,^*\v\L!'.-^o. °'^ •^^' -' C ^"-^ ^v- y^^T^^ -^ . 'O rO^ fi&^^ >• .r- ^ .%#/%' :^^^*, "^.^e^^ A^' ^.- '^ ^ -^^^i^^- ^ ^ .^' -is" V '^ . o. 0' , .^ ^ g'^'^^ -? ^3 ^^^^-^^ ., ' Av. ^^^^^/],V ,ji. ^^"~^' ^^ ■ V ^^ .? ... . ;^ " .^' - ^"■^ .#■ ■^ tc ./ %, ' ' U ^ 0<^^ ^0 N '- K '"'^^ * ^r•S^W^. . -^ ^ 0^ o 0' ..#' : ^x^' <^^^ ^oo^ '\' s o o 05 < CO I- < QC O Q. x: 1^ English. ' First Voyage of Colunihiis. Subsequent Voyages of Columbus. Spanish. French, Dutch. Explorations or the Continent. Expeditions the Coast. ^ Vespucius. J Magellan, i coronado. [ Alar^on. Ojeda. Balboa. Conquest of M ^.Al De Leon. De Narvaej. De Soto. The Cabots. Frobisher. Sir Francis TiraUe. Sir Muniiilirey Gilbert, His Exploreri. Sir Walter Jtaleigh First Colony Si'cond Color.i Results. Bartholomew Gosnolcl. Martin Fring. ( Verrazzano. I Cartier. Governmental. \ Eoberval. I De la Roche. I De Monts. MeUgious. Individuals. {Huguenots. Jesuits. Marquette. J Champlain. j La Salle. Henry Hudson. Trading- Houses. West India Company, 22 Feri o e> it. EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES. The Middle Ages. 1, During the Middle Ages the civihzation of Southern Europe was overthrown by the invasions of barbarians from the North, and throughout this period the densest Ignorance prevailed aniom classes of society. Learning escaped anniliilation only be- cause it sought refuge and was fostered in such obscure places as Iceland, the deserts of Arabia and Africa, and in the monasteries of Europe. So general was the illiteracy that a convict could escape death by what was called " benefit of clergy " — that is, if 23 24 Revival of Geographical Knowledge. he were clerk or scholar enough to be able to read and write, his life was considered too valuable to be taken. 2. Much of the geographical knowledge of preceding ages was lost during this period of ignorance, and the known world embraced only the continent of Europe, the western countries of Asia, and a narrow strip of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean. Everything beyond this portion of the earth Avas called Terra Incognita, or the un- known land, and the most unreasonable notions pre- vailed regarding it. It was said to be peopled by head- less men and strange monsters ; its waters were lashed by dreadful tempests, and toward the south seethed in intolerable heat. 3. Toward the end of the eleventh century the night of ignorance began to pass away. The crusades had given the people of Europe new thoughts ; the discovery of the art of printing made it easy to spread information ; tlie conquest of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) had driven learned Greeks from that city to Western Europe, wliere they revived a knowledge of the arts and literature of Ancient Greece and Rome. The discovery of the mar- iner's compass made it safe for sailors to explore the liith- erto unknown but dreaded ocean beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), and the manufjicture of gunpowder changed the art of war, giving every advantage to armies provided with firearms. Revival of Geograpliical Knowledge. 4. From the early part of the fifteenth century there reigned in Portugal, and subsequently in Spain, sovereigns who delighted to encourage maritime enterprise. Under their patronage the spirit of discovery grew bold. The vessels of Portugal no longer hovered timidly along the shores of the Mediterranean, but launched forth on the The India Trade. 25. Atlantic. The coast of Africa was explored from Cape Blanco to Cape Vercl. The Cape Verd and Azores Islands were discovered, lying three hundred leagues from shore. The India Trade. 5, Besides the interest which scientific men had in mar- itime adventure, there prevailed a universal eagerness to gain possession of the wealth of the Indies. The silks, spices, precious stones and other articles brought from thence yielded immense profits, but the transportation of these valuable commodities over the deserts, across the Red and Mediterranean Seas and through hostile coun- tries was attended with great difficulties and danger. The possibility of an ocean route to India began to be talked of; and as such a discovery would give the nation by which it was made control of vast wealth, the project was eagerly pursued. Spanisli Explorations. G, First Voyagfi of Colnmhus, — In 1492 the monarchs of Spain, after long hesitation and with many doubts as to the wisdom of such a course, decided to supply Chris- topher Columbus with the means to test his theory that the East Indies could be reached by sailing west. After the patronage of the king and queen had been obtained, there still remained great difficulties in the way of Colum- bus. No seamen were found willing to undertake such a perilous adventure, and the crews by which his ships were manned were compelled by royal mandate to embark on the expedition. Three small vessels, two of them without decks, were made ready at last, and one hundred and twenty persons embarked in them for the voyage. 7. On the 3d of August, 1492, this little fleet sailed from the port of Palos, in Spain. Their course was di- rected toward the Canary Islands, where they stopped to 26 Spanish Explorations. repair an injury to one of the ships and to take fresh supplies of water. Thence they sailed on toward the west for five weeks over the unknown ocean. As they sailed westward the hopes of the sailors were excited and their hearts cheered by tokens of approaching land. Sea-weeds and tunny-fish, that seldom are found far from shore, floated round their vessels, while flocks of land-birds fl^ew overhead singing their cheering wood-notes. 8. One evening the cry of " Land!" was heard from one of the vessels. There was great excitement in every mind during the night. When the sun rose on the morning of the 12th of October, the eyes of Columbus and his com- panions rested upon a new world. The land thus dis- covered was a small island of the Bahama group. Colum- bus disembarked, and with impressive ceremonies took possession of the country in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. He named the island San Salvador and called the natives Indians, supposing that he had reached the East Indies, and that the mainland of which he heard was the dominions of the Khan of Tartary. 9. Columbus continued his ex})! orations in these waters for three months, during which time he discovered Cuba, Hayti and many other islands. He then set sail for Spain, where he arrived after a long and perilous voyage. No sooner had this path of nautical adventure been thrown open by the discovery of Columbus than the ships of maritime nations turned their prows westward. Their crews, no longer composed of discontented mari- ners pressed on board of vessels by a royal mandate, were men animated by high hopes of fame and of almost boundless wealth. 10. Subsequent Voijages of Columbus, — Columbus re- turned to Spain from his first voyage early in 1493, and was received with all the honors that the monarchs could be- Spanish Explorations — South. 27 stow. Subsequently three voyages were made by him to the New World. He undertook the second in 1493, and was absent three years, during which he founded a colony on the island of Hayti and continued his explorations among the islands. On the third voyage, in 1498, he coasted along the northern shores of South America. On his fourth voyage, in 1502, Central America was discovered. 11, The Exidoratious on the Continent, — The Span- ish soon took possession of the West India Islands, and passed thence to the neighboring continent. Their expe- ditions included men from all classes of society. The reckless and daring were allured by the love of adventure ; cavaliers and noblemen sought for lionors and dominion ; and all were greedy for the wealth of the new country. These expeditions of the Spaniards may be divided into two classes — those south of the latitude of the United States, which were highly successful, and those north of that line, which j^i'oved disastrous failures. 12, Expeditions South. — Of the southern expeditions the principal are those of (1) Ojeda (o-hd-dd), a Span- ish courtier, and companion of Columbus, who led an expedition to Darien in 1510 and planted a colony there. (2) Balboa (6a/-/^o'-a), advancing south from Darien, discov- ered the Pacific Ocean in 1513, and named it the South Sea. (3) Conquest of Mexico. — Cordova and Grijalva led expedi- tions from Cuba to Yucatan and the western shores of the Gulf of Mexico. There they heard of a wealthy empire far- ther west, and in 1519 Hernan Cortez was put at the head of an army for its conquest. He found the rich country of the Aztecs, and in two years, by mingled braveiy and perfidy, subjugated it to the rule of Spain and poured its almost boundless wealth into her coffers. 13, Expeditions North. — Though the Spaniards spread in all directions from their island centres, it is a fact of 28 Spanish Explorations— North. great importance in the subsequent history of our country that they gained no foothold toward the north. 14, (1) Juan Ponce de Leon ( pdn-tha-dd-ld'-on), a fellow- voyager with Columbus, and a soldier of some distinction, in 1512 reached the mainland of the continent at about the thirtieth parallel of latitude. He gave to the newly-discov- ered land the name of Florida — a name afterward extend- ed by the Spaniards to the entire continent — and was ap- pointed governor of this vast territory. De Leon spent some time in exploring Florida, believing that somewhere amon^ its forests he should find a fountain whose waters would give immortal youth to those who drank of them. Disappointed in this search, he abandoned the country for a time, but nine years later returned with a force of two hundred soldiers and attempted its subjugation ; but the Indian tribes being fierce and numerous, the intruders were driven away. 15, (2) De Narvaez. — The conquest of Florida was not again attempted until 1528, when De Narvaez (rimM-a/i'-^^/i\ with three hundred followers, landed at Tampa Bay for that purpose. They trusted to the savage guides, who led them to believe that gold was found tow^ard the west, and trav- elled by land for some distance in -that direction. After- ward embarking on the Gulf in frail boats, Narvaez and most of his followers perished. A few of their number reached the western shore, struck across the continent, and after six years of wandering reached a Spanish set- tlement on the Pacific coast. 16, (3) Ferdinand de 6'oto.— Despite the two disastrous attempts already made to take possession of Florida, De Soto, a soldier who had distinguished himself in the conquest of Peru and accumulated great wealtli there, solicited and obtained the governorship of Cuba and the then indefinite land called Florida. He left Spain Spanish Explorations on the Coast. 29 with six hundred brilliantly-equipped followers, many of whom were nol)lemen and persons already distinguished for wealth and vigor, and sailed for Cuba. In the spring of 1539 he landed at Tampa Bay with his glittering caval- cade of noblemen, priests and warriors. For two years they wandered, their number gradually wasting by dis- ease, want and the hostility of the natives. '^^■W^'^ ■■ De Soto DIscovERI^G the Mi'^siSbiPPi 17' In the spring of 1541, De Soto discovered the Missis- sippi River, crossing it at about the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude. He continued far into the western country, but found no gold-mines nor rich cities, as he had expected. The next year this company returned to the Mississippi, 30 Spanish Explorations on the Coast. where De Soto died, and was buried in its waters. The wretched remnant of the expedition wandered a while longer, and finally reached a Spanish settlement on the eastern coast of Mexico. Thus ended the third attempt of Spain to plant her banner in the North. 18. Subsequently, in 1565, a colony was planted by Me- lendez at St. Augustine, the oldest town in the present limits of the United States. A mission station was also founded at Santa Fe in 1582. With the exception of these feeble settlements, not a single Spanish colony found a foothold within the present limits of the United States. 19. Expeditions on the Coast. — Americus Vespuclus, a Florentine merchant who accompanied some of the Span- ish expeditions, between the years 1499 and 1508 made several voyages to the New World, of which he published an interesting account. As this was the first written de- scription which was made public, its author obtained the brilliant, but unmerited, reward of giving his own name to the continent which Columbus had discovered. 20. The great activity of Spain at this period is shown by the number and extent of the explorations made by her mariners. A route to India had already been discovered by Vasco di Gama {vahs-ko-dd-gah'-ma,) a Portuguese subject, but the ambitious continued to search for a western passage. 21. Magellan, a Portuguese subject in the employ of Spain, in 1520 sailed into the Pacific Ocean through the strait that bears his name, and Avas the first to circum- navigate the earth. 22. Coronado (cor-o-nah'-do), sailing from a Spanish harbor on the western coast of Mexico, entered the Gulf of California, passed up the Gila River, and penetrated the country in a north-easterly direction far beyond the head-waters of the Rio Grande. English Explorations. 31 23, Alargon coasted the Pacific shore beyond Point Con- ception. Cabrillo followed the same route nearly as far north as the mouth of the Columbia River. English Explorations. 24, T7(e Cabofs. — England, the nation which was des- tined to found the most powerful empire in America, Avas the first after Spain in the field of discovery. When news of the discoveries of Columbus reached England, King Henry VII. resolved to compete for the possession of the new countries. He therefore commissioned John Cabot, a Venetian residing in Bristol, to go on a voyage to the West, and to claim for the English Crown all the lands which he should discover. This mariner, accompanied by his son, Sebastian, reached the continent, in the vicinity of Labrador, in 1497. He was thus the first to reach the mainland, Columbus having discovered only islands at that time. The next year Sebastian Cabot alone sailed along the coast of America. No record of this voyage was preserved, but it is believed that he coasted from the frigid zone to a point near Cape Hatteras. 25, Martin Frohisher, — In accepting the theory of the spherical form of the earth, English navigators conceived the idea that a north-westerly course would give them the shortest route to Asia. In 1576, Martin Frobisher crossed the Atlantic, sailed along the coast of Labrador, and en- tered some strait north of Hudson Bay, believing it, for a time, to be the long-sought north-west passage. 26, Sir Francis Drake. — In 1579, Sir Francis Drake l)assed through the Strait of Magellan and cruised along the Pacific shores of the continent, capturing the ships of the Spaniards and plundering such of their villages as lay near the coast. He sailed north as far as Oregon, entering the harbor of San Francisco on the way, and then west- ward across the Pacific, accomplishing the second circum- 32 English Explorations. navigation of the earth. He made other voyages to the New World, partly for exploration and partly for plunder. 27, Sir Huni2)hrey Gilbert was a statesman of judg- ment and good sense who perceived the true policy of the government to be the colonization of America. Assisted by his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, he obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth, and attempted to found a colony at Newfoundland, but was lost at sea before his plan could be carried out. 28, Sir Walter Haleigh attemjjts to Colonize Arnerica, His Explorers. — Raleigh immediately took up Gilbert's plan of colonization, obtained a patent, and in 1584 sent two explorers to choose a site for his colony. They visited Roanoke Island and the neighboring coast, and on their return gave such glowing accounts of the country that the queen named it Virginia, from her own unmarried state, esteeming its discovery one of the great events of her reign. 29, Raleigh's First Colony.— It was not difficult to find men wilhng to enlist in his enterprise, but a strange fatal- ity attended the plans of Raleigh. His first colonists, sent in 1585 and established on Roanoke Island, Avere so ill adapted to the situation that they were soon suffering from the hostility which they provoked among the Indians, and from lack of food. When Drake, returning from the Pacif- ic, entered their harbor, tliey persuaded him to carry them back to England. Soon after their departure reinforcements sent by Raleigh arrived ; but finding the settlement de- serted, they left a few men to hold possession, and returned. ,30, Raleigh'' s Second. Colony. — In 1587, Raleigh sent another expedition, this time consisting of families, with John Wliite as governor. Landing at Roanoke Island, they sought for the men who had been left in possession, but no trace of them was found. They had been mur- dered by the Indians. White laid the foundations on the English Explorations. 33 northern end of the island for ca city to be called Raleigh. After establishing the colony in as much comfort as j^os- sible, he was obliged to return to England for supplies. When arrived there, he found the country agitated by the threatened invasion of the Spanish Armada, and no ves- sels were allowed to leave the ports. Raleigh, however, found means to despatch White with two vessels laden with supplies for the colonists ; but turning from their course to pursue a Spanish prize, they fell in with a man-of-war, and being beaten were obliged to put back to England. This proved fatal to the colonists ; no aid could be sent them for two years, and by that time all had either perished or been carried away by the Indians. 31. The Results. — Raleigh had spent forty thousand pounds in his attempts to found a colony; and as his fortune did not allow him to invest any greater amount, he assigned his patent to a company of merchants and adventurers, . some members of which were afterward engaged in the permanent settlement of Virginia. 32. Bartholomew GosnoM, — The fisheries of New- foundland had early attracted attention, and were the means of bringing voyagers to the neighboring coast. In 1602, Gosnold, sailing directly west across the ocean, in- stead of the usual route by the Canary and West India Islands, reached Cape Cod after a voyage of only seven weeks. Lading his vessel with sassafras-root, then highly esteemed as a medicine, he returned after an absence of only four months. His favorable report and the quick- ness and ease of the voyage induced others to follow. 33. 3Iarfin Priuf/ sailed along the New England coast, the year after Gosnold, from the Penobscot to Martha's Vineyard. From this time voyages to the American coast by the English were frequent and profitable, and the desire to colonize the country steadily increased. 34 French Explorations. French Explorations. 34, France was early in the field of exploration. In 1504 her mariners were engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries, and two years later Denys, a French sailor, made a map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence for the use of the fishermen. 35, Government Explorations. — (1) Verrazzano. — In 1524, John Verrazzano {ver-raht-sah' -no)^ a Florentine in the employ of the French king, sailed along the coast from North Carolina to Nova Scotia, entering the harbors of New York and Newport. 36, (2) Cartier. — The king next sent out Jacques Cartier (car-te-d'), who in 1534 entered the gulf and river which were afterward named St. Lawrence. He made another voyage the next year, spending the winter on the island of Orleans, the present site of Montreal, and taking formal possession of the country in the name of the French king. 37, (3) Lord Roherval. — In 1540, De la Roque, lord of Roberval {ro-her-vaW), obtained a commission to settle the country, and proceeded there with Cartier as his pilot. The two men not agreeing to act for the common good, and the Indians having become hostile by an act of treachery committed by Cartier on a previous voyage, no settlement could be effected, and the design was abandoned. 38, De la Roche. — Bancroft says, " The purpose of found- ing a French empire in America was renewed in 1598, and an ample commission was issued to the marquis De la Roche {rbsh), a nobleman of Brittany. Yet his enterprise entirely failed. Sweeping the prisons of France, he estab- lished their tenants on the desolate Isle of Sable ; and the wretched exiles sighed for their dungeons. After some years the few survivors received a pardon. Tlie temporary residence in America was deemed a suflficient commuta- tion for a long imprisonment." French Explorations. 35 39. De Monts. — In 1603, Henry IV. bestowed upon Sieur de Monts (du-mong') all the region lying between 40° and 46^ north latitude, and known as Acadia. With this grant of land, the most immense ever bestowed upon a single individual, De Monts obtained vice-regal power and the monopoly of the fur-trade. The next year he sailed with a few colonists, and after coasting for some time in search of an eligible site decided to land and found his colony on an island in the mouth of the St. Croix (crojj) River. The choice was unfortunate, and they endured great suffering during the winter from disease and tlie severity of the climate. In the spring they re- moved to the shores of the Bay of Fundy, and there founded Port Royal (now Annapolis). During the summer De Monts returned to France, forwarding recruits and generous sup- plies to his colony, so that the next winter was spent not only comfortably, but happily, at Port Royal, and as the spring opened everything seemed to promise success to the French colony. But enemies of De Monts, jealous of the immense territory and power bestowed upon him, induced the king to rescind the grant. Its founder being no longer able to sustain it, the colony Avas deserted. 40. Exploratio}is by liellfjious Sects. — No other at- tempt to colonize America was made by the French gov- ernment for many years, but the persecution of the French Protestants, called Huguenots, and the ardor of the Society of Jesuits, led to several private undertakings. 41. The Huguenots in South Carolina. — In 1502, Co- ligny (co-len-ye), Admiral of France, obtained the consent of the king to send a company of Huguenots to America, that they might there be free to practice their own worship. The first band went to Port Royal, where they built a fort, naming it Carolina, in honor of Charles IX. the French king. These settlers became disheartened and soon deserted. 3 36 French Explorations. 42, Two years later another Huguenot colony was planted on the St. John's River, in Florida. The Span- iards, unable to settle the country themselves, were jealous of this settlement of Protestants, and sent Melendez to destroy it, which he did by an indiscriminate massacre, afterward founding the city of St. Augustine near the site. 43, The Jesuits were an order of monks who showed unexampled courage and enterprise in penetrating all lands for tire propagation of their faith. They came to this country with the first explorers, and were foremost to reach the interior. By them the French empire was extended to the Mississippi River, and it is to their jour- nals and reports that Ave are indebted for much early history. As early as 1634 a Jesuit mission station was established on the shores of Lake Huron. Other missions were soon founded, and many converts made among the Indian tribes. The route of these men was north of the Great Lakes, as the early encounters of the French Avith the fierce warriors of the Five Nations had made the latter so hostile that the . missionaries who tried to come among them were put to death. As early as 1641 they reached the Sault Ste. Marie, and there, seventeen years later, a mission station was founded, and the missionaries began to hear rumors of a great river called the '' MessijDi." 44, Marquette and the Discovery of the Mississippi . — Prom- inent among the French missionaries was the wise and good Father Marquette (mar-ket'). Working earnestly among the Indians around Lake Superior, he greatly desired to carry the gospel to the remote tribes far to the west and south of the Great Lakes, where no white man had ever been. In the summer of 1673 he started with Joliet (zho-le-d), an explorer sent out by the governor of Canada, and five other Frenchmen, being unable to obtain aid or guidance from the timid Indians in his perilous undertaking.. French Explorations. 37 45. In canoes these explorers proceeded down the Wis- consin River to its junction with tl^e Mississipi)i, hmding and spending a week wdth the Indians in Iowa. Resum- ing their journey, they passed below the mouth of the Arkansas, from which point they were able to determine the course of the river beyond, and they then turned toward home. Returning by way of the Illinois River, they came safely back to the mission at Green Bay. 46. Explorations by Individuals, Samuel Champlain. —In 1603, Sanmel Chani})lain, a man peculiarly fitted for the employment, made an expedition to the northern part of America in the interests of a mercantile com- pany, and carried back the most discriminating report that had been received of the country. He returned soon after with De Monts, and heli)ed to plant the French set- tlement of Port Royal. In 1608 he penetrated the country and selected Quebec as the site of a city. The next year, traveling south with a few companions, lie discovered the lake which bears his name. AMiile on this expedition he joined a party of Algonquins against their enemies the Iroquois, thereby rousing the hatred of that powerful con- federacy against the French nation. It was to his labors, more than to those of any other individual, that France owed her 'claim to territory in America. Cham})lain is called "The Father of New France," the name America not being then much used, as France named the con- tinent New France, Spain called it Florida, and England claimed it under the name of Virginia. 47. La Salle at Fort Froiitcnac. — La Salle was a French- man of great genius and extraordinary daring, who came to New France to find scope for his adventurous spirit. He began as a fur-trader, but soon obtained a grant of a large tract north of Lake Ontario, and there l)uilt Fort Frontenac, on the present site of Kingston. Here 38 Dutch Explorations. he learned of the discoveries of Marquette, and determined to continue the exploration of the Mississippi. 48, With a few companions he sailed from Fort Fronte- nac to the Niagara, and on Lake Erie built a bark, which he called the Grithn. In this they sailed through the lakes to Green Bay. Sending back the Griffin for supplies, they proceeded in canoes to the mission station- of 8t. Joseph, from which place they went down the Illinois to a point below Peoria, and built Fort Crevecoeur (krave- keur). The discouraged party waited long for news of the Griffin, which had been wrecked. At last, leaving orders for Father Hennepin to explore the Upper Missis- sippi in his absence. La Salle, with only three companions, started overland for Frontenac. He returned the next year with help, and in a barge they descended to the mouth of the Mississippi, taking formal jjossession of the whole valley and naming it Louisiana. This was in 1682. 4fJ, La Salle then sailed for France, and having ob- tained from the king permission to settle the country, returned with a colony in 1685. Attempting to enter the Mississippi from the Gulf of Mexico, he missed its mouth, and was obliged to land his colony on the eastern shores of the Gulf There they remained a Avhile ; but expected supplies failing to reach them, and the countr}^ not yield- ing enough for their support, La Salle, with a fevv^ com- panions, started overland for Canada to obtain help. This was the last of the perilous and romantic adven- tures of his life, He fell in the wilderness b}^ the hand of an assassin, and lies in an unknown grave. Butcli Explorations. 50, Henry Hudson, — In the year 1609, Henry Hudson, an English navigator, was sent out by a company of Dutch merchants to seek a north-west passage. While exploring Dutch Explorations. 39 the eastern coast of America for this object, he through the Narrows and entered the Bay of New York. He sailed up as far as Albany, on the river which now bears his name, his little ship, the " Half Moon," being the first European sail ever borne upon its waters. Hudson Ascending the Rivek in the Half-Moon. 51. Dutch Tradmg-Houses, — Holland, then the most active commercial state in Europe, immediately sent trad- ini»;- vessels to the new country, and built fortified trading- houses on ^Manhattan Island, on the Hudson just below the present site of Albany, on the Delaware River, and on the Connecticut. The English from the first disputed the Dutch claim, and as early as 1613, Captain Argall of Virginia compelled the Hollanders to hoist the English flag at Manhattan, Init the Dutch flag was resumed as soon as he sailed out of the bay. 40 West India Company s Explorations. 52. West India Companifs Explorations, — In 1614 a mercantile company received permission from the States- General of Holland to explore the new country and monop- olize its trade. One of their vessels was commanded by Cap- tain Adrian Block, who passed through the East River, and explored the northern coast of Long Island Sound, entering the Housatonic and Connecticut Rivers. He named Block and Roode (now Rhode) Islands, and sailed as far east as Cape Cod. This was the same year in which Smith coasted from Maine to Cape Cod. Another explorer. Captain Mey, examined the southern side of Long Island and entered Delaware Bay, giving his own name to its northern cape. Review Questions. 1 , What was the condition of learning in Europe during the Middle Ages? Name one of the greatest inducements to exi^lora- tion. What theory did Columbus hold Aviiich was in advance of his age? Had he an}' difRculty in obtaining help to prosecute his explorations? What part of the mainland did he visit? 2, What discoveries and conquests did the Spanish make south of the latitude of the United States? How many and what at- tempts did they make to subdue Florida? Who first reached the continent of North America? Name the English explorers. What attempts did Ealeigh make to settle Virginia? Who made the first direct trip across the Atlantic? 3, What was done l)y the French government toward exploring America? What did the Huguenots and Jesuits do? Who dis- covered the Lower Mississippi ? Who discovered the Upper Missis- sippi? Who explored its entire length? By M'hat names was the continent known ? Name the explorations made by the Dutch. Page 4I Period III, 1607-1775. Tlie Claims of Various Nations. I- < N Z o — t o o ^ 3C Comnieree iritJi England. rTanics's Patent. Government of the Colonies. 1. Virginia. Tlie Founders of the Colony. The Voyage from England. The Settlement of Janiestoicn. Tlie First Sammer in Jamestown, Smith's First Explorations. Second Immigration to the Colnity. Stnith's Explorations in 160S. Smith made President. Change of Charter. Winter of 1609 and '10. Arrival of lord T>elaivare. Tfale and Gates T>ejnity Governors Tlie Second Change of Charter. Pocahontas. Capt. Argall Deputy Governor. Yeardley's Administration. Tlie Prosperity of the Colony. The Constitution. Negro Slavery. Indian Wars. Virginia a Royal Province Jiestriction of Rights. liacon's Rebellion. The Royal Governors. 42 PkRIOD I I I .-ContinTo^ed. 43 z o < N O O 2. Massachii' setts. Plymouth Colony. l*lymouth Company's First Colony, John Smith in New England. Charter of 1620. The Filgrim Fathers. Voyage to America. The Landing. Winter of 1620 and '21. Jtelations with the Indians Grant of Land. Government. Furchase of Territory. First Settlers. Tlie Charter. Growth of the Colony, Jtelations irith Indians. Iteligious Intolera nee. Education. Salem Witchcraft. Industries. King Philip's War. Political Events from Massachu- setts Bay Colony, 1049 to 1091. Settlement. Matne. 3. New HampsMre. -j Gorges and Mason. l CI a ims of 3Ia ssa eh u setts. r Mason's Grant, t 1 Settlement. I Government. 4. New York. Under Dutch. Under j English. ") West India Co.'s Grant. Permanent Settlemen t. Grotvtli of the Colony. . Governor Kieft. Governor Stuyvesattt. !> Surrender to Duke of York. Government of James II. Government of William and Mary. Royal Governors. 44 Per, I or) I 1 1 .-Continiaed. Maryland. Grant and Charter. Settlement. Clayhorne's Insurrection. During the Commonwealth. [Protn 1660 to the Mevolation. < N O O 6. Connecticut. f TJie First Grant. Connecticut Colony. Settlement. Pequot War. Tlie Constitution, Sayhrooh Colony. New Haven Colony. Union of New Englantl Colonies. Charter of Charles II. CHoyer Williams. 7. Providence Plantation. Kliode Island. ■) Plantation of Rhode Island. TJte Charters. .Relations with Neighboring Colonies. Settlement. Under the Dutch. Conflicting Claims. Government. 8. Delaware. -! r Grant to Rerheley and Carteret. *'• I Settlement. New Jersey. \ ^,,.;,,^„ ,^. Made a Royal Province. 10. North Carolina. Grant and Charter. Albemarle Colo}iy, Clarendon Colony. Government. Trotihle between Proprietors and Colonists. 11. Sontli Carolina. Carteret Colony. Governtnent, j Growth of the Colony. Trouble trith SjtanisJi and Indians. I Colonists and Projtrietors. 5C HO QC Period 1 1 I .-Contimaed. r Grant and Charter. 12. I Settlement. Pennsylvania, -j Treatment of the Indians. Government. I*enn and Lord Baltimore. 13. (xeor^ia. Founding of. Settlement. Ziaws, TJie Wesleys and Wliitefield. I Oglethorpe. ^ Made a Royal l*rovinee. 45 ^se 5 g Canada. Acadia. Tlie West. ^ Louisiana. ^ Causes. ( Cause. Ki»§r I E,,„f, ,f ,,,, „.„,., ( J^-eneh Invasions. William's -j ' EngU&h ndaliatiw. War. ! ^^«<^e of Hysii'ich. y Events during the War. Causes, Events in South Carolina. Events in Kew England. Capture of Port Moyal. Attempted Invasion of Canada. Treaty of Utrecht. Queen Anne's War. Kingf r Tieglnning of Hostilities. George's "! Capture of louishurg. War. Peace of Aijo-la-Chapelle. 46 Period III .— Contiianed. z ?s o 1- K^ < ^ ••>■ N . (^ ^ 2 O c ^ >^ o ^ o Mid Id etween the headlands, which they named Capes Charles and Henry in honor of the princes of England, they selected a site fifty miles U]) a river whicli they called the James, and there began the first permanent English settlement in America, May 23, 1607. It was named Jamestown, in honor of the king. 9, First Smntner in Janiestown, — Newport returned to England in June, leaving but a small supply of food with the colonists, Avhose condition soon became de- j^lorable. They were surrounded hy hostile Indians ; their scanty supply of provisions failed ; they sickened in the hot, moist climate, and before autumn came more tlian half of their numljer had died ; among them Bar- tholomew Gosnold, one of the first projectors and most devoted friends of the colony. 10. \Vingfield, the president of the council, was found planning to desert the colony and carry with him the best of the stores. He was deposed from his office and Rat- cliffe appointed in his stead, but he being a weak man, the charge of the settlement fell upon Smith. During the summer there was great difficulty in preventing the suffering and discontented colonists from deserting. Virginia. 51 In the autumn their prospects became more encouraging. The Indians, who had previously been hostile, made a voluntary offering of corn. Game also became abundant, and the fear of starvation was removed for a time. Smith Negotiating with the Indians. 11, John Smith's First Ejcjilorations. — As the colo- nists were supplied with food, and the approach of winter rendered navigation too dangerous for them to attempt desertion, Smith had leisure to explore the surrounding country. He sailed up the Chickahominy River for fifty miles; then leaving the boat, with four companions he plunged into the wilderness. There they Avere surrounded by Indians, and two of his white companions killed. 52 Virginia. Smith's own life was saved by his intrepidity, which seems to have awed the Indians, and after many adventures he was conducted safely back to Jamestown. Although the attempt to explore the country was thwarted, this expe- dition resulted in much good, for 1)}^ it a friendly inter- course was established with the Indians. 12, The Second Ininiigratlori to the Colony, — Shortlv after Smith's return to the colony in Januar}^, a new immi- gration arrived, but its members were chiefly " gentlemen and goldsmiths," who were so taken u^) with the search for gold that no other industry was practiced. Smith left them to their folly, and commenced another exploration of the country. 13, Sntith's Explorations in 1608, — With twelve companions he sailed to the head of Chesapeake Bay, as- cended many of tlie rivers which flow into it, and surveyed the surrounding country. He travelled in this way three thousand miles, and made a valuable map of the territory. 14, Smith made JPresident, — On his return to James- town in September, Smith was made president of the council, and during his administration the colony enjoyed a rare degree of plenty and security. His firm temper repressed mutiny and established industry among the colonists, while his uj^right dealing secured the respect and good-will of the savages. Late in the year, Newport, with a small party of settlers, arrived. He brought an angry letter from the company, who were displeased because the colony had yielded them no profits. Smith in reply explained that most of the men who had been sent were idle and worthless, and had spent their time in a useless search for gold, and he begged that they would " send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fisher- men, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers-up of trees' roots, rather than a thousand " of such as he then had. Virginia. 