f\ Bonk .T\f: Copyright ]^'_i3J_^_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSn> Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from Tine Library of Congress Iittp://www.archive.org/details/teacliingoforalen01bole THE TEACHING OF ORAL ENGLISH " In education the process of self-development should be encouraged to the fullest extent. Children should be led to make their own investigations, and to draw their own inferences. They should be told as little as pos- sible, and induced to discover as much as possible. Humanity has progressed solely by self -instruction; and that to achieve the best results, each mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually proved by the marked success of self-made men. Those who have been brought up under the ordinary school drill, and have carried away with them the idea that education is prac- ticable only in that style, will think it hopeless to make children their own teachers."— HERBERT SPENCER. THE TEACHING OF ORAL ENGLISH BY EMMA M. BOLENIUS, A.M., FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN ENGLISH, CENTRAL COMMERCIAL AND MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J. SECOND EDITION PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY ■3s COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANT COPYRIGHT, 1916. BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Eledrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U.S.A. APR 21 1916 ©CI,A428GJ7 To THE BOTS AND GIRLS WHO HAVE MADE THESE PAGES POSSIBLE CONTENTS CHAPTER I " One-Minute Talks " with Beginners . . 1 CHAPTER II "One-Minute Talks" with Older Stu- dents 23 CHAPTER III What to Avoid in Oral Composition ... 43 CHAPTER IV The Choice of a Subject 57 CHAPTER V The Debate in English and History ... 74 CHAPTER VI The Use of the Symposium in English Classes 102 CHAPTER VII A Mythological Symposium 113 CHAPTER VIII Oral Composition in History 127 CHAPTER IX The History Club 146 CHAPTER X Organizing a Government as a Class Ex- ercise 177 PREFACE In these days of modern efficiency, pedagogy must be practical. It must yield results. Both press and general public have arraigned the schools of the country for failure to produce effective spoken English. Thoughtful teachers acknowledge that pupils leave school with slovenly speech largely because there is no regular supervision of their speech and no systematic practice in oral composi- tion. The new movement in teaching English, therefore, under the inspiring leadership of the English Journal and the National Council of Teachers of English, is a strong reaction in favor of oral Eng- lish, Since the National Council of Teachers of English has recommended that much more of the time given to com- position should be devoted to oral composi- tion, and since a number of cities now require that candidates who wish to teach English must show a knowledge of oral methods and an ability to teach oral Eng- lish, it is necessary to devise a plan 2£ PREFACE whereby oral composition can be com- bined with the other Enghsh work. Common-sense suggests that shght im- provement can be made in a pupil's habits of speech if he is given oral composition only six or seven times a term. What is needed is eighty talks a year or a minimum of at least one a week. Furthermore, in a democratic school system like ours a method must be applied to each pupil in a class, not to a favored few. Teachers, therefore, are groping for a way to sys- tematize oral composition and correlate it with the other English work in the limited time allowed the whole subject. Five years ago the writer began to experiment in teaching oral composition in a private school ^ of about five hundred students, in classes of from twenty to thirty pupils each. Later the same methods were used in the Central High School at Newark, N. J., a school of more than twelve hundred pupils, with the larger classes usually found in big city high schools. In both schools the good results were gratifying. ^ See Education, March, 1911, and Popular Educator, Sept.-Dec, 1911. PREFACE xi The methods advocated in these pages are based upon the following convictions : 1. Oral composition must be assigned often enough to make an impression upon the speech of a pupil. 2. Each pupil must be given the train- ing in speaking. 3. A pupil's speech must be caught in the making, for a memorized speech is not oral composing. 4. Personal poise, management of voice, phraseology, and power of think- ing must all be trained. 5. Oral composition should be used in connection with other studies that permit of topical discussion. 6. Self-government by the class, organ- ized as a club using parliamentary pro- cedure, gives the pupil invaluable dis- cipline of mind and character. 7. Self-teaching is the best sort of teaching, for it brings the most per- manent results. 8. Progress in oral English is secured by regular practice and deliberate effort, on the part of the pupil, to eliminate faults and to increase powers of expression. 9. The laboratory method — experi* xii PREFACE mentation and criticism of results — is as applicable to English as to science. This book is a description of laboratory methods appHed to oral composition. Copious notes of talks and various other exercises, recorded by the writer from day to day as the classes met, furnish the illustrative material in these chapters. If some of the ideas seem new, we contend that they are grounded in the psychology of common-sense. They bring results and win the enthusiastic support of students. In the Central High School at Newark pupils, eager for effective self-expression in speech, organized a Speak Well Club and from the stage of the large auditorium gave extra talks after school. These pages do not aim to lay down an arbitrary system, but to be suggestive to teachers. It is hoped that the book will prove stimulating to young teachers just out of college or normal school, to teachers of rural schools, and to all others who are searching for ways and means of fulfilling the requirement that the schools teach more effective speech. AprU, 1914 THE TEACHING OF ORAL ENGLISH CHAPTER I " One-Minute Talks " with Beginners This is just a talk, not a formal ex- position of methods. There are tricks in the trade, even in teaching, a knack in presenting the subject attractively, and thus getting the best and the most out of the pupil. Some methods used effectively in oral composition we hope to show in the following pages. THE need for oral COMPOSITION Stock-men hobble their horses to cor- rect faults of gait. This turns out a beautiful pacer or coach horse with su- perb swing of limb, very diiFerent from that of the farm horse or the hack. The restraint of the hobble has made the thoroughbred gait. 2 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS Many of our boys and girls of the earlier years, first-year students in high schools, for instance, and students in country schools, have grown up wild in speech. Their talk abounds in the slang, grammatical errors, localisms, and mis- pronunciations which make slovenliness; as well as in the mistakes made by foreigners in acquiring a new language. The boy in his conversation is a hobble- de-hoy. Therefore, we say "hobble the boy!" Do it consciously, yet tactfully, so that there will not be a sacrifice of creative power. Let him run short lengths in speech, by giving him oral themes of from fifty to two hundred words — " one-minute talks " in class. No one questions the importance of correct, clear, effective speech. All schools emphasize written composition; progressive schools are beginning to place oral composition on an equal footing, giv- ing to both a good share of time, for in expression, practice directed by theory is what counts. It must be the kind of ex- pression that makes an impression. NEED FOR ORAL COMPOSITION 3 The need of a system of oral com- position was recognized by the New York State Association of English Teachers, meeting at Columbia University, when they revised the college entrance require- ments as follows : (1) Test of written composition by a theme based on personal experience. (2) Test of range of reading and literary appreciation by questions based on general reading. (3) Test of the candidate's power of oral expression hy reading aloud and hy conversing. It is also significant that the High School Teachers' Association of New York City in revising the course of study for secondary schools gave more promi- nence to oral composition and to reading aloud. Education should prepare boys and girls to cope successfully with life. Is it good judgment to concentrate on a foreign tongue or a dead language, and yet allow the boy to leave school at gradua- tion with a slovenly use of English, his 4 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS mother tongue, the medium he will use all his life in social relations and in business? During his entire life the boy will be talking — in the office, on the street, at home, in church work, in social life at large. First impressions are made and unmade by the words that fall from the lips. Many an applicant has lost his chance of a position because his English was not good. Many a professional man has wished he had the confidence to speak his professional views in public; many a club woman has sat silent in a meeting because she was not as clever with her tongue as with her brain. Do you remember the time when, as a child, you permitted an injustice to be done you by another, because you were too timid to speak out? Or do you remem- ber an occasion when you really knew a question but lacked the words and confi- dence to explain it? Ideas seethed within you, but were you too diffident to voice them? Perhaps you sat in a meeting, struggling with yourself to speak, but though the brain was ready with a good INTRODUCTORY TALK TO CLASS 5 idea, the lips hesitated. Then, too, do you remember how you raked your brain for ideas, but none came? Woeful ad- mission, is it not! Do you not wish that the school had helped you, as a pupil, to think thoughts worthwhile, and had forced out your opinion? " One-minute talks " in class can be of incalculable aid in curing faults and in developing thought. The object of this book is to show how systematized oral composition brought out astonishingly good results in a large mixed school of American boys and girls, many eager Greeks and Russian Jews, and a Chinese boy. AN INTRODUCTORY TALK TO THE CLASS Here is an assorted class with all kinds of home training, all kinds of brains — both American- and foreign-made. Our busi- ness is to teach these students to speak and to write well. At first glance, their chief faults seem to be timidity, paucity of ideas, small vocabulary, and incorrect expressions. If we have an intimate talk as to why we wish them to learn to speak 6 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS clearly, correctly, and effectively, they will enter heartily into the spirit of the crusade against poor English. Two pull- ing together get better results than two pulling opposite ways or one alone pushing. Therefore, we explain: " The class will be a little club to help you to become good talkers, good wi'iters, good thinkers, good ' appreciators.' It is to be a Mutual Benefit Society, in which each helps the other to overcome his faults and to develop his strong points. It was Boileau, the French critic, who said, ' The style's the man.' Therefore, we will help each one of you to bring out your personal style, your individuality. To do this, each one here must pull with us and do his best to develop himself. You will learn to think on your feet, to speak entertainingly, to hold an audience — if you do your part." Next on the progi-am is to hold up an ideal, a standard. It is a good plan to write it on the blackboard, as it is drawn from the class by questions. " Why do you like your minister? " INTRODUCTORY TALK TO CLASS 7 " His voice rolls out so loud and nicely," volunteers John. " Ours has a squeaky voice but he tells good stories," adds an older boy. " Ours puts his words together well," says another. " You ought to see our preacher," bursts in Tom. " He stands up so much bigger than he is, and he's alwus lookin' right at you! " " Just so," we offer. " Any more reasons? " " Ours has such sensible ideas," says Mary Gray timidly, " such beautiful ideas about life. And he uses his hands, too." " Would it not be fine, boys," is the comment, as we write " ideas and gestures " on the board, " to have a minis- ter who did and had all these things! " "Yes, sir!" ejaculates Tom. "But he'd go to a big church and we wouldn't get him! " " Exactly! " The tone means volumes. " He would get a great salary, a broader field, and honor — simply because he has all these things combined, which your 8 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS ministers have separately. Would it not be fine for one person to have all these things!" They nod approval. " Then let us work for them all. We shall write these fine things on the board. You may take tliem down in the back of your theme booTc as a model." Then the outline is blocked in : • A FINE SPEAKER Position 1. Body — Erect, graceful. 2. Head — Up. 3. Eyes — Alert, sparkling with interest, holding the whole audience. 4. Hands — Loose, used to emphasize points naturally, gestures. Voice 1. Loud — What is the use of saying any- thing, if it can not be heard ! 2. Well-modulated — Speaking in one tone is disagreeable — so is the sing-song speaker. Let the voice go up and down pleasantly; let it be flexible. 5. Good Quality — Not nasal, sharp, or gruff, but musical. A FINE SPEAKER 9 Style 1. Correct — Grammar, pronunciation, vo- cabulary. 2. Clear — Know what you mean yourself, then tell it so that others understand. 3. Concise — Use few words. Do not ramble or say things indirectly. 4. Coherent — Link one sentence naturally to the one before, to avoid abruptness. 5. Convincing — Learn to use all the devices that improve style. A rhetoric text- book explains these. Use them. Ideas 1. Fullness — Get ideas from reading, ob- servation, conversation, imagination, etc. 2. Correctness — Be accurate in your in- formation; avoid the slip-shod process of thinking. A country boy's accurate information about a squirrel or a ground-hog is worth more than a city boy's jumbled description of the same, culled from an encyclopedia and chance observation. 3. Interest — ^Widen your interests. Broaden your outlook. Choose interesting sub- jects, of which you know something, subjects in which the class is interested. 10 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS With some striking statement that sets the class working along very definite lines, this introductory talk is concluded. In one class it was : " So you see, our system is the Big Four." To illustrate, we draw four sets of rails in perspective. At the joining point we write " fine speaker " and on the separate lines " position," " voice," " style," and " ideas." " We will watch our positions, voices, HOW TALKS ARE GIVEN 11 styles, and ideas to keep them evenly ad- vancing. For to-morrow please take account of yourselves, as if you were merchants taking account of stock. Notice how you stand, how your voice is, how you speak, and how your ideas come. If possible, talk with some one at home about your manner in conversation. In class we shall discuss the thing you are most interested in." " Gee! " blurts out Tom, " that's mak- ing kites for me ! " " Tell us how it is done," is the reply, as a much-awakened class passes from the room. HOW TALKS AEE GIVEN Before the first performance of that class is described, let us mention various devices to get timid students on the floor. The " one-minute talks " are given from the front of the room, facing the class, as the pulpit is in front of the congregation. That, in itself, is a trial for the backward. We explain that it is really only a recita- tion, given from the front of the room 12 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS instead of from the seat, and that talks deal with some one subject in a topical way, instead of answering one of several questions needed to describe that one sub- ject. There are always some students in the class that must be taught to conquer self-consciousness. But what a valuable conquest it is ! We worked with one girl nearly a month be- fore we could induce her to come to the front of the room. That was done finally in this way : She was asked to come to the teacher's desk and talk to her; while she talked, the teacher stood up, and then pre- tended to do something in the back of the room. " Just go on," was said off-hand, as the girl hesitated. She continued. When she finished, she was greatly complimented: " Now see how easy it is I You have been talking to the class, too." It requires tact to help the backward, for they have a handicap to overcome be- fore they can settle down to the four- track race above described. THE FIRST LESSON 13 THE FIRST LESSON The class has assembled on the next day. Faces are eager. Several pupils have brought with them the things they mean to talk about. We begin by calling piecemeal from the class the ideal of a fine speaker. After that, comes the plunge : *' Now, ready! . . . Come to the front of the room, stand straight, speak loud, tell in a few words about the thing you are interested in. Keep an eye on your listeners to see if they follow you. When you have made your point, stop. Let us make it voluntary. Who will come first? " Tom and two others are on their feet, one a boy so backward and undeveloped that we think of him as " the Angleworm." Tom is designated. He holds a small kite awkwardly in his hand. "Fine!" comes the word of praise. " Show the class, as you explain." So the boy, awkwardly, it is true, points out the various parts. There is the be- ginning of gesture for him, a phase of speaking hard for young people to manage. 14 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS " Last summer I made a lot o' kites. We was campin' up the Allegheny. You take two sticks and cross them like this, one larger than the other. Then paste paper over it, tie string to the middle. Yes, an' you make a tail by tying paper onto a string and fastening to the end to weigh it down. Here's a kite ! " " That is a good start, Tom," com- mends the teacher. For several weeks we work for spon- taneity. After that, we begin to point out mistakes. Meanwhile, from the very first there is kept in a record book a list of errors made by students individually. For example — Tom Black: Sept. 10th, concord — omits final g — omits final consonants — an* — practi- cal — ^kites — to the point — voice good — ges- tures, though awkward — eager; Sept. 12th, This grouping of criticisms under the student's name is a card system of notes, that soon reveal weaknesses. " The Angleworm " comes up next. He holds in his hand a bunch of ribbons. THE FIRST LESSON 15 On his face is clearly written a struggle between interest in his subject and awk- ward backwardness. We call him "Angle- worm," because he seems absolutely with- out the backbone of will. His speech needs many encouraging prods to get it out, but it also is a good " first speech," because that boy never did so hard a thing. He holds up the ribbons with a half- foolish smile on his face. When the class begins to titter, the teacher looks at them with a surprised air, then speaks : "Are those prizes? That is fine! We wish to know just what they are and how you got them." The class is all interest. How a little word can turn them! " I won 'em/' he begins boldly. " Chickens ! We had poultry shows at , at , and at In mind we can hear yet his sing-song, jerky voice and see his mechanical, scared manner. "Yes?" comes the interruption. " Name some of the kinds of chickens." 16 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS Then he runs off into an enumeration that makes us almost dizzy: " Plynxouth Rocks, Rhode Island' Reds, Wyandottes — them's the white ones — Buff Cochins, Brown Leghorns, White Leghorns, Buff Rocks, Minorcas " His voice trails off to the ceiling. "Good!" he is encoairaged. "Next time will you tell us how to make entries for a show and what the various colors mean? " " Yas'm," he says and walks back to his seat. That minute a vertebra formed I In six months he had three-fourths of a spinal column. He looks people in the eyes now and is acquiring a manly, not-afraid air. On his feet he even remembers not to say " them's." So we go the rounds — ten volunteer, all sorts of subjects. Ten more are called out and do their poor best. Four sit silent — ^the failures. They simply can't, they say. It took several trials to bring them out, but they came as they always HELPING STUDENTS TO IMPROVE 17 will, if normal, and properly urged. Even abnormal pupils can be brought out; one young fellow who lisped made a record for himself. HOW TO HELP STUDENTS TO IMPROVE This is using laboratory methods in English. The first duty of the teacher is to discover the boy's weak spots, then point them out to him, show him how to overcome them, and give him practice. Make it a rule to praise, as well as to censure. At intervals it is well to discuss, in- formally, the most noticeable errors in the class, as lack of concord, double negative, wrong cases after prepositions, etc., in grammar; failure to pronounce vowels properly, cutting off initial or final letters of words, inserting extra letters or sylla- bles, sounding silent letters, etc., in pro- nunciation; confusing such words as auditor and spectator, accept and except, proscribe and prescribe, etc., in diction. Reserve one corner of the blackboard, where students can record mistakes they 2 18 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS hear or bits of slang to avoid. At the end of the week give a few minutes to discus- sion of them. Here is a sample, taken at random from the board: TOU MXJTT GIVE IT TO HER AN I THEM THERE THINGS AIN'T IT SO TOU SEZZER EACH BOY TOOK THEIR BOOBtS The quality of ideas can be improved by putting up thought-inspiring mottoes, by talks, by reading outside of school, as well as by careful interpretation of the classics. The first quietly attract atten- tion and exert a silent influence. We have three separate vocabularies. Our smallest is the speaking vocabulary,, often colloquial and sometimes restricted by slang. Next comes the writing vocabu- lary, made up of all words we use in our writing. This is a larger number, be- cause we can take time to think of the words. It should be our aim to make the speaking and writing vocabularies the same. Last comes the reading vocabu- lary, comprising all words we know. Our desire should be to use these words in HELPING STUDENTS TO IMPROVE 19 writing and speaking. Beyond this comparatively small number of words in each student's reading vocabulary lie the other thousands that make up Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. This unknown vocabulary is a vast field for the student to explore in his hunt for the right word to express his idea. Every student should own a small dictionary and use it con- stantly. The greatest menace of slang is that it restricts the size of vocabulary by keeping out of use standard words. Beginners ought to weed out grammati- cal mistakes, unpleasant mannerisms in address, and mispronunciations; they ought to acquire a larger vocabulary and a wider range of subjects; they ought also to apply such fundamental laws of good writing, as unity, emphasis, clearness, brevity, and coherence. Digressions, am- biguity, wordiness, and incoherence mark the amateur ; the opposite qualities should be rigidly developed in the beginner. U,se of outlines will cure at least three of the above faults, because the outline can be tested and if found wrong or insufficient can be corrected. Do not allow students 20 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS to write up talks from outlines, unless de- sired for a special purpose, because the actual talk then becomes an exercise in memory, rather than in original, extem- poraneous phrasing. There is a wealth of subjects to start with : personal experiences ; processes ; de- scriptions of people, of articles ; anecdotes ; reports of reading or of lessons studied. History affords abundant chance to work in these talks. Translations, explana- tions, summaries, discussions, reasons, — all these are exercises in " Oral Compo- sition." Speed the day when it is recognized as fundamental in all studies, and each teacher makes it a business to demand careful, effective expression in our mother-tongue. SUMMARY Digest of Methods. — Chapter I empha- sizes the value of practical, systematic training in oral composition and the need of a definite ideal; in a sample lesson it gives a concrete illustration of the gather- SUMMARY 21 ing together of such material. Such sample lessons are of great help to the beginner because they represent actual teaching. The chapter shows how to keep an individual card record of criticisms, how to use other features with English work, and how to arouse and preserve a vital interest in improving daily speech. This last is done, first, by furnishing a definite purpose for student effort, which in itself is the first factor in successful application ; next, by presenting a definite problem to be tackled, — 'the students' own faulty speech; last, by pointing out a definite remedy. In other words, the teacher helps the students to diagnose their own cases and apply the cures. Furthermore, the chapter urges the discussion of school matters in the home, and by giving pupils a chance to master a hard situation by act of will, furnishes them with the key to success in life. The chapter holds that it is better at times to ignore faults and control the classroom environment so that it induces responsiveness. It begins work from the viewpoint of the pupils' interest, and by 22 TALKS WITH BEGINNERS holding out something worthwhile as the end of effort, and an agreeable under- standable road of effort, minimizes the friction of classroom work, thereby achieving harmony, the frame of mind most kind to accomplishment. It insists that beginners should be taught to express themselves clearly and briefly; that timid- ity and awkwardness, as well as ignorance, should be overcome in the classroom. By definite suggestions it popularizes dic- tionary work. Great waste of effort is sometimes found in the schools by study about English instead of study of Eng- lish. Chapter I tries to eliminate this by insisting that subject-matter should be a means, not an end, of training. It shows the teacher how to draw material from the class instead of telling it himself, and how to drive ideas home by chart and diagrams. In a word, it appeals to the teacher to convert the English classroom into a laboratory for daily experimentation in speech, and in such speech as a conscious exercise in oral composition. CHAPTER II " One-Minute Talks " with Older Students The ideal of the good speaker has been emphasized constantly through the stu- dent's first- year work, with the result that there is discernible an improvement in position, voice, style, and ideas. We have now come to the second-year work, or oral composition with older students. A plea for harmonious development " Do you remember," the teacher asks by way of reminder, " the Big-Four Track, that leads to the Fine Speaker? " In a moment it is drawn again on the blackboard. " These must all be de- veloped. Suppose on a platform before a great audience a man is speaking. He has graceful gestures and magnetic eyes — in a word, the born orator's manner; but his voice is so weak or his articulation so poor that you can not hear or under- 23 24 TALKS WITH OLDER STUE)ENTS stand what he is saying. How disgusted you are! " Suppose his speech can be understood, but is full of grammatical blunders that any thirteen-year-old boy would have the sense to avoid. What then? You are disappointed, but may listen with a lofty air (your grammar being so much bet- ter!) , because his ideas are worth hearing." The class is eagerly following. " Suppose, again, the speaker has a fine presence and a golden tongue of elo- quence, coming from a natural facility in putting words together. You listen to the first sentence with pleasure, settling back in your chair. Btit in a minute you move restlessly, then turn to your neigh- bor with a ' Did you hear that ! ' in your eye. The speech is worthless and ex- asperating, because the ideas are trite, hackneyed, or untrue. " He is followed by another," the teacher continues — after explaining some " exploded theories," which the bright minds in the class wish discussed — " who slouches on the platform and breaks a half dozen grammatical commandments, HARMONIOUS DEVELOPMENT 25 yet you listen. He has ideas worthwhile and can produce them, even in a poor way." " The thoughts come first, don't they? '* breaks in an interested voice. " Yes, but suppose " begins another student. A broad smile runs over the class at the unconscious use of the phraseology. " I'll suppose a little further, since this is making it clear to you. There is in the audience a man who is an authority on the subject, handled so crudely by the former speaker — a university man at the head of his profession. But he refuses to come forward. He can not face an audi- ence and marshal his thoughts at the same time. It is mortifying. He can marshal them superbly in the quiet of his study, where he puts his ideas in book form, but as a public speaker he is an utter failure. Another man is invited to the platform. He happens to be a lawyer, who profes- sionally needs a pleasing address, fine voice, good flow of words, and strong ideas; his lively, intelligent speech, there- fore, brings a round of applause." 