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 [lEXEIUL EXAMINATION 
 
 THE ATLANTIC OCEAN, 
 
 CH. PHILIPPE DE KERHALLEÏ, 
 
 CAPTAIX IMPEItlAL FRENCH NAVY, OFFICER OF THE LEGION OF HONOR, ETC. 
 
 / 
 
 NAUTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR AVOIDING HURRICANES 
 
 A MEMOIR ON THE CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE THIRD FRENCH EDITION 
 BY 
 
 E. H. WYMAN, 
 
 CAPTAIN UNITED S T A T'E S N A V V . 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1870. 
 
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 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The works of the hite Captain C. II. Philippe De Kerhal- 
 let, of the Imperial French Navy, on the winds, currents, 
 and navigation of the great oceans, are among the most 
 concise, comprehensive, and practical extant. They not 
 only afford abundant proof of the research and scientific 
 attainments of their author, but also of his thorough know- 
 ledge as a practical navigator and seaman, which adds 
 much to their value with those of the same profession. 
 
 The General Examination of the Pacific Ocean, by the 
 same author, was translated by Commander (now Eear-Ad- 
 miral) Charles Henry Davis, United States Navy, in 1859, 
 and since published by the Bureau of Navigation. In 
 translating this volume of the series I have given a literal 
 translation as nearly as the idioms of the two languages 
 admit, reducing measures of distances, depths, height of 
 barometer, &c., to our own standards. I have added a 
 few additional remarks on the winds, &c., of the West 
 Indies aiul Gulf of Mexico, translated from the third part 
 of the Manuel de la I\avigation dans la Mcr des Antilles et 
 dans le Golfe du 2Iexique, a discussion by the late Professor 
 A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the United States Coast 
 Survey, on the observations on the winds at Fort Morgan, 
 Key West, and Galveston, made under his direction during 
 the years of 1847, 1840, 1851, and 1852, and observations 
 on the winds, &c., of the Straits of Magellan, by Captain 
 Richard Mayne, R. N,, commanding Her Britannic Majesty's 
 surveying vessel Nassau, 18G8. 
 
 I have also appended to Chapter II on the Currents of 
 the Atlantic Ocean a table of the temperatures and the 
 specific gravity of its waters from 50° N. to 50° S. latitude, 
 taken from the sailing directory for the South Atlantic 
 Ocean, by A. G. Findlay, F. R. S. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/generalexaminatiOOkerh 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS, 
 
 l'ACiK. 
 
 Pkkiace ro Titi': Sf.coxo Edition' ...... ix 
 
 PkKI ACE TO TIIK TitlISD EdITIOX ...... XI 
 
 NOTK Xlll 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Gkxkrai, Wixds 1-105 
 
 (Division of the Atlantic Ocean into three regions ; sub-division 
 of the second and third regions into two zones, the frigid zone 
 and the temperate zone; origin of winds ; causes of trade or gen- 
 eral winds of the torrid zone; northern and southern pohir winds; 
 tropical winds, northern and southern ; winds in the first region 
 of the Atlantic Ocean; the torrid zone ; trade-winds, their limits; 
 variation of these limits and table showing them ; distiu-bances 
 in the trade-winds ; variable winds of the torrid zone ; table 
 showing the extent of this zone ; favorable epoch for crossing the 
 line ; observations on the variable winds of the torrid zone ; sea- 
 sons in this zone ; second region of the Atlantic Ocean ; southern 
 frigid and temperate zones ; third region of the Atlantic Ocean ; 
 northern frigid and temperate zones ; winds at Spitzbergen and 
 Nova Zembla ; winds on the west coast of Africa; land and sea 
 breezes ; solar beeezes ; harmattan ; tornadoes ; winds in vicinity 
 of the Cape of Good Hope ; to double the Cape of Good Hojie in 
 coining from east to west ; winds in Table Bay ; on the coast of 
 Africa ; between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Palmas, that 
 is, on the coasts of Hotentotia, Cimbebasia, Benguela, Angola, 
 Congo, and Loaugo, to Cape Lopez, and in the Gulf of Biafra 
 and Benin ; near the islands there. Princes Island, St. Thomas, 
 Anno-Bon, and Fernando Po ; winds on the ivory and gold coasts, 
 to Cape Palmas ; to the Islands of St. Helena and Ascension ; on 
 the coasts of Liberia, Sierra-Leone, the Bissagos, on the coast of 
 Senegambia, the Cape Verd Islands, the coast of Senegal, the 
 Canaries, Madeira, on the coast of Morocco, Portugal, the Bay of 
 Biscay, the entrance of the English Channel, the British Islands, 
 on the coasts of Holland, îî^orway, Greenland ; in the Ai'ctic region 
 to the north of North America ; in Hudson Bay, Canada, Newfound- 
 land; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; indications of the barometer in 
 this gulf; winds at Sable Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick ; 
 on the east coast of North America; on that of South Carolina; 
 vicinity of St. Augustine ; at the Bermudas ; in the Gulf of Mex- 
 ico; northerly gales; wet and dry season in the Gulf of Mexico; 
 .season of hurricanes : winds in the Bahama Channel, on the west 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 const of Florida, iu Appalacliee Bay, on the coast between this bay 
 and the . Mississippi ; winds at Pensacola ; winds at Key West, 
 Fort Morgan, Galveston, on the coast between the Mississippi and 
 the Bay of Matagorda ; on the coast from Matagorda to Tampico 
 and Vera Cruz ; winds at Vera Cruz ; on the coast between that 
 port and Point Piedras, from Point Piedras to Cape Catoche ; winds 
 in the West Indies ; hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean ; calms and 
 squalls near the West India Islijuds ; races ; Avinds in the Island 
 of Cuba ; in the Bahama Islands ; winds in the Island of Jamaica, 
 Santo Domingo, Porto Kico ; in the Windward Islands ; on the 
 east coast of Yucatan, Honduras, the Musquitos ; on the coast 
 comprised between St. Juan de Nicaragua and Cape de la Vela ; 
 at Porto Bello, Carthagena ; on the coasts of Carracas and Camana ; 
 on the coast of Guiana ; Demerara, French Guiana ; on the north 
 coast of Brazil ; at Para, Maranham; on the east coast of Brazil ; 
 in the Bay of All Saints ; at Eio Janeiro ; Paraguay ; in the La 
 Plata ; Pamperos ; winds on the east coast of Patagonia ; at Tierra 
 del Fuego ; at Cape Horn ; at the Falkland Islands ; squalls in 
 general ; barometer, atmospheric tides ; winds, Straits of Magel- 
 lan.) 
 
 CHAP TEE II. 
 
 Page. 
 General Currents 106-135 
 
 (Currents of the tides ; general currents ; drift currents ; causes 
 of general currents ; equatorial current ; polar currents; tropical 
 currents ; equatorial current, extent, velocity, temperature, north- 
 west branch of equatorial current, disturbances observed in this 
 current; current to the east, between the Current of Guiana 
 and the northwest branch of the equatorial current ; Current of 
 Guiana; Current of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico; cur- 
 rents in the Windward Islands; Gulf Stream or Florida Current ; 
 northeast branch of the Gulf Stream ; current of the Icy Sea ; 
 Arctic Current; Current of Hudson Bay; Current of the Bay of 
 Biscay; Eennel Current; of the coast of Portugal ; of the Strait of 
 Gibraltar; polar current of Africa and Current of North Guinea; 
 comparative table of mean velocity of currents in the northern 
 hemisphere ; Current of Brazil ; alternate currents near the coast 
 of Brazil; Current of Cape Horn, the traverse current of the At- 
 lantic ; Current of the Cape of Good Hope ; counter-current of the 
 Cape of Good Hope ; counter south-atlantic polar current; Cur- 
 rent of South Guinea ; comparative table of mean velocity of the 
 currents in the southern hemisj)here. ) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Navigation in the Atlantic Ocean 136-171 
 
 (Routes to the ports of Archangel and Onega ; tides on the coast 
 of Lapland and in the White Sea ; route from Europe to North 
 America, at the commencement and end of the year ; route from 
 Europe to Newfoundland or to the Great Bank; route for the Is- 
 
CONTENTS. VII 
 
 land of St. ricnv and the (iulf of St. Lawrence ; ennents on tho 
 Great Bank and in its vicinity ; cnirents near tlic coast ofNt-wfonnd- 
 land ; routes from the United States and Enropc to the licrnuidas ; 
 making tlie land of the Bermudas; routes from Europe to the 
 United States; routes from tho United States to Europe; routes 
 from Euroi)e to the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico ; route from 
 the United States or from the Bermudas to the West Indies and 
 Gulf of Mexico; routes from Europe to Guiana; routes from the 
 West Indies to Europe; route from Europe to the ports of South 
 America; where to cross the Equator; route from South America 
 to Europe ; routes from Europe to the ports of Northern Africa ; 
 from Europe to the Canaries ; from the Canaries to any point north 
 of Cape Palmas ; for the north coast of Guinea ; for the Islands of 
 the Gulf of Biafra ; for the Gaboon ; route from east to west in the 
 Gulf of Guinea ; after leaving the Gulf of Guinea to returu to Eu- 
 rope, to Sierra-Leone, to Gambia, Goree, St. Louis, the United 
 States; favorable season for leaving the Gulf of Guinea; routes 
 from Europe to ports of Africa south of the Equator ; great route ; 
 little route ; route from Europe to Ascension, to the east, to the . 
 west ; routes from Europe to St. Helena, to the east, to the west ; 
 routes from Ascension and St. Helena, to the south coast of Africa; 
 routes from Africa to the Islands of St. Helena and Ascension ; 
 routes from north coast of Africa to Europe ; route from Cape of 
 Good Hope to Europe ; same along the coast of Africa ; routes 
 from North America to the north coast of Africa; routes from 
 North America to the west coast of South Africa, or the east coast 
 of South America; route from the Cape of Good Hope to North 
 America. ) 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 Page. 
 Appendix No. I 173-182 
 
 (Hurricanes; nautical directions to avoid hurricanes.) 
 
 Appendix No. II 18<5 
 
 (Memoir on the Currents of the Atlantic Ocean ; sub-marine cur- 
 rents; navigation of the brig of war Eagle, from the coast of 
 Guinea to the West Indies ; observations on the Current of North- 
 ern Guinea ; on the equatorial current ; on the currents in the 
 north of the Atlantic, between Greenland and the Shetlands, near 
 Iceland, and the Islands of Faroe ; at Spitzbergen ; observations 
 on the currents of Davis's Strait, the Gulf Stream ; on the circular 
 movement of great currents.) 
 
 Alphabetical Index of the Names of Places . . 203-217 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The General Examination of the Atlantic Ocean, publislicd 
 in 1851, was written principally as an introdnction to the 
 Manuel de la N^avigation à la Cote Occidentale d'' Afrique. 
 
 In this first worlv, therefore, our attention was specially 
 given to the most important facts in relation to such winds 
 and currents as would be more particularly useful for the 
 navigation of the coast of Africa, and for the routes from 
 Europe to this continent. 
 
 Since then we have continued the study of tlie great seas 
 of the globe, and have successively published the General 
 Examination of the Indian and Pacijic Oceans, accompanied 
 by three charts showing the general winds and currents, 
 and the rontes'for traversing these seas. 
 
 The dépôt général of the marine having decided that the 
 three oceans should be issued uniformly, the Atlantic as well 
 as the two others will be furnished with three charts and a 
 more complete memoir than that first published. 
 
 In this edition, while preserving the most important parts 
 of our first work, we treat of those which were then ex- 
 cluded. 
 
 For this purpose we have studied the winds at large in 
 the different regions of the Atlantic Ocean, and then mak- 
 ing the tour of the basin of this sea, we have indicated the 
 winds peculiar to each locality which are either predomi- 
 nant or periodical. 
 
 We have besides given in detail the usual routes for trav- 
 ersing this ocean in every direction; In borrowing infor- 
 mation referring to this subject from various works, we have 
 left out all local detail. It would be necessary, then, to 
 consult these works when navigating in certain localities, 
 or when coasting. Among the numerous works we have 
 consulted are the following: Blmifs Coast Pilot; Sailing 
 Directions for the Elver St. Lawrence, by Bajfield ; Berro- 
 tero de las Antillas ; Le Filoie du Brésil, by Admiral Bar- 
 ron Itoussin ; Directions on Patagonia, by King ; Bescrip- 
 
X PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 tion of the Falkland Islands^ by Captain Sullivan ; Les In- 
 structions sur la Guiane Française, by M. Lartigue; The 
 India Directory, Horsburgh ; The iSailing Directory of the At- 
 lantic Ocean, Purdy; The Memoir of Purdy to accompany 
 the Chart of the Atlantic Ocean ; ^Vind Chart of the Atlantic, 
 Manry ; The Atlas of Berglicms and of Johnston ; EenneVs 
 Atlas of Currents ; History of the British Colonies, by Mont- 
 gomery Martin ; The Winds, Currents, and Tides, by Eomme ; 
 Voyages of Parry ; Voyages of CooTc, Sir James Ross, and of 
 Dumont D^Ur ville, to the /South Pole; and a great number of 
 voyages, both ancient and modern, which we have men- 
 tioned in the preface of Les Considérations sur V Océan Pa- 
 cifique. 
 
 For the length of a great number of voyages in the At- 
 lantic Ocean, we have made use of a manuscript which M. 
 Daussy, hydrographie engiueer-in-chief of the depot of the 
 marine, had kindly placed at our disposal. To him we would 
 extend our warmest thanks. It is from this document that 
 we have given, when possible,- the length of the greater part 
 of the voyages. 
 
 In reading the manuscript of M. Daussy, we were struck 
 with the diiference of time employed by shii)s to make the 
 same voyage, thus only to cite a single example : Horsburgh, 
 leaving England, made the Cape of Good Hope in sixty- 
 seven days, while the greater number of other navigators 
 were from ninety to one hundred and ten days in making 
 the same distance. Many causes may operate to make this 
 différence in the same voyage ; nevertheless, in the rapid 
 trip of the celebrated English captain, it is proper, perhaps, 
 to attribute something to the science and knowledge of the 
 great general phenomena of the ocean, which he so skill- 
 fully used. 
 
 From this, we are in hopes that the examination of the 
 three great seas of thé globe, forming, in a measure, a gen- 
 eral treatise of navigation, may not be without utility to 
 seamen. 
 
 CH. PHILIPPE HE KERHALLET. 
 
 Paris, February 1, 1852. 
 
PREFACE ÏO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 lu this new edition of the General Examination of the 
 Atlantic Ocean we bave made some correctious and import- 
 ant additions. The quick disposal of the first two has con- 
 vinced us that this work is not without value to seamen, 
 and we feel flattered at the favorable reception it has met. 
 ^Ve have labored to complete it by inserting new documents 
 which we have been enabled to collect since the issue of the 
 second edition. We have besides introduced general obser- 
 vations on hurricanes and the laws which govern these for- 
 midable atmospheric disturbances. In Appendix No. 1, 
 placed at the end of the volume, will be found nautical di- 
 rections which should be followed in these tempests, as also 
 the maneuvers to be made, if such is possible, according to 
 the position which the vessel may occupy in the storm. 
 We owe this important work to the kindness of the learned 
 hydrographie engineer M. Keller, and we are happy to ac- 
 knowledge our obligation. Xot only has he kindly author- 
 ized us to make extracts from his memoir published in 1847, 
 but he has furnished us a very important extract from an- 
 other memoir on the same subject, as yet uui^ublished. The 
 nautical directions given by M. Keller and deduced from a 
 long and profound study of these phenomena, are simple 
 and very clearly described. We doubt not their being of 
 the greatest service to seamen. 
 
 A second appendix is joined to this work. It is a very 
 interestiug discussion relating to the currents of the At- 
 lantic Ocean, by M. Irminger, captain in the Danish navy, 
 and translated by M. le Barou Belong, consul general of 
 Denmark. In this memoir tbe author, an officer as distin- 
 guished as conscientious, gives the observations he has 
 made upon the submarine currents, using the instrument 
 invented by M. Aimé for this kind of research. Although 
 to the present time the study of submarine currents does not 
 appear to have afforded any result practically beneficial to 
 navigation, the physical sciences will certainly profit by it, 
 
XII PREFACE TO THE THIED EDITION. 
 
 and for tlie wbale fishery it is of the greatest importance. 
 Captain Irminger has added to these observations made on 
 the currents of the coasts of Africa and Guinea, on the 
 equatorial current, &c., and he has paid particular atten- 
 tion to noting, on the chart which accompanies his work, the 
 temperatures observed in the Icy Sea, which is a subject on 
 which little is as yet known. These observations are very 
 useful for a knowledge of the currents of this sea and for 
 those of that portion of the ocean comprised between the 
 coast of Greenland and the Shetlands, where Iceland and 
 the Isles of Faroe are situated. Observations of this kind 
 are of great interest to science and to navigation. It gives 
 us the greatest satisfaction to be able to place before French 
 seamen this work of Captain Irminger, We pray M. le 
 Baron Belong, who in translating this work has been the 
 means of this gratification, to accept our most cordial 
 thanks. 
 
 We hope that these observations, collected with much care^ 
 may induce seamen navigating in these localities to make 
 additional ones. At any rate those of Captain Irminger 
 will facilitate the navigation of this part of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, as yet little studied in this particular. 
 
 In this work we have indicated but briefly the winds, 
 currents, and navigation in the West Indies and the Gulf 
 of Mexico. To have treated them in detail would have 
 obliged us to have gone beyond the bounds laid down for 
 this work. We will refer to the Manuel de la Navigation 
 (Jans la Mer des Antilles et dans le Golfe du Mexique, chapters 
 8, 15, and 18, those who may wish to study more completely 
 these two seas. 
 
 CH. PHILIPPE DE KERHALLET. 
 
 Paris, Becemher 1, 1853. 
 
NOTE, 
 
 We give to tlie winds the name of tlie point from whicli 
 they bh)w ; to the currents, that of the i^oints of the com- 
 pass toward m hich they run. 
 
 The direction of the winds, that of the currents, the 
 courses, the trend of the hind, and tlie bearings, are cor- 
 rected for the variation of the magnetic needle, except 
 Avhen otherwise stated. 
 
GENERAL EXAMINATION 
 
 OK 
 
 TJIE ATJ.ANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 GENERAL WINDS. 
 
 The biusiii of the Atlautie, unequally iuclosed between tlie 
 west coasts of Europe and Africa and the east coast of 
 America, i)reseuts a deep valley, which, to the north and 
 south, appears to be only limited by the poles of the globe; 
 the ice barriers alone having" arrested those navigators who 
 have attempted to explore its limits. 
 
 In order to study the general winds of this ocean we will 
 divide it into three regions : The first, comprised between 
 the parallels of 30° X. and 30° S. latitude ; the second, be- 
 tween the parallel of 30° S. latitude and the South Pole ; 
 and the third, between the parallel of 30° X. latitude and 
 the North Pole.- 
 
 AYe will divide the two last regions into two zones each — 
 the temperate zone, from the parallel of 30° of latitude to 
 60°; and the frigid zone, from 00° to each pole. 
 
 We will at first study the winds of each of these regions 
 clear of the coast ; then„commencing at one of the extremi- 
 ties of the basin, we will indicate in turn what are the winds 
 ordinarily encountered near the coasts. 
 
 The currents of the air owe their origin to every action ^j^ji^' ° ^ ° ° ^ 
 which tends to disturb the equilibrium of the atmosphere. 
 Science has attempted to determine the causes of winds and 
 the general laws which they follow. Philosophers attribute 
 them to the heat of the sun, so different and so variable at 
 the surface of the earth, combined with the diurnal move- 
 ment of the earth itself. 
 
 The difference between the temperature of the polar re- 
 gions and of those bordering- on the Equator being consid- 
 erable, there should result, they say, from this inequality, a 
 
15 WINDS — THEIR ORIGIN. 
 
 constant exchange of air between these two regions ; thus^ 
 the air of the polar regions, cold and dense, goes to replace 
 the heated and expanded air of the Eqnator, which, rising 
 and forming an npper current, should flow îv". and S. to es- 
 tablish the equilibrium. 
 
 If the earth was in a state of repose, the winds near its 
 surface would be uniformly directed from N. and S., accord- 
 ing to the hemisphere in which they blow ; but, the globe 
 turning from west to east on its axis, the speed of rotation 
 of its different points being so much greater as these points 
 approach the Equator, it results that the cold currents of 
 air passing from high latitudes toward this great circle, and 
 arriving progressively at the regions where the rotatory 
 motion is more and more considerable, and not being able 
 to partake of this motion from their want of cohesion with 
 the earth, they take an opposite or contrary direction to the 
 movement of rotation of the globe, viz., from E. to "V\'. 
 
 Thus, from the combination of the movement of the rota- 
 tion of the globe, and the difference of temperatures of its 
 surface, the currents of air coming from the N. and from 
 the S. in each hemisphere are modified in their direction 
 and bent toward the î^. E. and S. E., forming the winds 
 called general winds, or the trade- winds of the torrid zone. 
 Passing by the different theories which have been orig- 
 inated on this subject, and the numerous objections raised 
 to each of them, we will coniine ourselves to giving the 
 IDriucipal facts Avhich have been recognized regarding the 
 winds of the Atlantic — the knowledge most useful to navi- 
 gation, 
 p oiar winds, The two curreuts of air directed from the North and South 
 
 southern!^ '^"^ Poles toward the Equator, which hiWQ been indicated above, 
 are named the polar winds — north^n and southern, accord- 
 ing to the hemisphere in which they exist. 
 Tropical winds. In oppositiou, the tropical winds are called northern and 
 
 southern.^ "^ '^^' southeru as directed from the Equator toward the poles. 
 
 These last appear to be counter-currents of the polar winds. 
 
 First region of lu the northern hemisphere the polar winds blow from 
 
 Ocean or ^torrid N. E. ; in the southem hemisphere, from the S. E. 5 and 
 take a direction more inclining to E. as they approach the 
 Equator. Between the tropics these winds are commonly 
 called the trade-icmds of each hemisj^here 5 they are named, 
 besides, the general winds of the torrid zone. These winds 
 render the voyages in the Atlantic from the Old to the Xew 
 World both easy and expeditious. 
 
WINDS — T1{ADE-WTN1)S. 
 
 Tlie tiade-Aviuds ai)i)eiu- to he the only piiinitivo winds. Tnidc-wituis. 
 Where tliey blow steadily the weather is constantly fine and 
 the sky gonerally dear. If they cease for a moment the sky 
 becomes overcast, and in certain localities storms and rains 
 are experienced. They are stronger and more durable as 
 the localities are nearer or further removed from the Equa- 
 tor. In the localities ^\iiere the trade-w^iuds do not blow, 
 squalls and storms are frequent; and where, from any cause, 
 they are interrupted only, bad weather is experienced, and 
 their return is accompanied by a violent reaction. 
 
 The trade-winds in the northern and southern zones have 
 resemblances and différences Avhich will be pointed out 
 hereafter. 
 
 The ]iolar limit of the trade-winds, T)oth N, E. and S. E., 
 stretches generally to the parallels of 30° N. and 30° S. of 
 the Equator, but this limit varies much in different parts 
 of the ocean, being subject to the temperature; thus it ex- 
 tends about .'P further north or souch, as the sun's declina- 
 tion is north or south. 
 
 The equatorial limit of the N. E. and S. E. trade- winds is 
 equally variable, from the same cause. That of the N. E. 
 trades, as a mean, is about the parallel of 8° N. latitude^ 
 that of the S. E. about 2° to 3° îs". latitude. 
 
 From a great number of observations the following table 
 was formed; this, however can only be considered as an 
 approximation : 
 
 Limit of tlif 
 . trade-winds. 
 
 Limits of the trade-ivinds. 
 
 Winter 
 
 SpriiijS 
 
 A 111 mini 
 
 Polar limits 
 oftheN.E. 
 and S. E. 
 trades. 
 
 Lat. v. and S. 
 
 240 45/ 
 
 30° 4.5' 
 
 28° 20' 
 
 Equatorial 
 limits of 
 thciS'. E. 
 tiade. 
 
 Lat X. 
 
 50 45' 
 
 Equatoiial 
 limits of 
 theS.E. 
 trade. | 
 
 Lat. K. 
 
 2° ;iO' 
 
 Polar li7)iits of tlie îs\ E. 
 trades according to tlie 
 
 llKIKtllS. 
 
 January 
 
 February . . . 
 
 March •. 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 Sejitember . . 
 
 October 
 
 November .. 
 December... 
 
 '>«*. A". 
 23° 24' 
 28° 30' 
 27° 19' 
 28° 18' 
 28° 31' 
 31° 25' 
 29° 3G' 
 31° 11' 
 32° 04' 
 2.5° 38' 
 27° 14' 
 22° 15' 
 
4 WINDS — TRADE-WINDg. 
 
 lu the Atlantic Ocean the N. E. trade-winds blow with 
 less force over the space comi^rised between Cape Verd and 
 the coast of Guiana than the S. E. trades do in the neigh- 
 borhood of the Equator. This is caused, without doubt, 
 by the configuration of the coasts which confine this portion 
 of the ocean. Xear the Windward Islands the trade-winds 
 blow generally fresh from E. to N. E. 
 
 It is, besides, remarked that in the zone comprised be- 
 tween the Equator and the parallels of 28° latitude IST. and 
 S., when the sun is near the great circle, these winds blow 
 from nearly N. E. in the northern, and from S. E. in the 
 southern hemisphere. 
 
 But if the sun is in the northern hemisphere, and at its 
 greatest distance from the Equator, the winds in this hemi- 
 sphere have a tendency to blow more directly from the E., 
 and heavier squalls are experienced than at any other time. 
 
 In the southern hemisphere the trades then blow more 
 directly from S. 
 
 If, on the contrary, the sun is in the southern hemisphere, 
 the same takes place inversely ; then in this hemisphere the 
 winds blow more from the E., while in the northern hemi- 
 sphere they haul more to the N., and arrive at their limit 
 nearest approaching the Equator. 
 
 Squalls, rains, and storms may be expected in the zone 
 where the sun is vertical. 
 
 During the winter the trade- winds of the K. are at times 
 encountered before reaching the latitude of Madeira; 
 this is, however, an exception to the general rule mentioned 
 in speaking of the polar limit of these winds. 
 
 At other times the variable winds of the temi^erate zone 
 extend as far as the parallel of 20° î>r. without appearing to 
 be subject to any general law, and this may take j^lace in 
 any season. 
 
 In the southern hemisphere similar facts are presented ; 
 thus, during the clear season the limits of the S. E. trades" 
 are foaud in the neighborhood of the parallel of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, while from Juue to August the westerly winds 
 j)revail between this parallel and the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 It is fiu^ther to be remarked that near the polar limit of 
 the trade- winds calms and light variable breezes, vrith light 
 squalls and rain, are often encountered, even through the 
 extent of the belt which separates the tropics from the 
 parallels of 29° of latitude N. and S. 
 
WIIS'DS — TRAI)E-\V 1>J1)S. a 
 
 Tims it is s.h'U that tlu' [k)1;!1' limits of the trjulc-uiiids 
 art' very \ ariabU'. In tlic siintheru hemisplicre this limit, 
 thoui;h sometimes near to the trojiie, is oi'tener iti the vi- 
 cinity of tlie parallel of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 In this zone of the S, E. trades, it has been observed that 
 in )>laees sitnated to the sonthward of IG'^ of S. latitude, 
 the winds have a <ircater tendency to Aary toward the 
 X. E. than toward the S. E., and blow ratlun- from the 
 E. to the X. E. than from the E. to the S. E. This ehaiige 
 is quite frequent. During- a year of residence at St. Helena, 
 Halley found that the S. E. trades blew always from or 
 nearly from S. E., and that they varied oftener from S. E. 
 to E. than from S. E. to S. With the Avinds at E. the 
 weather was overcast, and the return of clear weather de- 
 pended on the return of the wind to S. E.* 
 
 Finally, to terminate these remarks, we will observe that 
 on apin'oaching the coast of America, the polar limits of the 
 two zones of trade-wands are found to extend more to the ; 
 nortli in the nortliern hemisphere, and more to the south in 
 the southern hemisphere than u}>on the coast of Africa ,f by 
 ."»o or 40. 
 
 It happens at times in the re.o'ions of the trade-winds that Disturbances in 
 
 tlie trade-winds. 
 
 their course is momentarily interrupted by winds blowing 
 from an opposite direction. These winds are never of long 
 duration, and are only due to accidental causes. D'Après | 
 met with winds from the X. W., between 24° and 22° S. 
 latitude, from the 12th to the IStli of March, 1735. We 
 ourselves have also had the wiîul from ÎST. N. W. in the lati- 
 tude of 18^ X. ami nine hundred miles to the eastward of 
 Martinique, while making the passage from lîrest to that 
 island. These winds lasted but two days and were feeble. 
 
 Near the islands situated in the zone of the trade-winds, 
 these winds are also disturbed ; thus, in the Cape Verd 
 Islands, the X. E. trades are often lost ; and in the belt 
 comprised between the parallel of 10° and the Equator, and 
 the Vvestern meridian of this group and Cape Yerd, it is 
 remarked that there is in reality no definite prevailing- 
 wind, but gusts and cat's-paws, or winds of short duration. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Island of Trinidad, situated near the 
 coast of Brazil, the frequent variation of the trades from 
 S. E. to S. is equally marked. Variable winds are also 
 
 * Ronime. ] B\\mVs Coa.'^t Pilot. t Xei)t)ine Oriental. 
 
•G ^VINDS — VARIABLE 0¥ THE TORRID ZONE. 
 
 found blowing ofteuer from the K. tliau from the S.* and 
 heavy squalls from the W. are also met with. 
 
 In the two last cases which we have cited, the vicinity of 
 the coasts of Africa and America are without doubt the 
 principal cause of these disturbances. 
 Variable winds The trade- wiuds are separated in their equatorial limits 
 
 of tlie torrid zone. . , . , 
 
 by a zone or belt of calms and variable winds ; a zone very 
 variable in its extent from N. to S., the mean parallel of 
 which is about 8° of N. latitude. In this zone calms, 
 squalls, and light breezes, blowing from every point of the 
 compass, but i)rincipally from S. W., are mostly encountered. 
 
 This zone extends more to the north of the Equator du- 
 ring the summer, and is then found as far as the parallel of 
 14° and even 15° of N. latitude.f On the other hand, in the 
 winter it is narrower, v/hen the sun approaches the Tropic of 
 Oapricorn ; it then, at times, extends only to the i^arallel of 
 3° 'N., but always remains to the north of the Equator. 
 
 We have frequently been able to verify the correctness of 
 the data in the following table, of the extent of the belt of 
 variable winds of the torrid zone, prepared byHorsburgh, 
 from observations made from 1791 to 1807, and taken from the 
 log-books of two hundred and fifty vessels, which had tra- 
 versed the zone of the variable winds of the Equator, be- 
 tween the longitudes of 20° and 30° W. 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the zone of vaiiable 
 winds is the broadest from June to December, and the nar- 
 rowest from December to June. 
 seas'in foJ^CTo^sl^- ^hus, ill making passages from one hemisphere to the 
 ing tiie line. othcr and crossing the line, in coming from the north or 
 south, the most favorable months to traverse the zone of 
 variable winds are those from December to June. According 
 to the season, when the line is crossed, the passage may be 
 longer or shorter by several weeks, depending on the 
 ^greater or less delay from the calms, squalls, and variable 
 breezes of the Equator, with which the navigator may ex- 
 pect to be annoyed, particularly during the months of June, 
 July, August, and September. |" 
 
 * Capt. Leslie, Lieut. Hamilton — (Partly, 6tli editiou.) 
 t Cook, Wallis, LaPérouse, and many other navigators. Valliant lost 
 the N. E. trades in 0° 30' N., (voyage of the Bonite;) Dumont d'Urville 
 in 13° 50', (voyage of the Astrolabe;) Dnpetit-Thonars in 5-, (voyage 
 ■of the Venus.) 
 
 t See Maury's Charts, 1851. 
 
W1>'DS — VAWIAIJLE OF THE TOUIUD ZONE 
 
 ■Mwv. pi.uoj ntji 
 JO s'lmi.vv ,i[tn;i.n:.\ 
 JO \\.H\ ..IK JO n4i)«o.ia 
 
 o r: ^ T = — rj 
 ■^ X ~ X 1- ■* c> 
 
 ifs « w in m o o iri o o IÇ o 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 § S 
 
 
 ,>l)in!)i!| in 
 
 
 
 ° Z 'Z 
 
 p c 
 
 T "^ ^- *^ - 
 
 
 Siuo 
 
 
 
 ci o 
 
 =5 
 
 = = r- ^ ^ 
 
 ajaA\. sjpB.jj 'a 'i; 
 am nviou Sunuog 
 
 ;^;^;zq^;^^;2;izi:z;^;2i|zi 
 
 ~ cc X X X 
 
 o m o m L- !s o CI « 2 "-* ""^ '-'^ 
 
 c œ t- i- '^ '- ;u ;î 
 
 aaa-a. sapBjj "3 "K | , ^ *" " 
 9q:t q^.Tou gnni.miaa; i ^ „ ^j -, 
 
 ciccpQoa 
 
 I- — — — ' oo i- c^ 
 
 o o X c. = 
 
 ui :jso[ 9aaM. sapB.ij 
 "a 'It 8tl> 11ÎU0S Snto{) 
 
 c Ç Ç c 
 
 
 
 2 S 
 
 
8 WINDS — VARIABLE OF THE TORRID ZONE. 
 
 Tlie following remarks upon the zone comprised between 
 the parallels of 4° to 10° N., and the meridians of 18° to 25° 
 W., that is, between the JST, E. and S. E. trade-winds, may 
 be useful to mariners.* 
 
 The winds in the zone which separates the trade- winds 
 generally incline to the southward,: and few vessels pass from 
 one trade to the other without meeting with very unpleasant 
 weather, in the form of calms, light baffling winds, squalls 
 and rain, particularly when the sun is much to the north- 
 ward. 
 
 In June, July, and August heavy squalls seem to prevail 
 from S. W., with a great deal of rain, and the wind often 
 blows hard from this quarter for several hours together and 
 then falls calm, leaving a heavy and confnsed short sea, 
 which strains a vessel more than a fresh gale. 
 
 When the sun is far to the southward the weather is com- 
 paratively fine, with light southerly and S. E. winds, inter- 
 rui)ted, however, occasionally by squalls and rain ; the calms 
 then are of shorter duration, owing probably to the limited 
 breadth between the trade- winds at this season. 
 
 In this part of the ocean when nmch lightning is seen in 
 a heavy dense cloud, in any quarter of the compass, the 
 wind may be expected to come out suddenly from that 
 quarter, especially if there is any rain, even though the 
 wind may be blowing at the same time with moderate force 
 from an opposite quarter. Whenever there is much light- 
 ning, and the wind is unsteady and baffling, prepare for a 
 change. A heavy, dense cloud, having a squally appear- 
 ance, may rise and pass slowly over the vessel directly to 
 leeward, with perhaps little or no increase of wind, and 
 when the danger might be sux)posed over, the vessel is taken 
 aback by a smart squally this in^obably arises from the 
 clond, which has just gone over the ship, being opposed in 
 its progress to leeward by a stronger current of air from an 
 opposite quarter. On this account, when clouds are in mo- 
 tion from oi^posite quarters of the compass, a better lookout, 
 if possible, should be kept to leeward than to windward. 
 
 In June, July, and August the weather is very wet and 
 squally. Sometimes dense masses of clouds are seen in 
 rapid motion from the southeast, south, and southwest 
 quarters of the horizon ; these clouds have a bulky and con- 
 fused appearance, as if rolling over each other, are of a 
 
 ■■ Captain Midgley, (Ptirdifs Memoir, (fc.) 
 
WINDS — T1;A1)K-WIN1)S. î) 
 
 «lirty, (lark ilnib rolor, with ia;i;\i;vd ed^os, with inky-lookiiij;- 
 small clouds tiyinji" about their borders. In their ai)prorteli 
 toward the zenith they ai>]»ear gradually to nnite and form 
 the apex of an an.ule, and thus united blow with \ioleiiee 
 from the S. \V. (piarter. (veerinu- two or three ])oints or more,) 
 for upwards of two hours, during' which time the rain de- 
 scends in torrents, perhai)s acc(nnpanied by a water-s))out or 
 whirlwind. 
 
 In this j)art of the ocean nîuch sheet lightnin.i;' is a sus- 
 jiicious si.un,aiHl forked liuhtning- universally so; the latter 
 is, in some dej»Tee, indicative of a <'han_ne, as well as an in- 
 crease of wiud. 
 
 After the wind has blown steadily, with tine weather for 
 a few hours, and then comnu'uces to tly about, s<iualls and 
 i-aiu may be expected. 
 
 The month of July is probably the worst month of the 
 year to traverse from X. to S. the belt A^hich separates the 
 trade-winds; in this month fresh winds from the S. W., 
 heavy squalls, and rain in torrents are encountered, the sea 
 is short, and the currents run to the X. 
 
 It is seen by the foregoing table that, in the northern hemi- 
 sphere, the ]Sr. E. trade-wiuds approach, more or less, the 
 Equator according to the season, but very rarely pass 
 to the southward of it. On the contrary, the S. E. trades 
 generally reach the Equator and i^ass considerably to the 
 northward of it ; at times as far as the parallel of 5° N., 
 l)articularly in the neighborhood of the coast of America. 
 It hapi)ens, however, exceptionally, that the X. E. and S. 
 E. trades unite in the open sea off the coast of Africa, and 
 about the meiidian of 30° or 35° W. longitude ; one passes 
 then from one of these winds to the other, without a calm, 
 by a sudden shift of wind or a squall. 
 
 Sometimes even, but principally from December to Feb- 
 ruary, in the vicinity of the coast of Africa, the X. E, and 
 S. E. trades approach so nearly that the limit of either is 
 extremely uncertain. 
 
 Xear the Equator the winds shift oftener from the E. to 
 the S. than from the E. to the N. However, winds blowing 
 from W. to jST. W and from W. to S. are found in this zone 
 of variable winds, but principally from July to September. 
 
 The preceding considerations are of the greatest import- 
 ance in the general navigation of the ocean, and particularly 
 for the Gulf of Guinea. 
 
10 WINDS — TKADE-W1ND&'. 
 
 We will enlarge upon tliem hereafter in speaking of the 
 routes to be followed iu traversing the Atlantic, for what- 
 ever the route may be it is important to choose the point 
 of crossing the Equator. 
 
 The foregoing observations upon the winds of the first 
 region of the Atlantic have been made in open sea, removed 
 from the coasts ; those, by their influence, modify the winds 
 at large in their force and direction ; however, it is stated, 
 that in their northern and southern zones the trade- winds 
 advance often very nearly to the coast of America, while they 
 do not commence to be regularly felt to within about four 
 hundred and twenty miles of the southern coast of Africa, 
 and about four hundred and eighty from the coast comprised 
 between Cape Verd and Cape Palmas. In this locality, at 
 certain periods, principally from June to September, and 
 even October, as far as the meridian of 28° W., variable 
 winds are encountered blowing from the W, to N. W. and to 
 the S. W., interrupted by calms, and accompanied by rains 
 and thunder-storms. 
 
 The islands situated in this region exercise in their vi- 
 cinity a certain influence upon the trade- winds ; this influ- 
 ence, however, is less sensible than that produced by the 
 continents. It is remarked that the higher these islands 
 are, the more they are subject to rains. In general, in the 
 torrid zone, the winds which are steady in the open sea 
 become variable in the vicinity of land which is high and 
 of considerable extent. 
 Seasons iu the Iu the Atlantic, under the torrid zone, the weather differs 
 
 torrid zone. 
 
 greatly, according to the situation of the places and the 
 X)eriod of the year. It is observed that the air is more agi- 
 tated in the spring time than in the autumn; more at the 
 time of the equinoxes than during the months of summer 
 and winter. 
 
 In this zone, when the rainy season exists to the north of 
 the Equator, it is dry to the south of it and vice versa. 
 Korth of the Equator, in the torrid zone, the rainy season, 
 commencing in the month of April or May, lasts until the 
 month of September or October. The dry season com- 
 mences in October or jSTovember, and lasts until April or 
 May. 
 
 In the torrid zone in places situated to the southward of 
 the Equator the seasons are the opposite of those situated 
 to the northward of it, and the changes take place about 
 
WIISDS — REASONS t)l' THE ToKUIl) ZONK. II 
 
 the v^amc mouths. As a goneral riih' llic \\i!it(M- or rainy 
 vseasoii in each hemisphere comiiience.s wIumi the sun icmov- 
 iuii" tVom the lOquatov pas?;es to the /euith ol" the ))hu'e, aiul 
 the dry season Avhen the sun returnin.u' to the Kfpiator 
 has passed again tlie zenith of tliat i>laee. Although this 
 hiw indicates plainly the seasons, it is subject to many ex 
 ce[>tions, so that the seasons neither eomnu'nce nor end 
 precisely at the epoch ol" these passages of tlie sun, but 
 they take i)lace about that i>eriod. 
 
 There is also a period of doul)tful ami uncertain wcatlu'i' 
 between each season, Avith variable winds, calms, sijualls, 
 and storms, some of which are called tornadoes. 
 
 In many localities these storms take place at the com- 
 mencement and end of the rainy season and are bounded 
 by the jieriod of the lieaA'y rains. 
 
 According to the law indicated it is seen that the dura- 
 tion of winter depends in a great measure upon the latitude 
 of the place, and that it should be longer as the locality' is 
 more a])proxiniate to the Equator. 
 
 The warmest season nnder the torrid zone is the winter ; 
 it is also the season of variable winds and calms. In the 
 dry season, on the contrary, the breezes are fresh and es- 
 tablished, and the laiul and sea l>reezes blow with regular- 
 ity, near the coast. 
 
 In the region near the Efpiatiu' some distinguish four 
 seasons, two dry and two rainy, but in reality they have 
 named the dri/ seafioiis a portion of the lainy season, when 
 the rains are less abundant and when the storms occur 
 with intervals of tolerable weather. 
 
 The second region of the Atlantic is, as has been said, s.hoiuI region 
 that comprised between the parallel of 3tP latitude S. and ^'f^iio Atlantic. 
 the South Pole. In this region we distinguish two zones, 
 the frigi<l and the temperate zone. 
 
 In the region of the frigid zone, where l)ut few have pen- 
 etrated, there is a scarcity of observations ; besides, they 
 relate to but one season, the summer, when navigators are 
 able to penetrate furthest to the southward in this zone. 
 The celebrated Cook, Admiral Dumout d'Urville, and Cap- 
 tain Ross are the navigators who have penetrated into this 
 gloomy region of the Atlantic. Cook, between the paral- 
 lels of 00° and 7(P S. latitude, states that the winds are 
 generally moderate; Foster adds that they blow frequently 
 from' E. Cook besides «liscovered that the currents 
 
12 V/INDS — SOUTHERN FRIGID ZONE. 
 
 ill these high hititodes, though inconsiderable, carried the 
 ice to the X. E. by jST. and X. W. During a sojourn of 
 fortj'-nine days in this region, where lie was not able to ad- 
 vance beyond the parallel of 03° 33' S. latitude and where 
 he remained closed in by the ice for many days in latitude 
 02O 22' S., longitude 39° W., Admiral Dumont d'Crville 
 has given the following observations which we extract from 
 the cruise of the Astrolabe, in 1837.* 
 
 Winds from B., variable from ]S^. ]S!. E. to S. S. E. and S.,. 
 for twenty-seven days ; variable from iST. l^T. W. to S, S. W. 
 during the months of January, February, and the com- 
 mencement of March. In this interval the corvettes Astro- 
 labe and Zélée experienced a gale from the în". accompanied 
 by rain and fog; with the winds from S. S. W. anfl S. W. the 
 w^eather was at times clear, at times overcast; the winds 
 from these quarters wei'e in general moderate, though some- 
 times fresh. 
 
 The winds from N. B. to E. !N. E. were sometimes accom- 
 panied with clear, but most frequently with cloudy and foggy, 
 weather. Snow fell generally with the winds at B. S. E., 
 X. N. W., and X. E.; the same winds brought fog. The 
 strongest winds were those from the E., the E. S. E., and S. 
 S. E., which in general blew very fresh. 
 
 Captain Ross crossed the parallel of 00° S. latitude the 
 23d of December, 1842. During his stay in the frigid zone, 
 which extended to the 1st of March, he made observations 
 upon the winds, of which the following is the resume :■!■ 
 
 December, 1842, w^inds from W., variable from N. W. to S. 
 W., six days ; wind ^. a half day ; Avind S. a day and a half; 
 wind S. B. a day. The winds were moderate, those from the 
 S, blew a stiff breeze. 
 
 January, 1843, winds to theE., a ariable from the In. E. to 
 S. B., twelve days; wind from the N. two days; wind from 
 S. three days and a half; winds from W., variable from N. 
 N. W. to S. S. W., thirteen days and a half. In this month 
 two days only the winds were very fresh from N. W., the 
 remainder they were but fresh and moderate. 
 
 February, winds to the B., variable from î^. N. E. to S. S. 
 B., eighteen and a half days; wind from îsT. two days; wind 
 from S. three days ; wind to the W., variable from I^T. W. to 
 
 ^ Partie xyliyslque, n'dujée par M. Tlneendon-DnmouUn, l»génieiir lii/dro- 
 graplie, p. M. 
 
 t Sir James Eoss^s Voyage to the Southern Seas, (vol. ii, p. 330,) &c. 
 
WINDS — SOI THEUN TKMrKKA'l'H /ONK. l.'i 
 
 S. W., four aiid a half (ia\s. There was one (hiy of strong 
 wind blowiiiji' from the N., and one day with a stiff wind 
 from the 1'.: for the remain<ler the winds were fresh or 
 moderate. 
 
 We yatlier from the ])recediii<;' observations that (Inrin.m 
 the summer, in the frigid zone, the second rej^iou of the 
 Athuiti<', tlu' winds blow variably from the K. and W., the 
 winds from the E. ]>redominatin.ii-. 
 
 In the temjx'rate zone of this region the winds from ^'^'- ,, J^'onL' «outi" 
 l)redominate ami vary from N, W. to S. W. Ju this ])ortion 
 of the Atlantic Ocean, however, the winds are variable and 
 blow' without regularity. 
 
 The winds from tlie W. extend often to tlu' Tropic of Ca])- 
 ricoru, and, at times, to the parallel of 1^0° S. 
 
 It is remarked that in the zone comprised l)etween the 
 parallel of 28° and 35° S., the winds are extremely variable; 
 those which are most frecpiently encountered vary from the 
 N. E. to the ^^ W. by the X., and from the N. W. to the W. 
 S. W. l)y the AV., principally in June, Jnly, aiul Angust.* 
 
 The winds from the westward varying from IST, W. to S. 
 W., which predominate between the parallels of 30° and 50'^ 
 S., appear to be produced by the fusion of the return cur- 
 rents, directe<l from the W. to the E., occasioned by the 
 trade-winds, which we have styled "tropical winds," with 
 the polar currents directed from the poles toward the 
 Equator. 
 
 The winds which result from these two currents of air 
 should take nearly a mean direction, depending on the force 
 of the contending currents, and necessarily this direction 
 must be very varial>le, though inclining generally to the W. 
 It is observed that between the parallels of 30° to 50° S. 
 the winds blow periodically from S. W. to K. W. ; varying 
 from W. to X. W. while the sun is in southern declination, 
 and during the remainder of the year from W. to S. W., ac- 
 companied by storms and bad weather, t In this zone the 
 easterly Avinds are never of long duration. When the winds 
 haul to the soutlnvard a calm generally follows, and between 
 Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, when the wind 
 blows for many days in succession from the N., it brings 
 overcast and rainy w^eather. If they pass to the S. of W. 
 the sky clears and the weather becomes tine. | 
 
 The third region of the Atlantic Ocean is comi^rised 1)C- ^, ^^^}i} i»^?'»" of 
 * Dainx)ier. t Nicbelson. i D'Après de Maimevillettc. 
 
14 WINDS — NOIITIIEJLN FKKilD ZONE, 
 
 tweeii tlie latitude of 30° N. aiul tlie îiortîi Pole; as the- 
 precetliug, we divide it into two zones, the frigid zone and 
 the teinperate zone. 
 riigid zone of In tile li'igid zone of the north, comprised between the 
 
 the north. '^ ' ^ ■ 
 
 parallel of G0° N. latitude and the pole, and embraced be- ■ 
 tween Europe and America, in which are situated Spitz- 
 bergen and Iceland, there appears to be no regular wind ; 
 the vicinity of the land, the snow and ice which covers and 
 surrounds it, exercise upon the currents of air an influence 
 varying greatly Avith the season. The different navigators 
 who have passed over this zone, called the "Frozen Arctic 
 Ocean," haye not found that the winds follow any law,* 
 particularly during the summer ;t many navigators, how- 
 ever, recognize the winds from the S". as predominant. 
 
 All the winds in this zone are accompanied by cold and 
 snow, except during a part of June, July, and August ; at 
 this period, with the winds from the S., the climate is com- 
 paratively mild, though snow and rain fall, and fog ac- 
 comx)anies these winds, during these months. The coldest 
 winds are those from î^. and N. E. ; in June and July the 
 winds frequently blow from S. S. W., and at times with con- 
 siderable violence. 
 
 During the months of April and May the southerly winds 
 bring snow ; during the remainder of the year, bad weather 
 with thick fogs. 
 Spitzhergen. At Spitzbcrgeu it is said that during the first months of 
 tlie year the winds blow from the southward, and during- 
 the- other months from the northward. The winds from S. 
 E. and JST. E. are those whicli bring most snow. | 
 
 The following observations were made by Captain Parry 
 in his voyage to the Xorth Pole, in the Hecla, on the winds 
 between the i)arallels of 70° and 82° 40' IST. during tlie 
 months of May, June, July, and August, 1827 : 
 
 Days. 
 
 N 7^ 
 
 N.N.W ' 51 
 
 N. W 9 
 
 W.KW 2 
 
 W 13 
 
 AV. S. W 1 
 
 S.W --. 9 
 
 S.S.W 1 
 
 S 4 
 
 Days. 
 
 S. S.E '2 
 
 S.E 12 
 
 E.'S.E Oi 
 
 E 17-1- 
 
 E. N. E U 
 
 N.E 9i- 
 
 N.N.E 11 
 
 Calms 13-^ 
 
 Variable 4^ 
 
 * Plâpjfs Voyage to ike North Pole ; Barrington, of the Society of 
 LoikIoii, ^ho lias collected the ohsevvations of whalers. 
 
 t Captain Standidge. X Grey. 
 
WINDS — NOKTIIKWN TEMl'EKATE ZONE. 15 
 
 At Nova Zi'!iil>l;i, from S('i>tt'iul)rr r<> ^lay, tlu' wind blows ^'ova Zcmbia. 
 from till' iiortliward almost witliont interruption ; iVom May 
 to Au,uiist, from tlu' Avcstward.* 
 
 In tlu' t('mi)erati' zone, comprised between the pai-allehs Temperate 
 ot oi)^ and (»()°;N. latitnde, the prevailmg- Minds are as m 
 the ('orresi)ondinj.;' zone of the 0|)i)osite hemisphere, from 
 the westward, vai-yinji' from X. AV. to S. W. The predomi- 
 nant westerly winds of this zone are, without doubt, due to 
 the same causes indicated for those in the corresponding- 
 zone in the southern hemisphere; they are produced by the 
 currents of air, called " tropical winds,'' directed from the 
 W. to the E., and the polar currents directed from the N. to 
 the S. The direction which they assume depending upon 
 the relative intensity of these two currents, should be the 
 mean. The predominance of the S. W. winds in the tem- 
 perate zone of the northern hemisphere is established by 
 the fact of the difference between the time taken for the 
 voyage from the north of Europe to Xorth America, and 
 that for the return voyage. From Liverpool to New York, 
 the mean is abinit forty days; from Xew York to Liverpool 
 the mean is about twenty-three days. 
 
 The mean direction of the prevailing" wind in this zone, 
 deduced from numerous ol)servations, has been determined 
 as follows by Kaemtz: France, S. 88° W.; England, S. GO^ 
 W.; Germany, S. 76^ W.; Denmark, S. 02° W.; Sweden, 
 S. 500 ^Y.. Kiissia, X. 87° W.; America, S. 80° W. Eussia 
 is the only country where the direction of the wind inclines 
 to the X. Its most general direction in the Atlantic is be- 
 tween S. 450 W. and S. 70° W. 
 
 When the sun is in the northern hemisphere the prevail- 
 ing westerly winds are from S. W. to W. S. W. On the 
 contrary, if the sun is in the southern hemisphere, the winds 
 are from W. IST. W. to N. W.; this last i^eriod is that of 
 storms and bad weather on the coasts of North America 
 and Europe. 
 
 Having indicated the winds met with in the open sea, in 
 the Atlantic Ocean, it now remains, in terminathig the dis- 
 cussion, to speak of those encountered near the coasts which 
 form this basin. We will commence by making some gen- 
 eral remarks upon the coast of Africa. 
 
 Land and sea breezes blow with great regularity on cer- Land and sea 
 tain coasts, particularly in the continents between the 
 
 ^ Romme. 
 
10 AVINDS — LAND AND SEA BREEZES. 
 
 tropics and the islands situated in tlie torrid zone, so much 
 so that they could be ranked with the periodical winds. 
 
 In general the sea breeze blows during- the day, and the 
 land breeze, comnienciug toward the evening, continues 
 during a part of the night, blowing in the opposite direc- 
 tion ; it ceases, ordinarily, shortly after sunrise, seldom con- 
 tinuing until 9° or 10° a. m. Philosophers attribute these 
 breezes to the difference of temperature of the sea and land- 
 
 On the coast of Africa, and near to its shore, it is re- 
 marked that on the coast of Morocco the sea breeze blows 
 oftenest from N. W. ; upon the coast of Guinea, from S. to 
 S. W. ; upon that of Loango and Congo, from S. W. to W. 
 
 These breezes alternate almost always with the land 
 breezes ; ordinarily they are only felt at a short distance 
 from the land, though at times they find their way well in 
 the offing, when they diminish gradually, until, arrested by 
 the regular winds, they disappear. 
 
 The localities where these contacts take place are most 
 always subject to storms accompanied Avitli rain. 
 
 The general exi)lauation of the alternating breezes of 
 land and sea as given hj philosopliers, is, that in the morn- 
 ing the temperature of the earth and the sea being- nearly 
 the same, it is calm near the coast; but when the sun rises 
 above the horizon and the earth becomes heated more than 
 the water, the sea breeze springs up ; light at first, it in- 
 creases gradually until it attains its maximum, with the 
 maximum heat of the day, then it diminishes gradually 
 with the fall of the temperature until night, when there 
 is an interval of calm ; at night, when the earth is colder 
 than the sea, the land breeze springs up and attains its 
 greatest force at the period of the minimum temperature of 
 the night. It continues until day, and at times, according 
 to the locality, until 8 or 9 a. m. 
 
 A knowledge of these breezes is useful, and particularly 
 advantageous to local navigation, and should always be 
 taken advantage of to shorten a voyage. 
 Solar iireezes. There cxist, besides, on some parts of the west coast 
 of Africa, breezes which might be termed solar, their vari- 
 ations appearing to be subject to the action of the sun. 
 In jST. latitude they are found i)rincipally on the coast of 
 Senegambia and on the coast which extends from Cape 
 Lopez to Cape Negro, to the south of the Equator. 
 
 Upon the former these breezes vary from î^. W. to S. W., 
 
AV INDS — I[AU:\IAT TAxX. 1 7 
 
 upon {\w InttiM-, from S. K. to S. and S. W„ nnd ovon to W. 
 S. W. 
 
 Tliose broczos blow fresh on the coast of Senegaiubin, more 
 especially from November to April, and upon the lattei' 
 coast from October to March and even to Apiil. The bieeze 
 from the oflin^' blows during- the day, gaining- its greatest 
 force after noon aiul dying away towards evening. Tn the 
 night it hauls and blows more from the land. 
 
 In the local navigation on these coasts the tacks shouUl 
 be so regulated as to be near the land when tlie night 
 breeze commences and in the offing when it shifts to the 
 day breeze. These breezes, so similar to the land and sea 
 breezes, never blow directly fnun the land. They are at 
 times very strong, though never felt far from the coast ; to 
 profit by them short tacks should be made of twelve, fif- 
 teen, or at most thirty miles. 
 
 The harmattan is a wind peculiar to the west coast of uaiiuattan. 
 Africa ; it blows from the E., variable to E. îf. E ; on the 
 northern coast, from the latitude of Madeira to that of the 
 Gaboon Eiver ; it is at times very fresh up(ui the coasts of 
 Senegal and Senegambia, but it is liglit generally on the 
 coast of Guinea. 
 
 It is a cold, drying wind, blowing ordinarily in series of 
 three, six, or nine days, generally from the end of Novem- 
 ber to February and March. It extends but a sliort dis- 
 tance from the coast. It sometimes commences at sunrise 
 and dies out after noon. 
 
 This wind is often accompanied by a haze, and at times 
 it is charged with a fine, red dust so thick that objects can 
 be distinguished only at a short distance, especially near 
 the coast. 
 
 Its dryness at Senegal is extraordinary and produces the 
 most remarkable effects. It is called healthy, though very 
 disagreeable and troublesome. Its great advantage is the 
 production of the gum. It arrests suddenly the circulatior. 
 of the sap, which is very active at this season, when the 
 winter rains finish, and compels it to leave the trunk of the 
 shrubs upon which this product, the principal commei- 
 cial riches of Senegal, is formed. 
 
 Tornadoes are sudden storms of short duration and fre- Tornadoes. 
 quent on the west coast of Northern Africa. To the south 
 they are little felt and not very strong. Tliese squalls, 
 which have taken their name from the sudden variations 
 2 AO 
 
18 WINDS — TORNADOES. 
 
 of wind (luiiug their continuance, are indicated, long in ad- 
 vance, hj clouds of a palish or copper color by day, and 
 excessively dark at night. They collect to the îsT. and N. E., 
 coming up generally against the wind ; almost always electric 
 phenomena give notice of tornadoes, and little by little the 
 prevailing wind falls and dies away. 
 
 All precautions should by this time have been taken. The 
 clouds, black and gloomy, extend rapidly along the horizon, 
 and rise slowly, forming a smooth, regular arc of a circle, 
 furrowed every moment by lightning. The more regular 
 and distinct the arc is, the inore violent you may ex])ect the 
 wind. 
 
 There are some seconds of cahn, then all at once you feel 
 the breeze from N. B. violent, and chasing before it the 
 storm, which bursts with all its fury when it has attained 
 30° to 40° above the horizon. 
 
 From the E". E. the wind jumps quickly to the B. or to 
 the S. E., blowing with the same force ; the storm ceases 
 then with rain. When the wind, commencing to die out, 
 passes to the S. or to the S. W. it is often calm after a 
 tornado. It is generally remarked that those are the most 
 violent where the wind precedes the rain. 
 
 Every vessel should reduce sail in time to these sudden 
 storms, which seldom continue more than an hour or an 
 hour and a half. One can never foresee the extent of these 
 violent commotions of the atmosphere, which at times re- 
 semble, from their force, hurricanes of short duration, in 
 which the wind shifts so suddenly that if a sail shakes it 
 will inevitably go. 
 
 The S. W. winds on the west coast of Africa are moment- 
 arily interrupted at certain periods, especially in winter, 
 from polar currents of air, which, forjning in the Mediterra- 
 nean and upon the coast of Portugal, arrive abruptly to 
 increase the trade-winds of the N. and make them sud- 
 denly approach toward the Equator. The meeting of 
 these winds with the S. W. winds, there predominant at 
 this period, may contribute to cause tornadoes. They are 
 very frequent and violent in the northern hemisphere. On 
 the contrary, as has been stated, to the south of the Equa- 
 tor, these atmospheric disturbances are rarely experienced. 
 
 On the coast of the Gaboon and in the Gulf of Biafra 
 tornadoes blow sometimes from the N. W. to the W. and to 
 the S. W., but this is of very seldom occurrence. In the 
 
iioitlic'iii lii'iiiis[)lieio toiinuloos may br «'xpccte<l [u'iucipally 
 at the comiiuMiceinent of the winter, therefore the period 
 wlieii tlicy pievail varies with the h)cality. Thus they are 
 encountered at Cape Palinas a month before they are at 
 Sierra Leone. Tliey arrive at Goree and at Saint Louis a 
 month and a half after they reach Sierra Leone, 
 
 In many hu-alities tliey occur eipially at the end of the 
 winter season , but principaliy from the Bissa^os Archipehijio 
 as far as Cape I'ahnas and tlie coast of Guinea. In the Gulf 
 of Guinea they blow especially in the nu)nths of March, 
 April, and 31 ay, and re<'ominence in ]S"ovember and Decem- 
 ber, in some localities. 
 
 South of the E<piator the tornadoes blow generally from 
 S. Vj., and take i>lace ])articularly from ]March to June and 
 from September to October. They decrease in violence as 
 you proceed south, and in the latitude of the Congo Elver 
 they are most frequently s(|ualls without wind, forming' in 
 the E., hauling- to the S., and terminating at S. W. 
 
 They resemble much squalls which aae at times met with 
 in the northern hemisphere. They are analogous with tor- 
 muloes, from the variations of the wind, but not in their 
 violence. 
 
 On the coasts of Angola and Benguela these squalls are 
 frequent in the evening, in November and December, but 
 wind rarely acconq)anies them. Ou the contrary, the heav- 
 ier the clouds baidc up the more the wind falls to a flat 
 calm. The}- scatter generally about 10 or 11 o'clock in the 
 evening, and a light breeze springs up off the laud, which 
 often lasts during the night. 
 
