PLANS AND METHODS FOR THE SCHOOLROOM '^hl Gassi B < -^ '^- ^ Book * V G r PLANS AND METHODS FOR THE SCHOOL-ROOM EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO Copyrighted By educational PUBLISHING COMPANY 1905. i lol ?b INDE Page LESSONS ON COMMON OBJECTS 7 AIDS TO SUCCESSFUL ORAL TEACHING . . 8 Intelligent Sketch Writing ... . . 8 GENERAL EXERCISES .9 LIFE UPON THE EARTH 10 PERSONAL DESCRIPTION 10 THE CAT (lUusiTatert) 11 The Picture Examineil 11 Habits 13 The Cat Indoors V2 Useful Lessons 12 THE BEAR ^Illustrated) 12 Description 12 Habits and Food, and Locality where Found . . 12 Capture and Uses 13 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DOG AND THE CAT 13 The Dog 13 The Cat 13 The Comparison 13 COWS (Illustraied) 14 Where Found 14 Size 14 Covering 14 Body 14 Legs 14 Head 14 Food 14 Character 14 Uses 14 Questions 14 THE HORSE {Illustrated) IB Description K; Habits, Food, etc IB Use when Dead IB Revision 16 THK RABBIT (Itlustrateil) 18 General Description 18 Wild Rabbits IS Forms and Parts of Rabbit 18 Questions lit THE FOX 20 General Description 20 Head 20 Body 20 Legs 20 Where and How Fox Lives . . . . . . 20 Kinds of Foxes and Uses Made of Them ... 20 Questions 20 Anecdote 20 Page THE LEOPARD 21 Introduction 21 Where Found 21 Size 21 Covering 21 Shape 21 Head 21 Legs 21 Tail 21 Home 21 Food 21 Movements 21 Character 21 Methods of Capture 21 Questions 21 THE riQER iinusirated) 22 THE MONKEY {lUuslrated) 24 General Description 24 Where and How Monkeys Live 25 Lemur .... 25 Kinds of Monkeys . 25 Their Food .... 25 Questions .... 25 THE ELEPHANT (Illustrated) . . ... 26 Blackboard Plan . , 26 Description . . 28 Trunk .27 Uses of Trunk .28 Age 2',» Kind of Animal 29 Kinds of Elephant , . . 29 Where Found 2',) Character of Elephants 29 Use of Elephants 2'J Hunting the Elephant 30 Suggestions 30 SWIMMING BIRDS {Illustrated) 31 Introduction 31 Where Found 31 Methods 31 Characteristics of Swimming Birds .... 31 Kinds of Swimming Birds 31 Swans 31 Geese 31 Ducks 31 Petrel and Seagull 31 Questions 32 DOMESTIC FOWLS (Illustrated) 32 Introduction .32 Uses 32 Method 32 3 ini)p:x. Description . Method . llablta — Houses Food Character Queatlons BIRDS (Illustrated) Skeleton How Birds Percli Special Uses and Modifications in Structure Legs and Feet of Birds I. Seizers— Birds of Prey Perchers Climbers Scratchers Runners Waders: Stilt-Walkers . Swimmers I'AUE 3 J S3 33 33 33 33 34 3« 34 36 II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. THE EAGLE General Appearance Where and How the Eagle Lives How Eagle Gets Its Food Kinds of Eagles .... FISHES {Illustrated) .... Introduction .... How do Fishes Move Covering of Fishes . How They Breathe . How They Feed .... Specimen Fish .... CLAM ANO OYSTER (Illustrated) The Shell— Valves . Ligament Lines of Growth Muscle— Scars— Pallial Line . Material of Shell The Animal— Mantle Adductor Muscles— Siphon . ■Gills Body— "Foot" .... The Oyster Structure Kinds of Mullusks Where Found .... ITses Blackboard Outlines LOBSTER AND CKAB (Illustrateil) Lobster Head— Thorax .... Abdomen Internal Structure . Where Found .... Habits Kinds of Lobster THE CRAB (Illustrated) Where Found .... Habits of Crabs .... Kinds of Crabs .... Uses How Captured .... Suggestions and Notes INSECTS (Illustrated) .... Why so Called .... Chief Organs .... .la Segments and .lolnts The Head Chest Body Kinds of Insects .... Benefits Derived from Insects Injuries Caused by Insects Insect and Spider (A Comparison) Page 54 55 55 55 .55 56 56 50 SILK (Illustrated) Blackboard Plan 57 57 PLANT LIFE (Illustrated) BO Blackboard Plan . 60 Hints 60 Matter to be Taught 61 Trees, Shrubs, Herbs 61 Special Study of Herbs 61 Kinds of Grasses 62 Special Study of Meadow Grasses .... 62 Use of Meadow Grasses 63 INDIAN CORN 63 THE APPLE 65 Use of Apple THE POTATO . . . . SUGAR Its Uses . . . . Properties and Qualities Where We Get Sugar Picture Examined The Stem . . . . 65 66 68 68 63 69 6!) 69 Leaves 69 Flowers 69 How Sugar is Made 69 SPICES (Illustrated) Blackboard Plan What They Are Spices Obtained from What Part of Plant Where Found Uses Most Important GINGER Description Where Found Preparation for Market Adulterations Kinds of Ginger How to Tell Good Ginger . . . . CINNAMON (Illustrated) Description Where Found Preparation Kinds of Cinnamon CASSIA .... Where Founject shall be tanght. — In other words, make sure that your starting point is the right one. It may be laid down as a general principle that the proper starting point of every lesson given to young children is that part of the subject which is nearest the experience of the child. Thus in les- sons on " Common Things " the use of the object is nearer the child's experience than its qualities, and the qualities nearer than its maniifacture and commercial value. This then shonhl be the teach- ing order of such subjects. Again, in lessons on "Natural History" the parts and habits of the animals are matters which can be and are observed by children, while the life history of the creature and its place in nature lie beyond the range of their experience. Here acain we see the proper teaching order of all such subjects. Violation of the rule . — We have before us a number of sketches on " Common Things" written by students in a Training School, in which it is proposed to com- mence the lesson with the nature of the object and the locality in which it is found : then the qualities and uses of the object are considered. We have also on our study-table a volume of yiiles of Lessons for Pr'initri/ Tceiehers, in which out of fifty lessons given, oae-half are constructed on the aliove plan. In lioth cases the starting- point is the unknown and distant, and the goal to be reached is the known and present. Wliereas the true teaching order should be the very reverse of this, or, " from tlie I'tioim to the nnknotmi." Third Rule. — Determine v-hat is to be the special point or j)oints of the lesson, and state the same at the head of the sketch. — In preparing a lesson teachers should not be concerned with what can be said about the strb- ject in hand, but with what of the sidiject is most suited to children's minds and acquirements, and what they can receive and digest in the time allotted for the lesson. A disregard of this is the cause of many mistakes made l)y young teachers. .\n example or two taken from sketches sent in to the writer for criticism will make this point clear. Violations of this rule: Subject. — Silk. Age of children — 6 years. Time at the teacher's disposal — 30 minutes. Points proposed to lie taken up : 1 . Nature of the object. 2. From what obtained. 3. History of the silk- worm moth. Eggs — Liixa — ^ cocoon — chrysalis — motii. -i. Home of the silkworm. 5. Use of silk. 6. Preparation of the raw silk. 7. Manufacture of silken fabiics. Passing over, for the present at least, the defec- tive arrangement of the lesson, we may point out that the ground covered is far too wide for the children for whom the lesson is intended, and the matter is far more than could Ije given iu half aD hour. A second example may be added : IXFORMATIOX LESSONS. Subject, — Hive Bees. Age of children — TjA years. Time allowed — 25 minutes. Points to he irorked out : 1. Time of day in wliieli bees work. '1. Instinct bj* which bees find (a) the honey ih) their way back to their hives. 3. Means by which bees extract the nectar from the flowers and bring it to the home of tiie bees. 4. Hive liees — kinds in each hive. .^i. Work of each kind. il. ;\Ioral lessons enforceil : (a) industry, (li) order, (c) forethought. It does not require much educational acumen to see that if such a lesson were given it nuist of necessity be a failure. In the first place, it would be quite impossible to go through all the iioints named iu the time allotted for the lesson : and in the second place, the starting-point, the Jnstincl, is altogether beyond such young children. Yet many such lessons are attempted, and as a matter of course as many failures occui-. Fourth Rule- — Tah; cwc tlmttke puintsof thclcssmi fiMiiw ciii-li itthvr in tludr ti'cichin;/ arilrr. — The informa- tion ■svliich lias been collected will naturally l)t placed in tlie teacher's mind in the order in which it has been acquired, but this order may not be the one in ■which it should be imparted to the children. Teachers must therefore analyze the subject in hand, and commence with that which is simple and elementary, and so arrange their points that they may jiroceed by a series of well-graduated steps to that which is more ditlicult or complex in its character. When this is done the ideas presented will be received in their right order, their suitable connection felt, ami thi' whole will I)e adjusted satisfactorily in the mind Vii>hitiun of this )■/(/(.— The effect of disregar(lin.<» this rule is sadly evident in many of the sketches i)re- pared Ijy younj;- students. We ,uive an example or two which lately came under our notice. .\. Lcxaan i,ii Cixd t(i (MMren ci'jht year.'i of arje. Order proposed : 1. The formation of coal. 2. Qu.alities. 3. The occurrence of coal. 4. Means of obtainiui; coal. Here, it will be observed, the teacher proposes to start with the most ditlicult part of the subject, — a part, too, quite unfitted for young children because it lies beyond the range of observation or experiment, and leads to the region of specula- tion. The more lifting order would have been: 1. Tses to which coal is put. 2. equalities which render it nsefid. 3. Where coal is found and how- obtained. For elder children to these may be added: 4. The details of coal-mining. ,'». Com- mercial value. And lastly, The formation of coal. B. ic.woji on sifl' to childrcH si'x yi'fir.i of aijo. Order proposed: 1. Nature of ;;ilk. L'. How obtained. 3. Clianiies which the silk-worm moth undergoes. 4. Silk- producing countru's. :,. Uses of silk. C. Manufac- ture of silken goods. A better order would be : 1 . Qualities of silk. 2. Uses to which it is put. 3. From what silk is obtained. And for children somewhat older, 4. How silk is prejiared foi' use. — .r. IlASSELI,. GENERAL EXERCISES. Let the pupil write or tell lists of articles found for 1 ■■ chink in " and to direct (he talk along certain lines. sale in groceries. Ha\-e this neatlj- written on tlu^ board iu full sight of the pupils, as early in the week as Wednesday Have it understood that on Friday afternoon, with the maps before the school, and with the books of reference near by, time will be spent iu talking about these various things. From what countries thej' come, how they arc produced, for what The tea, coffee, spices, dates, olives, Hour, sugar, etc., will bring out many interesting ideas. It will assist this exercise, if as in the Dowagiac schools, a large map of the United States, or of tlie world, lie outlined on a Ijhink floor space. Move off the; teacher's desk and make the map on the rostrum. On this map let the are they used, etc. Let all who can, find pictures to i various articles be piled as nearly in the locality of their illustrate any of these points. The teacher needs to j growth as possible. Control the talk and make of it alJ have a little supply of general knowledge, in order to ' a language lesson. — Michigan JMotloriitor. 1(1 iSIOlJEKN .MKTIIODS. LIFE UPON THE EARTH- rLfSHOIls fnr till' Hull mil si MATTER TO BE TAUGHT. 1. "i1l) ^'^^'y '^'''' <"il''''' pliuits ami auinials. Plants cannot feel and cannot move if Y^ thev want to. jVninials can feel and can move because tliey want to. II. Plants need snnliuiil, wanntli and moisture ; animals feed on plants and on other animals. III. Plants and animals are useful to man for food, shelter and clothing. IV. After these things are taught, take up, one after another, the most important plants and animals of the town in which the children live. SuctiKSTioN.s. — For several weeks before the lessons are siven, the children shonld have the care of some plants in pots in the window or in beds in the yard. To lead Ihcni to see that plants jjrow, Ijring into the class the day of the lesson a youns plant like one of those of wliich they have had the care. Make them sec that animals grow also, and that stones do not. To show the class that animals feel, call a child to yon, and hav- ing m.adc him shnt his cycs.tonch him. Require him to tell what yon did and ho^^' he knows. Have him walk across the room to show him he can move when he wants to. Now liy qviestions upon ditt'eront objects make these points marked I. nnder matter to be taught. 15y referring to tluir experiiaice, yon can easily teach No. II. to the children. Tlie following may suggest ivays of fixing in the minds of the children what they have learned : ((. Ocoasionallv place upon your table different objects and have the childi-en classify tliem hj writing the nanii's of the animal substances after the word animal, the names of the vegetable sub- stances after the word plant, and the names of tiie mineral substances after the word mineral. In a few days quite diftieult lessons may be given tlie class, something like the following : — - Place upon your talile a piece of leather, a pair of kid gloves, a glass of water, some bread, some liutter, a piece of wood, and empty glass bottle (to make tlie children tell what tiie air in it is) . f )a their slates will aiipear the I'oUowiug, Animal,^ leather, kid, butter; Plant. — bread, wood; Min- eral, — water, air. Be sure to make the children understand that ceasing to grow does not change a vegetable substance to a mineral. h. Have them name some of the things they had for dinner and tell what were animal, vege- talile, and what were mineral substances. c. Allow them sometimes to play for a few minutes, a little game in whicli some child thinks of an animal, a plant or a mineral and the others guess what he has in his mind. Other lessons witholjjects will teach them that plants are useful to man, for food, for shelter, and for cloth- ing;. They can then study one after another the most important plants of the region and their uses to man. — Elvira Carvek. PERSONAL DESCRIPTION meilinm ; body ■ lent. 1'. ('OMCI.KXIOX, If this suggestion could be carrii'd out in the spirit of the Golden Kule, it migiit be useful as a compo- sition exercise. Teachers will require each pupil to write about some other mcnd)er of the class. Then let each description be read, omitting the name, and allow the class to guess the name from the description. Outline. — l- Genkual. Age, height — tall, short, or stout, slender, thin, .spare, corpu- Dark, brunette, blonde, light, fair; color of eyes, hair, cheeks, etc. ;i. Features. Forehead — high or low, etc. ; nose large, small, Roman, Grecian ; eyes — large, small, dull expressive; mouth, lips, teeth, ears, etc. t. DuE.ss. Material, color, style, etc. INFORMATION LESSONS. 11 NOTES OF l./iSSOlf ON THE CAT. General Pui'pose. — The subjects selected should be tliose which the chihl has frequent opportunities for observinj^. These will form tlie preparation for lessons on the less known examples of animal life. Pictures ami toy models must necessarily take the place of the objects. The method of eacli lesson should, therefore, consist chiefly in a carelul use of the picture; the teacher should draw out the facts about the form and habits which the children have already observed; correcting and extending their oljservations, leading tliem to notice the simpler structural adaptations. Black-board ilrawings should be freely used. I. — The Picture Examined, 1. Teacher poiiitiug to a picture of a cat. What i.9 this picture? What is pussy doing? What IS she looking at? etc. 2. What part of the cat am I pointing to? The hmd. And now? The hack : the body. And now? The legs." a. Let us look at the hkad: what Is its shape? I will ilraw the shape ou the blackboard, leaving out the ears : what sliape is it? Hound. Now let me see if you can name all the parts of the heart? (The children are caused to name and point out the earn, eyes, no^c and month) h. How many KAHS haspiissy? How many have you? On which part of your head are the ears placed? Look at tlie cat's ears : are tliey in the same place as yours? Where are your ears? At the sides o/ the heiid. AVhere are the cat's? Xcnrhj on the top — hif/her up. Yes, pussy's cars look *""*■ '■ like little horns on the top of her head. What sh(Q)e are they? (Teacher draws outline of child's ear and the cat's on the blackboard. Pis. l.) When the cat hears a little noise, what does she do -with her ears? Which way does she turn them? Can you move your ears What do you do instead? 0. The EYE is next taken, and tlie cliildren are led to observe itfi position, skii/n- and ludor. Look at my eyet what do you see in the middle? .1 h/rick spot. Wliat shape is it? T^onnd. Look at llie picture ; wliat shape is the black part of the cat's eye? Who Fig. i. lias seen tlie cat's eye at night? What shape is it tlien? (Tlie teaelier draws on the blackljoard the eye at it appears at dayliglit and at niglit. Fig. 2.) How is it tlie cat's eye looks so largo and black at nigiit? I will sliow you. What do ^ve do to the window ■\\heu the light shines upon ns? Tt'c pnil down the blind. Why? What do we do when the sun is gone? (The teacher then explains that the cat's eye has a blind wliich falls down during the strong light of the day, and draws back at night when there is little light.) d. The MOUTH, with its sharp, pointed teeth, and long, roU(jh toni/ne; and the vihisl-ers or feelers are noticed in order, and the uses of each part to tlie cat are carefully explained. c. How many fekt lias the cat? What do we call tlie two at the front? j\nd the two behind? .Are they shaped like our feet? Let us see. I will draw the shape of our feet and the cat's upon the blackboard. Which is the lone/ foot? Which is tlie rotinti F"--'- foot? What shape wonkl a cat's foot make on the wet ground? What shape, then, is its foot? How many toes have you? Now count how many toes pussy has on her front foot. See Fig. .'f. Five. How many on lier 1)ack foot? Fonr. Wliat have you at the ends of your fingers and toes? What has the cat instead of nails? (The teacher draws the shape, of the claw upon the black-board, get itshook- like form noticed, and show how the cat can thrust the claws out, or draw them in again when not in ase. 12 MODERN METHODS. ■Ku.. 4. The soft, clii^lir rdsliiiiiia \\]\^]i^v the fc'ot Mi'i' shown )i\' a diagram, ;nifl their iisr cxiihiiiicd. See Fig;. .">.) /'. (If what (■(//»)■ is tlu' cat ill thi' pictured Are all oats of the saiiu' coh)r? Xanu' some of the colors of cats. Which of yon !i.-ivi' stroked a cat? What IS [iiissy covered witli? Fur. Her fur coat is beauti- fully warm: she dt need clotlies. Wliat is the fur made of? If yon lo(]k at Pussy's coat when yon get home, yo.ii will see that it is made up of many line hairs, all growing very closi'ly together. How does her coal look? S/thi;/ ; smnttl/i . How does sill' ki'ep it so shiny and snif)otU? Let iis try to keep ourselves clean and neat, too. II.