutiny of the Jersey brigade.- Robert Morris secretary of finance.— Champe attempts to capture Arnold.— Fails.— Arnold's expedition to Virginia.— Second plan to capture him.— He becomes commander-in-chief in Virginia.— Is superseded.— And ordered out of the State.— Leads a band into Connecticut.— Captures Fort Griswold.— Greene in the South.— Advances into South Carolina.— Morgan at the Cowpen.s.— Is attacked by Tarleton.— But defeats him.— Cornwallis attempts to cut off Morgan's retreat.— Greene takes command. — Crosses the Catawba.— Race for the Yadkin.— Greene wins it.— Race for the Dan.— Greene wins it.— Chagrin of the British.— Greene turns upon the enemy.— Lee disperses the tories.— Greene moves forward to Guilford.— C'ornwalli.s attacks him.— An indecisive battle.— The British retreat to Wilmington.— Cornwallis goes to Virginia.— The Americans advance into South Carolina.— The battle of Hob- kirk's Hill.— The British retire to Eutaw Springs.— The siege of Ninety-Six.— The place is abandoned by the enemy.— Greene in the Highlands.— Sumter, Lee, and Marion overrun the country.— E.xecution of Hayne.— Greene advances against Eutaw Springs.— The battle.— The British retreat to Charleston.— The situation.— The cam- paign in Virginia.— Cornwallis ravages the State.— Marches down the James.— Is attacked by Wayne.— Proceeds to Portsmouth.— And thence to Yorktown.— The Army of the North comes down upon him.— The French fleet co-operates.— Yorktown is besieged.— And Cornwallis's army taken.— Rejoicings.— Fall of the king's party in Par- liament. — Negotiations for peace.— A treaty is concluded.— Its terras.— Carleton super- sedes Clinton.— Evacuation of New York.— Washington bids farewell to his officers.— Retires to private life. .... 345-356. CHAPTER XLV. CONFEDERATION AND UNION. Bad condition of the government. — Its defects. — Franklin pleads for union. — A committee appointed to prepare a Constitution.— The Articles of Confederation are adopted.— The colonies are slow to ratify.— The Confederation.— Defects of the same.— Chaotic condition of affairs.— A firmer Constitution is projected.— The con- vention at Annapolis.— Adjournment to Philadelphia.— The Constitution is re- ported to the convention. — And adopted.— The last colonial Congress.— Its final work. —The North-western Territory is organized.— The several States cede their rights away.— St. Clair appointed governor.— Plan of organization.— Slavery is restricted.— —The people divide on the question of adopting the Constitution.— Sketch of Ham- ilton.— Character of the Constitution.— Amendments thereto.— The struggle in the colonial conventions.- Ratification by eleven States.— Washington is chosen Pres- ident. — John Adams for the vice-presidency. — Washington's journey to New Y'ork. — Conclusion , 356-362. CONTENTS. PART V. NATIONAL PERIOD. CHAPTER XLVI. Washington's administration. Washington is inaugurated President. — And the new government organized. — The country is beset with difficulties. — A cabinet is formed. — The Supreme Court is organ- ized. — Rhode Island and North Carolina ratify the Constitution. — Washington makes a tour through New England. — Presidential etiquette. — Plamilton's financial measures. — The seat of government is fixed. — An Indian war breaks out. — Harmar marches against the Miamis. — Is defeated on the Mauraee. — The Bank of the United States is established. — Vermont is admitted into the Union.— The first census. — St. Clair is sent against the Indians. — His army is defeated. — The wrath of Washington. — St. Clair is superseded by Wayne. — Kentucky is admitted. — Washington re-elected. — The foreign relations of tlie government are troubled. — Genet's conduct. — Fouchet supersedes him. — Troubles in the President's cabinet. — Antagonism of Jeflerson and Hamilton. — The whisky insurrection breaks out. — Is suppressed by Lee. — ^Wayne invades tlie Indian country. — Defeats the Red men at Waynesfield. — Compels a cession of ter- ritory. — Dies. — Great Britain orders the seizure of American ves-sels. — Jay procures reparation and a treaty. — Popular opposition thereto. — The compact with Spain. — Peace is purchased of Algiers. — Tennessee is admitted. — Washington issues his Fare- well address. — The candidates for the Presidency. — Adams is elected. — Jeflerson for Vice-President 363-371. CHAPTER XLVII. ADAMS's ADMINISTRATION. Sketch of John Adams. — Opposition to the new administration. — France demands an alliance. — Orders the destruction of American commerce. — Pinckney is dismissed. — The extra session of Congress. — Gerry, Marshall, and Pinckney are sent to France. — The Directory want money. — Pinckney's answer. — An American army is organized. — Washington comander-in-chief. — The work of the navy. — Truxtun's victories. — Doings of Talleyrand. — Napoleon seeks peace. — The successful embassy of Murray, Ellsworth, and Davie. — Death of Washington. — Close of the administration. — Growth of the country. — The Alien and Sedition laws. — Overthrow of the Federal party. — Jefferson is elected President. — And Burr Vice-President. ..... 372-376. CHAPTER XLVIII. Jefferson's administration. Sketch of Jefferson. — He puts Democrats in office. — Ohio is admitted. — Indiana «nd Mississippi organized. — Louisiana is purchased from France. — Boundaries. — The territory of Orleans is set off. — John Marshall in the chief-justiceship. — The Mediter- CONTENTS. XXV ranean pirates.— Preble is sent against tliem. — The Philadelphia is captured. —Retaket. and burned. — The siege of Tripoli. — Expedition of Eaton. — Yusef signs a treaty. — The duel of Burr and Hamilton. — Jefferson Ls re-elected. — Michigan is organized. — Lewis and Clarke explore Oregon. — Bun- makes a conspiracy. — Is tried for treason. — Brit- ish aggressions on American commerce. — England blockades the coast of France. — Napoleon retaliates. — Great Britain forbids the coasting trade. — An old abuse revived. --The rule of 1756 again asserted. — The effect on American commerce. — The English theory of citizenship. — The object of that theory. — Tlie attack of the Leopard on the Chesapeake. — Passage of the Embargo Act. — The Orders in Council and Milan Decree. — Fulton and his steamboat. — Inventicn of the torpedo. — Summary of events. 376-.388. CHAPTER XLIX. Madison's administration asv the war op '12. Sketch of the life and previous services of Madison. — His politics. — The Non- intercourse Act takes the place of the Embargo. — Erskine promises the repeal of the Orders in Council. — The promise not fulfilled. — Bonaparte makes a decree. — And then revokes it. — Obstinacy of Great Britain. — A crisis is reached. — Third census. — Tecunitha and the Prophet. — Harrison purcha.scs lands. — Tecumtha refuses to ratify. — Harrison marches up the Wabash Valley. — Approaches the Prophet's town. — Is attacked by night. — And routs the .savages. — Fight of the President and Little Bell. — The twelfth Congress. — War inevitable. — The President's timid disposition. — Henry's conspiracy is discovered. — Nature of the plot. — Effect of the disclosure. — British vessels are embar- goed. — Louisiana is admitted. — War declared against England. — Preparations. — Relative strength of the belligerents. — Hull's campaign. — He marches to the head of Lake Erie. — Reaches Detroit. — Invades Canada. — Retreats. — Van Home's defeat. — Miller's vic- tory. — Siege of Detroit. — Hull's disgraceful surrender. — He is convicted of cowardice. — Capture and burning of Fort Dearborn. — Character assumed by the war. — Sketch of the American defences. — The Constitution captures the Gucrriere. — The Wa,^p the Frolic. — The Poicliers the Wasp. — The United Statts the Macedonian. — The Essex the Nocfon. — And the Constitulimi the Java. — Effect of these victories. — Comment of the English newspapers. — Van Rensselaer moves against Queenstown. — Carries the batteries. — Death of Brock. — The Americans entrench. — But are forced to surrender. — Smyth suc- ceeds Van Rensselaer. — And makes a fool of liimself. — The Americans at Black Uock cross and recross the river. — Madison re-elected. 388-399. CHAPTER L. WAlt OF '12. — CONTINUED. Plan of the campaigns of '13. — The Americans capture Frenchtown. — .\re as- sailed by Proctor. — Surrender. — And are butchered. — Harrison at Fort Meigs. — He is besieged. — Clay raises the siege. — Proctor and Tecumtha return. — Attack Fort Stephenson. — And are defeated by Croghan. — Affairs on Lake Erie. — Perry builds a fleet. — Attacks the British squadron.-^And gains a signal victory. — Harrison em- barks his forces to Maiden. — Follows the British and Indians to the Thames. — And routs them in battle. — The Creeks massacre the garrison at Fort Mims. — Jackson and Coffee with the Tennesseeans. — They burn Tallusliatchie. — Battles of Talladega and Autosse. — Winter and starvation. — Battle of Eniucfau.— And Horse. Shoe Bend. — Dearborn proceeds against Toronto. — Battle at the water's edge. — The .\mericans capture the town. — The British attack Sackett's Harbor. — The Americans on the Niagara. — They storm Fort George. — Suspension of operations. — Wilkinson is made xxvi CONTENTS. commander-in-chief. — Expedition against Montreal. — The battle of Chrysler's Field. ^The expedition is abandoned. — Winter quarters at Fort Covington. — McClure evacuates Fort George. — Burns Newarli. — The British retaliate. — The Hornet captures the Peacock. — The Chesapeake is taken by the Shannon. — Death of Lawrence. — Cap- ture of the Arffus. — The Enterprise takes the Boxer. — The JEssex is captured by the Fh CHAPTER LXIII. FIEST YEAK OF THE WAK. Advance of the Union army. — Fight at Big Bethel. — Morris and McClellan move forward in West Virginia. — Engagements at PhUippi, Rich Mountain, Carrick's Ford, Carnifex Ferry, Cheat Mountain, and Romney. — The Confederates concentrate at Manassas. — The national forces advance.— The skirmish, the battle, and the rout. — Effect on the country. — The Confederate government at Richmond. — Sketch of Davis. —Affairs in Missouri.— Confederates capture Liberty.— Form Camp Jackson.— Lyon defends St. Louis.— Battle!? of Carthage and Springfield. — Price captures Lexington.^ Fremont pursues him.— And is superseded.— Grant captures Belmont.— McClellan is made commander-in-chief.— The disaster at Ball's Bluff.— Hatteras inlet, Port Royal, and Hilton Head secured by the Federals. — Capture of Mason and Slidell. — They are released by Mr. Seward 490-495. CHAPTER LXIV. CAMPAIGNS OF '62. Extent and position of the Union forces. — The Confederates defeated on the Big Sandy and at Mill Spring.— Fort Henry is taken. — Siege and capture of Fort Donelson. Battle of Shiloli. — Island Number Ten is taken. — The battle of Pea Ridge. — Figlit of the Mmutor and the Meirimac. — Burnside captures Roanoke Island, Newbern, and Beaufort.— Savannah is blockaded.— Farragut aud Butler ascend the Mississippi.— Pass Forts Jackson and St. Philip. — Capture of New Orleans.— Fall of Jackson and St. pi^iljp Kirby Smith invades Kentucky. — Battle of Richmond. — Bragg marches on Louisville.— The city held by Buell.— Bragg retreats.— Battle of Perryville.— Battles of luka and Corinth.— Grant moves against Vicksburg.— Retreats.— Battle of Chickasaw Bayou.— Battle of Murfreesborough.— Banks aud Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley.— Fight at Front Royal.— The Federals retreat across the Potomac— The Confederates fall back in turn.— Battles of Cross Keys and Port Republic— McClellan advances.— Beginning of the Peninsular campaign.— Yorktown is taken.— Then Williamsburg and West Point.— Wool captures Norfolk.— The Virginia destroyed.— Battle of Fair Oaks.— Lee made general-in-chief of the Confederates.— McClellan changes base.-The seven days' battles.— The Union army at Harrison's Landing.— Lee strikes for Washington.— Is oppo.sed by Pope.— Flank movement of Jackson.— Battles of Manassas, Centreville, and Chantilly.— Lee invades Maryland.— Harper's Ferry is taken.— Engagement at South Mountain.— Battle of Antietam.— Confederates retreat.— Burnside in command.— Plans a campaign against Richmond.— Advances against Fredericksburg.— And is de- - . J ... 495-510. leated CONTENTS. xxxi CHAPTER LXV. THE WORK OF '63. Proportions of the conflict. — New calls for troops. — The Emancipation Proclama- tion. — Capture of Arkansas Post. — Movements against Vicksburg. — The fleet passes the batteries. — Grant at Bruinsburg. — Battles of Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson, and Champion Hills. — The siege and capture of Vicksburg. — Fall of Port Hudson.— Cav- alry raids of Jackson, Stuart, and Grierson. — Rosecrans drives Bragg across the Ten- nessee. — Battle of Chattanooga. — And the siege. — Storming of Lookout and Missionary Ridge. — Longstreet in Tennessee. — Siege of Knoxville. — Engagements at Springfield, Cape Girardeau, and Helena. — The sacking of Lawrence. — Capture of Little Rock. — Morgan invades Indiana. — Passes into Ohio. — Ls hemmed in and captured. — The Con- federates take Galveston. — Tlie siege of Charleston. — Hooker commands the Army of the Potomac. — Battle of Chancellorsville. — Death of Stonewall Jackson. — Stoneman's raid. — Siege of Suffolk. — Lee invades Pennsylvania. — The battle of Gettysburg. — Re- treat of the Confederates. — The conscription. — Riot in New York. — The draft. — New calls for soldiers. — West Virginia a State. ...... 510-523. CHAPTER LXVI. THE CLOSING CONFLICT'S. Sherman's campaign to Meridian. — Smith fails to form a junction. — Sherman retires to Vicksburg. — Forrest's raid. — The Red River expedition. — Plan of the cam- paign. — Capture of Fort de Russy, Alexandria, and Natchitoches. — Union disaster and retreat. — Steele falls back to Little Rock. — Grant lieutenant-general. — Plan of the cam- paigns of '64. — Sherman advances. — Battles of Dalton, Resaca, and Dallas. — Attacks and repulses at Kenesaw. — The Confederates fall back to Atlanta. — Siege and capture of the stronghold. — Hood invades Tennessee. — Thomas sent to confront him. — Battle of Franklin. — Siege of Nashville. — Rout and ruin of Hood's army. — Sherman's march to the sea. — Capture of Macon, Milledgeville, Gibson, and Waynesborough. — Storming of Fort McAllister. — Escape of Hardee. — And capture of the city. — The Union army in Savannah. — Renewal of the march. — Columbia, Charleston, and Fayetteville are taken. — Battle of Kilpatrick's and Hampton's Cavalry. — Johnston restored to command. — Battles of Averasborough and Bentonsville. — Capture of Goldsborough and Raleigh. — ■ Great raid of Stoneman. — Surrender of Johnston. — Farragut enters Mobile Bay. — Defeats the Confederate squadron. — Captures Forts Gaines and Morgan. — Fort Fisher is besieged by Porter and Butler. — The first effort fails. — The siege is renewed.^ And the fort taken by .storm. — Cushing's exploit. — The Confederate cruisers. — Injury done to the commerce of the United State.?. — The Suvannah. — Career of the Sumter. — Cruise of the N(tshville. — The Confederates use the British .ship-yards. — Building of the Florida. — Her fate. — The Georgia, the Olustee, the Shenandoah, and the Chichamauya built at Glasgow. — End of the Chiclcamauga and tlie Tallahassee. — Career of the Georgia and the Shenandoah. — The Alabama. — Her character. — She scours the ocean. — Runs into Cherbourg. — Is caught by the Kearsarge. — And destroyed. — The Army of the Potomac moves from Culpepper. — Reaches the Wilderness. — Tlie battles. — Grant advances to Spottsylvania. — Terrible fighting there. — The Union army moves to Cold Harbor. — Is repulsed in two battles. — Losses. — Grant changes base. — Butler captures Bermuda and City Point. — Is driven back by Beauregard. — Junction of the armies. — Advance on Petersburg. — The assaults. — Tlie siege begins. — Sigel on the Slienandoah. — Battle of New Market. — Hunter in command. — Engagement at Piedmont. — Retreat of Hunter.— Early enters the valley. — Crosses the Potomac. — Defeats Wallace.— Threatens Wash- 3 xxxii CONTENTS. ington and Baltimore. — Retreats into Virginia. — Fight at Winchester. — Tlie Confed- erates burn Chambersburg. — Sheridan is sent into the valley. — Battles of Winchester and Fisher's Hill. — Sheridan ravages the country. — Early comes. — Routs the Federals at Cedar Creek. — Sheridan returns, and destroys Early's army. — The siege of Peters- burg continues.— Battles of Boydtown and Five Forks. — Flight of the Confederate government. — Fall of Petersburg and Richmond.— Surrender of Lee. — Collapse of the Confederacy. — The Federal authority is re-established. — Capture, impri-sonment, and trial of Davis. — Lincoln re-elected. — Financial condition of the country. — Treasury Jiotes. — Internal Revenue. — Legal Tenders. — Bonds. — Banks. — The debt. — Lincoln is reinaugurated. — Visits Richmond. — Is assassinated. — Punishment of his murderers. — Character of Lincoln. .......... 523-543. CHAPTER LXVII. Johnson's administration. Johnson in the presidency. — Sketch of his life and character. — Slavery is formally abolished. — The Amnesty Proclamation. — A struggle witli the war-debt. — Napoleon's empire in Mexico. — Maximilian is captured and shot. — Final success of the Atlantic telegraph. — The Postal Money-Order system is established. — The Territories assume their final form. — Alaska is purchased from Russia. — The difficulty between the Presi- dent and Congress. — The reconstruction imbroglio. — Second amnesty. — Tlie Civil Rights Bill is passed. — The Southern States are re-admitted. — A national convention at Phila- delphia.— The President makes a tour of the country.— Congressional measures of reconstruction. — The breach is widened between the executive and Congress. — The ve- toing business. — The President removes Stanton. — Is impeached. — And acquitted. — Genr eral Grant is elected President. ........ 544-551, CHAPTER LXVIIL grant's administration. Sketch of President Grant. — The Pacific Railroad is completed. — The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution are adopted. — The story of Black Friday. — The Soutliern States are restored to their place in the Union. — The ninth census and its lesson. — The Santo Domingo business. — The Alabama claims are ad- justed by the treaty of Washington and the Geneva court.- — Railroad development •of the United States. — The burning of Chicago. — The North-western boundary is settled by arbitration. — The presidential election. — The candidates. — Grant is re- •elected.^ — Character of Greeley. — His death. — Great fire in Boston. — The Modoc war. — Murder of the peace commissioners. — Tlie savages are .subdued. — The Louisiana im- tbroglio. — The Credit Mobilier investigation. — The financial crisis of 1873-'74. — The Northern Pacific Railroad enterprise. — Admission of Colorado.— Death-roll of emi- nent men. — Sketches of Sumner and Wilson. — The great Centennial. — Origination of the enterprise. — Opposition. — General plan of the Exposition. — Organization. — The monetary management. — Lukewarmness of the Government. — The Centennial Grounds. — Dedication. — The General Regulations. — Nations participating. — Classification of products. — The Centennial Buildings. — Descriptions of the same.^Main Building. — Memorial Hall. — Machinery Hall. — Agricultural Hall. — Horticultural Hall. — United States Government Building. — Woman's Pavilion. — Foreign and State Buildings. — Re- ception of materials. — Scheme of Awards. — Opening ceremonies. — The Exposition itself. — Description of exhibits in Main Building. — In Machinery Hall. — In the Gov- CONTENTS. sxxiii eminent Building. — In Agricultural Hall. — In Horticultural Hall. — In the Woman's Pavilion. — In Memorial Hall — The celebration of the Fourth of July in Philadel- phia. — Attendance at the Exposition. — The closing ceremonies. — The Sioux War. — The great election of 1876. — A disputed presidency. — The result. . 55^633 CHAPTER LXIX. HAYES'S ADMINISTR.iTION. Sketch of President Hayes. — His inaugural address. — The policy indicated. — Effect of the same upon the country. — The new cabinet is organized. — The great Railroad Strike breaks out. — And is suppressed. — Beginning of the Nez Perce War. — The tribe is subdued by General Howard. — Silver is remonetized. — The Yellow Fever epidemic in the South. — The Halifax Fishery Commission. — How constituted. — The award. — A Chinese Embassy established in the United States. — A Life Saving Service is instituted by Congress. — Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government. — Issues of 1880.— Garfield elected President. — Refunding legislation. — Tour of Ex-President Grant. — Results of the Census of 1880. — Death of Senator Morton, William Cullen Bryant, Bayard Taylor, and Senators Chandler and Carpenter 633-646 CHAPTER LXX. ADMINISTRATIONS OP GARFIELD AKD ARTHUR. Sketch of President Garfield. — His inaugural. — The new cabinet. — Question of Civil Service Reform. — Break in the Republican Party. — Assassination of the President. ^Accession of Arthur. — Sketch of the new executive. — Cabinet changes. — Star-Route conspiracy. — Applications of science.— The telephone. — The phono- graph. — The electric light. — The Brooklyn bridge. — Party questions of 1884. — The tariff issue. — Doctrine of free-trade. — Incidental protection. — Limited pro- tection. — High protection. — Prohibitory tariffs. — Presidential contest of 1884. — Election of Cleveland and Hendricks. — Transfer of the command of the army. — The Washington Monument 647-671 CHAPTER LXXI. Cleveland's administration. Sketch of President Cleveland. — The new cabinet. — Question of Civil Service Reform. — Struggle for office. — Revival of War memories. — Literature on the sub- ject. — Death of General Grant.— Of General McClellan. — Of General Hancock. — Of General Logan. — Of Vice-President Hendricks. — Of Horatio Seymour.— Of Samuel J. Tilden.— Of Henry Ward Beecher. — Of Chief-Justice Waite.— Historical sketch of the Supreme Court. — Appointment of Melville W. Fuller. — Death of Roscoe Conkling. — His life and character. — The labor agitations and strikes of 1886-88.— The Hay-market riot in Chicago.— The Charleston earthquake. — The Forty-ninth Congress. — Question of extending the Pension list. — The Interstate Commerce Bill.— Political excitements of 1888.— Questions at issue.— Protection to American Industry. — Attitude of the Parties.— Nominations for the Presidency. — The result. — Admission of South and Korth Dakota, Montana, and Washington. — Institution of the Department of Agriculture. .... 673-695 3 xxxiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER LXXTT. HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. Sketch of President Harrison.— His cabinet. — Centenary of the American Government. — Crises of the Revolutionary Epoch. — Declaration of Independence. ^Formation of the Constitution. —Its adoption.— Institution of the Government in 1789.— Sketch of the ceremonies of Washington's Inauguration. — His journey to New York.— His reception.— Character of New York in 1789. — Inaugural pro- gramme prepared by Congress.— The Washingtonian procession. — The Inauguration proper. First policy of the Government. — The Centennial commemoration of 1889. — Preparations for the event. — The throng in New York. — Coming of Pres- ident Harrison and his company. — Decoration of the city. — Receptions of the Presidential Party, Literary Exercises. — Whittier's Poem and Depew's oration. — The Mihtary Parade. — Features of the great Procession. — Sketch of the various divisions. — Metropolitan Banquets. — The Civic parade. — Its historical features. — Management of the throngs. — Difficulty with Germany relative to Samoa.— Causes of the controversy. — Wreck of the American and German fleets. — The Embassy to Berlin. — Conclusion. 696-725 CHAPTER LXXIH. CONCLrSION. The outlook for the Republic. — Byron's view of nations. — The hopeful side. — Present achievements of the United States.— Natural advantages. — How the Saxon has improved them. — Things necessary to the perpetuity of American institutions: First, National Unity.— Sijconrf, Universal Education. — ThirA, Toleration.— /^'owrrt, The Nobility of Labor.— Reflections 726-729 APPENDIXES. Appendix A. — ^MandeviUe's Argument 730 Appendix B.— Franklin's Constitution 734 Appendix C. — ^Declaration of Independence 736 Appendix D. — Articles of Confederation 739 Appendix E. — Constitution of the United States 745 Appendix F. — Washington's Farewell Address 756 Appendix G. — ^The Emancipation Proclamation ►« 766 VOCABULAEY m« 768 Index. , •**. 771 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOK Front view of the Capitol Frontispiece. Map of Aboriginal America 44 Diagram of European Kinship 45 Diagram of Indian Kinship '46 Specimen of Indian Writing 48 A Xorth American Indian 49 Norse Explorations 62 A Norse Sea King of the 11th Century 53 Christopher Columbus 55 Chart of Voyage and Discovery 56 The Night of October 11, U92 5G Fernando Cortez 69 Burial of De Soto 66 Dining Hall of the French Colonists at Port Royal 73 Map of Voyage of Discovery 76 Baptism of Virginia Dare : 83 Map of English Grants 86 The Mayflower at Sea 90 Captain John Smith 96 John Smith Among the Indians 99 Jamestown and Vicinity 103 Wives for the Settlers at Jamestown Ill Governor Berkeley and the Insurgents 120 Chart of the Colonial Period 122 The Treaty between Governor Carver and Massasoit 124 Jolm Winthrop 127 Roger Williams's Reception by the Indians 129 Early Settlements in New England. 131 First Scene of King Philip's War 140 Second Scene of King Philip's War 141 Third Scene of King Philip's War 143 Death of King Philip 144 Siege of Louisburg, 1 745 158 Sir Heury Hudson 161 De Vries Revisits his Ruined Settlement. 164 Frencli, English, Dutch, Swedish, and Spanish Provinces, 1655 168 Peter Stuyvesant 171 Roger Williams Opposing the Pequot Emissaries 1 85 Scene of the Pequod War 187 The Younger Winthrop 190 The Old Stone Tower at Newport 195 East and West Jersey, 1677 205 xsxv xxxvi ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Pemi's Colonists on the Delaware 209 Wiliiam Penn 211 Philadelpliia and Vicinity 213 Lord Baltimore 217 James Oglethorpe 239 Country of the Savannah, 1740 ' 242 Scene in St. Augustine 242 Marquette and Joliet Discover the Mississippi 247 First Scene of the French and Indian War, 1750 253 Scene of Braddock's Defeat, 1755 260 Fall of Braddock 2G0 The Acadian Isthmus, 1755 262 The Exile of the Acadians 263 Vicinity of Lake George, 1755 265 Vicinity of Quebec, 1759 •. 274 General James Wolfe 275 The Revelation of Pontiac's Conspiracy 278 The Old Thirteen Colonies 281 Patrick Henry 290 Samuel Adams 295 Sceue of the Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775 300 Siege of Boston, 1776 306 Chart of the Revolution and Confederation 306 Battle of Long Island, 1776 311 Scene of Operations about New York^ 1776 314 Battles of Trenton and Princeton, 1776-77 316 Scene of Burgoyne's Invasion, 1777 323 Encampment at Valley Forge, 1777-78 327 Benjamin Franklin 330 Siege of Charleston, 1780 340 Scene of Operations in the South, 1780-81 342 Scene of Arnold's Treason, 1780 344 General Greene 351 Siege of Yorktown, October, 1781 353 Map of the United States at the Close of the Revolution 354 Alexander Hamilton ^59 George Washington 363 Chart of the National Period — First Section 364 John Adams 372 Thomas Jefferson 377 Inauguration of the Territorial Government at Marietta, Ohio 378 Chief-Justice Marshall 380 Robert Fulton 386 James Madison 389 Scene of Hull's Campaign, 1812 • • • 394 The Niagara Frontier, 1812 399 Scene of the Creek War, 1813-U 403 La Fayette 423 Chart of the National Period — Second Section 424 Andrew Jackson 427 Daniel Webster 429 ILLUSTRATIONS. xxxvii PAGE Land of iho Seminoles 4ol The New Patent-Office at Washington 433 Bunker Hill Monument 443 Professor Morse 446 Texas and Coaliuila, 1845 448 Scene of Taylor's Campaign, 1846-47 449 Fremont on the Rocky Mountains 452 Scene of Scott's Campaign, 1847 454 General Winfleld Scott 451 The Smithsonian Institution 460 Overland to California, 1849. (Pass of the Sierras) 460 President Taylor ■ 463 Henry Clay : 46& John C. Calhoun 468 General Sara Houston 477 Washington Irving 47S Alexander H. Stephens 481 Abraham Lincoln 483 Chart of the National Period— Third Section 489 Scene of Operations in West Virginia, 1861 490 Vicinity of Manassas Junction, 1861 491 JeSerson Davis 492 Scene of Operations in the South-west, 1861 , 493 William H. Seward 495 Battle of Murfreesborough, Dpcember 31, 1862 , 500 Battle of Murfreesborough, January 2, 1863 501 Scene of Campaign in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvaoia, 1862 503 General Robert E. Lee 504 Vicinity of Richmond, 1862 505 The Battle of Antietara, September 17, 1862 507 The Proposed Routes from Washington to Richmond, 1 862 508 Vicksburgand Vicinity, 1863 512 Battle of Chickamauga, September 19, 20, 1863 514 Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, November 23-25, 1863 51 » Stonewall Jackson 519- Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863 520 Sherman's Campaign, 1864 525 General Thomas 52T General Sherman 528 Admiral Farragut 631 Operations in Virginia, 1864-65 53» Petersburg, Richmond, Appomattox, 1865 539 Map of the United States, 1876 546 Chief-Justice Chase 551 President Grant 552 Map of the Territorial Growth of the United States 556 Horace Greeley 55S Charles Sumner 562 Independence Hall, 1876 563 General Joseph R. Hawley 566 Centennial Medal — Obverse 567 XXX viii ILL U8TBA TI0N8, PAQE Centenuial Medal — Reverse 567 The Centennial Grounds and Buildings 569 Main Exposition Building, Centennial Exhibition 576 Memorial Hall, " " 579 Machinery Hall, " " 581 Agricultural Hall, " " 58a Horticultural Hall, " " 585 U. S. Government Building, " " 587 Woman's Pavilion, " " 589 Inaugural Ceremonies of the Centennial Exhibition 593 Alfred T. Goshoru 595 View in the Main Exhibition Building 597 Interior View of Machinery Hall 607 Interior View of the United States Government Building 613 Interior View of Agricultural Hall 616 Interior View of Horticultural Hall 621 Rotunda of Memorial Hall 623 Scene of the Sioux War, 1876 629 Sioux Indians in Battle with Emigrants 629 Rutherford B. Hayes 633 James A. Garfield 647 Chester A. Arthur 652 The Telephone 655 Brooklyn Bridge 661 Philip H. Sheridan 67 1 Grover Cleveland 672 Thomas F. Bayard 673 Thomas A. Hendricks 674 George B. McClellan 674 Ambrose E. Biirnside 675 Joseph Hooker 675 Winfield Scott Hancock ■. 676 George G. Meade 677 John A. Logan 619 Samuel J. Tildeu 680 Henry Ward Beecher 681 Morrison R. Waite 682 Roscoe Conkling 685 Benjamin Harrison 696 James G. Blaine 697 Old Federal Hall, 1789 702 Inauguration of Washington 707 Old St. Paul's Chapel _. 709 Sub-Treasury Building in Wall Street T14 John M. Sohofield IIS Memorial Arch in Washington Square 719 INTRODUCTION. 1. The history of every nation is divided into periods. For a while the genius of a people will be turned to some particular pur- suit. Men will devote themselves to certain things and labor to ac- complish certain results. Then the spirit of the age will change, and historical facts will assume a different character. Thus arises what is called A Period in History. In studying the history of the United States it is of the first importance to understand the periods into which it is divided. 2. First of all, there was a time when the New World was under the dominion of the aborigines. From ocean to ocean the copper-col- ored children of the woods ruled with undisputed sway. By bow and arrow, by flint and hatchet, the Red man supported his rude civiliza- tion and waited for the coming of the pale-faced races. 3. After the discovery of America, the people of Europe were hundreds of years in making themselves acquainted with the shape and character of the New World. During that time explorers and adven- turers went everywhere and settled nowhere. To make new discov- eries was the universal passion ; but nobody cared to plant a colony. As long as this spirit prevailed, historical events bore a common char- acter, being produced by common causes. Hence arose the second pe- riod in our history — the Period of Voyage and Discovery. 4. As soon as the adventurers had satisfied themselves with trac- ing sea-coasts, ascending rivers and scaling mountains, they began to form permanent settlements. And each settlement was a new State in the wilderness. Every voyager now became ambitious to plant a col- ony. Kings and queens grew anxious to confer their names on the towns and commonwealths of the New World. Thus arose a tliird pe- riod — the Period of Colonial History. (xxxix) xl INTRODUCTION. 5. Then the colonies grew strong and multiplied. There were thirteen little sea-shore republics. The people began to consult about their privileges and to talk of the rights of freemen. Oppression on the part of the mother-country w£^s met with resistance, and tyranny with defiance. There was a revolt against the king; and the patriots of the different colonies fought side by side, and won their freedom. Then they built them a Union, strong and great. This is the Period of Revolution and Confederation. 6. Then the United States of America entered upon their career as a nation. Three times tried by war and many times vexed with civil dissensions, the Union of our fathers still remains for us and for posterity. Such is the Period of Nationality. 7. Collecting these results, we find five distinctly marked peri- ods in the history of our country : First. The Aboriginal. Period ; from remote antiquity to the coming of the White men. Second. The Period op Voyage and Discovery ; A. D. 986-1607. Third. The Colonial Period; A. D. 1607-1775. Fourth. The Period op Revolution and Confederation; A. D. 1775-1789. Fifth. The National Period; A. D. 1789-1890. In this order the History of the United States will be presented in the following pages. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. PART I. ABOEIGINAL AMEEICA. CHAPTER I. THE RED MEN— ORIGIN, DISTRIBUTION, CHARACTER. THE primitive inhabitants of the New World were the Red men called Indians. The name Indian was conferred upon them from their real or fancied resemblance to the people of India. But without any such similarity the name would have been the same; for Colum- bus and his followers, believing that they had only rediscovered the Indies, would of course call the inhabitants Indians. The supposed similarity between the two races, if limited to mere personal appearance, had some foundation in fact; but in manners, customs, institutions, and character, no two peoples could be more dissimilar than the Amer- ican aborigines and the sleepy inhabitants of China and Japan. The origin of the North American Indians is involved in com- plete obscurity. That they are one of the older races of mankind can not be doubted. But at what date or by what route they came to tiie Western continent is an unsolved problem. Many theories have been proposed to account for the Red man's presence in the New World, but most of them have been vague and unsatisfactory. The notion that the Indians are the descendants of the Israelites is absurd. That half civilized tribes, wandering from beyond the Euphrates, should reach North America, surpasses human credulity. That Europeans or Afri- cans, at some remote period, crossed the Atlantic by voyaging from is- land to island, seems altogether improbable. That the Kamtchatkans, coming by way of Behring's Strait, reached the frozen North-west and (41) 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. became the progenitors of the Red men, has no evidence other than conjecture to support it. Uutil further research shall throw additional light on the history and migrations of the jirimitive races of mankind, the origin of the Indians will remain shrouded in mystery. It is not unlikely that a more thorough knowledge of the North American lan- guages may furnish a clue to the early history of the tribes that spoke them. • The Indians belong to the Ganowanian, or Bow-and-Arrow family of men. Some races cultivate the soil; others have herds and flocks ; others build cities and ships. To the Red man of the Western continent the chase was every thing. Without the chase he pined and languished and died. To smite with swift arrow the deer and the bear was the chief delight and profit of the primitive Americans. Such a race could live only in a country of avoocIs and wild animals. The il- limitable hunting-grounds — forest, and hill, and river — were the In- dian's earthly paradise, and the type of his home hereafter. The American aborigines belonged to several distinct families or nations. Above the sixtieth parallel of latitude the whole continent from Labrador to Alaska was inhabited by the Esquimaux. The name means the eaters of raw meat. They lived in snow huts, or in hovels, partly or wholly underground. Sometimes their houses were more ar- tistically constructed out of the bones of whales and walruses. Their manner of life was that of fishermen and hunters. They clad them- selves in winter with the skins of seals, and in summer with those of reindeers. Inured to cold and exposure, they made long journeys in sledges drawn by dogs, or risked their lives in open boats fighting with whales and polar bears among the terrors of the icebergs. By eating abundantly of oils and fat meats they kept the fires of life a-burning, even amid the rigors and desolations of the Arctic winter. Lying south of the Esquimaux, embracing the greater part of Canada and nearly all that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi and north of the thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, spread the great family of the Algonquins. It appears that their original seat was on the Ottawa River. At the beginning of the sev- enteenth century the Algonquins numbered fully a quarter of a million. The tribes of this great family were nomadic in their habits, roaming from one hunting-ground and river to another, according to the exi- gencies of fishing and the chase. Agriculture was but little esteemed. They were divided into many subordinate tribes, each having its local name, dialect, and traditions. When the first European settlements were planted the Algonquin race was already declining in numbers ABORIGIXAL AyfERICA. 43 aiul influence. "Wasting diseases destroyed whole tribes. Of all the Indian nations the Algonquins suifered most from contact with the "Wliite man. Before his aggressive spirit, his fiery rum, and his de- structive weapons, the warriors were unable to stand. The race has withered to a shadow; only a few thousands remain to rehearse the story of their ancestors. AVithin the wide territory occupied by the Algonquins lived the powerful nation of THE Hueon-Iroquois. Their domain extended over the country reaching from Geoi-gian Bay and Lake Huron to Lakes Erie and Ontario, south of those lakes to the valley of the Up- per Ohio, and eastward to the Biver Sorel. Within this extensive dis- trict was a confederacy of vigorous tribes, having a common ancestry, and generally — though not always — acting together in war. At the time of their greatest power and influence the Huron-Iroquois em- braced no less than nine allied nations. These were the Hurons proper, living north of Lake Erie ; the Eries and Andastes, south of the same water; the Tuscaroras, of Carolina, who ultimately joined their kinsmen in the North; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Onei- das, and Mohawks, constituting the famous Five Nations of New York. The warriors of this great confederation presented the Indian character in its most favorable aspect. They were brave, patriotic, and eloquent; not wholly averse to useful industry; living in respectable villages; tilling the soil with considerable success; faithful as friends but terri- ble as enemies. South of the country of the Algonquins were the Cherokees and the Mobit.ian Nations; tlie former occupying Tennessee, and the latter covering the domain between the Lower Mississippi and the Atlantic. The Cherokees were highly civilized for a primitive peo- ple, and contact with the whites seemed to improve rather than degrade them. The principal tribes of the Mobilians were the Ya- massees and Creeks of Georgia, the Seminoles of Florida, and the Choctaws and Chickasaws of INIississippi. These displayed the usual characteristics of the Red men, with this additional circumstance, that below the thirty-second parallel of latitude evidences of temple-build- ing, not practiced among the Northern tribes, began to appear. West of the Father of Waters was the great and widely-spread race of the Dakotas, whose territory extended from the Arkansas Eiver to the country of the Esquimaux and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Their languages and institutions, differing much among the various tribes, are not so well understood as those of some other nations. South of the land of the Dakotas, iu a district nearly cop- 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. responding with the present State of Texas, lived the wild Coman- CHES, whose very name is a synonym for savage ferocity. Beyond the Bocky Mountains were the Indian nations of the Plains; the great family of the Shoshonees, the Selish, the Klamaths, and the Californians. On the Pacific slope farther southward dwelt in for- mer times the famous races of Aztecs and Toltecs. These were the most civilized of the primitive Indian nations, but at the same time among the most feeble ; the best builders in wood and stone, but the least warlike of any of the aborigines. Such is a brief sketch of the distribution of the copper-colored race in the New World. The ter- ritorial position of the various nations and tribes will be easily under- stood from an examination of the accompanying map. The Indians were strongly marked with national peculiarities. The most striking characteristic of the race was a certain sense of per~ sonal independeyice — willfulness of action — freedom from restraint. To the Red man's imagination the idea of a civil authority which should subordinate his passions, curb his will, and thwart his purjioses, was intolerable. Among this people no common enterprise was possible unless made so by the concurrence of free wills. If the chieftain entered the war-path, his kinsmen and the braves of other tribes fol- lowed him only because they chose his leadership. His authority and right of command extended no further than to be foremost in danger, most cunning in savage strategy, bravest in battle. So of all the relations of Indian life. The Medicine Man was a self-constituted physician and prophet. No man gave him his authority; no man took it away. His right was his own ; and his influence depended upon himself and the voluntary respect of the nation. In the solemn de- bates of the Council House, where the red orators pronounced their wild harangues to groups of motionless listeners, only questions of expediency were decided. The painted sachems never thought of imposing on the unwilling minority the decision which had been reached in council. Next among the propensities of the Red men was the passion for war. Their wars, however, were always undertaken for the re- dress of grievances, real or imaginary, and not for conquest. But with the Indian, a redress of grievances meant a personal, vindictive, and bloody vengeance on the offender. The Indian's principles of war were easily understood, but irreconcilable with justice and hu- manity. The forgiveness of an injury was reckoned a weakness and a shame. Revenge was considered among the nobler virtues. The open, honorable battle of the field was an event unknown in Indian p^^ORlG'NAL AMERICA DISTKIBCTIOX AND TERRITORIAL LIMITS ^^f INDIAN NAT\0^^' Ui THE NEW WORLD. ux) 200 aoo I 400 500 from Greenwich 90 ABORIGIXAL AMERICA. 45 warfare. Fighting was limited to tlie surprise, the ambuscade, the massacre ; and militiiry strategy consisted of cunning and treachery. Quarter was rarely asked, and never granted ; those who were spared from the fight were only reserved for a barbarous captivity, ransom, or the stake. In the torture of his victims all the diabolical ferocity of the savage warrior's nature burst forth without restraint. In times of peace the Indian character shone to a better advan- tage. But the lied man was, at his best estate, an unsocial, solitary, and gloomy spirit. He was a man of the woods. He communed oniy with himself and the genius of sol- itude. He sat apart. The forest was better than his wigwam, and his wigwam bet- ter than the vil- lage. The Indian woman was a de- graded creature, a drudge, a beast of burden ; and the social prin- ciple was c o r - respondingly low. The organization of the Indian fam- ily was so peculiar as to require a special consideration. Among civilized nations the family is so constructed that the lines of kinship diverge constantly from the line of descent, so that collateral kinsmen with each gen- eration stand at a still greater remove from each other. The above diagram will serve to show how in a European family the lines of consanguinity diverge until the kinship becomes so feeble as to be no longer recognized. It will be observed that this fact of constant di- vergence is traceable to the establishment of a male line of descent. In the Indian family all this is reversed. The descent is es- tablished in the female line; and as a consequence the ties of kinship DIAGRAM OF EUEOPEAN KINSHIP. 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. converge upon each other until they all meet in the granddaughter. That is, in the aboriginal nations of North America, ever}' grandson and granddaughter was the grandson and granddaughter of the whole tribe. This arose from the fact that all the uncles of a given person Mere reckoned as his fathers also; all the mother's sisters were mothers; all the cousins were sisters and brothers; all the nieces were daugh- ters ; all the nephews, sons, etc. This peculiarity of the Indian family organization is illustrated in the annexed diagram. Civil government among the Indian na- tions was in its primi- tive stages of develop- ment. Each tribe had its own sachem, or chieftain, to whom in matters of peace and war a tolerable degree of obedience was ren- dered. At times con- federations were form- ed, based either on ties of kinship or the exi- gencies of war. But these confederations were seldom enduring, and were likely at any time to be broken up by the barbarous pas- sion and insubordina- tion of the tribes who composed them. Sometimes a sachem would arise with such marked abilities, warlike prowess, and strength of will, as to gain an influence, if not a positive leadership over many nations. But with the death of the chieftain, or sooner, each tribe, resuming its independence, would return to its own ways. No general Indian Congress was known ; but national and tribal councils were frequently called to debate questions of policy and right. In matters of religion the Indians were a superstitious race, but seldom idolaters. They believed in a great spirit, everywhere present, ruling the elements, showing favor to the obedient, and punishing the sinful. Him they worshiped; to him they sacrificed. But not in tem- DIAGRAM OF INDIAN KINSHIP. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 47 pies, for the Indians built none. They also believed in many subordi- nate spirits — some good, some bad. Both classes frequented tiie eartli. The bad spirits brouglit evil dreams to the Indian ; diseases also, bad passions, cruel winters, and starvation. The good spirits brought sun- shine, peace, plentiful harvests, all the creatures of the chase. The Medicine Man, or Prophet, obtained a knowledge of these things by fasting and prayer, and then made revelations of the will and purposes of the spirit world. The religious ceremonies of the Indians were per- formed with great earnestness and solemn formality. \ In the matter of the arts the Indian was a barbarian. His house was a wigwam or hovel. Some poles set up in a circle, converging at the top, covered with skins and the branches of trees, lined and some- times floored with mats, a fire in the center, a low opening opposite the point from which the wind blew — such was the aboriginal abode of North America. Indian utensils were few, rude, and primitive. Poorly-fasliioned earthen pots, bags and pouches for carrying provis- ions, and stone hammers for pounding parched corn, were the stock and store. A copper kettle was a priceless treasure. The warrior's chief implement was his hatchet of stone or copper. This he always carried with him, and it was rarely free from the stain of blood. His weapon of offence and defence was the bow and arrow, by no means an insignificant or feeble instrument. The arrow pointed with stone or iron was frequently driven entirely through the ponderous buifalo. The range of the winged missile was two hundred yards or more, and the aim was one of fatal accuracy when the White man was the tar- get. The Indian's clothing was a blanket, thrown over his shoulders, bound around him perhaps ^\•ith a thong of leather. The material for his moccasins * and leggins was stripped from the red buck, elk, or buifalo. He was fond of hanging about his person an infinity of non- sensical trappings ; fangs of rattlesnakes, claws of hawks, feathers of eagles, bones of animals, scalps of enemies. He painted his face and body, specially when the passion of war was on him, with all manner of glaring and fantastic colors. So the Prophet of his nation taught him; so he would be terrible to his enemies; so he would exemplify the peculiarities of his nation and be unlike the Pale flice. All the higher arts were wanting. Indian writing consisted only of quaint and half-intelligible liieroglyphics rudely scratched on the face of rocks or cut in the bark of trees. The artistic sense of the savage could rise no liiglicr than a coarse necessity compelled the flight. The language spoken by a people is always a matter of special . • The Algonquin word is makisin. 48 HISTORY OF TEE VNITED STATES. interest and importance. The dialects of the North American races bear many and evident marks of resemblance among themselves; but little or no analogy to the languages oj other nations. If there is any similarity at all, it is found between the Indian tongues and those spoken by the nomadic races of Asia. The vocabulary of the Red men was a very limited one. The principal objects of na- ture had spec- ial names, and actions were likewise spe- SPEtJMEN OF INDIAN WRITING. ciflcally C X - ^ ^ ^ ' pressed. Ab- framlation: Eight soldiers ;9), with muskets (10), coinmanded by a cap- I tain (1) and accompanied by a secretary (2), a geologist (3), three attend- stract ideas but ant^ (4, 5, 6), and two Indian gtiides, encamped here. They had three j,jjj,g^ found •amp fires (13, 14, 15), and ate a turtle and a prairie hen (11, 12), for supper. J _ ^ expression m any of the Indian languages; such ideas could only be expressed by a long and labored circumlocution. Words had a narrow but very inten.s^'e meaning. There was, for instance, no general word signify- ing to hunt or to fi^h; but one word signified " to-kill-a-deer-with-an- arrow;" anotheri " to-take-fish-by-striking-the-ice." In most of the dialects there was no word for brother; but "elder-brother" and "younger-brother" could be expressed. Among many of the tribes the meanings of words and phrases were so restricted that the war- rior would use one set of terms and the squaw another to express the same ideas. The languages were monosyllabic ; but many of the monosyllables might be combined to form compounds resembling the polysyllables of European tongues. These compounds, expressing ab- stract and difficult ideas, were sometimes inordinately long,* the whole forming an explanation or description of the thing rather than a sin- gle word. Scholars have applied the term agglutinative to those lan- guages in which such labored and tedious forms of expression occur. Of this sort are the tongues spoken by the nomadic races of Asia. * For instance, in the Massachusetts dialect, the form of speech meaning " aur qv» turn" was this: Kum-mog-ko-don-at-toot-tura-moo-et-it-e-a-ong-an-nun-non-ash. ABORIGINAL AMERICA. 49 In personal appearance the Indians were strongly marked. In stature they were nearly all below the average of Europeans. The Esquimaux are rarely five feet high, but are generally thick-set and heavy. The Algonquins are taller and lighter in build; a straight and agile race, lean and swift of foot. ■/ Eyes jet-black and sunk- en ; hair black and straight; beard black and scant; skin copper-colored, a red- dish -black, cin- namon-hued, brown ; high cheek bones ; ■forehead and skull variable in shape and proportion; hands and feet small ; body lithe but not strong; expression sinister, or rarely dignified and noble : — these arc the well-known features and per.son of the / Indian. Though gener- ally sedate in man- ners and serious in behavior, the Red men at tir ""s gave themselves up to merrv-making and hilarity. The dance was universal — not the social dance of civ- ilized nations, but the dance of ceremony, of religion, and of war. Sometimes the warriors danced alone, but frequently the women joined in the wild exercise, circling around and around, chanting the weird, monotonous songs of the tribes. Many other amusements were com- mon, such as running, leaping, wrestling, shooting at a mark, racing in canoes along swift rivers or placid lakes, playing at ball, or en- gaging in intricate and exciting games, performed with small stones resembling checkers cr dice. To this latter sport was not unfre- quently added the intoxication of gambling, in which the warriors, under the influence of their fierce passion, would often hazard and • An authentic portrait of the celebrated Black Hawk, chief of the Sacs and Foxes. A NOKTll Winil \\ I DIAN 50 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lose their entire possessions. In soberer moments, the Red men, never inclined to conversation, would sit in silence, communing each with his own thoughts or lost in a dream under the fascination of his pipe. The use of tobacco was universal and excessive ; and after the introduction of intoxicating liquors by the Europeans the Indi- ans fell into terrible drunkenness, only limited in its extent by the amount of spirits which they could procure. It is doubtful whether any other race has been so awfully degraded by drink. Such is a brief sketch of the Red man — who was rather than is. The only hope of the perpetuity of his race seems now to center in the Choctaws, Cherokees, Creeks and Chickasaws of the Indian Ter- ritory. These nations, numbering in the aggregate about forty-eight thousand souls, have attained a considerable degree of civilization ; and with just and liberal dealing on the part of the Government the outlook for the future is not discouraging. Most of the other Indian tribes seem to be rapidly aj)proaching extinction. Right or wrong, such is the logic of events. Whether the Red man has been justly deprived of the ownership of the New World will remain a subject of debate ; that he has been deprived, can be none. The Saxon has come. His conquering foot has trodden the vast domain from shoi'e to shore. The weaker race has withered from his presence and sword. By the majestic rivers and in the depths of the solitary woods the feeble sons of the Bow and Arrow will be seen no more. Only their names remain on hill and stream and mountain. The Red man sinks and fails. His eyes are to the West. To the prairies and forests, the hunting-grounds of his ancestors, he says farewell. He is gone ! The cypress and the hemlock sing Lis requiem. PAET II. YOTAGE A:ND DISCOYEET. A. D. 986-1607. CHAPTER II. THE ICELANDERS AND NORWEGIANS IN AMERICA. THE western continent was first seen by white men in A. D. 986. A Norse navigator by the name of Hkrjulfson, sailing from Iceland to Greenland, was caught in a storm and driven westward to Newfoundland or Labrador. Two or three times the shores were seen, but no landing was made or attempted. The coast was low, abounding in forests, and so diiferent from the well-known cliifs of Greenland as to make it certain that another shore hitherto unknown was in sight. On reaching Greenland, Herjulfson and his companions told wonderful stories of the new lands seen in the west. Fourteen years later, the actual discovery of America was made by Lief Erickson. This noted Icelandic captain, resolving to know the truth about the country which Herjulfson had seen, sailed west- ward from Greenland, and in the spring of the year 1001 reached Labrador. Impelled by a spirit of adventure, he landed with his companions, and made explorations for a considerable distance along the coast. The country was milder and more attractive than his own, and he was in no haste to return. Southward he went as far as Massachusetts, where the daring company of Norsemen remained for more than a year. Rhode Island was also visited ; and it is alleged that the hardy adventurers found their way into New York harbor. What has once been done, whether by accident or design, may easily be done again. In the yeprs that followed Lief Erickson's dis- covery, other companies of Norsemen came to the shores of America. Thoewai.d, Lief 's brother, made a voyage to Maine and Massachu- setts in 1002, and is said to have died at Fall River in the latter state. (51) 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Then another brother, Thorstein by name, arrived with a band of followers in 1005; and in the year 1007, Thorfinn Karlsefne, the most distinguished mariner of his day, came with a crew of a hundred and fifty men, and made exjilorations along the coast of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and per- haps as far south as the capes of Virginia. Other companies of Icelanders and Norwegians visited the countries farther north, and planted col- onies in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. Little, however, was known or imagined by these rude . sailors of the extent of the country which they had discovered. They supposed that it was only a portion of Western Greenland, which, bend- ing to the north around an arm of the ocean, had reappeared in the west. The settlements which were made, were feeble and soon broken up. Commerce was ai. im- possibility in a country where there were only a few wretched savages with no disposition to buy and nothing at all to sell. The spirit of adventure was soon appeased, and the restless Northmen returned to their own country. To this undefined line of coast, now vaguely known to them, the Norse sailors gave the name of "Vinlanjj; and the old Icelandic chroniclers insist that it was a pleasant and beauti- ful country. As compared with their own mountainous and frozen island of th? North, the coasts of New England may well have seemed delightful. The men who thus first visited the shores of the New World were a race of hardy adventurers, as lawless and restless as any that ever sailed the deep. Their mariners and soldiers penetrated every clime. The better parts of France and England fell under their do- minion. All the monarchs of the latter country after William the Conqueror — himself the grandson of a sea-king — are descendants of NORSE EXPLORATIONS. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 53 the Norsemen. Tliey wore rovers of the sea; freebooters and pi- rates; warriors audacious and headstrong, wearing lioods surmounted with eagles' wings and walruses' tusks, mailed armor, and for robes the skins of polar bears. Woe to the people on whose defenceless coasta the sea-kings landed with sword and torch! Their wayward life and ferocious disposition are well portrayed in one of their own old l)al- Ile scorns to rest 'neath the smoky rafter, He plows with liis boat the roaring deep; Tlie hillows boil and tlie storm liowls after — Eut the tempest is only a thing of laughter, — Tlie sea-king loves it better than sleep ! During the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries occa- sional voyages continued to be made; and it is .said that as late as A. D. 1347 a Norwegian shij) visited Labrador and the north-eastern parts of the United States. The Norse remains which have been found at Newport, at Garnet Point, and .several other places seem to point clearly to some such events as are here described; and the Ice- landic historians give a uni- form and tolerably consistent account of these early ex- ploits of their countrymen. When the word America is . mentioned in the hearing of the Icelandic schoolboys, they will at once answer, with en- thusiasm, "Oh, yes; Lief Er- ickson discovered that country in the year 1001." An event is to be Aveighed by its consequences. From the di.scovery of Amer- ica by the Norsemen, nothing whatever resulted. The world was neither wiser nor better. Among the Icelanders themselves the place and the very name of Vinland were forgotten. Europe never heard of such a country or such a discover)'. Historians have until late years been incredulous on the subject, and the fact is aa though it had never been. The curtain whicli had been lifted for z A N0K3F. SEA-KING OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. 54 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. moment was stretched again from sky to sea, and the New World still lay hidden in the shadows. * CHAPTER III. SPANISH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA. TT was reserved for the people of a sunnier clime than Iceland first to make known to the European nations the existence of a Western con- tinent. Spain Avas the happy country under whose auspicious patronage a new world was to be added to the old ; but the man who was destined to make the revelation was not himself a Spaniard : he was to come from genial Italy, the land of olden valor and the home of so much greatness. Christopher Columbus was the name of that man whom after ages have justly rewarded with imperishable fame. The idea that th e world is round was not original with Columbas. Others before him had held a similar belief; but the opinion had been so feebly and imcertainly entertained as to lead to no practical results. Copernicus, the Prussian astronomer, had not yet taught, nor had Galileo, the great Italian, yet demonstrated, the true system of the universe. The English traveler, Sir John Mandeville, had declared in the very first English book that ever was wTitten (A. D. 1356) that the world is a sphere; that he himself, when traveling northward, had seen the polar star approach the zenith, and that on going southward the antarctic con- stellations had risen overhead ; and that it was both possible and practicable for a man to sail around the world and return to the place of starting : but neither Sir John himself nor any other seaman of his times was bold enough to undertake so hazardous an enterprise. f Columbus was, no doubt, the first practical believer in the theory of circumnaviga- tion ; and although he never sailed around the world himself, he demonstrated the possibility of doing so. * As to the reality of the Norse discoveries in America, the following from Hum- boldt's Cosmos,'Vol. II., pp. 269-272, may be cited as conclusive: "We are here on historical ground. Bv the critical and highly praiseworthy efforts of Professor Rafn and the Royal Society of Antiquaries in Copenhagen, the S.aga3 and documents in regard to the expeditions of the Norsemen to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Vinland have been published and satisfactorily commented upon. * * *' ' 'Tlie dis- covery of the northern part of Ame>-ica by the Norsemen can not be disputed. The length •f the voyage, the direction in which they sailed, the time of the sun's rising and Betting, are accurately given. While the Caliphate of Bagdad was still flourish- ;„g^ * s, » * America was discovered about the year A. D. 1000, by Lief, the sMi of Eric the Red, at the latitude of forty-one and a-half degrees north." t See Appendix A. VOYAGE Ayn DISCOVERY. 55 The great mistake with Columbus and others who shared his opinions was not concerning the figure of the earth, but in regard to its size. He believed the world to be no more than ten thoasand or twelve thousand miles in circumference. He therefore confidently expected that after sail- ing about three thousand miles to the westward he should arrive at the East Indies ; and to do that was the one great purpose of his life. Christopher Columbus was born at Genoa, a seacoast town of North- western Italy, in A. D. 1435. He was carefully educated, and then devoted himself to the sea. His ancestors had been sea- men before him. His own inclination as well as his early training made him a sailor. For twenty years he traversed the INIcditer- ranean and the j)arts of the Atlantic adjacent to Europe; he visited Iceland; then went to Portugal, and finally to Sj)ain. The idea of reaching the Indies by crossing the Atlan- tic had already pos- sessed him. For more than ten years the poor enthusiast was a beg- gar, going from court to court, ex])laining to dull monarchs and bigoted monks the figure of the earth and the ease with which the rich islands of the Ea.st might be reached by sailing westward. He found one appreciative listener, after- ward his constant and faithful friend — the noble and sympathetic Isa- bella, queen of Castile. Be it never forgotten that to the faith, and insight, and decision of a woman the final success of Columbus must be attributed. On the morning of the 3d day of August, 1492, Columbus, with his three ships, left the harbor of Palos. After seventj'-one days of sailing, in the early dawn of October 12, Kodrigo Triana, who chanced to be on the lookout from the Pinta, set up a shout of " Land ! " A gun was fired as the signal. The ships lay to. There was music and jubilee ; CHBISTOPHEH 56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and just at sunrise Columbus himself first stepped ashore, shook out the royal banner of Castile in the presence of the wondering natives, and named the island San Salvador. During the three remaining months of this first voyage the islands of Concepcion, Cuba and Hayti were added to the list of discoveries ; and on the bay of Cai~acola, in the last- named island, was erected out of the timbers of the Santa JNIaria a fort, the first structure built Ijy Europeans in the New AA'orld. In the early part of January, 1493, Columbus sailed for Spain, where he arrived in March, and was everywhere greeted with rejoicings and applause. In September of the following autumn Columbus sailed on his second voyage. He still believed that by this route westward he should reach, if indeed he had not ah-eady reached, the Indies. The result of the second voyage was the discovery of the Windward group and the islands of Jamaica and Porto Rico. It was at this time that the first colony was established in Hayti and Columbus's brother appointed governor. After an absence of nearly three years, Columl)as returned to Spain in the sum- mer of 1496 — returned to find himself the victim of a thousand bitter jealousies and suspicions. All the rest of his life was clouded with perse- cutions and misfortunes. He made a third voyage, discovered the island of Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. Thence he sailed back to Hayti, where he found his colony disorganized ; and here, wliile attempting to restore order, he was seized by Bobadilla, an agent of the Spanish government, put in chains and car- ried to Spain. After a disgraceful imprisonment, he was liberated and sent on a fourth and last voyage in search of the Indies ; but lx?sides making some explorations along the south side of the Gulf of Mexico, the expedition accomplished nothing, and Columbus, overwhelmed with discouragements, returned once more to his ungratcfiil country. The good Isabella was dead, and the great discoverer found himself at last a friendless and despised old man tottering into the grave. Death came, and fame afterward. Of all the ^vrongs done to the memorj' of Columbus, perhaps the greatest was that which robbed him of the name of the new conti- nent. This was bestowed upon one of the least worthy of the many adventurers whom the genius and success of Columbus had drawn to the West. In the year 1499, Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator of some daring but no great celebrity, reached the eastern coast of South America. It does not appear that his explorations there were of any great importance. Two years later he made a second voyage, and then hastened home to give to Eiu-ope the first published account of the Western V/^orld. Vespucci's only merit consisted in his recognition of lOOO llOO 1200 52. Frederi ck Barbarossa. Central Period of tUe Middle Ages. | «. Conraa II. ^^,^ CRUSADES. | Tbe Kiugdoni of Jer usalem established. 2C. Louis IX. ISOO T be Kiug 35. Union of C 3. Heiir.v tlie Black. 56. Henry HOUSE OP CAPET IN FBANCB. astile and L.eon. S. liOuis VI. The different Orders of Knighthood 37. l.onis VII. 71. Coiiq'nest of IrelanU. 17 Canute. I so. m iiip « .;o. Ilardican site. 42. Edwaod the Confessor. 6G Harold. 38 Strnggle of 66. Will iani I. I 35. Stephen. 87. William Kufus. DANISH KINGS IN [Henry I. ENOIiAND. 85. Philip IV. 16. Ph establis 54. Henry 28. the Gnelphs and Ohlbel lines. Wars of the Barons. 15. magna Charta grant* II. Ric-hanI I. 99. John. The NORMANS.' The PLANTAGENETS. | HeroiC Age. Edward I 7. Edws THE WESTERN CONTINENT UNKNOWN TO TH 21. Erik tips! sent as bishop to Vinlaud. 1. lElF ER1CK80N, an Icelandic navigiitor, sailing wustwiird from Greenland, di.scovere the coast of Labrador, and makes explorations us fcir Bouth us Rhode Island. BJarue Herlnlfson driven by "i storm within sight of the American coast A. I>. »86. 2 Thorwaia Ericksoii re- turns to America and re- mains three years. 5. Thorsteln Erlckson comes to America. 7. Thorfinn Karlsefne exploresthecoastof Ma££a<;husetts.j 11. Expedition of Freydls to Vinland. , , „ 70. Allege il discovery of America liy Ma< AMERICA UNDER THE CeART I. PERIOD OF VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. A. D. 986-1607. ABOiRK French pobtcqoese 1400 1500 lOOO >iu of Jerusalem overtliroMii. j ;j5. ('uluinbiis burn. 15. Johu II !!>>»!;. First bo lish, ill Mandevil figure of bUity of SO. Ch d. USE OF ALOIS. ilfe. Iward III ok written ■■■ £■■»- W. which the author, Sir Johu le, declares the spherical the earth and the practica- eircumnaviyation. aries VI. feinting 11-31. Joan of Arc. ■22. Cbarles VII. 61. leAyllon in Caro 28. I>e ^'arvaez mak 39. I>e Soto in Am 65. 9Ielen John Cal)Ot discovers No Sebastian Cabot expl 7». Ma Dr West Indies. Col TRIBES. IireibUS visits Iceland and learns of the New World. a voyage to South America. da. ico. lina. es explorations in Florida. erica. dez founds St. Augustine. rth America- the American coast. rtin Fr4ibisher*s voyages. ^aUe on the Paeitic coast. 83. Ctliibert's voyage. [tion. aleisrh's attempts at colonizBr 2. CiONiiold's direct voyage. 3. I*riiisr's voyjt^'e. 7. Settlement at Janiestowu S. M'aynioiitli in Maine. 20. The IMiritaiisat Flynioutb. 24. Verrazz.'ini explor 34. Cartier's exped 42. Koberval in 62. Kibanlt 64. I.ando 1. Voyages of the «'orlereal8.| l_ 19. Magellan cinnmnav igates the elnhe es the American coaft. ition. Canada. with the Huguenots. nnlere's enterprise. l.a Roelie in Nova Scotia. 4. De Monts and Cham- p^aiii. 5. P«»rl Royail founded. 