 For about six huudred miles to the westwar<l of the Cape vkiuitj- of the 
 
 A" /^i 1 TT ji ti -i-i • 1 n 1 T, . Cape ot Good 
 
 ot Crood Hope the S. L, Avinds are found, generally IroniHope. 
 the month of October to March and even April. From the 
 month of May to August, in this locality and for about 
 three hundred miles west of the cape, the winds are very 
 \ariable from N. W. to S. W., with bad weather and a rough 
 sea. The same winds extend six hundred miles to eastward 
 of the Cape of Good Hope. In coming- from the east or 
 west during this season, the weather becomes worse as you 
 approach the cape. The winds from N. W. bring fogs, rain, 
 and mist. With the wind from S. W. the Aveather is clear 
 and cold. These winds are felt both to the eastward and 
 to the westward of the cape, but only in squalls during the 
 mouths of April and May. These squalls are indicated by 
 
'20 WINDS — CÎAPE OF aOOD HOPE. 
 
 the banking- up of the clouds in the west ; the wiud coin- 
 meiices' to blow with violence from W. î"!". W. to W. ; it 
 shifts suddenly to the S. W., and hauling to the southward 
 it moderates and becomes calm.* 
 To double the When the season is advanced, in doubling the Cape of 
 
 Cape of Good ' ^ ^ 
 
 Hope from the Good Hopc froui the east, D'Après de Manuevillette recom- 
 mends not to keep at a greater distance from the coast than 
 forty miles, and not to approach it nearer than eighteen 
 miles, in order to keep in a locality where the winds are 
 less violent and the sea less heavy. 
 
 The squalls and storms spoken of above are very fre- 
 quent in the winter; they are accompanied by rains so 
 abundant that often two pleasant days do not occur consec- 
 utively. According to many navigators this bad weather 
 is experienced as far east as the meridian of Madagascar. 
 
 On tlie parallel of 36° S. from six hundred to seven 
 hundred and fifty miles to the eastward and westward 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, the winds from N. W., which 
 are violent in its vicinity, become more moderate and shift 
 to the S. S. W. In general between the parallels of 33° 
 S. and 36° S. the winds from the westward appear to 
 Xiredominate. 
 To double the In coiuing froiu the westward to double the Cape of Good 
 
 Hope from the Hopc, it wiU bc most advautageous to run well off shore, 
 on the parallel of 35° or 36° S., and to enter the Indian 
 Ocean on this last parallel, thus taking advantage of the 
 Atlantic currents flowing to the eastward. 
 
 Ca'^^i'^'^of %ood ^^ ^^^ G'Ai>e of Good Hope and Table Bay, September, 
 
 Hope. October and îsTovember are the spring; December, January, 
 
 and February the summer; March, April, and May the au- 
 tumn, and June, July and August the winter months. 
 
 The following table is a resume of the prevailing winds 
 through the year, taken from a series of observations made 
 for many years at Cape Town, t 
 
 During the winter ships should not anchor in Table Bay.i: 
 If they put into port at this season of the year they should 
 enter False Bay. 
 
 The approach of winter in the vicinity of the Cape of 
 Good Hope is announced by interruptions in the ])revailing 
 S. E. winds, which blow equally, but with less force. 
 
 * D'Après de Manuevillette. t Rorsburgli's India Directory. 
 
 X A secure mole is now nearly constructed at Cape Town. 
 
WINDS — WF.ST COAST OF AFiJlfA. 
 Hindu at (he Cape of (lood IIopv. 
 
 Mouths. 
 
 .laiinnry ■ 
 
 I''i'lini:ii\ 
 
 Maicli .. 
 
 April .... 
 .M:iv 
 
 Winds. 
 
 llcinaiUs. 
 
 Aiijjust ... 
 September 
 October... 
 Xovember 
 December. 
 
 S.E 
 
 S. K 
 
 !^. E 
 
 S. E. an<l X. W 
 N. W 
 
 N. W 
 
 N. ami N. N. W 
 
 X. W 
 
 S. E. 
 
 X.^' 
 
 N. W. ami S. E . 
 S.E 
 
 Dry, warm ; occasional rains Avith winds 
 
 from X. AV. 
 Temperature variable : occasional lieavv 
 
 rains witb wind from X'. AV. 
 Stroiiiï .squalls from X'. "W. : .■^tornis : U;;lit 
 
 rains ; fojr. 
 Stron<; squalls, temp(>ratui-e vaiiable ; fog. 
 AVeather fine at the commenci^meut of this 
 
 niontli, thunder and storms at the end. 
 Strong squalLs at times fidui S. E. and X. I-]. : 
 
 rain, thunder, and storms. 
 Frequent- squalls : cold: fog: snow ; rain: 
 
 hail. 
 Same weather. 
 Weather variable and mild. 
 Heavy rains, thunder and lightning. 
 "W'ann, dry; moderate breezes. 
 "When the wind blows X. W. fine breezes ; 
 
 wann and drv. 
 
 If a line is drawn from tlie Cape of Good Hope to Cape General winds 
 Palmas, this line will indicate nearly the boundary which wa-st'' of ^mc™ 
 separates the S. E. trade-winds from the prevailing winds GocKi^'^Hope^'ana 
 which blow during the whole year in the space comprised ^^'''p^^'*'™'"'' 
 l)etween this line and the coast of Africa, varying from S. 
 S. E. to S. S. W. and S. W. 
 
 The distance from the coast that these wimls are felt is 
 variable, as will be seen by their boundary, and thej' will 
 increase in strength as they approach the Cape of Good 
 Hope. It lias been remarked that most Irequently the wind 
 on this porti(m()f tlie coast makes an. angle of about 22° 
 with the coast. 
 
 At two hundred and forty or three hundred miles from 
 the coast, north of Guinea, and upon the line of demarcation 
 mentioned, the ordinary S. E. trade is found, which at this 
 distance commences to incline towards the coast, and as this 
 distance decreases it hauls to the S., S. S. AV., and to the S. 
 \V. On the line of demarcation of the trades, calms, varia- 
 ble winds and storms are frequent. 
 
 On the coasts of Hottentotia and Cimbebasia (orDamara) coa.st of Hot 
 the breezes are fresh from S. during nearly the whole year, Ss^ia ''(or^T 
 varying from S. S. E. to S. S. W. They are affected at times "''"'■'*'^ 
 by heavy squalls. As you <lraw off from the coast these 
 
22 YflNDS — nOAST OF BENGUELA, ETC. 
 
 breezes dimiuisli iii streiigtb, and lianliug to S. and S. S. E. 
 they are lost in the S. E. trades. 
 CoastofBengu- On the coast of Bengnehi and AngoUï the weather is gen- 
 erally tine the year round, excepting during the months of 
 March and April. 
 
 lu the months of November, December, January, and Feb- 
 ruary, the breezes blow fresh from the S. S. W., hauling to 
 S. W., W. S. W., and exceptionally to W. î^. W., and render 
 the navigation of the coast easy at this period. 
 
 In November and December light rains occur, esi)ecially 
 in the morning, when the wind comes to S. E, or to S. ; as soou 
 as it blows from S. W. tlie weather clears. Sometimes 
 there are indications of squalls with lightnhig, particularly 
 in the evening. It is rarely the case that these squalls con- 
 tain wind : on the contrary, the breeze generally decreases 
 to a calm. 
 
 It is seldom the case, as has been already said, that these 
 indications continue beyond 10 or 11 o'clock in the evening, 
 aud as soon as they dissipate a light land breeze springs up 
 lasting generally during the uight. 
 
 March and April are the worst months of the year ; they 
 . are the months of storms and rains. But immediately on 
 the wind coming from S. W. the weather clears. The land 
 breeze prevails at this period, blowing from the S. E. in 
 squalls, antl at times from the N. E. These squalls have no 
 resemblance to the tornadoes which are experienced to the 
 northward of the Equator, 
 
 From the month of May to the month of October, called 
 the fine season, the weather is frequently overcast, particu- 
 larly in the morning. It is then seldom the case that the 
 breeze from the offing conies in fresh ; it is also rare, on the 
 contrarj", that it fails when the sky is clear, aud the quicker 
 the sky clears the fresher will be the breeze. 
 
 In May and June there is less calm, the sea breeze com- 
 mences late and the land breeze continues fresh after sun- 
 rise. 
 
 In July, August, September and October the S. W. winds 
 are fresh aud steady. They are felt near the coast at 10 or 
 11 o'clock in the morning, and die out gradually at sunset, 
 seldom lasting beyond 7 or 8 o'clock in the evening. In the 
 month of October they last sometimes until midnight; they 
 are replaced by the land breeze until 8 or 9 o'clock in the 
 
WINDS — COAST OK LOANOO. I'.'J 
 
 iiioriiiiiii. Ill îlic iiitciviU between tliese breezeis it is ycn- 
 erally cabu.* 
 
 On the coast of t'onji'o the breezes are generally moderate; <'"«st of Congo, 
 they blow IVoni ^September to ^larcli between the S. and 
 AV. From JMareh to October they prevail from S. S. E., 
 and at times blow with force fiom between E. and X. Kx- 
 ce])tionally they are found fresh between N. and AV., prin- 
 cipally from the month of A})ril to .\ngust. In this season 
 there are heavy rains. 
 
 In the line season, from September to March, the land and 
 sea bi^eezes succeed each other with regularity. They are 
 less steady during the rainy season, which lasts three months, 
 from November to February. 
 
 In the Congo Eiver the seasons and winds are nearly the inver Congo. 
 same as upon the coast to the southward of this river. But 
 the further south the more the seasons are retarded. Thus, 
 in the Congo Eiver the rainy season is from October to 
 January. 
 
 On the coast of Loango, from the month of September to Coast of Loan- 
 March, the prevailing winds are from S. to AV. In December ^"' 
 and January there are violent squalls from AA". to S. A^". 
 From March to October the winds are generally from S. S. 
 E., varying to S. and S. AV. 
 
 The land and sea breezes are regular upon this coast, ex- 
 cept during the rainy season from September to December. 
 Tornadoes occur in March, April, May, often in September 
 and October, and sometimes in January and February. 
 These tornadoes, though generally' less violent than those 
 encountered north of the Equator, are sufticiently so to ne- 
 cessitate tahing in all sail. 
 
 In the vicinity of Cape Lopez, from the month of June to t-ipe Lopez. 
 October, the winds blow almost always from the S. They 
 are in general n>o<lerate, as are also the winds from S. S. AA'., 
 which blow iu_ the other months. 
 
 Toward the end of ISTovember there are storms and heavy 
 rains. The heaviest tornadoes are experienced in March 
 and April: they blow even in îfovember, December, and 
 January. There are also squalls which only ditier from 
 tornadoes in being less violent. 
 
 On the east coast of the Gulf of Biafra, there are recog- Guif of Biafra. 
 nized generally Init two seasons. That of tornadoes and 
 storms lasts from March to the middle of September. July 
 
 * Captain Simou, Directions for the Coast of Angola and Benguela. 
 
24 WINDS — GULF OF BIAFEA. 
 
 and August arc comparatively the driest montlis, and the 
 breezes ■ from S. S. W. are generally fresh in these months. 
 They vary to S. S. E., blowing- fresh at times, and then they 
 extend to the north of the Bqnator as far as 2° or 3° IST. 
 latitude. The rainy season commences in September and 
 lasts until March ; it is the season of calms, and light breezes 
 from S. to W. S. W. and S. W. 
 Prince's Island The islands of the Gulf of Biafra, Prince's Island, Saint. 
 
 San Thomas, and ' ' 
 
 Annobon. Thomas, aud Annobon have the same winds as are found on 
 
 the coast opposite to which they are situated, only the sea 
 and land breezes are more regular and fresher. .These 
 breezes cease nearly during the rainy season. They never 
 extend far from the coast of either the continent or the 
 islands. 
 
 „^ft^l. coast of Q^ ^i^g north coast of the Gulf of Biafra, of Benin, and 
 
 Gulf ot Biafra, ' " 
 
 Gulf of Benin and generally on the coast of the Sea of Gninea, the i>revailing 
 
 coast from Saint <= ^^ 7 j- o 
 
 Paul to Cape Pal- Tppinds are from S. W. to W., and blow more or less fresh, 
 
 mas. 
 
 according to the season, the year through. These winds 
 are always moderate. 
 
 The harmattan blows upon this coast in E'ovember, De- 
 cember, and January. Its direction is E., and it is never 
 strong. 
 
 Erom October to February, the period called the fine 
 seasoUj the land and sea breezes blow near the coast ; the 
 former never extend more than twelve miles from the coast,. 
 and are always light. 
 
 The tornadoes blow on this coast from March to Maj'. In 
 the latter month, in the- Gulf of Benin and the Gnlf of Bi- 
 afra, one may be expected every forty-eight hours, and 
 even two on the same day. They are extremely violent.. 
 On the ivory and g'old coasts they occur in June. 
 
 The season of the heavy rains in the Gulf of Benin and 
 the Gulf of Biafra is from August to September. On the 
 ivory and gold coasts it is from May to June. 
 
 The fogs, which are very dense upon this part of the 
 coast of Africa, occur in July, August, and September, and 
 also from December to February upon the ivory and gold 
 coasts. In the Gulfs of Benin and Biafra tliey are found 
 mostly from October to February. These fogs commence, 
 ordinarily, at 3h. in the morning, and disperse at from lOh. 
 to llh. before noon. 
 Island of Per- In the Islaud of Fernando Po the climate is the same as 
 that on the neighboring coast of the Gulf of Biafra. The 
 
^vl^Il)S — COAST i)V LiinoinA. -Jo 
 
 liannattan blows tluTo I'rom J>cceiubi.'r to Fobnuuy. which 
 is the most lioalthy season. 
 
 On these coasts and islands the land and sea biee/es either 
 cease or are very irregular dnrin<;' the rainy season. 
 
 At the Island of St. Helena the S. V. winds blow nearly Maiui of st. 
 
 . . Helen.i. 
 
 the whole year. They are only interrn])ted ei.nht or nnie 
 days during the year by light winds from the \V. These 
 interruptions are i)rin('ii)ally in June, July, and November. 
 In the last month there are sometimes six days of winds 
 from this direction. 
 At the Island of Ascension the winds are the sanu' as at island of As- 
 
 . T^T , T -1 , , 1 1 i . 1 ceiision. 
 
 St. TTelena, and are moderate throughout the year. 
 
 In the vicinity of Cape Palmas, to south of the cape, CapePaimas. 
 the prevailing winds are from W. S. W. ; to the north of 
 the cape they blow from S. W. and from S. S. W., and in 
 the tine season, from December to March, they vary from 
 \V. S. W. to W. K. W. The rainy season lasts from May 
 to October. 
 
 The same winds ])revail on the coast of Liberia. The, coast of Li- 
 heavy rains occur in July and August 5 in Ain-il and May 
 violent tornadoes. These cease during the heavy rains, to 
 commence again in October and November. 
 
 In the tine season the sea and laud breezes are steady ; 
 the latter are felt twelve miles olf the coast. The land 
 breeze varies from N. N. W. to N. N. E., and blows from 
 midday to midnight. The sea breeze varies from W. S. W. 
 to W. X. W. The change takes place by a gradual hauliug 
 of the wind to the northward in the middle of the season — 
 to the southward at its commencement or end.* Tht^re is 
 often an interval of calm between the land and sea breeze. 
 
 The harmattan blows in December, only at intervals, and 
 without violence. It is neither cold nor disagreeable as 
 upon that part of the coast situated north of Cape St. Anne. 
 It is a general remark that upon the coast of Liberia, dur- 
 ing the rainy season, the weather is always better near the 
 coast than it is thirty or forty miles in the ofting. At this 
 distance, during this season, calms, heavy rains, light and 
 variable breezes prevail ; tornadoes and squalls also occur. 
 In the latter, as in tornadoes, the wind blows principally 
 from the E., but without violence. 
 
 On the coast of Sierra Leone, in the hue season, from coast of sierra 
 
 , Leone. 
 
 * Le Commandaut Baudiu ; le Coinniandaut Bouët-Willaiimez. 
 
Î6 
 
 WINDS — SIEKKA LEONE. 
 
 -iS-eroa Leone, 
 
 November to April, the prevailiug winds are tliose from N. 
 N. W: to ]Sr. W. In the winter they are from S. W., vari- 
 able to W. S. W. and W. N. W., blowing at times with 
 force from the W. 
 
 The harmattan blows with violence at times in November 
 and December ; in the other months it is a light and mod- 
 erate breeze. It is not permanent, and only blows at inter- 
 vals, and varies from E. S. E. to N. E. by the E. 
 
 Tornadoes occur in May ; they cease, in a great measure, 
 during the heavy rains of June to September, and they re- 
 appear in September, October, and November. 
 
 In the winter season the breezes are mostly light, varying 
 from S. W. to W. S. W., interrupted by breezes from N. W. 
 
 In the fine season, from the Isles of Los to Cape St. Ann, 
 the alternate land and sea breezes blow. The angle of their 
 variation is comprised between W. S. W. and E. jST. E., shift- 
 ing by the IST. The sea breeze blows from lOh. or llh. in 
 the morning until midnight. The change of the land and 
 sea breeze is b}^ the IsT. after a calm interval, or a suc- 
 cessive hauling of the breeze to W. IsT. W., IST. W., jST., and 
 N. E. 
 
 Finally, the prevailing winds on this coast are from the 
 westward — W. N. W. in the fine season, and W. S. W. to 
 S. W. during the winter, from May to November. 
 
 The following is a table of the winds in the Eiver of 
 Sierra Leone, from numerous observations during a vear; 
 
 JTiiids ill ilie Eiver of Sierra Leoin 
 
 Months. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Eemarks. 
 
 January 
 
 IS.W 
 
 Sea breeze in the afternoon, liarmattan in 
 the morning. 
 
 February 
 
 N.W 
 
 Occasional storms with rain. 
 
 March 
 
 x.w 
 
 Tornadoes. 
 
 
 N. W. to S. W 
 
 Do. 
 
 May 
 
 S.E.toS.W 
 
 JSTo tornadoes ; occasional thunder-squalls. 
 
 June . - 
 
 S.E.toS.W 
 
 Eains with wind at S. E. : lieat oppressive. 
 
 July 
 
 S.E.toS.W 
 
 Do. 
 
 August 
 
 S.E.toS.W 
 
 Do. 
 
 September 
 
 E.toS.W 
 
 Tornadoes. 
 
 October 
 
 W.N.W. toS.W. 
 
 Weather overcast ; heat oppressive. 
 
 ISTovember 
 
 N.E.toW.KW.. 
 
 Do. 
 
 December ' 
 
 N. E. to îs^. W 
 
 Weather overcast, thunder and lightning in 
 the evening. 
 
WINDS — COAST OF SKNIUI AM MlA. 'J7 
 
 In till' year IS'M, on an avciaiir. tluMc were in fJanuaiy 
 ihirty-ono l>leasant days; in Fclunary, twenty-cijibt ; in 
 Maicli, tliirty-one <lays overcast or witli mist; in April, 
 twenty-six line days, and four with log-; in ]May, fourteen 
 days with tine weather, thirteen Avith rain, and three with 
 Ibi;- : in .1uly, tive fine days, twenty-three with lain, and 
 iliree with fog; in August, two fine days and twenty-nine 
 with rain; in September, ten line daj^s and twenty days 
 with rain; in October, twenty line days, six with rain, and 
 live with fog ; in November, twenty -one good days, tive of 
 rain, and four of fog; in December, twenty-three fine days, 
 lour with rain, and four with fog. 
 
 On the coast, and in the ArchipL'lag-i of the Bissagos, the coast of tho 
 winds from AV., variable to W. X. AN', and H. AV., "prevail J^f^lf^ ^'■*'^"- 
 during nine months of the year. They blow without cessa- 
 tion during the winter months, from May to October, from 
 W. K W. to S. W., shifting by the AV. They are at times 
 violent in the months of July and August. The tornadoes 
 happen principally in June; also in Septem])er and October. 
 
 The liarmattau blows at times with considerable force in 
 November, l)ecend)er, Jaiuiary, and in the first part of Feb- 
 ruary. During the fine season, on the whole of this coast, 
 and in the archipelago, the land and sea breezes blow. The 
 land breeze from N. E to E. X. ]C. and p]. S. E. until Sh. 
 or 9h. in the morning: until llh., or to noon, it is calm; 
 then the sea breeze comes in from A^'. X. AA'. or AV. S. W., 
 and lasts until after sunset, giving place to the land breeze, 
 which commences toward midnight. 
 
 On the coast of Senegambia, during the fine season, which Coast of Sene- 
 continues from September or October to IMay, the prevail- ""' 
 ing winds are from X. E.. varying to X'. AV. l)y the X". Upon 
 all this coast the solar breeezes are well established and reg- 
 idar ; they are in general moderate, though at times fresh. 
 The harmattan blows with violence in Xovember, Decem- 
 ber, and January, and becomes moderate in February and 
 .>rarch. It continues at times three, six, or nine consecu- 
 tive days, and at others oidy during a forenoon. 
 
 In the winter months violent tornadoes are experienced in 
 May and June. The heavy rains commence in July, and 
 continue during the month of August, and at the end of 
 this month tornadoes may be expected again. The prevail- 
 ing winds in this season are from S. AV.. light and inter- 
 
28 WINDS — CAPE VERB ISLANDS, ETC. 
 
 riipted by calms. Exceptionally they blow with force from 
 the W; 
 
 During the Hue season the land and sea breezes are ex- 
 perienced on this coast -, but the most regular are the solar 
 breezes, varying' from N. înT. E. to N. in the niorning, and 
 from i^. to N. IST. W. and W. in the evening. During the 
 night the breeze blows weak from E. and E. ÎST. E. 
 Cape verii In the Cape Verd Islands, from November to Ma v, the 
 
 Islands. " ' 
 
 general winds vary from N. E. to N. and N. N. W. Dur- 
 ing the three tirst months they are ordinarily more to the 
 jST. than upon the coast of Senegal. In June they blow 
 from the E., and diminish in force. The rains commence at 
 the end of this month. From July to October there are 
 tornadoes and rain. In the rainy season, from June to Oc- 
 tober, the winds are from the S., variable to the S. E. and 
 S. W., with storms and frequent fog, and blow at times 
 with violence. After the 15th of August it is not prudent 
 to anchor in the bays of these islands which are exposed 
 to the S. W. and S. E. 
 
 Coast of Seiie- On the coast of Senegal, and from Cape Blanco to Cape 
 Verd, the winds from E. to N. E. prevail from October to 
 May; that is, during eight months. The winter season 
 lasts from June to October, and during this season there 
 are tornadoes and light winds from S. W. to W. S. W. 
 ' At some distance from the coast, in tiie fine season, 
 winds are often found from the N. W., which blow on the 
 shore, while more in the offing the N. E. winds are found. 
 This coast is also subject to the solar breezes, varying 
 from N. E. to N. N. W ; the breeze from N. N. W. blows 
 in the afternoon, the others during the night and the fore- 
 noon. 
 
 Canary Islands. In the Archipclago of the Canaries, situated near the 
 limit of the N. E. trade-winds, the prevailing winds are 
 from N. N. W. to N. N. E., shifting by the N., during nearly 
 the whole year, but more decidedly from April to October. 
 From this last month to February their direction is nearly 
 the same. They are, however, interrupted by violent winds 
 from the S. E. to S. W., which blow at times seven or eight 
 days. It is in December and January that these blows 
 usuallj^ take place. With the winds from S. E. to S. W. 
 there is much rain. 
 
 The roadsteads of this archipelago are dangerous with 
 these winds, and should not be frequented at this period. 
 
WINDS — CANARY ISLANDS AND ^lADKIlJA. 2!) 
 
 That of tlic (Jraiid ("aiiaiN, tlic iJay of Palnias, is the only 
 one wliicli can lie used without (hiiigor in DtH'oniber aii<l 
 January, ln'causi' thoio sail can be luatlo with any wind. 
 
 ^Vt the Canaries the baiometei" is very sensitive to the 
 variations of the atmosphere ; a rapid rise indicates a wiud 
 from tlie E., wliik' a fall, on the contrary, is the precursor 
 i>f a wind from the W. or S. A\'. Winds from the E. are 
 accompanied by hazy or fo![>}iy weather; it clears as soon as 
 the wind hauls to the X. When it blows strong- from this 
 direction it is called by the islanders la hrisa parda. 
 
 At Madeira the X. E. trade-winds are established to- isbiu.i of Ma- 
 ward the middle of Aj)ril, and last until the end of Septem- *'"''" 
 ber. Tn October the periodical rains may be expected, 
 which usually last fifteen days; they are frequently accom- 
 panied by strong winds from the S. E,, which turn to S. W., 
 and continue to hanl as far as N. AV., when the weather 
 clears. The roadstead of Funchal is very dangerous with 
 these winds. 
 
 During the months of November and December there is 
 some tine weather, and the wind from the X. E. blows irreg- 
 ularly. January ami ]''el)ruary are the two months during 
 which violent winds from the S. W. to S. are experienced ; 
 it often happens, however, that the X. E. wind prevails dur- 
 ing these nujnths. In March the prevailing winds are gen- 
 erally from X. W., and at times very strong. During this 
 month snow falls upon the mountains of the island. 
 
 April is sometimes bad to the middle of the month, and 
 the wiud at times very strong. The weather is generally', 
 however, tine from its commencement. In May, June, and 
 July the nights are clear and the days clon<ly, and the regu- 
 lar laud and sea breezes blow. 
 
 It is in August and during a part of Septem1;)er that the 
 harmattan blows, called by the natives the east wind. It 
 blows at times from E. for six or nine consecutive days with 
 great force upon the coast of Morocco, situated opposite to 
 Madeira. 
 
 There are no gusts of wiud in the island from the middle 
 of April to the end of September. They should be feared 
 in Xovember and December. They commence a few de- 
 grees to the E. or W. of S., and passing gradually to the 
 W., end at X. W. 
 
30 
 
 WINDS — COAHT OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Coast 
 rooco. 
 
 Coast of Portii 
 ïal. 
 
 On tiie coast of Morocco tlie prevailin.i;' winds are, in the 
 fine season, from K. E. to N. W., varying by the IST., and 
 blow generally fresh. During* the winter the prevailing 
 winds are those from S. W. and S. S. W., varying at times 
 to W. S. W., and blowing occasionally with violence. The 
 changes of winds from S. E. to S. W. and W. S. W. are rapid 
 in the winter, and bring heavy weather. When the wind 
 passes to W. l"sr. W. and ^. W. jthe weather becomes good. 
 
 On the coast of Portugal, and in general from Cape Fi- 
 nistère to Cape St. Vincent, during ten months of the year 
 the winds are from the X., varying from î^. E. to j^. IST. W. 
 They blow moderately fresh with fine weather, especially 
 dnring the summer. If during the winter there is a gale of 
 wind, it will be most frequently from S. to S. W., and at 
 times from W. S. W., and blows with great violence. From 
 Cape St. Vincent to the Canaries the winds from N. E. to 
 S". W., varyiug by the IST., predominate. 
 
 The following table, formed from meteorological observa- 
 tions made at Lisbon, will give a good idea of the winds 
 which have jDrevailed there for two consecutive years from 
 the 1st of October, 1863, to the ejid of September, 1865, 
 with the heights of the barometer and thermometer corres- 
 ponding to the wind : * 
 
 
 ÎTiimlier 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Therm 
 
 ometer. 
 
 
 Wiiitls. 
 
 of days 
 
 
 
 
 
 Observations and remarks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it lasted. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Mill. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 
 Calto 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 108 
 
 30.4 
 
 29.7 
 
 76 
 
 36 
 
 
 N. N. E .... 
 
 36 
 
 30.5 
 
 29.6 
 
 81.5 
 
 40 
 
 
 N. E 
 
 E.N.E 
 
 E 
 
 no 
 
 ■28 
 38 
 
 30.5 
 30.2 
 30.4 
 
 29.6 
 29.9 
 29.5 
 
 84 
 SU 
 81 
 
 36 
 36 
 40 
 
 Tliey are generally clear and 
 fre.sli dnring all the year, 
 especially from May to 
 Spptenibei'. 
 
 
 E. S. E 
 
 18 
 
 30.2 
 
 29.8 
 
 74 
 
 50 
 
 J 
 
 S.E 
 
 9 
 
 30.1 
 
 29.3 
 
 V 68 
 
 50 
 
 Tliey are fresli and attended 
 
 S.S.E 
 
 •T 
 
 30.2 
 
 .30.1 
 
 67 
 
 47 
 
 with rain or snow from 
 
 s 
 
 38 
 45 
 
 30.1 
 30.2 
 
 29.6 
 29.3 
 
 77 
 71 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 October to April, especial- 
 
 S. S. W . . - . 
 
 . ly with winds from S. S. E. 
 ( to W. S. W. Eogs ace fre- 
 
 s. w 
 
 50 
 
 30.4 
 
 29.2 
 
 68 
 
 -48 
 
 quent from October to 
 
 w. s. w - . . 
 
 ■2Ô 
 
 30.2 
 
 29.3 
 
 73 
 
 48 
 
 Pebrnary, and generally 
 
 w 
 
 ■ -26 
 
 30.2 
 
 29.7 
 
 78 
 
 43 
 
 with S. E. to S. W. winds. 
 
 W.N.W... 
 
 13 
 
 30.1 
 
 29.3 
 
 71 
 
 50 
 
 1 They are fresh with snow, 
 
 N. W 
 
 N. N. W .. 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 30.5 
 30.3 
 
 29.8 
 29.8 
 
 79 
 77 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 [ showers, and often rain in 
 1 summer. In winter fre.sh 
 J and showery. 
 
 ^ Anuario Hidrotjrajico, 1867. The Gulf of Cadiz and Western Shore of 
 ihe Spanish Peninsula ; by Senor Don P. Riiulavets y Tnclnre. 
 
^VIM)S — COAST OF roUTUCJAL. 31 
 
 Tlio t(nvi;c»iiig- may W ivsolvod into Ihc lollowiiig tabic: 
 
 MimtlisofdlisiTvatiim. 
 
 AViiiils of 
 
 N. K. 
 quarter. 
 
 1863. 
 
 I irnibor 
 
 X iiveiiibcr 
 
 1 )i'oeiiibt'r 
 
 If 04. 
 
 ■ I.iiiiiiiry 
 
 l\liru:uy 
 
 Marili 
 
 Ai.ril 
 
 May 
 
 I line 
 
 ■Inly 
 
 A uiTust 
 
 Sii(teiiil>er 
 
 ( tctober 
 
 November 
 
 I>ceember 
 
 186.J. 
 
 .Taiiuary 
 
 February 
 
 Mareb 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 Juue 
 
 Inly 
 
 Augu.st 
 
 September 
 
 lu the two years 
 
 Ivi 
 ■■14 
 
 "VVind.s of 
 
 S. E. 
 
 quarter. 
 
 Days. 
 
 4 
 
 n 
 
 •2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 .-. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 7 
 
 Winds of 
 
 S. W. 
 
 quarter. 
 
 I)caj>< 
 
 AViud.s of 
 N. W. 
 «luarter. 
 
 Days. 
 .5 
 1 
 2 
 
 6. 
 6 
 8 
 9 
 6 
 3 
 4 
 8 
 10- 
 
 From tbo foregoiiif;;- we may conclude that winds from the 
 northward, or those from between K W. and K E., both 
 
 inclusive, hscve prevailed for 4^30 days. 
 
 From S., or between S. E. and S. AV 134 days. 
 
 1-^rom E., or between E. N. E. and E. S. E 84 days. 
 
 1-^rom W., or between W. X. W. and W. S. W. . . G4 days. 
 
 So that the prevailing winds for the period of two years 
 w ere from the IST., with a remarkable preponderance over 
 rhe rest, and they were the most lasting in the months from 
 ^lay to September. 
 
 It must be noted that the observations were made at nine 
 a. m., a time when perhaps the wind for the day is not es- 
 tablished according to that outside, especially in winter -, 
 and that the place of observation was the observatory, 
 which, besides being well up the Eiver Tagus, (or, rather, 
 
32 WINDS — BAY OF BISCAY. 
 
 the Lisbon estuary,) is subject to the prevalence of the 
 land wind, which commences at the lower part of the Ta- 
 gus. Observations carefully made at the lighthouse on 
 the Berliugs will giveus hereafter a better idea of the winds 
 which prevail on the western coast of the peninsula. ISTev- 
 ertheless, we may be satisfied from the above results that 
 the prevailing winds on the coast of Portugal are northerly, 
 those of the opposite quarter prevailing from October to 
 April, and alternating with those' from W. and K. W. 
 jBay of Biscay. The winds in the Bay of Biscay are very variable ; it has 
 been observed, however, that in the winter they blow from 
 S. W. to ]Sr. W., hauling by the W., and that the latter are 
 the most frequent. 
 
 From May to September, sometimes even in December 
 and January, wiuds are experienced from E. N. E., E., and 
 E. S. E. During the last two months they are fresh and 
 durable. From the N. E. they are accompanied by heavy 
 showers, and if there is a gale of wind it will be from the E. 
 or S. E. and usually violent. 
 
 On the coast of Brittany, the prevailing winds are from 
 S. W., varying to W., W. N. W., and N. W. They are of 
 long duration, extend far and blow during seven or eight 
 months, bringing violent squalls, particularly during the 
 winter. 
 
 The winds from W. S. W. to S. W. are most generally ac- 
 companied by rain and fog, while those from theN. W. cause 
 Tain squalls, but in the interval the sky and horizon are 
 clear. If the winds from IST. W. blow moderately they gen- 
 erally bring good weather, interrupted in winter by violent 
 squalls, which are at times accompanied by hail and thunder. 
 On the west coast of France these are commonlj^ named 
 storms of the sea. 
 
 More reliance can be placed upon the winds which blow 
 from this quarter than from any other. At times they tra- 
 verse the whole breadth of the Atlantic, from America to 
 Europe. 
 
 During the summer the winds from S. W. prevail, at times 
 moderate, at times fresh with heavy weather ; but in this 
 season the sky is generally clear. 
 
 I have remarked in traversing the Atlantic in this season 
 that with the wind from S. W. and fine weather, if the wind 
 hauled to N. W., its strength generally increased, but the 
 weather continued good. 
 
W IM)S — n\\ nl" JUSUAY. .''.."> 
 
 In liio Cluimiel, or in the lîa.v ot" IJiscay, when llic wind sii.i.kii shifts 
 dIows Ironi y. u . ni lieavy squalls, cither in winter or in sum- Ar. to n. w. in 
 nier, it you perceive that tlie wind and ram merease, that the tny. 
 siiualhs become harder and more fréquent lioin the same 
 luarter, with a slight tendency to haul, everything- should 
 ')e in readiness for a su(hlen shift of wind. Ordinarily they 
 ;)ass abrupth' from 8. AV. to AV. ami often to ];*s^. W. in a 
 single rain squall, and the wind is then stronger than before 
 ;he shift. This mi.nlit be a serious danger for ships liove-to 
 •n the port taek, and even ibr those who, running with the 
 wind on the quarter or the Avind aft. allowed themselves to 
 ue caught without reducing sail. 
 
 At times the sudden shilt of wind from S. W. to N. \\. is 
 })receded by a short lull, which should always be mistrusted. 
 It is observed in the Bay of Biscay that when the wind 
 springs up from a point opposite to the sun it is of short 
 •luration, and denotes only ;i momentary derangement of the 
 atmosphère. 
 
 Winds from the ^«'. and IS. are not frequent, they prevail winds fiomN. 
 irom time to time, but neither over a great extent or for a 
 long interval : although tliQj bring sometimes fresh breezes 
 and even gusts of wind, those from the S. quickly turn to 
 rhe S. E. or S. W.. and those from the X. to the îs\ E. 
 and X. W. 
 
 At the entrance of the Channel, although the winds are Entranc! oi the 
 very variable, it has been observed that the winds from W. 
 are particularly persistent in September, October and No- 
 vember, and that they are frequently from the eastward in 
 Deceaiber, January and February. 
 
 In the Islands of Great Britain the prevailing winds dilfer I'.Htish i.sIk^. 
 but little from those in the Bay of Biscay. It is observed, 
 however, that in Scotland the winds from the X. are fre- 
 quent, and easterly winds blow particularly from March to 
 June. In Ireland and England the winds from S. to S. W. 
 are the prevailing winds ; and on the coast of Cornwall it 
 has been observed that the wind from the westward blows 
 for about nine months of the year. 
 
 On the coast of Holland the prevailing wimls arc from Coa^t of iio'- 
 the western quarter, they bring rain and fog. The winds ' 
 from S. E., S., and X. W. are rare, but the northerly ai^l 
 easterly winds are frequent, and occur during every month 
 of the year. They blow during four mouths of the winter, 
 bringing dry cold weather, 
 .'i A o 
 
34 WINDS — ARCTIC KEGIONS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Coaet of Kor- Oil the coast of Xorwav tlie prevailing winds are from S. 
 W. to S. the entire length of the western coast. There is 
 frequently rain with these winds. 
 
 Having reviewed the winds of the coasts of Africa and 
 Europe, we will continue by following the basin of the At- 
 lantic, and indicate those of the east coast of America. lu 
 descending this coast from north to south, we will make but 
 a few. remarks on Greenland. 
 
 Greenland. In Greenland there is no periodical wind. From May to 
 
 July the weather is good with variable winds, which seem 
 to blow more especially from S. S. W. with considerable 
 force; to September the winds are variable. Eains are not 
 frequent, storms are rare and of short duration, the most vio- 
 lent squalls come from the southern quarter, the coldest 
 winds are those from N. E. There is but little information 
 concerning Greenland. 
 
 Arctic region jy the following table we give the observations on the 
 
 «I America. "^ ^ 
 
 winds collected by Captain Parry, during his voyage to the 
 Arctic regions, to discover a i^assage from the Atlantic to 
 the Pacific Ocean. These observations are the more inter- 
 esting, as they are successive 5 without interruption from 
 July 1819 to Sei^tember 1820, and they accordingly show the 
 prevailing winds in these frozen regions for more than a 
 year. This table is only a resume of those published in the 
 voyage of Captain Parry, who from the mouth of July, 1819, 
 to August, 1820, remained between the parallels of 74° and 
 75° of N. latitude. 
 
WINDS — AU("riO KECaONS OF AMKUUÎA. 
 
 35 
 
 '^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 E. and S. E., fre.sh with rain ; the oilier lireezes light ; much fog : 
 
 snow with wind from the X. 
 E., strong breezes and fogs ; X., moderate and cloudy ; S.AV., rain : 
 
 X. X. A\^., fresh; cloudy; fogs. 
 AV., strong in squalls; X. X. E., .strong; fogs: snow with wind: 
 
 X., strong ; the other winds moderate. 
 X., fresh clear weather ; X. AV., strong and cloudy ; AV., strong ; 
 
 suow and fog; S. AV., strong, thick fog; E., strong; suow. 
 N., moderate, fine weather, snow with squalls; S. A\'., fine ; other 
 
 winds moderate. 
 E., strong, cloudy ; haze and fogs, with the wind at S. 
 
 S. S. E., .strong, fine weather; X. to X. X. AV., strong or fresh: 
 
 weather clear; much fog in this month. 
 X. X. AV., strong; X., fresh, much fog. 
 X., strong, weather clear, snow at times; 8., weather dear: AV.. 
 
 strong. 
 X. X. AV., strong ; X., light, snow, weather fine ; E., fresh, suow. 
 X. to X. X. AV., strong, weatliei^ alternately clear and cloudy; X. 
 
 AV., by squalls. 
 
 •eiq^uBj^ : '-' 
 
 "*'' (N ■ -^ j m CI o 1- 
 
 •mxBQ <^" '^ 
 
 
 - 
 
 "** »» 
 
 ^ n 
 
 •a -x "x j ^ " ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -b! 
 
 ■g:-X ; Ct rH rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : -> 
 
 •a -x a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a: 
 
 St -v 
 
 '^ 
 
 He» 
 
 lO (ï< r-H 
 
 
 t - 
 
 a: -s -a 
 
 
 
 
 n rH 1 rt !N r-l 
 
 •as 
 
 
 
 
 - "' -' 
 
 -^ : 
 
 1 r^^ -i^ 
 
 ■a -s -s 1 "^ 
 
 • -* 
 1-1 f-H * T^ 
 
 1 -*• -w 
 
 ■s 
 
 rt <M 
 
 
 
 TO 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 •.vi 'S 'S : : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •Ai-s| ^'' = S* « ;:? " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •Ai. -s -Ai 1 : : : \ \ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 . ,, 1 ^ S' S? Ï?? --T 51 -f' CO O» 
 
 
 Al-XAl 
 
 
 -^w 
 
 ■v\'sr " *" "* '"' '"' "^ •'^ ««n 
 
 Al X X 
 
 S* :^i^'^int-o>-«^m 
 
 •X 
 
 CI -^ î- o «o in ^H o>j^ ^w 
 
 <i 
 
 1819. 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 Seutember 
 
 's 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 > 
 
 .a 
 i. 
 
 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 
 
36 
 
 WINDS — ARCTIC REGIONS OF AMERICA. 
 
 
 'î^ 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 &î S 
 
 
 vf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -M 
 
 
 ç 
 
 ':^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 
 
 •P 
 
 
 a 
 
 ? 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 b: 
 
 
 m 
 
 § 
 
 
 !s 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 -jj 
 
 
 
 c:: 
 
 
 
 
 ct 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 r' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c'l 
 
 
 > 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 y. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;:: 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 
 
 
 s: 
 
 
 
 aî 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ci 
 
 — 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ,M 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k» 
 
 
 ? 
 
 a- 
 
 
 ï 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 œ 
 
 ;S 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 
 ■g. 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r= 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 -3 
 
 a: 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 m; 
 
 
 
 „. 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 *^ 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ip 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 ■c 
 
 " a . 
 
 ~ "3 
 
 p 
 
 ci 
 
 
 
 Ç 
 
 x 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 izi 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 œ 
 
 
 
 •aiquTjBA 
 
 O 
 
 c5 
 
 C 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 œ 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 h; 
 
 
 
 
 
 •raiBQ 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a -j^ -isT 
 
 
 o 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sfjsr 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 S' 
 
 •a '.m; 'a 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ci 
 
 ■a 's 'a 1 
 
 I 3o' 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 CI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a-s 
 
 C^ 
 
 C-! 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 l-T 
 
 
 o 
 
 •a -s -s 
 
 " 
 
 1 -^i!:] 1 
 00 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 ce 
 
 •s 
 
 <;» 
 
 Tf 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 oc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •A -s -s 
 
 CJ 
 
 s^ 1 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 -fc' 
 
 •i!A.-S 
 
 
 1 2 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 (M 
 
 •jM 'S -j^ 
 
 
 " : 
 
 Qi 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 îl r-^ 
 
 1 
 
 -tl 
 
 
 
 •M. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 œ 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 rH 
 
 ■M^ -K -Ml 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 C 
 
 r- 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 t- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~H^ 
 
 
 h:ci 
 
 ■^■K 
 
 -(M 
 
 §? 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~n>r 
 
 
 ■M S -K 
 
 CT 
 
 lO 
 
 
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 Cï 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
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 t- 
 
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 ^ ^ 
 
 
 i-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IT 
 
 
 >: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,4 
 
 
 ci 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1' 
 
 s 
 
 =2 
 
 3 
 
 
 -5 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 '3 
 
 
 c 
 
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 -i ï 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 "o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 p^ 
 
 
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 H 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 «f 
 
 
 O! 
 
 
 / 
 
 |2; © 
 
WINDS — AKCTU; UKcaOAS OF AMEIMCA. 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 S ^ T' ^ 3 S 
 
 — 2 o = -: 
 
 
 i. — _C3 
 
 *== o- "s -s fe 
 §2 I I II 
 
 
 'S^' 
 
 Ï to 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 s O» T! O» SI 
 
 Z. ^ C-j ITj Oi 
 
 . O O M o 
 
 «O W — I » rJ 
 
 ~S- ci c: ci ci 
 
 o CO 
 ci ci 
 
 Î'I o o o o M CO 
 
 LO œ to 00 M 
 
 -^ 
 
 -T 
 
 r: 
 
 CO 
 
 i^ 
 
 t- 
 
 -< 
 
 0( 
 
 00 
 
 -r 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 •s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■œ 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 C5 
 O 
 
 Cî 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 
 (M 
 
 'T 
 
 00 
 
 to 
 
 Q 
 
 -?! 
 
 CO 
 
 ° 
 
 — ■ 
 
 O 
 
 oi 
 
 Tt 
 
 ou 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 0( 
 
 01 
 
 I I I 
 
 rt 00 f- r? 
 
 c? n- f 
 
 MM 
 
 s o o» -r OO CI 
 
 I M M 
 
 î- I- to to 
 
 Ci Z 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 - H 
 
 
 
 
 - + 
 
 a 
 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S ^ tH "S >-. 2 >» se 
 
 The two preceding" tables will render unnecessary any 
 further observations on the arctic region of America, and 
 to complete them as far as possible, w^e give the following- 
 table of observations, made also by Captain Parry during 
 his third voyage to discover the Northwest Passage. These 
 observations embrace a period of sixteen months, from 
 June 1824 to September 1825. 
 
38 
 
 WINDS — ARCTIC BEGaONS OF AMEEICA. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ -3 
 
 "A j3 
 n <£ 
 .5 ^ 
 
 ^ T 
 
 « y. 
 
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 â^ês^^tï^s 
 
 CD 
 
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 S 
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 rt CJ O! n 
 
 C5 ira Î- th in in ÎJ « ci i- cj i^ m ^ i- œ 
 
 UJ ■* CT CT CJ r-l •* 
 
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 c^ CÏ (M rt ira 
 
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 c^ in T-i T-i c^ 
 
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 CO T-l rH CO « 
 
 05«r-i'*c<'* men 'Cicoi^-ïio 
 
 s r^ *' Q. -2 '" 
 
 3 s 5 œ " t° 
 
 t-5 t-3 -51 M C !^ 
 
 
WINDS — ('ANy\I)A. 
 
 :îi> 
 
 It can Itc coiicIiuIimI iVoiii all tlicsc ohseiN at ions that in 
 the arctic ici^ions the winds arc very variable, an<l follow no 
 rule, and that in j^cneial they are inoderate, even in all 
 seasons of the year. 
 
 In ]Iudsou's Bay it has been observed that from the month iiiui^ons B*y. 
 of October to Mny the prevailin,c: winds are those from X. 
 to X. W., and that from Jnne to October they are those 
 from the S. E. to E. In this bay heavy gales from the N. 
 are experienced ; they are most frequent in the spring and 
 autumn.* 
 
 .Vccording to sonH> authors the winds in Canada blow Caiiaaa. 
 regularly from the northern quarter during the five mouths 
 of winter ; according to others the winds from X. E. and S. 
 W. ])revail alternately, the first at the end of the autumn and 
 during the winter, the second during the remaiuder of the 
 year. From December to April the weather is, iu general, 
 serene. The occasional winds from X. W., which spring up 
 during the season, are colder than those from X. E., and 
 they only occur during the season of ice. These do not ap- 
 pear iu the seas of this locality, excepting about the mouth 
 of March ; they increase in June, and from that time dimin- 
 ish successively.* 
 
 The following table is a resume of the winds observed 
 durino- 183-1 in Lower Canada :t 
 
 Months. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Remark.s ou the weather. 
 
 
 W.X. W 
 
 
 
 W^.toE.K.E 
 
 W. toE 
 
 Much snow. 
 
 March 
 
 
 
 
 Variable with the wiuds. 
 
 Mav 
 
 ...do 
 
 
 June . . 
 
 . do 
 
 Do. 
 
 July 
 
 ....do 
 
 Do. 
 
 August . 
 
 do 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 ....do 
 
 
 ( )ctober 
 
 E.N.E 
 
 S.S.E 
 
 W.X.W 
 
 
 
 
 December 
 
 Variable. 
 
 
 
 On the east and south coast of the Island of Xewfound- Xf^v-foundiand. 
 land the most frequeut winds are those from the southern 
 <iuarter, from the mouth of May to the mouth of October. 
 
 " Romme, p. 63 ; Table of winds, &c. 
 
 t Montgomery Martin's Historii of Br HI sh Colon h/s. 
 
40 WINDS — GULF OF ST. LAWIIENCE. 
 
 These winds are Aery variable, aud, in general, moderate 
 during this period. There are, however, occasionally heavy 
 sqnalls from the S. E,, Avith rain and fog, whifh is particu- 
 larly frequent in July nnd August. 
 
 The winds from IST. W., which blow from time to time, are 
 dry and cold, and almost always bring a clear sky. In the 
 month of October these winds become A'ioleut. There are 
 frequently in the localities of Newfoundland winds from S. 
 W., very variable in force at this season of the yenr. 
 sSw^no^:^"' I^^ *^6 ^^^1* ^"^^ Elver St. Lawrence,* during the navigable 
 season, the prevailing Avinds enter directly into the gulf and- 
 river, following the direction of the chains of uiountains 
 Avhicli form the sides of the great Aalley through which it 
 runs. Thus the winds S. E. in the gulf become E. S. E. be- 
 tween Anticosti and the south coast; E. N. E. aboAC the 
 Point de Monts, and IsT. E. beyond Green Island. 
 
 The Avinds from W. do not api)ear to folloAV so exactly 
 the .course of the high land, except on the south coast, where 
 those from W. S. W^ become at Bic Island W., W. N. W., and 
 î^. W. in descending the south coast, Avhich is high and in 
 form of a curA^e ; they then turn to N. N. W. at Cape Gaspe. 
 
 The AA^nds above mentioned blow often strong during 
 three or four days ; those from W. being nearly always ac- 
 companied AA'ith clear and fine Aveather, those from the E. 
 being as often cold and foggy. 
 
 In the spring the easterly winds prcA'ail, bloAving at times 
 without interruption many Aveeks. As the summer ap- 
 proaches the westerly winds become more frequent ; those 
 from S. W. may be regarded as the ])revailing winds during 
 the summer in the gulf and riA'cr. 
 
 Winds from S., light and variable, blow occasionally in 
 this season ; from the ?s^. they are rare at this period, thougli 
 they do occur. 
 
 The strong winds from the ]S^., if they bloAv at all before 
 September, only continue for a few hours, Avhen the Avind 
 goes to the eastward ; succeeded l)y calm it is the foreranner 
 of a strong wind. They haul generally to the S. W. 
 
 The wind from N. W. is dry, and AA^hen it blows the sky 
 is clear and Avithout clouds. After the autumnal equinox 
 the winds to the N. and W. become more common; they 
 are often strong, and blow a long time from the same direc- 
 tion. In the months of October and NoA'ember the.Avind 
 
 •■ Bayfield. 
 
\vi>;i)s — (a'LF OF SI'. i.AwitENOT-:. 41 
 
 Iroiii N. \\'. is lVcM|U<'iitl.v vi(>UMit, iu h(';i\ y siiualls, l>iiii^iii<;- 
 rain, liail, snow, and lioa\'.v tVosts, 
 
 S(inalls arc frocinont in July and Anj^iist, but seldom last 
 more than one or two hours; tlie wind accoui[)anyin<j;' them 
 is, in u'eneral, iustantaueoiis and violent, especially iu the 
 \ieiiiity of a mountainous part ol' the coast; sail shoul<l be 
 ((uickly reduced beion' their approach. 
 
 The violent winds very seldom chop round from one i>oint 
 of the compass to the point directly opposite, or nearly so. 
 In general they moderate jj;radually, and it becomes calm-, 
 then they are replaced by a wiud from an oi)posite direction. 
 It sometimes happens that they shift their direction several 
 })oiuts. The winds from N. W. rarely, or rather never, shift 
 by the N. to I^. E., E. and S. E,, but often turn gradually to 
 the S. W. in moderating. The winds from S. W. A^ary very 
 seldom from that direction to N. W., N., and E., but some- 
 times by the S. to S. E. and E. The vvinds from E. diminish 
 gradually to a calm, and are replaced by the wiud from an 
 opposite direction. 
 
 In the tine weather of the summer the W. winds are a 
 fresh top-gallant breeze ; it moderates often in the evening 
 and becomes calm during the night; the next morning it 
 springs up again from the same point. It is only under 
 these circumstances that a land breeze is found near the 
 northern shore ; the same has been observed on the south- 
 ern shore, but it is not so plainly defined as on the northern ; 
 the land breeze does not extend far from the land either 
 on the one or the other. Occasionally about sunrise the 
 land breeze of the north shore is found to extend nearly to 
 the southern shore, while the land breeze of the southern 
 shore seldom extends live or six miles into the offing. 
 
 Under the same circumstances, with tine weather and the 
 wind W. dying away after sunset, a breeze from S. W. from 
 the land often blow s into the offing from the north shore of 
 Anticosti; it continues during the night and into the morn- 
 ing. If, however, the weather is undecided and the wiud 
 does not die away at sundown, the shore should not be ap- 
 proached during the night with the expectation of a land 
 breeze, for this would, in general, be more detrimental than 
 useful. 
 
 Such is the ordinary course of the winds in the CJulf of 
 St. Lawrence, and Avith the ordiruiry weather violent winds 
 do not often occur from Mav to October, though fresh 
 
Barometov. 
 
 42 WIND« — CtULF of ST. LAWRENCE. 
 
 breezes are common. There are, however, exceptionally, 
 years when these winds take the character of tempests, and 
 squalls of extreme violence succeed each other rapidly and 
 at very short intervals. 
 
 In the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Bayiield mentions that, dur- 
 ing the navigable season, the barometer varies from 29 to 
 30.5 inches ; that from its variations follow with remarka- 
 ble regularity the changes of the wind and weather. The 
 movement of the column of mercury is greater and more 
 frequent than in lower latitudes, and a sudden variation, 
 which in other climates would be alarming, may take place 
 in the gulf without being followed by a change of wind or 
 weather. îs'evertheless the mariner should always follow 
 closelj^the barometer and observe its slightest fluctuations ; 
 this study alone can make him capable of appreciating the 
 decisive indications of the mercury, which rarely deceive. 
 
 The following remarks apply to decided Aariations of the 
 barometer, which generally indicate a storm or change in 
 the direction of the wind and weather, a change, the fore- 
 knowledge of which is of the greatest importance to the 
 seamen and to the security of the ship which he commands. 
 
 After a series of westerly winds with fine weather, wlien 
 the barometer has risen as high as possible, that is to say, a 
 little above 30.5, if it commences to fall a little, a wind 
 from the E. should be expected. If to this showing of the 
 barometer the following circumstances are added, a warm 
 spell, a greyish atmosphere during the day, with an abund- 
 ant -dew at night and the stars sparkling, or an aurora bore- 
 alis, the approach of an E. wind is in a great measure 
 certain. If the land is in sight and appears deformed by 
 the terrestrial refraction, if the vessels in sight are drawn 
 out of proportion by the mirage or exhibit two or three 
 images, these phenomena would confirm positively the 
 change of weather indicated by the barometer. Probably 
 the wind from E. will be light at first, witli a clear sky, but 
 this only continues for a few hours. If the barometer con- 
 tinues to fall, the wind will soon increase gradually and the 
 sky cloud by degrees until it is entirely covered. The rain 
 and fog follow and will last wdth the E. wind, with very 
 little intermission, until dispersed by a wind from an oppo- 
 site direction. 
 
 If the fall of the barometer, during an easterly wind, is 
 very slow, the wind probably will last, and will not be very 
 
^\ INDS — (iUl.l' OF ST. I.AWUKNCK. 4;{ 
 
 xioliMit. 11". Oil tlic contraiy, tlu' l;ill ol' the haiouiL'tei' is 
 r:i])i(l. it will last luit a short time, l»iit with coiisiderablo. 
 viohMicc. Ill the fast' wliorc the iiicicuiy falls to about !*!> 
 iiK'lu's. Mil iiiiiiuMliato change is almost ceitaiii, and the wind 
 will, ill iioiioral, t'oiiie from the X. W. ; the force of tliis 
 w iiid will be in i)roi)ortioii to the fall of the barometer and 
 that of the K. wind whieh preceded it. There is rarely, 
 ill this ease, au interval of a few hours between one of these 
 w iiids and the other. The wind from E. fails gradnally and 
 it falls calm; in a few hours after, or even at times much 
 ([uicker, the wind commences from X. W., and for some time 
 a heavy sea is encountered, caused by the preceding wind. 
 The barometer commences sometimes to rise in the interval 
 of calm which precedes the wind from K. W.; at others it 
 does not rise until the commencement of this wind; then the 
 weather becomes nearly clear in a few- hours, sometimes im- 
 mediately. The force of the iST. W. wind is generally greatest 
 immediately after its commencement, and decreases as the 
 barometer rises, hauling gradually to the W. and S. W. 
 . It is worthy of remark that the circumstances above 
 mentioned are reproduced exactly, but inversely, when the 
 wind is to come from the E. This wind commences gen- 
 erally with clear weather and the barometer high ; light at 
 hrst from S. to S. E., it increases gradually in proportion as 
 it haids to the E., with a continuous fall of the barometer. 
 
 To return to the wind from the AV., we would state that 
 after it has hauled to S. AV., if it becomes moderate and the 
 barometer remains stationary at a moderate height, good 
 weather can be expected. If it remains at a great height, 
 but undecided, fluctuating between certain limits, equally 
 variable weather may be expected. If, however, it rises 
 quickly to a great height, a repetition of the E. wind 
 may l)e expected. There are seasons Avhen it may be said 
 that the mercury hardly rises with one wind, before it com- 
 mences to fall to another, and these disturbances of bad 
 augury continue for several months. At other seasons 
 there is hardly a breeze during the whole summer, to which 
 it is necessary to double-reef the top-sails. In reality there 
 are so great diflerences in the weather, according to the 
 seasons, that it is very diftienlt to state any fact which is 
 not subject to many exceptions. There is, nevertheless, a 
 well-determined accordance which exists nearlv in every 
 
44 AVINDS — «ITLF OF ST. LAWKENCE. 
 
 case betAveen tbe indications of the barometer and tlie vari- 
 ations of the winds and weather. 
 
 The first case is tlie ver^^ common one that we have indi- 
 cated, the coincidence of a falling barometer Avith a wind 
 from E., accompanied with humidity and fog, and replaced 
 by a strong wind from the opposite quarter, coinciding AA'itli 
 a rising of the barometer. A second case, which is more 
 rare in ordinary seasons, (except in the spring or at the 
 commencement of summer,) is that of a wind from E. blow- 
 ing with a rising barometer, which, though not commenc- 
 ing Avith clear weather during its first few hours, brings 
 almost always a clear .sky, and finishing with fine weather. 
 A third case can be regarded as sure ; it is when the barom- 
 eter falls suddenly and considerably, the Avind may at all 
 times be expected from the N., and probably a A^ery A'io- 
 lent gust from the jST, W. It does not follow that this gust 
 should be immediate, for it may be i)receded by a strong 
 squall from the S. W. of some hours' duration, during 
 which the barometer seldom rises, but almost always con- 
 tinues to fall. Then Avhen the wind from S. W. ceases, 
 the wind from X. or K. W. follows immediately and the 
 barometer rises. 
 
 Finally, it is seen, on the one side, that a considerable 
 fall of the barometer may take place without being followed 
 by a violent wind, and, on the other, that a breeze of 
 considerable force may bloAV Avithout its being indicated by 
 this instrument ; however, this ncA'er takes i^lace in a sud- 
 den gust of wind. It should be here obserA'ed, that in this 
 climate and under the circumstances mentioned aboA^e, the 
 barometer being Aery high indicates a wind from the E. 
 
 It is remarkable that in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the 
 barometer being a ery high may be considered as foretelling 
 the damp, foggy Aveather, which accompanies its fall, Avhile 
 the barometer being A-ery low announces equally dry 
 Aveather, and this accompanies its rise. The barometer is, 
 then, in the navigation of this gulf, a most useful instru- 
 ment 5 for, by observing constantly its state and its A-aria- 
 tions, and comparing them with the wind and weather 
 Avhich precedes them, as also Avith the apijearance of the sky, 
 the change of the Avind and weather can be foreseen with 
 a certain degree of confidence, and in many cases prevent 
 being surprised near a lee shore Avithout a sure anchorage. 
 These variations of the barometer can be equally utilized in 
 
\V1M)S — SAMLK ISLAND. 45 
 
 tiikiiiji' siu-li ;i rourse as would place a sliip in a positicui to 
 benefit by the eoinino- (>liau<;e. 
 
 The climate of Sable Island seems to l)e jiveatly under ciimaio of Sa- 
 !he intluence of the (Juif Stream, from which it is distant 
 only seventy miles. 
 
 The winds blowing from its direction sixni melt the snow 
 which nmy fall upon this island during- the Avintcr. Tiiese 
 winds, coming from a quarter comparatively warm, bring 
 with them much luimidity ami are always accompanied by 
 I hick fogs. 
 
 Tiie winds from the southern (piarters generally prevail winds irom s. 
 during the summer months, and are interrupted by winds 
 from the N. 
 
 AVitli the winds from the southward the barometer rarely 
 rises; but if while they blow, it falls with rapidity there is 
 wind and rain. If the fall is considerable, after the middle 
 of the month of August, a blow may be expected. 
 
 The winds between X. and E. prevail during the spring ^^ winds tn>m n. 
 and the beginning of autumn. They are often accompa- 
 nied by tine weather and a higli barometer, particularly when 
 nearly from IST. In autumn and winter the wiiuls from the 
 eastward generally bring bad weather and a low barometer. 
 
 Some of the most violent storms experienced in this is- 
 land have been from this quarter, ami they are generally 
 followed, after the barometer has attained its lowest point, 
 by a sudden gust of wind from the N. W., equally violent, 
 bringing always clear weather, accompanied by a, rise of 
 barometer. 
 
