WS 
 
571 
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 »y 1 
 
 Bulletin No. 13.— W. B. No. 100. Prif^e 10 cents. 
 
 XJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 WEATHER BUREAU. 
 
 IS 
 
 METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM THE SAME. 
 
 PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 
 
 WILLIS L. MOORE, 
 
 CHIEF OF WEATHER BUREAU. 
 
 H. E. WILLIAMS, 
 
 CHIEF OF FORECAST DIVISION. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 WEATHER BUREAU. y 
 
 1896. 
 Wfmfegraph 
 
Bulletin No. 13.— W.^B. No. 10(». Price 10 cents. 
 
 TJ. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 WEATHER BUREAU. 
 
 TEllfERATOii llJilS !0 IID lliCTS 11 MM 
 
 1 m\ I \T(i I) 
 
 METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM THE SAME. 
 
 PREPARED TJNBER THE llIRErTION OP 
 
 WILLIS L. MOORE, 
 
 CHIEF OF WEATHER BUREATJ. 
 
 H. E. WILLIAMS, 
 
 CHIEF OF FORECAST DIVISION. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 WEATHER BUREAU, 
 
 1896. 
 
 ^^^ - 
 
'i'"*^ 
 
n 
 
 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
 
 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 Weather Bureau, 
 Wa^^h^ngton, D. C, June 1, 1896, 
 Sir : I transmit herewith a revised copy of a pamphlet entitled 
 Temperatures Injurious to Food Products in Storage and During 
 Transportation, and Methods of Protection from the Same, and 
 respectfully recommend its publication as a bulletin of this Bureau 
 for distribution to our observers and others interested. 
 
 The publication first bearing this title was a circular of the Weather 
 Bureau and it was afterward revised and enlarged and issued as Bul- 
 letin No. 13. There being a continued demand for the publication, 
 it has now undergone a second revision for this issue. 
 
 Willis L. Moore, 
 
 Chief of Bureau. 
 J. Sterling Morton, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 3 
 
LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 
 
 Washington, D. C, June 1, 1896. 
 
 Sir : I submit herewith for publication a revised copy of the circu- 
 lar of information entitled Temperatures Injurious to Food Products 
 in Storage and During Transportation, and Methods of Protection 
 from the Same. The paper includes the matter contained in the 
 pamphlet entitled, Protecticn of Fruits, Vegetables, and Other Food 
 Products from Injury by Heat or Cold During Transportation, to 
 which has l)een added valuable information as to the temperature 
 conditions favorable to the safe-keeping of food products in storage, 
 the slaughtering of cattle and hogs with a view to the subsequent 
 preservetion and curing of the meat, and suggestions as to how to 
 best utilize the weather reports in connection with the safe storage 
 and shipment of food products. It is proper to state that the sug- 
 gestion which led to the preparation of the pamphlet referred to was 
 received from Mr. A. F. Sims, Oliserver Weather Bureau, Albany, N. Y. 
 
 The chief credit for the preparation of this paper is due to Mr. H. 
 E. Williams, Chief of the Forecast Division, who prepared the circu- 
 lar calling for the information, and edited and arranged the matter. 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 H. H. C. DUNWOODY, 
 
 Assigned to duty as Acting Assistant Chief, 
 
 In charge of Forecast Division. 
 Willis L. Moore, 
 
 Chief of Weather Bureau. 
 
 4 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Object of the bulletin 7 
 
 Objects to be attained in the shijunent of perishable fruit 7 
 
 Temperatures for shipping perishable goods 7 
 
 Food i)roducts in storage 13 
 
 Temperatures favorable for slaughtering cattle and hogs and the preser- 
 vation and curing of the meat 15 
 
 The use of the weather reports in connection with the safe storage and 
 
 shipment of food products 17 
 
 The lowest and highest temperatures to which jierishable goods may be 
 
 subjected without injury under the conditions stated 19 
 
 5 
 
TEMPERATURES INJURIOUS TO FOOD PRODUCTS IN STORAGE 
 
 AND DURING TRANSPORTATION, AND METHODS 
 
 OF PROTECTION FROM THE SAME. 
 
 The object of this bulletin is to furnish information regarding the 
 temperatures that are injurious to food products and other perishable 
 articles, under different conditions and during shipment, and to sug- 
 gest methods of protecting the same from extremes of heat and cold. 
 This information is largely a compilation of the opinions of mer- 
 chants and shippers in all parts of the country, which were received 
 in reply to a circular letter sent out by the Weather Bureau, and it is 
 thought that the bulletin will prove of interest and value to the pub- 
 lic generally. 
 
 The goods claimed as perishable, and for which protection from 
 excessive heat or cold is necessary are, all fruits and vegetables, milk, 
 dairy products, green meats, poultry, game, fish, oysters, clams, malt 
 and hop liquors, wines, mineral waters, wet, canned, or bottled gro- 
 ceries, ink, mucilage, proprietary medicines, and liquid drugs hav- 
 ing water instead of alcohol for a base. 
 
 In the transportation of perishable freight there are three primal 
 objects to be attained : 
 
 1. The protection of the shipment from frost or excessive cold, 
 
 2. The protection of the same from excessive heat. 
 
 3. The circulation of air through the car, so as to carry off the 
 gases generated by this class of freight. 
 
 TEMPERATURES FOR SHIPPING PERISHABLE GOODS. 
 