53 IS, Change of Charter. — In 1609 the London Com- pany, then much increased in numbers and influence, solicited and obtained a new charter. By its provisions their territory was extended and their i)ower increased. The superior council, appointed by the stockholders instead of the king, was to frame the laws and appoint all officers. The local council was abolished, and a governor appointed in its place. This office was first held by Lord Delaware. 10. The Whiter of IdOO-'lO.—k fleet of nine vessels with five hundred emigrants was now sent to Virginia under the command of Newport, who, with Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers, was to administer the afiairs of the colony until Delaware should arrive. The vessel on which these three connnissioners had taken passage was wrecked on the Bermudas, and the tem])orary governors were comj^elled to sjjend the winter there. The remainder of the fleet passed on to Virginia. The new immigrants were as worthless as the previous ones had ])ecn, and assuming that Smith had no power to control them under the new charter, they abandoned themselves to lawlessness and dis- order. But this heroic soldier was soon able to assert liis authority over the lawless band, and held it firmly until he received such injuries from an accidental discharge of gun- powder as compelled him .to return to England. Upon his departure the colonists fell into excesses which resulted in scarcity of food, and sucli liostility from the savages that in six months their number was reduced to sixty. The win ter of 1609-10 was long spoken of as the " starving-time." 17. Arrival of Lord Delanare. — \Micn the commis- sioners Avho had been wrecked on the Bermudas arrived in May, they found the colony in a starving condition, and, as tlieir own stores were insufficient to supply their need, it was determined to al)andon the settlem^^nt and seek aid at the fisliing-stations of Newfoundland. Just as 54 Virginia. they were dropping down the river, Lord Delaware entered the bay with men and provisions, and all returned with fresh courage to Jamestown. Under Delaware's wise government order and industry were restored, but his health soon failing, he returned to England. 18. Dale and Gates, Deputy Governors. — Before leaving the colony Lord Delaware a2:)pointed as liis deputy Sir Thomas Dale, who praised the country so highly, and so earnestly recommended vigorous measures for its settlement, that Sir Thomas Gates was " soon des- patched from England with colonists, and also kine and pro- vision for their maintenance. Sir Thomas Gates assumed the office of deputy, Avhile Dale went farther up the river and began the new plantation (as the settlements were called) of Henrico, afterward named Richmond. Gates was an excellent governor and made some wise changes; among others, he assigned to each man a piece of ground for his own use, instead of having all the lal)or performed in common as before. The colony was gradually l)ecoming more firmly established and prosperous ; but the London Company still continued dissatisfied with its returns. 19. The Second Change of Charter. — In 1612 a second change was made in the charter, by which the superior council was abolished and the government of the colony virtually transferred to the stockholders ; this was of no advantage to the colonists, who as yet, possessed not a. single right of self-government. 20. rocahontas. — In 1613, Pocahontas, daughter of the chief of the Powhatans, was captured by Capt. Argall and carried to Jamestown. Wlien her father demanded her release, it was refused except on the condition that some deserters to the Indians should be restored. Powhatan was indignant at this treatment, and prepared for Avar. The threatened calamity was averted by the marriage of Virginia. 55 Pocahontas with an Englishman named Rolfe. She accompanied her huslxuid to England, and while there received distinguished attentions. She died abroad, leav- ing one son, from whom some eminent Virginians have descended. This alliance was of great advantage to the polony, as it l)rought al)out a long peace with the Indians. 21. Capt. Avfjtdly Deputy Governor. — In 1617, Argall, ] laving rendered some service l>y an expedition against the Dutch and French at the north, was ap])()inted deputy governor. He was very tyrannical, and l)rought such confusion and distress to the colony that. Delaware was entreated to return. This he attemjjted to do, ])ut died during the passage. 22. Yeardleifii AdnUtiist ration. — After Lord Dela- ware's death. Sir George Yeardley was a2)pointed governor. He perceived that the tyranny of Argall had tlu'own the people into a state of irritation against their rulers, from which they could be recovered only by great concessions, and these he proceeded to make. He lightened the burden of public service ; confirmed titles to the land held by the settlers; abolished military despotism : and promised the colonists an assembly as nearly as possible like the Eng- lish Parliament. In June, 1619, the governor, the council, and two representatives from each of the eleven boroughs, met at Jamestown to consider the welfare of the colony. This was the first representative assembly that was ever con- vened in America. 23. T/te Prosperitij of the Colony. — Yeardley's liberal measures led to immediate good results. In one year twelve hundred immigrants came, among them ninety young women, who became the wives of the planters. With the blessings of prosperity and the comforts of settled homes, the colonists no longer seemed exiled Englishmen, but true Virginians. For a while, immigrants continued to pour into 56 Virginia. the plantations, and numerous grants of land were given. Tobacco had already become the staple production, and not only formed the wealth, but the currency, of the colony. 24, The ConstiUition, — In 1621 still greater benefits were conferred \\\)o\\ Virginia by the granting of a written constitution as the basis of its government. It jjrovided for an assembly composed of the governor and council chosen by the company, and representatives chosen by the people. This body was to legislate for the colony, Ijut its laws were not valid unless ratified hy the company. On the other hand,, the orders from the company were not ])ind- ing upon the colony unless ratified by the assembly. This constitution was a priceless blessing to Virginia, and was a model for most of the colonies that were formed later. 25, Negro Shivery, — In 1619 a Dutch trading vessel lirought twenty negroes to Virginia, and this was the beginning of negro slavery within the 2:>resent limits of the United States. 26, Indian Wars, — After Powhatan's death, Opechan- canough {d-pc-kan-kan-d), his brother, roused the Indians against the white settlers, and in 1622 a fearful and general massacre reduced the eighty settlements of the colony to six or seven. Jamestown was saved by the warning of a friendly Indian. A war now began, which for fourteen years kept every plantation in a state of alarm. At length, in 1646, peace was made ; the Indians were driven away, and their hunting-grounds planted by the colonists. 27, Virginia a Boyal Province, — In 1624, King James took from the London Company their charter, and made Virginia a royal province, Avith a governor and council appointed by himself Notwithstanding their loyalty, neither this king nor his successor, Charles L, showed much consideration toward the Virginians, ruling more for Virginia. 57 their own profit than for the happmess of the colonists. Wlien Cromv/ell and the Parliament came into power, the Virginians submitted, and being allowed their own assem- bly and religious toleration, the colony prospered. 2S, liestrictiou of liUjhts. — When tlie Stuart kings were restored to the throne in England, the rich planters who formed the aristocracy of Virginia, and were high in favor with the government at home, acquired much power. They were disposed to l)e jealous of the smaller land- holders, and to take from them their rightful share in tlie government. The laws, too, of Charles II. concerning trade were very oi)pressive. The colonists could shi]) their merchandise only in English vessels, and were forl)iddcn to send anything to England which might interfere with manufacturers there. Their trade with other colonies was restricted, and domestic manufactures were either dis- couraged or forbidden. 2i), Jif(coH-s Ttelpelf'toH. — The difficulties between the connnon })eople and the aristocratic l)arty — that is, the officers of the Crown juid ricli planters — increased until thc}^ resulted in war. The Indians on the frontier becoming troublesome, the people demanded arms for self-defence ; and their demands having been refused ])y the governor, they proceeded, with Nathaniel Bacon at their head, to arm themselves. At first they were successful, and Governor Berkeley was obliged to yield to Bacon and grant him a commission; but he afterward withdrew this, proclaimed iiacon a traitor, and raised an army to 0]>pose him. Bacon took possession of Jamestown, Avhich, not being able to hold, he burned. Shortly after this he died, and liis party, being without a leader, was subdued. Berkeley took revenge by executing twenty -two of their number. SO, The JRojful GorertiOi's. — In 1673 the king gave the entire country known as Virginia to two courtiers, and 58 Massachusetts. the people suffered much from their rapacity and tyranny. The gift was afterward revoked, l)ut royal governors con- tinned to oppress the people until the accession of William and Mary, when the assembly regained power, and held the aristocratic party in restraint. From this time until the Revolution, with the exception of the French War, Virginia enjoyed comparative quiet. Massachusetts. SI. The Pft/mofffh Company's First Colony. — In the same year that Jamestown Avas settled the Plymoutli Company despatched ships and emigrants to North Vir- ginia. The i)lan of settlement and form of government for their intended colony were the same as those of South Virginia. The voyagers landed near the mouth of the Kennebec; but the Avinter being severe, their provisions scanty, and Popham, the president of the council, dying, the enterprise was abandoned. The Plymouth Company, having made no settlement, lost its right to the territory. .32. John Smith in New Engtand. — In 1614, John Smith of Virginia fame sailed from the Penobscot to Cape Cod, made a map of the coast, and named the region which he had explored New England. Returning to England, he gave such glowing accounts of the country that great inter- est was excited, and application was made for a renewal of the charter. .3,3. Charter of 1G20. — In 1620, King James bestowed upon a company incori)orated as " The Council at Plymouth," a tract extending from 40° to 48° north lati- tude, and comprising more than a million square miles. This company had almost absolute power over the terri- tory thus granted, and became interested in its immediate colonization ; but it was not under its auspices that the first emigrants were led to the shores of New England. Massachusetts. 59 Pi.YMouTH Colony. 34:. The Pilfjrhn Fathers were Englishmen belonging to a sect of Christians who, in the reign of Queen Mary, had been driven to the Continent by religions persecution. When, on the accession of Queen Elizabeth, they returned to their country, they refused to become members of the Church of England or to submit to its usages, and so were persecuted for their nonconformity. They endured these persecutions for about fifty years, and then fled to Holland. Here they remained twelve years, but tlie fear tliat their children would lose their nationality and their religion in tliat foreign land, determined them to go to America. 85. The Voyage to America, — They left Holland in a small vessel called the Speedwell, and sailed for EngJand. Here they remained a fortnight, and then, with those who had joined them there, embarked in two vessels, the Speedwell and the Mayflower, for America. The Speed- well proving unseaworthy, they were obliged to put back ; this vessel, with those of the company whose courage failed them, was dismissed, and the remainder crowded into the Mayflower, which sailed September 6, 1620, bear- ing 102 i)asscngers, men, women, and children. Among the company were John Carver, their first governor. Elder Brewster, their pastor for the time. Miles Standish, their military captain, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, and William White. 36. Arrival on the Coast. — Owing to the ignorance of the captain, the Mayflower was brought upon the barren coast of Massachusetts. The bitter months of November and December found this little vessel tossing upon the waters of Cape Cod Bay, instead of casting anchor, as the Pilgrims had intended, in the milder latitude of the harbor of New York. 60 Massachusetts. 37» Tlie Landing of the Pilgrinis, — More than a month was spent in looking for a suitable landing-place, during which time there was much suffering. Those on board the vessel were weary with the long voyage, crowded in the small cabin and poorly supplied with food. The men who went to search for a harbor were exposed to storms and bitter cold. Plymoutli was finally selected as a convenient point of debarkation, and there, on the 21st of December, these sea-wearied pilgrims landed. Landing of the Pilgrims. Tradition says it was the foot of Mary Chilton, a young maiden of the band, that first pressed '' Forefather's Rock," as it is still named and honored by the descendants. Massachusetts. 61 38. The Winter of 1620 and '21. — Severe trials came upon the settlers in their new home. Disease and famine did their fearful work among them ; Governor Carver and his wife and child were among the number who died. By spring only forty-six of the one hundred and two passengers who came in the Mayflower were living. 39. Relations with the Indians. — Although exposed to these trials, the Pilgrims were preserved from Indian hostilities, a pestilence having the previous year swept off nearly all of the savages in that vicinity. The first Indian who appeared surprised them by calling out, " Wel- come, English !" His name was Samoset (sam'-6-set) ; he came from what is now Maine, and liad learned to speak English from the captain of a fishing-vessel on the coast. He gave the information that Massasoit, the great Indian chief of that region, was approaching. Governor Bradford engaged Samoset as an interpreter; by means of a few presents the sachem's good-will was secured, and a treaty made which was faithfully kept for more than fifty years. Through Massasoit's influence, ninety less powerful chiefs were brought into treaty with the English. C^anonicus, sachem of the Narragansetts, expressed liis hostility by sending a bundle of arrows tied with a rattlesnake's skin, but the governor inspired a wholesome fear by returning the skin stuffed with powder and ball. 40. Grant of Land. — The Pilgrims had intended to locate within the territory of the London Com|)any, and therefore had no warrant from the Plymouth Council for settling the shores of Massachusetts Bay. An agent was sent to England to petition the council for a grant or patent of land, which after a delay of nearly ten years was finally accorded in 1630. In order to meet the expenses of planting the colony, the founders were obliged to borrow capital of a commercial company, to which, as security, 62 Massachusetts. they gave a claim on their property and commerce for a term of years. This compelled the adoption of the com- munity system of labor. The company proved avaricious, and a check upon the prosperity of the colony was thus imposed. In consequence of this, some of the more enter- prising of their number bought up the claims of the com- pany, which, as the venture had not proved profitable, sold out at less than the sum that had been invested. Tlu land was then divided, each man receiving a share. 41, Tlieir Government. — Before landing from the ^lay- flower the Pilgrims formed a compact, wherein obedience was promised to such laws as should be thought best for the common good, and John Carver was appointed gov- ernor. At the time of obtaining their grant from the Plymouth Council an endeavor was made to procure a charter for their government from the king, but in this they never succeeded. However, as they were undisturbed on account of their seeming insignificance, and had virtue and intelligence enough to frame their own laAvs and obey tliem too, the colony Avas always wtII governed, though without a charter. For a while the legislature comprised the whole body of male inhabitants. When this became inconvenient, the representative system was introduced. The governor was chosen by general suffrage, and his power restricted by a council. Plymouth remained a dis- tinct colony for seventy-two years, and was then joined to the Massachusetts Colony. Massachusetts Bay Colony. 42. Purchase of Terrifort/. — In 1628 the Plymouth Council sold a l)elt of land reacliing in width three miles north of the Merrimack and three, miles south of the river Charles, and in length from tlie Atlantic to the Pacific, to the " Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in Massachusetts. G3 New England." The object of this compan}'- was to provide an asylum for Puritans who were persecuted in England. 43. First Settlers. — In the vicinity of ^lassachusetts Bay there were already a few settlers at different places. John Endicott, with 70 followers, joined those .who were living at Naumkeag ('nahm-ke-ag'), afterward Salem, in tlie same year that the grant was made. The next year 200 persons, among them the learned and pious Higginson, arrived. Part of their number went to Salem, and the rest settled at Charlestown. 44. The Charter, — The company in England increased rapidly, and after some .delays and difficulties finally secured a charter from the king, which conferred greater privileges than were at that time usually granted to cor- porations. This charter provided for a governor, dei)uty, and assistants, all to be elected by the stockholders. These officers and stockholders were Puritans ; and as there was nothing in their charter to forbid it, they took the import- ant step of removing the government from England to Mas- sachusetts. This was a great advantage, as it allowed the colonists a share in the administration, gave the officers an opportunity to know the needs of the people, and lessened the danger of interference with their civil and religious free- dom. John Winthrop was appointed the first governor. 45. Growth of the Colony. — The transfer of the govern- ment to Massachusetts had the eff'ect of attracting many Puritans. In the fleet which brought Governor Winthrop, in 1G30, came ahowi 1000 persons, and additions to their numbers continued to be received for several ensuing years. Boston was founded by the governor and his followers, who settled on a peninsula called by the Indians Shawmut. Other immigrants settled at Cambridge, Roxbury, Dorches- ter, Lynn, and elsewhere. They endured the trials common to settlers in a new country. Within the first year many 64 Massachusetts. of their number died from exposure, lack of suitable food, and the diseases induced by the climate. But the Puritans were not disheartened by their trials, and subsequently enjoyed a season of great prosperity. 46. Relations with the Indians. — These settlers dealt justly Avitli the Indians. They purchased their land, and sought to convert them from heathenism. The year after the colony was established, Eliot, the apostle to the Indians, came to Roxbury and for sixty years labored for the natives. He visited them in their wigwams, teaching them to read and to pray, and he also translated the Bible into their language. So successful were his labors, that after his death the number of " praying Indians," as those who became Christians were called, amounted to 5000. 47- Religious Intolerance. — The Puritans had come to the New World for the enjoyment of their religious belief, and their civil government was based upon that belief From the first they were unwilling that any who held a different faith or form of worship should dwell among them. Soon after the establishment of the colony, Roger Williams, the minister at Salem, alarmed the magis- trates by declaring that all persons had a right to liberty of conscience. Such a doctrine was new, and was con- sidered dangerous to the state. As Williams persisted in spreading it, he was banished. Mrs. Hutchinson in 1637 excited the people by announcing a similar doctrine, viz. : that magistrates had no right to attempt the control of opinion. She was supported in her views for a while by the young governor. Sir Henry Vane ; but he returned to England, and she, too, was exiled. Baptists and Quakers were fined, whipped, and banished from the colony, and some of the latter, returning, were put to death. 48, Education was always cherished ; in ten years from the beginning of the colony, Harvard University Massachusetts, 65 was founded (1638), and named in honor of John Har- vard, who bequeathed to the institution £800 and his library. At this college, in the year of its foundation, a printing-press was set up. As early as 1674 a law was passed requiring every township of fifty families to pro- vide a school where children should be taught to read and write; and each township of one hundred families was to provide a grammar school, where students should be fitted for the university. The same law was afterward adopted by the Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven Colonies. 4t), Salem Witchcraft. — During the 17th century a belief in witchcraft prevailed both in Europe and America. In 1692 and '93 this delusion raged in and around Salem. Many persons were accused of having bewitched others, and of these more than twenty were convicted and sentenced to death. Some of the victims were virtuous, high-minded women, and one was a clergyman. The judges were wise and good men, but for the time blinded by superstition. 50, Industries, — As soon as the Massachusetts people were f^iirly established, they began to practise the thrift for which they have always been renowned. ^Mth the Indians they exchanged corn and other commodities for fur, fish, and game. To Europe they sent cargoes of skins, lumber, and dried fish. For many years they had no coined money, but paid their debts with such things as they could raise or manufacture, and sometimes used the Indian wampum. In 1652 a mint was established. A great check was imposed upon their industries by a series of laws which compelled them to trade almost exclusively with England ; to send their goods in English ships ; and which tried to prevent them from manufacturing iron, woollen goods, hats, and other articles. Notwithstanding these restrictions, their integrity, intelligence, and industry made them prosperous. (See p. 57.) 66 Massachusetts. 51. King JPhUip^s War. — Causes. — As the English steadily increased in" numbers, the Indians steadily de- creased ; in 1675 there were 50,000 whites to 30,000 natives in New England. The forests and hunting-grounds, which were as dear to the Indian as were chartered rights to the colonist, were fast changing by treaty or by purchase to farms and pasture-lands, and the original owners of the soil found tliemselves crowded into the narrow peninsulas on the coast. Philip, son of Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags (waum-'pd-no'-agz) and the most i)owerful sachem in New England, foresaw the final destruction of his peo])le, and resolved to turn upon the intruding race. Information of his hostility was carried to the English. The informer was murdered, and his Indian murderers were brought before the Plymoutli magistrates, tried, condemned and put to death. Then savage vengeance was aroused, and slept not again but with the destruction of the tribes. 52. Events of tJie War. — The first hostile deed was the murder of nine men at SAvanzey, in Plymouth Colony, in June, 1675. The colonists, knowing tlie vindictive character of the race, believed this attack to indicate a general up- rising of all the tribes ; which opinion seemed to be con- firmed by the Indian massacres then going on in Virginia. Prompt measures were taken, and in a short time the Wam- panoags were driven from their haunts, and a promise of neutrality obtained from the Narragansetts. The Mass i- chusetts Indians, roused by Philip and in alliance with him, spent the summer in burning the villages and murder- ing the inhabitants on the frontier. Brookfield, DeerfieM, and Springfield were burned, and the inhabitants of Western Massachusetts kept in. constant terror. 5S, In the fall these Indians sought shelter Avith tlic Narragansetts, and both tribes entrenched themselves in the centre of an extensive swamp. Here tliey were attacked in Massachusetts. 67 December, their wigwams burned, and many Indians slain. Being made reckless by the loss of everytliing they held dear, the savages during the summer of 1676 roamed in bands through the country, committing the most dreadful atrocities. They were vigorously pursued by the men of Massachusetts and Plymoutli, and ]jy Avinter there was but a Avretched renmant left. Philip, wandering to his old home at Mt. Hope, in Rhode Island, was shot by a treacherous Indian. 54, During this war from 2000 to 3000 Indians were killed or captured, and the remainder of the liostile tribes wandered away and joined tribes at tlie north. The young son of Philip was sent to the Bermudas as a slave. The colonists lost over 600 men, but gained considerable terri- tory and greater security for the fr(jntiers. 55, PoUfical Events from 1(J40 to i6*.9i.— During the Commonwealth, from 1649 to '60, Massachusetts was much favored by the Protector Cromwell. On the restoration of Charles II., comrnissioners were appointed to examine the afiairs of the English colonies and to fully establish the royal authority. Massachusetts had enjoyed great privileges under her charter, and was not disposed o yield the right of government within herself to the authority of the king. It was decided, however, that the terms of the charter were not consistent with the royal prerogative, and it was therefore annulled in 1684, though not without streimous resistance by the colony. 50. When James II. came to the throne he united all the New England colonies under one governor, Sir Edmund Andros, who arrived in 1686. The royal governor was Seal of Massachusetts. 68 Massachusetts. particularly severe with Massachusetts, and when the news of the overthrow of James and the accession of William and Mary to the throne of England reached the colonies, this obnoxious ruler was at once deposed and the former government temporarily resumed. Agents WTre sent to England to solicit the restoration of their charter. This boon was not conceded, and a new charter was framed in 1691, by which Massachusetts became a royal province. Plymouth Colony and Maine were absorbed in Massa- chusetts at this time, and Sir William Phipps appointed governor under the new charter. Maine. 57, Settlement, — It is not easy to say when Maine was first settled. There were for a long time only fishermen and traders, remaining a short time at their stations on the coast, and only gradually estahlishing themselves as perma- nent residents. It was probaljly in 1626, at the mouth of the Pemaquid, that the first actual settlement Avas begun. 58, Gorges and 3Iason. — In 1622, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason received a grant of all the land lying between the Merrimack and Kennebec, and from the sea to the St. Lawrence. Afterward this vast tract was divided, and Gorges received the part between the Kenne- bec and the Piscataqua. He had a real desire to found a prosperous and happy colony, but not understanding the needs of a new country, his misdirected eff'orts failed. At his death conflicting claims arose, threatening to destroy the peace of the few white inhabitants who had settled on his patent. 59, Claims of Massachusetts, — Commissioners were sent from England to examine the respective claims, but before any decision had been made, Massachusetts ad- vanced its chartered right to all territory lying within a line Neio Hojiipshire. 69 tliree miles north of the Merrimack River, and when the commissioners pronounced in lavor of the heirs of Gorges, Massachusetts bought their claim, and held Maine b}^ pro- prietary right. It was not made a separate State until 1820. New Haiiipsliire. 6*0. Mason- s Grant. — In the division of the territory originally granted to Gorges and IMason, the latter, in 1629 received the part lying between the rivers Merrimack and Piscataqua. He named it New Hanipsliire. His attempts at colonization met with little success, and after his death New Hampshire was annex- ed to Massachusetts. 61. Settlement.— The first settle- ments in this colony were made at Portsmouth and Dover in 1623 by a few fishermen, who were brought there by Gorges and Mason. Besides the usual dangers and discomforts of a new country, the colonists of New Hampshire were greatly har- assed by conflicting claims to the soil, and by the tyrannical governments to which they were frequently subjected. 02. Governnient. — Owing to a disagreement concerning the ownership of the soil and the payment of quit-rents, the settlers of New Hampshire came into frequent collisions with the proprietors. After the death of Mason the colony desired to be included in the chartered government of Massachusetts, to which it was accordingly annexed at two different times; but this arrangement was as many times set aside, once in favor of the heirs of the proprie- tor and once in favor of the Crown. New Hampshire finally became a royal province in 1692, and so remained until the Revolution. Seal of New IlAMPSniRii:. 70 New York. New York. 63, West India Compatufs Grant, — In 1621 the States- General of Holland granted to the Dutch West India Com- pany tlie privilege of planting colo- nies and trading in America. No locality was specified for their enter- prise. The English, sui)posing they would choose the vicinity of the Hudson River, remonstrated against any intrusion u})on terri- tory claimed by Great Britain; but nothing definite came of this remonstrance at the time. Seal of New York. (>4, Permanent Settlement, — In 1623 the company sent emigrants to New Netherlands, as they called the country which had been the scene of Hudson's explora- tions, and which the Dutch claimed by virtue of his dis- coveries. Some of these colonists settled at Wallabout Bay, just ahove Brooklyn ; some at Fort Orange, on the present site of Albany ; and a few at Fort Nassau, on the Delaware. These settlers were mostly French Protestants, called Walloons by the Dutch, and were led by Captain Mey. In 1626, Peter Minuits was sent out as director. He bought the island of jNlanhattan of the Indians for about twenty-four dollars, and built a fort at the southern end, around which the dwellings of colonists soon clustered. This settlement was called New Amsterdam. 05, Grotvth of the Colony, — New Netherlands was settled by a great variety of people.. The Dutch came for trade w^th the Indians. Many English were attracted by the fertility of the soil, and some found shelter there from religious persecution. From the first, New Amsterdam received people from nearly all parts of the world. In New York. 71 Ni.w A.m^ti;ki)AM. 1629, in order to facilitate the settlement of the country, large tracts of land, Avith ample privileges of govern- ment, were offered to any who would engage to establish thereon a colony of fifty people. These grants comprised many miles of territory, and their owners were called " patroons," or " lords of the manor." Their tenants j^aid an annual rent to the patroon. The most extensive manors w'ere those of Rensselaerwyck, Pavonia, and Livingston. Minuits was succeeded by Walter von Twiller. During the administrations of these early governors there was very little to interrupt the quiet, steady growth of the colony. 66. Tronhles itnder Gorernor Kieff. — In 1638, Wil- liam Kieft was sent over as director, or governor, and during 72 Neic York. his administration the New Netherlands-experienced many misfortunes, caused by quarrels with the Indians, the Swedes, and the English. 67* With the Indians. — Quarrels arose between tlie Dutch and the Indians, in which property was destroyed, and some lives taken. Kieft demanded that one of the Raritan tribe, who had murdered a white man in revenge, should be given U]) ; and when this was refused, he declared the whole tribe outlawed. Soon after, the Raritans were at- tacked by their old enemies the Mohawks, and fleeing to the Dutch for protection were brutally massacred. This was in 1643. The surrounding tribes, fired by this outrage, attacked in revenge the Dutch boweries, as their farms were called, which had spread many miles in all directions, and the settlers were compelled to flee to New Amster- dam for' their lives, while tlieir property was destroyed. The war raged with little intermission for two years. Great cruelties Avere i)racticed on both sides. The colony was almost ruined, and large numbers of Indians perished, before peace was made. 68, With the Swedes. — In 1638, Minuits, who had gone into the employ of the Swedes, l)rouglit a colony to the west side of the Delaware, where they built Fort Christina. Their number constantly increasing, they occupied much of the surrounding country. In 1643 they l)uilt another fort on Tinicum {tin'-i-cum) Island, just below the mouth of the Schuylkill (skool'-kil). The Dutch claimed this territory, and sent a protest against the Swedish occupation of it, but the strength of the Swedes, and the war Kieft was waging with the Indians, prevented him from taking any active measures against them. 69. With the English. — In addition to the trouble with the Indians and the Swedes, the English were constantly pressing upon the Dutch on their eastern border. Their New York. 73 trade on the Connecticut had been destroyed by the Enghsh colony planted on that river, while the English settlements in and around New Haven were regarded by the Dutch as an intrusion upon their territory. But they were unable to check the encroachment, and did no more than make useless protests. In view of all these disasters, Kieft was recalled. 70. Governor Stiiyvesant {stl' -ves-cmt) was appointed in 1646. He treated the Indians with kindness, and agreed upon a boundary with the English at the east. The Swedes on the Delaware were supplanting the Dutch traders, and, in 1655, Stuyvesant, with a force of six hun- dred men, entered their country and took possession of it without bloodshed. New Sweden, after an existence of seventeen years, was absorbed in New Netherlands. During Stuyvesant's administration free trade was granted, and the colony Avas constantly increased by immigration. The days of this governor, otherwise so peaceful and prosperous, were disturbed by the growing desire of the peoi)le for the political freedom which was enjoyed by their English neighbors. Such freedom was contrary to the policy of the States-General, and was refused, much to the dissatis- faction of the colonists. 71* Surrender to the IHtke of York. — Shortly after his restoration to the throne, Charles II. granted to his brother James, Duke of York, all the territory between the Connecticut and Delaware Rivers. He assumed a right to do this, although England and Holland were then at peace, on the ground that tlie English had never admitted the Dutch claim to the soil. In 1664 a British squadron under Colonel Nicolls appeared before New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. The governor at first refused, and urged the people to join him in resistance, but the large number of English who had settled in the colony 74 Mw York. preferred English rule, and in carrying out the policy of the States-General, Stuyvesant had been so arbitrary that even the Dutch welcomed the change ; and so, without a blow being struck, New Netherlands was surrendered to the English. Its name was changed to New York. With the exception of fifteen months in 1673 and '74, when Holland regained possession for a time, it remained an English colony until the Revolution. 72. Government nnder James II. — The people were disappointed in the privileges which they expected to enjoy under the English. The first governors, Nicolls and Lovelace, exercised their authority very ar])itrarily. After the reconquest of the country, in 1674, Sir Edmund Andros was sent as governor. Under his severe rule the people so urgently demanded larger privileges that, in 1683, Thomas Dongan was sent as governor, with instruc- tions to conciliate them. They were allowed a " charter of liberties " as ample as those of the other colonies. Two years later, when the proprietor became king and New York a royal province, the privileges that had just been granted were withdrawn. The whole territory from the St. Croix to Maryland was united and ])laced under the rule of Andros. * (See p. 67.) 7'i. Government tinder William and Mary. — When William and Mary came to the throne, the people set aside Nicholson, the deputy of Andros, and chose William Leisler (lls'-ler) as their governor until orders from the king should arrive. The people were divided into two parties, one of Avhich, the aristocratic party, was opposed to Leisler. When Captain Ingoldsby, the deputy governor, arrived, and, without showing authority either from the king or from Sloughter, the newly-appointed governor, demanded possession of the fort, it was refused. Ingoldsby joined the enemies of Leisler and complained of him as a Maryland. usurper to the governor when he arrived. Influenced by this party, Sloughter had Leisler arrested and exe- cuted. This execution widened the breach between the aristocratic party and the people, and affected public sen- timent for a long time. 7^. Royal Governors. — From this time until the Rev- olution, New York remained under tlie sway of royal governors, many of whom were tyrannical. During the intercolonial wars this colony suilered from the invasion of the Frencli and the Canada Indians. Maryland. 