8. Foiuiding of ' was claimed for the king of Spain, and the search for the youth -restoring fountain was eagerly prosecuted. The romantic adven- turer turned southward, explored the coast for many leagues, discovered and named the Tortugas, doubled Cape Florida, and then sailed back to Porto Rico, not perceptibly younger than when he started. The king of Spain rewarded Ponce with the governorship of his 58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Land of Flowers, and sent hira tliither again to establish a colony. The aged veteran did not, however, reach his province until the 3'ear 1521, and then it was only to find the Indians in a state of bitter hostility. Scarcely had he landed when they fell upon him in a furious battle; many of the Spaniards were killed outright, and the rest had to betake themselves to the ships for safety. Ponce de Leon himself received a mortal wound from an arrow, and was carried back to Cuba to die. CHAPTER IV. SPANISH DISCOVERIES IN AMERICA.— CONTINUED. THE year 1517 was marketl by the discovery of Yucatan and the Bay of Campeachy by Ferxandez de Cordova. While exploring the northern coast of the country, his company was attacked by the natives, and he hinxself mortally wounded. During the next year the coast of Mexico was explored for a great distance by Grualva, assistetl by Ctr- dova's pilot; and in the year 1519, Feiinando Cortez landed with his fleet at Tabasco and began his famous conquest of Mexico. As soon as the news of the invasion spread abroad, the subjects of the Mexican empire were thrown into consternation. Armies of native warriors gathered to resist the progress of the Spaniards, but were dispersed by the invaders. After freeing the coast of his oppo- nents, Cortez proceeded westward to Vera Cruz, a seaport one hun- dred and eighty miles south-east of the Mexican capital. Here lie was met by ambassadors from the celebrated Montezuma, emperor of the country. From him they delivered messages and exhibited great anxiety lest Cortez should march into the interior. He as- sured them that such was indeed his purpose; that his business in the country was urgent; and that he must confer with Montezuma in person. The ambassadors tried in vain to dissuade the terrible Spaniard. They made him costly presents, and then hastened back to their alarmed sovereign. Montezuma immediately despatched them a sec- ond time with presents still more valuable, and with urgent appeals to Cortez to proceed no farther. But the cupidity of the Spaniards was now inflamed to the highest pitch, and burning their ships behind them, they began their march towards the capital. The Mexican em-' VO YA GE ASD DISCO VER Y. 59 peror by his messengers forbade their approach to his city. Still they pressed 011. The nations tributary to Montezuma threw off their al- legiance, made peace with the conqueror, and even joined his stand- ard. The irresolute and vacillating Indian monarch knew not what to do. The Span- iards came in sight of the city — a glit- tering and splen- did vision of spires and temples ; and the poor Montezu- ma came forth to receive his remorse- less enemies. On the morning of the 8th of November, 1519, the Spanish army marched over the causeway lead- ing into the Mexi- can capital and was quartered in the great central square near the temple of the Aztec god of war. It was now winter time. For a month Cortez remained quietly in the city. He was permitted to go about freely with his soldiers, and was even allowed to examine the sacred altars and shrines where human sacrifices were daily offered up to the deities of Mexico. He made himself familiar with the defences of the capital and the Mex- ican mode of warfare. On every side he found inexhaustible stores of provisions, treasures of gold and silver, and what greatly excited his solicitude, arsenals filled with bows and javelins. But although surrounded with splendor and abundance, his own situation became extremely critical. The millions of natives who swarmed around him were becoming familiar with his troops and no longer believed them immortal. There were mutterings of an outbreak which threatened to overwhelm him in an hour. In this emergency the Spanish general adopted the bold and unscrupulous expedient of seizing Montezuma and holding him as a hostage. A plausible pretext for this outrage was found in the fact that the Mexican governor of the province FERNANDO CORTEZ. 60 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. adjacent to Vera Cruz had attacked the Spanish garrison at that jilaoe, and that Montezuma himself had acted with hostility and treachery towards the Spaniards while they were marching on the city. As soon as the emperor was.in his power, Cortez compelled him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the king of Spain and to agree to the payment of a sum amounting to six million three hundred thousand dollars, with an annual tribute afterwards. In the mean time, Velasquez, the Spanish governor of Cuba, jealous of the fame of Cortez, had despatched a force to Mexico to arrest his progress and to supersede him in the command. The ex- pedition Avas led by Pamphilo de Narvaez, the same who was afterwards governor of Florida. His forces consisted of more than twelve hundred well armed and well disciplined soldiers, besides a thousand Indian servants and guides. But the vigilant Cortez had meanwhile been informed by messengers from Vera Cruz of the movement which his enemies at home had set on foot against him, and he determined to sell his command only at the price of his own life and the lives of all his followers. He therefore instructed Al- varado, one of his subordinate officers, to remain in the capital with a small force of a hundred and forty men; and with the remaindci', numbering less than two hundred, he himself hastily withdrew from the city and proceeded by a forced march to encounter De Narvaez on the sea-coast. On the night of the 26th of May, 1520, while the soldiers of the latter were quietly asleep in their camp near Vera Cruz, Cortez burst upon them with the fury of despair, and before they could rally or well understand the terrible onset, compelled the whole force to surrender. Then, adding the general's skill to the warrior's prowess, he succeeded in inducing the conquered army to join his own standard ; and with his forces thus augmented to six times their original numbers he began a second time his march to- wards the capital. While Cortez was absent on this expedition, the Mexicans of the ca))ital rose in arms, and the possession of the country was staked on the issue of war. Alvarado, either fearing a revolt or from a spirit of atrocious cruelty, had attacked the Mexicans while they were celebrating one of their festivals, and slain five hundred of the leaders and priests. The people in a frenzy of astonishment and rage flew to their arms and laid siege to the palace where Alvarado and his men were fortified. The Spaniards were already hard pressed when Cortez at the head of his new army reached the city. He en- tered without opposition and joined Alvarado's command ; but the passions of the Mexicans were now thoroughly aroused, and not all VOYAGE AXD DISCOVERY. 61 the diplomacy of the Spanish general could again bring them into subjection. In a few days the conflict began in earnest. The streets were deluged with the blood of tens of thousands ; and not a few of the Spaniards fell before the vengeance of the native warriors. For months there was almost incessant fighting in and around the city ; and it became evident that the Spaniards must ultimately be overwhelmed and destroyed. To save himself from his peril, Cortez adopted a second shame- less expedient, more wicked than the first. Montezuma was compelled to go upon the top of the palace in front of the great square where the besieo-ers were gathered and to counsel them to make peace with the Spaniards. For a moment there was universal silence, then a murmur of vexation and rage, and then Montezuma was struck down by the javelins of his own subjects. In a few days he died of wretchedness and despair, and for a while the warriors, overwhelmed with remorse, abandoned the conflict. But with the renewal of the strife Cortez was obliged to leave the city. Finally a great battle was fought, and the Spanish arms and valor triumphed. In the crisis of the struggle the sacred Mexican banner was struck down and captured. Dismay seized the hosts of puny warriors, and they fled in all directions. In De- cember of 1520, Cortez again marched on the capital. A siege, last- ing until August of the following year, ensued ; and then the famous city yielded. The empire of the Montezumas was overthrown, and Mexico became a Spanish province. Among the many daring enterprises which marked the beginning of the sixteenth century, that of Ferdinand Magellan is worthy of special mention. A Portuguese by birth, a navigator by profession, this man, so noted for extraordinary boldness and ability, determined to discover a south-west rather than a north-west passage to Asia. With this object in view, he appealed to the king of Portugal for ships and men. The monarch listened coldly, and did nothing to give encouragement. Incensed at this treatment, Magellan threw off his allegiance, went to Spain — the usual resort of disappointed sea- men — and laid his' plans before Charles V. The emperor caught eagerly at the opportunity, and ordered a fleet of five ships to be im- mediately fitted at the public expense and properly manned with crews. The voyage was begun from Seville in August of 1519. Sailing southward across the equinoctial line, Magellan soon reached the coast of South America, and spent the autumn in explorations, hoping to find some strait that should lead him westward into that ocean which Balboa had discovered six vears previouslv. Not at first successful in this effort, 5 62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. he passed the winter — which was summer on that side of the equator — somewhere on the coast of BraziL Renewing his voyage southward, he came at last to the eastern mouth of that strait which still bears the name of its discoverer, and passing through it found himself m the open and boundless ocean. The weather was beautiful, and the peaceful deep was called the Pacific. Setting his prows to the north of west, Magellan now held steadily on his course for nearly four months, suifering much meanwhile from want of water and scarcity of provisions. In March of 1520 he came to the group of islands called the Ladrones, situated about midway between Australia and Japan. Sailing still westward, he reached the Philippine group, where he was killed in a battle with the natives. But the fleet v.as now less than four hundred miles from China, and the rest of the n^iite M'as easy. A new captain was chosen, and the voyage continued by way of the Moluccas, where a cargo of spices was taken on board for the market of Western Europe. Only a single ship was deemed in a fit condition ta venture on the homeward voyage ; but in this vessel the crews embarked, and returning by way of the Cape of Good Hope arrived in Spain on the 17th day of September, 1522. The circumnavigation of the globe, long believed in as a possibilitj', had now become a thing of reality. The theory of the old astronomei-s, of Mandeville and of Columbus had been proved by actual demonstration. The next important voyage undertaken to the shores of America was in the year 1520. Lucas A^asquez de Ayllon, who had been a judge in St. Domingo and had acquired great riches, conducted the expedition. He and six other wealthy men, eager to stock their plantations with slaves, determined to do so by kidnapping natives from the neighboring Bahamas. Two vessels were fitted out for the purpose, and De Ayllon commanded in person. AVlien the vessels were nearing their destination, they encoun- tered a storm which drove them northward about a hundred and fifty leagues, and brought them against the coast of South Carolina. The ships entered St. Helena Sound and anchored in the mouth of the Cambahee River. The name of Chicora was given to the country, and the river was called the Jordan. The timid but friendly natives, as soon as their feare had subsided, began to make presents to the strangers and to treat them with great corchality. They flocked on board the ships ; and when the decks were crowded, De Ayllon, watching his opportunity, weighed anchor and sailed away. A few days afterward an avenging storm sent one of the ships to the bottom of the sea, and death came mercifully to most of the poor Avretches who were huddled under the hatches of the other. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 63 Going at once to Spain, De Ayllon rejicatwl the story of his exploit to Charles V., who rewarded him with the governoi-ship of Chicora and the privilege of con(][uest. Returning to his province in 1525, lie found tlie natives intensely hostile. His best ship ran aground in t!ic moutli of the Jordan, and the outraged Indians fell upon him with fury, killing many of tiie treacherous crew, and making the rest glad enough to get away with tlieir lives. De Ayllon liimself returned to St. Domingo humiliated and ruined. Thus ended the first disgraceful effort to enslave the Indians. In the year 1526, Cliarles V. appointed the unprincipled Pamphilo DE Naevaez governor of Florida, and to the appointment was added the usual privilege of conquest. The territory thus placed at his disjio.'^l extended from Cape Sabie fully three-fiftlis of the way around the Gulf of Mexico, and was limited on the south-west by the mouth of the River of Palms. With this extensive commission De Narvaez arrived at Tampa Bay in the month of April, 1528. His force consisted of t\vo hundred and sixty soldiers and forty horsemen. The natives treated them with suspicion, and, anxioas to be rid of the intruders, began to hold up their gold trinkets and to point to the north. The hint was eagerly caught at by the avaricious Spaniards, whose imaginations were set on fire with the sight of the precious metal. They struck boldly into the forests, expect- ing to find cities and empires, and found instead swamps and savages. -They reached the Withlacooehie and crossed it by swimming, they passed over the Suwanee in a canoe which they made for the occasion, and finally came to Apalachee, a squalid village of forty cabins. This, then, was the mighty city to which their guides had directed them. Oppressed with fatigue and goaded by hunger, they plunged again into the woods, wading through lagoons and assailed by lurking savages, until at last they reached the sea at the harbor of St. Mark's. Here they expected to find their ships, but not a ship was there, or had been. With great labor they constructed some brigantines, and put to sea in the vain hope of reaching the Spanish settlements in Mexico. They were tossed by storms, driven out of sight of land and then thrown upon the shore again, drowned, slain by the savages, left in the solitary woods dead of starvation and despair, until finally four miserable men of all the adven- turous company, under the leadei-ship of the heroic De Vaca, first lieu- tenant of the expedition, were rescued at the ^^llage of San Migual, on the Pacific coast, and conducted to the city of Mexico. The story can hardly be paralleled in the annals of suffering and peril. But the Spaniards were not yet satisfied. la the year 1537 a new expedition was planned which surpassed all the others in the bril- 64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. liancy of its beginning and the disasters of its end. The most cavalier of the cavaliers was Ferdinand de Soto, of Xeres. Besides the dis- tinction of a noble birth, he had been the lieutenant and bosom friend of Pizarro, and had now returned from Peru loaded with wealth. So great was his popularity in Spain that he had only to demand what he would have of the emperor that liis request might be granted. At his owti dic- tation he was accordingl)' appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, with the privilege of exj)loring and conquering the latter country at his pleasure. A great company of young Spaniards, nearly all of them wealthy and high-born, flocked to his standard. Of these he selected six hundred of the most gallant and daring. They were clad in costly suits of armor of the knightly pattern, Avith airy scarfs and silken embroidery and all the trappings of chivalry. Elaborate preparations were made for the grand conquest ; arms and stores were provided ; shackles wero wrought for the slaves ; tools for the forge and workshop were abundantly sup- plied; bloodhounds were bought and trained for the work of hunting fugitives ; cards to keep the young knights excited with gaming ; twelve priests to conduct religious ceremonies ; and, last of all, a drove of swine to fatten on the maize and mast of the country. When, after a year of impatience and delay, everything was at last in readiness, the gay Castilian squadron, ten vessels in all, left the harbor of San Lucar to conquer imaginary empires in the New World. The fleet touched at Havana, and the enthusiasm was kindled even to a higher pitch than it had reached in Spain. De Soto left his wife to govern Cuba during his absence ; and after a prosperous and exulting voyage of two weeks, the ships cast anchor in Tampa Bay. This was in the early part of June, 1539. When some of the Cubans who had joined the expedition first saw the silent forests and gloomy moi-asses that stretched before them, they were terrified at the prospect, and sailed back to the security of home ; but De Soto and his cavaliers despised such cowardice, and began their march into the interior. During the months of July, August and Sep- tember they marched to the northward, wading through swamps, swim- ming rivers and fighting the Indians. In October they arrived at the country of the Apalachians, on the left bank of Flint River, where they determined to spend the winter. For four months they remained in this locality, sending out exploring parties in various directions. One of these companies reached the gulf at Pensacola, and made arrangements that supplies should be sent out from Cuba to that place during the fol- lowing summer. In the early spring the Spaniards left their winter quarters and con- tinued their march to the north and east An Indian guide told them of rOYAOE AND DISCOVERY. 65 a powerful and populous empire in that direction ; a -woman was empress, and the land was full of gold. A Spanish soldier, one of the men of Karvaez, Avho had been kept a captive among the Indians, denied the truth of the extravagant story ; but De Soto only said that he would fiud gold or see poverty with liis own eyes, and the freebooters pressed on through the swamps and woods. It was April, 1-540, when tliey came npon the Ogechee River. Here they were delayed. The Indian guide went mad ; and when the priests had conjured the evil spirit out of him, Le repaid their benevolence by losing the whole company in the forest. By the 1st of May they had reached South Carolina, and were within a two days' march of where De Ayllon had lost his ships and men at the mouth of the Jordan. Thence the wanderers turned westward ; but that De Soto and his men crossed the mountains into North Carolina and Ten- nessee is hardly to be believed. They seem rather to have passed across Korthcrn Georgia from the Chattahouche to the upper tril)utarics of the Coosa, and thence down that river to the valleys of Lower Alabama. Here, just above the confluence of the Alabama and tlie Tombecbee, they came upon the fortified Indian to\\^l called Mauville, or Mobile, where a terrible battle was fought with the natives. The toM'n was set on fire, and two thousand five iiundred of the Indians were killed or burned to death. Eighteen of De Soto's men were killed, and a hundred and fifty wounded. The Spaniards also lost about eighty horses and all of their baggage. The ships of supply had meanwhile arrived at Pensacola, but De Soto and his men, altliough in desperate circumstances, were too stubborn and proud to avail themselves of lielp or even to send news of their where- abouts. They turned resolutely to tiie north ; but the country was poor, and their condition grew constantly worse and Avorse. By the middle of December they had readied the country of the Chickasas, in Northern Mississippi. They crossed the Yazoo ; the weather was severe ; snow fell ; and the Spaniards were on the ])oint of starvation. They succeeded, however, in finding some fields of ungathered maize, and then came upon a deserted Indian village wliich promised them shelter for the winter. After remaining here till Februar}', 1541, they were suddenly attacked in the dead of night by the Indians, who, at a preconcerted signal, set the town on fire, determined then and there to make an end of the desolating foreigners ; but the Spanish weapons and discipline again saved De Soto and his men from destruction. After gathering provisions and reclothing themselves as well as pos- Bible, the Spaniards set out again in early spring to journey still farther westward. The guides now brought them to the Mississippi. The point 66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ■where the majestic Father of Waters was first seen by white men was at the lower Chickasaw Bluff, a little north of the thirty-fourth jiarallel of latitude ; the day of the discovery cannot certainly be known. The In- dians came down the river in a fleet of canoes, and offered to carry the Spaniards over ; but the horses could not be transported until barges were built for that purpose. The crossing was not effected until the latter part of May. De Soto's men now found themselves in the laud of the Dakotas. Journeying to the north-west, they passed through a country where wild fruits were plentiful and subsistence easy. The natives were inoffensive and superstitious. At one place tliey were going to worship the woe- begone cavaliers as the children of the gods, but De Soto Avas too good a Catholic to permit such idolatry. The Spaniards continued their march until they reached the St. Francis River, which they crossed, and gained the southern limits of Missouri, in the vicinity of New Madrid. Tlience westward the march was renewed for about two hundred miles; thence southward to the Hot Springs and the tributaries of the Washita River. Ou the banks of tliis river, at the town of Atiamque, they passed the win- ter of 1541-42. The Indians were found to be much more civilized than those east of the Mississippi ; but their civilization did not protect them in the least from the horrid cruelties which the Spaniards practiced. No consideration of justice, humanity or mercy moved the stony hearts of these polite and Christian Avarriors. Indian towns were set on fire for sport ; Indian hands were chopped off for a whim ; and Indian captives burned alive because, under fear of death, they had told a falsehood. But De Soto's men were themselves growing desperate in their mis- fortunes. They turned again toward the sea, and passing down the tributaries of the Washita to the junction of that stream with the Red River, came upon the Mississippi in the neighborhood of Natchez. The spirit of De Soto was at last completely broken. The haughty cavalier bowed his head and became a prey to melancholy. No more dazzling visions of Peru and Mexico flitted before his imagination. A malignant fever seized upon his emaciated frame, and then death. The priests chanted a requiem, and in the middle of the solemn night his sorrowful companions put the dead hero's body into a rustic coffin, and rowing out a distance from shore sunk it in the Mississippi. Ferdinand de Soto had found a grave under the rolling waters of the great river with which hia name mil be associated for ever. Before his death, De Soto had named Moscoso as his successor ; and now, under the leadership of the new governor, the ragged, half-starved adventurers, in the vain hope of reaching Mexico, turned once more to the VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 67 west. They crossed the countrj- to the upper waters of the Red River, on the confines of Texas. Thence they turned northward into the territory of the Pawnees and the Comanchos, ranging tlie hunting-grounds of those fierce savages until stopped by the mountains. In December of 1542, after ahiiost endless wanderings and hardships, they came again to the Mississij)])!, reaching the now familiar stream a sliort distance above tlie mouth of Red River. They now formed the desiierate resolution of building boats, and thus descending the river to the gulf. They erected a tbrge, broke off the fetters of the captives in order to prtx^ure iron, sawed timber in the forest, and at last completed seven brigantiucs and launched them. The time thus occupied extended from January to July of 1 543. The Indians of the neighborhood were now for the last time plundered in order to furnish supplies for the voyage ; and on tae 2d day of July the Spaniards went on board their boats and started for the sea. The dis- tance was almost five hundred miles, and seventeen days were required to make the descent. On reaching the Gulf of ^Mexico, they .steered to the south-west ; and keeping as close to the shore as possible, after fifty-five days of buffctings and perils along the dangerous coast, tliey came — three hundred and eleven famished and heart-broken fugitives — to the settle- ment at the month of the River of Palms; and thas ended the most marvelous expedition in the early histoiy of our country. The next attempt by the Spaniards to colonize Florida was in the year 1565. The enterjjrise was entrusted to Pedro Melendez, a Span- ish soldier of fero<-ioas disposition and criminal practices. He was under sentence to pay a heavy fine at the ver^' time when he received his com- mission from the bigoted Philip II. The contract l)etween that monarch and Melendez was to the effect that the latter should within tiiree years explore the coast- of Florida, conquer the country, and plant in some favorable district a colony of not less than five lunidrcd pereons, of whom one huiuh-cd should be married men. ^lelcndez was to receive two hun- dred and twentj'-five si|uarc miles of land adjacent to the settlement, and an ainnial s;ilary of two thoasiuid dollai-s. Twentj'-five hundred persons collei'ted around Melendez to join in the expedition. The fleet left Spaia in July, reached Porto Rico early in August, and on the 28th of the same month came in sight of Florida. It must now be understood that the real object had in view by Melendez was to attack and destroy a colony of French Protestants called Huguenots, who, in the previous year, had made a settlement about thirty- five miles above the mouth of the St. John's River. This was, of course, within the limits of the territory- claimed by Spain ; and Melendez at once perceived that to extirpate these French heretics in the name of patriotism 68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and religion would be likely to restore his shattered character and bring him into favor again. His former crimes were to be washed out in the blood of the innocents. Moreover, the Catholic partj' at the French court had communicated with the Spanish court as to the whereabouts and intentions of the Huguenots, so that Mclendez knew precisely where to ■find them and how to compass their destruction. It was St. Augustine's day when the dastardly Spaniard came in sight of the shore, but the landing was not effected until the 2d of Sep- tember. The sjiacious harbor and the small river which enters it from the south were named in honor of the saint. On the 8th day of the same month, Philip II. Avas proclaimed monarch of all North America ; a solemn mass was said by the priests ; and there, in the sight of forest, and sky, and sea, the foundation-stones of the oldest town in the United States were put into their place. This was seventeen years before the founding of Santa Fe by Antonio de Espego, and forty-tw^o yeai-s before the settlement at Jamestown. As soon as the new town was suiSciently advanced to be secure against accident, Melendez turned his attention to the Huguenots. The latter were expecting to be attacked, but had supposed that the Spanish fleet would sail up the St. John's, and make the onset from that direction. Accordingly, knowing that they must iight or die, all the French vessels except two left their covert in the river and put to sea, intending to an- ticipate the movements of the Spaniards ; but a furious storm arose and dashed to pieces eveiy ship in the fleet. Most of the crews, however, reached the shore just above the mouth of the river. Melendez now collected his forces at St. Augustine, stole through the woods and swamps, and fallmg unexpectedly on tlie defenceless colony, utterly destroyed it. Men, women and children were alike given up to butchery. Two hundred were killed outright. A few escaped into the forest, Laudonniere, the Huguenot leader, among the number, and making their way to the coast, were picked up by the two Fi'ench shijis which had been saved from the storm. The crews of the \ATecked vessels were tlie next object of Spanish vengeance. Melendez discovered their whereabouts, and deceiving tliem with treacherous promises of clemency, induced them to surrender. They were ferried across the river in boats ; but no sooner were they completely in the power of their enemy than their hands were bound behind them, and they were driven off", tied t^vo and two, toward St. Augustine. As they ajiproached the Spanish fort the signal was given by sounding a trumpet, and the work of slaughter began anew. Seven hundred defence- less victims were added to the previous atrocious massacre. Ouly a few VOYAGE AXD DISCOVERY. 69 mechanics and Catholic servants were left alive. Under these bloody auspices the first permanent European colony was planted in our country. In what way the Huguenots were revenged upon their enemies will be told in another place. The Spaniards had now explored the entire coast from the Isthmus of Darien to Port Royal in South Carolina. They were acquainted with the country west of the ^lississippi as far north as New Mexico and Missouri, and east of that river they had traversed the Gulf States as far as the mountain ranges of Tennessee and North Carolina. With the es- tablishment of their first permanent colony on the coast of Florida the period of Spanish voyage and discover}' may be said to end. Before closing this chapter, a brief account of the only important voyage made by the Portuguese to America will be given : At the time of the first discover}' by Columbus, the unambitious John II. was king^ of Portugal. He paid but little attention to the New World, prefer- ring the security and dullness of his own capital to the splendid allure- ments of the Atlantic. In 1495 he was succeeded on the throne by his coiLsin Manuel, a man of very different character. This monai'ch could hardly forgive his predecessor for having allowed Spain to snatch from the flag of Portugal the glory of Columba-^'s achievements. In order to secure some of the benefits which yet remained. King Manuel fitted out two ves- sels, and in the summer of 1501 commissioned Caspar Cortereal to Bail on a voyage of discovery. The Portuguese vessels reached America in the month of July, and beginning at some point on the shores of Maine, sailed northward, exploring the coast for nearly seven hundred miles. Just below the fiftieth parallel of latitude Cortereal met the icebergs, and could go no farther. Little attention was paid by him to the great forests of pine and hemlock which stood tall and silent along the shore, j)romising ship-yards and cities in after times. He satisfied his rapacity by kid- napping fifty Indians, whom, on his return to Portugal, he sold as slaves. A new voyage was then undertaken, with the avowed purpose of capturing another cargo of natives for the slave-mart of Europe ; but when a year •went by, and no tidings arriveed, a passage out of this bay Avestward, he changed his course to the north again, and ascended the coast as far as (jasp6 Bay. Here, upon a point of land, he set up a cross bearing a shield with the lily of France, and proclaimed the French king monarch of the country. Pressing his way still farther northwai'd, and then west- ward, he entered the St. LaAvrenee, and ascended the broad estuar)- luitil the narrowing banks made him aware that he was in the mouth of a river. Cartier, thinking it impracticable to pa.ss the winter in the New World, now turned his prows toward France, and in thirty days andiored his ships in the harbor of St. Malo. So great w:is the fame of Cartier's first voyage that another was planned immediately. Three good ships were provided, and quite a num- ber of young noblemen joined the exix-dition. Colonization rather than discovery was now the inspiring motive. The sails were set by zealous and excited crews, and on the 19th of May the new voyage was begun. This time there was stormy weather, yet the passage to Newfoundland was made by the 10th of August. It was the day of St. Lawrence, and the name of that martyr was accordingly given to the gulf, and after- ward to the noble stream which enters it from the west. Sailing north- wartl around Anticosti, tlic expedition proceeded up the river to the island of Orleans, where the .-^hips were moored in a jilace of safety. Two In- dians vhom Cartier had taken with him to France in the previous year now gave information that higher up the river there was an important 72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. towTi on the island of Hochelaga. Proceeding thither in his boats, the French captain found it as the Indians had said. A beautiful village lay there at the foot of a high hill in the middle of the island. Climbing to the top of the hill, Cartier, as suggested by the scene around him, named the island and to^vn Mont-Real. The country was declared to belong by right of discovery to the king of France ; and theu the boats dropped down the river to the ships. During this winter twenty-five of Cartier's men were swept off by the scur^y, a malady hitherto unkno\\Ti in Europe. With the opening of spring, pi-eparations were made to retiu-n to France. The terrible winter had proved too much for French enthusiasm. The emblem of Catholicism, bearing the arms of France, was again planted in the soil of the New World, and the homeward voyage began ; but be- fore the ships had left their anchorage, the kindly king of the Hurons, who had treated Cartier with so much generositj^, was decoyed on board and carried off to die. On the 6th day of July the fleet reached St. JMalo in safety- ; but by the accounts which Cartier published on his return the French were greatly discouraged. Neither silver nor gold had been found on the banks of the St. Lawrence ; and what was a new world good for that had not silver and gold ? Francis of La Roque, lord of Roberval, in Picardy, was the next to undertake the colonization of the countries discovered by the French. This nobleman, four years after Cartier's return from his second voyage, was commissioned by the court of France to plant a colony on the St. Lawrence. The titles of viceroy and lieutenant-general of New France were conferred upon him, and much other vainglorious ceremony attended his preparations for departure. The man, however, who was chiefly relied on to give character and direction to the proposed colony was no other than James Cartier. He only seemed competent to conduct the enterprise with any promise of success. His name was accordingly added to the list, and he was honored with the office of chief pilot and captain- general of the expedition. The next thing to be done was to find material for the colony. This was a difficult task. The French peasants and mechanics were not eager to embark for a country which promised nothing better than savages and snow. Cartier's honest narrative about the resources of NeM' France had left no room for further dreaming. So the work of enlisting volunteei's went on slowly, until the government adopted the plan of opening the prisons of the kingdom and giving freedom to whoever would join the expedition. There was a rush of robbei's, swindlers and murderers, and the lists were immediately filled. Only counterfeiters and traito. .3 were denied the privilege of gaining their liberty in the New World. VOYAGE AND DISCOVERY. 