 The temperatures at which perishable goods are liable to damage 
 vary greatly with different commodities, their condition when 
 shipped, how long they may be in transit, whether they are kept con- 
 tinually in motion, etc. 
 
 The degree of cold to which these goods may be subjected without 
 injury depends on the time the shipment will be on the road; also, 
 whether it will be unloaded immediately upon arriving at its destina- 
 tion, or allowed to stand some time. The direction of shipment, 
 whether toward a cold area or away from it, and the duration of the 
 exposure, as well as the intensity of the cold, must be considered. 
 
 Shippers and agents concur in the statement that danger in trans- 
 portation by freezing can be practically eliminated by the shipment 
 of produce by modern methods ; the lined car suffices in spring and 
 
 7 
 
autumn, and usually during the winter, while in extreme weather 
 specially built cars are used. The temperature of the produce when 
 put into the car is quite a factor to be observed. If it has been ex- 
 posed to a low temperature for a considerable time before, it is in a 
 poor condition to withstand cold, and the length of time so exposed 
 should be taken into account. It is also claimed that a car load of 
 produce, like potatoes, will stand a lower temperature when the car is 
 in motion than when at rest. 
 
 In ordinary freight cars perishable goods can be shipped with safety 
 with the outside temperature at 20°, and in refrigerator cars at 10°. 
 In the latter, these goods may be safely shipped Avith a temperature 
 outside of from zero to 10° below, if the car is first heated, and at the 
 end of the journey the goods are immediately taken into a warm place 
 without being carted any great distance. The better class of refriger- 
 ator cars will carry all perishable goods safely through temperature as 
 low as 20° below zero, provided they are not subjected to such tempera- 
 tures longer than three or four days at a time, while with the ordinary 
 refrigerator cars temperatures of zero are considered dangerous, espe- 
 cially if the goods they contain be of the most perishable kind. 
 
 Goods at a temperature of 50° to 60°, packed in a refrigerator car, 
 closed, have been exposed to temperatures 10° to 20° below zero for 
 four and five days without injury. 
 
 Shipments of tropical fruits in ordinary freight cars cannot be 
 safely made when the temperature is below 30°, except in cases where 
 the distance is so short as not to expose them for a longer period than 
 twelve hours, and even then they must be carefully packed in straw 
 or hay. The hardier northern fruits and vegetables can be safely 
 shipped in a temperature of about 25°, but the same protective 
 measures must be employed as in the case of tropical fruits when 
 lower temperatures prevail. Long exposure to temperature of 20° is 
 considered dangerous to their safety. Foods preserved in cans or 
 glass should not be shipped any distance when the temperature is 
 below the freezing point. 
 
 Fish are shipped by express and also by freight. When shipped 
 by express they are packed in barrels with ice. When shipped by 
 freight they are packed in casks holding 600 pounds each, or in boxes 
 on wheels, holding about 1,000 pounds each. When shipped in car- 
 load lots they are packed in bins built in the car and thoroughly iced. 
 The amount of ice supplied should equal one-half the weight of the 
 fish. No accurate observations have been kept of the exact tempera- 
 ture fish keep best in, but it is found that they keep in better con- 
 dition when the temperature of the box in which they are stored, 
 with ice, is about that of melting ice. Under favorable conditions 
 fish remain sound and marketable for thirty days after being caught 
 and packed in ice. The entrails of fish should be removed before 
 shipping, as they are the parts that most readily decay, and taint the 
 
9 
 
 flesh of the fish. This is especially necessary in shipping long 
 distances. 
 
 Shucked oysters, shipped in their own liquor in tight barrels, will 
 not spoil if frozen while in transit. Thick or fat clams or oysters 
 will not freeze as readily as lean ones, as the latter contain much 
 more water. Oysters will not freeze as readily as clams. It is safer 
 when oysters or clams in the shell are frozen to thaw them out grad- 
 ually, in the original package, in a cool place. Clams and oysters in 
 transit through a snowstorm will not freeze as readily as when the 
 weather is fair and a stiff wind prevails. 
 
 In freezing weather oysters and clams are shipped in tight barrels 
 lined with paper. 
 
 Beer can be shipped at an outside temperature of 10°, if placed in 
 a refrigerator car and the kegs packed in hay or sawdust, and fresh 
 stable manure, the packing being 6 inches or more all around. Bot- 
 tled beer that has passed through a low temperature during transit 
 should be placed in a cellar and allowed to regain a normal tempera- 
 ture slowly, otherwise it is liable to spoil. 
 
 Mineral waters and nonalcoholic ales cannot be exposed to a tem- 
 perature below 30° for any considerable -time without injury. 
 
 As a rule, truckers will not haul vegetables to the cars for ship- 
 ment when the temperature reaches 20°, or lower, and in no case 
 when it is near 32°, if raining or snowing. 
 
 Articles shipped from the North to the South during winter should 
 be in a perfectly dry condition. 
 
 In shipping early vegetables to a northern market from the South, 
 for distances requiring more than forty-eight hours to cover, open- 
 work baskets, slatted boxes, or barrels with openings cut in them, 
 should be used to allow a circulation of air. 
 