75. Grant of Land and Charter. — In 1()32, Charles I. granted to George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, the territory lying between the Potomac River and the fortieth parallel of north latitude, and from Delaware Bay to the source of the Potomac. Lord Baltimore designed to open, in the colony which he should plant in America, an asylum for the victims of religious persecution, and espe- cially for those of his own faith, the Roman Catholics. A charter was procured at the same time, which was so liberal as almost to free the proprietor from any obligation to the Crown, and which conferred upon the colonists religious freedom, a voice in the government, and individual rights to tlie soil they should cultivate. 76*. Settlement. — Upon Lord Baltimore's death, the grant was transferred to his son, who in 1634 sent out colonists under the leadership of his brother, Leonard Calvert. Their first settlement Avas at St. IVIary's. The climate and soil were favorable, the laws just and liberal, Skal of Maryland. 76 Maryland. the Indians Avere friendly, and the proprietor spared no labor or expense in promoting the welfare of the colony. Many people were attracted to Maryland, and its settlements sjjread rapidly. 77* Clat/bornc's Insurrection, — Before the annulling of her charter (1624), Virginia had claimed a part of the territory granted to Lord Baltimore, and Clayborne, a member of the Virginia council, had a license from the king to establish trading-posts on Kent Island and at the mouth of the Susquehanna. The Maryland settlers early came into collision with Clayborne's men, and in the quarrels that ensued several were killed. Clayborne went to England, and endeavored to obtain from the king a con- firmation of his previous right to traffic in the colony. Failing in this, he returned to Maryland, and in 1645 raised an insurrection, during which the governor was obliged to flee, and the colony was thrown into a state of anarchy and disturbance for more than a year. 7S. M(( rijland durhifj the Coninionwealth, — When Cromwell came into power, commissioners from England were sent to examine into the affairs of the colonies. Among those who came to Maryland w^as its old enemy, Clayborne. In 1654 the government was taken from Balti- more's deputy, and put into the hands of men appointed by the commissioners. The freedom enjoyed in Maryland had attracted thither many Protestants, and at this time their numl:»er was fully as great as that of the Roman Catholics. In the disturbances which ensued, the Prot- estants took sides with the commissioners against the Roman Catholics, who sided with the representatives of Lord Baltimore. For four years the colony was the scene of war and discord. In 1660, when Charles II. was re- stored to the throne of England, the proprietor regained his rights. Connecticut. 79. From 1660 to the Hevolution, — After the resto- ration of the proprietor a season of prosperity followed. In 1682 a grant was given to Penn, the founder of Penn- sylvania, which rohbed Maryland of the territory now embraced in the State of Delaware, and also of a wide strip on her northern boundary. In 1691, during King William's war, the Protestants again opposed themselves to the Roman Catholics. Finally, Maryland was made a royal province, the Roman Catholics were disfranchised, and the seat of government removed to Annai)olis. In 1715 it again reverted to the proprietor, and remained a proprietary colony until the Revolution. Connecticut. • 80, The First Grant of the soil of this colony was made by the Plymouth Council to the Earl of Warwick, who in 1631 transferred his patent to Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, and others. 81, Connecticut Colony, — Settlement. — The first Euro- peans to enter the territory were some Dutch from Man- hattan, who built a trading-house upon the present site of Hartford in 1633. Later in the same year men from the Plymouth Colony built a trading-house at Windsor. In 1635 a number of people from the towns around Boston decided to go " out west," and take up the rich farming-lands of the Connecti- cut Valley. In October a party of sixty, driving their cattle before them, traversed the coun- try and settled in the vicinity of the Plymouth trading- house. The winter was unusually early and severe, and the adventurers suffered so ^greatly that in the spring a Seal of Coxxixticut. 78 Connecticut. large number returned to Massachusetts, or went doAvn to the fort at the mouth of the river. The next June the remainder of the colony, led by the learned and pious Thomas Hooker, followed the pioneer party of the pre- ceding autumn, and settled at Hartford. Other parties came during the summer, and settled Windsor and Wethersfield. 82, The Pequot War. — Scarcely were the Connecticut colonies planted when they began to suffer from the hos- tility of the Pequot Indians. These savages had com- mitted several murders, and John Endicott was sent to chastise them, which he did with great severity. Their hostility was aroused, and during the winter of 1636 and '37 they murdered thirty men belonging to the Connecti- cut settlements. In the spring the colonies determined upon war, and made prei)arations to attack the fortified Indian village on the east side of tlie Thames. For this war Connecticut raised ninety men, Massachusetts one hundred and sixty, and Plymouth forty. The Mohegan, Narragansett, and Niantic tribes promised their aid to the English. 83. In Ma}', seventy of the Connecticut troops, led by Captain Mason, were joined by twenty Massachusetts men, under Captain Underbill. Sailing down the river from Hartford, they passed the Pequot fort, and anchored in Narragansett Bay, intending to make their attack on the east side. They marched silently across the country in the night, accompanied by their Indian allies, Avho were amazed that so small a number of men should attempt a battle with the fierce and numerous Pequots. As th^y approached the fort they heard the sound of riot and revelry among its savage garrison, who, having seen the English vessels sail l)y, supposed that their assailants had, through fear of their numbers and fortifications, given up Connecticut. 79 the attack. The colonial troops Avaited until daybreak, when the garrison had fallen asleep, and then attacked the palisades on two opposite sides and forced an entrance. 84, The savages, surprised and bewildered, made but little resistance. The whites, knowing that they could not cope with the great number of Indians, their own allies having deserted them in a i:>anic, set fire to the village. Many men, women, and children either perished in the flames or Avere slain by the soldiers. The Indian loss was seven hundred, Avhile the English lost only two men. Mason and Underbill marched to the fort at Saybrook, and from thence, after being joined by a fresh levy of Massachusetts men, pursued the remnant of the Pequots. All of these Indians were either exterminated or incorpo- rated with other and peaceful tribes. After this time there was little trouble with the Indians in New England until King Philip's war. 85, The Constitution. — The Connecticut colony was at first governed by commissioners appointed from Massa- chusetts. When the Pequot war was ended, and their con- dition had become settled and prosperous, the planters met (1689) and drew up a constitution as the basis of their government. It was liberal in its s]:>irit, alloAving all free- men a share in the framing of the laws, and so far-reach- ing and com23rehensive in its terms that it remained in force one hundred and eighty years. xi J- onrvrv • • Seal of Pennsylvania. course of that year 2000 nnmi- grants arrived. Philadelphia was founded in 1682, and in 1685 had a population of 2500. None of the colonies had a more auspicious beginning. 118. Treatment of the Indians. — Penn " treated the Indians as brethren, and not as heathen." One of his first deeds on visiting the colony was to make an honest purchase of their land and a treaty of peace with them. It is said that no Quaker was ever intentionally injured by an Indian. 119. Government. — Before visiting his province, Penn had written out a "frame of government" and a code of laws by which ample rights wxre guaranteed to the colonists. This plan provided for a council and an assem- bly, both bodies to be appointed by the peoj^le. The former, with the proprietor or his deputy as president, was to propose the laws, and the latter w^as to vote upon them. From time to time various additions and modifications of 92 Pennsylvania. Penn Tkk.vtixu with THi: Indians. the laws were made, both by Penn and by the council. In 1684, leaving a deputy to fill his place, Penn returned to England. 120, The colony increased in numbers and wealth, but dissensions arose among the people,' and misunderstand- ings between them and the in'oprietor. Some of the depu- ties administered affairs badly, and Delaware, being greatly dissatisfied, was allowed a separate governor. On the accession of William and Mary, Penn, suspected of i)lotting for the return of James, was prevented from returning to his i)rovince. On account of the dissensions among his colonists, and the susjjicion of his loyalt}^, a royal governor Georgia. 93 was appointed over Pennsylvania in 1693. The next year the proprietor was restored to his rights, and the province remained in the hands of his heirs until the Revolution. In 1779 the State of Pennsylvania, in affectionate remem- hrance of her founder, voted over half a million dollars to his descendants. 121, Penu and Lord Baltimore. — From the first, Lord Baltimore insisted upon liis chartered rights to the territory west of the Delaware and as far north as the fortieth parallel. The English courts decided against his claim to Delaware, but the remaining boundary between Maryland and Pennsylvania remained a subject of dispute until 1767, when it was settled by a line drawn by two English engineers a little south of the fortieth parallel, which has ever since been called, after them, " Mason and Dixon's line." Georgia. 122, The Founding of Georgia was due to the com- bination of two causes : (1. ) South Carolina, to which the territory belonged, was unable to defend it, and it became desirable to plant a colony thereon, lest the Spanish on the south or the French in the Mississippi Valley should take possession. (2.) James Ogle- thorpe (o'gl-thorp), a colonel in the English army and a member of Parliament, having his sympathies excited by the condition of im- prisoned debtors in England, form- ed the plan of opening an asylum for them in America. The unoccu- pied territory between the Savan- nah and the Altamaha was erected into a separate province named Georgia, and bestowed by the king upon Oglethorpe and others "in trust for the Seal of (ii:oR(iiA. 94 Georgia. poor." Besides £10,000, granted by the House of Com- mons to this enterprise, it received private contributions to a large amount. 123, Settlement, — 1\\ 1733, Oglethorpe, with a little band of emigrants, arrived in America; after touching at Charleston, he proceeded to the mouth of the river which divides Georgia from South Carolina, and, ascend- ing it a little distance, founded at Yamacraw Bluff the city of Savannah. Immigrants continued to arrive. A body of Moravians settled farther up the Savannah, and there devoted themselves to reclaiming the wilderness and teaching the Indians. Some hardy Scotch Highlanders made a settlement at Darien, on the Altamaha; their courage in defending the frontier and thrift in managing their farms made them invaluable to the colony. Ogle- thorpe w^as tireless in his labors ; he made a treaty with the Indians, which was always kept ; he visited the Mora- vian, Scotch, and other settlements ; he provided carefully for the immigrants as they arrived, and made thorough preparations for the defence of the colony. 124, Laivs, — By the laws made for the colony, settlers were compelled to do military service, negro slavery was forbidden, trade with the West Indies was prohibited, and no one could own a great extent of land. These restric- tions caused many settlers to seek homes elsewhere. 125, Tlie Wesleys and Whitefleld, — About the year 1736, Georgia was visited by John Wesley and his brother Charles. These good men came out as missionaries ; they visited the Moravian settlement, greatly admiring the fervent piety and simple form of worship which they found there. AVhen John Wesley returned to England he founded the religious sect known as the Methodists. He was succeeded in his missionary labors in Georgia by George Whitefleld, the celebrated ajid eloquent preacher. French Settlements. 95 His preaching is said to have been so wonderful that people would assemble to the num])ers of 20,000 and qx^w 40,000, in tlie open air, to hear him. He founded an orphan-house at Savannah, which was supported for a long time by money that Whitefield's eloquence persuaded people in England and America to give to it. He traveled through all the American colonies preaching for this ob- ject, and died at Newburyport in Massachusetts. 12(i. Ofjlethorpe l:)ravely defended the frontier during King George's war. Subsequently, suffering under the false accusations of enemies, he was compelled to go to England to refute them. He was fully acquitted, and soon after was made a major-general in the British army. Through life he was a friend to the colony, though he never visited it again. 127' Georgia a Haijal Province, — Some of the better class of settlers were attracted to other colonies ; those who remained, except the Germans (Moravians) and Scotch, were idle, and had contracted vices in the jails from which they had been taken. It was the only colony that received pecuniary aid from England ; still it did not prosper. In 1751 the trustees resigned their claims, and Georgia became a royal province. French Settlements. 128, Canada, Acadia, and the West. — While the I^^nglish were planting their colonies along the Atlantic .;eaboard, the French were no less active in other regions of the continent. We have already noticed the failure of the Huguenots to settle at Port Royal (North Carolina) and at St. Augustine, and the grant to De Monts and his permanent settlement at Port Royal (now Annapolis), Nova Scotia. In 1608, Quel^ec was founded by Chami)lain, and later Montreal became the seat of the French Jesuit Page 96 French Settlements. 97 niissions. The chain of mission-stations which extended westward and into the Mississippi Valley gradually be- came permanent settlements. St. Mary, on the southern shore of the Sault, and the first European settlement in our North-western Territory, Avas established in 1666. Others followed at Milwaukee, Chicago, and St. Joseph. Kaskaskia and Cahokia were settled before the close of the seventeenth century. 129. The French fur-traders had also penetrated the far West, and made alliances with the Indians. The name Acadia, given by De Monts to his entire territory, was afterward restricted to the peninsula of Nova Scotia. The name Canada was at first applied to a district on the St. Lawrence, and afterward extended to a very large region. 130. Louisiatia. — After the death of La Salle, Lemoine DTberville {le-mwdn dee-hare-veel) obtained a commission to colonize Louisiana. Early in 1699 he landed at Ship Island, and left a party of settlers. He then sailed up the Mississippi to the Red River, returning by way of Lakes Maurepas {mo' -re-pah) and Pontchartrain, which he named after two distinguished French ministers. He built a fort at Biloxi [he-loks' -^) Bay, to which he removed the settlers on Ship Island, and then returned to France, leaving Bienville {beedng-veel) governor of Biloxi and of the entire country claimed by the French, from Pensa- cola, then a Spanish post, to the Rio Grande, and north- ward indefinitely. 131. The next year D'Iberville returned and built a fort on the present site of Natchez, which he named Fort Rosalie, in honor of the countess of Pontchartrain. His colony at Biloxi not flourishing, he removed it to Mobile, which thus became the first European settlement in Ala- bama. The whole region claimed in America by the French was named New France. 98 Intercoloyiial Wars. Intercolonial Wars.' 132. Causes, — England claimed all the territory from the St. Croix {(:roy) River on the north-east to the Spanish possessions on the south, and westward to the Pacific. France claimed from the Kennebec east and north, Avith the islands on the coast (except the eastern moiety of New- fomidland), Canada, and the Mississippi Valley. Both powers assumed sovereignty over the Six Nations, and the French claimed a monopoly of the trade with the Indians in the far West ; but the Six Nations, hostile to the French on account of the aid they had given their enemies, the Algonquins, favored the English, and conducted them safely through their territory to gain the coveted Western lur-trade. These conflicting claims led to animosities, and when England and France became hostile to each other, their respective colonies in America were involved in war. From 1690 until 1763 a series of conflicts, known as the '' Intercolonial Wars," took place between the Eng- lish and French colonies in America. Both sides employed savage allies, and the miseries of war were aggravated by their inhuman barbarity. King William's War. 133. Cause. — James II. of England, by his tyranny, brought upon himself the hatred of his subjects, and was obliged to flee from the kingdom. His son-in-law, the prince of Orange, w\as invited to the vacant throne, and became King William III. Louis XIV. of France took up the cause of James and declared war against England. Hostilities soon si:)read to the respective colonies of these two nations in America. 131. Events of the War, — French Invasions. — Early in 1690, Count Frontenac, governor of New France, sent out three parties of French and Indians against the Eng- Kiiiq Williams War. 99 lish. One attacked Schenectady, New York; another fell upon the village of Salmon Falls in New Hampshire ; and a third assaulted the settlement on Casco Bay. These places were robbed, burned, and the inhabitants either massa- cred or reserved for the worse fate of captivity and torture. 135, English Retaliation. — The English colonies, left to defend themselves without help from the parent country, held a convention at New York, at which delegates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York met and organized plans for mutual defence and for the inva- sion of Canada. Two expeditions were set on foot — one, under Fitz John Winthrop of Connecticut, to march over- land and attack Montreal ; the other, under Sir William Phipps, to go by sea and the St. Lawrence and attack Quebec. 136, In the mean time Massachusetts had despatched an expedition under Phipps which took Port Royal, and brotight home plunder enough to pay the expenses of the outfit. The expeditions against Quebec and Montreal proved utter failures, and their equipment had involved so great an outlay that nothing further than the defence of the frontiers against the French and Indians could be at- tempted. The war lingered for several years, during which l^oth the French and English colonists suffered greatly. 137, Peace of Ri/swirJi,— In 1697 a treaty of peace was signed at Ryswick in Holland, but the boundary-lines between the French and English settlements were not clearly determined, and became the cause of fresh quarrels in America. 138, Ereiifs flurhig the War,—\i Avas during this war that Lcisler was executed in New York (1691); that the delusion of witchcraft prevailed in Massachusetts (1692) ; and that Massachusetts was made a royal province, with Sir William Phipps as first governor (1692). 100 Queen Anne's War. Queen Anne's War. 139, Causes, — This war, like the preceding, had its origin in Europe, and Spain was united with France against England. In America the Spanish in Florida and the French of Canada were hostile to the English colonies. 140, Events in South CkiroUna, — Late in 1705, South Carolina sent an expedition against Florida, l)y which a few prisoners and some spoils were taken, and the Eng- lish claim on the territory afterward called Georgia was strengthened. The next year the Spanish attempted to retaliate by invading South Carolina, but they were re- pelled with little loss to the Carolinians. 14=1, Events in New England. — New York was pro- tected by the neutrality of the Six Nations, and New England endeavored unsuccessfully to secure a like treaty with the savages on her frontier. Instigated by the French, these tribes were constantly hovering around the settlements, watching opportunities to massacre and burn. During King William's war, Haverhill, Massa- chusetts, had been attacked and forty of its inhabitants killed or carried into captivity. And now, in 1704, Deer- field was desolated by a force of 300 French and Indians from Canada. For years no isolated band of settlers felt secure b}^ night or day, and many a happy home and thriving village fell a prey to the savages while these cruel wars lasted. 142, Capture of Port Royal, — The colonists banded together to punish the prowling Indians, and a large bounty was offered for their scalps. In 1707 an unsuc- cessful attempt was made to capture Port Royal, which had been restored to France by the treaty of Ryswick. Three years later a fleet bearing some English, but a greater number of colonial, troops, sailed from Boston to King Georges War. 101 attack this fortress. The garrison surrendered ahnost without resistance, and the name of Port Royal was changed to AnnapoUs, in honor of the queen. 14:3. Attemptetl Invasion of Canada. — Encouraged hy this victory, P^ngland, the next year, prepared a large expedition for tiie invasion of Canada ; hut owing to the inefticiency of the officers, the fleet did not enter the St. Lawrence Gulf until late in the season, and then, through l^ad management, a large part of it was wrecked, and the remaining ships returned without accomplishing the object in view. 144, Treaty of Utrecht. — In 1713 the mother-coun- tries made a peace, called, from the place in Holland where the treaty was signed, the Peace of Utrecht. By this treaty the French agreed to yield to the English Hudson's Bay, NcAvfoundland, and the peninsula of Acadia. They had no intention, however, of giving up their right in the valuable cod-fisheries, and they took possession of the little rocky island of Cape Breton, and built there the strong fortress of Louisburg. In yielding Acadia, too, they only gave up the peninsula. They still held the isthmus whicli connects it with the mainland, and there built two small forts, one of them at the head of the Bay of Fundy. The English called the peninsula Nova Scotia, and there established the towns of Annapolis and Halifax ; l^ut the population Avas still French. There were scarcely more than five or six English families in Acadia. King George's War. 145. Beginning of Hostilities. — In 1744 war again broke out between the English and French, and spread to the colonies. Hostilities were begun in America by the French. They captured Fort Canso, at the north-east ex- tremity of Nova Scotia, attncked Annapolis, and broke up the English fisheries. 102 King Georges War. 146. Capture of Louishurg. — Tjouisburg, which was, with the exception of Quebec, the strongest fortress in America, was situated on the ishmd of Cape Breton, and from its position not only commanded the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the valual)le fisheries in tliat vi- cinity, hut constantly menaced the safety of the New Iilng- land colonies- The capture of this stronghold was there- fore determined uj^on as the object of the Hrst campaign. Pennsylvania, New York, and Xew^ Jersey furnished money for the expedition, but the men Avere all from New Eng- land. In April, 1745, a fleet bearing three thousand troops, led by Sir W'illiam Pepperell, sailed from Boston to Canso, and were there joined by the companies from Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. As they approached Louisburg the high Avail of the fortress rose l)efore them, defended by one hundred and seven cannon, and sur- rounded by a ditch eighty feet wide. In the harlior Avas an island, also Avell defended l)y a gun-battery. 147. The NcAv Englanders had only tAventy-one pieces of artillery, but Avith these they succeeded in driving the The Last French War. 103 French from their batteries. In order to bring the cannon to bear upon the walls of the fort, the assailants were obliged to drag them through boggy morasses ; this they did with great toil and difficulty, but never desj^airing of success. At length, after a siege of nearly fifty days, Louisburg surrendered to this brave colonial army. The victors returned to Boston, and were received there with transports of joy. The capture of this strong fortress from the French was the greatest event of the war in America. 148. Peace of Aix-la-ChapeUe (akes'-la-.sha-jjel'). — A treaty of peace was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, by which Louisburg was restored to the French. The ques- tion of boundaries being still left unsettled, the peace was of short duration, and within six years of the signing of the treaty, the French and English colonies were again involved in war. The Last French War. 149. The Cause of this war lay in the conflicting claims of France and England to supremacy on the conti- nent of America. France, notwithstanding the remon- strance of England, claimed the Mississippi Valley and the valleys of all tributary streams ; she was, moreover, dissatisfied with the boundaries of Acadia, which had been ceded to England. 150. Prei)arations to Hold the Country. — (1.) By the French. — Besides the fortress of Louisburg, which had been restored to them, the French had forts at the neck of the peninsula of Nova Scotia, at Crown Point on Lake Champlain, at Niagara, at Presqu' Isle (pres-keel), Le Bceuf (le-bef), and Venango. By these and other posts they held a strong line from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the mouth of the Mississippi. They also strengthened them- selves bv alliances with the Indians, and made known 104 The Last French War. their claims by nailing to the trees and sinking in the earth leaden plates bearing the arms of France. 151, (2.) By the English. — The more practical English endeavored to secure the valley of the Ohio by providing for its colonization ; the Ohio Company was formed, and parties were sent out to survey the country, to make alliances with the Indians, and to prepare for settlers. In 1753, Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia despatched George Washington to remonstrate with the commandant of the French forces at Fort Le Boeuf against his intrusion on land claimed by the British. The remonstrance was disre- garded, and English traders were captured by the French. 152, Beglnninff of Hostilities, — Upon his return from Fort Le Boeuf, Washington recommended that a fort should be erected at the confluence of the Alleghany and Monon- gahela Rivers to defend the English claims. In pursu- ance of Washington's recommendation a party was imme- diately despatched to construct the work, and in the follow- ing spring a regiment in which Washington held the second command was sent to hold the position. Before reaching its destination it was discovered that the French had driven away the Avorking-party, finished and occupied the fort themselves, and named it Fort Du Quesne {du-kane). 153, While on the march, Washington, with a part of his regiment, unexpectedly met a French scouting-party, and in the encounter that followed killed or captured the entire force. Learning that a large number of French and Indians were moving against him, Washington. threw up a slight entrenchment, which was named Fort Necessity, and there, on the 3d of July, he was attacked, and fought all day against superior numbers. At night he was obliged to surrender the fort, but marched out with the honors of war. The French were thus left in full possession of the Ohio Valley. The Last French War. 105 154, Defensh'e Pleasures, — The previous Avars in which the colonists had become involved began in Europe, but the last French war had its origin in America. Year by year the colonies of England and France on this side of the Atlantic had grown in value and import- ance. Both nations therefore took active measures to strengthen their respective claims in the wdlderness. In the summer of 1754 a convention of delegates from the different English colonies was held at Albany for the pur- pose of deciding upon a plan of union for mutual defence. A scheme brought forAvard by Benjamin Franklin Avas re- jected by the colonists because they thought it gave too much poAver to the king, and in P]ngland it Avas dis- approved because her monarch saAV that such a union of the colonies Avould soon result in their independence. Nothing, therefore, Avas effected at this time, excej^t a treaty Avith the Six Nations, Avhose chiefs had been invited to the council. Both the mother countries protested the desire for a peaceful adjustment of their conflicting claims, but their protestations did not prevent or delay the active preparations for Avar. Events of 1755. 155, Plans for the Year. — Early in this year England sent General Braddock to America to conduct the Avar, and Avith him tAVO regiments of British regulars. Braddock called a congress of the provincial governors, laid before them the necessity for help in men and money from each colony, and planned operations for the year. He did not propose to invade Canada, l)ut only to driA^e the French from the English frontier. The line of attack extended from the island of Cape Breton to the Ohio River, and the important points Avere the fortress of Louisl)urg, Avhich con- trolled the fisheries and the entrance to the St. LaAvrence ; CroAvn Point, Avhich Avas the northern gateway of the 1 )6 The Last French War. Hudson Valley ; Fort Niagara, controlling the passage to the great lakes and the ^^^est ; and Fort Du Quesne, the key of the Ohio Valley. Expeditions against the three last- named points were planned by Braddock, and in ^lassa- chusetts anotlier expedition was already designed against Acadia. 156, Braddock's Defeat, — Braddock himself took com- mand of the expedition against Fort Du Quesne. A camp was formed at Fort Cumberland, from which ])lace, in June, with 2200 men, he began his march of 130 miles. As the army built its own road through the wilderness, the advance was slow. Braddock, though a brave man, was a martinet in military affairs, and kept up the same arrangement of his troops and precision of movement in the woods of America as he had been accustomed to do on the plains of Euroj^e. He was advised of the Indian method of warfare, and of the proper measures necessary for defence against the wily foe; but believing that no enemy could withstand the discipline and bravery of his regulars, and disdaining the valor and experience of the provincial troops, he rejected all counsel. On the 9th of July an advanced division of 1200 men, in fine uniform, with glittering arms, and moving in exactest military order, had approached within nine miles of Du Quesne, when suddenly the troops found themselves in an ambush of the French and Indians. The regulars, bewildered by the firing from a foe concealed behind rocks and bushes, huddled together in their fright like flocks of sheep. 1,57, Washington entreated Braddock to let the pro- vincials fight the savages in their own way, but he stubbornly refused, and compelled the men to form in platoons and squads ; and l)y platoons and squads they were shot down. Braddock himself was slain, and of the 1200 men who were engaged less than 500 escaped, and The Last French War. 107 tliese fled in confusion to Fort Cumberland, leaving the inhabitants of the outlying villages exposed to the fury of the savages. Throughout this march and attack Washington merited the highest praise by his courage and prudence, and amid its dangers he was wonderfully preserved ; two horses were killed under him and four bul- lets pierced his clothes, but he escaped without a wound. 158. JErpedlffon af/ahisf Fort Niaffttra. — Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, and second in command to Braddock, led this expedition. He started from Albany with 2000 troops, provincials and Indians. He also had to build his road, and did not reach Oswego before the latter part of August. Here he heard of Braddock's defeat, and Avas further discouraged by the desertion of his Indian allies, sickness among his men, and the late- ness of the season. He built two forts at Oswego, left a garrison under Col. Mercer, and then returned to Albany, giving up the hope of taking Fort Niagara that year. 159. Expedition affdiust Crown Point. — This expe- dition was led by General Johnson, a large landholder of New York, whose intimate relations and influence with the Iroquois Indians would, it was hoped, gain their steady alliance to the English cause. Johnson started with his troops from Albany. General Lyman, his second officer, had preceded the main body of the army and built Fort Edward. A garrison was left at this post, and Johnson proceeded to the head of Lake George. Here he learned that the French had begun a fortification ( Fort Ticonde- roga) at the foot of the same lake, and that a large body of French and Indians under Baron Dieskau (de-es'-ko) was advancing toward him. 160. On the 6th of September a detachment of troops under Colonel Williams of Massachusetts, accompanied by Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, and his warriors, was sent out to reconnoitre. Falling into an ambuscade, Williams and 108 The Last French War. Henclrick, with many of the men, were slain. The re- mainder fell back to the camp, pursued by the French. After a pause the camp was attacked. Johnson retired early from the action on account of a wound, but General Lyman, a Connecticut officer, second in command, kept up the defence all the long afternoon, till at last the French, deserted by their Indian allies, wavered. The provincials then became the pursuers, and the French were driven back with a loss of nearly 1000 men ; Dieskau himself was severely wounded. Instead of following up this ad- vantage by a blow at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Johnson spent the remainder of the year in building Fort William Henry. an, Tahhuj of Acadia.— By the Treaty of Utrecht Acadia had been ceded to England, but the French held that the ceded territory comprised only the peninsula, while England claimed the isthmus and the adjoining district of New Brunswick. At the isthmus the French had built tAvo forts, Beau Sejour {ho sd-zhoor) and Gaspereau {gas-pd-ro). Before these forts a large body of New England men with a few British regulars appeared in May. The garrisons quickly surrendered, and the forts were then occupied by the Englisli. The Acadians, though long nominally under British government, were still French in manners, lan- guage, religion, and attachment. 162. They were Avilling to submit to Englisli rule, but refused to take the oath of allegiance to England, which would compel them to fight against their countrymen. In consequence of this unwillingness the English king, George II., adopted the harsh measure of removing this peaceful colony. The execution of the cruel order was committed to the New England soldiers, and was made yet more cruel by the suddenness and deceit used in carrvino- it out. The Last French War. 109 163. In one of the Acadian districts, for example, the fathers, husbands, and brothers were ordered to assemble on a certain day in the church to listen to a royal procla- mation. Suspecting no evil, they obeyed. The doors were guarded, and they found themselves prisoners, brought there to listen to an order from the English king banish- ing them for ever from their country. Not allowed to return to their homes, they were carried, guarded, to the seashore, and were there joined by their wives and children. 1<>4:. It was autumn when this cruel work began, and December came before it was entirely finished. In the confusion of embarking families were separated, and the vessels bore members of the same household to different colonies. The advertisements in the colonial newspapers told, for a long time, of many a bereaved and sorrowing heart. Seven thousand of these suffering people were dis- tributed among the colonies from Maine to Georgia. To prevent any possibility of their return, their homesteads were burned, their fields and orchards laid waste, and their homes utterly desolated. Events of 1756 and '57. 165. The Earl of Loudon. — In 1756, Lord Loudon was sent over as commander-in-chief of the American forces. He was also made governor of Virginia, with authority superior to, and independent of, the provincial governors. In the summer Generals Abercrombie and AVx'bb arrived, and later came Loudon. These officers spent the summer idly at Albany, and when winter came the regulars were, by an act known as the Mutiny Bill, lulleted upon the inhabitants of the colonies, though not without indignant remonstrances from the citizens. 110 The Last French War, 166. Loss of Oswego, — While Loudon was at Albany, the Marquis cle Montcalm, successor of Dieskau, crossed Lake Ontario and captured the forts at Oswego, where were large stores of provisions, ammunition, money, and the vessels for the Niagara expedition. 167» Exiyedifion ((gainst Louishurg. — 1\\ 1757, Loudon planned an attack upon Louisburg, ])ut after delaying at Halifiix so long that the Frencli were enabled to strengthen their defences, he withdrew without striking a blow. 168, Loss of Fort William Henry, — To hold the im- portant entrance to the Valley of the Hudson, Colonel Monroe was stationed at Fort William Henry with 2000 men, and General Webb at Fort Edward with a garrison of 4000. In August, ^lontcalm, with a force of more than 9000 men and a powerful train of artillery, suddenly appeared before Fort William Henry. Monroe made -^ brave defence for six days, all the time expecting relief from General Webb, but as none came, he was obliged to surrender. Montcalm assured the garrison of protection in the march to Fort Edward, but they had scarcely passed out of the fort when the Indian allies of the French fell upon them with indiscriminate massacre. Montcalm tried to restrain the savages, but in vain, and many of Monroe's men were killed or captured. Events of 1758. 