MARCH, 1905. BULLETIN 226. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. Department of Horticulture (Extension Work). AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY I OF Wayne County, New York. UNDER THE DIRECTION OF JOHN CRAIG. Part I — The Apple Industry, Part II — Geology, BY G. F. WARREN, Fellow in Agriculture. BY W. E. McCOURT, Fellow in Geology. ITHACA, N. V. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY. SB 363 .C8 Copy 1 1905. BULLETIN 226. CORNELL UNIVERSITY. AGRICULTURAL LXPERIMENT STATION OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE Department of Horticulture (Hxtension Work). AN APPLE ORCHARD SURVEY OF Wayne County, New York. rXDER Tine DIRECTION OP JOHN CRAIG. Part I — Thh Apple Industry, BY G. F. WARREN, Fellow in Agriculture. Part II — Geology, BY W. E. McCOURT, Fellow In Geology. ITHACA, N. ^. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY ORGAN IZATIOX Of the Cornell Unixeksity Ackkultukal Experiment Station. BOARD 01' CONTROL. the trustees of the uni\'i:ksity. THE AGRICULTURAL COI.LECiE .\N1) SIWTJON UOliNCIL. JACOB GOULD SCHURMAN. Prcsulent of the Umversitv. FRANKLIN C. CORNELL, Truster of the L'niversity. LIBERTY II. BAILEY. Director of the AgricuUnral College and Experiment Station. EMMONS L. WILLIAMS. Treasurer of the Lniversity. JOHN H. COM STOCK. Professor of Entomology. THOMAS F. HUNT, Professor of Agronomy. EXPERIMENTING STAFF. LIBERTY II. liAILEY, Director. JOHN HENRY CO.MSTOCK. i^ntomology. HENRY II. WING, Anim.al llushandry. GEORGE F. ATKINSON. P.otany. JOLIN CRAIG, Horticulture THOMAS E. IIL'NT. Agronomy. RAYMOND A. PEARSON, Dairy Industry. JAY A. BONSTEEL, Soil Investigation. MARK V. SLINGERLAND, Entomology. GEORGE \\\ C A VAN AUG H, Chemistry. JOHN L. STONE, Agronomy. JAMES E, RICE, Poultry llushandry. STEVENSON W. FLETCHER, Horticulture. JOHN W. GILMORE, Agronomy. HERBERT H. WHETZEL, Plant Pathology. SAMUEL ERASER, Agronomy. JAMES A. BIZZELL, Chemistry. JOHN M. TRUE^IAN, Animal ilu.shandrv and Dairv Industry. CHARLES E. HUNN. Horticulture. Office of the Director. 17 Morrill Hall. The regular hulletms cd" ihe Station are sent free t(j persons residing in New Yorl State who recpiest them. C College of Agriculture. Cornell University, Ithaca, X. Y. ,r^ Hon. Charles A. Wieting. Conniiissioiier of Acrricnlturc: ^ Sir. — At the first annual meeting of the Fruit Growers' Society of Western New York, held at Rochester in January, 1856, the following" question was a suhject of lively dehate : " Can the cultivation of fruits for market on an extensive scale be recommended to the farmers of Western Xew York ? " One of the most emphatic parts of the discussion was that contributed by I^atrick r.arr_\-, who explained the westward trend of wheat-growing and called attention, tt^ the natural advantages offered by Western Xew York for commercial fruit-growing. He opened his discussion as follows : " I would answer without the slightest hesitation — yes. The circum- stances in which Western X"ew York is placed to-da\- are quite different from those of a few years ago. The Great West has been opened up by railroads, and the fanners of Illinois, Wisconsin, and the Western States can send forward their wheat and other grain crops to the seaboard with rapidity and at cheap rates. This has created a vast competition for our farmers. " Here our farming lands are worth from $50 to $100 per acre, while ihe\- are worn and need manure. In the West the richest and finest soils under the sun can be bought for ^4 or $5 per acre, ready for the plow. The weevil, too. of late Acars has made sad work with the wheat crops; and is it not high time that the farmer should make some inquir_\- con- cerning other objects of culture to which he ma_\' aj^propriate his lands and invest his skill and capital to greater advantage? " It seems to me it is, and I think this society should come forward and suggest a mc^re extensive culture of fruits." Mr. Barry's opinions were challenged : but time has seen the fulfilment of them. It is now our privilege, after the lapse of about fifty years, to begin a survey to determine what the status of this great fruit industry has come to be. The work herein described was performed in the season of 1903 ; and this lUilletin comprises a part of the annual report of that year. L. H. Bailey. Director. PREFACE. At the summer meeting of the New York State Fruit-Growers' Asso- ciation held at Olcott Beach in i[)02, the writer made the suggestion that a careful survey of the principal orcharding regions of the State should form a definite part of the function of the society. The sug- gestion met with the approval of the executive, but could not be carried out for lack of men and funds. While the project, of necessity, lay dormant with the society, its importance was immediately realized by former Director Roberts of the Cornell Experiment Station, who, the following year, gave the necessary authorization and provided the funds from Experiment Station resources to make a beginning, and the work was started in June, 1903. Purposes of an orchard survey. — The purposes of such a survey are manifold : 1. To correlate geologic and soil characters with orchard conditions. 2. To compare successt-s and failures, and ascertain underlying- causes. 3. To investigate methods of orchard management and determine the influence of each. 4. Finally, and in short, to collect and tabulate such a mass of data upon practical apple-growing, as will place many moot questions beyond the range of peradventure and furnish indisputal)le evidence iov the assistance of those who are horticultural leaders and teachers. The benefits of feeding, of tillage, of pruning, of spraying are admitted by many ; but. as a matter of fact, the knowledge is made use of by comparatively few. We hear much of the occasional progressive and successful orchardist with his twenty-five to fifty acre well-cared- for orchard, but we do not hear of scores of apple-growers maintain- ing from five to ten acres, who are not convinced at heart that spraying pays, that the tree needs feeding for the apples it bears, or that there is anything in pruning aside from lopping off a limb at a convenient place when it interferes with a wagon, or another limb. Such masses of facts as mav be collected bv examining the soil and condition of 232 EuLLF/riN 226. growth of the trees in luuuh-eds of orcliards, and the uncompromising conchisions which the results of tabulations furnish, are needed to convince those persons who are uniuoved 1)y "" comfortable theorizing'." Stich facts are furnished in abundance in the following pages. They corroborate the best teachings of Cornell and other experiment sta- tions during the past ten years, and should furnish a great incentive toward the wiser manag'ement of our apple orchards in this great apple-growing State. Iloic flic Surrey a'as conducted. — The work was placed in the immedi- ate charge of Mr. G. F. Warren, who. equipped with an experiment station credential (which he was never called upon to use), a soil auger, note-book and camera, all mounted on a l)icycle. made a beginning at Walworth, in Wayne county, in June, 1903. Scope of the surrey. — At hrst we planned to examine every orchard in the count V. This we found to be impracticable after a month had been spent in the single township of W'alworth. Mr. Warren spent three months in the county, and, after examining every orchard in Walworth township, investigated nearly all above five acres in extent in the town- ships adjoining on the north and the south. Idiis carved off a character- istic strij) of country from the west end and furnished a mass of data, from one carefully examined section, with which to compare other data collected in a less concentrated manner. The work was started at Walworth, for here it Avas that orcharding- received its greatest impetus in the county. Sixty years ago there were large numbers of small seedling orchards scattered about, bearing- good, bad and indifferent fruit with j)racticall\- no care. Such were the conditions when T. ( i. Yeomans moved to Wayne county and becanie interested in fruit-growing. He soon started a nursery and for nearly half a centur\- the firm of T. (T Yeomans & Sons grew apple-trees and urged the planting of apple-trees upon their neighbors. The senior member of the tirm set the exaniple himself by planting- more than one hundred and twenty-fi\'e acres of apples. Baldwin, Greening. King, S]>w S]Mtzenl)urg and Roxburv Russet were, and are to-day, leading varieties in \\'ayne and the Lake Ontario counties. Mr. Yeomans believed in tillage and practiced it. Ackiio-a'ledgiiicnt. — To Mr. L. T. Yeomans and E. L. Yeomans, of \Yalworth, where the work l)egan, we are nuich indebted for friendly counsel and heliTul suggestions; to the fruit-growers of the coimty An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 2t,t, we oft'er our thanks for tlie manner in whicli they met the " Experi- ment Station Agents " and freely placed at their disposal the results of such observations and experience as their years in orcharding had brought them. It is hoped that this pamphlet will in some measure return such favors as we gratefully acknowledge on behalf of the held workers. John Craig. PART I THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF WAYNE COUNTY, NEW YORK, G. F. WARREN. CONTENTS. Page. INTRODUCTION 241-247 The field work 241 The degree of accuracy of the reports 244 ^Method of making computations 245 Work in Orleans county ' , 246 General observations on tlic work 246 ClfAPTRK 1. The Magnitude of the Ai'im.k I xdlstkv 249-259 Fruit production per capita 249 Magnitude of the apple crop 250 Production of evaporated apples 251 Value of orchard products of the various states 253 Exports of apples, 185 1- 1904 255 Area devoted to apples in Wayne county 256 Development of the commercial orchard 257 CHAPTER It. Tillage 261-272 Acreage of tilled and untilled orchards 261 Yields of tilled and untilled orchards 262 Does tillage pay ? 264 Results of treatment not immediately apparent 267 Methods of tillage 269 Methods of sod treatment 269 CHAPTER 111. Ferthjz.vtion 2'JT,-2y~ Fertilizers used 2'/t, Fertilization and yield 274 Necessity of fertilization 274 Relative amounts of plant-food removed l)y the a])])le crop and !>y the wheat crop 274 Maniu'e shipped in from cities 276 Manure secured by feeding cattle 2~U Method of applying manure ^77 Cover-crops ^77 Jj8 . Bl'LLl'/nX 22(). CIIAi'ri'.R 1\'. Pace. Pki \IX(; 278-J88 i'Ornicr nK-tliods of prunint^ 27S I li)\\ wounds Ik'.'iI 27S l\cnio\'al i>f large linil)s 279 " Stub " pruning 2S0 L'se of paint mi wounds 28,? Thinning tlic tops 2<7 CIIAI'TI'.K \', Si'K.\vi.\(; . 289-294 The extent of the praetii-e 2^^) [\ el at ion of spray nig In yiidds and |)rices 289 Kinds of sprays used 290 'idle best time t" s])ray 292 Winter treatnu'iit fur ai)ple-scab 29,^ Method of ajiplying the sjiray 293 Russeting of the fruit 293 1 Xamage \'< U ihage frc mi spra\ nig 294 rii.\i'i'i':R VI. l\K\o\'.\TiX(. .\x .Xi'i'i.K Ok(11.\kii IN Wkstekx Xk.w X'okk. I>\' Christian I'lics :■■ ■ -95"-9^ ("I! AriKK \'ll NrMI'.KK OK TkKF.S I'F.K .\lKK .\X1) l)lSr,\N( F, TiKT W KK \ IkKES 299-3O7 Xumbi-r ■ n' trees per aeri- 2()9 i'rees planted ton ehwelv 291) F.ffeels of eliise jilanting on yields and heaUh ,iOO Top-gra fling or |)rnimig (.'xery other row 305 I low ti> ihni .^03 CIIAI'IRR \'lli. Ace of the ( )krii.\Kiis .108-312 Date of planting .w8 X'iehls at different ages ,?o!^ Planting yoimg orrhard^ .^^o riLXPTPR 1\. SoiFs .\xi) Son. Problems .ii3",i-4 d'npocR.M'in' — Topographical regions 3 ',5 An Appli: Orchard Survkv or \V.\^■xl•: County. New York. 239 Page. Soils — The soil types 315 Miami stony loam 316 Alton stony loam 316 Miami silt loam 317 Miami line sand 317 Ontario gravelly loam 317 Relation of the soil to yield of apples 317 Snmmary of the soil factor 318 Dr.\in.\(;e — The natural drainage 319 Losses canseil by lack uf drainage 3J0 CHAPTER X. Elev.\tion.s and Exposures 325-326 Sites 3^5 Relation of the sites and yieUN 325 Aspects, or exposures 325 Relation of tlie aspects and yields 326 CHAPTER XI. .\ Comparison of Rented Orchards with Those Managed bv the Owner, 327-329 Census of rented orchards 327 Effects of the rental system on the orchards ^^2^ Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm 329 CHAPTEP XTI. \^ARIET1ES 330-332 The varieties grown 330 Variations within the variety — the selection of scions 3_^0 CHAPTER Xm. Enemies of the Apple 333-348 List of the more serious enemies 333 The Appi-E-Scap. Eungus — Its importance 335 What is the seal) fungus ? 335 Relation of the weather to the development of scab 2,}J Relative damage on different varieties of apples 338 Relation to other fungi ^ 338 Treatment ' i})'-) Leaf Spot — Caused by the scab fungus 339 Other causes of leaf spot 34° Leaf-blister mite 340 240 Bulletin 226. Page. The Apple-Tree Canker — Description _:i4i The extent of the injury by canker 341 The cause of tlie cankers 344 Treatment 344 Collar Rut — Occurrence and (lescrii)tion 345 The cause of the rot 346 Treatment 34(1 CfTAPTKR XIV. Yields, Markets and Prices 349~355 Total yields in Wayne county 349 Average yields per acre 349 .\\erage \ ields per tree 349 Variations in yield 350 The evaporating industry 350 How the crop is disposed of 351 General considerations concerninLj marketing 353 Average prices 354 Average income per acre 354 SUMMARY 356 CONCLUSION 360 REFERENCES 361 INTRODUCTION. GENERAL METHOD OE \\T)RK. TJie Held zvork. — The lield work was done between June lo and Sep- tember 12, 1903. Nearly all of this time was spent in the apple orchards. In Walworth township, which is in the center of the west part of the county, every orchard as large as one acre was ex- amined. In nearly ever_\- case the owner was inter- viewed for statistics on variet}'. age, fertilization, tillage, spraying", past troubles. }-ields, market, price, etc. The (irchard was examined in order in determine the site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treatment, present condition of health and crop, pruning, diseases, insects, etc. A three-foot soil auger was a i)art of the outfit, and frequent borings were made to determine the physical condition of the soil, texture, structure and the drainage con- ditions. Samples for laboratory analyses were taken of the ditferent soil types. In short, an eft'ort was made to study whatever factors enter into the successful production of apples. All the information obtained was entered in the blank report |)rovided for that purpose (see Fig. 38). These reports are preserved in the Department of Horticulture for reference for the future worker and are, of course, not open to the public. The position and approximate size of each orchard with its number is shown on the map prepared by the United States Geological 241 Fic. 37. — Map shozciiig the location of jrayiw and Orleans cotnitics, A'i'Ti' Vorh. 242 nini-iriiN 22G. u 'A in y. H -f' !> H pj C/J l^ H ^ p^ 't~> ~ in r'. Q 2 C^ p^ < X i-H u^ G ^ r^ c :^, Pi s; V -S- H ■^1 T^; o ^ ^i 'Ni ■ : t] U\c.. 39. — ,/ reduced j^lioloiiral^Ii of llir field map of U'alwoiili lo:cnsl:ip, sliowiug tin j'osilion and. iiiiiiiber of llie orchards. Tins niaf^ i^uis on a scale of four incJies to tin mile. ohserx'ations."" and some of which were recc^rded in a notedjook kept for that pur{)Ose. In ( )ntario townshi]), which lies between the lake and Walworth, ever}' orchard as large as ten acres and a numl)cr of smaller ones were likewise examined. Nearly all the other orchards were seen, and a comparison made with those that were carefully recorded. 244 BuLLirriN 226. In Macedon township, which cxtciuls from Walworth to the southern houndary of the county, every orcliard as lar^c as ten acres and nearly all of those as laroe as five acres were examined. l*racticallv all the other orchards of this town were examined sufficiently to be able to make comparisons with those recorded. ddiese three tow'nshi])s _i;a\e a re[)resentative north and south section of the count}". The differences in going north and south are very much greater than those from east to west. Tlic degree of aeenraey of the reports. — The results are based on all the orchards of Walworth as large as one acre, or 443 orchards con- taining i.//^^^ 2 acres: and on 131 orchards of the remainder of the county containing 1,987 '_. acres. This is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the orchards of the countw Trobably at least one-third of the orchards were examined more en- less carefully. The careful records were made of the above number. The location, site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treat- ment, pruning, present condition, i)resent troubles, soil and soil condi- tions were determined by the observer, aided l)v any suggestions that the owner might give. The ages are a question of meuK^ry and sometimes of hearsay. The appearance of the trees would usualU- enable the inspector to a\'oid an\- large error. The past trouliles except canker-worm, tent cater- ])illar and scab or " fungus "" are not often given, as they are not recognized by many growers. This does not by any means imlicate that no other important enemies have been ])resent. Some have left their effects so apparent that the observer coidd, wdthout difficulty, fill in the ])ast troul)les. The varieties, methods of former treatment, s])raying, fertilization, etc., are fairly accurate, except that the amount of fertilization is not often known. The market and ])rice ])er l)ushel are ([uite accurate. The farmers are ])ractically all glad to be able to bel]) in the work of the l^xperiment Station. Thev imderstand that the rt'])orts are confidential, and therefore ha\-e no incenti^•e to give too high yields. The oidv limit to the accuracx' is the memory of the grower. The a])ple crop is, however, the chief crop and is therefore well remcnd)ere(l. The yields are usually the result of measiu'ement, as the |)eople remember the number of bushels, or the number of pounds, or rememl)er the income and price, from which the yield can be computed. An Applk Okciiard Siir\i:v of W'avnk County. Xi.w "S^ork. 245 The yields for 1903 were seeured by letters to the growers. They doubtless average too high, for those who had a very small erop some- times considered it too small to be worth reporting. The records of the i(;02 yields are the most complete and the most accurate of all. Method of making flic coiiipiitafions. — Since every orchard in Wal- worth was examined, all computations ha\e Ijeen made for this town by itself, and separate ones made for the south and for the north parts of the county. In some cases CJntario and Maccdon townships were each considered separately. Nearly all these computations when yields are concerned are made for the crops of 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903. "i'he conclusions have almost invariably been the same for each year and for each part of the county. In this bulletin they have, in most cases, ben sunmiarized under two heads. Walworth and the remainder of the count}'. In computing- }-ields under various methods of treatment, the yiehls of the orchards set before 18S0 are ordinarily used. Trees set since that date have mostly not arrived at maturity. In computing any one item the others have generally been ignored. The justification for this lies in the fact that so many orchards have been examined that other items will balance. For example, in deter- mining the average yields for orchards having trees set at different distances apart, no attention has l)een given to the care of the orchartl. There are orchards set at all distances that have been well cared for and others that are neglected. The large number examined makes an average of conditions. The danger c^f this method of making calcu- lations lies in possible coordinate factors. The man who tills his orchard may be the man who sprays. Some points of this kind are discussed under the different chapters. To test the method, some compu- tations have been made on the l)asis of sub-groups of orchards otherwise similarly treated. The results have scMuetimes been changed in absolute amounts, but have been unchanged in their relation to each other, or have been so slightlv changed as not to alter the conclusions to which ihey ])oint. The independent calculations for \\\alworth township and for the north and the south ])arts of the county, furnish additional checks. There are usually twelve independent calculations — one for each of these divisions for each of the four vears. When these results all 246 Bulletin 226. point to the same conclusion, they would seem to establish it beyond any reasonable doubt. In this report the results are frequently sum- marized in order to save space. There might seem to be some danger of a large orchard controlling the average, but in no case of any importance has such an orchard changed the relalixe ortler oi the results. Jn making most of the computations, there were orchards for which the information or yields were not secured. These were, of course, omitted, just as an orchard ■ that was not seen. The computations always include e\ery orchard for which the particular data were secured. Work in Orlciiiis coinily. — During the summer of 1904, orchards to the number ot 5O4. including 4,881 acres, were similarly examined in ( )rleans county. In this county the writer was assisted by Mr. C. Hues. Some of the pictures in tliis report were obtained in ihat county. Many references are also made to it,, but all the tabulations are from Wayne count). The tables for the ( )rleans count}' work will be ])ublished later. (j\'iicra/ (ihscmitions cii the work. — The method of doing the work and the kind of information sought were much changed during the progress of the investigation. In the beginning the t\'pe of soil was thought to be of much more im])ortance than it realh' is. The most important points were not considered in the tirst few rej^orts. The relative impijrtance of the ditiferent problems was better seen as the work ])rogressed. The report blank ( I'dg. 38) is \'er\- ditferent from the first one used. Many im])rovements were made when similar work was started in ( )rleans count}-, but there are others that will be made if another connt}' is studied. d he succeeding pages ma\' l)e said to l)e results of exj^eriments of the l)ast seventy-five years in a])]:)le-growing in W'a^ne countw " i'",\er\- farm is an experiment station and everv farmer the director thereof." lUit when these experiments are viewed singh', there are so man\- factors that the success or failure is as likely to be assigned t(^ a wrong cause as to the right out'. As a result we ha\'e the great diversit\' of ojiinion that exists among ap])le-growers. It is b\- studxing and tabulating results from large nmiibers of orchards that important and unimportant factors can be ]iroperl\- correlated. The standards in this bulletin are not ideals, but are in all cases based on what successful men are doing. No one man is following all of them, but each one has been tried. It is impossible to give credit to each An Apple Orchard Survkv oi- Wavxi; Couniv, Xi:\v York. 247 fanner who has aided in the work, for that would mean to enumerate six hundred in Wayne eounty and an equal number in ( Jrleans county, but 1 can not refrain' from mentioning- the willingness with which nearly every one gave the information about his orchard and al)out his successes and failures. It would be very hard to iind a re^^ion where the farmers are more willing; to cooperate with every enterprise of the experiment stations. In writing- this bulletin, I have tried to keep in mind the many questions asked by the farmers, as well as to present the tables of the results of various methods of treatment. 248 Bulletin 226. Making af'fh'' tmrrrls. Hauling the barrels to the orchard. CHAPTER I. The Magnitude of the Apple Industry. Fruit production per capita. — The commercial demand in the United States for fresh fruit has been created during the past fifty years. The small quantity of fruit that was produced half a centurv ago was largely used for wine and cider manufacture, but fresh fruit and canned fruit are now among the staple articles of diet for the laborer as well as for the wealthy. Table i shows that the value of the orchard products on the farm has increased from 33 cents per capita in 1850. to $1.11 per capita in 1900. If all fruits are included the value would he about fifty per cent greater, the amount for 1900 being $1.74 per capita (see Table 2). Much more than these amounts must be spent Table i. Rclati^'c increase of f'oftilalioii and cf I'aluc of orchard products from the census reports. Population. 1850^ 23, 191,876 i860 31,443,321 1870 38,558,371 1880 50,155.783 1900 i 75, 568, 686 Per cent of ifain in lo years. 35.6 21 .3 32.4 Gain in 20 vrs. 5^-1 Value of Orchard Products. $7,723,186 19,991,885 38, 000, 000^ 50,876,154 83,751,840 Per cent of gain in lo years. 1 59 . 90.0 33-9 Gain in 20 vrs. 64.6 ■ 'Values of orchard products arc for the year preceding tlie census. "The vahie of orchard products was not siven for 1890. ^" In 1870 the value of orcliard products returned was $47,335,189. The reduction of tliis amount by t'.ie then cxistin.o' preniium on goh! (j^-.'^i pi-'i' '^'cMit on the a\-erage for the twelve months of the census year. May 31. 