 It is not safe to ship olives in any car, unless heated artificially, 
 when the temperature is below 25°. 
 
 In shipping green meats the almost universal practice is to ship in 
 refrigerator cars where the temperature can be maintained at any 
 desired degree, a temperature from 36° to 40° being considered the 
 best. 
 
 Fresh beef for shipping should be chilled to a temperature of 36°, 
 although under favorable conditions it will arrive in a good state if 
 chilled to only 40°. The cars should be at the same temperature as 
 the chill rooms, and it is considered very important to have an even 
 temperature from the time the beef is taken from the chill room 
 until its arrival at its destination. 
 
 In shipping long distances in summer, it is necessary to re-ice the 
 cars, the frequency depending on the prevailing temperature, so that 
 no fixed rule can be given. In winter, the temperature is kept up to 
 36° by means of stoves or oil lamps. 
 
 If refrigerator cars are not used, the meat should be wrapped in 
 
10 
 
 burlaps, and the carcasses hung so as not to touch each other. With 
 an outside air temperature of 50°, or below, in dry weather, meat 
 that has been thoroughly cooled will keep a week if shipped in an 
 ordinary box: car. Pork is injured more quickly by high temperature 
 than other meats, and greater care should be taken with it in storing 
 and shipping. Sudden changes in temperature of from 10° to 20° 
 are very injurious to green meats, and should be provided against 
 when possible. 
 
 Poultry, if shipped at a temperature of 50° and up, should be 
 packed in ice and burlaps ; if under 50°, in dry weather, no extra 
 precautions are needed. 
 
 Milk for shipping requires great care to prevent souring ; it should 
 be reduced after drawing, to a temperature of 40°, which extracts the 
 animal heat. It should never be frozen, as it becomes watery and 
 inferior in quality when thawed out. 
 
 Butter should not be frozen unless it is to be used soon after thaw- 
 ing; it freezes at 15°, and when thawed becomes strong quickly. 
 
 It is important to note that in shipping fruits, etc., many of the 
 precautions taken in packing to keep out the cold will also keep in 
 the heat, and there is really more danger in some instances from heat- 
 ing by process of decomposition than from cold. All fresh fruit 
 tends to generate heat by this process. A car load of fresh fruit 
 approaching ripeness, closed up tight in an uniced refrigerator car 
 with a temperature above 50°, will, in twenty-four hours', generate 
 heat enough to injure it, and in two or three days to as thoroughly 
 cook it as if it had been subjected to steam heat. Suitable refrig- 
 erator transportation must, therefore, provide for the heat generated 
 within as well as to protect it from the outside heat. The perfection 
 of refrigeration for fruit is not necessarily a low but a uniform tem- 
 perature ; a temperature from 40° to 50° will keep fruit for twenty 
 or thirty days, if carefully handled. Strawberries have been trans- 
 ported from Florida to €Ihicago, transferred to cold storage rooms, 
 and remained in perfect condition for four weeks after being picked. 
 
 Fruit that has been subjected to a high temperature before being 
 shipped should be cooled immediately after being loaded. Ordinary 
 refrigeration will not cool a load of hot fruit within twenty-four hours, 
 and during that time it will deteriorate in quality very much. It 
 should be cooled in four or five hours in order to prevent fermentation. 
 
 Several accounts have been published during the past two years of 
 experiments in the use of sterilized air to prevent the decomposition 
 of fruits, vegetables, etc. Car loads of produce have been reported 
 shipped long distances without injury, and goods stored in sealed 
 chambers filled with sterilized air. 
 
 The results of these experiments, however, do not seem to have 
 been such as to lead as yet to the adoption of this system in any 
 considerable number of instances. 
 
11 
 
 Precautions taken in shipping to protect from cold are, papering, 
 packing in straw or sawdust, boxing, barreling with paper lining, 
 shipping in paper-lined cars, refrigerator cars, and cars heated by 
 steam, stoves, and salamanders. 
 
 Cars containing perishable goods are sometimes, when a north 
 wind is blowing on the prairie, covered with canvas on the north side. 
 
 In winter time refrigerator cars are used without ice in forwarding 
 goods from the Pacific Coast, and in passing through cold belts or 
 stretches of country the hatches are closed, and the cars being lined 
 and with padded doors, the shipment is protected against the outside 
 temperature ; in passing through warmer climates the ventilators are 
 opened in order to prevent the perishable goods from heating and 
 decaying. 
 
 It is stated, however, that for the shipment of fruit the ordinary 
 refrigerator car is not entirely satisfactory, and that there is a strong 
 demand for a better refrigerator car than can now be obtained. A 
 car is wanted that will carry orages, bananas, etc., without danger of 
 chill through the coldest climates of the country, as the delays in 
 housing are injurious to the keeping qualities of the fruit, and the 
 dealer is also kept out of the use of his goods. 
 