— Habits. Most of these the leather uiU ivudily get from the chiss ill replv to suitMhle (iiiestioiis. She will refer liack to vviiat lias lieeu tauoht about the structure to show how the neeils of tlie luiiiual have hei'ii jiroviiled for. 1. The Cat Indoors. — Hie teacher liriu,■// ill llif siiii. Why? /(. CdIi/iis !iinls. How ? Sh<' ii-iitrhis, crreps, cJimbs, sjiriii^/r,. III. — Useful Lessons. 1. What does pussy teach us? 7'o he clean; to he qi'i-'t. ; )(> he Jhiiil of home 2. How kiudlyaud geutly we shoukl treat her' NOrE>t OF r.KSSOY Off THE BEAR. I. Description. — Exhibit pictures of bear, other central countries of Europe; live.s on flesh (white, hl,-ick and luown), and let the chiklren and vgctatiles. Disposition — surly, solitary, compare tliein. (let answers, :ilso, containing tierce, srro-acious, fond of young. Sleeps during further particulais, if possilile, froin those u iio have seen li\e liears. l*"i(iiii pictures, etc., learn — bear is a ijuadruped ; three kinds; whites largest: black, sinallest : heavy liody, thick legs, long hair, strong paws witli live toes; five to ten' feet long ; teeth like iiieirs. i II. Habits and Food, and Locality Where Found. — H7//7c fomnl in Arctic regions, hence food sucii as fouml tlieic : seals, fish, seaweed ; food caught by itself ; walks on ice ; feet covered | ■with hair (why?) Bhivk in America aud India; vegetables and honey ; Broirn in Germauy aud /HE HEAR. winter, like? (dormouse, squirrel, etc.) Hungry and angry in spring; then dangerous. Does not INFORMATION LESSONS. 13 attack man at other times, unless molested. Can be tauiiht, if caught young. III. Capture and Uses. — Very valuaWe ani- mal, so caiitureil. Tracked by dogs ; shot or speared. Fur in great request, black the best, made into rugs, caps, and clothing. Fat made into bear's grease. Hide makes good leather; flesh, eaten. Method. — Illustrate habits, etc., by stories where possible. Danger of hunting ; affection for young — mother carrying her cubs before her. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DOG AND THE CAT. ^I^^N TRODUCTION. — Pictures of dog "~^ ^ ^^^ q£ pjjj. gjjQdifi ]r,g clvawn on black- lioard. First deal with each separ- ately, recalling briefly the chief points of structure and of habit. The Dog. — Its shape, covering, liciul, body, legs, tail. The mouth large ; the teeth strong, pointed, straight ; position of the eyes ; covering of hair ; strong, stoutish legs : the foot, shape. Nnmber and position of the hard, horny xails. The many different kinds, sizes, form and general appearance of dogs. Its young is called a jn'ji- II. The Cat. — In a similar way, deal gener- ally with the points of its structure and habit ; then the form head, liodi/, feijs, tail, and feet. The round eyes change in color and even iu shape as the light changes. The mouth and its sharp rows of teeth ; the feelers or whiskers ; position of eyes and ears ; the quickness of its sight and hearing ; the covering, soft, smooth, and glossy ; the long, easily-bent body ; the strong, (juick-running legs ; the soft-padded paw, eacii toe ending with a sharp, strong claw, which can be quickly drawn in or thrust out ; the long, round tail ; its 3'oung is a kitten. III. The Comparison. — The chief points of comparison should be as far as possible brought out by questioning from the children point by point. THE DOG. Budij. — Strong, active, stout. Head. — Long, pohited. nose keen of scent, eyes far back, can see at a distance. It hunts by sight and smell chiefly. Catches its prey in the light only. Font. — Roundish, the toe nail hard and horny. It catches its prey with its mouth. Voice. — Barking, growling. Lives in a kennel. Often chained up. The youny a pup. Both clog and cat are tamed and made of use In our chiefly on flesh. (Revision.) THE CAT. Lithe, supple, active. Roundish : eyes can see with less light : whiskers, able to feel what cannot be seen ; ears and eyes quick of hearing and sight. It hunts chiefly by sight and hear- ing; can catch its prey in the dark. Padded, can run with little or no noise; claws sheathed and so kept sharp. It catches its prey with its claws. It can climb trees and walls, etc. Mewing, purring. In the house. I,,eft free. A kitten. homes. When wild they are beasts of prey ; botli feed 14 NATURAL HISTORY. NOTES OF LESSON OK COWS. ^wJ^NTRODUCn JTION. — Show pictures or lihick-liourd drawings of cows and let children gi\e name. After tliis show others of the trilie — zeliii, hiiffahi, hlnoii. i/iik anil mii.'ik )i lives in Iiidia. (liliKi^ and Eii.aliTii Afririi, the ijiik in the iiioun- lainous parts of f'oitral ^Isia, and the iiiifsk a.r in the extreme north of America. Show these coun- tries on a globe or map. Size. — All the animals of this family are huge in size, except tlie yak and musk-ox. Our own oxen reach a very large size, but are siujjassed by the liuffaloes. Covering. — Most of those animals are covered with shoit hair. In our own cows Ihe col(.)r may he white, brown, Ijlack, or mixed. Bi'muls and liiiffiihiis are dark brown or bhick. with a lot of long hair arouuil the head and neck ; tlie zi'Ihi is a ])ale gray or la-eam color; the iink has long, black liair, that on the hump, maue, and tail being nearly white ; tiie nivnl: n.v. who lives in cold regions, has a hugh mass of wooly hair of a yellowish-brown rolor. Body. — The bodies of these animals are larce and heavy, several species being furnished with liiimps. c. ,/., the rj'hii, /lisoii, /ii'if':i/(j n\ii\ i/dk. Legs. — (ieuei-ally siieaking, tlie legs are short .niid thick, witli cloven hoofs. Head. — This is huge, with line, lierce c//,',s, and jKirti.f of different shapes, tla^se of the bison and buffalo being very formidal)le. The neck is usually short and tliick. Food. — All tlie animals of the ox tribe eat grass and other vegetables, chewing the cud as described in the lessons on ■• Rinniiitni.tn." The domestic cattle are fed on hay, turnips, carrots, etc., in the winter time. Character. — Tiiese animals are naturally fierce and courageous. When wild they are, especially the buffaloes and bisons, very formid- able, but when tamed become most useful to man. Uses, — As a class these animals stand lirst for usefulness. One menilier of the family at least is found in nearly eviay country, where its uses are much like those of our own species, the diunestie cow. Its uses are: — To tiiVF, Milk. — Tliis is abundant, rich and nourishing. To Lauok. — In many iiarts oxen are still used to draw the plough or wagon. To PiioviDK Fooii. — Its flesh furnishes us with one of the most savory and nourishing of our animal foods. To GivK Horn. — • Which furnishes materi.al for making the handles of knives and forks, and many other things. To (iivE Hide. — Its skin or hide is thick, and n:akes most durable leather. To FntNisn Gi.uk. — This substance is made from its hoofs, ears, and hide parings. To (iivE Hair. — This is used to mix with plaster for building. To FruMsii ANniAi. Charcoal. — Tliis is obtained from its bones. Questions. — What do we gi-t from oxen? Which of tlu' oxen family is most useful? To what class do oxen lielong? Audio what tribe? How do they rank with other animals iu point of usefulness? Tell some anecdotes of a cow? Of a buffalo? \\'here does the zebu live? Which is Ihe laru'er animal, the bull or the buffalo? Dehat-Pnnsan. Hi NATURAL HISTORY. XOTE.<: OF LESSOy 0-V THE HORSE. 5XTR0DUCTIOX.— Rofer to what the children see iiiid know of horses as seen day by day. In towns and cities the great nnmbers seen, drawing carts, wagons, carriages, etc. ^Vll are at vorlv. They ■ver/etables. Other tame animals which Other wild animals? Name some that feed on llesh, What is the place called in which the horse lives? In the stable are a n/cA' for liay, a troug/i for corn, a pail for water, strain to lie upon. The young horse is a efilt ; when very j'oung a foal. Horses are named according to the work tliey do. There are cart- horses, lAtrriage-horses, race-horses, etc. In all times and places men have made use of the horse. Think of the many ways in which they are of use. In the coniitri/; in ton'n. Use When Dead. — The skin is made into leather. For this it has to be tanned. The hair is used for stuHing eu-^luons, chairs, and sofas. The long hair of tlie tail is woven into horsehair cloth. Its /((";/■ makes glue. The fat for soap. The honcs for knife-handles or burnt for manure. Revision. — Let the horse be the subject for the next conq)osition exercise, the children, mean- while, finding out all they can about horses. AYhen practical, they may illustrate their compo- sitions with an outline drawing' .of a horse. Memory Gems will also be in order. — N. s. Edwards. A man of kindness to his beast is kind, Hut brutal actions show a brutal miud ; Remember He who made thee, made the brute; Who gave thee speech and reason formed him mute. Ill' can't complain, but (jod's all-seeing eye IJeliolds ttnj cruelty, and hears Ids cry; He was designed thy servant, not thy drudge; And know that Ills Creator is thy Judge." —Anon. PHARAOH'S HORSES. Herring. 18 MODERN METHODS. NOTES OF LESSON OX THE RABBIT. 1;LA(.'K-1>(JAHD drawing of tlii' rabbit will lie iiewk'd, or, fveii better, when judiciouslv used, a living rabbit may be eniiiloyed with advantage for illus- ration. General Description. — First show the ]iict.ure or speeinien, and speak in gen- eral terms of the chief points of structure — its pretty appearance; its soft, furry covering; tlie bright, large eye, long oars ; its gentle timid nature, so easily frightened when wild, running off to hide itself as one gets near, etc. Then speak of vJicrc and Im/r it /in:s. Children often see rabbits as ke))!, in their homes or the homes of neighbors. These are /dtiii'. Why so kept? They are pretty to look al and easily attended to. From tliein we may learn something about — Wild Rabbits. — C'hildi-en living in the coun- try often see them. Where should we look for them? Jii Jii'lds iiiitl ironds. Early in the morn- ing, or as evening comes on. they may lie seen running in the grass, or in I he lields. They are bus}' cropping the grass, munching the turnips, sometimes getting into tlii' ganlens. ^\■llat they seek there. What their food is. The mischief they often do by eating the young crops, etc. How pretty they look ; how watchful they are ; how quick to see, to hear, if we go near, or if any noise be made how quickly they scamper off. They are all soon out of sight. Where do they go? They run into holes in the ground. Des- criije how they scrape away the earth with their strong feet and sharp nails at the end of the toes. The long, underground /";/■/■«;(• ,• a number of these winding paths near together make a varren? What, then, is a warren? What is a burrow? How is the burrow made? Explain that these are dug usually in loose, sandy soil, though sometimes made in the earthy parts, among rocks and .stones. Form and Parts of a Rabbit. — By help of picture and specimen describe .s/~e omI gen- eral forin. Konnd head ; shortish, round body, small upturned tail; the four legs, the hinder longer than the two fore legs ; the covering of soft, warm, lirownish-gray fur, etc. The Hk.ad, round, moving (luickly on the short, thick neck ; the ei/es large ; where placed, standing well out. Why this is, wdiat it enables the rabbit to do ; the hmg ears, how they hang ; their quick motion, and reason of this ; the mouth and teeth ; show clearly the four front teeth : two above, two below, shaped like shaY\) rhisels : their iiiltblijig action, how nsed, other animals like them. Bark of trees, young wood, turnips, grass, etc, all iiibhh'il in the same way. Body and Tail. Describe again. Different appearance when running, sitting, etc. The cover- ing. Difference of color in wild rabbits and many tame ones ; the later often irhite. hhirl-, or sjiotted, or rich brown color. Feet .\mi Leos. .Shape, four toes on each foot, ending in the strong nail; use of this in bur- rowing. The rabbit is timid, caught in traps, or shot ; their tlesh is used for food, and the skin for cheap furs, etc. Many liiids, and beasts of prey also catc NATURAL HISTORY. 19 the rabbit and feedou thciii. The quick sight and hearing and running, enable the rabbit often to escape from danger. The hare belongs to the same family as the rabbit, and although resembling the latter in many points, may be easily distinguished by having a longer head and eai-s ; the ears with a black tip, and the upper surface of the tail has not that brown color found in the rabbit. It does not hide in burrows like the rabbit, but trusts to its great speed to elude its numerous enemies. Questions. — Have we any use for rabbits? Why do we keep them sometimes ? Have you ever seen one? Is the rabbit a fierce animal? RAliUITS AT HOME. 20 XATIUAL lIlsroKY. NOTKS OF hKSSON' OX THE FOX. F.XKKAL DKSCUIPTIOX.— l!y aid of a iiuod iiictiin', (Irawiug' or stencil (lutliiic oil lihiclv-lioai'd, liring clcai'ly '^i%^/')S^ "I'l 1 1"' Ui'iic'i'al f|. atari's of structure §i^ and aiiiicarance. Its miiiii'; gcuei'al ^ likeness to tile thiij : sizi-. riilur ; iiiisf slidr/icr, and Imsliicr tail than the doii's ; litli<\ Kclirc, ^1 rmiij-hiiili! iiij. The Head. — Erect, tapering ; ears standing straight u|i, pointed ; eyes hright, keen-looking, set forward ; mouth <.|ien wide, showing t\ro rows of strong, shar]i-|iointene evening lie returned late at nigtit from a journey i/hieh llad kept him all day from home, and taking a lantern, proceeded to the stal)le to See if the fox \va^ all right. He found him crouched at the loot ot the steps which led to the loft, and although he manifested great pleasnie at seeing his master, yet when he attempted to ascend the loft, the fox Immediately ran in front of hira, snarling and showing his teeth, and using every effort to prevent hi.s going up. On lights and help being procured it was discovered that some of the upper fiooring had given way. leaving a fonnid. .able hole, through wliich, if the gentleman h.ad gone up with no other light than the dim lantern, he would undoulitedly have fallen through, and perhaps have been seriously in- jured. It is gratifying to know that the huntei never allowed that fox to be chafed by his dogs, hut kept him for years, so that after a time he used to follow him around tne grounds like a dog. NATURAL HISTORY. 21 NOTES OF /./L'.V.SYJX OX THE LEOPARD. SXTRODUCTION. — Show pictures or lilack-board ilrawiugs of a tiger and a leopard ; let children notice the most striking likenesses and differences ; tell the name of the smaller animal. ^i Where Found. — The leopard abounds in Africa and Southern Asia. Show these coun- tries on a large globe ; let children tell where lions and tigers are found. Size- — He is smaller than the tiger, measuring about three feet from nose to root of tail, with a tail of two feet, three inches, and standing some- what more than two feet high. Compare with tiie picture and with the size of a large dog. Covering. — He has a beautiful skin, the fur of which is yellow on the upi)er part and white on the under parts, breast, and inside the limbs. It is marked with black spots ; those on the head, neck, back and limbs being of various sizes, irregularis' dispersed, while those on the sides are large, consisting of small ones arranged in circles. There are ten rows of these s|iot8. Shape.— His form is particularly graceful and elegarct. Head. — This is smaller in proportion than that of tiie tiger ; it has small erect e«r.s, bright e_)/e.s, and very sharp teeth, like all the cat tribe. His irhislxTn are long and white. Legs. — These resemble the tiger's, and have the same padded feet with retractile claws. Tail. — Long and round, gets more slender towards the end. Compare his structure with that of tiie domestic cat. Home. — He lives in the forests, where he loves to climb tlie trees and catch the monkeys and other tree-loving animals. Food. — His prey consists ol antelopes, hares, monkeys, sheep and cows. He is sly and crafty. as well as strong and fierce, and by stealth will gain admission into poultry-yards, and with one swoop destroj' all the fowls roosting therein. The leopard seldom attacks man, and when he does so, it is by stealth- If pursued, and brought to bay, he will fight with much ferocity and courage. The Africans make much of those warriors who have killed a leopard. Movements. — The leopard is extremely agile ; it can run, leaii and climb well. Compare and contrast with linn, liijer, etc. Character. — Leoi)aids are fierce and blood- thirsty, crafty and sly. They may be tamed, but can never be entirely trusted. The}- lay up provi- sions for the future. Methods of Capture. — The leopard is some- times shot, but is generally caught in pitfalls, which are slightly covered with branches of trees, on which pieces of meat are placed. Tell any other anecdotes that you may know, to illustrate the leoiiard's habits. One small species of leopard is called the rhcetnJi, and is tamed and used foi- huntiug in India. There is also, an animal call(',u the cat, a black-lioard ])ietnre of a titpil. — They ought to take care of the little brothers. Teacher. — You look at the tiger and see if you think he looks as if he would be gentle and good to the dear little cat. Pupil. — He looks too cross. Teacher. — I am afraid he would be cross. Why, I think the first thing he would do would be to eat a little kitten, if he saw one. Look at his mouth and tell me why you think he could easily eat the kitten. Pupil. — He has such a big mouth and such ugly teeth. Teacher. — What else do you think he might eat? You know we said he lived in the woods and on the great plains, where the hunters search for them. Pupil. — He could eat rabbits. Pupil. — He might eat men if they came too near. Teacher. — O yes, he is very fierce and would tear anything all to pieces. Pupil. — He could tiiul little animals to eat too. Teacher. — - Now who can find something else about this tiger that is not like the cat ? Pupil. — • He isn't the same color. Teacher. — What color was our kitten? Pupil. — ■ She was a gray cat. Teacher. — AVhat two colors has the tiger? Pupil. — He is black and yellow. Teacher. — (Pointing to a stripe.) Who can tell what we call this ? It isn't a spot. Pupil. — It is a stripe. Some cats have stripes too. Teacher. — Yes, liow many tliink he is not so pretty as the little kitten brother? Teacher. — What does our little kitten do at night ? Pupil. — Slie lias a good, warm chair to slee]) ill. Teacher. — - What do you suppose the tiger does ? Pupil. — He lias to have his bed ont in thi woods. Teacher. — Who can tell me of what good . we said tlie little kittens are to us ? Pupil. — They catch mice. Pupil. — We love our little kittens. Pupil. — We like to see them play, Tea.cher. — How many think we should like to see the tiger play ? He wouldn't play very iirettily with his little brother, would he? And how many think we should love the tiger? And we know he can't catch mice. .Well, of what good can he be to anybody? Still, how many think that the men wouldn't go out and try so hard to catch them, when it is so dangerous, if they were not of some good!' No-rt I must tell you about the tiger's skin. IVe said it was what color ? Yes, well they take that off and clean it very carefully, and what do you think they do with it? How many know what the man who sits on a throne is called ? Pupil. — A king, Teacher. — Yes. they make these skins into great mats, and put tiiem on the thrones, so that the kings and queens in these Eastern countries can sit on them ; and they are very beautiful. How many think they can tell me of one use that the tiger is to the people ? Summary. — Have dift'erent children represent different parts of the tiger and objects connected with life and manners of the animal : tiger's body, his home, i food, skin, etc. Haveothers in the room ask questions pertinent to the sul^ject a child represents. Uncon- consciously and pleasantly they are reviewing the vnolo lesson. — B. B. B. -24 ]MUI)EKX MKTllODS. .voy/'.s' ((/■ /./;>>( 'A' ox THE MONKEY. (FLNEUAL DKSCIJII'TIOX. — Siidw a of tlif fniui.'rs, Imt we can move it miposite to ;_;()(icl iiicliirr (II- (lr:i\\ inu' ol' tile moll- tluMii. Sciinc moiikej'S liavr no thuuili. What is key. I'sc it: liirouii'iiout tlii' lii'scriii- I at tlii' mil of llic ]r'r? At lirst it looks like a foot. V j^i.i,/,'^ tioii to illustrate the vai'iotis iiniuis It is really mmc like the hand. So the nionkej' 1^ referred t(i. Desciilie in the usual way I is roui-haiHleil. We use the foot only for walk- its general form ami a]>iiearaiiee. It is im; : we use the hand for lioldinu' or grasping. ^"^ more like a man than any other animal is. , 'I'he nionkey grasps or holds with its ff)ur hands. Call attention to its head, body and limbs. It has , Note next its covering. It is hnir)/. The larger two arms and two legs. At the end of each arm | kinds are covered with slmif, cnursc hair. The is a hand. Some have a timmli as well as tingers. ' smaller with .snj'/, silk;/ hair, more like fur. Look How is the thiimli of our hand put i' .Vt the si.