169, Pitt made Prime Minister, — The opening of this year found the English driven in on the frontier, and the French flushed with victory. England became alarmed, and .Parliament demanded a more efficient and vigorous conduct of the war in America. Pitt, the new prime minister, took control of the war, and his influence was soon felt. Instead of treating the provincials as in- ferior to the regulars, they were put on the same footing, and the government agreed to assume a fair share of the The Last French War. Ill expenses of the war. The colonists, who had been exas- perated by the injustice and haughtiness of Loudon and other British officers, were concihated, and AviUingly raised men and nione}^ for new expeditions. 170, Capture of Lotiishurg. — On the 8th of June, General Amherst and Admiral Boscawen appeared before Louisburg, and on July 27th the fortress surrendered. 171, The Ejcjieditiou against Ticoiuleroga was led by General Abercrombie in the summer of 1758. He had 15,000 troops, while the French had but 3500, and their w^orks were unprepared for an attack. In moving over the wooded and uneven ground the advance party, under young Lord Howe, unexpectedly met a body of French. In the conflict that ensued, Howe, who was a favorite in the army, was slain. On the next day an attack was made, but the English were repulsed with great slaughter, and retreated in confusion to Fort William Henry. An expedition which had been detached from Abercrombie's army succeeded in capturing Fort Fronte- nac, and a large amount of military stores. 172, Capture of Fort I)u Quesue. — General Forbes was in command of the army of the AVest, and in the summer of 1758 started for the conquest of Du Quesne. It was decided to build a new highway to that point, instead of taking Braddock's old road. This work con- sumed so much time that autumn found the expedition still a long way from its destination. It seemed advisable to wait until the following year, but information having been received that the French held the ibrt Avith only a slight force, Washington was despatched to make an attack upon it. The French, unable to defend themselves, fired the works at Du Quesne and sailed down the Ohio. The English took possession, and named the place Pittsburgh, in honor of the prime minister. 112 The Last French War, Events of 1759. 173. Invasion of Canadd. — At the beginning of the war the object had been only to secure the territory ah'eady claimed and occupied by the English, but encouraged by the recent successes of the English arms, and the evident weakness of the French, Pitt determined to invade Canada. The army was ordered to enter the country in three divis- ions : one, under General Wolfe, a young officer who had distinguished himself at the siege of Louisburg the pre- ceding year, was to proceed by way of the sea and the St. Lawrence ; another, under Genend Amherst, was to capture Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and enter b}^ way of Lake Cham plain; the third, under General Prideau {jyre-do), was to reduce Fort Niagara, and then sail down the St. Lawrence and capture Montreal. These three divisions were to unite before Quebec. 174^» Capture of Ticonderofja and Niagara. — So many men were needed for the defence of Quebec that only small garrisons could be spared for the advanced stations at Ticonderoga and Crown Point. On the appear- ance of Andierst before these posts the French troops were withdrawn, and they fell into his hands without a blow. Prideau began the siege of Fort Niagara, but he being killed by the bursting of a gun. General Johnson took connnand, A large body of French and Indians who advanced to the relief of the fort was repulsed, and the garrison surrendered after a siege of two weeks. On account of the lateness of the season and the lack of means of transportation, neither Amherst nor Johnson advanced to the aid of Wolfe. 175, CajJture of Quebec— In June, Wolfe with 8000 men landed on the island of Orleans. Before him lay Quebec, defjdng attack by its natural strength and its thorough preparation for resistance. The citadel was TJie Last Fmicli Wc ar 113 situated on a commanding cliff which extends tliirteeii miles along the river above the city. Every landing-place was carefully guarded, and so steep was the ascent that it seemed hopeless to attempt to scale the cliff at any un- guarded i)oint. Below the city Howed the river Charles, imd on the peninsula between that river and the Mont- morenci lay a fortified camp of 14,000 French soldiers. In front ran the strong current of the St. Lawrence, while the rear was protected by a vast tract of forest whose gloomy depths were rendered still more formidable by the vigilance of a large body of savage scouts. J 76*. Wolfe's first attempt Avas to attack the French camp. He landed his men just above the mouth of the Montmorenci, and they began the ascent of its right bank in the face of a deadly fire. A heavy storm burst upon tliem, dampening their ammunition and making the stee[)S so slippery that they could not advance. A retreat was 114 The Last French War. sounded, and in the confusion of re-embarking the troops were attacked by Indians, and over 400 killed. The ex- posure and anxiety wliich Wolfe had endured resulted in severe illness, but even while prostrated by fever he planned another attack, and rose from his bed of pain to lead it. 177» Three miles above the city there had been dis- covered a little cove from which a narrow path led to the heights above. It was decided to land a portion of the troops at this point and attempt the perilous ascent, while another portion made feints to attract the attention of the French at the front. On the night of the r2th of September the army, which had been carried up the river several days before, dropped silently down with the current. As they glided along in the calm starlight, Wolfe softly repeated " Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard," saying to those in the boat with him, " I would prefer being tlie author of that poem to the glory of beating the French to-morrow." 178, The little army landed silently at the place since known as Wolfe's Cove, overcame the slender force which guarded the steep, narrow path, and by daylight was drawn up on the Plains of Al:)raham, just Avest of the cita- del. Montcalm, the brave French commander, had avoided an encounter ; for though he had more troops than Wolfe, they were ill-fed and undisciplined, and he hoped that winter would compel the English to withdraAV. Had he at this time taken refuge in the citadel, no assault which the enemy was able to make could have dislodged him. But, taken by surprise, his presence of mind deserted him, and bravely, but most rashly, he gave battle to the foe. In the engagement that followed the English were everywhere victorious, and Quebec surrendered. In the action both commanders fell. The French now held no post but Mont- real. The next year this too was taken, and the whole of Canada surrendered to the British. The Last French War. 115 179 » Treaty of Paris, — The war which had begun in the Ohio Valley spread throughout almost the entire world, and in every quarter of it England was victorious. In February, 1763, articles of peace were concluded at Paris. By the terms of this treaty France gave up all her possessions in America except a share in the fish- eries, with two small islands for the use of her fisher- men. All her territory east of the Mississippi, except a small district in and around New Orleans, was yielded to the English, New Orleans and all the territory west of the Mississippi she ceded to Spain. Spain, having also been engaged in the war, gave England the territory of Florida in exchange for Havana, which had been captured by the English. 180, Indian Hostilities during this War, — With the Delawares. — After Braddock's defeat the frontiers of Penn- sylvania, Maryland, and Virginia were exposed to inroads from the Indians, who were incited by the French. Their war-parties sometimes came within thirty miles of Phila- delphia. They were severely chastised in the summer of 1756 by some Pennsylvanians, who crossed the mountains and attacked them in their village of Kittan'ning. The savages continued hostilities a long time, so that most of the outlying settlements were abandoned. • ISl, With the Cherokees. — The borders of Carolina were desolated by the Cherokees, who were at first roused to hostility against their white neighbors by the cruelty of Governor Lyttleton. Forts Prince George and Loudon were beleaguered, and the garrison of the latter massacred. The Cherokee country was twice invaded by armed forces, and after two severe battles the Indians sued for peace. 182. Pont lac's War. — By their victories over the French the posts as far west as Detroit came into the hands of the English and the Western country was opened to immi- 116 Condition of the Colonies. gration. Settlers began to cross the mountains of Penn- sylvania and Virginia, which before had been the limits of civilization, and to establish themselves on the lands of the Indians. The tribes thus intruded upon conspired to drive out the whites. Led by Pontiac, a very remarkable chief, they seized nearly all of the M'estern posts, massa- cred the English who attempted to settle there, and for a while held the country securely against the invaders. This was the best-planned and most nearly successful scheme which the savages ever devised against the colonists. Condition of the Colonies at the Close of this Period. 183, Territory. — England now held all of the continent from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, and west- ward from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, together with several of the West India Islands. The territory wrested from the French and Spanish was erected into four new provinces — Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada. 184, Governnient, — The colonies in the new provinces were not planted by the Crown, but by individuals, incorpo- rated companies, or voluntary associations. The settlers obtained grants of land and tolerably liberal charters upon which to base their government. The liberality of the charters was due to their being intended either to favor some courtier or to attract settlers to the new country. These grants sometimes conflicted, and occasionally seri- ous trouble arose among the claimants. As the colo- nies became more important, the attempt was made to retract some of the privileges conferred l)y the charters. The people strenuously resisted any restriction of those privileges under which they had been induced to remove to a new country. Notwithstanding their opposition, by the close of this period nearly all of these instruments had been annulled. Of the thirteen original colonies, all had Condition of the Colonies. 117 become royal provinces except Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, which were retained l)y the descendants or famihes of the first proprietors, and Rhode Island and Con- necticut, which alone succeeded in keeping their charters. 1S5. IndustrUs, — For a long time agriculture was neces- sarily the chief occupation of all the colonists. The New England colonies carried on extensive fisheries and ex- l)orted furs and lumber. In 1728 there were four iron-fur- naces in Pennsylvania, but her coal remained undiscovered until the present century. ^laryland and Virginia raised large quantities of tobacco. The manufacture of tar was early begun in North Carolina, and the cultivation of rice was accidentally introduced into South Carolina. In 1743, General Oglethorpe carried to England eight pounds of Georgia silk, and a dress Avas made of it for the queen. Owing to the English laws of trade, which- were very o^^pressive, the pursuit of commerce and manufactures re- ceived but little encouragement in the colonies. 180. Planners and Customs. — The Northern colonists were mostly Puritans. jNIuch regard was paid to a learned and pious ministry, and in the early days of Connecticut it was said that every town witliin its limits " had a scholar to its minister." LaAvs concerning the moral conduct of the people were very strict throughout New England, and people were often punislied in those days for that which now would be considered no offence. 187' Although New York remained under Dutch rule only forty years, yet the Dutch population in the little town was always numerous, and has left many a pleasant memento of the days of New Amsterdam. The people of the Southern colonies differed Avidely in liabits and style of living from those of the North. They did not settle in towns and villages, but lived on plantations, often scattered miles apart, and chiefly situated on the banks of rivers or shores of bays. 118 Condition of the Colonies. 1S8, Here the planters dwelt surrounded by large households, and having great numbers of indented ser- vants and -afterward slaves. Not meeting together at school, church, town-meeting, and training-day, as was common at the North, the Southern i)eople had less sym- pathy with each other and less of common interest. They indulged in horse-racing and out-door sjjorts, and educa- tion was less general among the populations of Virginia and Carolina than among the Northern colonists. Still, there were wealthy families who lived in a style of great ele- gance and luxury, and individuals who had been educated abroad possessed a high degree of culture and refinement. ISU, Edncafioti, — Ncav England early adopted a very excellent system of common schools, and its two colleges. Harvard and Yale, offered to the youths of the colonies the advantages of a collegiate education. When Yale was founded there were but twenty-eight towns in Connecticut, and the colony was not known to the best English geog- raphers. In 1704 appeared the first newspaper, called the Boston News-Letter. Although printing had been early in- troduced, books were rare and highly prized. 190. King's (now Columbia) College was founded in New York in 1754. Other schools also were established in the town, and some Avere kept by Dutch masters, by whom our great-grandmothers were taught to read English as an accomplishment. The College of New Jersey was founded at Elizabethtown in 1746, thence removed to Newark, and finally, in 1757, to Princeton. In this college is still preserved the orrery invented by Dr. Rittenhouse in 1768. It was a beautiful instrument, and very wonderful for those early days of astronomy. A gentleman writing of it in 1790, says, " There is not the like in Europe." 191, In Pennsylvania the first school was commenced as early as 1683, and its master proposed to teach reading, Condition of the Colonies. 119 writing, and casting accounts for eight English shillings a year. In the country places of Pennsylvania schools were opened even before the foundation of the college in Philadelphia ; such was the " Log College '' in Bucks county and such the village school in Chester county, where studied pupils whose talents in future years did no little honor to their faithful instructors. The University of Pennsylvania w^as begun in 1750 by the exertions of Dr. Franklin, who purchased for its use the building originally intended as a meeting-house for Whitefield. In the little colony of Delaware, at Lewestown, was established a girls' school, supposed to be the first in the colonies. 192, Although Virginia may boast of William and Mary College, founded in 1692, as being the second insti- tution of learning which was established in the colonies, yet neither in this nor in any of the Southern States do we find, prior to the Revolution, the encouragements to education which marked the Northern colonies. No com- mon schools were established, and Governor Berkeley, writing of the condition of Virginia in 1671, says: "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing-presses, and I hope w^e shall not have these hundred years." 193- The first newspaper, the Virginia Gazette^ was not published until 1736, and was under the control of the government. William and Mary College received from the sovereigns for whom it was named a tract of twenty thousand acres of land, and duties on tobacco, skins, and furs were levied for its support. An Indian school was for a time attached to this college, and in later years its library received valuable presents of books from Governor Dinwiddle and Mr. Jeff'erson. 194, As early as 1696 free schools were provided by law in Maryland, but were not successfully established until 1704; the first newspaper made its appearance in 120 Review Questions. 1745. In the Southern colonies parents who could afford to do so sent their children to England to be educated. Among the Scotch and Moravian poi)ulation of Georgia the young were carefully taught by their parents and pastors, especially in religious knowledge. Instruction was also given in Whitefield's Orphan House, near Savannah, which was under the care of James Haber- sham. Review Questions. 1, On what were the various claims to the continent based ? What nation was most active in exploration? What nations were most active in settlement? Name the different grants of territory in America. Where was the first permanent English settlement in America? Name the thirteen original colonies, and give the date of the settlement of each. What was the greatest obstacle to the early success of the Virginia colony? 2, What changes were made in the government at different times? Give the story of Pocahontas. When did women begin to emigrate to Virginia? When did the colony begin to be pros- perous? When were the first slaves brought? What was the character of the first settlers of the New England colonies? How did their treatment of the aborigines differ from that of Virginia? 3. Which of the colonies began with a chartered and which with a proprietary government? How many of the colonies became royal provinces? How many retained their charters? Which remained in the hands of proprietors? What were the various industries of the colonies? AVhat led to King Philip's war, and what were the events and results of that war ? 4. AVhen and by whom was Maine settled? When did it become a separate State? When was New Hampshire settled? State how each colony obtained a right to the soil it occupied. AVhat was the difference between a grant and a charter? How many colonies in the present limits of Massachusetts, and when were they united? ii. How many colonies in Connecticut, and when and how united*^ How many Indian Avars during this period? Explain Revieiu Questions. 121 tlie league of the New England colonies in 1643. AVhat provision was made for education in the different colonies? In what was the colony of Rhode Island peculiar? 6*. When was Maryland settled, and by whom ? What can be said of religious tolerance there ? What dissensions and wars in the colony? When, where, and by whom was the first settlement made in New York? On what ground did Charles II. claim the right to give away New Netherlands? 7. When and why was the division of East and West Jersey made? How did Penn obtain his grant? How did Penn's treats ment of the natives contrast with that of others? Had Baltimore a right to part of the territory granted Penn? How many claims to the territory of Delaware? How many kinds of government? 8, When was North Carolina settled? South Carolina? When were they made separate provinces? W^ere they ever wholly united? What prominent names in their history? What was the Grand Model? What were quit-rents? From whence did the settlers come ? For what purpose was Georgia founded ? AVhat settlements were made by the French ? .9. What led to the intercolonial wars? There were how many of these wars? Mention the principal event of each of the first three. What posts did the French hold on territory claimed by the English at the opening of the last French war? Mention the battles of this war. Name the generals and celebrated men who were connected with it. What territory was claimed by England at the beginning of this war, and what at the end? What can vou tell of the condition of the colonies at the close of this period ? Page 122 FERior> IV, ( 1651. Naviyation j W60. Acts. 1 1663. ■^ I 1665. » ^ t Woollen Goods. Acts of ^7';- Trade. ^f"'^^^^- Hats. < < y All Enumerated Articles. . I. ( Evasion by People. Writs of Assistance. z Taxation a o 1- without Representation. Rcsidts. Board of Conimissioncrs. Seizure of Hancock's Vessel. I Burning (f the Gaspre. =3 -J o > i r f Passage. C Riots and Disturbances. Stamp 1 jj,,,s^,LTs. \ Colonial Congress. ^^** ( Repeal. \ Non-importation. LJ Tax on Tea, Tjcad, C Passage. cc as Glass, Paper } Results. and Paint. [ Repeal. u.' o Tax on Tea j East India Company's Tea. ' Alone. 1 Reception of Tea-Ships. II. Intercolonial Wars. l^ 7?f' In moved the French from the Frontiers, tined Officers and Men for War. crea.sed the National Debt of En(/land < , Inclined France to Aid the Colonists. o Quarterinff Act. Troops Sent to Boston. III. Oppression by Great Britain., Boston Massacre, Bissolvinff Lcf/islaticc Assemblies. Boston Port Bill. ( Committeefi nf Correspondence. Itesrats,\^''''''f^^^'''y- 1 Provincial Congresses. y I Continental Congress. Note. — This subject is presented first topically, to afford a clear view of the causes, and then chronologically, for use in preparing a recitation. 123 FERion IV, 1775-17S9. Causes. O O > E vents of 1775. 124 Ejcternal and later unl Taxes. \ Navigation Acts. External Taxes. | ^^^^ ^j ^.^^^ Writs of Assistance. Effects of Intercolonial Wars. Internal Taxation. TJie Stamp Act. {Virginia. Massachusetts New York. Non- Importation. Colonial Congress of 1765. Repeal of the Stamp Act. New Taxes and Impositions. Resistance Inj the Colonists. Oiypression in Massachusetts. The Boston Massacre. Repeal of Duties. Burning of the Oasjyee. Taxed Tea sent to America. Rnnishment of Massachtisetts. Tlie Colonies combine for Mutual Support. First Continental Congress (1774). The I*rovincial Congress of 31assachusetts. Battles of Lexington and Concord. Tlie Rotising of the Country. Continental Congress. Battle of Bunker Hill. Washington takes Command. War in the South. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, Capture of St. Johns and Montreal. E.rpedition against Quebec. Tlie Hessians. Period I V .-Contiiaued, 125 O > cc X E vents of 1776. Events of 1777. ICvttcuatlon of Canada. JEvacuatloH of Boston. li^jcjiedition againtit CJtafleston. Declaration of Independence, Neiv York Fortified. A.rrival of the Sritish, Battle of JLong Island. JRetreat to North Castle. loss of Farts JVashington and Lee. Itetreat across New tfersey. Battle of Trenton. British Plan for Campaign. Loss of the Forts on Lake Champlain. Condition of Schuyler's Arniij. St. Leyer^s Expedition. Battle of Bennington. Schuf/ler Sajterseded hy Gates. Battle of Beinis's Heights. Battle of Stillwater. I Clinton's Passage up the Hudson. 'a o Si Battle of Princeton. Events of 1778. I Baiding Expeditions. House's Movements. I Battle of the lirandywine. I Further Attempts to Defend l*hiladelphia, I Opening of the Delaware'. I Winter of 1777 and '78. British Com tn issioners. Fcacuation of Philad UJ X E rents of 1780. Events of 17S1. South. Tioss of Charleston. BrifisJi Expeditions to Subdue the Conuti'i/. Coi'invftllis in tlie South. Second Continental A.vtntj at the SoittJi. Eii-.st liattle of Camden. Battle of King's Munntain. . Battle of Springfield. North. \ Aid from the French. I Arnold's Treason. In thr 80UTH. In Vir- ginia. f Battle of Coa-petis. I Greene's Retreat \ Battle of Gail ford Court- House. I Capture of British Posts in the Interior I Jteview of Greene's Ctnnjtaign, Arrival of Cornwallis. Washington's Plans for the Campaign. -J Arnold sent to Connecticut. Situation of Cornwallis. I Surrender of Cornwallis. TJie Dawn of Peace. Treat!/ of 17S3. Dishandintj of the Continental Arntg. Naval Warfare. Condition of the Count rg at Close {>f tliis Period. Government under the Articles of Confederation, Forming of the Constitution. Old Stale- Hon sf, Philadelphia. I^ E R I O D I V, THE REVOLUTION. Causes. 1. The most generally accepted cause of the Revo- lutiun was " taxation without representation." This prin- ciple hecanie the ('au--(' ol" a war, not hecause .Vinerica eitlier exi)ecte(l to avoid the payment of taxes or desired to he represented in the liritibh Parliament, hut l)ecause while the colonies maintained the riglit of levying their own taxes throuuh their own repre- i;entative asseml)lies, England insisted upon their being levied by acts of Parliament. 12: 128 The Revolution. 2, Eocternal and Interntil Taxes. — In the claims of England uj^on America a distinction was made between external and internal taxes. The former were taxes laid ui3on trade, and Avere intended primarily to protect the com- merce and manufactures of Great Britain, and, although imposing some hardships, were not seriously objected to by the colonists, it being conceded that nations had the right to protect their commerce b}^ such measures. Internal taxes were levied for the express purpose of raising a revenue, and this was not attempted until after the last French war. 3, External Taxes. — Navigation Acts. — External taxes fall under two heads. Navigation Acts and Acts of Trade. England, in common with other European nations, sup- posed that her own commerce would be increased by com- pelling all her subjects, whether at liome or in her colonies, to traffic only with the merchants of the mother-country. Hence, an act was passed in 1651 requiring the colonists to carry on their commerce in English ships. In 1660 foreign vessels were prohibited from entering the colonial ports. In 1663 a duty was laid upon goods shipped from one colony to another, and two years later the colonists were forbidden to manufacture any goods which would be likely to compete with English wares in their own as well as in foreign markets. 4, Acts of Trade. — In 1696 the management of colonial affairs was entrusted to the Board of Trade. To prevent competition Avith British Avoolen manufactures, a law was passed prohibiting the sending of woolen goods out of the colonies, or even from one colony to another. In 1732 hats were put under the same restriction, and hatters for- bidden to take more than two apprentices, lest the great amount of fur produced in America should give them the monopoly of the hat trade. The next year the " Molasses Act " laid a duty on rum, sugar, and molasses imported into The Bevohdion. 129 the colonies from the French or Dutch sugar islands, in order to confine the trade in these articles to the Brit- ish West Indies. The colonists, being compelled to pay a heavy duty upon pig iron exported to England, attempted the manufacture of steel and bar iron among themselves. In 1750 these manufactures were stigmatized as "nui- sances," and prohibited. 5. Writs of Assistance, — The Acts of Trade were so generally regarded as vmjust that few people felt any scruples in smuggling goods from the West Indies and the French and Spanish possessions. To prevent this contra- band traffic, in 1761 the custom-house officers demanded writs of assistance. This was a term applied to certain warrants empowering the holders of them to search in any place for smuggled goods, and requiring any person who might be called upon for that purpose to assist in such search. The writs were received, but on account of the dissatisfaction of the people they were not used to an}^ great extent. 6*. Effects of Intercolonial Wars. — By the treaty of Paris, Canada and the eastern portion of the INIississippi Valley came into the possession of the English. Thus the danger of a powerful and near enemy was removed, and the colonists no longer needed protection in that quarter. France, moreover, embittered by the loss of all her Amer- ican colonies, welcomed the opportunity of retaliation, and stood ready from the first to give the Americans substantial aid in their struggle with Great Britain. The late contest had also given the colonists a knowledge of the art of war, trained generals who would prove skillful leaders in the coming conflict of the Revolution, and showed the provincial troops that the British regulars were not in- vincible. Another effect of the intercolonial wars had been to largely increase the national debt of England, and the attempt by direct taxation to compel America to 130 The devolution. help in tlie payment of this debt hastened the impending conflict. 7. Internal Taxation. — Preliminary to the attempt at internal taxation, Parliament in 1764 passed a resolution declaring its right to raise a revenue from the colonies. Not in America only, but in the English House of C'om- mons also, this announcement was the signal for a warm debate upon the whole question. So strong was the dis- tinction held to exist between external and internal taxes, that William Pitt, while maintaining that the colonists had no right to manufacture so much as a nail for a horse-shoe in opposition to the laws for the protection of British com- merce, yet declared that, were he an American, be would never submit to an act so subversive of the liberty of the subject as one having for its design the direct taxation of an Unrepresented people. 8, It Avas during the discussion of this question that Colonel Barre, a companion of General Wolfe at Louisburg and Quebec, made the thrilling speech which won for him the affection of all Americans. In reply to the assertion that the colonies had been planted by the care of Great Britain, nourished by her indulgence, and protected by her arms, he exclaimed, " They planted by your care ? No, your oppressions planted them in America. Tliey nour- ished by your indulgence? They grew by your neglect of them. They protected by your arms ? They have nobly taken up arms in your defence." .9. The Stamp Act. — In Feljruary, 1765, a bill was introduced into Parliament by Lord Grenville requiring that all legal and other documents should Ik^ written on stamped paper, tliis paper to be sold by officers of the government api)ointed for that purpose. Notwithstand- ing the opposition, this bill Avas passed. The RevohiUion. 131 10, Reception of the Stamp Act in America, — Actual resistimce to the act in America was not anticipated, even by its warmest o})posers. Franklin wrote home, " The sun of Hberty is set: you must now Hght the torches of industr}^ and economy." But it was prophetically answered that torches of a very different kind would be lighted. 11, The Assembly of Virginia was in session when the news of the passage of the Stamp Act reached that colony, and though the members saw in it the subversion of their liberties, thev for a while remained silent. At length Patrick Henry brought forward a series of resolutions claiming for Virginians the privileges of British subjects, and denying the right of ParHament to tax them. A violent debate followed, but the resolutions were carried, and were 2^^^blished in every one of the colonies. This is the " way the fire began in Virginia," and Virginia led the continent. 12, In Massachusetts the Lieutenant-Governor, mistaking silence for submission, concluded there would be no trouble in enforcing the act; but the Assembly, when it met in June, at once began to review and discuss the treatment Vt'hich the colony had received from the parent country. Letters were written to all the colonies inviting them to send delegates to an American congress, to assemble at New York in October, and seek relief by united repre- sentation. 13, III New York the newspapers freely discussed the right of Parliament to tax America; they severely criti- cised the claims asserted by that body, and fearlessly declared that if the interests of the mother country re- (piired a sacrifice of the natural rights of the colonists, it would be better to sever the connection. 14, Bands of patriots, calling themselves " Sons of 132 The Revolution. Liberty," sprang up everywhere. Newspapers multiplied and every citizen discussed the right of Parliament to tax America. Popular resentment ran higher and higher, and finally broke out into riots. The stamj^-officers, becoming alarmed by the poj^ular hostility, resigned their offices, and when the time came for the Stamp Act to go into oj^era- tion not a single officer could be found to sell the j^aper. 15. Won-Iniporfatlon, — One of the most disinterested, as well as most effective, measures taken at this time was that of the merchants of the country, who leagued them- selves together to import no more goods from England until the Stamp Act should be repealed. 16. The Colonkil Congress of 1765. — In response to the invitation from Massachusetts, delegates from nine of the colonies met at New York in October. In their dis- cussions careful consideration was given to the distinction which British law makes between the inhabitants of con- quered or Crown colonies and those of discovered or settled colonies. The former could claim no rights except such as might have been conceded to them by the terms of surrender ; the latter were acknowledged to possess all the rights and privileges of English subjects. 17. Among the rights and privileges thus justly claimed by the colonists, and now invaded by the Stamp Act and kindred laws, were the following : No taxation without re- presentation ; the right of trial by a jury from the vicinity ; the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus ; freedom from a standing army in time of peace or the presence of any soldier in a house in time of war without the consent of its owner, except in a manner prescribed by law ; liberty of speech and of the press ; security against unreasonable searches and seizures ; the privilege of assembling for the consideration of their rights and grievances, and of framing, through their representatives, all local laws. The Revolution. 133 18, Besides these common rights of all English subjects, whether residing in Great Britain or in a discovered colony, the colonists claimed certain special privileges which had been guaranteed in the royal charters under which the colonies were planted. A statement of these rights was prejjared for circulation throughout the" colo- nies, and 23etitions were addressed to the king and Parlia- ment j^raying that they might be respected. 19, Repeal of the Stamp Act, — The regularly-ap- pointed officers having resigned, the royal governors were directed to take charge of the stamps, but in many cases they were forced either to destroy them or yield them to the people. Business was soon resumed, and no atten- tion whatever paid to the stamp duty. When the news of the temper with which the Americans had received the Stamp Act reached England, it produced great sur- prise in Parliament. Powerful speeches were made on both sides of the question. One party argued for a repeal of the act, on the ground that it was both unjust to the colonies and injurious to British trade ; another urged its enforcement as necessary to the dignity of the British nation. In March, 1766, Parliament, after having first l^assed a " declaratory act," claiming a right to " bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever," repealed the Stamj) Act — not because it was unjust, but because it was inexpedient. 20, The repeal produced a burst of gratitude tlirough- out America, and it would have been easy then for Great Britain to have secured the affections of her colonies, so that their independence would have been long deferred. The only points remaining at issue were the Acts of Trade, Avhich colonists asked to have so modified as to place less restraint upon industry ; the Quartering Act, passed soon after the Stamp Act, and requiring the colo- nies to furnish quarters for as many soldiers as should be 134 The Revolution. sent among them ; and the Skive Trade, which many of the colonists had begun to disapprove, though the Ameri- can legislatures were not suffered to impose any check upon it, because of the profits which the trade yielded to British commercial comjjanies. 21. New Taxes (oid Iinpositions. — Instead of listen- ing to the petitions from America, and acting toward her with justice and moderation. Parliament, in 1767, i)assed several acts calculated to rekindle the bitter feeling. One act, for the avowed purpose of raising a fund with which to support a standing army and pay the civil officers in the provinces, laid a duty on all glass, lead, paper, painters' colors, and tea brought to America. This law compelled the colonists not only to endure, but themselves to pay, the army quartered upon them, and rendered the gover- nors, judges, and other officers indej^endent of the people. It provided, moreover, for a Board of Revenue Conmiis- sioners to be established in Boston to enforce the duties, and also legalized the Writs of Assistance. The New York Assembly, having opposed the Quartering Act, was, as a punishment, forbidden the transaction of any legislative business. 22. Besistance by the Colonists.— The colonists soon perceived that instead of any favorable modification of the laws of trade, these were to be enforced with the strictest severity. The punishment of Ncav York was generally regarded as a threat by which the legislatures of the other colonies were to he held in check. The right of Parliament to impose external taxes, which had formerly been conceded, began now to be discussed, and from this it was an easy step to question whether that body had a right to govern the colonies at all. 23. Non-importation was resumed, and a strong though quiet system of resistance was inaugurated. The Massa- Tlie Revolution. 135 chusetts Asseml:)ly addressed the British ministry in 1768, fearlessly denouncing its course toward America as unjust. That body also issued a circular letter to the other colonies, })roposing committees of correspondence throughout the country and co-operation for the defence of colonial rights. Virginia accepted and approved the circular letter, and most of the colonies followed her example. Faneuil Hall. 24, Oppression hi 3Iass(ichusetts. — The king and Par- liament, angry at the address and circular letter of Massa- chusetts, demanded that the latter should be rescinded. At the same time the royal governor and the Board of Commissioners represented the condition of that colony as rebellious, and urged that troops sliould be sent thither to repress the rising spirit of revolt. The Assembly refused to rescind the letter, and was consequently dissolved. 