26 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS There is a shine of pride in the eyes of the boys who are planning to be lawyers, so the teacher winds up with, " Every man and every woman ought to be able to speak, as the lawyer spoke ! " If ideas are of primary importance, we ought to help our boys and girls to form opinions and to force out thought; we ought to give them profitable training in developing a good style; we ought to strengthen voices until they can be heard, and insist on the best position. Schools fail in the discharge of their full duty if they ignore these. SELF-CRITICISM As soon as the boy is at home in front of the class, the time has come for him to concentrate not only on what he is saying but on how he is saying it. This is to be done eventually by himself, while speak- ing. It stands to reason that older stu- dents can do it better than younger ones. Certain glaring faults must be corrected as soon as said or done; as, lack of con- cord, common mispronunciations, weak SELF-CRITICISM 27 voice, and bad position. Often a gesture is enough to point out the mistake. If the error has not been explained, take time in class to explain it. The correction of mistakes must be gradual. To correct every error would soon have the boy confused by the multi- tude of mistakes he is directed to over- come. And how he would hate English! The attitude of like or dislike makes a great difference in a boy's work. Such a method of wholesale criticism would be deadening. Criticism, to be help- ful, must be cumulative, not wholesale; constructive, not destructive. With every word of censure ought to come the word of praise; as, ** It was very hard to hear you, John, and those ideas were worth hearing. Practice throwing your voice to the stu- dents in the rear of the room." To another we say, " I like that manly voice and careful pronunciation. How out of keeping are your hands in your pockets, Earl! A clean-cut speech and slouchy position do not go well together, do they?" 28 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS Suggestion can be used very efFectivelj'' with poor students. When we noticed even a trace of something good, we praised it, magnified it. The boy unconsciously tried to live up to our idea. One of the boys from the country was so embarrassed that he fixed his eyes on the ceiling and could not look into the faces of the class. It was painful for him ; it was painful for the class ; it was more than painful for the teacher. It was a problem to solve quickly. One day in the midst of his talk, she spoke to him from her seat in the back of the room. Naturally his eyes dropped to hers. " Keep talking to me, Percy," she said quietly. He did. When he finished, she remarked casually, " How interesting you make it when you catch our eyes! Does he not, boys? " The rest of the class always gallantly back her up ; they seem to see what she is working for and help, too. Percy flushed with pleasure. The next time he talked, she said in a half-reminiscent way, *' I liked the way you looked at us during your last speech. What are you going to SELF-CRITICISM 29 talk about to-day? . . . Catching squir- rels? I want to know all about it, and so do Agnes and Florence. They are not from the country, so let us tell them some- thing they do not know." Percy forced himself to drop his eyes to her several times, and to Agnes and Florence possi- bly once during the talk. It takes years to overcome backward- ness. We must be careful not to increase the timidity. How happy the boy is as he learns body-control, eye-control, hand- control, tongue-control — in a word, self- control ! Towards the end of the first year, pupils learned to hesitate of their own accord and correct mistakes. For instance — " Longfellow wrote ' Evangeline,' * Hi- awatha,' and ' The Courtship of Miles Stand- ish.' They was — they were all long poems." Before the boy attained power to cor- rect himself thus without reminder, we rigidly interrupted him for glaring mis- takes and forced him to hold back ideas, while he recast the sentence. The class 30 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS noticed the improvement in the second version, so that it was a demonstration in English — a sort of laboratory experiment. AN ENGLISH CLUB With one class a pet scheme worked effectively. When we had talks, we often turned the class into a club with a student presiding. The teacher sat in the rear of the room, keeping in card catalogue the good and the bad points of each student. The talks were usually voluntary, as long as possible, thereby forcing the backward ones of their own volition to master their shyness. Criticisms were given from the floor by students rising to state a point of order. Parliamentary procedure is no mean acquirement. As each boy served in the chair in turn, power to preside and to draw the other students to the floor was cultivated. It was a surprise to find that, without help from a grown-up, boys and girls themselves were able to exhaust the contents of a chapter, each one drifting to the topic that interested him most. AN ENGLISH CLUB 81 We always required the chapter to be outlined on paper, not only for the prac- tice in analysis, but as proof that the student had done his night work. As one by one his favorite topics were given, the boy was forced to search diligently in mind for the minor topics. Working in league with the presiding officer, we helped the latter to draw out the timid or to censure the poorly-prepared. To manage such club work, a teacher has to be in close sympathy with every student, especially to draw out the poor ones and to induce the naturally lazy to exert themselves. Each student must do his share. And he ought to do it volun- tarily, if possible — for the tonic effect. From varied experience in teaching both boys and girls in general courses and in college preparatory, we found a better, more conscientious response if we some- times threw the running of affairs into their hands. The teacher's own hands were amply filled, playing " Mentor." In a period of about forty minutes we had no trouble getting twenty-five " one- minute talks," but there was no lagging. 32 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS The Club in Working " To-day we shall have the club," is announced with a smile. " Scott, will you please preside." A little boy with a wide, white collar takes the chair at the desk. He looks so much like the John Milton whom the Cambridge students, on account of his delicate features, nicknamed " Our Lady of Christ's" (Christ College), that he makes us think of him as Young Milton. Young Milton takes up the gavel (a small croquet mallet donated by a junior) and speaks: " The club will come to order. We have talks on the life of Whittier. Who will come first? " This work comes during the first year; they have outlined the chapter for night work. An extreme sample of criticism is here given to show parliamentary proced- ure. "Mr. President!" "Mr. President!" Two boys are on their feet. " Mr. MacLean," announces Moderator Milton. How punctiliously formal boys are! AN ENGLISH CLUB 33 The other boy sits down and MacLean comes to the front of the room. He begins : " Whittier is remembered best for his poem * Snowbound.' It was written " " Mr. President, I rise to a point of order," says a boy, who has risen to his feet. " State the point." *' The speaker is not standing in the best position. He is on one foot and catches hold of the desk." " Stand farther back, Mr. MacLean, and be more upright," suggests the chair- man. " It was written about eighteen hundred and sixty-four and describes the fam'ly as they liv " Two boys jump to their feet. " State your point," says Milton to the lirst. " He mispronounced fam-i-ly. Omitted the i/' 3 S4 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS " Don't run syllables together, Mr. MacLean." " and described his fam-i-ly when they lived together at the farm. There was the father, the mother " Four lively members have risen to call for concord. The class is on the qui vive, alert and eager-eyed, practicing grammar. MacLean catches himself before the chairman speaks, " — There were the father, the mother, the uncle, the aunt, the school teacher, the elder sister, the younger sister and that queer woman who chased arovmd Europe and " Nearly half the class are on their feet. The leader has decided which of the ten " Mr. President " 's deserves recognition. So Allan Black delivers his criticism rapid fire : " * Who chased around Europe ' is slang and it also isn't true " " Don't talk so fast," reminds Milton. " It makes a poor ending to his talk. AN ENGLISH CLUB 35 sort of a come-down. And weren't those people rather awkwardly strung out? " The chairman nods. MacLean is on his feet the minute the critic sits down. " Mr. Chairman," he asks, " is it ele- gant language to say ' strung out ' ? " Then he sits down. " Mr. Chairman," speaks the critic pluckily, " I think ' strung out ' is all right. His was a formal talk; my re- marks were informal. ' Strung out ' is also a figure, suggesting a washline with the father, mother, uncle, and aunt dan- gling from it." For two minutes a hot and heavy dis- cussion clears the air of any sleep germs that may hover near. Boys particularly love such chances to apply their principles to one another. They do it good-humor- edly and are careful to avoid mistakes. It sometimes happens that there are remarks like the following: *' Mr. Auxer, you may have the floor." '* I am not prepared." " What shall he do, members of the club?" They sit quiet for a moment, then a 36 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS youth who is also on the " not prepared " list occasionally, rises: " I move that he see Miss Bolenius after school and make up the work." " Second it," says another. " All in favor say ' aye.' " A suppressed chorus of " ayes." " Mr. Auxer," says Chairman Milton, " you may report at 3:10. and don't let it happen again." And it probably does not for a long time. Is it not funny that poor students are always hardest on one another ! Here is another example : " Miss Colton, you may speak." " I can't think of anything." . " Have you done your night work? " "Yes, sir." " Then you may open your theme book and look up a topic." In a few minutes Miss Colton, an ex- ceedingly bashful girl, speaks. The chairman urges her to come forward first next time before topics are exhausted. This club method made a Game of Grammar, where before it had been a Bore. It gave a practical use for rules TESTS IN ORAL COMPOSITION 37 and rhetorical principles. Students like self-management; the club method offers that and often arouses a better response than the most efficient teaching can secure. It also seems as if they are re- citing before a jury of their peers. TESTS IN ORAL COMPOSITION You may be surprised to find examina- tions in oral composition, but they are very necessary and very helpful. Classes can be tested in three or four ways. Impromptu debates were quickly arranged, whenever the sub j ect presented two sides. These tested the student's ability to marshal the ideas of the lesson and to meet opposing arguments. It was a popular plan to have im- promptu talks when we had a visitor. The first time, we were a bit fearful of the re- sult. The night work had not been in the line of oral composition, therefore each student had quickly to search his mind for an interesting subject to talk about. Were we not proud of that class ! Like a man, and to a man, they came forward, 38 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS while the visitor and the teacher sat quietly in the back of the room. Twenty spoke on subjects vitally interesting, no criticism of any kind offered. That was a rule in these tests. Then there was a lull. " Ah, Lucian, you are ready, I see," said the chairman. Now Lucian really was not, but he went forward and gave a good talk. Another lull. Two girls were dumb with embar- rassment. The presiding officer laughed to relieve the situation, then spoke as if talking confidentially: " Mary does not know whether to go first, or Martha. Suppose this time Mary goes first." Several boys smiled, but Mary spoke and Martha, too, both nice talks. Then came of their own accord the two most timid boys. How proud we were! And they were (secretly, of course) proud of themselves ! Another Game played with some classes ran like this. We had slips of paper with a question on each slip. These a boy handed around in a hat. After each had chosen one, five minutes were given to TESTS IN ORAL COMPOSITION S9 think out and write down a brief outline. This forcing of opinion is good. Here are some sample questions : What book have you recently enjoyed? What kind of books do you like best? What is the easiest thing you can cook? What profession would you like to enter? What accomplishment do you admire most? In each outline they tried to tell why. It is a good thing to rake over the brain field, searching out and arranging facts. To do it quickly counts for much. With seniors, reports on outside read- ing were the most satisfactory tests. These ran from five to twenty minutes in length. Mrs. Bolton's Poor Boys Who Became Famous, and Girls Who Became Famous (in fact, all of her books) , Thayer's Turn- ing Points in Successful Careers and Men Who Win, and books of that sort, offer splendid material. While the report was being given, the class took full notes and thus got the preparation necessary to take notes of lectures in college. The speaker himself learned to hold in mind an outline of his address and to give it in as good form as possible. 40 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS It was also good practice for certain students to give talks before other classes. The younger students then saw what progress the senior had made and the senior in turn practiced on new and criti- cal material. One of our honor boys came back for an afternoon during his sophomore year in college and gave in several half-hour talks to our students an account of how a course in extempore speaking is managed in col- lege. It was a practical lesson for him and at the same time showed our boys that the college and the preparatory school in the same big city were working along the same lines. Efficiency is the great watchword to- day. Let us give our boys and girls, by practical training in oral composition, the key to efficient speech ! SUMMARY Chapter II brings forcefully to mind the question, Do our schools bring out a well-rounded development? It urges the teacher to regard the boy's manner in SUMMARY 41 speech, as well as his words, for a pleasing address is a valuable business and social asset. Therefore, it insists that the suc- cessful teacher is the one who brings the boy out in all points. It shows that criti- cism must be cumulative and constructive, rather than destructive. By the use of suggestion it shows how such improvement can be made with slow pupils. In a word, the chapter appeals to the teacher to let the students teach themselves; to show them how to criticise themselves, thus making them independent of the teacher. By introducing voluntary response, it puts into the boys' hands a splendid means for developing will power. Furthermore, instead of following the traditional procedure in the classroom, the club method brings out a brisk procedure that is conducive to mental activity. The cooperation, the relaxation, the buoyancy, the moving-about the room, all tend to quicken interest; and if they quicken inter- est, they are in line with the best teaching. Criticism by members of the club, instead of by the teacher, furnishes a daily prac- tice in Grammar and Rhetoric. It demon- 42 TALKS WITH OLDER STUDENTS sirates the use of rules and laws of effi- cient speech J tedious to the learner. The chapter shows how actual preparation in college methods can be given by using the by-products in the classroom. The best test of a method is its success with poor students; the good students will succeed in spite of a method. In conclusion, the sample lesson of the club in working actually shows how such a method is used. It demands improvement, accomplish- ment, actual progress towards the ideal, definite improvement in speech, noticeable hy others in the class. In a word, it ap- peals for efficiency, for such English training as will be needed in life. CHAPTER III What to Avoid in Oral Composition Failure in oral composition may arise in managing an entire class or in dealing with the individual. Sometimes very little things turn the tide and change what had promise of brilliant success to dismal failure. Pitfalls lie in the way of the yoimg teacher, waiting to trap inexpe- rienced feet. There are two ways to deal with pitfalls of any kind: first, mark them with a danger sign; secondly, if the person has fallen in, show a way out. This chapter, then, will deal largely with " don'ts." DO not fail to hear from all of the CLASS The great slogan of our public schools is, " Every boy his chance! " To manage oral composition successfully, therefore, the English teacher must have executive ability, the sort of generalship that will bring every student to the floor. There 43 44 WHAT TO AVOID must be no monopoly by the glib speakers, no partiality on the teacher's side. It is easily possible to give twenty-five talks in a period of forty minutes. If criticism is offered, it takes longer; two days may be needed to go round. Waste no time getting speakers to the floor. By ingenuity keep the talks volun- tary as long as possible; there is a moral tonic in a boy's deliberate choice to do something. If you have turned the class into a club, allow no dilly-dallying. A quiet haste and minimum of friction will bring results. So much for the students that are ready to do their part. " How about the timid, the backward, the uninterested? " some one asks. " Shall they be allowed to drift? " " Never! Use every trace of tact you have, every possible appeal, every legiti- mate trick, to bring them into the work." In previous chapters have been illus- trated several ways to induce students to take part. It is necessary to feel with the backward and the slow; to have that deep sympathy that makes them know you understand. One must play " watch- DO NOT SACRIFICE THE LESSON 45 dog," too, and see that there are no un- necessary quibbles, no " sneaking " out of talks, no wasting of the time of the class. In our experience, it is a pleasure to state, we have found an almost universal interest and effort, DO NOT SACRIFICE THE LESSON TO ORAL COMPOSITION The inexperienced teacher tends to run to extremes. If she does not know how to manage this work in connection with the regular English lesson, she will soon find in her zeal for oral composition that the other features of English work are suffering. " How are you to avoid that? " some one asks. " Easily," is the answer. " Make use of the subject-matter of the regular les- son, which was night work. A series of talks on a chapter of American Literature (for instance, the life of Longfellow) is nothing more than a series of topical reci- tations, delivered from the front of the room instead of from the seats. " Let pupils do the searching out of 46 WHAT TO AVOID topics for discussion, instead of the teacher. Too long, indeed, has the teacher been the one to go to school, to prepare lessons, to search out questions — and to get the results of such mental activity. Why not let the boys and the girls get the same results ! Let them teach themselves under your guidance. " Anything that is to be recited can be used as material for ' one-minute talks.' Correlate them vrith the other lessons if you can. Reports in history, civics, even chemistry and physics, can be given this way." Oral composition is not to supplant written themes. Both have their legiti- mate place, and, as we have pointed out, both can be used without lessening the work in the classics or in the text-book. DO NOT FAIL TO AROUSE INTEREST " What's the use of all this stuff! " ex- claims a boy on the first day in the Eng- lish room. " I'm going in for engineer- ing!" Now is the time to score point one. Instead of delivering a didactic harangue AROUSE INTEREST 47 on the value of literature, it is more adroit to talk casually about conversation and good story-telling — ^to start preaching English on his level. Boys soon grasp the fact that a clever conversationalist is in demand socially. Telling a joke well is an art no boy de- spises. From joke-telling it is only a step to toast-making. Most young people have a secret thrill when they read newspaper accounts of big banquets and " celebrities speechifying." Some day they may be doing that, too! And speeches in class meeting — ^they had not thought of them! True, " the fellow who can say his say out in the most forceful way will win ! " Yes, they begin to see. " And salesmanship," we suggest. " Why those people have to have the * gift of gab ' ! " blurts out a first-monther. " And doctors, lawyers, merchants — — " we begin, as if counting off buttons. "Why, boys! you can not help but see that talking well is so much money in a man's pocket and credit to his name." " You bet! " says the above boy, more forcibly than elegantly. 