 The winds from E., as those from S., bring fog. The last 
 mentioned winds are less frequent towards the end of the 
 summer, when the westerly winds and clear weather be- 
 come proportionately less rare. 
 
 It is the fog much more than the current which renders 
 Sable Island so dangerous; it lasts for several days and 
 idghts without interruption, with the wind from E. or S., 
 and prevails during the summer. 
 
 The winds from X. and W. are frequent in the autumn 
 and winter; they bring, most always, clear weather; they 
 are Aiolent and very cold in the winter.* 
 
 The following table is an abstract of observations upon NovaScAtia. 
 the winds, made at Halifax, situated on the southeast coast 
 of ISoxd Scotia.t 
 
 * Bayfiel<l. t MontiioiiKny Martin's Histori/ of the British Colonicfi. 
 
46 
 
 WINDS — NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Vbserratiom a^on the winds, made at HaUfax. 
 
 Months. 
 
 January 
 
 Pelirnary 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July , 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Wiads. 
 
 N., S., anclW 
 
 N. "W., and variable... 
 
 N. W. and S. W 
 
 W 
 
 jS^. and W 
 
 W., N., and îf.W 
 
 "W"., îf., and S., variable 
 
 "W. and S., variable 
 
 ]Sr. W. and S., variable. 
 S.W., N., and N.W . . . . 
 
 W. andS. \V - 
 
 X W. andN.E 
 
 Eemarlis on the weather. 
 
 Clear ; rain ; snow. 
 Clear ; rain ; cloudy. 
 Clear ; cloudy ; rain. 
 
 Do. 
 Clear ; rain at intervals. 
 
 Do. 
 Clear; fog. 
 Clear ; cloudy ; a little rain ; foj; 
 
 Do. 
 Clear. 
 
 Clear ; rain and fog. 
 Clear ; rain. 
 
 wiclt. 
 
 Brnn,<- In î^ew IJriiiiswick the followiug observations were made 
 at Fredericton, the capital of this colony.* 
 
 Observations u])o 
 
 H the ivinds, 
 
 made at Fredericton. 
 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 M 
 
 ■A 
 
 ^ 
 
 'À 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 1 
 
 bi) 
 
 o 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 a 
 m 
 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 23 
 13 
 20 
 19 
 20 
 17 
 17 
 14 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 16 
 1 
 .3 
 3 
 
 24 
 23 
 22 
 22 
 18 
 15 
 18 
 23 
 17 
 22 
 15 
 26 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 2 
 7 
 8 
 6 
 3 
 3 
 5 
 7 
 8' 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 8 
 2 
 3 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 March 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 ■ 2 
 
 14 
 14 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total 
 
 159 
 
 17 
 
 87 
 
 44 
 
 58 
 
 245 
 
 52 
 
 47 
 
 21 
 
 East <j()ast of 
 North America. 
 
 Tliere have not been found on the east coast of Korth 
 America any constant winds or those blowing with regu- 
 larity. The region of the trade-winds extends further to 
 the north on this coast than upon the corresponding coast 
 of Africa, and these winds at times extend as far as the 
 l)arallel of Bermuda and even to that of 32° IST. As they 
 approach the coast they blow the more directly from the 
 E. On the coast of that part of America which com- 
 prises the United States the most frequent winds are those 
 '' Sir James MacGregor. 
 
"WINDS — EAST ("OAST OF NOUTIl AMi:i;i(A. 17 
 
 lioiii N. W. and S. E. Generally in winter the winds blow 
 from N. ^V. and are mostly dry. The winds Irom E., E. !S. 
 10., and S. 1']. briiii;- rain, and they are sometimes veiy str<»n<;' 
 from the last direction. 
 
 To the south of Newfonndland sadden and violent s<iualls 
 of wiiul are very freqnent, which, after blowing»' stronj;- from 
 t)ne direction, choj) round suddenly and blow with c(iual vio- 
 lence from the opposite direction. 
 
 The winds in the Gulf of St. Lawrence are not subject to 
 so sudden variations as they are to the eastward of Breton 
 Island. The weather to the south of the Magdalene Is- 
 lands, between there and Prince Edward Island, is gen- 
 erally clearer than to the north. 
 
 On the coast of South Carolina, when the winds blow s..uti.(M..piiii;i. 
 strong from N. E. without rain, it lasts ordinarily from 
 about three to four days; but if it rains Avith this wind it 
 generally hauls to the E., E. S. E., and S. E. These last 
 blow directly on the coast and it is seldom that they are 
 without rain or that they are of long duration; six, eight, 
 or ten hours after they are tirst felt the sky is overcast and 
 ai little after the rain falls. If the rain is very abundant 
 and the wind strong it may be expected to haul and be- 
 come fixed at î^. W. ; it holds at this point for twenty or 
 thirty hours, blowing with violence. 
 
 The winds from N. W. are always accompanied by clear \vii,.is tv.,i>. x. 
 weather; they are at times violent aiul seldom last more 
 than thirty hours. The most durable winds are those from 
 S. S. ^Y., variable to W. jST. W., and those from N., varying 
 to E. N. E. The weather is sutBciently settled with the 
 wind from these directions. 
 
 During the summer squalls are frequent on this coast ; sijuiiiis. 
 they come always from IN". E., and are at times so violent 
 that no sail cau withstand them ; they burst with so much 
 force and rapidity that it requires the greatest precaii- 
 tiou to escape their violence. They are first announced by 
 a very black (;loud, the weather heavy and suttbcating and 
 winds light and variable. On the first appearance of these 
 squalls sail should be taken in and furled. In general the 
 squall rises so rapidly as to allow scarcely time to stow all 
 the sails. 
 
 From the 1st of Xovend^er to the end of February the \iciiiit,v of st. 
 gusts of wind are generally A^ery strong in the vicinity of' """" "" ' 
 the coast near St. Augustine: the winds from X. iST. E. to 
 
48 
 
 WINDS — ISLAND OF BERMUDA. 
 
 lalanrt of Ber 
 muda. 
 
 S. S. E., whatever be their direction, if from the eastward, 
 come on rapidly, in this season, with all the force of violent 
 squalls, without any indication. 
 
 When the wind blows against the direction, of the sim, 
 accompanied by a slight rain, the sea commences to rise 
 before the wind is felt. It is then necessary to be prepared 
 for a blow, which will last generally from fifty to sixt^' 
 liours. If near the land all sail possible shonld be carried 
 in order to get well off shore before the squall is in full 
 force, and then heave to. 
 
 It must be recollected besides, that the flood running to 
 the S. will not be available outside of soundings of twelve 
 fathoms, and that there the counter-cnrrent of the Gulf 
 Stream is met running to the S. nutil in forty -five fathoms, 
 which is about forty-five miles from the land ; then you will 
 meet the Gulf Stream coming from the Bahama Channel, 
 and increase very rapidlj'^ the depth of the soundings. 
 
 The Islands of Bermuda are remarkable for the richness of 
 their vegetable productions -, for the salubrity of the climate, 
 which is acceptable to Europeans, which may be regarded as 
 one perpetual summer. 
 
 The following table* gives a general idea of the climate, 
 of the temperature and the prevailing winds of these is- 
 lands. It is the mean of observations made during a num- 
 ber of years. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Mean 
 temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Prevailing winds. 
 
 Eemark.s. 
 
 
 o 
 
 66 
 63 
 63 
 76 
 80 
 86 
 79 
 79 
 79 
 79 
 71 
 66 
 
 N.W - 
 
 oST. E 
 
 Cold ; frequent rain. 
 Do. 
 
 Febrnaiv 
 
 Marcli 
 
 N. W. by W 
 
 S E 
 
 Milder; fine breezes. 
 Warm ; rain scLualls. 
 Oppressive beat ; tbuiidei-. 
 
 
 S.S.E 
 
 s. W^ 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 S. E . 
 
 Oppressive beat; heavy showers. 
 Hot ; frequent showers. 
 
 
 S.W.by W 
 
 N.E 
 
 l^.W 
 
 N.E 
 
 
 
 Cold ; heavy rains. 
 
 
 
 
 From this table it is seen that the coldest months are 
 those of December, January, February, and March, when 
 the minimum of the temperature is 50^ ; the warmest month 
 
 * Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies, vol. ii, p. 396. 
 
^VINDS— ISLAM) OF BEimiDA. 49 
 
 is .Inuo, and the inaxinuim 88 ; that tlic winds liom tlic 
 southward, varyino- from S. E. to S. W., jtrovail dnrint;- tlu' 
 suinnuT, ami the winds iVcnn the in»rtli\vai(l, variable from 
 X. W. to X. E. prevail daring the \vint<'r. A\'inds blowing 
 directly from N. or S. are rare. 
 
 Storms and temi)ests are frecinent in this island. Sitnated storms an 
 as it is at the variable limits of the N. E. trade-winds and 
 of the pn'vailing winds of the temperate zone, and also in 
 the neighborhood of the Gulf Stream, scarcely a fall liasses 
 witht>ut storms more or less violent. To the north of the 
 island sudden storms and squalls are the most frequent. 
 1 )uring the autumn and winter the sea is most always heavy, 
 and violent Avinds from IST. W. frequently occur, bringing 
 fog and a cloudy sky. 
 
 The tempests at the Bermudas are sudden and violeut, 
 especially during the winter. Toward the evening the 
 whole horizon is obscured by heavy black clouds ; thunder 
 and lightning are the precursors of the wind which rises 
 very rapidly. When it commences to blow it varies con- 
 tinually, with violent squalls at intervals of from twenty to 
 thirty minutes, during which intervals it is calm; the sea 
 becomes very high and dangerous for small vessels from its 
 irregularity. Under these circumstances it is best to furl 
 the sails and run before it.* It is remarked, that in the vi- 
 cinity of the Bermudas there is often a conflict between the 
 wiiuls, and they are very variable. 
 
 In the spring the wind blows frequently from S. E. to S. 
 W., varying to N. W. In the south of the group the 
 weather is generally mild and the sea smooth. 
 
 When the ]S". E. trade-wind extends to the north of the 
 parallel of 30° N., the winds from N. W., which are expe- 
 rienced to the north of these islands, become more impetuous ; 
 while between the parallels of 28° and 30° N. latitude the 
 sea is smoother, the w inds variable and exempt from storms. 
 
 Cape Hatteras is celebrated for the continual bad weather cape natteras, 
 encountered there during the greater part of the year. 
 
 On the coast of the United States, says Franklin, storms 
 occur from the northeastward, which commence in the 
 southwest portion of the United States, in Georgia, and 
 from thence pass successively over the States in their course 
 
 * Lieut. Evans. This is uot our advice. We are of opinion that, as in 
 hurricanes, it is jn-oper to heave-to and observe the variations of the 
 wind, to maneuver as described in the Appendix. 
 4 A O 
 
50 WINDS — GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 north, reaching- at times as far as Newfoundland. These 
 winds are violent and last sometimes two or three days j 
 they are accompanied by rain with heavy clouds. 
 Gulf of Mexico. In the interior of the Gulf of Mexico the trades are the 
 prevailing winds, and in proportion to the force of the local 
 winds they approach nearer or are further removed from the 
 coasts.* 
 Gales from From the month of October to the month of March, gales 
 from the î^. occur. They are very violent and at times 
 accompanied by rain ; they are encountered as far as the 
 Bahama Channel. These northerly gales in the Gulf of 
 Mexico are generally announced by a great diminution of 
 the swelling of the sea upon the shores of the Bay of Cam- 
 pechy, by a great humidity of the atmosphere, and by a 
 black cloud seen in the northwest in the morning and even- 
 ing-, from 9° to 10° above the horizon, for two or three days. 
 Sometimes before the gust, lightning in the northwest and 
 northeast, and white threads called Jils de la vierge, are 
 seen during* the day in the rigging. These, as also the 
 phosphorescence of the sea, are indications of a coming; 
 norther. 
 
 The distinctness with which the high land is seen, and 
 the girdle of white clouds around the mountains of San 
 Martin to the southward of Vera Cruz, are also certain signs 
 of a norther. 
 
 The barometer indicates, in the great number of cases 
 most decidedly, these gales from the N. by its falling be- 
 fore the gust comes, and a few minutes before it bursts the 
 column of mercury rises slowly. This is always the case. 
 
 The wind rises in the S., weak at first ; it then shifts round 
 the compass to the westward until it arrives at IST. jST. W., 
 when it blows with violence. These blows, which are very 
 dangerous in the Gulf of Mexico, generally last two or three 
 days. The wind being at K. W., if the black cloud men- 
 tioned disappears, the blow will not continue long, and the 
 wind blowing only a stiff breeze returns to the E., and if it 
 passes to ]Si . E. it will moderate.t 
 
 At other times, the weather being perfectly good, with 
 a light breeze, when the stars sparkle and are more bril- 
 liant than usual, when the night is moist, the wind comes 
 
 * For details see Le Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles. 
 t From Le Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, by Captain 
 De Kerliallet. 
 
WFNDS — GULF OF :\IKXI('0. 51 
 
 suddenly from the X. witliout other indication, the noise 
 of the sea which it raises precedinj;' the wind but a few 
 minutes. Tlu> northerly gales which commence thus are 
 \ery danu'erons, as they are in general very violent. They 
 are less enduring than the others, and in them the barom- 
 eter varies but little. At Vera Cruz at this season the mer- 
 cury is never higher than 30.G inches, and does not descend 
 below liO.S inches, an oscillation of 0.8 inches ; the mean 
 lieight of the barometer is 30.1 inches. In these blows there 
 is frecjuently much rain, and the weather is hazy. They 
 always get up a heavy sea. 
 
 The winds from X., called nortes by the Mexicans, prevail Dry season. 
 in the Gulf of Mexico from the middle of September to the 
 middle of March. This is the dry season. In September 
 and October these winds are not usually strong, and if not 
 felt at this season the prevailing winds are interrupted by 
 squalls of wind and rain. In November they are well es- 
 tablished, are fresh, and continue during December, Jan- 
 uary and February. In March and even in April when they 
 blow they are clear, and are then more ^'iolent during the 
 first day than when they blow in the preceding months ; 
 they haul also less to the N. ^\. Occasional gusts from the 
 X. occur in the months of June, July and August. The 
 strongest are called huesos coJoraflos, the more moderate 
 chocoJateros. 
 
 The wet season in the Gulf of Mexico is from March to wet season, or 
 Septeml)er. From the latter part of March and during the trad^winds. 
 month of April the trade-winds, interrupted from time to 
 time by the winds from the X., blow from the E. S. E., 
 sometimes with a clear sky, at others cloudy, and inclining 
 to the S. E.J they last then all the night. From the month 
 of July to October, frequent and strong gusts are expe- 
 rienced, accompanied by thunder, lightning, and heavy 
 rains. Those which come from the E. are the most violent, 
 but have the shortest duration.* 
 
 When the storm ceases the sky is generally hazy, with a 
 moderately fresh breeze. If it lights up to the southeast it 
 is ordinarily an indication of the end of the bad weather. 
 These storms generally last from twelve to twenty-four 
 hours when the weather becomes fine, with the wind E. S- 
 E. to S. E. 
 
 * Bernardo de Oria, Derrolero de las AntiUas. Manuel de. la Xarigation 
 dans le Mer des Antilles, cj-c, Part III, by Captaiu De Kevhallet. 
 
WINDS— GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 ' Season of liur- 
 ïlcanes. 
 
 During tlie season of the trade-winds the variation of the 
 barometer is 0.45 inch, the maximum being 30.4 inches, the 
 minimum 29.95 inches. In June the thermometer rises to 
 87°, and does not descend below 83.°5. In December the 
 maximum is 80°.6, the minimum 66°.o. 
 
 The period of storms in the Gulf of Mexico, as in the 
 West Indies, is principally from August to October, and the 
 rainy season in these localities, as the corresponding season 
 on the coast of Africa, commences when the sun passes to 
 the zenith of the place in going north, and terminates when 
 it repasses the zenith of the same place in going south. 
 This is called the winter season. 
 
 The following table is taken from a memoir by Admiral 
 Bérard, together with the accompanying remarks:* 
 
 Dry season or season of iJie trade-winds. 
 
 
 Winds from mid- 
 night to noon. 
 
 Winds from noon 
 to midnight. 
 
 Remarks on weather and winds. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 From midnight 
 to noon. 
 
 From noon to 
 midnight. 
 
 April 
 
 May . . 
 
 S.S.W., S.S.E., S. 
 
 E., E.S.E. 
 S., S.S.E., E.S.E . 
 
 S. S. E. to S. E 
 
 S. to S. S. E., W. liT. 
 
 W. to N. W. 
 S.W.toW. S.W., 
 
 W.N.W.toN.W. 
 S. W., W., W. N. 
 
 W., N. W. 
 
 E. S. E., E. N". E., 
 
 K-.N.E.,N".N.W. 
 E. S. E., E. N. E . . . 
 E. S. E., E. K. E . . . 
 E. S. E., E. K E., 
 
 N. K. E. 
 E.S.E. to E.,N.E., 
 
 ISr.E.toKN.E. 
 K". E. to jST. ÎT. E., 
 
 N. to N. isr. w. 
 
 Light 
 
 Light ... 
 
 Light breezes. 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Light 
 
 Light 
 
 Moderate. 
 
 Light 
 
 
 September . 
 
 Light 
 
 Variable. 
 
 Dry season or season of northers. 
 
 October. 
 
 W. N. w., ]sr. N. 
 w., îf. isr. E. 
 
 X. W., K. X. W., 
 
 N. X. E. 
 
 Fresh 
 
 
 
 
 
 ÏTovember . 
 
 ÎT. W., N. K". W . . . 
 
 X.X.W., X., 
 
 Fresh; period 
 of squalls. 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 December.. 
 
 N. W., ]^. N. W . . . 
 
 X^.W., N.X.W., X. 
 
 Xearly always 
 fresh. 
 
 &usts of wind. 
 
 Januarj"^ . . . 
 
 W. N. W., N.W., 
 
 X., X.X.E 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Period of 
 
 
 îf. N. W. 
 
 
 
 squalls. 
 
 February . . 
 
 N. N. W., M"., N. 
 
 X.X. W.,X.N.E.. 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Fresh. 
 
 
 N".W. 
 
 
 
 
 March 
 
 N.W., N.N.W---. 
 
 X., X. X. E., X. E . 
 
 Moderate 
 
 Fine breezes. 
 
 ^Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, t^"c., part iii, by Captaiii 
 De Kerb all et. 
 
■^V]>;]1S — OULF OF MEXICO. a,» 
 
 Dmiiii;- the iiionth of April tlie woatlier is very fine; tlic^wet season- 
 most gviioial winds aro those wliieh vary from K. S. E. to 
 B. N. E. and to N. X. 1- In tlie mornini;- the wind is fre- 
 (piently from X. W., variable to S. S. E. and E., and in the 
 afternoon these winds haul to the E. N. E. 
 
 AVhen the wind commences at N. in the moining, it blows 
 from X. X. W.; in the afternoon it hauls to the N. X. E. and 
 ]']. X\ E. ; in the night it is often calm from 10 p. m. to i' a. m. 
 
 During this month there are at times appearances of 
 winds from the X"^. 
 
 The weather is fine during the nunith of 3[ay. The pre- ^«y- 
 \ailing winds are those from the E. In the morning they are 
 from S., variable to the S. S. E. and E. S. E. : in the after- 
 noon from E. S. E. to E. X. E., and even to X. E. It is 
 often calm during tlie night ; the wind from E. is light in 
 the morning, fresher towanls noon, and is sometimes very 
 fresh in the afternoon, in which case it is observed that it 
 lasts during the night. Towards the end of his month it 
 happens that the wind blows from the E. several days in 
 succession without interrujition. 
 
 During the month of Jnne the winds from eastward pre- June. 
 dominate; in the morning they are from the S. S. E. to S. 
 E., sometimes at W. X. W. to the X". W. or X^. X. W., and 
 afternoon they haul to the eastward and become fixed be- 
 tween E. S. E. and E. X^. E. It is oidy from this quarter 
 that they become fresh; they last at times twenty-four 
 hours without interruption ; at others they are interrupted 
 by calms. 
 
 In this month there are frequent storms; they rarely take 
 place on the sea, but generally burst on the land. There is 
 also over the land very frequent and vivid lightning. 
 
 Dnring the month of July, in the gulf, and at large, the July. 
 trade-winds blovr without interruption; they are only va- 
 riable in their force. 
 
 The excessive heat of this month, added to the influence 
 that the neighboring coast exerts on the direction of the 
 winds, occasions many s(|nalls ; there is one nearly every 
 day, and a great number burst at sea. They make their 
 appearance to the S. E., the S., the S. W., and X. W. Some 
 come from theE. These storms are called tornadoes. 
 
 Dnring the month of August, near the coasts, the regu- August. 
 lar land and] sea breezes prevail ; the land breeze usually 
 commences between llh. p. m. and midnight, sometimes 
 
54 WINDS — GULF OF MEXIOO. 
 
 even after uiidnight, and lasts uutil lOli. iu the morn- 
 iug. Au interval of calm succeeds this breeze, and toAvard 
 uoou, sometimes at 11 a. m., the sea breeze commences and 
 blows uutil llh. iu the evening or midnight. It is gen- 
 * erally followed by an interval of calm. Sometimes the sea 
 breeze blows for twenty -four hours without interruption. 
 
 In this month the sky is almost always overcast. While 
 the sea breeze blows clouds and squalls form over the high 
 land ; on the other hand they form at sea when the breeze 
 blows from the land. 
 
 The month of August is that in which the most rain 
 falls, and in which storms are the most frequent. The winds 
 are very variable, and Avhen they go to the IST. are light. 
 There are at times squalls and tornadoes, in which the wind 
 is very strong from the E., but they are of short duration. 
 The squalls are accompanied by torrents of rain and great 
 electricity of the atmosphere. 
 
 Septsmber. lu the moutli of September the land and sea breezes ex- 
 
 ist near the coast. In this month the change of season 
 takes place, sometimes hurricanes occur of extraordinary 
 violence, and following these, heavy bores. The winds most 
 frequent in the month of September are those from IST. IsT. 
 E. to N. IsT. W., at times moderate, occasionally quite fresh. 
 
 Dry season. Iu the mouth of Octobcr the iwevailing winds are from 
 
 October. *" 
 
 W. N. W., N. W., and JST. N. W., very rarely interrupted by 
 breezes from E. S. E. to E. K. E. , these winds are often fresh. 
 In the month of October there are frequently blows from 
 the N. 
 November to Iu the mouths from I^ovember to Februarv, inclusive, 
 
 February. "- ' .' 
 
 there are, at intervals, violent winds from the N. The pre- 
 vailing winds are variable from îfi to W. N. W. ; when they 
 commence they are strong and the sky is overcast. As soon 
 as they haul to theE. or E. S. E., the weather becomes good. 
 These winds have never a long duration, and in general never 
 blow longer than live or six days in succession. The winds 
 from the IsT. are fresh and sometimes strong in these months ; 
 they bring, at times, sharp squalls, and from time to time 
 gales of wind, which have been already described. The 
 month of December is the one in which these northerly 
 gales occur oftenestj sometimes there are four or five 
 during this month. 
 , The winds from the N., when only strong or fresh, moder- 
 
 ate toward sunset, and are strongest from 9 a. m.to 3 p. m. 
 This rule is modified when the wind from N. does not 
 
:ilartli. 
 
 ^VlNDS— mi-F OF MEXICO. •)•) 
 
 coiniiuMR-o until artornooii, then it continues during the night 
 niul increases in force. During these mouths, in the inter- 
 N al betweeu the northerly winds, the Aveathm- is tine and 
 the reguhir hind and sea breezes bk)W. 
 
 Ill the uiouth of February the gales of winds from the 
 X. have a tendency to blow from the în\ îs^. E., and toward 
 the end of the season they are oftener from betweeu N. N. 
 
 E. and X. E. 
 
 In the mouth of I^Fareh the winds from î^. are less frequent ; 
 they are, however, still fresh, and even smart gales occur, 
 indicated by light, curly clouds, called cirro-stratus. lu 
 this nu>nth the winds from X. bring clear weather, and are, 
 during their lirst day, stronger than in the preceding mouths. 
 From what has been said of winds from the X., the necessity 
 will be seen, when at anchor and without protection near 
 the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico, of being constantly in 
 readiness to get under way. It is certainly preferable, with 
 these winds, to lay to in the ofting than to run the risk of 
 foundering at anchor. 
 
 If near the south coast of the gulf, as soon as a gale from 
 the X. is indicated, it is well to attempt to reacli the 
 Bank of Campeachy, where the sea is always sufficiently 
 smooth when to the westward of the meridian of Sisal, and 
 lieave to on the parallel of 20° X., and await good weather. 
 
 Following the general remarks we will make the tonr of 
 the Gulf of Mexico, and indicate the winds peculiar to some 
 localities, and the periods when they blow. 
 
 In the Bahama Channel the trade-winds are found from 
 the X. E.; they are interrupted during the winter by the 
 winds from the X., and in the sunmier by calms. In the 
 winter, from Xovember to April, the winds there are vari- 
 able from the E. to S., and fron.i S. to the W. In December 
 and January the wind i^fteu comes from the X., variable to 
 the X. W., and blows with violence at times for seven or 
 eight days in succession. 
 
 In summer, from May to September, the prevailing winds 
 in this channel are from S. E. to S. W., hauliug by the S. 
 In March and April the winds are frequentl 
 
 From the parallel of 28° X. to the cays, south of Florida, ^ west coast of 
 the trade-winds prevail, and last during the suumier until 
 a little after noon ; they are then replaced by the breeze 
 from the offing, blowing between the S. and W. In the 
 winter, especially from Xovember to March, the winds are 
 
56 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 from S. to W., and raise a heavy sea. In July and August 
 tornadoes occur, blowing generally from S. W. and S. S. W. 
 ^Appaiachee j^ Appalaclice Bay tlie winds from W. and N. W. blow 
 nearly all the year, and with considerable force from 9h. 
 to lOh. in the morning until midnight. In the spring 
 there are strong winds from the S., which are rare during 
 the summer and winter. The winds from N. E., which are 
 at times violent in the spring and autumn, are never of long 
 duration. 
 a?a°chei^B^ ^to ^" ^^^^ coast compriscd between Appalachee Bay and the 
 the Mississippi. Mississippi, and in a zone extending as far as 28° N. lati- 
 tude, from the month of IMarch to July, the winds blow in 
 the morning from IsT. to E., and from E, to S. ; in the after- 
 noon they pass to the S. W. In Angust the w^inds are gen- 
 erally from ]!Sr. E. to E., from S. E. and S. W. In September, 
 October, and November they are from the N. E, It can be 
 said that the prevailing winds on this coast are those from 
 the E., for during a year the number of days during which 
 these winds prevail, comi^ared with those of westerly" winds, 
 is as two to one. 
 
 On the west coast of Florida the laud and sea breezes are 
 generally experienced. 
 Pensacoia. At Peusacola in the morning the breezes are from IST. to 
 
 E., and from E. to S. ; these are replaced in the afternoon 
 ' by winds from the S. W. ; this takes place particularly from 
 April to July. The breezes from S. W., or from the offing, 
 are called '■'■ virasones ;''' they blow in violent squalls in 
 August, September, and October. At this period also 
 storms and gusts of wind come from the S. From î^ovem- 
 ber to March the winds prevail from the î^. ; they commence 
 at S. E. and S. with heavy rain, passing to the S. W. and 
 W., where they remain some time and blow strong until 
 they haul to the N. W. and K., when the w-eather becomes 
 good. 
 
 The following observations, made in 1847, 1849, 1851, and 
 1852, are added by the translator; they are taken from 
 " Notes on the winds of the coast of the United States on the 
 Gulf of Mexico," by the late Professor A. D. Bache, Super- 
 intendent United States Coast Survey : 
 
 " The observations were made in connection with those of 
 the tides, at the Coast Survey stations at Key West, Flor- 
 ida, Fort Morgan, Alabama, and Galveston, Texas, and in- 
 cluded the direction of the wind and its force by estimate. 
 
^VI>'DS— SOUTH COAST OF TIIK UNITEU STATES. 57 
 
 The (k'sciiptioii of the means of observation, of the scale 
 used in I'stimatinjj;' its foree from to 10, and of the mode 
 of obtaininji- from the observations tlie quantity of wind 
 bhiwing- from ditierent directions, given to the American 
 Association for the Advancement of Science .at the Charles- 
 ton meeting, and ])nblished in its proceedings, applies to the 
 present observations and results. The accompanying com- 
 parative diagram is plotted on a compass rose, the average 
 ([uantity of wind from each direction for the year being laid 
 otf from the small circle described about the center of the 
 rose, and is represented on a scale of 18,000 miles to the 
 inch. 
 
 " The results at the different stations are shown in difter- 
 ent kinds of Hues, and the distances representiug the quan- 
 tity of air moving from the several points are, for greater 
 distinctness, laid off from' a small circle described about the 
 center of the compass rose as a center. 
 
 " The dates of observations were from June, 1851, to June, 
 1 852, for Key AVest ; from June, 1817, to June, 1849, for 
 Fort Morgan; and from July, 1851, to July, 1852, for Gal- 
 veston. * * * 
 
 " The following remarks in reference to these results pre- 
 sent themselves, but the generalizations lose much of their 
 point when expressed in words. The diagram enables the 
 eye to seize them with ease and certainty. It is quite prob- 
 able that some of these may not be exact for every year, 
 though indicated in the result before us. The results have 
 a direct bearing on navigation, and an incidental one on 
 the i^rogress of the surveying operations themselves. Com- 
 merce in this sea, closed to the westward and swept by the 
 trade-winds, must be especially indebted to steam-power ; 
 the summer sea breeze along part of the coast points this 
 out as the track for sailing vessels making to the eastward, 
 at least along part of the coast. The current of the Gulf 
 Stream is an essential aid to the navigator of the Florida 
 Pass, constantly impeded by the prevalence of easterly 
 winds. 
 
 "The mixed character of the winds at Fort Morgan and winds. 
 
 it 1 i T J- -IT,. ,1 ; T^ ~.T- , • ■ Fort Morgan, 
 
 Ualvestou, as tlistinguished trom those at Key West, is m- Galveston, and 
 structive, when considered in reference to their positions in ^^ 
 relation to land and water. The geographical positions of 
 these jdaces aie appro))riate to the investigation of the winds 
 of the Gulf; Key West, in latitude 24° 33' K, and longitude 
 
58 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 81° 48' W., being near the eastern entrance ; Fort Morgan, 
 latitude 30° 13' K., and longitude 88° 00' W., near the mid- 
 dle of the northern coast of the gulf; and Galveston, latitude 
 29° 18' N., and longitude 94° 46' W., ou the western coast, 
 not quite one degree north of Key West, and but half a de- 
 gree further west of Fort Morgan than that position is of 
 Key West. 
 
 " The winds observed in connection with the tides at in- 
 termediate points between these, and extending the obser- 
 vations to the Eio Grande, will be discussed in turn. 
 
 " Following the diagram, I propose, first, to trace the pre- 
 vailing winds in the year; second, those in the several 
 months and seasons and at the différent places ; third, the 
 changes in quantity with the season ; fourth, the varieties 
 in direction from one season to another of winds from nearly 
 the same quarter. 
 
 "1. Winds from some northern quarter prevail from Sep- 
 tember until February, both inclusive, and southwardly^ 
 winds from March to August, inclusive. Winds from the 
 eastward prevail throughout the year, except at Fort Mor- 
 gan in May, June, July, and August, when the sea breeze 
 is from the S. W. In the whole year the winds from the 
 same quarter IST. and S. balance each other nearly, while the 
 eastwardly wind greatly predominates over the westwardly. 
 
 " 2. As remarked in my former x)aper, the months may be 
 classed, according to the prevailing winds, into the follow- 
 ing classes: The winter, consisting of December and Jan- 
 uary ; the spring, of March and. April ; the summer, of May, 
 June, and July ; of preparation for change, August ; the 
 autumn, of September, October, and jSTovember. 
 
 '' The winter and summer types are extremely distinct. 
 At Key West, in December and January, JST, E. and N. are 
 the prevailing winds; at Fort Morgan, îsT., E. S. E., and E.; 
 at Galveston, K. and K W., then E. jST. E. and S. E. I sup- 
 ]}ose the general course of the N. E. trade-wind to be dis- 
 turbed by local action at Fort Morgan and Galveston, the 
 local position of greatest warmth being the Gulf. 
 
 " The summer type. May, June, and July, gives S. E. as 
 the prevailing wind at Key West; the S. E., S., and S. W. 
 (sea breeze) at Fort Morgan; the S., S. E., and E. at Gal- 
 veston, blowing toward the land. 
 
 " August resembles July, with the appearance of winds 
 which prevail in the autumn. 
 
WODS — SOUTH COAST OF THK INITKI) STATES. âî) 
 
 ''III September, October, and November, at Key AVe«t, E. 
 X. K. prevail; at Fort Morgan, N., X. K., E.; and at Gal- 
 veston, X., X. E., E., and N.AV. 
 
 "•In Marcli and Ai)ril, the spring' period, S. E., S. !S. E., 
 and E. winds prevail at Key West ; 'N., S. S. E., and E. S. E. 
 at Eort IMorgan ; and X., S. E., and S. at Galveston. 
 
 '' February resembles January with a preparation lor the 
 spring- period, and, like August, it is characterized at Fort 
 Morgan and Galveston by a general diminution in llie 
 quantity of wind. 
 
 " January presents the lull winter type of the winds on 
 the Gulf, and June and July the full summer type. The 
 changes are quite gradual and tolerably regular from one 
 extreme to the other, 
 
 '' 3. The following deductions are made from these obser- 
 vations in regard to the least and the greatest quantities of 
 Avind in the principal directions in different portions of the 
 year. 
 
 " The X. wind is a minimum at the three places in 
 July, and a maximum in January. It is a very remarkable 
 feature at all three places in January. The N. W. almost 
 dies out at all three from May to September, iirst gaining- 
 strength at Galveston in October, and reaching- its maxi- 
 mum in all the places in December. Its quantity at Key 
 West and Fort Morgan is small when at the maximum. 
 
 "The northers and northwesters both appear in force in 
 April, at Galveston. There is very little W. wind at either 
 place, but more at Fort Morgan than either of the others 
 and chiefly during the months of June and July. 
 
 " S. W. wind is of rare occurrence exceptât Fort Morgan, 
 where it constitutes the sea breeze of summer, and reaches 
 its maximum in June and July, suddenly diminishing in 
 September, 
 
 " There is but little S. wind at Key West ; at Fort Mor- 
 gan it increases in amount in the spring- and is the greatest 
 in June. It is decidedly a marked feature as one of the 
 prevailing spring winds at Galveston, reaching- its maximum 
 in ]May and becoming quite small in iVugust, reappearing- in 
 the winter, and rapidly increasing in March. 
 
 "The N. E. wind is a minimum at the three places in 
 July and August : is largest in quantity in September, Oc- 
 tober, November, and December at Key West; in Septem- 
 ber and October at Fort Morgan ; and in September, De- 
 
60 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 cember, and January at Galveston. The sudden increase 
 of this wind in September, after its small quantity in August^ 
 is remarkable at all three places. 
 
 ''The winds intermediate between N. E. and S. E. occur 
 during the changes from N. E. to S. E., and it would be of 
 little value to refer to the greatest and least quantities. 
 
 " The S. E. wind is a minimum in December and January 
 at Key West; in Januarj^ and February at Fort Morgan; 
 in December and January at Galveston. It is a maximum 
 .at Key West in July, but being replaced during the sum- 
 mer to a great extent hj the sea breeze (S. W^.) at Fort 
 Morgan, makes its maximum in jSTovember, and at Galves- 
 ton in May, doubtless from the disturbing eifect of the land; 
 it is again large in July. This is the sea breeze of Key 
 West, and, as well as the S. wind, that of Galveston. 
 
 "4. The movement of the prevailing wind at Key West,. 
 where the disturbing causes of the land are the least, is very 
 instructive. 
 
 "The prevailing wind in April, May, June, and July is 
 the S. E., hauling to the eastward in August, and becoming* 
 E. S. E. In September and October it passes further north 
 to E. N. E., and in jSTovember and December becomes N, E., 
 in January it reaches N. ; returning southward in February 
 it is N. N. E., in March E., and reaches the S. E. in April. 
 The local action is thus seen to prevail for the greater part 
 of the year over the general. For the whole year the S. E. 
 wind exceeds any other from an eastwardly point. 
 
 "The eastwardly wind at Fort Morgan reaches no further 
 south than E. S. E., in the spring and summer. In Septem- 
 ber the prevailing' wind is K. E., passing to E. N. E. in Oc- 
 tober, and back to E. S. E. in the winter and spring. The 
 general tendency for the year is then E. S. E. 
 
 " The changes at Galveston resemble those at Key West^ 
 the general absence of E. N. E. and E. S. E. winds being due 
 to defects in the observations. 
 
 "5. Of the winds in the three localities it may be said 
 that the S. E. is the characteristic between Key West and 
 the others; the S. W. between Fort Morgan and the others, 
 and the N. W. between Galveston and the other places. 
 
 "The S. wind is another peculiar feature of Galveston, 
 shared in a corresponding degree during" one month only by 
 Fort Morgan. In the prevalence of trade-winds during cer- 
 tain months Fort Morgan and Galveston are alike. 
 
\VIND8— SOl'Tll COAST OF TUH I'NITKI) STATES. (U 
 
 " The chaiiK'toristic tbnus of the suiliiee, ivpivsi'ntinj;' tho 
 whole tiuautity of wind each month at Key West is very 
 marked. It is shared by Galveston fully oiily in July and 
 
 Align St. 
 
 ''From May onward to Septenjber, inclusive, there ap- 
 pears to be little dan-er of northers, yet the month of June 
 shows a considerable amount of this wind. 
 
 " The velocity of the wind represented in the diagram for 
 :\Iay at Galveston corresponds to 11.7 miles per hour, which 
 is nearly the velocity for the average of the whole year. 
 
02 WINDS — SOUTH COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 
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Wl^DS — SOUTU COAST OF THE UNITED STATES. 05 
 
 WIIOLK YEAH. 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 The curve for Key West is represented thus : 
 
 The curve for FORT MORGAN is rejiresented thus: - 
 
 The curve for Galveston is represented thus : 
 
 The diagram plotted on a compass rose represents the average quantity of wind from each direction for 
 the whole year on a scale of 18,000 miles to the inch. 
 
 The circumference of the small circle drawn around the center of the compass rose represents the zero or 
 starting point. 
 
 The observations were made at KEY WEST from June, 1851, to June, 1852; at FORT MORGAN from June, 
 1847, to June, 1849 ; and at G-AL VESTON from July, 1851, to July, 1852. 
 
 5 A o 
 
66 WINDS — COAST OF THE GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 MSils*ipi5iT, !he ^^^0™ *^^ moutlas of the Mississippi to the Bay of Mata" 
 Bay oi- Matiit.ir- gorda, froin the month of April to August, the laud breeze 
 blows at da-j'break ; a little after, the wiud hauls to E. S. 
 E. or to S. E., and blows from S, W. in the afternoon. 
 
 In July, August, and September, squalls are frequent^ 
 with wind and rain ; there are also wiuds from the S. vary- 
 ing from S. to S. W. in sharp squalls and lasting several 
 days. 
 
 The worst months for navigating this coast are those of 
 August, September, October and November, because the 
 winds are violent and blow ui)on the coast, and sufflcient 
 sail cannot frequently be carried to get an offing if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 In February, March, and April there is m^^ch fog at the^ 
 mouth of the Mississippi. Erom December to March the 
 winds are often from the N. and blow with violence. If 
 these winds turn to the E. or to the S. of E. the weather 
 becomes hazy, cloudy, and foggy. 
 Coast from the Erom the Bay of Matagorda to. Tampico the winds from 
 
 . Bay of Matagor- r^-n ' j_j_p ji i n a • 
 
 da to Tampico, the S. E. quarter are constant irom the month of Aprd to 
 August ; during the other months violent winds occur from 
 E. to E. S. E., which last two or three days before it comes 
 from the N. 
 
 During the line season the land breezes are regular from 
 llh. p. m. to 9 or lOh. a. m. 
 Coast from Ou the coast of Tampico and Yera Cruz, from April to 
 
 Tampico to Vera -"- ^ -^ 
 
 ^T'uz. July, the winds during the day blow from the E., variable 
 
 to E. S. E. ; during the night they go to the S. and S. W., 
 that is, they blow from the land. If the land breeze should 
 go to the N. W., accompanied with a light rain, the wind 
 will ordinarily come the next day from the N., N. N. E., or 
 from IsT. E., especiallj^ in August and September. The land 
 breezes are called vientos de cabeza or vendavales ; these 
 winds are generally light and extend from sixty to ninety 
 miles from the coast, and at this distance they are from E. 
 or from E. S. E.* 
 Vera Crnz. At "Vera Cruz the winter commences about the middle of 
 
 May and ends toward the middle of July. There are then 
 frequent interruptions in the trade- winds, much fog and many 
 storms. From the end of July to the middle of October, 
 the period at which the northerly winds set in, the storms 
 are heavier ; the most violent come from the E. and last 
 
 *Bernardocle Orta, Berrotero de las Antillas. 
 
WINDS — COAST OF ^lEXICO. 07 
 
 but il short tiino ; the winds from the K prevail aftci- the 
 iiii(hlU' OÏ October to the inouth of JNIareh. 
 
 The winds from this quarter moderate generally at sunset; 
 they are stron,i;-est from l)h. in the morninfi- until .'»h. in 
 the eveninji-, but they do not commenee until afteinoon or 
 toward the end of the day ; they continue during the night 
 increasing gradually in force. It happens at times that at 
 night, and even after midnight, the wind hauls to N. W. 
 and blows oft' the land. In this case, should it go to the 
 S. ^V'. toward morning, it is probable that the wind from K. 
 will not continue, and that the breeze from the offing will 
 return at the usual hour, from 9 to 10 in the morning ; but 
 if this does not take place about or at the time of sunrise, 
 at the commencement of the flood, the winds from the N. 
 will commence again with the same force as on the preced- 
 ing day ; it is then called the tide iciml from the N., norte 
 (le kl marea. 
 
 The winds from the N. end by turning to the eastward — 
 this is a guarantee of good weather. If the wind goes to the 
 X. E. in the afternoon, then, even should the ^ky be clouded 
 over the following morning, if during the night the land 
 breeze has blown from the S. to W., the sea breeze may be 
 calculated on in the evening; the weather then remains 
 good for five or six days ; this is about the longest period 
 with the winds from K. 
 
 In the case when from IS". E. the wind returns to N. î^. E. 
 and to N., the weather is very uncertain.* 
 
 The state of the sea is also a good index of the end of 
 a norther ; t it goes down gradually, becoming smoother 
 four or five hours before the wind ceases to blow. Wishing 
 to return to an anchorage it is well to be aware of this cir- 
 cumstance. 
 
 These remarks upon the winds are important in making 
 the land at Yera Cruz. 
 
 On the coast of IMexico, from Vera Cruz to Point Piedras, Coast of Mexico 
 during the dry season, the regular land and sea breezes t™Poiiit pïedras. 
 blow ; the sea breezes from the northward, that from the 
 land from the southward, from 7h. to 8h. in the evening to 
 8h. or Oh. in the morning. The dry season lasts from 
 September to April or May ; it commences with tornadoes 
 and violent squalls, which become more and more frequent 
 
 * Bernardo de Orta, Derrotero de las AntiUas. 
 
 t Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer des Antilles, Caiîtain de Kerhallet. 
 
68 WINDS — WEST INDIES. 
 
 iu May and June. The heavy rains fall in July and Au- 
 gust ; they are then continual and abundant. In this sea- 
 son there are at times heavy winds from B. S. E., which 
 last for three or four days. 
 
 The winds from N. to N. E. commence in October ; they 
 are very strong in December and January and then de- 
 crease in strength to March. Generally they are fresh and 
 dry, and stronger than the ordinary winds. 
 Coast from Qn the portiou of the coast comprised between Point Pie- 
 
 Point Piedras to , , , -, , , 
 
 Cape catociie. dras aud Cape Catoche the seasons are nearly the same as 
 those just indicated, only the prevailing winds are those from 
 IsT. E., interrupted, in the season in which thej^ predominate, 
 by strong winds from the N. In April tornadoes may be ex- 
 pected, blowing from the K. E. to the S. E. This season of 
 sharp, sudden squalls continnes to September, and as long 
 as it lasts the winds of the ofhng blow upon the coast from 
 K. N. W. to K. W. These breezes come up at about llh. 
 in the morning, and dnring the night they haul to the 
 E. and E. S. E., then to S. E, ', they can be regarded as land 
 breezes. 
 
 It is remarkable that the stronger the winds from K. î^. 
 W. to X. W. are, the more violent are the tornadoes which 
 interrupt them momentarily. 
 
 On this part of the coast it is observed, besides, that the 
 rainy season is much shorter than on the neighboring coast 
 to the west. 
 
 We will for a time leave the coast at Cape Catoche, the 
 southern limit of the Gulf of Mexico, to describe the winds 
 in some of the West India Islands. 
 West India The trade- wiuds from N. E., varying to the S. E., prevail, 
 particularly in the Caribbean Sea, but on approacoing the 
 shores of the islands there are disturbances in these winds 
 which we will indicate. On the coast of the Greater An- 
 tilles, Cuba, Jamaica, San Domingo, and Porto Eico the sea 
 breeze blows regularly during the day, and that from the 
 land during the night. These land breezes are the freshest 
 that are known, and are extremely favorable to navigators 
 going from W. to E. in this sea. 
 
 In the Lesser Antilles or Windward Islands there are no 
 land breezes, or rather they blow too short a distance off the 
 coast to be of service to navigation. 
 
 In these islands two seasons are marked, the dry and the 
 rainy. The limits of these seasons vary according to the 
 
WINDS — IIUIMMCANKS. T.!) 
 
 positions of tlio isliinds; it niny bo said, however, that the 
 former hists from Oetober to June and the latter from June 
 to October. 
 
 J)uring- the dry season the N. E. trades bh)Nv regularly 
 and fresh, with a clear sky. ])uring the winter, from June 
 to October, there are tornadoes aiul hurricanes, which take 
 place particularly between the lath of July and the 15th of 
 October. 
 
 The following chronological table of the i>rincipal hurri- 
 canes which have devastated the AYest Indies during a pe- 
 riod of one hundred and sixty-two years, is from Johnston: 
 1675, August 31, Barbadoes. 
 1081, Antigua. 
 1707, Antigua. 
 1712, August 28, Jamaica. 
 1722, August 28, Jamaica. 
 1720, October 22, Jamaica. 
 1710, Antigua. 
 1714, October 20, Jamaica. 
 1751, September 2, Jamaica. 
 1700, August 13, Sau Domingo and Hayti. 
 1772, Antigua. 
 1780, October 3, Jamaica. 
 
 1780, October 10, Barbadoes, Martinique, Porto Eico, San 
 
 Domingo, Bermudas. 
 
 1781, August 1, Jamaica. 
 1781, July 30, Jamaica. 
 1785, August 27, Jamaica. 
 1780, October 20, Jamaica. 
 
 1791, October 20, Jamaica. 
 
 1792, Antigua. 
 
 1795, August 1, Antigua. 
 
 1801, September 3, Antigua, &c., 
 
 1804, September 19, Islands of Bahama, 
 
 1805, July 25, the vicinity of the Islands of Bahama. 
 1800, September, the vicinity of the Islands of Bahama. 
 1807, October 14, between Jamaica and Santa Marta. 
 
 1809, August 3, Porto Rico, San Domingo. 
 
 1810, August 18, Porto Rico, San Domingo. 
 1812, August 14, Jamaica. 
 
 1812, October 12, Jamaica. 
 
 1813, August 1, Jamaica. 
 
 1815, October 18 and 19, Jamaica. 
 
 1818, September 10 to 12, Cayman and Campeachy. 
 
70 WINDS — HURRICANES. 
 
 1818, September 19, Alia Yela and San Doinino-o. 
 1818, September 21, Barbadoes and Dominica. 
 1818, September 22 to 25, Antigua. 
 1818, October 7, Jamaica. 
 
 1819, , Barbadoes. 
 
 1821, September 1, Bahama, Carolinas, &g. 
 1827, August 17, St. Martin, St. Thomas. 
 1830, August 12, St. Thomas. 
 1830, August 22, Islands of Bahama. 
 
 1830, September 29, north part of the West Indies. 
 
 1831, June 23, Trinity, Tobago, and Grenada. 
 1831, August 10, Barbadoes. 
 
 1835, August 12, Antigua, St. Thomas. 
 
 1835, September 3, Barbadoes. 
 
 1835, July 10, Barbadoes, St. Vincent, and Santa Lucia. 
 
 1837, July 26, Barbadoes. 
 
 1837, August 2, Antigua, St. Thomas. 
 
 1837, August 16 to 25, north coast of the Windward Islands. 
 
 From the above it is seen that in a jjeriod of one hundred 
 and sixty-two years the hurricanes of the West Indies oc- 
 curred as follows : In J une, 2 ; July, 4 ; August, 18 ; Sep- 
 tember, 11 5 October, 10.* 
 
 We will review, in the following pages, the hurricanes of 
 the three great seas of the globe in a few general remarks. 
 A special study of these terrible tempests would be beyond 
 the province of this work. 
 Hurricanes. Hurricaucs f take place in the three great seas of the 
 
 globe — the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Pacific Oceans; 
 the latter, soit dit en passant, (jould be more suitably called 
 the Great Ocean. 
 
 * According to Blodget : Climate of United States, p. 400, from obser- 
 vations extending over nearly four centuries, hurricanes have occurred 
 in the West India Islands and their vicinity in the following ratio j»er 
 100 for the different months of the year : 
 
 January, 1.5; February, 2; March, 3 ; April, 2 ; May, 1.5; June, 3 ; 
 July, 7; August, 28.5; Sejîtember, 24; October, 20.5; November, 5; De- 
 cember, 2. 
 
 t For a more complete description of hurricanes, &c., we would refer 
 mariners to the excellent treatise of M. Keller, hydrographie engineer, 
 Paris: Traité stir les Ouragans, c^-c; and also to Silliman's Journal; to 
 Reid, Attempt to Develop the Laws of Storms ; to Thom, Inquiry into the 
 Nature and Laws of Storms ; to Piddingtou, Horn Boole of Sto7'ms, Oiserva- 
 tions on lievolving Storms, British Admiralty ; and the Memoir on the Storms 
 of the East Indies, by Lieutenant Lefebvre. 
 
^VINDS — IIU K i; 1( " ANES. 7 1 
 
 111 (he Atlantic Ocoaii, the West indies is tlic center of 
 the most terrible lini'i'icanes known. In the Indian Ocean 
 it is ;il>out the ]»osition of K'odriyiiez, IManritins, and Ké- 
 uiiion Islands, lu the Pacitic, where ver3" lew observations 
 have thus far bceu made, it is supposed to be iu tlie viciuity 
 of the Tou<ia Islands. 
 
 In the West Indies and their vicinity, the seasou duriufi,- Porioiiof huni- 
 Avhicli hurricaues maybe expected is that comprised betweeu *^'"'"*' 
 the mouths of August aud October; at this period the nav 
 iyatiou of the West ludies, of the Gulf of Mexico, aud 
 south coast of the United States, should be avoided as 
 umch as i^ossible. 
 
 If it is necessary to winter in these localities a perfectly 
 protected port should be chosen, Hurricaues seldom occur 
 iu June or July. 
 
 In the Indian Ocean, hurricanes take place from Decem- 
 ber to April ; that is, during the w^armest months of the 
 southern hemisphere ; they seldom occur iu November and iu 
 May, and are unknown during the other months of the year. 
 
 Iu the Pacific Ocean, to the south of the Equator the 
 known hurricanes have taken pLace iu jSTovember and in 
 December, and they appear to have much similarity to 
 those of the Indian seas. 
 
 In the Atlantic Ocean, to the north of the Equator, the The supposed 
 
 " ■■ ' extent ot rlie 
 
 SU] )i)osed extent of the zone where hurricanes are exneri- zp^es where hm-- 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ricanes are met 
 
 enced is comprised between the latitude of 10° and 50° N., with. 
 and the longitude of 50° and 100° W. 
 
 In the Indian Ocean, the extent of this zone in longitude 
 is three thousand miles, from the west coast of Australia to 
 that of Madagascar, and is comprised between the latitude 
 of GO or 8° S. aud 22° S.* 
 
 Having indicated the different treatises published on hur- 
 ricanes, w^e cite particularly that of M. Keller and the me- 
 moir of M. Lefebvre, and would refer all seamen to these 
 works who may wish to familiarize themselves with the 
 manner in which the general laws of storms are deduced 
 from theory, as also the practical rules for escaping their 
 violence. This subject does not enter into the plan of this 
 memoir, iu W'hich Ave only state facts without searching for 
 the causes. We will limit ourselves by giving the general 
 laws of hurricanes, as deduced from numerous observations, 
 * See General Examination of the Indian Ocean. 
 
72 
 
 WINDS — HURRICANES. 
 
 Gyratory move 
 meut. 
 
 Movement 
 translation. 
 
 of 
 
 and refer for the practical directions to the Appendix l^o. 1 
 at the end of this work. 
 
 These teini:)ests have a double movement ; the one gyra- 
 tory, or rotary, the other of translation, or movement from 
 one place to another.* 
 
 To the north of the Equator the gyratory movement is 
 from the right to the left in passing by the N. ; that is to 
 say, in an opposite direction to the movement of the hands 
 of a watch. In the southern hemisphere, on the contrary, 
 it is from right to left in passing by the IST., or in the same 
 direction as the movement of the hands of a watch. 
 
 The movement of translation is uiDon a parabolic curve, 
 the apex of which is always turned toward the W., and the 
 branches throw themselves out to the E. The apex of this 
 curve is tangent to the meridian about the latitude of 30° 
 in the northern hemisphere, and about that of 26° in the 
 southern hemisphere ; that is to say, nearly at the polar 
 limits of the trade-winds. The hurricane moves on this 
 curve in departing from the Equator; in other words, the 
 point of departure of the hurricane is at the eastern ex- 
 tremity of the curve of its path nearest approaching the 
 Equator, and in a latitude nearly equal to the declination 
 of the sun ; from thence, the hurricane, in the flrst half of 
 its course, is directed toward the apex of the curve, or to- 
 ward the W.; then it follows this apex as tangent to the 
 meridian, bending afterward to the E., in the portion of the 
 curve of its path the furthest removed from the Equator. 
 
 Telocity of The vclocity of the translation is in proportion to the 
 violence of the tempest. In the mildest hurricanes ob- 
 served, it has not been less than ten miles an hour, and in 
 the most violent it has not exceeded thirty miles, t 
 
 Diameter of the Nearly all authors on this subject, observes M. Lefebvre, 
 have sought to measure the diameter of the vortex, and, 
 this diameter being known, to determine from the force of 
 the wind and the falling of the barometer at what distance 
 the observer was from the center. They have succeeded 
 but indiiferently ; the diameter of the vortex of hurricanes 
 
 * The following is taken from the treatise of M. Keller. 
 
 t M. Lefebvre states that for the Indian Ocean these velocities are too 
 great, and he estimates for the movement of translation a velocity of 
 from five to six miles an hour, as a mean, for, he adds, hnrricanes do not 
 change their place but at a rate of velocity of two miles per hour. — 
 Memoir on the Hurricanes of the Indies, 4'0-, page 12. 
 
WINDS — nUERIOANES. 73 
 
 is very variable. M. Keller states that the initial diameter 
 of the {ïyratory movement is from 3^ to 4° of the terrestrial 
 are, and that it increases progressively as it advances, until 
 it attains S*^ or 9° at the extremity of the cnr\e of its path. 
 
 In the northern hemisphere, the vessels i)laced on tliegp^,i'^JJ.gfj^f ^•'"■'' 
 edije of the rijiht parallel to the path of the center, and in 
 the sontliern hemisphere those placed on the edge of the 
 left, are those most injured. 
 
 A ship surprised l)y a hurricane perceives successively 
 every direction of the rotary movement of the air on a 
 secant parallel to the path of the center of the meteor ; * 
 these changes of direction never make the tour of the com- 
 pass. When the secant traverses the center of the meteor 
 the wind changes sixteen points at the center perpendicu- 
 larly to the line of translation, and after an interval of calm. 
 
 On each secant the barometer falls gradually to the in- oscillations of 
 
 '^ * the baronifter. 
 
 stant of the passage of the point nearest the center, then 
 it rises progressively from this moment until the end of the 
 tempest, which corresponds to the extremity of the secant. 
 But, says M. Lefebvre, the violence of the wind is no more 
 connected with the diameter of the vortex than the fall of 
 the barometer is. The wind increases as the center is ap- 
 proached, and the barometer constantly falls; this is all 
 that can be said. To attempt to establish a general rule on 
 this point would most likely lead to error, t 
 
 Such, according to M. Keller, are the laws princii)ally ob- 
 served in hurricanes. These laws known, the attempt has 
 been made to utilize them, and to give to seamen the means 
 of avoiding the violence of these terrible phenomena. The 
 two problems to solve were these : 1st, to determine in a 
 hurricane the position occupied by the vessel in relation to 
 the movement of translation of the meteor ; 2d, this posi- 
 tion known, to determine which may be the best maneuver 
 to make to receive the hurricane or to cross it in the man- 
 ageable semicircle. The tirst problem is easily resolved, 
 and M. Keller has given us on this subject a very important 
 general rule which can be applied to every type of tempest, 
 whether they have a convergent or divergent character ; 
 that is to say, whether the wind in turning describes a 
 circle, or whether it is directed from the circumference to 
 
 * Some authors state that iu these tempests the wind attains a ve- 
 locity of even ninety miles an hour. 
 i Memoir on Hurricanes, tf-c, page IL 
 
74 WINDS — HURRIOANES. 
 
 the center of the vortex, or from its center toward the cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 The following is the principle on which can he determined 
 in every case whether you are to the right or to the left of 
 the path of the storm : * 
 
 " Every vortex, in moving, causes to be felt at fixed j)oints 
 on its passage to the left of the path of its center a suc- 
 cessive change of wind, turning by compass to the left, or 
 in an opposite direction to the movement of the hands of a 
 watch. It causes to be experienced at points situated to the 
 right of this path a succession of winds which turn by the 
 compass to the right, with the movement of the hands of a 
 w^atch." 
 
 Thus, when a hurricane threatens, by remaining one or 
 two hours in nearly the same position, and observing with 
 great care the successive variations of the wind, the iDOsi- 
 tion of the vessel with regard to the line of its path can be 
 determined without difiliculty, and consequently whether 
 you are in the dangerous or manageable semicircle. 
 
 In hurricanes of a rotary type it is very easy to determine 
 the bearing of the center of the tempest with regard to the 
 vessel. We have said, in effect, that in these tempests, that 
 to the north of the Equator the wind turns from right to 
 left, contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
 and that to the south of the Equator it turns from left to 
 right. Then whatever may be the space occupied by the 
 tempest, the wind blows always in describing a circle. Ev- 
 idently the center of this circle should be found on the per- 
 pendicular to the direction of the existing wind. Conse- 
 quently, it is sulficient to determine by compass the direc- 
 tion of the wind, and the center will be 90° to the right, if 
 in the northern hemisphere, and 90° to the left if in the 
 southern hemisphere. 
 
 In order to avoid error in this particular, the following 
 table can be used, which gives at once, from the direction 
 of the wind, the bearing of the center of the storm for 
 each hemisphere : 
 
 * Menwir on the Typlioon of lltli to 14th Septenxber, 1840, page 3. In a 
 memoir mucli more comprehensive, which includes the researches made 
 by M. Keller on hurricanes, which is yet uni^ublished, the principle 
 which we give here in so condensed a sha^ie will be accompanied by ex- 
 planations, &c., which will demonstrate its correctness and its practical 
 aj)plication. 
 
WINDS — HURRICANES. 
 
 Korthorii beiuisphero. 
 
 It' llic wiiiil i.s — 
 
 N 
 
 N.byE 
 
 N.N.E 
 
 N.E.byîf 
 
 N.E 
 
 X. E. by E 
 
 E.X.E 
 
 K.byN 
 
 E 
 
 E.byS 
 
 E. S. E 
 
 S. E. byE 
 
 S.E 
 
 S. E. by S 
 
 S. S.E 
 
 S. by E 
 
 S 
 
 S.by W 
 
 S. S.W 
 
 S.W.byS 
 
 S.W 
 
 S. W. by W . . . . 
 
 W. S. W 
 
 W.by S 
 
 ^^ 
 
 W.byN 
 
 VT.N.W 
 
 N. W.by W.... 
 
 N. W 
 
 N.W.byN .... 
 
 X.X.W 
 
 N. by W 
 
 Tbo ci'iitiT 
 beais — 
 
 E 
 
 E.byS 
 
 E.S.E 
 
 S.E.byE... 
 
 S.E 
 
 S. E. by S . . . 
 
 S. S.E 
 
 S. byE 
 
 S 
 
 S.by W 
 
 s.s,^v 
 
 S. W. by s . . 
 
 S.W 
 
 S. W. by W . 
 W.S.W.... 
 
 W.by S 
 
 W 
 
 W. by X ... . 
 W. N.W.... 
 X. W.by W. 
 
 N. W 
 
 KW.byN.. 
 KN.W .... 
 Kby W.... 
 
 N 
 
 N.byE 
 
 N. N. E 
 
 X. E. by X . . 
 
 X. E 
 
 X. E. by E . . 
 
 E.X'.E 
 
 E. by X 
 
 Soutbern bemisphorc. 
 