25. Late in the year (1768) General Gage sent two regi- ments to Boston, and stationed a harbor-guard there. The people resolutely refused to quarter the troops, and Gage was compelled to hire lodgings for them. Parliament 136 The Revolution. ordered the leaders of the opposition in Massachusetts to be arrested and sent to England for trial, but none of these men could be apprehended. Virginia having denounced the measures against Massachusetts, her legislative assem- bly was likewise dissolved, and the same punishment was meted out to all the colonies which had in any way re- sisted the acts of Parliament. 26. The Boston 3Iassacre, — English troops continued to arrive in Boston, and as the inhabitants persisted in their refusal to furnish them with quarters, the soldiers occupied the Common, Faneuil Hall, and the State-House. The inhabitants were constanth^ irritated by their unwel- come i^resence, and the angry feeling was increased by the conduct of the troops. Petty quarrels were frequent, but the citizens carefully avoided the blame of beginning open hostilities. 27* In March, 1770, a serious affray took place in the streets between the soldiers and the i:>opulace, in which three of the latter were killed and eight wounded. The town was instantly aroused, drums were beaten, and crowds poured into the streets. The civil authorities suc- ceeded in quelling the tumult by arresting the soldiers who had fired upon the populace, and promising that jus- tice should be done. The next day the people held a mass-meeting, and demanded that the soldiers should be removed from the city ; to this demand the governor reluctantly yielded. 28. The citizens of Boston, notwithstanding their exas- peration, showed themselves as jealous to guard the justice and honor of their commonwealth as they were to pre- serve its liberties. In the trial of the soldiers who had fired upon the citizens the distinguished patriots John Adams and Josiah Quincy undertook their defence, and ihey were acquitted on the ground of the provocation given them by the populace. The Revolution. 137 29, Repeal of Duties, — Finding that the duties were not only a failure as a source of revenue, but worse than a failure in the injury inflicted upon British commerce and the resistance aroused in America, Parliament, in 1770, repealed all excepting a small tax on tea. This was re- tained as a guarantee of the rigid of taxation. The con- cession came much too late ; the peoj^le of America had already decided that they would not be taxed at all except by their own rc])resontatiYes. Burning of the Gaspee. 30, Burning of the Gaspee, — The British sloop of war Gaspee, which the Board of Commissioners had stationed in Narragansett Bay to prevent smuggling in that section, was an object of great aversion to the colonists on account of the insolence which her officers practised in the dis- charge of their functions. In 1' Providence packet, neglecting the formal salute demanded from all colonial 9 138 The Revolution. craft, was pursued by the Gaspee. In the eagerness of the chase the royal sloop ran aground upon a shoal which the small packet had safely crossed. The same night a party of patriots rowed down from Providence and set fire to the obnoxious vessel of the Commissioners. This daring act excited great indignation among the Crown officers in the colony. 31, Taxed Ted Sent to America. — The East India Company, which had been nearly ruined by the non-im- portation agreements, Avas now allowed to ship to America tea, upon which no duty was demanded of the ship- per, and only threepence per pound of the receivers at the American custom-houses. As this arrangement made tea actually cheajDcr in America than in England, it was hoped that in consideration of such an advantage so small a tax would be overlooked. Parliament had yet to learn that it was the principle of taxation, and not the amount of the tax, which was resisted. Ships laden with tea were sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston ; but the patriots determined that the custom-house tax upon these cargoes should never be collected. 32, The first tea-ship anchored in Boston (Nov. 17). The citizens demanded that the vessel should be sent back without unlading ; and the master would have complied, but Governor Hutchinson refused to give a permit, with- out which no vessel could pass the guns of the fort. As the ship was not allowed to depart, and the governor would have a right after thirty days to land the cargo by force, the patriots evaded the difficulty by throwing it overboard. On the night of the 16th of December, 1773, a party of citizens took possession of the ships, and in the presence of a large but orderly concourse of people broke open three hundred and forty chests of tea and emptied their contents into the harbor. From Philadelphia and New York the tea-ships were obliged to return without un- The Revolution. 139 lading. At Charleston there being no one to receive and pay the tax upon the tea, it was stored in damp cellars and spoiled. The Boston Tea-Party. 33. Punishment of 3Ias.sarhf(setfs. — When Parlia- ment assembled in 1774 it was resolved to make an example of Massachusetts, and severe measures were taken against her. The first of these measures was an act known as the Boston Port Bill, which shut up the harbor of that town and removed the seat of government to Salem ; a second act deprived the province of some of its most cherished civil rights by prohibiting town-meetings and taking away from the people the right of appointment to any office or position of importance in the colony ; while a third act decreed that any person charged with murder while enforcing the revenue laws or supporting a magistrate in putting down a riot might be taken to another colony, or even to England, for trial. The Quartering Act was revived, General Gage was appointed governor of Massachusetts, and additional troops were sent to that province. The people of Massachusetts felt, as might have been foreseen, greatly outraged by these acts of the English 140 TJie Revolution. Parliament. They issued a remonstrance, declaring that by the first of these decrees innocent citizens were robbed of their livelihood ; by the second, the chartered liberties of the province were annihilated ; and by the third, even the lives of the inhabitants might be taken wdth impunity. 34. The Colonies Combine for 3litfual Suiyport. — The Virginia Assembly passed a resolution that an attack upon one colony was an attack upon all, and in con- junction with several other colonies appointed the 1st of June, the day when the Port Bill was to go into operation, as a day of fasting and prayer. Liberal contributions were sent to the citizens of Boston who were suffering under the restrictions of the Port Bill. Salem and Marble- head, generously ignoring the advantages which would accrue to their commercial interests b}^ the closing of the port of Boston, were foremost in manifesting their detesta- tion of the Port Bill. 35, First Continental Congress, — On the 5th of Sep- tember, 1774, fifty -three delegates, rej^resenting all the colo- nies except Georgia, met at Philadelphia in the first Conti- nental Congress. The assembling of this Congress de- stroyed a strong belief which the British had held that the colonists would never unite cordially in any plan of defence. It emphatically reasserted the rights claimed by the Colonial Congress of 1765, and demanded the repeal of every statute by which those rights had been invaded. May of the following year was appointed for the meeting of a second congress unless colonial claims should be satis- factorily adjusted before that time. ,36, The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, — The Colonial Assemblies having been dissolved by the royal governors, convened as Provincial Congresses, and in that capacity continued to legislate for the people. The Pro- vincial Congress of Massachusetts, with John Hancock as The Revolution. 141 its president, met at Cambridge in 1774. A committee of safety was appointed, with power to muster the mihtia, a part of which was to be ready to march at a minute's Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia. The building in which the Continental Congress first met, in 1774. notice, hence the members were called minute-men. Com mittees of supply and safety were appointed, also general officers to command the mihtia. Thus, without a legal government, military supplies, or experienced leaders, Massachusetts prepared for war. 142 The Revolution. Events of 1775. 57. Battles of Lexhtgton and Concord, — The Provin- cial Congress adjourned on the loth of April. On the night of the 18th General Gage secretly sent 800 men to destroy American stores collected at Concord. Watchful patriots, suspecting his design, hastened to rouse the minute-men, who by early morning had assembled at Lexington to oppose the advance of the enemy. The British regulars under Major Pitcairn approached, and summoned them as rebels to disperse. The minute-men stood firm. Then the British opened fire upon them, and seven of their number fell. With a loud huzza, the British i)ushed on to Concord. 38, The minute-men of that village had not yet gathered in sufficient force to oppose them, and the British, un- molested, ransacked the place for ammunition. By noon, however, when they were ready to set out on their return, the militia had gathered from all the country round, and began firing upon the enemy from behind trees and fences. Overcome by fatigue and the unusual heat of the day, the British soldiers fled in disorder. Just beyond Lexington they met Lord Percy with 1200 men, who kept the patriots at bay with cannon while the fugitives rested. By this time the country was fully roused, and Percy dared not delay his homeward march. The militia never flagged, but pursued the enemy almost to Boston. Their loss for the day was only forty-nine killed and thirty-four wounded, whereas the British lost in all two hundred and seventy- three. 39. The Roushuj of the Country, — Up to this time war had not been seriously anticipated on either side of the Atlantic. The British did not believe that a scattered population, so unprepared for an appeal to arms, would The Revolution. 143 dare to make it. The colonists, who had onl}^ demanded equal rights, Avere loath to helieve that England would drive them to this extremity. Swift messengers carried the ncAvs of the l)attle of Lexington to every colony, and the inhahitants everywhere took up the watchword, " Liberty or Death." Boston was besieged in less than twenty-four hours by an army of American militia, and recruits continued to flock in from the neighboring towns and 2:)rovinces until the forces numbered 20,000 men. 40. The Conthiental Congress, — The second Conti- nental Congress met (May 10) in the face of this un- expected condition of affairs. Though desiring peace, that body could not ignore the facts that a state of war actually existed, that Gage's army was besieged in Boston by the New England militia, and that troops were hastening from the other colonies to the assistance of their New England comrades. Measures, therefore, were taken to raise and organize the Continental army, into which Avere adopted the troops already before Boston. Washington Avas appointed commander-in-chief, Artemas AA^ard, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler {skl'Ier), and Israel Putnam Avere commissioned major-generals, and Horatio Gates Avas made adjutant- general. Greene of Rhode Island, Sullivan of Ncav Hamp- shire, and Montgomery of Ncav York Avere made brigadier- generals. Congress also agreed to articles of Avar, and issued $2,000,000 in pajDer money. 41. Baffle of Butihev Hill. — Gage, reinforced to the number of 10,000 men, determined to occupy the j^enin- sula of CharlestoAvn, Avhich commanded Boston. To pre- vent his occupation of this point, the Americans, on the night of the 16th of June, sent Colonel Prescott Avith 1000 men to fortify Bunker Hill. The troops passed on to Breed's Hill, Avhich Avas better adapted to the end in view, and there Colonel Gridley, the same engineer Avho had planned 144 The Revolution. the works before Louisburg in 1745, marked out the ground for a redoubt. It was midnight before the first sod was broken, but every man worked with a will, and in the morn- ing the British were astonished to see the strong works that had sprung up in the night. The battery on Copp's Hill and the ships in the har- bor opened at once upon these entrench- ments, but the men, undisturbed by the firing, continued to strengthen the redoubt, and threw up another breastwork to the north tow^ard the water. 42. At noon Gage sent General Howe wdth 2500 men to dislodge the Continental forces. He advanced, but at a distance of 150 yards received a volley from the Americans, which sent his troops in confusion to the foot of the hill. Again they advanced, and again fell back under the fire. A third time they pressed forward, now with reinforcements, and under cover of the smoke from Charlestown, which Gage had ordered to be set on fire. The British troops attacked on three sides, planting their cannon so as to rake the breastwork from end to end, and the men poured into the redoubt before the Americans wavered. Having used up their ammunition, the patriots retreated across the peninsula, fighting their way with clubbed muskets. Of their number, 145 were killed, among them the brave General Warren. The devolution. 145 43. Though they lost the field, this was in effect a victory for the Americans. Gage, who had lost 1000 men, admitted that the foe was not a " rabble " to be easily and quickly subdued; patriots throughout the land were cheered and strengthened for the cause, and wavering spirits were confirmed. 44. Washiitf/fon takes Command. — Washington ar- rived and took conmiand about a fortniglit after the battle of Bunker Hill. He found the army lacking almost everything in the way of supplies, and the men were fast returning to their homes. A reform was at once set on foot, but it was a task of great difficulty to organize and equip an army when food, clothing, shelter, and pay were difficult to procure, and powder too scarce to be used except upon great emergencies. But even while contend- ing against such formidable difficulties Washington man- oeuvred his army with admirable skill, and kept the British shut up in Boston all winter. 45. War in the South. — The Southern colonies shared the patriotism of the North. The royal governors, after trying in vain to subdue the spirit of insurrection, abandoned their governments, whereupon the people organized provincial congresses and governed themselves. Governor Dunmore of Virginia, fearing the people whom he had exasperated by acts of tyranny, abdicated his gov- ernment and fled to a ship of war. Later he ravaged the coasts of Virginia, and on the 1st of January, 1776, burned Norfolk, then the largest city in that province. 46. Ca2)ture of Ticondej'oga and Crotvn Point. — These posts commanded the natural highway between Canada and the lower provinces, and the importance of their possession to hold in check any invasion from Canada was fully recognized. On the 10th of May a de- tachment of New England soldiers, chiefly " Green Moun- 146 The Revolution. tain boys," under Ethan Allen, captured Ticonderoga, and soon after Crown Point. Besides securing these important posts, Allen's troops obtained a large quantity of arms and ammunition, which were especially valuable to the patriots. It was now deemed advisable to invade Canada, in order to prevent the enemy from making that province a base for operations against the patriots. General Schuyler was in command of the Northern department, but owing to the feeble health of this officer the projected invasion was entrusted to General Montgomery, wdio had served with Wolfe at Louisburg and Quebec in the late French war. 47* Capture of St. Johns and Montreal. — This gene- ral ascended Lake Champlain, and in September laid siege to St. Johns, which surrendered early in October. Ethan Allen had, in the mean time, attempted the capture of Montreal. The expedition proved unfortunate, Allen and all his men being taken prisoners. But after the fall of St. Johns the capital of Upper Canada fell an easy prey into the hands of Montgomery. 48. Ex2)edition against Quebec. — In September, Wash- ington sent Arnold with 1100 men to Quebec by way of the Kennebec and Chaudiere Rivers. He was to co-ope- rate with Montgomery in an attack upon that stronghold. After suffering extreme toil and privations in the long march through the wilderness of Maine, Arnold's force appeared on the south side of the St. Lawrence, opposite Quebec. On the 14th of November he gained the Plains of Abraham by Wolfe's path, but being too weak to storm the city, l:>roke up his camp and retreated twenty miles up the river, awaiting the arrival of Montgomery. 49. When that general appeared it was found that the united forces of the Americans did not exceed 1000 men ; with this slender army it was proposed to attack the strongest fortress in America. The plan of operation was The Revolution. 14' twofold. Colonel Livingston was to threaten the northern portion of Quebec, known as the Upper Town, while Mont- gomery and Arnold should surprise the lower town by simultaneous assaults on opposite sides. On the night of the 30th of December, while a heavy snow was falling and a keen wind ])iling it in drifts, the divisions advanced. Montgomery was killed at the first l)arrier, and his men fled. Arnold entered the town, but was there wounded and forced to retire, leaving the connnand to Colonel Mor- gan, who, with a part of his men, carried the first and second lines of defence by desperate fighting; but at the third barrier was surrounded and captured. 50* Arnold, with the shattered renmant of his army, retreated three miles up the river, and through the winter, notwithstanding their sufferings from the rigorous climate, against which they were but scantily protected, he and his men kept up the blockade of Quebec. 51. The Hessians. — Late in this year King George hired troops from some of the German princes for the war in America. These princes, without regarding the lives or rights of their subjects, sold their services wherever they could find a market for them. To reconcile the un- willing conscripts to their hard fjite, promises of plunder were freely held out to them. Many thousand Germans were sent to America during the war ; they were all called Hessians from the state of Hesse Cassel, which supplied the greater number. Events of 1776. 52. Evacuation of Canada. — The Hessians beginning to arrive in great numbers, compelled the abandonment of operations against Quel^ec, and in May the Americans retreated to Crown Point, leaving Canada in the hands of the British. 148 The Revolution. 53, Evacuation of Boston, — In a letter to Congress under date of February 18, Washington describes in few words the difficulties he had to contend with during the winter of 1775-76. " To have," he writes, " the eyes of the whole continent fixed with anxious expectation of hearing of some great event, and to be restrained in every military operation for the want of the necessary means for carrying it on, is not very pleasing, especially as the means used to conceal my weakness from the enemy conceal it also from our friends, and add to their w^onder." Notwith- standing these hinderances and discouragements the com- manding general kept the British besieged in Boston, and in March erected his batteries upon Dorchester Heights to open fire upon the town. So silently and quickly were these works thrown up that the British commander, Gen- eral Howe, wlio had superseded Gage, was entirely taken by surprise. " The rebels have done more in one night," he exclaimed, " than my whole army would have done in a month ;" and confessing liimself out-generalled b}^ a man whose resources w^ere few, and whose military skill he had despised, he prepared to evacuate Boston. On the 17th of March, with his army and a large following of Tory refugees, Howe marched out of the town and embarked for Halifiix. 54. Expedition against Charleston. — Early in the year rumors w^ere afloat that the British general Clinton was to be sent on some secret expedition. Washington, fearing New York to be the important point threatened, despatched General Lee to collect trooi)S in Connecti- cut and march to the protection of that city. Lee entered New York two days before Clinton reached Sandy Hook, but the destination of the latter was Charleston, and from New York he sailed to the Cape Fear River, there to wait both for the Tory reinforcements which Governor Martin of North Carolina had promised to raise, and for Sir Peter The Revolution. 149 Parker, who was expected with a fleet from England. The body of Tories having been broken up by the patriots and the fleet delayed, Clinton did not appear before Charles- ton until June. 55, In the mean time the patriots had been throwing up defences, the most important of which was a fort on Sullivan's Island, com manded by Colonel Moultrie. On the 28th of June the British be- gan a heavy cannonade upon this fort, and kept it up for ten hours ; l)ut the balls, being received into the spongy palmet- to logs of which the fort was built, did little dam- age. Moultrie returned the fire with terrible eff'ect. Two of the Brit- ish ships ran aground on the sand-bar in the liarbor, and several others were disabled. Clinton at last gave up the attemj^t to capture Charleston, and sailed for. New York. 5(i. Declavdtion of Independence. — For many months the minds of the colonists had been drawn to the thought of a separation from Great Britain. Up to the year 1776, America, knowing the fearful struggle it would involve, and moved still by a sentiment of attachment to the mother- country, had hesitated to take this momentous step. But now the English Parliament had denounced the colonists as rebels and had sent forth armies to subjugate them. The last tie was severed, and on the 7th of June, Richard •^7 xrt^ VICINITY OF CHARLESTON Scale of Miles 150 The Revolutioii. Henry Lee of Virginia offered in Congress the following resolution : " That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." This resolution was debated until the 2d of July, when it was passed. 57, In the mean time a committee, of which Thomas Jefferson was chairman, had been instructed to prepare a draft of a Declaration of Independence, which was signed and given to the world on the 4th of July. By this act the people passed from subjects of King George to citizens of a republic, and the country from several British colonies to one independent nation. Benjamin Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane were sent as agents to France, where they received private aid for their country, although the French government was not yet prepared to acknowledge them publicly. 58, New York Fortified. — The occupation of New York was desired by the British both because of its cen- tral position and convenient harbor for the landing of supi^lies and troops, and also because the possession of the Hudson River would give easy communication witli Canada and cut off Ncav England from the ^liddle States. Lee and Lord Stirling, acting under the orders of Wash- ington, began the erection of defensive Avorks on Long Island, and in April, having secured Boston, the com- mander-in-chief hastened to New York. He established a camp at Brooklyn, obstructed the Nortli and East Rivers, built Forts Washington and Lee, arid strengthened the defences of the city at every point. His army numbered about 17,000, but it was not well i)rovided, and many of the men were unfit for service. The Revolution. 151 59, Arrival of the British. — On the 1st of July the long-expected British fleet iippeared off Sandy Hook. Admiral Lord Howe soon after arrived at Staten Island, as did also Clinton's force from Charleston, the army number- ing in all 30,000 men. General Howe and his brother, the admiral, were commissioned by the British Parliament to treat for peace. Before opening hostilities they endeavored to effect the object of their commission, but as the terms offered guaranteed none of the rights for wdnch the people of America had risen in arms, they were rejected. 60, The Battle of Long Island. — The Americans had thrown up entrenchments on Long Island from Wallabout Bay to Gowanus, and in front of these was a line of wooded hills. Three roads led to Brooklyn — one, east of the hills, by the way of Jamaica ; another, through the hills, by way of Flatbush ; and a third, on the west, between the hills and the shore. On the 22d of August the British 152 The Revolution. landed at Gravcsend Bay, but only skirmishing took place until the 27th, when their nunil)er amounted to 20,000. On that morning they advanced on the Americans in three divisions l)y the three roads. 61. General Clinton made the detour by the Jamaica road, which had not been properly guarded, while Gencnil de Heister (hls-ter) advanced by Flatbush, and General Grant by the shore road. Sulhvan marched out to check De Heister, and Lord Stirling met General Grant, but neither of these British generals designed to do more tlian divert attention from Clinton's column, which by the Jamaica road was rapidly advancing upon the American left and rear. A\^hen this was accom2)lished the Americans found themselves furiously assaulted and their retreat cut off. A part of Sullivan's men cut their way back to the lines, and a few of Stirling's reached the camp, but both the generals Avere taken prisoners, and over 2000 Americans were killed or cai)tured. Washington waited in New York until sure that no attack would l)e made on the cit)", and then hastened to Brooklyn, but only in time to witness the disastrous defeat of liis brave troops. 62, Had the British followed up their advantage and attacked the American cam}), the whole army must have fallen into their hands ; but Howe delayed. The two days following heavy rains and fog i)revented an engagement, and on the night of the 29th, Washington, fearing that the British ships would come up the East River and prevent a retreat, crossed with all his troops to New York. So quietly was this movement effected that the British were astonished in the morning to find the camp on Long Island deserted. 6%^. TIte Befreaf to Xorfh Castle. — After the l)attle of Brooklyn it was decided in a council of Avar to evacuate The Revolution. 153 NEW YORK AND LOWER HUDSON Scale New York. The Americans rcDioved first to Harlem Heights, where they had a slight and successful skir- mish with the British forces, and subsequently to White Plains in West Chester County. No force was left on the island excepting a garrison of three thousand at Fort Washington, which, with the garrison at Fort Lee on the opposite side of the river, would, it was hoped, prevent the British from ascending the Hudson. 64:. The Continental army first encamped at White Plains, behind the river Bronx. Here a severe but indecisive battle was fought (October 28). While Howe was waiting, first for rein- forcements and then for favor- able weather, to resume the attack, Washington withdrew his army two miles back to a strong position on the hills at North Castle, whither the Brit- ish general did not venture to follow him. 65. Not knowing at what point Howe meditated his next attack, Washington secured his defences on all sides. Lee was left at North. Castle with a suffi- cient force to hold the east side of the Hudson ; the fortifica- tions of the Highlands were greatly strengthened to prevent the enemy from advancing l)e- yond them ; and a part of the New Jersey. army was sent to defend 154 The Revolution. 66, Loss of Forts Washington and Lee, — On the 16th of November Fort Washington was attacked, and after a day of hard fighting was surrendered with a loss of 149 killed and 2600 prisoners. On the 20th the British crossed to Fort Lee ; the garrison escaped capture, but a large amount of American stores, tents, arms, and equip- ments fell into the enemy's hands. 67* The Betreat across New Jersey, — Convinced that Howe meant to occupy New Jersey, Washington repaired thither, and sent word to Lee to join him with his forces. The situation of the Americans was at this juncture gloomy in the extreme. The army was too feeble to risk an encounter with Howe, and for three weeks re- treated before him, the rear-guard left to pull down bridges being within sight of the British pioneers sent to build them up. At length, on the 8th of December, Washington and his army reached Pennsylvania opposite Trenton, and the Delaware River flowed between the pur- suers and the pursued. All the cannon and stores Avere brought off safely, and the boats on the river secured, so that the British under Cornwallis, who had entered Trenton just as the last Anierican boat had reached the Pennsyl- vania shore, could not cross for an attack. 68, Battle of Trenton, — Believing the spirit and strength of the patriots to have been broken by their recent reverses, Cornwallis returned to New York, leav- ing Colonel Donop at Burlington and Colonel Rahl at Trenton, with bodies of Hessian soldiery sufficient, it was thought, to repel any movement which the feeble forces of Washington might attempt. On the 20th the commander- in-chief was joined by the divisions of Gates and Sullivan, whereby his force was increased to 6000 men. With these he determined to attack the Hessians. 69, Christmas night, which had been fixed upon for the The Revolutio7i. 155 execution of the movement, was intensely cold, and the river was full of drifting ice. Washington's division, after struggling all night in the current, gained the Jersey shore at daybreak and began its march in a blinding storm of snow and hail ; many of the men were poorly clad, and could be tracked by the print of their bleeding feet in the snow. Advancing in two colunms, led by Washington and Sullivan, they entered Trenton on opposite sides of the town. The Hessians, taken completely by surprise, made but little resistance. Washington recrossed the Delaware the same day, having taken 1000 prisoners and six can- non, with a loss to his army of only four men, two of whom had been frozen to death. 70. Howe, astonished at the daring attack upon Trenton, immediately sent Cornwallis back with reinforcements to the Hessians, who had left their outposts and gathered in alarm at Princeton. On the 80th, Washington recrossed the Delaware and took post at Trenton. Events of 1777. 71. British Plan for the Campaign, — An important object with the British was to seize the Hudson River, and thus cut off the communication between New England and the Middle and Southern States. To this end an invasion of the United States from the north was planned, to be conducted by General Burgoyne. This general was to penetrate the country by way of Lake Champlain and tlie Hudson River, and join Howe's army in New York. At the same time a body of Tories and Indians was to approach by way of Lake Ontario and the Oswego River, capture Fort Stanwix (afterward called Fort Schuyler), which con- trolled the carrying-place between the Oswego and IMoliawk Rivers, advance down the Moliawk, and so divert the pa- triots in that vicinity from opposing Burgoyne. 72. Howe was directed to liold New York, to send a 156 The Revolution. force up the Hudson to co-operate with Burgoyne, and to further subdue the Middle States by taking Philadelphia. Burgoyne's Invasion. 73. Loss of the Forts on Lake Chaniplaln. — In July, Burgoyne with an army of 6000, besides his savage allies, moved up Lake Champlain. St. Clair, who was in com- mand at Ticonderoga, aware that he could not resist such a force, evacuated the fort. His stores, the sick, and some of the troops, were sent up the lake to Whitehall, while he with the remainder followed by land. 74. Condition of Schuyler's Army. — St. Clair, after a hard march and a disastrous engagement with the British at Hubbardton (July 7), joined the forces at Fort Edward. The entire Northern army did not at this time number 5000 men, and these were poorly supplied with arms. General Schuyler could do no more than retreat before Burgoyne, obstructing the roads so as to make the pursuit as difficult as possible. The British general having swept Lake Champlain, and compelled successively the aban- donment of Ticonderoga, Fort Ann, and Fort Edward, advanced slowly down the valley of the Hudson. During this advance Burgoyne's Indian allies committed many shocking atrocities. Schuyler fell back first to Saratoga, then to Stillwater, and finally took post on the islands at the mouth of the Mohawk. 75. St. Leger's JEx2}edltion. — In August, St. Leger, ac- companied hj Sir John Johnson with his Tories and Joseph Brant with his Indians, besieged Fort Schuyler. General Arnold, with a small force detached from Schuyler's army, was sent to the relief of the beleaguered garrison. Upon hearing of his approach, the savage allies of St. Leger began to desert; soon the panic spread, and the entire army of the besiegers fled in terror toward Oswego. The Revolution. 157 70, Battle of Bennington. — Burgoyne's advance had been so much dehiyed that by the time he reached Fort Edward his supplies had begun to fail, and it became a first necessity to replenish them. With this object, he sent Colonel Baum with a 1 )ody of Hessians into Vermont to seize horses and cattle, and also stores of provisions which the Americans had collected at Bennington. Tlie Hessians were met (Aug. 16) Ijy the Ver- mont militia under Colonels Stark and Warner, and repulsed with a loss of 600 in prisoners and 1000 stand of arms. 77. Schuyler Superseded by Gates. — Three days after the battle of Bennnigton, Con- gress took the command of the Northern army from General Schuyler and conferred it upon General Gates. 78. First Battle of Sara- toga^ or Battle of Bemis^s Heigh ts. — Burgoyne's position was fast becoming dangerous. His Indian allies were desert- ing him, the distant posts on Lakes George and Champlain had now become his only base of supplies, and his force was diminishing by capture, desertion, and sickness. The patriot army in the mean time was daily growing stronger. 75>. In September, Gates moved up to Bemis's Heights. 158 The Revolution. Soon after Burgoyne crossed the Hudson at Fort Edward, and advanced to confront Gates. On the 19th of the month a hattle was fought in front of the American camp. The conflict raged from three p. m. until dark, and the field was many times lost and won. When the day closed the British held the battle-ground, but they had lost 600 men, iind had not advanced. The Americans had lost only half llie number, and maintained their position. 80. Second Battle of Saratoga, or Battle of Still- tvater, — The situation of Burgoyne was now desi)erate. He had few provisions, was encumbered with sick and wounded, and the posts on Lakes George and Champlain having been retaken by the Americans, his communication with Canada was severed, and on the 7th of October the second battle of Saratoga took 2)lace. It was a hard -fought engagement, but ended in the defeat of the British. Find- ing his retreat to Fort Edward cut off, and despairing of the hoped-for succors from Clinton's forces on the Hud- son, Burgoyne, with his entire arm}^, surrendered to Gates on the 17th of October. Burgoyne's surrender was an event of infinite service to the American cause, and spread joy throughout the land. SI. Clhifon^s Passage np the Hudson. — Clinton had performed the part assigned to him in the campaign by capturing the forts on the Hudson and removing the obstructions in that river, but his victories came too late lor the rescue of Burgoyne. Having destroyed a great deal of proj^erty along the river and burned Kingston, he returned to New York. Washington's Army. 82. Battle of Princeton. — At the close of 1776, Wash- ington was in possession of Trenton. Learning of Corn- wallis's approach, he took a position on the south side of the Assanpink Creek, which flows into the Delaware at The Revolution. 159 this place. On the 2d of January the British appeared on the opposite side of the creek, but were prevented from crossing it. At night the British general liglited his camp- fires and waited for the morning, assuring himself that wlien it came the Americans would fall an easy prey into his hands. 83. Washington, not being in force sufficient to risk an engagement, determined to give way, but he designed also that his retreat should include a victory. Leaving his camp-fires burning to deceive the enemy, he quietly with- drew, and marched by a circuitous route to Princeton, where a brigade of the British army had been left. Of the three regiments stationed there, two had started to reinforce Cornwallis ; they were met by the advance of the Continen- tal army under Generals Mercer and St. Clair, and a sharp conflict ensued. The British w^ere routed, and hastened to join Cornwallis, but the Americans lost the brave Gen- eral Mercer. The remaining regiment was captured in Princeton. # 84. Cornwallis was mortified when he found in the morning the American camp deserted, and learned from the distant booming of cannon that his enemy had stolen a march upon him. On leaving Princeton, the first design of the Americans had been to press on to New Brunswick and capture the stores which the British had collected there ; but as Cornwallis was in pursuit, this plan Avas abandoned, and, changing the direction of their march, they advanced toward Morristown, where Washington soon after took up his winter quarters. 