48 WHAT TO AVOID " We'll put him out " — and four older boys grab him for expulsion from the English room — " he's using slang! " If we make students see that a pre- possessing appearance, a pleasant address, and a readj^ flow of words, help them to secure "a job " more quickly and to ad- vance in the same " job " more rapidly, Tom, Dick, and Harry immediately affix a financial value to the English period, as well as a cultural. DO NOT CHOOSE UNINTERESTING SUBJECTS To kill interest in " one-minute talks " assign such subjects as Patience, Charity, and Nature, Only lively, timely subjects will pass muster with a group of sixteen- year-olds. Boys and girls are in their colthood, puppy days, kitten age, when the great Spirit of Play is king. Why not develop the boy's point of view? and the girl's? Is it not possible, highly probable, that on subjects within their ken, they are more at home than you ! Then, since more at home, what they have to say has weight. DO NOT EMPHASIZE ONE PHASE 49 Let the boy exult in his fishing and hunting and camping; let him give minute details about kite-flying and aeroplane- making. There is a great middle ground of subject-matter, interesting to boy, girl, and grown-up alike. Find the hobbies of the class and cater to them. DO NOT EMPHASIZE ONE PHASE OF THE TALK AT THE EXPENSE OF THE OTHERS One can not expect perfection, but one can look for a reasonably well-rounded development. In the second chapter we went to some length in showing that all four phases of a " one-minute talk " were important. We teachers have our hobbies, our likes and dislikes, our special aptitudes. If one is particularly fond of expression, there is a strong temptation to dwell mostly on voice and delivery. Another teacher may be a faddist about style, and sacrifice on that altar voice, delivery, and ideas. There are not many world-astounding 4 50 WHAT TO AVOID ideas slumbering under the cap of a six- teen-year-old boy, but there may be count- less original ideas and odd expressions. Therefore, it is well to keep the Four Track development constantly in mind. DO NOT ENCOURAGE " HOT AIR " How many teachers, when asked a ques- tion they did not know, rather than admit ignorance, felt all around the subject, punched it gently in the sides, scurried around the right flank and wound up with a stab somewhere near where they started ! They may have felt better, but probably no one was deceived, — they did not know what they were talking about. Students are very much the same when they are not prepared, that is, if they have " the nerve," a grown-up quality. They flounder about and indulge in " hot air," often to the admiring wonder of the class. We all know the bluffer ! What will prevent bluffing? There are two ways. Choose subjects of vital interest and within the reach of the bluffer, and require outlines. DO NOT DRILL OUTLINES BLINDLY 51 DO NOT DRILL OUTLINES BLINDLY UNTIL STUDENTS HATE THEM The " do " and the " don't " are some- times very closely joined. Outline work must not be made irksome. If students see that a well-constructed outline is to serve them, they do not often feel that it has enslaved them. An occasional impromptu outline in five minutes at the beginning of the period is good. When we wished talks thought out and did not care to use the substance of the night's assignment, we also gave as night work the outline of a talk. A teacher must develop a keen sensi- tiveness, so as to keep all lines of work carefully in hand, for she is driving more than a pair, — and not tandem, but abreast. DO NOT DISCOURAGE BY TOO MUCH CON- DEMNATION OR SPOIL BY TOO MUCH PRAISE It is a good plan to praise and censure equally. Too much censure makes a pupil self-conscious, stubborn, or disgusted; too much praise, on the other hand, makes him 52 WHAT TO AVOID conceited and satisfied with what he has done. They are the Scylla and Charybdis in teaching. Discrimination must be used in the amount of praise and blame. Wholesale criticisms deaden; so does wholesale praise. " John, your voice is fine, so strong and well-modulated. Keep on and you will make an orator," we commend. Then we add, *' But your position is very awkward. Hold your shoulders up and stand erect. We must cure that I " Now John has two things to work for. He does not rest on his oars, not he ! He tries even harder. Why, he might make the contest team! The criticism of his position was so definite that he can im- prove in that. How he straightened up involuntarily, whenever he saw a teacher in the halls ! DO NOT LET CORRECTION GO IN ONE EAR AND OUT THE OTHER The fault of Sodom and Gomorrah! This would not happen with a class un- less the teacher were very careless. It LET THE CLASS GET BENEFIT 53 might happen with a single pupil, even if the teacher was a brilliant success. Such cases, however, can often be cured in time, as most abnormal cases can, if dealt with rightly. Keep a record of mistakes' and good points that registers, as it were, the liter- ary temperature of each student. The words of criticism can be written down by each pupil below his outline of the talk. Demand eradication of these same faults. By the use of suggestion the pupil can be led to overcome many of them. A good plan is to file away in card- board covers all of the written work in English, including the ground-work out- lines of talks; that is, let the student do the filing. The teacher can examine these each month and note the improvement. DO NOT FAIL TO LET THE CLASS GET THE BENEFIT AS WELL AS THE SPEAKEE In our thousand years of education so much time has been unused by the rest of the class when the individual student was reciting. Why not have team play? 54 WHAT TO AVOID While a student is giving his topical recitation (or talk), there are at least four different things that the class can do while they listen to him. First, they can take critical notes of the way he is talking, thus developing their critical faculties. They can be turned into a club and prac- tice parliamentary law by rising to a point of order and criticising the talk. This prepares for literary society work. They can train their power of analysis and learn to take notes of college lectures by outlining the substance of the talks. The business students ought to try their short- hand. Finally, their power of attention can be tested by five-minute summaries at the end of the period. It is wise to cultivate team play and combinations of work. Correlation pays. DO NOT BE DISCOURAGED Theory and practice in oral composi- tion go together; they can not be divorced. As teachers take up serious work in " one- minute talks " in their classes, they will find a great satisfaction in the way stu- SUMMARY 55 dents develop, that is, if they themselves seek the tact, the sympathy, the liveliness, the enthusiasm, and the knowledge, to draw out results. Oral composition demands much fer- tility of thought, ingenuity of method, and systematic perseverance, if it is to succeed. It is worth working for, however, as suc- cess comes, and joy with it. SUMMARY Chapter III shows definitely how to combine various kinds of English work with oral composition; how to combine both praise and blame; and how to get actual eradication of faults. It urges the cultivation of the pla^/ spirit, the use of team play. It insists on teaching from the boys^ level. The pupils^ plans and ideas must be made the starting point. The teacher must become a boy or a girl to see difficulties from the learner's stand- point. The chapter appeals for breadth in teaching, rather than onesidedness, and the use of all possible resources to attain the same. It emphasizes the connection 56 WHAT TO AVOID of such work in oral composition with daily life, by attaching a social, business, financial value to effective speech. It urges attention to classroom atmosphere, to the spirit of the teacher. By pointing out actual pitfalls it tries to guide. Last of all, it pleads for the pupils to get the results that the teacher has taken for him- self by pampering his pupils intellectually, by doing the work they should do them- selves. It urges sensible use of outlines as a thought- clarifier. CHAPTER IV The Choice of a Subject A LAW of affinity works in rhetoric as well as in life. The right subject attracts the boy or the girl and leads to a profitable further acquaintance. The subject is the germ of the talk or of the theme. The person who senses its value is the wide-awake teacher or the interested student. Since the medium in which it is to gi'ow is the gray matter of the student's brain, suit the subject to the culture of the young mind. WAYS or TJsn^G ^''one-minute talks ■'■' In four ways we used these " one- minute talks " effectively. In the first place, a talk was occasionally written out, memorized, and given in class or in the literary society. Since the gathering of ideas and perfecting of style were done beforehand, the student concentrated on his position, his voice, and his gestures in 57 58 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT delivery. He had a chance to work on oratory and expression. Such one- or two-minute talks can be made very useful numbers on the literary society program, because they offer a field for the young and inexperienced pupil. In the next kind of talk the student pre- pared his subject-matter in outline; as, Chaucer and' Johnson very unlike: I In description of persons, (1) Chaucer's are individuals, clear- cut, easily pictured. (2) Johnson's are types, too general, hazy. II In use of words, (1) Chaucer's use of plain, simple words, easily understood by the people of his time. (2) Johnson's use of ponderous high- sounding Latin derivatives, hard to follow. In giving this talk he not only concen- trated on delivery and position, but on style, on the phrasing of the sentences. How quickly the boy felt the disad- "ONE-MINUTE TALKS" 69 vantage of a limited vocabulary! He began to pay attention to the structure of sentences, particularly if by diagrams, like the following, the various molds were placed before his eyes. TOPIC STATEMENT REASON 1 REASON 2 BALANCED SENTENCE (Contrasts) n " ' S REASON 3 > c (A PI REASON 4 . REASON 5 . In these two methods plenty of time was allowed for the assembling of ideas. The next two ways, however, increased the pupil's power to do his own thinking. At the beginning of the period we announced : " Five minutes now to outline a subject for a talk." All the better if they had not expected the announcement! This now meant quick thinking ; first, for the theme or sub- ject, then, for its expansion. When the 60 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT class became accustomed to the exercise, they put their outlines in shape in five minutes. At the beginning it was wise to write a dozen suggestive subjects on the board for the slow thinkers to choose from, if their own minds were barren. They were urged not to take these subjects except as a last resort. While they were thinking and writing we passed rapidly from one to the other, encouraging and suggesting. For all of the above, subjects outside of the text-book offered the best material. Text-book matter could always be used in the fourth method — entirely ex- temporaneous " one-minute talks." These were nothing more than topical recitations given from the front of the room. A more difficult task and a finer test of the student's control of himself, his brain, and his tongue, were talks " hot off the reel " — no subject from the text-book or out- lined beforehand. This showed how fer- tile was his brain, how facile his tongue in throwing ideas into suitable expres- sion, how easy his manner, and how pleas- ing his voice. "ONE-MINUTE TALKS" 61 So much for the method of expression, now for the length of the talk. With be- ginners we limited the talks rigidly to one minute because time was consumed mak- ing suggestions, persuading the timid, and explaining. With older students one minute was also advisable because it in- sured every boy his chance. Much can be said in one minute. The famous Gettys- burg speech can be delivered in less than two minutes. Longer reports, from five to twenty minutes in length, were called for from the seniors. In a previous chapter we referred to certain biographical matter in which separate chapters furnished an abmidance of splendid material. It was without doubt a tax on the teacher's in- genuity to work in such reports, but they amply paid in results gained. We always had them when the class work and the night preparation could profitably give way to them. The rest of the class in- variably took full notes of the reports, thus getting the training for college note- taking. Many a boy and many a girl will thank the teacher for familiarizing them 62 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT with college methods. If the preparatory school prepares for college properly, it ought to prepare not only the required material, but the methods in use in college work. HELPING THE STUDENTS TO THINK ^A SAMPLE LESSON " What on earth shall I talk about? " is a cry we all hear. " I haven't a thought in my head! " " There are nine thought-producers I can think of," we begin. " Suppose you write them down for constant reference as we draw them from the class. Who will give one source of ideas? " Several hands are up. " Reading," answers John. " Last week I finished The Young Carthaginian and it told me a lot about Hannibal." " I read The Honorable Peter Stirl- ing/' oiFers another. " It 's a good politi- cal novel. Isn't modern fiction as good as the old classics? " We discuss in a few words what makes a classic and the relative merits of the old classics and modern fiction. Then Mary Gray inquires: HELPING STUDENTS TO THINK 6S " Are not the magazines good read- ing?" After a brief discussion of the kinds and grades of magazines, we decide that the classics, the best modern books, and the best magazines are valuable sources of material. " Don't you learn a lot from using your eyes ? " asks Tom. " What do you call ' using your eyes'? " " Observation," blurts out a boy in the rear. " I wonder how many can describe accurately the walk to school or give a complete picture of study hall?" Some, of course, are sure they can; let them try, and see how soon they are tripped up by a more observant brother. Hold up a picture, then put it away and see how many have the details. " With what do we observe? " " The eyes." The explanation of perception brings the quick remark: " Why, we can observe with all the senses — sight, taste, smell, hearing " We speak for a few minutes on cultiva- 64 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT tion of the senses. How few of us have all the senses well-trained I The class is much interested in an account of various occupations, like tea-tasting, in which the training consists in greatly developing one of the senses. We talk, then, of scientific investigation, laboratory work, and decide that observation is the second great source of ideas. "What else? "we ask. " I learn a lot from Grandpa," says one boy. " He was in the Civil War and at supper we talk about all sorts of battles and things." " Yes, conversation is a profitable source. Do you remember the old phil- osopher who taught his pupils by asking them questions that made them think? " Before the words are spoken, our Greek boy has a hand up. " Socrates," he says proudly. A girl speaks : " Didn't they make more of conversation years ago? The French had salons ^' We speak of the advantage of talking about real things, about getting the facts, as reporters do. HELPING STUDENTS TO THINK 65 " What else? " we insist. Tom speaks: " Some people make up things — stories and books — out of their heads or tell their own experiences." " What do they do when they create those imaginary scenes and characters?" He does not know, so Mary answers: " Imagine! " Down go imagination and experience as great sources, with a eulogy of the powerful imaginations of the world. " Wouldn't a Physics book be a source? " asks a practical boy. " Yes, indeed; and a very authoritative source. In fact, all your text-books are the greatest source of all for you just now." We review the sources: reading, oh- servatiorij conversation, imagination, ex- perience^ text-hooks,. Then comes the next question: "Can you tell me three other devices that will help you to force out thought? " A ready student answers: " Abstracts, or summaries of outside reading." " Making us form opinions by asking us questions," comes from another. 5 66 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT " Keeping a journal," announces Ray- mond solemnly. Summarizing forces a student to dis- criminate and give only the chief facts in the best order. Keeping a journal — if only five minutes a day — forces him to form opinions, to be observant. With some thirty students who followed the suggestion we noticed a great improve- ment in ideas and in quickness in marshal- ling them. We sometimes had little tests in form- ing opinions. We placed on the board five questions for discussion. These were both broad and restricted ; as, " What sense has been most valuable to mankind, and why? ", " Do you think self-govern- ment would be practicable in our school? ", etc. The remarks were always interesting and usually sensible. QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GOOD SUBJECT The old-fashioned type of subject has gone the merry way to everlasting ob- livion. It is obsolete. GOOD SUBJECT 67 In the first place, the subject must suit the audience. In this case it is an audience of school boys. A theological statement of the Eucharist, a medical description of Locomotor Ataxia, or a pedagogical monograph on the Psychology of the Child would be as unsuitable in the class- room as talks on flying kites, trapping, or playing baseball would be in a medical clinic. In the second place, the subject must suit the speaker. That is why a cut-and- dried subject is not so good as individual choice or a range of subjects put on the board or taken from the text-book. A boy interested in mechanics naturally drifts to that kind of subject; a girl would choose something different. The subject ought to be interesting in itself, so that it holds the majority in the class. It ought to be treated from the boy's or the girVs point of view, — ^not from the viewpoint of the grown-up. It ought to contain that elusive quality we call Human Interest; it will, if it holds the majority of the class. 68 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT Finally, it must he restricted to proper bounds. This the class must be taught to do. A SAMPLE LESSON " What are you going to talk about, John? " we ask. " Indians " " Dear me, that will take a long time. You know books have been written on the subject." " With the early settlers," he restricts. " O — h! I see," we put in. " You are going to tell us about the treaties." " No," he says slowly. " I'm going to talk about the way Indians made war on the Colonial settlements." " That's fine! " we compliment. " Do you see, class, he has restricted his sub- ject, first in time (Colonial days rather than the present life on the reservation), then in place (along the Colonial frontier rather than in the far west ) , last in topic ( warfare rather than religion, appearance, etc. ) . That gives him something very definite to talk about and makes it easy to stick to the subject." SUBJECT-MATTER 69 Then the students are given some prac- tice in restricting subjects in different ways; as. Schools : Schools in Greece; Schools in Greece in ancient times; What they studied in the schools of ancient Athens. Schools : Schools in America (Pittsburgh) ; Schools and their literary societies in Pitts- burgh ; Will our society win the contest this year? Schools : Schools to-day in England; Public schools in England to-day; The present day Eton; Queer customs at Eton to-day. SUBJECT-MATTER Draw from the class the great fields of knowledge — science, art, literature, his- tory, nature, biography, religion. It is also well to keep before them that popular 70 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT definition of an educated man : " One who knows something about everything and everything about something." We are too prone to run to speciaHzation with- out the broad foundation. Urge them to broaden their field of knowledge by read- ing, thinking, conversation, and observa- tion. For beginners, personal experiences make a good starting-point. " Tell who, when, where, and what happened," comes the direction. Then we outline on the board: Introductory sentence — who, when, where; Development — necessary details ; Climax — point of the story; Conclusion — how it turned out. Exercises in paragraph development are good: giving the topic sentence and letting students develop by details, by causes, by results, by specific instances. Recounting jokes and anecdotes is great fun and teaches dialogue. Descriptions of various processes, trades, occupations, etc., afford training in observation. Re- SUBJECT-MATTER 71 ports on synonyms are profitable, as are paraphrases and talks based on the classics studied. Anything and everything that comes to hand is available material for " one^minute talks." Vocational themes offer incentive for the best sort of work. In the first place, pupils know what they are talking about ; they are familiar with the processes or objects from actual observation. Next, they feel that they are talking of some- thing that might be of actual value to them in later life. In this intensely utili- tarian age it is of little surprise that pupils would follow the tendency of their fathers. Subjects, therefore, taken from work in manual training and domestic science can be used, and should be used by teachers extensively. The school paper can be used as a spur to urge from the students their best efforts. Such themes will be concerned with school life, with student affairs, and with student conditions. Is it any wonder that the things which lie nearest to the heart of the student body will be best per- formed — as pleasures, not as tasks? 72 CHOICE OF A SUBJECT It is the near and the familiar that interest the boy and the girl. They are passing through the stage when things of the senses make greatest appeal. There- fore, in choice of subject let us see to it that the objective is presented, not the subjective. English composition has been held back for years by the grip of the literary subject demanded by the college entrance examinations. The time has come, however, when the domination of this bookishness has been thrown off. In oral composition especially should the ordinary problems of life, the ordinary pleasures, the ordinary events be given the light of discussion. Every-day English deals with every- day subjects. Help the boy and the girl to find the interesting in common life and you make them more interesting in their conversation. That, after all is said, is the prime object of oral composition. SUMMAEY Chapter IV gives practical suggestions as to length, kind, and subject-matter of talks. It shows the benefits of the various SUMMARY 73 kinds of talks. It encourages correlation. It insists that the subjects must be well- defined, and that the English teacher must stamp out faults in style by training the thought. Lack of clearness in style is due to hazy thinking. The teacher must therefore attack causes rather than re- sults. The chapter further puts into the pupil's hand a fine scheme of self -improve- ment by urging the keeping of a journal. It recommends outlines, summaries, etc., as a means of clarifying, organizing, and briefly expressing ideas. Best of all, it helps the flabby-minded to form opinions of their own — to become more than human oysters. The sample lesson shows again the teacher drawing material from the class. CHAPTER V The Debate in English and History " 'Tis, too ! " " 'Tisn't ! " "'Twasn't so!" " 'Twas ! " "Twill be!" T won't ! . . . And I'll prove it ! " (( 9 Something argumentative is born in almost every human being. That love " to argufy," to reason things out, ought to be used in the classroom. A good debate arouses interest, quickens thought, and clarifies the same thought; it quickens and improves the quality of expression. The American spirit of true sport — ^to win for the fun of the tiling — is encouraged. A new use is given to classroom suggestions: that is, power to convince and to win others over to another view of the subject. 74 PARAGRAPH DEBATES 75 WITH YOUNG STUDENTS PARAGRAPH DEBATES It is by no means necessary to hold argumentation off for senior year. With young students — ^the first year in high school, for instance — paragraph state- ments of reasons should receive much attention. Such statements come up con- stantly in conversation and in letters. A paragraph limit means one phase of the topic ; therefore, unity is enforced. Let the proposition be stated in the first sen- tence and be developed step by step in the following statements. Rhetorical quali- ties can be applied to the miniature pro- duction as well as to the long debate. The following list offers available topics for debate or criticism: 1. Inventors are more useful to a com- munity than writers. 2. Ought a boy go into debt for a college education ? 3. Study of a modern language is prefer- able to study of Latin or Greek. 4. A knowledge of French is of more use than a knowledge of German. 76 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE 5. Most young people should not read the newspapers. 6. Winter is preferable to summer. 7. Composition is more valuable to a stu- dent than arithmetic or science. 8. Interclass contests should take the place of interscholastic contests. 9. The country boy has greater advantages than the city boy. 10. Libraries and art galleries should be open on Sundays. 11. A year of travel abroad is equal to a year of college. 12. The honor system in examinations should be adopted. 13. Which should this city have — a public library or a public park? 14. It is advisable for two students to study together. 15. Secret societies in high schools are desirable. 16. Canoeing is more enjoyable than sailing. 17. Golf is preferable to tennis. 18. Every school should have a literary society. 19. Argumentation is of more practical value than exposition. PARAGRAPH DEBATES 77 20. For the boy who does not go to college, the commercial course is preferable to the college preparatory. 21. Football is preferable to baseball. 22. Term examinations should be abolished. 23. Faculty supervision of the school paper is desirable. 24. Two sessions in the high school are better than one. 25. Should a good student be excused from examinations ? 26. Faculty supervision of athletics is desirable. 27. The elective system should be used more extensively in high schools. 28. The school letter should be awarded for good scholarship as well as for proficiency in athletics. 29. Students should report cheating. 30. A vacation should have a profitable interest. 31. Student government is desirable. 32. Drawing is of more use than music. S3. Every school should have an orchestra. 34. Vocal and instrumental music should be taught in the public schools. 35. Betting is wrong. 78 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE 36. Military tactics should be taught in high schools. 37. Roadside advertisements should be prohibited. 38. College entrance examinations should be abandoned for a system of certification from the preparatory schools. 39. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" should be ex- cluded from the school library. 40. A sane Fourth of July, without fire- works, is desirable. 41. The airship as a passenger craft is a possibility. 42. High school students should be for- bidden to smoke. 43. An orator in a city has more influence than a journalist. 44. Good roads were the first need of the pioneer. 45. Nature has exerted the greatest in- fluence in the location of cities. 46. A college education pays. 47. Training in citizenship should be given in the public schools. 48. Does prohibition reduce crime? 