78 In the latter part of May, 1541, five ships, under the immediate command of Cartior, lei't France, and soon readied the St. Lawrence. The expedition proceeded up the river to tlie pivscnt site of Qucliec, where a fort was erected and naniwl C'iiarlesbourg. Here tiie colonists passed tlie winter. Carticr, oti'endcil because of the subordinate position which he held, was sullen and gloomy, and made no eflbrt to prosecute discoverias which could benefit no one but the ambitious Robcrval. The two leaders never acted in concert ; and when La Koquc, in June of the following year, arrived with immigrants and supplies, Carticr secretly sailed away with his part of the s<[uadron, and returned to Europe. Rol)crval was left in New France with three shiploads of criminals who could only be restrained by wiiipping and hanging. During the autunni some feeble efforts were made to discover a northern passage ; the winter was long and severe, and spring was wclcometl by the colonists chiefly for the opportunity which it gave them of returning to France. The enterprise undertaken with so much pomp had resulted in notliing. In the year 1549 Koberval, with a large company of emigrants, sailed on a second voyage, but the fleet was never heard of afterward. .V period of fifty years now elapsed before the French authorities again attempted to colonize America. Meanwhile, private enterprise and religious pei"secution had co-oiK^ratod in an effort to accomplish in Florida and Carolina what the government had failed to accomplish on the St. Lawrence. About tlie middle of the sixteenth eenturj' Coligni, the Protestant admiral of France, formed the design of establishing in America a refuge for the jKM-secuted Huguenots of his own countiy. In 15C2 tiiis liberal and influential minister obtained from the sovereign, Charles IX., the coveted privilege of planting a colony of Protestants in the New World. John Ribaui.t of Dieppe, a brave and cx])eriencid sailor, was selectetl to lead the Huguenots to the land of promise. Sail- ing in February, the company reached the coast of Florida at a point wherc three ycai-s later St. Augustine was founded. The River St. John's, called by the Spaniards the St. Matthew, was entered by the French and named the River of May. The vessels then continued northwanl along tlic coast until they came to the entrance of Port Royal ; here it was determined to make the settlement. The colonists were landed on an island, and a stone engraved with the arms of their native land was set up to mark the place. A fort was erected, and in honor of Charles IX. named Carolina — a name which a century afterward was retaineautiful river, which was named in honor of King James. Proceeding uj) this stream about fitly miles, Newport noticed on the northern bank a peninsula more attractive than the rest for its verdure and beauty ; the ships were moored, and the emigrants went on shore. Here, on the 13tli day of May (Old Style), in the vear 1607, were laid the foundations of Jamestown, the oldest English settle- ment in America. It wius within a month of a hundretl and ten years after the discover}' of the continent by the elder Cabot, and nearly forty- two years after the founding of St. Augustine. So long a time had been required to plant the first feeble germ of English civilization in the New World. After the unsuccessful attempt to form a settlement at the mouth of the Kennebec, very little was done by the Plymouth Company ibr several years; yet the purpose of planting colonies was not relinquished. Meanwhile, a new inijwtus was given to the affairs of North Virginia by the ceaseless activity and exhaustlcss energies of John Smith. Woimded by an accident, and discouraged, as far as it was possible for such a man to be di.seouraged, by the distractions and turbidence of tlic Jamestown colony. Smith left that settlement in 1G09, and returned to f]ngland. On •recovering his health he fi)rmed a partnership with four wealthy mer- chants of London, with a view to the fur-trade and probable establish- ment of colonies within the limits of the Plymouth grant. Two ships were accordingly freighted with gootls and put under Smith's command. The summer of IGU was sjient on tli* coa«t of lower Maine, where a profitable traffic was ciirried on with the Indians. The crews of the ves- sels were well sjitisficd through the long days of July with the i)lea- sures and profits of the teeming fisheries, but Smith himself found nobler work. Beginning as Car north as practicable, he patiently explored the country, and drew a map of the whole coast-line from the Penobscot River to Cape Cod. In this map, which is .still extant, and a marvel of accuracy considering the circumstances under which it was made, the country was (-all«l New England — a name which Prince Charles con- firmed, and which has ever since remained as the designation of the North- eastern States of the republic. In the month of November the ships re- 88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. turned to Plymouth, taking with them many substantial proofs of a suc- cessful voyage. Smith now pleaded more strongly than ever in behalf of coloniza- tion. Some of his friends in the Plymouth Company gave him aid, and in 1615 a small colony of sixteen persons was sent out in a single ship. When nearing the American coast, they encountered a terrible storm, ajid after being driven about for two or three weeks were obliged to return to England. In spite of these reverses, the undaunted leader renewed the enterprise, and again raised a company of emigrants. Part of his crew became mutinous, betra3'ed him, and left him in mid-ocean. His o^vn ship was run down and captured by a band of French pirates, and him- self imprisoned in the harbor of Rochelle. Later in the same year he escaped in an open boat and made his way back to London. With as- tonishing industry, he now published a description of New England, and was more zealous than ever in inciting the company of Plymouth to energetic action. In these efforts he was much impeded. The London Company was jealoiLS of its rival, and put obstacles in the way of eveiy enterprise. The whole of the years 1617-18 was spent in making and unmaking plans of colonization, until finally, on the petition of some of its own leading members, the Plymouth Company was formally super- seded by a new corporation called the Council of Plymouth, consisting of forty of the most wealthy and influential men of the kingdom. On this body were conferred, by the terms of the new charter, almost un- limited powers and privileges. All that part of America lying between the fortieth and the fortj'-eighth 2>arallels of north latitude, and extending from ocean to ocean, was given to the council in fee simple. More than a million of square miles were embraced in the grant, and absolute jurisdic- tion over this immense tract was committed to forty men. How King James was ever induced to sign such a charter has remained an unsolved mystery. A plan of colonizing was Aow projected on a grand scale. John Smith was appointed admiral of New England for life. The king, not- withstanding the opposition of the House of Commons, issued a procla- mation enforcing the provisions of the charter, and everything gave promise of the early settlement of America. Such were the schemes of men to possess and people the Western Continent. Meanwhile, a Power higher than the will of man was working in the same direction. The time had come when, without the knowledge or consent of James I., without the knowledge or consent of the Council of Plymouth, a per- manent settlement should bo made on the bleak shores of New England. The Puritans ! Name of all names in the early history of the VOYAGE A AD DISCOVERY. 89 West! About tlic dose of tin; sixteenth century a number of poor di.s- sonters scattered tlirougii the Nortli of Englaml, especially in the counties; of Nottingham, Lin(;olu and York, began to join tliemselvcs together for the purposes of free religiijus worship. Politically, they were patriotic subjects of the English king; religiously, tliey were rebels against the authority of the English Church. Their rebellion, however, only ex- tended to the declaration that every man has a right to discover and ap- ply the truth as revealed in the Scriptures without the interposition of any j)ower other than his own reason and conscience. Such a doctrine wa.s very rei)Ugnant to the Church of England. Queen Elizabeth herself declared such teaching to be subversive of the principles on which her monarchy was founded. King James wiis not more tolerant; and from time to time violent persecutions broke out against the feeble and dis- persed Christians of the north. Despairing of rest in their own countn,-, the Puritans finally deter- mined to go into exile, and to seek in another land the freedom of wor- ship which their own bad denied them. They turned their faces toward Holland, made one unsuccessful attempt to get away, were brought back and thrown into j)risons. Again they gathered together on a bleak heath in Ijincolnshire, and in the spring of 1G08 embarked from the mouth of the H umber. Their ship brought them in safety to Amsterdam, where, under the care of their heroic pastor, John Robinson, they passed one winter, and then removed to Leyden. Such was the beginning of their wandering. They took the name of Pilgrims, and grew content to liave no home or resting-place. Privation and exile could be endured when sweetened with liberty. But the love of native land is a universal passion. The Puritans in Holland did not forget — could not forget — that they were Englishmen. During their ten years of residence at Leyden they did not cease to long for a return to.the country which had ca.st them out. Though ruled by a heartless monarch and a bigoted priesthood, England was their country still. The unfamiliar language of the Dutch grated harshly on their ears. They pined with unrest, conscious of their ability and willingness to do something which should convince even King James of their patriotism and worth. It was in this condition of mind that about the year 1617 the Puritans began to mc, the moor- ings were loosed, the vessel dropped down the stream, and on the 4th of October the sails were spread for Holland. On the homeward voyage Hudson, not perhaps without a touch of national pride, ])\\i into the har- bor of Dartmouth. Thcrcuj)on the government of King James, with charaeteristie illiberality, detainwl the Half Moon, and claimed the crew as Englishmen. .Vll that Hudson could do was to forward to his emj)loy- ers of the E:ist India C'onii>auy an account of his successful voyage and of the delightful t'ountry which he had visited under the flag of Holland. Now were the English merchants ready to spend more money to find the north-west |)assage. In the summer of 1610, a ship, Ciilled the Discovery, was given to Hud.-on ; and with a vision of the Indies flitting before his imagination he left England, never to return. He had learned by this time that nowhere between Florida and Maine wa.s there an open- ing througli the ctMitinent to the Paeifie. The famous pass must now be sought between the Gulf of St. LawTcnce and the southern point of Greenlanil. Steering between Cape Farewell and Labrador, in the track which Frobisher had taken, the vessel came, on the 2d day of August, into the mouth of the strait which bears the name of its di-scoverer. No ship had ever befoi-e entered these waters. For a while the way west- ward was baiTwl with islands ; but passing bet^veen them, the bay seemed to open, the ocean widened to the right and left, and the route to Ciiina was at last revealed. So believeil the great captain and his crew; but sailing farther to the west, the inhospitable shores narrowead had some difficulty with her father's tribe, was residing in that neighborhood. Procuring the help of a treacherous Indian family, the English captain enticed the unsuspecting girl on board his vessel and carried her captive to Jamestown. The authorities of the colony, instead of punishing Argall for this atrocity, aggravated the outrage by demand- ing that Powhatan should pay a heavy ransom for his daughter's libera- tion. The old king indignantly refused, and ordered his tribes to prepare for war. Meanwhile, Pocahontas, who seems not to have been greatly grieved on account of her captivity, Avas converted to the Christian faith and became by baptism a member of the Episcopal Church. She was led to this course of action chiefly by the instruction and persuasion of John Rolfe, a worthy young man of the colony, who after the baptism of the princess sought her in marriage. Powhatan and his chief men gave their consent, and the nuptials were duly celebrated in the spring of the following year. By this means war was averted, and a bond of union established between the Indians and the whites. 3. Two years later Rolfe and his wife went to England, where they were received in the higliest circles of society. Captain Smith gave them a letter of introduction to Queen Anne, and many other flattering atten- VIRGINIA.— THIRD CHARTER. 109 tions were bestowed on the modest daughter of the Western wilderness. In the following year, Rolfe made prejiaratioiis to return to America ; but before embarking, Pocahontas fell sick and died. There wits left of this marriage a son, who ailerwanl came to Jamestown and was a man of some importance in the affairs of the colony. To him several influential families of Virginians still trace their origin. John Randolph of Roanoke was a grandson of the si.xth generation from Pocahontas. When Captain Argall returned from his exjicdition up the Potomac, he was sent with an armed vessel to the coast of Maine. The avowed object of the voyi^je was to protect the English fishermen who frequented the waters between the Bay of Fundy and Cape Cod, but the real pur- pase was to destroy the colonies of France, if any should be found within tlie limits of the territory claimed by England, Arriving at his destina- tion, Argall soon found opportunity for the dis])lay of his violence and rapacity. The French authorities of Acadia were at this time building a village on Mount Desert Island, near the mouth of the Penobscot. This settlement was the first object of Argall's vengeance. The place wxs cajv tiu-cd, pillaged and burned ; part of the inhabitants were put on board a vessel bound for France, and the rest were carried to the Chesaptakc. The French colony at the mouth of the St. Croix River next attracted the attention of the English captain, who cannonaded the fort and destroyed every building in the settlement. Passing thence across tlie bay to Port Royal, .Vrgall burned the de-serted hamlet which Poutrincourt and his companions had built there eight years before. On his way back to Virginia he made a descent on the Dutch traders of Manhattan Island, destroyed many of their huts, and compelled the settlers to acknowledge the sovercigntA' of England. The result of these outrageous proceedings was to confine the French settlements in America to the banks of the St Lawrence, and to leave a clear coast for the English flag from Nova Scotia to Florida. In the month of March, 1614, Sir Thomas Gates returned to Eng- land, leaving the government in the hands of Dale, whose administration lasted for two years. During tills time the laws of the colony were nmch improved, and, more important still, the colonial industry took an entirely different form. Hitherto the labor of the settlers had been directed to the planting of vineyards and to the manufacture of potash, soap, glass and tar. Tiie managers of the London Company had at last learned that these articles could be produced more cheaply in Europe than in America. They had also discovered that there were certain products peculiar to the New World which might be raised and exported with great profit. Chief among such native products was the plant calleeoj)lc crowded to- gether on the larger farms about Jaiuestt>\vn, until of the eighty settlements there were oidy eight remaining. Still, there were sixteen hundred reso- lute men in the colony ; and although gloom and ilespondency prevailed for a while, the courage of the settlers soon reviveil, and sorrow gave place to a desire for vengeance. It was now the turn of the Indians to suffer. Parties of English soldiers scoured the country in every dinttion, destroying wigwams, burnitag villages and killing every savage that fell in their way, until the tribes of Ojiechancanough were driven into the wilderness. The colon- ists, regaining their conhdcnce and zral, returned to their deserted farms, and the next year brt>ught such additions that the census showed a popu- lation of two tlu)usand five hundred. Meanwhile, ditliculties arose between the cor|)oration and the king. Most of the members of the Ix)ndon Company belonged to the patriot party in England, and the freedom with which they were in the habit of discussing political and governmental matters was very dista-steful to the nionareh. A meeting of the .stockholders, now a numerous body, was lield once every three months, and the debates took a wider and still wider range. The liberal character of the Virginia constitution was olfcnsive to King James, who determined by some means to obtain con- trol of the London Company, or else to .suppress it altogether. A com- mittee was accordingly aj)pointed to look into the atfairs of the cor- jwration and to make a report on its management. The commissioners perfornutl their duty, and reported that the companv, in addition to being a hot-beil of political agitation, was uiLsound in cvcty part, that the treas- ury was bankru[)t, and especially that the government of Virginia was bad and would contimic so until a radical change should be made in the constitution of the new State. Leg-al proceitlings were now instituted by the ministers to ascer- tain whether the company's charter had not been forfeiteil. The question came before the judges, who had no difficulty in deciding that the violated patent was null and void. In accordani-e with this decision, the charter of tl>c coriKiration was canceled by the king, and in June of 1G24 the Lohdon Company ceased to exist. But its work had been well done ; a torch of liberty iiad Ix-en lighted on the banks of the James which all the gloomy tyranny of after times could not extinguish. The Virgin- ians were not slow to remember and to claim ever afterward the precioii'' rights which were guaranteed in the constitution of 1621. And tjie other colonies would be satisfied with nothing less than the chartered privileges which were recognizeeople. There were many old land grants covering districts of territory which were now occupied by actual settlers, and between the holders of the lands and the holders of tlie titles violent altercations arose. In these disputes the governor became a partisan of the speculators against tlie people, until tlie outraged assembly of 1635 jxissed a resolution that Su- John Harvey be tiirust out of office, and Captain West be appointed in his place "until the king's pleasure may be known in this matter." A majority of the oouncilore sided with the burgcssas, and Harvey was obliged to go to England to stand his trial. King Charles treated the wliolc affair with contempt. The com- missioners appointed by the council of Virginia to conduct Harvey's im- peaciiment were refused a hearing, and he was restored to the governor- ship of the unwilling colony. He continued in power until the year 1639, when he was superseded by Wyatt, who ruled until the spring of 1642. And now came the English Revolution. The exactions and tyranny of Ciiai-les at last drove his subjects into open rebellion. In January of 1642, the king and his friends left London, and repairing to Nottingham, collected an army of royalists. The «ipital and southern part of the country remained in the power of Parliament. Tiie Higli Church jiarty and the adherents of monarchy took sides with tiie king, wiiilc tiie re- publicans and dissenters made up the opjiosing forces. The country was plunged into the horrors of civil war. After a few years of conflict tlie royal army was routed and dispersed ; the king escaped to ScotIand by iS. Peace of Aix>la-Chapelle. 89. French Revolntion. 93. Ileign Voltaire. 74. Louis XVI. "f'l'er- ror. Dr. Johnson. Burke. 65. The Rockingham Ministry. Newton. Chatham. I'itt- 55. War between France and England- * ***• (i.5. The Stamp Act. CO. George III, roprietary government. ;Dt re-established. 32. Birth of Washington. 65. The Virginia: Resolutions, )veruor. 9. ArriTal of the German immigrants. rchdale, governor. 11. The Coree War. '29. Final separation of the Carolinas. id becomes a royal government. I Copley. iter, governor. cher. I. Cornbury. ?llamont. ndros. 44. Negro plot. 58. Fall of Louisbut u'. 32. Cosby, governor. 65. Declaration; ■•! Ilights. 54. French and Indian : War, 65. First Colonial Congress as-i^^mlilus at Xew York. parated bam New York. nil of East and West Jersev. Dr. Benjamin : Franklin. Royal government established. : nited with Massachusetts. 41. : Xiw Hampshire finally sepa- : 20. Introduction of tea. : rated from Mass. ti7. The tea tax. d death. 4. First newspaper. s loses her charter. ■ of paper money iiliam's War, . Queen Anne's War. ift 10. First post-ofl5ce. nt. 61. Writs of Assist:: 73. The Bo 44. King George's War. ^, |wM LouUburg taken. r^ 68. 59. 74. B"M,. General Cinu' ^\Qiiebec 7S. taken. 70. "Tea Party." Lexington. Port Bill. :irrivesin Boston, Bunker Hill. Tumult in Boston. 1 joined to Xew York. of the charter. Yale College founded. tied by the English. -. Expedition a'.Minst St. Augustine. ' Hu:;uenot,s. 21'. Koy;il government estal>lished. jf^i 76. ^dependence. 65. 1^.^ Braddoek'i daftut. 'r'"' 7^ Beoond Coogreas assem- bles at PhUadelphiai iNIA settled by 3 under Penn. es his commission. 33. GE0E6IA settled by the English under Oglethorpe. : 52. Royal government established. VmOTNIA.—THE ROYAL GOVERNMENT. 121 It was evident that there must be figliting. Berkeley and his forces left Gloucester, crossed the Chesapeake Bay, and took station on the eastern shore, in the county of Accomac. Here his troops were organized ; the crews of some English ships were joined to his a)ramand, and the fleet set sail for Jamestown. The place was taken without much resistance ; but when Bacon with a few companies of patriots drew near, the loyal forces deserted and went over to his standard. The governor with his adherents was again obliged to fly, and the capital remained in possession of the people's party. The a.ssembly was about to a.ssume con- trol of the government ^\'ithout the governor, whose flight to Accomac had been declared an abdication, when a rumor arose that au English fleet was approaching for the subjugation of the colonies. The j^atriot Icadcm held a council, and it was determined that Jamestown should be burned. Accordingly, in the dask of the evening the torch was applied, and the only town in Virginia laid in ashes. The leading men set the example by throwing firebrands into their own houses ; others caught the spirit of sacrifice ; the flames shot up through the shadows of night ; and Governor Berkeley and his followers, on board a fleet twenty miles down the river, had tolerably fair warning that the capital of Virginia could not be used for the purposes of despotism. In this juncture of affairs Bacon fell sick aud died. It was an event full of grief and disaster. The patriot party, discouraged by the loss of the heroic chieftain, was easily dispersed. A few feeble efforts were made to revive the cause of the people, but the animating spirit which had controlled and directed until now was gone. The royalists found an able leader in Robert Beverly, aud the authority of the governor was rapidly restored throughout the province. The cause of the people and the leader of the people had died together. Berkeley's vindictive passions were now let loose upon the defeated insurgents. Fines and confiscations became the order of the day. The governor seemed determined to drown the memoiy of his own wrongs in the woes of his subjects. Twenty-two of the leading patriots were seizwl and hanged with scarcely time to bid their friends farewell. Thas die powder and balls and sent it bock to the chief, who did not dure to accept the dan"«rou3 challenge. The hostile emlileai was borue about from trioe to tribe, until llnally it was rtturned to Plymuuth. The summer of 1621 was unfruitful, and the Pilgrims were brought to the point of starvation. To make their coudiiiou still more grievous, a new companv of immigrants, without provisions or stores, arrived, and W3re quartered on the colonists during the ial\ and ^^-intcr. For six raontlis tc^ther the settlers were obliged to subsist on half allowance. At one time only a few grains of parched c-orn remained to be distributed, and at another tliere was absolute destitution. In this state of alEiirs some English tishing-vesscls came to Plymouth and charged the star\-ing colo- nists tv.o prices fir fd enough to keep them alive. The intruding immigrants just mentioned liad beoi sent to America by Thomas Weston, of London, one of the projectors of the colony. They remained witli the people of Plymouth until the summer of 1622, then removetl to the south side of Boston Harbor and began a new settlement called Wevmouth. Instead of working with their might to provide against starvation, they wasted the fall in idleness, and attempted to keep up their stock of provisions by defrauding the Indians. Tlius provoked to hostilitA-, the natives formed a plan to destroy the c-olony ; but Massa- 9oit, faithful to his pledges, went to Plymouth and revealed the plot Standish marched to Weymouth at tlie head of his regiment, now in- creased to eight men, attacked the hostile tribe, killed several warriors and carried home the chief's head on a pole. The tcnder-heartci John Robinson ^v^ote from Leyden : " I would that you had converted s;>me of them liefore you killed any." In the following spring most of the Weymouth scarcd. Joseph Wadsworth, snatching up the precious parchment, bore it oif tlirough the darkness and concealetl it in a hollow tree, ever afterward remcmberetl with affection as TuE Charter Oak. But the assembly was overawed and the free government of Connecticut subverted. Thus was the authority of Andros established throughout die countr)'. The people gave vent to their feelings by calling him 'i'liE Tyrant of New Exgl^vxd. But his dominion ended suddenly. The English Revolution of 1688 was at hand. James II. was driven from his throne and kingdom. The entire system of arbitrary rule which fhat monarch had established fell witli a erai^h, and Andros with the rest. The news of the revolution and of the accession of William and Mary reached Boston on the 4th of April, 1()89. A few days afterward, the governor had occasion to write a note to his colonel of militia, tolling him to keep the soldiei-s under arms, as there was "a general buzzing among the jjcojile." On the 18th of the month, the citizens of Charlostown and Boston rose in open rebel- lion. Andros and his minions, attempting to escape, were seized and marched to prison. The insurrection spread through the country; and before the lOtli of May every colony in New England had restored its former liberties. CHAPTER XVI. MASSACHUSETTS — WAR AND WITCHCRAFT. IN 1689, war was declared between France and England. This con- flict, known in Ameriran history as King William's War, grew out of the English Revolution of the preoovere either killed or carried into c-aptivity. Two years later 150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the English fortress at Pemaquid was a second time surrendered to the French and Indians, under command of Baron Castin. The captives were sent to Boston and exchanged for prisoners in the hands of the English. In the following March, the town of Haverhill, on the Merri- mac, was captured under circumstances of special atrocity. Nearly forty persons were butchered in cold blood ; only a few were spared for cap- tivity. Among the latter was Mrs. Hannah Dustiu. Her child, only a week old, was snatched out of her arms and dashed against a tree. The heartbroken mother, with her nurse and a lad named Leonardson, from Worcester, was taken by the savages to an island in the Merrimac, a short distance above Concord. Here, while their captors, twelve in number, were asleep at night, the three prisoners arose, silently armed themselves with tomahawks, and with one deadly bloAV after another crushed in the temples of the sleeping savages, until teu of them lay still in death; then, embarking in a canoe, the captives dropped down the river and reached the English settlement in safety. Mrs. Dustin carried home with her the gun and tomahawk of the savage who had destroyed her family, and a bag containing the scalps of her neighbors. It is not often that the mother of a murdered babe has found such ample vengeance. But the war was already at an end. Early in 1697, commissioners of France and England assembled at the town of Ryswick, in Holland ; and on the 10th of the following September, a treaty of peace was con- cluded. King William was acknowledged as the rightful sovei-eign of England, and the colonial boundary-lines of the two nations in America were established as before. Massachusetts had in the mean time been visited with a worse calamity than war. The darkest page in the history of New England is that which bears the record of the Salem Witchcraft. The same town whiph fifty-seven years previously had cast out Roger Williams was ^ now to become the scene of the most fatal delusion of modern times. In Februar)^ of 1692, in that part of Salem afterward called Danvers, a daughter and a niece of Samuel Parris, the minister, were attacked with a nervous disorder which rendered them partially insane. Parris be- lieved, or affected to believe, that the two girls were bewitched, and that Tituba, an Indian maid-servant of the household, was the author of the affliction. He had seen her performing some of the rude ceremonies of her own religion, and this gave color to his suspicions. He tied Tituba, and whipped the ignorant creature until, at his own dictation, she con- fessed herself a witch. Here, no doubt, the matter would have ended had not other causes existed for the continuance and spread of the miser- able delusion. MASSACHUSETTS.— WAR AXD WITCHCRAFT. 151 But Parris had had a quarrel in his church. A part of tlio coiij^rc- gation desired tliat George Burrouglis, a former minister, should be rein- stated, to the exclusion of I'arris. Burroughs still lived at Salem ; and there was great animosity between the partisiins of the former and tlio presicnt pastor. Burroughs disbelieved in witchcraft, and ojjcnly ex- prcswd his contempt of the system. Here, then, Parris found an oppor- tunity to turn the confessions of the foolish Indian .servant against his enemies, to overwhelm his rival with the superstitions of the conmiunity, and perhaps to have him put to death. There is no doubt whatever that the whole murderous scheme originatal in the pei-sonal malice of Parris. But there were others ready to aid him. First among tlie.se was the celebrated Cotton Mather, minister of Boston. He, being in high re- pute for wisdom, had recently preached much on the subject of witchcraft, teaching the jteople that wit<'hes were dangerous and ought to be put to death. He thus became the natural confeilerate of Parris, and the chief author of the terrible scenes that ensued. Sir ^\'ilIianl Phipps, the royal governor, who had just arrived from England, was a member of Mather's church. Iucrea.se Mather, the father of Cotton, had nominated Phipps to his present office. Stoughton, the deputy-governor, who was appoiiitctl judge and presided at the trials of the witches, wa.s the tool of Parris and the two Mathei-s. To these men, more especially to Parris and Mather, must be charged the full infamy of what followed. Bv the laws of England witchcraft was jiunishable ■with death. The code of Massachusetts wa.s the same a.s that of the mother-country. In the early historv" of the colony, one person charged with being a wizard had been arrested at Charlestown, convicted and exix'Uted. But with the progres.s and enlightenment of the people, many had grown bold enough to denounce and despise the baleful su|)erstition. yomclhing, therefore, had to be done to save the tottering fabric of witchcraft from falling into contempt. A Sfwcial court was accordingly app )intetl by Governor Phip])s to go to Salem and to sit in judgment on the pci-sons aeeased by Parris. Stoughton was the presiding judge, Parris himself tlie prosecutor, and Cotton Mather a kind of bishop to decide when the testimony was sufficient to condemn. On the 21st of March, the horrible proceedings began. Mary Cory was arrested, not indeetl for being a witch, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. When brought before the church and ctturt, she denied all guilt, but was convicted and hurried to prison. Sarah Cloycc and Rebecca Nurse, two sisters of the most exemplary lives, were next apjire- hended as witches. The only witnesses against them were Tituba, her half- Kitted Indian husband and the simple girl Abigail Williams, the niece 152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of Parris. The victims were sent to prison, protesting their innocence. Giles Cory, a patriarch of eighty years, was next seized ; he also was one of those who had opposed Parris. The Indian accuser fell down before Edward Bishop, pretending to be in a fit under satanic influence; the sturdy farmer cured him instantly with a sound flogging, and said that he could restore the rest of the afflicted in the same manner. He and his wife were immediately arrested and condemned. George Burroughs, the rival of Parris, was accused and hurried to prison. And so the work ■went on, until seventy-five innocent people were locked up in dungeons. Not a solitary partisan of Parris or Mather had been arrested. In the hope of saving their lives, some of the terrified prisoners now began to confess themselves witches, or bewitched. It was soon found that a confession was almost certain to procure liberation. It be- came evident that the accused were to be put to death, not for being witches or wizards, but for denying the reality of witchcraft. The special court was already in session ; convictions followed fast ; the gallows stood waiting for its victims. The truth of Mather's preaching was to be estab- lished by hanging whoever denied it ; and Parris was to save his pastorate by murdering his rival. When the noble Burroughs mounted the scafibld, he stood composedly and repeated correctly the test-prayer which it waa said no wizard could utter. The people broke into sobs and moans, and would have rescued their friend from death ; but the tyrant Matlier dashed among them on horseback, muttering imprecations, and drove the hang- man to his horrid work. Old Giles Cory, seeing that conviction was cer- tain, refused to plead, and was pressed to death. Five women were hanged in one day. Between the lOtli of June and the 22d of September, twenty victims were hurried to their doom. Fifty-five others had been tortured into the confession of abominable falsehoods. A hundred and fifty lay in prison awaiting their fate. Two hundred were accused or suspected, and ruin seemed to impend over New England. But a reaction at last set in among the people. Notwithstanding the vociferous clamor and denuncia- tions of Mather, the witch tribunals were overthrown. The representative assembly convened early in October, and the hated court which Phipps had appointed to sit at Salem was at once dismissed. The spell was dis- solved. The thralldom of the popular mind was broken. Reason shook off the terror that had oppressed it. The prison doors were opened, and the victims of malice and superstition went forth free. In the beginning of the next year a few persons charged Avith witchcraft were again arraigned and brought before the courts. Some were even convicted, but the convictio.i went for nothing ; not another life was sacrificed to passion and fanaticism. MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. 