1S69, to June r, 1870) wouhl yield about $38,000,000." Tenth Census, Statistics of Agriculture, page xxii. 240 -'^o Bur.LKTix 226. In' the consiiiiier iov ihe Iransportalion, coiiiiuissions aiul prolits in- crease tlie cost several times. A larL;'er proportion of the crop ma\ now he exported, hnt the threat chan,L;"e has l)een in the creation of a home demand for fresli frnit, snch as does not exist in any other conntrv. The great frnit market of the world is the American work- man, and his sta])le frnit is the api)le. The iJiai:;nifiidc of the apple crop. — Of the total nnml)er of orchard trees reported in 1900, 55 per cent were apple, and these prodnced 83 per Taiu.i-: 2. Rrlalivt- rank in fruil pnnlitclion of Ihc Icn Icmiin.i:. fniil-friKluciii,^ sUtlcs, from the eeiisiis iif axK). Orch\i;u Products. All Fruits. Total value. Percent. Rank. Total value. , Per cent. Rank. United States $83. 751,840 California 14. 526, 786 New York 10.542.272 Pennsylvania 7,976.464 (.^hio I 6. 141. 1 18 Illinois ! 3,778,811 Michigan 3. 675, 845 Indiana 3. 166, 338 Missouri 2. Q44. 175 Virginia 2. (^(^2. 483 New Jersey 2. 594. 981 1 00.0 $131,423,517 1 00.0 1 7 3 1 28.280. 104 -I -5 I 12.0 2 15.844.346 12. 1 2 Q-S ,? g. 884. 809 7-5 ,1 7 ■ .1 4 8.901.220 6.8 4 4-3 S 5,455.213 4-1 6 4 4 () 5.859.362 4-5 5 3.8 / 4.630, 169 .^5 7 ,^5 X 4.309.813 .^.^ 8 3 , 2 9 .V 515. 475 -'•7 10 .V I 10 4. 082. 788 3- 1 9 /.eattniii fruil e'lun I u\s in Xeie ]'oik. Okch.ard Pnoui cts. Per cent 1,1 I of the ■'' ^■•*'"^'- N. V. j crop. Niagara $1 . 078. 042 Orleans 839, 71,2 Monroe 768, 927 Wayne 584, 254 Ontario 497, 354 Dutchess 3,77, 427 Ulster ' 354- -62 Westchester 306. 010 Columbia ,?oo. 645 Chautancina [ 296, 679 0.2 1 8.0 2 7-.^ 3 5 • 5 4 4-7 5 .^6 h 34 7 2.9 8 2.9 9 2.8 10 .All F Rt'ITS. Per cent of the N. Y. crop. $1. 184.482 7 -S J 875.270 5-5 () 9-'8.673 5-9 4 903. 875 5-7 5 730. 222 4.6 7 429. 679 ■2-7 in 989, 024 6.2 3 3-29.419 2. 1 15 434. 660 2.7 9 1 , 620, 923 10.2 I An xA.prLK Okciiakm Slk\kv oj- Wavnk County, \'i-:\v York. jc;! cent of the total number of bushels of fruit reported. The average production of apples is about two to three bushels per capita. Of the crop of 175,000,000 bushels in 1899, the States of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio produced nearly 69,000,000 bushels, or over 39 per cent of the total crop in the United States (see Table 3). New 'Vork justly claims hrst place in the quantity and quality of her apple ci"op. Apples are grown in nearly all parts of the State, l)ut it is in the lake counties, Niagara, ( )rleans, Monroe and Wayne that the industry has been niost extensively developed. In 1900, fifteen states outside of New York had a greater number of apple-trees than the combined number in these four counties, l)ut onl\- nine of these states gave a larger crop in 1899. No other count}' in the United States pro- duced as many apples as any one of these. Only four counties : one in Illinois, one in .Missouri and two in Arkansas had as many irees as any one of these. Tlic production of evaporated apples. — Wayne county has come to market the great bulk of its ai)|)le cvop as evaporated a|)ples. The other counties sell nearly all their crop in barrels. According to the last census (see Table 4), Wayne county produces over two-thirds of the evaporated fruit in New York, and produces an amount exceeded b}- only three states. Two of th.ese, ( )regon and North Carolina, onl}' slighth' exceed Wavne county, 'iliis report includes all kinds of evaporated fruit. ( )f evaporated apples. AX'ayne county doubtless pro- duces more than anv State in the L^nion, except, of course. New York ( see Table 41 ). Table t,. Number of af>p!c-trces and yield of apt^les, from the census of iSgo and of 1900. Censi.-s 01-^ lE No. bearing trees 1890. Bushels of apples for the year iS8q. United States .... 120, 152, 795 New York 14.428,381 Pennsj'lvania .... g. 097, 700 Ohio 10,860, 613 Virginia Illinois Michigan Indiana West Virginia. . Missouri Kentucky ...... 4,253.364 6,949.336 8, 582. 386 6,089, 106 ^,870,535 8, 150,442 5, 730, 144 143, 105,689 8.493,846 7. 552, 710 13, 789- -278 8,391,425 9, 600, 785 1 3, 154, 626 8. 784, 038 4, 4,^9, 978 8,698,170 10,679,389 Cens No. trees of bearing age 1900. Bushels of apples for year 301, IS, II, 12, 8, 13, 10, 8, 5, 20, 794, 054 > 774- 9.^2, 190. 430. 927. 624. 441, 040, 757, 764 832 211 625 025 006 899 593 112 399 238 175,397,626 24, 111,257 24,060,651 20.617,480 9,835.982 9. 178,150 8,931,569 8, 620, 278 7,495-743 6, 496, 4.36 6-053.717 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 '■S^ BULLKTIX 226. Takle j — CoiichnhuL Lcadiuii Couittics in Nci^' York Monroe . . . Niagara Wayne Orleans Dutchess. . . . Westchester. Ontario Ulster Chautantiua . Cattaraugus . Erie CENirUS Ol- iS No. bearing trees 1890. 75«, 7^9 1,033,454 659, 890 591,767 -'88. 762 364. 33,3 425. J36 -'51-3^9 460, 1 1 1 366. 536 730, 458 Bushels of apples tor the year 1889. 439, 682 623. 204 1.030. 381 3-'i,7-'6 194-916 57«. 679 591.073 190,038 175,704 3-2, 999 65,212 I 7 13 4 3 14 15 43 37 Census of i.,oo. No. trees ol' bearing age 789, 409 924. 086 796,610 629.401 400.811 3.^6, 135 419-483 .^47- 497 449,317 4.^4,319 631,283 Bushels of apples for year I -436, .59 1 1,421,796 1,393-585 I, 39' -630 990- 244 979,411 933, 764 901, 162 825,633 718,201 476,091 9 10 15 1 .\i;i.E 4. Pmiiids of dncd and ci'uporalrd {mil l^roduccd in iSij^j, from the census of igoo. Pounds of dried fruit. Li nited .States 144, S04. 638 California ' 117. 935. 727 New York 3,658,610 Oregon | 2. 818, 200 North Carolina 2, 744, 450 Tennessee 2, 533, 810 Per cent. Rank. Counties in Seie Yorlc. Per cent Pounds of dried : of the fruit. I N. y. iproduct. Wayne. Ontario Yates . . Monroe Orleans 698, 350 73.'i 508, 300 139 105,820 2.9 87, 160 -2-4 9,500 0.3 Rank. 3 4 10 An Apple Orchard Sur\i:y or Wayne County, New York. 253 ■rt- ro 1-1 M 00 f^ a- o O 0^ t^ 1^ "^ r^, O ''I - t^ o\ 'i- o CO 00 CO '^1 CO f^/ rA inco ^ -f -rv "00 t^ ON ^1 't 1^00 U-) o VO O 00 00 o roO d lO c?. 00 '^J i-H vjD " o>o t u-j -i" ro •^ 't O: 1^ O^ 0\ 'i- '^ -' On O O>C0 fO LOCO t^vo rx ro o\ '-TOO LO " to r^j to OvvO tv) 00 00 t^ t^ o to, CO lo O O 't \0 "O f^ o -tco r^od On >0 t^CO -f ro ^. " ^o CO 1^ r^oo ^1 00 o 1^ -t O « r<0\O O r-J r<^ to d « M to O t^ rn ^Z ^T ^h" rj \o o\ ■* 10 t>» OvVO to On NO ^00 ) On M 00 to O On ■rt- CV) 00 to CO fNl On CN) co' 4 ON - O " C) to — 1^0 On On r^ to ■^ to f^o 00 fNo o CO n to t^O On 'i- On O On " r^ tT r>. >-i in o o ^ f^r to y u O O TO .« . o'o ;-„_•„ ucTj 00<'^---X H .2 "^ •5 E; c o c c 3 CT3 U O ■= b ^ o c ^ <; f>; pi; f^ -\S4 Bulletin- 226. O X 10^ 1^ \0 ^ 0-> On comrf-i-iirj (3^^-|l-H<^^■^ ■-^(XJOiO'i- hh -too lo (-000 0\ "-o r^ (^ ■-' O i-H I^ ~ LO roj 0) 00 "^i t^ ■- \o >-< 0\ >-i vo t^ C3n^ ^ 01 On 1^1 00 00 O O^ t^l KH.^-rt^-T l^O\<^CivC/ O-'ONOrf LOl-^LOO '^O^^ -fioi^-* O -t O 1^ -t- 1-^ <^1 o - u-;00 ►- O O O -f^C -,vO ^ lO ^1 On O u-j 1^ O ^1 O "^ t~^ I-' t- O t->. to t^ ^1 I^ -to ""jnO O. ltiO 1 O. O H^ ^1 -t ^ f^l tVD O ^^ "^1 U H OnOO lO 1^ ' to i~0 o -to "t I^ '^ -t '-' "CO to oi ^ LO — O " -t I^ lO i- On •- 00 - O VO -t ^, o o o o — '^1 O t^ I^ LO "I o' -o d "-, t-^o 0) o o OOC' -t- o> On ■- On O X — "T) ^1 o '^. o On O ■— u <— . (/^ r- — ^1 f"! On t^ On tOOO O -^ -t lO N >0 ^1^ r^. lO "0 iC -t -r o " -t O' r^ -t " - -t ^1 - O 00 f^ O ir,00 00 o to "^-O •^.cc " o cc O O i^j 'O -t lO '^i ^1 O ^o x' 1-^x' -' -t '■A t/^ " ^' > . —. .« U CJ o ' f— .f^. ^ ^ r^ - O fy >^ CI •t " O -r -t '1 •^IX = -:-£ "uQ Q !D U O hp; Ax Applk Orchard Sur\'i-:y of W'avxf. County, New ^'ork. Table 6. Exports of Atopics.''' 1851 1852 i8S3 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 Annual average 1861 1862 1863 [864 1 86 s 1866 1867 [868 1869 1870 Fkesii. Barrels. Annual average. 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 T877 1878 1879 1880 Annual axerage. 888 28, 842 18,411 45,075 15,3^6 33-959 74. 287 33- -201 27,711 32, 979 78, 809 112,523 66, 767 174,502 183,969 120.317 51.612 29- 577 19.874 t 38.157 49. 088 36, 508 241.663 44, 928 276, 209 64. 472 417,065 101,617 505. 018 407.911 Value. $71,367 43.635 107.283 51.766 107,643 143.884 135.280 74. 363 99, 803 206,055 38,860 I $104. 108 ^269, 363 238, 923 364.628 487, 140 481,3.^4 246. 118 142.023 94. 748 t 2^0, 013 88.589 ! $283,810 $136,693 198. 948 819.664 204,312 722. 247 221.764 986. 112 386, 261 980. 455 I. 190, 560 214.448 $584,702 I. 117. 065 176,704 313,921 105. 400 668. 867 744, 539 591,868 489, 570 $2,301,334 539- 543 I. 085. 230 422. 447 1,572. 126 1,810.606 I. S82.872 1.378,801 Ave'ge price. 47 Dried. Value. 68 2.841.532 892, 075 551,350 510.750 775- 700 t 836, no $246,051 105.548 55. 265 79, 922 121. 910 f 79- ?>^7 Average price. 20 I I . 067, 920 •t2 78 5 45 3 39 4 2 55 61 3 3 44 36 80 I 94 2 92 P-7^ 52. 06 3 05 3 46 4.01 2.35 2.43 2.. 34 2.82 I. 150. 122 2. 644. 592 4.483.186 4.234.736 4.053,696 713.840 14.318.052 4. 188,173 7.379.836 3. 158.367 $114,681 4, 632, 460 $79. 026 190. 560 2-2. 028 294. 893 326. 193 67.915 920. 292 260. 085 296. 794 192,069 22.623,652 2,893,270 10. 187,957 5. 558. 746 18,416,573 10,473, 183 8. 1,30,396 11,803, 161 ,247,891 228, 945 786. 800 .^94- 350 , 062, 859 548. 434 4 1 3. ,363 812,682 $0,087 .118 . 100 .156 ■157 t .095 $0. 107 $0 . 069 .072 .061 .070 .080 095 .064 .062 .040 .061 $289,986 ' $0,063 $0,055 .079 .077 .071 .058 .052 .051 .069 *Bulletin 64, and circular 16. Divi.'^ion of Foreign Markcb of Agriculture. t Record not kept. L'. S. Department 256 Bv X 22(X Tablk 6 — Coitcliidcd. 1889 1890 Annual average 1891 189-' 189.^ 1894 1895 . . ; 1896 1897 1898 1899 1 900 Annual rucratje 1901 1902 1903 (904 Kresi Barrels. 942. 406 45.^ 506 560. 385 135-207 938. 743 408. OT 4 78. 580 818.711 360. 00 J .503-981 60 T. 390 vSb, 222 526, 636 575- 549 883.673 459- 719 1.656, I -'9 _'.0l8, 2b2 Value. $2, 249, 375 I. -'31. 436 $1,397,377 $476,897 2. 407. 956 1.097,967 242,617 1,954,318 930, 289 -'.371-143 1,684.717 1,210.459 I , 444. 655 Avf'pl Pounds. price. $2.39 ' -32,102,579 ;.72 $2.49 $3-53 2.57 2.69 3 09 -'•.39 2.58 1.58 2.78 3 -18 2.74 20,861,462 13,305.098 Value. $1,201,070 1 , 038, 682 ^773^ S08 6,973. 26, 042, 7. 966, 2, 846, 7.085. 26,691, 30, 775. 31.031. 19.305. 34. 964. 168 065 819 645 946 963 401 254 739 010 $1,382,102 $2.40 19.368,301 $1,088,104 $409, 605 . 288. 102 482, 085 168,054 461,214 . 340. 507 .340.159 . 897, 725 . 245. 733 ,247,851 Average price. $0 . 054 .050 $0,058 $2,058,964 1.628.886 4, 381,801 5,446,473 U.33 3-54 2.65 2.70 28. 309. 023 15,664,-468 39. 646, 297 48, 301,665 $1,510,581 I. 190.593 2. 378, 635 2.791,421 ■059 .049 .061 ■ 059 .065 .050 .044 .061 .065 .064 $0,056 $0,053 .076 . 060 .058 Areas- — There are in Walworth lu\vnslii[) i,773,'4 acres of orchard made up of areas as larg-e or larger than one acre. This township con- tains ab(->ut 34' J square miles. There are. therefore, 51 acres of apples [)er square mile; or a little over 8 per cent of the land is devoted to orchards, in < )ntario townshiji there are about 40 acres per square mile, in Macedon a1)ont iij acres. With the exception of Walworth and prob- ably .Marion townshi])s. it mav be said that the area devoted to orchards increases as we approach the lake. The total area dex'oted to a])i)les in the countv is al)ont 21.000 acres. riie area of the count\' is ()2i S(|iiare miles. I his g'ivcs 33.8 acres of apples per square mile, or 5.3 ])er cent. The census shows that there are 305.200 acres of improved lanul it takt's time for ik-\\ ideas to become established, ddie farmer is conservative. It is well that he is so. Heeause he moves slowly, he moves siH'el)-. lie ne\er needs lo retrace his steps. We cannot e.x- ])ect e\ery one t(.) acct'])t all the new ideas in orchar inchide ever\ orchard set liefore 1880, tor which reports of \ields could be obtained, and that ever\- orchard in \\'alworth was examined. There can be no further rpiestion as to whether the average sod (^r the average tilled orchard in \\'a\ne cotintx' gives the larger \ield. An Apple Okciiakd Surney of Wayne County, Xew York. 263 '^< o -f r, ^1 ri -. Ph 264 Bulletin 226. A pari of this very great (lilTerence is doubtless due to other factors. The man who regularly tills his t)rcluird is more likely to fertilize, prune and spray well. 'L"o see how much of this dilTerence is due to tillage and how much is due to other factors another classification was made. Tal)le I I shows the average yields of those orchards that have been lairly well cared for. ddie\- differ onl\ in the factor of tillage. All lia\'e received some fertilization, hax'e been fairly \vell jjruned, are not diseased or in bad condition from anv cause. < )f these well cared for orchards the tilled ones gave an average of 33 ]ier cent above the untilled. ddiis tabulation doubtless c"ives too hieh a \ield for the T \ 1; I . E IT. ]'u'!il III buslicls of tilled and sud .n-iluii-ds. ./rrri/.t^r fur tlic entire emtiily of trees set before iSSo. Orehards all leell eared for. rREATMKXT. Tilleil 5 ycar.s or more Filled most years. . . . Sod most years Sod 5 years or more. . 1900. IQOI. No. Acres. '75 -'4 Average yield. .^8 Xo. Acres. .\verage yield. 22 1 77. "4 99 22 181 .^53 21 188 38 -M 209 260 -5 -'44 '< 7-' .25 206 ..4 31 249 45 TREATMKXT. TAP.i.b: I I — Coneluded. Tilled 5 years or mi>re Tilled most years .Sod most years Sod 5 years or more. . No. i Acres. I Average ^ I Yield. ^S I 40 1-'., ^"^ I 261 '; 4''J ! .^65 >: 47 i 356'; Acres. 311 I 23 I 345 3,^9 j 16 99'-' -'35 15 '' 1-2-^ 269 ! 22 iS7h Four- ve.ir Average i average, yield. 3-26 271 -M9 -M5 257 20(1 263 200 orchards in sotl, for in making it all tliscased ones were thrown out. In many cases these should ha\e been included, for the disease fre- i|uently gets a foothold becau^e the sod has lowered the vitality of the trees. The real difference due to sod will therefore lie between the 80 per cent shown b\- Table 10 and the 35 per cent shown b)- Table 11. Docs tiUai::^c pay' — These tables do not show that e\-er_\- sod orchard should be tilled. Init they do show that it would pay to till the average Ax Applk (_)r(ii \ri) Sl'R\■l■.^• di' Wannic C'oi'Xin'. Xi'.w \'()rk. 2f)C^ one. If a sod orchard is g'i\ing good yields, and if the trees are mak- ing sufficient growth to keej) up their vitality, it may be desirable to keep it in sod. I'>_y the liberal use of barnyard manure or straw mulch, an orchard may be kept in good C(:)nditi()n without tillage. The trouble is that so manv do not receive enough of either. The s;une results may be accom])lished with uuich less manure if the orchard is tilled. If the (jrchard is in sod and is not xielding well, or if the trees are losing their vitalitv, even if the vield is still good, it will probably i)a\' to till. Fic. _!T. — One year's firozetli in a eornfield. A five-aere orchard f>lanted by Jay E. .nil's, i'lunpare :eilli /";>. ./-'. \\'hate\'er the best treatment of a thrifty orchard may be, there is no (juestion aljout the ach'isability of tilling one that needs renovating or of tilling young trees (see page 309. and Figs. 41, 42, 43). There are some marked ad\antages of sod. It re(|uires less work to leave the trees in sod. If the land is very ston\', the tillage brings the stones to the surface and makes a bad place for the apples to fall. Sod is also better to haul spray rigs over. Perhaps the greatest a(h'antage is in having a S(^d for the apples to fall on. This is par- ticularly desirable when the entire crop is to be shaken off for evapo- 266 BlTLLETIN 226. ratint;'. C nNXT-crdps will, U> sonn' rxle'iil, lak(.' llir place of sod, l)iU it is clifficnll to j^i'l a s^'ood cover-crop luidcr lar^c trees. Apples usually color better 011 sod and are said to kuep better, hut are not so large. Soiue e.\])erinients are now heini^' cmulucted on these points. Imc. 42.— Our year's i:ro:etli i^'hcn set in liiiiolhy sod. .1 !S-ori-c orchard in Orleans e'-nnly. ( C'i'H//^<;/r leil.'i /•'/-. //.) Here llie Irees are ,>[ seeoiidary iniher/anee. ddllagt', fertilization, prnidng- and si)raying are the chief factors that niter into good cai'e ol an (irchard. ( )ne or more of these ma\- some- times be omitteil without seriously ali'ecting the trees. Tillage ma\- lessen the need for lertilization. Fertili- zation ma\" hel]) to make up for lack of tillage. Some years few insects or fungi attack' the trees, so that spi"a\ ing is not much neeck'd. \ erv ire(|uently a grower brcomes impressed with the importance ot one of these fac- tors and makes a hobby of it to the ex- clusion of all the others: but the most successful man is the one who keeps a proper balance l)etween all foiu", and who does not expect spra\'ing; to replace manure, tillage or jiruning. or vice versa. k;. -I.v — . / I'ere tiii'i'-'''^'s A/i':e('(/ fl/(*»,c eaeli ti-ee re-.e lessen the eril ,'l'feels ,•( so,!. ]]',nihl il nol /\iy heller hi raise oiilv I'Ued ero/r-:.' An Apple Okciiakd Suk\i-:v of Wayne County, New York. 267 Where does your orchard come, in the table on page 350? Is it where you want it to be? If so, continue your present methods; if not, then try to find out where the trouble is. The results of good and bad trcatinoit arc not ahvays apparent the first year. — The great ditftculty in determining what kind of treatment pays best in an}' i)articular orchard is the fact that it may be several years before the results are apparent in the difference in crops. If this fact were kept in mind by the orchardists. a very large part of the differ- Fir,. 44. — Tillage r. neglect. The )-oics on the right reere left in sixt. those on the lefl -i^'crc tillod. The trees zeere other:^'ise similarly treatrd. and arc of the same age. enee of opinion as to the best methcjd of caring for an orchard would disappear. V^ery fre([uently a grower has followed a few years of good care b\' a period of neglect and has received an increased yield as a result. The trees ma}' be making almost no new wood, and ma}' be so lowered in vitality as to be easy victims of canker and other diseases. Yet the increased crop may have persuaded the grower that this is the ideal treatment. Xo care can be good if it docs not look out for the future of the orchard. Alan}' orchards need treatment that will actually decrease the vield for several vears, while care that will 268 IjULLiniX 22(). i;rt'ally increase the yield may he (leslroxini;- the trees or shtjrtenini;- their period of hfe. The most [profitable croj^ that could be ,i^;'Oce;/ in iiiaiix oreliards is ne-:e -'c^'ood. and eoiiseiiuenl jte:^' I'r^or in the frees. The returns may l)e more a])i)arent in fi\e or ten yt'ars tlian in the first \ ear or two. ( jccasionalh" lliere is an orchard that is ^rowins^' too i ; Fu;. 45. — ();((■ Iciiul of " cullurc." 'bin's t\'rl:'e-acrc orcliaid could be reiioenlcil (iiu! iiiaib- a ''ikhI orcluird. fast and tliat would he henelited 1)\ so(l, hut they are not common. A much hirj^cr nnmher are dyiui; hack laster than new wood is l)eing' formed. In Iml;-. 44 is shown an experiment in orchard mana.Q'ement that was carritMl on h\ T. * 1. ^';•olnans \- .^'.mis for n)an\' _\ears. Idle trees on the left were tilled and fertilized. Those on the riijiit were fertilized the same An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayni;; County, New York. 269 but were left in timothy sod. The trees in sod are so badly weakened that the land has been plowed and a start made toward renovating them. Methods of tillage. — Orchards are commonly plowed in the fall. This is frequently done so as to have less spring work. Early spring plowing would seem to be much more desirable for an orchard. The grass or weeds will hold the snow and leaves. In a few orchards the roots are so near the surface as to prevent plowing. Such an orchard may be tilled with a spading harrow, disk or, on sandy soils, with a spring-tooth harrow. The ideal system of tillage for most orchards is early plowing or disking, followed by clean tillage until about July ist. Some kind of a cover-crop is then sown. This cover-crop will produce humus to 1)e ]:)lowed under; it furnishes a partial substitute for sod for the apples to fall on; it will help to remove surplus water during fhe latter part of the season and thus cause the fruit to color better. Fig. 61 and the frontispiece show orchards that are receiving this kind of treatment. Methods of sod trcatiiiciit. — Man_\- of the orchards that are in sod are pastured by cattle, hogs, sheep and horses. From some hay is cut ; from others the grass is not removed, — usually because there is not enough to pay for cutting. A ver\- few farmers are trying the so-called mulch method of cutting the grass that grows in the orchard and leaving it wdiere it falls or throwing it under the trees. There were not enough of them, nor had the work been continued long enough so that a statistical report could be made. Table 12 shows the vields for 1902. with the different methods of sofl treatment. The number of orchards is not sufficient to give con- clusive results. Tt would a])pear that pasturing with cattle is the worst possible treatment for an orchard, a conclusion that is in T.\K(.t: 12. Yields in hiishrls for 190J. -n'l'tli van'ous iiidliods af sud treatment. Tree; set before 18S0. TREATMENT. PasUired with hogs Pastured with sheep Pastured with cattle Sod, not pastured . . No. orchards. 15 54 47 256/2 Average yield. 271 216 159 185 270 Bulletin 226. An Apple Orchard Si'r\i-:v of Wayne CouNT^■, Xicw York. 27T accord with the appearance of the orchards thus pastured. Cattle rub on the trees, break the branches and browse the Hnibs as high as they can reach. The few doUars that it would cost to procure a regular pasture for them is lost many times over l)y the damage to the trees. Horses are not so fre((uently pastured in the orchards, Init are equally injurious. In one case a good young orchard had nearly every tree stripped of its bark by a span of horses. The orchard was worth about five times as much as the horses. Next in the scale of injuriousness to pasturing cattle in an orchard is the raising of hay in it. The hay crop grows in the spring at the time when the apple-trees make their growth. It therefore uses the l)lant-food and water at the time when the trees need it most. If the' grass is left on the grountl the mulch helps to preserve the moisture, and leaves the plant-food so that the damage is not so great. Sheep crop the grass close to the groimd, and so to some extent prevent the large evap- oration that occurs in a hay field. The manure dropped ])}• them is also of consider- able value. Fig. 46 shows an orchard that is pastured b}- sheep earl\ in the season. This is one of the best sod orchards. Large a])plications of barnyard mainire are used. Several of the limbs that show a lack of foliage are infected b\- canker. If sheep are allowed to run in the orchard during the latter ]xvrt of the season, they frequently pick man\- apples. If prices are good, the apples eaten may be of more value than the sheep (see Fig. 47). Pasturing with hogs seems to give better yields than any other method of sod treatment. The hogs usually do considerable rooting, and so prevent the formation of a tough sod. In some cases the orchard that has hogs in it might almost be classed as a tilled orchard. The difference is also largely due to the manure. The hogs receive most of their food from outside the orchard, so that there is a constant addi- tion to the plant-food in the soil. Cattle and sheep are usually fed much less. Fig. 47. — Slirrf !!07'r removed about a barrel of affix's from eaeh free in tin's oreho.rd. 272 Bulletin" 226. Hogs frc(|nenlly do considerable damage to the trees, particular!) if the feed-xard is in the orchard. Around the jjlace where the\ are ted they rub the trunks and roots, pack the soil so as to make it imper\'ious to air, and sometimes hark the lree>. it is well to remember that one good apple-tree is worth more than a hog, and that a small strip of bark removed will usualh' result in a decaxed tree. There should always be a feed-yard outside the orchard. Hogs or shec]) do coiLsiderable good b\' eating the apples that fall early, and so disposing of many worms. X(^ne of tlu' methods of sod treatment ecpial tillage in average yields. A comparison of Table 12 with Table 10 .shows the force of this statement. CHAPTER III. Fertilization. Fertilisers used. — Tlie majority of orchards receive no commercial fertilizer or green manure, but are given a limited amount of barn- yard manure — usually much too limited. One-third receive no fer- tilizing of any kind. Sixty per cent receive barnyard manure, either alone ov in C()ml)ination with commercial fertilizer, green manure, etc.; green manure is used alone or in combination in u per cent; commercial fertilizer is used alone or with other manures in 13 per cent (see Table 13). These figures show too high a percentage receiving some kind of fertilizer. In man}- cases only a little manure was ai)plied. l)ut tlie orchard was included with those receiving manures. In others tlie fertilization was given so long ago as to be of no consec|uence at present. Probably less than half the orchards receive enough to entitle them to be pro]ierly included with those receiving fertilization. Table 13. Suiiiiiiary of fcriiliccrs used. All ages of orchards included. FERTILIZER. U SKJ) Al.O.N'E Used with Other Fertilizers. ^.r/s: No. acres. Per ! No. or- «t„ .,„,^ cent. Ichards. >Io- acres. Per cent. None Barnyard manure Commercial fer- tilizer 214 10 14 145.3^4' 103 ii7;< 44 . 