49. The microscope has done more for science than the telescope. HOW TO PROCEED 79 50. A liberal education should precede the professional. 51. Should a novel teach something ? 52. State supervision of private schools is desirable. HOW TO PROCEED Divide the class according to sides. It pays to seat them separately, if you can manage it quietly. Appoint a speaker for the period to serve as chairman, and let him call for talks from one side and then from the other. It is well to give a short talk on how to judge the debates. " Divide a sheet of theme paper into five columns. Over the first print speaker J then over the others in succession voice, delivery, style, ideas. As each stu- dent talks, insert under the respective columns, P, F, or G, which stand for Poor, Fair, and Good. In awarding decisions, then, we will coimt ideas 60 per cent., style 20 per cent., delivery 10 per cent., and voice 10 per cent. Add up and you get 100 per cent. Any other scheme of percentages would do. We shall see who come out best all around. It will be lots of funl" 80 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE Then follow rapid-fire the affirmative and negative reasons, given with much zeal. Let me insert a sample page of criticism taken at random. Speaker Voice 10 Per cent. Delivery 10 Per cent. Style 20 Per cent. Ideas 60 Per cent. Smythe . . . . . F 5 P 2 F 10 G 60 Atkins . G 10 G 10 P 4 F 30 Wentz . P 2 P 2 P 4 F SO Henty . F 5 F 5 G 20 G 60 Fairchild . . . . F 5 G 10 G 20 G 60 It is an easy matter to add per cents and find that Fairchild leads with 95 per cent., Henty follows with 90 per cent., and then come Smythe with 77 per cent., Atkins with 54 per cent., and Wentz with 38 per cent. It is a good way to make students appreciate all that goes to make the good debater. For Good we usually took full per cent., for Fair one half, and for Poor one-fifth. PARAGRAPH DEBATES IN HISTORY Paragraph debates are very practicable in history, where a wealth of material sug- gests for review such subjects; as, DEBATES IN HISTORY 81 1. Aristides was a greater statesman than Themistocles. 2. Homer has done more to perpetuate Greek ideals than Miltiades. 3. The training at Athens was better than the training at Sparta. 4. Greek history is more enjoyable than Roman history. 5. Alexander's expedition was more of a feat than Hannibal's. 6. Greece has contributed more to the modern world than Rome. 7. Would you have joined forces with Caesar or Pompey? 8. Ought Brutus to have followed the ad- vise of Cassius ? 9. Nero was guilty of burning Rome. 10. Was Antony wiser than Brutus.^ 11. The faults of Coriolanus outweighed his virtues. 12. Was the assassination of Caesar justifi- able? 13. Hannibal was as great a general as Caesar. 14. Was Augustus a greater emperor than Trajan.'' 82 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE 15. Was the establishment of the empire wise 16. The plebeian secession was justifiable. 17. The Roman matron played a more im- portant part in history than the Greek woman. 18. The American Indian was unjustly treated. 19- The primary object of the Civil War was to free the slaves. 20. The purchase of the Philippines was a political mistake. 21. The Spanish- American war should have been prevented. 22. Has war been the greatest civilizer ? 23- Arbitration between nations is desirable. (The above topics are good material for criticism.) Debate offers an excellent scheme for review, because it hits several birds with one stone. It rearranges facts ; it develops expression; it forces a preference, an opinion; it intensely interests. DECIDING PAEAGKAPH DEBATES The wise teacher will often outline on the blackboard in parallel columns the pro and con arguments, as given. This shows students how to balance and weigh the DECIDING PARAGRAPH DEBATES 83 statements, throw out the worthless, and by eancelhng those that remain reach a fair conclusion. The young mind is prone to stick dog- matically to its own idea. It must be taught to modify, to yield, to accept a better opinion. The young student is apt to associate arguments with the per- sonality of the one who makes them. He will vote for John's debate, because " John's a good fellow! " Facts must be stripped of all personality. The following parallel outlines are taken from a debate on " Which is more desirable for a place of residence, the City or the Country? " The City The Country fModern CNatural scenery 1 (^conveniences (^Beauty (Theatres _ fPure air Health ( Amusements (^ (Best schools ^ f Pure, cheap food { Education ( [Churches ^ ( Outdoor employment Health (.Religion ( TMusical f Animal ladvantages '{ life 84 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE PAEAGRAPH DEBATES IN LITERARY SOCIETY It is a practical plan to break in new material — ^a young student — by placing him on the debate question, not as leader, but under the heading of General De- bate, to be limited to one point of view and to one minute. This familiarizes the beginner with debating methods and lessens his fear of the platform. His work on the paragraph unit prepares him to tackle a longer assignment of units, — which is the regular debate. It is well to insist that a paragraph debate be as carefully outlined as the longer brief. For the beginner it is just as big an undertaking. It should also be written up and memorized before pre- sentation in society, as that enables him to concentrate, while on the platform, on voice, delivery, and gesture. As soon as possible dispense with the writing up and memorizing, so that there is more spon- taneity. The general debaters can confer, and choose topics for argument. This prevents encroaching upon each other's territory. Let there be two decisions, one for the chief debaters and the other for PARAGRAPHS OF REFUTATION 85 the general debaters. These will some- times be different. PARAGRAPHS OF REFUTATION To shatter an opponent's argument strengthens the student's own debate. A profitable exercise can be introduced to show the value of such refutation. Direct students to outline points on both affirma- tive and negative sides of the question, then to break down as much as possible the points on both sides, by stating ob- jections, impossibilities, impracticality, or whatever lessens the weight of the original argument. The value of statistics and quotations from authorities can be dis- cussed. In dealing with paragraphs of refutation it is easy to arouse interest in kinds of argument, in such terms as in- ductive, deductive, analogy, circum- stantial evidence, precedent, sign, hear- say, direct reasoning, indirect reasoning. Above all, do not confuse by introducing such terms until the class is ripe for them. Let it, if possible, gradually lead up to the terms. 86 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE HOW TO PREPARE A LONG DEBATE " I'm on for a debate. How shall I go about it? " This is a sensible question from the student who finds himself on the pro- gram of the literary society for the big debate. Practical suggestions should be given to the classes and to the literary society. " In the first place, the question must be stated in proper form, — as a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question. The subject should present two sides, and the terms should be clearly understood by both debaters, to avoid unnecessary quibbling." " Last week," breaks in John, " they were arguing different questions. That's what I told Andrews! " " The material should be gathered to- gether and thought out. If notes are taken, it is wise to observe authorities carefully. Don't plagiarize. Public libraries have so man}^ college briefs on hand, that it is a simple matter to get such material, if the student is foolish enough to cheat himself. HOW TO PREPARE A LONG DEBATE 87 " The brief diiFers from an ordinary- outline in having complete sentences. In the introduction, state the proposition and explain what is to be proved. Then tell your method of procedure, — just exactly what you undertake to prove. In the short-story or the essay we conceal our outline structure, but in the debate we do just the opposite. You can readily see that the audience can follow your argu- ments more satisfactorily if you take them into your confidence and tell them before- hand the main points of your discussion. These are called main issues. Divide your discussion into several main points or phases of the sub j ect, the fewer the better. Let the audience know from the beginning exactly what they are. In every para- graph put your topical matter first. " It is easier to listen," admits one of the girls, " if you know what the speaker is driving at. It 's very tiresome when points don't get anywhere." " Indeed it is ! Eliminate from the brief all material not strictly on the sub- ject, — ^that gives a unified impression. Arrange your sub-points in a cumulative 88 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE order, remembering, however, to start with something important. The emphatic positions, as you know, are the beginning and the end, — ^to catch interest and to leave the impression. Your arguments should resemble the links of a chain, fitting together but not of same size. To strengthen coherence, such phrases as, in the first place, next we say, then, too, and lastly, act as tiny links binding the big ones together. Look at Burke's famous speech and see these things for yourselves. " The refutation is usually placed before the last point of the discussion ; sometimes, however, it is better to introduce such ma- terial whenever the objection might come up in the minds of the hearers. The con- clusion drives home an appeal for the arguments made in the discussion. It is the peroration. It is usually well to give a resume of the main arguments." " I've noticed those summaries at the end," volunteers John. " I should think they would help the judges, too." " Read Mark Antony's address over the dead body of Csesar and see how he HOW TO PREPARE A LONG DEBATE 89 gives his reasons very quickly, then plunges into the appeal, — to the pity, the curiosity, the gratitude, and finally the vengeance of the mob." The class has been studying " Julius Cffisar," and there- fore sees the full force. Some one asks about style. " The style of the debate can be strengthened by introducing interroga- tory, exclamatory, and imperative sen- tences ; by using periodic sentences for sus- pense, and balanced sentences for antith- esis. Well-drawn figures add vividness and force. Specifie examples and illustra- tive matter are invaluable, for they give concreteness. Rhetorical repetition gives emphasis." " We saw all those things in Lincoln's Gettysburg speech," says John. " Now we are to use them ourselves. I see! " And he did seem to see, for he turned out a good debate. " One thing more," we conclude, " read it aloud when j^ou are through. That is the best test of the oration or the debate. And revise thoroughly! " 90 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE PROCEDURE IN FORMAL DEBATE It is customary to observe parliamen- tary rules in formal debate. The presid- ing officer is addressed as " Mr. Chair- man," the three judges as " Honorable Judges " ; each debater speaks of his assistant as " My Colleague," and of the opposing speakers as " Opponents." The first speaker of the affirmative opens the debate by stating the question and defining it carefully. Then he gives his points of direct argument. The first opposing speaker takes up the direct argu- ments for the negative. The second affirmative speaker usually devotes him- self to indirect argument, that is, to ref- utation of the strong points of the nega- tive as he saw them in preparing his de- bate. Then he may conclude with a sum- mary of the full argument of his side. The second negative speaker gives a ref- utation of the affirmative arguments and closes the debate, leaving it in the hands of the judges. A caution to students is wise. Urge them to be honest with themselves in mak- ing statements; to play fair; to be accu- KINDS OF ARGUMENT 91 rate ; to avoid hasty generalization, to re- member that mere statement does not make fact; to avoid objectionable contro- versy; and to bear in mind that their humble opinion, their plea or exhortation is not argument. Courtesy should be a part of the whole proceeding : no personal feeling, held; no derogatory remarks, passed. If rebuttal is given, great care should be exercised to give only accurate statements. A good rebuttal is a tonic, in that it forces rapid thinking. KINDS OF ARGUMENT We are discussing arguments in- formally in class. " All argument does one of two things : it proves either the truth of a theory or the occurrence of a fact. And it does this in two ways: inductively and deduc- tively." " I always wondered exactly what those words meant!" says a thoughtful girl. " We use lots of words, don't we, that we do not exactly understand ! " "Unfortunately, yes!" we answer. " Inductive reasoning gathers together a 92 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE great number of cases or examples and makes a generalization from them ; deduc- tive reasoning, on the other hand, makes a general statement and then seeks to prove it by examples. Induction is the scientific laboratory method — we can thank Lord Bacon for it " " It 's what we use in chemistry," cor- roborates a boy. " — Deduction starts as a basis with principles and theories, believed by the audience. These might be in the form of maxims and proverbs, for they are the consensus of opinion of the many or opinions of authorities. " In proving the truth of a theory what questions would you ask of it? " " Is it practical? " answers one. " Is it useful? " volunteers another. " Why not — ^is it right? " asks a third. " Sometimes a thing might be theoreti- cally right but not wise to adopt at the time," suggests the first speaker. " Burke spoke of conciliation as being expedient." " You all are right," we answer. " Too hasty a conclusion from too few or faulty examples is the chief error into which the KINDS OF ARGUMENTS 93 inductive reasoner falls. Analogy has a legitimate use, — to cite cases that are similar. In persuading to action this hold- ing up of examples exerts a powerful in- fluence, if well done." " Orators on special occasions do a lot of that," remarks John, " and so do ministers." " In deductive reasoning, as we said be- fore, we start with a general principle. The reasoning is in the form of a syllo- gism (write it on the blackboard), which in shortened form is called the enthymeme. IN^ow a syllogism consists of two premises, called the major and minor premises, and a conclusion. Here is the threadbare example they give in old logic books: "'Major premise: All men are mortal. Minor premise: John is a man. Conclusion: Therefore, John is mortal.' " Notice that the major premise gives a general statement, which everybody grants, the all making it universal. The minor premise is a specific example in- cluded in the term all men, as one of the all. The conclusion is inevitable." 94 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE " Why, it's just like a mathematical axiom," blurts out a brilliant geometry student. " What is true of the whole is true of the parts." " I suppose," says another slowly, " that the m:ajor premise must include all ^^ " — And the premises have to be true," breaks in another voice. " Do they not? " " Yes ; and the terms must be used with the same meaning throughout or fallacies creep in. Sometimes it is very hard to pick out fallacies, but it is much fun if you become shrewd at it ! " A MOCK TRIAIi The " mock trial " is an excellent means of familiarizing students with evidence. Let the class or society issue a call for a volunteer to serve as culprit; then appoint the judge, two lawyers each for the prose- cution and the defense, and make up a good story for each side. The first lawyer attends to the speeches; the second exam- ines witnesses, who in the meantime are instructed in their parts. At the meet- ing impanel a jury quickly, then examine A MOCK TRIAL 95 the witnesses, break down testimony, give the lawyers' speeches, the judge's charge, etc. Much fun can be had from such a *' mock trial." " To prove the occurrence of a fact," we explain, " we seek for evidence, which may be direct or indirect. Experience, testimony of witnesses, their observation and veracity well-tested, opinions of ex- perts, as the alienist called in for the murder trial " " Or a hand- writing expert in a forgery case," offers Tom. " — ^And a combination of circumstances — these form the evidence. A lawyer has a big job: he must first prove that a thing- is possible — " " That is why an ahbi estabhshes a man's innocence? " asks a girl in the rear. " If well-proved, yes ; next, he must prove it probable — " " And that's why they always look for a motive!^' Tom forestalls a reply with such enthusiasm that we do not reprove the interruption. "Yes," we say, "that's why I Then 96 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE lastly he must prove that it actually happened. There they gather all sorts of circumstantial evidence, signs. Elimina- tion plays a part, too, as it narrows down." A LONG DEBATE IN RELAY It is a good way to work out a lengthy brief by having each student do a share, not only in outlining the points, but in giving them in front of the class. Let the class decide on the subject, plan the main points in the treatment, then work up the topics independently. Seated on opposite sides of the room, the speakers can follow one after the other, so that those who listen will get a coherent idea of the whole and can compare the work of the various debaters. Political questions are not good sub- jects for general class use, because many students are not informed and the discus- sion tends to become partisan. Subjects should be such that the common sense of the boy can deal with them. His own brain can furnish reasons. A debate in relay can be managed in a SUBJECTS FOR LONG DEBATES 97 period, with the talks given from the front of the room, and student- judges ap- pointed to draw conclusions. Or, if de- sired, a vote of the listeners can be taken. SUBJECTS FOR LONG DEBATES 1. Grade crossings should be prohibited. 2. Fortune-telling should be forbidden. 3. The municipal government should sup- ply work to the unemployed. 4. A large navy is necessary to the wel- fare of the nation. 5. Moving picture shows do more harm than good. 6. Strikes are justifiable. 7. The acquisition of Cuba by the United States is unwise. 8. The treatment of Shylock was unjust. 9. Sunday baseball should be prohibited. 10. Absolute freedom of the press is desirable. 11. The United States should intervene in behalf of the Jews in Russia. 12. Trade schools should be established in cities. 7 98 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE 13. Reading of late popular fiction is as desirable as reading of the standard novels. 14. Spelling reform should be encouraged. 15. Capital punishment should be abolished. 16. Saloon licenses should be restricted. 17. The Audubon Society work should be encouraged. 18. Hypnotic entertainments should be for- bidden. IQ. Vivisection is justifiable. 20. Police ofiicers should be controlled by the state. 21. Labor-saving machinery has improved the cause of labor. 22. The ethical influence of poetry is greater than that of prose. 23. The small college is preferable to the large one. 24. Gymnasium work in public schools should be made compulsory. 25. Women should have the right to vote. 26. Food adulterations should be prohibited. 27. Immigration to the United States should be further restricted. 28. There should be a restriction of the height of buildings. SUBJECTS FOR LONG DEBATES 99 29. The government should control railways. SO. Lady Macbeth is responsible for Mac- beth's downfall. 31. The evils of card-playing outweigh the advantages. 32. Charitable organizations are better than private benevolence. 33. Letter postage should be reduced to one cent. 34. Pauperism is a crime. 35. Irrigation should be carried on at the expense of the government. 36. Electricity will supplant steam as motor- power. 37. Inherited wealth does more harm than good. 38. The office of poet-laureate should be abolished. 39. The initiative, referendum, and recall should be introduced into municipal govern- ment. 40. Prize-fights should be forbidden. 41. It is better for a boy to learn a trade than a profession. 42. Hamlet was really insane. 43. The novel has exerted a greater in- fluence than the drama. 100 ENGLISH AND HISTORY DEBATE SUMMARY Chapter V explains carefully how to make use of the debate in shorty as well as in long form. It shows how development of the reasoning powers will prepare boys and girls to cope with the problems of life, where there is conflict of ideas or of lines of action. Gullibility is characteristic of the masses. This chapter shows how the debate, if used systematically, can be effective in training pupils not to swallow statements whole, not to accept without question whatever newspapers and maga- zines print, not to confuse belief with con- viction, not to make wild guesses, not to exaggerate, not to decide by personal con- siderations instead of reasoning, not to be tools for others, instead of independent thinkers, not to see only one side of the question. These faults can be cured by using systematically the debate form in oral composition. The chapter shows a legitimate use of the love to combat, to convince, inherent in people; it presents the common sense method of gathering, sifting, and arranging material. It trains the critical judgment by presenting a SUMMARY 101 scheme for deciding debates. It teaches students to balance by parallel outlines. A sample lesson acquaints the students with terms in argumentation, often diffi- cult for young teachers to teach. It shows a number of ways of using paragraph debates and furnishes subjects in both English and history. It emphasizes the need of debating in the Literary Society, giving the formal procedure for the long debate. It introduces innovations for classroom use, in Debates in Relay and Paragraphs of Refutation. It urges the development of the spirit of true sport — to win for the sake of the cause. It fur- nishes a valuable motive for greater effort in English work; that is, the power to convince. CHAPTER VI The Use of the Symposium in English Classes In ancient Greece the symposium was a conversational banquet or feast, where wit and wine flowed harmoniously. One can imagine Pericles, with Aspasia the brilliant by his side, presiding over the talent of Athens. Glowing conversations, such as Walter Savage Landor in his love of Greek culture divined, would strike the spark of response; the fire of opinion would be tossed from one to another, all taking part. Greek letter fraternities apply the term to their banquets, at which each man contributes his share to the evening's enjoyment. Students are attracted by something out of the ordinary. An enjoyable method of getting results has a strong appeal. Why not let the class hold a symposium? In the period allow a chair- man to preside, if you have used the club 102 SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH CLASSES 103 method; if not, let the teacher preside as Toastmaster of the Banquet of Ideas. Preparation for such a symposium is a pleasure. Let the talks be voluntary as long as possible. Drop the regular lesson for that period. It requires system and quickness of management to crowd the program into one period, but it can be done easily in forty minutes. We have managed it in thirty, moving like clock- work. It is hardly necessary to speak of the popularity of the idea. In our classes we announced the question some days ahead; on the day assigned, each member of the class voiced an opinion, backing it up with reasons. For a week before, inter- est is aroused in the school, because Sec- tion B or Class A has a habit of talking about things that reach their sympathies. The symposium is an excellent promoter of interest in classroom work. Try it and see for yourself. A SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH CLASSES To oral composition the symposium lends itself peculiarly well. If the class is 104 SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH not too large, five minutes can be saved at the end of the period for second speeches to clear up ideas, strengthen opinions, or refute statements. On the blackboard tabulate in some form the opinions given; in the last five minutes add up and announce results. That procedure, small as it may seem, introduces a profitable element — the de- sire to win. At other times five minutes can be taken at the end of the period to cast a vote. Suppose the class has been discussing " The Quality I Admire Most in a Boy." The names of qualities, as they are men- tioned, are put on the board, like so many applicants bidding for notice. The stu- dent votes for the one he thinks has been most ably championed. You will find that usually he does not stick narrowly to his own choice. Three or four other boys may have advocated another in a more forceful way. This introduces another splendid element — the desire to convince others — to win them over to cast a vote, not for him but for the view he espouses. A SAMPLE LESSON 105 A SAMPLE LESSON " On Friday, class, we shall have a symposium on ' The National Flower! ' " is the announcement at the beginning of the week. " Talk about it at home. Think of several flowers that would be suitable as a flower for our country, then plan out your reasons for suggesting a certain one. Be ready to express yourself clearly, to the point, in one minute's time. Go in to win! " We shall vote at the end of the period for the flower we think has been best championed. Here is a chance to win the entire class over to your way of thinking! " During the week there was a great deal of discussion. In the corridors, between classes, even sometimes in class, there would be a word or two. Healthy sign, that discussion! Reprove them for it! No; it was proof that their minds were working. The thing to do in class was to make the present matter so vital that Friday's lesson simply could not intrude — ^which we proceeded to do. On Friday a chairman was appointed; and a secretary, to write names of the 106 SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH flowers on the board — ^with a stroke after the name whenever it was championed. These flower-candidates stood as follows: Lily Ill Rose Ill Carnation IIII Goldenrod IIII Violet IIII Daisy I Anemone I Morning-glory I Ivy I Edelweis I Laurel I In that proportion had they been cham- pioned by the speakers. One after the other the speakers came to the front of the room and addressed their classmates. A strict time-limit was kept by the silent partner who sat in the rear of the room and took notes of indi- vidual performances. He of the laurel was a Greek, making an eloquent plea for the mythological association of the laurel wreath as the A SAMPLE LESSON 107 crown of genius. This was backed up by a description of the beauty of native laurel in Pennsylvania. The speaker also sug- gested the olive branch as the sign of peace. The latter suggestion was over- ruled by a student's argument that the olive is not native American. He of the edelweis was a Swiss. His eloquent plea for the hardy little plant that clings to the snow-line was defeated by the same statement: it is not typically American. He of the ivy was a voracious reader of English history and spoke of the ivy-clad castles, — of Abbotsford, Kenilworth. An- other student later objected to the asso- ciation of " British " with ivy. She of the morning-glory heralded it as the common flower of dawn, which climbs upward as our nation has climbed, re- flecting glorious colors of arts and in- dustry. The objection was made, how- ever, that it is too fragile and short-lived. She of the anemone was a poetic soul, who loved the woods and made a modest plea for the wild flower, urging that the class be not caught by show and bigness. 