— Tia:Mi .IK KI.KPHANT. a. Muscles ami Temlons. b. Transverse Section. When he is swimming, the ti|) of his trunk only is visible above the surface of the water. It is kept there to enable hiui to breathe. Looking at Fis 2 you see that at the extremity of the trunk there is a small part five or six inches long, which looks something like a finger. It bends so easily, or is so flexible and also so sensitive, that with it he can pick up a small object, fire off a pistol or un- cork a bottle. He does so many things with this ■28 .MODKKX METHODS. nnd his trunk 1li:it the peoplr of India cull liiiii by him to cat and (h'ink. In fact, if it were injured ji name which means "the licast with a hand." so that he could not use it. he would soon die. Use of the Trunk. — The food of the ele- Nor is this all. It i> his iirincii)al means of ds- ])liant in a wild sUitc is herbs and the leaves of fense. He can twine it aliout an enemy and toss trees and shrubs. His neck is so siiort that he him into the air. or hiu'l liim to the ground and raunot get his m<_inth to the ground as thi' cow tranii'le niion him, or rend iiim with his tusks. -.UKICA.N K 1.1' I'M ANT. does, and other animals that feed upon herliage. Neither can he reach with it tlie foliage u[)on the branches above his head. 'I'he trunk, like its small linger-like jjart, is very lli'xiblc ; so it can move up, down, sideways, ov even roll up in a liall, •( I'^ig. 2). The elephant can also lengthen and shorten it when he pleases. A\'ith it can h>' pull up a tuft of grass and carry it into his mcjutii. (ir pviU down tall trees and strip the leaves from them to eat. Closing his uostrils at the upper end. he can fill his truuk with water and discharge it into his mouth to (picuch his thirst. We see, then. that one use of the elephant's trunk is t(_> enable I>ut the eleiiiiant is naturally a gentle, kind ani- mal and does not usually injure veiy seriously even an enemy, except in self-defense, or when vei-y nnich enraged. He sometimes tills his truulc with water and s(|uirts it over his body to t'ool himself. AVith it he can in tlie same way throw ilust over his back and sides to keep off insects. ^\'hen verv warm and annoyed by flies, he occa- sionally takes a liram-h of a tree and fans himself . With his trunk he makes a peculiar souud calletl triHupetiug, because it is a shrill tone something like the lilast of a trumpet. The elephant is aware NATURAL HISTORY. 2;> of the import:! iK'e of his trunk and ^heu he is in danger raises it liigli aliove Iiis head to lieep it out of harm's way. He does tliis when hunting the tiger, so that it may not be injured by that animal. Age. — Elephants reach a great age. It is supposed that thej' live to be a hundred and fifty or two hundred years old. Kind of Animal. — The elephant nurses its young, and is therefore a mammal. It has five toes on each foot, instead of two, as the camel has, some of these are protected by hoofs, so he might be called an ungulate, and he is sometimes so called, but more often inother name, on account of his proboscis is given him. He is called a pro- bos-cid-ian. Kinds of Elephants. — There are two kinds, the African, so called because he lives in Africa and the Indian found in Asia. Tliey are very much alike except that the African is the larger and has iiKinstrous ears (Fig. ■)) which reacli below the head. They are sometimes five feet long and four feet wide, and are used by the natives for sliields. Both males and females have tusks, while the Indian female does not. Four of the toes on each front foot and three on each back foot are pro- vided with hoofs ; Indian elephants have hoofs on all the front toes and on four toes of each back foot. Jumbo was an African elephant, as can be seen by his picture. His tusks were just begin- ning to grow when lie was killed. (Fig. 1 ). Where Found. — The elephant is a great cater. For tliis reason he must be where food is abiuidant. .lumbo ate each day two hundred pounds of hay, sixty-four quarts of oats, a barrel (if potatoes, ten or fifteen large loaves of bread and several quarts of onions, besides all the cake and peanuts the children gave him. A large ele- jihant drinks between two and three barrels of water daily. They also take frequent liaths. You see then that elephants must live whei-e there is plenty of water and au almndant vegetation. It is very warm and rains a great deal within the tropics. For this reason plants grow fast and large tl^ere. The elephant, like the camel, linds his home in the Old World, but nearer the equator, in the forests and jungles, south of the desert regions. The African is found everywhere in the interior of the continent where there is food for him. He used to live as far south as Cape Colony, but has been driven fi'om that section by white men. The Indian elephant i-; found (see map) in India, Bur- mali, Siam and the Islands of Ceylon, Sumatra and Borneo. Character of the Elephant. — The ele- phant, unlike the camel, is docile and jnxtient. He becomes attached to man. .lumbo was never hap- pier than when a dozen cliildren were upon his back and he was giving them a ride. Of course elephants are sometime cross and dangerous, but so are dogs and cows. They are likely to grow ugly with age. In such cases, their masters keep them in subjection by prodding them That is, they tie the elephants up and goad them with a sliarp pointed instrument called a prod. The ele- phant bears it as long as he can. When he finally decides to submit and be good, he gives a kind of squeal which is his way of saying that he gives in. He will then behave quite well for a time. Uses of the Elephant. — An animal so strong, so gentle and so easily trained is very ser- viceable to man. Formerly both the African and the Indian elephant were tamed, but now the Indian elephant only is domesticated. Attached to a plow he will do the work of twenty oxen. There is one difficulty, however. He is such an enor- mous eater that it costs a great deal to keep him. As he can lift heavy weights, he is employed in making bridges and in the erection of large build- ings. He is useful in carrying stores wheie roads have not been made, and for dragging artillery, and for piling timber, etc. The African elephant is used for food by the natives. Except the trunk, the tongne, the heart, and the feet, liis flesh is not considered very good eating bj' white people, but the negroes like it. He is especially valuable on account of his ivory, as his tusks are lai'ge, sometimes weighing l.')0 pounds. Ivory is worth rather more than a dollar a pound, so an elephant's tusks are very valuable. 30 MODERN METHODS. It is said tliat 25,000 elephants are put to death every year for their tusks. Ivory is used fur handles of knives and brushes and for ornaments. The Chinese make the most beautiful articles of it. The English use a jireat deal of it in the manufac- ture of knives. Hunting the Elephant. — The Africans hunt the elephant in a rude ^vay. Sometimes they dig a pit-fall in his path to some stream of -water, and fasten a shar[)-point('il stick at the bottom, which pierces him, and prevents his escajic. Sometimes the elei)hant-hunters, or aiigageers, of the Hanu'an tribe in Africa use swords for kill- ing elephants. Thoy follow the tracks of the animal, so as to arrive at their game between the hours of 10 and l"i A. M., at which time it 'S either asleep or extremely listless, and easy to approach. Should they discover the animal asleep, one of the Inmters would creep steathily towards the head. and with one blow sever the trunk while stretched upon the ground ; in which case the elephant would start upon his feet, while the hunters escaped iu the confusion of the moment. The trunk severed would cause a loss of blood sutticient to insure the death of the elephant within about an hour. Elephants are usually found in herds of from ten to thirt}', led iiy one old elephant called the patriarch, whicii directs them and defends them. The J^ast Indians sometimes sjiend several weeks in capturing a herd. Around an open place iu the .inngle they build a high, strong fence of bam- boo with one small opening in it. Surrounding the herd, they gradually drive them into the path leading up to this enclosure. In this way they are assisted by the tame elephants, which coax the wild elephants into these pathways. HLACK-liOAKD OUTLINES. SUGGESTIONS. ". With tlic aid of pii'lnn-s, all mider •• matter," oxccpi, tlR- illustrative storirs, can lio taualit by (jucs- tions. If possilile, draw upon tlie board those that you can n^present easily ; and usi' otlicrs found in bool- stauces, and make rough nests with reeds, rushes and grasses, upon the banks at tlie side of the water. Their eggs are large, and of a dull, green- ish white. Geese. — The common gray goose, is believed to have been domesticated from the European wild gray goose, or Gnn/lag. There is also a l.ieautiful species of white goose called tlie siioi''- gtiose, which is counnon in the Western United States in winter, and is a beautiful snowy-white, with the tijis of the wings black, aud the legs and bill red. Ducks. — Some ducks have verj' [iretty col- ored feathers. They live in this country, and are kept both for ornament and use. Uses. — For their Hesh. For their feathers and down. For their eggs. The Petrel and Sea-GuU. — These are sea- birds. They spend most of their time on the water, and prefer cold climates. They are found on our northern coasts. The Petrel or Stormy Petrel, as it is called, because its approach often foretells a storm, moves along on the top of tiie water, pattering with its webbed feet, and flapping its NATURAL HISTOKY. wiu^s. It rcciMved the name Petrel from tlie word Peter, bee:\use it walks on tlie sea. It is of a deei) lilaei< eolnr. with a fesv wliite featliers. It hiys its eggs in a cleft of the roeU, or in a rabbit burrow. It feeds on small lish, fat, or the refuse tlirowu from ships. It is often seen in stoniif/ weather, because it can then easily secure its lirey. As a means of defense it squirts oil in its assailant's face. Questions.— ^Mention the names of some swimminii birds. What is peculiar about their legs and feet that is not to be found in other birds ? Describe a swan ; a duck. Are duck's eggi, good to eat':' Describe the snow-goose. What can you tell about the sea-gull':' What bird spends most of its time on the water? From whence does it get its name ? Tell the story of the ugly duckling : how a swan was hatched by a duck, and was for a time despised by its foster-mother and brothers, but gradually it was transformed into a handsome swan. .WTE^ OF LESSOX OS' DOMESTIC FOWLS. INTRODUCTION.— Call attention to a farmyaril, and let children give the names of some animals kept in such a. place. When they come to J'oirls. 'ask if any of the children have fowls at ^^ *^ liome. vShc .'• that we call those kept by ]ieo])le i](iiiu'.ttii- foir/fi, just as we call our liiiusi'-cat a domestic animal. The woid dmiKstii- means belonging to the house. This class int-hnles turkeys, geese, ducks and all birds which have the lialiit of scratt'hing the ground in search of f ooi I . Uses. — For Thi^ir I'^ocs. — These form a valualile diet, and if jieople have sullicient room to keep fowls, thry will liiid that by careful atteuti(.)n to their food and houses they will secure a large protit. FoK Their Flesh.— The tlesh of young fowls is very sweet and tender. FoK Tiii'.n: Fe.\tiiei!S. — The small feathers may be used for stuHing pillows, etc. — The handsome feathers from the tail of the rooster are used to ornament hats. Method. — Show some hen's eggs. Explain how nutritious they are. Ask who has tasted fowl, either l)oiled or roasted. Description. — Among a number of f(jwls we notice the ri)OSfei\ the hens, ;ind the little chickens. The Rooster is a handsome bird, with a very line tail. He has his head crowned by a notched, MODERN METHODS. 33 crimson, fleshy substance called a comb, and lias two pendulous, fleshy bodies of the same color, hanging under his throat, called iciMles. He is provided with a sharp horn or spur on the outside of his foot, with which he inflicts severe wounds. The Hen is smaller than the rooster, and, except in the pure white breeds, less beautiful. She has a comb, but it is smaller, and less bright than that of the rooster. The Chickens. — These are the babies. They come out of eggs, which the hen lays and sits upon. Her warmth brings the chickens to life, when they break their shells with their beaks, and come out. They have no featiiers at first, but are covered with soft, yellow down. They follow their mother, wlio finds them food, and run under her wings for safety when they are frightened. Method. — If possible show a large picture of each bird, and let children thoroughly examine it, noticing particularly the points mentioned. Sliow that this class of birds is distinguished by having a rounded, heavy body, covered witii loose feathers, which sometimes on the neck assume the character of plumes ; the wings are short, round, and concave underneath. These are not nearly so useful for locomotion as the legs ; for short distances they fly tolerably well, but are more at home on the ground. The legs are very strong and firm and the tendons of the muscles are of a l:iony nature. The structure of the beak should be noticed, and a real foot and beak should be shown. Describe the claws, which are extremely hard, and particularly suited to the bird's mode of living, enabling it to dig and scratch up the earth in search of its food, which consists principally of seeds, roots and insects. Habits. — Houses. — Some fowls are very valuable, and great care is taken in raising them. They must have a warm, dry, well-ventilated house. It must be provided with shelves fur- nished with baskets or boxes formed along the walls. These should be lined with straw ready to receive the eggs and form the nests. The house must have a yard or run attached to it, where the fowls may get air and exercise during the day. The floor of both house and yard nnist be kept dry and clean. The house nuist contain perciics. Food. — Fowls nuist be well fed. In farmyards they can run freely about, and pick up for them- selves, requiring then only a little hand-feeding. Waste house-scraps may be mixed with their grain. They nnist have fresh green vegetables, as grass, cabbages, etc., also some mortar or shell rubbish, from which egg shells are made. KU<^STEK AND HEN- Character. — The rooster is very courageous; he struts about at the head of the hens as though ready to protect them from danger. Tiie hen is generally timid, Imt when slie lias a brood of chickens will fiercely attack any enemy. She takes great care of her little ones. Questions. — What is the meaning of the word domestic? AVliy do people keep fowls? What are they good for? What are the young fowls called ? For what are fowls' feathers used ? How do the cliickens look when they first come from the shell ? Tell about some chickens you have seen. How does the hen differ from the rooster? What do fowls require for food? Can they fly well? Describe the claws? G-ive some otlier description of their habits. 34 NATURAL HISTORY. KOTlif! OF /.ES.^ON Oy BIRDS. -Skeleton of Vulture. I.— The Skeleton. IK )^V fi'din an illustration that the liones of the lc\' a bird are arranged on the same ]ilan as those of niannnals, Imt ill a eonsideralily nioditied form. We lind a l/ilijh bone and tiro Icfj bones hvays present, thousiii the smaller of the two latter isoi'ten but iuiperfeetly devehiiied. Then, iu plaee of the ankle and foot bones, there is a single long bone ealled tlu' tar.sii.s. To the tarsus, which is cominonlv hioked upon as the leg- bon^', till' toes aie joined. The :;>cs vary in num- ber and arrangenn'nt, and in the mnnber of joints in eaeh. Generally there are /'oh/-, of which three are in front, ai\i\ one lieliiml. (The ordinary pcsi- tion of the toes may be shown fmni the leg of a hen). II. — How Birds Perch. — The special arrangement, by whicli most bird.s can sit and sleep on a branch or twig, is the most interesting and striking |)ecaliarity iu the structure of the bird's leg. All children will have seen how a canary rlii.i/is its pei'ch with its toes, and will know in what [losition the bird sleeps. A boy can balance himself sitting ou a branch, and he may ••hold un " to secure his seat: but should lie fall asleep he would lie certain to get a fall of another kind. But when a bird sits down on a luanch to fei'd, to rest, or to sleej), it cauuot fall off if it would. The very act of sitting down makes the toes clasp the branch, whether the bird wills it or not. The arrangement is this : a flat, ribbon-like cord passes from a large muscle of the thigh over the knee-joint, and then winds over to the back of the leg, being kept in its place by a small muscu- lar ring. It then passes down behind the leg bone, and over the back part of the joint of the leg lione with the tarsus, where it passes through a second muscular ring. It continues along the l).ack of the tarsus to the junction of the toes, and then divides into cords which [lass along under the toes. l!y this arrangement, ivlien the joints are bent as they are when the bird sits down, or when it raises its foot in walking, the cord is stretched, or iniUed, and the toes are made to grasp without any effort ou the part of the bird. The teacher may show this from the illustration, but a far more instructive illustration will be to show the actual working of the cords in the leg itself. Take a fowl's leg. Cut through the skin at the joint lietween the tarsus aud the leg, and dislocate the joint with the point of the knife ; a small pull will lireak the cord at its junction with the muscle in the thigh, and it will be drawn out as a soft, thick, but very strong white ribbon. Pull this cord, and the toes will close as if grasping. Advantage maj' be taken of the specimen to sliow the seal}' covering of the leg. MODERN METHODS. 