 If tbo wind i.s — 
 
 X 
 
 X. by E 
 
 X.X.E 
 
 X. E. by X ... . 
 
 X^. E 
 
 X". E. by E . . . . 
 
 E.X.E 
 
 E.byX 
 
 E 
 
 E.byS 
 
 E. S. E 
 
 S. E. by E 
 
 S. E 
 
 S. E. by S 
 
 S.S.E 
 
 S. byE 
 
 S 
 
 S.byW 
 
 S. S. W 
 
 S. W. by S . . . . 
 
 S.W 
 
 S. W. by W . . . 
 
 TT. S. W 
 
 W.by S 
 
 W 
 
 W.byX 
 
 W.N.W 
 
 X'.W.by W... 
 
 X. W 
 
 X. W. by X . . . 
 
 X. X. w 
 
 N.by W 
 
 Tbu ci'iiUn- 
 beai'8 — 
 
 W. 
 
 W. by X. 
 
 W. X. W. 
 
 X. W. by W. 
 
 X. AV. 
 
 X^. W. by X. 
 
 X. N. W. 
 
 X. by W. 
 
 X. 
 
 X. by E. \ 
 
 X. X". E. 
 
 X^. E. by X\ 
 
 X. E. 
 
 X^. E. by E. 
 
 E. X. E. 
 
 E. by X^. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. by S. 
 
 E.S.E. 
 
 S. E. by E. 
 
 S.E. 
 
 S. E. by S. 
 
 S. S. E. 
 
 S. by E. 
 
 S. 
 
 S. by W. 
 
 s. s. w. 
 
 S. W. by S. 
 
 S.TT. 
 
 S. W. by W. 
 
 ^Y. S. W. 
 
 W. by S. 
 
 The bearing- of the center of a hurricane from the vessel 
 being known, it is certainly desirable to determine its dis- 
 tance; for this, however, no precise rule has as yet been 
 found. Some very good inferences may be drawn from the 
 quickness or sluggishness with which it appears to develop 
 itself, from the increasing violence of the squalls, from the 
 irregularity of the sea which rises in several directions, and 
 above all from the rapid variations of the barometer. 
 
 A remarkable trait of the rotary gale is the increase of 
 the wind in the vicinity of its center, although at the center 
 itself it blows so irregularly and by squalls as to render it 
 impossible for a ship to complete a maneuver. The nearer 
 the center is approached the more sudden are the changes 
 
76 WINDS — HURin CANES. 
 
 of the wiuds, which instead of shifting- point by point, as is 
 the case at the entrance of the circle of the tempest, it shifts 
 all at once sixteen points. The ship is enveloped in a ter- 
 rible squall, and gathers stem-board against a frightful sea, 
 the disastrous consequences of which it would be unneces- 
 sary to detail. 
 
 The undulations and currents of hurricanes appear to be 
 
 the constant results of these violent atmospheric shocks. 
 
 These two phenomena deserve to be the subject of serious 
 
 study and research. 
 
 Undulations of The uudulatiou of the hurricane is a mass of water of 
 
 the hurricane. it t i « 
 
 greater or less diameter, according- to the lorce of the tem- 
 pest raised above the ordinary level of the ocean by the atmo- 
 spheric pressure or other cause. This mass is driven before 
 the storm in its course until it encounters some obstacle, as 
 the mouths of rivers, bays or coasts, when it often j)roduces 
 serious inundations or heavy bores. 
 Currents of the The cuiTcnts of a hurricaue can be briefly defined as cir- 
 cular currents, where the circumference of the tempest is of 
 a rotarj^ type. 
 
 There are also in every hurricane two forces, independent 
 of that of the wind, which act upon a vessel, the one drawing- 
 her directly in the line of the path of the storm, the other 
 drawing her toward the circumference of that portion of 
 the rotary circle where she is placed; thus While the drift 
 due to the undulation of the hurricane sets towards the 
 W., the current of the hurricane will set towards the W. 
 on the northern jjortion of the rotary circle ; it will set to the 
 E. on the southern part of this circle, to the S. on the 
 western portion, and to the N. on the eastern portion of the 
 same circle. If the rotary motion is from E. to W. passing- 
 by the K., as in the hurricanes of the northern hemi- 
 sphere, the rotary motion would be in the opposite direction 
 in the hurricanes of the southern hemisphere.* Electricity 
 seems to take a great x^art in hurricanes, though very often 
 it may escape observation. 
 
 Among the thirty-two hurricanes of the Indian Ocean, of 
 which the data is precise, eleven have been accompanied by 
 thunder and lightning, while in twenty-one no electric phe- 
 nomena were observed. Thorn f says that these phenomena 
 are five times more frequent on the north side of the curve 
 
 * Inqxnry into the Nature and Course of Storms. 
 t Mom Book of Shtrms. 
 
WINDS — HURRICANES. 77 
 
 of translation of linnicanos than on tlie sontli side, that is, 
 in tlio ])ositi()u \\\w\v the monsoons of the W. prevail, lie 
 adds that it was so common for lightnin*; in the N. and K 
 \V. t«> precede a gale, tliat the Dntch captains when going 
 from the Cape of Good Hope to India had orders to reduce 
 sail and take every precaution when they saw lightning. 
 
 Ill addition to the menacing aspect of the sky which gen- 
 erally precedes all storms, that thick circle round the sun or 
 moon, clouds heaped up and distended with their gloomy 
 lines of light and their fantastical colors, often of copper 
 color, forming a heavy curtain at the horizon, with mena- 
 cing points and lines of pale lightning, is known to every 
 sailor. These clouds rise little by little, covering soon the 
 whole horizon. In approaching the zenith squalls form be- 
 fore the strength of the tempest ; the rain falls in torrents, 
 and at the same time the hurricane bursts.* 
 
 The barometer and sympiesometer are most valuable in- 
 struments in the region of hurricanes, and should be atten- 
 tively consulted. In these regions a great fall of the mercury 
 below its ordinary level never takes place without being 
 followed by a tempest. We have given above its course in 
 hurricanes. 
 
 Heavy rains always accompany tempests of a rotary type. 
 At a distance of one hundred miles from each side of the 
 rotary circle, there is a heavy bank of clouds giving out tor- 
 rents of water without interruption, and this during several 
 weeks. 
 
 Hurricanes seldom penetrate into the Gulf of Mexico, 
 though three or four have ravaged its coast, and reached as 
 far as Vera Cruz. Among others that of 18th of August, 
 1810, and that of 23d of June, 1831. 
 
 To leeward of the high land which forms the greater part c a i m s an a 
 of the West India Islands calms are often experienced, in- w^es't '^I'udi.a 
 terrupted by violent and dangerous squalls descending the 
 gorges of the mountains. It is only two or three leagues in 
 the of&ng that the regular breeze is felt. The flaws are an- 
 nounced only by a sharp whistling, and at times by the 
 ripple on the surface of the sea. It is necessary to be 
 guarded against these flaws when sailing to leeward of the 
 islands. Ships have been dismasted by these gusts, and 
 some have even been capsized at the entrance of the bays 
 where they intended to anchor. 
 
 Strong races occur during the winter in most of the bays Kaces. 
 
 * Lefebvre. 
 
7b WINDS — WEST INDIES — CUBA. 
 
 of these islands; tliey come generally after a calm or light 
 breezes. 
 Cuba. In Cuba the rainy season is from June to September. 
 
 Around the island the N. E. trade bloAvs with regularity 
 from March to October. During the other months it fre- 
 quently takes the direction of N. variable to the N. W., and 
 then it is very violent. 
 
 In the fine season the land and sea breeze is regular on 
 the northern coast; it commences about 11 a. m. or noon, 
 and ceases in the evening, to give place to the laud breeze. 
 It is observed that while the trade-wind predominates on 
 this coast, the winds blow often from S. to E. in the morning, 
 shifting afternoon to E. IST. E. and to îsT. E. until evening. 
 At Havana the sea breeze springs up generally at 10 a. m. 
 On the southern coast the land and sea breezes alternate; 
 the land breeze commences a little after sunset. 
 
 The sudden gusts of wind called los hayamos* are local 
 squalls, which blow from the land to the ofi&ng on the south 
 coast of Cuba. They have received this name from being- 
 more violent in the vicinity of the Bay of Bayamos, situated 
 to the north of Cape Cruz, than elsewhere. The hayamos 
 are announced by thick clouds covering the mountains, and 
 by the thunder which nearly ahvays precedes the wind. 
 As soon as the first clap of thunder is heard, sail should be 
 taken in and furled, for in the majority of cases the wind 
 will arrive immediately after. These squalls are of short 
 duration, but they are at times very violent, and as they 
 succeed each other at the interval of an hour and even of a 
 half hour, it is necessary to watch well the weather, par- 
 ticularly during the night, to avoid being surprised, for if 
 caught under the upper sails there is nearly a certainty of 
 being dismasted or endangering the ship. 
 
 These sudden squalls are accompanied by flashes of light- 
 ning which succeed each other with frightful rapidity; they 
 are extremely brilliant and leave behind them a bluish tint. 
 During the bayamos the sea becomes white with foam and 
 rain falls in torrents. 
 
 The following table is a résumé of the observations which 
 we have collected on the wind and weather of the Island of 
 Cuba. The winds marked with an asterisk (*) are those 
 which blow the most frequently : * 
 
 Manuel de la Navigation dans la Mer' des Antilles, ^^c, part iii. 
 
^V1^'D« — WEST INDIES — CUBA. 
 
 Month.-*. 
 
 Most tVr(|Ucut « iml.-i. 
 
 Observations on wiiiil ami wratbcr. 
 
 January 
 
 N., N. E.,* E.,* S. E., 
 
 Generally cloudy ; strong winds from N. ; 
 
 
 S., S.W.,W., N.W. 
 
 cloiuly ; «(jualls; land and sea breezes irreg- 
 ular. 
 
 Fflirnarv 
 
 N.,X.E.,*E.,*S.E., 
 
 Generally clowly : winds fresh ; some strong 
 
 
 S., S.AV.,W., N.W. 
 
 winds from N. 
 
 starch 
 
 N.,N.E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 
 
 Sea breezes fresh ; some gusts; weather gen- 
 
 
 S.,N.W. 
 
 erally clear. 
 
 April 
 
 N.,]S'.E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 
 
 Fine generally; winds moderate; land and 
 
 
 S., S.W.,W., N.W. 
 
 sea breezes. 
 
 May 
 
 K, 2f. E.,* E.,* S. E., 
 
 Fine ; some rain squalls ; winds moderate ; 
 
 
 S., S.W.,"W., N.W. 
 
 land and sea breezes. 
 
 June 
 
 H-.E.,*E.,*S.E.,*S., 
 
 Fine ; weather dry ; winds moderate ; land and 
 
 
 S.W. 
 
 sea breezes. 
 
 July 
 
 2f. E., E.,* S. E.,* S., 
 
 A portion very pleasant ; fresh breezes ; rain 
 
 
 s. w., w. 
 
 at intervals ; calm ; squalls. 
 
 August 
 
 K E., E.,* S. E„* S., 
 
 Squalls with rain; calms; storms; light winds; 
 
 
 S. W., W., N. W. 
 
 some rain-squalls. 
 
 September 
 
 N.,N".E.,*E.,*S.E.,* 
 
 Very fine ; calms ; sea breezes, light ; sky 
 
 
 S.W., W., N.W. 
 
 cloudy ; storms. 
 
 October 
 
 îf., K. E.,* E., S. E . . 
 
 Very tine ; moderato breezes ; occasional 
 squalls. 
 
 November 
 
 N.,*ÎÎ.E.,*E., S.E., 
 
 Moderate breezes ; occasional squalls ; winds 
 
 
 S.W., W„N.W. 
 
 fresh; light rain; winds from N. occasion- 
 ally ; generally fine. 
 
 December 
 
 2s"., K.E.,*E.,*S.E., 
 
 Good weather ; gales from N. ; fresh breezes ; 
 
 
 S. W., N. W. 
 
 cloudy. 
 
 We give below a series of obseryations made during a Bahama isi'ds 
 year at Nassau, New Providence :* 
 
 Mouths. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Remarks on the wind and 
 weather. 
 
 January 
 
 S N E N N. E. N 
 
 Fresh breezes with clouds. 
 
 N.E., S.E.,]Sr.E 
 
 N.E., S. E., KE., N 
 
 Moderate and variable. 
 
 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 E., N.E., S.E., N.W 
 
 Clear; a little rain. 
 
 
 ... do 
 
 Clear; dry. 
 Light ; clear. 
 Squalls with rain. 
 Clear ; rain and fog. 
 Light ; rain and squalls. 
 Moderate ; squalls. 
 Variable ; light ; clear. 
 
 July 
 
 S. E., E., S., N. E 
 
 KE., E., N. W., S 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 lSr.E.,N.N.W., S 
 
 E. N E N W 
 
 Xovember 
 
 s., s. w., w. s. w 
 
 December 
 
 S., S. W., N. W 
 
 
 
 
 * Montgomery Martin, History, &.c. 
 
80 WINDS — BAHAMA ISLANDS. 
 
 Barometer. At the Islancl of New Providciice * the movemeut of the 
 
 mercury of the barometer is greater during the winter than 
 in the summer. The oscillations are never so considerable 
 as observed in higher latitudes ; but as little as they may be^ 
 they are wholly appreciable. 
 
 The rain has but little influence on the barometer; sensi- 
 tive only to the winds, it rises and falls in accordance with 
 the direction from which they blow ; thus the barometer will 
 be much higher with the winds from N. to E., accomi)anied 
 by rain, than when they vary from S. W. to N. W. by the 
 W., without rain. The barometer attains its maximum 
 height with the winds from N. E., and its minimum with 
 those from 'N. W. 
 
 If during the winter, that is from the commencement of 
 October to the end of March, the wind blows strong from 
 the N. E., the barometer stands between 30 and 30.1 inches 
 to 30.2 inches. If then the weather becomes bad and the 
 barometer rises much, (that is 0.05 to 0.10 inch,) it announces 
 a blow or a very fresh breeze from this quarter. This is re- 
 markable, for in all the other cases of very fresh winds, the 
 barometer falls. 
 
 If, Avith the winds from K. E. the mercury falls, the 
 winds will turn to the eastward; if it continues to fall, it 
 will turn to the S. E., to the S., and successively to the ]!Sr. 
 W. Th^ barometer will then reach its minimum, with the 
 ordinary winds from N. W. ; this is about 29.86 inches. But 
 if, instead of falling gradually as we have said, it falls much 
 and suddenly, with the wind at N. E., or at any intermedi- 
 ate point between î^. E. and S., it is i^robable that there will 
 be a sudden calm, and that the wind will fly quickly to the 
 ]Sr. W. However, if, after the mercury has descended grad- 
 ually, it again rises with any intermediate wind, this wind, 
 under these circumstances, will turn to the E. and N. E. 
 and will remain in that quarter until another faU of the 
 barometer. 
 
 When the wind is N. W., if the mercury remains low, it 
 may be expected that the wind will blow some time from 
 this direction ; if the mercury rises it is a certain indication 
 that the wind will turn to the N. ; and if the mercury con- 
 tinues to rise, that it will approach to the N. E. ; but if it 
 descends with the wind at N., the wind will return to the 
 N. W. When the upward movement with the wind at K. 
 * Observations made by S. C. Lees at Nassau. 
 
wiM)v? — Avi:sT ixi)n:s — .i.vmaica. 
 
 SI 
 
 \\ . IS liipid wild coiisick'rijble the wind will nor icnniin loîii;' 
 at X., but will liMul to the N. E. 
 
 I>iinn.<i- the suinincr months the winds vary tVoiii X. E. to 
 S.; those wliich prevail blow between E. and S. The bai- 
 ometer in tliis season varies 0.75 ineli above and below 30 
 inelies; it is lii-her than this on the approach of winds from 
 the X. E. and while it blows, and lower when the Avind is 
 comino- from the southward and while it lasts. There is, 
 however, a oeiu>ral light wind from the S., which blows in • 
 the mornino- and evening and extends but a short distance 
 from the land and resembles the land and sea breezes near 
 the hirge islands; it produces no effect on the barometer. 
 
 When in the months of hurricanes the barometer falls 
 considerably and rapidly, bad weather should be expected 
 and every precaution taken. If, for example, the barometer 
 is at ;K).i; inches, and descends suddenly to 21).S inches, this 
 fall should cause mistrust; and if it siiould tall below this 
 point, there is nearly a certainty of soon having a gale. This 
 fall of the barometer might, soinetimes, precede a hurricane 
 l)y one or two hours only. 
 
 At the Island of Jamaica the land and sea breezes are Jamaica. 
 well established in the tine season ; the former extends as 
 far as twelve miles from the coast, and they cease about 
 4h. in the morning. The following observations have been 
 made on the winds at this island: 
 
 Mouths. 
 
 •laimary . . . 
 February . , 
 
 March 
 
 A pril 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . . 
 Sipti^mber . 
 
 « Htober 
 
 November . 
 December. . 
 
 Wiuds. 
 
 N. to S. E 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 --..do 
 
 S.S.W 
 
 S. S. W. andS. E. 
 
 do 
 
 -...do 
 
 -...do 
 
 Eeiiiarks ou the wind and weather. 
 
 Fine; light rains ; strong winds from N. 
 Fine and dry ; strong sea breezes. 
 
 Do. 
 Very dry ; moderate lireize.s. 
 Fine ; showers. 
 Fine generally ; heavy rains. 
 Much rain : fine generally i:i the intervals. 
 Some hea"vy rains. 
 
 Fine moi-uiugs ; much rain afternoon. 
 Heavy rains at intervals ; generally fine. 
 
 Do. 
 Little rain : generally fine. 
 
 The winds in the Island of Santo Domingo or Hayti vary 
 according to the different parts of the coast where they 
 blow. The winter continues from the end of April to Xo- 
 vember. In this season gusts and storms are frequent; at 
 the same period strong S. E. winds are experienced in the 
 (Î A o 
 
 Santo Domingo. 
 
82 
 
 WINDS— WEST INDIES^ PORTO RICO. 
 
 Poi'to Eico. 
 
 "Windward 
 Islands. 
 
 Bay of Gouaives, aud in tlie Cliauiiel of St. Marc. Iii No- 
 vember, December, January, aud February, the winds from 
 N. variable to îsT. W., blow with force, principally on the 
 northern coast of the island. On the southern coast, fre- 
 quent storms occur in June, July, and August, in which the 
 winds come from the S., aud are violent i)rincipally from 
 that direction. 
 
 On the entire coast of this island the land and sea breezes 
 blow; their direction varies according to the trending of the 
 land. The sea breeze commences at from 8 to 9 a. m., in- 
 creases until midday, or 4 p. m., when it diminishes and 
 gives place to the land breeze, wliich lasts until 4 or 6 in 
 the morning. 
 
 At Porto Eico the rains fall from June to August. The 
 trade-winds are from N. E. The sea breeze commences at 
 8 a. m., and lasts until 4 in the evening, when it gives i)lace 
 to the land breeze. On the coast of this island the land 
 breeze, while it lasts, is very weak, and it cannot be counted 
 on. 
 
 The following observations made at Trinidad and at Do- 
 minica will give a general idea of the winds met with in 
 the Windward Islands, as also their climate. The first table 
 is for the Island of Trinidad : 
 
 Months. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Observations on wind and weatber. 
 
 Jaun.ary 
 
 E., E. N. E., and E. S. E . . 
 
 E.andE.Î^.E 
 
 ....do 
 
 Cloudy ; rain. 
 Cloudy ; heavy dews. 
 Fine ; dry. 
 
 
 
 E.N.E 
 
 S. E., E. IS^". E 
 
 E.N.E.,E.S.E 
 
 E.N.E 
 
 E. S. E 
 
 May 
 
 Strong breezes ; thunder. 
 Eainy ; breezes variable, iu force. 
 Subject to tempests, rains, andstornis. 
 Wind in squalls ; rain and storms. 
 Heavy rains ; storms. 
 
 Jnly 
 
 
 
 do 
 
 
 -do 
 
 
 E. and E.N. E 
 
 . do 
 
 Eine ; occasionally warTH. 
 Cold. 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
\V1M)S — t'OAST OF llOiNDl'llAS, J'/J'C. 83 
 
 The iolloAviug table is lor the Island of Dominica : 
 
 Montlis. 
 
 Winds. 
 
 Observations on wind and weather. 
 
 
 E. N. K. aiKlN 
 
 Clondv. 
 
 I'Vbniarv 
 
 E. N. E. ami S. E 
 
 N. E. to S. E 
 
 CV.ld. 
 
 Fine; sonietinios cloudy. 
 
 Eine ; niodei'ato breezes. 
 
 
 E. N. E., S. E., S 
 
 N. E. to S. E. auil E 
 
 S.E., E.toN. E 
 
 ...do 
 
 
 Calm ; weather clear. 
 
 Juno 
 
 July 
 
 Calm ; fogs and rains. 
 
 
 S E and N. K 
 
 
 Sejitember 
 
 S. ami S. E 
 
 N.E.toS.E 
 
 do 
 
 gust.s. 
 Generally tine, rain at inter^-al.s. 
 Cloudy and fine alternately. 
 Fine and dry. 
 Fine, dry, and eold. 
 
 
 
 do .. .. 
 
 
 
 We will now tnke up again the coast from Cape Catoche 
 and coutinne it to the sontlnvard. 
 
 On the coast east of Yucatan, and upon that of Hondu- ^^^^^ ^'^ verf 
 ras and 3ros(|uito, which form the western boundary of the ^'^î',^o,°/"''^'1' 
 
 i ' •' and the Mosqui- 
 
 basin of the Caribbean Sea, theN. E. trade- winds blow from to coast. 
 April to September. They are sometimes interrupted, and 
 especially in the tirst two months, by winds from the W. 
 In June and Jidy the winds on this coast vary from E. to 
 W. by the S., bringing frequent rain-squalls and calms. Au- 
 gust and September are the pleasantest months, the winds 
 are "moderate from the sea, interrupted by variable winds. 
 In Octol)er, îfovember, December, and January, they blow 
 from S. to N., hauling by the W., with gusts from the W. 
 S. ^V. to the W. î^. W., variable to the N. * 
 
 On the coast between San Juan de î>ficaragna and Cape j^^aïf de^^Mcfr:!^ 
 de la Vela the winds are very variable, f From January to suatoCape deia 
 
 »' '■ Vela. 
 
 June they are from N. E. to E. ; in May and in June they 
 are, however, frequently interrupted by tornadoes. Between 
 the months of July and December, but principally in Jnly 
 and August, there are winds from the W., very uncertain 
 and quite light; they blow at times seven or eight days, 
 
 "" We would observe tliat the people of the country call several wiuihs, 
 wiuds from the N., with little reference to the quarter from which 
 they blow. Their nomenclature of winds is : land breeze, sea breeze, 
 and north wind. That which the iuliabitants call a dry north wind, is 
 a wind from the W., violent, with clear weather; a wind from the 
 W., moderate, is called a little norther. 
 
 t Dampier. 
 
84 
 
 WINDS — COAST OF GRANADA, ETC. 
 
 Puerto Belle. 
 
 Cartliaaeua. 
 
 Coast of Caracas 
 aud Cumana. 
 
 when the î^. E. winds return ; the winds from W., however^ 
 predominate in this season. When the winds from W. blow 
 on this coast with more force and for a longer time, the trade- 
 wind from the eastward prevails at large, as in the other 
 seasons. It is found too within twenty-four to thirty miles 
 of Cape de la Vela, even when the wind from W. blows 
 on the coast in the vicinity of the cape. 
 
 At Puerto Bello, and between this point and Carthagena, 
 the wind is jS". E. from the 15th of November to the 15th of 
 May. At the end of May it turns to the S. W. and to the 
 W. S. W., and extends to the parallel of 12° N. latitude. 
 These winds from S. W. aud W. S. W. are, at times, strong 
 and bring rain. At sixty miles in the offing from Puerto Bello 
 the winds wdiich blow from the southern quarter in the bight 
 of the gulf change to the X. E. The winds from the S. ex- 
 tend generally twenty-four to twenty-seven miles from the 
 coast. The winds from the S. W. to W. S. W. are called 
 ■vendavales. 
 
 In general, at Carthagena, tiie winds are N. E. from the 
 middle of December to the end of April; this is the fine 
 season. During the winter, from May to November, there 
 are continual rains and storms. In the summer season the 
 N. E. trade-winds commence to be establivshed about the 
 15th of November. In the winter season the winds blow 
 from S. W. to W. S. W., extending as for as the parallel of 
 12° N. latitude, beyond which the winds are from N. E.- 
 
 In November and December there are strong breezes, 
 with much rain.* On all this coast, during the winter, tor- 
 nadoes often occur. 
 
 The trade-winds have their ordinarj^ course on the coasts 
 of Caracas and Cumana, as far as Cape de la Vela 5 but 
 from that cape to Point San Bias, their direction varies from 
 N. E. to N. N. E. In the months of March, April, May, 
 and June, they are more regular, blowing from E. N. E. ; 
 they are then very strong. These strong breezes extend 
 from the middle of the channel to within six or nine miles 
 of the land, and lose their intensity as they approach it. 
 
 On these two coasts, and even as far as the Gulf of Nica- 
 ragua, from July to December, and, at times, to January, 
 winds from the W. with rain are experienced, called venda- 
 vales, of which we have already spoken. 
 
 "Malham. 
 
WINDS — (JUIANA. 
 
 8.") 
 
 Oil IIk' roust of (iiiiiiiia the tiadc-wiiuls from N. N. E. to f^^ast of Gui 
 
 ana. 
 
 K. X. K. blow from No\ ember to i\Iay ; in April, May, and 
 .lune tliere are variable winds and ealms; then tlie winds 
 elian.uc to K. H. K. and S. K., and blow especially from S. 
 \']. from rl line to Deeember. The rainy season lasts from Dc- 
 eember to .Tune. ])iirini:>' the dry season there are freqnent 
 showers and violent squalls. 
 
 The following' table is a summary of observations made 
 on the winds at Demerara: 
 
 :\!(intlis. 
 
 January . 
 
 I<Vbruai\ 
 
 Manli 
 April . 
 Mav . - 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . 
 September 
 October . . . 
 November 
 December. 
 
 Wiiiils 
 
 E... 
 
 X. E 
 
 E. K. E. 
 
 E 
 
 N. E . . . 
 
 S. and variable . 
 
 KaiidS 
 
 S 
 
 S. and E 
 
 Variable 
 
 N. and E 
 
 N. X. E 
 
 Keinai'k.s on tbe winds and -vveatlier. 
 
 Cold ; fresh breezes. 
 
 Heavy clouds, with showers; weather 
 gloomy. 
 
 Heavy clouds ; very frequent showers. 
 
 Hot ; no rain. 
 
 Heavy clouds ; weather dull ; frequent light- 
 ning ; rain. 
 
 Hot ; rain at intervals. 
 
 Hot and oppressive. 
 
 Hot ; rain at intervals. 
 
 Heat ; thunder and lightning. 
 
 Fresh breezes ; light showers. 
 
 Fine breezes ; light showers. 
 
 Heavy rains ; strong breezes ; cold. 
 
 On the coast of French Guiana, according to Commander French Gui- 
 Ijartigue, the winter commences in November and ends in' 
 July, the dry season being from Jnly to November, The 
 winds from E. X. E. blow during the lirst period, those from 
 E. S. E. during the second. The season of heavy rain is 
 from December to Febrnary, prolonged, at times, until 
 March, and sometimes commencing about the 15th of No- 
 vember. 
 
 In March and April there is an interval of three weeks or 
 a mouth, during which the rains cease. This period in 
 French Guiana is called Vété de mars; they recommence 
 falling about the middle of April, and terminate toward the 
 middle of July. The period during which the heavy raius 
 of May fall is called la poussinièn'. 
 
 From November to March the winds are from N. N. E. to 
 N. E. ; during Marchand April they vary from E. toS.; 
 from May to July they return to the N. E. ; calms then arc 
 rare, and there is no land or sea breeze.* 
 
 * Conimanilaiit Lartigue, Instructions sur la Guiane. 
 
86 WIx\DS — NORTH COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 It lias been remarked at Guiana that the winds from E. 
 to S. are the least rainy.* 
 North coast of On theiiortli coast of Brazil, as far as Cape St. Eoque, the 
 prevailing winds are from the IST. E. to the S, B., shifting by 
 the E. From July to December the winds from S. E. to E. 
 prevail; from December to July those from the IS". E. to E. 
 The month of June is the epoch of the change of these 
 periodic winds, and in this month, near the land, frequent 
 calms are experienced, interrupted by squalls, which, at 
 times, bring wind, always heavy rain. The heaviest sqnalls 
 are those which blow from E. to In. E. 
 
 On this coast, at a short distance from the land, there are 
 
 frequently during the night and morning land breezes 
 
 varying from S. S. E. to S., which cease toward 8 or 9 a. m. 
 
 Winds aud sea- At Para the year is divided into two seasons, the rainy 
 
 sons at Para. • j_ '^ ±t i rm j? 
 
 season or winter, the dry season or summer. The season ot 
 rains commences ordinarily in January and ends in June; 
 the dry season continues from July to December. During 
 the intervening months the weather is very variable, and 
 partakes of the character of both seasons. 
 
 During the winter the prevailing wind is only experienced 
 at long intei^vals. At this period there are long calms, in- 
 terrupted by sudden squalls from ]!«[. E. to S. W., shifting 
 by the W., which are almost of daily occurrence in the 
 river; they are accompanied by torrents of rain. In gene- 
 ral the rain in this season commences to fall about 11 a. m., 
 and lasts often until 10 to 11 p. m. During the remainder 
 of the night and morning the weather is good. During the 
 dry season the winds are constant from the eastward ; they 
 are moderate in the months of July and August, and very 
 fresh during the other months. 
 
 The squall named grain du Fara takes place then most 
 frequently after noon, toward 2 or 3 o'clock. 
 
 During the summer it is rare that the wind varies more 
 from the E. than from E. N. E. and E. S, E. These winds 
 at the entrance of the river Para are in general veryf resh , 
 and they continue always fresh as far as the Bay of SoL 
 During the night they moderate in the upper part of the 
 river and do not regain their force before the middle of the 
 forenoon. 
 Winds and sea- At Marauham, according to Commandant Montravel, the 
 
 sons at Marau- n ■ ; ,i -i r. tt-k i j- 
 
 ham. season ot rains commences at the end oi December or at 
 
 * Commandaut Lartiaue, Instructions sur la Guiane. 
 
\VIM)S — CdASI' Ol' lîKAZIl.. S7 
 
 the boji'iniiiiig' of January, and coiitiiim's to Juue or «Inly. 
 Diuiiis' this season the rain falls in torrents, the squalls are 
 tV('(|U('iit and very stronj;-. Tlio winds often shift round the 
 compass in twenty-four hours; the most fre<iuent winds 
 are those from E. X. E. and X. E., varying at times to N., to 
 the X. W., W., and the S. W.; in tliis case, there are squalls 
 divided by intervals of calm or light variable winds. Jt 
 rains less, however, at Maranham than at Para, and it is 
 by no means rare, even in this season to have some line 
 days and several days in succession of passable weather. 
 
 The dry season lasts from July to December. During 
 this period there is generally a fresh breeze varying from 
 N. E. to E. X. E., and sometimes as far as E. S. E. If it 
 rains it is only by squalls. Erom September to November 
 the winds are generally strong ; they moderate after sun- 
 set and recommence in the forenoon. During this season 
 there is frequently much liglituing during the evening, but 
 seldom thunder. About the month of July the seasons 
 change. The sea is very rough in the dry season on the 
 coast and in the Bay of San ]\Iarcos. 
 
 On the east coast of Brazil, the winds are periodical. East coast rf 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Erom September to March, they blow from the E. X. E. to 
 the N . E.; from ]March to September, they blow from S. S. E. 
 to E. S. E., these winds do not extend more than one hun- 
 dred and twenty to one hundred and fifty miles from the 
 coast. Beyond this limit, the trade-wind prevails and 
 blows oftenest from S. E. by E. At this limit, however, 
 the winds are found variable from S. S. W. to the S. E., 
 with rains and storms. 
 
 On the north part of this coast principally there is much 
 rain and variable winds; in March and k^eptember, the pe- 
 riod of the change of the periodic winds, heavy aiid sudden 
 squalls occur. 
 
 The monsoons which we have spoken of on the east coast Remarks on the . 
 of Brazil are far from being regular, as might be believed '^°"''°°"' 
 from the rule we have given. On this subject we will cite 
 the opinion of Admiral Roussin given in the Filote du 
 Hr l'ail. 
 
 ''After observations made during a hundred and thirteen 
 days of the S. E. monsoon, there were but thirty-five days 
 in which the winds were from S. to E., that is, those which 
 might have been expected in that season, from the generally 
 
88 WINDS— COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 received opiiiiou ; (liiriiio- Lhirty-eight days tîie winds were 
 froui IsT. variable to tlie E., which would seem to belong to 
 the opposite monsoon ; aud lastly there were sixteen days 
 of winds from IST. to W., and twenty-three days they were 
 from W. to S. Daring a hundred and fifty-three days of 
 the N. E. monsoon, the winds were for seventy-five days 
 from S. to E.; seven days from N. to W.; six and one-half 
 days from S, to W.; and only sixty-two days from N. to E., 
 which, from the general opinion, should have been the wind 
 of this season 5 the remaining days were calm. These facts 
 prove that the two monsoons of Brazil are not regularly 
 evStablished. 
 
 "In this variety, certain special winds are distinguished, 
 some accidental, the others periodical, which appear to be 
 connected to some spontaneous phenomena, or to belong 
 to certain localities. 
 
 Accidental ''In the first rank should be placed the sudden storms 
 from S. W,, Avhicli blow frequently during the rainy season 
 at the epoch of the full and change ; these are called los 
 rehojos, they last three or four days, moderate, they are ac- 
 companied by rain, aud they acquire force when the sky is 
 clear. 
 
 " The other accidental winds are a species of rain squalls ; 
 they are met with principally about the Abrolhos, when the 
 season is very rainy. These rain squalls are frequent in the 
 mouths of May, June, Jul}', and August, and blow from the 
 E. S. E. ; they come from round, white clouds, having little 
 appearance of wind, but burst with a force which makes it 
 necessary to mistrust them. 
 
 Land breeze. "The land breczc is regular on the coast of Brazil, and 
 blows most everv night throughout the year. It prevails 
 on all poihts of the coast, from the Island of St. Catherine 
 to Maranham, but has more or less strength and regularity 
 according to the season and locality. The nearer the Equa- 
 tor is approached, the more it is distinctly established. At 
 Rio Janeiro it is nearly daily, and seldom fails to blow 
 about 9 in the evening, and does not die out entirely until 
 the following morning. It is the same at Espiritu Santo, 
 Porto Seguro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and other places simi- 
 larly situated. 
 
 " In the X. E, monsoon the land breezes are more regular 
 than in the other monsoon : they are also stronger, for then 
 the wind from the ofRng blowing on the coast more di- 
 
UIXDS — t'DA^r Ol" I!K.\Z1I.. SO 
 
 rOL'tly and more constaiitlN . Ihc icactitui caiisrd by llic 
 iVoslnu's^s of tlic iii^Iit ou the laud makos tlieiu stioiiiicr 
 and more roi^idar. 
 
 ■■• Diniiiii' the S. I"]. inoiisotDi ihc winds ;u<' often \arial)le 
 fi'oni S. and tlie S. W. ; the hind biH'czes are eonfouiKU'd with 
 them, and are not distini;nished from tliem. 
 
 "The sti'on.ii'er tlu' sea breeze 1ms Vieen, the stroni;er will 
 be the breeze from the land; ships can thus, almost always, 
 leave the ports of Brazil on a tixed day." 
 
 In the lîav of All vSaints, (Todos os Santos.) the winds I'.iiy oi ah 
 are E. N. E. from Septend)er to A})ril ; from ^V'pril to Au- 
 gust they blow from the southern (juarter with violence, 
 varying from S. E. to S. S. W. In April they commence to 
 change to the S. and S. S. W. ; their greatest force is in 
 May, June, July, and August. During these months they 
 blow from S. E., varying by the S. to S. S. W, The seasons 
 change in April and September; the wet season commences 
 in April in this bay, as upon the coast of Brazil; the fine 
 weather returns in Sei)tember. 
 
 At Itio Janeiro, the sea breeze which Idows from the E., Rio Janeiro. 
 commences in the oftiug about 11 a. m.; it does not arrive in 
 the harbor and city until from 2 to 3 p. m., although the 
 city is but nine miles from the sea. The sea breeze contin- 
 ues until sunset; the land breeze commences in the evening 
 and lasts until morning; its duration and force de])end, 
 besides, on the season. 
 
 On the coast of Paraguay, the sea breeze sets in at 1) or Paiaguay. 
 10 a. m., and continues until sunset. 
 
 We borrow frou) ('a[)tain Chiron du Brossay, who was a Riotioiariata. 
 long time in the Bio de la l'îata, the following observations 
 on the winds of this river and the places in its vicinity: * 
 
 "The winds in La Plata and at its mouth follow the sea- 
 sons, but the configuration and proximity of the land ex- 
 ercise so great an influence on tlu'ir force and direction, that 
 they are hardly ever the same at the mouth as at th i 
 terior of the river; this is also sometimes the case on the 
 two shores of tlie riv^er; it is iioted that a violent blow at 
 Buenos Ayres was not felt on the north shore of the river. 
 
 "Xearlyall the pilots attribute a great influence to the 
 phases of the moon; they also agree in saying that it is 
 very difficult to foretell the weather with any degree of cer- 
 
 * Lifftnictions Nautique sur VAttercuje et In Xaiirjation de La Flata. (An- 
 uulcs maritimes, 1845.) 
 
90 WINDS — COAST OF PARAGUAY. 
 
 tainty, so much is the atmosphere subject to suddeu varia- 
 tions vrhich baffle all predictions. The storms form and 
 burst so suddenly and with so great violence that it is 
 always necessary to be prepared. Examples are cited of 
 very violent pamperos coming up during clear weather, a»- 
 nounced only by a curling clond. They do not come up m 
 this manner excepting with the wind îsT. W. and W. 
 
 "In the country the wind from S. W. is c^Wed pampero ; 
 it is announced, generally, by heavy black clouds w^bicli 
 seem to roll one upon the other ; at other times an immense 
 black arch covers the sky from the west to the east ; soon 
 the horizon clears to the S. W., then the pampero bursts 
 with an impetuosity, of which an idea can hardly be formed , 
 Often it is accompanied by lightning, thunder, and raiu^ the 
 temperature falls to a point so low as to render it uncom- 
 fortable. The sky soon clears, and remains so while the 
 pampero lasts. 
 
 "Nearly always, in moderating, the wind hauls to S. and 
 S. B. Before the pampero bursts the barometer shows a 
 great depression; the mercury commences to rise at the end 
 of the gale, or when the wind hauls to the S. 
 
 "In La Plata and at sea, on the same i>arallel, the winds 
 are very variable ; clear of the land, in the ]ileasant season, 
 from September to March, the prevailing wind is from 'M. 
 E. ; the horizon is charged with vapors and the sky dotted 
 with rounded, irregularly formed clouds. 
 
 " In approaching the river the wind hauls to the E., some- 
 times to S. E., fresh with rain or cloudy weather. 
 
 "In the river, during the season, the wind from S. E. 
 blows quite regularly and with force in the afternoon ; at 
 night it falls and goes to the IST.; this breeze is called vira- 
 zon ; when it fails and the wind from N. to N. W. continwes, 
 before the virazon is re-established, a sudden storm from 
 the S. W. (a pampero) may be expected, more or less strong. 
 We repeat that every precaution should be taken against 
 being surprised by these sudden pamperos. 
 
 " Near the time of new and full moon there are frequeatly 
 fresh breezes from S. E., with rain ; sometimes also the 
 wind blows from the N., but with less strength than from 
 the S. E., and the temperature is higher. 
 
 " The pilots pretend that the wind from S. E. blows when 
 the declination of the moon is south, and those froju the N. 
 when her declination is north. Under these circumstances 
 
WINDS — COAST OF PAKAOUAV. î)l 
 
 the wind from N. .noes iiu)st always to tlic N. E., if it is dry; 
 if it is aocomi)aiiir<l by rain or heavy dew it liauls to N. 
 AV.: ofreii it lu'c-oiues very strong" and blows in S(inalls from 
 this direction, and linishes by s'oinii" to the S. W. very fresh ; 
 witli this wind the sea rises very qnick and falls as qniekly 
 wlien it ceases. 
 
 " From March to September the most fre«iuent winds at 
 the entrance of La Plata are from W. to S. W.; goin^ up 
 the river they are more frequently to the ]S". than to the S. 
 
 of A^^ 
 
 " In the road of Buenos Ayres the winter season is prefer- 
 able to that of summer, for the wind beini;' j^enerally from 
 S. AV. to X. W. the sea is smooth and communication easier. 
 
 '• In the mouths of July, August, and September there is 
 frequently thick fog, especially from the mouth of the river 
 as far as the Ortiz Bank; more inside it is less frequent. 
 
 The inhabitants of La Plata attribute noxious influences to 
 the X. wind ; it is in effect warmer, and while it blows 
 the atnu^sphere is charged with electricity; the wind from 
 this quarter ends, most always, by a storm, in Avhich 
 the wind goes to the S. W, and re-establishes the equilib- 
 rium. 
 
 "Sometimes the pamperos extend to seji and pass the 
 latitude of the Island of St. Catherine. 
 
 " When they are clear they last longer than when they 
 commence with a clouded sky. 
 
 "■ The description which has been given of the winds in 
 the oflûng, at the entrance, and in the Eio de la Plata, is as 
 they are generally found; it would l)e hy no means suri>ris- 
 iug to find them different, for the wind is so variable that 
 neither its directiou or its eudurance can be relied on ; 
 often for many years in succession, in the same season, the 
 winds are extremely difterent." 
 
 The vessels leaving the Athintic destined for any port in Kast .toast of 
 the Pacitic Ocean will lind it to their advantage to keep 
 within less thau one hundred miles of the east coast of 
 Patagonia, as much to avoid the heavy sea, raised by the 
 westerly winds which i)revail to the eastward, and are 
 stronger as you recede from the coast, as to protit by the 
 irregularit}' of the wind ; when it is from the western quarter, 
 near the coast, from the month of April to September, when 
 the sun is in north declination, the winds keep more between 
 AV. IS". AA". and X. N. AA^ than at any other point; the winds 
 
92 WI]N'DS — COAST OF PATAGONIA. 
 
 from E. are rare; but Avhen they do occur, as tliey blow 
 obliquel}" upon the coast, tliere is no risk run of being- 
 driven too near tbe land. In the opposite season, when the 
 sun is in his southern declination, the winds are from S, to 
 W., and are often very strong; but as the coast is to wind- 
 ward the sea falls immediately with the wind. Although 
 at this season the winds are of a nature to impede the pro- 
 gress of a vessel, still they are rarely fixed and frequently 
 vary six or eight ])oints in the space of a few hours ; from 
 this circumstance an advantage is gained in being near the 
 coast.* 
 T i e r r a del Fogs are extremely rare on the coast of Tierra del Fuego, 
 
 Pnego. o J o 7 
 
 but the weather is nearly always dull and rainy, accom- 
 panied by violent winds; the sun is seldom seen; the sky, 
 even in good weather, is covered with clouds and it is seldom 
 clear. 
 
 The winds succeed each other at short intervals and last 
 several days; sometimes the weather is good for ])erhaps 
 two weeks, but this is a rare occurence.* 
 
 In the localities of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn the 
 months of the equinoxes are the worst, the winds are then 
 very heavy, though it does not always blow on the days of 
 the equinox. 
 
 The months of August, September, October, and jSTovem- 
 ber are, in general, the worst months of the year. In these 
 months the winds from W. prevail, v.ith rain, snow^, and 
 hail, and the cold is intense. 
 
 December, January, and Febiuary are the waimest 
 months, the days are long, and the weather sometimes good, 
 but in these months the westerly winds, at times very vio- 
 lent and accomi:)anied by much rain, are the prevailing 
 winds ; thus the summer in these localities only affords the 
 advantage of long days with a less rigorous temperature. 
 March is subject to tempests, and it is perhaps the worst 
 month of the year on account of the sudden storms which 
 then occur. It is less rainy, however, than the summer 
 months. 
 i]i?'*Atfauti?°to -'■^ April, May, and June, there is frequently good 
 the Pacific Ocean, weather, and though the days grow shorter in this period, 
 it resembles more the summer than any other epoch of the 
 year ; bad weather is, however, experienced in these months, 
 
 " Directions for the Coast of Patagonia, by Captain King. 
 
WiXDS — TIKKUA DHL l-'lEiiO. îl.'i 
 
 but tlie winds from E., wliicli arc tVctnu'iit, briiii;- with them 
 line «hiys wliieh can be relied on. June and ,Inly are very 
 sitnilar, except that in July the winds from 1']. are more fre- 
 ([ucnt. The short days and the extreme cold render these 
 months very disagreeable, though they are perhaps the 
 most favorable for going from the Atlantic to the l*acitic 
 Ocean, as the winds blow oftener from the K. 
 
 The months of sumunn', December and January, are, ou P^sage from 
 
 ' . the Pacific to tho 
 
 the contrary, the best for the passage from the Paci tic to Atlantic Ocean. 
 rhe Atlantic Ocean, though this passage is so short and 
 easy that it nmy be made at any season. 
 
 In these localities, thunder and lightning are little known. 
 X'iolent s(iualls come from S. and S. AV., which are announced 
 by masses of clouds ; they are at times accompanied by 
 snow and very large hail, which mak'es them more form- 
 idalde. 
 
 We will now make some important reuuirks on the course 
 of the winds. 
 
 The westerly winds prevail during the great part of the 
 > ear in these localities and in the vicinity of Cape Horn. 
 Those from the E. generally blow only occasionally in the 
 winter months ; they are at times very violent in this season 
 and are rare during the summer. 
 
 The winds from E. alw\ays commence light with clear wi'u's from k. 
 weather, and gradually increase. The weather then 
 changes and the wind becomes at times very fresh; most 
 frequently they attain about the force of a three-reef-top- 
 sail breeze, and either gradually die out or fly to another 
 qua ter. 
 
 The winds from the northern quarter commence nioder- w^hkIs from k 
 ately, but the weather is more overcast and the sky more 
 charged with clouds than with the wind from the E., 
 and a light rain generally falls. As it freshens, it hauls 
 successively tow^ards theW. and increases in force, blowing 
 between K. and X AV. 
 
 The sky is then covered with heavy clouds and the rain falls 
 abundantly. At the N. W. the wind blows with violence, 
 and when its fury is spent, (which requires twelve to fifteen 
 hours,) or even when it is still blowing quite fresh from this 
 quarter, it shifts suddenly to the S. W. and blows with 
 more violence than before; this wind dispels the clouds and 
 in a few" hours it becomes perfectly clear ; iu the mean time 
 
 ere are at intervals very heavy squalls. The ^Yind remains 
 
04 WINDS — TIERRA DEL FUEGO. 
 
 several days iii tiie S. W. quarter, generally ^'ery strong, 
 when it moderates little by little, and two or three days of 
 good weather follow. 
 
 The winds from the N. blow generally during the sum- 
 mer, and it is a fact based on experience, that all the 
 changes or shifts of wind from IST. to S. take place by the 
 W. in this season, which would merit little its name, if the 
 days were not longer and the atmosphere a little milder. 
 The wind and the rain much exceed those of the shorter 
 days. It should be remembered that the bad weather never 
 comes suddenly from the E. and that a vvind from S. W. or 
 S. never shifts suddenly to the iST.; on the contrary, the 
 winds from S. and S. W. come up suddenly and with vio- 
 lence. 
 Fiesh winds The wiuds from S. and the squalls from S. W. are pre- 
 ceded and accompanied by clouds flying very low ; the sky 
 is obscured and other clouds at a great height appear above 
 the first; the sun is hardly visible through them and pre- 
 sents a reddish aspect. 
 
 Some hours and even a day before a wind from the E". or 
 ]!^. W., the altitude of the sun cannot be taken, although it 
 is visible, on account of the haze in the upper atmosphere 
 preventing its disk being sufficiently defined. 
 
 Sometimes, but seldom with a light breeze varying from 
 N. jST. W. to ]Sr. 'N. E., there are some days of good weather. 
 yaikLiufiisi'ds. y^e will terminate our remarks on the winds of the Atlantic 
 Ocean with those of the Falkland Islands. 
 
 -It would be difficult to find a region more exposed to 
 tempests, winter and summer, than these islands. 
 * The winds are very variable, rarely moderate, as long as 
 
 the sun is above the horizon, and at times very violent even 
 during the summer ; a day of calm is extraordinary. 
 
 Usuall}^, it blows less during the night than in the day ; 
 however, neither by night nor by day or at any period, of the 
 year is there any security against sudden and. violent squalls 
 or a heavy gale, though, generally, it lasts but a few hours. 
 The prevailing direction of the wind is W., the gales gen- 
 erally commence at the N. W., and shift quickly to the 
 S. W. by the W, It is observed that when a wind from 
 N. W. is accompanied by rain it very soon goes to the S. W., 
 and blows very strong from this quarter. The winds from 
 N. bring cloudy weather, and when they are light are often 
 .accompanied, by a thick fog. It is also remarked that they 
 
^V1^1)S — FALKLAND ISLANDS. î).") 
 
 blow, gonenilly, uioie about the tiiaeof the lull and chaîi.uc. 
 Till», winds iioiu N. K. and N. brinj;' very dismal woatlier 
 with much rain; sonu'tinit's they are strong and hold to the 
 X. 2Sr. K., but most freciuently they turn in hauliiiii' to the 
 W. 
 
 The winds from S. E. also brin.i»- rain; they blow with 
 Ibrci?, but are not tVecinent; as they increase they haul to- 
 ward the S. 
 
 Durin.ii' the winter tiie wiiuls are pri!n.*ipally t'roni N. W., 
 iiml in summer most lre(iuently from S. W. 
 
 Although there are fogs sometimes with light breezes 
 from the E. or N., they do not often continue longer than a 
 day. The gales of wind, as also the squalls, are more snd- 
 den and stronger from the southern quarter, between S. W. 
 and S. E.jthan when they come from any other direction. 
 
 The winds from E. rarely last long; they bring, in general, 
 pleasant weather. They can be exi^ected in April, May, 
 June, and July more than at any other period. There are, 
 though seldom, intervals of good weather, with the winds 
 A-ariable from E. S. E. to E. N. E. Thunder and lightning 
 seldom occur, and when the latter is seen a wind from the 
 E. may be expected. If there is lightning in the S, E., and 
 at the same time the barometer is low, a heavy blow may 
 be expected from this quartei". 
 
 Gales from the S. E. and S. last longer than those from 
 W,, generally, and they raise an enormous sea on the south- 
 ern coast of these islands. 
 
 In the winter there are generally less violent winds than 
 in the summer. J)uring this season the weather, though 
 -colder, is more settled and more dry. Every important 
 change in the weather is announced by the barometer to 
 those who consult it frequently, however little they nmy 
 understand the oscillations of this instrument.* 
 
 Such are the general observations on the winds at the 
 different points of the basin of the Atlaidic. We will finish 
 this chapter with some general remarks, useful to mariners, 
 borrowed, in part, from Horsburgli's India Directory. 
 
 Three hinds of squalls are distinguished : arched, descend- s luaii 
 ing, and white squalls. 
 
 Arched squalls are very frequent; generally they rise 
 above the horizon, forming an arch, (as in tornadoes;) often 
 
 * Xiudkal Directions for the Falkland Islands, by Captaiu Sullivan. 
 
96 WINDS — St2ITALLS. 
 
 the}' have the shape of a heavy black cloud, particularly 
 wheu they are charged with much raiu or are accompanied 
 by much electricity. These squalls sometimes rise with 
 great rapidity, giving barely the necessary time to reduce 
 sail before the wind is felt, which takes x>hice when the 
 cloud approaches the zenith. At other times this cloud 
 moves slowly and divides without the cloud acquiring suffi- 
 cient force to reach the ship. It can be regarded, as a gen- 
 eral rule, that when the squalls commence with raiîi a sharp 
 gust will soon follow 5 but if the wind is felt first they are 
 seldom violent, and the squall ends with a light rain. Local 
 circumstances, however, destroy this general rule, as in the 
 tornadoes the contrary takes place, as has been already re- 
 marked. 
 
 Descending squalls are not so easily recognized as the 
 former, as they i^roceed from clouds formed near the ob- 
 server in the lower portion of the atmosphere ; they are gen- 
 erally charged with rain and sharj) gusts of wind. In the 
 Gulf of Mexico these squalls are frequent. 
 
 White squalls are quite rare ; they are, however, some- 
 times met with in the tropics and their vicinity, especially 
 near high land; they are most frequently violent, and of 
 short duration. They take place with a clear skj^ and with 
 nothing in the atmosphere to signal their approach, which 
 renders them very dangerous. The only indication of their 
 approach is the white broken water on the surface of the 
 sea raised by the violence of the wind, 
 
 Squalls as well as tempests are sometimes progressive, at 
 others regressive ; when they are arrested bj- an opposite 
 wind there is then a strife and their route depends on the 
 position of the most rarefied point of the atmosphere. 
 
 When a squall meets an opposing wind it is retarded in 
 its course, and it frequently happens that one ship passes 
 the squall and overtakes others that are within the limit 
 of this opposing wind. 
 
 When strong winds are arrested by those from an oppo- 
 site direction they are generally preceded by a heavy swell, 
 which extends a great way before them. 
 
 Very black clouds, mixed with light clouds and fragments 
 of black clouds below the others, having a rapid move- 
 ment, accompanied sometimes by lightning and distant 
 thunder, are the forerunners of a smart squall. Light clouds,^ 
 without any definite form, tlie borders of which it is almost 
 
AviNDS — bako:mktkk. î»7 
 
 impossible to dotermiiio, give, ordinarily, ruin and a little 
 ■wind.* 
 
 AVe are not here s[)eakin!ii' of the gales and squalls, which 
 we have already iudieated Avhen occupied with the locali- 
 ties where they occur. 
 
 Gales of wind fre(iueutly raise a sea very formidable to 
 small vessels, and eveu for large ones. Small vessels, for 
 their greater security, cau use a drag, a method made use 
 of by many captains and practiced by ourselves. This float, 
 or drag, should be large enough to present suflicient resist- 
 ance, and be immersed to a certain depth. A hawser should 
 be made fast to the float and brought in forward, as low" 
 down as possible, veer the hawser, furl all sail, except a 
 storm mizen, and x>oint the yards to the wind. In this man- 
 ner a vessel will keep head to sea, as if at anchor. For 
 small vessels this method of riding out a gale is much safer 
 than running before a heavy sea. This system is, in reality, 
 but a floating anchor. In every case where a small vessel 
 scuds in a gale of wind it is well to avoid the heavy seas, 
 to reduce her headway, so as not to add the velocity of the 
 impulsion of the waves to that of the ship. As Owen ob- 
 serves, a hawser may be veered out and allowed to float 
 astern. He remarks that he has seen a hawser thus used 
 divide the wave and prevent its breaking over the stern of 
 the vessel. 
 
 The marine Ijarometer is a most useful instrument, espe- Marine 
 cially in high latitudes, where it indicates the advance of a ^^*^^' 
 gale. Before a storm there is generally a sensible fall of the 
 level of the mercury. It is the same in the tropics when 
 threatened with a hurricane. In low latitudes, generally 
 the squalls which pass quickly have little efifect on the bar- 
 ometer, and sometimes this instrument is not affected dur- 
 ing these squalls. Within the tropics a marked fall of the 
 barometer is only caused by the approach of a strong gale, 
 and not always then, ])elow 14° or 15° latitude. 
 
 In high latitudes, the movements of the mercurial column 
 of the barometer are, as the winds, excessively variable. 
 The mercury falls, in general, much before a storm, and 
 rises before it is finished, sometimes even before the storm 
 is felt, in proportion as the equilibrium of the atmosphere 
 is re-established. 
 
 * Voyage of tbe Bea;)h; vol. ii, p. 49. 
 7 A O 
 
98 WINDS — ^ISOMETES . 
 
 The mercury lalls also considerably on the api:>roach of a 
 heavy rain. When the mercury is low the air is light and 
 wanting in elasticity. It falls still lower when a storm 
 threatens. 
 
 When the wetither is tine and settled the mercury has a 
 tendency to rise. This is also the case in severe cold. At 
 sea the barometer generally rises with easterly winds and 
 falls with those from the westward. It rises in the northern 
 hemisphere with the wind from IST. and falls with those from 
 S. On the other hand, in the southern hemisphere it falls 
 with northerly and rises with southerly winds. The oscil- 
 lations of the barometer can be observed with more profit 
 at sea than near the land, where the rarefaction and dila- 
 tion of the air make its variations more irregular than in 
 the open sea. Following a calm or extraordinary heat, par- 
 ticularly in winter, gales of wind are experienced, and this 
 happens most generally W'hen the temperature of the atmos- 
 phere is much elevated above its mean. 
 Atmospheric It Is propcr to obscrvc, that in the open ocean, between 
 the tropics, in settled weather, there is a flux and reflux in 
 the atmosphere twice every twenty-four hours, resembling 
 the tides of the sea; but these atmospheric tides depend 
 upon the sun's influence and the rotation of the earth, and 
 do not follow the motion of the moon. The rise and fall of 
 the mercury in consequence of these tides is about six or 
 seven hundredths of an inch in settled weather near the 
 Equator, the high station happening about 11 a. m., and the 
 lower about 5 a. m. and 5 p. m. The regailarity of this flux 
 and reflux of the atmosphere is obstructed by land, but in 
 the ocean it prevails to 26° X. and S., and in fine steady 
 weather it may be perceived as far as 30° or 32° ivT. or S.* 
 îTote by the Although in the General Examination of tlie Facific Ocean 
 Captain DeKerhallet has discussed the winds, &c., of the 
 Straits of Magellan, this route has been so much more fre- 
 quented, and so much information regarding it collected of 
 late years, that the translator has considered it desirable 
 to introduce here an account of the winds, &c., in these 
 straits, taken from the report of Captain Eichard C. Mayne, 
 C. B., commanding her Majesty's ship j^assau, (1868.) What 
 has already been said, however, of the winds of Tierra del 
 Fuego, will likewise apply to all the territory of Magellan: 
 
 " Horsiurgh's India Director j. 
 
WINDS — STKAIT 0¥ MAOHLLAN. 99 
 
 " W'osteily winds are tlio most prevalent tliiou.i;liout tlic winds, 
 year, and at the eastern end of the strait there is û'enerally 
 
 St rait of AI ago 
 
 a stron.n' breeze with heavy sqnalls between X. W. and S. W.ian 
 A elondy, overcast sky, and probably rain, while the wind is 
 northward of W. : aiul usually clear bright weather, with 
 the sun out, when the wind draws southward of W. The 
 i;eneral course of the wind seems to commence at X. E. or 
 X,, with misty weather or rain, veering quickly to X. W. 
 and freshening- while the barometer fjxlls. Between X. 
 and W. it frequently remains two or three days, the 
 weather clearing when it inclines to W., and mist or rain 
 increasing and the barometer falling when it inclines north- 
 ward. AVith this wind a decided rise in the barometer is a 
 sure sign of a shift to S. W., which shift invariably takes 
 place before the wind lulls for any time or fine weather can 
 be expected. 
 
 "In summer the wind generally dies away from the S. W., 
 but after uncertain durations from that quarter, and before 
 the N. or X. W. wind begins again, an hour or so of light 
 easterly or northeasterly wind will probably be registered, 
 showing that the wind has gone round the right way, through 
 the southeastern quarter. Later in the season, or as winter 
 advances, the S. E. wind becomes more prevalent, and in- 
 stead of the wind dying away at S. W. it will frequently 
 vary between S. S. W. and S. E. for two or three days, send- 
 ing a heavy swell into Possession Bay. Sometimes it con- 
 tinues round to E. or N. E., still blowing hard and with wet 
 gloomy weather, not preceded by the interval of fine weather 
 experienced on the coast before a gale comes on from the 
 eastward. 
 
 " This veering round will, however, like the easterlj^ gales 
 on the coast, be found a rare occurrence. As a rule, the 
 wind will be found stronger from the S. W., and the squalls 
 heavier than from X. W., and no certain warning is given 
 of this shift. Sometimes the barometer precedes it, but 
 more generally accompanies it. Sometimes heavy banks of 
 white cumulus clouds, having hard edges and appearing 
 very rounded and solid, will be seen rising from the S. W. 
 or southward, but this is more frequently the case when a 
 S. W. wind is about to spring up from a calm or light air, 
 than as indicative of a gale shifting to S. W. or S. 
 
 "The backing of the wind from S. W. to X, W. is always 
 accompanied by a falling barometer, or its ceasing to rise, 
 
100 WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. 
 
 as it does daring tbe whole time it blows from S. W. Tlie 
 change of wind, however, usually accompanies tlie change 
 in the barometer, and the mercury merely ceasing to rise 
 may indicate the S. W. wind subsiding. If the wind backs 
 from N. to IST. E. the same dirty weather may be expected 
 that is mentioned as usual when it draws round to the E. 
 from the southward, and generally the seaman maybe pre- 
 pared for bad weather when the wind backs, even though 
 the barometer does not fall. 
 