108 SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH Too fragile, was the comment of a later speaker. He of the daisy was a country boy, who described the struggles of the near-weed to attain its hardy growth. It was the star of hope that our nation would always lead. Those of the lily mentioned its inno- cence, its purity, its color the white of the flag. Innocence does not represent the country, objected some one. Another — it is too expensive, too rare, — a, national flower must be so and so. Thus he and others laid down inductively the qualifica- tions of a national flower. They of the rose hailed her as the queen of flowers, as we are queen of nations. Her fragrance was the worth of the country; her red, courage; her white, purity! Again was it stated that the very fact of her being queen of flowers disquali- fied her. She is too expensive, etc. Another mentioned the choice of other nations, — ^the thistle of Scotland, the shamrock of Ireland, the lily of France, the lotus of Egypt. Why not the carna- tion, he argued. 'Twas McKinley's A SAMPLE LESSON 109 favorite flower ; was cheap, procurable the year round, long-lived; came in many colors, and offered itself well for decora- tive purposes. The goldenrod champion came out boldly early in the discussion. So com- mon a wild flower, its gold the wealth of finance and of brain, — the richness of our nation! What plant more hardy I more decorative ! She of the modest violet was joined by three others. True blue and odorous, wild and cultivated, it stood for all our native Americanism refined by culture. ' Twas easily worn and procurable all through the year. And so they went. When the final vote was taken, it was : Goldenrod 11111111111111111 (17) Carnation 1111 (4) Violet Ill (3) These numbers show that the vote was cast upon the arguments pro and con, be- cause the four carnation champions stood pat, one violet champion came over to goldenrod, and the four original cham- pions of goldenrod were joined by the 110 SYMPOSIUM IN ENGLISH upholders of the lily, rose, daisy, anemone, morning-glory, ivy, edelweis and laurel. It was a wide-awake lesson in uncon- scious speaking, no interruption for cor- rection, — in reality an examination in " one-minute talks." The assigned work of the day was not on the national flower, but on something else that could be joined with Monday's lesson. Therefore, no assigned lesson was lost. SOME SYMPOSIUM SUBJECTS The possibilities of the symposium method are endless. Let me add a few suggestive subjects. 1. Short Cuts in Doing Things — in the House, the Home, the Barn, the School. 2. Our Greatest American. 3. The Most Useful Invention. 4. The Book I Have Enjoyed Most. 5. The Profession I Should Like to Enter. 6. What Makes a Good School. 7. My Favorite Sport. 8. The Author I Like Best, 9. The Quality I Admire Most in a Boy. 10. My Favorite Flower. .11. The Most Impressive Thing in Nature SUMMARY 111 12. The Quality I Admire Most in a Girl. 13. My Favorite Study. 14. My Favorite Character in Fiction. 15. What Makes Happiness. 16. The Most Dramatic Incident in Ameri- can History. The subject must be one that ojBfers a range of ideas. It should draw largely from general knowledge, unless special time is given to gather data. It must be within the range of the class. Given these, you will have a successful discussion. We must always remember that things that seem thrashed threadbare to grown-ups are not necessarily so to younger folks. SUMMARY Chapter VI recognizes the development of personality and individuality as perti- nent to the English classroom. The stu- dents should be rated above the subject- matter and the varied endowments of such students be taken into consideration. Too often the classroom deadens personality; the boy or the girl of ego plus is harshly reproved instead of guided. The emotive state influences thought ; therefore, a class 112 SYMPOSIUM m ENGLISH plan that is enjoyable brings out the best thought. The symposium presents thought- provoking situations or questions for discussion. It arouses the students' de- sire to conquer through their ideas. The club discussion promotes sympathy and sociability^ both aids to the best work. Personal responsibility is developed. Thought and discussion are carried be- yond the classroom to the school corridors and to the home. The chapter points out that the teacher must assume the point of view of young people to manage the symposium successfully. The sample lesson shows exactly how such a plan is managed. The plan, further, encourages free discussion, independence of thought, a renunciation of personal views, if better views are championed; it forces out opinion, develops spontaneous expression, in the form of a plea brings out latent oratorical power. Yet it is a definite exercise in reflective thinking, rather than in spontaneous, because students weigh, choose, reject, before they submit their own personal views. Furthermore, it is a most potent use of curiosity, definitely directed. CHAPTER VII A Mythological Symposium A KNOWLEDGE of Greek mythology is necessary in order to comprehend allu- sions in the English classics. Milton's poems abound in references, — ^more or less indirect, — to ancient mythology. Unless the student knows the details of the Tro- jan War, of the story of Orpheus and Eurydice, of Perseus and the Gorgon, he can not have full pleasurable compre- hension of such lines as : " That Orpheus' self may heave his head From golden slumber on a bed Of heaped Elysian flowers, and hear Such strains as would have won the ear Of Pluto to have quite set free His half -regained Eurydice." L' Allegro " Sometime let gorgeous Tragedy In sceptered pall come sweeping by. Presenting Thebes', or Pelops' line Or the tale of Troy divine." II Penseroso 8 113 114 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM " What was that snaky-headed Gorgon shield That wise Minerva wore, unconquered vir- gin. ..." Comus The symposium offers an entertaining means of getting mythological reports in history. Plenty of time must be allowed for outside 'reading and arrange- ment of material. Encourage pupils to vitalize their reports in all possible ways. Some announcement can be made: " We have an invitation here for the class. Harold, will you read it? " The class straightens up intently, as Harold reads: *' The members of Section B of the Ancient History Class are invited by the Olympian Council to be present at a symposium Thursday morning, October twenty-first, in the History Room." " Why, that's here! " eyes are saying. " You may accept this invitation. We'll take the whole period. Let each student consider himself a reporter and take notes of what these gods and god- desses have to say for themselves." Then the class takes up the regular lesson, from A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM 115 which only a few minutes have been lost by the announcement. The next step is to pick out twelve representative students for the Olympian Council and instruct them. Keep such details secret — it adds to the zest — ^and put books in the way of the twelve. Each student is instructed to sift out the main facts about himself or herself, as assigned a character, then to condense them in out- line form and be ready to make a speech in persona dei or deae. When we had the ten-minute session after school to discuss plans, one piped in : " Why couldn't we represent ourselves as nearly as possible like the original? " "Go ahead!" was the reply. "Find out what was associated with the god, what he carried, etc. See if you have cleverness enough to supply them. You are to do this entirely yourselves ! I shall only advise." What fun they had ! What secret con- ferences ! What poring over mythologies ! What struggles to arrange and condense material into a fair description! And what curiosity on the part of the class, not 116 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM actively engaged ! Their torn came next, we had promised. The day before, we had appointed the onlookers lesser deities, and instructed each to print heavily the name on a piece of cardboard and pin it over the heart for identification. The Olympian Council did likewise, — as Jupiter, Mars, Apollo, Vul- can, Mercury, Neptune, Juno, Minerva, Venus, Vesta, Ceres, Diana. THE COUNCIL IN SESSION On the eventful Thursday there was a suppressed eagerness for history period to arrive. In changing classes the partici- pants were allowed to go to their cloak- room for a moment to get their impedi- menta. The guests^ — the lesser deities — were seated in the rear of the room. One by one, the Olympian Council filed in, Jupiter in the lead. " Look at Jupe! " whispered Cupid on the back seat. " He has a crown, a shield, and a bunch of lightning rods!" These were made of cardboard, covered with gold or silver paper. Jupiter took the chair and motioned THE COUNCIL IN SESSION 117 Juno to a seat beside him. Mercury sat close by, and the others arranged them- selves in the seats reserved at the side of the room. There was a vacant space in the front for speakers. The king of gods and men picked up a lightning bolt as gavel. " The Olympian Council will come to order! " At a look from the silent partner, pens " got busy." Then the " father of gods and men " bowed to the assembled Council and to the lesser deities in the rear of the room, — Cupid, Bacchus, Pan, Pluto, Ganymede, Psyche, Triton, Proteus, Nereus, Proser- pino. " Gods of Greece," he began, " all obey me but the Fates. They are mightier than I! On Mt. Olympus I live in a wonderful palace, have a famous oracle at Dodona, games in my honor at Olympia, and also a magnificent temple there. My father Chronos ate up his children, so my mother Rhea fooled him by giving him a stone instead of me. Hope it gave him a pain! I grew immense in a few 118 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM days and made myself king of heaven. I punished Prometheus for stealing the divine fire with which he created the first man, by chaining him to a rock with a vulture to gnaw at his liver. I can change my form at will and wander down to earth to see how mortals behave. When I was disgusted with them once, I sent a flood and only one man and one woman escaped. I have loved many mortals, Jo, Callisto, and Europa, but Juno is very jealous. Victory is with me always." He bowed to his consort Juno, who bowed graciously in return. She wore a crown and held up a pasteboard peacock. In a short speech she admitted her jealous nature, but told how Jupiter dangled her out of heaven on a golden chain to re- taliate. At her wedding the golden apples of Hesperides were presented to her. Her daughter Hebe served the gods until she tripped with the nectar, and then Jupiter got Ganymede. Iris carried all her messages down to earth on a rainbow. She took an active part in all the aiFairs of men — and women, too. She was THE COUNCIL IN SESSION 119 particularly hostile to Hercules. Then she made a graceful bow and sat down. " Minerva! " announced Jupiter. The Goddess of Wisdom, with a paste- board owl pinned to her blouse, an olive wreath on her head, a loom in her hand, and a sword, rose. " Father Jupiter/' she exclaimed, " I sprang full-armed from thy forehead, but I brought wisdom to mortals and peace instead of war. When the great city of Athens sought for a name, Neptune and I both asked for the honor. He presented a horse, but my gift of the olive and all that it stands for, won. I am Athena, the patron goddess of the greatest city in Greece. The Parthenon is built in my honor. I am queen of the loom and no mortal dare surpass me. Arachne, who boasted of her skill, I turned into a spider, so that now she spins and spins nothing but cobwebs." " Venus! " called Chairman Jupiter. Aphrodite rustled to her feet, straight- ened the myrtle wreath in her hair, gave her elaborately embroidered magic girdle a twist and then addressed the chair. She 120 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM patted her pasteboard swans and threw an engaging smile at the audience in the rear. Then she told of her miraculous birth from the sea-foam at Cyprus, and of her welcome at the hall of the gods, how they all wooed her, and how Jupiter, because she refused him, made her marry Vulcan. She really loved them all, she said, especially the warlike Mars. She loved many a mortal, too, for instance, poor Adonis. Paris, prince of Troy, pre- sented her with the Apple of Discord as the most beautiful of goddesses. She loved the rose and the myrtle, was at- tended by the three Graces, and drove a chariot of swans. The magic girdle made every one love her. "I rise to a point of order!" Mars was on his feet. " State your point," said Jupiter. " Isn't it a bit irregular to take all of the goddesses first? I move that we hear now from three of the gods, and then alternate." Mercury seconded the motion and it was carried. THE COUNCIL IN SESSION 121 " The God of War will now speak," announced the chairman. Mars waved his spear around his paste- board helmet and stood his big shield be- fore the desk. " I am god of war," he began, " married to Venus and adored by the Romans," etc. Mercury hopped out next in a winged cap, shoes, and a rod with serpents (the caduceus). He told of his trickiness, which won him the title " god of thieves." He was god of commerce, he said, had found a tortoise shell and invented the lyre, which he gave to Apollo. He was messenger of the gods and usually mixed up in everything that was going on. Twanging on a cardboard lyre, with a laurel wreath on her curly head and a bow and arrow over her shoulder, the prettiest girl in the class impersonated Apollo and told of his adventures. " I was born on the island of Delos with my sister Diana. I killed the Python where the Pythian games are held at Delphi, and established an oracle nearby. Every morn- ing from the palace of the sun I drive the 122 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM chariot across the sky, attended by the Hours. This is a picture of me !" The speaker held up Guido Reni's " Aurora." " My favorite haunt is Mount Parnassus, where I teach the Muses many things. Here is also a very famous statue of me ! " Then she held up a copy of the Apollo Belvidere, a detail of the head. Vesta followed with a painted torch and told of her devotion to the hearth, the home, and the sacred fire. With a small sheaf of wheat on her arm, Ceres mourned again the loss of Proserpino and told of her love for the fields. She spoke of her two attendants, Flora and Pomona, and of the fact that cereals for breakfast are named after her. Diana was a boyish- looking girl with a picture of a deer and bow and arrows. She said she was the Moon goddess who drove the car of night across the sky. Then she told how she and her brother Apollo had punished Niobe for boasting herself and children as good as the gods. Tapping time with a trident, Neptune came up next and described his wonderful THE COUNCIL IN SESSION 123 palaces under the sea, his chariot of sea- shells, which rides the waves, and the creatures under his control. When he left, Vulcan limped forward and told how he came by the limp, how he lived and worked inside the volcanoes, how the Cyclops were his blacksmiths, his favorite haunts, Mt. Etna. He described some of the wonderful things he had made, girdles, chariots, armor, even Pandora. In his hand he carried a hammer. Pens and pencils had been busily writ- ing and eyes taking in every detail. Each face wore an absorbed expression, chang- ing at intervals to a smile when the new speaker held up his regalia. There was no doubt about the success of the period. The next time the Council listened and the lesser deities held the floor. We found that they associated the details about the god or the goddess with the previous speaker and remembered most of the details. The idea of imper- sonation gave a sort of dramatic appeal, and a concreteness that did much to vitalize the reading of mythology. 124 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM SUBJECTS FOR A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM 1. A meeting of the Olympian Council as described. 2. With the lesser deities. Cupid, Psyche, Pluto, Pan, Hebe, Ganymede, Bacchus, Triton, Proteus, Nereus, Saturn, Chronos, Uranus, Fates, Furies, and Nemesis offer good materiaL 3. The Trojan War, Portion out the story among a number of students, — the cause, the equipment of the Greeks, the stratagem of Ulysses to avoid going, how Ulysses found Achilles, the sacrifice of Iphigenia, the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles, the duel be- tween Paris and Menelaus, Hector and Ajax, why Achilles was angry, death of Patroclus, how Achilles killed Hector, the wooden horse, the entrance to the city, the violation of the temples. 4. The adventures of Ulysses. These arrange themselves in such topics as: Ulysses and the Cyclops, with Aeolus, the disaster at Lames, in Circe's palace, with the king of the dead, the song of the sirens, Scylla and Charybdis, the SUBJECTS FOR A SYMPOSIUM 125 oxen of the sun, the isle of Calypso, at the court of King Alcinous, the suitors of Penelope, Ulysses at Ithaca, as a beggar, the killing of the suitors. 5. The Argonautic Expedition, 6. The Labors of Hercules, The reason; and each labor taken separately. 7. Theseus and the Minotaur,, 8. Cadmus at Thebes. 9. The Adventures of Perseus, 10. The Wanderings of ^neas, 11. At Home with Ancient Greek Women. Their daily life, etc. Then the stories of such women as Antigone, Penelope, Cassandra, Niobe, Ariadne, Arachne, Medea, Atalanta, Eurydice, Andromache, Helen of Troy, Pandora, Iphigenia, Dido (as a visitor from Carthage) . 12. Interviewing Ancient Monsters. A short description of the following, with a picture, if possible : Satyr, Chimera, Sphinx, Titan, Cy- clops, Pegasus, Centaur, Griffin, Pigmy, Tityus, Enceladus, Briareus, Typhon, Circe, Siren, Scylla, Charybdis, Harpy, Cerberus, Sibyl. 126 A MYTHOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM 13. ^ Day "with the Heroes. Good for review. SUMMARY Chapter VII shows how a great deal of mythological story can he imparted in a short time. The mythological sym- posium proves that students themselves can gather material, sift, organize and present it in attractive speech. Many teachers by insisting on managing such outside work themselves deprive the pupils of the benefits that should be theirs. The chapter shows how responMbility will expand the pupils' powers; how intense application comes from interest in a sub- ject without the teacher's aid, if there is the chance of self-expression. It is a most legitimate use of the dramatic ex- pression; it quickens wit, gives confidence to those who are timid, minimizes the labor of reports and develops a love of study. It gives a zest and enthusiasm to class- room work, demands rapidity of pro- cedure, develops class pride, and, best of all, makes the students independent of the teacher. CHAPTER VIII Oral Composition in History The history text-book gives the skele- ton of the subject; outside reading builds flesh and blood. The former is largely dry bones of fact; the latter vitalizes the period. Since the best colleges demand this reference reading before certificate (rights of entrance are given, how can it be done most satisfactorily ? The first requirement is the library. If the school is in a large city, the public library will furnish books, requir- ing monthly reports on the use. This entails no expense, except for loss of books, for which students concerned can be taxed. Arrangements can often be made to have books forwarded from the state library. REFERENCE READING AND THE TEXT-BOOE: The next problem for the teacher is: How to systematize reference reading in connection with the text-book. 127 128 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY To plunge a first-year class of history students into full reference reading, with notes, bibliography and reports, is unwise, because they do not know a bibliography from a bibliophile; they can not take notes intelligently; they are timid and inco- herent in giving reports. Reference read- ing, therefore, must be cumulative; it must be worked up gradually. At the beginning of the year, then, the text-book might demand most of the time of preparation, because it not only is difficult in itself but introduces a new field with unpronounceable words. There ought to be special training in accurate regard for truth, therefore it is often profitable in the first term's work (study of the Eastern nations and Greece) to outline the chapters by topics. This de- velops power of analysis, — in weighing and arranging facts. English and geography should con- stantly be correlated with history. Spell- ing and pronouncing lessons help wonder- fully with the proper names. A time- saving method is as follows: fold theme BEGINNING OUTSIDE READING 129 paper vertically ; write in the first column, as the teacher dictates, the new proper words of the chapter; on the next day write these same words from dictation in the second column and correct them by comparing the two columns. Good free-hand maps should be insisted upon, and the use of crayons encouraged. It pays to have students file away all written work in history at the end of the month in cardboard covers, on which they have sketched appropriate designs. These folders of work can be left in the teacher's caire until reviews for examinations, when pupils find the topical outlines of use. BEGINNmo THE OUTSIDE READING Begin the outside reading in the first term by a bit of home work on the Old Testament to illustrate the life of the Hebrews, — no attempt to keep records, just to report spontaneously. In Greek history go a step further. Explain how a bibliography may be kept — author's name, title of book, number of 9 130 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY pages read, and the main topics. For example — Guerber: Story of the Greeks, pp. 104-1 S6, Persian Wars. Fling: Source Book of Greek History, pp. 144-156, Age of Pericles. Set the slow students at easy reading, like Guerber's Story of the Greeks, and keep the mature books for the more de- veloped minds. Direct pupils to spend about ten minutes a day on the reference reading, and the rest of the time on the text. Post references on the blackboard about every two weeks. Pay most attention to mythology, the Trojan War, etc., and to interesting bits of biography. Dwell on the human inter- est side; try to create Greek atmosphere rather than to search out additional facts. Do not nail down beginners to a fuller record of such reading than a scant bibli- ography, or they may dislike the reading, and that is fatal. Let them, rather, learn to read rapidly, to enjoy the reading, and to talk freely about it. TALKS: REPORTS OF READING 131 ''one-minute talks ^^ FOR REPORTS OF READING In the second term's work (Roman his- tory) pique the pride of the class by the statement that they are to have " grown- up " reference reading. Several inspir- ing years with large classes of boys in an academy prompt me to describe how we got splendid results. In this second term we completely changed our method of work. Instead of outlining Wolf son (Wolf son's Essentials of Ancient History) we took a whole chapter at a time for rapid home reading and in one-minute talks had the ground- work of the chapter given in class. In doing this students were forced to develop power to read rapidly and to recall salient features. There was no written work on the text-book except maps, lists, charts, themes, etc., no continuous outlines as before. For the next three or four days refer- ence reading, based on the chapter, was assigned. This reading was now as care- fully outlined as the chapter in the text- book had been, but with less detail; and 132 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY a much larger bibliography was kept. At each history period in these four days, then, each student reported on his read- ing for the day, which was done in school hours. Often we reversed the order and took reference reading first, winding up with the text-book. Use of these two methods familiarized the students with inductive and deductive methods of attack, with analysis and synthesis. THE HISTORICAL SPIRIT But the greatest achievement of the class was catching " the historical spirit." To aid in this, we schemed out a ten-sided ideal, as follows: I. Learn rapid reading. II. Learn rapid note-taking. III. Learn to make a bibliography and to gather material from sources. IV. Train not only the memory for details but power of analysis, reasoning, and stick-to-it-ive-ness. V. Do further historical reading at home. VI, Search beneath the fact for the cause. THE HISTORICAL SPIRIT 133 VII. Appreciate the personal element. VIII. Develop a critical attitude; make com- parisons with Greek history and with modern conditions. IX. Try to understand contradictory state- ments, to search out sources. X. By daily practice in " one-minute talks " make yourselves ready and self-reliant in discussion, and able to face an audience. And we did those ten things; even the poorest student greatly improved in his eiFort. It was not easy to manage, be- cause we tried to have the class teach themselves. In other words, we resolved them into a history club (you know how "club" appeals to a boy!) with the teacher as silent partner and a different boy each day in the presidential chair. They had a practical appreciation of, and respect for, parliamentary law. Oral composition in the form of talks was the method for reports. At intervals there were spirited quizzes and examinations, when the " club " was temporarily set aside. 