 To protect goods shipped in an ordinary car, the sides of the car 
 should be protected by heavy paper tacked to the wall, and by the 
 addition of an inner board wall a few inches distant from the outer 
 one. A car thus equipped and packed with produce, surrounded by 
 straw, will retain sufHcient heat to prevent injury for twenty-four 
 hours, the average air temperature of all parts of the car being at 
 least 12° higher than that of the outside air. Cars are sometimes 
 warmed by steam from the locomotive when in motion, and by stoves 
 when steam is not available. Cars, after being loaded, are carefully 
 inspected as to temperature within ; their destination considered ; 
 and, if the weather is exceedingly cold, or is liable to be, the car is often 
 accompanied by an attendant; otherwise it is inspected from time 
 to time on the road. Lined cars, that is, cars lined with tongued 
 and grooved boards on the sides and ends, are considered the best 
 for shipping potatoes, as they can be heated by ordinary stove and 
 will stand a temperature outside of 20° below zero, when a man is 
 in charge to keep up the fires. The potatoes are packed in straw, 
 bulkheaded back, center of car left empty, and car filled as high as 
 double lining ; when the temperature is 12°, or more, below freezing, 
 the rule is to line the barrels with thick paper, and at extremely low 
 temperatures, as a matter of extra precaution, the barrels are covered 
 over the outside with the same kind of paper, which is considered the 
 best known protection from frost. 
 
 Oranges shipped from Florida to points as far north as Minnesota 
 are started in ventilator cars, which are changed at Nashville to air- 
 tight refrigerator cars, the ventilators of which are kept open, pro- 
 
12 
 
 vided the temperature remains above 32°, until arrival at St. Louis, 
 from which point the ventilators are closed and the cars made air 
 tight. 
 
 Oranges loaded in ventilated or common cars should be transferred 
 to refrigerator cars when the temperature reaches 20° above zero; 
 in transit, with a falling temperature, the ventilators should be closed 
 when the thermometer reaches 20°, and with a rising temperature the 
 ventilators should ba opened when it reaches 28°. For lemons the 
 minimum is 35° for opening and closing the ventilators, and for ba- 
 nanas 45° for opening or closing. Some shippers say that ventilators 
 on cars containing bananas, lemons, and other delicate fruits, should 
 be closed at a temperature of 40°. In shipping car loads of bananas, 
 a man is usually sent in charge to open and close the ventilators. 
 Bananas should be put in paper bags inside heavy canvas bags, and 
 then covered with salt hay, but when put in automatic heaters the 
 fruit is packed only in salt hay. 
 
 French mustard and aqua ammonia are packed in sawdust and 
 securely boxed, being careful to allow the sawdust to form a layer 
 between the articles and the side of the box. 
 
 Eggs are packed in crates with separate pasteboard divisions, with 
 a layer and a cover of oat chaff. Pickled eggs are injured by cold 
 sooner than fresh ones. 
 
 Quinces, apples, onions, and pears are packed in barrels, each layer 
 of barrels covered with and resting on straw. 
 
 Tomatoes, lemons, and oranges are packed in crates ; each layer of 
 crates in the car is covered by and rests upon straw, usually bulk- 
 headed back from the door and car full. 
 
 Shrubs and fruit trees are laid on straw, covered with it on all 
 sides, and car packed full. 
 
 Flowers are packed in moss, and car filled. 
 
 Flowers, shrubs, and trees should have their roots carefully packed 
 in straw, and the roots placed together in two or three piles, so as to 
 protect them ; if the roots are killed they are of a uniform black ; 
 if only injured by frost the root is pinkish in color just below the 
 outer covering, and if sound they are of uniform white. Even if of 
 a dark pink color no damage need result, if the frost is gradually 
 thawed out by the trees being left in the closed car for four or five 
 days, or else the roots put well down in the soil in a horizontal posi- 
 tion and allowed to thaw out gradually. Extra precautions are taken 
 with trees, etc., when passing over mountains, and no shipments 
 should be made when the temperature is likely to be zero anywhere 
 in the higher regions. 
 
 Products sent loose in a car are packed in straw on all sides, par- 
 ticular attention being paid to the packing around doors, and to see 
 that the car is full. 
 
 Manure is largely used to protect perishable goods, the bottom of 
 
13 
 
 the car being thickly covered with it, and in some cases it is put on 
 top of the goods. 
 
 The relation between the outside air temperature and the tempera- 
 ture within the car varies largely, depending on the kind of car, 
 whether an ordinary freight or refrigerator car, whether lined or not, 
 whether standing still or in motion, and also on the weather, whether 
 windy or calm, warm or cold. 
 
 In an ordinary freight car the difference ranges from 2° to 15°, and 
 in a refrigerator car from 15° to 30°. If the latter be provided with 
 heating apparatus, the temperature in winter can be kept at any re- 
 quired degree. 
 
 From six observations taken at intervals of ten minutes it was 
 found that on a warm day, when the mean of the six readings outside 
 was 68°, it was 66° on the inside of an ordinary freight 3ar, and 63° 
 inside of an uniced refrigerator car. On a cold day the mean of six 
 oliservations was 38° outside and 35° inside of an ordinary car, and 
 36° inside of a refrigerator car ; the car was stationary. 
 
 Freight from the Pacific Coast to the Mississippi Valley, or to the 
 Atlantic Coast, has to pass through several varieties of climate at any 
 time of the year. It is therefore obvious that at one time the tem- 
 perature inside of the car will be materially above the outside tem- 
 perature, while perhaps a few hours later it will be below. 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTS IN STORAGE. 
 