3 38 50q ,M 40 : ^\^ 3.5 17 1 291,'/.^ 15-5 0-5 8.8 Green manure. . . Total. Xo. or- chards. No. acres. 154 IIOI>^ 2J2 I962-?4 50 31 416 409 Per cent. 33-5 59 7 12.6 I-2-3 Orchards receiving no fertilization of any kind. Walworth South part of county. North part of county No. orchards. Per cent. 117 21 16 453 241 407' 31-4 62.2 28.1 In many of the fertilized orchards the manure was used with a view to helping some crop ])lanted in the orchard. Of course if it is applied, the apple-trees will make use of a part of it. 2/4 'ULI.ETIX 226. Fcrtilicafioii and yield. — I'hc records of the use of barnyard manure and fertilizers do not cover a long- enough period to be used in com- ])aring crops before n;o2. Idie average yields of fertilized orchards for the years 1902 and 1903 were 55 bushels above that of those that were unfertilized (see Table 14). , I .\^,^.K 14. )'icld in bushels fur JOOJ and iQOJ! fur fertilized and iiiifcrtiliccd orchards. Trees set before rSHo. 1902. Averasjc yield': 1903. Two-year average. No orcliards. 292 III Acres. orchards. Acres. Average yield. Fertilized Unfertilized 2. 1 16 '4 692 ^33 173 147 44 I.2I0;i 343 }< 281 231 257 202 X'cccssify for fcrfiIi:atioii. — The cultivated orchards demand much less fertilization than ihr untilled ones, for the tillage makes food that is in the soil a\ailal>le. Ilu're are, ho\ve\'er, \erv few soils that do not need some material added at l^T-ast in the form of green mamu'C. Many of the less progressix'e growers fail to recognize the orchard as a cro]) thai r((|uirc's food a-^ do other cro])S. A coiumon rei)ly to the ([uestion of llu' kind ()i manure used was, " We don't raise anything in the orchard so we do not use an\ manure e)r fertilizer,"" the growth of wood, leaves, and a])])les not being recognized as a drain on the plant- food in the soil. lUit the numl)er of those who recognize the orchard as a cro]) re(|uiring food and care is r;i])idl\' increasing. The small, light- colored lea\es, tin- \ ery little growth, the small ap])les, are re([uests for food. The owner should answer the demand with manure or tillage, usuall_\' with both. Tlir aniDiiiit of f'laiif-food rriiiorcd by flic affic cvof^ compared loith that rcniorcd by the ivlicat crof'. — The following tables, based on lUilletin No. 103 of this Station, show something of the demands made bv the i\])\)\q orchard. All the leaves were gathered from a meditun-sized, mature apple-tree and were analyzed. The trimk, liranches and the roots were also analvzed.* ■'Cornell P.ulletin T03. Octnljcr, iSo.^ Thi'^ Inilletin is n nil (if print. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County,' New York. 275 Table 15. Plant-food in apple leaves. Total weight Total weight water Total weight dry matter Total weight nitrogen Total weight phosphoric acid Total weight potash Leaves of one tree analyzed. Estimated for one acre of 35 trees. T\m-F. r6. I'laiit-fiind in wood and roots. Wood and roots of one tree analyzed. Estimated for one acre of js trees. Estimated amount removed per year.* Total weight 5,251.4 lbs. 2,300.18 " 2.951.22 " 8.09 " 3.07 " 7-55 " Total weight water Total weight dry matter Total weight nitrogen 283.15 lbs. 107.45 " 264.25 " 6.29 lbs. 2.39 " 5-87 " Total weight phosphoric acid... . Total weight potash *To get the estimate of the amount required for wood and roots each year, it was assumed that *'-■ of the mature tree was grown each year. Trees 45 years old are usually larger than the tree analyzed. Grain Straw T.vBi.F. 17. Composition of i^'hrat. Water. Nitrogen. 14-75% 2.36% 12.56 .56 Phosphoric acid. 0.89% . 12 Potash. 0.61% • 51 Water. 85 -Sf^ Composition of apples. Nitrogen. 0.13;; Phosphoric acid. o.oW Potash. O. l()'/ 276 BuLLi-yrix 226. ■|\\i:i.K 18. Total plant-food rcnioi'cd in one year hy i^'liraf and by apples. Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. Potash. ^00 bushels of apples 19.50 lbs. .^3 60 • • 6,29 " 1.50 lbs. 12.95 " 2.39 " 28.50 46.20 5.87 Leaves Wood Total 59.39 lbs. 16.84 lbs. 80.57 20 bushels of wheat 2, =500 pounds wheat straw 28.32 lbs. 14.00 '■ 10.68 lbs. 300 " 7-32 12.75 Total 42.32 lbs. 13.68 lbs. 20.07 According to these estimates it requires, for crops of tlie size indicated, about four times as miiclT pijtasli, and more nitrogen and phosphoric acid, to grow tilt- ap])k's than is re(|uired to grow tlic wheat, in considering these tables there are several points to kee]) in minth ddie apple roots go deeiKT into the ground and so have more soil from wliich to draw their food su|;)pl\-. If the grotmd has some kind of a crop growing on it, the leax't'S may he largely retained in tlu' orchard. Tlie amount of plant-lood used b\ the wood is ncjt very wfll known, as it is difficult to determine what an a\erage growth is. Ihit e\'en the 300 bushels of ap|)les, without any leaves or wood growth, recjiiire more ])otash and nearlv half as much nitrogen as is ri'tphred to produce the wheat and straw. Manure may he shipped in jroiii llic cities. — .\ few of the more pro- gressive growers h:i\-e ship])e(l in luanure from lUiffalo. This costs about $28 ])c\- car. but if ap])lied when needed it gives a very large rctiu'n. Sonu' ha\ e feared to use- it on account of the danger of getting weed seed. There seems to be no troul)le in subduing an}- weeds that come with it when it is a])plied to the orchard. There may be some danger of animrd diseases being carried in the manure. A niuch larger total of manure is secured from the manv smaller cities and towns, but this is nsuallx- not obtainable in very large quantities. Manure may he proiitahly secured hy the feedin;^ of cattle. — A few growers have fed cattle during the winter in order to secure manure. This enables them to buy their fertilizer in the form of feed. The cattle usually give a fair protit. The manure obtained, added to this, makes An Apple Orchard Surn'ey of Wayne County, New York. 277 the practice quite protitahle. it seems probable that more of this winter feeding will be done in the future. The expense of caring for stock in the winter is not very great. Hie fertilizing value of the feed is frequently over half of its cost.* Method of applyiiti^ iiiainirc. — Manure is almost always applied in a small circle around the base of the tree. This is a serious mistake. The roots of a bearing orchard occujiy all the ground. Those from one row may extend beyond the next row. The small feeding roots are naturally most numerous at some distance from the tree, much as the active twigs are found at the ends of the large branches. The manure should therefore be applied to the entire ground. If any place is not covered, let it be that near the trunk. Professor Roberts has aptly likened the application around the trunk to putting the hay under the horse's feet. CoTcr-crops. — 'More orchards are in need of hunnis than are in need of the direct application of plant-food. For this reason the applica- tion of barnyard manure generally gives nuich better results than the use of fertilizers. This is particularly true of sod orchards. Tilled orchards usually do as well when green manure with ])otash and phos- phoric acid are used. On some of the stronger soils no fertilization of any kind may be needed for many years, if plenty of green manure is plowed under. Eight per cent of the mature orchards of the county were sown to cover- crops in 1902. Buckwheat was the most common, followed by crim- son clover and common red clover. Rye, large clover, cow-peas, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch were also grown. Buckwheat furnishes a large amount of humus and leaves the soil in a friable condition. It is not a legume, and so can; not use nitrogen from the air. Crimson clover has generally done well, but some growers have had difficulty in getting a stand. One man has grown it every other year for fourteen years. Common red clover has been most satisfactory when a year of tillage has been followed by a year in which the clover is cut and left on the land to be plowed under the second year. Peas and oats have given good results in most cases. t *For tables of the value of the fertilizing elements in various feeds, see Cornt'.'l Bulletin 154. tl'^or a more extended discussion of orchard cover-crops, see Cornell Bulletin rgS. CHAPTER IV. Pruning. The 'foDiicr methods of pniiiiiig. — Pruning was at first greatly neg- lected, just as the majority of orchards were formerly left to fight their way in competition with other plants, so the limbs in each tree were allowed to fight with each other. ( )nlv a few orchards have I)een well pruned from the time of planting. In some pruning was almost entirely netiiected for xcars ; in others it was done and is still '^ ~v W Y ^>U/-4 \'f f :-7C cjoinids heal. — Intelligent pruning is l)ased on a knowledge of the causes ot deca\'. ;md of the wa\' in which winuids heal. An Applf. Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 279 The living- and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This is a tissue lying upon the outside of the wood and beneath the bark. From its outside it produces bark, and from its inside it produces wood. It is this layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark " slii) " so readily in early summer. The inner part of the tree is not active; its value to the tree is in supporting the living part. If this center part decays, the tree usually continues to grow till it breaks down (see Fig. ^2). This dead inner wood is protected by the bark and living portion so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a large limb is removed the seal is broken and the dead wood is exposed. Having no life, it cannot resist infection bv germs anv more than a dead log can do so. The safety of the tree depends on having the wound healed over before it becomes infected. The wound heals by the growth of the cambium layer. If the wound is small it will usually be sealed up before the fungi get established; but if the dead stub is exposed for a long time the wood-rot fungi are almost certain to attack it and cause the trunk to decay. If the wound does then heal over, the mycelium of the fungi is established and may continue to grow within the tree." The decay may reach into the living tissue, luit its most serious effects are in so weakening the trunk as to cause it to break down. In order to avoid the rotten trunks that are so common in the mai(M'it)' of the orchards, three things should be observed : 1. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is absolutely necessary. 2. When such linibs must be removed, the pruning should be so done as to favor rapid healing of the wounds. 3. Large wounds should be protected by paint till the tree can seal them. llic rciiioi'al of lari^c liiiihs. — The itleal way would be to have the tree so pruned from the time it is planted that there would never be occasion for the removal of large limbs. But very manv orchards were neglected so long that it may be necessary to cut out such limbs. Eighteen per cent of the orchards are still practically unpruned. In a neglected orchard some limbs may be damaged bv neglect or lack of food. ( )thers die as a result of the shade caused bv dense tops, or the trees being too close together. Even in a well cared for orchard an occasional limb will be brcjken by the wind, or l)y too heavy a load of fruit, or will die from other causes. Hut much of the removal of 'Cornell Bulletin i93,Slia(k> Trees and Timber-Destroying Fungi. 28o IjUI.LiniX 22(\ lar^v limljs is done without cause. In the orchard shown in I'ig. 48, the trees liad Itx) many of these as a result of neglect, hut it would ha\e l)een ht'tter to ha\e thinnetl the tops by the removal of small l)ranches tlian hy cutting out the scaffold limbs. It takes more time to ])rune by the former method, but the time is well spent. l"he ulti- mate death of most trees can be traced to the careless removal of large limbs. The \'(nmd is too large to heal, or the cut is made in such a way that it can m heal. W'diid-rnt fungi gel a foothold and soon tlu' trei' has ' a hollow trunk. The wind tluii breaks off the branches one b\' one till the tree is gone ( see Fig^. =,2 and 54). .S7;//' /^niiiiiij^. — Much can be done to ])re\'ent the fungi and bacteria from getting a foothold. If tlu' limb is ctit close to tlu' body of the tree, and ])arallel with it, the tree will be able to heal wounds ol considerable size before decav sets in. The pruning should be done in such a manner that no portion of the am])Utated hrancli i> left. If a limb is cut an inch from the bo(l\- the wcnmd re(|uirrs luuch longer to heal than it would if no stub were left. A stub several inches long seldom heals o\-i-r. It has no life of its own, ami so nnrst dei)end on material that comes from other branches to heal it ; but a i)rojecting stub is out of the line of move- ment of the sa]) — it is sidetracked. Instead of healing over the end of the stub, a roll of new growth is thrown up around its base wdiere the cut should have \)vvn made. In a little owv sixteen per cent of the orchards examincfl bad stubs were left, varying iu length from one or two inches. to one foot. Fig. 49. — Long stubs left i^'lici! pniniiig. These eaiisc the trunks to de- cay and finally result in broken trees. An AiTLR ()k(1iari) Sl'r\i:n" oi^ ^\'A^"XI•: County, Nkw York. 281 There are two reasons for leaving these long stubs. One, 1 fear the more common one, is because it is easier to do so. Llut many farmers leave a long- stub when a large limb must be removed because they think that the wound will be too large to heal, and by leaving the long stub they hope to keep the rot away from the tree. The rapidity with which fungi penetrate the wood after they get started refutes this J) r act ice. Success must come from preventing the start of decay, not from giving it a long dis- tance to travel be- fore it gets into the trunk. In one fort\- acre orchard the w n e r left s t u 1 > s about a foot long to serve as ladders ! His successor has gone through the orchard and cut these off and has done what was pos- sible to prevent further decay. In Fig. 49 is shown a tree with long stubs that will result in its death. Fig. 54 gives what will be the next step. The outside of this stub shows the seed-forming bodies (spore fruits) of the fungi ; Init it does not look ver\- bad. while the inside is so decaxed that it only needed a good load of fruit to l)reak the tree. Fig. 53 is another stub that will ultimately cause the death of the tree. The tape-measure sIkiws how far the stick extends into the decayed hole. The decay, of course, goes nuich farther. Fig. 50 shows a decayed hole that was caused b\ leaving a large wouncl Fig. 50. — Till (u.^-t./ hale caused by zvood-dcstroyiiig finiiii. (Sec /'/.i^.v. il and ,^-'.) 282 Bulletin 226. Fir.. 51. — The saiiir Irrc as Fiii. 50, slniwiiiij, the extent i>f tJic decay. The tree 7eas ahaut r6 inehes in iHnineler ami had mily about lii'o inehes of S(Uiiid zvood on llie outside, a mere shell. Tlie ^^'hite mould is the mycelium of fungi. An Apple Orciiaku Sl'kx'ey of Wavxk Counts-, Xi.:\\- ^'()KK. 283 unpainted. The hole is now neai"l\- closed, l)ut it is too late, as will be seen by big. 51. which shows the inside of the same tree. There is onlv a few inches of undecayed wood on the outside of the trunk. The white mould (mycelium) all through the trunk shows how badly decayed the tree is. The tree was a very thrifty one. and was apparently unaffected, but the rotted trunk was no longer strong enough to support it ( b'ig. 52). Paint should be used on the hirger zcouiids. — Only a very few orchards were seen where paint was used. Painting the wounds should become Fig. 52. — J he rotten Intnk itsiillcd in the breaking of llic tree. {See Figs. ^^o-_^t.) an accepted practice. The ])aint does not help to heal the wounds, nor does it hinder healing, as some have supposed. It is to ])revenl the wood- rot fungi from getting a foothold. It acts as a ]iartial seal till the tree can protect the wound in its own way — b\- healing (^ver the place. It has a similar eft'ect as it has on farm machiner}-. It protects from weather and prevents fungi and bacteria from causing decay. The cost of painting all the wounds above two inches in diameter is not great. If this is done, and if the larger ones are repainted every year, the increased longevity of the tree will amply repay the cost. One good apple-tree will pay for ^^4 LklLLETIN 22(^ ])aiiUin_y inan\' wounds. Lead painl is llic most satisfactory for this pur- pose, hut an\ (hn-al)lc paint is prohaljly ,c^oo(L ■ Tliiiiniir^ I he loj^s. — If the tops are so dense that air can not circulate through tlieni it i> ahiio^t imi)ossihli' to spra_\" well. The moisture remains long after e\'er\- rain or dew, and so favors all kinds of fungous growths. The fruit will he of ])i)iir (|uality and ])oorly colored. Dense tops fa\nr the de\elopmcnt of insects and diseases, l)ut not of api:)les. The frontispiece sliows a w ell- p r u n e d tree. Notice that the light shines throug-h the to]) in spite of the fact that there is a large crop of fruit and excellent foliage. (Contrast this with l-'ig. 5<). lUit even this latter orchard is l)etter iM'uned than the average. f'niiiiiii; should rary re//// /he fhrifl of the frees. — If an (irchard is so treated that the lea\es are small and the growth ver\ little, many more liml)s should l)e left llian in a thrift\ orchard. \'i)n\- color of the fruit in tilled orchards could he im- ])i-o\-e(l to some extent if these trees were pruned more o])enly. The tree in the frontis]:»iece shows ideal conditions. The air and light can lilter thrcuigh the to]) and reach everx' leaf and ever\- api)le. If this tree were not tilled or fertilized it coidd have ahout doul)Ie the numher of limhs without making the tops an\' denser. A neglected tree wotdd he a mere skeU'ton it i)runed as this thrift\' tree is i)runed. 11 'hen /'v ///(' hesi /line to f^nnie.' — As a result of a series of experiments in i)runin llh ri'llni Iniiik. An Apple Orchard Sitr\-i.:y oi- W.wxk (\)u\rN', Xi-.w \'*)rk. 285 follows: "The conclusion, — and ni_\- general ()])inion, — in resix'ct to the season of pruning', so far as the healing' of wcjunds is concerned, is this: The ideal time is in spring. i>efore growth begins (late February. March and earl\- April in Xew York:) but more depends on the i)i)sition of the wduncl in the tree and Fig. 55.— 77/t- crolch wliirli ■i^'ill i^rohahly cause llic tree to splii. Que of the leaders should be rciv.oved. Fic. 54. — The loiiii stub resulted in Ihe Jn-olceii tree. ihe length of the stul) than ()n the time of year.'"'" 'Ihe l)est time to ])rune will gener- ally lie the time when labor is least expen- si\'e. Ho'ir to treat crotches. — Idic best \vay to treat a crotch is ne\er tt) allow one to form: l)nt when one secures an orch;ird in which the}' are already formed he must do what is ])ossible to correct the weakness. In ]'"ig. 55 is shown ;i young tree with a l)ad crotch that will be quite certain to ruin it. ( )ne of the forks should be cut off. I'^ig. 56 shows the trunk of an old tree similarly pruned. Fig'. 57. from the same orchard as ^The Pruning-Book. fourtli edition. IQ02, _>sr) Bui.LI'/nN 22Ck Fic. 56.- -riu ("(;;( /'(• S(i:\ the /u ha • rrsiili of had crotches. The trc, (I for finllicr usefulness by bolliiit 'res to"clJiei: '''.^'- S*^'' shows two lit. d here are only a few orchards in the hnn- dreds examined in which the trees were tlms sys- lematic~all\' ))rnned t() form crolche>, hnt in a larj^'e iinmher of orchards a few trees ha\e them. ddu' split trees and those ihal are in dant^'er of split- ting- can \et be sa\'ed by the nsc' of bolts. A band ])ut aronnd a tree will ^i^'irdle it, bnt a bolt pnt thron,f;h it does no ai)]:)re- Fro. ^j — TJir fmal result of had crotches. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 287 ciable damag-e. If two bolts that hook into a connecting chain of suitable length are used, the work can be much more easily done. The two holes are then not necessarily in the same line. The chain also- allows for variation in length. ( )ne bolt is put through one branch, the other is put nearly through the other branch, and the chain is hooked on at the proper length. The bolts are then di'awn up. i)v bolts with hooks or rings on one end may be used and strong vvire used to fasten them together. X umber of scaf- fold limbs. — In Fig. 58 is shown a tree with too man}- scaf- fold, or frame work, limbs. The time to avoid this is when the tree is young. Some of the smaller limbs might still be removed with safety if the wounds are kept well painted. Fig. 58.— Too ;/ ,1,:] ^ .-" Half of //;c.s. hai'c been pruned out 'a'lieii the tree zvas young. 288 P>ri.i.i-/n.\ 226. -^'-CC^t^S^S r^'-~ "~ ■f"'*-^''^^'w^«r.^"v^'^ The iisiiiil inclhixl of snrlitr^ in Orlnnis (■nmily — dircclly front the lahle. I'ieking from llie lehle — n slox^w bnt more careful melliod of sorlinj. CHAPTER V. Spkavixg. The extent of the practice. — The fact that so many growers evaporate their entire crop gives rise to a general laxit\- in spraying. A Httle over 41 per cent of the trees set before 1880 were sprayed in 1903. One-third- are seldom or never sprayed. In iyo2 most bnyers of a])ples for evaporating paid the same price regardless of the scab fungus. This fungus does not seriously damage apples for evaporating unless it is so bad that it stunts or distorts the apple or makes it crack. ( See b'ig. 81.) In 1902 it was very bad in many orchards. The clean apples were generally considered to be worth more, but were bought at the same price, as one man said. " in order to keep peace in the neighborhood." This puts a premium on neglect and prob- ably accounts for the large number who do not believe in spraying and for the considerable number of those who do spray but do not use the Bordeaux mixture. Effects of sprayiir^ on the yield ond f>riee. — The damage from insects and the apple-scab in 1903 was much less than usual. But even in this year of few insects and little fungus, when most peojjle " saw nothing to spray for," spraying paid. The average yield of the sprayed orchards was 2/ bushels more than that of the unsprayed. (See table 19). This was probably due chiefly to the prevention of the large loss caused by the bud-moth and to the loss from the codlin-moth. The l)ud-moth did considerable damage in man\- orchards, l:)ut its work was not com- monly seen, or if seen, was attributed to a bad wind that made many leaves turn brown at about the time when the bud-moth caused the young shoots to die. The codlin-moth causes man\- ajiples to fall early in the season. A part of the difference may be due to other factors as the sprayed orchards averaged a little better in other treatment. Tai'.le ig. Yield ill bushels in rgos of sprayed and unsprayed orehards. Trees set before r88o. Sprayed No. of 1 No. of I .Average yield orchards. I acres. per acre. 66 626^4 ' -280 Unsprayed ■. 107 673 253 289 290 Bulli:tix 226. Tablk 20. Price per barrel of sprayeii mid iinspraycd apples in 1903. Sprayed . . . Unspraycd No. I if barrels. 8.430 6,365 Average price per barrel. p 02 I 80 Ta1!I,K _m, .■Iz'cragc price per bushel of sf^i-nyed and iiiisprayed apl^les in WOj. Xn. i.f bushels. Average price per bushel. Sprayed Sprayed, dried l)y grower . . . Unsprayed Unsprayed, dried by grower 110.445 63. 145 96. 345 64, 305 $0 31.8 ^7-7 The average price per barrel of the sprayed apples was $2.02 ; of the unsi)ra}'e(l, $[.80. I^'roni the si)ra_\c'(l orchards 15 per cent of the crop was barreled: from the unspra\ed. 12 i)er cent. \\ ithont considering" the ai)ples that we-re evapoVated by the grower, the average price of sprayed apples was 3 1 .S eeiits \)vv Inishel ; of nnsi)ra\ed. 2J.J cents. If we count the' ap])k's that were cx'aporated b\- the growers as worth 20.7 cents, the average price paid for apples b\ the evaporators, then the income ])er acre from spra\ed orchards ax'eraged $77.84; from the unspra_\-ed. $()3. ( See tal)les 20 and 21. ) Most of the spraved orchards were si)rayed l)ut once. A]_)ples from manv \- poisons for tlie very simple reason tliat they can not eat poison. \\"e would not expect to kill a mosquito hy ])utting ])oison on the hand .and letting him suck the hlood from under it — his food. tlu> hlood. is not |)oisoned. These in>ects feed in a similar m.anner. Idiey suck the juices from the pl.ant .and do not t.ake .any material from the surface. They must he killed hy kerosene; whale oil soa]) ; lime, salt and sulfur, or hy some other spray that kills hy cont.act. Only those which are hit hy the spray are killed. Tile various fungi are plants. We might call them weeds that have chosen to grow on the apple rather than on the ground. They can not eat Paris green nor are they killed t)y kerosene and such sprays. For them some fungicide, as Bordeaux mixture, must he used. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 293 consider that ofood. clean foliage is necessary in order to form the next year's frnit-buds and in order to store up food for the next year's crop. JViiifcr treatment for apple-scab. — Quite a number of farmers are con- sidering" the advisability of spraying for the scab before the buds open. This treatment will not take the place of later applications. If one gives it he should do so with the understanding that it is in addition to the later sprayings, and not a substitute for them. " When these are made the winter treatment docs not bring sufficient additional benetit to justify the additiouial exijense of making it against the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also against the canker disease and combined with some application which must be made against insects such as case-bearers or bud-moth. " It is known that the seal) lives during the winter on the fallen leaves and in the spring produces spores by means of which it spreads to the new foliage. Probably it may exist during winter to some extent on the bark of young twigs also. Granting that this is the case and that a large part of the fungus on the tree is killed by winter treatment, which is improbable, it is evident that when the new foliage appears it must be covered with some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on the fallen leaves. * '■' *" * Method of applying the spray. — In order to do effective spraying there must be plent}' of power back of the pump. Good work is sometimes done with hand pumps, but the tops of large trees are not often well sprayed, nor is the work usually as well done with these machines as when pow'er s])rayers are used. The power sprayer is rapidly displacing the hand pump. Many orchardists go through the orchard twice for each spra\ing — always spraying with the wind. The first time through may be done at the most convenient opportunity. For the second wait till the wind has reversed. Three sprayings therefore require six trips through the orchard. This method secures thorough spraying for each side of the tree. Ritsseting of thr fruit. — .\ sound and perfect fruit souietimes shows areas where the skin is reddish brown and rough. This is coiumonly attributed to too strong a spray. It is frequently caused in that way. l;)ut in 1903 and 1904 apples in many misprayed orchards were russeted. It is caused by any irritation of the skin of the fruit. This is caused by "too strong a spray, by late frosts that hurt the skin of the \oung apple, ^Bulletin 170, New York Agricultural T-lxperiuieut .Statimi, Geneva, X. \' 294 RULLETIX 226. or by anything' else that irritates the skin. To prevent injury from the Bordeaux mixture pk-nt}' of hmc must be used. l'\)ur pounds of blue vitriol to fifty gallons of water is sufficient for the later sprayings. This lessens the danger of russeting and seems to be etlective in preventing the seal) fundus. Six pounds to fifty gallons of water are ordinarily used for the hrst spraying. />(/;//(/-(■ /(' /()//(?_i^(' fro))i sprayin_i^. — ddie foliage is sometimes burnt by lo(* strong- a spra\. This is i)articularl_\- likely to occur in rair.y weather. I iowever, most of the spots on the leaves tluit are attrilnited to the spray are not due to the spra_\'. InU to fungi. (See page 340.) Professor ( i. \\ . C'avanaugh ,t;ives the following suggestious about sprayiui..;' in raiu) weather: in the preparation i)i I'.ordeaux mixture, which is made from a solu- tion' of blue vitriol and lime, there is a dehnite chemical union brought about between the cop])er of the vitriol and the lime. In order that this union may occur, the lime must l)e in a water-slaked condition, chemicall}' known as calcium h\(lro\ide. Should the lime be air-slaked, i. e. in the form ot carbonate of lime, tins chemical union with the co]:)per does not take place. The action of the carbonic acid (jf the air on water-slaked lim(.' is to chani^'e ilie lime to the air-slaked forin. ■■ d he chenncal um'on ])etween the lime ancl the co])per in the Bordeaux mixture is not a very stable one. In fact, it is so weak that the carbonic acid of the air can, under certain conditions, break up the union and chani^e e\'en that lime which was combined with the co])per into air- slaked lime, ddiis. of necessity, frees the co])per and piUs it in a condi- tion similar to that where an insufficient amount of lime is used in the orii^iial mixtnre. Idus action of the carbonic acid of the air is facilitated if the mixture remains moist for a considerable time on the foliage. The resnit of this is a burnin,<;- of the leaves by the free cop])er sulfate. When the mixture dries on the trees this action oi the ,Q"as is so nuich retarded that no injurious results have ever l)een noticed. Tt therefore seems a wise ]M"ecaution, during- a wet season at least, to use more lime than the formula ordinarih- calls for." CHAPTER \1. Renovating an Apim.e Ukciiaku j.x \\'i-:sti:rx New York. by christian bues. Witli tlie increase of our knowledge of the "■ how " of apple-production conies naturally a greater interest in the api)le business. Out of a few apple-trees around the house has grown the commercial orchard. The manager of a large orchard enters the open market. He learns the value of business methods. He looks for opportunities in the business of apple- production. To plant young trees and nurse them into bearing age is a long-term investment. It should be profitable ultimately. J hit how shall he find an outlet for his energies while his trees are growing; how shall he improve his trade ; in short, where is the immediate opportunity for business ? There are thousands of acres of apple orchards of bearing age in Western New York which are not giving the revenue that they ought to give. Many of these can l)e bought at a reasonable price. If the trees are in a fairlv good state of health the renovation of such orchards may be profital)le. We have heard a great deal during the last few years about this feature of fruit-raising. What are the actual facts ? A concrete example will illustrate better than any am<^unt of theory. In 1896 Mr. George Pettit bought a " run down '" farm at Kenyon- ville, Orleans county, N. Y. The farm was neglected. Therefore the price paid was not high. Fifty-four acres were bought for $2,200. On the farm was an ap])]e orchard of eleven acres, two acres of which had ])een drowned out. literally killed b\- standing water, when an outlet could be found not more than fifty yards away into the stee]^ gorge of Oak Orchard creek. This left nine acres of orchard with which to work. The trees had been planted in the spring of 18^14. i. e. the>' were thirty-two years old and should have been just entering into their prime of ])roduction. The soil on which this orchard stands is Miami silt loam. (See page 317.) On the remaining nine acres the drainage was not perfect. Because of lack of care the trees were older than their actual age would indicate. Pruning and feeding had been sadly neglected, and canker was rapidl\- unfitting many limbs for the bearing of a crop. "Sir. Pettit tells me that it was in about as bad a state as regards care as it could possibly be. 293 296 Bulletin 226. The i)i'ol)lem of renovation was undertaken witli vigor. The water was (h-ained otT, tlie land was plowed, and thus the soil brought into such a conditiou that the plant-food would be available. The trees were freed of dead wood, the worst eanker-diseased linil)s removed, and the wdiole was disiufected b\- the liberal use of llordeaux mixture and arsenic. I 'lant-food was supi^lied to ])roduce the most essential crop — new wood. The following tabulates the cultural method: 1896. ( Orchard was iu sod ; the grass was luowed. i8(;7. ( )rchard was ])lowed and beans were grown. 1898. ( )rchard was maniu'ed and beans grown again, followed by crim- son clover. 1899. ( )rchard was manured and crimson clover plowed under. 1900-1904. ( )rchar(] has l)een manured every year and buckwheat is growu, to be rolled down toward ripening time of the fruit. During the last three \ears every tree in the orchard received each year one-quarter of a load of manure, \o which was added in 1904 for each tree 12 ])ounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing 8 per cent potash and 10 per cent phosphoric acid. Spraying has always been faithfully done, crop or no crop : for Mr. Pettit knows that he must have a healthy vigorous tree before he can obtain a profitable cro]). Here is the spraying program of the season of 1904: First spra\': When blossom buds began to swell. Second si)ray: As soon as the l:)lossoms dropped. Third s|)ra\" : About two weeks after second si)ray. b\iurth spra\ : A partial sjM'ay July 25. This had no apparent effect. The spray used was Ilordivaux mixture and Paris green, slightly decreasing the amount of blue vitriol with each successive s]>raying. This orchard may well be called a " reiuvenated " orchard, for hardly any of the old tree-tops exist now. The Ivings, Greenings and Russets have grown entirely new tops in the course of the eight years during which Mr. Pettit has handled the trees, and the l>aldwins are doing so. although at a slower rate. I remember one particular Spitzenburg tree which tells the story ot man}" hardships, lly continued si)ra\ing and generous feeding the man\' old cankers are nearlv overgrown bv new wood, and a new top has been ])roduced which looks vigorous and healthy and ready to do business for manv vears to come. Now if we want to renovate orchards for l)irsiness, how does the account of this orchard balance?* Is it worth while to borrow money in order tn in\-est it in orchard renovation?^ ?\Ir. Pettit kiuflb' placed at my An Apple Orchard SuR\■E^■ oi' Wavxe County. Ni'AV York. 297 disposal an itemized account for the season of 1904. The price charged for team and machinery is large enough to allow for " wear and tear." To the debit should be added interest on capital invested. Every hour of work done in the orchard by the proprietor or by his men has been chargfed to it. .Ift'i-' orcliarJ. 1904. I line Tu 8 days' hauling and spreading manure. at ?i.5o fo 3 days' teams for haul- ing, at $j To 80 loads of manure, at $1.50 To 1 1/2 tons commercial fertilizer, at $jo To 2 days' pruning, at $-! . To 3 days' hauling brush. To 5 days' work, spraying. 3 men and team, at $7 . To I day dragging with 3 horses To I day dragging with 2 horses To 2 days' spreading fer- tilizers To I day dragging with 3 horses To I day hoeing arouml trees To I day with team To I day cleaning out ditches To 1 1-4 days' cultivating, at $4 June 20. To 314 days' spraying, at $7 To I day getting material. To 30 lbs. Paris green, at i8c To 400 lbs. blue vitriol, at 5%c To 4 barrels of lime, at .,$1.25 _ To I pair of pruning shears July 6. To 1 day of dragging. . . . To V2 day sowing buck- wheat 25. To spraying 3 hours, at Aug. 13 16 17 18 27 To spraying mi.xture To 7 bushels buckwheat seed, at 75c To 4 hours' breaking buck- wheat To dragging down buck- wheat, I horse To dragging down buck- wheat, I horse To iiropping trees, 2 men and team To propping trees, 2 men 2V2 days To 1,840 empty barrels, at 36c ; To harvesting 1.840 bar- rels of fruit and hauling to the railroad, at 25c. .. Ball! nee Debit. 6 00 120 00 30 00 4 00 5 00 4-' 00 4 00 3 00 4 00 4 00 I .so 3 00 I 50 6 00 -4 3 50 5 40 •^3 00 5 00 GO 3 I 00 10 70 5 -'5 I 60 3 00 10 00 66j 40 460 00 r.Jdo 55 Apple orelidi-d. 1904. Credit. Hv 1.765 barrels of ajiiiles. \o. 1. at $1.50 $2,647 SO iiy 75 barrels of apples. No. 2, at $"i 7500 Thus our account for this year gives a net profit above expenses of $1,260.55. To do justice to tlie orchard it is fair to state that at the date 2<;S r>i-i,i,i:rix 22f^. when the figures were received there remained ahout 1,300 bushels of apples in the orchard which might have l)(jen sold as evaporating stock had not the evaporators been filled to their utmost capacit}-. tlow do the cro])s taken from the orcharel compare with the original investment"^ It is not possible to give these figures net, as an itemized exj^ense account is not available. The gross returns from the orchard are : i8yC) $250 00 1897 1 2 00 1 898 800 00 1 899 200 00 1 900 1 ,200 00 1 90 1 300 00 1902 2,000 00 1 903 1 ,400 00 1904 2.y22 50 It will be seen that there is a gradual .^'eneral increase in the amount iif the efdp. Xaturalh there exists a corres])ondinQ' increa>e in the cost of production and marketing. ]n a considerable percentage of Xew ^'nrk orchards the renovating ])rocess has begun. It can not be done according- to a fixed schedule. Conditions in one orchard are not often the same as in ancjther. 1 low- e\'er, the ex])eriences of other men and close ol)servatic>n will soon lead one in the ri,i4"ht direction. Two thinj^'s are most needed. The first is the consideration ot the orchard as a l)usiness |)roi)osition, with which we enter into an account and from which we want to exact a fair ])rofit. We ma_\- have to wait a few years for the retiu'us, but we must look for ultimatt' profus. The usual exi)erience is that \'i.i;"orousl\- renovated orchards l)ei4in to ^iw fair returns in about three' wars, but this depends on the Condition ot the trees and the maimer of treatment. idle second important tactor is: the man who takes char.L;e of the orchard should IvMiow and low an ai)i)le-tree. lie should be able to put hiiu^elf into its position and to realize the varic)ns inlluences which this or that line of treatment would have upon a li\-ing organism. Onlv then can he under- stand such things as why a soil needs draining and wh\- parasites should lie kejit off. Tt is not so much an\- particular kind of soil that ])roduces the apple, or an\- special brand of fertilizer, or an\- individual sprayini.;- mixtiu'e. The essential thinci- is the crop of thought raised in the well-cultivated mind of a naturc-loA-inc:' man. CHAPTER VII. Number of Tri:i:s Pi:k Acre axd Distaxce Between Trees. Tlic trees arc planted too close tOi^cther. — One of the greatest enemies of the apple orchard in Wayne county, as in most other apple-growing- regions, is the apple-tree. \\'hen the greater part of the orchards were planted, ahout fort\' years ago, there was a universal tendency to plant too closelv. On 43 per cent of the area planted hefore 1880 the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less; 82 per cent are 35 x 35 feet or less. Only 18 per cent are over 35 x 35 feet : and a part of these were planted more closely but have been thiimed. (See table 2 7,.) Table 23. Disfaiicr bctii'ccn trees. Planted before iS8o. Planted sinxe iS DISTAXCE APART. Not over 25x25 It. 26.X26 to 30x30 . . . . 31x31 to 35x35 •■ ■ ■ 36x36 to 40x40 . . . . 41x41 to 50x50 ... Average no. trees per acre. 52 -27 No. orchards. 55 198 7.3 No. acres. 151 ^'2 I 16534 II95 534 .'i Per cent. 5 38 39 18 Average ^^ | jj„_ I p^^ no. treo orchards. I acres, j cent per acre. 1 I 70 51 -'7 •9 3 -'7 -'4 31 6 4 ii8;4 328 61 .A.verage ninnber of trees per acre. Average distance apart Planted before i83o. 43 ■ 6 31.6 Planted since 1879. 33 • - 36.2 All ages. 41.8 A comparison with the recent plantings shows that many growers have learned not to plant so closely, .\earl_\- two-thirds of the area set since 1879 has the trees 35 x 35 feet or over, the average distance being 3O.2 feet or 33.2 trees per acre, as compared with a distance of 31.') feet and 43.6 trees for the older orchards. Some growers have not \et learned the lesson, and need to have their attention called to it. l-'orty by forty feet is close ejiough for nearly all varieties. The Duchess. Wealthy and a few other varieties might perhaps be planted a little closer. Mature Baldwin and Greening trees should be at least 40 x 40 feet apart. 299 300 Bulletin 226. About one-fourth of the orchards in \\'ahvorth township were planted on the quincunx system with the rows 20 feet apart and the trees 40 feet apart in the row. This makes the trees in squares 28.4 x 28.4 feet, cornerwise of the field. Some nurserymen recommended this system with the idea of removing' every other row, so as to leave the trees 40 x 40 feet. A few growers did this before much damage had l)een' done by crowding, and may have secured enough fruit from the extra trees to pay for the increased labor which these trees necessitated. Outside of Walworth this system was much less used, but the trees averaged almost the same distance apart. Rather than l)lame the nursery- men who recommended the thinning s_\slem, as some have done, we should give them credit for fx'ing better informed than mixst persons of that time, for they recognized that mature trees would need to l)e 40 x 40 feet. ( )ther persons planted equally close without having any idea that a part would need to be cut out. This system may be all right if carried out, but it is certainly not to be recommended to the general public. Few ])eople have the courage to cut down good, thriftv trees. If thev do thin them it is usuall}' not done until the trees have l)een greatly damaged — all the lower linil)s killed. It will be l)etter for uKjst persons to leave out half the trees and raise crops in the orchard fur a few more vears. or plant some short-lived fruit like peach-trees, that \\\\\ die l)efore the apple-trees need the room. Effect of close filaittiiii^ on yield ami lieaifli. — The nn^re trees per acre the less the yield. The average \\v\i\ for four vears of orchards where the trees are not over 30 x 30 feet ai)art is iSf) bushels; for those over 30 X 30 feet but not over 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; for those over 35 x 35 feet, 229 bushels. (See table 24.) The question is still more important tlian these figures indicate. In man\- orchards tlie trees are being ruined because thev are so close together. In < )rleans county more growers have removed half the trees, but few in Wayne county have yet done so, and more attention needs to be given to the ([uestion. Farmers usually fail to notice what is hap- pening imtil the trees have 1)een greatly damaged. The decrease in yield does not call attention to the tron])le till it is too late. When the tops l)egin to meet so as to shut out the light from the lower limbs it is time to cut riut half the trees. (See Fig. 50.) If this is not done the lower limbs first bear inferior fruit, then no fruit, and finally die. The changes take place so gradually that the owner usually fails to realize what is An Apple ORCiTApn Survey of Wayne County. New York. 301 Table 24. Distance apart and yield in bushels. Trees set before 1880. DISTANCE APART. 1900. Not over 30x30 feet 31x31 to 35x35 feet. 36x36 to 40x40 feet. . 1901. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . 1902. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . 1903. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . W.ALWORTH. Xo. or- chards. 78 32 18 83 33 154 77 50 65 29 27 Aver- age yield. 285;^ 140J4 • 93 282 389 332 3 1 0^4 38 206 60 192 356;+^ 38o;< 338;'< 274 X 137 254;^ 229 249 256 252 309 302 Remainder of County. No. or- chards. 23 21 44 34 II 23 12 5 305 >< 2I7>^ 8o;4 334>^ 255^ 100 J4 604;^ 682>^ 115^ 342; 2 II2>^ 74 K Aver- age yield. Entire County. No, or- chards. 231 100 264 50 224 24 30 106 8,^ 62 81 41 212 198 212 III 220 6i 215 88 224 51 28 1 32 590,^4 358 I73>^ 64434: 461 292;^ 116034 1063 454 616,34 249 'i 329 Aver- age yield. 256 314 282 34 75 220 226 249 232 271 296 Four-year average : Not over 30 x 30 foet 186 bushels 31x31 to 35 >■ 35 f^-et 222 T,6 X ;^6 to 40 X 40 feet 22q It might seem that the closer plantings would include many old trees, but tlie change in the distance apart has been made largely since 1S80. happening till some year he finds that instead of an orchard of well- rounded apple-trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouqtiet of leaves at the top. In the end the bearing- surface becomes the nearly level surface on the tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared with a succession of well-rounded tops. (See frontispiece.) If trees are 30 x 30 feet and are left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs, the bearing surface approaches the level surface on the top of the trees. Each tree approaches 900 scjuare feet of exposure to stmlight. or bearing surface : or two trees approach 1,800 square feet. This is what was done in the orchard shown in Fig. 60. The owner of this orchard started to cut out half the trees about ten years ago. lie cut down one tree, but it seemed to make such a big hole that he decided to prune them instead. The 302 Bulletin 226. vKs^B^sa fc An Api'li': ()R(ii.\Rn Survkv oi- VVavn'k CorNTY, Nkw York. 303 figure shows the result. Suppose half of the trees had been cut out at the proper time, they would then be 42.4 x 42.4 feet. This was done by Mr. All)ert Woods in the orchard sIkjwu in J^^ig-. 61. These trees average about 2^2 feet high and have a spread of about 40 feet. The area of the surface of a well-rounded tree :i^2 feet high and having a spread of 40 feet is a])out 4.000 square feet. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 feet of meeting, and 30 per cent of the surface of the ground is ex- posed to light — none too much. In other words the_\- are a reasonable distance apart, but the one tree has at least twice as much bearing sur- face as the two trees in the former orchard. This calculation as- suiues the tree to have a regular form and is, of course, hypothetical, Init it clearly indicates that there are two reasons why trees that are planted too closely do not bear as much as dO' those that have more room : ( 1 ) They are not as healthy. (2) They do not have as much bearing surface. Trees that are too close together furnish favorable conditions for fungi and insects ; they are hard to spray ; the api)les are more difficult to pick and are of poorer color and quality. Probably the most serious result is an indirect efi^ect of the death of the lower liiubs. Trees are left until the large lower limbs die for want of light. These are then removed and the wounds are too large to heal. Tn time they cause the trunk to deca\-. (See Fig. 62.) Fig. 60. — A poor system of pruning. The best bearing zvood removed and the trees almost ruined rather tlian cut out half of them. {Compare ivith Fig. 61.) 304 Bulletin 226. An Apple Orchard Survfa* of Wayne County. New York. 305 Top-grafting or pruning every other row. — Some men have top-grafted half of the trees a few years before cutting them out. Alost of those who have tried this would not do so again. It is some expense to do the grafting, and by the time the grafts are ready to bear well it is about time to cut the trees down. Some have cut back the tops of the trees to be removed, leaving the center part to bear a few years before remov- ing the tree. This seems to have paid in some cases, but has not always been satisfactory. Too much must not be expected of any such devices, for they do not relieve the condition under ground. The roots interfere before the tops do. When the tops begin to interfere it is high time to remove half the trees. Hozi' to thin. — If the trees are planted in squares the best way to thin is to cut out every other tree in each row. This is done by cutting out every other row diagonally. It leaves the trees in squares cornerwise of the field. (See Fig. 63.) It is interesting to note what removing half the trees would mean. Persons some- times think that doing so in an orchard that is 25 x 2^ feet would leave the remainder 50 X 50 feet. As a matter of fact they would be in squares of 35.3 X 35.3 feet, when viewed from the corners of the field ; if 30 x 30 feet, and half removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 x 42.4 feet; if 33 x 33 feet, and half removed, they would be 46.7 x 46.7 feet. None of these distances is too great for large, mature trees. If 35 x 35 feet, and half removed, they would be 49.5 x 49.5 feet. Large Baldwin trees can make good use of this much room. One of the problems to be met in thinning is that, if every other tree is removed regularly, there will be some places where the tree to be cut out Fig. 62.— The large lozvcr branches die because the frees are too close. The limbs are then removed, and the ne.vf stage is a decayed trunk. Notice the holes in the second tree on the left. 3o6 BULLRTIX 226. is better than the one to be left : or it may occur that the one which should be left is niissing-. Will it pay to leave a tree that would otherwise be removed if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be ^t'cdefghijk Q -^ -^ A ^^ M. ^^ ^ .^ ^ -^ i ^ \^ \, / \ / \ / \ / \ / \, / \/ \/ \/ \/ d .^^ X - ^^ ^ - ^n^-- .:5:^ ^ -^-^ V. ^ /"-^^ /---v ' / \ > ~\ ^ -7 A /\^ /\ /\ 7^ /\ 7 \^ / \ / \ /^ \ /^ \ e. ^^- .A- ^- ^*- X -*- X- -^- X -^' ^^' \ / \ / \^ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \, / \, / \ / r Jt^- ^:/ -^;v_'- >K m >;^_ _-;i.^ \,/ ^-'L- V .A^- /\ /\ /\ /\ /\ / \/ \/ \/ \/\ e * -'- ).^ *' X - X- -^^ X ''- ->^ \ 7\ /\ /\ / \ / \/ \/ \/ \ y \7 h _A )^^^r,^^^^^);^ n, :^ .-a- /\ /\ /\ /\ /^, / \/ \/ \/ \/ \ 1 X -^- ^^ -'^- -5^---' X * X '^ > \ ^\ /\ /\ /\ / ^-^ \/ \7 \/ \/ J -*^ i^~ .-^^^ .X * -X - X -^' * '^- y \ /\ /\ /\ 7\ /^ \7 \/ \/ \/ \ K _ j'^ -^- :^ - m -^ i^ -^=^ >?^ ^ ::^ — Llgen d — -^iAf- Tree6 Removed _^t-^ Tree3 Left Standing m Tre-es Missing Imc. (i,v— />/i;.!,'/-:,'iui; luilf iJic irrrs rrni<-:\-,l. ilic d^'llcil lines sliow thai the ti'i'i's miiaiiiiir^ arr in S:]nor,-s riirnrr\K'is<- of t!ic tiehl. answered as each case arises, but it is well to remember that if the tree is left it will damai;'e one side of three- other trees. P)efore cuttin,Q' otit the trees it will pa\- to make a mai> of the orchard and locate the vacant s]:)aces and ])oor trees, and so determine which wav of cuttint;' will include the g'reatest number o{ these. In Fic^'. 