134 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY RESULTS We have at hand slips of paper con- taining the books used by each student in Roman history. For the poorest student the number is eight; for the best, sixteen, with eight biographies and historical novels extra. The average is thirteen. Thirteen authors with whom they were familiar! Thirteen books over which they had closely pored! A book became more than a mere book. It became the product of an author. Furthermore, the boys became very shrewd in weighing the antecedents and relative authority of these same authors. Their respect for the work of an historian grew. We should like to tell you more of the dub management, with the hot debates, the tracing of statements back to sources, the delight in learning things for them- selves instead of having them thrust down their intellectual throats; we should like you to spend a class period with them and see for yourself the parliamentary disci- pline, but, as Kipling says, " that's an- other story ! " ROMAN HISTORY 135 In conclusion, is added the list of read- ings for Roman history as it may be sug- gestive to teachers. OUTSIDE READING ROMAN HISTORY I. The Early Kings GuERBER : Story of the Romans, pp. 1 1—69. Church: Stories from Livy, pp. 12-90. Morris: Historical Tales; Roman, pp. 7—42. Haaren and Poland: Famous Men of Rome, pp. 9-57. Laing: Heroes of the Seven Hills, pp. 11-38. Bonner: Child's History of Rome, pp. 13-71. Butterworth: Little Arthur's History of Rome, pp. 3-52. Yonge: Popular History of Rome, pp. 13—54. Oilman: Story of Rome, pp. 1-68. Goodspeed: History of the Ancient World, pp. 240-264. Clough: Plutarch's Lives of Illustrious Men, pp. 13-28 (large Plutarch). Kaufman: Our Young Folks' Plutarch, pp. 30-40 (small Plutarch). Collins: Livy, pp. 15-29. Munro: Source Book of Roman History, pp. 2-5. 136 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY //. The Early Republic and Struggle of the Classes Church: pp. 9I-I6I. Livy: pp. 30-58. Oilman: pp. 69-97. Morris: pp. 43-74. Yonge: pp. 55-100. Plutarch (small) : 75—85. Laing: pp. 39-137. Butterworth: pp. 55-77. Haaren and Poland: pp. 58-81. Bonner: pp. 72-113. Plutarch (large): 153-169- Guerber: pp. 69—98. Goodspeed: pp. 265-278. Oilman: Magna Charta Stories, pp. 23-37, 37-52. MuNRo: pp. 41-52, 53-64, 66-72. III. Early Conquests to the Punic Wars Church: pp. 162-277. Livy: pp. 58-106. Oilman: pp. 98-125. Morris: pp. 75-125. Yonge: pp. 101-150. Plutarch (small): pp. 141-153, 243-253. ROMAN HISTORY 137 Laing: pp. 163-190, 198-228, 291-302, 309- 367. Butterworth: pp. 78-88. Haaren and Poland: pp. 82-113. Bonner: pp. 114-167. Plutarch (large): pp. 90-106, 275-291. Guerber: pp. 98-121. Goodspeed: pp. 279-289. Munro: pp. 72-77. IV. The Punic Wars Livy: pp. 107-153. Gilman: pp. 126—148. Gilman: Magna Charta Stories, pp. 106-122. Morris: pp. 126-164. Goodspeed: pp. 300-309. Yonge: pp. 151-180. Guerber: pp. 121-142. Plutarch (small): pp. 275-285, 285-295, 309-318. Butterworth: pp. 83-95. Haaren and Poland: pp. 114-140. Bonner: pp. 168-241. Plutarch (large): pp. 124-135, 216-229, 242-256. Church: pp. 3-34, 35-45, 95-125, 129-165, 178-224, 225-264^ 265-301. 138 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY Shuckburgh: The Histories of Polybius, pp. 9-114, 132-133, 166-275, 525-534, 550- 562, 564-574, 582-586. MuNRo: pp. 78-91. V. Romans in the East Livy: pp. 154-182. Oilman: pp. 148-166. Yonge: pp. 181-194. Guerber: pp. 142-148. Plutarch (small): pp. 253-262, 262-268, 268-275, 302-309, 318-330. Plutarch (large): pp. 724-742, 568-575, 575-588, 264-274, 188-202. Goodspeed: pp. 311-319- MuNRo: pp. 93-102. VI. The Gracchi — Marius — Sulla Oilman: pp. 167-197. MuNRo: pp. 124-166. Yonge: pp. 195-228. MuNRo: pp. 104-106. Morris: pp. 164-197. Goodspeed: pp. 331-343. Bonner: pp. 242-274. Haaren and Poland: pp. 142-170. Guerber: pp. 148-170. ROMAN HISTORY 139 Plutarch (small) : Tiberius Gracchus, pp. 330-337. Caius Gracchus, pp. 337-343. Marius, pp. 343-358. Sulla, pp. 358-365. Butterworth: pp. 96-100. Oman: Seven Roman Statesmen: T. Grac- chus, pp. 1-50. C. Gracchus, pp. 51-88. Marius, pp. 89-1 6l. Sulla, pp. 116-161. Plutarch (large) : T. Gracchus, pp. 588- C. Gracchus, pp. 597-604. Marius, pp. 291-309. Sulla, pp. 321-339. VII. Pompey — Caesar — To the Empire Oilman: pp. 198-230,231-270. Yonge: pp. 228-272. Morris: pp. 198-235. Goodspeed: pp. 343-357. Bonner: pp. 275-307, Haaren and Poland: pp. 171-208. Guerber: pp. 165-197. 140 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY Plutahch (small) : Crassus, pp. 365-376. Pompey, pp. 385-398. Cicero, pp. 398-406. Caesar, pp. 406-418. Brutus, pp. 429-438. Antony, pp. 438—445. Butterworth: pp. 100-110, 113-118, 125- 135. Oman: Crassus, pp. 162-203. Cato, pp. 204-233. Pompey, pp. 234-288. Caesar, pp. 289-340. Bury: Student's Roman Empire, pp. 1-11. Walsh: Roman Empire, pp. 11-23. Clarke: Caesar, pp. 7-91, 91-148, 149-173. Bonner: Vol. 2, pp. 3-48. Plutarch (large) : Crassus, pp. 383-398. Pompey, pp. 436-471. Cicero, pp. 617-634. Caesar, pp. 505-529. Brutus, pp. 703-724. Antony, pp. 655—683. Cato, pp. 543-568. Church: Roman Life and Story, pp. 1-9. Roman Life in the Days of Cicero, pp. 1-63, 64-129, 130-192, 193-247, 248- 292. MuNRo: pp. 124-131, 131-141. ROMAN HISTORY 141 VIII. The Early Emperors Goodspeed: pp. 357-365, 370-381, 394-396. Yonge: pp. 273-316. Morris: pp. 236-318. Haaren and Poland: pp. 209-235. Guerber: pp. 197-238. Butterworth: pp. 135-177. Bury: pp. 12-412 (leaf over rapidly). Walsh: Augustus, pp. 23-44. Tiberius, pp. 44-92. Caligula, pp. 92-100. Claudius, pp. 101-112. Nero, pp. 112-135. Galba, Otho, Vitellius, pp. 136-158. Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, pp. 158-175. Bonner: Vol. 2, Augustus — Nero, pp. 49-92. Nero, pp. 93-130. Gibbon: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (selections). Church: Roman Life and Story, pp. 31-76, 77-116, 148-192, 193-252. Munro: pp. 143-152, 153-162. IX. The Good Emperors of the Second Century Goodspeed: pp. 397—403. Yonge: pp. 317-325. 142 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY Haaren and Poland: pp. 236-253. Guerber: pp. 239-251. Butterworth: pp. 181-207. Brooks: Historic Boys, pp. 1-24. Bury: pp. 413-456, 490-550. Walsh: Nerva — Trajan, pp. 176-187. Hadrian — Antonines, pp. 187-206. Bonner, vol. 2: pp. 131-159. Gibbon: (selections). Church : Roman Life and Story, pp. 300-344. MuNRo: pp. 165-174. X. The Later Emperors Goodspeed: pp. 409—412, 416—426. Yonge: pp. 326-382. Morris: pp. 319-324. Haaren and Poland: pp. 254-269. Guerber: pp. 251-273. Butterworth: pp. 208-220, 238-256. Walsh: Commodus — Severus, pp. 207-232. Caracalla — Alexander Severus, pp. 233— 258. Maximin, etc., pp. 258-288. Claudius II, etc., pp. 288-321. Diocletian, pp. 322-363. Constantine, pp. 363—401. ROMAN HISTORY 143 Bonner, vol. 2: Commodus, pp. 159-194. Maximin — Diocletian, pp. 195-231. Diocletian, pp. 232-263. Gibbon: Selected paragraphs. MuNRo: pp. 174-178. XI. The Barbaric Invasions Goodspeed: pp. 426-455. Yonge: pp. 383-443. Morris: pp. 325-340. Guerber: pp. 273-278. Oilman: Magna Charta Stories, pp. 157-182. Walsh: pp. 401-420, 420-441, 441-458, 458-478. Bonner, vol. 2 : pp. 264-305. Gibbon: Selected paragraphs. XII. Roman Life Goodspeed: pp. 289-299, 320-333, 365-370, 383-394, 403-407, 412-415. Guerber: pp. 142-148. Butterworth: pp. 113-147, 200-207, 221- 237. Oilman: pp. 271-332. Bury: pp. 457-488, 550-626. Gibbon: Selected paragraphs. 144 ORAL COMPOSITION IN HISTORY WiLKiNs: Classical Antiquities, Roman. Preston and Dodge: Private Life of the Romans : Family, house and life, pp. 1—57. Classes, food and clothes, pp. 57-105. Agriculture, travel, etc., pp. 105—157. Church: Roman Life and Story, pp. 10-30. MuNRo: pp. 179-192, 193-206, 206-216, 217-237, 8-21, 23-40. Pliny : Translation : Bk. II, pp. 9-31, Bk. Ill, pp. 37-57, Bk. IV, pp. 60-84, 84-102, Bk. V, pp. 104-120, Bk. VII, pp. 180-204, 204- 226, Bk. VIII, pp. 232-250, Bk. IX, pp. 292-326, Intro, pp. 9-31. Butterworth: Zigzag Journeys, pp. 190- 200, 201-218, 219-247, 248-265, 266- 296. SUMMARY Chapter VIII emphasizes that history teaching should not he mere mechanical acquisition of facts, but an organic de- velopment, — ^in other words, thinking. It also urges that pupils must he taught how to study, so that they are masters of their teoct-hoohs, not mastered by them. In SUMMARY 145 many schools students are slaves of bad habits, one of which is swallowing text- books whole. Teachers are shown how to combine outside reading with text-book work, in a way that will develop rapidity of reading, accuracy, safe memory, relia- bility, and independence. The chapter shows how to make such reading cumula- tive, how to make it scholarly as well as diverting, how to consult sources, weigh data, exercise scientific doubt. It shows that pupils can be led to see the author's problem and to consider judiciously how he has treated the problem; therefore, their use of books is improved. It further shows how students can be taught to take notes systematically, to keep a helpful bibliography and to use a library intelli- gently. As reports of reading are given in the form of " one-minute talks " as de- scribed in this book, English is correlated with history. 10 CHAPTER IX The History Club The history classes came to us badly- assorted and poorly-prepared. We do not dislike such classes because the results are more startling; it also puts us on our mettle to get results from each of the students. The test of a method is results. We hope to show you by quoting from papers handed in during the first week of school and from talks given at the end of the year the results we were able to get from such a class by using " one-minute talks " and the club method. The following examples of a pathetic half-knowledge, words misused, bad spell- ing, and kindred offences, are what many teachers have to contend with at the be- ginning of the term. One boy said: " India is a peculiar country in that it has so many kinds of ways. The people are put in casks, some higher than the proceeding. 146 THE HISTORY CLUB 147 The husbands are not allowed to see their wives and when a man had some jewelry he couldn't give it to his wife," etc. Another wrote: " The history of the civilized world is di- vided into three areas. The first is an area of thirty centuries and the inhabitants of the Ehine." This came from a girl who was lazy in looking at words : " There were a class of people settled in China and one day arose a grate relegoius preecher named Capacious." From the same class we learned that Memphis was the capital of " Egg- wiped," and Carthage was on the " Pro- thonotary " of Africa. The students from whom we have quoted were not really stupid, they merely had not learned how to study. Let us make a plea for self-government and self-teaching in history classes, con- tending that such a method will often do 148 THE HISTORY CLUB more to cure bad spelling, laziness, half- knowledge, and general inaccuiracy than the recitation, as commonly used. The teacher holds the hidden wires of the situa- tion and directs the class procedure through the students, rather than directly. There were two sections in our ancient history class, which dealt with college pre- paratory work. Let us describe the pro- cedure from a letter written by a boy from whom we have already quoted a specimen of poor English and hazy his- tory. This was written six months later. Notice the definiteness. " We adopted a form of class recitation which helped us very much. We formed a club and had a different president every day and a different secretary every month. This club was run under the parliamentary style, any person wishing to report on anything he had read would have to address the chair and come up front. Therefore you may readily see that we have not been idol during the second term." Only one misspelled word and to the point 1 STUDENT COMMENTS 149 Criticism of one another made that boy more careful of his English and more accurate in his facts. STUDENT COMMENTS Before taking you to visit such classes we wish to quote what the boys and girls said about the work, when they wrote impromptu letters in class, presumably to friends in other schools or in other countries. They were telling about it as a thing of their own. These comments were as follows: " You remember that I wrote you concern- ing a History Club. There are many reasons why I am interested in this work. In the first place, the ground is well-covered and every one must be prepared. Furthermore, our English is put to practical use in the talks and at the same time each and every one of us is m^de familiar with parliamentary prac- tice. As you see, we cover at least four dis- tinct branches of education: History, English, Parliamentary Law, and Expression. Trust- ing that you will adopt our method in your school — " etc. (J. L.) 150 THE HISTORY CLUB " This year's work has been very interesting to me. The method has been unusual and has held interest to the end. I do not value so much the historical facts that are stored in my mind as the catching of the true historical spirit. I enjoyed to a great extent the out- side reading, as it always left on my mind a clearer impression. The ' one-minute talks ' I also enjoyed, as much outside information was gleaned from them. The year's work has opened up a new field for me and I feel that I can pursue the work alone with profit and pleasure." (I. B.) " The year's work has been a pleasure and I really hate to see the class close." (C. B.) " Of all my studies this year I have enjoyed Ancient History the most. I never thought it could be made so interesting or could be so easily learned, when made interesting. While I was in the Public School I studied United States History, and how I hated it! We got facts and dates, dates and facts, nothing but cold, dry facts. This year was just the reverse; we got facts and dates but STUDENT COMMENTS 151 they were sugar-coated and not hard to swallow^ and ' take it from me/ as JeiF says, it's the only way to learn History." (H. R.) " We all like the club idea, for it teaches us to think while facing an audience." (G. M.) " This coming up before the class to give talks was very good training because all gram- matical mistakes were corrected by the pupils." (J. M.) " Before I was in the History Club I did not know much about parliamentary law but I grew interested. I am not the only one to say this, but many others." (L. B.) " I never thought Ancient History could be made so interesting. I am not stretching the truth when I say that I would not have missed this year's work for anything. I have a picture of the ancient world with its customs." (S. W.) " The year's work has been a great surprise to me. Besides going through Wolfson's text- book we have been doing outside reading, which consisted of expanded accounts of subjects in the text-book." (H. H.) 152 THE HISTORY CLUB " The text-book did not give half the facts. The club helped me in English and the notes can easily be looked over to find any point." (E. M.) " I got to know more about the different writers of Ancient History and the different ways of explaining events. I think that the outside reading sort of spoiled me, because when I came back to the text-book, I did not like it so well as the other." (M. S.) " I have enjoyed this year's work im- mensely. I think of the two, — Greek and Roman History, — Roman History, although a bit more difficult, was more interesting on account of the club." (C. W.) " The club was a great benefit to the stu- dents and me especially. The chairman learned to preside over the audience, which was no easy matter for the first few days." (J. C.) " I have indeed enjoyed my year's work in History. It was a pleasure to see how all the schemes worked out. It gives me more confi- dence in my teacher when I see that he or she STUDENTS COMMENTS 153 has the work all planned out. I hope to go to West Point; and I think I shall then realize some of the discipline which I have tried to obey." (P. S.) " This year's work has been the best I have ever had. I owe it to your method, for or- ganizing the History Club and taking pains to bring us all out in as many ways as possible. It was always a pleasure to be in the class; all the students felt that way." (J. C.) These letters come from the five highest in the class, the five lowest, and five in between. Therefore they stand for class opinion, and as they were written when there was no intention of using them to explain a method, they ought to be a fair statement of the students' point of view. Summarized this opinion is as follows (students' wording used) : 1. Ground well covered. 2. Every one prepared. 3. English of practical use. 4. Familiar with parliamentary law. 5. Catch the true historical spirit. 6. Clearer impression from outside reading. 154 THE HISTORY CLUB 7. Can work on alone with profit and pleasure. 8. Facts sugar-coated, not dry. 9. Thinking while standing facing an audience. 10. Grammatical mistakes corrected by stu- dents from the floor. 11. Picture of the ancient world and customs. 12. Value of outside reading. 13. Notes easily looked over. 14. Familiar with different writers. 15. Different explanations offered. 16. Club interests. 1 7. The bashful learn to preside. 18. Discipline. 19. Bringing out students in all points possible. 20. Made the class enjoyable. KINDS OF WORK SHOWN IN THE MINUTES We introduced the club method on February 9th. A period had to be taken for an introductory talk on the main points of parliamentary law. Roberts' " Rules of Order " or some such manual WORK SHOWN IN MINUTES 155 might be placed within the students' reach. The chapter in the text-book was assigned for rapid reading and the diffi- cult proper names from the chapter were dictated for a spelling lesson the next day, after which " one-minute talks " were given on the topics in the chapter. On the following day further work of a different nature was assigned on the chapter: perhaps several paragraph themes based on important topics, particu- larly a topic that meant review of the whole chapter; perhaps an outline of some main points; perhaps a map or chart of some sort; perhaps a debate on an im- portant point; or a rapid quiz by the teacher or by the students questioning one another. After two days of such work on the chapter in the text-book, two to four days were spent on outside reading about the period, — the number of days depending on the importance of the epoch and the abundance of outside material. Such assignments of outside reading were re- ported in class each day in " one-minute -talks." At regular intervals examina- 156 THE HISTORY CLUB tions took place, when, of course, the club was dropped temporarily. If there is an understanding that the club is to be dropped whenever points are not fully brought out, whenever any one lags behind, or when the class shows in- ability to cope with the subject, remark- ably steady habits aire developed among the poor students. If they are made to feel that their defection will jeopardize the continuance of the popular history club, they bestir themselves. Students took great interest in corre- lating English, geography, spelling, ex- temporaneous speaking, expression, and art with history. They corrected, by " rising to the point of order," the mis- takes in grammar; they learned to make free-hand maps readily and well; they mastered the spelling of the new words; they thought rapidly " on their feet " ; they took a pride in catching up one an- other in pronunciation, using the diction- ary for ordinary words and the index for historical names; they improved in voice production, in holding their listeners and in gesture ; and last of all, they developed SAMPLES OF THE MINUTES 157 some artistic taste by designing covers for their work and keeping it neat for ex- hibition and final marking. SAMPLES OF THE MINUTES The minutes, kept by the secretary appointed every two or three weeks, clearly showed us what each student was doing. Let me quote sample minutes exactly as written down: February H : Outline the Officers of the Roman Republic, based on Chapter XX. Chairman R Speaker Topic Corrections by Students W Consuls. Mispronounced " rex sacrorum." S Senate, compared with the U. S. S Consuls. " Councils " for " con- suls," "which" for "who." McC Comparison of treas- urer and quaestor. Second talk on the decrease in war. W Statement of all of- Reproved for position. ficers. Second talk on gladiatorial com- bats. F Tribunes. Double subject. J. McC... Decemviri. "Adjective" for "ad- verb." 158 THE HISTORY CLUB A motion made and carried that no one get angry at criticisms from the floor. Speaker Topic Corrections by Students B Decemviri. Difference between may and can ex- plained by the chair, double subject. N Tribunes. Second talk Fact not true, directed on a comparison of to open book and Roman and U. S. look it up, "from" officers. instead of " off." H ^diles. H Intermarriage of classes. Several favorable comments by members on this method of learning History. Responsibility devolves on the individual stu- dent. Plea for each to respond for the honor of the section. F Comitia Tributa Ple- bis. B The assemblies. Slang " kick " object- ed to. C Games and festivals. Double subject. Second talk on an- cient and modern athletics (reports his constant use of Myers' History at home — commended by the chair) . H Prsetor. Chairman reproved by student for saying "git" for "get." C What it means to Discussion of "found" found a nation, illus- and "discover." trated by the U. S. S Rights of plebeians. SAMPLES OF THE MINUTES 159 Speaker Topic Corrections by Students M Not prepare d — an excuse — reports after school. R Police regulations. Second talk on the dictator. I ^diles. J Rex sacrorum, priests and augurs. Adjourned. Secretary, I. B. The grammatical mistakes were all cor- rected by students rising from the floor. The entire lesson — twenty-five talks — was managed without a direction from the teacher. For February 9th the assignment, taken down by students in their small assign- ment books, was recorded in the minutes. Write short paragraph themes on two of the following : (a) How did the Romans get their first paid standing army? (b) Tell the story of the first Gallic Invasion. (c) Describe the organization of the Latin Confederacy. Chairman M Readers Themes Corrections C (a) and (b). Mispronounced "Allia," chairman called F for position. B (a) and (b). Point in or on river settled, criticism of text as suggest- ing naval battle on the river. 