35 ft. Leg and Foot of Curlew, h. Head of Snipe c. Beak of.lvocet. WADING BIRDS. a. Head of Hoopoe. b. Head of Ited-hacked .'i'hri/M-, c. Head of Swift-bellied Swift. d. Head (f Co'n.buntinn- e. Foot of til e Yellow Wtigtail. f. Foot of a Finch. rKiiCHERs. 3H NATl'KAL IlISTOHY. III. — Special Uses and Modifications in Structure. — We have now to consider the iliftVreut duties whieh the legs have to pevfonn, and tlie consequent chaniies in structure. All are usi'd more or less in walking, hoppnig, or run- ning; very many are used as supports during rest and slee]), and not a few ai'c used as hands lo hold tlie food while the beak cuts or tears it in pieces. (Refer to the black-liird, with an earth- worm, canai-y, with chick-weed, parrot, willi nut, etc) . At the same time the special stru<-ture of llie leas and feet of l)irds for s])e<-ial duties are suf- ficiently marked to enable us to airange the birds in groujis accordingly. Thus we have Srncrs^ like the I'agle, Perrlii'rs. like the robin, Cli iiihcrs, like the parrot, yik (iiinii in walcr — a uiikl lish, for instance]. I.- INTRODUCTION. ,, ISIIES are iiihaliitauts of the water, ^jH «-itlicr fresh water or salt. Here they liere thev live, ami here }x^^0t they ilie. They are not, however, If^^'^^ seattered without order or arrange- ^y ment ; on the contrary, just as iu the case of land .-ininials, their instincts lead them to make a home in that part best adapted to their well-being. Some live near the surface of the ocean, others never (jnit the depths : some revel on the sa)idy floor, others grovel in the ooze and mud ; some never (juit the salt water, others spend a portion of their time in the waters of rivers ; some are altogether fresh-water tish. We find similar habits of life, too, in the water as on land; some lish live in solitude, others in shoals; some occnj)y tlie same locality all the year ; others iu vast numbers migrate from oue part to another. The tyi>ical form of a fish is well known, Ijut we flud other and curious shapes. Some lish are round as globes, otiiers are Hat as Ijoards ; some are as broad as long, otliei's are long and thin, with .scarcely a dilf erence in thickness throughout. The body is usually covered with scales, and these are of all siiapes, sizes and colors. They vary in size from a point to a plate ; and in color from the dullest shades to the l)righest hues of th« rainbow. Fishes feed on succulent marine vegetaliles ; on worms ami shell lisii, liut mostly they devour otlu'r lish. In the sea, might is right; the great ones eat the small, and the strong devour the weak. They have no respect for even their own kindred. It will be impossible for us to consider the vari- ations in form and structure of the vast multitude of fishes. It will be sutficicnt for us to take a com- mon example — the Codfish or ^Mackerel — to show how beautifully fishes are litted for the watery I'lement in which they live. We shall first 1 ask and answer four questions — How do _fixhes •muri'.' lloir (ire t/ii'i/ protedjil ? JIoio do they bn'dfhc^ Jfoir do tlicy feed? And it will be cou- venient to answer the lirst two in this lesson. II.-- HOW DO FISHES MOVE? 1. — .s/iiijic iif Bodij. V>y actual experiment in a vessel of w.ater, show that one ,/(*/•//( of body can be moved more easily through the water than another. Take a cone or a wedge of wooil, for example, and pass through the water, lirst with the base forward and then with the point or edge. Show next that the body of the fish is shaped something like a pair of wedges set back-to-back ; the hinder oue coming almost to a point, but with the edges pared off. Refer to the shajies of boats, and elicit why they are so NATURAL HISTORY. 39 shaped, and generally lead up to the proposition, that the body of the fish is so shaped that it can be moved through the water with the least possible amount of force. 2.— The Tail and Fins. Make a black-board outline. The attention of the children should be drawn to the graceful sweep of the hinder half of tlie body and the tail from side to side, and the consequent motion for- wards. Refer to the way in wliich a boatman propels his boat with a single oar placed over the stern of the boat. The boatman imittites the fish in this use of the scull. The fins vary in number and pijsition, but most fishes have five kinds. Just behind the head there is one pair ; these correspond to the fore-limbs of mammals, and are called Pcftoral, rix: breast fins. A second pair corresponds with the hind- limbs. These are the Ventral, viz : belly fins. In some fishes these are placed as far back as the tail, in others as far forward as the throat. Besides the Caudal or Tail fin, there are other fins placed perpendicularly along the upper and lower sides of the body. These are the Dorsal and jinal fins. AVith the exception of the C'andal fin, the chief use of the fins is for balancing. Cut off tlie lins and the fish rolls over on to, its flat side. The fins are merely folds of the skin spread out, and strength- ened and supported by bony spikes. III.— THE COVERING OF FISHES. The general covering of mannnals is laiir, that of hivda, feathers, that of fishes consists of -fcales. The teacher will show the scales of any fisii he may have secured. He will call attention to the way in which they are arranged on the body ; liow tliej' overlap like shingles on a house, but from head to tail instead of from above downwards. The front edges of scales are embedded and held firmly in folds of the skin. The fish-dealer, to remove the scales, scrapes his knife from the tail to the head. By this means the knife gets under the free edge of the scales, and forces tiiem off. The scales form a beautiful protecting skeleton, and at the same time admit of perfect freedom of motion. The slimy covering ovt'r tlie scales will next be brought under notice, with the purpose it serves ; and lastly, the teacher may deal with a-ny modifi- cations in the scaly skeleton as time and oppor- tunity offer. IV.- HOW THEY BREATHE. Explain to the children first of all what is the real essence and object of breathing, viz : getting fresh air in contact with vessels containing the blood, so that the oxygen may get in through the walls, and the impure air may come out. The blood must thus be cleansed or the animal dies. The larger land animals take air into Innf/s or sacs, the walls of which are covered witii blood-vessels, and the exchange of pure for ini]nire air is thus made. But fishes living l)eneath the surface of the water cannot make the exchange in this way. All natural water contains a certain amount of air, and it is tills air which the fish has to take out. When water is boiled this air is driven out, and if a fish be placed in water lately boiled, it turns over on its side and dies witliout a struggle. Its blood- vessels are arranged on a bunch of leaflets placed on each side of the head — the gills ; and over these gills the water is constantl}' flowing. The gills may be called the lungs of fishes, because they have to serve the same purposes. Show the gills of a fish. They look like fringes. Under the microscope they are seen to be full of thin-walled blood-vessels. As the water flows over these blood-tubes, sutHcient air passes through the thin walls from the water to the blood to keep the latter pure. Of course, at the same time, the impure air escapes into the water. When a fish is taken from the water the gills shrink and fall together and become dry ; and the fish dies because its gills cannot do their work. The fish is, in fact, suffocated for want of air, just as much as a mouse would be suffocated if held under water. Both die for want of the necessary air. If we watch a fish we see that it appears to be constantly drinking. This is not so, however. The water, it is true, is taken into the mouth, but it is passed back over the gills and out through 40 MODERN METHODS. the holes at the siiless. The thi'oat is closed mean- while, and uo water enters the stomach. v.— HOW FISHES FEED. To learn how fishes feed we ma^' look at the month, the teeth, the tongne and the lips. The lips are horny, and hence there can be little or no sense of feeling. The tongue is also immova- ble, and often bony or beset with bony jjlates, hence tlie sense of taste can be but slight. The teeth are very varialile in number, form and posi- tion ; but, for the most [lart, they are simple co)ii- cal spikes witii the points bent backwards towards the throat. Tiiese teeth are suitable for seizing and liolding, and not for chewing. AVemay learn, therefore, by a simple inspection of the mouth, that fishes mostly catch their prey alive, and swal- low it whole. VI.— SPECIMEN FISH. The teacher slionid now direct attention to any YJeculiarities iu structure and iialiit of such com- mon fish as are within his reach. We take two illustrations, a Flat Fish and Et4. l.— FMFI^h. Most people imagine that the T (F EXXENDKD. CLAM. OYSTER. valves. \'alvrs lii^aiiicnt. liuaiueiit. The Sl'.ell. - lilies of arowtli. lines of urowth. iiiiisele-scars (2). muscle-scar. liaUial line. pallial Hue. uuiterial of shell. material of shell ni.Tiitlo. inautle. aildiK'tcu' iiiuscles. adductor muscle. siplion. riie animal. - U-iUs. ■rills. bodv. bodv. foot. .structure. structure. Kiiuls of M allusks. AVliere foui id. Uses. Subjects for composition work will be suggested by the preceding lessons, which see. It will be well to have the descriiitions largely comparative ; the aliility to recognize the same essential thing under different forms is of value to others besides naturalists, and one of the chief uses of the study of natural history after all is to open one's eyes and enable one to see things straight. — F. W. STAEliNKR. NATURAL HISTORY. 4o NOTES OF LESSON OfT THE LOBSTER AND THE CRAB. I. — THE LOBSTER. AY the lobster back up. Its color is (lark greenish or greenish-black often J^/ mottled ^vith reddish-yellow, but vary- K^^^^ ing considerably in shade ; after being ^®^iJSS<* ijoiled it is brigiit red. Scratch the %^ outside with a pin or your finger-nail — you ^ find it hard. Note that the body is long and nearly cylindrical. Observe two distinct parts commonly calle I Internal Structure. — Some other cnrions things about the lobster you may like to know. The food torn by tlie iaws goes froui the mouth through a sliort tube into the xtoiiuirh. which is a soft bag stretched over a li.-inl frame and contains teeth — xfomiicli or i/nstrir-tccl/i. "\'ou can readily find the stomach as it takes up the larger part of the forward end of the cejjhalo-tliorax. (See Fig. ■2). It is often calley tlie motion of a little scoop, the gill-hiiihr, partly by the movements of the walking-feet to which we found the gilb attached. The Kor is a little jiit at the base of the an- tennules. As the body of our lobster is composed of jointed pieces it belongs to the group of animals called Articulates, or, more commonly now be- cause it also has jointed limbs. Arthropods or Ar- tliropoda. As head and thorax are united and the whole outside is a hard crust it belongs to that division of Arthropods known as Crustacea or Crustaceans. Where Found. — The lobster lives in the ocean near the <-oa>t. iireferring rocky bottom, but also found where it is sandy or gravellj'. Our lolister is conmiou on the ^Vtlantic coast from New .Jersey nortliwanl. Habits. — Tile lol)ster vmv swim rapidly back- wards or forwards, and can also walk and climb under water. It eats other animals alive and dead, that is, it is caruivorons. When a limb is lost by acciilent another grows in its place. Lob- sters hatch from eggs, which are little globular bodies, nearly l)lack. and about as large as cab- l)age seeds, and which are attached in great nnm- bers to the swimmerets of the mother chiefly in spring and early summer. As the lobster grows his hard coat gets too small for him, so at a cer- tain time in warm weather the body loosens itself from its covernig, this splits along the back, and the lobster jiulls himself oat. He has 'ninuUed. (What other animals moult?) The lobster is now soft, and to escapi' his enemies, who would be glad of such a tender morsi'l, he goes into hiding till his outside has again hardened, lie moults often at first, liut only onci' a year after he is full-giouu. Kinds of Lobsters. — There are many dif- ferent kinds of lol>ster-like animals most of which live in the sea, but one sort lives in some rivers and lakes. This is the fresh water-lobster, craw- fish or cray-lish, sometimes wrongly called crab. — F. W Staebner. MODERN METHODS. 49 Fig. -2.— you.ng-crab. Fig. 5.— SPIIIEK-CRAB. Fig. 3 — thornback-cuau. Fig. 1.— edible crab of euroi'h. Fig. 4.— common.crab. 50 NATURAL HISTORY. KOTES OFLEfi.'iOy OX THE CRAB. -II HK (.'rnh at first sight looks very •' ■*, unlike a lolister. Holding it as in Fig. 1 . we note that it is short- and flattened, that its color is a dai'k green or bluish-green, and trying it with a thnndi-nail we lind it hard outside. All the uiijier siile is rt'iilitilo-tlionix. Turn till' crali over. Tightly pressed against the iiody, in a gi'oove in which it snugly fits, is a jointed tlap. ruUiug it out you lind it fastened at its broader enil to the ce])iialo-thorax. This is the (ihih'ineii ; count the number of pieces of which it t'onsists. Then see how many of the following jiarts VdU can lind. l>air of st!ill " autcinue ■- luaiidililus MUixill;e maxilli]irils liincevs waltiinu-feet J swiiini]ercl> uttaelu'il tii iilicloiiicii. -' pau's ■A ■■ pair 4 pair> attaclied t(j cejilialo-thorax. We find thecrali, although a]>])areutiY so differ- ent, on the whole very much like the lobster. Animals that ai'e like oiU' anotliei' in structure we put together ; those most alike being placed nearest together. This is called classifying. "\Ve have already classified the lobster. The ci'ab, lieing like it in liaving the body majio " swimming-feet or fi '■ swiramerets. swimmerets . If you live within a hundred miles of the Atlan- tic you will know where to get specimens of lob- sters and crabs. If you live farther off you can, probably, at times, get boiled lobsters, and ))y leaving a special order at your fish-market get fresh specimens. If crayfish are accessible use these, and bj' all means have some alive in a jar of water ; put in with them some of the little snails found where you get the crayfish and they will serve as food for the latter. Your boys will lie glad to catch all these for you. Appended are a few subjects for composition ; these will suggest others to you. If you have given the previous lessons in this series make this work comparative as much as possible. 1. Describe a lobster — size, color, number and shapes of legs, form, size and names of other parts; anything else you can see. 2. l)escril)e a crab in the same way. 3. Describe the different tilings a lobster can do, what.he eats, where he is fonnd, what he is good for and how he is caught. 4. Combine 1 and o and tell all yon know al)out the lobster. ."). Write a complete description of the crali. li. Compare the lobster and the ci'ab. mentioning first the points in which they are alike, then those in which they ditfer. Tlie teacher will hud further iufonuation in the following books: Huxley, T/iv Crayjixli ; Ency- cloptedia Britaunica, articles Orustacea., Crab; Science Guide No. VIL, Boston Soc. Natural His- tory, Wor)H!< and Crustacea ; Scribner's Monthly, June, 1.S81 (Vol 22, p. 201)), The Lobster at IIiiiii(\ an entertaining account of the industrial side of the subject. 54 NATURAL HISTORY. Ma ndlhles Mat ilia ly Pa Ipi. .Antr n IKSECT, S1«>«ING PARTS. .Y(r/7;s' ')/•' /.A'.s'.s'o.v oy INSECTS. (This lesson should be illiastrated Avilli ilianriuiis :uul with specimen if possible). I— Why So Called. The Chief Organs. — Show from the ilhistnition or t;[)e(;iiueii that the | lioily appears to be rnt-hito in two places, giving Uiree natural divisions to tlie body. Hence the name insect — cnl-iiitd. Tlie /lead carries the niniilh a])paratus, the ryes and the fceh'i's. The i-liest (or thorax) carries tlirce puirx of legs below and tiro pairs of wings above. The bodi/ (or abdomen) sometimes carries a sliiitj: and sometimes a special organ for boring., and then rimr/'iiiiiij i-(ji/s into the holes. II. — Segments and Joints. — C all attention to the rings of the body. Insects belong to the great sii))division of the boneless animals, which have the skin divided into rings or segments. In- sects usually have iiiw: segments in tlie body, and three in the chest and the head forms one piece. But all these segments are not always distin- guishable except with the aid of a magnifying glass. They niay, however, be clearly seen in the caterpillar, and the body segments are fairly dis- MODERN METHODS. 