 The best storage for apples and potatoes, and for vegetables gener- 
 ally, is a well ventilated, dry cellar, kept at a temperature between 
 30° and 45°. Other methods of storing potatoes in winter are : In 
 tent-shaped houses,- ventilated at the top, and covered with earth from 
 6 to 12 inches deep; packing in shallow pits in the ground between 
 layers of straw or cornstalks, a layer of straw or cornstalks on top 
 covered with earth, a hole being left in the top for ventilation ; and 
 packing in dry sand in cellars. 
 
 Apples and potatoes are also stored in specially constructed barns, 
 made as nearly air tight as possible, fitted with crates or bins, and 
 supplied with heating apparatus for maintaining an even temperature. 
 
 Apples keep better if, before storing, they are put in piles out of 
 •doors and allowed to sweat. 
 
 Apples are not rendered unfit for use by freezing, if allowed to 
 thaw out gradually. 
 
 Potatoes should not be left in the sun after being dug, as the heat- 
 ing induces sweating and decay. 
 
 Celery is stored in an unfloored, inclosed, well-ventilated shed, the 
 earth is well wetted, and the celery packed in an upright position, 
 with narrow lanes a])out, 2 feet apart, for ventilation. The tempera- 
 ture should be kept as near 32° as possible ; a temperature of 60° to 
 65° injures it. 
 
14 
 
 Young fruit trees, flowering shrul^s, and plants are injured by tem- 
 peratures below 36°. They are stored in cellars packed in straw, and 
 generally shipped in the same manner as potatoes as regards packing. 
 
 Where fruits, vegetables, etc., are kept in cold storage, the follow- 
 ing temperatures are considered most favorable, viz : for apples, apri- 
 c<jts, berries, buckwheat flour, oatmeal, corn meal, cider, cheese, cran- 
 berries, onions, dried or salted fish, furs, and woolens, 34° to 36° ; for 
 sauerkraut, brined meats, lard, maple sirup, dried fruits, dried corn, 
 peas, beans, etc., 40° to 44°. 
 
 Oranges on the trees will stand a temperature of 26° for an hour 
 or so, but if exposed to that temperature for four hours will freeze 
 inside. Oranges slightly frozen, when placed in a cool room and 
 thawed out gradually, are sweetened, and considered by some people 
 as improved, but when frozen solid and thawed they have a sickish 
 sweet flavor. When oranges have been frozen they can be thawed 
 without injury by putting them in cold water or tight barrels im- 
 mediately after arrival, and allowing them to thaw out gradually. 
 
 The temperature to which lemons, oranges, and bananas may be 
 exposed without damage depends largely on the moisture present in 
 the air, a dry atmosphere, with either high or low temperature^ 
 being less injurious than a moist one. 
 
 Tropical fruits in storage should be kept in rooms with the tem- 
 perature between 60° and 70°. 
 
 While a temperature as low as freezing (32°) will not injure pota- 
 toes for eating purposes, yet they will fail to sprout in the spring. 
 
 Wines should not be subjected to a temperature lower than 20° or 
 higher than 72°. 
 
 Fruit wrapped in heavy brown paper will stand 15° more cold than 
 if not wrapped. 
 
 Eastern grapes bear low temperatures better than California or 
 Malaga. 
 
 Canned tomatoes when frozen become stringy, canned fish soft and 
 mushy, lemons black and spotted, olives soft and rancid, pickles soft 
 and unsalable. 
 
 Sauerkraut ferments at 90° and freezes at 15°, either of which con- 
 ditions spoils it. 
 
 All tree seeds, including peach, plum, walnut, etc., sprout better in 
 the spring if frozen during the winter. Bulbs, including tulips, lilies, 
 and hyacinths, are not injured if subjected to a temperature below 
 zero. 
 
 Cut flowers will keep three or four days in a temperature a little 
 above freezing. 
 
 Fruit should be kept free from decaying matter and filth of all 
 kinds. A spraying apparatus for cleansing choice fruit with water 
 has been found of value. Electric fans for ventilating have been 
 used to advantage. A free exposure to the night air, especially when 
 
15 
 
 conditions are favorable for a heavy dew, is conducive to the preser- 
 vation of both fruit and vegetables. 
 
 Oysters in shell can be kept for two months in a dark place when 
 the temperature is but little above freezing if occasionally sprinkled 
 with ice water. Fresh oysters in cans deteriorate after two weeks in 
 any temperature unless frozen. 
 
 Fresh fish are stored and shipped in bins with cracked ice, the ice 
 water running over them to keep them moist. Northern merchants 
 sometimes freeze fish for storage and transportation, but they spoil 
 more quickly after being thawed, and it is claimed that the flavor is 
 injured by freezing. Oysters, if likely to be exposed to very low tem- 
 peratures, should not be washed. 
 
 TEMPERATURES FAVORABLE FOR SLAUGHTERING CATTLE 
 
 AND HOGS AND THE PRESERVATION AND CURING 
 
 OF THE MEAT. 
 