 "ISTortherly winds are often preceded by low flying clouds, 
 with a thickly overcast sky, in which the upper clouds ap- 
 pear at a great height. The sun shows dimly through them 
 with a reddish appearance, and with its edges so indistinct 
 that it is impossible to take an altitude, often for hours, be- 
 fore a gale comes on. Sometimes, but very rarely, with the 
 wind light between N. K E. and jN". N. W., a few days 
 fine weather may occur. Each day of this must be grate- 
 fully received as it comes, for it cannot be predicted, and 
 occurs sometimes with a high and at times with a low bar. 
 ometer.* 
 
 " Easterly winds are certainly more common, and the 
 strait is on the whole less windy in winter (June, July, and 
 August) than in summer ; but when against this possible 
 advantage is placed the cold, with the long nights and short 
 days, this season is not likely to be preferred by the mari- 
 ner in a vessel bound westward. Though beyond the limits 
 of this chapter, it may be well to mention that ships getting 
 as far as Cape Froward with a S. W. wind will generally 
 find it N. "VV. on rounding the cape, as the wind follows the 
 direction of the channel. 
 
 "Captain King, after remaining nearly a year in Port 
 Eamine, and a considerable time in the eastern part of Ma- 
 gellan Strait, came to the conclusion that the barometer 
 could not be considered so unfailing a guide as in the lower 
 and middle latitudes, and that ' although the rise and fall 
 does sometimes precede the change, yet it more frequently 
 accompanies it.' After two seasons careful observation, the 
 writer coincides in this opinion, as far as the actual strait 
 
 *In Decemlber, 1867, the Nassau had several clays of beautiful weather, 
 with the barometer between 29.05 and 29.50, and then, after a few days' 
 blow from S. W., another interval of tine calm weather, with the baro- 
 n-.ete: ranging from 30.10 to 29.9t\ 
 
WINDS — STlîAIT OF :\rA(i l^LLAX. 101 
 
 itst'lf is I'oiiccnu'il. It is probable that tlic «litlerencc of 
 opinion cxpiossod by Captains King and Fitzioy on tlio snb- 
 Joct is to be attributed to the former Inivin»»' made the 
 i^reater part of his observations in the strtut, while those of 
 the latter were made on the outer coasts of Terra del Fuego 
 or rata<;onia, free from the local intliiences of the narrow 
 channels. 
 
 " It has already been said, when speaking of the shift of 
 wind from the N. W, to S. W., that the barometer invari- 
 ably rises Avith it, and the only rule which we can give as 
 at all settled is, that a rising barouieter precedes or accom- 
 panies a shift of Avind from N. W. or W. to S. AV., and that 
 generally, if tlie mercury falls Avhile it is blowing from S. 
 AV., the wind will back to X. AV. again ; but in both these 
 cases, nine times out of ten, the two events will occur simul- 
 taneously. A table has been constructed from the meteor- 
 ological journals of her Majesty's ship Nassau, kept during 
 nearly ten months spent between Sandy Point and Cape 
 Virgins in 1807-Y)8, some being in corresponding months of 
 the different years, in the hope of being able to draw some 
 practical conclusions from it, but in vain. 
 
 "The study might interest a scientific person, but, with 
 the exception of that given above, no rule useful to the 
 seaman navigating the strait could be fonnd. It may be 
 added that a meteorological journal, very carefully kept by 
 Sr. Jorge C. Schythe during nine years' governorship at 
 Sandy Point, has been examined with a like result. Cap- 
 tain King, after stating that after a fall of barometer with 
 N. W. or northerly winds, a S. W. gale may be expected 
 when it ceases to fiill, adds, ' it freqnently, however, falls 
 without this change. In the mouth of June, at Port Fam- 
 ine, the barometer fell to 28.17, and afterward gradually 
 rose to 30.5, which was folloAved by cold weather, in whicb 
 the thermometer stood at 12<^ Fahrenheit.' 
 
 "It has been already remarked, when speaking of Avinds, 
 that some of our finest weather occurred with a A^ery low 
 barometer, and it may be added that frequently the baro- 
 meter has fallen so as to lead one to expect and prepare for 
 a gale when nothing has come of it. It Avould be interest- 
 ing to know Avhether anything occurred to account for such 
 changes off Cape Horn, or in open sea at either end of the 
 
102 
 
 WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN, 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 strait, from whick tlie liigli laud and tortuous chauuels shel- 
 tered us.* 
 
 ^'Captaiu Kiug gives the following' table of meau tem- 
 perature aud pressure of the atmosphere at Port Famine iu 
 
 1828: 
 
 February 
 March . . . 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 51.1 
 
 29.40 
 
 49.4 
 
 29.64 
 
 41.2 
 
 29.57 
 
 35.5 
 
 29.30 
 
 32.9 
 
 29.28 
 
 33.0 
 
 29.37 
 
 33.2 
 
 29.28 
 
 " The same elements taken from the observations of the 
 governor at Sandy Point above mentioned would give : 
 
 Months. 
 
 January . . 
 February . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August - . . 
 September 
 October . . . 
 November 
 December. 
 
 K'umber 
 of years. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Fahr. 
 54.80 
 54.40 
 48. 05 
 44.10 
 40.40 
 35.40 
 35.40 
 37.40 
 42. 40 
 47.30 
 50.70 
 53.20 
 
 K"umber 
 of years. 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Mean. 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 Inches. 
 29. 55 
 29.63 
 29.62 
 29. 53 
 29.61 
 29.62 
 29.64 
 29. 66 
 29.60 
 29.70 
 29.54 
 29.60 
 
 "In coming southward from the tropics the gradual low- 
 ering of the mercurial column must not be forgotten. It 
 has been estimated that a ditïerence of half an iuch exists 
 between the mean in the tropics and that in the latitude of 
 the strait, t 
 
 * The opiuiou of the late Admiral Fitzroy respecting the harometer 
 will be found at page 136, j)art ii, of the Souih American Pllut, sixth edi- 
 tion. As already stated, it refers to the open coast, and has only been 
 adojited here when it agreed with Captain Mayiie's observations. The 
 admiral spent but a short time iu the eastern entrance of the strait. 
 
 t Maury' fi Physical Giograpliy of ilie Sea ; eleventh edition, p. 447, art. 
 833. See, also, 14th number of Meteorolorjical Observations, published by 
 Board of Trade. 
 
V.INDS — STIIAIT OF :\IA(;KLLAN. 
 
 10:5 
 
 '•Tlic lollowinti- observations imule in 18()7 scoiu to show 
 that tins is o(iuallx true for tbe strait itself:* 
 
 Month. 
 
 MeAn barometer 
 
 observed at 
 Kio de Janeiro. 
 
 Mean barometer 
 
 observed 
 at Sandy Point. 
 
 Dift'erence. 
 
 July 
 
 30. 243 
 30.147 
 30. 137 
 
 29. 256 
 29. 530 
 29. 808 
 
 .9^1 
 
 
 .617 
 
 
 .339 
 
 
 
 
 .644 
 
 
 
 
 
 "For making- tlie passage from east to Avest round the sea.sons. 
 Horn, Captain King Avas of opinion tliat the winter season 
 is the most tavorable,t and considers the frequency of east- 
 erly and northerly winds at that season a set-ofl" against the 
 long nights, with the chances of decks covered with snow 
 and ro]ies frozen stiff. Whichever may be preferred for a 
 sailing- vessel rounding the cape, it has already been said 
 that for a steamer in the Magellan Strait, with which alone 
 we are now concerned, the summer is far preferable for 
 going- either way. 
 
 " Here, as elsewhere, the equinoctial months are the most 
 windy, though the heaviest gales do not always occur at 
 the equinoxes. March is very boisterous, and its gales are 
 usually followed by some fine calm weather in April and 
 May. Towards the middle of May the weather becomes 
 sensibly colder, and the snow, which has been covering the 
 summits of the hills perhaps for some time, will be observed 
 to advance down the slopes; it, however, varies greatly. In 
 March, 1867, the western mountains were covered with 
 snow, and the first fall of snow at the east end was on 1st 
 April. In March, 1S08, there was much less snow on the 
 western mountains, and none reached the level of the water 
 till April 19th. 
 
 "The coldest weather is in June, July, and August; a 
 mean of six years' observations gives June as the coldest 
 month four times, July once, August| once. Even in these 
 Avinter months, howcA'er, though there are occasional cold 
 days, the general temperature at Sandy Point during June, 
 
 * These obsevA-atioiis nre reduced to 3'2^ Falirenlicit. Th(> mean differ- 
 ence ohscrvcd was 0.744. 
 t Smith Amerkan Pilot, vol. ii, p. 218. 
 { Sr. .Scliyflie's joninal.aiid Nassaii^s. 
 
104 WINDS — STRAIT OF MAGELLAN. 
 
 July, and August, for several years, is about 36° Fahreuheit. 
 With the advance of the vernal equinox the west winds 
 increase again, and the equinoctial gales of September, 
 like those of March, are usually succeeded by some fine 
 weather in October and November. December, January, 
 and February are the w^armest, the mean temperature for 
 several years for these months being 54° ; the days are then 
 long, there is some fine weather, and the sun when out has 
 some power. 
 
 " Westerly winds, however, which oftenincrease to violent 
 gales and furious squalls with much rain in the western 
 part, are frequent even throughout that season, which, as 
 far as the mariner is concerned, carries with it less of sum- 
 mer than almost any part of the world. We say as far as 
 the mariner is concerned, for to the eastward of Sandy 
 Point the weather on shore is very fine, though rather 
 windy, during summer; the temj)eratnre is pleasant, the 
 air bracing and healthy. Indeed, during our two seasons 
 there, we hardly ever had more than one or two men on the 
 sick list, and those generally from accidents, though their 
 work was hard, and the men much exposed, camping out, 
 and constantly getting wetted through with salt water. 
 The change between this and the western part of the strait 
 and the northern channels is very marked in this respect. 
 In these latter there were always eight or ten on the ISFassaiûs 
 sick list with colds, bronchitis, and rheumatism. 
 
 " It would seem that Admiral Fitzroy was unfortunate in 
 having seen the sun so rarely while in those waters, for he 
 says* Hhat to endeavor to rate chronometers by equal 
 altitudes would be a fruitless waste of time, in any other 
 months than April, May, and June.' In 1866-'67-'68, equal 
 altitudes were frequently observed in November, December, 
 January, and February, and in fact during all the summer 
 onths at Sandy Point, Dungeness, Direction Hill, and 
 Gregory Bay. At Sandy Point, indeed, we hardly ever ex- 
 perienced any difficulty or delay in obtaining equal altitudes 
 until June, when the sun was so low as to be available for 
 a comparatively short time only on either side of noon. 
 
 "We think vessels would generally be able to rate their 
 chronometers at Sandy Point; further westward it would 
 be more difficult, though equal altitudes of the sun were 
 
 * South American FUot, page 135. 
 
CHART OF THE (lEKERAl, ^VIKDS T^ THE ATIANTIC 
 
 OCEAN 
 
WINDS — STRAIT (W M.V(;iOLLAN. 105 
 
 obtained at 8holl aiul Halt I5ay.s and Island Jlarbor in 
 March and April, 1808. 
 
 "Fogs are of rare occurrence and short duration in the fors. 
 eastern part of the strait, tlioui^h occasionally they set in 
 very thick for a few hours, and with no Marninf>-, during 
 calm weather. Dense fogs have, however, been Icnown to 
 last two or three days at Sandy Point in the winter months. 
 Thick rainy weather is the ordinary condition of the west- 
 ern part. 
 
 '' !S(iualls blow with great force and suddenness all over squaiis. 
 the strait, making boat work very dangerous, and render- 
 ing it inadvisable to set light sails even when the weather 
 seems most promising. 
 
 "Thunder and lightning are very rare, indeed scarcely . Timmier ana 
 known, except in very bad weather, when violent squalls '^ ""'^' 
 come from the S. and S. W., usually giving warning of their 
 approach by masses of clouds. 
 
 " These storms are rendered more formidable by snow 
 and hail of a large size." 
 
 We will now examine the currents of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 GENERAL CURRENTS. 
 
 current. ^'"'^^ °^ '^^'^ '^ kinds of currents are distinguislied ; the one occa- 
 sioned by the ebb and flow of the sea, which alternate, 
 and are felt only a short distance from the coast ; the others, 
 on the canses of Avhich philosophers are divided, are nearly 
 constant in their direction and do not deviate, except near to 
 the shores, which, laying in their route, present an obstacle 
 to their usual course; these last, called general currents^ are 
 divided into cold and warm currents, according to the tem- 
 perature of the waters which compose them. In generaliz- 
 ing, the observations on currents may be thus summed up — 
 cold currents, directed from the poles toward the Equator 
 on the west coasts of the continents ; currents directed 
 from E. to W. along the Equator ; and warm currents 
 directed from the Equator toward the poles on the east 
 coast of the great continents. There has been found a 
 cold current setting from the N. to the S. on the west coast 
 of Europe and upon the northwest coast of Africa; a cold 
 current from the S. to the IST. on the southwest coast of the 
 same continent. On the other hand, on the coast of Brazil 
 a warm current is met with setting from the IST. to the S.; 
 also, a warm current which, turning through the Gulf of 
 Mexico, passes the Bahama Channel and the length of the 
 coast of the United States, and is known as the Gulf Stream^ 
 in the vast basin of the Atlantic Ocean, formed by the 
 great longitudinal valley which separates the European and 
 African continents from that of America. Such are the 
 currents named general currents. We will treat only of 
 these in this chapter. 
 
 Philosophers differ on the causes of these permanent or 
 general currents. Some attribute them to the action of the 
 trade-winds, while the greater number consider that they, 
 as the winds, are occasioned by the calorific action of the 
 sun and the rotary movement of the earth. Thus, they say, 
 following this movement of rotation and the transfer of the 
 polar waters toward the Equator, there should be formed 
 under the Equator a current having an apparent direction 
 
E(iuatorial cur 
 
 cuts. 
 
 ("IKUKNT — GENERAL CLASSirK'ATlON. 107 
 
 iVoiii tlie K. toward tlio W., as takos ])lac(' with the wind 
 1Ï0111 tlie same cause. 
 
 ZS'oM', such a current shoukl necessarily ])rodu('e an at- 
 traction of its hiteral waters toward their east(n-n extrem- 
 ity . and on the other liand, a hiteral retiux toward their 
 western extremity ; in other words, there is a flow of the 
 l)ohir waters toward the Equator on the west side of the 
 great e<iuatorial continents, and an etidux toward the poles 
 ou the eastern sides of the same confluents. 
 
 Besides, the equatorial waters, on approaching the Equa- 
 tor, should, from their accelerated velocity of rotation and 
 from the flow of the ]>olar waters toward the Equator, take 
 a direction from W. to E., as do, in the Atlantic Ocean, the 
 Gulf Stream and the current traversing the Atlantic, run- 
 ning from the coast of Brazil toward the coast of Africa. 
 
 "We call the equatorial curroit the current running from ^, 
 E. to AY. at the Equator; we designate those ^o?ar currents 
 which are directed from the poles toward the Equator i'oi''»"^»"«'°ts. 
 on the west coasts of the continents, and trojyieal currents iropicai cur- 
 those directed from the Equator toward the poles on the 
 east side of the continents. 
 
 The velocity of these cnrrents varies at different points of 
 tlieir course ; the greatest observed has been from sixty to 
 one hundred and twenty miles in twenty-four hours. Their 
 temperature is also higher or lower than that of the adja- 
 cent sea according to the heat of the sea where they take 
 their origin. 
 
 AYe will now indicate the course and the limits of those 
 currents in the Atlantic Ocean, giving their velocity and 
 mean temperature. AYe will first discuss those of the ]S"orth 
 Atlantic Ocean and the equatorial current. 
 
 The equatorial current commences near the west coast of Equatorial cur. 
 Africa in longitude 5° 20' or 5° 50' E. It extends entirely'"' ' 
 round the Island of Annobon : it runs parallel to the 
 Equator between the parallels of 1° and 1° 30' X. and 
 those of L'o or 3° S. latitude ; it soon spreads from K. to 
 S., and though it passes but little to the N. of the parallel 
 just mentioned, it sometimes reaches abreast of Cape Pal- 
 mas as far as 2° 30' X. and 5° S. latitude. The length of 
 the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea it is tangent for a dis- 
 tance of over one thousand miies ; that is, to the vicinity of 
 the meridian of 11° or 12° of W. longitude, to another 
 current running from W. to E., called the current of the 
 
108 CURRENT — EQUATORIAL. 
 
 north coast of Guinea. This portion of the sea presents the 
 remarkable plienomeuon of two currents in contact, run- 
 ning with considerable velocity in opposite directions, and 
 ' having a difference of temperature of 0°.8 or O^.O of Fahren- 
 
 heit; so that according as a ship may be in the one or the 
 other current in navigating to the east or the west, her 
 speed is accelerated or retarded from forty to fifty miles per 
 day, the velocity of these two currents in this locality. We 
 will return hereafter to this important fact. 
 
 Advancing to the west on each side of the Equator, the 
 equatorial current, arriving at 20° or 21° of W. longitude, 
 throws into the northern hemisphere a branch of considera- 
 ble volume, known as the northwest branch of the equatorial 
 current, which runs as far as 20° X. latitude, spreading more 
 and more, and is sometimes felt as far as 30° E". 
 
 At the same point it spreads more and more toward the 
 south and runs thus for the distance of about three hun- 
 dred miles, as far as Cape St. Eoque, where it is divided 
 into two branches. The north branch, which is the most 
 considerable, forms the Current of Guiana and penetrates 
 into the Caribbean Sea. 
 
 The south branch taking a direction parallel to the coast 
 
 of South America at a considerable distance seaward, forms 
 
 the current of the coast of Brazil. 
 
 Extent of the The length of the equatorial current from the coast of 
 
 oouatoiiai cur- j^f^,^^^ ^^ Q^^g gj-_ j^^ç^uQ is tweuty-fivc huudrcd miles, and 
 
 to its entrance into the Caribbean Sea four thousand miles. 
 
 Its width near its origin is one hundred and sixty miles, 
 on the meridian of Cape Palmas three hundred and sixty 
 miles, and it is four hundred and fifty miles before it divides. 
 Velocity of this This currcut acquires its greatest velocity in the summer, 
 and is at its least in the winter. Between the meridians of 
 5° E. and 8° W. longitude its mean is from twenty-five to 
 thirty miles per day. 
 
 Between 8° and 14° W. longitude, toward the end of 
 June and the commencement of July, it varies from forty- 
 five to seventy-five miles ; between 11° and 21° W., from 
 forty-five to sixty miles ; the mean velocity may be esti- 
 mated at forty-six miles nearly in twenty-four hours. 
 Temperature. The mean temperature of its waters is 75°, or from 3° 6 
 to 5° 4 above that of the ocean in different seasons. 
 
 The current running toward Cape St. Roque is unfavor- 
 able to ships going to the south to cross the line in 22° W. 
 longitude. 
 
CriJRKNT — Kv,)rAT()KIAL. JOÎ) 
 
 TIu' iioi'thwc'st bnuu'h of tlu' oiiuatorial cuncnt runs Xoith\ycst 
 fh\st to tlio N. AV., tlieii iu ;i luore iioitlierly direction; this <M|mitoiiai cnr- 
 cnniMit is always felt as far as 18° N. latitude, aud even at "'" ' 
 times as far as 30°. It is lost iu tlie drift currents of the 
 N. E. trades, to which it appears to give a northwesterl 3' di- 
 rection and increases their velocity. The breadth of this 
 current at the point of separation is nearly two hundred 
 miles, and more to the X. it is three hundred miles; its ve- 
 locity to 10° ]Sr. latitude is from twenty to twenty-four 
 miles per day, from there it decreases gradually. This cur- 
 rent is of advantage to ships passing from the southern to 
 the northern hemisphere. 
 
 The movement of the waters toward the W., in the zone Distmbamcs 
 of which we have just spoken, m the vicinity ot the equa- equatorial cur- 
 tor, cannot be doubted. Different navigators, however, 
 have met with, and that for several days, a current setting 
 to the E. iu this zone ; among others the captains of the 
 Bayadere, the Zélée, and the Clorinde, who have crossed 
 those currents setting to the E. with a velocity varying from 
 three-tenths to one mile i^er hour. 
 
 Such cases can, we think, be regarded as exceptions, and 
 the currents mentioned as eddies or counter-currents to the 
 limits of the general current. Some authors indicate the 
 existence of a current running from the W. to the E., be- 
 tween the parallels of 8° and 10° I^., which, they say, com- 
 mences to be felt about the meridian of 53° W. and extends 
 to the meridian of 2G° W. On this first meridian its i^rin- 
 cipal direction would be N. to !N". îî^. E., and in proportion as 
 it advances to the E. it becomes broader, its velocity in- 
 creases to about the meridian of 38° N. and it takes a more 
 easterly direction ; that beyond the meridian of 38° W. its 
 velocity decreases with the extension of its bed, and it be- 
 comes almost insensible on the meridian of 26° W. We 
 point out this current, which might be named the counter 
 equatorial current, to the researches of navigators.* 
 
 * Commauder R. W. Shufeklt, IT. S. N., theu iu command of the U. S. 
 S. Wachtisetf, thus alhides, iu his remark hook, to this current : " Atten- 
 tion is called to the adjoining tahle, showing the rather remarkable co- 
 incidence between two passages of this shiji, with reference to a counter- 
 current setting strong to the eastward on the northern edge of the great 
 equatorial current. It will be observed that the current was found be- 
 tween the same parallels and meridians at two different seasons of the 
 year ; that in both instances the water was warmer than on either edge 
 of it ; that in January the current was stronger aud rather more snith- 
 
110 
 
 CUPvRENT — GUIANA. 
 
 Drift currents. 
 
 Current of Gni- 
 ana. 
 
 We will uow speak of the drift currents, whicli philoso- 
 phers attribute to the winds blowing from the same direc- 
 tion during a longer or a shorter period. 
 
 The drift currents which owe their origin to constant 
 winds, as the trades, are constant themselves, do not vary 
 their direction, and have most always the same velocity. 
 They are found in the Atlantic between the tropics, but are 
 only considered regular between the parallels of 23° î^". and 
 9° S. latitude, the space in which the trades blow regularly. 
 The drift currents from these winds attain a mean velocity of 
 from niue to ten miles in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Drift currents from prevailing winds are not constant in 
 either their direction or velocitj" ; they are found to the ÎST. 
 and S. of 32° latitude. 
 
 The current of Guiana, which, is a continuation of the 
 equatorial current, runs the lengtli of the lower coast of 
 Guiana toward the Island of Trinidad ; in the vicinity of 
 the Equator it is crossed by the currents of the Amazon, 
 which, carrying an immense body of water with great ve- 
 locity to the ocean, forms a counter current and vast whirl- 
 pools. This, however, does not appear to exert any influence 
 
 erly, owing, jprobably, to the greater strengtli of the "winds in that 
 month. On both occasions the wind was easterly, the current conse- 
 quently setting against it: 
 
 United Stales Steamer JVachusett. 
 
 October, 1864. 
 
 Temp'e. 
 
 January, 1868. 
 
 Temp'e. 
 
 "ce 
 R 
 
 hi 
 
 o 
 
 CuiTents. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 R 
 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 Currents. 
 
 .'à 
 <1 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 21 
 
 o / 
 
 2 02 
 
 3 09 
 
 4 56 
 6 51 
 
 8 2S 
 
 9 25 
 
 10 50 
 
 11 56 
 
 O ' 
 
 40 35 
 
 42 OS 
 
 43 48 
 
 44 54 
 
 46 19 
 
 47 38 
 49 55 
 51 51 
 
 Knots. 
 12 W. 
 12 W. 
 22 W. 
 
 17 N.E.byE. 
 16 E. 
 
 12 S. E.by S. 
 12 S. E. 
 14 westerly. 
 
 o 
 
 82 
 83 
 
 84 
 84 
 85 
 84 
 
 82 
 84 
 
 
 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 83 
 83 
 85 
 80 
 80 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 o / 
 
 2 06 
 
 3 17 
 
 3 51 
 
 4 26 
 
 5 34 
 
 6 02 
 
 7 30 
 9 12 
 
 O 1 
 
 39 22 
 
 42 07 
 
 43 51 
 
 44 29 
 44 50 
 46 30 
 48 28 
 50 17 
 
 Knots. 
 36 WSWJW 
 32 W. S. W. 
 13 W. îf . W. 
 
 17 E. f S. 
 59 E. by S. 
 44 S. Î E. 
 15 S. E. 
 
 18 iSr.E. byE. 
 
 80 
 83 
 
 85 
 85 
 82 
 83 
 83 
 82 
 
 
 
 77 
 79 
 80 
 80 
 80 
 81 
 80 
 79 
 
 The United States steamer Hartford, in September, 1865, from the lat- 
 itude of 10^ N., longitude 260W., to the Equator in longitude 24° W., ex- 
 perienced an easterly current, varying from 1 to 1-^ knots per hour, with 
 a general set to the northward and ea.stward, and the water was found 
 to be of a higher temperature than on either side of this belt. 
 
CURRENT — CARIBBEAN SEA, ETC. Ill 
 
 Oil its (lii'octioii ; the waters of the river aiul current do not 
 mix, and in traversin*;- the current, the waters of the river 
 may be recognized three hundred miles from its mouth. 
 
 .V little to the south of Trinidad, the river Orinoco pours 
 a lariic body of water into this current; the two directions 
 making- a very acute angle, the waters mix readily, and in- 
 crease considerably the velocity of the current. 
 
 It then enters the Caribbean Sea through the channels 
 between Trinidad and ]\[artinique, where the Islands of St. 
 Vincent, Santa Lucia, Grenada, Barbadoes, and Tobago are 
 situated. It there takes the name of the Current of the 
 Caribbean Sea.* 
 
 Xo constant currents have, as 3'et, been found in the cimont of the 
 
 y-, ., 1 o( 1 ■ XI j_ i? j_i • -I • Caribbean Sea 
 
 Caribbean Sea ; however, in the center 01 this sea, aud m andGuifof Mex- 
 the vicinity of the islands Avhich bound it on the X. ^^"' 
 and E., there are variable currents, which are most 
 frequently directed toward the W. The general current 
 runs along the coast of South America, more or less re- 
 moved from the shore, and following its contour. Thus it 
 is directed from the E. to the W. from the Island of Trini- 
 dad to Cape Aguja ; from there it mounts toward the W. 
 N. W. and N. W. as far as Cape Catoche, traversing the 
 Gulfs of Darien, Nicaragua, and Honduras; Avhen it de- 
 scribes a complete circle in the Gulf of Mexico, aud takes the 
 name of the General Mexican Current. After turning- 
 Cape Catoche, it is directed toward the W. on the bank of 
 Campeachy, along the north coast of Yucatan ; it descends 
 then to the S. W., following- the bend of the coast, as far as 
 the meridian of 95° 10' W. nearly ; there it turns sharply to 
 the N. X. E. as far as about the parallel of 25° 30' N., and 
 the meridian of 80'° 40' W., where it is directed toward 
 the E,, inclining- to the S. in proportion as it advances to. 
 ward the Tortugas in passing into the channel comprised 
 between the Peninsula of Florida aud the north of Cuba; 
 this channel receives the principal branch of this current, 
 the other and secondary branch of which x>roduces near 
 and to the north of Cape St. Antonio a current toward the 
 S., and to the south of Cape St. Antonio, the current setting 
 toward the E. and S. E., on the south side of the Island of 
 Cuba. This last extends sometimes as far as the Isle of 
 
 * For the currents iu the West Indies and Gulf of Mexico, see the 
 Manuel de In Navigation dans la Mer de AntiUes, .)'c. 
 
112 CURRENT — GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 Pines, and more to the S. between Cuba and Jamaica. It 
 is remarked, that between these two islands and to t he west 
 of Jamaica the currents are very variable. 
 
 The general current of the Caribbean Sea forms in this 
 sea tw^o counter-currents, a knowledge of which is very use- 
 ful in the navigation of the coast of America 5 both run to the 
 E. The first commences north of the parallel of San Juan 
 deMcaragua, and running alongthe coast, from which it ex- 
 tends from ten to twelve miles, is lost in the vicinity of 
 Carthagena. The other current to the E., is found in the 
 Gulf of Honduras, between the Bay of Honduras and Cape 
 Gracias-a-Dios ; it extends along the coast between the bay 
 and cape to a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles from 
 the land. 
 
 In the season of northerly winds, there is often found 
 near the Mosquito coast and the west coast of the Gulf of 
 Honduras a current setting to the S. 
 
 ]S[ear the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico, from the river 
 of Coatzacoalcos as far as the Bay of Galveston, and in the 
 open sea of this coast, in the space comprised between it 
 and the general currrent of the Gulf of Mexico, the cur- 
 rents are variable and depend on the winds. They are di- 
 rected to the W. and N. W. with the trade- winds, and 
 attain a velocity of from one to two miles ; with the winds 
 from the ]^. they run to the S. and S. S. E. with a velocity 
 of one to one and a half mile. 
 
 To the west of the Mississippi, between the Southwest 
 Pass of this river and the Bay of Galveston, there is, the 
 whole length of the coast, a strong current to the W. near 
 the coast ; at its off-shore limit, about forty ^or fifty miles 
 from the land, it runs to the W. S, W. and S. W. 
 
 To the east of the Mississippi, the current is directed to 
 the E., near the coast. At its off-shore limit it runs to the 
 E. S. E. and S. E., and is lost in the general current. 
 
 ISTear the west coast of Florida, the currents are variable 
 and depend on the winds. They run most frequently to 
 the S. 
 Velocity of ihe The velocitv of the current of Guiana varies in its course, 
 
 current of Gni- t • -, ■ -, ^ -, -, • . n 
 
 aaa and of the which IS about fivc hundred and ninety miles, from ten to 
 
 Caribbean Sea. . . i ; i ■ , - ., -, -,• j_ ±^^ 
 
 twenty- one and thirty-six miles per day, according to the 
 locality ; in the bed of the current it has been found to be 
 four miles per hour, while near the coast it diminishes grad- 
 ually to less than one-half mile per hour. The velocity of 
 
CURRENTS — CARIBBEAN SEA. 1V\ 
 
 the onrreiit of the Caribbean Sea, as a mean, is from one 
 an<l a half to two mik\s per hour ; it is ])artieularly strong 
 from January to IMareh, 
 
 The temperature of the waters of this eurrent has been Teiiiporatureof 
 observed to be SO^.G, and that of the Amazon, very near to *^''' '■""'™*- 
 the line of demarcation, also 80°.G. The line of separation 
 of the waters of the eurrent and the Amazon is N. W. ^ 
 N., and they are as well defined as if composetl of two 
 different fluids. The temperature of the seas of archipel- 
 a,i*oes has, in general, been found, under the same i^arallel, 
 higher than that of the open sea. It is considered, how- 
 ever, that the high temperature of the Caribbean is more 
 due to the warm currents that penetrate it from the torrid 
 zone, than from the increase of heat given to its waters l)y 
 the continents which surround it. 
 
 We give the following remarks on the currents of the 
 Windward Islands, deduced from a great number of obser- 
 vations, judging that they will be found useful in the navi- 
 gation of the different passages among these islands. The 
 direction which we assign to the currents being the mean, 
 they should be regarded only as indicative. Currents 
 should always be distrusted, as very variable near land so 
 uneven as the Windward Islands, and influenced besides b}^ 
 the winds as to the velocity per day. We have cited those 
 most frequently encountered, that they may be more readily 
 comprehended, and have placed them in a tabular form : 
 
 8 A o 
 
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 CURRENTS — WINDWARD ISLANDS. 
 
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CURRENTS — WINDWARD ISLANDS. 
 
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118 CURRENTS — aULF STREAjM. 
 
 From the parallel of Santa Lucia to that of Anguilla, 
 when a little in the ofiing' to the east of the Windward 
 Islands, the current runs to the W. S. W. and W., at a ve- 
 locity of ten, eleven, and twelve miles per day. From the 
 parallel of Auguilla to that of Anegada, it runs to the W. 
 at a rate of eleven miles. To the west of the Windward 
 Islands and of the meridian of 63^ it is directed tow ard the 
 W,, varying to AV. S. W. and W^. N. W. Its mean velocity 
 is thirteen or fourteen miles. 
 
 On the parallel of Martinique and Dominica, when be- 
 tween the meridians of 61° 10' and 62° 10' AV., the current 
 is often found setting to the IST. W. Between Barbadoes and 
 Trinidad, on the meridian of the first, the current sets to 
 N. W. and IST. IST. W. at a rate of ten, of fifty-eight miles, and 
 sometimes sixty-nine miles per day. 
 Gulf streamer The Gulf Stream or Current of Florida has its origin in 
 the Gulf of Mexico, where its waters, having become heated, 
 are directed across the Bahama Channel; leaving this strait 
 they run to the northward and westward along the coast of 
 Florida, and in latitude 31° N. take a direction nearly N. E., 
 as far as Cape Hatteras. There, from the re-entering of the 
 coast, the Avestern limit of the current takes a more north- 
 erly direction, while its bed continues to run tow^ard the 
 N. E., until it encounters George's and ISTantucket Banks, 
 when its direction becomes E. A little after, in passing 
 over the southern extremity of the Grand Bank of IS'ew- 
 foundland, it takes the direction E. 11° IS"., and keeps this 
 direction between the parallels of 35° and 43° X. latitude, 
 until it arrives at the meridian of 36° W. longitude ; there 
 it turns to the S. E. and to the S. ; when, turning to tJie 
 westward of the Azores, it is lost in the ocean. 
 
 Its warm waters have, however, sometimes been found 
 on the west coast of Europe ; they have been observed be- 
 tween the parallels of 44° 20' and 39° N., among others by 
 Franklin. 
 _ ^ , , The Gulf Stream extends about three thousand miles 
 
 Extent and 
 
 velocity of the from its Origin to the wesfc of the Azores ; it traverses in 
 
 Gulf Stream. '^ ' 
 
 its course 20° of latitude from the parallel of 23° to that 
 of 43°. From observations made on this current, its mean 
 velocity at the entrance of the Bahama Channel, at the 
 Islands of Bernini, and as far as 31° N., would be seventy 
 miles in twenty-four hours. A velocity of eighty miles in 
 twenty-four hours was found between the parallels of 20° 
 
CURRENTS— (iULF .STREA:M. 11!» 
 
 and I'T^ X., w1r".i Xlw wind was blowini;- iVoiii the X. with 
 vioh'iu'L'. At the outlet of the Straits of llorida abreast 
 of Cape Florida, its rapidity resembles a torrent, and 
 reaches at times one hundred and twenty miles per day. 
 Its velocity decreases then <;r;idually in its course toward 
 the E.; between the meridians of 03^ and 04° W. it is fifty- 
 five miles per day, and on that of 40"^ 10' W., it is not more 
 than thirty to thirty-five miles. 
 
 Tlie CtuU' Stream diminishes very rapidly its velocity on 
 turning' to the S.; and to the M'est of the Azores and near 
 these islands it is but ten miles per day. 
 
 The current is narrowest in the Florida Channel, between 
 Cape Florida and the Islands of Beniini, which is a distance 
 of thirty-four or thirty-five niiles, nearly the whole of which 
 is occupied by the current, and it has here a great velocity. 
 About seven hundred miles to the northward and eastward 
 of Cape Hatteras the breadth of its bed is estimated to be 
 about seventy-five miles, and beyond this it enlarges con- 
 siderably to the northward and to tlie eastward. 
 
 The end of August and the commencement of September 
 are the i)eriods when the Gulf Stream acquires its greatest 
 velocity and its highest temperature, its minimum velocity 
 and lowest temperature are in the month of February. In 
 the month of October the current is much weaker than in 
 September, its velocity varies according to the season. 
 I^ear the coast of Cuba, at its southern limit, the Gulf 
 Stream is generally w^eak ; there exists here often, if not 
 always, a counter-current, of which we will speak hereafter. 
 On the meridian of Matauzas the great velocity of the cur- 
 rent is nearly on the parallel of 24^ X. ; at the northern and 
 western limits of the Gulf Stream, in its whole extent, the 
 velocity observed is greater than at its southern and east- 
 ern limits, where, from its tendency to spread into the ocean 
 and from eddies, its strength is diminished. 
 
 On the north side of Cul)a, as has been remarked, the cur- counter-cur- 
 
 , • , T , 1 . i J.1 -J? 1 1. I'ents of the Gulf 
 
 rent is weak, and near this coast there is found a connter stream. 
 current, which also exists on the southern and eastern limits 
 of the Gulf Stream throughout its extent. On the opposite 
 border of the Florida Channel along the Carysfort Cays 
 there is also found a counter-current setting to the S. and to 
 the W., according to the position occupied in the channel; 
 the same counter-current exists on the north and west bor- 
 der of the Gulf Stream through its whole extent. 
 
120 CURRENTS — GULP STREAM. 
 
 When the weather is good, a well-defined line appears to 
 separate the principal from the counter-current near the 
 Carysfort Cays ; outside of this line the water ripples in 
 some places and a strong chop is observed. The color of the 
 sea varies in the counter-current, and it changes from a 
 deep blue to sea green and to milk white in proportion as 
 the Florida Eeef is approached. 
 
 When the winds are regular and moderate, the force of 
 the current in the Florida Channel is not extraordinary, but 
 after a gale from the IS", or jST. E., and while it blows, the 
 current and the counter-currents acquire a great velocity. 
 The winds from N., IST. E., and E. diminish the breadth of 
 the bed of the stream, and its velocity becomes consider- 
 able when [these winds blow from September to March. 
 The winds from S. and S. E. have less tendency to increase 
 the principal current, the bed of which increases and is less 
 removed from the coast, from which, it is separated by the 
 counter-current whicli runs to the S. 
 
 The winds from jST. W., W., and S. W. also spread the bed 
 of the current on the border towards the ocean, which 
 diminishes its velocity. Lastly, the phases of the moon 
 also exert an influence on the Gulf Stream, thougli not in 
 so great a degree as the winds, but combined it results that 
 the shores of Florida and the Carysfort Eeefs and Cays are 
 inundated. When a gale from the N. happens at the full 
 and change, under these circumstances the water has risen 
 five and a half fathoms above its level. 
 
 The Gulf Stream, from the parallel of 26° to that of 28°, 
 runs generally to the N., bending a little to the E., between 
 those of 28° and 35°, the parallel of Cape Hatteras ; at its 
 western limit it runs to the IsT. and N. jS". E. and to the N. E. ; 
 it is there arrested by the Bank of Soundings extending 
 from the coast, and follows its contours, with different 
 velocities according to the season. The limit of the current 
 passes nearly forty miles from the coasts of Georgia and 
 Carolina, and is nearer to that of Florida. The mean 
 breadth of the bed of the current is about sixty miles, less 
 near Cape Canaveral, more on the parallel of Cape Hat- 
 teras. In this locality the current has at times been found 
 having a velocity of five miles per hour ; its mean is three 
 miles. The current then, instead of removing from the 
 coast on arriving at the parallel of Cape Hatteras, ap- 
 proaches it between the parallels of 38° and 39°, as has 
 
CURRENTS — (ULK STREAM, IL'L 
 
 been alicady iviiiaiked, and its velocity is two and a- liall' 
 miles per hour. It then runs along the George and Nan- 
 tucket Bauks, Avhich divert it to the E. N. E. and E. by jST. 
 After it has passed Cape Hatteras it runs to the N. jST. E., 
 and then to E. towards George's Bank, extending nearly 
 to 4:(P latitude N. Its southern limit, taking the direction 
 of N. N. E., cuts the parallel of 35° N. on about the meridian 
 of 72° W. longitude, or one hundred and twenty miles E. by 
 S. of Cape Hatteras. 
 
 Between the Bank of Soundings on the coast of the United 
 States and the western limit of the Gulf Stream there is a 
 space of about forty miles which is occupied by the cold 
 counter-current, which runs S. by W. (principally during 
 the months of winter, December to April) with a velocity 
 of twelve miles per day. Between the meridians of 70° and 
 05° N., the northern limit of the current appears to be the 
 edge of George's Bank, beyond which it turns toward N. E. 
 by E. as far as the meridian of 05°, which it cuts ; in the 
 summer in the latitude of 41° N., and in winter much more 
 to the southward. Its southern limit during the same sea- 
 son is nearly the parallel of 35°. 
 
 Between the meridians of G5° and 60°, the portion of the 
 current between the Bermudas and Nova Scotia, it is found 
 that the northern limit of the bed of the current attains 
 the parallel of 41° 20' in the longitude of 05°, and the par- 
 allel of 42° 15' in the longitude 59° 40'. Its southern limit 
 has not been exactly ascertained. 
 
 In the north part of the Gulf Stream, during the winter, 
 from December to March, there are constant and heavy 
 squalls, most frequently" between N. and W., blowing ob- 
 liquely to the bed of the current from Cape Hatteras to be- 
 yond George's Bank, and tending to give its waters a move- 
 ment toward the E,, at times so strong that it is impos- 
 sible for a ship to approach the land, unless with a strong 
 favorable wind. When the winds blow from S. and E., 
 which is not common in these localities, the current ap- 
 proaches the coast, and in some places passes the edge of 
 the Bank of Soundings, compressed, as it were, between the 
 edge of the bank and the easterly wind, the breadth of the 
 stream diminishes and its velocity increases proportionally. 
 This fact is particularly remarked from the meridian of 
 Block Island, the length of the edge of the Bank of Nan- 
 tucket, and from there toward the George's ; also, along the 
 
122 OUKRENTS — GULF STREAM. 
 
 coast of Georgia aucl a part of Soiitli Caroliua, With the 
 winds from W. and IST. W., the bed of the cnrrent spreads 
 many miles into the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 From what has been said on the principal limits of the 
 bed of the cnrrent and the changes of position which have 
 been observed, it can be concluded that the counter-currents 
 I)rodnced by the Gnlf Stream undergo equal variations, and 
 especially near its outer limits ifc is generally found that the 
 counter-current takes a direction opposite to that of the 
 principal current. Its velocity is increased in proportion to 
 the force of the wind blowing from a direction opposite that 
 of the Gulf Stream, while it is diminished and the counter- 
 current disappears almost entirely when the wind blows from 
 a direction following the principal current. In the last case 
 the bed of the stream expands. The east portion of its cur- 
 rent, between the meridians of 60^ and 30° W., increases 
 greatly its breadth ; its direction is consequently very 
 variable and its limits less defined. On the meridian of 60° 
 its northern limit attains, in the summer, to 42° 15'. From 
 there it passes over the southern part of the Bank of New- 
 foundland, and the current going to the E. N. E., and some- 
 times to the jST, E. beyond the bank, its limit attains to the 
 latitude of 41° 30' ^S". on the meridian of 41° W. It is about 
 this meridian that the limit of the Gulf Stream commences 
 to descend toward the S. To the W. of the Azores, between 
 the meridians of 40° and 30° W., in the winter, the north- 
 ern limit of the current is 30', or 1° less to the ^S". than 
 during the other season. On the meridian of 60° W. it does 
 not pass the latitude of 41° 30' î^. 
 
 The southern limit of this part of the Gulf Stream does 
 not appear to be fixed. Most frequently it is found very 
 variable, with a tendency towards the S., when the great 
 volume of water to the N. advances to the E. In the prin- 
 cipal current, during the month of August, its velocity 
 varies from fifty to twenty miles per day. It decreases in 
 going to the E. 
 
 As the month of zVugust and the commencement of Sep- 
 tember are the periods when the velocity is the greatest, it 
 is necessary to make a diminution in allowing for the other 
 months. 
 
 On the meridian of 60° tlie width of the bed of the Gulf 
 Stream is, at the end of summer, about three hundred and 
 fifty miles. The drift currents of the trade-winds, which are 
 found to the southward of the bed of the Gulf Stream, and. 
 
CIKKKNTS — (ULl' STKKAM. ll*.") 
 
 ill till' \ iciiiity of the Jîonuudas, run in a contrary (liivction 
 to the (liilf Stream; and tliongli very variable, are .gener- 
 ally to the W. S. AV. To the north of the Gulf Stream are 
 found variable currents, eddies, and currents derived from 
 prevailing" winds. 
 
 The Gulf Stream is generally lost on entering that part 
 of the Atlantic Ocean called by the Portuguese the Sea of 
 Sargasso or vSargaeao, a name given to a species of Fucus 
 natans very common in this part of the ocean ; it is the 
 marine plant commonly known as the Gulf rceerl. 
 
 This gulf weed occupies to the south of the Gulf Stream 
 the space comprised between the parallels of 37'^ and 18° 
 y. latitude and the meridians of 33° and 43° W. longitude. 
 In this space is found at times lines of the fucus very thick 
 and compact, at others it is dispersed and divided into small 
 groups. 
 
 The Sargasso Sea may be regarded as l)ounded on the 
 south by the equatorial current directed to the \Y. ; on the 
 east, by the currents running S. and coming from the north 
 of the ocean; and on the north and west, by the Gulf 
 Stream. Its extent from north to south is more than twelve 
 hundred miles, and within these limits the sea or gulf weed 
 is found in greater quantities than elsewhere. During the 
 past sixt}' years it does not appear to have much changed 
 its position. It may be stationary, or unable to leave the 
 position it occupies, which, according to Eeunel, would in- 
 dicate in this locality a kind of depression of the level, as 
 is remarked in whirlpools. 
 
 Some portions of this fucus are detached from the large 
 masses and carried by the drift currents of the trade- wind s 
 toward the Virgin Islands, and toward Porto Eico, until 
 they reach the current of the Caribbean Sea, which carries 
 them to the west. 
 
 As a summary, we will say that the point where the 
 greatest velocity of the Gulf Stream is found in August and 
 September is about the latitude 37° 45' N. ; that the velocitj- 
 of this current is very variable, and that the mean does not 
 exceed three miles per hour. 
 
 The maximum temperature observed in the waters of the 
 Gulf Stream has been 8G°, which is 9° above that of the 
 ocean on the same parallel ; 10° further north it has been 
 lound 84°, having in this space fiiUeu 2° ; in 61° W. longi- 
 tude it has been found 81° in the summer and 67° in the 
 
124 CURRENTS — GULF STREAM. 
 
 winter; iu 43° W. lougitude, 75° ; and in 38° W. longitude, 
 73°. The temperature thus appears to decrease with the 
 velo(;ity, but not as rapidly as the waters advance to the 
 E, ; for when they turn to the S. they retain still a high 
 temperature. 
 
 In leaving the Bahama Channel the waters of the Gulf 
 Stream have a deep indigo color, and their line of separa- 
 tion from the green waters of the Atlantic Ocean is per- 
 fectly appreciable for a space of a hundred miles. 
 ]N. E. braucii of When the Gulf Stream turns to the S. E., to the north of 
 r am-ii^ç Azorcs, aud about the meridian of 36° W., it throws 
 off toward the jS". E. a considerable branch, with a breadth 
 of about six hundred miles, which ascends toward the pole, 
 passing, in part, between Iceland and the Norwegian coast, 
 and enveloping the Faroe Islands. The waters of this cur- 
 rent are warm, and their temperature has been found to be 
 54° in the summer and 51° in the winter. Its direction is 
 toward the N. E. There is but little information as to its 
 velocity. (See Appendix, No. 2.) 
 
 This current is important to ships going from the West 
 Indies, Norway, Denmark, or to points situated in the north 
 of the North Sea. 
 
 Captain Dundas Cochrane thinks that the currents met 
 in Baffin's Bay and Davis's Strait come from the Polar Sea, 
 which bathes the coast of North America. 
 
 ''All the expeditions made to this locality," says this 
 ofi&cer, " and among others that of Captain Franklin, have 
 shown regular currents setting from the Polar Sea toward 
 Baffin's Bay. Captains Boss and Parry encountered them 
 in the Polar Sea, and in this bay, having a velocity of three 
 to four miles per hour. There is little dioubt that between 
 Hudson's Bay and Barrow and Lancaster Straits there are 
 a number of channels traversed by rapid currents, which 
 render their navigation both difficult and dangerous. 
 
 In Behring Strait there are the voyages of Cook, or 
 rather of Clerke and of Kotzebue, also the recent Russian 
 expedition commanded by Captain Vasillief. These differ- 
 ent navigators have found currents setting to the N., to the 
 N. E., and to the E. N. E.; the observations of the last men- 
 tioned are the most conclusive. On the coast of Kamt- 
 chatka he found the currents setting to the E. N. E. so 
 strong, thirty miles beyond Icy Cape, that he hesitated to 
 advance further, fearing that he might not be able to effect 
 
CIKKKNT.-- — AKCTlf (TIÎKKNT. 1 L'.") 
 
 his rotuni, ;is ho icpirdrd w inU'iiiiu in tlicse Irozcii ro.uioii.s 
 as iinpiiuU'Ut it' not (laiiiiiM'oii.s. (See ApiJOinIix Xo. L*.) 
 
 "All the authors, all the philoso[>her.s, as well as those 
 ^Yho have made researches iu this matter, admit that there 
 is a eiurent i)enetrating' into the Polar Sea from the Pacific, 
 by JU'hring's Strait, at least during' the autumn, and a cur- 
 rent returning- from the Polar Sea by Baffin's Bay. The 
 arctic current is attributed to this cause. The currents 
 observed by Captain Franklin are confirmed b^- this fact, 
 that in the localities in question the drift-wood is all carried 
 to the west of the capes or promontories on the coast, which 
 is a proof that in these regions there are no currents run- 
 ning to the W." 
 
 These remarks of Captain Cochrane explain in a satis- 
 factory manner the currents which descend from Baffin's 
 Bay and Hudson's Strait, and set to the S. with considera- 
 ble velocity. 
 
 The arctic current is supposed to take its rise in the Arctic timent. 
 frozen regions which surrouinl the pole ; from thence it de- 
 scends along the west coast of Greenland as far as Cape 
 Farewell. It is divided at this cape into two branches ; the 
 one, returning to the N. along the west coast of Greenland, 
 as far as al)out the parallel of 6(P, is lost in the Current of 
 Baflin's Bay; the other diverges toward the S. W., and 
 mixes with the waters of the Hudson's Bay Current, which 
 descends through the différent straits iu this part of the 
 Polar Sea situated to the north of America. The name of 
 polar current of America would be better adapted to this 
 current, we think, than the one given to it at present. 
 
 The Current of Hudson's Bay arriving at the north point of 
 Newfoundland, is divided into two branches; the one 
 penetrates the Straits of Belle-He, the other passing over 
 the Newfoundland Bank, where its waters mix with those 
 of the arctic current. Near the east coast of this island 
 this current, discharging into the ocean, appears to have a 
 predominant direction to the S. W., and a velocity, at 
 times, of two miles per hour; however, it varies according 
 to the force and direction of the wind. The current along 
 the east coast of Newfoundland turns Cape Bace, and is 
 directed towards the AV., following- the south coast, until it 
 meets the current from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The point 
 of meeting of these currents is a little to the west of the 
 Island of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. 
 
126 CURRENTS — BAY OF BISCAY. 
 
 G uric lit of Captaiu Baj'field has remarked that the branch of the 
 ï^tiW t s'^'o f Hudson's Bay Current which penetrates the Straits of Belle- 
 ^ *" ^' lie, follows at first the direction of this strait, and is di- 
 
 rected toward the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This is confirmed 
 by the ice transported by this current during the summer 
 in spite of the prevailing winds from S. W. As far as Me- 
 catina, and sometimes to the vicinity of the east point of 
 Anticosti, its velocity becomes greater, with a succession of 
 winds from the N. E.5 then it attains in the strait a velocity 
 of forty-eight miles per day, and thirty or forty miles further 
 to the west it diminishes gradually as the current enters the 
 larger extent of the gulf. Its velocity, however, is generally 
 less than that indicated above, and when the winds from 
 S. W. prevail, it is almost insensible. To the east of Davis's 
 Strait, many observations show that the prevailing current 
 is to the E. Many bottles thrown in the sea by Captains 
 lioss and Parry have been found on the coast of Ireland, 
 and on the shores of the islands west of Scotland. (See 
 Appendix No. 2.) 
 Current Bay of Altliough to the wcst of the Azorcs the current of the 
 iscay. Gulf stream turns partly towards the S., there exists between 
 
 this archipelago and the coast of Europe a general move- 
 mont of the waters from W. to E. This is the current 
 known to seamen as the Current of the Bay of Biscay. This 
 current, whether produced by the warm waters of the Gulf 
 Stream, or by the cold streams running from the poles to- 
 wards the Equator, is a question as yet unsettled. 
 
 The strength of the Current of the Bay of Biscay appears 
 to be very variable, it has been observed to be at times 
 from ten to fourteen miles in twenty-four hours. It has 
 been met with twenty-four miles per day. 
 
 On the parallel of Cape Finistère, the Current of the Bay 
 of Biscay, which Avaries in direction principally from E. S. 
 E. to S. E., is divided into two branches; one forms the 
 Eennel Current, the other the current of the coast of 
 Portugal. 
 Eeiinei current. The Eenuel Current, which bears the name of the learned 
 major who first observed it, is directed toward the E., in 
 the vicinity of Cape Finistère ; it runs along the north coast 
 of Spain, it then mounts to the IST. along the west coast of 
 France. In this locality it commences to be felt thirty or 
 forty miles off the coast and has a breadth of fifteen or 
 twenty miles. Its velocity has been found to be one-half 
 
(TKUKN'l'S — C0A8T OF roiITUCiAL, IL'T 
 
 to two-thirdsi of a mile per liour ; it is, liowever, vi'iy \n- 
 lialtle, lollo^vill^;• tlie tliioction and force of the winds; it 
 lias often been fonnd one mile per hour. To this current is 
 attributed the loss of many ships in making the land about 
 the Channel. It enlarges more and more in going to the north. 
 On the parallel of Brest it extends eighty miles from east to 
 west, and its direction is nearly N. W. ; it runs from the Bay 
 of Biscay, passes to the west of Ushaut, tifteen or twenty 
 miles from this island, traverses the entrance of the Chan- 
 nel and is directed to the west of the Scilly Islands ; at the 
 opening of the Irish Sea it throws one branch into this sea, 
 the principal branch being directed toward Cape Clear, run- 
 niug to the AY. X. W. or W., and is lost near the meridian 
 of 18° W. in the polar current of Northern Africa. 
 
 The second branch of the Current of the Bay of Biscay, current of tiie 
 called the current of the coast of Portugal, is directed from "current of the 
 Cape Finistère toward the S. S. E. and S. E, ; along the coast, tar.' 
 at the parallel of Cape St. Vincent, its direction becomes S.E., 
 and in descending toward the S. it bends to the E. more and 
 more until it reaches the entrance to the Strait of Gibral- 
 tar, toward which, from the meridian of 18° W., are directed 
 all the waters from Cape St. Vincent on the north to Cape 
 Cantin on the south, to form the current of the Strait of 
 Gibraltar, which carries the waters of the ocean to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The velocity of the current of the coast of Portugal has 
 been found to be from twelve to twenty-four miles per day ; 
 it is, however, very variable, according to the prevailing- 
 winds, their force and duration. On this coast, then, this 
 current should be distrusted, particularly in winter, with 
 strong winds from the W., and the coast be kept at a sufiti- 
 cient distance. 
 
 It is necessary, also, in the Bay of Biscay to pay great 
 attention to the Biscay Current, as also to that of liennel ; 
 these tw^o currents gain additional force in proportion as 
 the winds from AV., variable from N. AV. to S. W., have 
 blown a length of time or with violence ; it will be prudent 
 in this case to keep always a lookout for the land of the 
 Channel, and in leaving the Bay of Biscay to double Cape 
 Finistère well to seaward. The Bay of Biscay presents this 
 important fact, that while in open sea and to the southward 
 the waters are directed towards the E., E. S. E., and S. E., 
 which is proved by the great number of bottles found near 
 
128 CUERENTS — COAST OF NORTHERN GUINEA. 
 
 Bayonne and the basiii of Arcaclion ; the waters of the in- 
 terior' near the coast of France run toward the IST. and N. 
 W. to And an exit. 
 Polar current of rj^i^Q polar Current of North Africa rises in that portion 
 
 Africa and cur- '- '- 
 
 rent of the uortii of the sca situatcd to the north of the Azores, and nearly 
 on the parallel of Cape Finistère. It is directed to the S., 
 and the principal bulk of its waters passes to the east of 
 this archipelago, then to the west of Madeira, while between 
 Cape St. Vincent and Cape Cantin all the mass of w^aters, 
 as far as the longitude of 18° W., is directed to the N. E. 
 and S. E., toward the Strait of Gibraltar, in which they are 
 ingulfed as in a funnel. 
 
 From Cape Cantin to Cape Bojador, between the merid- 
 ian of Madeira and the coast of Africa, it is oftenest di- 
 rected to the E, S. E., but with this direction, in this local- 
 ity, it does not extend more than one hundred and fifty or 
 one hundred and eighty miles from the coast. More in open 
 sea it runs to the S. and S. S. W. From the Canaries to 
 Cape Verd its direction is generally from S. to S. S. W. ; 
 at Cape Verd it turns some degrees to the E. of S., follow- 
 ing the coast of Africa, and it takes the name of the Current 
 of Northern Guinea^ at the parallel of Cape Palmas. 
 
 Its western limit, at the parallel of Cape Verd, is be- 
 tween the Island of Sal and San Nicolas, then between the 
 Island of Mayo and Santiago, of the Cape Verd Archi- 
 loelago ; its direction is from S. to S. W., as through nearly 
 all this limit from its source as far as this point. 
 
 . At the parallel of Cape Mesurado its direction becomes 
 E. S. E. and even E. in the open sea, while at a little dis- 
 tance from the coast it is S. E. as far as Cape Palmas ; there 
 its direction is E. in the open sea ; then E. N. E. and E. S. 
 E. to the bight of the Gulf of Benin ; it runs then in con- 
 tact with the equatorial current, and after turning Princes 
 Island its waters probably mix with those of the equatorial 
 current. 
 Extent of the The breadth of the Current of Northern Guinea varies 
 
 ern^Guinea. °^' " according to the scason. On the parallel of Cape Palmas 
 it extends to seaward about one hundred and eighty miles, 
 that is, about as far as 12° W. longitude, and occupies the 
 space comprised between the parallel of 2° 30' N. and the 
 coast of Guinea. It has on the meridian of Cape Palmas a 
 breadth of about one hundred and fifty miles, but to fhQ 
 east and in the Gulf of Benin it attains a much more con- 
 
CURRENT,-^ — OF NORTK GUINEA. 129 
 
 siderable breadtb, about throe buudred miles from north to 
 south. Neither this nor the equatorial current is felt in the 
 viciuity of St. Thomas, the latter not until a little to the 
 west of this island, in longitude 5° 50' E. 
 
 The velocity of the polar cnrrent of North Africa near Velocity of tiio 
 its origin and abreast the coast of Portugal is about twelve North Africa, 
 miles per day ', abreast the coast of Africa it varies between 
 sixteen and ten miles, as far as Cape Palmas. 
 
 The velocity of the Current of Northern Guinea is the ,, "Velocity of the 
 
 ' "^ Current or North- 
 
 greatest from June to September. To the east of Cape «rn Guinea. 
 
 Talmas, at this period, it has been fonnd from forty to 
 
 tifty miles per day. Abreast of Cape Three Points it is 
 
 about thirty-fonr miles ; it then diminishes, and in the Gulf 
 
 of Benin it bends from the E. toward the S. 
 
 At the Cape Verd Islands the temperature of the Temperature ot 
 
 n 1 ■ , ■ r^ r- r^ 1 -, -i ^^^ cufrcnt. 
 
 waters of this current is from 7° to 9° below that of the 
 waters of the ocean in this vicinity ; it rises with rapidity 
 as it goes S. In the Gulf of Guinea the temperature has 
 been observed at 84° in the middle of the current and from 
 83° to 82° at its southern limit, in contact with the colder 
 waters of the equatorial current ; it is 79*^ to 81° in its 
 northern i^art and in the vicinity of the coast. 
 
 This current is of great importance in the navigation of 
 the west coast of Africa. 
 
 Such are the geueral currents in the North Atlantic 
 Ocean, the remainder of which is occupied by drift currents, 
 the principal of these, as we have already said, is that di- 
 rected toward the W. and S. W. from the effect of the N. 
 E. trade-winds. 
 
 NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 Table of the comparative mean velocities of the currents in this 
 hemisphere in twenty four hours. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Equatorial Current 46 
 
 Current of Guiana 30 
 
 Gulf Stream 35 
 
 Drift Current of the N. E. trades 10 
 
 Rennel Current 18 
 
 African Current of Northern Guinea 20 
 
 From the numerous bottles thrown into the sea it appears 
 that in the Atlantic Ocean the waters have a movement 
 from W. to E., for, from the observations made on this sub- 
 9 AO 
 
130 CURRENTS — OF BRAZIL. 
 
 ject by the learned hydrographie engineer Daussy, all that 
 have arrived have been found on the coasts of Europe, and 
 not one has been reported on the coast of America. The 
 wind necessarily should be considered in the route of these 
 bottles toward the continents ; but by this only a move- 
 ment of the upper strata of the waters would be indicated. 
 The solution of the great question of the currents of the 
 ISTorth Atlantic lies in the study of the currents and the 
 temperature of the waters of the Strait of Gibraltar; are 
 the waters carried by the ocean to the Mediterranean warm 
 or cold"? Do they supply those brought from the Gulf 
 Stream, or those wMch, coming from the regions of the north, 
 descend along the coast of Africa ? This is the scientific 
 question long proposed, but not as yet completely solved. 
 We will indicate the currents of the South Atlantic : 
 
 Current of Bra. Wc havc already spoken of the Current of Brazil, the 
 south branch of the equatorial current dividing at Cape St. 
 Koque. It extends two hundred and fifty or three hundred 
 miles from the coast of South America, and spreads into 
 the ocean 6° or 7°. The space between the coast and the 
 current is occupied by other currents, receiving their direc- 
 tion from the alternate winds from S. E. and ]S'. E. The 
 waters of the Current of Brazil are traversed by those of the 
 Kio de la Plata, which can be recognized two hundred miles 
 to seaward of its mouth. These waters, however, do not 
 appear to exert any considerable influence on the Brazil 
 Current, which, in this locality, is divided probably into two 
 branches; the most considerable turns to the E., and forms 
 the traverse current of the South Atlantic Ocean ; the other 
 branch, directed to the S., forms a current which, though 
 very weak, is sometimes experienced as far as the entrance 
 of the Strait of Magellan. 
 