55 tinet in most butterflies, moths, ants, bees, and flies. The segments are formed of hardened skin, but the slvin between the segments and which connects them is not hardened ; it is pliant, tough, and elastic, and answers the purpose of ball-and-socket- joints. The segments themselves are uot perfect rings. Each consists of two half-bands — an upper and a lower — joined by the pliant, elastic skin. This arrangement gives considerable free- dom of movement. (See Fig.) III. — The Head. — The head carries the apparatus of the mouth, the eyes, and the feelers. The structure of the month varies of course with the kind of food on which the insect feeds, but in oue particular they all agree : when jaws are pres- ent they always open sideways, aud not up and dowu like our own. There may be several pairs of jaws one behind the other ; some are formed for cutting aud tearing, others for crushing, and some have the edges toothed like a saw. Some insects have truuks instead of j.aws through which they suck juices — it may be nectar of flowers, or the blood of other animals. The eyes are not single like those of vertebrate animals ; but each eye consists of a large bunch of very small eyes. Each eye may thus be made up of thousands of small eyes. They usually stand well out from the head so that the insect may see in every direction — above, below, beside, before, behind. The feelers, oue on either side of the head, are of various forms, shapes and sizes. That tliey are of great service to the insect, is quite certain, for the animal cannot live long without them ; but of their exact use we are ignorant. They may be organs of feeling, sense or hearing. IV. — The Chest. — The chest carries the legs and in'mjs. The legs are alwavs six in num- ber. The iriiigs are usually two jiaifs. Very often, as in the beetles, the front pair are hardened, and used to protect the second pair, and uot for (light. In some of the flies the second pair is wanting, but their place is marked by two little stalks with kuohs at the ends. Bulnneers they have been called, because it seems they act as balancers during flight, aud the insect cannot fly without them. In a few insects the wings are entirely wanting. Some of the ants shed their wings after a certain period. V. — The Body. — The segments are usually distiuct in the body. In those insects whose front pair of hardened wings covers the upper surface of the body, the segments are solid below only and not above. The wing-cases, in fact, do the duty of the hardened skin. A close examination between the segments, and between the upper and lower half of the same seg- ments, will discover a number of small holes on either side ; these are the ends of fine tubes, which communicate with two larger trunks running along each side of the body. From these main tubes other and smaller tubes branch off, and these again send off smaller tubes which traverse every part of the body. These tubes are prevented from collapsing, or falling together, by a kind of elastic spring coiled up closely between the two membranes of which the tubes are built up. These tubes are the breathing organs of the insect. It has no pro- vision by which the blood is brought to one par- ticular part for cleansing, and so the air is taken to the blood-vessels in every part of the body. By this beautiful arrangement not only is the insect endowed in proportion to its size with life, vitality and strength beyond all other animals ; but its weight is reduced to the extreme limit. I. — Kinds of Insects. — The teacher may ask for the names of insects, and make a rough classification. Insects are usually grouped according to the structure, arraugement aud number of the wings. The following may be taken as types of the chief groups, and the attention of the children should be drawn to the structure of the wings, either by drawings or specimens. Beetle, grasshopper, dragon-fly, bee, butterfly and house-fly. 1. — Shield-Wixoed. — In the beetles, the first pair of wings are horny or leathery, in texture. They form a pair of folding shutters, aud serve as a shield to protect the second pair, which are- folded crosswise, and packed away beneath. The 60 NATURAL HISTORY. hinder pair are mucli larger than tlie front pair, and alone are used as organs of flight. Tliis group includes all the beetles, of which eighty thousand of different kinds have Iteen described. 2. — Stkaight-Winged. — The grasshopper has wing-cases like the beetle, but they are thinner, and show a net-work of veins; and instead of folding straight down the back they nn'r-hiji. Tiie liind wings are folded lengthwise, and fitrai'jl/t like a fan ; hence the members of this grouii, wliicii in- clniles cockroaches, crickets and locusts, are calhMl straii/hl-iruKjeil. ;i. — LACK-Wix. — 'I'he wings of tiic l)eanti- ful dragon-fly are all used for the puriiose of flight. Tliey are transparent, and so full of veins that they look like delicate lace, hence the name lure-ii-liiijciL The May-flies, wliich live but for one day, and the nhili' ants lielong to tliis group. The dragon-tly can tly backwards as well forwards, and witli liglitning-like speed. 4. — ]\[KMi!iiANK-WiN(;Ki>. — Tiie liee, like tiie dragon-tiy. has four transparent wings ; but the veins ale niucii less numerous. The mime is not a gciiid one, because all wings are nuMii- lu:iu()us ; but there is no dillieully in distinguish- ing members of tlie group liecause tile liinder (lair of wings are fastened to the front pair l>y little hooks al(.>ng the edge. liees, wasps, ants, :uul saw-tlies are nii'iiihraiir-ii'liiiji'ih T). — SiAi.K-\ViN(i|..i). — ']"he buttri'liies and luotlis arc distinguished by having tlicir wings cdN-eied with beautiful scales, and lifuce are called srali- 'ir'niiji'tl. M'lien liaiidled the scales aiUieietii the lingers as dust : Imt under the mieroseope they are lieautifid olijcets. (i. — Twii-\\'iN aiut jiictui'etJ. INSECT. a. /.'"'/// ceii.^ists of tlu'et^ parts. b. ^''iiiuiils, (listinguisli- alMu. c. Siiii haril, except be- tweeii tlie sc^inents. Cast only in tlie liirva stufie. d. I.eijs. Three i>airs, eauli made up of jirf pieces; clawy at eiui. e. Whigs. Two pau'e, of ^■lucli (»ne pair, oi- liotli pairs Jiia>' lie wantiiii; . f. I-'t'vlvrs. oiLe pair : "v'ary vei'v iiiueh 111 form. I'robably used for feel- g. Spiinu'ii;/ apiiarutus, liiuiid in some insects, especially catipillars. Thread passed out tlirough mouth, ami hole 111 lij). Spin co- coons ill which to live, or pass from larvaj to inipa state, or thence to the perfect insect. h. /■-'.'/<'■''' compound, apaii", each containing a lar^e numlier of simple eyes. j, Jirarthhig apparatus con. sists of tubes luuning throughout the body. SPIDER. a. /•'»'/'/ consists of two parts. {Head and tho- rax form one part.) b. Sir/meiit not distinguish- able. c. Slin soft and leathery. cast at irregular inter, vals during life. d. Leffs. Four pairs, each made up of sci^ett pieces; (thigh, and leg each two pieces) ; claws at end. e. in)ii7S never present. f. /■'(•('/er.s', clianged into a formidable ji.air oI jaws. Kach consists ol "two pieces, of which the outer is claw-like and capable of being- folded back into a groove ot tlie otlier. Canal throughout con. nccting with poisou gbunl. g. Sj'iintiiKj api>aratus pos- sessed ' by ail spider's. Stiinnerets on under surface of body near the end. Spinscocoons as egg-cases, also webs as traps, or habita- tions. , K;ic^ simjile, and vary- ing in number troni one to .s/.r pairs. Ilreiithhir/ apparatus lit- tle sacs opening on tlie under surface of the body towards the front. A few have air-tubes also. INFORMATION LP:SSONvS. NOTES OF LKSSON OX SILK. PRIMARY GRADE. I. Silk. II. The Silk-worm. f not a worm (I. Kind of Animal ■! but ( an insect. 6. Where found. T, , J. ( The raulberrv c. Food of ^ Q^^„^ ^^^^^-^ d. Elaboration of the silk and the spinning of the cocoon. asked to biiug to school on Mondaj' morning, a small article made of silk. Tlie table on which these were placed assumed a pyramidal form, and looked like a receiving ware-honse or curiosity shop. The collection, beginning with a vivid scarlet shawl, evidently "borrowed " from grand- mother's wardrobe, was a nniqne one as the fol- lowing list used for spelling lesson will show : III. How Silk is obtained from the Cocoon. ■ floss-silk Kinds of \ spun-silk raw-silk IV. Sericulture. cvshhin satin shdc. ijduse veil ijUi rp iniltcn ribbons stdcHiif/ ]Kn'(tS(>l ri'Jvcf, necktie scarf thread crape veil a. Development of the industry. Rearing of the worm hatching feeding cleanliness diseases stiflinir After a little familiar conversation about use, color, material, etc., the words are spelled and attention is called to the picture of the silk-worm and cocoons, the pupils being encouraged to draw with the teacher. V Sericiilture in the United States. Silk should be cultivated on account of a. Our climate. 6. Our manufactures. z. Our poor. Grade. — Fourth year in school. Awi-aije aije of pupils. — Nine years. Object of Lesson. — Information and Language. An object lesson suggested by legitimate school- woi-k usually proves both interesting and instruc- tive. Our class were delighted by reading JMiss •Tane Andrew's EacJt and All ; they were so inter- ested in their little sister Pense and lier work on the silk-farm that we knew just where to find the key-note for the next week's object lesson. In preparation for the lesson, each pupil was SILKWORM. We have a box, containing several cocoons, a skein of raw .silk and the large colored chart, but do not wish the children to use it until our subject is more their own. Fortunate are you, dear teachers, if you are not of that large class who " dread to sketch before the children." l>ut while the art of illustrative drawing is a most happy aid to the possessor, we may, anj^ and all of us suc- ceed in making the simple outlines necessary to strengthen, to vivify the mental picture. How- ever if j'ou have not courage to draw before the class, place your drawings on the black-board before school, and by some simple arrangement of wire and cambric, cover until you are ready to use. In every class there is at least one pupil ready to 58 MODERN METHODS. respond to the question ■ thing about this ? •AVhocau trll us souie- Our star (111 this occasion is a .lolni. Nothing BO deligiits Joiui as thf consciousness that he knoivs something about tlie topic presented by the lesson. He fairly beams as he tells us that the "little round thing " we liave s for about three weeks. Miihil. — I know what haiijiens while itis inthe little house. Itcliauges to a liutterfly. Ti'iichfr. — We will call it a moth. See, I will make a picture of one ; you may draw with me. The ciiildren, most of them familiar with the transformation of grub to butterfly, are eager now to relate their experience, and by question and an.swer we show the similar working of this insect. The drawings of cocoon and caterpillar are finished ; nearly a half hour has been given to the whole exercise, and tiie children are dismissed with unflagged interest, and the injunction to try to have something else to tell us to-morrow about silk-worms. It is encouraging to find, that while only a few have new facts about the silk-worm, all are ready to tell what was learned in the preceding exercise with a fair degree of accuracy. "You may begin the talk., children," says the teaclier. Evidently they arc (piite ready. Jark, whose brother is au academy pupil, is able to tell us that the silk-worm '■ eats an awful lot, and feeds only on the leaves of the mulberry tree." Miirij, who rejoices in several bound volumes of St. Nicliolas, has a fund of information. She tells us that" when tlie moth is ready to come out, it makes a hole in one end of the cocoon and cuts the silk thread so tliat it is no good." Tcaclii r. — Wliat is then done? Jack's eager tongue escapes its liounds; Ids " I km)W, Miss — I know " is excused and he is allowed to describe — in his own inimitable style — the placing of the cocoons in an oven in ord<'r to destroy the moth, the soaking in warm water, to soften the gum and unwind the silk. The information possessed by the children is supplemented by facts relative to culture, habits, and value of the silk-worm. As the lesson grows, the teacher puts, as they are used, the following words on the black-board; caterpillar. sUk-ivurm. woven. INFORMATION LESSONS. SO* miilberrtf hatched. spuming, soak'ed. insect, oven. In the afteruoou we have an exercise in gcog- aphy, referring to the map to locate China, (apan, France, Georgia and Connecticut. Incidental facts about climate, customs of the )eople, etc., are naturally brought out. Our box )f golden treasure is given the children, and they ire directed here and there in search of informa- ;ion about this wonderful spinner. Having worked in this way for three or four lays we are ready to review. Pupils are called upon to give, in turn, a fact )f structure, habit or culture. While interrupting but seldom, we try to lead ;hem to give the points in systematic order, some- iimes placing suggestive words on black-board to jring out desired information. The limits of this article allow but a few of the uteresting facts that the children are able to give ibout their friend the little silk-worm. Marij. — The silk-worm belongs to the insect tribe. Alice. — - It must have a warm place and it feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree. Paul. — Silk is made in China, in France, and In parts of our own country. Edith, — I am going to have a silk dress when I am a big girl. (Important fact to her.) Maryaret. — The silk worm spins a cunning little house for itself. James. — The house is called a cocoon. Philip. — When people want the silk thread they must destroy the insect before it makes a hole in the cocoon. Arthnr. — Lots of things are made of silk. Teacher. — Name some of them, Frank. Frank. — Neck-ties, button-holes, veils and gloves. Amy. — The Chinese were the first people to make silk. Thus we get, by their ability to impart, a true ;est of the work. We have gotten three spelling lessons, two les- sons in geography, four exei'cises in oral language, )ne in illustrative drawing, and an indefinite num- ber of reading lessons. We will sum up the week's (vork with an exercise in written language. This is to be a " surprise lesson." Friday morning each pupil is given a bit of bright colored silk cut in the form of a moth and requested to tell some- thing about it in a letter or short story. Some of the results may be shown by the fol- lowing — copied verbatim et literatim : — (Best). A DREAM. Last winter, I visited my grandma and on the old- fashioned bed there was a lovely silk-qnilt. I fell asleep counting the pieces. That niglit I dreamed that I was a little Chinese girl and my name was Lou Sing. We lived near a river and had a garden with many mulberry trees in it. My father raised silk-worms and my little brother helped me take care of them. Father put the silk skanes in a soft paper and took them to a silk merchant in the city. With the money he got, he bought many nice things and a beautiful sunshade for me. This was only a dream. In the morning grandma gave me some pieces of silk and I am going to make a silk bed quilt for myself. Edith ,(Age, nine years). (Ave}-ac/e) . Dear Mother : I have a piece of red silk and Miss , wants me to write something about it. I think this piece of silk came from France because that is a very warm coun- try. The little worm that spun the silk was not very- large, my teacher has some cocoons and a skein of silk thread. Sometimes a thousand feet of silk Is reeled from one cocoon and it takes four hundred cocoons to make one pound of silk. Willie , (.Vge, eight years). (Poorest), Silk don't grow on trees like cotton. A lintterfly lays some eggs and a little worm is hatched and spins a cocoon and we get the silk and out comes your butter- liy. J(dtii , (.Age, nine years). Our object lesson on the silk-worm is finished — the children have had a small portion of the marvellous structure and economy of these little insects — enough maybe to make some of them by and by enthusiasts in silk-culture and surely all of them are now able to read between the lines the Spanish proverb — " With patience and persever- ance the mulberry leaf will become satin." — L. M. Bagle:¥. «0 MODERN IMETHODS. 1/ Pig. 1— timothy. Fic. 2.— RED-TOP. Fig. S— sweft-scentei) vernal. Fig. 4.— sugar canb. Norr.K OF L/iSSOX o.v PLANT LIFE. I. Plants arc use-ful for Food, Slielter, and C'lotliiui;-. II. I'huits most iiscfnl to man arc Trees, Slirnbs, and llcrl)s. C nn'ado^v ijr'isses, ccrc.-ds. suL;ar-canc. baniljoo. pulse. cdil)le roots, leaves, stems, etc. cotton, tla.K. IV. Meadow urasscs. III. Heliis. a. Kind: r timothy. I red-top. ' 1 sweet-scented ve: [ and others. rnal. I'ses of Meadow grasses. Food for domestic animals. To beautify our homes. HINTS. (I. That tinder matter nuist be uiven Ay the children them.selves. (.)nr aim is merely ti> put before you the material for a lesson in a way that shall suggest to yon ail easj' and eHective manuer of presenting it. Your work is, with the aid of jiictures and si)i'cimens, to make the class discover all that is stated, and put it into pure, clear English. /). Reiiiember that it is by doing, observing, and talking that children learn. In order to interest them INFORMATION LESSONS. 61 in tlie coming lesson, and to prepare them for it, liave tliem, sometime previous to it, begin to malve a collec- tion for your table of the grains, pulse, etc., named. Small, wide-mouthed bottles are convenient for holding the specimens. At odd moments during the day, and It recesses, show the seeds of the cereals, and talk about them until the children can readily distinguish and name the oats, wheat, barley, etc. Have the class plant peas and beans in pots in the window, early enough to have them in blossom the day of tlie lesson, and sow a. little later some cereals and other grasses. (A school which has been doing this work has not only evinced great Interest in the growth of the plants, |but has enjoyed representing them upon the black-board. An excellent practice, because it makes the children sharp at observing dift'erences.) <■. When at last both children and plants are ready for the lesson, -have each child bring in a cross-section of wood, showing the softer part in the centre. (A piece of a young tree, or a rather small branch of an old one, is best.) Have him also provide himself with' a grass plant having roots and both old and new blades, also with one or two specimens of other herbs . Tile pictures can be drawn upon the black-board, or printed ones, pasted upon card board, can be given to eacli member of the class. Do not give too nuicli of the lesson at one time. Tlie interest of the children must not lie allowed to flag. It is better to stop too soon each day than not soon enough. il. Adapt your style of teaching to the class of chil- dren you are dealing with. In some schools such terms as structure, nutritious, vernal, can be used witliout explaiiatiou ; in others not. If you are among cliiklren tl.at are likely to become farmers, lead them to feel the importance of trying to tind out by experience and study, as they grow older, what the best grasses for cultivation are. If you are in a manufacturing village, and have among your pupils many of poor parentage, enlarge especially upon the beauty of grass. Encourage Patrick's going home through the streets where the prettiest lawns are kept, and let him tell you about them the next day. Give him a little grass seed to plant in his own door-yard, and some night after school walk home with iiim to see how it is growing. It will do you both good. e. Encourage the children in exccrcising care con- co-miiig the grass in the school-grounds. Let them trim the edges, rake up the leaves, enrich the soil, and crater it if necessary. I. — MATTER TO BE TAUGHT. The Ijread, potatoe.s, and other vegetaliles we have eaten to-day ; the coffee, tea, or chocolate we have drunk, have all come from plants. Our houses which shelter us from the heat, the cold and storms, are made partly or almost entirely of wood. Our handkerchiefs are made of linen, the fl'^re of the flax, and our aprons of cotton. "VVo see that plants are useful to man for food, shelter and clothing. II.