63 the rows Ax Apple Orchapd Sl'r\i:v oi' W'.wxi': Corxi\-. Xi':w ^'ork. 307 bb, dd, ff, etc., or the rows cc. cc, gg. etc., may be removed. Sometimes it will make a difference of several trees which is done. Suppose that the trees marked /// are poor trees or missing; then by removing- rows bb, dd, etc., five of these will be included. If the other set of rows are removed only two will be included, a gain of three trees by the former method — enough to much more than pay for the trouble of making the map. It recpiires courage to go into a fine apple (orchard, one that has lieen watched over for years, and cut out good, healthy trees. But in many orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two poor trees or one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind that his trees are crowding, perhaps the best way to thin them is to do as the owner of a fine Baldwin orchard of twenty acres did. He decided which rows should be removed. Then, to be sure that he would not repent and have some of the trees left, he went away on a two weeks' visit while the bovs did the work. CHAPTER VI IT. Aay, there is a considerable area where An Applk Orchard Slrnkv of Waynic County. Nkw ^'ork, 315 the drumlins were once islands or were covered by the lake a I the same time when the ridge was formed. (See Fig. 67.) The sediment depos- ited in the qniet water that filled these lower places formed the Miami silt loam (see page 317), which has proved to be an excellent apple soil. The higher-lying land is mostl_\- the Miami ston_\- loam and Alton st- Silt ( 0.05 - 0.005 mm) 30. 31 . Clay (0.005 — o. 0001 mm) 13. 19. individual are.as wnuld make it dillicnlt, if nnt inii)()ssil)le, to map it separately by the r.ureau of Soils method The Miami silt loam (called the I'.lmir.a silt loam in tin- ]'.ure;iu nf .Soils repdrt, l)nt since changed to Miami silt loam) corresponds exactly with > 'ue of the classifications made hy the writer. Tn general the soil types and the mechanical analyses agree remarkably well for results secured from inde- l)endent work. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Xi:w York. 317 South of the ridge, in the west part of the county, there are considerable areas of the Ahon stony loam, where the soil rests on limestone rock that is so near the surface as to interfere with the growth of apples. The soil is too shallow to admit of good root-growth or to allow good drainage. TJic Miami silt loam. — This is a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam, eight or ten inches deei), underlaid by brownish-yellow or yellow silty loam. This type occurs on the rolling land near the lake and around Sodus Bay. (See table 29.) Table 29. Mcrlianical analyses of .Miami silt loam, .-li'd-aiic of four sainplcs, three of z^'liieh -aii diffcrciil soil lyf^rs. Trees set before iSSo. SOIL TVPE. Miami stony loani Alton stony loam Alton stony loam (Wed near surface) Miami silt loam Ontario gravelly loam . . Miami fine sandy loam. . 1900. '1901. No. ' Average No. Average orchards. j yield. orchards. 834.'4' yield. 116 ,^4-"-' 287 57 -24 T82 ^55 _'0 1 44'^ 3.^ 8 35 218 5 26 7 / 1-5 379 6 1 15 99 -' 17 474 / 35 '2 73 5 41 100 6 51 93 Tacle 31 — Coiielitded. SOIL TVPE Miami stony loam Alton stony loam Alton stony loam (hei rock' near surface) ,. Miami silt loam Ontario i;ravelly loam. . Miami fine sandy loam . No. orchards -7- 43 I J 8 12 8 1902. i4i0-'4 35'"^ 66 129 63'-' 63 Average vield. -'34 -■5 151 260 -295 353 No. jrchards 13-2 19 1903. 788,34 185 -29 • 2 44 9 172 Average yield. 283 229 ^37 214 278 220 Four- year -'I5 '83 153 238 280 192 Siiinitiarx of Ihc soil fact<^r In af>p!c-pyodiictioii. — While the kind of soil is important, in this locality, it is evidently not the most important factor in ai)ple-production and is not as important as the kind of treatment that the soil receives. The kind of care required varies with the soil. The Miami sill loam will doubtless j)roduce a good crop with less manure An Apple Orchard Strvrv ok \\'.\vxf. County. Ni-:\v Y 319 . than is required on an>- of the other types. The Miami stony loam is next strongest. The other t}i)es require larger applications of manure, but give good results when so treated. These latter areniore ojien and are more in need of humus. The soil with the ])ed-rock near the surface is entirely unsuited to apples. For the l)est production of ap])les, there should be at least six feet of well-drained soil in every part of the orchard. TJic condition of the' natural di-aina;^c. — In selecting a Sdil for an orchard, more important than chemical or physical composition is the l''i<".. 58. — 111 llic criilcr of a j^.t-i/it.' oycJiard lliat is on a liiH. Sci'cral acrrs Iiarr been gradually killed and nuiuy more damaged by ground lealer. This land has gro'cn uf to zoeeds and gi'i'es no ineome. Il eould easily be drained. ([uestion of drainage. Xo well-drained soils were found in the count}' that were not producing gt)0(l crops of ai)])les when ])ropcrl\- cared tor. The maiorit\- of the orchards are on fairly well drained land. .V large number woidd be benefited 1)_\' underdrainage, but in some cases the bene- fit would not be great enough to pay. Some orchards have been set on such wet land that they have entirely failed ; others have one corner extending down into a low place where drainage is needed: others are divided by small " draws " that need underdrains. Where the orchards are on steep hillsides it might seem as if underdrainage would be unnecessary, but there arc man\ places where the seepage water calls for drains. In other places the long slopes accmnulate such a large volume 7,20 Bulletin 226. of surface water that drains are needed. Kig. 68 shows a 35-acre orchard, in the center of which are several acres that have hcen drowned out. This orchard is on a Jiigh hill and has a fair slojie, hut it needs drainage. There is usually a strij) of poorly drained land on each side of the "ridge". Kettle-holes occur occasionally in the north part of the county. In a few orchards near tlic lake shore there are successions of parallel waves of land, making a few r(jds of good soil f(jl]owed hy some that needs drainage. In the northeast l)art of the county several orchards were rxamined the foliage I if which was of a red- dish hue when viewed from a distance. Some of the leaves were (|uite red in the latter part of August. This seemed to he due to the lack of tl rain age. It was characteristic of foli- age in und rained places. Several farm- ers attrihutcd this to a ■' new insect " that had "stung the leaves "". 'Idle * )ntario grav- ell\ loam and the Miami tine sand drain too easilv — that is. they do not retain enough water. ( )n such soils tillage is particularly l)rotitahle. A cowr-croj) or harnxard manure is a necessity. They add humus and increase the water-holding cai^acity of the soil. Tillage and humus will make an}- of these soils good for apples. (See hig. 6q. ) Losses caused /'\' lack of drainafj^c. — Of the 1.773 ^-4 acres of orchard land iu Walworth, only 19^2 acres have anv kind of iniderdrainage. Most of these have only a stone drain or two in a particularly wet place. A t : Fig. 69. — ./;/ rxcaT'ation slin-i^'liif:, stnitificd Onhtrit iiniiTlJx Inaiii. Too iit// drained! An Apple Orchard Survkv of Wayne County, New York. 321 few have tile drains. Fifty-four orchards, aggregating 232 acres, arc reported as in need of drainage. This means that, in the opinion of the inspector, some tile drainage would pay. The average yield of these 54 Fig. 70. — /I tu',:lvc-ac'rc DicliaiJ. tiijo acres c/ icliich arc- dciul. and ii^u aci'd damaged by lack of drainage. •^»*<^^^iS«^-, Fig. 71. — The trees are all daraaged by iiisiMcieitl drainage. The groiver continues to plant young trees and tltcsc arc continually droivncd out. It zvould pay better to " plant " tile drains. -722 r'.ri.ijyrix 22(). orchards in kjoj was J03 Inislids, 4J bushels l)el!iciioiiiciial tree, biil il icill probably iiol bear many more erofs. of the few entire orchardN. but in the loss from the few small wet ])laces in hundreds of orchards; for there are hundreds of (Orchards that have from one to lifteen \)vv cent of the trees drowned out or badly damaged. There is a low place, a " draw " (see i'^ig. z^). or a kettle-hole, or a place where the water sccjjs out, and a few trees are killed or damaged. These \acaut ])laces are iui most cases waste land. If tlu'N' were occujiied by trees it would not add materiall\- to the expense of caring feir the orchard. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 323 but would add very substantially to tbe income. Figs. 68, 70 and 71 show such areas of waste land, due to lack of drainage. Many of the trees that are not killed are badly damaged. In such places a few tile or a good stone drain would pay many times over. x\ manufacturer would not long allow any such loss. Why should a farmer give less attention to losses in his business ? Lack of drainage ma\' not be apparent while the trees are }oung. It is a grow- ing evil, for as the trees get- larger and the roots extend deeper, they get into poorly drained and poorly aerated soil. Fig. /;i. — /;; flw saiiir orchard as Fii^. 6S. slhii^'nn^ the border lino bcticccii the dead and dyiiiij; trees. The trees are -jS years old. Their si.'je can he seen by eoni- paring ivith the small boy. 'The gnarly h.orizontal spread of the limbs is eliaraeteristie of trees that are in the most poorly drained plaees. Fig. 74. — This orclun\l is ,ir,lnian:y fan-iy \K'rii draniea "m in me :ee: seasmis it suffers. The pieture xcas taken Get. rn. i()o.j. At this dale the leaves had all fallen, because of the ivcf soil. The huires had been falling badly for tivo ino>itIis. 324 Bulletin 226. The trees ma\' do very well till the}- are abotit old enough to bear, then some wet season they will be damaged or even killed. Those who propose to set new orehards should eonsider the question well before starting sueh an expensive and long-eontinued enterprise on soil that is not well drained naturalK nr artilieiall\ . it is not enough that the soil will raise an ordinary farm crop. The roots of such a cro]) do not go as dee]) as do ap]ile-roots. l'\u'thermore. if a corn crop is lost or damaged h\- water, it does not prevent raising a good crop next year. \\ hen an apple orchard is damaged one can not start over the next spring as if notliing had happened. Tlic corn is an annual, a one-year invest- ment ; the apple, a perennial, a long-time investment. CHAPTER X. Elevations and FLxposures. Sites. — The sites are classified as elevated, or well up on the hills; moderately elevated ; slightly elevated, and low. Table ^2 shows the areas of each division. Table 32. Sitrs of orchards. I'ahlc iiiclitdr.'i all a:.ics of trees. Walworth. Kemaindek okCo. Entire County. No. orchards. Elevated 158 Moderately and slightly elevated, j 133 Low 1 147 790 'z 495' 2 487/4 No. or- chards. No. orcliards. 34 1 359 91 I 1488 10 I i40>2 192 224 157 1 1 49 .''2 1983 yi 627H Relation of the sites to yields. — The yields do not indicate any par- ticular advantage for any of the divisions. The four-year average in Walworth on elevated sites was 22/ bushels ; moderately and slightly elevated, 224 bushels; low, 213 bushels. For the remainder of the county Fig. 75. — All orchard on ihc cast side uj a druinlin. the difterence.s are about the same but are in the reverse order. Evidently the site is not a verv important factor. I he best site is (loul)tless one that is sufficiently elevated to give good opportunity for air and water- drainage, but not so high as to be sharj)ly exposed to wind. Hie aspects or e.vposiire. — The maiorit_\- of the orchards in the drumlin area' are on east or west slo])es occup\ing" the sides of the drumlins (see Fig-. 75 and pag'e 3^14). There are. however, many orchards on the rolling- land of lower levels, and in the north part of the county, where there are 3^6 Bulletin 226. no drunilins, the land is rolling. Table ^}, shows the predominance of east and west slopes in Walworth. Table t>t,. Aspect. Walworth. Exposure. • No. orchards. Acres. N 2'^ 80 N, E _'7 88 E 84 313K S- E 19 74lA S j6 gi'^ S. W 20 74 W 71 268 N. W 15 61 Level 45 i^9]4 Rolling* 106 593 *]Most of tliosc classed as rolling arc a c miliinaliini of cast ami west slupcs. The south part of the county has equally marked east and west slopes. The north i)art is rolling. The effect of aspect 011 yields. — The easterly slopes in Walworth gave a larger }ield each of the past fotir \ears than have the westerly slopes. The difference in 1902 was 23 bushels per acre in favor of the easterl) slopes. In each of the other years the difference was greater. The north ])art of the count}' does not show this marked uniform differ- ence. The differences are greater than one would expect. In each of the four years the northeast slopes have exceeded the northwest, the east have exceeded the west ; the onl_\- exceptions are that in two cases the south- east have failed to exceed the southwest. The f(^ur-vear average in Walworth was 43 bushels in favor of easterly slopes. It seems safe to C(mchide that the easterly slopes have marked advan- tages over the westerlv. This is due to the ]>rotection from the strc^ng west winds which do considerable damage at times. In the first part of Jtme, i';o3, the lea\'es of the west rows in many orchards were badly injured b\- winds. In inan\" cases the foliage loi^ked brown froiu the distance. riie outi'r ])art of luost leaves was damaged and many entire leax'es wi'fe killed. The effects were still apparent in Jtilw These strong west winds also catisc more loss from windfalls on the west sides of the hills. The orchards on the level exposures gi\-e the least yields of all. a difference that is probabl}' due to poorer drainage. CHAPTER XI. A Comparison of Rknti:d ( )rciiakds with those Manac.ed by the Owner. Census of rented oreliards. — Between twenty and twenty-tive per cent of the area clevoted to api)les is rented. (See table 34.) The usual method of renting an orchard is the share system, 'idie renter takes entire charge of the orchard and dehvers a certain share of the crop^ — usuah}- half — to the owner. A cash rental is not uncommon, hut is given in a much smaller number of cases. Many of the renters do not remain on one farm longer than one or two years. Table 34. Area of rented orchards and of those nut rented. Trees set before iSSo. Walwokth. Re.mainder of County. Entire Countv. PROPRIETOR. No. or- chards. Acres. i.o8o?4 259/^ Per cent. No. or- chards. Acres. Per No. or- cein, chards. Acres. 2.531^ 747 Per cent. Owner 243 81 85 IQ ' ^7 1.451 487/. 75 ' 328 25 , lOI 77 Renter 64 23 ' Effects of the rental system on the health of the orcliard. — The large number of rented orchards gives rise to a serious [jroblem in orchard management. Wdien a man rents land for the growth of field crops, there is not only a definite basis for the rent but there is also an unwritten law that has established quite definitely how he should raise these crops. There are no such definite customs that determine the care which a rented apple orchard should receive. The greatest obstacle in the way of good care is the fact that the returns for good treatment do not come immediately. Good care of field-crops gives an immediate efifect : good care of an apple orchard may give less returns the first year than it gives several years later. A renter does not like to plow up a pasture that is of immediate value for the benefit of a future apple-crop. If he mows the grass, he is not likely to leave it for a mulcli, unless it is not good for hay. The farm manure will bring him quicker returns if used on the field-crops. The greatest return which :i27 ,^28 HULLKTIN _'_'(). he £:;Cts from pruning- may l_)c- in the firc-wood procured, and some of the ]:)runing is therefi)re done so as to o-ei the most wood with the least work. If lie has no cro]), lie docs ni>t see die ])rofit in spra\ing f()r the lienefit of a future crop that he ma\' not reap. All these points nrv eni])hasi7.ed when the renter is certain that he will not stav another vear. Their effect on the tree is ])artially indicated liy the average \-ields. This average for the past four years has heen 174 I)ushels for the rented orchards and 210 hushels for those not rented. (See table 35.) Taiili- .^5. )'ii-Uls of rculcd nn-Iuirds cniil^arc:! :e///( ihr'sc iiol rented. Trees set before iSSo. Walwouth. Remainder of County. Entike County. ^-T Acres. ^aVT ^^ t' Acres. a^I ' ^o- or- I .,„es. ragl chards. ^,.|| ., chards ! y.-,^, chards. i ^.-^^^ 1900. <^\viuT I 94 387 "4 .^.^-' I ,^i 54- -47 1-5 9-^9 '4 ^83 Renter ' 13 75'.. 305, 15 242' j ->3-' j8 318 I -^49 I go 1 . Owner 118 607V 64 ' T,2 ' 567 ' 49 ' 150 II74'4 Renter 20 113 36 23 367 '2 47 4.? 480'.' 4; 190-'. Owner ig6 935^4 262 61 1004'j 217 '' 2$/ !940'4 239 Renter | 45 j 208 'j ig6 | 28 395 'Iv 183 7^ 604 | 187 1903. Owner ! 99 ' 580 '4 280 t,3 ! 575 '-'i -39 | '3- J 156 '4 I -^60 Renter 12 | 70 1 222 i 9 I I78'2 ^15 1 21 ; -^48'2 216 Fonr-year a\erage : Managed !iy nwner J to l>usliels Mana.^ed hy renter> 174 The attitude of the renter is, on the whole, about as good as that of the owner of a rented farm. L)wners are usualK \er_\- slow to spend tuoney on ini])rovemeuts, or in keei)ing up a place. Hoth men often squeeze the farm for the last penny and let the future look out f(.)r itself. In a \-er\' few cases the difficult)- has been overcome b\- a contract with the renter, that he is to give the orchard certain detinite care. ( )ne such contract calls for at least Iwo sprayings and two cultivations. Ax Al'l'LF, OUCIIAKII SUR\"KY OF \\'aVXE CoUXTV. XkW YoRK. T,2() Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm. — Many renters would be glad to improve the orchard, but the pruning and renovation of a neglected orchard is an expensive undertaking. ( )ne cannot afford to do this unless he has a lease for several years, or unless the owner helps to pa}' the cost. The owner does not like to spend money for such work, for he feels that he will likely have a poor tenant about the time that the orchard gets in good shape. Some ha\e taken the broader view and have spent monc}' in the renovation of the orchard. These have almost invariably been well repaid by the increased income. An owner wdio takes a pride in keeping up his place and who is willing to spend money, if necessary, in improxing it, stimulates the renter by his own interest. Such a man also attracts the l)etter class of renters. He may occasionally have a \'erv poor one, but the a\'erage is certainly much above that found on the farm where the owner begrudges new shingles on the barn. The renter sometimes takes so much pride in his work that he will take good care of an orchard even if he does not ex])ect an immediate return. This is also a good investment for such a man becomes known and can therefore secure a farm more readily and sometimes on better terms. Unquestionably the luost effective way to bring the rented orchards up to the average is to give leases for a longer time. The conuiionest reason for not doing this is the fear that a shiftless tenant will secure the place and retain it. There is a1)un(lant reason for this fear, but if the renter changes e\er\- \ear or two, the chances of a Ixid one at some time are multiplied. Such a man ma\' do more damage in one year than can be overcome in many years. A fairly good man. or even one that is below the average, if kept from year to year will give better results than a rapid succession of good and l)ad tenants. As one travels through orchard after orchard, he becomes more and more impressed with tlie desirabilitv of maintaining the American ideal of cverv farm owned by the man who works it. But if the owner secures the best renter possible, gives him a lease of several vears, requires good care of the orchard, and then is willing to bear part of the expense of renovating the orchard where this is necessary, the renter ceases to be a menace to the apple industry. CHAPTER XII. \'arieties. Tlic I'arictics grown. — Nearly all the l)earing' orchards are made up of a mixture of Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, with a few trees of other' kinds. There are more JJaldwins than of all other varieties com- l)inc'd. Trohably eighty to ninety per cent of all the trees are either Baldwin or Greening, ddic larger part of the balance are Tompkins King, Northern Spy, 'i'wenty Ounce and Roxburv Russet. There are some trees of many other \arieties Init the numbers are so small as to be unimportant in com])arison with the al)Ove kinds. .Some of these less important varieties are: 1 Iul)l)ardston, l'>cn Davis, Eso])us Spitzenburg, Wagener, Duchess of Oldenburg, Red Astrachan. The young orchards also differ much in varieties, but the larger part are jdanted to Baldwin, Hen J-)a\is, ( ireening, Hul)l)ardston. Other varieties that are being planted to a very limited extent are: Duchess of Oldenburg, U'calthy, Wolf River. Mann, Grimes (/lolden, Rome Beauty, Maiden lUush, Red .Astrachan, .Northern S])_\\ Russt-ts, Snow, Yellow Bellflower, Hoikcn. Mcintosh Red, (iravenstein. Sulton Beauty, Bis- mark, etc. I'arialions ■icitliiii tJic raiicfv. — "We know that no two trees in any orchard are alikt', either in the amount of fruit which the\' bear or in their vigor and hal)it of growth. Some are uniformh" ])ro(luctive and some are unifonuh- unproductive. We know, too, that scions or buds tend to reproduce the characters of the tree from which they are taken. A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from a rose-bush, or chrysanthemum, or a carnation which does not bear flowers. Why should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which he knows to be unprofitaljle '' " The indiscriminate cutting of scions is too clumsy and ine.xact a prac- tice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific methods into our farming."* Long ago men learned that two cows were not necessaril\- alike because the\- were both Jerseys. The man who would raise cattle from any indi- vidual merelv because it belonged to the desired breed would be ridiculed. But there are as great differences between Baldwin apple-trees as there are between Jersev cows. *L. H. Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 102, Oct, 1S03 Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Xe\v York. 331 Liu. 70. — I he aid " mother tree " front which all of Mr. Smith's frees zi'crc i^raflcd. It bears exccllriit t;/'/i/<\s- and i^ood crol^s of them. .Hn>ut 500 trees have been grafted from this tree. \'1^-S-'^ v / 4/- ^^;»C.w" ^ M ii ■ ^vv V i J V^ \* y^"-;-. .• ;■ •■' ^ "■ ^■ a. -m':^^ ^.^h^^ ' tL^^ ^iSags^ ^^^mnn m ^ t ^ A mt tmi^ S^lSlKcS^ ?^-Ei^y '.,. ■■f:'-f r.«tmKVi'!.Li'.rix _'_'h. When ihc fannci" has lup-grafted hi.s trees, as is sonietiines done for otlier reasons, there has probably been more or less unconscious selection from g-ood trees. i^\'\\ nurserymen have \'et paid any attention to the matter, nor are lhe_\- likely to do so till fruit-growers are willing to pay for the increased work.* ( )ne good example of care in the selection of scions was seen in Orleans coimtw l'"ift\-three years ago .Mr. Russell Smith of Albion grafted one tree to lialdwin. This proved to l)e so exceptionally productive that he grafted sonic of the other trees in the same orchard with scions from it. A few \ears later another orchard of three acres was planted. A large jiarl of these trees \yere top-worked to I'aldwin with scions from the original tree. In i8C)8 his sons, S. W. and William Smith, decided to plant ten acres more. The}- bought good Xorthern Spy trees for stocks and top-\yorked them to l'>ald\yin. Most farmers would liave taken the scions from the _\oung orchard Ijecause longer and better-looking shoots could have l)een obtained, but the\- were not satisfied to do this. The\' went to the original " mother tree" for all the scions. This mother tree is still living and producing ap])les. " It is literally bearing itself to death." (.See big. 7O. ) The orch.ards grafted fr(_)m it are all producing large cro])s. (.See Fig. 