 Velocity of this The mcau velocity of this current at its point nearest ap- 
 cmrent. proacliing the Equator is about twenty miles per day. 
 
 Currents of tiie We have sald that between the coast of Brazil and the 
 coast of Brazil. ç^^j.^.gjjj^ j^^g^ mentioned alternate currents are fouud, occa- 
 sioned by the periodic winds which blow on this coast ; the 
 strength of these currents depend on the force of the winds, 
 and are accordingly very variable. From March to Sep- 
 tember, the season of the winds from S. E. to E. S. E., the 
 currents mount toward the î^. : from September to March, 
 with the winds from N. E., variable to E. N. E., they des- 
 cend toward the S. In these general directions, however. 
 
OURREÎs'T — TRAVERSE OF ATLANTIC. 131 
 
 ■vvill be louiul many variations duo to the contour of the 
 coast, these currents are not felt more than one hundred 
 and tifty to one huudre<l and eighty miles from the coast, 
 and are of great importance to navigators of this locality. 
 The Current of Cape Horn is constantly directed from the Current o r 
 
 -.^ • 1 ^ . , '., 4 .1 /• T±. Cape Horn. 
 
 Antarctic and the Pacihc Oceans into the Atlantic, its 
 general direction is E. X. E. and X. E. ; whatever may be the 
 prevailing winds on the east coast of America, it is directed 
 to the iST. E. and surrounds the Falkland Islands. At cer- 
 tain seasons it keeps its course to the X. E. as far as the 
 parallel of 48° or 49° S. latitude, and it is probable that it 
 mixes its waters with the traverse current of the South At- 
 lantic, of which we will speak. 
 
 In the vicinity of Tierra del Euego this current has been 
 observed to have a mean velocity of from twelve to fifteen 
 miles in twenty-four hours. In the latitude of 57° S., and 
 longitude of 72° W., it has been found thirty-five miles per 
 day. Ill the vicinity of the coast its mean velocity would 
 be about twenty-four miles in twenty-four hours, while be- 
 tween Cape Horn and Stateii Island, in latitude 55° S., its 
 direction is ]Sr. 51° E., and its velocity fifty-six miles. 
 
 This current advances to the X,, and coming in jiart fi'om Temperature. 
 the Antarctic Sea has a temperature much lower than that 
 of the waters of the adjacent ocean.* 
 
 The portion of the ocean occupied by the traverse cur- Traverse cur- 
 rent, which sets from the coast of Brazil toward the Cape lantic. 
 of Good Hope, is still imj)erfectly known. It is believed to 
 be formed in a great measure by the tropical current of the 
 coast of Brazil, but this is not positively known. It ad- 
 vances Avith great rapidity toward the E., passing to the 
 south of the Cape of Good Hope at the distance of one hun- 
 dred and fifty to one hundred and eighty miles ; it then pen- 
 etrates the Indian Ocean, where it is traced two thousand 
 miles beyond the cape, where it forms the current of the 
 south and west coasts of Australia. This traverse current 
 is very fiivorable for ships going by the east to the îîast 
 Indies and in the Pacific Oceans. 
 
 The Current of Cape Agulhas, orof the Cape of (rood Hope, .,^""^"* "'■ 
 
 ^ '^ ' ' ^ ' Cape A siilhas, or 
 
 is formed bv two other currents coming from the Indian "*' the cape of 
 
 . '^ Good Hope. 
 
 Ocean, the principal of which, directed toward the S., de- 
 scends the Mozambique Channel along the coast of Africa ; 
 
 * See Geno-al Examination of the Pacific relative to the Current of Cape 
 Horn. 
 
132 CUEEENÏ — OF CAPE AGrULHAS 
 
 the other comiug- irom the sea, situated to the south of Mad- 
 agascar, is the southwest branch of the equatorial current 
 of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 These two Indian currents unite a little to the south of Port 
 Natal, where they take a more southerly direction, along 
 the edge of the Agulhas Bank, then, instead of passing en- 
 tire, as has been supposed, into the Atlantic Ocean, the 
 great part of its waters return by a counter-current into the 
 Indian Ocean, mixing with the traverse current of the At- 
 lantic Ocean, of which we have spoken. After the Bank of 
 Agulhas has checked its course to the W. this counter- 
 current is called " the counter-current of the Cape of Good 
 Hope," or "the traverse current of the Indian Ocean."* 
 
 Polar current The Other x)ortion of the waters of the Current of Cape 
 
 lantic. Agulhas rctums in the Atlantic Ocean along the west coast 
 
 of Africa for nearly its whole extent. This branch is called 
 
 "the polar current of the South Atlantic," or "the South 
 
 Atlantic Current." 
 
 Breadth of the At the jjoiut of rcuuion of the currents which form it, 
 
 g as urren . ^pp^^gj^g Cape Kecifc, the Agulhas or Cape of Good Hoi:)e 
 Current has a breadth of ninety to one hundred miles ; its 
 velocity in some i^arts is sixty and as much as one hundred 
 miles per day. 
 
 Temperature Outside the Bank of Agulhas its temperature has been 
 
 of this current. ° ■■- 
 
 observed to be 70°, which is 9° above the temperature of 
 the ocean. Near the edge of the bank it has been found 68°, 
 8° above the temperature of the ocean. 
 
 On the same bank the temperature of the water has been 
 found 5°.4 below that of the surrounding ocean. 
 Breadth of the The couutcr-current of the Cape of Good Hope attains at 
 orthrblpeTf times a breadth of from two hundred and ten to two hun- 
 Good Hope. (jred and forty miles. 
 
 sc nth Atlantic The polar currcut of the South Atlantic, which, as we 
 polar cuiTent. j^g^yg snid, is the ouly branch of the Current of the Cape of 
 Good Hope which penetrates into the Atlantic Ocean, turns 
 the Cape of Good Hope. It extends eighty to one hundred 
 miles to seaward, and passes to the north of the traverse 
 current of the Atlantic Ocean. Abreast the Cape of Good 
 Hope it increases considerably, and extends about one hun- 
 dred and fifty to one hundred and sixty miles. It runs, 
 then, toward the N., spreading more and more, and emp- 
 ties into the equatorial current. Its principal direction is 
 * See general examination of the Indian Ocean. 
 
CURRENT— OF SOUTHERN GUINEA. 133 
 
 N. W. Opposite to the Cape of Good llopo, and nearly in 
 its latitude, it receives a branch which appears to proceed 
 Ironi the traverse current of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The mean velocity of this current has been found to be^.J^*;'^'^;'^"'"^^''^ 
 sixteen miles per day in its in-incipal direction of N. W. ; it 
 meets in its course the Avaters of the Elver Congo, which, 
 though running with much force, do not appear to have any 
 marked influence upon its direction, the meeting currents 
 deviating from this current but at a small angle. Its waters, 
 as those of the Amazon, do not mingle, and for a distance 
 of two hundred miles the water of the Congo can be recog- 
 nized by its color. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope the temperature «f'^i^i^cSnt™ 
 of the waters of this current is 66^.9, 3°.06 above that of 
 the ocean. On the parallel of 30° S. latitude it is only 64o.4. 
 
 From St. Paul de Loando the current runs the length of g^j^^^j//j.^"*(j°jf 
 the coast of Africa, nearly N. W.; arriving' at Cape Lojiez °*^^- 
 one portion is detached from the main current, and takes a 
 more northerly direction. Eunning along the coast of the 
 Gaboon as fiir as the Gulf of Biafra, it is lost in the eddies 
 of the equatorial current ; this current should be named 
 the " Current of /Southern Guinea^ 
 
 Its principal direction is N. K. E. and N. E. near the coast 5 
 sometimes jS". W. more in the offing and near the islands of 
 the Gulf of Biafra. 
 
 The limit of this current to seaward appears to be further Limit of this 
 
 . current. 
 
 to the east than Prince s Island. 
 
 Its velocity, as a mean, is ten miles per day, though it velocity. 
 attains often twenty-four mil^s. It is, however, very vari- 
 able, and sometimes scarcely felt. Currents are found set- 
 ting to the south in this part of the Gulf of Guinea ; but 
 this is only exceptional. 
 
 The temperature of the current of Southern Guinea, at Temperature. 
 the limit near the coast of Gaboon, has been found to be 77°, 
 and in the middle of the current 77° and 78°.8. It is then 
 higher by 5° or 7° than the waters of the eciuatorial cur- 
 rent. A knowledge of this current is useful to vessels 
 bound to the Gaboon. 
 
 Such are the currents of the South Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The vast space of sea which forms the center of the South Drift currents 
 
 ^ of the S.E. trades. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean is occupied by the drift current of the S. E. 
 trade-winds, the most decided directions of which are W. 
 
 to S. W. and S. S.W., changing as its waters approach the 
 
134 CURRENTS — VELOCITIES SOUTH ATLANTIC. 
 
 exterior current of the coast of Brazil, into whicli it empties, 
 to return again to the E. by the traverse current of the 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 Table of comparative mean velocUies of the currents of the 
 southern hemisphere in ttventyfour hours. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 South Atlantic Current 15 
 
 Current of Brazil 20 
 
 Traverse Current of the Atlantic 15 
 
 Current of Cape Agulhas 80 
 
 Counter-current of the Cape of Good Hope 30 
 
 Drift current of the S. E. trades 10 
 
 Current of Southern Guinea 10 
 
yo 2 
 
CURRENTS 
 
 Jll llio 
 
 ATLANTIC OCKAX. 
 
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CUKRENTS' — VELOCITIES SOUTH ATLANTIC. 
 
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CHAPTEE III. 
 
 NAVIGATION IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 As a general rule, in the navigation of the great seas of 
 the globe, the necessity is recognized of entering the zone 
 of the trade-winds when going from E. to W., and of keep- 
 ing without this zone when navigating from W. to E.* In 
 the one case it is desirable to reach this zone as quickly as 
 possible ; in the other, to leave it as soon as possible. 
 
 Having indicated the prevailing winds and currents which 
 are met with in the Atlantic Ocean, we will now speak of 
 the routes which should be taken to utilize the one and the 
 other. 
 îîoutes to tiie In going from the south of Europe to the joorts of Arch- 
 ar.gei or Onega, angel or Onega, situated in the White Sea, the route will 
 depend on the port of departure. The North Sea should be 
 traversed when starting from ports situated on its borders ; 
 or, if leaving the ports of the west of France, of Portugal, 
 or Spain, pass to the westward of the British Islands. 
 
 In every case, whether coming from the North Sea or 
 from the ocean, it is advised t to obtain a good departure 
 from Balta, the N. E. point of the Shetlands. Captain 
 Eamage says that in starting from England this is a good 
 precaution, but it should be taken with a view to verify the 
 route to that point rather than as a necessity for the continu- 
 ation of the voyage, as it often happens that these islands, 
 hid in the fog, cannot be well recognized. The islands of Faroe 
 can be made, especially when coming from the ocean. In 
 every case soundings should be frequently taken when in 
 the vicinity of either of these groui)s of islands. 
 
 On the route from thence to Cape North, every opportu- 
 nity for observing the variation of the needle should be 
 taken advantage of, as this is very important in these local- 
 ities. On arriving at Cape North a drift to the westward of 
 the reckoning is generally found, which is attributed to the 
 current setting to the W. or to the S. W. This may be 
 due, however, in a great measure to errors in the magnetic 
 variation, or to both of these causes combined. 
 
 * We speak principally of navigation under sail. 
 t Purdy's Memoir descriptive, &,c., page 80. 
 
NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO ARCHANGEL. 137 
 
 To the west of Cape North there are two clifts, hijj^h and 
 perpeudicular, the one at forty-two miles, the other twenty- 
 one inih\s from the cape ; these clifts are often taken for 
 Cape North, or for the cape called the Nordkyn, which is 
 thirty-nine miles to the eastward. These two clifts are 
 very uniform in appearance, and when known are a very 
 useful point of de]iartnre for the cape. The land which 
 separates these clifts appears irregular and resembles a 
 succession of islands of about one-half the height of the 
 clifts themselves. 
 
 When abreast of the second clift, Cape North bears 
 nearly S. E. by E. eighteen miles distant. This cape is com- 
 paratively low, level on its summit, and recognizable as the 
 only laud which presents a tabular form. 
 
 Cape North may, besides, be known by three remarkable 
 islets detached from the coast, named the Mother and 
 Daughters. The Mother, which is in the center when bear- 
 ing about S. eighteen miles distant, appears between the 
 two little islets, a little more elevated than the coast behind 
 it ; its upper extremity is of a conical form, with a flat sum- 
 mit; its appearance is diflereut, however, viewed on diifer- 
 ent bearings. 
 
 In doubling Cape North keep at a moderate distance from 
 the land, as in its vicinity it is frequently calm. Cape 
 Nordkyn is thirty -nine miles from Cape North; between 
 these two capes the two great bays of Parsanger and Laxa 
 are situated. The land near Cape Nordkyn is high, and 
 when abeam of it, at the distance of eighteen miles. Cape 
 North api)ears comparatively low and flat, as we have re- 
 marked above. 
 
 From Cape Nordkyn in going to the White Sea, keep a 
 moderate distance from the coast to avoid the calms which 
 often exist near high land ; if at the commencement of the 
 season, (the middle of the spring or the commencement of 
 the summer,) and the wind is from the westward, trj^ to 
 sight the Seven Islands, or rather the Island of Nagel, in 
 order to pass inside the banks of ice, which drift at this 
 season from the White Sea, driveu some miles from the 
 coast by the currents of the river ; these, swelled by the 
 melting snow, carry to the sea a large volume of water, and 
 form near the coast a passage by which, with prudence and 
 care. Sweet Nose can be reached without danger and without 
 encountering many obstacles. It will be then possible to 
 
138 NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO ARCHANGEL. 
 
 enter and remain securely iu the Bay of Sweet Nose 
 (Sviatôi-Noss) until the drift ice has i^assed its northern 
 l^oint and opened a passage towards the south. 
 
 In keeping too far away from the land a risk would be 
 run of either penetrating into the bank or being surrounded 
 by immense quantities of ice. The greatest danger is run 
 under these circumstances from the strain the ship has to 
 support, as also the difticulty of extricating her from these 
 banks. 
 
 When before Sweet jSTose, to guard against the fog, so fre- 
 quent in these localities, stand towards the Bank of Knock- 
 John, keeping the lead going until soundings are struck on 
 the bank; then follow its western edge, if the wind is 
 ahead, bear away to the southward, tacking between the 
 shore and the western edge of the banks until its southern 
 extremity is attained. The tacks toward the coast should 
 not be extended inside of fifteen fathoms, and those toward 
 the bank not within ten fathoms, until arriving at the pitch 
 of Cape Orlov, (Orloge Nose.) From this cape steer to pass 
 the Three Islands, which can be known by the rocks sur- 
 mounted by crosses placed near their eastern side, and by 
 the narrow mouth of the Eiver Ponoi, opening between two 
 high clifts ; from these islands steer for the Island of Sosnova, 
 (or Cross I5) it is at this island, which can be recognized by 
 the number of wooden crosses i3laced on it, that the last 
 departure is taken. From this island to Point Cat Nose, or 
 Blue Nose, the route is nearly S. S. W., but in the spring- 
 there is frequently a strong current setting to the E. towards 
 the Gulf of Mesheu, (or Mezene ;) it will be preferable to 
 run at first a little more to the westward, then steer directly 
 for Cat Nose. 
 
 If on the route you meet with any ice it will be best to 
 approach the coast of Lapland. When obliged to beat it is 
 also best t keep on that coast where the tides are more 
 favorable than on that of Archangel. 
 
 On approaching Archangel, after passing tlie Cape of 
 Cat Nose, (called also Winter Hills,) run parallel to the coast 
 in keeping it at a little distance, until on the meridian of 
 Point St. Nicholas ', in this i^osition await a pilot for the port. 
 
 If, instead of going to Archangel, Onega is the port of 
 destination, from Cross Island steer for Cape Onega, allow- 
 ing for the current setting to the E. by steering a little 
 more to the W^. than the direct route. Cape Onega is high 
 
NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO AUCII ANGEL. MV.) 
 
 and covered with little trees, it will l)e known besides by 
 the little Island of Kovestra, which is opposite to it and 
 ^•ery high ; it has a tower, and here the pilots for Onega are 
 taken. 
 
 From Rovestra steer towar<l Toint Orlotsna-Volock, 
 which is high ; to the south of this point is the anchorage 
 and village of Puzlackta ; the shelter is here good and it 
 is frequented by ships which arrive too early in the season 
 to go to Archangel ; keep then a moderate distance from the 
 coast and run parallel to it ; double tlie point, which is quite 
 projecting and forms a peninsula called Kimenskoi or Kis- 
 miniskoi; the course then toward Onega will be about S. 
 E. by S. in following the coast. The little Island of Purr- 
 Luda or Ponade-Kio can be passed to the eastward or to 
 the westward. Fronting the entrance of the River Onega 
 is the islet of Kio, and inside the bar two others, the islets 
 of Shakloui. If it is w islied to pass to the west of Pnrr- 
 Luda, bring- these two islands in one, on a bearing of S. 
 E. ^ E., which leads to the entrance of the river. 
 
 To the east of Cape North, the flood runs to the S. E. and lif^ps (>» , fj» 
 
 ' coast 01 Laplanil 
 
 to S. S. E. the length of the coast as far as Cape Orlov. and iu the winto 
 In the Bay of Tana, at full and change, high water is at 
 3h. ; at Ward-huus, at 4h. ; at Kilduiu, at 7h. 30m. ; in 
 this last locality the tides fall two and a quarter to two and 
 three-quarters fathoms ; at Three Islands high w^ater takes 
 place at llh. 30m., it falls tw^o and a half fathoms ; the es- 
 tablishment at Cross Island is 4h. 15m. ; at Cat Nose, 
 3h. 30m. ; between these two points the flood sets to S. W. 
 by W. 
 
 On the bar at Archangel, the establishment is 6h. and 7h. 
 30m. in the port. Between Cape Onega and Onega, the 
 flow runs the length of the coast toward S. E. by !S. at the 
 rate of two miles per hour, the tide falls one and one-eighth 
 fathoms. We have considered that these indications of the 
 tides might be useful to seamen going to the White Sea. 
 
 In the routes from Europe to North America it has gener. Routes from 
 ally been considered tliat the further north the port of de- Imerica." ^'"''' 
 parture, the greater the chances of a quick passage. 
 
 In the commencement of the year, it is recommended to At the com- 
 keep to the north of the parallel of 46° or 47° N. latitude, ?i,e"year* "* 
 until in about the longitude of 35^ W. ; then to descend to 
 the parallel of 43°^., and keep on or near the parallel with- 
 out going further to the northward, particularly in approach- 
 
140 NAVIGATION — ROUTES FUOM EUROPE TO N. AMERICA. 
 
 ing the coast of North America, in order to pass well to the 
 south of Sable Island, a dangerous sand-bank which can- 
 not be too carefully avoided. In following this route, the 
 northern limit of the Gulf Stream is avoided, and from the 
 Bank of Newfoundland the arctic current, setting to the S. 
 W., is taken advantage of. This route answers for the ports 
 of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or the northern ports of 
 the United States. 
 Toward tiie Toward the end of the vear, a route further to the north 
 
 end of tlie year. i • -r-i 
 
 than the former is advised. In leaving Europe, steer to the 
 N. W. until in the latitude of 55° N., and when on the me- 
 ridian of 26° W., steer to the southward to cross the Banks 
 of Newfoundland in latitude 46° ; then keep sufficiently to 
 the southward to pass about sixty miles south of Sable 
 Island, when steer for the port of destination. 
 
 In these routes, it is particularly recommended never to 
 X^ass to the north of Sable Island, on account of the fre- 
 quent fogs in these localities, and the strong current set- 
 ting to the S. W., which exist in its vicinity, the effects of 
 which cannot be calculated. 
 Route from In vicwiug the chart of the Atlantic Ocean, it is seen that 
 fotmdiaBd or to from the entrance of the English Channel to Newfoundland 
 sm . ^^^ (direct route is nearly W. 4° S. ; that to Cape Sable (Nova 
 Scotia) it is about W. 9° S. Generally it is not possible to 
 make these routes direct, and there is less difficulty and less 
 time employed in following the curve. Under all circum- 
 stances, the best route is that to the northward. In start- 
 ing from the channel and steering to the N. W. it is proba- 
 ble that the winds will be found blowing less directly from 
 the W., and will be less contrary than in a lower latitude 
 in proportion as you advance toward Davis's Strait, and in 
 the end the currents and winds are favorable. Thus, in going 
 from France to Newfoundland, it will always be advan- 
 tageous to make the northern route. The rule which we lay 
 down is founded on the remark made in England, that ships 
 starting from Scotland always arrive sooner at Newfound- 
 land than those sailing from the Channel. A well-known 
 fact, besides, is that in the spring and summer the currents 
 set generally from the entrance of Hudson's Bay, and from 
 Davis's Strait toward the Atlantic Ocean the proof of the 
 existence of these currents is the icebergs and fields of ice 
 which are met with on the banks of Newfoundland from 
 the month of May to that of August. We repeat, there is 
 
NAVI^rATlO^' — ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO N. AMERICA. 141 
 
 then an advaiitaiic in jioin*»- to tli«^ nortli on sailing tVoni 
 Europe. 
 
 The route which should be tbllowed in going iïoni Europe 
 to Newfoundland is nearly the same as we have above indi- 
 cated for the route to the ports of North America during- 
 the tirst mouths of the year ; that is, to keep above the par- 
 allel of 46° or 47° until about the meridian of 37°, then a 
 more southerly course can be made to reach the parallel of 
 45°, in order to avoi<l the icebergs, for which a good lookout 
 should be kept 5 keep about the parallel of 45°, but not to 
 the southward of it, to the edge of the Great Bank. On this 
 route, it is particularly between the parallels of 00° and 40° 
 N. and between the meridians of 30° and 00° W. that a 
 lookout should be kept for icebergs descending from the 
 north towards the south. It is generally toward the month 
 of April that the fishermen of the Great Bank leave Europe ; 
 some start earlier. The Banks of Newfoundland are fre- 
 quently covered Avith thick fog, which, from the spring to 
 the month of December, lasts sometimes eight or ten days 
 without interruption, and is often so dense that it is impos- 
 sible to see a distance of sixty-five feet ; this fog resolves 
 itself into rain upon the sails and rigging and falls drop by 
 drop upon the deck. It is frequently calm wath a heav^- 
 swell, and a continual fear is felt of being run down by some 
 vessel or taken by the current on some bank, a double danger 
 with no means of avoiding it, from the impossibilitj^ of per- 
 ceiving objects at any distance. 
 
 To these drawbacks should be added those occasioned by 
 the currents which prevail in the vicinity of Newfoundland. 
 They are often very strong and very irregular, setting at 
 times toward the land, at times toward the offing; little 
 confidence can be felt in those localities ; in addition to this, 
 the current coming from the N. along the coast of Lab- 
 rador detaches, towards the spring, immense fields of ice, 
 which are taken to the south, and thus add another danger 
 to those occasioned by the fog. Some of these masses 
 ground in depths of from forty to fifty fathoms ; others are 
 carried into the sea, where they are sometimes met with 
 three hundred and seventy-five and three hundred and ninety 
 miles from the coast. Fortunately this floating ice is most 
 generally indicated, even in the haze and fog, by the brilliant 
 and white reflection which it produces in the atmosphere 
 
142 NAVIGATION — ROILJTES FROM EUROPE TO N. FOUNDL'D. 
 
 above the position which it occupies^ and by the noise of 
 the breakers upon it. 
 
 The vicinity of icebergs can be known, besides, by the 
 intense cold existing for a great distance around them . These 
 icebergs are preserved a long time, and are met even in the 
 month of August. The apiDroach to the Great Bank is 
 known by the sea birds which fly in troops from its edge. 
 On this edge the bottom is of fine whitish sand speckled 
 with black. 
 Eoiite to the Ships goiug to St. Pierre, an island situated to the south 
 PieiT° ^ "of Newfoundland, should, on leaving Europe, steer as we 
 have directed above, then, when they have attained the mer- 
 idian of 52° W., keeping on the parallel of 45° N. latitude, 
 they will steer W. N. W., which will take them on Green 
 Bank in soundings of about fifty-three fathoms. Continu- 
 ing their course, when they reach the meridian of 55° 20', 
 in the latitude 45° 35' the depth increases suddenly from 
 fifty-three to eighty-eight fathoms, making twenty miles 
 more on the same course, the depth diminishes again to 
 forty-five, varying to thirty-five fathoms ; from this make 
 twenty miles more on the same course, then steer directly 
 for the Island of St. Pierre; in steering thus it will be nearly 
 impossible to miss it. 
 
 Looking on the chart of the Great Bank of Newfound- 
 land it will be seen that the difference in the soundings 
 w^hich we have given are produced by the ditch of deep 
 soundings which separates Green Bank from St. Peter's 
 Bank. This ditch extends from north to south between the 
 meridians of 55° and 55° 20' of W. longitude and the i)aral- 
 lels of 45° 10' and 46° 10' N. latitude, its length is about sixty 
 miles ; its center is situated nearly in the latitude of 45° 52' 
 and longitude 55° 10'. It is an excellent mark when going 
 to the Island of St. Pierre or to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and a sure means of rectifying the position when observa- 
 tions cannot be obtained, which happens often in these 
 localities, where the fog is so frequent. In seeing the depth 
 increase suddenly the sounding should not be discontinued ; 
 some captains, in ignorance of this ditch, stop sounding as 
 the depths increase to the west of Green Bank, and believe 
 themselves at the entrance of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; 
 this error causes them to run too long to the north and puts 
 them on the coast to the east of Cape Eace, or on the rocks 
 of Newfoundland. 
 
NAVIGATION — ROUTES TO (HILF OF ST. LAWRENCE. 143 
 
 In going to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, after passing to the Kouto to tho 
 south of the Yirgiii Rocks, which are on the Great Bank, rcncc! ' ^^ 
 and then to the south of the Ishmd of St. Pierre, a course 
 shoukl be steered half-way between Newfoundland and 
 Cape lireton Island, recollecting' what has been said in a 
 precedinf»- chapter upon the winds in these localities. It 
 should be further remarked that on the south coast of New- 
 foundland, to the west of Fortune Baj-, the ports are little 
 known, and there are many rocks at their entrance, which 
 cannot be seen in foggy weather, which is the most preva- 
 lent on this coast. 
 
 It appears that on the north part of tbe Great Bank of Currents on 
 
 -KT ,> 1, 1 , . . T . r., r, ^-.x , ., <^tie Great Bank 
 
 JScwtoundland the current is tound setting to S. S. \\ ., while of Newfonna- 
 on its southern part it sets to the N. E., and that these cur- cinity! 
 rents form in mingling eddies, which are very irregular ; the 
 mean velocity of these currents is from eight to ten miles 
 per daj", but sometimes they are found twenty-four and 
 even thirty miles ; this also takes place in the localities of 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Thus in the vicinity of the Island 
 of Breton the waters of the river St. Lawrence are directed 
 toward the S. W. On the south coast of Sable Island, with 
 the winds prevailing from S. and S. W. the current runs 
 strong to the E. as for as the extremity of the Northeast 
 Bar ', this current then meets the branch of that which, 
 leaving the St. Lawrence, passes Cape Breton and sets 
 strongly to the S. S. W. near the Northeast Bar of Sable 
 Island, especially in April, May, and June. The waters of 
 these currents mix, and it is possible that the Gulf Stream, 
 which, on the parallel of 42° 30' runs to the N. N. E., mod- 
 ifies the direction of the current of the St. Lawrence, setting 
 to the S. S. W. and fiirces it to take a direction more to 
 the W. 
 
 The current from the Gulf of St. Lawrence runs most 
 frequently toward the S. E., if it is not opposed by winds 
 from the E., when it takes sometimes the contrary direction. 
 It should be said, however, that the winds in the gulf, and 
 even in the open sea, have such an influence on the cur- 
 rents, that no precise statement of them can be made. 
 
 It will be seen, after what we have said, how much the 
 currents should be distrusted on the Great Bank and in 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They produce in the movement 
 of the waters in the offing of this island constant variations. 
 
144 NAVIGATION — CUERENTS ON THE GEAND BANK. 
 
 which often cannot be appreciated from want of observa- 
 tions and foggy weather. The greatest care and prudence 
 should therefore be observed in this dangerous navigation. 
 Currents near isfear the cast coast of Newfoundland, the current from 
 
 the coast 01 New- ' 
 
 foundiand. Hudsou's Bay sets to the S. S. W. and S. as far as Cape Eace ; 
 it turns this cape and is directed to the W. along the south- 
 ern coast as far as the Islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon. 
 Near these islands it meets: 1st, the branch of the Hudson's 
 Bay Current, which, having traversed the Straits of Belle 
 He and turned the western extremity of Newfoundland, is 
 directed toward the E. along its southern coast ; 2d, the 
 general current of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, setting usually 
 to the S. S. E. and to E. S. E. 
 
 It is no doubt owing in a great measure to these so variable 
 currents that so many ships are lost on the south coast of 
 Newfoundland in the vicinity of Cape Pine. In fact, the 
 ships which leave the Gulf of St. Lawrence are at first 
 drifted to the east, then to the west, until they have passed 
 to the east of the meridian of the Islands of St. Pierre and 
 Miquelon. Then, with calms or light and head winds, they 
 are carried insensibly to the west of their reckoning; and if 
 without observations, which is frequently the case on account 
 of the fogs, it results that, calculating on being to the east- 
 ward of Cape Eace, and being in reality to the westward 
 of it, in steering toward the north they are thrown on the 
 coast at the moment when they suppose themselves in the 
 open sea. 
 
 It is even j)robable that on the meeting of the two currents 
 running from different directions along the coast of New- 
 foundland, the one from the W. may annul that from the E., 
 which comes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or may give 
 it a northerly direction. 
 
 After the indications we have given, too much vigilance 
 and care cannot be observed in navigating near the shores 
 of this island ; for, in addition to the fogs which hide the 
 land, one has to strive against the winds, the currents 
 which are much influenced by them, and at last against 
 the dangers which may result from encountering icebergs, 
 drifted by these currents. 
 General obser- In foggy wcathcr, or in the night, the Bermudas should 
 
 vations on mak- it-ii • m i • 
 
 ing the land of be api)roached with the greatest caution. To prevent being 
 drifted unawares upon the reef, a good lookout should be 
 kept by day for the land and Gibbs's Light-house, which 
 
KOUTKS TO TIIH HKimi'DAS. 145 
 
 from tlic (»riin,u' rcsciiiblcs ;i sliij) uiMlcr sail, and at iii.i;lit to 
 g<'t hold of tlic lii^lit as soon as possible. 
 
 Tlie ostablisluiuMit of the light has iiecossaiily diminished 
 tlie danii'er in making the land; uevertheless, there are stiil 
 many i)re('antions to take in rnnning tor this island. 
 
 In rnnning on the i)arallel of the liermndas, with a favor- 
 able wind, if the land is not seen before night, and it is 
 thonght to l)e near, a vessel in this position should not be 
 hove to, especially with a fresh breeze, as she might be 
 drifted l)y currents, the existence of which are probable, 
 their direction apd force depending on the prevailing winds, 
 lu this case, if it is desired to await the day, it will be 
 better to make short tacks under easy sail ; otherwise, to 
 make the light. 
 
 The islands are generally very low, and cauuot be seen 
 far from the deck of a small vessel ; besides, in the summer 
 season thick fogs are frequent and add to the difficulty of 
 making the land, unless the latitude is well ascertained. 
 
 Soundings should be taken frequently from the time that 
 the ship is supposed to be near the land. The greater num- 
 ber of shipwrecks w hich have occurred on this island have 
 l>een from a neglect of this precaution. 
 
 Ships destined for the Bermudas from the ports of the Making the 
 United States, or coming from the West Indies by the Ba- we't. 
 hama Channel, should steer much to the S. of the direct 
 route, and even to the S. S. E., until in a latitude three or 
 four miles south of Cape Hatteras ; make then S. E. by E. 
 until on the parallel of 32° or 32° 5' IS", latitude. Crossing 
 the Gulf Stream in its greatest breadth, and where it would 
 set principally to the E., will be thus avoided, and it will 
 l>e crossed where its direction affects the latitude more than 
 the longitude, which is important for vessels whicdi navi- 
 gate by dead reckoning.* 
 
 In making to the southw^ard and steering S. E. by E., you 
 will make the islands twelve or fifteen miles Avest of their 
 longitude and get hold of the light. 
 
 The prevailing winds in this zone of the Atlantic being 
 from the W. and IsT. W. in the winter, and from the S. W, 
 in summer, it results that nearly all ships going to these 
 islands make the land from the W., and place themselves ou 
 about 08"^ W. longitude, from whence they steer directly 
 
 ^ Blunt's Coast Pilot. 
 10 A O 
 
146 ROUTES TO THE BERMUDAS. 
 
 to the E. Without being a geiiernl rule, this manner of 
 making- the land has become almost general, and is that 
 adopted i^articularlj^ by merchant vessels. 
 
 The i^arallel of 32° 8' JST. being three miles to the south of 
 all the dangers to the southwest of the island, appears to be 
 the best to follow in making the land to the west. It is ne- 
 cessarj" however, on this route, to keep always in mind that 
 there is probably a current occasioned by the prevailing 
 wind. Thus with the wind at IST. W., the parallel of 32° 8' 
 X. can be taken ; if it is at S. W. that of 32° 2' îs". * 
 
 When the winds are adverse or 6he weather very foggy, 
 before making the land it will be prudent in the night not 
 to go further north than the parallel of 32° 4', or that of 32° 
 5' N., t and if the wind turns to tlie S. W., that of 32° should 
 not be passed. When certain of the position, either of the 
 parallels mentioned can be taken according to circumstances, 
 and steer to the east; thus Wreck Hill will be made, a re- 
 markable conical hill, with a volcanic appearance. It shonld 
 bear to port, as should also Gibbs's Hill, the light-house 
 on which can generally be seen before the land. 
 
 With these two points the position can be rectified, and 
 if the light-house only is seen, it must be recollected that 
 the reefs which are on the west of the Bermudas extend to 
 westward of the light-house at least twelve miles, and the 
 soundings are too close to the edge of the reef to give suffi- 
 cient warning. They should not be approached until the 
 light-house or Gibbs's Hill bears ]Sr. E. by N. | 
 
 * Blunt and other instructions, indicate in the same case, the parallel 
 of 32° 5' N. The route on the parallel of 32° 2' would pass the meridian 
 of Gibh's Light, at a distance from it of thirteen miles. The light is 
 plainly visible at this distance. The light can then he seen fixed before 
 and after the flashes, which cannot be done at a greater distance. This 
 remark is important. It is understood that the parallel to be chosen 
 should depend on the j)revailing winds, their force, and the probable 
 time that they have been blowing, up to the day of making the land. 
 From this may be derived the current against which it is necessary to 
 guard. We think, however, that when the latitude is certain, the par- 
 allel of 32° 2', or that of 32° 3' are those which should be preferred, when 
 there is a good breeze from the S. W., or when making the land at 
 night. 
 
 t The currents which run to the N. E. are at times very strong in the 
 vicinity of the Bermudas, and ships leaving America are drifted, as a 
 mean, one hundred and fifty miles to the eastward of their tracks. 
 
 t Blunt, Purely, Thomas Leon. 
 
KOUTES TO THE IJEIÎMIDAS. 147 
 
 Witli tills bcaiiiii;" you can vn\i (Icpciidiiiii on tlic land, 
 and wlicn the light-lioiise or (îibbs's Hill is on with ^^'^('(•k 
 Ilill, or in the night when the light boars N. W. by N,, you 
 will be abreast of the southwest breakers, the only danger to 
 be feared on the south side of the island. It extends one 
 and half miles from the south j^oint of the Island of Ber- 
 muda.* 
 
 After passing this bearing a short distance haul up along 
 the coast of the island, keeping one or one and a half miles 
 from it.* Eun thus as far as Castle Harbor, and until St. 
 David's Head bears jST. or until Cape Garnet and Cape St. 
 David are ou the same line running along the coast. Do 
 not go inside of ten or eleven fathoms during the day, and 
 twelve to thirteen fathoms at night. 
 
 When to the southeast of Castle Harbor heave to for a 
 pilot, and if at night make a night-signal and hoist a light 
 to show your position. When hove-to be careful not to 
 drift to leeward, as the current generally runs towards the 
 E.; with the pilot on board he will take the vessel to Mur- 
 ray's anchorage, the harbor or road of St. George's, as may 
 be desired. By day, if pressed for time, or if the pilot does 
 not come off, you can pass round the reefs after having 
 passed the island on the southeast side of Castle Harbor, 
 double St. David's Head, outside which the reefs stretch 
 abont three-fourths of a mile, and anchor in nine or ten 
 tathoms in St. George's Road. 
 
 To take this anchorage, which we would only advise 
 during the day, when not wishing to await a pilot, (which 
 will not always be prudent,) it will be necessary, as in all 
 other anchorages of the Bermudas, to be guided by the eye 
 in selecting an anchorage where the ground is not foul. 
 The clearness of the water and the wiiite color from the 
 sand, indicate plainly the places where the anchor can be 
 dropped without risk. 
 
 In going from any port of Europe to the Bermudas, steer ^Making'the 
 
 ® '^ ^ -^ ^ ' laud to tbe east. 
 
 directly for the island as long as the wind is favorable. 
 Should it become contrary, instead of working to wind- 
 ward it will be desirable to run to the south and take the N. 
 E. trades, keeping in them sufficiently long to enable you on 
 running to the northward to cut the parallel of 32° 8' N. in 
 
 * Bhint, Purely, Thomas Leon. 
 
148 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO UNITED STATES. 
 
 the longitude of 67° 40' W.* The land will then be made 
 to the Avest, as above. 
 
 If the wind is favorable daring the whole route, the land 
 can be made to the east as well as to the west ; running for 
 the island place the ship between the parallels of 32° 15' and 
 32° 4' X. latitude. This route will lead a few miles to the 
 south of St. David's Head.t 
 
 In making the land at night be careful not to go to the 
 north of the last-mentioned parallel, in order to keep within 
 sight of the land and the light. If on the route for making 
 the land to the east the wind becomes contrary, there is a 
 fog, haze, or bad weather, you should, more especially at 
 night, not go to the north of the parallel 32° or 32° 4' N., and 
 if then you get to the westward the land can be made to the 
 west, as before directed. 
 
 We terminate these remarks on the Bermudas by coun- 
 seling navigators never to seek the anchorage during the 
 night unless the weather is sufficiently clear to admit of 
 their constantly knowing their position by bearings, until 
 the pilot comes on board. 
 Routes from In tlic routc from Europe to tlie ports of the United 
 United states. Statcs, it is ucccssary to avoid the bed of the Gulf Stream, 
 for in event of a calm or a contrary wind the current would 
 sweep you rapidly to the E. In going then to any of the 
 northern or central ports of the United States, follow the 
 routes heretofore directed, passing to the south of Sable Is- 
 land to the east of the banks of St. George and Kantucket, 
 and from there navigate in the current which sets to the S. 
 near the coast of the United States, keeping sufficiently near 
 the coast to avoid entering the Gulf Stream. By navigating 
 thus, the passage to New York, the Delaware, and the other 
 l)orts situated to the south of these will be much shortened. 
 
 ^ Blunt. — It appears to us that the distauce to the W. of the ishiud 
 given for cutting the parallel of 32° 8' N. is too great, and that 66° 40', 
 or 65° 40', would be sufâciently far to the west. This places you one hun- 
 dred and six, and forty -sis miles to the westward of the group. If the 
 weather is good and the ship furnished with chronometers, we would 
 advise making the laud to the eastward, and to leave the N. E. trade 
 when in a position for reaching the parallel indicated for making the 
 land to the east. 
 
 t It appears to us that there is less danger always in making the laud 
 to the east than to the west, and in reality there is nothing in favor of 
 the latter but the wind generally blowing from the W., which is more 
 favorable and permits a more direct route. 
 
Tîoi'TES Fi;o:\r eukope to united states. 140 
 
 At any latc. if it is «Icsiivd to cross this cuncnt in ji'oinu' to 
 tlio west it slionl<l be done as rapidly as possible. 
 
 There is another route through the trade-winds which, 
 althouiih the distauce to be run is greater, appears to us pre- 
 ferable in ease the wind is not fair, and when destined for the 
 southern ports of the United States; for if the time eni- 
 l)loyed in a passage is in direct ratio to the distance, it is in 
 inverse ratio of the speed with which the ship goes from the 
 ]toint of departure to that of her destination. 
 
 On leaving Europe, if the winds are not favorable for 
 inaking a direct route to the United States, we believe that 
 it will be more advantageous to run to the S. or S. W., 
 according to the prevailing wind, and got in the trades as 
 soon as possible. The best route for reaching the zone 
 where they blow, is that between the Azores and ^Madeira, 
 and between Madeira and the Canaries, avoiding the pas- 
 sage between the latter and the coast of Africa ; for in the 
 ])roximity of this coast the winds change their direction 
 and lose much of their force. 
 
 Once in the region of the trades, make the route most 
 suitable for reaching the port of destination, only taking 
 the precaution in crossing the Gulf Stream and nniking the 
 land to be about thirty-six miles to windward of the port of 
 destination. 
 
 It is very frequent that this passage can be made without 
 descending to the trade-winds, especially in the forty or 
 fifty days which follow the equinoxes, when the wind is fre- 
 quently at y. E. ; so that ships starting at this time can 
 make the route by the high latitudes. However, if during 
 the passage head-winds are encountered, it will be better to 
 go south for the trades than to beat against these winds. 
 
 In the spring, summer, and autumn, the seasons when th^ 
 N. E. trades extend to the parallels of 28° to 30° X. latitude, 
 the route through the trades will be very advantageous, 
 particularly when destined for the southern ports of the 
 United States. 
 
 Finally, if the winds permit, in going from the ports of 
 P^urope to those of the United States, a west course is the 
 one to be followed ; if the winds do not permit, in the season 
 of the equinoxes, take that nearest to it. In every other 
 case, preference should be given to a course between south 
 and west to reach the trade-winds. 
 
 The nu*an of the jtassages from Liverpool to Xew York 
 
150 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO UNITED STATES. 
 
 made by the packet ships in six years is forty clays.* The 
 following may be cited as fine passages : The Charlotte 
 made two voyages from Bremen to Kew York in thirty- 
 three and twenty-eight days; the Alexander, from the Weser 
 to New York, was twenty-seven days ; the Clémentine, from 
 Bremen to Baltimore, was twenty-nine days.t On the retnrn 
 we find the following : The JSfew Tori; from New York to 
 Liverpool, in less than fifteen days; the Mary Catherine, 
 from Charleston to Liverpool, in nineteen days ; the Mar- 
 mion, in eighteen days between the same i)orts.| 
 tke porïl/Tbe ^^ ^be rctnm from tlie ports of the United States to 
 Euro *e ^^^^^^ ^"^ Europe, the currents which set to the S. near the coast 
 should be crossed as quickly as possible, the Gulf Stream 
 entered, and steer to the IST. to get out of its influence, as 
 in the region which it occupies there is much bad weather 
 and a liability to hurricanes in the months of July, August, 
 September, and October. In the other months, it is our 
 opinion, that with a good ship the course of the Gulf 
 Stream should be followed, Avhich will much shorten the 
 passage. When on the meridian of 38° W. longitude, steer 
 to pass to the N. of the Azores, and from thence, according 
 to the winds, follow the course for the port of destination. 
 On this route one is greatly favored by the winds from W., 
 variable to S. W. and N. W. The mean of all the passages 
 made during six years by the New York packet ships was 
 twenty-three days, but the passage has been made in nine- 
 teen, eighteen, and even in fifteen days. 
 
 The same passages, made by steamers of that time, give 
 the following results : § 
 
 From east to west. 
 
 The longest Tlie shortest 
 time. time. 
 
 Days. Days. 
 
 Passages of the Great Westei-n from 
 
 Bristol to New York 21^ 13 
 
 Passages of the Royal William from 
 
 Liverpool to New York 21^ 18 J 
 
 Passages of the Liverpool from Liver- 
 pool to New York 18^ 1(> 
 
 * Hodgson's Letters on North America, vol. ii, p. 345. 
 t Journals of ships of commerce of the Hanse Towns. 
 t Liverponl Journal, January, 1824. 
 § Anwkan Almanac Rejmsitovy of Useful Knowledge, 1841. 
 
UOITKS I'lJOM INITKI) STATES To EUKOTK. l.")l 
 
 Thf loiiiicst 'I'lic shortest 
 tiin»'. time. 
 
 Dai/a. Dai/n. 
 
 P;iss;iiivs of the Jiriti.sh Quant IVom 
 
 Portsmouth to New York L'O.] U 
 
 Ft'om ire-st to cast. 
 I'iissajies ol' the Great Western from 
 
 New York to Bristol 15 12 
 
 Passa.ues of the Hoyal William from 
 
 New Y'ork to Liverpool 17^ 14^ 
 
 Passages of the Liverpool from New 
 
 York to Liverpool 17i 13^ 
 
 Passages of the British (Jueeii from 
 
 New Y'ork to Liverpool *. 22^ ' 13A 
 
 The regular line of steamers between Liverpool and Bos- 
 ton, via Halifax, made the passage in fourteen dajs, leaving 
 the 3d and IStli of each month. Another regular line of 
 steamers between Havre and New York made the passage 
 in twenty-tive to thirty days, leaving the 1st, 8th, IGth, and 
 24th of each month. 
 
 In 1840 a line of steamers, carrying the mail between 
 Liverpool and Halitax, Avas established; in 1842 the mean 
 of their i>assages from east to west was thirteen days six 
 hours, that of the return voyage eleven days tive hours. 
 
 In leaving Europe for the ports of the Caribbean Sea or-g^{|,°p^^^Y^ ^™J'^ 
 the Gulf of Mexico, as soon as in the Atlantic, ships should c^^ff/ J Mexico'^ 
 direct their course to the southwest, in order to reach the 
 region of the N. E. trades as <piickly as possible. 
 
 On this part of the route the coast of Africa should not 
 be approached too closely, as the currents near it run 
 obliqnel}' toward the coast, and the winds also take a direc- 
 tion more toward the W. If it is necessary to go as far as 
 the Canaries to find the tra<les, pass to the west of this 
 archipelago. 
 
 Once in the trades, if going to the Windward Islands, 
 steer directly for the point of destination, in keeping, from 
 the month of May to the month of December, as long as 
 possible on the parallel of 19° or 20° N. latitude. From De- 
 cember to June, on the contraiy, a lower parallel should be 
 followed. In approaching the Caribbean Sea the currents 
 should be considered, particularly if a ship is navigating by 
 dead reckoning, which will always place the position by ac- 
 count to the east of the true position, so that if navigating by 
 
152 IIOUTES FEOM EUROPE Ï0 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 dead reclioning it would be well to add twelve miles a day 
 to tlie run made to the west, as an allowance for current. 
 
 If the ship is destined for the larger islands of the West 
 Indies or for the Gulf of Mexico, enter the Caribbean Sea 
 by the passage between Guadeloupe and Antigua, or be- 
 tween St. Martin and Anguilla. This is invariably the en- 
 trance preferred in going to St. Thomas, Porto Ilico, Port 
 au Prince, Kingston, Havana, Tampico, Vera Cruz, and 
 New Orleans. 
 
 In the season of the trades, from March to September, 
 the passage can be made to the north of the Virgin Islands 
 and Great Antilles, and through the Old Bahama Channel. 
 This route, though shorter than the preceding, appears to 
 us in reality less advantageous, from the many dangers and 
 difficulties which it presents. 
 
 Those destined for La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Carthageua, 
 or any of the ports of Venezuela, generally enter the Carib- 
 bean Sea by the channel between Santa Lucia and St. Vin- 
 cent, or that between Grenada and Tobago. 
 EoutefromtLe lu leaving the United States or the Bermudas for the 
 from the Bermu- Wiudward Islauds, a course should not be steered directly 
 Indies and ^uff for tlicsc islauds, but first get to the eastward in running- 
 of Mexico. g^ j^ |£ ^^^ wind iiermits, or by working to windward in the 
 
 variable winds, until sure that in traversing the trade- winds 
 you will be able to fetch to windward of that one of the 
 islands to which you are destined, even sljonld the trades be 
 at E. S. E. or S. E. ; besides this the current setting to the 
 W. should be taken into account; this current is general, 
 and has a velocity of at least twelve and sometimes twenty- 
 four miles i)er day. 
 
 In going to the Great Antilles follow the same directions, 
 and pass to the north or south of the Great Antilles accord- 
 ing to the season, whether of hurricanes or that of N. winds. 
 In the latter case you will enter the Caribbean Sea by the 
 Mona Passage, or by the one of those to the northward of 
 Santo Domingo (Silver Cay, Turk's Island, Caicos, or 
 Crooked Island Passages) which may appear most suitable. 
 Crooked Island Passage is taken by preference by those 
 going to the Gulf of Mexico or the Havana. 
 
 In leaving the United States for the Havana or the Gulf 
 of Mexico yon can also pass through the jSTorthwest Provi- 
 dence Channel, and on reaching the Florida Channel, keep 
 along the western edge of the Great Bahama Bank, or, if 
 
IJOUTKS 1"IÎ():\I KUKOl'E TO HAVANA. 153 
 
 not (Irawiii^- too iiiucli water, cross it, as also the Salt Cay 
 JJaiik, and. passiiiu' aloiiu' tlio north side of Cuba, make 
 Havana. Vou can. besides, by takin»;' the Crooked Island 
 Passage, reacli Havana through the Old ISahania Channel. 
 AVe only i)oint out. however, this route.* 
 
 In leaving lOurone the general route from Novend>er to Kout's (Vom 
 
 "^ "- Eiimixi to (iui- 
 
 July will be to take the most direet line t(> the parallel ot aua. 
 l()o N., between the meridians of 44° and 40° W., so as to 
 <a-oss the belt of calms to the westward of its greatest 
 breadth, the most difticult point of crossing. When on the 
 parallel of 1(P keep a point or a i^oint and a half more to 
 the south than the direct route, to balance the current, Avhicli 
 in general runs to the X- W., so as to place you on the par- 
 allel of ."P or ."P 30' about one hundred and tifty miles from 
 the land; then run to the west to nine or ten fathoms of 
 water, to recognize the land. 
 
 From the month of July to Novend^er the following route 
 might be adopted from xjrefereiice, and often with advant- 
 age: Pass about four hundred and fifty miles to the west 
 of the Cape Yerd Islands, then steer to the south, cross the 
 zone of variable winds and reach the S. E. trades, which at 
 this season are found as far as 5° or 6° and even 7° or 8° 
 N. of the Equator ; having these winds steer to the west, 
 keeping between the Equator and the parallel of 3° 30' IST. 
 until striking soundings in seven or eight fathoms. 
 
 In leaving the Windward Islands for Europe the ordinary Routes ivom 
 route is between Guadeloui>e and Montserrat, from thence to Europe, 
 with the winds from E. to X. E. run to the north, always on 
 the starboard tack, to get as soon as possible out of the zone 
 of the trade-\vinds. On reaching the variable winds follow 
 the directions given on the route from the United States to 
 Europe. 
 
 In leaving Jamaica it is customary to pas8 through the 
 Windward Passage, between this Island, Santo Domingo, 
 and Cuba, then, according to the prevailing wind, take any 
 one of the Bahama Island Passages, when, by running on 
 the starboard tack, you will pass through the trade-winds as 
 quickly as possible. 
 
 In the season of the northerly winds (principally from 
 November to February) the passage can be made by dou- 
 
 * For these routes see Le Manuel de ht Xaviç/atiori dani^ la Mer des An- 
 //7/<.s, cliap. viii. 
 
154 ROUTES FROM THE WEST INDIES TO EUROPE. 
 
 bling- Cape St. Antonio and passing- tbiough the New Ba- 
 hama Channel. 
 
 If going from Jamaica or Cuba to the Windward Islands 
 the same route is to be pursued as that in leaving the Ca- 
 ribbean Sea, by one of the passages to the northward of 
 Santo Domingo, or by the, jSTew Bahama Channel ; from 
 thence run to the north to get out of the trades, and work suffi- 
 ciently to the eastward to fetch to the east of the Wind- 
 ward Islands. 
 
 Ships which leave La Guayra, Porto Cabello, orCumana, 
 for Europe, leave the Caribbean Sea by the Mona Passage, 
 formed by the Islands of Santo Domingo and Porto Eico; 
 from this keep to the north, so as to cut the parallel of 40° 
 IsT. between the meridians of 28° to 33° W., nearly. Leav- 
 ing Santa Marta, Carthagena, or ports more to the west- 
 ward, the Caribbean Sea can be left by the Windward Pas- 
 sage, or by the New Bahama Channel. This last seems to 
 lis preferable. 
 
 Ships leaving the Virgin Islands or Porto Rico make 
 directly to' the north on the starboard tack, to get as soon 
 as possible out of the region of the trade-winds, and follow 
 nearly the same route as in departing from the Great An- 
 tilles for Europe or for the Windward Islands. 
 
 Leaving Cuba, or the Gulf of Mexico, shijîs enter the At- 
 lantic Ocean through the Bahama Channel, and steer to- 
 ward the northeast to leave the Gnlf Stream. The route 
 then is east, passing to the south of the Bermudas, and cut- 
 ting again the Gulf Stream in the vicinity of the Azores. 
 
 We have passed quickly over the navigation in the Ca- 
 ribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, having given in detail the 
 navigation of these two seas in the Manuel de la Navigation 
 dans la Mer des Antilles, c&c, to which we w^ould refer navi- 
 gators who may be anxious to make it a study. 
 
 Following, is some general information on the passages 
 from Europe to the West Indies and Gnlf of Mexico and 
 the return : 
 
 Going. 
 
 From the mouth of the Elbe to Havana, iifty-uiue days. 
 
 From Hamburg to La Guayra, fifty days. 
 
 From Brest to Santo Domingo, forty-six days. 
 
 From Havre to Yera Cruz, forty days. 
 
 From Brest to Martinique, twenty-seven days. 
 
lîOlTKS FKÔM KllîOPK T» ) SOUTH AMEKICA. 1.") 
 
 Till' loii^i'st passades Iiunc bccu lorty-six: days. Tlic 
 shortest twenty-seven and twenty-eight days. In fourteen 
 voya<ies from the i)orts of Brest, Lorient, and lîoehefort to 
 this island the mean is thirty-two days. 
 
 ]\('funiiii(/. 
 
 From lia\ana to the month of tlie Elbe, forty-nine days. 
 
 From Kingston to Brest, thirty-two days. 
 
 From Havana to Gibraltar, forty-seven days. 
 
 From Vera Cruz to London, forty-two days. 
 
 From (xuadelonpe to l>rest, thirty-seven and twenty-eight 
 days. 
 
 From J*ort au Prince to Jîrest, twenty-nine days. 
 
 From Martinique to Brest, thirty days. 
 
 From St. Thomas to Hamburg, generally, forty-five days. 
 
 A voyage has been made in thirty -six days by a Prussian 
 ship, the UUzabeth Louise, Captain Kasten. 
 
 There is a regular line of steam packets between South- 
 ampton and Tampico, by way of the West Indies. Their 
 trips are made as follows : 
 
 Going, forty-six days, touching at Funchal, Barbados, 
 Grenada, (with a branch for the Small Windward Islands 
 and St. Thomas, La Guayra, Trinidad, and Demerara,) from 
 Grenada to Jacmel, Kingston, Havana, and TauiiMco, 
 leaving twice a month, returning from Tampico via Nassau 
 and the Bermudas. 
 
 There is also from Havre to the Havana a reguhir line of 
 steam packets, -whicli make the direct route in thirty or 
 thirty-five days by the Old Bahama Channel. 
 
 Ships leaving F]urope for the ports of South America, as k ou tes from 
 
 Europe to tlio 
 
 Ivio Janeiro or Buenos Ayres, should run between south ports of south 
 
 and west to reach as soon as possible the X. E. trade-winds. 
 
 passing between the Azores and Madeira, and Madeira and 
 
 the Canaries and to the west of the latter, if no stoppage is 
 
 to be made there. From thence steer to cross the Equator 
 
 after passing the zone of variable winds near this great 
 
 oircle. 
 
 For a long time it has been the rule to cross the line in where the 
 from 18° to 20° W. longitude. Numerous facts* have be"ro'ssedf 
 proved that it is preferable to cross the line in from 23° to 
 
 * The routes made by the packets to Brazil, the mean of their jiassages 
 to Rio Janeiro being froni tliirty to thirty-iive days. 
 
156 ROUTES FROM EUROPE TO SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 28° W. In fact, the zone of variable winds is narrower be- 
 tween tliese meridians than toward the coast of Africa, 
 and ships often pass, withont experiencing calms from the 
 îsT. E. to the S. E. trade-winds, the change taking place in a 
 squall. As to the fear of being drifted to the W., and to- 
 ward Cape St. Eoque, by the equatorial current, it appears 
 that this has been much exaggerated, and that, on the 
 other hand, the trades in this locality blow much more from 
 the E., which would not indicate any difficulty in doubling 
 Cape St. Eoque. A general remark may be made, that the 
 winds in the open sea, on the coast of Brazil, blow nearly 
 perpendicular to the coast, principally from the month of 
 October to March. During this period, then, one can ap- 
 proach the land without fear, the W'inds being generally 
 from IST. E. to E. X. E., and the current near the coast run- 
 ning from the N. toward the S. ; thus, as Ave have said, the 
 route will be most easy. From March to October, on the 
 contrary, the winds blow from E. to E. S. E., and the cur- 
 rent near the coast running from S. towards the N. it will 
 be preferable, bound to Eio Janeiro or Buenos Ayres, to 
 keep one hundred and twenty or one hundred and Mty 
 miles from the land in the general current of the coast of 
 Brazil, and to pass to the west of the Island of Trinidad. 
 Ships bound round Cape Horn, whether they come from 
 Eio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, or elsewhere, should approach 
 the coast of Patagonia, and keep within at least one hun- 
 dred miles of it, to avoid the heavy sea raised by the winds 
 from the W. which i^revail, and also to turn to advantage 
 the variations of the winds on this coast ; they will pass be- 
 tween the Falkland Islands andTierra del Fuego, and, gen- 
 erally, to east of Staten Island, the Straits of Le Maire being 
 often difficult to pass.* 
 Route from In leaving the ports of South America for Europe, the 
 to Europe. routcs to be taken depend on the latitudes of the ports. 
 
 Ships leaving the ports of Brazil situated to the north of 
 Point Olinda, can in general take the starboard tack, double 
 the coast, and steer directly to the ]Sr. 
 
 Those leaving the ports of Brazil situated to the south of 
 this point, are forced often to take the port tack and run to 
 the southward to get clear of the coast. Sometimes the wands 
 from N. E. oblige them to continue on this tack for tAvelve 
 or fifteen days, and to run to the southeast or south-south- 
 
 * liistruciions on Patagonia, by King. 
 
lîOlTKS FROM sol Til AMKIÎU'A TO EUKOPK. IT)? 
 
 i'iist MS far as tltc parallel ol L'S^or-lt-, and even to .■'>-^ S. lati- 
 tudo. Keep on this tack until you reach tlie nu'iidiau of .MP 
 W., oi- work to windward as far as the same meridian, so that 
 on iioing- on the starboard tack you will }>e nearly certain 
 of donblin»^- tlie Island of Trinidad. In proportion as you 
 .U'o to the north you are assisted by the winds hauling to 
 the E., and it is very rare that you cannot on this tack pass 
 to the eastward of Fernando de Xoronha, and cross the line 
 between the parallels of 28-' and 'XP W. longitude. From 
 thence, traverse the /one of variable winds, which is gener- 
 ally narrow to the west of the meridian of 28°, and continue 
 on the starboard tack with the N. E. trades, until on the 
 parallel of oO'^ X. latitude. 
 
 When without the trades steer for the port of destination, 
 passing either inside or to the north of the Azores.* After 
 Avhat has been said there can be no difficulty in making the 
 routes from the ports of Brazil, when leaving ports more to 
 the south or coming from Cape Horn; the westerly winds 
 prevailing in that zone will facilitate the route as far as the 
 zone of the S. E. trades. 
 
 From tifteen passages made from ditterent ports of Eui-ope 
 to Eio Janeiro, the mean duration of the voyage was fifty 
 days. Many voyages have been made from the west coasts 
 of France and England in from forty to forty-two days. The 
 packets from England to Kio Janeiro made the passage in 
 thirty-five days. 
 
 Gohig. 
 
 From Brest to St. Catherine, seventy-seven days. 
 
 From the Strait of Gibraltar to St. Catherine, tifty-three 
 days. 
 
 From Havre to jMaranham, forty-three days. 
 
 From jNUarseille to Eio Janeiro, sixty-five days. 
 
 From Bordeaux to Cape St. Augustine, forty-five days. 
 
 From Bordeaux to Cape St. Antoine, sixty-four days. 
 
 From Eio Janeiro to St. Catherine, six days. 
 