— TREES, SHRUBS, HERBS. Look at a piece of a tree. On the outside you find the bar)--, next to the wood and in the centre a softer part called the pith. A plant having these parts and arranged in this way is said to have a woody structure. Look at grass, clover, and some other plants. You find they have not a woody structure. Ae warm weather comes on, all the little twigs and branches of the trees and bushes become covered with beautiful green leaves. The dry, withered stalks of the grass and clover will never grow green again ; new ones will be sent up from the root instead. That is because these plants died to the ground last fall. We see, then, some plants have a woody structure, and do not die to the ground as winter approaches, while others have not a woody struc- ture, and die to the ground annually. The first are trees and shrubs ; the last are called herbs. Usually a plant having a woody structure is calle*^ a tree if it is thirty or more than thirty feet lu height, and a shrub if it is less than thirty feet in height, but these distinctions do not always hold. The coffee and the chocolate tree are considerably less than thirty feet in height, and yet are always called trees. (The children will learn later that some trees, as the palm, do not have a woody structure.) III. -SPECIAL STUDY OF HERBS. Look at the grass and compare it with the clover of some other herb. Examine also the pictures, as they represent the plant when fully grown. We €2 MODERN METHODS. see that there are four parts to tlie grass, — tlie roots, the stem, the blades or leaves, and tlie flower. The stem has joints, and is hollow except at these joints. At each joint there is one blade or leaf ; these leaves liave in them parallel veins. Notice how regularly the leaves are arranged, one on one side, then on the other, or ollcriiotcbj as we say. The tliird leaf comes aliove tlie first, the fourth above the second, and so on. Now look at the wheat, rye, etc. We see that they have the same arrangement or structure, while the clover has not. All herbs having the structure of grass are called grasses. Examine tlie peas and the Vieans. They have not the structure of grass. Their fruits grow in pods. Some other }ilants have llowers like those of the i)ea, and produce their fruits in poy a well-kept grass-plot. — Elvira Carver. yOTES OF LESSOX^ 0\ INDIAN CORN. ^^^^^^EFORE proceeding to experiments in cooking any article of food, it is always well to show its connection with school studies. y^ri?^. This grain is chosen for si)ecial MtLi3» study as the one member of its family ^I?j liest suited to our needs, since it is a native American. There are plenty of selections from jioetry and prose, that might ])rotitably occu[)y an hour of school, without touching upon its practical side. The subject may lie considered under these heads : (iliOWTU. Uses. CojiMEKciAL Value. History. Legends. Poetry. In studying food plants, children should early understand the division of plants into families, and learn to trace resemblances. t'ity children cannot readily comprehend this unless the teacher provides s|)ecimens ; but coun- try children can easily see in the early growth of wheat, corn, and other grains, their likeness to the grass family, of which they are inemliers. Bv mentioning sweet corn ami sorulium, and comparing the outlines of the two plants, it is easily shown that the sugar-cane is a near relative of maize. Sugar in large quantities has lieen extracted from some varieties of corn. The Itotanical name of corn is Zf-a Maijs — that of sugar-cane, Sac- charmn Officinarmn. The Growth of corn is in every respect remark- alily affected by climate and soil. All varieties grown in the United States are of one species and owe their peculiarities to circumstances. Considerable heat is necessary for its full development, as is shown liy the great height of the Southern varieties. 64 MODERN JIKTIIUDS. The ciilor of the kiTiU'ls ranges from wiiili' through Yfllow to dark red, and even purple ; the shape, from the tiny rice grains of the pop-corn to the long, sharp kinds of the South ;ind A\'est, and the wrinkled sweet kernels. A Kocky Mountain variety has a husk over each sepai'ate kernel. The kinds most valualile ai-e the stajile. Indian corn, the sweet, and last — l)ut far from least in the estimation of children — the pop-corn. The Uses are so mauv, it would require more space than we have here to give them all. It contains all the qu.alities needed to sustain life, in one of the cheapest forms, Init is too con- centrated except for people of active habits of life. The principal food of the Canary Islanders — a tine race [ihysically — is golio, a preparation of corn, parched liefore grinding. All dishes, in which cmn is the pi'iucipal ingre- dient, require long, steady cooking, and, perliMps, for this reason many of the old-time ilaiuties have fallen out of use, the Ameiicans heing in too great a hurry to stop to prepare tliciii. Ilulleil corn, nuish, hominy, brown liread, .loliuny or hoe cakes, Indian pudding, succotash — all of these. ;ind more, we owe to Zea Jfai/s. It is also converted into tiesh of animals, which furnishes uuich of our food. Not only is the ripe grain and meal of corn and Cob, groiuid together, given to auiuuils, but ensilage — [uepared b}' cut- ting thick sown corn when green, packing in a pit or silo, and covei'ing from tiie air — gives fresh food to cows and oxeu thi'ough the wintei'. The husks, dried, are used for mats, and tilling for beds and cusliions. The stalks mav furnish fuel, tliatch for I'oofs, or uniy be made into baskets. Pajier has been mamifactured from some portions. "Where fuel is scarce and the corn crop abun- ant. uiauy people have been kept warm liy .'urniug ears of co|-n. The cobs alone, oi- soaked in oil, are usefid for kindling. The counnercial value of the corn crop of this country is, perha|is, best iudicated liy statistics. The reports of the l". S. r)e])ai-tment of Agri- culture for ISiS-l gave the total yield as over 1.7'.l.'>,0()0,000 bushels, produced by about 70,- OOO.OOO acres of land. The value of tliis crop was estimated at .SClO.ddO.OOO. The States standing first as corn producers are Iowa, Illinois, JMissouri, Kansas, Nel)raska. The canning of sweet corn and use of pop-corn by confectioners are also sources of considerable revenue to the farmers. The Ilisforff of corn is so h]terwo\'en in that of our country that any school histoiy nuist furnish s(.)me items; several will be found in ■•Our Falherhdid." The word corn, as used in the Bible, and as often now used in England, refers to any grain. Some have claimed to find maize near the ancient I'uins, and that it was represented in old Chinese books, but the weight of evidence is on the side that it was unknown in the old world until after the discovery of the new ; that is granted bv De C'andolle, one of the best authi>r- ities on botanical subjects. C'oluudius is said to have brought it to Spain about 1;")2(). The early settlers of America found maize growing in all parts of the country. Francis Bacon, in his Natural History, says, " Indian Maize hath an excellent spirit of nour- ishment ; but it must be thoroughly boyled. and made into a maize cream like a barley cream.'' Through the use of maize several Indian words have been added to our language, as hominy, sani[), succotash. The Ln/eiids connected with it are many. One Indian story tells where the good spirit tou<'hed the ground there sprang up, on one side, maize; on another, beans. Longfellow's '• Hiawatha '' is a combination of Indian traditions on the origin of corn, and sev- eral suitable extracts can be made for this exer- cise. Tlie Hfth and twelfth sections of the poem have most to do witli Mondamin. INFORMATION LESSONS. 65 XOTES OF LESSOX OX THE APPLE. [Black board sketch to be written as the words occur during the lesson. Such a sketch, for lessons, should be very plainly written, consist of few words, which should suggest the main points in the order in which taught.] ^^P^NTEODUCTION. — Show an apple — its name ? What it is — fruit of a tree. Speak of size, form, color, etc. Its eommonness, often seen and liked; -vvliy? Let us tirst learn ^^^ what the eije teaches about the outside. ™ Its shape ? — round, somethinu; like a liall ; smooth: its color? — green, red, brown, yello>i\ The three P.a.rts, the apple ; at one end, a .s/cHi ,• its use? at the other, a small hunch of very little leaves, withered ; on some apples we may count fre, we may call it the eije. Number of parts? three. Names? — stem, apple, eye. AVhat does the hand tell about the apple? Feel it: smooth, Jicavij ; sijueeze it; we can't crush it as an oram/c, nor break it as an egc/, yet not hard as a stone or piece of irood. We call itjirm. It has a pleas- ant — .imell. Let us look now at the inside. {Cat the apple across, point out the severed piarts as named. Sketch the outline of the section on the hlaMiourd. ) We see rind, pulp, core, seeds, four parts. The rind, a thin slin. Cut off a piece — another word for this, p}ariiig. Use of rind? We may know this by seeing what happens when the rind is taken off. The pulp changes color, loses its nice taste, soon gets rotten ; the sldn keeps the apple sound and good — one word for this ? — preserve it. (2) The pulp is the part we eat. As we cut it, the knife is wet ; this is caused by juice. Taste it — sweet? sour? the pulp tastes like this, too ; how nice to eat! Inside the pulp (3) is the core, made of substance as thin as paper, but tough, leather-like, in small pieces, joined at edges, forms small, hollow )>hici's. Count them, there arejive ; (4) inside are the .seeds, one or tnrt in each little hollow. The rind, the p((?p, the core, all help to keej) safe, protect the seeds. (Revise by brisk qu.e.'itionlng. ) We must now learn what the apple comes from, or HOW IT oRiiws. The trees grow in this coun- try ; there are many ; the jjlace is ? — a garden, or many planted together, then called an? — orchard. Describe the pretty sight in spring, the yfhite flowers — blos.^oms, tipped with red, covering' the trees ; their (juick going away, falling like snowflakes. What is left? a little hard, green knob, where the blossom was : it grows larger, swelling, through tlie summer, into an apple. In autumn it ripens — the color changes; the pretty look then of the green^ or red, or golden-colored fruit. Tlie pleasant gathering; how the men reach them by ladders in the trees; the careful picking. ))acked in baskets, stored in the fruit- liouse, or sent to market, and solil in stores. The Use of the Apple. — Little cliildren soon learn this. They are nii-c to eat, and good for food. They help to make us strong and well. Some things we eat are jilensant Imt not good. Some things are good but not p)lcas(int. The apple is both, we call it wholesome. How are apples eaten? Sometimes raw, just as picked from the tree. When ripe, this is well. What otiier fruits are eaten in this waj' ? Sometimes cooked, how? Pies, rousted, preserres, etc. So many apples grow, and in so many parts, that they are sold for little money; tliey are? — cheap. So all people may have this nice and good fruit. Many are sent in ships from lands where they grow to other lands. CG INFORMATION LESSONS. XOTFS OF LESI?OX OX THE POTATO. HE prolileiii — htnv to teach cooking in school — is being gradually worked ,i\\ out ill .some of our larger cities, and the class of educators who iiiiist always ohjcct to any innovation, and can find no plea against this save that of ack of time, have been shown that theirs is not a valid excuse for omitting such instruc- tion. ( )iie of the first results of the public cooking schools has been the Boston School Kitchen text- book, prepared by Blrs. D. A. Lincoln, which shoulil be in the hands of every teacher desiring to give such instruction, even in the simplest form. The principles that underlie all cookery are clearly and scientifically explained and the whole ground of ordinary cooking is covered bj' this little book. This paper, and others which may follow, are designed to hell) teachers who, without aiij' special utensils, wish to make a beginning in tliis line of work. From experience in uiigradc(l country schools, the writes knows that nuich of the instruction now given in the Boston Cooking School can lie adapted to the limited resources of the average district school-house. The country school-ma'am who boards around may have secret longings to improve the standard of the daily bread she siiares — though the very best is usually set liefore the teacher — but she needs to lie wise as a ser|ieiit in undertaking such a reform. Indeed it is doubtful whether she could do much for her own liniefit, but she may waken the ideas of the housekeepers and cooks of the next generation. Too often, New England fanners look at eggs, liutter and fruit as so much cash, on no account to lie usimI at home : and salt [lork and butter- milk liisc-uit appear on the table daily if not at every meal. More knowledge of the relative value of foods would show the farmers of the future that it would be money in their pockets to use more of their produce themselves. Another reason for such instruction is that cookery and housework have fallen into disrepute and need to be raised to a higher level, since few employments so affect our comfort and health. Change in public sentiment on this point will work many improvements in the wages of women liy influencing in favor of housework, liright girls wlio now prefer to go into stores or factories, or to attempt teaching ; over-crowding all branches and keeping wages down. The country teacher must proceed cautiously in introducing such an innovation on established methods. If she projiosed to teach cooking some town-father would say, " My gals can learii to cook at home better than that school niariii can teach 'em, that aint what she's there for." Or the mothers would take it as a reflection on their established reputations, and popular opinion would prejudice the scholars. Proliably the easiest way to begin would be by a series of talks on the every-d,ay articles of food — as the potato, corn and grains in general, etc. — ■ and with each lesson bring out all possible points, botany, chemistry, and physiology. Strive always to show tluat common things are uncommon, being governed by the foundation principles of science. The potato may form the basis for a talk on fire and water if desired, as in ]Mrs. Lincoln's text- book, but first give some time to the vegetable itself. As in any gener.al exercise suggest the topic to the school, asking each one to think of something to tell about the potato at such a time. A few may be disgusted at the choice of such a common vegetable for a school topic and think there is modp:rn methods. (■>7 nothing oew to be learned about it ; but the majority of children are glad to tell auythiug they know and will happy to think there is a subject on which they can find something to say. Begin the exercise by appointing some one to write the principal points on the lilack-board. Divide the board after this manner and write as much under each head as there is room for. C Grorrfh The Potato -, Ili!. At any rate in December, 188G, ter-centeuary of the potato was celebrated in Egland by a meeting at which scientific men read jjajjers and discussed the cultivation and value of the potato, etc. This fact would sliow the puiiils that they are not doing a foolish thing to give some time to the same sub- ject. There is one anecdote worth repeating to show how natural it is to expect to find fruits above ratiier than under ground. Sir Walter Raleigh's gardener had cultivated the plant carefully all summer and one day came bringing his master the green balls and asked if those paid for all his care and trouble. Sir Walter said " to pull up the plant and tiuow it away," well knowing what \\ould then be found. Tell how prejudiced the people were against the potato at first, that those who were sure it would prove a valuable food wore the flower and tried in every way to make the plant popular. Ask how it would seem not to see potatoes on the tal)le daily, now, and what would take its place. This would lead naturally to the third topic. Use. — It is principall}' used for food — what other foods is like it? Frol)ably some one has just said '' If we had not potatoes we should eat bread with our meat." Tlien potatoes would not take the ])hice of meat and we want either meat, milk, or butter with our potatoes. Let us find out what potatoes are made of. If you cut a potato and rub your finger over it how does it feel ? Wet of course. Then must there not be water in it? Next cut a potato in thin slices and leave in a pan of water, or do this the first of the lesson and now show the starch which has settled in the bottom of the pan. Explain that it is held in tiny cells and when these are cut it comes out ; that nuicli of the starch used OH TNF0RMATIO>' LESSONS. for lauiulvy ^oik conies from iiotatoos. Compare boiled starch with a boiled potato. (Mrs. Lin- coln's text-book explains this process clearly.) There are other things in tlie potato beside water and starch, in very small quantities, a little lime, etc., but it is nearly three parts water and one part starch. Ask what we havi' to do to a potato before eating, somebody will say eook it and somebody else suggests washing it. Find out which should be done first and why. Cut thin slices of a potato, let each child hold one up to the light and look at it and tell what she can see. Often the cellular structure can be shown in this way, and there is usually a distinct line near the skin showing how much nutriment is lost if too thickly pared. Leave some slices in water, and some exiiosed to the air to sliow how that acts upon the acrid juice, turning the potato (lark. If time permits, now, or when there are a few :iioments to spare, speak briefly on the nccil of cooking food at all, why potatoes alone would not nourish our bodies, etc. hi all these exercises leave as much as possible to the children ; let them ask and answer their own questions if possi- ble. Don't let the exercise have a cut and dried appearance, simply try to show the children that there is some connection between school and every-d;'.v life (though this is not always appar- ent in school routine). Teach them to use their eyes to see more in connnou things than tliey dreamed possible. Education is literally to draw out the child's own ideas and make him think for himself. The average country boy or girl find enough manual training at home and if taught to think for himself or herself, hi^ad and hand will work together. Bv calling thi'se food-talks we may interest I10VS as well as girls in subjects quite as impor- tant to tlieni. — .i .N > A UaSBOWS. NOTES OF LESSON O.V SUGAR. rUGAR of both kinds. I'icture of a sugarcane. A little sand and salt should be jjrovided, to be shown when referred to. I. Its Uses. — Speak first of the common an same i>frfection as in the Spice Islands. Preparation for Market. — llu- eluvt-trees bear a great (piantity of small red Mowers, which are gathered just before they are quite unfolded, and are dried as rapidly as possible, so that the aroma may not be lost. They are commonly dried by exposure to the air, but in the shade. Some- times to hasten the process they are partially dried over wood fires. In e given. Use the same form, but tell the scholars to arrange in the first vsimi tlii-ir riihrs: in th.' lirst column, tell tlieni lo place ' column the Capitals in alphabetical order, and fill out thennudiers 1 t(>:'.S; in tliesecoud, llie St:iles in alpha- the other columns .accordingly. Then the table would betic;d order; linve the other eoluunis Idled out as commence thus : ijidicati'd. Coirecl the work in the cla-s ; then give ■■1. .