85. Baiding Expeditious. — Howe did not enter upon the regular campaign of 1777 very early in the year, and during the winter and spring, with the exception of a few predatory expeditions, little was undertaken by either army. One of these raids, conducted by the British under 160 The Revolution. General Try on, laid the town of Danbury, Connecticut, in ashes. Another, under the American colonel Meigs, sur- prised the British stores at Sag Harbor on Long Island. Meigs destroyed the stores, captured ninety prisoners, burned twelve vessels, and escaped without the loss of a man. 86, Another daring feat on the part of the 'patriots was the capture of General Prescott at Newport. This officer was carelessly quartered at a distance from his main army and from the town. On the night of the 10th of July Colonel Barton crossed Narragansett Bay from the main- land, took the British general from his bed, and carried him to the American lines without so much as even alarm- ing the sentinels. 87 » Hoive^s Movements. — To protect Philadelphia, the river below that city was obstructed in order to prevent the ascent of the British fleet, and the army of Washing- ton was stationed to dispute Howe's advance through New Jersey. In May the British general crossed over from New York, and endeavored to draw Washington from his strong position at ^lorristown, but was foiled in the attempt. Not disposed to risk a march through New Jersey with the enemy in his rear, Howe returned to New York and embarked for the Chesapeake on board the fleet of his brother. Admiral Howe, designing to approach Philadelphia from the south. On the 25th of August his army landed at Elkton and began its march toward that city. 88. Battle of the Brandyivine. — Washington, not knowing whether Howe would move up the Hudson River to the assistance of Burgoyne, or threaten Philadelphia, was obliged to watch vigilantly in l)oth directions. When assured that the British fleet had put to sea, he marched his army to Philadelphia, and advancing from that city Tlie Revolution. 161 took up his position on Brandywine C'rcek. Tlic main body of the Americans was posted at Chad's Ford, at which point the direct road to Phihulelpliia crossed the stream, and where, it was hoped, the British advance could be successfully checked. Sullivan, with a small force, was stationed farther up the stream, with orders to guard against any approach by other roads. S9. On the 11th of September, Howe sent General Knyphausen (nip-hoiv'zen) to make a feint at Chad's Ford, while Cornwallis, by a circuitous route, should cross seve- ral miles farther up the stream. This latter force gain- ed the opposite bank without resistance. As soon as the distant firing assured Knyphausen that Cornwallis had engaged the American right, he crossed the stream and attacked the centre and left. Sullivan's force being de- feated by Cornwallis, and forced back in disorder upon the main army, added much to tlie confusion of the Amer- 162 The Revolution. icans, Between the two advancing columns of the enemy Washington was defeated with heavy loss, and forced to retreat toward Philadelphia. It was in this battle that the young and brave Marquis de Lafayette first drew his sword in the American cause. .90. Further Attempts to Defend Philadelphia, — Aftc a few skirmishes and ineffectual attempts to check the enemy, Washington withdrew to Pott's Grove, and Howe, on the 26th of September, took possession of Philadelphia. Congress had already removed to Lancaster, and subse- quently retired beyond the Suscjuehanna to York. 91, In the hope that Philadelphia might yet be re- covered, Washington, on the 4th of October, attacked the main body of the British, which was stationed at German- town. At the first onset the enemy's forces gave way, but making a stand in a strong building known as the Chew House, they were able to repel every attempt to dislodge them. Reinforcements being sent out by Howe, and the Americans becoming confused in the heavy fog which pre- vailed, the battle, which began auspiciously for the patriots, ended in their disastrous defeat. 92, Washington's plan now was to blockade Howe, if possible, by keeping up the obstructions in the Delaware, and thus cutting off his only safe communication with New York. The principal defences of the river were two forts, Mercer at Red Bank on the Jersey shore, and Mifflin on an island nearl}^ opposite. 93, Opening of the Delaware, — October 22, Howe sent a body of Hessians under Colonel Donop to assault Fort Mercer, while an attack by water should be made on Mifflin. The little garrison at Red Bank bravely defended its works, and repulsed the enemy with the loss of his leader, Count Donop. Fort Mifflin sustained a siege of six days, making a brave and desperate defence. On the The Revolution. 163 night of the 16th of November no hope remained of longer holding the fort ; the garrison burned the barracks and escaped to Fort Mercer. That, too, -This was one of the The Army at Vaiify Foroe. was soon evacnated, and the British general left free to bring his supplies up the Delaware. 94. Whiter of 1777 and '78.- most trying periods of the war. The American army, in huts at Valley Forge, suffered severely for food and clothing. At the same time a cabal against the chief was formed by a few members of Congress and officers of the army. The defeats which he had suffered were contrasted with the brilliant successes of Gates in the North, and efforts were made to raise the latter to the chief command. Washington, however, had too firm a hold on the affections of the army and of the people to be easily shaken. Time has shown how largely the suc- cesses at the North were due to his plans, and the defeats of his own army to causes beyond his control. 164 The devolution. Events of 1778. 95, British Cominissioners. — The news of Burgoyne'a surrender awakened in the mind of the British govern- ment grave doubts regarding the subjugation of the col- onies. The fact was urged in Parliament that notwith- standing the vast expenditure in men and money, England only held in America the towns of Newport, New York, and Philadelphia, and that each of these places required an army to retain it in possession. . 96, When, therefore, Parliament learned that early in 1778 France had acknowledged the independence of the United States, and had concluded a treaty of peace and defensive alliance with her, a board of commissioners w^as forthwith sent over to treat on the most liberal terms for the restoration of British authority. The answer which the commissioners received was prompt and explicit, to the effect that no terms short of the complete independ- ence of the United States would now be entertained. 97, Evacuation of Philadelphia, — In the spring of this year Howe was superseded by Clinton, who evacuated Philadelphia in order to avoid an apprehended blockade by a French fleet which had been sent over to the assist- ance of the Americans. 98, In the retreat across New Jersey, Clinton was pur- sued by the Continentals, and overtaken at Monmouth (June 28). Washington ordered Lee to attack the enemy, but coming up soon afterward found Lee's forces in full retreat. Reprimanding that general and inspiring the sol- diers with fresh courage, Washington renewed the battle, which lasted the remainder of that day. When night closed upon the scene, Clinton, taking advantage of the darkness, escaped to New York. 99, Massacres of Wyoming and Cherry Valley, — In The Revolution. 165 the summer of this year British intrigues with Tories and Indians bore bitter fruit. The inhabitants of Wyoming, having sent two companies of soldiers to the Continental army, were themselves left almost defenceless. In July a body of Tories and Indians, under Colonels John Johnson and John Butler, fell upon the settlement and massacred many of the inhabitants. Those who escaped fled to the woods and mountains, where numbers perished. In November, Cherry Valley suffered a similar fate. 100. Attempt to Becovev Newport. — The British had given up Philadelphia, and New York was protected from attack by the inability of the heavy French ships to enter the harbor. D'Estaing (des-tang'), the French commander, therefore sailed for Newport to co-operate with an army under General Sullivan for the recovery of that town. Owing to delays and other unfortunate circumstances this expedition proved unsuccessful, and late in the year D'Estaing sailed for the West Indies. 101. WasJtiugton^s Army. — The main object of Wash- ington during this year had been to confine the British forces to the seaboard. The winter quarters of the Con- tinental army extended from Danbury, Connecticut, by way of West Point, to Elizabethtown, New Jersey, thus encircling Clinton's army in New York. The head- quarters were at Middlebrook. 102. Expedition to Illinois. — During this year Colonel Clark of the Kentucky settlement led a company of back- woodsmen to the North-west, and took possession of the Illinois settlements for the United States. The next year his men waded across the drowned lands of the Wabash, and captured some of the British agents by whom the Indians had been incited to hostilities. These expeditions formed the main ground for our claim to the Mississippi Kiver as our western boundary in 1783. 10 16.6 The Revolution. Events of 1779. 103. The War hi the South, — After the evacuation of Philadelphia the prospect of the conquest of the North became so hopeless that the plan of the enemy's campaign looked chiefly to the severing and subjugation of the Southern States, where the means of resistance were less powerful. Late in 1778, Clinton had sent an army to operate against Georgia. Savannah had been taken, then Sunbury and Augusta, and in fact, at the opening of 1779, this province was in the hands of the British. 104. Attack on Charleston. — In May, General Prevost appeared in Carolina and threatened Charleston. The American general Lincoln, who was on his march for the recovery of Augusta when this news reached him, quick- ly retraced his steps, and his approach saved the city. Prevost fell back to Savannah. Extreme heat prevent- ed the active operations of armies at the South dur- ing the summer. Nothing further was attempted until the autumn. 105. Lmcoln's Attack on Savannah. — In September, Count D'Estaing appeared with his fleet, and prepared, with the co-operation of an army under Lincoln, to attack Savannah. On the 16th of the month the allied forces approached the city and demanded its surrender. The Brit- ish general parleyed until his defences were strengthened, and then refused to capitulate. Nothing now remained for the French and Americans but to take the city by siege. The next seventeen days were spent in digging' trenches, raising gun-batteries, and approaching nearer and nearer to the British works. 106. Count D'Estaing, fearful of autumn storms which might imperil the safety of his fleet, notified General lin- coln that they must either take the place by assault or The Revolution. m abandon the attempt. The assault was resolved, and on the morning of the 9th of October the combined armies entered Savannah. For five hours the battle raged within the town. At length the allies were driven back and com- pelled to retreat, leaving among the dead the brave Polish count Pulaski, Sergeant Jasper, and many other valuable officers and men. The close of the year saw Georgia still in the hands of the British. A British Prison-Ship. 107. Condition at the North, — The material condition of the Continental army rendered ofiensive operations on the part of Washington extremely hazardous. Congress had no means of raising a revenue. The public debt was steadily augmenting, and the paper money as steadily depreciating in value. The pay of the soldiers was in arrears, and they had a very insufficient supply of food and clothing. Death and disease had reduced the army, and thousands of its brave men languished in British prison-sliips and jails. Patriotism alone kept the troops from disl)anding. With such a force the commander-in- chief could do little more than hold the enemy in check. 168 The Revolution. 108, British Eacpedifions, — Sir Henry Clinton, closely confined to New York and its vicinity, contented himself with raids and the plunder of unprotected places on the sea-coast. Tliese raids were especially ruthless after the failure of the peace negotiations in the previous year, British feeling having become additionally embittered, and greater cruelty and license being permitted to the troops. 109, Up the Hudson. — On the side of the British there was an expedition against Verplanck's and Stony Points, which, by the capture of these important posts, secured to the enemy King's Ferry, commanding the road between the Middle and New England States. 110, To the Connecticut Coast. — In July a marauding force under General Tryon burned and plundered New Haven, Fairfield, Norwalk, and other towns and villages on the Connecticut coast. In October the British aban- doned Rhode Island, and little now remained to them at the North excepting New York. 111, American Expeditions, — The most important enterprises of the Americans were the recovery of Stony Point and an expedition against the Indians in Central New York. 112, Stony FoiM Retaken.— On the night of the 16th of July, General Wayne performed one of the most brilliant exploits of the war in the surprise and capture of Stony Point and five hundred prisoners, with a loss to himself of only fifteen men. 113, Sullivan^ s Chastisement of the Indians. — In the har- vest months of July and August, General Sullivan entered the valley of the Genesee, and, laying waste their grain- fields, orchards, and villages, inflicted a severe chastisement upon the Indians who had committed the atrocities of Wyoming and Cherry Valley. The Revolution. 169 Events of 1780. War in the South. 114. No sooner had Sir Henry Clinton lieard of the departure of the French fleet after the unsuccessful ope- rations against Savannah, than, leaving Knyphausen in command at New York, he himself repaired to the South. 115. Loss of Chdi'leston, — The British fleet entered the harbor of Charleston with very little resistance from the forts which had formerly defended it, and laid siege to the city. Lincoln having refused the summons to sur- render, Clinton opened a terrible cannonade upon the town. On the 12th of ]\lay, defence being hopeless, Charleston ca23itulated. By the terms of the surrender the Conti- nental troops became prisoners of war, and the militia, together with all the citizens, were paroled. 116. British Expeditions to Subdue the Country, — The British now held on the seaboard Savannah, Beaufort, and Charleston. Toward the western frontier they had secured three strong and important posts — Augusta, on the river diagonally north-west from Savannah ; Fort Ninety- Six, in the same relative position from Charleston ; and Camden, in the more northern part of the State, near the frontier of North Carolina. Between the coast and this interior line of defence were posted garrisons of more or less strength to maintain the connection between them. South Carolina was thus strongly held by the British. 117. Cornwallis in the South, — After the capture of Charleston, Clinton returned to New York, leaving Corn- wallis in command. The plan of this general embraced not only the complete subjugation of South Carolina and Georgia, but also the extension of British conquests from Florida to the Chesapeake. Beginning from Canada, the storm of war had swept over the land as far south as 170 The Revolution. Philadelphia. At that jDoint it had been stayed in the Northern States. Prevost, starting from Florida, had, with succeeding generals, subjugated the Southern provinces to the frontiers of North Carolina. Cornwallis, regarding Virginia as the key of the position, now prepared to march northward. His hope was by a successful progress to Chesapeake Bay, and a strong position there, to restore all America south of that line to the dominion of Great Britain. 118» Second Continental Army at the South. — The general appointed to the chief command in the South after the capture of Lincoln was Horatio Gates, the fortunate '' conqueror of Burgoyne." He carried thither a Conti- nental army raised principally through the exertions of Baron de Kalb, a brave officer who had come over with Lafsiyette to lend liis aid to the American cause. This army was augmented by forces of the Southern militia. 119, First Battle of Camden, — Gates, approaching from the north, entered South Carolina in the direct route for Camden, at wliicli place Cornwallis had concentrated a large force. On the morning of the 16th of August. Gates unexpectedly met the advance of CornAvallis's army at Sander's Creek, near Camden. In the battle which fol- lowed, the militia, constituting two-thirds of Gates's army, fled, and Gates himself fell back to Charlotte, in North Carolina. The troops under De Kalb made a brave resist- ance, but were at last overpowered and their leader slain. Thus, for the second time within the year, had a Conti- nental army been destroyed, and the hopes of the Southern patriots almost crushed. Cornwallis treated the subju- gated people with extreme cruelty. 120, The Battle of Kinffs Mountain. — The partisan corps under such brave and daring leaders as Marion, Sumtex, and Pickens bv occasional successes alone showed The Revohition. 171 that the Southern spirit was not subdued. They rose with fresh courage after every disaster, and now at this dark hour succeeded in striking a blow which brought back CornwalUs from his expedition to Virginia. When that general started on his northward march, he left Major Ferguson, a Tory partisan, with orders to scour the west- ern counties of Carolina, recruit a loyalist force, and join him at Charlotte. 121, A party of backwoodsmen, many of them from Kentucky, all hard riders and sharp shooters, and fight- ing in their own fashion, started in pursuit of Ferguson. They overtook him at King's Mountain, where he had fancied himself secure ; but his men were no match for tliese daring hunters,*and were forced to surrender, with a loss of eleven hundred in killed, wounded, and prisoners (Oct. 7). 122, Cornwallis, disconcerted by such an uprising in a country which he had believed to be thoroughly sub- dued, hastened back to South Carolina, his return march harassed at every step by the patriots, whose spirits had been greatly revived by this victory. The battle of King's Mountain is said to have been to Cornwallis what Bennington was to Burgoyne. War in the North. 123, Battle of Springfield. — Encouraged both by the discontent of the Continental troops and also by the news of British victories at the South, Knyphausen made a last effort *to recover the Jerseys. In June he entered the State, burned the village of Connecticut Farms, and ad- .'anced toward Springfield. Though his force greatly out- numbered that of the Americans, he was daunted by the determined spirit of the Continentals, and returned to New York without making an attack. The following 172 The Resolution. month, supported by Clinton, who had just returned from Charleston, Knyphausen again advanced to Springfield, but was repulsed with loss ; and thus ended the last attempt made by the British to invade New Jersey. 124. Aid front the Frenclt, — In July a French fleet under Admiral de Ternay arrived at Newjjort, brinoing the Count de Rochambeau {ro-shong-ho' ) with 6000 French troops to aid the Americans. In September, Washington went to Hartford, to meet the count and consult with him in regard to the conduct of the w^ar. 125. Arnold's Treason. — The commander-in-chief returned from Hartford by way of AW-st Point, and on the very morning of liis arrival at the latter place the treason- able plot of Benedict Arnold was discovered. This officer had greatly distinguished himself at the attack upon Quebec and in both battles of Saratoga. Having been somewhat disabled by his wounds, Arnold was relieved from field duty, and after the British evacuation of Phila- delphia was assigned to the military command of that city. Here his extravagant living and cordial relations with Tory families gave great dissatisfaction to the pa- triots. Washington, however, retained entire confidence in Arnold's integrity, and when the latter asked for the conmiand of the important defences of West Point his request was granted. 126. No sooner was this j^ost in his hands than Arnold bargained to deliver it over to the British. The negotia- tions were carried on through Major Andre, a young officer in Clinton's army, wdio very reluctantly found himself compelled to pass within the American lines in order to conclude the final arrangements for the surrender of the post. Returning to New York, he was captured when within a short distance of the British lines, and the nature of his business discovered. Andre was a man of The Revolution. 173 fine character and elegant accomplishments, and not only did Clinton make every effort to save his life, but Wash- ington and the American officers would gladly have spared it had not the necessities of war demanded that he should be hanged as a spy. 127' Arnold escaped to the British, from whom he received $50,000 and a brigadier-general's conunission as the reward of his treachery. During the remainder of the war he was empk)yed by them in marauding expeditions along the coasts of his native land, and not even the Hessian hirelings were so ruthless in their devastations, nor so execrated by the Americans, as was this renegade officer. Events of 1781. War in the South. 12 S, Cornwallis, though checked by the battle of King's Mountain, had not abandoned his design of marching to Virginia. In December of 1780, General Greene, with a third Continental army, had been sent to the South, and advancing through tlie Carolinas, detached General ^[or- gan to harass Cornwallis on his northward march. 129. Battle of Cotvjteiis, — Fearing to leave ^Morgan's sharp-shooters in his rear, Cornwallis sent Colonel Tarleton to destroy them. The Continental general made his stand at the Cowpens, on the northern frontier of South Caro- lina, and though not well prepared for an encounter, decided to risk one. He formed his line of l^attle with Maryland men, commanded by Colonel Howard, in the centre ; Virginia riflemen on either wing ; Colonel M^ash- ington's cavalry in reserve, and Colonel Pickens's sharj)- shooters in advance. Tarleton, Avith eleven hundred men and superior cavalry, charged upon Morgan's line, and the Marylanders at first fell back. The British thought the 174 The Revolution. day was theirs, and rushed forward, but the Maryland regiment turned, and with the Virginians, who had kept their places, poured in a tire from three sides, while Washington's dragoons charged ui)on them from their con- cealment. Tarleton's force was completely routed with a loss of 300 in killed and wounded and 600 prisoners. 130. Greeners Retreat. — As soon as Lord CornAvalhs heard of the disaster at the Cowpens, and that Morgan was retreating with his prisoners, he started in pursuit, hoping to overtake and defeat him before he should unite with Greene. He was foiled in this attempt; Morgan joined Greene, and then ensued between the hostile gen- erals a close race of two hundred miles across the Caro- linas. It was terminated when Greene, having crossed the Dan, reached Virginia in safety. From the southern bank the British general, who had hoi)ed to gain the fords of this river, and thus prevent Greene from entering Vir- ginia or receiving recruits, gave up the pursuit. 131. Battle of Guilford Coiirt-House (March 15).— Greene recrossed the Dan, and as soon as his force was sufficiently recruited, moved against Cornwallis, who was at Guilford Court-House. In the battle which ensued the British gained the field and claimed the victory, but so great Avere the losses sustained that their success had all the results of a defeat. Cornwallis retreated to Wilming- ton, and from that place marched his forces to Virginia. Lord Rawdon succeeded to the command of the Britisli army in South Carolina. 132. Ca^^tare of British JPosts in the Interior. — Greene's next object was to break up the posts at Camden, Ninety-Six, and Augusta, with their outposts, and by thus doing to confine the enemy to the sea-board. He himself marched against Lord Rawdon at Camden, sending Lee and Marion to sever the connection of that place with Tlie Bevolution. 17 Charleston. Greene was met by Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill (April 28), and though compelled to retreat gained the object of the battle. Lee and Marion having cut off its connnunications with Charleston, Camden, no longer tenable, was abandoned. 133, In May, Greene pushed on to Fort Ninety-Six, at the same time detaching a force against Augusta. The latter place capitulated, but Ninety-Six was so strongly held that siege operations were necessary for its reduction. On the 18th of June, Greene, hearing that Rawdon was marching to the relief of the garrison, made an assault. It was unsuccessful, and on the following day he raised the siege and retreated ; but Ninety-Six, isolated by the evacuation of Camden and Augusta, could not be held, and by the close of the season the British were crowded toward the south-eastern portion of the State. In June, Greene encamped on the hills of the Santee to rest and recruit his troops. 134, Review of Gi'eene\s Campaign, — At the close of Greene's Southern campaign, during Avhich he had con- tended with almost insuperable difficulties, the British Avere shut up at Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah ; the Tories were suppressed, and the sorely harassed people began to enjoy rest from war. This general won no bril- liant victories, except the battle fought by Morgan at the Cowpens, but he had so used the means at his command as to secure the objects for which he fought, and his defeats bore for the patriot cause all the substantial fruits of success. The War in Virginia. 1,33. The Arrival of Cornivallis. — Upon the arrival of Cornwallis in Virginia he made some unsuccessful at- tempts to disperse the small force of Continentals which under the young Marquis de Lafayette had been sent 176 The lievolution. thither to watch the movements of the enemy. In August the British general moved his army from the north side of the James River to York Peninsula, which he fortified for his military centre. 136, Washington's Plans for the Campaign. — In the spring of this year Washington and Rochambeau had planned a movement for the recovery of the city of New York, and preparations toward it were considerably advanced. But in August despatches were received from the Count de Grasse announcing that he was about to sail from the West Indies with a large French fleet for the Chesapeake, and this news at once changed the plan of the campaign. It was decided to attack Cornwallis in Virginia. Movements were made calculated to deceive Clinton in regard to this new design, and so successfully was the secret guarded that the allied armies had readied the Del- aware before the enemy suspected their change of plan. 1S7- Arnold sent to Connecticut, — Hoping to recall Washington from his southward march, Clinton sent Arnold to ravage the coast of New England. This rene- gade general landed at New London in his native State, almost, in fact, within sight of his birthplace, and fired the town. A detachment from his force captured Fort Gris- wold after a brave resistance on the part of a liandful of militia, and put nearly the entire garrison to the sword. This expedition did not accomplish its design in with- drawing Washington from his progress toward Virginia. 138, The Situation of Cornwallis, — Cornwallis had no suspicion of his danger until the arrival of the French fleet in Chesapeake Bay startled him from his security, and he looked anxiously around for some way of escape. But it was too late. The French fleet held possession of the York and James Rivers, while Lafayette's force guarded all the avenues of retreat toward the south. All The Bevolution. 177 that the British general could do was to fortify himself more strongly and send to Clinton for aid. 139, Early in^September, Washington and Rochambeau visited De Grasse on his flag-ship, the Ville de Paris, and together they planned the operations of the siege. By the 1st of October the allied armies had completely environed the defences of Cornwallis, while De Grasse threatened him from the bay. On the 9th a cannonade was opened upon his works. On the 11th two of the British redoubts were attacked, one by the French, the other by Americans, and gallantly carried. When his position had become no longer tenable the British general made a daring but un- successful attempt to escape. 14:0. Surrender of Cornwallis. — This having failed, there remained no alternative, and Cornwallis made pro- posals of surrender. By the articles of capitulation the same terms were alloAved the garrison as those which had been accorded to Lincoln at Charleston. On the 19th of October the allied armies were drawn up in two lines ; between them the British passed, and, with colors cased, laid down their arms. General O'Hara appeared for Corn- wallis, who pleaded indisposition. The American com- mander received him with courtesy, but pointed to Gene- ral Lincoln as the officer who was to receive the sword of Cornwallis. The prisoners numbered 7000. 141. The news of a surrender which could hardly fail to terminate the war spread joy throughout the land. In the army divine worship was offered in all the brigades. Upon receipt of the official announcement from W^ashing- ton by Congress, that body repaired in procession to the church, and offered thanksgiving to Him who had given them the victory. 142. TJie Dawn of Peace.— The fall of Cornwallis convinced Great Britain that America could never be sub- 178 The Revolution. jugated by arms. In March, 1782, a motion to close the war was carried in Parliament. Sir Guy Carleton was sent to take the place of General Clinton, and the opera- tions of war ceased throughout the country. Before the close of 1782 the British troops had abandoned the Southern cities. New York was occupied by them until November of the following year. 143, Treaty of Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed at Paris, September 3, 1783. The American commission- ers were Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay. All of these men had been active patriots, and it was largely due to the influence of Franklin that France was induced to espouse the American cause. By this treaty the United States was acknowledged a free and independ- ent nation ; its boundaries were fixed at the Atlantic and the Mississippi on the east and west, at the Great Lakes and Florida on the north and south. Florida, which then extended to the Mississippi, was restored to Spain. 144, Disbanding of the Continental Army, — The dis- content of the soldiers, owing to their suffering condition and want of pay, gave rise to serious apprehensions of dis- orders and revolts, but the conciliatory influence and pru- dent management of Washington averted this danger. On the 19th of April, 1783, just eight years after the battle of Lexington, the order for a cessation of hostilities was read to the troops, and large numbers of them allowed to leave on furloughs. In November the army was formally dis- banded. On the day that the British left Ncav York (Nov. 25) Washington took leave of his officers, and a month later resigned his commission and returned to his home at Mount Vernon. 145, Naval Warfare, — At the beginning of the War of Independence the colonists had not a single armed vessel along their extensive line of sea-coast. In the The Revolution. 179 autumn of 1775 Congress ordered seventeen vessels to be built, and appointed a committee of marine. Besides these vessels, ordered by Congress, many privateers were fitted out, especially in New England, by means of which a warfare very profitable to the Americans and very injurious to British commerce was carried on. 146, One of the bravest naval commanders during this war was John Paul Jones, a Scotchman who entered the American navy and distinguished himself on board the first squadron which left the coast of the United States to attack the British fleet. In 1779, while cruising off the English coast in his ship, the Bonhomme Richard {ho-nom re-shar'), Jones fell in with a merchant fleet convoyed by the ships of war Serapis and Countess of Scarborough. The Bonhomme Richard, though inferior in size and arma- ment, engaged the Serapis, and compelled her to strike her colors after one of the hardest sea-fights on record. 147, CottdUion of the Country at the Close of this Period. — Probably no period of our national history has been more perilous than that which intervened between the close of the Revolutionary \Var and the adoption of the Constitution. The resources of the country were ex- hausted and its energies almost paralyzed. Its greatest danger, however, lay in the defects of its basis of govern- ment, the Articles of Confederation. 14S. Government under the Articles of Confedera- tion, — When the Continental Congress came into existence it was as the result of an emergency, and though it exer- cised extensive governmental powers, it had no actual legal authority. To remedy this defect, Articles of Confeder- ation were proposed in 1777, but were not accepted by the States until 1781. This long delay in adopting a measure so evidently necessary to their prosperity was caused by the jealous regard of the people for State rights, and the 180 The Bevolution. dread lest any power delegated to a central government should be used to repeat the oppression which they had so recently experienced in their subjection to Great Britain. 149. By these articles the national government w^as vested in a Congress of Delegates from each of the States, but the action of that body was only legislative, no execu- tive or judiciary departments being established. Under these restrictions the power ostensibly vested in Congress was practically neutralized ; that body could declare war, but could not raise an army ; it might incur expenses in the transaction of its business, but might not lay any tax or raise any revenue ; it had no power to regulate commerce or compel any State to observe its domestic or foreign obligations. Such a loosely formed government commanded little respect abroad, foreign powers hesitat- ing to enter into relations with a nation which might be one to-day and thirteen to-morrow. 150. Forming of the Coustitufion. — The first move- ment toward a more perfect system of government arose from the interfering trade regulations of several States. In 1786, Virginia proposed a convention for the purpose of making such changes in the Articles of Confederation as would obviate the difficulty. So small was the attendance at this time that no business was brought up, and the dele- gates separated after recommending that a general con- vention should be called by Congress for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation. 151. In compliance Avith the request of this Annapolis assembly. Congress called a convention to meet at Phila- delphia in May, 1787. The delegates to this convention, in which all the States excepting Rhode Island were repre- sented, were chosen among the first statesmen and men of consideration in the country. General Washington was elected its president. Heview Questions. 181 152, After much deliberation it was found impossible to amend the Articles of Confederation so as to meet the necessities of the nation ; these Articles were therefore dis- carded, and the measurably revolutionary action taken of proceeding to frame a new constitution. This instrument invested the government with all powers necessary to an independent and sovereign state. (See pp. 336-352.) 153. Through the agency of Congress and the State legislatures the new constitution was 2:)laced before the people for ratification. By the close of 1788 a majority of States had, through their popular conventions, accepted it, and the Continental Congress appointed the 4th of March, 1789, as the day when the new government should go into operation. Review Questions. 1, What right had the king and Parliament to govern the colo- nies? When did this right begin to be exercised tyrannically? Give the cause of the Eevohition in three words. Explain ex- ternal and internal taxes. Name the various Navigation Acts. Name the Acts of Trade. Why had not the colonists rebelled at these? When did Parliament attempt to levy internal taxes? 2, What were the writs of assistance, and with what were they connected, internal or external taxation ? Name the various internal taxes. What was the Quartering Act? When and why was the Stamp Act repealed? What was the result of the nex. attempt to tax America? Explain non-importation agreements. 3, When and where was the first Colonial Congress of the Revolution held, and what business was transacted in it? Had there ever been colonial congresses before? Why w^ere all the taxes repealed except a small one on tea ? AVhat was the result of retaining that? What colony suffered most for its opposition to the tea-tax ? 4, Give the occasion, events, and result of the battle of Lexing- ton. When was the battle of Bunker Hill? AVhen and by 182 Review Questions. whom was Washington appointed commander-in-chief? What was undertaken in the North in 1775? Where did General War- ren fall? Where General Montgomery? How did Virginia first suffer in this war? When was Boston evacuated? 5. Where did the armies of Washington and Howe next meet? Describe Washington's movements from the time he arrived in New York in 1776 until he crossed the Delaware. When were the colonies formally separated from Great Britain? When was the battle of Trenton? What were the British plans for 1777? Which of these failed, and which succeeded? 6. Describe Burgoyne's invasion, and give the results. Describe the movements of Washington's army during 1777. What was the difference between militia-men and Continental troops? Of what soldiers was the British army largely composed ? What aid did America receive in 1778? Name the principal events of this year, W^here was the chief seat of war in 1780 and '81 ? Name the three American generals who commanded in the South at different times. 