160 THE HISTORY CLUB Readers Themes Corrections W (b) and (c). " Per ticular," urged not to take wording of book. Chair- man speaks of plagiarism. S (b) and (c). Called down for not reading loud enough — speaking of Romans, they not she, mis- pronounced " envoys." R (a) and (c) . Criticised for not announcing subject. Mispronounced "Allia." Chairman makes the suggestion that members read mxyre slowly and look up as they read. F (a) and (c) . Very painfully timid — had to be coaxed, poor reader. T reproved for chewing gum; ordered by chair to put it in waste paper basket. Chair reproved for " why-a." One day when maps were night work, the talks were on any historical subject whatsoever. Such topics as " Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome," " The Value of Historical Novels," " Organization of the Army of the United States as Com- pared with the Roman Army " (given by a boy in the military corps), " The Greek and Roman History Classes," " DiiFerent Kinds of Religions," " Dress in Ancient Times," " The Last Days of Pompeii," etc., showed a lively interest in history in general. On another map day there was SAMPLES OF THE MINUTES 161 a spirited debate between patricians and plebeians, as espoused by the class. In talking about outside reading it was a common occurrence to " rise to a point of order " and question facts. The chair- man referred the two disputants to their respective authorities and had the point cleared up. Sometimes there were dis- cussions about opening books, about sneaking out of the work, etc., during which the speakers struck straight from the shoulder. It was the custom for every- body to participate in the talks, even the most timid and the dullest. The members of the club were ashamed not to take part, but we know the time when they were not ashamed to fail openly in a recitation. Two boys brought gavels to class as soon as we organized: one, a miniature croquet mallet; the other, a rough-hewn gavel. We used the first in Club A and the second in Club B. If they could speak, those miniature gavels would tell a tale of animal spirits restrained; of courteous dealings, of discipline, of re- gard for the rights of others ; of more 11 162 THE HISTORY CLUB attention to position in class, to behavior ; of war against chewing gum and chatter- ing; — against any of the bad habits that make classroom work a trial to the poor disciplinarian. Who did it? The stu- dents through the gavel. Vital moral questions sometimes came up and were settled by the students themselves, and always sanely. The minutes of the outside reading registered the student's name, the authority, the topic, and mistakes. For example : March 29: Outside Reading on the Second Punic War. Chairman T Speaker Authority Topic Corrections B Livy. Hannibal. C. B.. Gllman. Carthage. C Gilman. Hamilcar and his Double sub- sons, ject. F Gilman. Hasdrubal. Facts slightly mixed. H Morris. Purpose in at- tacking Sagun- tum. H.... Polybius. Character of Hannibal. R.... Haaren and Scipio Africanus. Talks too fast. Poland. A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB 163 A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB After the students are seated, they copy the assignment for the next day. Then, with " Harold, you may preside to- day! " the teacher rises and goes to a seat in the back of the room. Harold takes the place at the desk, picks up the gavel and calls the club to order. " We will now have talks on Roman life," he says. Three boys rise simultaneously. " Mr. President ! " comes from three throats. " Mr. Lee," says the chairman, des- ignating the smallest boy. Ned Lee moves up beside the teacher's desk and faces the class. " The present century is not the only time of bribery," he begins in a well-modulated voice. " It existed in the time of the Romans and was just as bad, if not worse, then. The governors of provinces bribed the voters to obtain the office and, when the term was ended, bribed the judge who tried him " " Mr. President, I rise to a point of 164 THE HISTORY CLUB order. He's speaking of ' governors.' It ought to be ' them.' " " — Tried them. They also got quite a for- tune to last them to the end of their lives. After the Second Punic War a law was passed forbidding bribery, but as long as rich men were willing to buy votes and the people to sell them there was little use for such a law. Wilkins in his ' Classical Antiquities ' says bribery existed until the end of the Roman Empire." A tall young fellow comes next. His clear, ringing voice and pleasing address are the result of constant practice in speak- ing to the class. " Although the slaves were held in contempt by their masters, yet the masters seemed to hold it an honor to give the slave his name. Say, for instance, if a slave's name was John Smith and he was owned by Mr. Brown, the slave's full name would then be John Smith Brown. If Mr. Brown would sell the slave to Mr. Black, another change in name would occur. The slave would now be called John A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB 165 Smith Brown Black. This method afforded a way of finding the character of a slave, as he could be traced back by his names." "Mr. President!" Not a moment is lost before the next speaker begins. " My authority is Gilman. " When the Romans first built their houses, they built only one room, which was called the ' atrium,' or ' darkened chamber.' This room was called the darkened chamber on account of the smoke on the walls, which came from the fire trying to find its way to a hole in the roof. This hole was used to admit light, and when it rained, the water would be collected in a cistern in the floor. At the entrance of the * atrium ' was a vestibule and in the vesti- bule a threshold which would make the person who stepped on it unlucky. Adj oining the ves- tibule was a small room in which lived a porter. When any one wanted to announce their arrival " "Mr. President!" When recognized, the speaker makes a 166 THE HISTORY CLUB correction. " ' Any one ' is singular," he says. Hardly are the words out of his mouth, than the boy in front continues : " — His arrival. If any one wanted to an- nounce his arrival, he would make a noise with a knocker on the door. When the visitor went into the chamber, the porter would say either ' cave canem/ which means ' beware of the dog,' or ' salve,' which means welcome. " The Romans also had a code of signs, which told the happenings of the house. When a chaplet was put outside, an heir had been born; but if the sign was some cypress in pots, it meant death. When laurel was seen on the door, it meant that a marriage was being celebrated, and when torches and lamps were lighted, there was great joy in the household." " Mr. President, may I speak? " Acknowledged by the chairman, an eager little boy steps to the front of the room and tells a good story. " The family is believed to have been the most important factor in the Roman state. The clan grew from the family, the tribe from A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB 167 the clan, and the state from the tribe. The father had complete power over his family. They were free to do as they liked, when the father died or freed them. The son, however, was above the power of his father, as long as he held public office. A good example of this is the following: — " During the Second Punic War, Fabius Cunctatus was sent to serve under his son, who was consul for that year. When the son of Fabius went out to meet Fabius senior, the father rode past eleven lictors. The son sternly ordered him to dismount, which he inunediately did, saying, ' I only wished to see, my son, whether you remembered, as you ought, that you were a Roman consul ! ' " No sooner has the last speaker taken his seat, than five students are on their feet. The chairman rapidly designates the order in which they are to take the floor. " Mr. Charlton," he announces. Charlton gives a straight-forward ac- count of Roman funerals. These talks, which are quoted here, were actually written down as they were given. We 168 THE HISTORY CLUB looked over them cairefuUy to see If they were the same as given and have used the written accounts that tallied with the spoken. So Charlton begins: " The Roman Funeral or Procession was perhaps one of the most sumptuous affairs of its kind the world has ever known. A poor Roman^ of course, was subject only to such treatment as was necessary. Upon death, he was either cremated or buried, as the circum- stances demanded. Rich Romans only were cremated, as this was the privilege of the rich. When a wealthy Roman died, his body was turned over to the undertakers, who washed and dressed it and laid it out in a very conspic- uous position on the couch, the feet usually being toward the door. " The funeral was held at night, as it was believed, according to one of the writers of that day, that night was the time of rest and as death is eternal rest — in consequence, this was practiced. At the head of the procession were torch carriers and heralds. Then came dancers and even jugglers. They were followed by the corpse, mourners, slaves, and others. A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB 169 " On arriving at the burial-place the friends encircled the place of cremation " "Would that be a 'burial-place'?" questioned the chairman. " The body was cremated in two different ways. One way was by digging a ditch about three by two and a half, in which were placed fuel and spices, and then the body. Another method was by building a funeral pile, which was constructed of the best of wood. On this the body was placed, together with other acces- sories. " After cremation the remains were gathered up and placed in an urn, which afterwards was placed in a vault, similar to those of the present day. Upon return from the funeral, the relatives and friends partook of a sump- tuous meal, then they continued to mourn for a period of from three to six months. At inter- vals they lit sacred lights for the benefit of the departed souls." A little chap in a big white collar follows. 170 THE HISTORY CLUB " Members of the club^ the book that I am on for is ' Zigzag Journeys in Classic Lands,' by Butterworth. It is about a class that is travelling over most of the world. The part I was reading is where they went to Milan. It was at one time the capital of Italy. The most famous building is the cathedral. It has taken centuries to build it. There are seven thousand statues and over a thousand bas- reliefs " " Mr. President, isn't that s silent like bd relief? " A boy has risen to his feet. " Yes," says the chairman. " — Bas-relief," continues the boy. " It has been decorated by statues and pictures by Canova, Michael Angelo, and Raphael." The next speaker is a young student who has tried hard to develop the historical sense. " My topic," he begins, " was discussed. May I speak of what I learned this year ? " The chairman gives permission. " Of all the things I have learned this year, one lesson stands out eminently, and that is the A VISIT TO THE HISTORY CLUB 171 realization of the great field of knowledge there is to be learned. When I began to study history, I thought all that was necessary was to get what there was in the text-book and I would know ancient history. But the more I studied, the more I came to realize that the text-book is only a skeleton of ancient history. In a text I got only a number of bare facts, which often seem impossible, due to the lack of sufficient explanation to make them clear or vivid. Therefore, in order to obtain a fair knowledge of ancient, or any other, history, a student must read different accounts of the same subject and build up a full account. You will very often find that historians differ on the same subject. To form an opinion of such, we must read the opinions of many more historians. " It is the same in other studies. People ignorant of literature will imagine they be- come literary by reading a few masterpieces. But when they once look into this great field of literature, they find themselves completely lost. They can not say which style of writ- ing is finest, because there are so many tliey have not read. They can not pass fair com- parative judgment on the construction and 17^ THE HISTORY CLUB ideas of a book, because there are so many books on the same subject that they have not read. As a consequence these difficulties urge them to make themselves acquainted with more authors and their works. And the more they read, the less they find they know." RESULTS These few talks are a fair sample of the talks that followed. Every one took part and the work was punctuated with con- tradictions of one another, with tracing back to authorities, with discussions about parliamentary law, with occasional ap- peals to the teacher, who usually threw the decision on the shoulders of the chairman and the club at large, — for that is the object of the club, to help the students to teach themselves. Constantly, the presiding officer was on guard to get the best from the class, by such directions as, " Speak louder," " Look your audience in the eye," " Speak more slowly," " Take a better position, class," even " Raise the window, Ritchie," when he noticed a j^awn. He had seen the RESULTS 173 teacher do that many times with the ex- planation that pure air is absolutely necessary for good brain work. This sample lesson has been taken from the work with a badly-assorted class, which came from all sorts of schools, with lall sorts of abominable habits of study. The reader can not fail to notice the im- provement in directness, in sticking to the subject, in vitalizing facts ; he can not help but see that there is a growing conscious- ness of the value of good grammar, of convincing address. He will also see that there is a love of the work for the work's sake, that courtesy is developed towards one another, that students acquire self- reliance that enables them to carry on their history reading alone with profit. In conclusion, let us urge on others the introduction of the club method, if only for occasional use. Make history a living, enjoyable thing and the history period will be looked forward to with eagerness and finished with regret. The club method brings a moral and mental stimu- lus into the life of every boy and every girl. One of the greatest results of such 174 THE HISTORY CLUB a system of self-teaching is strengthening of character. The Hon. Ben B. Lindsay, the " Children's Judge " of Denver, says: " In order to ' train up a child in the way he should go,' we must work along two def- inite lines. First, we must equip the child with such moral efficiency that when he is beset by some temptation he will not need any restraint except that restraint which is self- imposed. Second, we must improve economic conditions so as to limit the pressure brought about by temptation." The former is the work of the school. Any method that develops initiative, self- reliance, self-control, and will power is equipping the child with moral efficiency. " One of two things seems fairly plain," says Judge Lindsay further: " either we must revise our ideas of what is to be exacted from the public schools, or we must reorganize the schools upon a very different and much broader and more expensive basis. If education is to be made not merely a period of schooling, not even a preparatory course for the duties of life, but paH of life itself, it is evident to even SUMMARY 175 a cursory observer that the profession of the teacher is shortly to be regarded quite as seriously as that of the physician or lawyer. There must be many more classes and in- structors who are specialists in the subjects with which they deal. Education must be made so fascinating that compulsory school laws will be anomalies." The club method popularizes history! Parliamentary procedure is a part of life in the world. SUMMARY Chapter IX presents the club method, in which students give their own reports and judge their own work and theories. The new education does not regard the classroom as a place for rigid repressive discipline, inflicted by the teacher, but as a place where the powers of the stu- dent, moral as well as mental^ are in- creased. The only discipline that will help in later life is self-imposed dis- cipline, that is, self-control. This chapter asserts, then, that egoism is justifiable in students. Each student has the right to build up his own personality and should 176 THE HISTORY CLUB be aided. Parliamentary procedure not only acquaints with parliamentary law, but brings out a regard for the rights of others, responsibility , the call of duty, work for work's sake and self-inflicted punishment. The chapter tells how the students regarded the club; the sample minutes show the actual corrections in English and history; the visit to the club period gives a practical sample lesson. Through imitation poor students learn to improve in their speech; at the recognition of improvement from their classmates, they redouble their efforts. Commenda- tion from classmates means more to the average student than commendation from the teacher. There comes a mastery of the technique of study, the petty things like spelling, (reading, writing, etc., that make or mar the work. Attention is increased by self-government, therefore, memory is keener. Positive qualities replace the negative; ease, self-reliance, self-control, courtesy, obedience, originality, and initiative are developed. The improve- ment in the structure of English is marked. Both moral and mental value of the club idea is inestimable. / CHAPTER X Organizing a Government as a Class Exercise James McCrea, former President of the Pennsylvania Railroad, at the Forty- Sixth Founder's Day celebration at Lehigh University urged the establish- ment of a course on national, state, and municipal government, as a new depart- ment in American colleges. He said: " Since this university was founded, the nation has increased from thirty millions to ninety millions of people, governed, however, to all intents and purposes in the same manner and by the same machinery. As a result there has grown a great unrest in the land. As there was in 1865 a shortage of young men being scientifically educated, so is there to-day a shortage of yoimg men being taught the principles and science of practically ad- ministering a republican form of government." At various institutes throughout the country it has been constantly advocated 12 177 178 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT that more attention should be paid to matters of government in the public schools. Self-government among stu- dents, the honor system, and schemes like the George Junior Republic are attempts to regard the boy or the girl as a small citizen with the responsibilities and privi- leges of such. The Boy Scout movement is a popular organization to teach obedi- ence and preparation. By furnishing a legitimate outlet, it civilizes the gang spirit, which Dr. Luther H. Gulick of the Bussell Sage Foundation says is not only natural, but usable in education, — as in playground activities. Some 6500 boys and 300 girls of Baltimore are being de- veloped into good citizens hy the Public Athletic League, in which trained experts in child psychology aim to develop chil- dren by directing their play along intelli- gent and moral lines, by making the chil- dren good losers as well as good winners. A street inspector of the Department of Public Works in Philadelphia has thought out a new way to win the cooperation of school children in the movement for clean streets. A button bearing the slogan, ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT 179 " For Clean Streets, Philadelphia," is awarded as a badge of honor to children who do something to improve the condi- tion of the city streets. This is working for preventive street cleaning. It is tak- ing the children into close sympathy with the vital work of a big city. It was the idea of a woman. The wearers of the buttons, although under age politically, actually become volunteer inspectors and real welfare workers. Such matters of government should be discussed in the schools. Documents like the Declaration of Independence and The Constitution are vitalized if taken in class as the frame- work, or germ, of dramatic work. A government in actual line with our own American government can be worked out by teacher and pupils together. Various characters can be assigned: Benjamin Franklin, Washington, John Adams, Madison, Hamilton, Jefferson, and others of that noble band who helped to create a government. Such work necessitates close study of the documents referred to; this close study is made interesting rather 180 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT than tedious by the simple suggestion that the parts be acted out. To encourage thought, a new govern- ment can be formed. This was done with such enthusiasm by two history classes, that we take pleasure in describing it in detail. School is not apart from life: it is synonymous with life. Modern education has taken great strides in recognizing the boy, not as a creature different from man, but as an incipient man, best served if acquainted with the problems and re- sponsibilities that face man. A GOVERNMENT IN SEVEN DAYS *' In the next seven days," we are speak- ing to the ancient history class, — " let us organize a government " Heads nod eagerly. " — Here are the premises. We are a band of 2000 people, left by chance on a desert island. We are thoroughly up-to- date in all our needs, and a good fairy will bring the things of civilization to us. We wish to organize a government, but we GOVERNMENT IN SEVEN DAYS 181 also wish to cut loose from any precon- ceptions of government. Do not get out your American histories to study the Con- stitution. Do your own thinking. " Club A and Club B will both organize and we can then see which gets the better results." " How shall we start? " asks a thought- ful boy eagerly. " Let us look over the whole field of government for to-morrow and bring to class a list of all the forms of govern- ment; put a star to the one you think would best serve our purpose; and out- line your reasons in a ' one-minute talk.' In class we can hear all the speeches and then vote for the best championed form, which we shall adopt." " Gee! that 's great! " one boy said to another as they went out of the room. For the following seven days heated discussion was abundant in the school. Several fathers told us that their boys had dragged out of them all they knew of municipal government; in fact, one father admitted that he was clearly 182 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT " floored " by the intelligent questions of his boy. The warning against using any model, — even the United States Constitution, — was to prevent their copying wholesale. We wished original thinking, as much as possible. We wished, too, to see how our democratic principles were grounded in the youth of the city. It was a surprise to find the altruistic, the practical, and the economic, all coming to the fore. Coming at the end of the spring term, the scheme oif ered a valuable test in oral composition, especially in extemporaneous speaking. The class managed it entirely themselves ; and the teacher kept full notes of the proceedings. It is these notes that we reproduce in the sample lessons, quot- ing the speeches. We appointed as tem- porary chairman the quickest, most logical boy in the class. He took a chair in front of the class. We handed him the gavel. MEETING I " The tribe will come to order," says the chairman. " Our business to-day is to discuss forms of government, on which MEETING 18S a vote will be taken at the end of the period." " Mr. Chairman, may I have the floor? " " Mr. Winton." All of the speakers come to the front of the room and address the class. Winton steps up. " Brethren and sisters," he begins, " only one form of government will serve our pur- pose. That is social democracy, a republican form of government that protects more fully the individual. I suggest it because (1) its name means the good of society, (2) we must build a government for all the people, (3) we need a strong foundation for a good structure. I also suggest that ladies be exempt from government, — for love of the home and for rearing their families." The chairman remarks : " Your last suggestion was out of order. We are discussing kinds of government." " Mr. Chairman," says a second speaker, " I favor a republican form of government, with power in a head, supported by an assem- 184 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT bly. Hold the head responsible, keep the best men in office, and protect from dishonest dealings." A third is on the floor. " This is a critical time, tribesmen ; we make a government to abide by in the future. Let us get the right kind, and go slowly. I do not believe in the representative form — Mr. Chair- man, may we refute? " " Yes," answers the chairman. " — It must be acquired gradually. I think the government should be run without repre- sentatives, the people as a whole serving in convention. Ignorant people can be trained in the work of government." The chairman speaks: " Consider not only now, but the future when we shall be more than one hundred times as big." Another boy comes front. " Has pure democracy ever existed ? " he asks. " The Greeks called their form democ- racy, but foreigners and slaves, and for a long MEETING 185 time the common people, had no say. We learned about that with Solon, Draco, and Clisthenes. Even to-day in the United States we do not have pure democracy. People are paying taxes and not entitled to a vote. I mean women. Therefore, I think for the present a republican form, as commonly asso- ciated with the United States, is best." The next speaker sketches briefly all the forms of government and espouses the constitutional monarchy, because he thinks that the barbarous conditions sur- rounding the island demand " a strong hand in constant control." The boy ex- plains the kinds of monarchy; the kinds of oligarchy, as aristocracy, plutocracy; the variations of tyranny; and autocracy, despotism, and empire. There is a spirited discussion, after he sits down, between two boys about the difference between monarchy and empire. A commission of five men is recom- mended by another boy. After every one in the class has spoken his or her preference, the chairman comes out flatly for social democracy, pleading 186 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT that the great brotherhood of man de- serves a fair trial. In concluding he ap- points two tellers to pass ballot slips (pieces of paper) and directs each mem- ber to write his preference down and hand it in. When the vote is counted, it stands : Monarchy 11 Social Democracy 11111111111 Republican Representative Form.. 11 111 Oligarchy 1 Aristocracy 11 " Fellow tribesmen," says the chair- man, " the form of social democracy has won. This means that all the people rule and they look after the interests of all the people." Then the chairman looks to- wards the teacher, who rises and assigns the next lesson, which they copy in their assignment books, — outline or block in the main features of the social democracy. After school two boys had an animated debate on the republic of ancient times versus the modern republic. The class was beginning to ask why instead of swallowing wholesale. There was marked interest. MEETING II 187 MEETING II MAIN DEPARTMENTS We tabulate some of the suggestions: (I) Head; cabinet of 5 men, appointed by the head; parliament of 50 to make laws; judges. (II) Head; cabinet of 10 to make laws; 5 inspectors; judges. (III) Head and assistant head; cabinet of 5; secretary; treasurer; commission of 100 to make laws; judges. (IV) President; cabinet of 5; assembly of 50; judges. (V) Executive board of 10 men elected directly by people; cabinet; supreme court. (VI) Archon; cabinet; assembly; power to elect a dictator. (VII) General manager; board of mana- gers; assembly; judges. In the speeches that followed, it was readily seen that the four-part division of VII appealed to the class. The chairman called for a ballot, which was cast for the business plan of " General Manager." He then asked for a discussion of depart- 188 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT ments, which were to be looked after by the board of managers. The chairman resolves the meeting into a committee of the whole. " Mr. Chairman," says a young busi- ness man, " we have to coin our own money. That means a treasury." " Yes," says the chairman, as he writes it on the board, "the treasury!" " We must regulate commerce and labor," speaks up another. " Why not combine the post office with it? It is a form of labor and implies interchange, like commerce." The chairman calls for the opinion of the class after each suggestion. They agree to the above. Winton is upon his feet. " A tribe on another island may make war," he suggests; "we must have our army and navy, Mr. Chairman." " What else? " is urged. " I suggest," says a quiet lad, " that we regard health as a department, both of the individual health and health of the community in a moral as well as a physical way. Public safety is health in ' The MEETING II 189 Body Politic ', as they say. Pure food and all that would come under it, too." " Let us have a theatre owned by the government and get good shows," sug- gests another. " And why not have the government regulate moving pictures and education in the same department? " says a girl. " Education and amusements ought to go together. Education ought to be more amusing and amusements more educa- tional," — which was not half bad! The result of the second day's work was as follows : General manager — elected directly by the people. Board of assistant managers — elected di- rectly by people^ one to be elected a chief assistant to replace general manager, if necessary. Commerce, labor, and post office. Treasury. Resources : forests, agriculture, mines, etc. Army and navy. Health and public safety. Education and amusements. 