\ugnsta. Me., Maine, I'ortland." MODERN METHODS. OUTLINE FOR PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. HAT physical Geogriiphy is as coin- pared with what we ordinarily call Geography. THE EARTH. Of itself, In the solar syyteni. In the universe. EARTH'S SURFACE. Elevations and tlepressions, Geologic-ally,— how formetl. Effect on drainage, Effect on oceanic movements, Distribution of heat, Laws of rain tall. IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Sun. — Planets.— number, — size, — distances, — niuon;-,— meteors.— comets. Movements. — Kinds, — axis, — orbits, — direc- tions,— velocities. IN THE UNIVERSE, Starry heavens, Fixed stars, Nebula';, Seeming and real distances. THE EARTH. Form, general and exact. Comparative size, Circles— equator,— meridians, — parallels, — climates. Latitude and longitude,— how reckoned, — length ota degree,— prime meridian. MAGNETISM. Kinds of magnets,— properties, Magnetic poles,- neutral line, Dip of the needle,— varlationsdiumal and secular, Magnetic meridians,— line of no variation. Magnetic Storms,— causes, thermo-electric currents, The compass. INTERNAL HEAT. Mines, Artesian wells, Hot sprmgs and geysers, Volcanoes, Eartbqakes, Two theories as to internal condition of the earth (fluidity or solidity), ARTESIAN WELLS. Why the water rises, Depth. GEYSER. Geyser regions,— description, — causes, — water to be thrown out. VOLCANOES. PRODUCTS. Material thrown out,— how much,- burie(■ bathing his feet in tlie Gulf of jMexieo. Minnesota represented tlie hat : Iowa, the head ; Missouri and Arkansas, the body : Louisiana, tlie foot and leg. Being a side view of •• Tnele Sam," but one foot and leg was visilile. A city repre- sented the eye, and cities represented the liuttons on the coat. Uemls of the Mississiiipi formed the nose and mouth, and other rivers marked off the arm. My pupils enjoyed drawing " Uucle Sam," and, in tliat way, became quite familiar with the location of the States. I saw a game of cities not long ago that pleased me very mucii. It was like the well-known game of authors, only a country and three or four of its important cities formed a book, instead of an author and some of his works. On each card of the book was an outline of the country, witli the cities mentioned located upon it. Only enough rivers were drawn for the location of the cities ; the eye was not confused by details. It occurred to me that a jnipil could make sucii a game for himself, and that it would furnish excellent busy work for a grammar school. In almost every class there are some bright pupils, who learn their lessons much more readily than the majority of tlie class, and conseciuently have the temjjtatious to mischief that idleness affords. Possibly the manufacture of such a game might please the MODERN METHODS. 79 fancy of such pupils, and furnish legitimate and instructive occupation. I saw a device at a study class one evening that 1 thought would be helpful in a sehool-rooui in teaching jnipils the sometimes ditHcult lesson — atteutiou. The teacher gave the class a list of questions, which they copied, and which they were to answer at the next meeting. In the reading that followed, given by the teacher, the attentive listener found the answers to many of the questions. It was a taste of the game of hide and seek, for the listeners sought for the answers that were sometimes partially concealed in the reading. For a review lesson, when perhaiis more time can be given to the recitation than usual, the fol- lowing exercise may be pleasant and prolitable : The class is divided into several sections. One section is supposed to be travellers ; the others, people living in different places, whom the travel- lers visit. Those who receive must, of course, entertain their guests by showing them the attrac- tions of the cities in which they live. The travellers, in turn, must describe their journey. For instance, let the journey be from Boston to "Washington. Let the travellers visit friends in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore. Those re- ceiving at New York will take their guests to Central Park, Trinity t'hiirch, to a drive on Broad- way, a walk on Fifth Avenue, etc. At Philadel- phia, Falmouth Park, the Blint, Independence Hall, Girard College will be among the points of interest. At Baltimore, the Washington Monu- ment and the Battle Monument, which have given the city the name of "• Monumental City," must be shown to the guests. The parts of the city through which the Northern soldiers passed at the opening of the Rebellion, will also be interesting. A bright and enthusiastic pniiil will liud many other attractions in these cities, and in Washing- ton, the destination of the travellers. The guests can mention the cities through which they have passed on their journey, the rivers crossed, the mountains seen, the railway route, and the luie of steamers chosen. This exercise may be conducted by means of essays, or liy oral recitation, as the teacher thinks best. A moditication of the game called in the Cltarttauquan., " Throwing Light," is pleasing for a geography lesson. I suggested such an exeicise for the history class. One pupil describes a country or city, without giving its name. As soon as the name is discovered l)y the pupils, they add facts concerning the place, also withholding the name. AVheu the subject is exhausted, the name may be given in concert. — EvELVs S. Foster. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES. Perhaps some of the queer names iu the geo- graphy will seem more interesting anil be easier to remember if you know what they mean. Colorado means red or colored ; Cliimljorazo means chimney ; Chili, land of snow ; Chesa- peake, great waters ; Caj-uga, long pond ; Jerusa- lem, place of peace ; Santa Fe, holy faith ; Bom- bay, good harbor; Irawaddy, great river; Nova Scotia, New Scotland ; Missouri, muddy ; Medi- terranean, middle of the land; Minnehaha, laughing water ; Mississippi, great water ; Dwina, double river; Cork, marsh ; Arizona, Sand Hills ; Bayou, a creek : Azores, hawks ; Beb-el-Mandeb, gate of morning ; Catskill, cati' creek ; Elbe, white ; Fond du Lac, end of the lake ; Costa Rica, rich coast ; Polynesia, many islands ; Montreal, royal moun- tain ; Patagonia, clumsy feet ; Liberia, free ; Katahdin, highest place ; .Tava, rice ; Hapti, high laud ; Glasgow, dark ravine ; Cumberlaud, a laud of hollows ; Cairo, victorious ; Cape Verde, green cape ; Asia, the east ; Florence, flowery city ; Kansas, smoky [ilain ; Santa Cruz, holy cross ; Kennebec, long lake. 81) GEOGRAPHY. xoTKs- or A TALK ABOUT OUR EARTH." ^I^^T^^N tenchinsj; (ieograiiliy to licsiinncrs, it is ^ ^ well to liuve ia the tiist place half a il<.)/,eii oral lessons, takin<; up places ni'ar at haml, and liriiigiii*;' before the class <'.fa./;/^)/*'.s of wbat is said. Don't .■t them waste their time learning " hy rt " words of -whose meaning they have not the slightest idea. Rather give them a few- practical talks, allowing them to tell what they know of the subject brought forward. The following is a lesson that I gave my class a short time ago : Tvuclier. — 'Who can tell me what (Jeograpiiy is about ? [Hands are raised, and one of the children is called on for her answer.] Liiiii^r. — (ii'oiirapliy twichcs us about the earth. Tctu-hi'i-. — That is right, Xow h't us look around us, and see what we can find. ]5ut in the first place, who can tell me the shapfe of the earth V Stearns. — It looks flat. Amy. — The earth is round. Teacher. — Amy is correct. Now who can tell rne what makes our day? (ic'irijc. — Tlie cartli turns round. Tcdclicr. — It turns on its a.\is once in twenty- four hours, an must be cooler than the moist air that rises from the water. Teacher. — That is true. Large bodies of water do not cool off as much during the night as tlie land. What have you learned about the Gulf Stream ? Pupil. — I have learned that it is a warm cur- rent of water in the ocean, Issuing from the Gulf of Mexico. Teacher. — Find Newfoundland on the map, and notice the ocean currents near it. Pupil. — The Gulf Stream is near Newfound- land, and cold currents from the north strike this stream near Newfoundland. Teacher. — How would that be likely to affect the atmosphere near the island ? Pupil. — I should think it might be foggy there. Teacher. — No other part of the world is so foggy as the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. Find on the map the very warm countries of the earth. Pupil. — They are in the Torrid Zone. Teacher. — AVould you be likely to fiud much fog where the air is very hot aud where there are no large bodies of water? Pupil. — You told us tliat very hot air dries up moisture. Teacher. — I tiiink you can now point to some regions on the map where vapor can often be seen in tiie air. Pupil. — I think England must be a foggy coun- try, for the Gulf Stream is very near it, and the island is quite far north. Teacher. — • The City of London has such dense fogs that sometimes the inhabitants are obliged to carry lanterns in the day-time, and it is danger- ous to attempt to cross the streets. You may think about this lesson and write what you can about Vapor. Bring your papers to me at the ne.xt recitation hour, when we will have a nice talk about Clouds, which are only masses of vapor high in the air. When a written exercise of this kind is required, it is well to outline the lesson on the board with topics. These will help the children to remember what has been taught, !>.id will enable them to arrange their thoughts in a systematic manner in writing. —Eliza H. Mobton. NOTES OF LESSO.V OtT CLOUDS. 'EACHER. — "What name have you learned is applied to vapor high in the air? Pupil. — We have learned that vapor high in the air is called a cloud. Teacher. — Did you notice the clouds as you came to scliool this noon ? Pupil. — I did. They were very large aud white. Some looked like mountains, aud one looked like a great alligator. Teacher. — The sailors call the clouds that you saw " balls of cotton." What have I iu my liand? Pupil. — You have a cotton I>all in your hand. Teacher. — What have I done to the cotton ball? Pupil. — You have picked it out fluffy and you are holding it against the blackboard. It looks just like the clouds I saw. Teacher. — I think we can draw something that will loolv like those clouds. (Teacher makes a rude sketch on the black- lioard.) Teacher. — How far from the earth did those clouds appear to be ? fit; MODERN METHODS. I think they were Pupil away. Teacher. — They were probably not more than the distance from here to Morrill's corner. How far is that? Pupil. — It is about two and one-half miles. Tedcher. — The liiijhcst clouds are not much higher than the highest mountain. Do you remem- ber about that? Pupil. — Mt. Everest is the higheSft mountain. It IS about five miles high. When we talked about mountains you told us of a man who when climb- ing a mountain saw a cloud far below him. Tem-her. — You have a good memory. People when sailing in balloons often float into clouds. Do you think that pleasant? Pupil, — I think it must be foggy and cold. Whoa we talked about air we learned that the higher up we go the colder it is. Teacher. — That answer tells me that you have been thinking. Now can you think why some clouds are higher than others ? Pupil. — I think it must be because some clouds are lighter than others for we have learned that the lighest objects iu the air rise the highest. hundred miles : a Latin word meaning rain cloud. When you see , clouds of this kind what do you expect? Pupil. — We expect it will soon rain. Teacher. — Sometimes clouds are arranged in straight bands like tiiese. (Sketching on the black-board. ) This cloud is called the stratus. You can remember that word, for the bauds are straight, and stratus sounds like straight. When we talked about mountains we learned something about Table mountain that was interesting ; do you remember ? Pupil.— We learned that often just before a storm a white cloud settles over the top of that mountain, and the people say that the evil one is spreading his table cloth. Teacher. — That cloud is not a stratus but it spreails itself quite nicely over the table. The curl clouds are highest of all. (Sketching on the black-board. ) You see they look like curls of white woolly hair. How high are they ? Pupil. — (Very triumphantly, with a confident tone, thinking of Mt. Everest.) They are more than live miles high. Teacher. — That is correct. When do we see the brighest and most beautiful clouds ? Teacher. — That was well said. Clouds rise in in the air. Do tiiey move in other directions? Pupil. — I have seen them chase one another across the sky. Teacher.- — What made them do that? Pupil. — I think the winu call them snow flowers ? Teacher. — A little southern-boru maiden ou seeing, for the first time, a snow-storm exclaimed, "O mamma, manuna ! the angels are throwing Buch lovely white flowers from heaven ! Please open the window and gather me some of them ! " That little girl tiionght the flakes looked like flowers. Piijiil. — Some llowers are sliaped like stars. Teacher. — You can easily crush a snowflake and yet enough nf them would crush j'ou. Do you remember what you were told aljout avalanches when you stu„^,//._ Will you please tell us the story? TiHirhcr. — I think 1 will let you ask your parents about it and then you can tell it to me at the next recitation. 1 like to hear stories and it isn't fair for me to tell them all. Ben.iamin Franklin suggested the idea of protecting buildings by means of lightning-rods. Can you think why lightning rods [u-otect liuildiugs? Pupil. — I suppose the lightning runs down the rods to the ground, but I should think it would be just as likely to strike tlie house. Tciu-hcf. You have forgotten what I told you about conductors and non-conductors. ]>iipil. O yes, you told us the metals are good GEOGRAPHY. 93 conductors aud I suppose the steel rods draw aud carry the electricity from the clouds to the earth. I would not want the rods on my house to be broken or out of repair. Teacher. — They should be kept in repair. Does lightning always descend to the earth? Piqnl. — No, we often see it in the clouds above the earth. TeacJier. — Some clouds are full of positive electricity while otliers are full of negative. When one kind approaches the other what must happen ? Pupil. — The two kinds of electricity nuist rush together, Teacher. — Yes, that is the cause of lightning. AVhen the flash occurs it pushes aw.ay the air along the line of its passage, and then the air rushes back with a great noise to fill up the space. Pupil. — Is the great noise tluiuder? Teacher. — Yes, but every one in the world does not understand this. The German children are often told that thunder is (iod scolding. Some Indian tribes tliink tliat thunder is caused by a mighty bird tliat opens his wings with tlie light- ning flush. Do you hear it tlumder before you see the flasli? Pupil. — I don't I'emember. Teacher.—^ I think it would be more correct for you to say, "I never noticed." Tlie next shower we have you nuist remember to notice, for I shall ask you about it. How many kinds of lightning have you seen? Pupil. — 1 have seen chain lightning and sheet lightning. Teacher. — If no clouds hide the spark we have chain lightning. Slieet lightning is probably the light of the flash sliining tluough clouds. There is another kind of lightning seldom seen called ball lightning. The electricity takes the form of a globe of fire and moves slowly along. Pupil. — It must look grand. Teacher. — Yes, it does, and when it strikes the earth it bursts with a report like that of a canuon. Where have you learned that the most rain occurs ? Piqjil. — We have learned that the heaviest showers are near the equator. Teacher. — Where then would you expect to hear the most thunder and see the most lightning? Pupil. — I tliink the heaviest thunder storms must be at or near the equator. Teacher. — That is tlie case. Thunder and lightning almost always accompany the daily rain- fall in the Zone of Calms and frequent tempests occur beyond its limits. The thunder storms in the tropics are much more terrible than those that occur in the temperate regions. The thunder claps cause the very earth to sli.ake. I will read you a description of a shower in tiie Torrid zone. (Teacher reads an extract from a book of travels.) Pupil. — I would not care to live in that place. TecH'her. — We will now point to some places on the map where terrible thunder storms occur. (The children guided by the teacher indicate the regions.) There are many wonderful things to learn about electricity. When you have an oppor- tunity I advise you to visit a telegraph office, also a factory where electricity is generated. (In order for an oral lesson to accomplisli the best results, tlie child should have a brief summary of the facts taught by the lesson to study. The teacher gives him ideas, and [uepares his mind to understand the words in whicli they are clothed. His mind is not mature enougli to remember tlie words of his teacher, and his own coinmaud of language not adequate to correctly express the ideas he has received, hence after the oral instruc- tion he needs the help of a woU-witten text-book. From the printed sumiiiaiy he can form topics, aud from his topics write a description of the subject, and tlius fasten it in his memory to remain as a seed in after years to bear an abundant liarvest.) — Eliza H. JIorton. 1 ■^^ *.«-^^".--,tt*6;K ■:^. XOTES OF LESSON OA' ICE. KAC'HER.— AVhat have I iu my hand? Pupil. — A piece of ice. Teacher. — AVhat is ice? Pupil. — Ice is frozen water. Teacher. — Is ice heavier than ater ? Pupil. — Ice floats ou the water, if it ivere heavier it would siniv. Teacher. — Can ynu think wliy it is well that ice is lighter than water? Pupil. — If it were not it wonld spoil our fun skating. Teacher. — Fancy a river freezing over and the ice sinking as soon as it is formed ! Pupil. — After a time the river would be full of ice, the fish would all die and the river would never thaw out. Teacher. — That woidd be an ice river certainly. Did you ever liear of a real ice river? Pnpil. — I never did. Teacher. — What have we learned about the summits of very high mountians ? Pupil. — We have learned tliat their tops are always covered with snow. Teacher. — We will model a mountain from this clay and cover its sununit with snow. If the snow never melted or slid down, and more kept falling from the clouds, what would be the result? Pupil. — The mountain would grow higher and higher until it reached the sky. Teacher. — Such a thing as tliat could never happen, for the summit of even the highest moun- tain has a short summer during which the snow thaws a little and presses the half-frozen mass downward toward the valley like this. (Teacher illustrates by pouring a little water on the snow and forcing it down the side of the clay mountain.) During the next cold period tiie snow freezes and 114 GEOGRAPHY. 