7. What was accomplished by Lincoln, and what lost? What did Gates do at the South? Describe Greene's campaign. What were the partisan corps, and who were the principal partisan leaders? AVhere was the final campaign of the war? When was the treaty of peace concluded ? What were our boundaries at the close of the war? Name the four different forms of government in the country from 1770 to 1790. When was the Constitution adopted ? Paonelson. (. Battle of Shiloh. Bragg's Invasion of Kentuckg. luka and Corinth. Murfrecsboro'. Advance Down the River. | ^'^""""^ ^'- ^^' { Memphis. Capture of New Orleans. Attack on Vickshurg. I Battle of Pea Ridge. 188 Period V.— Continu-ed. Events OP 1862. -• r North Carolina. War on the ] South Carolina, Georgia, Coast. 1 and Morida. The Merrimack and Monitor, Plan of Canijiaign. Siege of Yorktown. Battle of Willianisburg. Battle of Fair Oaks. Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. The Seven Dags' Battles. ( Against Pope. Advance TOWARD Richmond. Lee's Invasion ) r. i/„„„7„^^ of the North. ) ^" ^^«'-y^««^- l^ Battle of Antielam. *- Battle of Fredericksburg. . Review of the Year. Emancipation Proclamation. i Advance upon Richmond. Coast Guard. Operations in the West. Advance u2>on ( ^""'^ ^/ Chancellorsville. Itichmond, \ Second Invasion of the North— Gettyshurt Events \ War in the OF 1863. West. Capture of Vicksburg. iChickamaiiga. Chattanooga. Siege of Knoxville. On the Coast. [Charleston. {Indian Hostilities. QnantrelV s Raid. The Draft Riot. Review of the Year, ( Flan of Camjiaign. Events . f Capture of Atlanta. of 1864. 1 Sherman's <^'""^P^'^a'^- \ j^^^^ch to the Sea. Hood's Invasion of Tetmessee. Period V.— continvied. 189 cc O K CO < o Q. CO =) u GC U X I- EVKNTS OF 1864. f .^ , , f Wilderness. Overland, i ^^ , , rr i. Cold Harbor Shettandoiih Valley. Events OF 1865. o ■J! o >-; 1 Defeat of Sigel and Hunter Early^s Raid. !Sheridan. Advance ft oin | Pe(er.sburg. the James. \ Weldon R.R. On the Coast.{Mobile. Destruction of the Alabama. Review of the Year. Capture of WiUnington. Sherman's Movements. Fall of Jtichmond. Surrender of Xee. Death of President T,incoln, Disbandinff of the Artny. I Effects of the War. Johnson's Administration, 1865-1869. Gr.an1's Administration, 1869-1877. [ TJie President's Policy of Restoration. I Congressional Policy of lit construction. I Disaf/reenient of President and Congress. -{ Impeachment of the President. I Purchase of Alasha. I Treaty with China. [ The French in Mexico, f The Washington Territory. Fifteenth Amendmen t. f The Indian Policy. Indian Aff'airs. ^ Modoc War. j ( Siotix War. Difficulties in lonisiana and South Carolina I Financial Depression. I The Presidential Flection of 1870. Hayes's nayOS'S r Southern Policy. Administration, I avU service Re/or 1877-1881. I The Silver Bill. Garfield's ^ and Artlinr's j Administrations, I 1881 . I Death of President Garfield. 190 Period V.— Conoinded, O _j QQ O. UJ DEVELOP- MENT OF NEW States. Progress. A.ccesslons of Territory. Vermont. MaUie. r Early Settlers. Ohio. I Lillian Troubles. \ Ad in ission a^ a State. Ituliana. Illinoi.s.S^Seftlement. Resources. 3Iic7ii{/nn. Wisconsin. ^ ( KenUicky . %l\ Tennessee. Mississijfpi, Alabama. Louisiana. Missouri. Arkansas. Iowa. Minne.*iota. Kansas. Nebraska. Oreaon. { Claims. ' Florida. Texas. {First Settlers. o tJ Settlement. War ivith Mexico. < "^ \ California, -j Nevada. Colorado. Explo rations . Settlement. Discovery of Gold. Increase of Population. Growth of San Francisco. West Virginia. The Territories. Area and Population of the United States. C Public Schools. Bureau of Education. Universities, Coller/es, Profes.Hional and Trclinical Schools. I Ni'u^siiujters. I Writers. Statesmen. Orator.9. I Artists. Scientists. Telegraph. Telephone and Elec- tric Light. Cotton- Gilt. Steam- Great Inventions. ■{ boats. Eailroads and Canals. I Guttn Percha. Labor-Saving I Machines. Artie Explorations. Development of Indtistries. Social Keforms. Cen.sus of 1880. Centen nial Celebrations. ]Perioi:) V. The Republic Washington's Administration, 1789-1797. 1, First Congress under the Xew Constitution, — On the 4th of March, 1789, the old Continental Cono-ress went rail t\ m quietly out of existence, and the tirst Congress under the new Constitution was assem])led. On the 6th of April the electoral votes were c^^unted, and it was found that Washington was the unanimous choice of the people for the office of President. 191 192 Washington s Administration. 2. Inauguration of Washington, — When General Washington resigned his commission he had hoped to spend the remainder of his days in the retirement of private Hfe. But the young RepubHc was threatened with dangers from within and from without, and he who had done the most toward freeing her from the despotic rule of Great Britain was now called from his retirement to labor in establishing the new government. Washington's journey from Mt. Vernon to New York, then the capital, was one continued ovation. On the 30th of April, stand- ing on the Ijalcony of Federal Hall, in the presence of a great concourse of people, the first President of the United States took the oath of office, which was adndnistered by Chancellor Livingston. 3. The First Cabinet. — Congress created three execu- tive departments — that of the Treasury, of War, and of Foreign Relations. Washington filled these offices by ap- pointing Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the Treasury, General Henry Knox Secretary of War, and Thomas Jef- ferson Secretary of State. John Jay was the first Chief- Justice, and Edmund Randolph first Attorney-General. 4. TJie Affairs of the Country , at home and abroad, demanded immediate consideration. At home there ex- isted (1) an empty treasury, and no definite means of fill- ing it; (2) hostile Indians on the north-western frontiers. In foreign relations there were (1) a bitter feeling growing up against England on account of her non-observance of the late treat}^ ; (2) the refusal of Spain to open the Mis- sissippi River to American commerce ; and (3) relations with France growing unsafe on account of the Revolution going on in that country. In addition to these perplexi- ties, a large party opposed the new government, on the ground that the rights of individual States had not been sufficiently considered in its formation. Washington 8 Administration. 193 5. Settlement of Domestic Difflciilties, — Finance. — The Secretary of the Treasury brought forward a i)hui for the regulation of the finances, which, after considerable debate in Congress, was adopted. By this plan the government paid its own debts in full, and assumed most of the State debts. A United States bank was established at Philadel- phia (1791), and a national mint, from which the first coin was issued (1792). It was proposed to raise a revenue by a tax on imported goods and on the distillation of ardent spirits. The latter tax met with great opposition, and in 1794 the people of Western Pennsylvania rose against the tax-collectors ; but the approach of an armed force soon put an end to the " Whiskey Insurrection." The wisdom of Hamilton's plan was attested by the fact that not only was the national debt paid, but the prosperity of the country greatly increased. 6*. The Indians. — After the war the tide of inmiigration set in toward the West, but the safety of the new settlers was greatly imperilled by the hostile Indians. Three armies were successively sent against these north-western tribes ; the first, under General Harmar, and the second, under General St. Clair, were defeated by the Indians ; but at length, in 1794, General Wayne inflicted upon the Miamis so severe a blow that they were glad to sue for peace. The following year a treaty was concluded witli the subdued tribes, by Avhich a large tract of land in South-eastern Ohio was ceded to the United States. The Western country, settled chiefly by people from the East- ern States, was left to thrive for many years undisturb- ed by Indian hostility. 7. Settlement of Foreign Affairs. — With England. — Americans complained that tlie British had not given up Western military posts, according to the stipulations of the treaty ; that British agents were inciting tlie Indians in 194 Washington s Administration. the vicinity of these posts to hostilities; and also that American seamen were unlawfully seized and compelled to serve in the British navy. On the other hand, the English alleged that debts due their citizens from Amer- icans had not been paid, nor the property of loyalists re- stored, according to the agreement of the treaty of 1783. John Jay Avas appointed ambassador to England with instructions to settle these disputed points, if possible. The treaty concluded by Mr. Jay (1795), though accepted by the Senate of the United States, was greatly objected to by the people on the ground that it did not provide against the impressment of our seamen by British cruisers. 8, With Spain. — The boundaries of Louisiana and Florida and the navigation of the Mississippi River were subjects of dispute with Spain. All the points in question, however, were settled amicably by treaty in 1795. 9. With France. — The people of France had thrown off their monarchy, put the king, the queen, and many of the nobility to death, and established a republic. In 1793 they declared war against England, Spain, and Holland. M. Genet izhe-nd') was ai)pointed ambassador to the United States. Many of our citizens, remembering the aid which France had given to America in the late struggle, and sympathizing with the desire of the French nation for freedom, were inclined to give the aid which M. Genet solicited. 10, But Washington's far-sighted wisdom decided that it was not the interest, nor indeed the duty, of the United States to assist France ; her republican rulers could claim no gratitude for services rendered by the government which they had overthrown. 11. A proclamation was therefore issued to the effect that a strict neutrality would be observed by the United Adams s Administration, 195 States toAvard the contending powers of Europe. Not- withstanding this, M. Genet, taking advantage of the popular sympathy, began to fit out privateers to prey on British commerce. At Washington's request the obnox- ious minister was recalled, but the trouble with France came up again in a later administration. 12, Rise of Political Parties, — Pending the settlement of the government, differences of opinion arose among leading men, and these differences finally separated them into two political parties. One party, that of the Federal- ists, favored a strong central government ; its leaders were Washington, Hamilton, Adams, and Jay. Their oppo- nents, the anti-Federalists, labored to secure superior rights to the individual States; Jefferson and Monroe belonged to this party. IS, Adams's Election, — In the third Presidential elec- tion, Washington having declined to hold office longer, John Adams was chosen President, and Thomas Jefferson became Vice-President. Adams's Administration, 1797-1801. 14, John Adams had been prominent among the patriots during the Revolutionary War, was an active member of the Continental Congress, had represented the United States government at the courts of France and England, and was Vice-President of the Republic under Washington. 15, Trouble ivith France, — The Jay treaty with" Eng- land threateiied to involve the United States in a war with France. The government of that country refused to re- ceive the American ambassadors, although the hint was thrown out that money paid by the United States to France might induce a more favorable sentiment. This 196 Adams s Administration. unworthy suggestion drew from Mr. Pinckney (one of the ambassadors) the noble reply : " Millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute." 16. Preparations for war were made, and Washington was once more sunmioned from Mt. Vernon to take com- mand of the armies of his country, but the threatened calamity was averted. In the autumn of 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew the existing government of France. One of his first acts was to receive the American commis- sioners and enter into treaty with the United States. 17 » Death of Washiuf/ton. — On the 14th of December, 1799, Washington died at Mt. Vernon. The spirit of party, the bitterness of Federalist and Anti-federalist, was hushed for the moment, and the united nation mourned at the grave of him who was " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." lui. ( AiiioL AT Washington. 18, Removal of the Capital. — Congress, which had met first in New York, and afterward in Philadelphia, was Jeffersons Administration. 197 in 1800 removed to Washington; which city became thenceforth the seat of government. 19. Allen and Sedition Laws, — During Adams's term of office party lines became very sharply defined. The Democratic Republicans, as the Anti-federalist party began now to be called, bitterly assailed the policy of the admin- istration. A wide-spread sympathy for France led a large class of citizens to listen to foreign agents who sought to induce the people to take up arms in behalf of that country without the sanction of their own government. To prevent this, the Alien Law was passed for the arrest of foreigners suspected of such intrigues. The liberty of the press was, at the same time, restrained by the pas- sage of the Sedition LaAv, prohiljiting the publication of any articles which might be considered libellous toward the administration. These laws, so at variance Avith pop- ular sentiment in America, brought about a signal defeat of the Federal party, and the election, in the autumn of 1800, of Thomas Jefferson, the great Anti-federal leader, to the Presidencv. JeflPersoii's Administration, 1801-1809. 20, Tlioinas Jefferson was noted as a man of scholarly attainments, great political influence, and as the writer of the Declaration of Independence. 21, Purchase of Louisiana, — In 1801 great indigna- tion arose against vSpain on account of the closing of the port of New Orleans to United States commerce. Upon inquiry it was found that the entire Territory of Louisi- ana had been retroceded to France. {See Treaty of Paris, p. 115.) The President at once instructed our minister- resident at that country to negotiate with Napoleon I. for the purchase of a strip of territory along the eastern bank 198 Jeffersons Admiriistratioyi. of the Mississippi sufficient to afford Western commerce an outlet to the Gulf. 22, At first the emperor refused to consider the prop- osition ; later, these possessions being endangered by the presence of a hostile British fleet in the Gulf, Napoleon offered to sell to the United States the entire Territory of Louisiana, embracing more than a million square miles, for $15,000,000. The American envoys hesitated, on the ground that the Constitution had not provided for the pur- chase of new territory, but at last decided to accept the offer. Their act was ratified by the President, and thus our country's boundaries were carried to the Rocky Moun- tains (1803). 23, Aaron Burr, — During the second term of this administration the country was agitated by the trial of Aaron Burr. This man had lateen for many years prom- inently before the country, first as a soldier in the Revo- lution, accompanying Arnold in his perilous march to Canada and standing by the side of Montgomery when that officer fell, afterward taking an active part in politics, and rising to the position of Vice-President in 1801. His political preferment was, however, opposed by Alexander Hamilton, who, with many others, doubted the integrity of this brilliant and fascinating man. Irritated by this opposition. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel in which the latter fell. 24, The horror and indignation which this act oc- casioned drove Burr from the positions of honor and trust which he had so long held, and barred his return to them. Chafing with anger and disappointment, he went to the Western Territories, where he schemed for the erection of an independent eminre, of which he should be the sove- reign ruler. His scheme being exjwsed, he Avas arrested Jefferson s Administration. 199 and tried for conspiracy and treason, but for lack of evi- dence escaped conviction. 25. War with Tripoli. — After the close of the war, when American ships began to find their way into tlie Mediterranean, they were captured by Barbary pirates, and their crews sold into slavery. Not having a suffi- BukmNm of Tin; " riiiLAi)i:LriiiA." ciently strong naval force to cliastise these aggressors, the government, in 1795, entered into a treaty with the Barbary States, agreeing to pay an annual tribute in money in order to insure the safety of American commerce in those waters. 26. By the year 1808, Tripoli, one of these piratical powers, had grown so insolent in her demands that the United States determined to refuse the payment of the tribute altogether. The bashaw thereupon declared war against the United States, and her little navy, under Com- 12 200 Jefferson s Administration. modore Preble, was sent to the Mediterranean, The Phila- delphia, commanded by Captain Bainbridge, grounding in the harbor of Tripoli, she was captured and her crew re- duced to slavery. In February (1804) Lieutenant Stej^hen Decatur performed the brave exploit of destroying this vessel, which was guarded by a Trij)olitan crew and moored under the very guns of the castle. With a few companions he ventured into the harbor, boarded the Philadelphia, drove overboard the men who guarded her, set her on fiie, and escaped from the burning vessel with- out losing a man. This brave act alarmed the Tripolitans, and in the following year, after suffering defeat in two battles, the basliaw made a treaty of peace. 27. For ten years longer, however, American vessels and crews in the Mediterranean suffered from the attacks of Barbary pirates. It was not until the year 1815 that the final treaty was effected wliich secured our commerce from their depredations. In that year Commodore Decatur defeated the Algerine fleet, compelled the Barbary powers to pay large sums for the injury they had done, and to give up, by treaty, all claim to tril^ute from the United States. 28. Trouble with England and France. — The Right of Search. — Since the close of the Revolutionary War, Eng- land had claimed the right to search American vessels and impress into her service all British subjects who might be on board of them. A glaring instance of this species of outrage occurred in the summer of 1807. The commander of the British ship Leopard, cruising in Anier- ican waters, demanded permission to search the Amer- ican frigate Chesapeake for British deserters who, it was alleged, had enlisted in the American naval service at Norfolk. The American commodore, Barron, refused the demand, having previously stated that, to the best of his Jefferson s Adininistration. 201 knowledge, no such men were to be found on board of the American frigate, and, moreover, that he had instructed his recruiting-officer not to enHst British subjects. 29, Upon receiving Commodore Barron's refusal the Leopard opened a sudden fire upon the Chcsttpeake. The latter vessel, totally unprepared for action, having fired i)ut once in return, struck her flag. An officer from the English ship then came on board, mustered her crew, and seized four of them, three of whom were American cit- izens. The fourth was tried and executed as a British deserter. The President ordered all British ships to leave United States ports until reparation should be made for this outrageous violation of the law of nations. The British subsequently made an acceptable apology for this attack on a national frigate. 30, Destruction of Commerce. — During the war which was going on between England and France, both governments had issued " Orders " and " Decrees " forbidding the ships of neutrals to enter the ports or engage in trade with their respective enemies, and making confiscation the penalty of such an act. The United States, remaining neutral, had monopolized a large sliare of the foreign carrying-trade, but by these regulations nearly all of the ports of Europe were closed against her, and her commerce was well-nigh ruined. Whenever an American vessel ventured on the lugli seas it was exposed to search and seizure by either English or French cruisers. 31, The Embargo. — At the close of 1807, in retaliation for the injuries which were being inflicted upon American commerce. Congress laid an embargo upon all the ship- ping in the ports of the United States. By this act com- mercial intercourse was forbidden with Great Britain, France, and their respective allies. This sudden suspen- sion of commerce fell heavily upon all classes of the nation. 202 Madison's Administration. and tried the patriotism of the country, especially of the New England States, to the utmost. Such was the state of affairs at the close of Jefferson's administration. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817. 32, Condition of the Country, — Mr. Madison came into office at a time when the nation was not only excited by the aggressions of France and England, but divided in opinion as to the proper course to be pursued in dealing with those powers. The Federalist party opposed a war, and urged the government to provide convoys for the mer- chant fleets, thus confining hostilities to the ocean, where the aggressions were made, instead of attracting tliem to the land. Other counsels prevailed, and the insults and injuries received from Great Britain at last forced the United States into a declaration of war against that country. The War of 1812. 33, Causes, — There were three })rominent causes of this war: (1) Commercial Injuries; (2) the Imjyressment of Sea- men; (3) Indian Hostilities, incited by British agents. 34. Commercial Injuries. — In March, 1809, the embargo, which had caused high dissatisfaction in the nation, was removed, and an act of non-intercourse witli France and England passed. France, however, by a tacit understand- ing, forbore to enforce her " Decrees " against American ships, and commerce was continued with her, though strictly prohibited Avith Great Britain, which still enforced her offensive " Orders in Council." 35. Impressment of Seamen. — Resentful at being the only nation against which the Non-Intercourse Act was kept up. Great Britain sent ships of war to the coast of the United States, and not only impressed seamen (see par- agraph 28, p. 200) but made prizes of American vessels. Madison's Administration. 203 36. Indian Hostilities. — Incited by British agents, Te- cumseh, a Shawnee chief, assembled his warriors to attack the settlers at the North-west. General Harrison was sent against him, and encamj^ed on the Tippecanoe, a small stream which flows into the Wabash. Here (Nov. 7, 1811) he was attacked by the savages, whom he de- feated after one of the severest battles ever fought with Indians. 37* Declaration of War, — Owing to the influence of the Federalist party, the formal declaration of hostilities was delayed a few months longer. But on the 19th of June, 1812, war was proclaimed and an army summoned to the field. The plan of the first campaign looked to the invasion of Canada ; which invasion was attempted at two points, the eastern and western extremities of I^ake Erie. Events of 1812. 38, Iiivasion of Canada, — Western Lake Erie. — Gen- eral Hull was sent with an army to invade Canada at the western end of Lake Erie. His army crossed at Detroit, but while the commander hesitated to attack the enem}^ who was posted at JMalden, Mackinaw fell into the hands of the British (July 17) ; Hull's supplies were caiDtured at Brownstown (August 5), and General Brock gathered an army to oppose him. Alarmed at these demonstrations, Hull hastened his return to the fort at Detroit, whither he was pursued by Brock. Believing that the British were in great strength, and that no quarter would be given in the event of a successful assault, the aged commander, al- lowing his judgment to become impaired by his fears, and impelled by considerations of humanity, without striking a defensive blow yielded up Detroit and Michigan Terri- tory into the.hands of the British (Aug. 16). For this sur- render Hull was court-martialled, convicted of cowardice. 204 Madison s AdTYiinistratioii. and sentenced to be shot; the death-sentence was, how- ever, remitted because of the faithful services rendered by this officer during the Revokition. 39, Eastern Lake Erie. — The invasion at the east end of Lake Erie, conducted by Colonel Van Rensselaer, wac defeated, owing mainly to the refusal of the New York militia to fight out of their own State. The attack was made at Queenstown, and the Americans succeeded in driving back some reinforcements of the enemy with the loss of their leader. General Brock, but, unsupported by the New York troops, the whole command was finally either captured or killed. 40, Naval Warfare, — The defeats on land were atoned for by successes at sea. The American navy, having only twenty ships in its service, gained brilliant victories over the British, who possessed at that time the most powerful naval force in the world. 41, The first British ship taken by the Americans was the Guerriere (ger-e-are') captured off the Gulf of St. Law- rence (August) by the United States frigate Constitution., Captain Hull. The fight lasted for two hours, at the end of which time the British ship was so riddled that she could not be carried into port. The Constitution sus- tained but slight injury, and in December, under Commo- dore Bainbridge, she captured the British ship of war Java off the coast of Brazil. 42, In October the United States sloop-of-war Wasp made prize of the British brig Frolic in an action so severe that only one man remained uninjured on board of the enemy's ship. Just as Captain Jones of the Wasp was about to bear off the Frolic, the British ship Poictiers (pwah-te-a) came up and took possession of both the Wasp and her prize. Madison s Administration. 205 4,3. The Federalists still remained opposed to the war, but the majority of the nation evinced its approbation of the policy of the government by re-electing Mr. Madison to the Presidency. Events of 1813. 44, Plan of the Campaign. — The Canada frontier was still the seat of war. United States troops were stationed at three points — one force at the head of Lake Erie, under General Harrison ; another on Lake Ontario, under Gen- eral Dearborn, the commander-in-chief; and a third on Lake Champlain, under General Hampton. These were called, respectively, the armies of the West, Centre, and North. 43. Tlie Army of the West was directed to recover Michigan, and from thence to invade Canada. 40. The Massacre of Frenchtoum. — General Winchester, advancing from the south to join Harrison, learned that 206 Madison s Administration. Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, was threatened by the enemy. He marched to its relief, repulsed the assailants, and took possession of the place, but was himself soon after besieged there by General Proctor with a large force of British and Indians. The American general was com- pelled to surrender, and the greater part of his garrison was massacred by the savage allies of the enemy (Jan. 22). 47 » Siege of Fort Meigs. — Harrison had fortified him- self Jit Fort Meigs on the Maumee. Here, in the early part of May, he was besieged by Proctor, and only relieved at the end of four days by the arrival of a l^ody of Kentuck- ians under General Clay. 48. Fort Stephenson. — Proctor's next blow was directed against Fort Stephenson, on the Sandusky. The place was defended by a " garrison of striplings " under Major Croghan, a young soldier of twenty-one. Croghan had l)ut sixty men and a single gun, but when summoned to sur- render, the demand being accompanied by the savage threat of massacre in case of refusal, he boldly replied that when the enemy should take that fort, he would find no one in it to massacre. After a cannonade which lasted all night, an assault was made, but the solitary gun, mount- ed in a position to command the approach, poured such deadly volleys upon the assailants that they broke and fled in dismay. 49. Perry^s Victory. — Captain Oliver Perry, a young offi- cer who had never seen a naval battle, was stationed on Lake Erie. His squadron consisted of ships which were mainly built from tlie forests which grew near the lake, and manned by soldiers from Harrison's army. With this fleet, on the 10th of September he engaged the British under Connnodore Barclay. After two hours' fighting. Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, became so shattered by the broadsides from Barclay's fleet that he was obliged Madisoris Administration. 207 to abandon her. Descending into an open barge, he passed safely through the fire of the enemy, and soon displayed from the masthead of his second flag-ship, the Niagara^ the signal of battle. Breaking into the midst of the Brit- ish line, in fifteen minutes after reaching the Niagara he had Avon the victory. " We have met the enemy, and they are ours," was the despatch by which he announced to Harrison that Lake Erie was cleared of the presence of the Britisli fleet. Com. ri;i;KV i 50. Battle of the TJiames. — Immediately after Perry's victory, Detroit was recovered and Harrison crossed the lake in pursuit of Proctor. That general fled at the ap- proach of the Americans, but was overtaken at the river Thames (October 5). In the battle that ensued the Brit- ish army was defeated, Tecumseh was slain, and the swiftness of his horse alone saved Proctor himself from capture. 51, Army of the Centre, — The operations of the Army of the Centre consisted in the destruction of British stores at York, now Toronto ; an attack on Fort Georere at the 208 Madiso7i's Administration. mouth of the Niagara, followed by an engagement (May 27) at Burlington, where the retreating garrison was over- taken, in which the Americans met with severe losses without gaining any substantial advantage; the repulse of General Proctor's attack upon Sackett's Harbor; and the disastrous battle of Chrysler's Field. Prior to this last engagement General Dearborn had been superseded by General Wilkinson, who was ordered to co-operate witli General Hampton in an attack upon Montreal. Wilkin- son descended the St. Lawrence, and, molested by the enemy on the banks of the river, sent a detachment ashore to scatter them. This brought on the action at Chrysler's Field, ninety miles above Montreal, in which the Amer- icans lost three hundred men. Through some misunder- standing, Hami3ton did not join Wilkinson, and the expe- dition against Montreal was abandoned. 52, War with the Creeks, — The hostility of the West- ern Indians had spread to the Southern tribes, and in August of this year the Creeks, falling upon Fort Mims, massacred four hundred men, women, and children. Gen- eral Jackson raised a force and marched against these sav- ages, driving them from one place to another, until they at last made a desperate stand at the Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Here the Creeks were attacked, over six hundred warriors slain, and the women and children captured (March 27, 1814). The 1)roken remnant of the tribe gladly made peace, and relinquished a large share of their hunting-grounds to the victors. 53, Naval Warfare, — On the 1st of June, Captain Law- rence of the frigate Chesaj^eake sailed out of Boston to fight the British frigate Shannon. They met on the same day, and though the engagement lasted but fifteen min- utes, so great was the carnage in that brief space that both ships, it is said, had become charnel-houses. " Don't give Madison s A dminist ration. 209 up the ship !" were Lawrence's last words as, mortally wounded, they bore him awa}', but his brave crew were overpowered and the Chesapeake was taken. 54, The victory of Perry on Lake Erie, the capture of the brig Boxer b}^ Lieutenant Burrows of the American sliip Enterprise, and the successes of the frigate Aryus, kept up the reputation of the United States navy. 5.5. Havages on the Coast. — The Atlantic coast sui- fered during the year 1813 from the ravages of a Britisli squadron under Admiral Cockburn (co'-burn). In the sjiring of this year Havre de Grace {hav'-er-de-grass) and other towns on Chesapeake Bay were plundered and burned. Norfolk was threatened, but the enemy was re- pulsed. British depredations were carried on along the whole coast as far as North Carolina, and from several of the slave State: hers of negroes were seized and transported to the Brit- ish West Indies. Events of 1814. 56, Campaign on Cana- dian Frontier, — Battles of Chippewa and Lundifs Lane. — The summer of this year witnessed some important engagements on the Cana- dian frontier. Generals Brown, Scott, and Ri})ley, crossing Niagara River, cap- tured Fort Erie on the 3d of July; on the 4th defeated the British at the battle of Cliippewa; and on the 25th WAR OF 1812 CANADIAN FIION'J (EAST) Scale rrTi r^ \o 210 Madisofis Administration. won the battle of Lundy's Lane, fought on the Canada side, within sound of the roar of the mighty cataract. 57' Battle of Lake Champlain. — The British, having hirge- ly augmented their forces in Canada, advanced again for the invasion of the United States. General Prevost was sent across the frontier with a force of 12,000 veterans, wliile Captain Downie with a squadron ascended Lake Champlain. 5S, The invaders were resisted by an American force under General Macomb stationed at Plattsburg, and a flotilla under Connnodore M'Donough on the lake. Ma- comb with a force of less than 6000 took a strong position behind the Saranac River, where he was able to resist the advance of Prevost, while M'Donough engaged the British fleet. After a spirited action of two and a lialf hours Downie struck his colors. U})on this reverse Prevost abandoned his attack and retreated in disorderly haste. This was the last attempt at an invasion along the line of the Canadian frontier on the part of eitlier of the contend- ing powers. Success had not attended either army in its advance ui)on the territory of the other. SO. Havages on the Const, — At Washington. — In Au- gust of this year a British fleet appeared in C/hesapeake Bay, bearing an army commanded Ijy General Ross. Tlie greater part of the fleet ascended the Patuxent River, from which course it was impossible to determine whether Washington or Baltimore was the point threatened. When the British landed and turned toward the capital, only a ver}^ small and inefficient force of Americans was in readiness to resist them, and after a slight check at Bladensburg the enemy marched forward to Washington. All the public buildings except the Patent Office were burned, many valuable state papers destroyed, and much private property carried off'. Madison s Administration, 211 60. At Baltimore. — Baltimore was the next point of at- tack. With the land-force Ross debarked at North Point, on the upper side of tlie Patapsco River, the fleet moving up to Fort M'Henry, two miles below the city. While advancing Ross was killed in a skirmish, and tlie heavy bombardment opened by the fleet upon Fort M'Henry proving ineffectual, the enemy withdrew. It was during this bombardment that Mr. Francis S. Key, an American gentleman detained on board the British fleet, wrote our national song, " The Star-Spangled Banner." (yl. At the North, Commodore Hardy was engaged in blockading the coast. In August, Stonington (Conn.) was bombarded for four days. So effectually was commerce destroyed by the British blockading squadron that the United States government ceased to maintiun lighthouses, as they served no other purpose than that of aiding the enemy. 62, TJie Hartford Convention, — In December of this year a convention was held by the Federalists at Hartford. As this assembly sat with closed doors, and no one knew the subject of its debates, the members were accused of an intention to secede from the Union. They, however, in fact, only discussed measures for greater security to the coast States in times of war, and proposed some amend- ments of the Constitution in points wherein they deemed it defective. Yet for many years "Hartford Convention Federalist " was a term of reproach. 63, War in the South, — Ca'pture of Fensacola. — The Spanish officials at Pensacola having allowed their port to become a shelter for British ships, General Jackson, who was in command at the South, marched against this offending neutral port, took possession of it, and drove the British away. 212 Madiso7is Administration. 64, Battle of New Orleans. — In December, Jackson marched to the defence of New Orleans, which was threat- ened by a large force of British. Here he made the best possible preparations to repel the enemy. A line of in- trenchments was formed in front of the city commanding the entire ground over which the British must approach, and a squadron w^as stationed on Lake Borgne. This squadron was captured December 14, and the British effected their landing. 65, On the 22d, Jackson advanced to attack the enemy, and after inflicting some loss upon him, fell back to his intrenchments. On the 8th of January, 1815, the British General Pakenham led 12,000 men against the 6000 Americans who lay behind the earthwork defences of New Orleans. Jackson received them with a fire which made terrible havoc in their lines, but they pressed on until within range of the backwoods riflemen, who poured volley after volley into their ranks ; Pakenham fell mor- tally wounded, hundreds of his soldiers lay by his side, and finally the entire line was broken and driven back. The enemy retreated, leaving 1700 dead and wounded on the field. Jackson lost only eight men killed. Monroes Administration. 