 In the slaughtering of cattle and hogs, and the subsequent curing 
 and preservation of the meat, the temperature of the air and of the 
 dressed meats is an important factor to be considered. Opinions 
 difl^'er somewhat on some points as to the most favorable temperatures 
 for these purposes, but the following are considered reliable : 
 
 Animals should never be killed while in an overheated or excited 
 state, but should be kept quiet for twenty-four hours prior to killing, 
 and fed lightly on cooling food. Where cold storage rooms are available 
 in which the meat can afterwards be reduced to any required tem- 
 perature, the killing may be done without injury in any weather; 
 otherwise, a cool, dry day, with the temperature not above 45° or 50°, 
 nor below 20°, is the most favorable. If the weather is wet or damp, 
 the temperature should not be above 35° or 40°. The killing may 
 be done in warmer weather than this if the temperature on the fol- 
 lowing night falls to 40°, or l)elow. After killing, the carcases 
 should be hung without touching each other and allowed to remain 
 for twenty-four hours, or more, until the animal heat has passed off 
 and the temperature is 40°, or less, throughout. Meat thus treated 
 may be shipped or kept for days in a temperature of 45°, or below, 
 in dry weather ; 40°, or below, in wet. When the night following the 
 killing is warm, the hindquarters of beeves are sometimes split open 
 to allow them to cool more rapidly. Temperatures above 50°, with 
 moist air, damage green meats very quickly. Meat, and particularly 
 pork, that has been frozen and afterwards thawed does not keep as 
 well as that which has" been simply chilled. Pork intended for curing 
 should never be frozen. 
 
 It is stated that frozen meat will spoil in sixteen hours if subjected 
 to a temperature of 75°. In the Northwestern -States, where the 
 climate is dry, the farmers, between November 15 and February 15, 
 hang green meats in the open air, protected from the sun, and use 
 
16 
 
 from them as occasion requires ; meat thus kept is very tender and 
 more palatable than that fresh killed. Meat hung up in the open 
 air until the animal heat has passed off is said to keep better than 
 that placed in cold storage immediately after being killed, and it is 
 better to follow this method, if practicable, even where cold storage 
 is available. After the animal heat is all out, the meat should be put 
 into coolers at a temperature of 50°, and the temperature gradually 
 lowered for forty-eight hours, until it reaches 36°, and then raised 
 slowly to 38°. The principal injury to beef products is stated to 
 occur from sending it from the slaughter house to the chill room 
 before the animal heat has entirely left the carcass ; this closes the 
 pores, and the meat retains heat and turns sour. From 36° to 42° is 
 the best temperature for storage rooms for dressed meats. 
 
 In the case of pork intended for curing, with cold storage avail- 
 able, it is found that a temperature which will reduce the carcass 
 within a period of forty-eight hours to from 36° to 39° at its thickest 
 and most vulnerable points, viz, the center of the ham and shoulder, is 
 the most desirable. At a temperature of 40° a percentage of taint 
 is liable to develop, and at anything over that temperature tainted 
 meat develops rapidly. Of course, it is necessary to create an atmos- 
 phere considerably under these temperatures in order to bring down 
 the temperature of the inside of the carcass at its thickest part to 
 the degree mentioned, and, therefore, it is found desirable to carry the 
 chill rooms at temperatures about 33° to 35°. It is undesirable to 
 reduce the meat to a very low temperature, as its solid and hard 
 condition retards the action of the salt in penetrating to the center 
 of the piece, and thus causes the process of curing to be slower and 
 less effective. Attaining too low temperatures has been productive 
 of serious loss to curers, from the fact that when meat is over-chilled 
 before the curing process begins, the cure, owing to the causes stated, 
 has been retarded, and when exposed to the ordinary atmosphere at 
 warm seasons the meat becomes spoiled. Some large packers place 
 the hogs after being killed in a temperature of from 45° to 50° for 
 twelve to fifteen hours, and then in a temperature of 35° to 40° for 
 twenty-four to thirty-six hours. According to some experienced 
 authorities, the carcasses should not ))e cut until thoroughly cooled, 
 otherwise, the meat is apt to sour. The curing should be done in 
 storage rooms with the temperature about 40°, the length of time for 
 curing depending on the cut and weight of the meat, and ranging 
 from fifteen to seventy-five days. Storage rooms cooled by the ex- 
 pansion of gases in tubes are considered better than those cooled by 
 ice, on account of being drier. Dry salt pork for southern use in 
 winter needs to be cured in salt for thirty days, but for summer use 
 it should have from fifty to sixty days' curing. Smoked meats for 
 southern use need to be thoroughlj'- cured, as the heating in smoking 
 tends to damage them. 
 
17 
 
 THE USB OF THE WEATHER REPORTS IN CONNECTION WITH 
 THE SAFE STORAGE AND SHIPMENT OF FOOD PRODUCTS. 
 
 In connection with the storage and shipment of food products lia- 
 ble to injury by heat or cold, much benefit may be derived from an 
 intelligent use of the information contained in the daily weather 
 reports and forecasts published by the Weatner Bureau, which show 
 the temperature conditions prevailing over the whole country at the 
 time of the observations, the highest and lowest temperatures that 
 have occurred during the past twenty-four hours, and the probable con- 
 ditions that will prevail during the next twenty-four or thirty-six 
 hours. These reports and forecasts are received at nearly every 
 Weather Bureau office, of which there is one or more in nearly every 
 State and Territory, and published on maps and bulletins, which are 
 posted in conspicuous places in the city where the office is located, 
 and mailed to surrounding towns. The reports, or a synopsis of them, 
 are also generally published in the daily papers. 
 