190 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT Assembly — elected directly by the people, according to population. Judges 3 or 5 — elected by direct vote of the people. MEETING III QUALIFICATIONS Each student has outlmed his personal views. There are heated discussions on length of term, age of the incumbent, and whether native-born or naturalized. " Ten years " is objected to as " too long" and " an unfair monopoly " ; " two years " is objected to as " not enough time to work out policies." Finally they attach to the length of term re-election and recall. The term of the board of managers is made longer than the general manager's to allow policies to run over from one ad- ministration to the next and to prevent their being killed by a new party, coming into power. " Mir. Chairman," comes a pointed query, " shall we let the women vote? I move that the girls have full rights of citizenship." " Second it," cries out a girl. MEETING III 191 " All in favor of extending to the girls the rights of citizenship say ' aye I ' " " Aye! " from the majority. "No?" *' No I " from one lonely boy. " The ayes have it! " says the chairman. " Woman's suffrage for us ! " " Mr. Chairman," says a young man, " we must have a name. I move we call this 'The Social Test!'" Says the chair: " That's a good sug- gestion. Any others?" In a few minutes we have " Lronely Isle," " Florencia," " Good Hope," " Isle of Men," and " Nova Terra " (Latin for new land). " Nova Terra " wins. The boy who suggested the name rises and speaks of the people as " Nova Terrans." All of this is done with absolute courtesy, regard for the opinions of others, and desire to do their own thinking. We do not claim anything wonderfully brilliant in the kind of government evolved, but it Avas remarkably noticeable in the classroom that boys who were lazy thinkers were waking up, timid speakers 192 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT were losing self-consciousness, and ill- bred pupils were acquiring self-control. MEETING IV THE CONSTITUTION There was a delightfully original word- ing to most of the preambles ; only one had a glimmer of our own " We, the people." We quote one of the most direct : " We, the inhabitants of the island of Nova Terra, do indorse with our signatures the fol- lowing form of government on this^ the ninth, day of June, nineteen hundred and eleven." We shall quote the articles from a number of papers, to show the brief statements. Article I, — This country shall be known as Nova Terra and the people as Nova Terrans. Article II. — All people, men and women, shall have the power to vote, provided they are twenty-one years of age. Article III. — We adopt the initiative, refer- endum, and recall. Article IV. — Power shall lodge in a general manager; a board of managers; an assembly; and 3 or 5 judges. MEETING IV 193 Article V. — The general manager must be S5 years old, be native-born, have a good edu- cation, and serve four years. Article VI. — The board of managers shall consist of the following departments: com- merce, labor, and post office; treasury; army and navy ; health and public safety ; resources ; education and amusements. The assistant manager must be 35 years old, naturalized, a specialist in his work, and serve six years. Article VII. — The judges must be at least 40 years of age, naturalized, have studied law, and serve five years. Article VIII. — The representatives in the assembly shall be 30 years old, be educated to a degree, be naturalized, and serve six years, — % going out every 2 years. Every 100 people shall have a representative. Article IX. — All officers shall be elected directly by the people. Young Milton concluded his preamble with the words, " We have started out with rather a simple government, which 13 194 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT will grow more complicated as our do- minions increase ! " Club B has organized along somewhat similar lines, with a head instead of a general manager. They call themselves " Freelanders " of the island " Free Land." Several students have moved from one class to the other and thus have called for a motion to naturalize them. Another boy has come in uninvited and been put out as a spy. On another occa- sion when speeches are in order, young women from the Commercial Department visit the meeting to see if they can take down shorthand notes. They are accorded the freedom of the island and escorted to front seats, — all without a word from the teacher. MEETING V — ^ELECTION OF OFFICERS Nominations are next in order. These are balloted for and run through very expeditiously, much to the credit of the temporary chairman. The results in Club A are as follows: MEETING VI 195 General manager. — Matthew (who has since carved out a gavel as a remembrance of " Nova Terra"). Board of managers. — Isabel, Clarence, Percy, Walter, Joseph, George. Judges. — Cecil, Bertha, Samuel. Representatives. — The rest of the class. The room is then divided into three sections: on the extreme right in vertical line sit the judges; in the middle, the six assistant managers ; on the left, the repre- sentatives. MEETING VI — INAUGURAL ADDRESSES The Nova Terran general manager has been introduced by the temporary chair- man in a good speech. He rises to respond. " I thank you, Nova Terrans," he says man- fully, " for the honor of electing me general manager. I need your help. It is with me as with the man who walks with a staff: I need your support. We must act in harmony. Our government is novel: the great capitalist 196 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT is the state; we mean to practice a practical socialism. My policy for myself is ' Toe the mark ! ' ; for others it is ' Equal chances for all!'" *' Mr. General Manager," speaks one of the boys, "I move that we give a ris- ing vote to the temporary chairman, who has canried us through the difficult period of organization." " Second it! " flashes another. " All in favor of a rising vote to the temporary chairman may rise." The entire class has quietly risen. " It is unanimous," says the presiding officer. The temporary chairman acknowledges the vote of appreciation and tells how much he enjoyed presiding, because he " learned what a hard thing it is to manage and to get all the business done in a specified time." Then follow speeches from the manager of commerce, labor, and the post-office and from the manager of resources. These have all been worked up in outline for MEETING VI 197 " one-minute talks." The latter says in part: " Fellow countrymen, my election was a great surprise, as I am only a naturalized foreigner. It shows the greatness of your hearts to take me into your brotherhood. I purpose guarding the resources, — coal, forests, gas, oil, metals of all kinds, water. Farmers are to be fairly treated, not like the plebeian in ancient Rome. As I studied farming in my youth and later took up engineering, I feel that I can serve your interests." The manager of education and amuse- ments says spiritedly: " We will have free schools from the kinder- garten to the university, with free books. Every boy and every girl shall have to go to school up to a certain age. We will also use moving-picture shows for teaching purposes; we shall have a natural park for recreation, with a lake for swimming and skating, and band concerts in the summer. We will also establish a government theatre with cheap prices and good plays." 198 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT Says the manager of health and public safety: " Fellow Nova Terrans, I shall try to pay you back in services. (1) The island is sub- ject to cold winds, so I will order all houses made to defy the winds; (2) I will build a public hospital; (3) I will place an officer at our port to examine newcomers and keep out objectionable ones; (4) I will establish in our city a corps to guard life and property; and (5) I will do, as Dr. Wiley has done for the United States: establish an inspection of pure food." The manager of the army and the navy purposes to make military training com- pulsory in the schools, and in that way raise a standing army, but he concludes with an appeal for peace. " No country can be without money," says the manager of the treasury; " I purpose to start a mint and make some money. I hope to be honest, and will not allow graft; therefore, I thank you for your faith in my honesty." MEETING VI 199 Then the judges promise to uphold law, to protect all people, and to be im- partial. The chief of the assembly pledges himself: " To keep order and to have all deal- ings above-board and advantageous to the whole country." The other club elected as head a young woman of rare mental ability. It is signifi- cant because girls were in the minority. Her address we quote : " Fellow citizens, I feel keenly the honor, also the responsibility, of my position. As women, we have not been represented in politics. We are, therefore, all the more anxious to show you that there need be no regrets. " I stand for open, above-board dealing and clean politics. " I urge you to remember that in reality this country is not ruled by the Head, but by each of you. Therefore, clean politics and right conditions depend on you. " I stand for order, Avhich is preferable to confusion and anarchy. 200 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT " I also stand for peace and for prosperity in the homes^ among the families, as well as in the entire nation. " Let us live the Golden Rule and labor for the real Brotherhood of Man." MEETING VII THE FLAG At the last meeting both clubs voted for colors, the Nova Terrans choosing red and white; the Freelanders, crimson and FLAG DESIGN Jos. LUDIN slate. Designs of flags were submitted by all the students. The most striking RESULTS 201 were ten horizontal bars of red and white ; a red cross on a white ground with In hoc signo vinces; a red star of hope on a They narrowed down white ground. ] WHITE FLAG DESIGN Jack Lovi finally to the two designs given here. An interruption on the last day prevented the deciding vote. RESULTS " Disregard of law is fast becoming an American characteristic," reported the committee on a system for teaching morals 202 ORGANIZING A GOVERNMENT in the public school, when the National Educational Association met in San Fran- cisco during July, 1911. It urged that the tendencies of modern life be met by teaching the elemental virtues in school. Tidiness, self-sacrifice, obedience, patriot- ism, courage, and determination must be developed in pupils. The irelations of the individual boy and girl to society, to work, and to government must be taught ; also a study of the family as the basis of society. How greatly the ideal of education has changed in the last fifty years! Then it was, " Pour in! " Now it is not so much, *' Draw out knowledge," as " Develop the faculties," so that the student can teach himself. Now it is: Build character as well as mind, body as well as character. The school boy is an apprentice. He meets the duties and problems of school in the same spirit in which he will meet the trials and responsibilities in later life. As he will vote then, perhaps hold office, so should he vote now and hold office. There are three things a boy has to do when he leaves school : First, he lives in a RESULTS 203 community under a government, bounded by law, which he has not made but nevertheless has to obey. He mingles with friends and business acquaintances, among whom the qualities of self-reliance, independence of thought, courage, courtesy, and obedience make him re- spected; or the opposite qualities bring dislike and failure. In the third place, he owes a duty to himself to bring out the best in himself, to " make good! " How can we develop the boy, then, so that he will bring satisfaction to himself, to his friends, and to the community? He must train himself to do his own thinking and to draw his own conclusions ; he must learn to express himself easily in clear, effective English; he must store up knowledge, which will afford enjoyment to himself and to others as well as profit ; he must understand the need of law and the general working of institutions, and be (ready to take an intelligent part in government. Organization of a government by a class in class has proved itself a splendid exercise in preparing students, particu- 204 RESULTS larly boys, for life, for (1) it appeals to the "gang" spirit in the boy; (2) it teaches him respect for his fellows; (3) it helps him to do his own thinking, prevent- ing blind allegiance to party; (4) it in- stills courtesy; (5) it demands obedience in discipline; (6) it develops character, — initiative, self-control, courage, determina- tion, leadership; (7) it arouses ambition to win for the sake of a cause; (8) it gives him practice in extemporaneous speech; (9) it familiarizes him with parlia- mentary procedure; (10) it teaches him that governmental institutions are evolved to meet the conditions and the demands of the times and should so serve; (11) it makes him appreciate the multifarious interests of government; and (12) it gives him a patriotic pride in the Constitution. All these results were brought to the fore by the boys and girls themselves. The combination of oral composition with history vitalized the work in histoiry, gave the boys and girls better control of their powers, and trained them in effective speech. The pupils left the work in organizing a government with a hearty SUMIVIARY 205 respect for law, with an admiration for law-makers, and with an intelligent appreciation of the responsibilities of citizenship. SUMMARY Chapter X gives practical details about a class organization of government that serves as an excellent test in extempora- eous speaking as well as a test of origi- 7iality of ideas. It shows how students themselves can develop all the qualities needed to win in the world. Respect for others, quickness of wit, practicality, shrewdness of judgment, responsibility towards environment, and individual con- science are all developed. Regard for law is demonstrated, but the mind of the student at the same time is critical of law, not gullible enough to swallow all law whole. Man's part in making law is brought out. The plan is right in line with the movement to teach good citizen- ship in the schools. There is such a hearty enjoyment in the whole scheme that the weakest is led unconsciously to assert him,- self and to grow stronger in ideas and 206 SUMMARY easpression before an audience. The chapter shows that deliberate effort to train students to think and to speak be- fore the class in " one-minute talks," as described, can bring results that are sur- prising. It proves that the daily holding up of an ideal of the fine speaker will lead students to improve in personal com- posure, delivery, style, and quality of ideas. Practical training in oral composition would give the boy or the girl ability to use every-day English in a pleasing and effective way. The high school should insure to its graduate the use of correct, clear speech, straight to the point. It will not be able to do this until more well-planned attention is given to oral composition, until the pupils' speech re- ceives as much regard as the pupils' writ- ing. Ability to speak and to write one's own language correctly is the keystone of culture. It behooves us to ask, then, Are the schools laying the proper groundwork for culture? INDEX Address, pleasing. See Fine speaker iEneas, 125 Allusions. 113. 114 "Angleworm," the diffident boy, 13-16 Argonautic expedition, 125 Argument. See Debate Argumentative, the, 74 Art, 69, 129 Aspasia, 102 Avoid, mistakes to. See Pitfalls Bacon, Lord, inductive method, 92 Baltimore, Public Athletic League of, 178 Bibliography, explained, 129, 130; of Roman history, 135-144 Biography, 69, 134 Bluffing, 50 Boileau, 6 Bookishness, 72 Boy Scout movement, 178 Brief, 87 Cadmus, 125 Candidates, license to teach oral English, Preface, Ix Choice of subject, 60 Class. See Oral composition. Sample lesson, and Talks Club: English, 30-37; History. 146-176; how managed, 31; in working, 32-37; results, 172-175; Speakwell, Preface, xii; summary, 175, 176 Colleges, domination of, 72 Composition. See Oral composition Conversation, 62, 72; debate, 75 207 208 INDEX Correlation, 45, 46; English, geography, spelling, and history, 128, 156; history and English, 82; mythology and English, 113-126; mythology and history, 114-126 Criticism: Blackboard, 17, 18; card catalog of, 14, 30, 53; demand eradication, 53; discussion of, 17; gradual, 27; how to judge debates, 79, 80, 82, 83; praise as well as blame, 17, 27, 51, 52; sample, extreme case, 32-37; self, 26,29 Cure for slovenly speech, 2, 10, 11, 19, 20 Debates, brief, 87; debate in relay, 96-99; deciding paragraph debates, 82, 83; formal debate, 90, 91; good debate, residts of, 74; History Club, 160, 161; impromptu, 37; in history, 80-82; kinds of argument, 91-94; literary so. ciety, 84, 85; main issu s, 87; mock trial, 94-96; para- graph debates, 75-79; peroration, 88; procedure, 79, 80; refutation, 85-89; subjects for debates, 97-99; subjects for paragraph debates, 75-79; summary, 100, 101; sym- posium, 104; terms, 85, 91-94 Declaration of Independence, 179 Deficiencies in speech, 2, 4 Delivery, 26, 57, 58; debate, 79, 84 Description. See Subjects Diagrams: Types of sentences, 59; debates, 83 Dictionary, 19 Discipline. See Parliamentary procedure Don'ts: Do not choose uninteresting subjects, 48, 49; do not discourage by too much condemnation or spoil by too much praise, 51, 52; do not be discom-aged, 54, 55; do not drill outlines blindly until students hate them, 51; do not emphasize one phase of the talk at the expense of the others, 49, 50; do not encourage "hot air," 50; do not fail to arouse interest, 46-48; do not fail to hear from all of the class, 43-45; do not fail to let the class get the ben fit as well as the teacher, 53, 54; in debate, 90, 91; do not let correction go in one ear and out the other, 52, 53; do not sacrifice the lesson to oral composition, 45, 46 Dramatic, the, 123, 179, 180 INDEX 209 Ease. See Fine speaker Educated man, 69, 70 Education, Preface, x Efficiency, Preface, ix, 40 English. See Oral composition English Journal, Preface, ix Exposition. See Subject Faults of classes, 5; debate, 83; history, 128, 146-148, 173 Fine speaker, the, 8, 9, 23-25; in debate, 79,80; in meetings, 164 Flag, 200, 201 Gavel. 32, 161, 162 George Junior Republic, 178 Gesture, 13, 23, 57, 84, 156 Government: A government in seven days, 180-201; organi- zation in class, 177-180; results of work in government, 201-206 Grammar, 24, 156, 159 Gulick, Dr. Luther H., on gang spirit, 178 Hercules, labors of, 125 High schools, Preface, x History, 69: Bibliography of Roman history, 135-144; club, 146-176; debates, 80-82; filing away work, 129; historical spirit, 132-134; maps, 129; objects, 132-134; oral com- position, 127-135; organizing a government in class, 177- 206; reference reading, 127-132; results of work in gov- ernment, 201-206; sample lessons of talks, 163-172; study of documents by dramatic rendering, 179, 180; summary of work in history, 144, 145 Human interest, 67, 130 Ideas, 24-26, 49, 60. 62-67; debate, 79 Imagination, 65 Indians, restricted as subject, 68 Interest, 9 210 INDEX Journal, 66 Julius Cmsar, Mark Antony's address, 89 Laboratory method. Preface, xii, 17, 29, 30, 9S8 Lack of response, 36 Landor, Walter Savage, 102 Lesson. See Sample lesson Letters, debate in, 75 Library, 127 Lincoln, Gettysburg speech, 89 Lindsay, Judge Ben, 174, 175 Literary Society: Debate in relay, 96-99; deciding debates, 79, 80; formal debate, 90, 91; mock trial, 94-96; para- graph debates, 84, 85; parliamentary procedure, 54; symposium, 104; talk memorized, 57, 58 Literature, 69 McCrea, James, on training in government, 177 Magazines, 63 Main issues. See Debates Man, the educated, 69, 70 Marking. See Criticism Methods, See Parliamentary procedure. Summaries, Pref- ace, xi Milton, allusion of, 113 Minutes, 151-162 Mock trial. See Debates Mottoes, 18 Mythological symposium, 114, 115 Narration. See Subject National Council of Teachers of English, Preface, vii National Educational Association, 202 Nature, 69 Newark, Central High School of. Preface, viii, x Note- taking, 39, 54; as a thought-'^Iarifier, 56; college methods, 61; for a personal experience, 70; for talks, 58; short- hand, 194 Number. See Talks. Preface, x INDEX 211 Object of book, 5 Observation, 63 Old Testament, reading'jn history, 129 Olympian Comicil, 124 Opinion: Debates, 82, 83, 91; forcing an, 38, 39, 65, 66; forming an, 203; student opinion of club, 149-154; symposium, 104, 109, 110 Oral composition: Convictions in regard to, Preface, xi; need of, 1-5; recognition of need by New York State Asso- ciation of English Teachers and High School Teachers' Association of New York, 3; results in general, 205, 206; results of oral composition in history, 172-175, 191, 192; social, business, and cultural value, 47, 48 Orator. See Fine speaker Organization. See Parliamentary procedure Outlines, 19, 50, 51, 58; brief, 87; debates, 83, 84; history, 128; personal experience, 70; blackboard record of sym- posium, 104; refutation, 85 Parliamentary procedure, 30; debates, 79, 80; debates in relay, 96; discipline, 161, 162; formal debate, 90, 91; gavel, 32, 161; government in seven days, 182-201; History Club, 148; history reports, 133; in working, 32- 37; minutes in history, 154-162; mock trial, 94-96; organizing a government, 180-182; student comments, 149-154; symposium. 102. 103, 105, 106; 114-116; Preface, xi Pericles, 102 Peroration. See Debates Perseus, adventures of, 125 Philadelphia, Department of Public Works, 178 Pitfalls, 43 Poise. See Fine speaker Popular Educator, Preface, x Position, 26. 33 Private school. Preface, x Procedure, See Parliamentary procedure Pronunciation, 19, 20, 33, 128, 156 212 INDEX Psychology. See Summary Public speaking. See Fine speaker Qualities of teachers: Balance, 45, 49; enthusiasm, power to interest, 46, 47; fertility of thought, 55; generalship, 43; impartiality, 44; ingenuity, 44, 45; in symposium, 103; sensitiveness, 51; sympathy, 31, 44; systematic per- severance, 55; tact, 55; watchfulness, 44, 45 Qualities, rhetorical. See Rhetorical qualities Reading, 62; bibliography of Roman history reading, 135- 144; minutes, record, 162, 163; reference, 127; results of systematic reading in history, 134, 135; sunmaary of reference reading in history, 144, 145 Refutation, 85, 88 Religion, 69 Reports, 39, 40, 61; history, 131, 132; History Club, 155; reading in history, 131, 132; synonyms, 71 Restriction of subject, 67-69 Rhetorical qualities: Brevity, 19; clearness, 19; coherence, 19, 87, 88; emphasis, 19, 88; paragraph debates, 75; unity, 19, 75, 87 Sample lesson: Club in working, 32-37; first talks, 13-16; harmonious development, 23-26; helping the students to think, 62-66; introductory to talks, 5-11; kinds of argument, 91-94; minutes of the History Club, 157-162; Olympian Council meeting, in session, 116-124; organ- izing a government in seven days, 180-201; preparing debate, 86-89; restricting the subject, 68, 69; symposium on a national flower, 105-110; visit to the History Club, 163-172 Science, 69 School, a preparation for life, 201-205 School paper, 71 Schools, restricted as a subject, 69 Self-government. See Club Slang, 18, 19, 47, 48 Slovenly English, Preface, ix; cure for, 2, 10, 11, 19. 20 INDEX 213 Speaker. See Fine speaker Spelling, 128. 129 Spencer, Herbert, on self-teaching, ii Spontaneity, 14 Sport, true, 74 Style, 9. 58; in debates, 79, 89 Subjects: Anecdotes, 70; biography, 39, 40, 61; choice of, 57, 60. 72, 73; debates in history, 80-82; debates, 75-79, 81, 82,97-99; Declaration of Independence, 179; descrip- tion, 20, 70; exposition, 20; the familiar, 72; good sub- ject for debate, 86, 96; history impromptu, 160; hobbies, 48; interesting, 48; jokes, 70; narration, 20, 70; para- graph development, 70; paragraph debates, 75-79; para- phrases, 71; personal experiences, 20, 70; point of view, 48; processes, 20; qualifications of good subject, 66-68; reasons, 20; reports, 20, 39, 40, 70, 71; restriction of subject, 67-69; school paper, 71; subject-matter, 69-72; summaries, 20; symposiimi, 110, 111, 124-126; trans- lation, 20; U. S. Constitution, 179; vital interest, 50, 57; vocational, 71 Suggestion, 28 Summaries of chapters, 20-22. 40-42, 55, 56, 72, 73, 100, 101, 111, 112, 126, 144, 145, 175, 176, 205, 206 Summarizing, in debates, 88 Supervision. See Parliamentary procedure. Criticism Syllogism. See Debate, terms Symposium, 102-112; in Greece, 102; mythological, 113-126; summary. 111, 112; value and use of, 102-112 Talks: How given, 11-13; how to judge debates, 79, 80 inter-class talks, 40; introductory talk to class, 5-11 kinds of argument, 91-94; length of talks, 61; number, 44 preparing a debate, 86-89; voluntary, 30; ways of using, 57-62 Teacher. See Qualities Teaching: Convictions about teaching oral composition. Preface, ix; self-teaching, 45, 46, 147, 148, 159, 172-175,' 182-201 214 INDEX Team'play, 53, 54 Tests, 37-40; symposium, 110; History Club, 156 Themes. See Subjects Theseus, 125 Time. See Talks Timidity, 11, 12, 25. 28, 44 Toasts. See Symposium Topic. See Subject Trojan War, 124 Ulysses, 124 Vocabulary, 18, 19, 59 Vocational, 71 Written themes, 46 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 021 772 764 9