153 Most of those w)io liiul participatetl in the terrible deeds of the preceding summer eoiifi'ssed the great AVTong which tiiey had done; Imt confessions coukl not restore the dead. The bigoted Mather, in a vain attempt to justify hiuLseif before the world, wTote a treatise in wliicli he expressed his great thankfuhiess that so many witches had met their jast doom. It is not the !e;ist humiliating circumstance of this s;k1 business that Mather's hyixKritic:d and impudent book received the approbation of the president of Harvard College. In all this there is to the American student one consoling reflection — the pages of his country's liistory will never again be blotted with so dark a stain. CHAPTER XVII. MASSACHUSETTS.— WARS OF ANNE AND GEORGE. THE peace which followed the treat)' of Ryswick was of short dura- tion. Within less tlian four years France and England were agjiin involved in a conflict which, beginning in Europe, soon extendctl to the American colonies. In the year 1700, Charles II., king of Spain, dieortJint event of the wai* was the t^ptiire of Louishurg, on Cape Breton Island. This place had heen fortified at vast e.\|K'nsc by the French. Standing at the principal entrance to the gulf and river of St. LawTcnce, the fortress was regarded lus a key to the Canailian provinces. N^v/ England was quick to not*^ that l)oth New- foinidland and Xova Scotia wen> threatened so long as the French flag floatcil over Ijouishurg. Governor Shirley brought tlie matter before the Icgisi.iture of Ma.<|Minsibility. William Pepperell, of Maine, was appointed commander- in-chief; and on tlie 4th of April, 1745, the fleet sailed for Cape Breton. At Canseau, the eastern cape of Nova Scotia, the expetlition wsis detained for sixteen days*. The sea was thick with ice-drifts floating from the north. But the delay was fortunate, for in the mean time Com- niokoue<1 a grievous (rime. In the shadow of such Ix'lief the people be- came austere and melancholy. Escjiping from the splendid formality of the Epis<-o])al Church, they set up a colder and ,even>r form of worst ip; and the form was* made like iron. Di.ssenters themselves, they could not 160 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. tolerate the dissent of others. To restrain and punish error seemed right and necessary. Williams and Hutchinson were banished ; the Quakers were persecuted and the witches hanged. But Puritanism contained within itself the power to correct its own abuses. Within the austere and gloomy fabric dwelt the very soul and genius of Free Thought. Under the ice-bound rigors of the faith flowed a current which no fatalism could congeal, no superstition poison. The heart of a mighty, tumultuous, liberty-loving life throbbed within the cold, stiff body of formalism. A powerful vitality, which no disaster could subdue, no persecution quench, warmed and energized and quickened. The tyranny of Phipps, the malice of Parris, and the bigotry of IMather are far outweighed by the sacrifices of Winthrop, the beneficence of Harvard, and the virtues of Sir Henry Vane. The evils of the sys- tem may well be forgotten in the glory of its achievements. Without the Puritans, America would have been a delusion and liberty only a name. CHAPTER XVIII. NEW YORK.— SETTLEMENT. ILLUSTRIOUS Sir Henry Hudson ! Indomitable explorer, daunt- less cavalier of the ocean ! Who so worthy to give a name to the great inland sea of the frozen North as he who gave his life in heroic combat with its terrors ? Who so fit to become the father of a colony in the New World as he who braved its perils and revealed its mys- teries ? And where should the new State be planted unless by the broad haven — broadest and best on the American coast — and among the beautiful hills and landscapes AVTiere The Hudson came rolling through valleys a-«moke From the lands of the Iroquois? It was the good fortune of the American colonies to be founded by men whose lives, like the setting suns of summer, cast behind them a long and glorious twilight. But for the name and genius of Hud- son the province of New Netherland had never been. For ten years after the founding of New Amsterdam the colony was governed by directors. These officers were appointed and sent X^EW YORK.—SETTLEMENr. Kil out ()y the Diitcli East India C<)iiii)aiiy, in accordance with the char- ter of that corporation. The settlement on Manhattan Island was an yet only a vilhip' of traders. Not until l(i2:5 was an actual colony sent from Holland to New Netlicrland. Two yearn j)revious- ly, the Dutch West India Company had hcen orjjani/ed, with the exclusive privi- lege of planting set- tlements in America. The charter of this comj)any was grant- ed for a period of twenty-four years, with the privilege of renewal ; and tli territory to be colo- nized extended from the Strait of Magel- lan to Hudson's Bay. Manhattan Island, with its cluster of huta, passed at once under the control of the new corporatiou. In April of 1G23, the ship New Netherland, having on board a colony of thirty families, arrived at New Amsterdam. The colonbts, called Wali/K)Ns, were Dutch Protestant ivfugtHs from Flanders, in Belgium. They were of the Siune religious fahh with the Huguenots of France, and came to America to find i-epose from the pei-secutiiMis of their own country. Cornelius May was the lesidcr of the company. The greater miniln-r of the new immigrants settknl with their frieniLs on Man- hattiin Island ; but the captain, with a party of fifty, p.T.ssing down the coast of New Jei-sey, enteretl and exi)lon>d the ftiy of Dclawan'. Sailing up the bay and river, the ct)mpany landed on the eastern shore ; hen% at a j)oint a few miles l)elow Camden, where Timlier CreoU falls into the Delaware, a site was selected and a block-house built named Fort Nitssau. The natives were won over by kindness; and when shortly after the fort was abandoned and the settlers returnerovince. To make his authority doubly secure for the future, he obtained from his brother, the king, a new patent confirming the provisions of the former charter. The man who now recei\ed the appointment of deputy-governor of New York was none other than Sir Edmund Andros. On the last day of October the Dutch forc.es were finally withdrawn, and Andros assumed the government. It wa.s a sad sort of government for the people. The worst jirac- tices of Lovelace's administration were revived. The principles of arbi- trary rule were openly avowed. Taxes were levied without authority of law, and the appeals and protests of the people were treated with derision. The clamor for a popular legislative assembly had become so great that Andros Mas on the point of yielding. He even \vi-ote a letter to the duke of York advising that thick-headed prince to grant the people the right of electing a colonial legislature. The duke replied that popular assem- blies were seditious and dangerous ; that they only fostered discontent and disturbed the peace of the government ; and finally, that he did not see any use for them. To the people of New York the civil liberty of the New England colonies seemed farther off than ever. By the terms of his grant the duke of York claimed jurisdiction over all the territory between the Connecticut Eiver and Maryland. To assert and maintain this claim of his master was a part of the deputy- governor's business in America. The first effort to extend the duke's territorial rights to the limits of his charter was made in July of 1675. With some armed sloops and a company of soldiers, Andros proceeded to the mouth of the Connecticut in the hope of establishing his jurisdiction. The general assembly of the colony had heard of his coming, and had sent word to Captain Bull, who commanded the fort at Saybrook, to re- sist Andros in the name of the king. When the latter came in sight and hoisted the flag of England, the same colors were raised within the fortress. The royal governor was permitted to land ; but when he began to reafl his commission, he was ordered in the king's name to desist. Overawed by the threatening looks of the Saybrook militia, Andros retired to his boats and set sail for Long Island. Notwithstanding the grant of New Jersey to Carteret and Berkeley, the attemj)t was now made to extend the jurisdiction of New York over NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 175 the lower province. Andros issued a decree that ships sailing to and from the ports of New Jersey should pay a duty at the custom-house of New York. TliLs tyraiinical action w;is openly resisted. Andros attempted to frighten the assembly of New Jersey into submission, and proceeded so far as to arrest Philip Carteret, the deputy-governor. But it was all of no use. The representatives of the peojjle declared them- selves to be under the protection of the Great Charter, which not even the duke of York, or his brother the king, could alter or annul. In August of 1682 the territories beyond the Delaware were granted by the duke to William Penn. This little district, first settled by the Swedes, afterward conquered by the Dutch, then transferred to England on the conquest of New Netherland, was now finally separated from the jurisdiction of New York and joined to Pennsylvania. The governors of the latter province continued to exercise authority over the three counties on the Delaware until the American Revolution. At the close of Andros's administration, in 1683, Thomas Dongan, a Catholie, became governor of New York. For thirty years the people had been clamoring for a general assembly. Just before Andros left the province, the demand became more vehement than ever. The retiring governor, himself of a despotic disposition, counseled the duke to concede the right of representation to the people. At last James yielded, not so much with the view of extending popular rights, as with the hope of in- creasing his revenues from the improved condition of his province. Dongan, the new governor, came with full instructions to call an assem- bly of all the freeholders of New York, by whom certain jjersons of their own number should be elected to take part in the government. Seventy years had passed since the settlement of Manhattan Island ; and now for the first time the people were permitted to choose their own rulers and to frame their own laws. The first act of the new assembly was to declare that the supremo legislative power of the province resided in the governor, the council and THE PEOPLE. All freeholders were granted the right of suffrage; trial by jury was established ; taxes should no more be levied except by con- sent of the assembly; soldiers should not be quartered on the people; martial law should not exist; no person accepting the general doctrines of religion should be in any wise distressed or persecuted. All the rights and privileges of IMassachusetts and Virginia were carefully written by the zealous law-makers of New York in their first charter of liberties. In July of 1684 an important treaty was concludefl at Albany. The governors of New York and Virginia were met in convention by the sachems of the Iroquois, and the terms of a lasting peace were settled. 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. A long war ensued between the Five Nations and the French. The Jesuits of Canada emjjioyed every ailifice and intrigue to induce the Indians to break their treaty with the Euglisli, but all to no purpose ; the alliance Mas faithfully observed. In 1684, and again in 1687, the Fnench invaded the territory of the Iroquois ; but the mighty iMohawks and Oneidas drove back their foes with loss and disaster. By the barrier of the friendly Five Nations on the north, the English and Dutch colo- nies were screened from danger. In 1685 the duke of York became king of England. It was soon found that even the monarch of a great nation could violate his pledges. King James became the open antagonist of the government which had been established under his own directions. The po])ular legislature of New York was abrogated. An odious tax was levied by an arbitrary decree. Printing-presses were forbidden in the province. All the old abuses were revived and matle a public boast. In December of 1686, Edmund Andros became governor of all New England. It was a part of his plan to extend his dominion over New York and New Jersey. To the former province, Francis NiclK>lson, the lieutenant-general of Andros, was sent as dejnity. Dongan was super- seded, and until the English Revolution of 1688, New York was ruled as a dependency of New England. When the news of that event and of the accession of William of Orange reached the province, there was a general tumult of rejoicing. The people rose in rebellion against the government of Nicholson, who was glad enough to escape from New York and return to England. The leader of the insurrection was Jacob Leisler, a captain of the militia. A committee of ten took upon themselves the task of reorganizing the government. Leisler was commissioned to take possession of the fort of New York. Most of the troops in the city, together with five hundred volunteers, proceeded against the fort, Avhich was surrendered without a struggle. The insurgents published a declaration in which they avowed their loyalty to the prince of Orange, their countrj'man, and expressed their determination to yield immediate obedience to his authority. A l)rovisional government was organized, M'ith Leisler at the head. The provincial councilors, who were friends and adherents of the deposed Nicholson, left the city and repaired to Albany. Here the party who Avere opposed to the usurpation of Leisler proceeded to organize a second provisional government. Both factions were careful to exercise authority in the name of William and Mary, the new sovereigns of England. In September of 1689, Milborne, the son-in-law of Leisler, was sent to Albany to demand the surrender of the town and fort. Court- NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 177 land and Bayard, who were the leaders of the northern faction, opposed tlie demand with so much vigor that Milborue was obliged to retu-e with- out accomplishing his object. Such was the condition of affairs at the beginning of King William's War. How the village of Schenectady was destroyed by the French and Indians, and how an unsuccessful expedition by land and water was planned against Quebec and Monti-eal, has been narrated in the history of Massachusetts. Such was the dispiriting etfect of these disastei-s upon the j^eople of Albany and the north that a second effort made by Milborue against the government of the opposing faction was successful ; and in the spring of 1690 the authority of Leisler as tem- porary governor of New York was recognized throughout the province. The summer was spent in fruitless preparations to invade and conquer Canada. The general assembly was convened at the capital ; but little was accomplished except a formal recognition of th^ insurrectionary government of Leisler. In January of 1691, Richard Ingoldsby arrived at New York. He bore a commission as captain, and brought the intelligence that Colo- nel Sloughter had been appointed royal governor of the province. Leisler received Ingoldsby with courtesy, and offered him quarters in the city ; but the latter, without authority from either the king or the governor, haughtily demanded the surrender of His Majest5''s fort. Leisler refused to yield, but expressed his willingness to submit to any one who bore a commission from King William or Colonel Sloughter. On the 19th of March the governor himself arrived; and Leisler on the same day despatched messengei's, tendering his service and submission. The mes- sengers were arrested, and Ingoldsby, the enemy and rival of Leisler, was sent with verbal orders for the surrender of the fort. Leisler foresaw his doom, and hesitated. He wrote a letter to Sloughter, expressing a desire to make a personal surrender of the post to the governor. The letter was unanswered ; Ingoldsby pressed his demand ; Leisler wavered, capitu- lated, and with Milborue was seized and hurried to prison. As soon as the royal government was organized the two prisoners were brought to trial. The charge was rebellion and treason. Dudley, the chief-justice of New England, rendered a decision that Leisler had been a usurper. The prisoners refused to plead, were convicted and sen- tenced to death. Sloughter, however, determined to know the pleasure of the king before putting the sentence into execution. But the royalist assembly of New York had already come together, and the members were resolved that the prisoners should be hurried to their death. The governor was invited to a banquet ; and when heated with strong drink, the death- \\";uTant was thrust before him for his signature. He succeeded in affix- 178 HISTOBY OF THE UXITED STATES. ing his name to the fatal parchment ; and almost before the fiimes of his drunken revel had passed away, hLi victims had met their fate. On the 1 6th of Mav, Leisler and Milbome were brought from prison, led through a drenching niin to the scaffold and hanged. Within less than a year aften^-ai-d, their estates, which had been confiscated, were restored to their heirs; and in 1695 the attainder of the famihes was removed. The same summer that witnessed the execution of Leisler and Milbome was noted for the renewal of the treaty with the Iroquois. At Albanv, Governor Sloughter met the sachems of the Five Nations, and the former terms of fidehty and friendship were reaffirmed. In the fol- lowinof vear the valiant Major Schuyler, at the head of the New York militia, joined a wai-party of the Iroquois in a successftd expedition against the French settlements beyond Lake Champlain. ileanwhile, the assembly of the province had been in session at the capital. Although the representatives were royalists, a resolution was passed against arbitrary taxation, and another wliich declared the people to be a part of the govern- ing power of the colony. It was not long until one of the governors had occasion to say that the people of Xew York were growing altogether too big with the pri\-ileges of Englishmen. Soon after his return from Albanv, Slaughter's career was cut short bv death. He was succeeded in the office of governor by Benjamin Fletcher, a man of bad passions and poor abilities. The new executive arrived in September of 1692. One of the first measures of his adminis- tration was to renew the recent treatj- with the Iroquois. It was at this time the avowed purpose of the English monarch to place imder a com- mon government all the territory between the Connecticut River and Delaware Bav. To further this project, Fletcher was armed with an ample and comprehensive commi^ion. He was made governor of Xew York, and commander-in-chief not only of the troops of his own province, but also of the militia of Connecticut and Xew Jersey. In the latter province he met with little opposition ; but the Puritans of Hartford re- sisted so stubbornly that the alarmed and disgusted governor was glad to return to his own capital. The next effort of the administration was to establish the Episcopal Church in Xew Y^'ork. The Dutch and the English colonists of the province were still distinct in nationality ; the former, though Calvinists, were not unfriendly to the Episcopal ser\-ice which the Puritans so heartily despised. In a religious controversy,- between Fletcher's council and the English, the Dutch, not being partisans of either, looked on with comparative indifference. But when the governor was on the point of succeeding with his measures, the general assembly interposed, passed a NEW YORK UNDER THE ENGLISH. 179 decree of toleration, and brought the pretentious Church to a level with the rest. Fletcher gave vent to hLs indignation bv calling his legislators a set of unmannerlv and insubordinate boors. In 1696 the territory of New York was invaded bv the French under Frontenac, governor of Canada. The feithful Iroquois made com- mon cause with the colonial forces, and the formidable expedition of the French was turned into coniusion. Before the loss could be repaired and a second invasion undertaken, King William's War was ended by the treatv of Ryswick. In the following year, the earl of Bellomont, an Irish nobleman of excellent character and popular sympathies, succeeded Fletcher in the government of New York. His administration of less than four years was the happiest era in the history of the colony. His authority, like that of his predecessor, extended over a part of New Eng- land. Massachusetts and New Hampshire were imder his jurisdiction, but Connecticut and Rhode Island remained independent. To this period belong the exploits of the famous pirate. Captain William Kidd. For centuries piracy had been the common vice of the high seas. The nations were just now beginning to take active measures for the sup- pression of the atrocious crime. The honest and humane Bellomont was one who was anxious to see the end of piratical violence. His commission contained a clause which authorizee College. In 1702 the school was formally opened at Saybrook, where it continued for fifteen years, and was then removed to New Haven. One of the most liberal patrons of the college was Elihu Yale, fi-om whom the famous institution of learning derived its name. Common schools had existed in almost every village of Connecticut since the planting of the colony. The children of the Pilgrims have never forgotten the cause of education. The half century preceding the French and Indian war was a period of prosperity to all the western districts of New England. Con- necticut was especially favored. Almost unbroken peace reigned through- out her borders. The blessings of a free commonwealth were realized in full measure. The farmer reaped his fields in cheerfulness and hope. The mechanic made glad his dusty shop with anecdote and song. The merchant feared no dut)', the villager no taxes. Want was unknown and pauperism unheard of Wealth was little cared for and crime of rare occurrence among a people with whom intelligence and virtue were the only foundations of nobility. With fewer dark pages in her history, less austerity of manners and greater liberality of sentiment, Connecticut had all the lofty purposes and shining virtues of Massachusetts. The visions of Hooker and Haynes, and the dreams of the quiet Winthrop, were more than realized in the happy homes of the Connecticut valley. RBODE ISLAND. 198 CHvlPTER XXir. RHODE ISLAND. IT was in June of 1636 that the exiled Roger Williams left the country of the Wampanoags and passed down the Seekonk to Narragansett River. His object was to secure a safe retreat beyond the limits of Ply- mouth colony. He, with his five companions, landed on the western bank, at a place called Moshassuck, purchased the soil of the Narragansett sachems, and laid the foundations of Providence. Other exiles joined the company. New farms were laid out, new fields were ploughed and new houses built; here, at last, was found at Providence Plantation a refuge for all the distressed and persecuted. The leader of the new colony was a native of Wales ; born in 1606 ; liberally educated at Cambridge ; the pupil of Sir Edward Coke ; in after years the friend of Milton ; a dissenter ; a hater of ceremonies ; a disciple of truth in its purest forms; an uncompromising advocate of freedom; exiled to Massachusetts, and now exiled by Massachusetts, he brought to the banks of the Narragansett the great doctrines of perfect religious liberty and the equal rights of men. If the area of Rhode Island had corresponded with the grandeur of the principles on which she was founded, who could have foretold her destiny ? Roger Williams belonged to that most radical body of dissenters called Anabaptists. By them the validity of infant baptism was denied. Williams himself had been baptized in infancy ; but his views in regard to the value of the ceremony had undergone a change during his ministry at Salem. Now that he had freed himself from all foreign authority both of Church and State, he conceived it to be his duty to receive a second baptism. But who should perform the ceremony ? Ezekiel Holliman, a layman, was selected for the sacred duty. Williams meekly received the rite at the hands of his friend, and then in turn baptized him and ten other exiles of the colony. Such was the organization of the first Baptist Church in America. The beginning of civil government in Rhode Island was equally simple and democratic. Mr. Williams was the natural ruler of the little province, but he reserved for himself neither wealth nor priAnlege. The 194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. lands which he purchased from Canonicus and Miantonomoh were freely distributed among the colonists. Only two small fields, to be planted and tilled with his own hands, were kept by the benevolent founder for himself. How different from the grasping avarice of Wingfield and Lord Cornbury ! All the powers of the colonial government were entrusted to the people. A simple agreement was made and signed by the settlers that in all matters not affecting the conscience they would yield a cheerful obedience to such rules as the majority might make for the public welfare. In questions of religion the individual conscience should be to every man a guide. When Massachusetts objected that such a democracy would leave nothing for the magistrates to do, Rhode Island answered that magistrates were wellnigh useless. The new government stood the test of experience. The evil projihe- cies of its enemies were unfulfilled ; instead of predicted turmoil and dis- sension. Providence Plantation had nothing but peace and quiet. It was found that all religious sects could live together in harmony, and that difference of opinion was not a bar to friendship. All beliefs were wel- come at Narragansett Bay. A Buddhist from Japan or a pagan from Madagascar would have been received at Providence and cordially enter- tained. Miantonomoh, the young sachem of the Narragansetts, loved Roger Williams as a brother. It was the confidence of this c'hieftain that enabled Williams to notify Massachusetts of the Pequod conspiracy, and then at the hazard of his life to defeat the plans of the hostile nation. This magnanimous act awakened the old affections of his friends at Salem and Plymouth, and an effort was made to recall him and his fellow-exiles from banishment. It was urged that a man of such gracious abilities, so full of patience and charity, could never be dangerous in a State ; but his enemies answered that the principles and teachings of Williams would subvert the commonwealth and bring Massachusetts to ruin. The pro- posal was rejected. The ancient Greeks sometimes recalled their exiled heroes from banishment ; the colony of Massachusetts, never. During the Pequod war of 1637, Rhode Island was protected by the friendly Narragansctts. The territoiy of this powerful tribe lay between Providence and the country of the Poquods, and there was little fear of an* invasion. The next year was noted for the arrival of Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends at the island of Rhode Island. The leaders of the com- pany were John Clarke and William Coer counties were again embittered against the acts of the assembly. In order to restore peace and harmony, the benevolent proprietor drew up another constitution, more liberal than the first, extending the powers of the people and omitting the objectionable features of the former charter. But Delaware had fallen into chronic discontent, and would not accept the new frame of government. In 1702 the general assemblies of the two provinces were convened apart; and in the following year Delaware and Pennsylvania Mere finally separated. But the rights of Penn as proprietor of the whole territory remained as before, and a common governor continued to ]>rcside over both colonies. In the winter of 1701, William Penn bade a final adieu to his friends in America and returned to England. He left Pennsylvania in a state of jDeace and prosperity. Though thert; was not a single fort within her borders, the province had been secure against invasion. With neither jJolice nor militia, the people went abroad in safety. With no difference in rank, no preference in mattei-s of opinion, and no proscription for religion's sake, the colony flourished and waxed strong. But the English ministers had now formed the design of abolishing all the proprietary governments, with a view to the estab- lishment of royal governments instead. The presence and influence of Penn were especially recpiired in England in order to jjrevent the success of the ministerial scheme. After much controversy his rights were recognized and secured against encroachment. In the mean time, the affairs of Pennsylvania were administered by the deput)-- governors, Andrew Hamilton and John Evans. The latter, a worldly sort of man, not very faithful to the principles of the Friends, greatly troubled the province by purchasing warlike stores, building forts, and attempting to organize a: regiment of militia. The assembly en- tered a strong protest against these jjroceedings, so irreconcilable with PENNSYLVANIA. 215 the policy of the Quakers, and in 1708 Evans was removed from office. After him Charles Gookin received a commission as dep- uty-governor and entered upon his administration in 1709. Soon afterwards Penn was well-nigli overwhelmed by the rascality of his English agent, Ford, who first involved him in debt and then had him imprisoned. From a shameful confinement of many months he was finally released, and his old age was brightened by a gleam of prospenty. But the end of his labors was at hand. In July of 1718 the magnanimous founder of Pennsylvania sank to his final rest. His estates, vast and valuable, but much encumbered with debt, were be- queathed to his three sons, John, Thomas and Richard, who thus be- came proprietors of Pennsylvania. By them, or their deputies, the province was governed until the American Revolution. In the year 1779 the entire claims of the Penn family to the soil and jurisdiction of the State were purchased by the legislature of Pennsylvania for a hundred and thirty thousand pounds sterling. The colonial history of the State founded by William Penn and the Quakers is one of special interest and pleasure. It is a narrative that recounts the victories of peace and the triumph of the nobler virtues over violence and wrong. It is doubtful whether the history of any other colony in the world is touched with so many traits of innocence and truth. When the nations grow mercenary and the times seem full of fraud, the early annals of Pennsylvania may well be recited as a perpetual protest against the seeming success of evil. "I will found a free colony for all mankind," were the words of William Penn. How well his work was done shall be fitly told when the bells of his capital city shall ring out the first glad notes of American Independence. 16 COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. MINOR SOUTHERN COLONIES. CHAPTER XXVI. MARYLAND. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH was the first white man to explore the Chesapeake and its tributaries. After him, in 1621, William Clay- borne, a resolute and daring English surveyor, was sent out by the London Company to make a map of the country about the head-waters of the bay. By the second charter of Virginia the territory of that province had been extended on the north to the forty-first parallel of latitude. All of the present State of Maryland was included in this enlargement, which also embraced the whole of Delaware and the greater part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The ambition of Virginia was greatly excited by the possession of this vast domain; to explore and occupy it was an enterprise of the highest importance. Clayborne was a member of the council of Virginia, and secretary of state in that colony. In May of 1631 he received a royal commission authorizing him to discover the sources of the Chesapeake Bay, to survey the country as far as the forty-first degree of latitude, to establish a trade with the Indians, and to exercise the right of government over the com- panions of his voyage. This commission was confirmed by Governor Harvey of Virginia, and in the spring of the following year Clayborne ■began his important and arduous work. The members of the London 'Company were already gathering imaginary riches from the immense fur- ttrade of the Potomac and the Susquehanna. The enterprise of Clayborne was attended with success. A trading- post was established on Kent Island, and another at the head of the bay, in the vicinity of Havre de Grace. The many rivers that fall into the Chesapeake were again explored and a trade opened with the natives. The limits of Virginia were about to be extended to the borders of New ■ Netherland. But in the mean time, a train of circumstances had been (216) MARYLAND. 217 prepared in England by which the destiny of several American provinces was completely changed. As in many other instances, religious perse- cution again contributed to lay the foundation of a new State in the wilderness. And Sir George Calvert, of Yorkshire, was the man who was destined to become the founder. Born in 1580 ; educated at Oxford; a man of much travel and vast experience ; an ardent and devoted Cath- olic; a friend of hu- manity ; honored with knighthood, and after- ward with an Irish peerage and the title of Lord Baltimore, — he now in middle life turned aside from the dignities of rank and affluence to devote the energies of his life to the welfare of the oppressed. For the Catholics of England, as well as the dissent- ing Protestants, were afflicted with many and bitter persecu- tions. Lord Baltimore's first American enter- prise was the planting of a Catholic colony in Newfoundland. King James, who was not unfriendly to the Roman Church, had granted him a patent for the southern promontory of the island ; and here, in 1623, a refuge was established for distressed Cath- olics. But in such a place no colony could be successful. The district was narrow, cheerless, desolate. Profitable industry was impossible. French ships hovered around the coast and captured the English fishing- boats. It became evident that the settlement must be removed, and Lord Baltimore wisely turned his attention to the sunny country of the Ches- apeake. In 1629 he made a visit to Virginia. The general assembly offered him citizenship on condition that he would take an oath of allegiance; but the oath was of such a sort as no honest Catholic could subscribe to. LORD BALTIMORE. 