 Fuller information than is obtainable from either of these sources 
 may be had at the Weather Bureau office itself, from the observer in 
 charge, or, where none of these means are available, arrangements 
 may be made with the observer to supply special information by mail, 
 telephone, or telegraph. In the large cities of the country, dealers in 
 perishable goods are guided in their transactions very largely by the 
 information thus obtained. The temperature of the region to which 
 shipments are to be made is carefully watched, and the shipments 
 expedited or delayed, according as the conditions are favorable or 
 unfavorable. Shipments on the road are protected from injury by 
 telegraphic instructions as to the necessary precautions to be taken. 
 As shipments in ordinary box cars, or as freight, are less expensive 
 than in refrigerator cars, or by express, advantage is taken of a favor- 
 able spell of weather to use the former methods. 
 
 In shipping early vegetables north from southern ports the weather 
 reports are utilized to determine whether to use water or railroad 
 transportation, the former being the cheaper. Dealers in certain 
 kinds of produce, by careful attention to the daily weather reports 
 and the weekly crop bulletins,»keep themselves informed as to the 
 sections where conditions most favorable for large crops have pre- 
 vailed, and are thus enabled to judge of the probable supply and to 
 know where to purchase to advantage. 
 
 As illustrations of the manner in which advantageous use may be 
 made of the weather reports, suppose a merchant in Ohio has an 
 order in January for a load of apples or potatoes to be shipped to 
 St. Paul ; when his shipment is ready he may ascertain by per- 
 sonal inquiry at the Weather Bureau office, or by a study of the 
 published reports and forecasts, the probable temperature conditions 
 between Ohio and Minnesota for the period that the shipment is 
 BuL 13—2 
 
18 
 
 likely to be on the road, and regulate the same accordingly. If 
 neither of these means of information is accessible to him, he may 
 telegraph the observer at the nearest Weather Bureau office, Cincin- 
 nati, Columbus, Cleveland, Sandusky, or Toledo, as the case may be, 
 requesting the information, or he may arrange beforehand with the 
 observer to be informed by telegraph when the conditions are favor- 
 able for making the shipment, the cost of all telegrams, of course, to 
 be borne by himself. While the consignment is on the road he should 
 still keep himself informed as to the temperature conditions of the 
 region through which it passes, and if injuriously low temperatures 
 are likely to occur, may telegraph to have it housed or otherwise pro- 
 tected until the conditions are again favorable. By the use of simi- 
 lar means, a packer having a large number of hogs to slaughter may 
 ascertain in advance when temperatures favorable for that purpose 
 are likely to prevail in his locality ; or a southern merchant having 
 a consignment of tropical fruit on the road to the north may insure 
 its protection from injuriously high or low temperatures by tele- 
 graphic instructions as to the opening or closing of ventilators, or the 
 use of ice or artificial heat. 
 
 During the season when cold waves are liable to occur, a careful 
 watch of the reports and forecasts will often enable dealers and others 
 to protect from injury large quantities of produce in storage. In- 
 stances are numerous where the use of the information aforemen- 
 tioned has resulted in large pecuniary benefit. 
 
 During the severe cold wave of January 1 to 5, 1896, which over- 
 spread nearly the entire United States east of the Rocky Mountains, 
 over three and one-half million dollars worth of property was saved 
 from destruction by the warnings of the Weather Bureau, which were 
 sent out in advance of the wave. 
 
19 
 
 T?ie lotoest and highest temperatures to which, perisluible goods may he subjected without 
 injury under the conditions stated. 
 
 Perishable goods. 
 
 Apples, in bbls 
 
 Apples, loose 
 
 Apricots, baskets 
 
 Aqua ammonia, bbls 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Beans, snap 
 
 Bear 
 
 Beer or ale, kegs 
 
 Beets 
 
 Bluing 
 
 Cabbage, early or late 
 
 Cantaloupes 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Celery 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cider 
 
 Clams, in shell 
 
 Cocoanuts 
 
 Crabs i- 
 
 Cranberries 
 
 Cucumbers 
 
 Cymlings, or squash 
 
 Deer 
 
 Drugs 'non-alcoholic) — 
 Eggs, barreled or crated. 
 
 Endive 
 
 Extracts (flavoring) 
 
 Fish ■. 
 
 Fish, canned 
 
 Flowers 
 
 Grapes 
 
 Grape fruit 
 
 Groceries, liquid 
 
 Ink 
 
 Kale 
 
 Leek 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Lobsters 
 
 Mandarins 
 
 Medicines, patent 
 
 Milk 
 
 Mucilage 
 
 Mustard, French 
 
 Okra 
 
 Olives, In bulk 
 
 Olives, in gjass 
 
 Onions, boxes 
 
 •Onions 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Oysters, in shell 
 
 Oysters, shucked 
 
 Parsley 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Partridges — .- 
 
 Paste 
 
 Peaches, fresh, baskets 
 
 Peaches, canned 
 
 Peas 
 
 Pickles, in bulk 
 
 Pickles, in glass 
 
 Pineapples 
 
 Plums 
 
 Potatoes, Irish 
 
 Potatoes, sweet 
 
 Radishes 
 
 Rice 
 
 Shrubs, roses, or trees . 
 