95 after a time thaws again and forms a great river of ice moving very slowly to tlie sea. I have some pictures here that will give you an idea of how a glacier or ice-river looks. Pupil. — The ice looks very rough. Teacher. — It generally is. One might fancy it a rough sea suddenly frozen. Sometimes great masses of rocks are ground off and swept along by the glacier. IMost glaciers move very slowly. Pupil. — If I were on one would I know that it moved ? Teacher. — I think not, as they do not generally move more than twelve inches a day, although some have a faster motion. Pupil. — ^ Could I jump across one? Teacher. — Some of them are two miles wide and fifteen or twenty miles long. Pvpil. — I did not think of their being so wide. Where are they found? Teacher. — Where you have learned tliat many avalanches occur? Pupil. — In the Alps. Are glaciers found there ? Teacher. — Yes, many of them. Some project into cultivated fields. Look at this picture. Here is a wall of ice from which trickle little streams. Near by is a green field. What will those little streams form? Pupil. — I think they will form a river. Teacher. — Yes. The Rhine and the Rhone both start from glaciers. Find those rivers on the map. Pupil. — Are there any glaciers in North America and South America? Teacher. — Yes, indeed. On Mounts Shasta and Hood are glaciers as large as those in the Al|)s. On the western slope of the Andes mountains in Chili and Terra del Fuego are many glaciers. You may find those places on the map. It is so cold in the Frigid Zone that the land does not need to be very high for glaciers to form. Notice my clay mountain with its glacier. We will call this dish of water the ocean. Down goes the glacier toward the sea, when it reaches the water great pieces become broken off, and flout away like this. (Teacher illustrates with the ice.) Pupil. — I think tiiose must be the icebergs that we saw when we took our journey along the coast. Teacher. — You have now become acquainted with the iceberg's mother. Here is a nice picture of the formation of icebergs. Notice how much of the berg is below the water. Pupil. — It looks as though the greater part was below the water. Teacher. — Some writers say that the part under water is eight times as large as the part above. Many icebergs come from the coast of Greenland. Where may we expect to find the most ice? Pupil. — -In the polar regions. Teacher. — Not only icebergs are there, l)ut also immense fields of ice which sometimes take a circular motion, and whirl round and round rapidl}'. Under the pressure of a storm the ice becomes broken and the fragments piled up in layers thirty or forty feet high. Icebergs smit? the fields of ice, and woe to the vessel that is neaf the scene of confusion. The noise of the grinding and crashing of broken ice in those regions during a storm is very great. Pupil. — I would not want to sail there. Teacher. — No, and yet men iinve faced those dangers trying to obtain knowledge of those regions. The name Greenland does not make us :n; MODERN METHODS. thiuk of ice. AVluit island lias a name that suggests it to our minds? Pupil. — Iceland. TeacJier. — Yes, but Iceland has a milder climate than Greenland. I should have named Iceland Fireland, because of its volcanoes. Learn what you can about Iceland before the next recitation. Let me know if you find much ice there. Does ice ever drop from the clouds? Piipi'J. — Yes, in the form of hail. Tearher. — I will read a short description of a hailstorm that occurred some years ago in the southern part of France. (The teacher reads from a book of travels.) Pxpil. — I did not know that hail could do as much damage, or that the stones were ever so very large. Teucher. — Hailstones are often very destructive, and masses of ice several pounds in weight have fallen from the sky. One more wonder. Did you ever hear of an ice palace ? PkjjU. — -Yes, I heard father telling about one built in Montreal not long ago. TtucJier. — The first ice palace of which we have a record was built in Russia by order of Empress Anna. Many poor people had no work and she ordered them to build her a house of blocks of clear ice. It was divided into rooms and supplied with ice furniture. It soon melted away, but it gave the poor people bread. Several palaces of the kind have been built in this country. You may ask your parents aljout them. Perhaps j'ou can find a picture of some one of them to show me at the nest recitation. Pupil. — Papa has one at home in Harper's Weekly. Teacher. — Very well, Perhaps he will allow j-ou to take it to school. I will speak of but one more thing to be learned from ice. Did you ever notice the formation of an icicle? Pupil. — Yes, it is formed by the water running down and freezing drop by drop. Teacher. — Icicles are often very large. If some of the drops of water are muddy, how will the icicle appear? Pupil. — It will look soiled and dark colored. Teacher. — Day bj' day you are slowly forming your character word by word and thought by thought. If your thoughts are pure and your words true, your character will grow lovely like the sparkling icicle, but if your thoughts are impure and your words untrue, your character will be like the muddy icicle, and none of the good will desire your company. When tempted to do wrong, remember the icicle. Each child in the class should be furnished with ai outline of the map of the world. They can be taught to make those, or they can be bought for a small sum. As the lessons progress, have all important facts noted on these maps. For this lesson have them indicate with blue ink several regions where glaciers are found, also icebergs and fields of ice. It is well to of the streets and blocks in the immediate vicinity of the sclioo', instead of a map of a farm. EXERCISE. 1. Name the principal roads or streets, nearest yonr home, which ran east and west. 2. Name those wliicli run nortli and soutli. 3. What is the direction of tlie road in front of the school-house gate? 4. Wliat is its width? 5. Are there any streams near the school-house? In what general direction do they run? 6. Make a map of a garden. Mark the paths, flowcr-lieds, trees and shrubs. Put dots to represent the trees and shrnbs. 7. Draw a m.

r streets, crossing each other. Represent a house at one corner and two trees at another corner. Put in a crooked line to stand for a creek crossing one of the roads a little way from the corners. 8. State the direction of the nearest post-offlce from the school. Marie the position of both the school and post-offlce on the black-lioard, and indicate correctly the directions of tlie roads joining them. 9. What is the nearest railroad? Which way does St go? 10. How many miles distant is the nearest town or city? Represent the direct distance by a line, using a scale of two miles to the inch. 11. JIake npon the black-board a map which will show the school-house, the city, and the railroad, in tiieir proper positions, and the directions of the roads joining them. Use a scale of one mile to the inch. 11. Make upon the black-board a map Avhich will show the school-house, the city, and the railroad, in their pro))er positions, and the directions of the road joining them. Use a scale of one mile to the inch. 12. Explain the dirt'erence between a picture and a map. 13. Which (Urection should the top of a map repre- sent? Wliieh the bottom? Which the right side? Which the left side? 14. If a nuip lie laid upon the floor, what jtart of it should face the west? 1."). If a nuip be hung on a wall, what direction does the upper part of the map represent? III. If a fly is crawling up towards the top of a upon a wall, is the fly travelling to the north: a map A Map of a Town. — Here we have a map of a village. There is oue main street going north- east and south-west, and another going north-west and south-cast. You see tliat the railroad runs east and west, and that the church lies to the east of the town. Now,' votirc the scaJe. Oue inch, }'0u see, stands for 200 yards. Take a narrow piece of paper, and mark it off in inches very exactly, and use it to measure the distances on the map. You need not measure bj' the roads, liut straight across, "as the bird flies." Siuce FI.AN OF A TILLAGE. one division of the paper measures 500 feet, we find, by applying tlie paper to the map, that the church is about iUO yards from the centre of the little town. To Tin; Teaciikk. — Help the pupils to make a map, similar to tlie al)ove, of tlie village, or of the school .section in wliicli tliey li\ e. But if your school be in a large town or a city, let tliein make a map of as many ol' the blocks and streets in the vicinity of the school GEOGRAPHY. 99 as j'ou tliiiik tlicy -will be able to do wt-ll. liffore pnteriiig- upon the work of the next section, explain fully to the pupils wliat a township is. A Map of a Township. — Most of our town- ships are bounded bj^ straight lines. Many of our roads also are quite straight, and cross each other at right angles. Now, if you can find out the distances from corner to corner of the township in whicii you live, and then the number of roads running north and south, and also of those running east and west, I think you can make a map of it. You would first decide upon a scale One mile to the inch would be a good scale to use. Applj' your scale and lay down everything ou.your map as accurately as you can. Draw tiie boun- dary roads first, then the other roads. After tlie roads are all drawn, mark down wliat rivers, creeks, lakes or ponds there may be, and the rail- roads, if there be any ; also mark down as many school-houses, churches, mills, factories, foun- dries, hotels, etc., as you can. Probably there will be some places in the township which you have not visited ; you may ask your friends about these. In drawing your map avo'id the crossing of lines where roads meet. You see that the rivers and creeks are marked by irregular, wavy lines. On your map mark villages and towns with a black dot (•) ; and cities with a square (Mt). If you wish to mark a lake or part of a lake, you may represent the water by fine lines ruled parallel to the Ijottom of the map ; or you may draw wavy lines round the borders. Ridges of hills may be shown by a series of crosses (xxxxx) , Mountains are generally marked with a dotted line. The lettering should be neatly done, and you sliould write the names upon a clear space as far as you can. EXERCISE. 1. In what county ilo yon live? 2. How many townships does it contain? a. Write down their names in order. 4. In what townsliip do yon live? .■). Wluit railroads pass tliongh yonr connty? (>. Wliat are the names of the towns in yonr county? 7. Wliich of them is the county-town? 8. What public bnildings are there in tlnit town? 9. Wliy is it called the count.v-town? THE MAP OF THE STATE. AYe will now have a t.alk about tiie map of the State in which we live, and you nnist learn how to obtain from it nnich knowledge of the shape of our State, of its natural features, aud also of its counties, towns, cities, railways and canals. To THE Tkaciiei;. — Tliis lesson (or series of lessons) is of great importance, and it ought not to be passed over quickly. Great care slionld be taken to keep the pupils interested in tlieir work, lest tliey become weary of the study of Geography Ijefore they have well begun it. The entire ol)ject of the lesson is to familiarize the pnpils with the methods by whicli Geographical ideas are represented on maps ; not to teach facts al)ont their State except incidentally. Success can be secured only l)y letting the pnpils worlv for themselves, and Ijy bring- ing into activity their faculties for discovering, com- paring and proving. Tiie following hints as to the. order to l)e pursued may be of service : — Having tested the pupils' knowledge of the cardinal points as repre- sented on the map, let them first distinguish between loater and land. They might be taught also to distin- guish between the land of our o\vn country and that which does not belong to us. Then lakes should be discovered by them; then /"fz/.s- and t/id/s; then straits; then rivers. Then the simpler land features should be discovered: islands, peiiinsidns, rapes and isthmuses. The rallei/s can be inferred from the river courses. Tlien should l)p looked for. hills and mditiitaiiis. It may tlien be explained what parts of the State are Imclanils. Then the terms head-water, rirer-hasin, tribittar;/ and vmter-parlinrj , should be exemplified, — in fact, as many as possible of all the terms referrin.g to natural features previously learned. Tliis nuich accomplished, the division of tlie State into cininties sliould be noticed; the pupils' own county located, and its relatinn to other counties observed. Then the method of marking vil- laijes, toivns and eities, should lie learned, the posi- tions of some of tlie more imi)orfant of them be located, and their (7 (>w/;V))(s from the school-room approximately ascertained. Similarly, the distances of the more 100 MODERN METHODS. important cities from one another and from the scliool- roora should be ascertained by the use of the scale. Then the marking of railwaiis and rminls should lie learned, and the routes of one or two of the more important railways traced. Finally, a lluirouylu (icnira? review from tlie map should be made of the whole State, — its boundaries, lakes, rivers and bays, water-partings, inland rivers, inland lakes, counties, railways and canals. The cardinal principles to be observed are: (1) That the pupils must obtain their information by their own searching, not by being told cverytliing; (2) that it is the teacher's duty to see that this searching is done systematically, and not in a hap-hazard sort of way. XOTE.^ OF LESSOX OX THE GEOGRAPHY OF A STATE. Outline of the State of Pennsylvania. 1. Pennsylvania, l. 2. Extent. S. Surface. 4. Rivers. 5. Climate. 1. 2. 1. Map drawn of same on slate, giving i)rincipal rivers, cities and moun- tains. Definite size. a. Greatest length in miles. b. Gi'eatest lireadth in miles. e. Area in square miles. Comparative — by refer- ence to some other State or States. At the home of pupil — the local geogrrt])liy. General characteristics : as, (articnlar locality. As determined by latitude. As modified by jiarticular causes — altitude, or proximity to the sea or Great Lakes. 6. Natural Ad- 1. vantages. 2. 7. Occupations. 1- 3. 6. At the home of the pupil, — local geography. At the honu' of the pupil. On the surface of the earth. a. Tlie soil with refer- ence to agriculture. h. Forests — nature and use of woods. c. Facilities — transpor- tation afforded by rivers and railroads. Within the earth. a. Useful minerals and metals. Agriculture. «. Relative importance among the indus- tries of the State. fc. The crops raised. c. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. Manufacturing. a. Articles manufac- tured. Mining. lue, sometimes Clam Catcher : New York, Knickerbocker, or Empire ; North Carolina, Old Tar ; Ohio, Buckeye : Oregon, AVhite Foot, or Hard Case ; I'ennsylvania, liroadbrim : Khode Island, (inn Hint; South Carolina, Palmetto, or Weasel : Tennessee, AVhelp : T«xas, Beef-Head ; A'ermont, Green Mountain ; Virginia, Pitch ; Wisconsin, Badger. INFORMATION LESSONS. 103 EXERCISE IN DIRECTION. 1. Name the direction of your own home from the school. 2. Name the direction of the nearest church from the school. 3. If you were to wallc from the nearest post-office to the school, name the directicin and the distance of your walk. 4. What is the name of the nearest river or creek? 5. Give its direction and distance from the school. 6. In what general direction does the water run? 7. Where is the nearest town or city? In what direction is it from your house? 8. Mention in proper order the different directions in which you have to walk in returning home from school by the streets or roads. 9. How many yards wide is the nearest road? 10. How many feet wide is this room? 11. How long is it? 12. How many windows are there on the south side of the school-room? How many feet wide is each window? 13. What is the length of the play-ground? 14. Name the directions of the lines which might he drawn between opposite corners of the school-room? 15. If the moon is rising just as the sun is setting, describe the direction of a straight line joining them. 16. What is the direction of a railroad which crosses at right angles a river running S. W.? 17. A ship was sailing south and was struck s(|uarely on the left side by a steamer and sunk ; in what direc- tion was the steamer going? QUESTIONS IN COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Mention three railroad lines and one water line which connect Chicago with the .\tlantic seaboard. 2. Name fiv« important products of manufacture in the United States, together with the name and location of the place in which each is manufactured. 3. What four important minerals are obtained in large quantities in New York and Pennsylvania? 4. What large region of the United States is particu- larly adapted to agriculture? Name two important products of the northern and three of the southern part of this region. 5. Name and locate cities connected l;y one of the submarine cables. 6. In making the journey from San Francisco to New York by a direct railroad route, name the large cities through which you would i>ass. 7. Describe the most direct water route from New York to Bombay. I. Canals, kinds of CANALS. BLACKBOARD PLAN. barge. \ ship. II Use of ' ''^'"Ss canals cheapen transport, \ ship canals shorten distances. III. How canals are made, or construction of. a. Difficulties in the way b. Construction of canals in low countries. c. Construction of canals which cross elevations 1. Unevenness of sur- face. 2. Destructive rivers. j 3. Too great or too I small a supply of [ water. f Form of the channel facing, puddling, aqueducts. f reser- I voirs, I pump- Supply regu- I iug en- lated by j gines, I s i d e I c h an- [ nels. Rock-cuttings. Locks f how made, \ how used. IV. Some of the most famous canals of the world, f Those of China. Barge canals t Those of the United States. b. Ship. C Description. Suez< Construction. ( Advantage of. f Description. I Construction. Panama -| Why more different than I tlie Suez. [ .\dvantage of. A SCHOOL LOG BOOK The teacher may add Interest to the school for a time, and give dift'erent pupils some real work in com- position, by securing a suital>le l)lank book and asking the school to select each week a secretary to keep in tills book the log or diary of events for that week. Let each day's events be noted carefully. Enough ludicrous Incidents occur in any school to render the Log Book spicy. Arrange a little badge for the secretary, to add a little dignity to the office. Elect secretary by ballot according to regular usage. — Moderator DEC ieo5 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ^ llHUlli'll liJIIIlllilllU'llll III 021 772 159 3