'j'j.) ( >f course there are ])lent\- of good trees in Xew ^'ork that were bud(K'(l or grafteil with scions taken from voung trees or that were tak'en indiscriminate))' from old trees, just as there are good cattle that were produced without any care in breeding. .Sciiue good ones will certaiul\- be secured b\' accident, l)ut the scientific fruit-grower eliminates all accidents so far as jx^ssilile. fie increases his chances for success wlu'u he secures good nursery-grown stock and top-works it from trees of bearing age — trees of known productiveness, vigor and quality. ''^]. If. If.'ilN & .Sdii^, 111' \\'illiani--(>n. arc .iirowiii.t; " pedi.urccd " peach trees. Tlicy linvc several pnod (l^cllarl1^, l)nl have only a few trce^ that they consider good enongli to hud from. Sncli a tree ninsi he liardv. it ninst hear the hest peaches and identy (It tlienr They find that the puldic i^ willing to pay more for these trees tlian for trees where no selecti<.in has heen practiced. CHAPTER XTII. Enkmii-zs of the Apple. Tlic mure serious enemies. — The codlin-nioth and the scab fungus are the most serious enemies of the apple in Western New York. The scali is not so injurious if the apples are to he evaporated, liut it ])rol)ably causes more loss than any other enemy whc-n a])ples are to he l)arreled. It was very destructive in kjoj. was of small importance in 1903, and was very prevalent in 1904. Of the insects that attack the tree, the canker-worm ( comnionl\' called ■■ army worm ") has done the most damage, hut it is now practically sub- dued. Probably the wood-rot fungi have done more to shorten the lives of the trees than any other enemy. These gain entrance through wounds and rot out the trunk so that the trees eventuall\' break down. ( See ])runing, C"ha]). I\'. ) Canker of the lim1)s has done nuich damage and has killed a number of entire orchards. (See page 341. ) The collar rot. King disease," or " winter injur\-,'" as it is variouslv designated, is the worst enemy of King and Spitzenburg varieties. It is not so serions with other varieties. (See page 345.) In addition to these there are man_\- kinds of insects and diseases that do a small amount of damage ever_\- year. In their ups-and-downs some- times one and sometimes another becomes serious. The bud-moth prob- ably did as much damage as any other insect in 1903. Aphids were the worst enemy of young trees and caused C(3nsiderable damage in old orchards. The\- were worse on thrift\- trees than on slow-growing ones. The best orchardists therefore suffered the most lc)ss from them. The apple bucculatrix, or ril)])ed cocoon-maker of the apple, the apple weevil aufl the mites each did considera1)le daiuage in a few orchards. Table 3^) indicates something of the relative importance of the various encnu'es in 1903. Tablk 36. f)iscil and fini<;;i)!(s ciiciiiics of the apple in I'joj. Injury, Nci. orchards. No. acres. Canker ( Sphacropsis maloniin ) serious 87 S26C' considerable 83 7-29^2 Bud-moth ( Tnicldccra nccllana) serious 45 590'}4 considerabk- ^,7 221 slight 148 61414 Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa ponioncUa) serious 6t ,1,1.^4 considerable 45 631 slight all beariug orchards 333 334 Bulletin 226. Table 36 — Coiichtdcd. Injurj-. No, orchards. No. acres. Collar rot considerable ,31 212 slight nearly all old orchards Aphis ( .Ij'liis /'('»;/) serious 55 458 considerable 44 324J/2 slight all orchards Scab ( / 'cnluria iuaaiualis) serious f>6 4-4J^2 considerable OS 440 slight all bearing orchards Apple-weevil (AulJioiuuinis (]!iadriiderable slight Leaf-blister mites serious considerable slight Leaf sjxit ( rhyllosliclti sf.) serious considerable slight Leaf sewer ( Pho.vuptcris iicbccitUiiui ) serious consideral)le slight Canker- w'lrm ( Palracniti rrniata) serious consideral)le slight Tent caterpillar ( Clislncanif^a ann-ricaiui ) serious considerable slight Woolly aphis ( Sflucoiicnra lani^iicra ) serious considerable slight Fall \\eb worm ( 1/ yf'Iiaulria cniwa) serious considerable slight San Jose scale ( .-^sf^ulinliis pcnuricsus ) serious considerable slight This table includes all the enemies that were foinid to be serious in any orchard, except borers and the wood-rot fungi. Many other insects and fungi were seen but were not doing any considerable harm. Com III on notions regarding orchard enemies. — It is interesting to note tlie enemies that have impressed themselves on the minds of the oreliard- ists. In answer to the question as to what insects or diseases had damaged the orchard in the i)ast, the canker-worm was mentioned for 173 orchards, seal) fur 120, tent-cateri)illars tVn- 112; codlin-motli came fotn-th. No other enem\' was mentioned more than five times. Among- those men- tioned were canker, liorers. San Jose scale, i)ink rot. case-hearers, collar rot, U'.if rolk'r, oyster-shell bark louse, aphids, handmaid moth, ctu'culio, ]>almerwvorm. Losses due to mice, sun scald and russcting of the frtiit were also mentioned. j8 182 7 73 9 156/2 all old orchards 4 94 .3 67 I 4 4 25/2 6 34 56 372y4 5 44 9 383'! nearlv a 11 orchards 4 43 7 104 ,3,3 719 .3 21 3 12/ 3 27/ ! 10 J 6/ ,30 146^1 2 6 4 22 nearlv a 11 orchards 2 3'A ^7 479/ I 4 I 2 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 33=5 The Apple-Scab Fungus {Vciifuna iiiacqualis). Importance of this disease. — The worst disease with which the apple- grower has to contend is the apple-scab, commonly called " the fungus." More questions are asked about it than about any other enemy of the apple, and there is great dilTerence of opinion among farmers as to what it is and what to do about it. True, spraying has become an accepted practice and the best fruit-growers practically eliminate the scab, but the majority of farmers do not do so. The varying opinions are due to the fact that the fungus is invisible or inconspicuous until it " goes to seed." A knowdedge of its life history is essential to any intelligent treatment of it. It has been fre(|uentlv described, but the information is not yet sufficiently disseminated. I shall, therefore, attempt to answer some of the common questions that are asked about it. A few ques- tions are asked over and over again. "What is the fungus?" "What causes it?" "Why is it worse in wet seasons?" "Why are some varieties more affected than others?" JJliaf is the scab fiiiii!;iis.' — "This apple-scab is no new pest. It has no doubt been seriously present p^,. yS.-Vou„g atopics snrrcly attacked ever since ajijiles were grown in by the scab fungus. the country, causing many fail- ures of crops which were laid to the weather or the moon."* This fungus is a very small plant that grows as a parasite on the leaves and on the apple. — the apple is its soil. We might say that it is a weed that grows on the apple and allied fruits rather than on the ground. It lives over winter on the fallen leaves and perhaps to a very limited extent on the branches. " Scab makes its first appearance early in the spring, usually soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and it is while these and the fruit are in a young condition that the fungus can best infect them."t (See Fig. 78.) The seed (spore) falls on the *L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. tGeorge P. Clinton, Bui. 67, Univ, of 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dec, 1901. l() UULLETIN 22(h ynuu'^ apple or on the k-al and llicro gTOvvs, sending its roots (myccliuiii ) into the tissues of the apple. At fii-st the infected spot IS in\ isihle, later it causes the skin to take ( )u a deep ijli\'e-.L'rL en ei 'li u", ddin ui iliceil unti season when it the >kui an( seal). I' 1 .!-;■. 7W a])ple tliat lias this sta,L;e. Tlic the a ]) ]) le is e x ] ) 1 1 ^ i n M- the which has now but it is sel- still later in the Inxaks thn.iugh causes the l)lack lows a n u^t reached outer skin of reaking away V\r.. jq, — T!u' oiiUt shin U-iillclcn-iipluj\'il. ]^]■^^^^\^ fuu.Q'US, cw/^osiiii' the fitiiiius. "gone to seed. ' In time the sjtores are l)l(_»wn and washed away and some of the fungus cells and dead tissue are more or less worn away so that the color max l)(,'Come a reddish-l)rown. i\\\v to the ex])0sed dead corky tissue. The seal) spots on the lelt in I'ig. (S(t show the spores and lungus cells beginning to leaxc from the center of the s]>oi. The large scab on the right shows the rust_\- scar that is K-tt after the disease tissue has scaled oft. h\u'iners (lescril)e this change by sa_\ing that " the lungus leaves the a])])le." or the fungus changes to rust." If this takes ])lace before the Fic. So— 77;,- diseased tissue seal'ir^ nl'i' fi the (//'/i/r. is i)icked, the appearance An Ai'i'i.i'; (Jrliiakd Si'k\i:v oI' \\'.\\M': C'ouxiv. Xi-:\v \'()kk. 337 and keeping" quality are not so seriously ati'eeted as when i)ieke(l in the stage shown in Fig'. y(), hut the fungus ma}- make some further growth around the edge of the sear if put in warm storage. l"lg. 8r shows a llaldwin apple so hadly attaeked that it has heeome distorted and eracked. Most cases of cracking of the ai)i)le are due to this fungus. Fig. 82 shows three sections of ai)])le-leaves. " In Fig. i the leaf is health}. ( )hserve the regularit}' of the three uj^per la}'ers of cells. In Fig. 2. the hrown fungus may be seen growing on the upper surface, and at this stage it has (lestro}ed the ni)i)e'r or epidermal cells, althnugh it is ])rohal)le that the m}celium of the fungus first spreads just under the cuticle, ou top of the la}-er of e])idermal cells, h'ig. 3 shdws the fungus when it is better estab- lished, and it will lie S(.'en that all the cells of the leaf are disarranged, the chlorophyll or green grains being few in number, and the leaf has increased in thickness. This. big. 3. is a cross-scctii ni ihruugh one of the blislei'dike elex'ations which are shown on tlu' leaf in iMg. 8,^. It will be seen that the fungus does not enter the deeper tissues of the leaf, allliimgh it disorganizes them bv its parasitic effects. In big. 3. a s])()re can be seen at A, and two are shown broken oft' their stem or hxphae at l'>. In b'ig. _' the simres can be seen in ])rocess of formatit^n at the ends of the threads, and at C" one of tb.e threads is cut oft'."" Relation of flio ■:ccaflier fo tlic scab fiiii^iis. — Xearl}- all fungi are fav- ored bv wet weather; wheat rust, bean rust, potato blight, etc., are all worse in wet seasons. The wet weather docs not create anv fungus Fir,. 81. — BaUii^'iii a,t'fh' s!io:c!ni; cniclciiiff chw Ic I lit !iin;jiis. *L. H. Bailey in Cdrnell Bulletin S4. Jan.. 1805. 338 Bui.LlL'llN 226. any more than favorable weather creates a corn crop. A fungus can- not (le\elup unless the spores get on the host plant an}' more than a corn crop can be grown without planting" the seed, ilut there are usually l)lent\- of si)ores on liand so that all they need is weather fa\orable to their grow^th. Unusually wet weather during the blossoming period favors the growth of the seal) fungus. I'or the same reason it does more damage in shady, unpruned and imdrained orchards. Dense tops ])re\-ent the eva])oration of tlu- moistiu'e. ( )pen tops allow the air to circulate freelw and they therefore (piickdy dry out after a rain or dew. Sonic rariclics arc more affected than otlicrs. B^ S^-i l^ I) '4 ../ir/fl sp. ' cation of Bordeaux to keep off all the scab any more than we would expect one culti\-ation of a corn crop to kill all the pigweeds. ( )ne ai^plication if made at the right time will, however, frequently make a great difference. Three spray- ings at the right times will nearly always keep the ajjples free from scab. Two will sometimes do so. A further dis- cussion of the method of summer treat- ment and of winter treatment will l)e found under spraying. (Pages 392 Leaf spots caused by the scaJ^ fiiiii^us. — Fig. 83 shows the large blister-like eleva- tions caused bv the scab. These spots usually occur on the upper surface, but are not confined to that surface. Late in Fig. 83. — The scab fungus on the ^. . 1111-1 1 , , tlie season thev are nearly black, the color leaf. 'Cornell Piulletin 207. ,UO SuLLi'rriN 226. ut the scab on tlie ap]^lc. Scab did considcTalilr daiiiai^'c t(^ the folia.^e in unspraved orchards in 1904. Leaf spots caused by other diseases. — l-'it;'. (S4 shows the spots caused l)y a (Hffercnt funiL^us, prohal»l> I'liyllostieta. TIk'sc spots are of a red(hsh- hrown color, llivx do not l)lister the Iraf. 'Idiis fundus (Hd little daniaj4'e in ujo^. hut in the wet season of KJ04 it caused much daniao'C to the leaves. Spraying- seems to have had little or no eftect in checkini:;' this disease. The so-called " yellow leaf "" that caused the leaves to fall during Jul_\" and August was partl\- due to this trouhk- and partlv due to wet Soil. Alau\- orchards that are ordi- nari]\- well drained were wet this }ear. ( See h^ig. 74. ) ddiose that are ordinaril\- too wet were very hail in ii)i>4. 'Idle leaf sjiot was generalK much worse in the poorly drained orchards. In some orchards the scah on the leaf and the mites also caused leaves to fall. Leaf-hlister mite. — iMg. 85 shows the under side of a leaf infested with the blister mite, ddiis had not been reported as occurring on the a])])le until it was found during the orchard surve\ in \\a\ne county. Specimens were sent to Professor Slingerland, who wrote as follows (-oncerning them: " ddie pear-leaf- blister mite is now a well-known pest in man\- sections of the country. l)ut never liefore imtil last summer had we seen or heard of a similar pest in apple-leaves. Scattered through central X'ew N'ork there were many a])])le-trees with man\- of their leaves showing the cork\- blisters characteristic of these mites. We have not \et made a careful stud\ of the mites to determine if the_\- are the same as the pear s])ecies. ddie blisters in the apj^le-leaves differ slightly from those in pear, but this may l)e due to the different food-plants."" These mites were found in 53 orchards in 1903 and were found in manv orchards ■"ir,. 85. — Under side of leaf, showiiiii leaf I'lislcrs caused hy mites. *Bul]elin 4^). Division of I'".ntiininl(i;4y, I'. I^. Deiirirtmcnt nf \L;ricu1nire An ApplI': Drciiard Suk\'F.v of WavnI': CorxiN'. Xi.w \'()rk. 341 ill Orleans C(nint\' in 11)04. Tlicx- were not very l);ul in more than a liall dozen orchards in each connt\ . bnt in a few orchards some trees had prac- tically every leaf affected. Their local distribution eyen in the severe cases seems to indicate that they do not spread rapidly. The or(hnary sprayino" has no eff'ect on them. l)ecause they liye within the leaf where poison can not reach them. Tt is i)rol)al)le that kerosene emulsion ap])lied before the buds open would kill them. Injuries due to these three causes and to many other enemies that attack the leaves are quite commonly confused with each other and with spots that are sometimes caused by sprayini;". The Applk-Tri-;i-: Ca.\k1':r ( Spliacruf'sis uialonmi Tk.). Description. — The black, rous^h bark and partially i;-irdled hml).s are so characteristic of this disease that it is easil) reco,i;nized. (See hii;'. 8(). ) The diseased ])art ma\- extend for several feet alonj^' the Ijranch. or may be oulv a small spot. L'sualh' it is tive to ten inches Ioul^'. 1 he bark may be merel_\- muo-henied and black (as in A', I'di.;-. (S()) or the limb may be ])artially o-irdled {as in ./, Fig. 86). In the worst cases the dead limbs stick out all over the tree-top. (See Fig'. ?^~.) Extent of the injury. — 'Idle canker causes more loss tlian any other disease except the seal) fun.yus and. jxissibly. the fungi that cause the trunks to (leca\' when impro])erl\- pruned. It was fotmd to be very serious in 14 per cent of the orchards and. was doiug considerable damage in 19 per cent. Injuries of this character are less conspicuous Init are much more serious than those that affect the leaves — canker attacks the tree directlw It does not (^ften do luuch damage on y(~)ung trees. It usually occurs on limbs two to three inches in diameter, but- sometiu'.es attacks the twigs or larger limbs. Tt very rarel\- occurs on the trunks, except on the Twenty Ounce. ddiis variety is particular])- subject to the disease. I have seen very few- mature Twenty Ounce trees that were not badly infected. It is also serious on the Spitzenburg. The I'aldwin is more affected than the Greening. Russet, King (~>r Xorthern Spy. The same fungus occurs on the leaves, but does not»seem to be serious. In Wavne county in IQO,^ it was found on the leaves in eight orchards and was doing considerable damage in seven of them. It was not found on the foliage of anv orcha.rd examined in i()()4. Ou tlie leaf it shows a distinct series of concentric circles. ( )ne infectc'd i)oint may develop 342 Bulletin 226. Fig, S6.— Canker of the af^/^lr-frcr. In fl only the outer hart: is affected. A xJiows Ihc bvancli Inilf girdled. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 343 #.^ \ h 344 BuLLKTix 226. to nearly half an inch in diameter. The brown rot vi sti>re(l apples is also due to the same fungus. Cause. — The cause was not known until about si.\ ^•ears ago, when it was worked out by Wendell Paddock of the Geneva station.'" I'ntil that time it was commonly attriliuted to sun-scald. Comi)aratively few fruit- growers are yet informed of the real cause. Jt is still attriljuted to sun- scald or lightning, or jjasses as " dead liml)s "' without any cause. I'rac- tically no sun-scald has been seen in either of the counties studied. Mr. Paddock found that the canker is caused b\- a fimgus that grows on the bark and cambiumf layer of the tree. Idie black color of the canker is partl_\- due to the s])ore-fruits of {\\v fungus. Many of the spores (seeds) remain on the l)ranches till si)ring or longer, when they are given otf and disseminated. The fungus seems to be unable to pene- trate t(_) the cambium la_\er through living bark. The cankers are thought to be formed by those spores that chance to fall in some slight wound and there germinate and ])roduce more cankers. .Sometimes the fungus grows for some distance on the outer bark without penetrating to the cambium. (See />', big. S^». ) In such cases no direct injury is done to the tree, but spores are ])roduced and disseminateil so that a constant soiu'ce of infection is maintained. I'l'Ciihiiriil. — Willi the exce])tion of tlu' Twenl\- ( )unce. no orchard in which the trees have alwaxs been ke])! in a good growing condition has Ijeen found (o be seriousK' affected. .Something more than thrift}' grc^wth seems t(_) ])c nt'cessar_\' in order to prex'ent the destruction of the Twenty Ounce. A few farmers in W axiie coimt\' and hk 're in ( )rleans count\ have been treating the disease during the ]:)ast few vears and have had excellent results. The essential i)oints of the treatinent are: (1) Prune out the limbs that are badh" diseased. (2) Si)ray the limbs with liordeaux mixture. (3) ^^lost important of all. get the trees to growing. Mr. ('1. D. Simi)son of ("arlton has carried the treatment a steji farther. ^^'hen pruning he scraped olT the rough, disi'ased bark around each canker and gave a generous ;ip]ilication of strong blue vitriol. This was undoubtedK' a good thing, but the treatment given above seems to l:)e invariabh' successful. '^New ^'clrk .\!.!riniltur;il IvxpcriiiKiit Stiitinn. I'.ulK'liii \(i,]. Dec, iSoo tTlu' caml)iuin I;iyrr is a lissne tliat lies 1h-! w ecu tlir wimk] aiiil tlic l)arl<. Il is llu' lissui' llial iu'imIiu'cs llie iK'W wi.hmI and niiu'i- lurk. An Apple Orciiakd S^R\■K^' oi" Wavxi'. C"ountv, New York. 345 Mr. Albert Wood of Carlton Station has even grown new tops on his Twenty Onnce trees and has kept the new growth from becoming diseased by spraying the limbs and by keeping the trees growing. This variety is so subject to canker that it can not be kept healthy without constant viofilanee. Collar Ror. Occurrence and de- scription. — In nearly every mature orchard one comes across some trees on which the Ijark around the base is dead and loose, or has fallen away. The injury usu- ally extends only 6 to 18 inches above the ground, but sometimes it ex- tends 3 to 4 feet up the trunk. As the area of dead bark increases, the tree may be entirely girdled. (See Fig. 88.) It is quite commonly attributed to the hired man ha\ing" hit the tree with the machiner\- when working in the orchard, and the injury does re- semble a wound made by hitting the trunk at the surface of the 88.—./ Baldwin fr, ' s/^of ill hose o; • I: a led by collar rot. Note tree. In this t7eenty-acre oieliard about one-third of the trees are dead and oiie-tliird more are badly att'eeted. In this ease the very poor drainai;e has been laroely resfousible. gnnmd. But before the blame can l)e fixed on the hired man we nuist explain how he happened to hit all the King and Spitzenburg trees and missed most of the Baldwins and Greenings, also why the disease is as bad or worse in those orchards that have not been tilled. This disease is the worst enemy of the King ai)i)le. It has sometiiues been called the "' King disease."* Proljablv the majority of all the trees ^Bulletin 191. N. V. A.uT. V.s\y Sta. 346 Bulletin 226. y-f, f^^~ Imi.. Sq. — cV//7i/>- /ni Hi the ki.i-. Mi^'.eniy, diseased and cracked condition of hark. decay and frc(HK'iitl\' yirdlc the tree. I'rcalnicnt. — Little can l)e done except to treat the wonnd as an\- other wound should lie treated. If the dead bark is cleaned a\\a_\ and ])aint ai)])lied, it will dela\' the ver. The eii'ective treatment nnrst l)e ])revention. if hardy stocks are planted and top-worked to Kini;" or Esopus Spitzenburi;-, the trouble is avoided. (See Fii;". \)2.) The losses of r.aldwin from this disease are not \'erv L^'reat. but are enou.^ii so that it niiL;ht pay to top-work them of this variet)' that are thirty years (»ld are a{Tfecteiis Spifrjcitbiirg tree propagated in the ordinary -way should be set in JJ\\s'tern .Yew YorJc. If these z'arieties are desired, secure them by top-grafting on some liardy stock. 34'^ U'LLETIX 226. ViL,. QJ. — Collar yol avuidcd by top-zcorkhig on Spy stock. CHAPTER xn'. Yri-:r,i)s. M.\rivi:is and Prici^s. Avcrai:i;c yields. — The fuUowing- tal)les gi\-c some o\ tlie chief points in the average vields : Tat-i.e $7. Approxiuiatc total yield for entire county. 1899 (U. S. Census report 1900 190T igo2 Bushels. 1,394.000 -4,872,000 672,000 4,053.000 1902 . I903t Taiu.k 38. Ai'craj.',e yield per acre. Trees Set Before 1880. 1 Thees Set Since 1879 Acres Average. No. or- chards Acres. Average .Vo. or- yield. chards. Average Xo. or- vield. chards. Acres ^ Average ^"^^- yield. 1899* ' ' '19.000 1900 I 171 I 1,496341 252 I 18 I 190 I 46 189 ' 1.68634 I9OI 293 2. 041 34 I 34 I 25 i 240 ' 22 318 2,281,34! .V85 -3.7.U'4 31 ! 3.^.^ 74 416 . . . 200 3. 067;,+ I,62I>4| 7,^ 229 3,2 206 265 *The }'ielcl for hSgc^ is for " frees of beariiiii' ai^e " and is t.alsen from llie census report. tThe averag'e j-ield for 1903 is tOD l.-irge fnr it does not inehide young trees nor docs it inchide orchards that uaxe no \ield. Tap,],!-: 39. -iveraiic yield per tr, Trees set before 1880. 1899 (trees of liearing a.ge) 1900 190T 1902 Bub hels I 7S 5 7^ 78 5 01 Average 3 ■ 33 This calculation is fi.r the nuniher of trees that the orchards would contain if there were no trees missing. 310 350 BlTLLl'.TIN 226. Tahlf, 40. /Izrroiir ituinhrr ,>f hifslwls raised I'v t-ar!) liraz^'cr iu U'alr^'orlli. Bushels. IQOO 1,700 I9OT 210 1902 T.200 The thrce-ycar-average yield in Walwortli township is abont thirty-four bushels above that of the entire cotmty. This difference is due to the poorer care given in the remainder of tlie county, particularly in the southern part. Tai;].!-; 41. I'liriiitiniis ill yields of urcliards. The foll(]\\ iug table will give some idea of the distribution of yields that produced the averages in 190 J, trees set before 18S0. YIELD. o-ioo bushels. . . 101-200 bushels. . . 201-300 bushels. . . 301-400 l)ushcls. . . 401-500 bushels. . . Over 500 bushels. Walworth. Remainuei OF County. Entirk County. No. orcliards. No. acres. No. orchards. No. acres. No. orchards. No. acres. :.(> iqi ' ' 17 ?86!i 53 578 /.s ,^61 '_, -7 4i7!< 102 779 75 ,^i--V 28 344'^ 103 657>4 4b 301 II 194 57 495 26 67'. 5 55 31 I22>< 31 S5 5 53 36 138 The largest }'ield reported for tlie year 1902 was 1,000 Inishels ])er acre from a four-acre orcliard. Markets — the ci\}[^ orating iitiliistrx. — The (ircliard industry of this count}- cannot ])c uudcr.stood without a knowledge of the e\'a]>orating- in^ 1657/'^ 583 No. bushels. 151,700 17,060 316,980 147,830 Per cent of the total yield. 57 31 45 34 In man}- cases the fact that the women and children of the household can help in the work, so reduces the expense that the small evaporator can successfully compete with the larger ones. The evaporating industry furnishes a good outlet for fruit that is not good enough to barrel. Tt should be encouraged b\' every possible means. The ease of preserving and the small space into which a bushel of apples can be condensed make this a very desirable way of reaching the cheaper trade in Europe and Asia as well as in our own cities. 35-' Bulletin 226. .•--,ra:» '^^r3 I ^'^ ^ V K *■/. /.' 1902 I 1903 I 85 .Average price iier busliel picked apples sold in l)nlk, 1903.. 44.2 .'\vcrage price per pound for dried stock. [Qo,^ .0504 Appk\s sold on the streets and to groccrymen in Rochester are quite variable in I)rice, hut usually I)ring two to three times as nnich as when sold to dry. The vinegar factories pay the lowest price of any market. The 1902 prices ranged from 12 to 20 cents per hundred. Income per acre. — The average gross income per acre for the entire county from orchards set before 1880 has been as follows: 1900, $37.80; 1901, $14.28; 1902, $48.18. The averages in Walworth township have been considerably l)etter than the average for the county. If these incomes seem rather small, it must be remembered that averages include orchards that have received no care of any kind as well as those that have received the best ])(»ssil)le treatment. I'nfortunatelv the average expense can trot he obtained, for very few men keep an accotmt (if the expense of caring for the orchard. In a very large number of orchards — the ones that lower the average yield and income — there is ])racticall\- no expense except the use of the land and the expense of hauling the apples to the evaporator. Table 45 will give a better idea of the average income, as it gives the number of orchards for each difference of $10 in income. An Apple Orchard Sl'rxf.v of Wavxe County, New York. 355 Taijle 45. Average iueoinc per acre from orchards set before 1880. entire countv. INCOME PER ACRE. No. or- chards. Less than $10. . . ^ 14 $10 to $19 I 14 20 to 29 i 16 30 to 39 I 30 40 to 49 j 21 50 to 59 22, 60 to 69 25 70 to 79 I II 80 to 89 I 5 go to 99 I 2 100 to 124 9 125 to 149 I 2 150 or more. ... 