 Lowt 
 
 jst outside 
 
 temperature. 1 
 
 
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 Tally 
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 >.g_ 
 
 bt 
 
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 m 
 
 
 
 
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 '"' 
 
 
 20 
 28 
 35 
 30 
 28 
 50 
 32 
 
 Zero. 
 32 
 26 
 30 
 25 
 32 
 22 
 10 
 30 
 22 
 20 
 30 
 10 
 28 
 32 
 32 
 
 Zero. 
 .32 
 30 
 10 
 20 
 10 
 18 
 35 
 34 
 32 
 32 
 20 
 15 
 28 
 32 
 26 
 25 
 32 
 32 
 32 
 25 
 26 
 25 
 28 
 25 
 20 
 20 
 
 10 
 15 
 24 
 20 
 22 
 32 
 26 
 —20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 25 
 15 
 
 Zero- 
 25 
 18 
 10 
 20 
 
 Zero. 
 20 
 20 
 22 
 20 
 28 
 20 
 
 Zero. 
 15 
 
 Zero. 
 15 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 15 
 
 Zero. 
 20 
 20 
 15 
 20 
 20 
 28 
 38 
 15 
 20 
 20 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 10 
 20 
 
 10 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 Zero. 
 25 
 20 
 15 
 20 
 18 
 16 
 35 
 32 
 25 
 28 
 15 
 10 
 10 
 
 —10 
 
 —10 
 
 10 
 
 —10 
 
 —10 
 
 Zero. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 —10 
 
 —10 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 
 —10 
 —10 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 —10 
 
 10 
 
 Zero. 
 Zero. 
 Zero. 
 Zero, 
 Zero. 
 —10 
 
 Zero. 
 Zero. 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 
 —10 
 Zero. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Zero. 
 
 -10 
 
 —10 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 Covered with straw. 
 Packed in straw. 
 
 In boxes covered with moss. 
 In bulk and in boxes with straw. 
 In barrels or crates. 
 Shipped loose- 
 Packed in manure and shavings. 
 In crates. 
 
 Barrels or crates. 
 
 In barrels with straw. 
 Packed in crates. 
 
 In barrels. 
 
 In barrels or crates. 
 
 In baskets and barrels. 
 
 In boxes with moss. 
 In crates. 
 Shipped loose. 
 
 Packed in boxes or crates. 
 
 In barrels always iced. 
 
 Packed in moss. 
 Packed in cork. 
 
 Packed in boxes or crates. 
 Packed in boxes. 
 In boxes or crates. 
 In crates or boxes. 
 
 In boxes. 
 
 Packed iu sawdust. 
 
 In baskets or boxes. 
 In barrels. 
 
 In barrels, boxes, or crates. 
 In baskets, boxes, barrels, or 
 
 crates. 
 In barrels. 
 In barrels. 
 In baskets. 
 In baskets or barrels. 
 In bunches iu boxes. 
 In barrels. 
 
 In baskets or barrels. 
 In barrels. 
 
 In barrels, in crates, or in bulk. 
 
 In boxes with paper. 
 
 In barrels or baskets. 
 
 In barrels or baskets. 
 
 In baskets. 
 
 In barrels and sacks. 
 
 In canvas or sacking. 
 
20 
 
 The lowest and highest temperatures, ete.— Continued. 
 
 Perishable goods. 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 Tanpevines 
 
 Tea plants 
 
 Tliyine 
 
 Tomatoes, fresh . . . 
 Tomatoes, canned. 
 
 Turnips, late 
 
 ViiK's^ar, bbls 
 
 Watcrnu'liiiis 
 
 Waters, mineral. . • 
 
 Wines, light 
 
 Wild boar 
 
 Wild turkey 
 
 Yeast 
 
 Lowest outside 
 temperature. 
 
 15 
 33 
 25 
 28 
 20 
 33 
 28 
 15 
 22 
 20 
 28 
 23 
 
 Zero. 
 
 Zero. 
 28 
 
 15 
 25 
 15 
 20 
 10 
 28 
 25 
 Zero. 
 18 
 10 
 25 
 15 
 —20 
 —20 
 25 
 
 
 75 
 
 —10 
 
 05 
 
 Zero. 
 
 70 
 
 
 95 
 
 
 m 
 
 10 
 
 90 
 
 -5 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 -10 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 Zero. 
 
 
 Zero. 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 65 
 
 Zero. 
 
 o u 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 In barrels or crates. 
 
 In boxes. 
 Packed in boxes. 
 In small baskets. 
 
 In boxes. 
 In barrels. 
 
 In barrels and in bulk. 
 
 Shipped loose. 
 Shipped loose. 
 
LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 
 
 002 780 455 P' 
 
.T^i 
 
 4 ■"'^ 
 
 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 DDDE7aDHSSA 
 
 HoUinger Corp. 
 pH8.5