 From Brest to Montevideo, fifty-seven days. 
 
 From Brest to Cayenne, thirty-one days. 
 
 From the ports of Europe to Cape Horn, the mean, eighty- 
 two days. 
 
 * For more ample details see the rilote du Brésil, by Admiral Baroii 
 Koussiu. 
 
158 EOUTES FROM EUROPE TO THE OOAST OF AFRICA. 
 Regular lines of steamers. 
 
 From Havre to Pernambuco, making the route direct, from 
 forty to forty-five days, toiiclnug at Baliia, Eio Janeiro, and 
 Buenos Ayres. 
 
 From Eio Janeiro to Buenos Ayres seven days. 
 
 From Falmouth to Buenos Ayres, fifty days, touching at 
 Funchal, Santa Cruz, (Teneriife,) Bahia, and Eio Janeiro.. 
 
 Returning. 
 
 From Montevideo to Eio Janeiro, eleven days. 
 From Eio Janeiro to Cherbourg, fifty-eight days. 
 From Eio Janeiro to Biest, forty-eight days. 
 From ports of the north of the coast to Europe, the mean 
 of the voyages were from thirty-three to thirty-seven days. 
 From Montevideo to Ilavre, eighty three dajs. 
 From Maranham to Havre, sixty-five days. 
 From Cape Horn to Eio Janeiro, eighteen days. 
 From" Cape Horn to Europe, seventy-three days. 
 
 Regular line of steam pacl^ets. 
 
 From Eio Janeiro to Havre direct, the voyage was forty- 
 eight to fifty days. Departure every twenty days. 
 
 These data are sufficient to give a general idea of the voy- 
 ages from Europe to the coast of South America. 
 
 We will now speak of the routes from the ports of Europe 
 to that portion of the coast of Africa situated to the north 
 of the Equator. 
 Routes liom Navigators leavin g Europe, taking their departure from the 
 
 Europe to the " i, ± 7 c? j. 
 
 ports on the ports of the Channel, or those of the Bay of Biscay, should 
 
 coast of Africa, ^ ' J .n 
 
 north of the call to mind what has been said concerning the currents in 
 these localities. After doubling Cape Finistère, according 
 to the season, thirty-five or sixty miles to the westward,, 
 steer between south and southwest, avoiding a too near ap- 
 proach to the coast of Portugal, especially during the win- 
 ter, so as to pass either to the east or to the west of Madei- 
 ra, or to make the Canaries, as is generally customary with 
 ships bound for the coast of Africa. 
 
 One may j)ass indifferently either to the west of these 
 islands or between them, there being no daggers in the 
 channels which are not apparent and close to the shore. 
 
 I have traversed each of them, and the channel which 
 appears to me the most desirable, when passing through 
 
ROUTES fko:m i:ui{<»i'e r<> the coast of afkica. 15!> 
 
 the ini'liii)rl;i.u() witlioiit stoppiiiii', is that loniicd by ihv 
 Islands of I'ahiia and Uioiio on the west, and (îoincrii 
 on tho oast. 
 
 In the otlu'i- ohannols, altor i'loaiin<i' thoni to the south it 
 is rare not to experience cahns under the lee made by the 
 high islands, with a heavy swell which is very trying to the 
 masts. This is especially the case with the winds from N. 
 to N. PI, which, divided by the islands into two currents, 
 do not again join in a common direction until a consider- 
 able distance to the southward of them. 
 
 In the months of November and December it is prefer- 
 able, with bad weather, to pass entirely .to the westward of 
 these islands for fear of gales from the S. E., which in that 
 season are fre<iuent. 
 
 If it is desired to touch at the Canaries, the best anchor- 
 age is that of.Palmas in the Grand Canary. This town 
 offers more resources than that of Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, 
 and in its bay one can make sail at any time, which is not 
 the case at Santa Cruz — an anchorage resorted to from 
 custom, and a very dangerous one in a S. E. gale. 
 
 In leaving the Canaries, if bound to St. Louis, Corée, &c., Routes fiom 
 
 ... , , o, , TXT c, .-, XX- -,. the Canaries to 
 
 the course will be S., S. by Vv ., or S. S. W ., according as any ix.int ncrtu 
 you may pass to the westward or through the channels of 
 the group. 
 
 Alter passing the imrallel of 19°, that of the southern 
 extremity of Arguin Bank, keep gradually from the south 
 toward the east, making allowance for the polar current of 
 the N., in which jou should keep, making St. Louis a little 
 to the north of its parallel ; in going to Corée make Cape 
 Verd. 
 
 If bound to points more to the south than Gorée, the 
 Gambia or Sierra Leone, for example, or to a point on the 
 coast of Liberia, the route as far as Cape Verd would be 
 the same; for it is generally made, except when touching 
 at the Islands of Cape Verd. At anj^ rate, if it is not 
 desired to make either of these points, it will be better to 
 pass nearer to Cape Verd than to the archipelago, as 
 the breezes are more established and fresher on the coast. 
 
 From Cape Verd the navigation becomes in a measure 
 local ; easy with the winds from N. E. in the flue season, 
 difficult with those froui the S. W. during the winter. 
 
 Ships bound to the trading stations on the north coast k„ui.s lor 
 of Guinea, to the islamls of the Gulf of Biafra, or to the S'^o 
 
 the ucirtli C( ;i«t 
 iiinea. 
 
160 ROUTES FROM CAPE VERD TO N. COAST OF GUINEA. 
 
 Gaboon, after passing Cape Verd, will descend as far as 
 Cape Palmas, either with favorable winds from October to 
 May, or with head-winds i)rincipally during June, July, 
 August, and September, when they blow from S. W., W. 
 S. W., W., and W. IST. W., interrupted by calms. In this 
 season it is well to keei) three hundred miles from the coast. 
 
 Then direct the course so as to pass in sight of Cape 
 Palmas, or, at most, not over sixty miles from it. At this 
 distance the Current of ISTorthern Guinea will be taken, 
 which is only a prolongation of the polar current of î^orthern 
 Africa, directed toward the E. and E. K E. from 13° or 14° 
 of longitude. 
 
 Before reaching the parallel of Cape Palmas, as we have 
 said, the prevailing winds are from S. W. to W. S. W. ; 
 winds and currents will then be favorable for reaching any 
 of the points of Northern Guinea, but in, this route, one 
 should not descend further to the south than 2° N. latitude, so 
 as not to encounter the equatorial current setting to the W. 
 Thus, as soon as the parallel of Cape Palmas is reached, 
 which can be passed in sight, if bound to the Ivory Coast, 
 the Eactories, or the Slave Coast, you can navigate at any 
 distance from the laud, but always to the northward of 2° 
 N. latitude. The best mode of navigating on this coast is 
 to keep it in sight, about ten to fifteen miles distant at the 
 most, and to approach it within one or two miles when 
 thirty or forty miles to the west of the point of destination. 
 
 In estimating the route, the velocity of the current, which 
 is twenty or thirty miles per day, should be considered, for 
 it is very necessary to make the land well to the west of 
 the point of destination, and guard against passing to the 
 eastward of it. 
 
 If going to the islands of the Gulf of Biafra, or to the 
 Gaboon, after doubling Cape Palmas, steer to the east, keep- 
 ing between the parallels of 2° and 3° IST. latitude as long as 
 possible, according to the island you wish to make, then 
 cross obliquely the space between 2° IS", and the Equator, 
 and run to windward of the port of destination, in order to 
 make it from the south. Follow the same directions for the 
 islands in the Gulf of Biafra. In the vicinity of these 
 islands, the Current of the Southern Guinea sets to the N. E., 
 and at times to N. I^. E. ; the winds will also be found from 
 S. S. W., hauling sometimes to S. on approaching the 
 Equator. 
 
ROUTES FROM K. TO W. IN GULF OF ClUNKA. Kll 
 
 111 ,ii«>iiii; iVom riiiicc's* Island to the (iaboon you tra- 
 verse tlieCiinent of Southern Guinea, Avhicli runs to tlu^ N. 
 JO. and to the X. A\'., and sometimes to the K. ; it is neces- 
 sary, then, to make the hmd to the south of the river, to 
 connterbahince the elteots of the current. In tlie bij>ht of 
 the (.îulf of Biafra the currents are variable, although as 
 high as Fernando Po, and between that island aud the coast, 
 they run nuist frequently to the E. N. E. and to the N. E. 
 If, then, it is wished to descend to the south from these 
 localities, it m ill be necessary to work to Avindward a short 
 distance from the coast of Gaboon in order to profit by the 
 alternate breezes and the diminished strength of the cur- 
 rent, and to take advantage of the tides. The C-urrent of 
 Northern Guinea, in times past, was the bugbear of navi- 
 gators, who supi)osed that once within the gulf, there was 
 no exit, except with the greatest difficulty. 
 
 When leaving a point to the east of the north coast of Routes for re- 
 Guinea for a point on the same coast situated to the west, it to""4eft *i™M^e 
 is necessary to ruu on the starboard tack a sufticieut distance *^"'^of ^^^°^"' 
 to get out of the current of Northern Guinea, enter the equa- 
 torial current, and, according to the season of the year, cross 
 the line and i)ass to the south, iu order to get the winds 
 from the S. to the S. S. W. ; then take the port tack, keep- 
 ing well to the west of the point of destination, to counteract 
 the effect of the Current of Northern Guinea, wiiich will be 
 again felt iu 2° oST. latitude. 
 
 If this tack is not sufficient to make sure of making the 
 coast to the west of the point of destination, make another 
 stretch iu the latitude of 2° X., and run on the starboard 
 tack until sufficiently to the west to return to the coast 
 with certainty. In this manner, a few days Avill take you 
 to your destination. Some vessels, which have tried to beat 
 along the coast of Xorthern Guinea, have been thirty or 
 forty days from Cape Coast Castle to Grand Bassam, and 
 have been forced to give up beating thus to the west. 
 However, during the rainy season, aud while the harmattan 
 l)lows, from October to January, the currents near the coast 
 are reversed and run at times to the W., or they are in- 
 sensible. Then you can work to the w^est very near the 
 north coast of Guinea. 
 
 In leaving the Island of Fernando Po, it is necessary to 
 tack along the coast of the Gaboon to make use of the 
 variations of the breezes and the tides, and accordingly 
 11 A o 
 
162 ROUTES IN THE GULF OF GUINEA. 
 
 keeping but a short distance from the shore, until suffi- 
 ciently to the south Avarcl to reach easily the equatorial (iur- 
 rent. In leaving Prince's Island, with the wind from S. W., 
 take the starboard tack and keep on this tack as long as 
 the vicinity of the coast will permit, then take the port 
 tack to run out of the Gulf of Guinea. If it is desired to 
 eave it after reaching the Equator on the starboard tack, 
 you can keep on this circle or to the south of it on the other 
 tack, with the winds from S . to S. S. W. and sometimes S. 
 S. E., steering to the west until you attain the meridian of 
 Cape Palmas; and if going to the northern hemisphere, 
 after thus running along the Equator, commence running to 
 the north at from 17° to 28° W. longitude, then steer accord- 
 ing to the point of destination. 
 
 Thus in returning to Europe it will be preferable not to 
 leave the Equator or steer to the north until in 23° W. longi- 
 tude, and then take the same route as indicated for return- 
 ing from Brazil to Europe ; but if near the Equator winds 
 from W. and N. W. are encountered, which is frequently 
 the case during the winter, from May to September, then 
 run to the northward in 17° or 18° W. longitude, and pass 
 between the Cape Yerd Islands and the coast of Africa; 
 to the northward of the Cape Verd Islands the N. E, 
 trades will be taken, with which run on the starboard tack. 
 If it is desired to return to a port on the coast of Africa, 
 Sierra Leone, Gambia, Gorée, or St. Louis, commence to 
 ascend to the north in longitude 16° or 18° W. and beat 
 between the meridians of 22° and 28°, to avoid enteriug the 
 bed of the i)olar current of Northern Africa, until on the 
 parallel of the Bissagos; this last route will be particularly 
 favorable from May to September, the winter season. 
 Lastly, if returning to the United States or to the West 
 Indies keep to the north from the meridian of 28° or 33° 
 W. longitude. 
 Favorable sea- The most favorablc season to leave the Gulf of Guinea is 
 Gulf of GiJnea. ^ from May to December ; at that season it is rarely necessary 
 to cross the line, the winds from S. S. E. are sometimes well 
 established at this period, and they come to the northward 
 of the Equator ; but from December to May it is prefera- 
 ble to cross the line and keep at least in 0° 30' or 1° S. 
 latitude. In following the directions given above a few 
 days will take you out of the Gulf of Guinea. To recapi- 
 tulate, in entering the Gulf of Guinea pass near Cape 
 
 I 
 
KOUTEï< FROM El^ROPE TO S. COAST OF AFRICA. 1 0. "> 
 
 raliiias and keep ill tlieCiiiTeiitot'Noitlierii Guinea, between 
 the coast and the parallel of 2° or 3° N. latitude. In leav- 
 in,i;- tliefîulf of (îiiinea, as a general rule, whatever may be 
 the point of (lei)artnre on the coast, you should inaueuver 
 so as to reach the Ecpiator by the most direct route ; from 
 ^Fay to December keep on the E(piator or even a little to 
 tlie northward of it. In the other months it is well to keep 
 to the south of it, in 0° 30' or 1° S. latitude, keep thus as far 
 as the meridian of 10°, 17°, or 23°, &c., of W. lon.Qitude, 
 according to the port of destination. 
 
 We will now g^ve some of the passages from Euroi>e to 
 places in Northern Africa. 
 
 (roilig. 
 
 The mean from ports of the north of Europe to Madeira, 
 tifteen days. 
 
 From the tstrait of Gibraltar to Madeira, four or live days. 
 
 From ports of the north to the Canaries, sixteen days. 
 
 From the Strait of Gibraltar to the Canaries, seven days. 
 
 From ports of the north to the CapeVerd Islands, 
 twenty days. 
 
 From ports of the north to St. Louis, eighteen days. 
 
 From ports of the north to G orée, twenty days. 
 
 From ports of the north to Gambia, twenty- four days. 
 
 The navigation along the coast of Africa to the south of 
 t^t. Louis depending on the seasons, the duration of the 
 voyage is very variable ; thus, in the tine season the mean 
 from Goree to Prince's Island is about twenty-eight days, 
 and in the winter generally from thirty-six to thirty-eight 
 days. 
 
 Beturniiu/. 
 
 From Prince's Island to Goree, thirty -eight to forty days. 
 
 From Gambia to Goree, three to four days. 
 
 From Goree to St. Louis, five to seven days. _ 
 
 From St. Louis to Brest, thirty to forty days. 
 
 This voyage has been made in twenty-four and in twenty- 
 two days. 
 
 The routes from Europe to the ports of Africa, situated KoutestvoiuKu- 
 to the south of the Equator, are very difterent, according to tiu" Voast'of Ât' 
 the latitude of the ports; the routes of which we will speak EqiaYo". 
 have been called the (jreat route and the Utile route. 
 
164 EOUTES FROM EUROPE TO S. COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Great route. The great route is that which is followed in going to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and in general for all the ports situated 
 to the south of Cape Negro. 
 i^ittie route. The little route is that made by ships hound to ports 
 situated to the north of Cape ISTegro. However, the great 
 route is equally followed by many ships going to the same 
 ports. 
 
 The ships which make the great route on leaving Europe 
 will follow at first the directions we have given for the 
 routes from Europe to Brazil ; they will accordingly cross 
 the line between 23° and 28° W. longitude; from thence, 
 profiting by the S. E. trades, they will take the port tack 
 and make a course toward the Island of Trinidad 5 they 
 will pass to the west of this island, and traversing the zone 
 of the S. E. trades they will endeavor to reach the westerly 
 winds and cross the current of the Southern Atlantic, 
 setting to the E. ; they will then direct their course 
 toward the Cape of Good Hoi)e, so as to cross the parallel 
 of 30° S. in nearly 18° W. longitude. In following the 
 route just given, ships have been only fifty days from the 
 Channel to Cape Town. 
 
 Navigate in a similar manner to reach the points on 
 the west coast of Africa situated to the north of Cape 
 Negro; that is, after having crossed the line between 23° 
 and 28° W. longitude, take the i)ort tack with the S. E. 
 trade-winds, keep on this tack so that in going on the star- 
 board tack you will be able to fetch to the south of the port 
 of destination, in order to counteract the effect of the polar 
 current of Africa setting to the N. W. along the south 
 coast of this continent; but if bound to-Benguela, Angola, 
 or to Loango, or more generally to a point situated to the 
 north of Cape Negro, the route can be modified and in gen- 
 eral shorter passages made. 
 
 On leaving Europe steer to take the trade- winds as quick- 
 ly as possible ; liass then either to the east or west of 
 Madeira, to the west of the Canaries, or through the chan- 
 nels formed by these islands; from there steer to pass to the 
 west of the Cape Yerd Islands if in the winter, from 
 June to September. In the other months you can pass 
 between this archipelago and Cape Yerd in approaching 
 the cape nearer than the islands, because near the continent 
 the winds from N. E. and N. N. W. are fresher and better 
 established in this season. Whatever route maybe adopted, 
 
KOITKS FROM EUKOPE T() ISLAND OF ASCENSION. Km 
 
 at'r«M' passing to the south t)l' the ]»aiiillel of Capo Vord, 
 you will navigate along the coast of Africa, keei)ing- one 
 hundred and eighty to two hundred and forty miles from it 
 until on the parallel of the Bissagos; from there steer for 
 Cape Palmas. You cau pass near Cape Palmas in sight of 
 it, or at sixty miles distance, and traverse the Gulf of Guinea 
 on the starboard tack ; this board generally will lead to Cape 
 Lopez, and often to the south of the Island of Annobon; 
 then go on the port tack, but do not make the tack too long 
 to the westward, to guard against falling into the equatorial 
 current; return then to the starboard tack to reach the S. 
 W. winds, which are prevalent and alternate from the sea 
 and land, principally from the month of January to Septem- 
 ber, in the zone comprised between the coast and a line 
 Joining the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Palmas ; then beat 
 close to the land to profit by these winds. The sea breeze 
 prevails in the day from 10 or 11 in the morning, blowing 
 from W. S. W: to S. W., and the land breeze during the 
 night from S. E. to S. 
 
 Thus the tacks should be combined so as to be near the 
 coast when the land breeze commences blowing, and well in 
 the offing in the morning to take the sea breeze ; for this 
 the tacks should not be more than thirt}^ miles, so as not to 
 lose the advantage of this variation of the breezes, and to 
 be able to anchor if it falls calm. The bottom is of mud, or 
 sand and mud. 
 
 This navigation is precisely similar to that which can be 
 made on the coast of Senegambia, in the northern hemi- 
 sphere ; but here it is upon a coast of greater extent. 
 
 This navigation is particularly favorable from January to 
 September. During the bad season, in the latitude of Cape 
 Lopez, sharp, sudden squalls are sometimes experienced, 
 but they are generally of short duration. 
 
 In going from Europe to the islands of the South Atlantic, Routes from eu- 
 vessels, from bad navigation, have taken a hundred days, ands of the south 
 
 ^-^ .,, , "^ Atlantic. 
 
 We will make some remarks which we consider useful. 
 
 From Europe bound to Ascension, try to reach, as quickly Route for as- 
 as possible, the N. E. trade-winds ; steer then to pass be- Route to the 
 tween the Cape Verd Islands and the Continent, or to*'*^ 
 the west of the Cape Verd Islands; from there steer to 
 double Cape Palmas, and sight it if possible. On losing 
 the N. E. trade-winds, make as much as possible to the south, 
 
166 
 
 ROUTE FROM EUROPE TO ST. HELENA. 
 
 to traverse tlie zoue of variable winds, without passing to 
 the westward of the meridians of 8° or 9° W. 
 
 On approaching the limits of the S. E. trade- winds, in the 
 vicinity of Cape Palmas, or even to the north of that cape, 
 will be found, nearly always, winds from the S. W., and 
 sometimes from W. S. W. ; with these take the starboard 
 tack, and the line can generally be crossed in 6° or 5° W. 
 longitude, often even more to the east, if the currents of the 
 Gulf of Guinea are taken advantage of. 
 
 The route which w^e have already indicated, in going to 
 the islands of the Gulf of Biafra, can be used, and it 
 appears to us the most advantageous by keeping on the 
 parallel of 2° î^. to get sufficiently into the Gulf of Guinea, 
 and to cross the line in 0° or 1° E. longitude, running 
 on the starboard tack. As soon as the prevailing winds 
 from S. to S. E. are taken, run on the port tack, and on this 
 board the Island of Ascension will be often made without 
 a long and fatiguing voyage. 
 Western route. Ill goiug to Asceusiou by the western route j)ursue the 
 same course, nearly, as in going to Brazil. After having 
 crossed the Equator between the meridians of 23° and 28° 
 W., with the S. E. trade-winds, take the port tack, and run 
 on this tack until in a position to reach to the east or to 
 the south of Ascension, by heading E. or E. N. E. on the 
 starboard tack. If, however, the winds are from the E., 
 which is not frequent, it will be necessary to work to the 
 east, profiting by all the variations of the wind, and mak- 
 ing long boards to the south. 
 
 There are also two routes from Europe to St. Helena. 
 From the position of this island in the strength of the S. E. 
 trade-winds, it cannot be made from the north until a con- 
 siderable distance is run to the east or west, to bring it 
 under the lee. 
 
 The length of the voyage will generally depend on the 
 time taken to cross the zone of variable winds of the Equa- 
 tor. The season then will determine which of the two routes 
 should be pursued. That to the west is always possible ; 
 that to the east is only recommended in the months of 'No- 
 vember, December, January, February, and March, the 
 period, as we have said, when the zone of the variable winds 
 of the Equator is comparatively narrow. 
 tiio The route to the east, in the months cited above, will be the 
 same as that for going to Ascension, only longer tacks should 
 
 Eonte 
 Helena. 
 
 to St 
 
 Konte 
 east. 
 
 to 
 
K'ori'KS y\H)M ASCENSION TO COAST OF AFRICA. 107 
 
 bo made toward the coast of AlVica until headed off by the 
 wind. When on tlie other taek St. Ileh'na will j^enerally bo 
 reached, and more promptly on this route than that to the 
 west, liut when the sun has a great northern declination the 
 eastm-n route is very uncertain, and that to the W. is pre- 
 ferred. However, it may be said that ii good sailer and a 
 ship that holds a good wind may take the eastern route at 
 any season. 
 
 After crossing the line between 23° and 28"^ W., take the western route. 
 port taek, running toward the coast of Brazil, and keep on 
 this tack until the Island of St. Helena can be made to the 
 south or east when heading on the starboard tack east or east- 
 northeast, according- to the winds. If the winds become con- 
 trary, it will be necessary to beat, when, after rnnning on the 
 port tack as long as possible, take the starboard tack to the 
 eastward ; when near the coast of Brazil take again the port 
 tack, and strive to get out of the S. E. trades and into the 
 variable winds, Avhere you can make to the east with the west- 
 erly winds; then traverse the zone of the trade-winds on 
 the starboard tack, rnnning to the northeast or east-north- 
 east to make St. Helena to the south or east. 
 
 The currents in the vicinity of St. Helena are weak, and 
 even in making the land to windward there would be 
 little tronble in reaching the anchorage, except at the epoch 
 of the full and change, when the current setting to the N. 
 W. increases in force. 
 
 .The mean of the voyages from Europe to the Cajje of 
 Good Hope, taken from a great number, is ninety days. 
 Horsburgh, in the Anna, made it . in sixty-seven days. 
 This is one of the shortest which has been made. A steamer 
 from England has taken fifty-nine days to the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 The mean of voyages from Europe to St. Helena is about 
 sixty days. The steam packet, from London toAnstralia, 
 touching at Teneriffe and the cape, takes one hundred and 
 fifty days to reach her destination. 
 
 St. Phillip of Benguela being the most southerly point Routes from a s- 
 which can at times be reached in one stretch, we will choose Helena to^point^s 
 it in going from Ascension to the coast of Africa, south of of amcZ*^^"''** 
 the Equator, as it will readily be seen that any i^oint situated 
 to the north of this can be more easily reached. On leaving 
 Aseusion, take the starboard tack and do not pass to the 
 north of the parallel of 4° S. latitude, in order not to fall 
 
168 ROUTES FROM N. COAST OF AFRICA TO EUROPE. 
 
 into the great westerly curreut, and do not make too long- 
 tacks to the sonth if the wind does not j)ermit you steering 
 S. 35° E. ; this, however, depends somewhat on circum- 
 stances. It is possible that some tacks will have to be made 
 in order not to pass the limits indicated, but it often hap- 
 pens that the passage is made on the same tack, as in gen- 
 eral the winds on approaching the coast of Africa haul to 
 the S. W. and at times to the W. S. W. It will be necessary 
 in going from St. Helena to shape a course a little to the 
 southward of the i)oint of destination, on account of the 
 polar current of the South Atlantic. 
 
 In general, and notwithstanding the o])inions of many 
 authors who advise, on leaving these islands, to run first on 
 the port tack to the south westward, when going to ports on 
 the coast of Africa, situated as high as St. Phillip of Ben- 
 guela, take the starboard tack in leaving these islands and 
 make for the point of destination, making allowance for the 
 current, the mean velocity of which is fifteen miles per day, 
 setting to the IST. W. and W. IST. W. But if leaving Ascen- 
 sion or St. Helena for a point more to the southward, the 
 Cape of Good Hope for examjjle, it will be then necessary 
 to take the port tack to run to the southward and toward 
 the coast of America, and follow the directions heretofore 
 given for the routes from Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 when in the southern hemisphere. 
 Routes from Af- The routcs from the ports of Africa to Ascension and St. 
 
 rica to the islands . 
 
 of Ascension and Helena havc bccu indicated m the routes from ports north 
 of the Equator ; they are the same as from Europe to As- 
 . cension, whether the great or little route be taken . In going 
 from a point on the coast of Africa situated to the south- 
 ward of these islands, the winds and currents are favorable, 
 and the only precaution is to make them to the south 
 rather than to the north. 
 Routes return- In spcakiug of the navigation of the Gulf of Guinea, we 
 
 ing from the ports -t i,i , . -, • ,-, ■ ir-^-n 
 
 ofthenorth coast have indicated the routes m leaving this gult lor Europe. 
 
 rope. ^'^^ ° After having attained the longitude of 23° W., by running 
 to the south of the Equator, run to the north on the star- 
 board tack and cross the zone of the IsT. E. trades ; on reach- 
 ing the zone of the variable winds, steer to pass to the north 
 of the Azores or through the channels formed by these 
 islands. If the point of departure is situated to the north 
 of Cape Palmas, go to the westward with the S. W. winds 
 prevailing in these localities, pass the zone of variable winds 
 
KOrTE FKOM CAPE OF (iOOD IIOPl-: TO EU1ÎOP1]. 1 (»J) 
 
 ;ks quickly as possible; and tlii'u on tlu' staiboaid tack 
 with the N. E. trade-Aviuds iim to the north. On leaving 
 the ports of Seuegamlna, Ganibia, Goree, or St. Louis, in the 
 Hue season, with the winds from N. E. and N. N. E., take 
 the starboard tack until within the zone of variable winds. 
 The routes mentioned are generally made to the west of the 
 Azores. On two different occasions in the months of May 
 and June I have passed to the east of the Azores, and made 
 line passages, one in thirty-two and the other in twenty- 
 four days from St. Louis. The return route from points on 
 the west coast of Africa situated to the south of the Equa- 
 tor, can be readily deduced from the route from the Cape 
 of Good Hope to Europe. 
 
 In doubling the Cape of Good Hope from the Indian ^ ^o'^*''^ ûrom tuo 
 
 '^ J- '- Cape ot Good 
 
 Ocean, if in the tine season, the land may be approached nop© *» Emopc. 
 without fear, and a northerly course taken as soon as the 
 cape is doubled. But if in winter, that is, from June to 
 September, before steering north it will be prudent to run to 
 the west one hnndred and twenty or one hundred and fifty 
 miles from the laud, in order not to be placed on a lee shore 
 by the gales from W. or jS". W., which are very frequent at 
 this season. 
 
 After doubling the Cape of Good Hope in the tine season, 
 that is, from October to April, keep nearly for St. Helena, pass- 
 ing a short distance from it either to the east or west. From 
 St. Helena keep X. W. by K., about, passing twelve or thir- 
 teen miles to the east orw^est of Ascension, and from thence 
 cross the line between 23° and 28° W. The route then will 
 be that before given for returning to Europe. In doubling 
 the cape between the months of May and September, keep 
 oft the coast, as we have already said, and get sufftcieutly 
 to the westward, to have nothing to fear from the N. W. or 
 S. W. gales ; get into the zone of the S. E. trades and cross 
 the line between 26° and 28° W. In this season, from a 
 great number of voyages, the mean has been from the Cape 
 of Good Hope to Europe, about seventy days. 
 
 The mean from the cape to St. Helena, fifteen days ; the 
 mean from St. Helena to Ascension, .six days ; there is another 
 route recently taken w hich may be followed in going from 
 the Cape of Good Hope to Europe, which is, to follow the 
 coast of Africa at a short distance from the cape as far as 
 the Equator. The winds on this coast prevail during the 
 year from S. S. E. to S. S. W. ; this passage can be quickly 
 
170 ROUTES FEOM NORTH AMERICA TO AFRICA. 
 
 made. Cross the line in 17° or 18° W., and either pass be- 
 tween the Cape Yerd Islands and the coast, and from 
 there, rnuning on the starboard tack, take the route followed 
 from Senegal to Europe. This route may be advantageous 
 in certain cases, principally when the line is crossed from 
 May to September, the period when, from the vicinity of 
 the coast to beyond the Cape Verd Islands the winds are 
 from the W., varying to the S. W. and N. W. We have 
 not sufficient information on this route to say whether it 
 will be found generally advantageous. We limit ourselves 
 by pointing out how it may be followed, as it was a short 
 time since by Captain Le Sieur de Ville-sur- Arce, on return- 
 ing from India. 
 Eoutes from lu goiug from the ports of Xorth America to the coast of 
 toaeBortheoa^t Africa, north of the Equator, the route is nearly the same 
 of Africa. ^g ^j^^^ ^^ 1^^ followed in going to Europe ; only when suf- 
 
 ficiently to the east to reach the port of destination, steer 
 for that point, traversing obliquely the region of the ^. E. 
 trades. 
 Koute from the In goiug to ports of Africa situated to the south of the 
 America to °tiie Equator, shapc a course to traverse obliquely the zone of 
 South Africa, or the N. E. tradcs, cross the line between 23° and 28° W., 
 of *south^*AmCT* and adopt one of the routes already indicated for the west 
 ^^^' coast of southern Africa or the east coast of South Amer- 
 
 ica, as may be. 
 Eoute for re- We will Only indicate the route from the Cape of Good 
 coast^f Afr^atoHope to the ports of North America, as from it all the 
 
 î^orth America. ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^-j^ ^g dcduCCd. 
 
 Starting from the cape from October to April, the winds 
 will generallj^ be found ijrevailing from the S. E., and the 
 direct route will be that heretofore indicated in returning to 
 Europe, as far as crossing the line in about 28° W, longi- 
 tude ; from thence i)ass to the west of the Penedo de San 
 Pedro, and shape a course with the trade-winds, which 
 blow generally from E. to E. N. E., a sufficient distance to 
 windward of the Windward Islands, this route, as is seen, 
 offers no difficulty. 
 
 Erom the month of March to September, on account of 
 the frequency of N. W. gales during these winter months, 
 keep at once sufficiently oft' the coast to have nothing to 
 fear from gales from this quarter ; traverse then the zone 
 of the S. E. trades obliquely, and cross the line in 33° W. 
 longitude. In this season it is preferable to cross the line 
 
ROUTE FROM AFRICA TO NORTH AMERICA. 171 
 
 on tliis iiieiidiiiii ratlior than to the east of it,* it is also pre- 
 ferable to pass to the east of the Bermudas if bound to 
 Nova Seotia, rather than to the Mest of theui, for at tliis 
 season winds from the eastward are often found lu this 
 hicality.* It is a ruh^ very generally adopted to pass to the 
 east of the Bermudas, from the middle of March to the 
 month of October, in going" to any of the ports of North 
 America situated to the north of New York. From the 
 different routes we have given in this chapter, it will be 
 easy to deduce all which can be made from any point to an- 
 other in the Atlantic Ocean. We have, in this book, brought 
 together nearly all the most important observations which 
 are of service to navigation, and have given to mariners the 
 information most useful for directing them in the navigation 
 of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Although all the facts given are the results of numerous 
 observations, it should not be inferred that under every 
 circumstance they will be found the same. 
 
 There is nothing more subject to variations than the 
 winds and currents which we have discussed. 
 
 The seaman should make it a constant study, in order, 
 under all circumstances, to take advantage of the general 
 facts as presented, and modify the routes as exceptions to the 
 general laws here indicated arise. 
 
 Amuses Delano. 
 
Il 
 
CHART 
 cilllie 
 
 PRINCIPAL ROUTES 
 
 in Uif 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
t/uirinu 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 1 
 
N () U 1 H 
 
 7^. flS^ 
 
APPENDIX No. 1 
 
 NAUTICAL DIEECTIONS TO AVOID HUliKICANKS. 
 
 From motives which it would be useless to meutiou, we 
 had ]iot intended to give in this work the nautical directions 
 for endeavorino- to escape the violence of liurricanes. 
 
 Having received many inquiries on the subject, and its 
 omission in the General Examination having- been com- 
 mented on, thanks to the obliging kindness of M. Kel- 
 ler, we have been able to supply the deficiency. Not only 
 has this learned hydrographie engineer authorized us to 
 take from his memoir of 1847* the nautical directions which 
 he published at that tinu*, but he has furnished us with an 
 extract from a memoir much more extended on the same 
 subject. This last memoir of 'M. Keller (of which we have 
 before made mention) is yet unpublished, and we cannot to» 
 warmly thank the author for the readiness with which, for 
 the general benefit of navigators, he has been pleased to 
 communicate to us that portion of it which is to tliem of the 
 liTeîitest imi)ortance. 
 
 De KERHALLET. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM THE MEMOIR OF M. KELLER, PUBLISHED IN 
 
 1847. 
 
 We will recapitulate for each hemisphere the nautical 
 directions for attempting to avoid the violence of hurri- 
 canes, and to facilitate their application by navigators 
 threatened to be enveloped l)y these storms. 
 
 IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Hurricanes of ll'^e.^f Indies^ Cyclones of India, Typhoons of 
 the China Sea. 
 
 "' If the wind hauls by the compass to the right, or in ac- 
 cordance with the movement of the hands of a watch, you 
 are in the dangerous semicircle of the tempest, and, what- 
 ever may be the latitude, you should heave-to on the star- 
 board tack ; or, if the force of the wind is not too great, 
 stand on close-hauled on the starboard tack. 
 
 * Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Typhoons, and Tempests, &c. 
 
174 MANEUVERS IN HUEEICANES. 
 
 ^' If, on the contraiy, the wind hanls by the compass, to 
 the left, or in an opposite direction to the movement of the 
 hands of a watch, you are in the manageable semicircle of 
 the tempest ; and, if the sea is not too heavy, you should 
 run with the wind on the starboard quarter; or, if the 
 sea is too heavy, heave-to on the port tack." 
 
 IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 
 
 Hurricanes in the Channel of Mozamhiqne, Island of Bour- 
 bon, &c. 
 
 " If the wind haul by the compass to the left, or in a di- 
 rection opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
 you are in the dangerous semicircle of the tempest, and, 
 whatever be the latitude, you should heave-to on the port 
 tack ; or, if the storm is not too heavy, stand on close-hauled 
 on the i^ort tack. 
 
 " On the contrary, if the wind hauls by the compass to 
 the right, or in accordance with the movement of the hands 
 of a watch, you are in the manageable semicircle of the 
 tempest ; and, if the sea is not too heavy, run with the wind 
 on the port quarter. If the sea becomes too heavy, heave-to 
 on the starboard tack. 
 
 " We will further add that after having experienced a hur- 
 ricane in less than 26° S., or 30° K latitude, you should not 
 for some days steer toward the Pole, to avoid again encoun- 
 tering the branch of its path the furthest removed from the 
 Equator ; for although the velocity of its movement ex- 
 ceeds greatly that of a ship, yet the latter may describe the 
 chord which joins two points of the curve of the hurricane, 
 in the same time employed by the meteor to run over the 
 arc of this chord. 
 
 " This precaution would be suj)erfluous in the hurricanes 
 of the Gulf of Bengal, and in the typhoons of the China 
 seas, for these seas only extend to 30° X. latitude, and 
 only contain a limited and sensibly rectilineal portion of the 
 general path of hurricanes, which spend themselves on the 
 land when directed toward the I^. W. 
 
 " These practical directions are independent of the lati- 
 tude; they apply to all the routes of typhoons, and assure 
 escax)e in the right direction when this is possible." 
 
MANEUVERS IN IIUKKK'ANES. 175 
 
 KXTKACT FROM AN UNPUBLISHKD MKMOIK OF M. KKI.LEK, 
 RELATING Ï0 MANEUVER IN lUTRRICANES, CYCLONES, TY- 
 PHOONS. AND TEMPESTS. 
 
 ■^ Tlio iiyratory inovcMiuMit of linrric;iii(>s (lotcnniiics tho 
 t;u-k. 
 
 " The inovcninit of tianslatioii dccidcs tli<' couisc a slii]) 
 should take. 
 
 "In the iioitheni hemisphere the gyratory iiiovemeut is 
 opposite to the movement of the hands of a watch, and in 
 the southern hemisphere it is in the same direction as that 
 movement. 
 
 '•The gyratory movenuMit being invarial)le in each hemi- 
 sphere, the tack upon which a sliip should be placed is 
 equally invariable. It is the starboard in the northern 
 hemisphere and the port in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 " The movement of translation of the hurricane deter- 
 mines for both hemispheres. 
 
 " 1. In the dangerous semicircle, the course close-hauled, 
 as long as the barometer falls, and with the wind free when 
 it rises. 
 
 " 2. In the manageable semicircle, the course with the 
 wind on the (juarter as long as the bartmieter falls, and 
 with the wind free when it rises. 
 
 '^ The dangerous semicircle being to the right of the path 
 of the center in the northern hemisphere and to the left in 
 the southern hemisphere, the course of escape, that is to 
 say, the route which should be pursued to increase the dis- 
 tance from the center of the hurricane, will be known, if it 
 is known on which side of the path of the center of the 
 hurricane the ship is placed ; now the side is indicated by 
 the variation of the wind by the compass, produced by the 
 < h ange of place of the center of the storm, 
 
 " If in looking in the eye of the actual wind, the wind as 
 it hauls blows from the right, the ship is to tlie right of the 
 liath of the center. If, on the contrary, the wind as it hauls, 
 blows from the left of the actual wind, the ship occupies a 
 position to the left of the path of the center; after this, the 
 route to be pursued to increase the distance from the center, 
 depends exclusively on the variation of the wind. 
 
 " This variation should be observed hove-to, in order that 
 it be the result of the change of the base of the cyclone, and 
 not the change of position of the ship ; besides, it should 
 correspond to a fall of the barometer, a distinctive mark of 
 
176 
 
 MANEUVERS IN HURRICANES. 
 
 the actual penetration of the ship into the body of the hur- 
 ricanei 
 
 " The indications of the approach of a hurricane being a 
 heavy swell, a steady fall of the barometer and an increas- 
 ing violence of the wind, as soon as these are observed 
 a ship should reduce sail and be hove-to, on the starboard 
 tack in the northern hemisphere, and the port tack in the 
 southern hemisphere, without taking into consideration the 
 direction of the waves, in order to escape the center of the 
 storm and be in a position to execute, at once, such ulterior 
 maneuvers as the variation of the wind, observed while 
 hove-to, may determine. A resume of these maneuvers is 
 given in the following : 
 
 MANEUVER IN HURRICANES IN THE NORTHERN HEMI- 
 SPHERE. 
 
 Northern hemisphere, sUirhoard tack. 
 
 3. Wind aft. 
 
 2. Wind on qnar 
 
 ter. 
 
 1. Close-hauled. 
 
 Free. 
 
 '' Being hove-to on the starboard tack, barometer falling: 
 "1. If the wind haul by the compass to the right, or in 
 the direction of the movement of the hands of a watch, 
 the ship is to the right of the path of the center, in the 
 dangerous semicircle, and should run close-hauled on the 
 starboard tack and keep this course until the barometer 
 rises and then run free. 
 
 "2. If the wind hauls by the compass to the left, or con- 
 trary to the movement of the hands of a watch, the ship is 
 
MANEUVERS IN HUKKKiANES. 
 
 177 
 
 to tlie left of the path of tlio center, iii tlic mauageablc 
 «eiiiicirele of the cych)iie, and shouhl rnn with the wind on 
 the starboard qnarter, and maintain this compass course 
 during the ulterior changes of the wind until the barometer 
 rises ; from this time sliape a course free. 
 
 •• 3. If the wind as noted when hove-to does not change 
 its direction during the progressive fall of the barometer, 
 the ship is in the path of the center, and slnmld run with 
 the wind aft and keep the same compass course on the star- 
 board tack until the barometer rises; from this moment a 
 course free should be maintained to the end of the storm." 
 
 MANEl VEIJ IN HFKIÎICANES IN THE SOUTHERN HEMI- 
 SPHERE. 
 
 tSovihcrn licmisjpherc^ port tm-k. 
 
 3. Wind aft. 
 
 1. Close-hanled. 
 
 Free.-'j^ 
 
 ■i. Wind on quar- 
 ter. 
 
 rrei\ 
 
 " Being hove-to on the port tack, the barometer falling : 
 •'1. If the wind hauls by the compass to the left, in a di 
 rection contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch, 
 the ship is to the left of the path of the center, in the dan- 
 gerous semicircle ; she should run close-hauled on the port 
 tack and preserve this course until the barometer rises, and 
 then shape a course with the wind free. 
 
 ''■ 2. If the wind hauls by the compass to the right in ac- 
 cordance with the movement of the hands of a watch, the ship 
 is to the right of the path of the center, in the manageable 
 semicircle of the storm, and should ruu with the wind on 
 the port quarter and maintain this compass course during 
 12 A o 
 
178 MANEUVERS IN HUERICANBS. 
 
 the ulterior changes of the wind until the barometer rises j 
 when shape a conrse free. 
 
 "3. If the "wind, observed when ho veto, does not change 
 its direction during th^ j^rogressive fall of the barometer, 
 the ship is in the path of the center and should run before 
 the wind, and keep the same comi^ass course on the port 
 tack, until the barometer rises, a course with the wind free 
 should be constantly maintained until the end of the storm. 
 
 " These directions relative to maneuvers in hurricanes in 
 the two hemispheres differ from those of i3age 19 of our 
 memoir on hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoons, and tempests, 
 as the maneuvers advised by Reid, in his recent work, The 
 Progress of the Beveloppient of the Law of Storms, page 27, 
 differ from those recommended in the two editions of his 
 first work, The Laic of Storms, which has been extolled hj 
 Fiddington, Thorn, &c. 
 
 '• The latter work advised heaving-to on the port tack in 
 the manageable semicircle of hurricanes in the northern 
 hemisphere, and on the starboard tack in the southern hemi- 
 sphere, in order to avoid the danger of being taken aback 
 in the shifts of wind. But this maneuver having the grave 
 disadvantage of pushing the shiji toward the center and 
 precipitating her into a danger more certain and more for- 
 midable, Reid, struck by this disadvantage, advises at pres- 
 ent to renounce this mode, and in all cases to take the star- 
 board tack in the northern hemisphere and the port tack in 
 the southern hemisphere. 
 
 ''We are entirely of this opinion, which simplifies the 
 maneuvers in reducing them to a question of direction and 
 Ijlacing the tack out of the case, the more so as the course 
 with the wind on the quarter and the wind aft being sub- 
 stituted in the recent directions for hove-to on the opposite 
 tacks in the manageable semicircle of hurricanes, ships 
 need not fear being taken aback, for the shifts of wind are 
 never so great at the commencement of a hnrricane as to 
 l^ass from aft forward. 
 
 '' On the other hand the variation of the wind arising 
 from the ship penetrating the base of the hurricane is greater 
 in a given time as the penetration is greater, or as the ve- 
 locity of the translation of the hurricane is greater, ^ow, 
 this velocity keeping back the wind from the manageable 
 semicircle, the wind there is more feeble according to the 
 
MANKIVKIJS I\ in KK'ICANKS. 1 7M 
 
 rapidity with wliicli llie luiiiicaiu' :i(l\ aiiccs in its patli. 
 thoiieo, tlic ji'reatest variation in tlic direction of tlic wind 
 wliicli conld 1)0 feared would l>o only IVoni a wind eonii>ar- 
 atively lii^ht and by no means formidable, and if, on the 
 contrary, the wind is strong" it varies but little, because the 
 velocity of the translation is feeble, and then there is no 
 dan<ier of bein.u taken aback; although in this case the vio- 
 lence of the wind in the manageable semicircle differs but 
 little from that in the dangerous semicircle. 
 
 "' We will add that the maneuver, wind aft. involves a 
 great reduction of sail, to manage the ship almost under 
 bare idoles if the wind is very violent, in order to reduce the 
 speed of the ship and the impetus which she communicates 
 to the waves, which would be likely to comb over aft if the 
 speed were too great. It is always better to run the risk 
 of shii)ping' a few seas than to remain stationary, on all 
 courses, except that, with the wind aft, it is necessary to 
 make sail, otherwise the ship would be at the mercy of the 
 waves." 
 
 That navigators mny judge of their maneuver by the 
 state of the sea, we will show the direction of the predomi- 
 nant wave on the different courses prescribed. 
 
 DlKEf'TTON OF THE I'KEDOMINANT AVAVP: ON THE DIFFER- 
 ENT COURSES. 
 
 In the northern hemisphere, starboard tack. 
 The ship being hove-to on the starboard tack : 
 
 On the course pre- ( the piodomi- f on the starboai'd quar- 
 scribed free, • uautwavcis } ^^y^ 
 
 In the dangerous semicircle : 
 
 ( )n the constant course, ) i ,, , , ,, 
 
 , , 4 t'.ie wave is ; on the starbord r>eam. 
 
 close-hauled, ) ( 
 
 In the manageable semicircle : 
 
 1st. Wind aft ) i ^" ^'^^ ^'''''^ ^l"'^^'^^^"- 
 
 2(1. Wind on quarter. . ( ) ''^*^- 
 
 :'.d. Wind free / *'"' """ '' ' ^" *^^® starboard (piar- 
 
 4th. Close-hauled \ / *^^'- 
 
 ' von the starboard beam. 
 
 In the southern hemisphere, port tack. 
 .The ship behig hove-to, port tack : 
 
 On the course pre- ) the pr.donn- ♦ ., . 
 
 ., 1 ^ } : . } on the port (luarter. 
 
 scribed free, I uantwaveis J ' ^ 
 
180 MANEUVERS IN HURKICANES. 
 
 In the dangerous semicircle. 
 
 On the constant course, ) ( +i <- 1 
 
 , , ' > the wave is { ou the port beam, 
 
 close-hauled, 3 ( 
 
 In the manageable semicircle : 
 
 1st. Wind aft ) C'"''^^'' starboard (juar- 
 
 2d. Wind on quarter . . ( ; 
 
 3d. Wind free Y ''"" """ '^ < ^'*^' 
 
 4th. Close-hauled \ T^ ^f 1^^^^^, f"^^"^' 
 
 J \ on the port beam. 
 
 "According to the foregoing, the most unfavorable direc- 
 tion of the wave is that of close-hauled in the dangerous 
 semicircle, but on this route, the ship being supported by 
 the wind, the rolling is not likely to affect the spars ; the 
 pitching will be moderate, and the helmsman must watch 
 the waves and strive to avoid the shock of the heavy seas. 
 This course should not be abandoned, for it is the only one 
 by which to avoid future peril, and the skill of the helmsman 
 may meet the present danger. The danger here mentioned 
 should never make the mariner neglect the rules laid down. 
 He should follow them at all hazards, whatever may be the 
 state of the sea, for certainly his situation will become more 
 dangerous the longer he delays to execute the maneuver 
 which alone can secure his safety, by removing from the 
 center of the hurricane." 
 
 The following is a résumé, for the two hemispheres, of 
 the practical directions already given. 
 
 GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MANEUVER IN HUR- 
 RICANES, TYPHOONS, AND TEMPESTS. 
 
 As soon as a ^progressive fall of the barometer and in- 
 creasing violence of the wind indicate the approach of a 
 hurricane, all the necessary i^recautions should be taken ; 
 heave-to, so as to remain, as nearly as possible, stationarj^, 
 or at least making very little progress, in order to observe 
 the wind during the first depression of the barometer and 
 to decide from it the course for escape, as follows : 
 In the northern hemisphere, starboard tack : 
 The starboard tack should be taken equally in heaviug- 
 to at first as for the course of escape. 
 
 If, when hove-to, the barometer falling, 
 the wind has not changed its direc- 
 tion, run with the wind aft, and keep 
 this original compass course. 
 
MANEUVKHS IN III KK'UANEt^. 181 
 
 If the wind hauls to the left, ! If the wind liaiils to the right, 
 rim with Aviiul on quarter, j rim close haul<Ml and keej» 
 and keep this original com-' tliis cours<', 
 pass course, 
 
 until the luiroiuctcr rises. 
 
 From this ' moment, and as long- as tlic 
 wind is violent, follow the course fiec 
 on the starboard tack. 
 
 In the southern hemispher(\ port tack : 
 
 The port tack should be taken e<|ually in heaving-to at 
 tirst, as for the course of escape. 
 
 if, when hove-to, the barometer falling, 
 the wind has not changed its direction, 
 run with the wind aft, and keep this 
 original compass course. 
 
 If the wind hauls to the left, 
 run close-hauled, and keep 
 this compass course, 
 
 If the wind hauls to the right, 
 run with wind on the quar- 
 ter, and keep this original 
 compass course, 
 
 until the barometer rises. 
 
 From this moment and as long as the wind continues vio- 
 lent, follow the course free on the port tack. 
 
 " These jiractical rules are general and independent of 
 all conjecture upon the direction, the velocity, or the radius 
 of the storm ; they reduce the maneuver to a question of 
 courses, the tack being constant and invariable in each 
 hemisphere; they should be executed strictly, without any 
 thought of the direction of the wave, for being influenced 
 by the state of the sea might cause a false maneuver ; 
 they are treated of at a greater length in the work which 
 will be hereafter published, to support them, and justify the 
 confidence of seamen. 
 
 " In this work we will exhibit the great variety of direc- 
 tion in the paths of hurricanes observed in the same lati- 
 tudes, and often in the same localities, to demonstrate the 
 necessity of directions, independent of any particular direc-, 
 tion of the hurricane, and to prove to navigators how great 
 the danger would be were they to regulate their maneuvers by 
 rules founded on a single conjectured direction, indicated in 
 
182 MANEUVERS IN HURRICANES. 
 
 advance. On the other side to confirm our own instructions 
 we will give the list of numerous vessels which, from hav- 
 ing executed maneuvers different from those we have laid 
 down for each case, have become more involved in the 
 storm and been seriously damaged. 
 
 "KELLER, 
 '■'■Ancien Élève de VÉcole Polytechnique, 
 
 ^^ Ingénieur Eydrograplie de la Marine^ 
 
APPENDIX N 
 
 SIEMOIK ON THE CUEKENTS OF TirE ATLANTIC OCEAN, li\ 
 31. IRMINGER, CAPTAIN IN THE DANISH NAVY, AND AIDE- 
 DE-CAMr-GENERAL OF HIS MAJESTY THE KINO OF DEN- 
 MARK. 
 
 NotAvitlistaudinji' the i)rogTess of navigation, which at 
 this day extends to every point of the ocean, snfificieut at 
 tention has by no means been accorded to the currents of 
 the sea, which can, with propriety, be named the arteries of 
 the terrestrial globe, as, in passing through the different 
 zones, they bestow heat on the frigid and refresh the tropi- 
 cal regions. Although a system for the surface currents of 
 the sea is in some measure established, they have been but 
 imperfectly examined ; as to the currents of the depths of 
 the ocean nothing is known. 
 
 Nevertheless, as it is known that tlie currents below the 
 surface of the sea are very different in their direction from 
 those of the surface currents, it having been observed that 
 icebergs, with deep bases, move with considerable rapidity 
 against the Avind and surface current. 
 
 It may be believed that the submarine as well as the sur- 
 face currents pass with regularity through the different 
 zones, and that they are uinted by a reciprocal dependence. 
 It is, then, desirable that the greatest possible number of 
 observations be sought on the currents existing in the depths 
 of the ocean. When a certain number has been collected, 
 giving the direction of these currents, with their tempera- 
 ture, &c., a system can certainly be established. It should 
 be admitted that they are probably mufh more constant than 
 the currents of the surface, upon which the intluence of the 
 winds, the tides, the melting of the ice in high latitudes, 
 the waters which debouch from the great rivers, the storms 
 and tempests, which heap up the water on isolated points, 
 and, finally, the different pressures of the air, are so many 
 causes of perturbation. 
 
 When I set out in 1847, with the brig of war L'AirjIe, for 
 the coast of Guinea and the W^est Indies, by the kind as- 
 sistance of Professors Orsted and Forchhammer, I obtained 
 
184 CUKRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 tlie iustriiment of M. Aimé for determining siibmaiine 
 currents. It was made by the optician Nissen, at Copen- 
 hagen. Tlie observations that were made during the voyage 
 with this instrument proved that it was perfectly adapted 
 to practice, as its mechanism is so simx)le tliat it can be re- 
 paired 'by any good maker of instruments. The weight sus- 
 pended to the instrument, in our experiments, was always 
 twenty pounds. 
 
 To obtain a good result it is necessary that the vessel is 
 stationarj" while the instrument is lowered into the sea. If 
 the dej)th is too great to anchor the sea should be calm, and 
 there should not be any surface current; for if, during 
 the trial, the ship drifts, the line attached to the instrument 
 not being vertical^ the observation would lose its exactness. 
 
 Although the vessel was not furnished with lines of suf- 
 ficient length for great depths, I will give, nevertheless, 
 some of my observations made during rare moments of 
 calm, in localities where I was desirous of examining the 
 direction of the submarine current. 
 
 The 14th of September, 1847, calm ; in sight of Madeira, 
 latitude 31o 58' îiT., longitude 17° 12' W. The Indicator of 
 tlie direction of tlie current.* the name which I have given 
 to this instrument, was lowered to a depth of 632 meters, 
 (2,054 feet.) 
 
 Attached near the instrument was a self-registering ther- 
 mometer, encased in a cylinder of solid metal, on which was 
 screwed a lid, also of metal, of the same thickness, to guard 
 the thermometer against the force of the submarine pressure. 
 The following temperatures (deduced from those found by 
 the author with the thermometer of Eeamur) are given for 
 Fahrenheit : 
 
 Temperature of the air in the shade on deck, 7G°.l ; at 
 the surface of the water, 730.45 at the depth of 2,054 feet, 
 510.8. 
 
 The instrument indicated that- the direction of the cur- 
 rent at the above depth was W. S. W.^ (true.) After careful 
 observations no surface current could be perceived for from 
 7h. of the morning until 5Jh. in the afternoon ; the vessel 
 had been carried hardly two miles to the E., and the line 
 attached to the instrument was perpendicular. 
 
 *Tlie instrumeut of M. Aimé, constructed to give the direction of sub- 
 marine currents. 
 
tU'KKKNThi OF TIIi: ATLANIK' OCKAN. 18"» 
 
 Tilt' surface ciurciit in this locality is «^ciicially dircctotl 
 toward the «-oast <>(' Africa. The indicator of tlic sulmia- 
 riiu; current showed that the mass of the lower water was di- 
 rected toward \V. 8. W., (true.) To i)ersons iiu)re versed 
 than mj self in such matters 1 would submit the followinji 
 hypothesis : It is known that the volume of water which 
 debouches from Davis's Strait is such that it frequently 
 brings into the Atlantic enormous masses of ice, A'erital>le 
 mountains, descending- below the latitude of îs^ewfoundland, 
 and as far as the Gulf Stream, whose waters, heated the 
 whole length of the coast of Mexico, are mnch lighter than 
 its OMn, could it not be supposed that becoming a submarine 
 current from this cause, the current of the north continues 
 to the S. by passing under the breadth of the Gulf Stream, 
 and that in approaching the south of Europe and the north 
 of Africa the direction of the coasts of these continents 
 obliges it to bend toward the west in the locality where this 
 observation was made. 
 
 More numerous observations on submarine currents wdl 
 demonstrate whether these su})])ositions are true or not. 
 
 The 17th of March, 1849, calm ; latitude 25° 1' X., longitude 
 (35° 41 W. The indicator was lowered with the thermometer 
 to a depth of OL'O meters, (2,900 feet.) It reijuired fifteen min- 
 utes to descend, and sixteen and a half to come up. At 
 this depth the instrument indicated that the current run to 
 the N. W. The temperature in the shade on the deck, 79° ; 
 at the surface of the water, 7r»°4'; at 2,990 feet depth, 
 45° 8'. 
 
 In order to assure myself of the reliability of the instru- 
 ments I sent them down immediately again to the same 
 depth; the direction of the current and the temperature 
 were found identically the same. 
 
 hi making these observations I always allowed the in- 
 strument to arrive at the required depth, and remain a cer- 
 tain time before letting fall the lead weight, to be sure that 
 the movement of the needle, which without doubt must be 
 consideral;)le during the descent, had entirely ceased. 
 
 Similar observations at different i)oints and at different 
 depths would lead us to a more exact knowledge of subma 
 rine currents, and although those only at the surface of the 
 sea at the present have a practical interest for the seaman, 
 it nevertheless appears to me probable that repeated obser- 
 A'ations on submarine currents, as to their direction and 
 
186 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 temperature, may in time become of practical utility, cousid- 
 eriug that perliaps they may teach the route aucl the causes 
 of the annual migration of the whale and numerous species 
 offish,* which, without doubt, is intimately connected with 
 the currents, for these take to them the nourishment which 
 the whale seeks, as much at the depths of the ocean as on 
 its surface. 
 
 If the interest which such observations merit could induce 
 seamen to make them, a great point would be gained. In 
 a calm they would serve as a distraction on board of vessels 
 of war, Avhere the number of men admit of the apparatus 
 being hoisted without fatigue to any. 
 
 In the foregoing I have said that the currents of the sur- 
 face are exposed by exterior influences to deviation from 
 their usual track ; and as I have frequently noticed that my 
 observations differ much irom those indicated in the descrip- 
 tions of currents, I add a table of those which I have found 
 during a voyage made in 1847 to Guinea and the West 
 Indies, in order to prove to what irregularities the fixed 
 currents may be subject. 
 
 ^ My honorable friend, Professor Escliriclit, requested me when I left 
 Copenhagen in the brig of Avar Eagle to observe the direction taken by 
 the "whales Avhich we might see during the voyage. I in consequence 
 noted carefully in my journal each time they were met with and the di- 
 rection followed by them. Although I have met these cetacea frequently 
 during similar voyages, I was surprised to see often, from the 21st to the 
 27th of September, between the latitude of 15° N. and 11° N., aud longi- 
 tude 23° and 26° "VV., troops of whales, sometimes composed of many 
 hundreds, traveliug always with great rapidity toward the N. aud N. 
 E., and most frequently N. N. E. In these localities the temperature of 
 the water at the surface was 82°.6 to 84°.2 Fahrenheit, a temperature 
 higher by 4°.5 than the ordinary under this parallel. 
 
CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 187 
 
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(TKUKNTS Ol" Till'; ATLANTIC OCEAN. 181» 
 
 This shows that troiii the ."it h NdVOiiiVxT, iiichisivo, to the 
 time of siyhtiii.!;' the Jshiiid of (iuadeloiipt'. we luul exi)e- 
 rieneed ii eiiiTent of one hundred and Ibrty-lbiu- miles, set- 
 ting X. 30^ E., a mean of (5.55 miles in twenty-foni' hours. 
 
 I would renuvrk that tlie vessel was i>ro\ ided with excel- 
 lent ehrononu'tei's. We had daily observations for latitude! 
 and longitude, in which we placed all confidence. The 
 courses were steered with the greatest care, and the direc- 
 tion of the current was calculated from the difference of 
 position between the observations and the dead reckoning. 
 
 It is seen by the table that the direction of the current of 
 Northern Guinea, from the 27th to the 31st of October, at 
 which time we should have expected to have been without 
 its influence,* Avas N. 60° E., with a rate of 9.7 miles per 
 day. The instructions indicate a current to the E. of from 
 fifteen to thirty miles per day.t 
 
 In beating back along the coast of Guinea, from Quitta to 
 Accra, a distance of about eighty-five miles, with a fresh 
 wind from W. S. W., nearly a head- wind, we were from the 
 lith until the loth, at lOh. in the evening, and were con- 
 vinced that not only we had no current against us, but, con- 
 trary to general observations, we had been carried, during 
 twenty-four hours, six miles to the w^st. This current to- 
 ward the west is, without doubt, unusual ', | but it is not 
 improbable, for the vessel was beating in close proximity to 
 the coast, and there, as everywhere near the limits of con- 
 siderable currents, a counter-current may exist; yet, at 
 anchor on different parts of the coast, I have never discov- 
 ered any. 
 