5 1900. No. acres. i2iy, 161 164': 1 86;^ 10351 134 74; 13 6 144 8 14 1/ Per cent. 10. 13-3 No. or- chards. 1901. No. acres. 7 3 II I 6 2 I I 5 II I 7 I 2 1 118 25 29 9 16 I I 670/4 276 201 55/2 52 147 8 4 23 K 12% Per cent. 44 5 18 4 13 4 3 / 3 5 9 8 5 3 I 5 I 6 2 2 « No. or- chards. 16 ?>?, 34 52 40 43 22 34 18 16 30 18 10 190^ No. acres. 1055-2 ^52 '2 2I3'2 356>^ 277 23052 98 1 75 V 118 ■, 85 '2 135 '-2 140 '2 169 Per cent. 4-4 10. 9.0 5 9 7.0 1900. igoi. 1902. Average income per acre — entire county- — j trees of all ages Average income per acre — entire county — trees set before 18S0 Average income per acre in Walworth — trees set before 1880 Average total incomeper grower in Walworth *34 35 M 80 49 50 255 00 $13 44 $44 70 14 28 48 iS 17 22 88 20 52 58 264 00 SUMMARY. Extcnl of the Sur:'cy. — During the summer of 1903, 574 orchards, con- taining" 3,701 acres, were examined in Wayne euunt\. In 1904, 564 orchards, ui 4,881 acres, were examined in ( )rlcans county. The statistics in tliis report are l)ased on Wayne county. Tlie results from Orleans county we hope to puhlish later. Area plaii/cd to iif^plcs. — There arc in Wayne county about 21,000 acres of apple orchards. The total area of improved land in farms is 305,299* acres; or. 0.9 i)er cent of the improved farm land is planted to apples. / '(;;'/r//V.s\— Ualdwin and Greening- are the leading varieties. Roxbury Russet, King, Northern Si)y and Twenty Ounce are also rather exten- sivel\- grown. The recent plantings have some of these same varieties, l)ut there is a tendency to plant the earlier-hearing kinds. Rented orchards. — Lietween. twent_\- and twenty-five per cent of the orchards are rented, ddie four-year average \\c\i\ ^>i those managed by the owner has been 210 bushels ; of those managed by renters, 174 bushels. Orchard rciioratioji. — Nearly all of the orchards have been badly neg- lected, bnl during the ])ast few years a large ])art of them have received more attention. P'ourteen per cent liave l)een distinctly renovated during the past ten years. r///(/,<^'(' (///(/ yields. — Twenty per cent ha\'e been tilled five years or more : 44 |)er cent have been in sod at least five wars : the others have been tilled j)art of the time. Thirt_\' ])er cent were tilled in 1903. The fonr-\ear-average yields have l)een : Tilled every year for at least five \ cars, 2()() bushels ; tilled most xears, 22() bushels ; sod most \ears. 202 bushels; sod at least five \ears, 148 btisluTs. Or the average xield of those that are regularly tilled is 80 per cent above that of those regularly in sod. .A part of this dilTerence is duv to tillage and a part is due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give it improved care in other res]X'cts. Taking otd)' those orchards that are otherwise wh-II cared for, the difiference is reduced to 35 per cent in favor of tillage, the four-ycar-average yields being: Tilled every year, 271 bushels; tilled most \ears, 245; sod most vcars, 2or) ; sod every year, 200. Of the various methods of sod treatment, pasturing with hogs or sheep ^Twelftli Census Report. 356 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County. New York. 357 gave better yields tlian not pasturing or pasturing- with cattle or horses ; but none of the methods of sod treatment equalled tillage in average ' yields. A few sod orchards _are among the best producers, but the average is much below that of the tilled ones. Liberal applications of barnyard manure reduce the need of tillage. Very many orchards are in need of more growth in order to place the trees in a vigorous condition. Tillage is usually the cheapest and most efTective way of producing this. Ikirnyard manure may also be needed. Fcrfilicafion and yields. — ( )ne-thir(l of the orchards received no fer- tilization of any kind. The other two-thirds received more or less manure. Probably less than half received enough of anything so as to be classed as fertilized. Commercial fertilizers have been used in about twelve per cent and green manure (cover-crops) in about the same area. The average yield for 1902 and 1903 of fertilized orchards was 257 bushels ; for unfertilized it was 202 bushels. A few men have shii)ped in manure from lUififalo. Some have found that they can profitably buy cattle for winter-feeding, and thus secure manure. CoTcr-crops. — C )n most of the soils, humus is needed more than mere plant-food. Ilarnyard manure or cover-crops usually give better results than comm,ercial fertilizers. Cover-crops were grown in eight per cent of the orchards in 1903. Buckwheat is the most commonly used. Crimson clover, red clover, rye, large clover, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch are also grown. Pruning. — The ultimate death of most trees is due to neglect of pruning coupled with a t\pe of priming that is worse than neglect. In sixteen per cent of the orchards, stubs from two to twelve inches long were left. Paint is rarely used on wounds. This treatment causes the trunks to deca\- anrl results in a broken tree. The important points in pruning are: (i) The limbs should be cut close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should not be removed without cause. (3) Paint should be used on large wounds. (4) Pruning should . be done every year rather than give the occasional "thorough trimming." Spraying. — -Thirty-three per cent of the orchards are seldom or never sprayed ; 41 per cent were spra\ ed in 1903. Spraying gives less profit when fruit is grown for evaporating than when grown to barrel. In 1903 the damages from insects and fungi were small, but in this year the sprayed orchards averaged 2y bushels per acre 358 Bulletin 226. above the iinsprayed and averaged better in price. The average income per acre from sprayed orchards was $77.84; from unsprayed, $63. In many cases only one spraying was given. Distance bcticcoi frees. — A great loss is caused l)y the trees being too close together. When trees are too close, the lower limbs die and cause a loss not onl\ in the crop, Imt the dead limbs lead to decayed trunks. In 43 per cent of the mature orchards the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less, the average distance being 31.6 feet. The four-year-average yields have been : Trees not over 30 x 30 feet, 186 bushels: 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet, 229 bushels. If trees are too close: (i) They are not so healthy. (2) The fruit does not color well. (3) The trees have less bearing surface. (4) In- sects and fungi do more damage. (5) The cost of labor is greater. Orchards should be thinned as soon as the trees begin to interfere, before the lower limits have been killed. Thinning should ordinarily be accomplished by removing every other row diagonally, first having deter- mined which way will leave the largest number of sound trees. Age and yield. — The maximum yield in Wayne county seems to come at 44 years after planting. This age will doubtless be greater in the future, for good care seems to give a greater gain in the longevity of the trees than in the yearly yield. Some orchards planted nearly a century ago are still profitable, but a large numl)er of the neglected orchards that were planted about fortv years ago will be of little value in twenty years. In the north part of the county, some }-oung orchards are being planted to meet this contingency. Drainage f^rohlems. — About eight per cent of the orchards need drain- age throughout. Thirty per cent need drainage in part of their area. The greatest loss from poor drainage is not in the damage to entire orchards, but in the small undrained places that occur in many orchards. Fifty-four orchards in Walworth township were reported as need- ing drainage, ddicse gave 42 bushels less yield per acre than the average of the township. Poor drainage not only afl^ects the vigor of the tree directlx', but it encourages canker, collar rot, etc. Land that is well drained for grain crops may not be well drained for. apples. Soils. — The loamy soils are the best for apple production, but good apple crops arc grown on quite diversified soils. The treatment that the An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 359 orchard receives is far more important than the kind of soil. This treatment must vary to some extent with the type of soil. A good apple soil in Wayne county may be said to be one that is well drained and deep. Site and aspect. — The elevation above the surrounding country does not have a marked effect on the yield. The easterly slopes give considerably better yields than the westerly, probably owing to the strong west winds. Enciiiies. — The most serious enemies of the apple are the scab fungus and the codlin-moth. Both of these can be controlled by spraying. The collar rot or King disease is a rot that kills the bark at the sur- face of the ground. It is worst on Kings, attacking nearly all the mature trees. It is also bad on the Spitzenburg and occurs to some extent on all xarieties. It is usuallv worst on poorly drained soil. Little can be done except to treat the wounds as any wound should be treated. But the trouble can be avoided by planting hardy stocks, as the Spy, and top- working to King. If this is done, the trouble furnishes no reason whatever for abandoning the King apple. Canker is a disease attacking the limbs. It is doing considerable damage in one-fifth of the orchards of the county. If the trees had been well cared for, it would seldom have seciu'ed a foothold, except in the Twent}' Ounce. It can be overcome, except in extreme cases, by pruning out the diseased limbs, spraying the limbs with Ikordeaux mixture, and, most important c:»f all, putting the trees in a healthy growing condition. Evaporating apples. — Wayne county is the home of the apple-evap- orating industry. The proportion of the crop that is evaporated varies from year to year, but averages about seventy-five per cent. Some growers pick the best a])ples to barrel, others shake off the entire crop for evaporating. In 1902 the entire crop was thus shaken from the trees in 45 per cent of the orchard area. A much greater profit would usually be made if the orchard were so managed as to produce a realh' No. i apple, and if more of these were then sold in barrels. Yields. — The average yields per acre for mature orchards have been : 1900, 252 bushels: 1901, 34 bushels: 1902. 222 bushels. lueoine per acre. — The gross average incomes per acre from mature trees have been: 1900, $37.80; 1901, $14.28: 1902, $48.18. COXDENSED CONC-EUSIOX. Tillage, ferlilizalion, iiruning aiul s]H'a} iiii^ arc {he chief factors that enter into good care ejf an orchard. ( )n(.' or more of these may sometimes be omitted or jjoorly done without any serious results. To some extent tillage may replace fertilizers, or vice versa. A thrifty orchard may resist the attacks of disease. Some years there -aw few insects or fungi, so that spraying is not so much needed. A farmer fre- ([uently gets good results from some one of these factors and becomes so impressed with its importance that he makes a holjl))' of it. to the exclusit)n of all the others. Hut the most successful ap])Ie-grower is the man who kee])s a ])roi)cr balance between all four agencies and docs not expect good care in one resjiect to make up for neglect in other ways. 1 here is not a reconniiiendation in this rejjort that has not been success- fully carried out by some growers; but few men have given attention to all the ([uestions. though some of the most successful have come very near to doing so. lint these factors are not all. The successful man must stu(.) ness of the country north of the ridge. Fig. loi, taken west of Marion, shows the hilly or drunilin country south of the ridge. The central part of the county is cjuite level, as is shown in Fig. 120. which was taken southwest of Rose. To the east again we find the drunilins. The usual boldness of the lake shore is l)roken l)y four bays — Blind Sodus, Port, East and Great Sodus. (Ireat Sodus liay, situated a little to the east of the center of the county, has a length of about three miles and ani average width of al)out two, and contains three islands — Eagle, Little and Long. This bay is almost closed by a sandbar (Fig. 141). The other three bays are entirely closed by bars. Extending across the southern end of the county is an old river-course, once the bed of an outflow of a glacial lake formed when the ice, which Fig. lor. — p'iezv near Marion^ lookiiii^ south, to ih'Ji^ ilic rough topography soutli of the ridge, at one time covered the northeastern portion of our country, was retreating. There is only one river of any considerable size in the county, and it flows in a winding course across the southern part. It is called Ganarauga or Mud Creek until it joins the outlet of Canandaigua lake, when it becomes the Clyde river. It unites with the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga lakes at Montezuma, then assuming the name of the Seneca river. After draining Owasco, Skaneateles and Onondaga lakes it joins the outlet of Oneida lake to form the Oswego river, takes a north- erly course and empties into Lake Ontario. All the other streams are small, with the di\ ide occurring south of the ridge. Small marshes are numerous between the hills and bordering some of the streams. The Montezuma marshes 'cover al)out ten square miles in the southeastern portion of the county. 370 Bulletin 226. Geology. STRATKiRAPHY. The rocks underlying- the area and outcropping at various places are all of the Silurian system. Rock may be said to be close to the surface north of the ridge and for a distance of one or two miles south. In the drumlin region, however, the material covering the rock, which is called drift, is thick: Init bed-rock is found close to the surface m some of the lowland regions. The following table shows the kind of formations found in the count}'. I licsc will ])v describt-d in later sections. ( )non(laga or Salina grou]i. ... .Shales and gypsum beds. Niagara group Shales and liiuestone. Silurian Clinton grou]) Shales and limestone contain- Period 1 ing bed of fossiliferous iron ore. .Medina group .Sandstone. Fig. 102 is a photograph of a ])ortion of the Xew York State geologic map, showing the general relations of the underl\ing rocks in Wayne county. These are all of sedimentar\' origin. Sedimentar\- rocks are laid down in a horizontal position, one 1a\er on top of the other, but by later disturbances they may be tiltetl or folded. The reason for this suc- cession of rock outcrops is that these rocks have been gentl\' tilted in a southerly direction and also have been ])laned off diagonally. The hatched portion bordering the lake shore represents the extent of the oldest beds — the Medina sandstone; the darker ])ortion south of it, the (dinton series: the lighter succeeding portion, the Niagara series, and the grayish area, the Salina series. Medina S.andstone. These sandstones are red or variegated and occur in a narrow band bordering the shore of the lake, widening out farther west into a broader band. They are exposed in some places along the lake front, although there are no cliffs of rock. The color of the sandstone in some places is of a greenish-gray. This is probably dtie to the fact that " the coloring matter is less diffused or the deoxidizing effect has been more efficient."* A rather interesting sight in the northern part of the county is the itum- ber of schoolhouses and dwellings built of cobbles of Medina sandstone. *Hall. Geology of the Fourtli District, N. Y. 1S4J, p. 42. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 371 V7^ I')L'lli:tin 226. (i!iOL(x;Y, l.« '" 'X '* Pi^ 10^,— Sloiic-cnishcr in tosilion lo iiniui u^. lor roml iinilcnal. stuiics coilcctca from fhc glacial drift. Fjg. 104.— Overburden of shale, liiiieslone and drift in iron-z^'orking at Unnn.u. An Apple Orchard Smrvry of Wavnf. County, Nrw York. 373 These cobbles vary from three to five inches in cHamctcr and were col- lected along the lake shore, which is thickly strewn with them. A few houses of this kind have been built from the cob- bles collected from the glacial drift ; but these stones are used for the most part for fences, or arc ground up for road material. V'lg. 103 shows a crusher. stone- FiG. 105. — Quarry in Nicmara liiiu'slonc, tzuo miles south of Sodiis Center. Clinton Group. This group is made up of clay rocks, or shales, and lime- stones. The shales are of a greenish-gray color, thinly l)edded, more green when fresh and more gra\- when weathered. The limestone is of two kinds, a thinly bedded impure variety and a crystalline and mure massive variety. Tliese beds occur in no regular order of succession, but in between layers of shale we find beds and layers of lime- stone. Abont two miles from the lake, and running approxi- mately parallel to it, is a thin bed of fos- siliferous hematite, known as the Clinton iron ore. There is an iron mine about one mile north of Ontario. Here the ore bed is covered bv an overburdtMi of thinl\- bedded shale and Fig. 106. — Kiln connected zvilli quarry in Fig. 105. 374 Bulletin 226. Gi-.ology. limestone ten feet thick, which is in turn overhiin by drift to a depth of about six feet. b^ig". 104 shows this overburden at Ontario. The bed itself is from two to three feet thick and the ore contains about 33-35 per cent iron. The ore bed at W'olcott is of this same formation. Nl\g.\ra riRoui'. This is made up of two groups; a lower one of thinly bedded shales and impure limestones and an upper one of hard crystalline limestone. West of the county the limestone stands out as an escarpment or ridge, because of its resistance to the wearing effect of weathering and erosion, but in the county this escarjnnent is not pronounced. Tlie shales and limestones are of a bluish or grayish color, depending upon the amount of weathering they have undergone. Where the lime- stone outcrops, the rock is much weathered and contains many cavities due to this weathering. . The line of outcro]> is marked throughout the count}- by a series of (puirries and lime-kilns. Figs. 105 and ^o() show a (piarrx- and kiln located al)out two miles south of Sodus Center. The limestone is also used to a limited extent for firestones and building stones. Salina Ckoiti'. This group is made up of shales, sonu' limestone and gypsiferous beds. The shale is of a grayish or reddish color, which in many places has weathered to a stickv gravish or rrddish clav. Gypseous marl, according to Mall, is found in ])laces along the Erie canal ; it usually contains a lair amount of lime, but in manv places it is clayey. Salt springs are found bordering the Montezuma marshes, especially at the: western end.* CLIMATE. Detailed study cannot be expected in a ])aper of this kind, but we can, frcMU \arious sources, collect facts which show that climate is of great inthience in fruit growing. The lake is no unim])ortant agency in modifying climate. R. S. Tarr, in his ( leological History of the Chautau(|ua Graj^e Beltf says of Lake Erie, and the same will hold true for Lake Ontario: "hi the "•"Geology of the Fourth District, New York. 1842. tRulI. 109, Cornell Agr. Exp. Station, i.SqO, j). ijo. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 375 spring, by reason of the low temperature of its waters, it holds back the vegetation and this tends to keep it behind the ordinary frosts. Its very presence checks frost by moderating the temperature of the neighboring air. In the smnmer the water tends to c.6i 2.62 1.49 3.15 3.21 2,-2'J 3-57 2.40 2.92 2.76 33- 13 24-3 24.6 .^0.4 4-3.3 54 64.0 69.0 68.2 61.7 50.0 38. 5 29.4 46.4 2.97 ^■54 2.62 2.08 2.83 3 40 31^ 2.64 Rochester. Temp. °K. -33-9 24.4 30.3 43-5 56.3 66.4 70.4 68.4 62.0 49.6 37-4 28.6 46.8 Prec. in inches. 3-14 2. 7}, 2.86 2.48 3 ■ .M 3-2-2 2.97 3.06 -2.34 2.92 2.85 2.gi 34 -82 Tliis tiible explains itself. W'hiK' tlu' .-tmounl of rainfall is fairly uniform there was greater i)recii)itati(.>n during May, June, July and August. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE REGION. At one time tlic northwestern portion of otir cotmtry, besides parts of Euro})o, was covered by a great mass of ice, a \ast continental glacier, hundreds of feet thick, in some places even reaching a depth of oxer a mile. Why it came need not concern us, for the fact that it did come is a geological fact. Lal)rador was the center of the ice formation of northeastern America. Local glaciers in the Laurentian motmtains tmited to form a much-lolied ice sheet. The motion of the ice was due to a constant accunuilation at one center. Before the ice came the topograpln- was in its larger feattu'cs the same as it is now, but the minor features were much modit'u'd and are now much different from what thev were. The mass of ice advancing and retreating over the countrv formed deposits, changed the drainage in some places, caused An Apple Orchard Survey of Wavxe County. Xew York. 377 the formation of lakes in sonic places and probably in places did much work of erosion. l)y a change in climatological conditions the ice began to retreat " rather rapidly but intermittently." At its farthest point of extension, which was on a line through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, etc., a terminal moraine was built by the accumulation of material carried by the ice and dropped at its melting front, thus forming an irregular deposit of hills and mounds of glacial drift. In its retreat, if the ice stopped long enough, other morainal deposits were formed. The ice, wearing off fragments from the rock and soil over which it passed, dragged them along under itself, carried some in itself and ])erhaps on itself, lliese fragments in the lower part were constantly undergoing a grinding action. Some were ground to a flour, others were scratched and had their corners rounded. If you look into a cut in a drumlin or even examine the stones in the fields you will find these scratched and rounded stones. When the ice began to melt back some of this material was dropped, thus forming a covering or layer of till, or boulder clay as it is called. The drumlins arc made up of this till. They were probably formed by an unequal deposition of the material because of variations in ice currents, (^r perhaps they were formed by the erosion of a la\er of till caused l)y a readvance of the ice. Streams flowed on the ice, in tunnels in the ice and under the ice. These carried sediment, grinding and wearing it to form gravel and sand. Deposition in these streams and melting of the ice would form what are known as eskers. or ridges of gravel and sand. A stream issuing froni the ice to spread out over a more or less level area would form an over- wash plain. The dei)osit formed by the issue of a subglacial stream into a lake might form a hill-like irregular deposit of stratified material called kames. Or these might have been formed in caverns imder the ice or by water falling down through crevasses in the ice and deposit- ing its burden. As the ice kept retreating great changes took place in the drainage. North-flowing streams were blocked against the ice-wall, and this water combined with the water from the melting ice formed marginal lakes. Valleys w^ere filled with drift, new stream courses were formed, resulting in the cutting of gorges and the formation of waterfalls. The histor}- of the Great Lakes is an interesting and exhaustive study in itself. A brief summary will not be out of place here, for in our 37<^ I'ULLETIX 226. ■ (ilCOLOGY, rcg:ion we have a very good opportunity for a study of one of the stages in the development, namely, the presence of the ridge which has been mentioned before and which marks the shore of a glacial lake. The Great Fig. 107. — Tayltu-'s uiaf>, sltojciiiii Lake Ali^Diiqiiiii cniffying into LaLc Iroquois tlirougJt the Trent river. , !!.. t'' - -^— '^•''' ■' ■ ' ' -— "- '^ "^. .'■y.-'f '•.■ ' /:;..-•■ AOli!.) -lOACI. ■ ■/■:■■ xJ" /^ _A ' // ■■■ "*■/.-.,-. o-y-'. ,„,., y-.V/'/.v. , ,,,.-uu ''"■^"■■" '.,V "V- Fig, vo'!>.—L,ilbeyt's inaf of Lake Iroquois. Lakes probably did not exist before the ice came — before that period which is called the glacial period ; but their site was occupied by stream channels. An Apple Orchard Surx'ky of Wayne County, New York. 379 Along- the ice front, as it was retreating, small lakes were formed, the water being supplied by the damming up of north-tiowing streams, the melting of the ice and the precipitation. These united to form large lakes. When the ice stood across the northern part of the State there was a large glacial lake, called Lake Newberry, in front of it. with an outflow over the Seneca Lake divide. The ice retreated farther and the lake became (juite exten- sive, its level was lowered and the waters found an out- flow past Chicago. This lake is known as Lake Warren. The farther with- drawal of the ice _em: Fig. 109. — Cliff cut by fciiiforary lake outfloiv. (Tzvo miles east of Newark) . and the continued withdrawal produced other changes. "" With the uncovering of the Mohawk, the Lake Warren waters flowed eastward and the level fell, until finally the entire Erie basin was uncovered. Niagara river then began to flow when the water level in the ( )ntario basin fell below that of Lake Erie. The outflow of the upper Great Lakes was t h c n , as no w . thrnugh the Detroit- Lake St. Clair chan- nel into Lake Erie ; and the Niagara river was then, as now, a large river. The three upper lakes were at that time united to form Lake Algonc[uin ; but, as the ice front withdrew still farther, it uncovered the Trent River valley, which, because of the northward depression of the land at that time, was then lower than the Detroit channel, so that the waters of Lake Algonquin were then withdrawn from the Lake Erie overflow, and the Fig. 1 10. — Delta formed along temporary lake outHozv (east of Newark). .V'^o Bulletin 226. ( 'ii'.olocv. size of Niag^ara was greatl)- retluced thercl)y ( l-'ig. 107). The waters of the upper (Ireat Lakes then tiowed direcllx into the expanded Ontario without iirst passing- through Erie. The exjjanded Ontario has been called glacial Lake lro(|uois and its overHfnv was through the jMohawk, because the St. Lawrence outflow was still ice-tilled.""" Fig'. 