218 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. In vain did Sir George plead for toleration ; the assembly was inexorable. It was on the part of the Virginians a short-sighted and ruinous policy. For the London Company had already been dissolved ; the king might therefore rightfully regrant that vast territory north of the Potomac which by the terms of the second charter had been given to Virginia. Lord Baltimore left the narrow-minded legislators, returned to London, himself drew up a charter for a new State on the Chesapeake, and easily induced his friend. King Charles I., to sign it. The Virginians had saved their religion and lost a province. The territory embraced by the new patent was bounded by the ocean, by the fortieth parallel of latitude, by a line drawn due south from that parallel to the most western fountain of the Potomac, by the river itself from its source to the bay, and by a line running due east from the mouth of the river to the Atlantic. The domain included the whole of the present States of Maryland and Delaware and a large part of Penn- sylvania and New Jersey. Here it was the purpose of the magnanimous proprietor to establish an asylum for all the afflicted of his own faith, and to plant a State on the bi'oad basis of religious toleration and popular lib- erty. The provisions of the charter were the most liberal and ample which had ever received the sanction of the English government. Christianity was declared to be the religion of the State, but no preference was given to any sect or creed. The lives and property of the colonists were care- fully guarded. Free trade was declared to be the law of the province, and arbitrary taxation was forbidden. The rights of the proprietor ex- tended only to the free appointment of the officers of his government. The power of making and amending the laws was conceded to the freemen of the colony or their representatives. One calamity darkened the prospect. Before the liberal patent could receive the seal of State Sir George Calvert died. His title and estates descended to his son Cecil; and to him, on the 20th of June, 1632, the charter which had been intended for his noble father was finally issued. In honor of Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France and wife of Charles I., the name of Maryland was conferred on the new province. Independence of Virginia was guaranteed in the constitution of the colony, and no danger was to be anticipatetl from the feeble forces of New Netherland, It only remained for the younger Lord Baltimore to raise a company of emigrants and carry out his father's benevolent designs. The work went forward slowly, and it was not until November of 1633 that a colony numbermg two hundred persons could be collected. Meanwhile, Cecil Calvert had abandoned the idea of coming in person to America, and had appointed his brother Leonard to accompany the col- MARYLAND. 219 onists to their destination, and to act as deputy-governor of the new province. In March of the following year the immigrants arrived at Old Point Comfort. Leonard Calvert bore a letter from King Charles to Governor Harvey of Virginia, commanding him to receive the new- comers witli courtesy and favor. The order was complied with ; but the Virginians could look only with intense jealousy on a movement which must soon deprive them of the rich fur-trade of the Chesapeake. The colonists proceeded up the bay and entered the Potomac. At the mouth of Piscataway Creek, nearly opposite Mount Vernon, the pinnace was moored, and a cross was set up on an island. On the present site of Fort Washington there was an Indian village whose inhabitauts came out to meet the English. A conference was held, and the sachem of the nation told Leonard Calvert in words of dubious meaning that he and his colony might stay or go jmt as they pleased. Considering this answer as a menace, and deeming it imprudent to plant his first settlement so far up the river, Calvert again embarked with his companions, and dropped down stream to the mouth of the St. Mary's, within fifteen miles of the bay. Ascending the estOary for about ten miles, he came to an Indian town. The natives had been beaten in battle by the Susquehannas, and were on the eve of migrating into the interior. The village was already half deserted. With the consent of the Red men, the English moved into the vacant huts. The rest of the town was purchased, with the adjacent ter- ritory, the Indians promising to give possession at the opening of the spring. The name of St. Mary's was given to this the oldest colony of Maryland, and the name of the river was changed to St. George's. Calvert treated the natives with great liberality. The consequence was that the settlers had peace and plentj'. The Indian women taught the wives of the English how to make corn-bread, and the friendly war- riors instructed the colonists in the mysteries of hunting. Game was abundant. The lands adjacent to the village were already under cultiva- tion. The settlers had little to do but to plant their gardens and fields and wait for the coming harvest. There was neither anxiety nor want. The dream of Sir George Calvert was realized. Within six months the colony of St. Mary's had grown into greater prosperity than the settle- ment at Jamestown had reached in as many years. Best of all, the pledge of civil liberty and religious toleration was redeemed to the letter. Two years before the founding of Rhode Island the Catholics of the Ches- apeake had emancipated the human conscience, built an asylum for the distressed, and laid the foundations of a free State. Within less than a year after the founding of St. Mary's the free- 220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. men were convened in a general assembly. In February of 1635 the work of colonial legislation was first begun. The records of this and several succeeding sessions were destroyed in the rebellion of 1645, and not much is known concerning the character of the earliest laws. But it is certain that the province was involved in difficulty. For Clay- borne still stood his ground on Kent Island, and openly resisted Lord Baltimore's authority. His settlement on the island was almost as strong as the colony at St. Mary's; and Clayborne, unscrupulous as to the right, and confident in his jiower, resolved to appeal to arms. In 1637 a bloody skirmish occurred on the banks of the river Wicomico, on the eastern shore of the bay. Several lives were lost, but the insurgents were defeated. Calvert's forces proceeded to Kent Island, overpowered the settlement, and executed one or two persons who had participated in the rebellion. Clayborne, in the mean time, had escaped into Virginia, The assembly of Maryland demanded the fugitive ; but the governor refused, and sent the prisoner to England for trial. The legislators of St. Mary's charged the absent criminal with murder and piracy, tried him, con- demned him and confiscated his estates. Clayborne, who was safe in England, appealed to the king. The cause was heard by a committee of Parliament, and it was decided that the commission of Clayborne, which was only a license to trade in the Chesapeake, had been annulled by the dissolution of the London Company, and that the charter of Lord Balti- more was valid against all opposing claimants. Clayborne, however, was allowed to go at large. In 1639 a regular representative government was established in Maryland. Hitherto a system of popular democracy had prevailed in the province ; each freeman had been allowed a vote in determining the laws. With the growth of the colony it was deemed expedient to substitute the more convenient method of representation. When the delegates came together, a declaration of rights M'as adopted, and the prerogative of the proprietor more clearly defined. All the broad and liberal principles of the colonial patent were reaffirmed. The powers of the assembly were made coextensive with those of the House of Commons in England. The rights of citizenship were declared to be identical with those of Eng- lish subjects in the mother country. The Indians of Maryland and Virginia had now grown jealous of foreign encroachments. Vague rumors of the English Revolution had been borne to the Red men, and they believed themselves able to expel the intruders from the country. In 1642 hostilities were begun on the Potomac, and for two years the province was involved in war. But the MARYLAND. 221 settlements of Maryland were few and compact, and no great suffering was occasioned by the onsets of the barbarians. In 1644 the savages agreed to bmy the hatchet and to renew the broken pletlges of friendship. Hardly, however, had the echo of Indian warfare died away, when the colony was visited with a worse calamity by the return of its old enemy, William Clayborne. He came to find revenge, and found it. The king was now at war witli his subjects, and could give no aid to the proi)rietor of an American province. Clayborne saw his opportunit)', hurried to Mary- land, and raised the standard of rebellion. Arriving in the province in 1644, he began to sow the seeds of sedition by telling the restless and lawless spirits of the colony that they were wronged and oppressed by a usurping government. Early in 1645 an insurrection broke out. Com- panies of desperate men came together, and found in Clayborne a natural leader. The government of Leonard Calvert was overthrown, and the governor obliged to fly for his life. Escaping from the province, he found refuge and protection with Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. Clayborne seized the colonial records of Maryland, and destroyed them. One act of violence followed another. The government was usurped, and for more than a year the colony Avas under the dominion of the insurgents. Mean- while, however, Governor Calvert collected his forces, returned to the province, defeated the rebels, and in August of 1646 succeeded in restor- ing his authority. It marks the mild and humane spirit of the Calverts that those engaged in this unjustifiable insiu-rectiou were pardoned by a general amnesty. The acts of the provincial legislature in 1649 were of special im- portance. It M'as enacted in broad terms that no person believing in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity should, on account of his religious opinions or practices, be in any wise distressed within the borders of Maryland. It was declared a finable offence for citizens to apply to each other the opprobrious names used in religious controversy. Freedom of conscience was reiterated with a distinctness that could not be misunder- stood. While Massachusetts was attempting by proscription to establish Puritanism as the faith of New England, and while the Episcopalians of Jamestown were endeavoring by exclusive legislation to make the Church of England the Church of Virginia, Marjdand was joining with Rhode Island and Connecticut in proclaiming religious freedom. It sometimes happened in those days that Protestants escaping from Protestants found an asylum with the Catholic colonists of the Chesapeake. In 1650 the legislative body of Maryland was divided into two branches. The upper house consisted of the governor and members of 222 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. his council appointed by the proprietor. The lower house, or general assembly, was composed of burgesses elected by the people of the province. Again the rights of Lord Baltimore were carefully defined by provincial law. An act was also passed declaring that no taxes should be levied without the consent of the assembly. Such was the condition of affairs in the colony when the commonwealth was established in England. Par- liament was now the supreme power in the mother country, and it could hardly be expected that Lord Baltimore's charter would be allowed to stand. In 1651 parliamentary commissioners were appointed to come to America and assume control of the colonies bordering on the Chesapeake. Clayborne was a member of the body thus appointed. When the com- missioners arrived in Maryland, Stone, the deputy of Lord Baltimore, was deposed from office. A compromise was presently effected between the adherents of the proprietor and the ojjposing faction ; and in June of the following year, Stone, with three members of his council, was per- mitted to resume the government. In April of 1653 the Long Par- liament, by whose authority the commissionei'S had been appointed, was dissolved. Stone thereupon published a proclamation declaring that the recent interference of Clayborne and his associates had been a rebellious usurpation. Clayborne, enraged at this proclamation, collected a force in Virginia, returned into Maryland, again drove Stone out of office, and entrusted the government to ten commissioners appointed by himself. The Puritan and republican party in Maryland had now grown sufficiently strong to defy the proprietor and the Catholics. A Protestant assembly was convened at Patuxent in October of 1654. The first act was to acknowledge the supremacy of Cromwell ; the next to disfranchise the Catholics and to deprive them of the protection of the laws. The un- grateful representatives seemed to forget that if Lord Baltimore had been equally intolerant not one of them would have had even a residence within the limits of Maryland. It would be difficult to find a more odious piece of legislation than that of the assembly at Patuxent. Of course the Catholic party would not submit to a code by which they were virtually banished from their own province. Civil war ensued. Governor Stone organized and armed the militia, seized the records of the colony, and marched against the oppos- ing forces. A decisive battle was fought just across the estuary from the present site of Annapolis. The Catholias were defeated, with a lass of fifty men in killed and wounded. Stone himself was taken prisoner, and was only saved from death by the personal friendship of some of the in- surgents. Tliree of the Catholic leaders were tried by a court-martial MARYLAND. 223 and executed. Cromwell paid but little attention to these atrocities, and made no effort to sustain the government of Lord Baltimore. In 1656 Josias Fendall, a weak and impetuous man, was sent out by the proprietor as governor of the province. There was now a Cath- olic insurrection with Fendall at the head. For two years the govern- ment was divided, the Catholics exercising authority at St. Mary's, and the Protestants at Leonardstown. At length, in March of 1658, a com- promise was effected ; Fendall M'as acknowledged as governor, and the acts of the recent Protestant assemblies were recognized as valid. A gen- eral amnesty was published, and the colony was again at peace. AVhen the death of Cromwell was announced in Maryland, the provincial authorities were much perplexed. One of four coui-ses miglit be pursued : Richard Cromwell might be recognized as protector ; Charles II. might be proclaimed as king ; Lord Baltimore might be acknowledged as hereditary proprietor ; colonial independence might be declared. The latter policy was adopted by the assembly. On the 12th of March, 1660, the rights of Lord Baltimore were formally set aside; the provincial council was dissolved, and the whole power of government was assumed by the House of Burgesses. The act of independence was adopted just one day before a similar resolution was passed by the general assembly of Virginia. The population of Marj'land had now reached ten thousand. On the restoration of monarchy the rights of the Baltimores were again recognized, and Philip Calvert was sent out as deputy-governor. In the mean time, Fendall had resigned his trust as agent of the proprietor, and had accepted an election by the people. He was now repaid for his double-dealing with an arrest, a trial and a condemnation on a charge of treason. Nothing saved his life but the clemency of Lord Baltimore, who, with his customary magnanimity, proclaimed a general pardon. Sir Cecil Calvert died in 1675, and his son Charles, a young man who had inherited the virtues of the illustrious family, succeeded to the estates and title of Baltimore. For sixteen years he exercised the rights of proprietar}^ governor of Marj'land. The laws of the province were carefully revised, and the liberal principles of the original charter re- affirmed as the basis of the State. Only once during this period was the happiness of the colony disturbed. When the news arrived of the abdi- cation of King James II., the deputy of Lord Baltimore hesitated to acknowledge the new sovereigns, William and Mary. An absurd rumor was spread abroad that the Catholics had leagued with the Indians for the purpose of destroying the Protestants of Maryland in a general mas- sacre. An opposing force was organized ; and in 1689 the Catholic party was compelled to surrender the government. For two years the Protest- 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. ants held the province, and civil authority was exercised by a body called the Convention of Associates. On the 1st day of June, 1691, the government of Maryland was revolutionized by the act of King William. The chai-ter of Lord Balti- more was arbitrarily taken away, and a royal governor appointed over the province. Sir Lionel Copley received a commission, and assumed the government in 1692. Every vestige of the old patent was swept away. The Episcopal Church was established by law and supported by taxation. Religious toleration was abolished and the government administered on despotic principles. This condition of affairs continued until 1715, when Queen Anne was induced to restore the heir of Lord Baltimore to the rights of his ancestor. Maryland again became a proprietary government under the authority of the Calverts, and so remained until the Revolu- tionary war. The early history of the colony planted by the first Lord Balti- more on the shores of the Chesapeake is full of profitable instruction. In no other American province were the essential vices of intolerance more clearly manifested ; in no other did the principle of religious freedom shine with a brighter lustre. Nor will the thoughtful student fail to observe how the severe dogmas of Catholicism were softened down when brought into contact with the ennobling virtues of the Calverts, until over river and bay and shore a mellow light was diffused like a halo shining fix>m the altars of the ancient Church. CHAPTER XXVII. NORTH CAROLINA. THE first effort to colonize North Carolina was made by Sir "Walter Raleigh. In 1630 an immense tract lying between the thirtieth and the thirty-sixth parallels of latitude was granted by King Charles to Sir Robert Heath. But neither the proprietor nor his successor, Lord Mal- travers, succeeded in planting a colony. After a useless existence of thirty-three years, the patent was revoked by the English sovereign. The only effect of Sir Robert's charter was to perpetuate the name of Carolina, which had been given to the country by John Ribault in 1562. In the year 1622 the countiy as hx south as the river Chowan was NORTH CAROLINA. 225 explored by Pory, the secretaiy of Virginia. Twenty years later a com- pany of Virginians obtained leave of the assembly to prosecute discovery on the lower Roanoke and establish a trade with the natives. The first actual settlement was made near the mouth of the Chowan about the year 1651. The country was visited just afterward by Clayborne of Maryland, and in 1661 a company of Puritans from New England passed down the coast, entered the mouth of Cape Fear River, purchased lands of the Indians and established a colony on Oldtown Creek, nearly two hundred miles farther south than any other English settlement. In 1663 Lord Clarendon, General Monk, who was now honored with the title of duke of Albemarle, and six other noblemen, received at the hands of Charles II. a patent for all the country between the thiiiy-sixth parallel and the river St. John's, in Florida. With this grant the colonial history of North Carolina properly begins. In the same year a civil government was organized by the settlers on the Chowan. William Drummond was chosen governor, and the name of Albejiaele County Colony was given to the district border- ing on the sound. In 1665 it was found that the settlement was north of the thirty-sixth parallel, and consequently beyond the limits of the province. To remedy this defect the grant was extended on the north to thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes, the present boundary of Virginia, and westward to the Pacific. During the same year the little Puritan colony on Cape Fear River was broken up by the Indians ; but scarcely had this been done when the site of the settlement, with thirty-two miles square of the surrounding territory, was purchased by a company of planters from Barbadoes. A new county named Clarendon was laid out, and Sir John Yeamans elected governor of the colony. The pro- prietors favored the settlement; immigration was rapid; and within a year eight hundred people had settled along the river. The work of preparing a frame of government for the new province •was assigned to Sir Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury. The proprietors, not without reason, looked forward to the time when a powerful nation should arise within the borders of their vast domain. To draft a suitable constitution was deemed a work of the greatest importance. Shaftesbury was a brilliant and versatile statesman who had entire confidence in his abilities ; but in order to give complete assurance of perfection in the proposed statutes, the phiiosojiher John Locke was employed by Sir Ashley and his associates to prepare the constitution. The legislation of the world furnishes no parallel for the pompous absurdity of Locke's performance. From March vmtil July of 1669 the philosopher worked away in 226' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the preparation of his Grand Model ; then the mighty instrument was done, and signed. It contained a hundred and twenty articles, called the '' Fundamental Constitutions ;" and this was but the beginning of the im- perial scheme which was to stand like a colossus over the huts and pas- tures along the Cape Fear and Chowan Rivers. The empire of Carolina was divided into vast districts of four hundred and eighty thousand acres each. Political rights were made dependent upon hereditary wealth. The offices were put beyond the reach of the people. There were two grand orders of nobility. There were dukes, earls and marquises; knights, lords and esquires; baronial courts, heraldic ceremony, and every sort of feudal nonsense that the human imagination could conceive of. And this was the magnificent constitution which a great statesman and a wise philosopher had planned for the government of a few colonists who lived on venison and potatoes and paid their debts with tobacco ! It was one thing to make the grand model, and another thing to get it across the Atlantic. In this the proprietors never succeeded. All at- tempts to establish the pompous scheme of government ended in necessary failure. The settlers of Albemarle and Clarendon had meanwhile learned to govern themselves after the simple manner of pioneers, and they could but regard the model and its authors with disdainful contempt. After twenty years of fruitless effort, Shaftesbury and his associates folded up their grand constitution and concluded that an empire in the pine forests •of North Carolina was impossible. The soil of Clarendon county was little better than a desert. For a while a trade in staves and furs supplied a profitable industry ; but when this traffic was exhausted, the colonists began to remove to other settle- ments. In 1671, Governor Yeamans was transferred to the colony which had been founded in the previous year at the mouth of Ashley River, and before the year 1690 the whole county of Clarendon was a second time surrendered to the native tribes. The settlement north of Albemarle Sound was more prosperous, but civil dissension greatly retarded the development of the countrj'. For the proprietors were already busy trying to establish their big in- ctitutious in the feeble province. The humble commerce of the colony was burdened with an odious duty. Every pound of the eight hundred hogs- heads of tobacco annually produced was taxed a penny for the benefit of the government. There were at this time less than four thousand people in North Carolina, and yet the traffic of these poor settlers with New England alone was so weighed down with duties as to yield an annual revenue of twelve thousand dollars. Miller, the governor, was a harsh and violent man. A gloomy opposition to the jjroprietary government I70RTH CAROLINA. 22T pervaded the colony; and when, in 1676, large numbers of refugees from Virginia — patriots who had fought in Bacon's rebellion — arrived in the Chowan, the spirit of discontent was kindled into open resistance. The arrival of a merchant-ship from Boston and an attempt to en- force the revenue laws furnished the occasion and pretext of an insurrec- tion. The vessel m^aded the payment of duty, and wa.'- declared a smug- gler. But the people flew to arms, seized the governor and six members of his council, overturned the existing order of things and established a new government of their own. John Culpepper, the leader of the insur- gents, was chosen governor; other officers were elected by the people; and in a few weeks the colony was as tranquil as if Locke's grand model had never been heard of. But in the next year, 1679, the imprisoned Mil- ler and his associates escaped from confinement, and going to London told a dolorous story about their wrongs and sufferings. The English lords of trade took the matter in hand, and it seemed that North Carolina was doomed to punishment. But the colonists were awake to their interests. Governor Cul- pepper went boldly to England to defend himself and to justify the rebel- lion. He was seized, indicted for high treason, tried and acquitted by a jury of Englishmen. It marks a peculiar feature of this cause that the sagacious earl of Shaftesbury came forward at the trial and spoke in de- fence of the prisoner. But Lord Clarendon was so much vexed at the acquittal of the rebellious governor that he sold his rights as proprietor to the infamous Seth Sothel. This man in 1680 was sent out by his associ- ates as governor of the province. In crossing the ocean he was captured by a band of pirates, and for three years the colony was saved from his evil presence. At last, in 1683, he arrived in Carolina and began his work, which consisted in oppressing the people and defrauding the pro- prietors. Cranfield of New Hampshire, Cornbuiy of New York and Wingfield of Virginia were all respectable men in comparison with Sothel, whose sordid passions have made him notorious as the worst colonial gov- ernor that ever plundered an American province. After five years of avaricious tyranny, the base, gold-gathering, justice-despising despot was overthrown in an insurrection. Finding himself a prisoner, and fearing the wrath of the defrauded proprietors more than he feared the indigna- tion of the outraged colonists, he begged to be tried by the assembly of the province. The request was granted, and the culprit escaped with a sentence of disfranchisement and a twelve months' exile from North Carolina. Sothel was succeeded in the governorship by Ludwell, who arrived in 1689. His administration of six years' duration was a period of peace 228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. and contentment. The wrongs of his predecessor were corrected as far as possible by a just and humane chief magistrate. In 1695 came Sir John Archdale, another of the proprietors, the rival of Ludwell in prudence and integrity. Then followed the tranquil administration of Governor Henderson Walker; then, in 1704, the foolish attempt of Robert Daniel to establish the Church of England. In the mean time, the colony had gro\vn strong in population and resources. The country south of the Roanoke began to be dotted with farms and hamlets. Other settlers came from Virginia and Maryland. Quakers came from New England and the Delaware. A band of French Huguenots came in 1707. A hundred families of German refugees, buffeted with war and persecution, left the banks of the Rhine to find a home on the banks of the Neuse. Peasants from Switzerland came and founded New Berne at the mouth of the River Trent. The Indians of North Carolina had gradually wasted away. Pes- tilence and strong drink had reduced powerful tribes to a shadow. Some nations were already extinct; others, out of thousands of strong-limbed warriors, had only a dozen men remaining. The lands of the savages had passed to the whites, sometimes by purchase, sometimes by fraud, often by forcible occupation. The natives were jealous and revengeful, but weak. Of all the mighty tribes that had inhabited the Carolinas in the days of Sir Walter Raleigh, only the Corees and the Tuscaroras were still formidable. The time had come when these unhappy nations, like the rest of their race, were doomed to destruction. The conflict which ended, and could only end, in the ruin of the Red men, began in the year 1711. In September of this year, Lawson, the surveyor-general of North Carolina, ascended the Neuse to explore and map the country. The In- dians were alarmed at the threatened encroachment upon their territory. A band of warriors took Lawson prisoner, led liim before their council, condemned him and burned him to death. On the night of the 22d, com- panies of savages rose out of the woods, fell upon the scattered settlements between the Roanoke and Pamlico Sound, and murdered a hundred and thirty persons. Civil dissension prevented the colonial authorities from adopting vigorous measures of defence. The protection of the people and the punishment of the barbarians were left to the neighboring prov- inces. Spottswood, governor of Virginia, made some unsuccessful efforts to render assistance, and Colonel Barnwell came from South Carolina with a company of militia and a body of friendly Cherokees, Creeks and Cataw- bas. The savages were driven into their fort in the northern part of Craven county, but could not be dislodged. While affairs were in this NORTH CAROLINA. 229 •condition a treaty of peace was made ; but Barnwell's men, on their way- homeward, violated the compact, sacked an Indian village and made slaves of the inhabitants. The war was at once renewed. In September of the next year, while the conflict was yet unde- cided, the yellow fever broke out in the country south of Pamlico Soimd. So dreadful were the ravages of the pestilence that the peninsula was wellnigh swept of its inhabitants. Meanwhile, Colonel James Moore of South Carolina had arrived, in command of a regiment of whites and In- dians, and the Tuscaroras were pursued to their principal fort on Cotentnea Creek, in Greene county. This place was besieged until the latter part of March, 1713, and was then carried by assault. Eight hundred warriors were taken prisoners. The power of the hostile nation M'as broken, but the Tuscarora chieftains were divided in council ; some were desirous of peace, and some voted to continue the war. This difference of opinion led to a division of the tribe. Those who wished for peace were permit- ted to settle in a single community in the county of Hyde. Their hostile brethren, seeing that further resistance would be hopeless, determined to leave the country. In the month of June they abandoned their hunting- grounds made sacred by the traditions of their fathers, marched across Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, reached Northern New York, joined their kinsmen, the Oneidas, and became the sixth nation of the Iroquois confederacy. Thus far the two Carolinas had continued under a common gov- ernment. In 1729 a final separation was effected between the provinces north and south of Cape Fear River, and a royal governor appointed over each. In spite of Locke's grand model and the Tuscarora war, in spite of the threatened Spanish invasion of 1 744, the northern colony had greatly prospered. The intellectual development of the people had not been as rapid as the growth in numbers and in wealth. Little attention had beer given to questions of religion. There was no minister in the province until 1703. Two years later the first church was built. The first court- house was erected in 1722, and the printuig-press did not begin its work until 1754. But the people were brave and patriotic. They loved their country, and called it the Land of Summer. In the farmhouse and the village, along the banks of the rivers and the borders of the primeval for- ests, the spirit of liberty pervaded every breast. The love of freedom was intense, and hostility to tyranny a universal passion. In the times of Sothel it was said of the North Carolinans that they would not pay tribi ute eom to Cossar, 236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. CHAPTER XXYTTI. SOUTH CAROLINA. IN January of 1670 the proprietors of Carolina sent out a colony under command of Joseph West and William Sayle. There was at this time not a single European settlement between the mouth of Cape Fear River and the St. John's, in Florida. Here was a beautiful coast of nearly four hundred miles ready to receive the beginnings of civilization. The new emigrants, sailing by way of Barbadoes, steered far to the south, and reached the mainland in the coimtry of the Savannah. The vessels first entered the harbor of Port Royal. It was now a hundred and eight years since John Ribault, on an island in this same harbor, had set up a stone engraved with the lilies of France; now the Englishman had come. The ships were anchored near the site of Beaufort. But the colo- nists were dissatisfied with the appearance of the country, and did not go ashore. Sailing northward along the coast for forty miles, they next en- tered the mouth of Ashley River, and landed where the first high land appeared upon the southern bank. Here were laid the foundations of Old Charleston, so named in honor of King Charles II. Of this, the oldest town in South Carolina, no trace remains except the line of a ditch which was digged around the fort ; a cotton-field occupies the site of the ancient settlement. Sayle had been commissioned as governor and West as commercial agent of the colony. The settlers had been furnished with a copy of Locke's big constitution, but they had no more use for it than for a dead elephant. Instead of the grand model, a little government was organized on the principles of common sense. Five councilors were elected by the people, and five others appointed by the proprietors. Over this council of ten the governor presided. Twenty delegates, composing a house of representatives, were chosen by the colonists. Within two years the sys- tem of popular government was firmly established in the province. Ex- cept the prevalence of diseases peculiar to the southern climate, no calam- ity darkened the prospects of the rising State. In the beginning of 1671 Governor Sayle died, and West, by com- mon consent, assumed the duties of the vacant office. After the lapse of SOUTH CAROLINA. 231 a few months, Sir John Yeamans, who had been governor of the northern province and was now in Barbadoes, was commissioned by the proprie- tors as cliiel" magistrate of the southern colony. He brought with him to Ashley River a large cargo of African slaves. From the beginning the colonists had devoted themselves to planting ; but the English laborers, unused as yet to the climate, could hardly endure the excessive heats of the sultry fields. To the Caribbce negroes, already accustometl to tlie burn- ing sun of the tropics, the Carolina summer seeme;t_u-/ of tiik sa\'annah, 1740. SCENE IN ST. AUGUSTINE. GEORGIA. 