 The table' shows that on the 5th November the current 
 set nearly W. The ship was then in a position where, by 
 running west, it could be expected to profit by the equato- 
 rial current without interruption ; and, as this current comes 
 from the S., and from colder regions, I had no doubt of 
 
 * Purdy, Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 tin Reunel's excellent work on the currents of tlie Atlantic Ocean, 
 it is stated that the current of Northern Guinea has a breadth of one hun- 
 dred and eighty miles, which accords perfectly with the table, seeing that 
 the 31st of October, at noon, the ship was nearly one hundred and eighty 
 miles to the south of tlie coast of Guinea. 
 
 tWe have in the Manuel de la Navigation de la Côte d^ Afrique indicated 
 these changes of the general current, which take place in the rainy sea- 
 son, and while the harmattan blows. — (DeK.) 
 
190 CURRENTS OP THE ATLA_NTIO OCEAN. 
 
 lindiug it so, as tlie temperature of the water, had fallen to 
 76° ; but, contrary to tlie directions, I found, on the follow- 
 ing days, tliat tlie current set toward the E. instead of 
 the W. 
 
 Eenuel cites, among the perturbations which take place 
 in the great equatorial current, that, in 1816, Sir James Yeo, 
 in a voyage from Guinea to the West Indies, found no cur- 
 rent between the Equator and 1° 30' S. latitude, from the 
 meridian of 0° to that of 15° W. longitude, although four 
 other vessels, in the same locality and during the same 
 month, had experienced a current which set toward the 
 W. at the rate of twenty-two and even sixty-tliree miles 
 per day. 
 
 The table indicates that I found on the 6th, 7th, and 8th 
 of November, in the localities in question, a current which 
 differs still more from those ordinarily encountered, than the 
 currents found by Sir James Yeo, inasmuch as it set, in four 
 days, î«r. 480 E. forty-one miles, a mean of 13.7 miles per day 
 to the IsT. E., while, in these localities, it sets nearly always, 
 with considerable velocity, to the W, 
 
 I cannot explain this remarkable direction of the current 
 in this region, except by admitting that the current of the 
 Equator (and perhaps this may be common in this season, 
 though the directions do not mention it) had been carried 
 more than ordinary toward the south, and that we had nav- 
 igated in the eddy formed at its northern limit; for the tem- 
 perature of the sea proved sufficiently that w^e were in a 
 mass of cold water, Avhich should come from the south and 
 regions less heated by^the sun. 
 
 I traversed, from preference, during the remainder of my 
 voyage across the Atlantic, the route where the instructions 
 and the charts indicated favorable winds and currents. 
 Nevertheless, contrary to my expectation, I reaped no ad- 
 vantage from current, for, from the 5th of November, when 
 I believed that I Avas within the influence of the equatorial 
 current, to the 26th of November, when we made Guade- 
 loupe, (in which time tlie vessel had run about 3,500 miles,) 
 the current had carried us one hundred and forty-four miles 
 N. 30° E., and though, in comparison with the distance run, 
 this cannot be considered considerable, it is not the less ex- 
 traordinary, for, generally, the current on this route is favor- 
 able, setting to the W. 
 
<^'ITRRENT8 OF THE ATLANTIC OCKAN. lîM 
 
 To liiul. it' it wore i)ossible,* a reason for these oiirrcuts 
 so different from those usnally met Avith, it wcrnUl be neces- 
 sary to compare tlie lo^us of ships wliich have traversed the 
 Athnitic at this period, but as these are not Avithiu my 
 reach I can only cite facts. Little is known as yet of the- 
 currents of the arctic division of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The cause of this want of lvnowled;!j;e is probably owinj^' 
 to the zone bein.y- seldom visited, and to the frecpient storms, 
 blowing from one direction and the other, altering the di- 
 rection of these «-urrents; moreover, the togs and cloudy 
 weather are insurmoimtable obstacles to obtaining the ob- 
 servations for establishing currents, it results that it is 
 more difficult in these regions than under a lower latitude 
 to arrive at a result which merits conlidence. It is, how- 
 ever, known from indisputable facts that a current coming 
 fromS. W., passing between Iceland and the Shetlands, has^ 
 its course across the Atlantic as far as the Arctic Sea.+ 
 
 In order to examine this current I have examined the 
 Journals of many of our vessels of war which have gone 
 latterly to Iceland, particularly those oî the J)roning-Maria, 
 in 1831 ; the Xaiade, in ISoI ; the Mercury^ in 1845 ; the 
 Saint Croix, in 1810; the St. Thomas, in 1817; the Diana, 
 iu 1850 ; the Saga, in 1851, «Jcc. From my own observa- 
 rious on the oue side, and on the other by the aid of mauy 
 kind friends, I have been able to obtain numerous observa- 
 tions on t^e temperature of this part of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 That the result of these observations could be more readily 
 seen I entered some of them on a chart, joined to this me- 
 moir ; in order to prevent confusion I have not given a 
 arger number. The observations nîàde in the voyages to 
 tireeuland were furnished me by Captain Holboll and by 
 Lieutenant LTlrich, of the royal navy. 
 
 The vessels of war above cited have at different periods, 
 
 * We liave iudicated pertm-batious of the sauie kind iu tlie c(iuatorial 
 > iirreiit, as also one riinning to the E., wliieh appears to lie permanent 
 iu the space comprised Itetweeu the N. W. hrauch of the equatorial 
 <urreut aud the current of Guiana ; it is this current to the E. iu which 
 Captain Irmiuger has navigated, aud tlie observations of the preceding 
 table are of the gi-eatest ititerest, iu that they coutirm those already 
 iiiade by M. Lartigue aud by Captain Moutravel on the current to the 
 K., which we have designated the counter eqitaiorkd current. — De K. 
 
 t See N. E. branch of the C4nlf Stream. 
 
192 CUREENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 from the luontli of April to September, navigated eighty- 
 seven days between the meridian of the Island of Fairhill 
 and that of 18^ 10' W., and between the parallels of 58^ 
 and 60° N. latitude. In these localities I have often found 
 that the current was very irregular ; but the mean of the 
 observations during this period gives a current of 2.4 miles 
 per day, setting to N. 52° E. 
 
 From the meridian of 17° 40' W. longitude, (which is 
 about that of the south point of Iceland,) between the i)ar- 
 allel of 62° N. latitude and the south coast of Iceland, as 
 far as Cape Eeikianes, the mean of the currents for thirty- 
 two days was 1.9 miles per day, setting to the northward 
 and westward. 
 
 To examine if the currents in this space between Fair- 
 hill and Iceland had an equal velocity, I have divided it 
 into four parts ; the result obtained is as follows : 
 
 In the first division, comprised between the parallels of 
 59° 30' and 61° 30' N. latitude and the meridians of 2° 
 and 6° W. longitude, the mean of the currents observed 
 during seventeen days gives a rate of 7.7 miles per day, 
 setting to the N. 72° E. 
 
 In the second division, comprised between the parallels 
 of 60° and 62° K, and between the meridians of 8° and 10° 
 W., the mean of the observed currents during eleven days 
 gives a rate of 2.5 miles per day, setting IsT. 60° E. 
 
 In the third division, comprised between the parallels of 
 60° 30' and 62° 30' K latitude, and the meridians of 10° and 
 14° W. longitude, the mean of the observed currents dur- 
 ing twenty-five days gives a rate of j\ of a mile per day, 
 setting N. 32° E. * 
 
 In the fourth division, comprised between the parallels of 
 61° and 63° N. latitude and the meridians of 14° and 18° 
 W. longitude, the mean of the observed currents gives a 
 rate of 3.1 miles per day, setting to JST. 47° E. 
 
 Between Fairhill and Greenland the Aveather did not per- 
 mit the collection of many observations, more especially for 
 the determination of longitude; hence the direction and 
 strength of the currents could not be calculated with the 
 desired accuracy ; however, it was found, in the month of 
 April, between the meridians of 32° and 39° W. longitude, 
 and the parallels of 57° and 59° of ^5". latitude, from the 
 difference between the latitude observed and that estimated, 
 that the mean difference to the N. during thirteen days was 
 
CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 103 
 
 3.2 iiiiU's \)vv (l;iy. In the iiiontli of S('i>tiMiil)('r, hctwocn tlie 
 paralk'ls of (}(P and 58^ N". latitude and tlie meridians of 
 4.'P and IP W. longitude, there was a difference to the north- 
 ward of five miles. 
 
 From the observations we have collected, it can be stated, 
 1st. That the temi)erature of the sea between the meridian 
 of Fairhill and that of about 3(P W. longitude, does not 
 vary much on a line drawn to Cape Farewell. But to the 
 west of the meridian of 30° the water becomes gradually 
 colder as the coast of Greenland is approached. 2d. That 
 the sea in the spring is not colder near the southern part of 
 Iceland than it is at Fairhill, although the position of Ice- 
 laud is many degrees further north ; while near the Shet- 
 lands the temperature is a little higher in summer, or at the 
 commencement of autumn, than it is near to Iceland. 3d. 
 That the temperature of the sea is in general 2° to 3° colder 
 in the spring than at the commencement of autumn. 
 
 In man}' voyages made in the beginning of May, it was 
 found that the water in the northern jnirt of the JSTorth Sea 
 was colder by 2° and more than the sea which extends to 
 the west of the Shetlands, while later in summer their tem- 
 perature was more uniform. 
 
 From the 19th of June to the 13th of July, 1811, 1 found 
 that the temperature about the Faroe Islands, and in the 
 channels formed by these islands, was never below 49°, or 
 above 51° Fahrenheit. 
 
 The daily observatious made in 181G and 1817, which 
 were communicated to me by ]M. Moller, show that the tem- 
 ])erature uear Thorshavn was, at a mean : 
 
 For October, 181G. . . . I80.I 
 
 For November, 181G . 17o.3 
 
 For December, 1816.. 42o.9 
 
 For January, 1817 . . . 12o.9 
 
 For February, 1817 . . ll^.O 
 
 For March, 1817 13o.5 
 
 For April, 1817 43o.5 
 
 For May, 1817 400.2 
 
 For June, 1817 I80.G 
 
 In the month of December the winds from N. and X. E. 
 prevail at the Faroe Islands, and bring an intense cold ; this 
 is probably the cause of the increased coldness of the water 
 during this month. The atmosphere has, without doubt, 
 had more influence on the water of the Bay of Thorshavn, 
 which is well closed, and the depth less than the sea. But 
 as the Faiye Islands are situated nearly half way between 
 the Shetlands and Iceland, the observatious made near the 
 13 A o 
 
194 CUEKENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 port of Thorsliavn will give an approximate idea of the 
 temperature of the sea in these localities during the above 
 mentioned months, though the temperature of the water at 
 great depths should be considered as more constant than 
 those observed near the shore of Thorshavu. 
 
 It api^ears, moreover, that the current which is directed 
 to the N. E. between Iceland and the Shetlands is divided 
 into two belts, indicated by a diiference of terai)erature of 
 one or two degrees ; their limits, however, are not always 
 the same. 
 
 In mentioning these belts of water of different tempera- 
 tures, I should observe that between the i^arallels of 40° 
 and 45° N. latitude, and between the meridians of 40° and 
 50° W. longitude,' there is always a great difference in the 
 temperature of the sea. In the same places where at times 
 the temperature is 8°.8 to 9°.4 below the ordinary tempera- 
 ture of the ocean,* at other times it is found that the warm 
 current of the Gulf Stream preserves a temx)erature of many 
 degrees above the ordinary temperature of the ocean. These 
 variations are produced, without doubt, by the current of 
 Davis's Strait, t If this current is very rapid, the northern 
 limit of the Gulf Stream retrogrades toward the south, while 
 in the opposite case it advances more to. the north. In the 
 same localities are frequently met mountains of ice, which 
 nearly every year come from Davis's Strait, | and contribute 
 much to lower the temperature of the sea. 
 
 Admitting that the great body of water which runs to 
 the ]Sr. E., between Iceland and the Shetlands, comes from 
 the localities indicated above, § where the temperature of 
 the sea is very variable, it can be readily believed that they 
 exert as much influence on the temperature of the sea be- 
 tween Iceland and the Shetlands as the removal of the 
 limits of the Gulf Stream. It is impossible, in the space 
 comprised between Iceland and the Shetlands, to give the 
 boundary which separates the warmer from the colder belt 
 
 * Eennel, p. 244, 248. 
 
 t Eeunel, p. 207. 
 
 t A vessel in January, 1818, was inclosed in tlie ice during twenty- 
 nine days, and was drifted a distance of three hundred miles E. S. E. — 
 Kennel, j). 245. 
 
 § See observations on the velocity of the Gulf Stream, in the Neiv 
 Archives of Navigation, p. 191, by Captain Irminger. 
 
CURRENTS OF Til JO ATLANTIC OCEAN. IDo 
 
 of water, as these belts are carried more toward the east or 
 west, according- as the currents and masses of ice coming- 
 from Davis's Strait influence more or less the limits of the 
 Gulf Stream and the temperature of its waters. 
 
 Some experienced mariners, who, for a number of years 
 have been occupied between Spitzbergen and Jan Mayens 
 Island, in the whale and seal fishery, have informed me* 
 that nearly in the longitude of the Shetlands, between those 
 islands and the parallels of (>o^ and 01°, they have often 
 seen in the sea discolored spots, by means of which, on their 
 return, they were able to determine their longitude. ]^early 
 in the same i)arallels of latitude, when nearer the meridian 
 of the Shetlands than to that of Xorway, the bird called the 
 Jan-Vau-Gent, (tlie Gannet,) known by all those who have 
 navigated the north of the Atlantic, is frequently met with, 
 wdiile it is rarely seen when nearer to the meridian of Nor- 
 way than to that of the Shetlands. 
 
 When it is considered that the vessels occupied in the 
 whale fishery cruise often for months among the ice, under 
 a parallel where a degree of longitude is not more than four 
 or five miles, that the observations for position on board 
 these vessels are generally confined' to the latitude, it can be 
 understood that they may have frequently considerable 
 errors in their longitude, unless, from time to time, they 
 make the land. It is then natural that the captains of 
 these vessels should observe with particular attention the 
 least change in the color of the water, the appearance of 
 birds, the direction of their flight, &c., indications super- 
 fluous to those who, by exact observations, are confident of 
 their position. Thus the ex^jerience acquired by these mar- 
 iners, from many years of navigation in these localities, has • 
 convinced them that the indices of which we have spoken 
 inform them, on their return from the Icy Sea, whether they 
 are to the east or west of the route followed. 
 
 Similar observations, made by i^ractical men, should not 
 be despised. It is not uidikely that the spots in thf^ sea re- 
 sult from the intermingling of the water of the current com- 
 ing from S. W. with that coming from the Icy Sea, a meet- 
 ing which probably takes place in the localities indicated. 
 
 It is also possible that these same currents bring the food 
 which certain sea birds prefer, for it is extremely rare that 
 
 * Among- others, the skillful Captaiu Kitelseu, who commanfled on the 
 roast of Greenland a vessel of Gliickstadt. 
 
196 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 tlie Gannet is found to the eastward of the meridian indi- 
 cated above. 
 
 In the preceding I have mentioned the current which, 
 near to the south coast of Iceland and to the west of the 
 meridian of 18° W., is directed toward Cape Eeikianes, 
 bearing northwest westerly from Iceland, between 64° 
 15' and 65° 50' N. latitude, and between 23° 51' and 
 25° 48' W. longitude, the mean of observations made 
 for five days in May and June, 1846, gives a current of 4.8 
 miles per day setting to the N. 15° W. During a consider- 
 able sojourn on the west coast of Iceland, I have often had 
 evidence that the current directed toward the N. pre- 
 dominates considerably, which is a fact generally known to 
 the fishermen. 
 
 It is found that the temj)erature of the water in the road 
 of Eeikiavik, from the 30th of May to the 16th of June, has 
 been, at the mean, 47°.5; from the 1st to the 14th July, 
 53°.4, and from the 11th to the 31st, 51°.6 ; while the tem- 
 perature of the sea near the west coast of Greenland, which 
 is opposite to Iceland, generally varies but from 34° to 36° 
 Fahrenheit.* 
 
 In the Bay of Patrix, which is above 65° 30' N. latitude, 
 distant hardly a degree from the polar circle, the temjoera- 
 ture of the sea from 18th to 23d of June was 47°.l. 
 
 From the high temperatures we have mentioned, and the 
 direction of the current, it can be inferred that the one 
 which comes from the S. continues its course by rounding 
 Iceland to the west. To determine how far it goes toward 
 the IST., I give the following : 
 
 June 23, 1846, at 6 p. m., the brig of war St. Croix, Cap- 
 tain Svenson, being in latitude 65° 54' K, longitude 25° 05' 
 W., the temperature was 49°.l. f 
 
 The 24th of June, at 6 a. m., latitude, (56° 22'; longitude, 
 26° 13'; temperature, 35°.6; loose ice to northeast. 
 
 At 9 a. m., latitude, m° 30' ; longitude, 26° 14' ; temper- 
 ature, 32°.2. 
 
 At meridian, latitude, 66° 17'; longitude, 25° 39'; tem- 
 perature, 37°.6. 
 
 At 4 p. m., latitude, 65° 53'; longitude, 25° 11'; temper- 
 ature, 46°.4. 
 
 * Voyage of Exjyloration on the East Coast of Greenland, by Captain 
 Garha, p. 152. 
 t This high temperature has been found but ouce. 
 
rriîREN rs of the Atlantic ocean. 191 
 
 At 8 p. m., latitiulo, OjO 38'; loiigitudo, 2i^ 41' ; temper- 
 ature, 470.5. 
 
 Diirin^i' the time tlie brij;- was in the cohl current, tliere 
 \vas no observation from which its direction could be cal- 
 culated ; but from numerous facts it is known that the cur- 
 rent of the Icy Sea runs in the direction of W. and S. W., 
 toward the coast of (îreenlaud.* 
 
 This sudden change of the temperature indicates clearly 
 the limits of the Avarm current. This limit, from the ob- 
 servations cited, is found to be where the northwest part of 
 Iceland ends. 
 
 In this locality the current which comes from the Icy Sea 
 arrests the warm current in its course toward the N. It 
 is possible that it juay be thus turned, and that then it is 
 directed toward the VV., along the southern limit of the 
 current of the Icy Sea, until it is entirely wasted. 
 
 From the temperature of the sea between Cape Farewell 
 and Iceland, and the northerly direction of the current, of 
 which mention has been made, it is probable that a current 
 to the X. exists in the greater portion of the channel which 
 separates Iceland and Greenland, excepting where the cur- 
 rent of the Icy Sea is strongest, and opens for itself a route 
 to the S., along the east coast of Greenland, t 
 
 The warm current which runs toward the X., in round- 
 ing Iceland on the west, makes the temperature on the west 
 
 * Currents near Iceland, by Captain Irminger ; 2^^ew Archives of Xari- 
 (jation, 1843, page 199. 
 
 t Many experiments lia\'e been made by throwing bottles into the sea 
 to find the direction of tlie current. Although the indications are quite 
 nncertain, they may contribute to throw some light on this subject; but 
 much would be added to their value if the bottles used were sufficiently 
 thick and heavy to allow only a very small part of their surface to float 
 above the level of the water. They would thus escape the influence of 
 the wind and ouly follow the current. I will, however, cite some ex- 
 anijjles of bottles which, though thrown into the sea in the localities 
 south of Iceland, where the winds prevail from W., have followed a direc- 
 tion approaching to north, from w^hich it can be concluded that the cur- 
 rent was more W. than N., otherwise they would have been drifted to- 
 ward the E. Kennel mentions the following, p. 338: A bottle frojn the 
 Rekla, Captain Parry, tlirown in 56^ 36' N. latitude, and 25° 45' W. 
 longitude, the 13th October, 1820, was found the 6th or 7th of March, 
 1821, on the coast of Iceland, (Southern Barlwick.) Another bottle 
 from the Eisw<j Sun, Captain Bennett, thrown in 50^^ 32' N., and 26° 40' 
 W.; and a tliird by the fVrtxieof Leven, thrown in 56° N. and 16° 30' W.. 
 •were both found on the coast of Iceland. 
 
198 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 coast of Icelaucl comparatively mild, aud uo ice is found in 
 the Bay of Faxe. If this current did not exist, the ice 
 which extends off Spitzbergen, and which is always forced 
 to the southwest, along the coast of Greenland, would bring 
 up on the coast of Iceland, particularly with the fresh winds 
 from W., and would fill the bays and gulfs. 
 
 Then its climate would probably not differ from that of the 
 east coast of Greenland, which the cold renders almost un- 
 inhabitable. The ice there is so heaped up that the coast 
 is always inaccessible. There are on the sea-coast enor- 
 mous barriers of ice, which often extend far into the offing. 
 Very heavy weather from the west can alone break this 
 barrier and remove it a little from the coast ; but as soon 
 as the storm ceases the ice closes in again.* 
 
 Carried by the current of the Icy Sea, the ice, especially 
 in the spring, extends often more than twenty miles below 
 Cape Farewell ; the current then doubles this promontory in 
 running into Davis's Strait. It does not generally run to the 
 N. above the Céth parallel of latitude. It runs toward the 
 W. in the straits, and there it is united, without doubt, 
 with the current which from Hudson's Bayt and the west 
 part of Davis's Strait is directed to the south along the coast 
 of Labrador. It contributes to drift the ice, which is thus 
 taken toward the south from Davis's Strait to Newfound- 
 land, and further into the Atlantic, where it is often an 
 obstacle and a great danger to vessels navigating between 
 Europe and North America. 
 
 When cruising in different climates, where the tempera- 
 ture of the sea and air is observed, one is struck with the 
 concordance between the two temperatures, 
 
 I have already mentioned that I have found, during the 
 month of September, 1847, between the parallels of 15° and 
 11° N. and the meridians of 19° and 21° W. the temperature 
 of the sea varying from 82°.6 to 85°.2. In these localities 
 the atmosphere is always heavy and disagreeable and the 
 temperature 83° to 86° ; eight days after, in latitude 4° N. 
 and between 5° and 10° W. longitude, the temperature of 
 the sea was only 74°.8 and we had an agreeable tempera- 
 ture not exceeding 75° ; that is 9°.5. cooler, although we 
 were from 7° to 11° nearer the Equator. 
 
 It is to the warm current of the south, of which we have 
 
 * Voyage of Graali, page 154. tEeunel, page 24y. 
 
CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. IDO 
 
 aln^uly s[)()koii, wliicii Hows iiloui;' the west coast ol' Iceland 
 to which we must attribute the rehitively niikl temperature 
 of lleikiavik, the mean of which is 30°, Avhile that of Goth- 
 aal, situated nearly in the same latitude as Eeikiavik, is 
 34°.8 Fahrenheit, and that of the east coast of Greenland, 
 along which descends the arctic current, is almost uniidmb- 
 itable from excessive cold, although situated some de- 
 grees to the south of lîeikiaAik. 
 
 A little to the south of the ISTewfoundland Banks, where 
 the current from Davis's Strait meets the Gulf Stream,* it 
 cannot but be remarked, in working to windward during 
 the winter, that it is exceedingly cold on the boundary of 
 the Gulf Stream, when in the middle of its bed the temper- 
 ature is mild and the air liiuuid. 
 
 Sir Philip Brok cites, among other facts, that in the years 
 1811 and 1813, while navigating during the winter between 
 the north and south limits of the Gulf Stream, in 39° or 
 40° ^N". latitude, he found that the thermometer marked 
 79°.l in the middle of the bed of the current.t 
 
 Many similar examples could be cited, but by reference 
 to the chart where the isothermal lines are traced, the influ- 
 ence that the currents have on the climate can more readily 
 be seen. 
 
 The general currents, the cold as well as the warm, con- 
 stantly fed by the arrival of masses of water of the same 
 temperature, preserve their temperature (whether higher 
 or lower than that of the sea which surrounds them) in 
 traversing large tracts of the ocean, and thej'^ refresh or 
 warm the atmosphere far from the regions of their origin. 
 
 A remarkable iiroof of the circular path of these masses 
 of water is the quantity of tropical productions which are 
 frequently carried to shores far to the northward ; many 
 species of mimosa are found on the coasts of Norway,| 
 Faroe Islands, Iceland, and of Greenland, Avhere also wood 
 is frequently found ; this wood thrown upon the shore is 
 
 * After the Gulf Stream has run a distance of about two hundred miles 
 to the N. E. from the Strait of Florida it still preserves a temperature 
 of 7° to 10° higher thau the ordinary temperature of the ocean during- 
 the summer, and its velocity is one mile per hour. (Kennel, page 152.) 
 
 t Rennel, pages 181, 182. 
 
 t Description of Currents by Sandmor in the district of Bergen, p. 138 ; it 
 is there mentioned that sometimes cocoanuts are thrown on the coast. 
 
200 CURRENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 of tlie greatest utility to the inhabitants, deprived as they 
 are of forest vegetation. 
 
 Torn by inundations from the borders of rivers, these 
 trees are carried by the stream to the ocean ; the lighter 
 species, even after drifting a long time, continue to float, 
 and this is the reason why the greater i)art of the wood 
 thus collected is composed of dififerent species of the fir 
 tribe. Generally it is only the trunks, with a portion of 
 their roots, which are thus found, the branches having been 
 taken away.* 
 
 On the north coast of Beata, a small inhabited island sit- 
 uated to the south of Santo Domingo, I saw, in 1849, a large 
 quantitj' of floating wood, among it some trees of a species 
 unknown in the West Indies. 
 
 From the circular route of the currents it is probable that 
 the specimen of wood that I found on the shore of this 
 island arrived from the southern portion of the globe, and 
 that whatever follows that route, if not arrested by some 
 coast, is drawn into the current of the Gulf of Mexico, then, 
 by the Gulf Stream, across the Strait of Florida, and lastly 
 toward the north. t Thus, i)erhaps, at times, a tree, a native 
 of New Zealand, or of some other jflace of the southern hemi- 
 sphere, may be landed on the coast of Iceland, or other 
 shores of the far north. 
 
 In the Islands of Faroe it frequently happens that wood 
 in considerable quantities is drifted near to Kirkehoe, situ- 
 ated iu the southern j)art of the Island of Stromo. 
 
 In 1844 I saw there a pine, the trunk of which, three feet 
 above the roots, measured five feet four inches in circum- 
 ference. The proprietor of the place informed me that wood 
 drifted here often in February and March, and he calculated 
 that the profit which he derived from it annually was as 
 great as that derived from a field, which brought him $25 to 
 $34. I learned, however, that this floating wood did not 
 arrive latterly in such large quantities as in times past. 
 
 * Description of the Currents iy Sandmor, Sfc. lu vol. vii, p. 419, among 
 the dangers of Banca Strait, drift-wood is mentioned. I. K. Welsted, in 
 his voyage, (Nach dcr Sladt der Kali fen,) p. 8, states that he encountered 
 much drift-wood iu the Persian Gulf. In \\\e, Scientific Voyages of Darvin, 
 p. 242, it is related that large quantities of drift-w^ood are thrown on 
 the shores and channels of Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 tThe ship Tilbury was hurned near Santo Domingo ; her mainmast was 
 drifted to the west coast of Scotland. Eennel, p. 348, and Berghaus, 
 vol. i, 1837, p. 562. 
 
("UK RENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 201 
 
 Many tiocs arc tluowii on the coast of Iceland, juinci- 
 pally on that of the north, and are hmded to tlie westward 
 of Point Langanoes, near the phiin of JNIelrak, between the 
 North C'ape and Adelvi^. 
 
 I have often nnderstood from the inhabitants that a ])art 
 of this wood was cedar, althongh it is possible that trees of 
 this species may be drawn into the Gulf Stream and then 
 follow the same ronte as the mimosas. It is not probable ; 
 on the contrary, 1 am of opinion that a great part of the 
 wood thrown upon the coast of Iceland is the larch, taken 
 to the Icy Sea* by the rivers of SiV)eria. Being carried in 
 this sea by the current running to the W., it reaches Ice- 
 land,t Greenland, &c., passing Spitzbergen. As its coloris 
 reddish, it is confounded with the cedar. Further, it is 
 proved that the larch, after remaining some time in water, 
 takes a reddish tint ; it is this color, in my opinion, which 
 has caused the two to be confounded. In the Islands of 
 Faroe I have never seen other than pines, and they informed 
 me there that nearly all the wood cast upon their coast was 
 white. This is an excellent proof that the red wood drifted 
 upon the shores of Iceland is not the cedar, for if it were, 
 trees of the same species would frequently be found on the 
 shores of the Islands of Faroe. It is very j^robable that 
 the greatest part of the floating wood which is thrown upon 
 these coasts comes from the rivers of America, and that it 
 is carried to the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi ; from 
 there, by the Gulf Stream, and then by the current which 
 exists between the Shetlands and Iceland, toward the Icy 
 Sea. Drift-wood in rivers is an obstacle and serious danger 
 for navigation. It is probable that the forests in the vicin- 
 
 * The North of Siberia, by Wrangel. lu this work he states that' the 
 hirch tree in Siberia is black ou the north side of the trunk, and red on 
 the side turned to the south. There are large forests of these on the 
 shores of the rivers; among others those of the Lena, p. 308. Among 
 the great number of larches and aspens on the coast between the Lena 
 and the Indiguirka it is seldom that pine and fir trees are met with. 
 
 tl have seen in 1834, on the farm of Geitarkard, situated in the north 
 part of Iceland, near the river Blauda, some window shutters made of 
 the remains of a ship, the Margarithe, the name being painted on them . 
 This ship had navigated between Gluckstadt and Greenland, and a few 
 years before had been abandoned a short distance from Spitzbergen ; 
 some time after, her hull was drifted on shore near the mouth of the 
 Blanda. 
 
202 CUEEENTS OF THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 ity of the rivers of North America are considerably thinned, 
 as much on account of the great quantity of wood consumed 
 by the numerous steamers plying on these rivers as by the 
 great clearings made by the colonies established on their 
 borders. It would not appear to me strange that the annual 
 diminution of the drift-wood, as remarked at the Islands of 
 Earoe, might be a consequence of the destruction of forests 
 formerly extending to the shores of the rivers mentioned, 
 and it might be supposed that the number of trees thrown 
 upon the coast of the islands, &c., of the Northern Ocean 
 would in the future become less and less. 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 Pag-. 
 
 Abrohlos Islets 88 
 
 Accra trading station 189 
 
 Azores Arobipelago 118, 119, 122, 124, 126, 128, 149, 150, 154, 155, 157, 
 
 168, 169 
 
 Adelvig Bay 201 
 
 Africa, Laud and sea breezes near tbe coast of 15, 16 
 
 , Solar breezes 1 6, 17 
 
 , Coast 6, 9, 10, 149, 151, 156, 185 
 
 , Sub-marine currents observed near the coast of 184, 185 
 
 , Hariuattau 17 
 
 , Route from Ascension to St. Helena, to ports on the south 
 
 coast of 167,168 
 
 , Tornadoes on the coast of 17, 18, 19 
 
 , Winds on the west coast of 15-28 
 
 Africa, Northern, polar current of 128, 129 
 
 , Routes from Europe to 158-161 
 
 , Routes from ports of North America to those of 170 
 
 Africa, Southern, Routes from Europe to ports of 163-165 
 
 , Routes from jjorts of North America to those of 170 
 
 Aguja, Cape Ill 
 
 Agulhas, Bank of — Current of Cape 131, 132 
 
 Alta Vela Islet 70 
 
 Amazon River 110, 113, 133 
 
 America, Coast of 5, 6, 9 
 
 , Winds in the arctic region of 34-38 
 
 America, North, Coast of 15 
 
 , Routes from Europe to 139, 140 
 
 , Routes returning from the ports of coast of Africa, to 
 
 those of 170, 171 
 
 , Winds on the east coast of 46, 47 
 
 America, South, Routes from Europe to the ports of 155, 156 
 
 , Routes from the ports of North America, to those 
 
 of 107 
 
 Anegada Island 118 
 
 Angola coast 119, 164 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 22 
 
 Anguilla Island 117, 118, 152 
 
 Anno-Bon Island 107, 165 
 
 , Winds at Islaud of 24 
 
 Auticosti Island 40, 41, 126 
 
 Antigua Island 69, 70, 116, 152 
 
 Antigua Point 188 
 
204 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Apalaclie' Bay, Winds iu 56 
 
 Arcaclioa Basin 128 
 
 Archangel, Tides of 139 
 
 , Routes to 136-139 
 
 Arctic Current 125 
 
 frozen ocean 14, 191, 195, 197, 198, 201 
 
 Arguin Bank 159 
 
 Ascension Island 165-168 
 
 • , Routes from Africa to 168 
 
 , Routes by the east and west to , 165, 166 
 
 , Winds at 25 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, Traverse current of 132 
 
 , Currents of 106-135 
 
 — , Navigation in 136-171 
 
 , Observations on the currents of 183-202 
 
 , Winds, trade or general, in 2-10 
 
 , Winds in the north frigid zone of 14, 15 
 
 , Winds in the south frigid zone of 11, 12, 13 
 
 , Winds in the north temperate zone of 15 
 
 , Winds in the south temperate zone of 13 
 
 , Winds in the torrid zone of 2-11 
 
 , Winds in , 1-105 
 
 Atlantic, North, Comparative table of the mean velocity of the 
 
 currents of the. Ocean 129 
 
 Atlantic, South, Polar currents of the, Ocean 132, 133 
 
 , Comparative table of the mean velocity of the currents of, 
 
 . Ocean 134 
 
 Australia, Continent 131 , 167 
 
 Azores Islands 126 
 
 B. 
 
 Baffin's Bay 124,125 
 
 , Currents in 125 
 
 Bahama, Great Bank of 152 
 
 Islands 69,70 
 
 , New Channel of, or Florida Channel .48,50,106,118,119,120, 
 
 124, 145, 152, 153, 154, 199, 200 
 
 , Winds in the New Channel 55 
 
 , Winds in the Islands of 79, 80, 81 
 
 , Old channel of 152,153,155 
 
 Bahia City 88,158 
 
 Balta Point 136 
 
 Baltimore, Port 150 
 
 Barbadoes Island 69, 70, 111, 115, 118, 155 
 
 Barbuda 116 
 
 Barometer, Variations of 101, l02, 103 
 
 Barrow Strait 124 
 
 Bayamos squall 78 
 
 Bayonne, Port 128 
 
 Béate Island 200 
 
 Behring Strait 124, 125 
 
1NDK}«. -!05 
 
 Bello-Tylo, Curreuta iu the Strait of 125 
 
 , Strait 144 
 
 lîemini Islands Ill) 
 
 Jîeiigal, llunicanos of the Gulf of 174 
 
 liongiu-la coast 19, 22, 164 
 
 , Wiiuls on the coast of 122 
 
 Benin, Gulf of 121) 
 
 , Winds - 24 
 
 Bermudas, Islands of 46, 48, 69, 121 , 12:^, 154, 155, 171 
 
 , Routes to the Islands of - 141, 148 
 
 , Winds at the Islands of 48, 49 
 
 Biafra, Gulf of 133,159,160,161,166 
 
 , Winds in the Gulf of. 18, 23, 24 
 
 Bic Island 40 
 
 Biscay, Ciureut of Bay of 126, 127 
 
 , Bay of 127, 158 
 
 , Shifts of wind iu Bay of 33 
 
 , Winds in Bay of 32, 33 
 
 Bissagos Archipelago 19, 162, 165 
 
 , Winds on the coast and in the Archipelago of 27 
 
 Blanda River 201 
 
 Block Island 121 
 
 Blue-nose, see Cat-nose Cape. 
 
 Bojador, Cape 128 
 
 Bordeaux, Port 157 
 
 Boston line of steam packets 151 
 
 Bourbon, Hurricanes of 174 
 
 Boweu, Port 38 
 
 Brazil coast 5, 106, 107, 108, 131, 156, 157, 162, 166, 167 
 
 , Currents of 130 
 
 , Currents, alternative, coast of 130 
 
 , Winds on east coast of 87, 88, 89 
 
 , Winds on north coast of 86, 87 
 
 Bremen City 150 
 
 Brest, Port 127, 154, 155, 157, 158, 163 
 
 Breton Island 47, 143 
 
 Bristol, Port 150, 151 
 
 Brittany coast 32 
 
 British Islands 136 
 
 , Winds in the, Islands 33 
 
 Brunswick, see New Jirunswick. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, Line of packets from Falmouth to 158 
 
 , Road of 89, 91 , 155, 156, 158 
 
 C. 
 
 Caiman Island 69 
 
 Caicos Islands 152 
 
 Campêche Baj' 55, 69 
 
 Bank 55, 111 
 
 Canada, Winds of 39 
 
 Canaries Islands 30, 128, 149, 151, 155, 158, 159, 163, 164 
 
206 . INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Canaries Islaucls, Routes from Europe to the 158 
 
 , Winds in the Archipelago of 28, 29 
 
 Cantin, Cape 127, 128 
 
 Cape Town, City 164 
 
 , Winds at 20 
 
 Caracas, Winds on the coast of 84 
 
 Carnaveral, Cape 120 
 
 Carolina Coast 70, 120, 121, 122 
 
 Caribbean Sea 108, 111, 112, 113, 123, 151, 152, 154 
 
 , Currents in 111-119 
 
 , Navigation in 151, 152, 154 
 
 , Hurricanes in 68, 69, 70, 71 
 
 , Winds in 68-82 
 
 Carrysfort Cays, see Florida Cays. 
 
 , Winds on the coast of. 
 
 Carthagena, Port 84, 112, 152 
 
 , Winds at 84 
 
 Cat-nose, Cape 138 
 
 .Tides at 139 
 
 Catoche, Cape Ill 
 
 , Winds on the coast comprised between Point Piedras and 
 
 the Cape of 68 
 
 Castle Harbor 147 
 
 Cayenne Road 157 
 
 Channel, British 127,140,158,164 
 
 ,Windsin 33 
 
 Charleston, Port 150 
 
 Cherbourg, Port 158 
 
 China Sea, Typhoons in 173, 174 
 
 Chocolateros winds 51 
 
 Christiansburg Anchorage 187 
 
 Cimbebasia, Winds on coast of. 21 
 
 Clear, Cape 127 
 
 Coast-castle, Cape 161 
 
 Congo coast 16 
 
 River 19, 23, 133 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 23 
 
 Copenhagen City 184, 186 
 
 Cornwall, Winds on the coast of 33 
 
 Currents, Classification of 106, 107 
 
 Crooked Island Passage 152, 153 
 
 Cross Island : 138 
 
 ; Tides at 139 
 
 Cuba 68, 111, 119, 153, 154 
 
 , Winds at 78, 79 
 
 Cumaua, Winds on the coast of 84 
 
 D. 
 
 Daughters Islands 137 
 
 Davis, Currents in Strait of .• 124, 126 
 
 Strait 140, 185, 194, 195, 198, 199 
 
INDKX. 207 
 
 Page. 
 Delawaiv Ivivi-r 148 
 
 Denu'iaia Ki \ t-i- I55 
 
 , Winds at ^5 
 
 Dt'iiuiaik, Coast of 124 
 
 IX'siiade Island HO 
 
 Douiinii-a Island 70, llf,, IIG, 118 
 
 , Winds at 82, 83 
 
 Drift currents 1 ] 
 
 ] )ry season 10,11 
 
 E. 
 
 Elbe River I54, I55 
 
 England, Coast of 13G, 140, 157 
 
 , Length of passages of steamers from United States to 151 
 
 , Winds coast of 33 
 
 Eqnator, Epoch favorable to cross 5 
 
 Etinatorial, Xorthwest branch of, current 109 
 
 Counter-current 109, 190 
 
 Current 107, 108, 109, 129, 160, 189, 190 
 
 , Disturbances in the 109, 190 
 
 Espiritu Sauto Bay 88 
 
 East wind 29 
 
 Été de Mars season • 85 
 
 Europe, Routes from Cnl)a and ports of the Gulf of Mexico to.. 154 
 
 , Route fi'om La Guayra, Porto Cabello, Cumaua, &c., to. .. 154 
 
 , Routes from Xorth Africa to 1G8, 169 
 
 , Route from United States to 150, 151 
 
 , Route from i)orts of South America to 156, 157, 158 
 
 , Routes from West Indies to 153, 154 
 
 , Route from the Virgin Islands, or Porto Rico, to 154 
 
 , Route from Santa Marta, Carthageua, &c., to 154 
 
 , Route from Cape of Good Hope to 169, 170 
 
 , Route, along the coast of Africa, from Cape of Good Hope 
 
 to 169,170 
 
 F. 
 
 Eairhill Island 192, 193 
 
 Falkland Islands 131, 156 
 
 , Winds at 94, 95 
 
 False Bay 20 
 
 Famine Port 100, 101, 102 
 
 Farewell, Cape ! 125, 193, 197, 198 
 
 Faxe Bay 198 
 
 Fernando de Noronha Island 157 
 
 Fernando Po Island 161 
 
 , Winds on coast of 24 
 
 Fe'roe Islands 124, 136, 193, 199, 200, 201, 202 
 
 Finistère, Cape 30, 126, 127, 158 
 
 Florida Channel, see Bahama New Channel. 
 
 Cape 119 
 
 , Cays of 55,120 
 
208 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Florida, Coast of 118, 120 
 
 , Currents near Avest coast of 112 
 
 , Peuinsula of Ill 
 
 , Winds on west coast of 55, 56, 57 
 
 Fort Morgan, Winds at 57-65 
 
 Fortune Bay 143 
 
 France, Coast of 128, 136, 140, 157 
 
 Frederickton City 46 
 
 Fro ward, Cape lOO 
 
 Funchal, Eoad 29, 155 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaboon, Coast 17, 18, 133 
 
 Elver 17, 160, 161 
 
 Galveston Bay 112 
 
 , Winds at 57-65 
 
 Gambia River 159, 162, 163, 169 
 
 Gaspé, Cape 40 
 
 Geitaskard, Farm 201 
 
 Georges Bank 121 
 
 Georgia coast 49, 120, 122 
 
 Gibbs Hill light 144, 146, 147, 148 
 
 Gibraltar, Current of Strait of 127 
 
 Strait 127, 128, 130, 155, 157, 163 
 
 Gliickstadt, Port 201 
 
 Goazacoalcos Eiver 112 
 
 Gold Coast 160 
 
 , Winds on 24 
 
 Gomera Island 159 
 
 Gonaïves Bay 82 
 
 Good Hope, Cape 4, 5, 13, 132, 133, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 170 
 
 counter-current 132, 133 
 
 , Current of Cape of, see Agulhas, Current of Cape. 
 
 , Doubling the Cape of, going east 20 
 
 , Doubling the Cape of, going west 20 
 
 , Winds in vicinity of Cape of 20, 21 
 
 Gorèe Island 19, 159, 162, 163, 169 
 
 Gothaal Eoad . I 199 
 
 Gracias à Dios Cape 112 
 
 Grand Canary Island 29, 159 
 
 Grand Bank, Currents on 143 
 
 , Eoute from Europe for 140, 141, 142 
 
 Grand Bassam triîding station 161 
 
 Great Antilles land breezes 68 
 
 Green Bank 142 
 
 Island 40 
 
 Grenada Island 70, 111, 114 , 152, 155 
 
 Grenadines Islands 114 
 
 Greenland, Coast of 125, 191, 192, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201 
 
 , Winds of 34 
 
 Guadeloupe Island 116, 152, 153, 155, 188, 189, 190 
 
INDEX. îfOlï^ 
 
 Page. 
 
 Guinea, Coast 1«, 17, 21, 18^, I8(i, 187, 188, 180, 190 
 
 , Gulf of 9, 107, 120, 1:53, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166 
 
 , Navigation in the tînlf of 150, 163 
 
 , Routes from East to West in the Gulf of 161, 162 
 
 , Routes to trading stations on coast of 150, 160 
 
 Guinea, Favorable season to leave the Gulf of 162, 163 
 
 , Tornadoes in Gulf of 19 
 
 Guinea, North Current of 107, 108, 128, 120, 160, 161, 189 
 
 , South Current of 133, 134, 160 161 
 
 Gulf Stream, Northeast branch of 124 
 
 , Counter-currents of 48, 110, 120 
 
 Current 45, 48, 40, 106, 107, 118, 124, Ï26, 120, 140, 145, 148, 
 
 140, 150, 185, 104, 105, 100, 200, 201 
 
 Gurnet, Cape 147 
 
 Guiana, Coast 4,110 
 
 , Current of 108, 110, 111, 112, 191 
 
 , Routes from Europe to 153 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 85 
 
 H. 
 Haiti Island, nee San Domingo. 
 
 Halifax, Regular line of packets 151 
 
 Halt Bay 105 
 
 Hamburg, Port 154,155 
 
 Harmattan, Wind 17, 24, 25, 26 
 
 Hatteras, Cape 40, 118, 110, 120, 121, 145 
 
 Havana, Regular line of steam packets 155 
 
 , Port 78, 152, 153, l.^>4, 155 
 
 Havre, Regular line of steamers from Rio Janeiro to 158 
 
 , Port 154, 155, 157, 158 
 
 Hierro Islands 159 
 
 Holland, Winds 33 
 
 Honduras, Gulf Ill, 112 
 
 , AVinds on coast of 83 
 
 Horn, Cape 13, 131, 156, 1.57, 1.58 
 
 , Currents of Cape 131 
 
 , Winds at Cape 02, 03, 04 
 
 Hottentotia, Winds on the coast of 21 
 
 Hudson Bay 124, 125, 140, 144, 198 
 
 , Currents in 125, 126 
 
 , Winds in 39' 
 
 Huesos Colorados, Winds 51 
 
 Hurricanes, Currents of '. ,76 
 
 , Epoch of 71 
 
 , Localities of 71 
 
 , General laws which govern 70-77 
 
 , Undulations of 76 
 
 , Nautical directions to escape from 173, 182 
 
 14 A O 
 
^10 INDEX. 
 
 I. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Iceland, Current between the Shetlands and 191, 192, 193,194 
 
 , Island 124, 191, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201 
 
 Icy Cape 124 
 
 India, Country 170 
 
 , Sea of 169 
 
 , Hurricanes of 173 
 
 Indigviirka Eiv'er 201 
 
 Ireland, Island <,....'.. 126 
 
 , Sea of 127 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 33 
 
 Island Harbor 105 
 
 Ivory coast 160 
 
 , Winds on 24 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacuiel, Port 155 
 
 Jamaica Island 68, 69, 70, 112, 153 
 
 , Winds at 81 
 
 Jan Mayen Island 195 
 
 K. 
 
 Kamtschatka, Province 124 
 
 Key West, Winds at 57, 65 
 
 Kildnin, Tides at : ' 139 
 
 Kinienskoi, Point 139 
 
 Kingston, Port 152, 155 
 
 Kio Island 139 
 
 KirkehoeCity 200 
 
 Kisniinskoi Point, see Kenienskoi. 
 
 Knock John Bank 138 
 
 Labrador coast ■ 198 
 
 LaGuayia 152, 154, 155 
 
 Lancaster Strait, see Barrow Strait. 
 
 Langanœs Point 201 
 
 Lapland coast 138 
 
 , Tides on the coast of 139 
 
 Laxa Bay 137 
 
 Lena River . 201 
 
 Liberia, Coast 159 
 
 , Winds on coast of 25 
 
 Line, Where to cross the 155, 156 
 
 , Favorable times for crossing the 6 
 
 Liverpool, Port 15, 149, 150, 151 
 
 Loango, Coa-st 16, 164 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 23 
 
 London City 167 
 
 Lopez, Cape 16, 165 
 
 , Winds near the 23 
 
 Lorient, Port 155 
 
 Los Islands 26 
 
INDEX. 211 
 
 M. 
 
 Piipre. 
 
 :\Ia(lii>rasc;ir Island . W, VA2 
 
 Madeira Islaii.l 4, 17, 128, 149, 155, 158, 163, 164, 184 
 
 . Winds at 29 
 
 Magellan Strait .' l»l 
 
 , Winds, Ac, at 99, 105 
 
 Maraiiliani, Poit 157, 158 
 
 , City 86, 87 
 
 , Winds at S6, 87 
 
 Marie Galante Island 116 
 
 Marocco, Coast 16 
 
 , "Winds on loast of 30 
 
 MarseilU's, Port 157 
 
 Martinicino Island 5, 69, HI, 115, 118, 154, 155 
 
 Matagorda, Winds on the coast, comprised between the Missis- 
 sippi and 66 
 
 Matanzas, Port 119 
 
 Mauritius Island 71 
 
 Mayo Island 128 
 
 Meccatina Elver 126 
 
 Mediterranean Sea 18, 127, 180 
 
 MelrakPlain 201 
 
 Meshen, Gulf of 138 
 
 Mesurado, Cape 128 
 
 Mexico, Coast of 185 
 
 , Gulf of 55,71.106,112,151,152,200,201 
 
 , Gales from N. in Gulf of 50, 51 
 
 , Currents in Gulf of 111,1 12 
 
 , Routes from Europe to the Gulf of 151, 152 
 
 , Seasons in the Gulf of 51, 52, 53, 54,55 
 
 , Winds iu the Gulf of 50-68 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 66-68 
 
 Mezene, Cape, see Meshen Cape. 
 
 Miquelon Island 125, 144 
 
 Mississippi River 56, 1 12, 201 
 
 , Winds on the coast comprised between the Bay of 
 
 Appalachee and 56 
 
 Mona Passage • 152, 154 
 
 Monserrat Island 116, 153 
 
 Mont', Point de 40 
 
 Montevideo, Port 15^, 158 
 
 Mosquito coast 1 1 •* 
 
 , Winds on '^•^ 
 
 Mother Island 137 
 
 Mozambique Channel l-'l 
 
 , Hurricanes in 1^4 
 
 Murrav Anchorage 1"*' 
 
 N. 
 
 Najrel Island. 
 
 Nant 
 
 137 
 
 ucketBank 118,121,148 
 
212 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Nassau/Port .' 79 
 
 Negro, Cape 16, 164 
 
 New Brunswick coast 140 
 
 , Winds of , 146 
 
 New Foundland Bank / 118, 125, 140, 141, 142, 143, 199 
 
 , Fogs on bank of 141,142,143,144 
 
 , Currents in vicinity of - 125, 144 
 
 , Currents on Grand Bank of, see Grand Bank. 
 
 , Ice on the Bank of 141, 142 
 
 Island 47, 125, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 198 
 
 , Eoute from Europe to 140, 141 
 
 , Route to Grand Bank from, see Grand Bank, route to 
 
 , Winds at Island of 39,40 
 
 New Orleans, Port 152 
 
 New Providence, Winds at 79, 80 
 
 New York, Eegular line of steamers from Havre to 151 
 
 , Port 15,149,150,151,171 
 
 , Passages from Liverpool to 150 
 
 New Zealand Islands 200 
 
 Nicaragua, Port of San Juan de 112 
 
 Nieves Island 116 
 
 Nordkyn, Cape 137 
 
 North Cajye, Iceland 201 
 
 Cape, Lapland 136,137 
 
 Sea 124 
 
 Northers, Winds 50,51 
 
 North KynCape 137 
 
 Norway coast 124, 195,199 
 
 , Winds on coast of 34 
 
 l^ova Scotia coast 121, 140, 171 
 
 , Winds at 45,46 
 
 Nova Zembla, Winds at .,. 15 
 
 O. 
 
 Olinda, Point 156 
 
 Onega, Cape 138, 139 
 
 , Tides at 139 
 
 River : 139 
 
 , Route to 136-139 
 
 Orinoco River Ill 
 
 Orlogenose, Cape, see Orlow Cape. 
 
 Orlotsna Volock Point 139 
 
 Oiiow, Cape 138 
 
 , Tides at 139 
 
 Ouessant Island 127 
 
 Palma Island 159 
 
 Palmas, Cape 10, 19, 21, 107, 108, 128, 129, 160, 162, 165, 166 
 
INDEX. 21.'? 
 
 Page. 
 
 l'aimas Road '. 34, 159 
 
 , Winds at Cape 25 
 
 , Genoral winds on the west coast of Africa, between the 
 
 Capo of Good Hope and '20, 25 
 
 Pamperos, Gales of wind [H) 
 
 Para, Squalls of 8() 
 
 , Winds at Sit 
 
 ,City 8() 
 
 Paraguay, Winds on the coast of HI) 
 
 Patagonia coast 101, 15») 
 
 , Winds on east coast of 1)1 , 92 
 
 Patrix Bay , 190 
 
 Penedo de San Pedro Eocks 170 
 
 Pensacola, Winds at SO 
 
 Pernambuco, Regular line of steam packets from Havre to 158 
 
 , City 88 
 
 Petite Terre Island 11(3 
 
 Piedras, Winds on coast comprised between Vera Cruz and the 
 
 Point of G7, 68 
 
 Pine, Cape 144 
 
 Pines, Island of Ill 
 
 Plata, River 130 
 
 , Winds at 89, 90, 91 
 
 Polar winds 2 
 
 Pouakla Island, see Purr-Luda. 
 
 Pouoi River 138 
 
 Porsanger Bay 137 
 
 Port au Prince, Port 152, 155 
 
 Port Natal Bay 132 
 
 Porto Bello, Winds at 84 
 
 Porto Cabello Port 152 
 
 Porto Rico, Winds at 82 
 
 Island 69,123,152 
 
 Porto Seguro Bay 88 
 
 Portsmouth, Port 151 
 
 Portugal, Coast 18. 129, 136, 158 
 
 Current on coast of 127 
 
 , Winds on coast of 30, 31, 32 
 
 Possession Bay 99 
 
 Pousinière season 85 
 
 Princes Island 133, 161, 162, 163 
 
 , Winds at 24 
 
 Providence Channel 152 
 
 Providence, Winds at, see New Providence. 
 
 Purr-Luda Island 139 
 
 Puzlackta Anchprage 139 
 
 Q. 
 Quita Fort 189 
 
214 INDEX. 
 
 R. 
 
 Page, 
 
 Race, Cape 125, 142, 144 
 
 Rebojos, Winds 88 
 
 Recife, Cape 132 
 
 Reikianoes, Cape 192, 196 
 
 Reikiavik Road 196, 199 
 
 Rennel Current'. 126, 127, 129 
 
 Réunion Islands 71 
 
 Rio Congo River, see Congo River. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, Port. . ^. 155, 156, 157, 158 
 
 , Winds at 89 
 
 Rochefort, Port , 155 
 
 Rodriguez Island 71 
 
 Rovestra Island 139 
 
 S. ' • 
 
 Saba Island 116, 117 
 
 Sable, Cape , 140 
 
 Island 45, 140, 148 
 
 , Winds at Island of 45 
 
 St. Antonio, Cape 1 1 1 , 154 
 
 St. Augustine, Cape, Brazil .• 157 
 
 , Winds in vicinity of, Florida 47, 48 
 
 St. Barthélémy Island 117 
 
 St. Christophe Island 116 
 
 St. David's Head 147, 148 
 
 Santo Domingo, Channels of - 153, 154 
 
 Island 68, 69, 70, 153, 154, 200 
 
 , Winds at 81, 82 
 
 St. Eustache Island 116, 117 
 
 St. George's Bank 148 
 
 Port and Road 147 
 
 Sah Juan de Nicaragua Port, see Nicaragua, Port of San Juan. 
 
 St. Lawrence, Gulf 48, 125, 126, 142, 143, 144 
 
 , Route from Europe to the Gulf of 43 
 
 , Winds in the Gulf and River of 40, 45 
 
 St. Louis City, Senegal 19,159,162,169 
 
 St. Mark's Channel . , 82 
 
 San Martin Island 70, 117, 152 
 
 Mountains 50 
 
 St. Nicolas Point 138 
 
 St. Pierre, Peter's Bank 142 
 
 Island 125,142,143,144 
 
 , Route from Europe to 142 
 
 St. Thomas Island, West Indies 70, 152, 155 
 
 , Coast of Africa 24,129 
 
 St. Vincent Cape 30,127,128 
 
 Island 70, 111, 115, 152 
 
 St. Anna Cape 25,26 
 
 St. Catherine Island 88, 91, 157 
 
 St. Croix Island 117 
 
 St. Helena Island 5, 166, 167, 168, 169 
 
INDEX. 215 
 
 l'.ig.,. 
 
 St. Helona, Routos from Africa to KiH 
 
 , Kouto oast and west to 1 GC), 1()7 
 
 , W i nds a t 25 
 
 Sta. Lucia Island 70, HI, 115, 118, 152 
 
 Saintes Islands 1 1 •> 
 
 Sal Island 128 
 
 Salt Cay Bank 15^ 
 
 San Marcos liay 87 
 
 San Nicolas Island 128 
 
 St. Paul de Loando Bay 13;i 
 
 St. Phillip de Benguela City 167, 168 
 
 Sau Roque Cape 86, 108, 130, 156 
 
 St. Thomas Island, Africa 12i) 
 
 , Winds at 24 
 
 Santa Cruz City 158 
 
 Sta. Marta City 69 
 
 Sandy Point 101, 102, 103, 104, 105 
 
 Santiago Island 128 
 
 Sargasso Sea 123 
 
 Scilly Isles 127 
 
 Scotland, Coast 126, 140 
 
 , Winds on coast of 33 
 
 Senegal coast 17, 28, 170 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 28 
 
 Seuegambia coast 16, 17, 165, 169 
 
 , Winds on the coast of 27, 28 
 
 Seven Islands ., 137 
 
 Shakloui Islets 139 
 
 Shetland Islands 136, 191, 193, 194, 195, 201 
 
 SchoU Bay 105 
 
 Siberia coast 201 
 
 Sierra Leone River 19, 159, 162 
 
 , Winds in river of 26, 27 
 
 J Winds on coast of 25, 26 
 
 Silver Cay 152 
 
 Slave coast or Benin coast 160 
 
 Sombrero Island 117 
 
 Sosnova Island, see Cross Island. 
 
 Spain, Coast of 127, 136 
 
 Spitzbergen coast 195, 198, 201 
 
 , Winds at 14 
 
 Squalls, Remarks on 95, 96, 97 
 
 Stateu Island 131, 156 
 
 Stromo Island 200 
 
 Sweet-nose Bay or Swi.jatoi Noss Bay 137, 138 
 
 T. 
 
 Tobago Island 70, 111, 1 14, 152 
 
 Table Bay, Winds in 20 
 
 Tampico, Line of steamers from Southampton to 155 
 
 Ri ver 152 
 
216 INDEX. 
 
 Tampico, Winds on coast between Matagorda and 66 
 
 Tana, Tides in Bay of 139 
 
 Teneriffe Island 159,167 
 
 Thorshaven, Observations in Bay of 193, 194 
 
 Tide, Tide winds of tlie north 67 
 
 Tieria del Fuego Island ' 156 
 
 , Currents near coast of - 131- 
 
 , Winds at 92, 101 
 
 Three Islands 138 
 
 Three Points Cape 129^ 
 
 Todos los Santos, Winds in Bay of 89^ 
 
 Tonga Islands 71 
 
 Tornadoes, Squalls 11, 17, 18, 19 
 
 Torrid Zone, Band of variable winds in 6, 7 
 
 , Seasons in 10,11 
 
 , Winds of 2-10 
 
 , Variable winds of 6-10 
 
 Tortugas, Cays Ill 
 
 Trade-winds, Limits of 3-5 
 
 , Disturbances in 5 
 
 , or general winds 3-1& 
 
 Trinidad Island, Coast of Venezuela 70, 82, 110, 111, 114, J 18, 155 
 
 , Coast of Brazil 5,156,157,164 
 
 Tropical winds 2 
 
 Turks Island '. 152 
 
 U. • 
 
 United States coast 46, 49, 106, 140, 145, 152, 162 
 
 , Length of voyage of steamers from England 150, 151 
 
 , Route from Europe to 148, 149, 150 
 
 , Winds in Gulf of Mexico on south coast of 55-66 
 
 Ushant 127 
 
 V. 
 Vela, Winds on coast comprised between San Juan de Nicaragua 
 
 and Cape 83, 84 
 
 Vendavales, W^inds 66, 84 
 
 Venezuela, Coast , 152 
 
 Vera Cruz, Port 50, 63, 152, 154, 155 
 
 , Winds at 66, 67 
 
 , Wiuds on coast between Tampico and 66 
 
 Vera Paz, Winds on east coast of 83' 
 
 Verde, Cape 4,5,10,128,159,164,165 
 
 , Islands of Cape . 129, 153, 162, 163, 164, 165, 170 
 
 , Winds at islands of Caj)e 28 
 
 Vientos de Cabeza, Winds 66 
 
 Virgin Islands 117, 123, 152, 154 
 
 Virgin Rocks _ 143' 
 
 Virgins, Cape 101 
 
INDEX. 217 
 
 w. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Wardlmiis, Tidrs at 13'J 
 
 Wosoi- Kivor 150 
 
 Western Islands 126 
 
 West India Islands 52, 69, 70, 71, 145, 162, 183, 186, 190, 200 
 
 , Calms and sipialls neai' the 77 
 
 , Countei-cnrreuts of cnirent of Sea of 112 
 
 , Current, submarine, observed near the 188 
 
 , Hurricanes in 68, 69, 70, 71, 173 
 
 , Kaces near 77 
 
 , Route from Europe to 151 , 152 
 
 , Route from United States or Bermudas to 152, 153 
 
 , Seasons in 68, 69 
 
 White Sea, Navigation of 137, 140 
 
 , Tides in 139 
 
 Winds, Remarks on gusts of 95, 97 
 
 , Origin of 1,2 
 
 Windward Islands 4, 170 
 
 , Land breezes near 68, 69 
 
 , Route from Jamaica to 154 
 
 , Currents between 113-118 
 
 Passage 153, 154 
 
 Winter Hills Cape, see Cat-Nose Cape.' 
 
 Winter season 10, 11 
 
 Wreck-Hill, Hill ' 146 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yucatan, Coast of Ill 
 
 , Winds on east coast of 83 
 
 , Winds on north coast of (yS 
 
 15 A O