108 shows this Lake Irotpiois as niajjped by ( iilbert. It was during this stage that the grave ridge througli the county was built along the shore line ttf the ex])anded lake. l)e])osits of silt and clay were also formed in this lake, in which some of the drumhns rose as islands. lust before this stage, however, tem])orar_\' channels formed outlets from the western lakes to the Mohawk. One of these runs across the JviG. i I I. — Taylor's ma!^ of tJic deal Lakes n'liilc the sea c.vtciidcd iif into Ontario. southern end of the county, bdg. 109 shows a cliff cut by the water, and Fig. no a small delta formed at that time. lunnher changes took place; with the farther retreat of the ice. Lake iro(|uois fell. At this time the land was (le])ressed in the northeast, and the sea encroached u])on the Lake ( )ntario basin, while the ui)per Creat [,akes found an outlet through the ( )ttawa river ( I'dg. ill). Then the land began to rise, and finally Lake < )ntari(> assumed its present level, ddiis history is based on the studv of the beaches formed by these various lakes during the various stages, by such men as Taylor, Si)encer, Newberry and Gilbert, the results of whose careful investigations can l)e taken as having well established these conclusions. *Tarr. Pliv Gccy. of N. ^^ State, p.-'^o. An Apple Orchard Surxev of Wayne County, New York. 381 SOIL TYPES/'= The soil types in the county can be summed up under the following- headings : Stony soils. Gravelly soils. Sandy soils. Loam soils. Clay soils. Muck. This classification, althoug'h it differs from the ordinary classification of soil types, is adopted because more sim])le and somewhat suggestive of their origin. Stony Soils. This soil type is typically represented by what is known among geologists as till or boulder clay, namely an unassorted mass of clay, sand, gravel, stones ami boulders resulting from deposition from the ice (page '^J'/^. The soil is of a more or less clayey nature. The surface soil, how- ever, seems to be more of a sandy loam : but in the few cuts that were seen the subsoil is hard and clayey, being the t_\i)ical boulder clay. The natural sections along the lake shore im the northeastern part of the county show exceptionally well the character of this hard, compact boulder clay, for the action of the waves and rain have caused this com- pact drift to stand up in beautiful fantastic pinnacles and spires. Fig. 112 is a photograph of one of these pinnacles in a drumlin three miles east of Sodus Ray. A more distant view is shown in Fig. 130. The soil con- tains numerous stones, some roimded, some angular and some scratched, showing the influence of ice action. The stones, which make up thirty- five to fifty per cent of the soil, are to a large extent local, that is, derived from the Silurian sandstone, shale and limestone, (hieiss and granite, brought b\' the ice from the north, are also found, and in some places are erratics of considerable size. From most of the farms, however, the stones have been picked and piled into heaps or built into fences. Some. too, are being crushed for road material. This soil type occupies by far the largest portion of the county, covering probably about half of the area. The soil areas throughout *This classification represent'- the geological method and is not that of the Bureau of Soils presented in Part r. 382 Bulletin 226. Gi£Ologv. the county are quite complex, and no definite boundaries can be mapped, but there are general and typical areas which can be described. In general, this type occupies a l)elt extending across the county east to west, and from the ridge to the southern boundary. The north- eastern i)ortion oi the county is also occupied by scattered areas of this type, ^idie belt across the section is interrui)ted in the central portion south of Sodus Ray and extending down to Clyde by an area J'iG. 112. — Fiiiiiaclc uj boulder iUiy in dniinlin lluxc miles casl uj Sodus Bay. of other types coxering a sectitjn of al)oul fifteen or twenty square miles. There is also a stri]) of another t}pe following the general trend of the New ^'ork Central Railroad. The drumlins are included in this tyjK' ( I^'igs. 113 and 114). It must not be thought that this type covers exclusiveh' the area outlined, for there are small areas of muck between some of the hills and l^ordering some of the streams. Clay |)atches are common in some places, as also are sandy and gravelly areas. An Applf. Orchard Sur\kv of Wavxi-: County, Nfw York. 38.^ Grax'ellv Soils. The name given to this type is suggestive of its eharacter. It is. for the the most part, made up of gravel and sand. Just where to draw mv; Hne between gravel soils and sand soils is a difficult question, for one m m Fig. 113. — Stony soil. Druinlin four miles northeast of Wakvorth. grades into the other. The name gravelly soils has been given to the type which is obviously gravelly. The name sandy soils has been ascribed to that type which is entirely sandy or contains few pebbles. The pebbles in the gravelly type are rounded, showing that they have Fig. 114. — Stony soil. Drnmlin three miles west of Marion. been worn by water action. They are of the Silurian rocks with a large percentage of gneiss and granite, ranging in size from very small pebbles up to those three and four inches in diameter. The remark- able number of gravel pits throughout the county (Figs. 117. 134 and 136) testify to the good quality of the sand and gravel which is used 3^4 Bulletin 226. Geology for road and building purposes. The areas are somewhat scattered and on the w hole do not add up to a very large amount. For con- \ enience ul description we may divide tliem into the following l^iG. 115. — Grai'cl soil. Oz'crzoasli plain I'a'o and a half miles z^'cst of Marion. classes: (,)\-erwash areas, kames and eskers, deposits on dnunlins, ridge and old stream bed. O'i'cn^'ush areas. — By an overwash area is meant a deposit of sand and gra\'el which has been formed l)y a stream issuing from the front of the ice and deposit- ing its burden on a more or less level area. Fig. 1 15 shows an overwash area two and one-half miles west of Marion. Another is found northeast of i^^iirville, and other smaller areas occur in scat- tered re.qions. These must have been the seat of deposition just at the close of the t,''lacial i)eriod when the ice was retreating. k'ojiics ami cslccrs. — A kame area is a collection of hummocky hills enclosing hollo\As and com])osed of stratified material, namely, sand and gravel. Fig. 135 shows such an area north of Palmyra. These Fic. J 16. — Gravel soil. Palinvra cskcr. An Apple Orchard Survey of Waynk Covntv, Nf.w York. 385 areas are of small extent, the best developed one extending from Pal- myra north to Marion. These kame areas may have been formed in several different w^ays — in caverns under the ice, by water falling down through crev- asses and depositing" its sediment, or where streams from the ice issued into lakes. Eskers are closel} associated with kames. being com- posed of the same kind of material and prob- ably having 1 ) e e n formed by deposition from glacial streams under the thin edge of the ice. An esker is a winding ridge or collection of ridges to which the name serpent kame has also been applied. Two eskers have been studied ; one north of Palmyra and extend- ing for a distance of about five miles in a general northerly direction (Figs. ii() and 137) ; one four miles north of New- ark and extending for a distance of one mile (Fig. 138). Deposits oil dntmliiis. — Associated with the drundins are masses of stratified drift, usually occupying the lower sides or southern ends. /S S4v Fin. 117.— Gravel pit al Pcrcyvillc. 386 Bulletin 226. Geology These deposits on the sides are usually of a rounded, symmetrical shape, some of them having the appearance of being younger drumlins super- imposed on older ones, the only chief or vital difference being ni the nature of the composing material ; the " bumjjs " being composed of gravel and sand (Fig. 134), and the drumlins of boulder clay (Fig. 131). Fig. 134 shows a cut in one of these gravel areas on the side of a Fig. iiS.—Coiisolidalcd gnwcl from pit two miles iiortlmu^st of Lyons. drumlin two miles west of Maccdon Center. These associated de- posits will l)e considered in more detail in a later section of the report. Grarcl ridi^c. — This ridge is quite an uniciue feature in the county and is easily traced as far east as Sodus, where it turns south and becomes less distinct. At this point the exact line of construction is lost, for onlv patches of it can be found here and there, from which the general direction may be approximately determined. Fig. 108 shows Gilbert's interpretation. This ridge marks the shore line of glacial Ai\ Apple Orchaku Sirxev of Wavnic Counts', Nkw York. 387 Lake Iroquois. 'I'hc material composing this ridge is quite similar to that in the present lake beach, although some clay is present owing to the weathering of the pebbles. Following the trend of the railroad through the southern part of the county A\x find some \vell-de\elo])e(l gravel areas. Northwest of Palm_\ra is an area embracing a few square miles. (Fig. 117.) This is being worked by the railroad. Newark is built on a large area of this gra\el. Fig. 1 18 shows some consolidated gra\el taken from a i)it two miles northwest of Lyons. This line of gravel areas marks the site of an old stream channel mentioned in a previous paragraph. i*"u,. ng. — Sandy soil. Tiko ihuls :>unia of Sodits Bay. SA^■I)^' Soils. This t\pe is Upicalh" a fiiie sanav is quite an intensive area of this sand which is ver\- fine in texture, and contains very few, if any, stones. Fig. 119 shows some hills of sand south of Sodus Ray. Idiese hills resemble dimes, but thev seem too level-toi)iX'd to be dunes, and the manner of stratification is not the kind which is finmd in duni'S. In sand dunes we '388 BuiJ.ETiN 226. Geology arc likch' to find confused stratification due to wind deposition, but here tlie stratification is ln)rizontal. This tleposit is probably constructional, although erosion may have nuule tlie hills more ]^ronounced. It probably represents a deposit formed 1)\ water at the front of the ice. Loam Soils. The term loam sdil i> ;i ci im])rehensive term and conveys a somewhat wide meanin'g, emhraciui;- on the one hand a somewdiat sandy soil and ou the other a claxev soil, ddie amount of stones in the S(_)il also varies, some places are entirel\ free from stones and others contain as high as 30-40 per cent. Xext to the stony soils this type covers the largest area pEIWpB^^I^!^^** I'll,, iju. — /..■..,:, , o-M ii..' >,.,;; w ...;,, ,,,,,u.. .i,.,n',,.^> -., ,., ji._.oi. in the countw being- w ell-develo]ied in places north of the ridge, in the northeastern portion of the count}' and especially in the region around Rose and Alton. In the latter area the soil is (|uite free from stones and <)ccui)i(.'s a K^el stretch of countr\. ( I' ig. 120.) In tlie other regions the soil contains an ai)])reciabk' amount of stones and occupies more rolling countrx. ddiis soil owes its origin to Lake lro(|uois. In the northern regions the lake waters were not very (|niet, hence the variations in texture of the soils. In the central region, however, which represents a l)a\' in the old lake', the water was more (|uiet, and hence we have the evenness of texture and freedom from stones. Cla'*' Sotl.s. This ty]:)c mav be subdix'ided into residual clays and sedimentary clays. TIk' residurd clav is a stickx reddish or gravish clay formed as a weather- ing product of the .Salina red and gra)' shales. Li some places the clay Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 389 can be seen gradino- into the shale. The areas are not vcr}' extensive, and they are found in patches in the southern jiart of the county. At places east of Newark, west of Newark and near Pahnyra are good examples of this residual clay. Fig. 121 is a view along the Erie canal where beds of this type are found. The sedimentary clay is of a brownish color, and in some places grades into the loam soil. The area occupied by this subtype is larger than that occupied by the residual clays. Northeast of Clvde Fig. 121. — Vic-To along Lnc canal where paUiics of residual clay arc found. is an area end)racing about se\en scpiare miles. Along the lake shore are patches of this sedimentary clay, especially in the northeastern portion of the county, llert' the lake has jiroduced natural sections which show the horizontal stratification of the clay. (Fig. 150.) This subtype was formed in the waters of Fake Iro([uois. Muck. The term muck is used to designate marshy, swampy and wet areas which, although for the most i>art scattered, in total reach to quite an acreage. The Montezuma marshes in the southeastern portion of the 390 Bui-Lin'TX 22C\ GicoLonY. count_\- cover an area of ten square miles. Alontj^ the Clyde river is another extensive niarshx area, and others are found around Zurich, Joy, north of Wolcott and north of Lnoiis. C )ther smaller areas of marsh land are found horderins;" some of the streams and l)et\veen some of the drumlins. Ilesides these marsh\ areas there are many low. wet areas of black, cla_\ev or silty soil, which are found between some of the drumlins. MLVTl'RES OF GLACIAL. (lEOLOGY. Wayne county is especially interestint;- to the student of glacial geology, in that it shows man\' phenomena coimected with the great ice sheet wdiich at one time covered the northen nart of our country. Tii.i.-Co\1':rix(;. The term glacial drift !.•- ap^died to the aggregations of clay, boulders, sand and jjebbles forme(l directK' b\' ice action or b}' ice in connection with \\;Uer action. These are called respectivel\- unstratiiied and strati- tied drift. The mistratified drift includes the till sheet, flrumlins and moraines, and the stratilied drift includes kames, cskers, overwash plains, etc. These two classes are, howe\'er. not alwaxs distinct, for in an unstratihed mass we often find masses n\ stratified drift. The whole count\' is coAH'rrd with drift, either as direct deposits b\' ice and water or as deposits which have been worked over, so to sjieak, by some later action. ddu' till is t-om])act and firm, and the rock fragments it contains are usuall\- somewhat rounded and frecpiently polished and scratched. The tv])ical form of boulder clay is shown in iMg. 112. The distribution of till bears a close relation to the rate of movement of the ice, depending upon topogra])h\- and the amount of material dragged or carried by the ice. In some places this till reaches a de])tli of 100 feet, as in some of the liighest drumlins. ( l<"igs. I2_:;, 124 and 125.) In other places, espe- cialh- in the western and northern \ydvi of the coinitw iust south of the ridge this till is ver\- thin. (Fig. 122.) Wdien the ice moved over the countr\- it remo\-ed rock fragments from the surface and dragged them along with itself. When it retreated it left this mass of till or ground moraine as it is called. X'ariations in ice currt'uts and in the direction of ice-flow ])roduce(l variation.s in depth, and in some places caused an appearance of stratification. An Apple (Jrciiard Suk\'i-:v of WAVNii County, Xew York. 391 E-s o 392 l5uLLi;ri.\ jj(). ( ii'.oi.or.Y. Drumlins. As has been said before, Wayne county lies in the drumhn area of New York State. A s^lance at the I'nitetl States Topographic sheets of this section of the State will Ije sutiicient to give one a view of the general art-a of this section, of which Wayne county forms no inconsiderable part. The drumlins are thickest in the central belt of the county, in the town- ships of Arcadia, Lyons, Palmyra and Marion. In Rose the_\' are almost totall\- absent, the level topogra])hy being broken only by a few " island forms." b'arther east, in Savannah and Cutler, they are again very thick. X(jrth, in Huron and WOlcult, they are not so thickly grouped. In the western and southern areas and in the section south of the rido'c i'lG. i_'3. — J ill ct'i'crut^: Uroiij^cd drniiilins. the\- are single rather than grouped. North of the ridge there are no drumlins ( I'dg. hh). ) I'igs. i J3 to 1 2(j show photograj^hs of grouped and single drumlins. A drnndin is a synnurlrical hill made up of compact till. Some. howe\er, contain lenses of stratihed drift. Tliev are wonderfully smooth and regular, usually with gently sloping rounded tops. Idle northern end, commonh', is steeper than the southern end and in all cases the long axis is parallel to the direction of the ice moveiuent. Drundins are found in our country in Xew York, Xe\\' F.ngland and Wisconsin. I'onii. — Idle druiulins are both single and grou])ed. but more often s/rouncil. ddiev \'arv in size (uiite considerablw Some are two-thirds An Ai'1'1.1-: Oiuiiaud Survey of Wavxe County, Xi'.w York. t,()^, 394 Bulletin 22C). (ikology. of a mile lon.q;, others arc much sliorter, even being so small as 300 led. They vary in height from 25 to 200 feet aiul the proportion of length to breadth is usually as much as 3 to 1. Some are gently slop- ing, others steeply sloping; some high and narrow, others, low and flat (Figs. 124 to 128). The north slope is usually steeper than the Fi( -Xoi-lli (•;/(/ I'l (Irifiiiliii four utiles iinrth nf l\ihityri.i- .south slojje and the side slopes steeper than the north. There are clearly recognizable certain types of drumlins. A symmetrical type, called by Chamberlain a mammilar_\- or lenticular hill, is one in which the north and south slopes are similar, thus forming an o\'al, sym- I'U".. ] 2b. — Siilr slo/ic of dniniliu one utile norlli of Rose. I'K-trical hill. TIk- second tyjjc is one in which the north slope is slightly steeper than the S(nith slo])e. Wlu-n the southern end is long and drawn out, sometimes si) far that the exact termination cannot be distinguisheil, we ha\'e the ])re\ailing tyi)e of the \\'ayne County area. The fourth and last t\pe is one which is intermediate between the An Applf. C^i^ciiARO Si;r\f.v of \\'avnI': Coitnt^-, Ni:\v York. 3(}5 Fig, 127. — Looking zvest at dfumlin liHo miles northeast of West Waluiorth. Fig. 128. — Long, loiv, flat dnimlin. Fig. 129. — Grouped dntmlins. '3'/' llrLIJ-lllX 22(\ ( il.Dl.OCN' sccuml and lliird. Tliis lias Ix/cii tiTiind llu' ladpole type In' a Cornell sludeiit because ol its reseiiihlanei' in a ladpole. In this there is a loni;- lail-like projeelioii hitched nn lo ihe Ixxly nl' the drumlin. There are ^.onle modifications oi these types which are \\(jrtli_\ of mention. In some, tin- s\ninietry oi the drumlin is disiii^ured h\ a secondary, smaller hill mi the side or at the southern end. 1 his smaller hill is usualh- of uraxel and sand and was undouhtedlv lormetl after the l*"iG. i,?o. — JJ'ai'c-citt cliffs in dniniliii three miles east of Sodits Bay. lormatioii ol the drumlin. .Some drumlins lia\e peculiar and inter- esting" southern I'lidin^s: a kamy ending' is not infrecpient nor is an ending;' in ridi.;e-like ^raxtd deposits. lliese. too, were of later ori^'in than the drumlins. iiiuiiipc'il ifriiiJiHiis. — Fii^s. TOT. 123 anS lUlIJ-KTIX 22(^. ("iI-.Ol.OCV. ct' that particular formation, (jranitc and gneiss fragments which had Ijcen carried l)y the ice from the north are common. Large l)uuhlers or erratics, as they are callech are found scattered throughout the cf Drumliii's American Geologist, Vol. XIII. 1894, p. 394. 4O0 Bulletin 226. (iEOLOGY, Kame Areas. Gcrkie describes a kame area as a collection of " mounds and winding ridges, lunnniock}- and undulating like a tuml)led sea. The ground now swelling into long undulations, now rising suddenly into beautiful peaks and cones and anon curving up in sharp ridges and often wheeling sud- den 1\' around so as to enclose a lakelet of bright, clear water." This description is of a well-developed area. We do not find any such t\pical areas in Wayne county, but we do find some of a less subdued t_\'])e. In Marion to\vnshi]i thev are not infre(iuent ( h'ig. 135 ). They arc made up of gravel and sand and were probaliK' formed at tlir tliiii edge of the ice b\' stream action as was described in a former paragraph. Kames are usually ass(^ciate(l with mo- raines. The time was too limited to permit of detailed mapping of the county, but fm-ther study will un- doubtedh slu)\\^ a belt of moraine runinng across the county. E.SKERS. These form another interesting feature. .\n esker is a long, narrow, winding ridge or collection of ridges made up of gravel and sand and bearing" a \er\- cl(^se resemblant-e to embankments. The drift [■K i,^. — V//<;/,7;.'(/ ,V(f)/(/ and .i;/-(/:'<7 mi siiir of dnimini /rec miles west of .]fciicd(iii Ccnirr. An ArrLE Orchard Survkv ov W.wsr. Couxrv, Xi'.w York. 401 Fig. 135, — Kaiiic area north of Palmyra. Fig. 130. — Lul in Falinyra cskcr. 4c)_' IUmj.etix 226. rJi:()L()(;\-. shows slratificalioii ruui^hly parallel to the surface outline (Fig. 13C)). Kskers owe their origin to glacial streams ; most probably subglacial streams, although in some cases they ma\- have been formed in super- glacial or engiacial streams. When the ice retreated these stream- deposits were left in the form of ridges. In the stud}- two cskers were Fig. 137. — Palmyra cskcr. ina])])ed. one north of I'alm} ra. and Ihe other north of Xewark, beginning near ll\de\il]e. hollowing are descriptions t)f these two eskers : Palmyra cskcr. — This is aliont four miles long, ex1 ending in a general north-south direction l)etween Marion and l'ahn_\ra. It has an indis- tinct, low northern end, then takes two indistinct and broken courses Vic. 138. — Hydcvillc cskcr. for a distance of one-half mile when the two unite to form a jiretty little kettle-hole. It continues for one-half mile in a ])ronounced ridge. tlu'U becomes indistinct again ; again takes on the form of a ridge and further is lost in a kam\' area. lieginning again as a low ridge it gradualh' becomes better develo])ed and contimies tor a distance of Ax Ai'.i'LE Okcmaui) Si'K\i;v oi- Wayne Counia', Ni:w York. 403 a mile or more in a well-defined ridge, to be lost in the levelness of the eountr}'. The base at its widest point is 50 feet and the highest ])oint is 40-50 feet. Figs. 116 and 137 are photographs of this esker. i'K.;. 139. — Loiii: Islam! from Lake Bluff. llydcrdlc cskcr.- — h"ig. 138 shows a portion of this small esker, which begins abont one and one-half miles north of liydexille and extends for a mile in a general north-south direction. It begins in an indis- tinct ridge but soon assumes (|uite a distinct t}4)e and continues as Fig. 140. — I'ieiu from Nidiolas Foiiil looking iiorl'i across Soclits Bay. such for one-half mile, where there is an abrupt break, leaving a chamiel about 35 feel wide. It begins again in a kani}' area, and after continuing for one-half mile is lost in a le\'el area. The highest point Ls 35 feet and the greatest width about 50. 4'>4 i'>ui,Li-.i IN 226. (1l;oi>o(;v. 0\i:r\vasii Areas. TliL'se liavc- hvvu HK'tilidiiiM! inukT (he discussion *jf i;Tavcllv soils (Fig. 115). ■ Streams llowcd mit from hciicatli the ice, l)ur(lciiecl with a great mass of material collected from the overloaded, thin edge of the glacier. Fig, i4r.~Froiit Lake IVuff lonl-iui'^ r.r.v/ .vZ/c:,'/;/- llic Imr ihtoss Suihis Bay. CliarL-.s I^niiil is (III iJic c.vliciiic ri:^iil of Ihc l^icliirc. Idle watei", now heing miconlined h\ an ice channel, s])rea(l out and the griuihng and rolHng action of the lake waters. \\'here a cliff is being cut tlu- uvnal cniilour is shown by Fig. 146. / / f/# 'w c • ^ Fig. T46. — Beach bciiii^ formed at base of cliff. Laacon Fig. 147. — Beach he'u\ho\\s slratiiied clay of lake origin. The generalized section north of the ridge iua\ he shown 1)\' hdg. 151. h'roin th.e ridge of gravel north we Ind a gra\'el!\', sand\- area followed 1)\- a more sand\- and less gravelly area which is in tuni followed 1)_\- a sandy I area, l-'arlhest north is the lake clay. The island drnmlins in the old hay of Fake Iro(|nois are interesting features. Around some of the islands extends a heach mark which is at the same level as the ridge. Areas of stratified material are fomid asso- ciated with these islands. These were dei)0sited in Fake !ro((noi>: st.nnewhat like l)ars are being deposited in some ba^•s at the present time. Fig. 150. — ./.(//,■(■ (7(/v lln-cr iiiih-s fcsi of S(hIhs lyoy. CI. Fir,. 151. — (ioicralizcd seclicii fnnii riih^r nortli /