243 to America, one to aid Oglethorpe and the other to attack St. Augustiue. Let the Spaniards remain on the island but three days longer, and they would be ruined. If the enemy did not make an immediate attack on Trederica, his forces would be captured to a man. Oglethorpe knew very well that the prisoner, instead of delivering this letter to the deserter, would give it to the Spanish commander, and that the Spanish commander could not possibly know whether the communication was the truth or a fiction. This letter was delivered, and the astonished Frenchman was arrested as a spy, but the Spaniards could not tell whether his denial was true or false. There was a council of war in the Spanish camp. Ogle- thorpe's stratagem was suspected, but could not be proved. Three ships had been seen at sea that day ; perhaps these were the first vessels of the approaching British fleets. The Spaniards were utterly perplexed; but it was finally decided to take Oglethorpe's advice, and make the attack on Frederica. The English general had foreseen that this course would be adopted. He had accordingly advanced his small force from the to\\Ti to the place where the road passed between the swamp and the forest. Here an am- buscade was formed, and the soldiers lay in wait for the approaching Span- iards. On the 7th of July the enemy's vanguard reached the narrow pass, were fired on from the thicket and driven back in confusion. The main body of the Spanish forces pressed on into the dangerous position where superior numbers were of no advantage. Tlie Highlanders of Oglethorpe's regiment fired with terrible effect from the oak woods by the roadside. The Spaniards stood firm for a while, but were presently driven back with a loss of two hundred men. Not without reason the name of Bloody Marsh was given to this battle-field. Within less than a week the whole Spanish force had re-embarked and sailed for Florida. On the way south- ward the fleet made a second attack on Fort William. But Captain Stuart, with a garrison of only fifty men, made a vigorous and successful defence. The English watched tl^e retreating ships beyond the mouth of the St. John's ; before the last of July the great invasion was at an end. The Spanish authorities of Cuba were greatly chagrined at the failure of the expedition. The commander of the squadron was arrested, tried by a court-martial and dismissed from the service. The commonwealth of Georgia was now firmly established, and the settlements had peace. In 1743, Oglethorpe bade a final adieu to the col- ony to whose welfare he had given more than ten years of his life. He had never owned a house nor possessed an acre of ground within the lim- its of his own province. He now departed for England crowned with blessings, and leaving behind him an untarnished fame. James Ogle- 244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. thorpe lived to be nearly a hundred years old ; benevolence, integrity and honor were the virtues of his declining years. But the new State which he had founded in the West was not always free from evils. For the regulations which the councilors for Georgia had adopted were but poorly suited to the wants of the colony. The settlers had not been permitted to hold their lauds in fee simple. Agriculture had not flourished. Commerce had not sprung up. The laws of property had been so arranged that estates could descend only to the oldest sons of fam- ilies. The colonists were poor, and charged their poverty to the fact that slave-labor was forbidden in the province. This became the chief ques- tion which agitated the people. The proprietary laws grew more and more unpopular. The statute excluding slavery was not rigidly enforced, and, indeed, could not be enforced, when the people had determined to evade it. Whitefield himself pleaded for the abrogation of the law. Slaves began to be hired, first for short terms of service, then for longer periods, then for a hundred years, which was equivalent to an actual pur- chase for life. Finally, cargoes of slaves were brought directly from Africa, and the primitive free-labor system of Georgia was revolutionized. Plantations were laid out below the Savannah, and cultivated, as those of South Carolina. Another and more important change was at hand. It became evident that there could be no progress so long as the original char- ter remained in force. However benevolent the impulse which had called Georgia into being, the scheme of government had proved a sham. The people were improvident, idle, inexperienced. More than six hundred thousand dollars in parliamentary grants, besides private contributions amounting to nearly ninety thousand dollars, had been fruitlessly expended on the lagging province. In 1752 there were only a few scattered plantations and three inconsiderable villages be- low the Savannah. The white population amounted, at this time, to seventeen hundred souls ; and the blacks numbered about four hun- dred. The industry of Georgia was at a stand-still. The extravagant hopes which the colonial managers had entertained of wine, and silk, and indigo, found no realization in the facts. The annual exports of the colony amounted to less than four thousand dollars ; and the pros- pect for the future was as discouraging as the present condition was gloomy. At last, however, the new order of things was acknowledged by the councilors of the province. They yielded to necessity. In June of 1752, just twenty years from the granting of the charter, the trust- ees made a formal surrender of their patent to the king. A royal GEORGIA. 245 government was established over the country south of the Savannah, and the people were granted the privileges and freedom of English- men A constitution was drawn up by the British Board of Trade, and Captain John Reynolds was commissioned as royal governor. In October of 1754 he arrived at Savannah and began the work of reor- ganization. For two years and a half he labored assiduously to ex- tricate the aifairs of Georgia from the confusion into which they had fallen ; and so successful was his work that at the end of this time the population had reached six thousand. The southern boundary of the province remained to be decided by the issue of the French and Indian War. During the progress of that conflict Georgia was saved from calamity by the prudent administration of Governor Ellis, who secured from the powerful Creek confederacy a new treaty of peace. A barrier was thus interposed between the colony and the hostile nations of the West and North. In the year 1758 the province was divided into eight parishes, and at the same time the Church of Eng- land was established by law. Still, for a while, the progress of the colony was not equal to the expectations of its founder. But before the beginning of the Revolution, Georgia, though the feeblest of all the Anglo-American provinces, had become a prosperous and growing State. Such is the story of the planting by our fathers of the Old Thir- teen republics— such the record of their growth and prospects. From the gloomy coast of Labrador, where, two hundred and fifty years be- fore, John Cabot had set up the flag of England and arms of Henry VII to the sunny waters where Ponce de Leon, looking shoreward, called his cavaliers to gaze on the Land of Flowers,-the dominion of Great Britain had been established. Would that dominion last forever? Would the other nations of Europe ever rally and regain their lost ascendency on the Western continent? Would the ties of kinship, the affinity of language, the bond of a common ancestry, stretching from these sea-shore commonwealths across the Atlantic, bind them in perpetual union with the mother Islands? Would these isolated provinces in America— now so quick to take offence at each othei-'s beliefs and actions, and so easily jealous of each other's power and fame— ever unite in a common cause? ever join to do battle for life and liberty? ever become a Nation? Such were the momentous questions, the problems of destiny, which hung above the colonies at 18 246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the middle of the eighteenth century — problems which the future could not be long in solving. The history of these American colonies from their first feeble be- ginnings is full of interest and instruction. The people who laid the foundations of civilization in the Xew AVorld were nearly all reftigees, exiles, wanderers, pilgrims. They were urged across the ocean by a common impulse, and that impulse was the desire to escape from soms form of oppression in the Old World. Sometimes it was the oppres- sion of the Church, sometimes of the State, sometimes of society. In the wake of the emigrant ship there was always tyranny. !Men loved freedom ; to find it they braved the perils of the deep, traversed the solitary- forests of Maine, built huts on the bleak shores of Xew Eng- land, entered the Hudson, explored the Jerseys, found shelter in the Chesapeake, met starvation and death on the banks of the James, were buffeted by storms around the capes of Carolina, built towns by the estuaries of the great rivers, made roads through the pine-woods, and carried the dwellings of men to the very margin of the fever-haunted swamps of the South. It is all one story — the story of the human race seeking for liberty. COLONIAL HISTORY.— Continued. FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CHAPTER XXX. CAUSES. rPHE time came wlien the American colonies began to act together. 1 From the beginning they had been kept apart by prejudice, suspi- cion and mutual jealousy. But the fathers were now dead old antago- nisms had pas,sed away, a new generation had arisen with kindlier feel - ings and more charitable sentiments. But it was not so much the growth of a more liberal public opinion as it was the sense of acornmon danger that at la'^t led the colonists to make a united effort. The final struggle between France and England for" colonial supremacy in America was at hand. Necessity compelled the English colonies to jom in a com- mon cause against a common foe. This is the conflict known as the Frexch an-d Indian War; with this great event the separate histoms of the colonies are lost in the more general history of the nation. Ihe contest began in 1754, but the causes of the war had existed for many ^""^ The first and greatest of these causes was the conflidmcj len-itorial claims of the two nations. England had colonized the sea-coast ; France had colonized the interior of the continent. From Maine to Florida tlie Atlantic shore was spread with English colonies; but there were no mland settlements. The great towns were on the ocean's edge. But the claims of England reached far beyond her colonies. Based on the discoveries of the Cabots, and not limited by actual occupation, those claims extended westward to the Pacific. In making grants of territory tlu. English kings had always proceeded upon the theory that the voyage of Sebastian Cabot had given to England a lawful right to the country from one ocean to the other. Far different, however, were the claims of France; tne French had first colonized the valley of the St. Lawrence. Montreal, one 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. of the earliest settlements, is more than five hundred miles from the sea. If the French colonies had been limited to the St. Lawrence and its trib- utaries, there would have been little danger of a conflict about territorial dominion. But in the latter half of the seventeenth century the French began to push their way westward and southward ; first, along the shores of the great lakes, then to the head-waters of the Wabash, the Illinois, the Wisconsin and the St. Croix, then down these streams to the Missis- sippi, and then to the Gulf of Mexico. The purpose of the French, as manifested in these movements, was no less than to divide the American continent and to take the larger portion, to possess the laud for France and for Catholicism. For it was the work of the Jesuit missionaries. So important and marvelous are those early movements of the French in the valley of the Mississippi that a brief account of the leading explora- tions may here be given. The zealous Jesuits, purposing to extend the Catholic faith to all lands and nations, set out fearlessly from the older settlements of the St. Lawrence to explore the unknown ^^'est, and to convert the barbarous races. In 1641, Charles Raymbault, the first of the French missionary explorers, passed through the northern straits of Lake Huron and entered Lake Superior. In the thirtj' years that followed, the Jesuits continued their explorations with prodigious activity. ]\Iissions were established at various points north of the lakes, and in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illi- nois. In 1673, Joliet and Marquette passed from the head- waters of Fox River over the watershed to the upper tributaries of the Wisconsin, and thence down that river in a seven days' voyage to the Mississippi. For a full month the canoe of the daring adventurers carried them on toward the sea. They passed the mouth of Arkansas River, and reached the limit of their voyage at the thirty-third parallel of latitude. Turn- ing their boat up stream, they entered the mouth of the Illinois and 'returned by the site of Chicago into Lake Michigan, and thence to De- troit. But it was not yet known whether the great river discharged its flood of waters into the southern gulf or into the Pacific Ocean. It remained for Robert de la Salle, most illustrious of the French explorers, to solve the problem. This courageous and daring man was living at the outlet of Lake Ontario when the news of Marquette's voyage reached Canada. Fired with the passion of discovery. La Salle built and launched the first ship above Niagara Falls. He sailed west- ward through Lake Erie and Lake Huron, anchored in Green Bay, crossed Lake Michigan to the mouth of the St. Joseph, ascended that stream with a few companions, traversed the country to the upper Kanka- kee, and drojjped down with the current into the Illinois. Here disas- CAUSES. ^^^ ters overtook the expedition, and La Salle was obliged to return on foot o Fort Frontenac, a distance of neai-ly a thousand nnles. During his absence, Father Hennepin, a member of the company, ti^versed Illinois, and explored the Missi^ippi as high .s the Falls of St. Anthony^ _ In 1681 La Salle returned to his station on the Illinois, bringing men and supplies. A boat was bnilt and launched, and early m the following year the heroic adventurer, with a few companions, descended the river to its junction with the Mississippi, and was borne by the Father of Waters to the Gulf of Mexico. It was one of the greatest exploits of modern times. The return voyage was successfully accom- plished. La Salle reached Quebec, and immediately set sail for France. The kingdom was greatly excited, and vast plaas were made for coloniz- ing the vallev of the Mississippi. In July of 1684 four ships, bearing two hundred and eighty emigrants, left France. Beaujeu commauded the fleet, and La Salle was leader of the colony. The plan was to en r tie gulf, ascend the river, and plant settlements on its banks and tributo- ries But Beaujeu was a bad and headstrong captain, and against La Salle's entreaties the squadron was carried out of ite course beyond the mouths of the Mississippi, and into the Bay of Matagorda. Here a landing was effected, but the store-ship, with all its precious freighijige, was dashed to pieces in a storm. Nevertheless, a colony was established, and Texas became a part of Louisiana. . La Salle made many unsuccessful efforts to rediscover the Missis- sippi. One misfortune after another followed fast, but the leader s reso- lute spirit remained tranquil through all calamities. At last, ^vlth sixt^eu companions, he set out to cross the continent to Canada^ The march began in January of 1687, and continued for sixty dap. The wante were already in ihe basin of the Colorado. Here, on the 20th of March while La Salle was at some distance from the camp, two conspirators at the company, hidmg in the prau-ie giu^s, took a deadly aim at he famous explorer, and shot him dead in his tracks. Only seven of the adventurers succeeded in reaching a French settlement on the Mis- sissiijpi. 1 1 i u « France was not slow to occupy the vast country revealed to her by the activity of the Jesuits. As early as 1688 military posts had been established at Frontenac, at Niagara, at the Straits of Mackinaw, and on the Illinois River. Before the middle of the eighteenth century permanent settlements had been made by the French on the Maumee, at Detroit, at the mouth of the river St. Joseph, at Green Bay, at ^ incennes on the Lower Wabash, on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Kaskas- kia, at Fort Rosalie, the present site of Natchez, and on the Gult ot 250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mexico at the head of the Bay of Biloxi. At this time the only outposts of the English colonies were a small fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, and a few scattered cabins in West Virginia. It only remained for France to occupy the valley of Ohio, in order to confine the provinces of Great Britain to the country east of the Alleghanies. To do this became the sole ambition of the French, and to prevent it the stubborn purpose of the English. A .second cause of war existed in the long-standing national animos- ity of France and England. The two nations could hardly remain at peace. The French and the English were of different races, languages and laws. For more than two centuries France had been the leader of the Catholic, and England of the Protestant, powers of Europe. Religious prejudice intensified the natural jealousy of the two nations. Rivalry prevailed on land and sea. When, at the close of the seventeenth century, it was seen that the people of the English colonics outnumbered those of Canada by nearly twenty to one, France was filled with en\y. When, by the enterprise of the Jesuit missionaries, the French began to dot the basin of the Mississippi with fortresses, and to monopolize the fur-trade of the Indians, England could not conceal her wrath. It was only a question of time when tliis unreasonable jealousy would bring on a colo- nial war. The third and immediate cause of hostilities was a conflict between the frontiersmen of the two nations in attempting to colonize the Ohio valley. The y^ar 1749 witnessed the beginning of diflSculties. For some time the strolling traders of Virginia and Pcnn.sylvania had fre- quented the Indian towns on the upper tributaries of the Ohio. Now the tradei-s of Canada began to visit the same villages, and to compete with the English in the purchase of furs. Virginia, under her ancient char- ters, claimed the whole countrj' lying between her western bordere and the southern shores of Lake Erie. The French fur-gatherers in this dis- trict were regarded as intruders not to be tolerated. In order to ])revent further encroachment, a number of prominent Virginians joined them- selves together in a body called the Ohio Company', with a view to the immediate occujiation of the disputed territor)^ Robert Dinwiddie, governor of the State, Lawrence and Augustus Washington, and Thomas Lee, president of the Virginia council, were the leading members of the corporation. In March of 1 749 the company received from George II. an extensive land-grant covering a tract of five hundred thousand acres, to be located between the Kanawha and the Monongahela, or on the northern bank of the Ohio. The conditions of the grant Avere that the lands should be held free of rent for ten years, that within seven years a CAUSES. 251 colony of one hundred families should be established in the district, and that the territor)- should be immediately selected. But the French were equally active. Before the Ohio Company could send out a colony, the governor of Canada despatched Bienville with three hundred men to explore and occupy the valley of the Ohio. The expedition was successful. Plates of lead bearing French inscrip- tions were buried here and there on both banks of the river, the region was explored as far west as the to%vns of the Miamis, the English traders were expelled from the country', and a letter was written to Governor Hamil- ton of Pennsylvania admonishing liim to encroach no farther on the territory of the king of France. This work occupied tlie summer and fall of 1749. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had equipped an exploring party, and placed it under command of Christopher Gist. In November of 1750 he and his conn)any readied the Ohio opposite the mouth of Beaver Creek. Here the expedition crossed to the northern side, tarried at Logstown, passed down the river through the several Indian confederacies to the Great Miami, and thence to within fifteen miles of the falls at Louisville. Returning on foot through Kentucky, tlie explorei-s reached Virginia in the spring of 1751. This expedition was followed by still more vigorous movements on the part of the French. Descending from their headquarters at Presc^ue Isle, now Erie, on the southern shore of the lake, tliey built a fortress called Le Bceuf, on French Creek, a tributary of the ^Vllcghany. Pro- ceeding down the stream to its junction with the river, they erected a second fort, named Venango. From this point they advanced against a British post on the jNIiami, broke up the settlement, made prisoners of the garrison and carried them to Canada. The king of the Miauii con- federacy, who had assisted the English in defending their outpost, was inhumanly murdered by the Indian allies of the French. About the same time the country' south of the Ohio, between the Great Kanawha and tie Alonongahela, was ex])lored by Gist and a party of armed sur- veyors, acting under oi-dcrs of the company. In the summer of 1753 the English opened a road from Will's Creek through the mountains into the Ohio valley, and a colony of eleven families was planted on the Youghi- ogheny, just west of Laurel Hill. It was impossible that a conflict be- tween the advancing settlements of the two nations could be much longer averted. The Indian nations were greatly alarmed at the threatening pros- pect. Solemn councils were held among all the tribes, and the affaii-s of the race were gravely discussed by the copper-colored orators. From the first the Red men rather iavored the English cause, but their allegiance 252 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. was wavering and uncertain. After the murder of the Miami ciiieflain their hostility to the French became more decided. When, in the spring of 1753, the news was borne to the council-fires on the Ohio that Du Quesne, the governor of Canada, had despatched a company of twelve hundred men to descend the Alleghany and colonize the country, the jealousy of the natives was kindled into open resistance. The tribes most concerned were the Delawares, the Shawnees, the Miamis and the Mingoes. The chieftain of this confederacy, named Tanacharisson, was called the Half-King from the fact that his subjects, except the Miamis, owed a kind of indefinite allegiance to the Iroquois or Six Nations. By the authority of a great council held at Logstown the Half-King was now sent to Erie to remonstrate with the French commandant against a further invasion of the Indian country. " The land is mine, and I will have it," replied the Frenchman, with derision and contempt. The insulted sachem returned to his nation to lift the hatchet against the enemies of his people. It was at this time that the chiefs of many tribes met Benja- min Franklin at the town of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and formed a treaty of alliance with the English. Virginia was now thoroughly aroused. But before proceeding to actual hostilities. Governor Dinwiddle determined to try the effect of a final remonstrance with the French. A paper was accordingly drawn up setting forth the nature and extent of the English claim to the valley of the Ohio, and solemnly warning the authorities of France against further intrusion into that region. It was necessary that this paper should be carried to General St. Pierre, now stationed at Erie as commander of the French forces in the West. Who should be chosen to bear the important parchment to its far-off destination ? It was the most serious mission ever yet undertaken in America. A young surveyor, named George Washington, was called to perform the perilous duty. Him the governor summoned from his home on the Potomac and commissioned as ambassador, and to him was committed the message which was to be borne from Williamsburg, on York River, through the untrodden wdder- ness to Presque Isle, on the shore of Lake Erie. On the last day of October, 1753, Washington set out on his long journey. He was attended by four comrades besides an interpreter and Christopher Gist, the guide. The party arrived without accident at the mouth of Will's Creek, the last important tributary of the Potomac on the north. From this place AVashington proceeded through the moun- tains to the head-waters of the Youghiogheny, and thence down that stream to the site of Pittsburg. The immense importance of this place, lying at the confluence of the two great tributaries of the Ohio, and com- CAUSES. 253 FIRSr SCENE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAK, 1750. manding them both, was at once perceived by the young ambassador, who noted the spot as tlie site of a fortress. Washington was now conducted across the Alleghany by the chief of the Delawares, and thence twenty miles down tiie river to Logstown. Here a council was held with the Indians, who renewed their pledges of friendship and fidelity to the Eng- lish. The emissaries of the French were already in the country trying in every conceivable way to entice the Red men into an alliance ; but every proposal was rejected. In the beginning of December, Washington and his party moved northward to the French post at Venango. The officers of the fort took no i:)ains to conceal their purpose ; the project of uniting Canada and Louisiana by way of the Ohio valley was openly avowed. From Venango, Washington set out through the forest to Fort le Boeuf on French Creek, fifty miles above its junction with the Alleghany. This was the last stage in the journey. It Mas still fourteen miles to Presque Isle ; but St. Pierre, the French commander, had come down from that place to superintend the fortifications at Le Boeuf. Here the conference was held. Washington was received with great courtesy, but the general of the French refused to enter into any discassion on the rights of nations. He was acting, he said, under military instructions given by the governor of New France. He had been commanded by his superior officer to eject every Englishman from the valley of the Ohio, and he meant to carry out his orders to the letter. A firm but courteous I'eply was returned to Governor Dinwiddle's message. France claimed the country of the Ohio in virtue of discovery, exploration and occupa- tion, and her claim should be made good by force of arms. Washington was kindly dismissed, but not until he had noted with keen anxiety the immense preparations which were making at Le Boeuf. There lay a fleet of fifty birch-bark canoes and a hundred and seventy boats of pine ready to descend the river to the site of Pittsburg. For the French, as well as the English, had noted the importance of that spot, and had determined to fortify it as soon as the ice should break in the rivers. It was now the dead of winter. Washington returned to Ve- 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. nango, and then, with Gist as his sole companion, left the river and struck into the woods. It was one of the most solitary marches ever made by man. There in the desolate wilderness was the future President of the United States. Clad in the robe of an Indian, with gun in hand and knapsack strapped to his shoulders ; struggling through interminable snows ; sleeping with frozen clothes on a bed of pine-brush ; breaking through the treacherous ice of rajjid streams ; guided by day by a pocket compass, and at night by the Korth Star, seen at intervals through the leafless trees ; fired at by a prowling savage from his covert not fifteen steps away ; thrown fi-om a raft into the rushing Alleghany ; escaping to an island and lodging there until the river was frozen over ; jilunging again into the forest ; reaching Gist's settlement and then the Potomac, — the strong-limbed young ambassador came back without wound or scar to the capital of Virginia. For his flesh was not made to be torn with bullets or to be eaten by the wolves. The defiant despatch of St. Pierre was laid before Governor Dinwiddle, and the first public service of Wash- ington was accomplished. In the mean time, the Ohio Company had not been idle. About mid-winter a party of thirtj'-three men had been organized and placed under command of Trent, with orders to proceed at once to the source of the Ohio and erect a fort. The company must have been marching to it§ destination when Washington retm-ned to Virginia. It was not far from the middle of March, 1754, when Trent's party reached the confluence of the Alleghany and the Mobongahela, and built the first rude stockade on the site of Pittsburg.* After all the threats and boasting of the French, the English had beaten them and seized the key to the Ohio valley. But it was a short-lived triumph. As soon as the approaching spring broke the ice-gorges in the Alleghany, the French fleet of boats, already j^repared at Venango, came sweeping down the river. It was in vain for Trent with his handful of men to ofier resistance. Washington had now been commissioned as lieutenant-colonel, and was stationed at Alexandria to enlist recruits for the Ohio. A regiment of a hundred and fi% men had been enrolled ; but it was impossible to bring succor to Trent in time to save the post. On the 17th of April the little band of Englishmen at the head of the Ohio surrendered to the enemy and with- drew from the countiy. The French immediately occupied the place, felled the forest-trees, built barracks and laid the foundations of Fort DU Qfesne. To recapture this place by force of arms Colonel Wash- ington set out from Will's Creek in the early part of May, 1754. Nego- * The accounts of this important event are very obscure and unsatisfactory. CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 255 tiationa had failed ; remonstrance had been tried in vain ; the possession of the disputed territory was now to be determined by the harsher methods of war. CHAPTER XXXI. CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. ITTASHINGTON now found himself in command of a little army of T T Virginians. His commission was brief and easily understood : To construct a fort at the source of the Ohio ; to destroy whoever opposed him in the work ; to capture, kill or repel all who interrupted the progress of the English settlements in that country. In the montii of April the young commander left Will's Creek, but the march westward was slow and toilsome. The men were obliged to drag their cannons. The roads were miserable ; rain fell in torrents on the tentless soldiers ; rivers were bridgeless ; provisions insufficient. All the while the faithful Half-King was urging Washington by repeated despatches to hasten to the rescue of the Red men. On the 26th of May the English regiment reached the Great Meadows. Here Washington was informed that a company of French was on the march to attack him. The enemy had been seen on the Youghiogheny only a few miles distant. A stockade was immediately erected, to which the commander gave the appropriate name of Fort Necessity. Ascertaining from the scouts of the Half-King that the French company in the neighborhood was only a scouting-party, Washington, after conference with the Mingo chiefs, determined to strike the first blow. Two Indians followed the trail of the French, and discovered their hiding- place in a rocky ravine. The English advanced cautiously, intending to surprise and capture the whole force ; but the French were on the alert, saw the approaching soldiers and flew to arms. Washington with musket in hand was at the head of his company. " Fire !" was the clear command that rang through the forest, and the first volley of a great war went flying on its mission of death. The engagement was brief and decisive. Jumonville, the leader of the French, and ten of his party were killed, and twenty-one were made prisoners. A month of precious time was now lost in delays. "SA'hile Washing- ton at Fort Necessity waited in vain for reinforcements, the French at 256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Fort du Quesne were collecting in great numbers. One small company of volunteers from South Carolina arrived at the English camp ; but the caj)tain was an arrogant blockhead who, having a commission from the king, undertook to supersede Washington. The latter, with the Vir- ginians, spent the time of waiting in cutting a road for twenty miles across the rough country in the direction of Foi't du Quesne. The In- dians were greatly discouraged at the dilatory conduct of the colonies, and the strong war-parties which had been expected to join Washington from the Muskingum and the ^liami did not arrive. His M'hole efiect- ive force scarcely numbered four hundred. Learning that the French general De Yilliers was approaching with a large body of troops, besides Indian auxiliaries, Washington deemed it prudent to fall back to Fort Necessity. The Carolina captain, who had remained within the fortifica- tions, had done nothing to strengthen the works, although there was the greatest need. The little fort stood in an open space, midway between two emi- nences covered with trees. Scarcely were Washington's forces safe within the enclosure, when on the 3d of July the regiment of De Villiers, num- bering six hundred, besides the savage allies, came in sight, and surrounded the fort. The French stationed themselves on the eminence, about sixty yards distant from the stockade. From this position they could fire down upon the English with fatal effect. Many of the Indians climbed into the tree-tops, where they were concealed by the thick foliage. For nine hours, during a rain-storm, the assailants poured an incessant shower of balls upon the heroic band in the fort. Thirty of Washington's men were killed, but his tranquil presence encouraged the rest, and the fire of the French was returned with unabated vigor. At length De Villiers, fear- ing that his ammunition Mould be exhausted, proiw-ed a parley. Wash- ington, seeing that it would be impossible to hold out much longer, ac- cepted the honorable terms of capitulation which were offered by the French general. On the 4th of July the EnglLsh garrison, retaining all its accoutrements, marched out of the little fort, so bravely defended, and withdrew from the country. The whole valley of the Ohio remained in undisturbed possession of the French. Meanwhile, a congress of the American colonies had assembled at Albany. The objects had in view were twofold : first, to renew the treaty with the Iroquois confederacy ; and secondly, to stir up the colonial authorities to some sort of concerted action against the French. The Iroquois had wavered from the beginning of the war ; the recent reverses of the English had not strengthened the loyalty of the Red men. As to the French aggressions, something nuist be done speedily, or the flag of CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRABDOCK. 267 England could never be borne into the vast country west of the AUe- ghanies. The congress was not wanting in abilities of the highest order. No such venerable and dignified body of men had ever before assembled on the American continent. There were Hutchinson of Massachusetts, Hopkins of Rhode Island, Franklin of Pennsylvania, and others scarcely less distinguished. After a few days' consultation, the Iroquois, but half satisfied, renewed their treaty and departed. The chieftains were anxious and uneasy lest, through inactivity and want of union on the part of the colonies, the Six Nations should be left to contend alone %\'ith the power of France. The convention next took up the important question of uniting the colonies in a common government. On the 10th day of July, Benjamin Franklin laid before the commissioners the draft of a federal constitu- tion. His vast and comprehensive mind had realized the true condition and wants of the country ; the critical situation of the colonies demanded a central government. How else could revenues be raised, an army be organized and the common welfare be provided for? According to the proposed plan of union, Philadelphia, a central city, was to be the cap- ital. It was urged in behalf of this clause that the delegates of New Hampshire and Georgia, the colonies most remote, could reach the seat of government in fifteen or hventy days .' Slow-going old patriots ! The chief executive of the new confederation was to be a governor-general appointed and supported by the king. The legislative authority was vested in a congress composed of delegates to be chosen triennially by the general assemblies of the respective provinces. Each colony should be represented in proportion to its contributions to the general government, but no colony should have less than two or more than seven represent- atives in congress. With the governor was lodged the power of appoint- ing all military officers and of vetoing objectionable laws. The appoint- ment of civil officers, the raising of troops, the levying of taxes, the super- intendence of Indian aifairs, the regulation of commerce, and all the general duties of government, belonged to congress. This body was to convene once a year, to choose its own officers, and to remain in session not longer than six weeks.* Such was the constitution drafted by Franklin and adopted, not without serious opposition, by the commissioners at Albany. It remained for the colonies to ratify or reject the new scheme of government. Copies of the proposed constitution were at once transmitted to the several colon- ial capitals, and were everywhere received with disfavor ; in Connecticut, rejected ; in Massachusetts, opposed ; in New York, adopted with indiffer- ence. The chief objection urged against the instrument was the power of 1^ * See Apnendix C. 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. veto given to the governor-general. Nor did the new constitution fiire better in the mother country. The English board of trade rejected it with disdain, saying that the froward Americans were trying to make a government of their own. Meanwhile, the French were strengthening their works at Crown Point and Fort Niagara, and rejoicing over their success in Western Pennsylvania. But the honor of England, no less than the welfare of her colonies, was at stake, and Parliament came to the rescue. It was determined to send a British army to America, to accept the service of such provincial troops as the colonies might furnish, and to protect the frontier against the aggressions of France. As yet there had been no declaration of war. The ministers of the two nations kept assuring each other of peaceable intentions ; but Louis XV. took care to send three thousand soldiers to Canada, and the British government ordered General Edward Braddock to proceed to America with two regiments of regulars. Early in 1755 the English armament arrived in the Chesajjeake. On the 14th of April Braddock met the governors of all the colonies in a convention at Alex- andria. The condition of colonial affairs was fully discussed. It was resolved, since peace existed, not to invade Canada, but to repel the French on the western and northern frontier. The plans of four cam- paigns were accordingly submitted and ratified. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, was to complete the conquest of that province according to the English notion of boundaries. ' Johnson of New York was to enroll a force of volunteers and Mohawks in British pay, and to capture the French post at Crown Point. Shirley of Massachusetts was to equip a regiment and drive the enemy from their fortress at Niagara. Last and most important of all, Braddock himself as commander-in-chief was to lead the main body of regulars against Fort du Quesne, retake that post and expel the French from the Ohio valley. In the latter part of April the British general set out on his march from Alexandria to Will's Creek. The name of the militarj'- post at the mouth of this stream was now changed to Fort Cumberland. Braddock's army numbered fully two thousand men. They were nearly all veterans who had seen service in the wars of Europe. A few provincial troops had joined the expedition ; two companies of volunteers, led by Colonel Horatio Gates of New York, were among the number. Washington met the army at Fort Cumberland, and became an aid-de-camp of Braddock. The colonies would liave assisted with large levies of recruits, had it not been for the nature of the general's authority. It was jJrescribed in his commission that the provincial captains and colonels should have no rank when serving in connection with the British armv. So odious was this CAMPAIGNS OF WASHINGTON AND BRADDOCK. 259 regulation that Washington had set the example of withdrawing from the service ; j)atriotic motives and the wish of Virginia now induced him to return and to accept a post of responsibility. On the last day of May the march began from Fort Cumberland. A select force of five hundred men was thrown forward to open the roads in the direction of Fort du Quesne. Sir Peter Halket led the advance, and Braddock followed with the main body. The army, marching in a slender column, was extended for four miles along the narrow and broken road It was in vain that Washington pointed out the danger of am- buscades and suggested the employment of scouting-parties. Braddock was self-willed, arrogant, proud ; thoroughly skilled in the tactics of European warfare, he could not bear to be advised by an inferior. The sagacious Franklin had admonished lum to move with caution ; but he only replied that it was impossible for savages to make any impression on His Majesty's regulars. Now, when Washington ventured to repeat the advice, Braddock flew into a passion, strode up and down in his tent, and said that it was high times when Colonel Buckskin could teach a British general how to fight. On the 19th of June, Braddock put himself at the head of twelve hundred chosen troops and pressed forward more rapidly. Colonel Dun- bar was left behind with the remainder of the army. On the 8th of July the van reached the junction of the Yougliiogiieny and the Monongahela. It was only twelve miles farther to Fort du Quesne, and the French gave up the place as lost. On the next morning the English army advanced along the Monongahela, and at noon crossed to the northern bank just beyond the confluence of Turtle Creek. Still there was no sign of an enemy. Colonel Thomas Gage was leading forward a detachment of three hundred and fifty men. The road was but twelve feet wide ; the country uneven and woody There was a dense undergrowth on either liand ; rocks and ravines ; a hill on the right and a dry hollow on the left. A few guides were in the advance, and some feeble flanking-pai-ties ; in the rear came the general with the main division of the army, the artillery and the baggage. All at once a quick and heaxj fire was heard in the front. France was not going to give up Fort du Quesne without a strug- gle. For two months the place liad been receiving reinforcements; still the garrison was by no means able to cope with Braddock's army. Even the Indians realized the disparity of the contest. It was with great diffi- culty that, on the night before the battle, the commandant of the fort induced the savages to join in the enterprise of ainbuscading tlie British. At last a force of two hundred and thirty French, led by Beaujeu and 19 260 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Dumas, and a body of six hundred and thirty-seven Indians set out from Du Quesne with a view to harass and annoy the EngUsh rather than to face them in a serious battle. It was tlie purjjose of tlie Freuch, who were entirely familiar with the ground, to lay an ambuscade at a favor- able point seven miles distant from the fort. They were just reaching the selected spot and settling into ambush when the flank ing-])artics of the English came in sight. The French fired ; the Indians yelled and slunk into their hiding-places, and the battle began. If Gage had at once thrown forAvard his forces to the support of the guards, the day could have been saved ; but he was confused and un- decided. The flanking parties were driven in, leaving their six-poundors in the hands of the enemy. Gage's men wavered, and were mixed in the thickset underwood with a regiment which Braddock had pushed forward to the rescue. The confusion became greater, and there Avere symptoms of a panic. The men fired constantly, but could see no enemy. Every volley from the hidden foe flew with deadly certainty into the crowded ranks of the English. The rash but brave general rushed to the front and rallied his men M'ith the energy of despair ; but it wa.s all in vain. The men stood huddled together like sheep, or fled in teiTor to the rear. The forest was strewn with the dead ; the savages, emboldened by their unex- pected success, crept farther and farther along the flanks; and the battle became a rout. Braddock had five horses shot under him ; his secretary was killed ; both his English aids Mere disabled ; only Washington re- mained to distribute ordei-s. Out of eighty-two officers twenty-six were killed and thirty-seven wounded. Of the privates seven hundred and fourteen were dead or bleeding with wounds. At last the general re- ceived a ball in his right side and sank fainting to the ground. ""What shall we do now, colonel ?" said he to Washington, who came to his assist- ance " Retreat, sir — retreat by all means," replied the young hero, upon whom everything now depended. His own bosom had been for more than two houi-s a special target for the savages. Two horses had fallen under him, and fonr times his coat had been torn with balls. A Shawnee chief singled him out and bade his warriors do the same ; but their volleys SCENE OF BRADDOOK'S DEFEAT. 17.55. FALL OP BRADDOCK. EUIN OF ACADIA. 261 went by harmless. The retreat began at once, and the thirty Virginians, who, with Washington, were all that remained alive, covered the flight of the ruined army. The artillery, provisions, baggage and private papers of the general were left on the field. The losses of the French and Indians were slight, amounting to three officei"S and thirty men killed, and as many others wounded. There was no attempt made at pursuit. The savages fairly reveled in the spoils of the battle-field. They had never known so rich a harvest of scalps and booty. The tawny chiefs returned to Fort du Quesne clad in the Jaced coats, military boots and cockades of the British officers. Tlie dying Braddock was borne in the train of the fugitives. Once he roused himself to say, " \A^ho Avould have thought it?" and again, "We shall better know how to deal v>-ith them another time." On the evening of tlie fourth day he died, and was buried b}' the roadside a mile west of Fort Necessity. When the fugitives reached Dunbar's camp, the confusion was greater than ever. Dunbar was a man of feeble capacity and no courage ; pretending to have the ordei-s of the dying general, he proceeded to de- stroy the remaining artillery, the heavy baggage, and all the public stores, to the value of a hundred thousand pounds. Then followed a precipitate retreat to Fort Cumberland, and then an abandonment of that place for the safer precincts of Philadelphia. It was only the beginning of August, yet Dunbar pleaded the necessity of finding winter quarters for his forces. The great expedition of Braddock had ended in such a disaster as spread consternation and gloom over all the colonies. CHAPTER XXXII. RUIN OF ACADIA. BY the treaty of Utrecht, made in 1713, the province of Acadia, or Xova Scotia, was ceded by France to England. During the following fifty years the colonv remained under the dominion of Great Britain, and was ruled by English officers. But the great majority of the people were French, and the English government amounted only to a military occu- pation of the peninsula. The British colors, floating over Loiiisburg and Annapolis, and the presence of British garrisons here and there, were the only tokens that this, the oldest French colony in America, had passed tmder the control of foreigners. 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. At the time of the cession tlie population amounted to about three tliousaud ; by the outbreak of the Freucli and Indian War the number h:jd increased to more than sixteen thousand. Lawrence, tlie deputy- governor of the province, pretended to fear an insurrection. When Brad- dock and tlie colonial governors convened at Alexandria, it was urged that something must be done to overawe the French and strengthen the English authority in Acadia. The enterprise of reducing the French peasants to complete humiliation was entrusted to Lawrence, who was to be assisted by a British fleet under Colonel Monckton. On the 20th of May, 1755, the squadron, with three thousand troops, sailed from Boston for the Bay of Fund}-. The French had but two fortified posts in the province ; both of tliese were on the isthmus which divides Nova Scotia from New Bruns- wick. The first and most important fortress, named Beau-Sejour, M-as sit- — £5 ^ . uated near the mouth of Messagouche Creek, at the head of Chignecto Bay. The other fort, a mere stockade called Gaspereau, was on the north side of the isthmus, at Bay Verte. De Ver- gor, the French commandant, had no intimation of approaching danger till the English fleet sailed fearlessly into the bay and anchored before the walls of Beau-Sejour. There was no preparation for defence. On the 3d '« of June the Englisli forces landed, -r. '^'/felf'/./lN'' ""■"!' .11) 101) THE ACADIAN ISTHMUS, 1755. Aud ou thc iicxt day forced their way across the Messagouche. A vigorous siege of four days followed. Fear and confusion reigned among the gar- rison ; no successful resistance could be offered. On the 16th of the month Beau-Sejour capitulated, received an English garrison and took the name of Fort Cumberland. The feeble post at Gaspereau was taken a few days afterward, and named Fort Monckton. Captain Rous was despatched with four vessels to capture the fort at the mouth of the St. John's ; but before the fleet could reach Its destination, the French reduced the town to ashes and escaped into the Interior. In a campaign of less than a month, and ■with a loss of only twenty men, the English had made themselves masters of the whole country east of the St. Croix. The war In Acadia M'as at an end ; but what should be done with the peoi)le? The French inhabltan-ts still outnumbered the English nearly three to one. Governor Lawrence and Admiral Boscawen, In con- RUIN OF ACADIA. 263 ference with the chief justice of the province, settled upon the atrocious measure of driving the people into banishment. The first movement was to demand an oath of allegiance which was so framed that the French, as honest Catholics, could not take it. The priests advised the peasants to declare their loyalty, but refuse the oath, M'hich was meant to ensnare their souls. The next step on the j^art of the English was to accuse the French of treason, and to demand the surrender of all their firearms and boats. To this measure the bi'oken-hearted people also submitted. They even offered" to take the oath, but Lawrence declared that, having once refused, they must now take the consequences. The British vessels were made ready, and the work of forcible embarkation began. The country about the isthmus was covered with peaceful hamlets. THE EXILE OF THE ACADIANS.' These were now laid waste, and the people driven into the larger towns on the coast. Others were induced by artifice and treachery to put them- selves into the power of the English. Wherever a sufficient number of the French could be gotten together they were driven on shipboard. They were allowed to take their wives and children and as much property as would not be inconvenient on the vessels. The estates of the province were confiscated, and what could not be appropriated was given to the * Longfellow's Evangeline is founded on this incident. 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. flames. The wails of thousands of bleeding hearts were wafted to heaven with the smoke of burning homes. At the village of Grand Pre four hundred and eighteen unarmed men were called together and shut up in a church. Then came the wives and children, the old men and the motliers, the sick and the infirm, to share the common fate. The whole company numbered more than nineteen hundred souls. The poor crea- tures were driven down to the shore, forced into the boats at the point of the bayonet, and carried to the vessels in the bay. As the moaning fugitives cast a last look at their pleasant town, a column of black smoke floating seaward told the story of desolation. More than three thousand of the hapless Acadians were carried away by the British squadron and scattered, helpless, half starved and dying, among the English colonies. The history of civilized nations furnishes no parallel to this wanton and wicked destruction of an inoifensive colony. CHAPTER XXXIII. EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. THE third campaign planned by Braddock at Alexandria was to be conducted by Governor Shirley of Massachusetts. The expedition was to proceed from Albany to Oswego, and thence by water to the mouth of the Niagara. It was known that Fort Niagara was an insig- nificant post, depending for its defence upon a small ditch, a rotten palisade and a. feeble garrison. To capture this place, to obtain command of the river, and to cut off the communications of the French by way of the lakes, were the objects of the campaign. " Fort du Quesne can hardly detain me more than three or four days," said Braddock to Shirley, " and then I will meet you at Niagara." In the early part of August, Shirley set out at the head of nearly two thousand men. It was the last of the month before he reached Oswego. Here the provincial forces had been ordered to assemble. Four weeks were spent in preparing boats for embarkation. When everything was in readiness, a storm arose ; and when the storm abated, the winds blew in the wrong direction. Then came another tempest and another delay ; then sickness prevailed in the camp. With the beginning of October EXPEDITIONS OF SHIRLEY AND JOHNSON. 265 Shirley declared the lake to be dangerous for navigation. The Indians deserted the standard of a leader whose skill in war consisted in framing excuses. The fact was that the general, while on the march to Oswego, had learned of the destruction of Braddock's army, and feared that a sim- ilar fate might overtake his own. On the 24th of October the greater part of the provincial forces, led by Shirley, marched homeward. Only one result of any importance followed from the campaign — the fort at Oswego was well rebuilt and garrisoned with seven hundred men under Mercer. Far more important was the expedition entrusted to General Wil- liam Johnson. The object had in view was to capture the enemy's fort- ress at Crown Point, and to drive the French from the shores of Lake Champlain. Johnson's army numbered three thousand four hundred men, including a body of friendly Mohawks. The active work of the campaign began early in August, when General Phineas Lyman, at the head of the New England troops, proceeded to the Hudson above Albany, and at a point just below where the river bends ab- ruptly to the west built Fort Edward. Thither in the last days of summer came the commanding general with the main division. The watershed between the Hudson and Lake George is only twelve miles wide. Johnson's army marched across to the head of the lake and laid out a commodious camp. A week was spent in bringing forward the artillery and stores. The soldiers were busy preparing boats for embarkation, and the important matter of fortifying the camp was wholly neglected. In the mean time, Dieskau, the daring command- ant at Crown Point, determined to anticipate the movements of the English. With a force of fourteen hundred French, Canadians and Indians he sailed up Lake Champlain to South Bay. From this point he marched to the upper springs of Wood Creek, intending to strike to the south, pass the English army and capture Fort Edward before the alarm could be given. But the news was carried to General Johnson ; and a force of a thousand men under command of Colonel Williams, accompanied by Hendrick, the gray-haired chieftain of the Mohawks, with two hundred warriors, wa.g sent to the relief of the endangered fort. On the previous night Dieskau's guides had led him out of his course. On the morning of the 8tli of September the French general found himself and his army about four miles north of Fort Edward, on the main road from the Hudson to Lake VICINITY OF L -Lli GEOKGE, 17Jo. 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. George. Just at this time Colonel Williams's regiment and the Mohawks came in sight, marching toward the fort. Dieskau quickly formed an ambush, and the English were entrapped ; but the Indian allies of the French showed themselves to their countiymen, and would not fire. The Canadians and the French poured in a deadly volley ; both Williams and Hendrick fell dead, and the English were thrown into confusion. But Colonel Whiting rallied the troojjs, returned the enemy's fire, and re- treated toward the lake. St. Pierre, one of the French generals, was killed. The noLse of battle M'as heard in Johnson's camp, and preparations were made for a general engagement. There were no entrenchments, but trees were hastily felled for breastworks, and the cannons were brought into position. It M'as Dieskau's plan to rush into the English camp along with the fugitives whom he was driving before him ; but the In- dians, afraid of Johnson's guns, would not join in the assault; the Red men retired to a hill at a safe distance. The Canadians were disheartened ; and the handful of French regulars made the onset almost unsupported. It was the fiercest battle which had yet been fought on American soil. For five hours the conflict was incessant. In the beginning of the engage- ment Johnson received a slight wound and left the field ; but the troops of JSTew England fought on without a commander. Nearly all of Dieskau's regulars were killed. At last the English troops leaped over the fallen trees, charged across the field, and completed the rout. Three times Dieskau was wounded, but he would not retire. His aids came to bear him off; one was shot dead, and he forbade the others. He ordered his servants to brmg him his military dress, and then seated himself on the stump of a tree. A renegade Frenchman belonging to the English army rushed up to make him a prisoner. The wounded general felt for his watch to tender it in token of surrender. The Frenchman, thinking that Dieskau was searching for a pistol, fired, and the brave commander fell, mortally wounded. The victory, though complete, was dearly purchased. Two hun- dred and sixteen of the English were killed, and many others wounded. General Johnson, who had done but little, was greatly praised ; Parliament made him a baronet for gaining a victory which the provincials gained for him. Made wiser by the battle, he now constructed on the site of his camp a substantia! fort, and named it William Henry. The defences of Fort Edward were strengthened witli an additional garrison, and the remainder of the troops returned to their homes. Meanwhile, the French had reinforced Crown Point, and had seized and fortified Ticonderoga. Such was the condition of affairs at the close of 1755. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 267 CHAPTER XXXIV. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. AFTEE the death of Braddock the chief command of the English forces in America was given to Governor Shirley. But no regular military organization had been effected ; and the war was carried on in a desultory manner. Braddock had ruined one army ; Shirley had scat- tered another. On Lake George, Johnson had achieved a marked suc- cess. In the beginning of 1756, Washington at the head of the Vir- ginian provincials repelled the French and Indians in the valley of the Shenandoah. At the same time the Pennsylvania volunteers, choosing Franklin for their colonel, marched to the banks of the Lehigh, built a fort, and made a successful campaign. In the preceding December, Shirley met the colonial governors at New York and planned the move- ments for the following year. One expedition, proceeding by way of the Kennebec, was to threaten Quebec. Forts Frontenac, Toronto and Niagara were to be taken. Du Quesne, Detroit and Mackinaw, deprived of their communications, must of course Surrender. In the mean time, after mucii debate in Parliament, it was decided to consolidate and put under one authority all the military forces in America. The earl of Loudoun received the appointment of commander- in-chief General Abercrombie was second in rank ; and forty British and German officers were commissioned to organize and discipline the colonial army. In the last of April, 1756, Abercrombie, with two bat- talions of regulars, sailed for New York. Lord Loudoun was to follow with a fleet of transports, bearing the artillery, tents, ammunition and equipage of the expedition. The commander waited a month for his vessels, and then sailed without them. On the 15th of June a man-of- war was despatched to America with a hundred thousand pounds to reim- burse the colonies for the expenses of the previous campaigns. At the same time the corps of British officers arrived at New York. Meanwhile, on the 17th of May, Great Britain, after nearly two years of actual hos- tilities, made an open declaratioi^ of war, which was followed by a similar declaration on the part of France. On the 25th of June, Abercrombie reached Albany. He began his great campaign by surveying the town, digging a ditch and quartering 268 HISTORY OF TEE UNITED STATES. his soldiers with the citizens. In July, Lord Loudoun arrived and assumed the command of the colonial army. The French, meanwhile, profiting by these delays, organized a force of more than five thousand men, crossed Lake Ontario and laid siege to Oswego. The marquis of Montcalm, who had succeeded Dieskau as commander-in-chief, led the expedition. At the mouth of Oswego River there were two forts ; the old block-house on the west and the new Fort Ontario on the east. The latter was first attacked. Thirty pieces of cannon were brought to bear on the fortress. After a brave defence of one day, the little garrison abandoned the works and escaped to the old fort across the river. This place was also invested by the French. For two days the English, num- bering only fourteen hundred, held out against the besiegers, and then sur- rendered. A vast amount of ammunition, small arms, accoutrements and provisions fell to the captors. Six vessels of war, three hundred boats, a hundred and twenty cannon and three chests of money were the further fruits of a victory by which France gained the only important outpost of England on the lakes. To please his Indian allies, Montcalm ordered Oswego to be razed to the ground. During this summer the Delawares, false to their treaty, rose in Western Pennsylvania and almost ruined the country. More than a thousand people were killed or carried into captivity. In August, Colonel John Armstrong, at the head of three hundred volunteers, crossed the Alleghanics, and after a twenty days' march reached the Indian town of Kit- taning, forty-five miles north-east from Pittsburg. Lying in concealment until daydawn on the morning of September 8th, the English rose against the savages, and after a desperate battle destroyed them almost to a man. The village was burned and the spirit of the barbarians completely broken. The Americans lost sixteen men. Colonel Armstrong and Captain Hugh Mercer, afterward distinguished in the Eevolution, were both severely wounded. Lord Loudoun continued at Albany. His forces were am2:)ly suffi- cient to capture every stronghold of Canada in the space of six weeks. Instead of marching boldly to the north, he whiled away the summer and fall, talked about an attack from the French, digged ditches, slandered the provincial officers and waited for winter. When the frosts came, he made haste to distribute the colonial troops and to quarter the regulars on the principal towns. The vigilant French, learning what sort of a general they had to cope with, crowded Lake Chamjilain with boats, strengthened Crown Point and completed a fort at Ticonderoga. With the exception of Armstrong's expedition against the Indians, the year 1756 closed with- out a single substantial success on the part of the English. TWO YEARS OF DISASTER. 269 And the year 1757 was equally disastrous. The campaign which was planned by Loudoan was limited to the conquest of Louisburg. Ever since the treaty of Utrecht the French had i-etained Cape Breton ; and the fortress at Louisburg had been made one of the strongest on the con- tinent. On the 20th of June, Lord Loudoun sailed from New York with an army of six thousand regulars. By the first of July he was at Hal- ifax, where he was joined by Admiral Holbourn with a powerful fleet of sixteen men-of-war. There were on board five thousand additional troops fresh from the armies of England. Never was such a use made of a splendid armament. Loudoun landed before Halifax, cleared off a mus- tering plain, and set his officers to cb-illing regiments already skilled in every manoeuvre of war. To heighten the absurdity, the fields about the city were planted with onions. For it was said that the men might take the scurvy ! By and by the news came that the French v&ssels in the harbor of Louisburg outnumbered by one the ships of the English squad- ron. To attack a force that seemed superior to his own was not a part of Loudoun's tactics. Ordering the fleet to go cruising around Cape Breton, he immediately embarked with his army, and sailed for New York. Arriving at this jilace, he proposed to his officers to fortify Long Island in order to defend the continent against an enemy whom he outnumbered four to one. Meanwhile, the daring Montcalm had made a brilliant campaign in the country of Lake George. With a force of six thousand French and Canadians and seventeen hundred Indians he proceeded up the Sorel, entered Lake Champlain, and reached Ticondcroga. The object of the expedition was to capture and destroy Fort William Henry. The French and the Iroquois, who had now abandoned the cause of the colonies, were fired with enthusiasm. Dragging their artillery and boats across the portage to Lake George, they re-embarked, and on the 3d of August laid siege to the English fort. The place was defended by only five hundred men under the brave Colonel Monro ; but there were seventeen hundred additional troops within supporting distance in the adjacent trenches. All this while General Welib was at Fort Edward, but fourteen miles distant, with an army of more than four thousand British regulars. Instead of advancing to the relief of Fort William Henry, Webb held a council to determine if it were not better to retire to Albany, and sent a message to Colonel Monro advising capitulation. For six days the French j^ressed the siege with vigor. The ammu- nition of the garrison was nearly exhausted ; half of the guns were burst; nothing remained but to surrender. Honorable ternis were granted. The English, retaining their private effects, were released ou a ])ledge not to 270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. re-enter the service for eighteen months. A safe escort -was promised to Fort Edward. On the 9th of August the French took possession of the fortress. Unfortunately, the Indians procured a quantity of spirits from the EngUsh camp. Maddened with intoxication, and in spite of the utmost exertions of Montcalm and his officers, the savages fell upon the prisoners and began a massacre. Thirty of the English were tomahawked and many others dragged away into captivity. The retirement of the garrison to Fort Edward became a panic and a rout. Such had been the successes of France during the year that the English had not a single hamlet or fortress remaining in the whole basin of the St. Lawrence. Every cabin where English was spoken had been swept out of the Ohio valley. At the close of the year 1757, France pos- sessed twenty times as much American territory as England ; and five times as much as England and Spain together. Such had been the im- becility of the English management in America that the flag of Great Britain was brought into disgrace. CHAPTER XXXV. TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. r^ EEAT was the discouragement in England. The duke of Newcastle ^ and his associates in the government were obliged to resign. A new ministry was formed, at the head of which was placed that remarkable man William Pitt, called the Great Commoner. The imbecile Lord Loudoun was deposed from the American army. General Abercrombie was appointed to succeed him ; but the main reliance for success M-as placed, not so much on the commander-in-chief, as on an efficient corps of subordinate officers whom the wisdom of Pitt now directed to America. Admiral Boscawen was put in command of the fleet, consisting of twenty- two ships of the line and fifteen frigates. The able general Amherst was to lead a division. Young Lord Howe, brave and amiable, was next in rank to Abercrombie. The gallant James Wolfe led a brigade. General Forbes held an important command ; and Colonel Sichard Montgomery was at the head of a regiment. Three campaigns were planned for 1758. Amherst, acting in con- TWO YEARS OF SUCCESSES. 271 junction with the fleet, was to capture Louisburg. Lord Howe, under the direction of the commander-in-chief, was to reduce Crown Poiut and Ticonderoga. The recovery of the Ohio valley was entrusted to General Forbes. On the 28th of May, Amherst, at the head of ten thousand eifective men, reached Halifax. In six days more the fleet was anchored in Gabarus Bay. Wolfe put his division into boats, rowed through the surf under fire of the French batteries, and gained the shore without serious loss. The French dismantled their battery and retreated. Wolfe next gained possession of the north-east harbor and planted heavy guns on the cape near the lighthouse. From this jDosition the island battery of the French was soon silenced. Louisburg v/as fairly invested, and the siege was pressed with great vigor. On the 21st of July three French vessels were burned in the harbor. Two days later, the Prudent, a seventy-four gun ship, was fired and destroyed by the English boats. The town was already a heap of ruins, and the walls of the fortress began to crumble. For a whole week the French soldiers had no place where they could rest in safety ; of their fifty-two cannon only twelve remained in position. Further resistance was hopeless. On the 28th of July Louisburg capitulated. Cape Breton and Prince Edward's Island were sur- rendered to Great Britain. The garrison, together with the marines, in all nearly six thousand men, became prisoners of war and were sent to England. Amherst after his great success abandoned Louisburg, and the fleet took station at Halifax. Meanwhile, General Abercrombie had not been idle. On the 5th of July an army of fifteen thousand men, led by Lord Howe, reached Lake George and embarked for Ticonderoga. With heavy guns and abundant stores the expedition proceeded to the northern extremity of the lake and landed on the western shore. The country about the French fortress was very unfavorable for military operations. The English proceeded with gre