213 66, Treaty of Bedce. — On the 14tli of December a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent, but the news did not arrive in season to prevent the dreadful loss of life at New Orleans. So great was the rejoicing throughout the country at the termination of this war that it seems not to have excited any great dissatisfaction that in the treaty by which it was terminated its original causes, com- mercial injuries and the impressment of seamen, or " free trade and sailors' rights," as the phrase ran, were not even alluded to. 67, Results of the War, — For a time the country seemed almost prostrated by the effects of the war. Com- merce was ruined, the public debt largely increased, and great depression was felt in all business interests. This conflict, however, ultimately proved a benefit to American industry, rendering it more self-reliant and less dependent upon English supplies. Still more important, perhaps, was the effect uj^on the moral strength of the nation, as it put an end to the spirit of dependence upon Great Britain. Since the war of 1812 the United States has assumed an individual and independent character among the nation- alities of the earth. From this fact it is sometimes called the Second War of Independence. Monroe's Adiuiiiistration, 1817-1825. 68, President Mom'oe had distinguished himself as a soldier under Washington, had served his country as foreign minister, and when envoy to France had secured the purchase of Louisiana. No bitter party spirit was raised against him, and he became President by an almost unanimous vote. 69, Prosperity of the Country, — Commerce, which had been nearly ruined by the war, Avas resumed with vigor. Manufactures increased greatly, and a large foreign immigration, together with that constantly pouring in 214 Monroes Administration. from the Eastern States, rapidly settled the Territories of Louisiana, Mississij^pi, and the North- West. TO. Tlte Missouri Compromise. — In 1820, Maine and Missouri both applied for admission into the Union, but the latter was not admitted without a violent and momentous controversy upon the question of slavery. During many years this institution existed to a greater or less extent thi'oughout the United States. Not being profitable at the North, it was gradually abandoned in that section, but continued in full force at the South. The framers of the Constitution, the men of the South equally with the men of the North, regarded the institution of slavery as a great " social, political, and moral evil." Looking upon eman- cipation in their own time as inq)racticable, they yet be- lieved that it would be effected by progressive civiliza- tion, moral sentiment, and attachment to the cause of freedom. 71, But as years rolled on, circumstances arose which modified, and in the end totally changed, the feelings of the South on the subject of slavery. The invention of the cotton-gin, by opening a wide field of industry, increased immensely the value of slave-labor. A younger gene- ration was fast forgetting the wise counsels of its fathers, slavery was every year becoming more profitable, and a bitter feeling on this subject arose between the North and the South. 72. Until 1820 the number of free and slave States was equal, and neither party had any advantage in Congress. But when in that year Maine and Missouri applied for admission into the Union the pro-slavery party insisted that in order to preserve the balance of power Missouri should come in as a slave State. This motion was strongly opposed by the anti-slavery party. A compromise was finally effected, and an act of Congress was passed which John Quincy Adams s Administration. 215 provided that in all the territory lying above 36° 30' north latitude, not included in the limits of the State just ad- mitted, slavery should be for ever prohibited. 73. Purchase of Florida, — A body of Indians and negroes in Florida, incited by Englishmen, committed outrages upon the settlements of Georgia and Florida. General Jackson, who commanded the department of the South, promi)tly marched into the country, caught and hanged the English offenders, and shipi)ed the Spanish garrison and municii)al authorities to Havana. Spain re- sented this intrusion upon lier territory in time of peace, but hostilities were averted, and finally a treaty concluded by which the United States secured the purchase of Florida for the sum of $5,000,000 (1819). 74. Hie 3Ionroe Doctrine. — The South American States, having declared their independence of Spain, were formally recognized by the government of this country. In his annual message to Congress the President, referring to this recognition, declared that the American continents '' are not to be considered as subjects for future coloniza- tion by any European power." This view, known as the Monroe Doctrine, has ever since been maintained as the settled policy of the United States. John Quiucy Adams's Administration, 1825-1829. 7^. Jolin Quincij Adams, the son of President Adams, had served his country both as a foreign minister and as Secretary of State in Monroe's cabinet. Diu'ing his term of office the nation enjoyed great prosperity. 7G. Death of Adams and Jefferson, — On the 4th of July, 1826, the great patriots, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, passed away. Their lives had been remarkably parallel, and the}^ died at nearly the same hour on the fiftieth anniversary of the nation's independence. 216 Jackson s Administratio7i. 77» Tlie Tariff. — In 1828 a law was passed imposing a high protective tariff on imported manufactures. This was a gratification to the North, as its effect was to keep out of the market certain foreign goods which interfered with American domestic manufactures. At the South, on the contrar}^, the measure was strongly o})posed as injuri- ous to the interests of that section, as its tendency would be to increase the price of manufactured goods while de- preciating the price of raw cotton when exported to foreign markets. Andrew Jackson's Administration, 1829-1887. 78, President Jackson was of humble ])irth and had few early advantages. A strong determination, however, sur- mounted all obstacles to his success, while good judgment and great energy eminently fitted him for responsible positions. An imperious will made for him bitter ene- mies, but his honesty was never doubted. When in mili- tary command at the South, General Jackson had de- fended the frontier from Indians ; from the British at New Orleans ; and from enemies in Florida. Later this military hero served in Congress, and in the fall of 1828, by the almost unanimous choice of the people, was called to assume the duties of Chief Magistrate. 79, United States Bank, — The first bank in the United States was founded in 1781 by Robert Morris, the great financier of the Revolution. During "Washington's admin- istration a new bank, that of the United States, was estab- lished as the financial agent of the government.* Its char- ter expired in 1811, and five years later a new United States Bank had been inaugurated with a charter for twenty years, and a capital of $35,000,000. 80, President Jackson at an early period in his admin- istration declared his opposition to the United States * (See p. 193.) Jackson s Administration. 217 Bank, on the alleged grounds that the right to charter this institution was not clearly conferred hy the Constitu- tion of the United States, and, moreover, that the said bank had failed to establish a uniform currency. When, therefore, in 1832, the bill for re-cliartering the bank came up, and had passed both Houses of Congress, President Jackson vetoed it. The following year lie ordered the public funds to be transferred to various State banks. This order met with strong opposition from the numerous and powerful friends of the bank, and the Secretary of the Treasury even refused to obey it ; but the President, sus- tained by the House of Representatives, carried the meas- ure, and in 1836 the United States Bank went out of existence. 81. Ntillification, — The Southern States were, as we have seen, opposed to the Tariff Law. South Carolina de- clared this law unconstitutional, and therefore " null and void," and threatened, in case of its enforcement, to secede from the Union. The President issued a proclamation against the treasonable doctrines of Nullification, State Rights, and Secession, and promptly sent General Scott to Charleston with a military force to suppress the threatened outbreak. War was, however, averted by the adoption of a compromise proposed in Congress by Henry Clay of Kentucky. This compromise provided for a gradual re- 'uction of the tariff duties. 82. Indian Troubles.— Black Hawk War. — The Sacs and Foxes in Illinois and Wisconsin had sold their lands to the government ; but afterward alleging that the sale had been illegal, they, in 1832, led by their chief, Black Hawk, began a war upon the white settlers. A military force under General Atkinson was sent against these Indians. Black Hawk was captured and the tribes driven beyond the Mississippi. 218 Jackson s Admiyiistration. 83, Removal of the Cherokees. — The people of Alabama and Georgia, coveting the fertile lands occupied by the Cherokees, petitioned Congress for the removal of the Indians. The government, yielding to their request, set apart a territory west of the Mississippi, to which, within a given time, all the tribes in Alabama, Georgia, and Flor- ida should be transferred. The Indians resisted this men sure, and a military force was sent to coerce them into sub- mission. The Cherokees had become civilized ; churches and schools had been founded, and a printing-press estab- lished among them. It seemed, not only to the sufferers themselves, but to many peoi)le throughout the country, a cruel and unjust measure to exile them from their fertile fields and the graves of their fathers. The removal was, however, accomplislied in ISoS. Swamp Figiit in Florida. 84. The Seminole War. — The attempt to remove the fierce Seminoles of Florida involved the country in seven years of savage warfare. The Indians, by retreating to everglades and morasses where they could not be fol- lowed, rendered it almost impossible to conquer them ; while the deadly climate and Indian massacre carried off great numbers of the United States troops. Van Burens Administration. 219 85, On one occasion, as Major Dade was marching from Tampa Bay to reinforce General Clinch in the interior, he was surrounded by Indians near a swamp and his com- mand, consisting of 100 men, cruelly massacred ; but four escaped alive, all of whom afterward died of their wounds. Generals Clinch, Scott, Jessup, and Taylor were all en- gaged in the Seminole War. At length, in 1842, during Tyler's administration, their chief, Osceola, having died in prison, the tribe consented to enter into a treaty of peace. 86, Tlie Siyecie Circular. — The last official act of Pres- ident Jackson was the issue of a circular letter from the Treasury department requiring all the government reve- nue to be collected in silver and gold. This order was designed to check speculations in Western lands, which had risen to a dangerous excess, owing to the facility which a paper currency offered for its purchase. Yan Buren's Administration, 1837-1841. 87* Panic of 1837' — Van Buren's administration was marked by a great financial crisis. Business failures be- came every-day occurrences, and the times were distress- ingly " hard." The following are some of the reasons assigned for this panic: (1) When the money from the United States Bank was distributed among the State banks it was used as capital, and a great amount of bank paper issued. In 1837 this capital was withdrawn from the State banks, leaving them unable to redeem their bills. (2) Wild speculation in Western lands had ruined many. (3) The specie circular had withdrawn specie from circu- lation. (4) Excessive importations had drained gold and silver from the country. (5) A great fire in New York in 1835, caused the destruction in that metropolis of twenty millions worth of property, and ruined many of its wealth- iest merchants. 13 2'20 Ilarrisoi's (oid Ti/lc/e Achninistratioi. SS. Hefafions with EngUnul, — The Canadian ReheUion. — In 18o7 a rebellion broke out in Canada. iSympathizers in the United States sent arms and anununition to the insurgents, and volunteers hastened to their aid. The amieable relations between England and the United States were seriously threatened, but the President at once sent troops to the frontier to prevent these breaches of neu- trality, and issued a proclaniaticni to the effect that any one entering Canada to aid in the rebellion would thereby forfeit the protection of the United States. S9. Boundarj/ of Maine. — The northern boundary of Maine remained a vexed question, threatening trouble be- tween this country and England, until 1S4"2, when the lines were tinally settled by a treaty negotiated by Daniel ^^\^b- ster and Lord Ashburton. Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations, 1841-1845. 90. General Harrison had distinguished himself at Tippecanoe and at the battle of the Thames. An unusual nuniber of mass-meetings, processions, and other public demonstrations marked the political campaign which issued in his election. He died in one month from the day of his inauguration, and was succeeded by Vice-Pres- ident Tyler. 91, Finance, — The Whig j^arty, which was in fact the old Federal party revived, imputed the blame of the finan- cial depression to the Democratic measures of the specie circular and the destruction of the United States Bank. Through Harrison, who was their candidate, the Whigs hoped to establish another United States Bank and to re- store iinancial prosperity. To their chagrin, ^Ir. Tyler vetoed their bill for a new bank and oj^posed their favorite policy. Fuller Afhninistration. 221 92, The Annexation of Texus. — The old Spanish colony of Texas from the year 1820 and onward had been largely settled by people from the northern United States. In 1835 this colony threw off the yoke of Mexico, and its independence was recognized both ])y the United States and by the governments of Em-ope. In 1844, Texas asked to be annexed to the United States. The petition was not then granted, on account of the opposition which the mea- sure encountered from the A\^hig party. This party, hav- ing its majority at the North, opposed the annexation of Texas, on the ground that it would increase the number of slave States, and also lead to war Avith Mexico, that power having refused to acknowledge the independence of Texas. This annexation, which was favored by the Democratic party, was tlie main question at issue in the next Presidential contest. The Democratic candidate hav- ing been elected, the admission of Texas followed in July, 1845. Polk's Administration, 1845-1849. 93, TJie Nof'th- Western Boundary. — Great Britain and the United States both claiming the territory of Ore- gon, the dispute threatened at one time to cause war be- tween the two countries. The question was finally settled by treaty in 1846, the forty-ninth parallel becoming the boundary Ijetween the two countries. War with Mexico. 94, Taylor at the Rio Grande, — Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — After the admission of Texas, General Taylor was sent thither with an army of occupation, and in March, 1846, took a position opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras. In April a reconnoitring party under Cap- tain Thornton was attacked by Mexicans, and nearly all of the men either captured or killed. In May, Taylor, leaving a garrison at Fort Brown, advanced to Point Isabel 222 Folk's AdTninistration. to secure the supplies there, Avhich were threatened by the enemy. On his return he was met by a force of Mexicans, and two battles ensued, the first at Palo Alto on the 8th, and the second at Kesaca de la Palma on the 9th of May. In both these engagements the Mexicans were defeated, although their force was greatly superior to that of Taylor. 95, Declaration of War. — In May, Congress declared war to exist by the act of Mexico, and called for an army of 50,000 volunteers. The people, excited by the attack on Captain Thornton, and allured by the novelty of the event as well as the interesting character of the country to Folic s Administration. 223 be invaded, responded with enthusiasm, and in a month an army of 300,000 men was in readiness to march upon Mexico. 96, Plan of Ccmipaign. — The army was ordered to enter the country in three divisions: (1) General Taylor to operate on the Rio Grande. (2) General Wool to start from San Antonio and conquer the central state of Chi- huahua (che-'wd'-ivd). (3) General Kearney U-ar'-ni) to assemble his troops at Fort Leavenworth and marcli west- ward, subduing New Mexico and California, while a fleet under Commodore Stockton should proceed to the Pacific coast to co-operate with him. 97* Taylor South of the Bio Grande, — Monterey. — As soon as Taylor received his instructions he crossed the Rio Grande and took possession of Matamoras. In Sep- tember he moved against the strong] v-fortifled town of Monterey, held by a Mexican army of 10,000 under Gen- eral Ampudia. Nearly four days were spent in the reduc- tion of this place, and during a part of the time the soldiers fought from house to house, digging their way through the walls and j^assing over the roofs to avoid the fire which was poured upon them from every opening. The town surrendered on the 23d of September. 98, In October, Taylor moved to Saltillo (sal-teel'-yo). Early in January, 1847, a large division of his army was detached and sent to Scott at Vera Cruz. While thus weakened the Mexican commander-in-chief, Santa Anna, advanced against him with a force of 20,000 men. 99, Buena Vista. — Taylor took a position in the narrow mountain-j^ass of Buena Vista (bwd'-na vis'-ta). Here, on the 22d of February, Santa Anna summoned him to sur- render, accompanying the demand with a promise of pro- tection to the American force. The answer to the sum- mons was emphatic: " General Taylor never surrenders;" 224 Polk's Administration. and he celebrated Washington's birthday by winning witli his little force of 500D men a brilliant victory over a Mex- ican army of four times that number. BuENA Vista 100. General Wool's Division, — The work accom- plished by General Taylor had rendered unnecessary the invasion of Chihuahua. The design was therefore aban- doned, and Wool's troops joined Taylor's army at Sal- tillo. 101, The Army of the West, — General Kearney marched with his army from Fort Leavenworth to Santa Fe. Here he divided his force, sending a part under Col- onel Doniphan to secure the neutrality of the Navajo (nav'-a-ho) Indians and join Wool at Saltillo ; Kearney himself with the remainder of the army continued west- ward. On the march he learned that the object of his ex- pedition had already been secured. A considerable popu- Folk's Admiiiistration. 225 lation of United States citizens were settled in California. Threatened with expulsion by the Mexican authorities, they in self-defence joined a government exploring-party under Captain John C. Fremont, drove the Mexicans from their posts, and declared the country independent. This achieve- ment was greatly assisted by the squadron of Commodore Sloat, which chanced to be in that vicinity and had cap- tured several of the coast-towns. When General Kearney and Commodore Stockton arrived, they found the author- ity of the United States already established in California. 102. T7ie Army under Scott. — Capture of Vera Cruz. — In March, 1847, General Scott landed and invested the town of Vera Cruz, which was defended by the strong castle of San Juan de Ulloa {ivahn da oo-lo'-a). The ^lex- icans, regarding this castle as impregnable, refused the summons to surrender. At the end of four days the fire from the American batteries had greatly injured the town, Avhich, moreover, having been closely invested for nearly a fortnight, was reduced almost to a state of famine. On the 26th the Mexican general sent in proposals of sur- render ; terms of capitulation were agreed to, by which both castle and town were given into the hands of the Americans. 103. The 3Iarch to Piiehla. — Cerro Gordo. — Leaving a garrison at Vera Cruz, Scott began his march toward the cai)ital by the National Road. At the mountain-pass of Cerro Gordo he found Santa Anna prej^ared to dispute the passage. With an army of 13,000, the Mexican general strongly fortified himself in a position which could only b( approached through rocky ravines and thick chaparral. On the IStli of Aj^ril, Scott pressed his advance and car- ried the Mexican work by assault. Santa Anna, who had declared that he would die fighting before the Americans should tread '' the imperial city of Azteca," fled precipi- tately, leaving valuable j)ersonal property behind him. 226 PoWs Administratio7i. 104. Jalapa and Perote. — On the next day the invading army entered Jalapa {hd-ld'-pd), and on the 22d took peaceable possession of Perote (^pa-ro'-td), considered the strongest fortress in Mexico next to that of Vera Cruz. On the 15th of May the fortified city of Puebla, containing 80,000 inhabitants, surrendered without a blow. Here Scott rested for a while to refresh his men and wait for reinforcements. _ .^- _=^ Mexico. 105, Tlie Advance wpon 3Iexwo. — In August the American army ascended the eastern slope of the Cord- illeras, and from the summit saw spread out before them in extended panorama the fertile plains and valleys of Mex- ico, the site of the ancient and splendid city of the Aztecs, with its snow-covered mountain-peaks and volcanoes in the background. It was the same sight which had burst upon the vision of Cortez and his followers as, by the same route, more than three centuries before, they had advanced to the conquest of the capital of the Montezumas. PoWs Administration. 227 106, Defences of 3Iex'ico. — The lake which once en- circled the city of Mexico no longer exists, hut for a dis- tance of some miles stretch the low, marshy grounds which once formed its hed. These grounds are easily submerged, rendering access to the city only practicable over narrow causeways. The eastern approach, thus guarded by Na- ture, was made doubly secure by military defences. 107, Contreras, San Antonio, Churabusco and Chapidtepec. — A reconnoissance ordered by Scott demonstrated the prac- ticability of approaching the city by the Acapulco {d-ka- pool'-ko) road from the soutli. This route was defended by the fortified camp of Contreras {kon-trd-ras) ; the strong post of San Antonio; and the lieights of Churubusco (koo-roo-boos'-ko), strongly garrisoned, bristling with can- non, and only approached over a dangerous causeway. Near the city -gates was the still more formidable hill of Chapultepec {cha-pool-ta-pek'). This hill, the true site of the ancient Halls of the Montezumas, was now occupied by the Military College of Mexico. 108, Molino del Rey and Casa Mata. — A strong castle of splendid architecture crowned the summit of Chapultepec, and encircling it were redoubts, batteries, and fortifications of every description, all defended with heavy ordnance and manned by the best troops of Mexico. At the foot of the hill vv^ere two strongholds, Molino del Rey (mo-le'-no del rd) and Casa Mata. 109, Baffles near fhe Cify,— On the 20th of August, General Smith fell upon the camp at Contreras, routing the enemy within fifteen minutes' time and capturing 8000 prisoners. Tlie victorious troops then joined General Worth's division and took possession of San Antonio. This victory was followed by a combined attack on Churu- busco, in Avhich Worth gained possession of the cause- way and General Twiggs carried the main work. Three 228 Polk's Administration. hours after the assault upon Churubusco began, the Mex- ican general, Rmcon. surrendered. Meanwhile, Generals Pierce and Shields had routed 7000 Mexicans under Santa Anna in the rear of Cluirubusco. Thus in one day the Americans gained five fiercely-contested battles. 110, The Armistice, — On tlie following day Scott ad- vanced to a point three miles from the city-gates. Here he received a flag of truce, asking an armistice that com- missioners might negotiate terms of peace. To spare further bloodshed, Scott consented, but finding that Santa Anna was using the time to strengthen ]iis defences, he declared the armistice at an end and ordered an assault. 111, The Ccqjttire of Chapaltepec. — On the 8th of September, General Worth advanced against Molino del Rey and Casa Mata, and before the close of the clay had driven the Mexicans from the lower defences of Chapul- tepec, though not witliout terril)lc slaughter on both sides. On the 12th a cannonade was opened upon the hill and castle. The next day Chapultepec was carried by an assault, and the Mexicans w^ere pursued to the gates of the city. 112, Scott's Entry into 3Ie.rico, — Immediately upon the fall of Chapultepec, Santa Anna and his army escaped from the city of Mexico. The next morning after Santa Anna's flight the municipal authorities of the city came to Scott to ask terms of peace. The general refused to make terms with the conquered city, and on the 14th of September entered it with his arm}^ and took military possession. 113, Treaty of Guudalupe Hidalgo, — On the 2d of February, 1848, commissioners from the United States and Mexico met at Guadalupe Hidalgo (givli-da-loo'-pa he-dnl'-go), and there concluded a treaty of peace. By the terms of this treaty Mexico agreed to consider the Rio Polk's Administration. 229 Grande as the boundary of Texas, and ceded to the United States the extensive territories of California and New Mexico. In return, the United States gave ^lexico $15,000,000 and assumed Mexican debts to the amount of $3,500,000. 114,, The Wilhiiot Froviso. — Every fresh acquisition of territory led to renewed struggles between the two political parties which divided the nation on the subject of the extension or limitation of slavery. Mr. Wilmot of Pennsylvania, an anti-slavery member of Congress, in- troduced during this administration a bill for the exclu- sion of slavery from the territory gained by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. This bill failed to become a law, but the debates upon it in Congress and the feeling wliich it excited throughout the nation did much toward widen- ing the breach between the two sections of the country. 113, Discovery of Gold hi California. — Soon after the treaty with Mexico had secured CVdifornia to the United States, news of gold discovered there became known to the world. Before three montlis had gone by, from all the States of the Union, from Europe, and even from China, thousands flocked to the new El Dorado, and in an incredibly short time the wilderness became a pop- ulous territory. By this discovery millions of treasure have been given to the world. 116, In this connection it may not be amiss to advert to the wonderful adaptation of this continent in its topog- raphy and its resources, agricultural and mineral, to the great principles of free government which have been wrought out upon it. Had not the mountain-walls of the Ai)])alachian System confined the early settlers of America to the narrow Atlantic slope, the fertile Missis- sippi Valley would have allured them to establish small agricultural communities over an extended area. A pop- 230 Taylor s and Fillmore s Administration. ulation thus scattered could never have united successfully for resistance to a common enemy, and would have long remained dependent colonists. They would have lacked towns, those centres where opinions are developed by the attrition of minds ; where reservoirs of wealth, necessary to the prosecution of great plans, are collected; where manufactures, essentinl either to the conduct of war or the enjoyment of peace, are carried on. 117. Again, had the mines of California been discovered upon the Atlantic instead of the Pacific coast of our coun- try, the Pilgrims and the Puritans would not have been the founders of the nation. In their stead, bands of adventurers, ignorant of the first principles of liberty, undisciplined by the sweet uses of adversity, and there- fore unfit to found a virtuous commonwealth, would have long delayed or entirely frustrated the establish- ment of a free and independent nation upon the soil of America. lis. Another advantage incident to the peculiar topog- raphy of America has been the facility with which two bands of civilization, approaching from opposite direc- tions, have been able to reach the great wilderness lying in the heart of the continent, and thus carry our frontiers inward with more than twofold energy and success. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations, 1849-1853. 119. Admission of California, — Taylor's administra- tion opened with violent discussions upon the subject of slavery. Within twenty months after the gold discoveries in California the population had become sufficient to en- able the newly-acquired territory to apply for admission into the Union. California asked to come in as a free State. Her admission as such was opposed by the pro- slavery party on the ground that a large part of her ter- Taylor's and Fillmore s Administration. 231 ritory was south of latitude 36° 30', a limit below which the right of holding slaves was claimed as being accorded by the terms of the Missouri Compromise. 120, Tlie Compromise Act, — In Congress various plans were submitted for the settlement of the question of slavery in California. In 1850, Henry Clay, sometimes called " The Great Pacificator," introduced a compromise bill, the main features of which were: (1) That California be admitted as a free State; (2) That Utah and New Mexico be erected into Territories Avithout conditions as to slavery ; (3) That the slave-trade be prohibited in the District of Columbia; (4) That all fugitive slaves be re- turned to their masters. Because of the many clauses added to the original question of slavery in California, this was popularly called the '' Omnibus Bill." The compromise bill became a law in September, but some of its clauses, especially the last, contained the germs of future discord. 121, Death of President Taylor, — On the 9th of July, 1850, President Taylor died, and was succeeded in office by Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President. 122. Filibustering, — Between the years 1850 and 1857 the aggressions of lawless adventurers threatened to in- volve our government in hostilities with Spain and the provinces of Central America. In 1851, General Lopez organized a force in the United States with which he in- vaded the island of Cuba, designing to promote there a rebellion against the Spanish government. The Cubans did not rise to join him as he had anticipated, and he, with many of his followers, suffered death for his attempt. 123. In 1855 an adventurer, named Walker, conducted a filibustering expedition to Nicaragua and the states of Central America. He held possession for a while, but was afterward seized and put to death by the natives. 232 Pierces Administration. Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857. 124, The Gadsden Purchase. — A dispute having arisen with Mexico in regard to the boundaries of the recently-acquired territory, a purchase was made during this administration by General Gadsden, in behalf of our government, of a large tract known as Arizona. 125, The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, — In 1854, Stephen A. Douglas introduced in Congress a bill to organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, leaving the question of slavery to be decided by the majority of the inhabit- ants. These Territories were north of the line adopted in the Missouri Compromise, and the bill was opposed by the " Free Soil " party, but it nevertheless became a law. 126, Civil War in Kansas, — As the question of slavery in Kansas was to be decided by votes, both political par- ties sent emigrants in large numbers, each hoping to win the victory at the ballot-boxes by this means. Between the settlers themselves the disputed question led to quar- rels, and soon to bloodshed. " Border ruflians " came over from Missouri to control the elections by violence, and the whole Territory became the seat of outrage and lawlessness. " Bleeding Kansas " was the leading theme all over the country, and the bitterness between the two political par- ties increased rapidly. 127* Tnternal Tmprot^ements, — During this adminis- tration the government sent out parties to survey and de- termine the route of a railroa' to the Pacific coast. To extend our commerce still further westward, Commodore Perry was despatched on an embassy to Japan. The Japanese entertained great jealousy of foreign nations, and had for centuries closed their ports to general com- mercial intercourse, making only special exceptions in favor of a few individual merchants. Pierces Administration. 233 128. The Treaty with Japan. — In pursuance of his mission, Perry, in 1853, entered the Bay of Yedo with a fleet of war-steamers, and anchored off the site of the pres- sent city of Yokohama. He met the deputation sent by the miHtary representative of the emperor of Japan, and secured a treaty of friendship, which was afterward fol- lowed by a treaty of commerce obtained by Mr. Townsend Harris. In 1868 a political revolution overthrew the mil- itary ruler who in the treaties styled himself the " Ty- CuMMODOKi: Pkkuv kkfofvK tiik Tycoon. coon," and reinstated the Mikado or emperor to his an- cient supreme power. The Mikado ratified the treaties and sent an embassy to visit the civilized nations of the world. The Japanese embassy directed its course first to the United States. Jajjan is now no longer an Eastern but a Western country, and the opening of this nation by peaceful and honorable American diplomacy has V)een highly creditable to our government. 12U. Political Parties. — During the political agitation throughout the country consequent on the passage of the 234 Buchanan's Admmistration. Kansas-Nebraska bill, the old Whig party disappeared. Many of its adherents joined the Free Soilers, forming a new organization known as the Republican party. Slavery was now the most important question before the nation. The Democrats, embracing most of the Southern people, adhered strongly to the institution and spared no effort for its extension into the newdy-organized Territories, while the Republicans opposed it as contrary to good morals and free institutions. In the fall of 1856 the Democrats elected James Buchanan over the Republi- can candidate, John- C. Fremont. Buclianan's Admiiiistratioii, 1857-1861. 130, TJte Dred Scott Decision. — This administration was marked by a degree of political animosity never before known in this country. In 1857 a slave named Dred Scott began a suit for his freedom, on the ground of his master's having taken him to reside in a free State (Illinois). Chief- Justice Taney (taw'm) rendered an ad- verse decision, and gave it as his opinion that a residence on free soil did not invalidate the owner's claim to the control of his slave. This seemed to the anti-slavery party but the preliminary step to the establishment of the doc- trine that it was lawful to hold slaves in every part of the Union. 131* Personal Liberty Bills. — The Fugitive Slave Law (see Compromise Act of 1850) met with great opposition at the North, and its enforcement was often resisted. By the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Law the person claim- ed as a slave was denied the right of trial by jury, and thus free negroes were liable to be carried into bondage. To prevent this injustice, many of the State legislatures at the North passed what were known as Personal Liberty Laws, designed to secure to fugitive slaves the right of trial by jury. Lincoln s Administration. 235 132, John Brown's Attetnpt to Free the Slaves. — John Brown was a man whose animating principle w^as hostility to slavery. After the passage of the Kansas-Ne- braska Bill he, witli six of his sons, went to Kansas to aid and defend free-soil immigration to that Territory. In October, 1859, Brown with twenty -nine companions, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. His design was to secure the arms and ammunition there stored and carry them off to the mountain-fastnesses. Secure in that re- treat, he v/ould receive and arm all the slaves who should escape to him from their masters, and transport them to the free soil of Canada. 133, Brown's slender force was overpowered by State and national troops after a stubborn resistance in which thirteen of their number were killed ; Brow^n and six of his companions were tried and executed. The people of the South, believing this to be part of a widespread conspiracy for raising a servile -insurrection and freeing the slaves, were more than ever embittered against the anti-slavery party. Lincoln's Administration, 1861-1865. The Civil War. — Causes. 134, State Sovereignty, — The Philadelphia Convention of 1787* encountered great difficulties in so framing the Constitution as to secure its acceptance by the various States. Each individual commonwealth demanded that its particular interests should be carefully guarded, and all were jealous of bestowing too much power on the national government. Even after the ratification of the Constitution many people held to the opinion that any State might withdraw from the Union and resume inde- pendence. This doctrine of State Sovereignty was fre- quently agitated. 135, Slavery, — The principle of State sovereignty was U *(Seep. 180») 236 Lincolns Administration. put to the test on the question of slavery. At the time of the framing of the Constitution this question was one of the most difticultto adjust. In tlie Northern States eman- cipation was going on, and the conviction that the institu- tion was unjust and immoral everywhere gained ground. It was easier to act upon this principle at the North, where slave-labor was unprofitable, than at the South, where the culture of the great staples of cotton, sugar, rice, and to- bacco seemed to render the services of the negro indispen- sable. 136, Immediate abolition of slavery was out of the question, and a compromise was agreed to by the framers of the Constitution by which the importation of slaves should be prohibited after the year 1808. It was hoped by the opposers of the institution, among whom were such eminent men as Washington and Jefferson, that the sup- pression of the slave-trade would lead gradually to the abandonment of slavery. 137 » In 1820 this subject first assumed decided shape as a political question. But even before that date, in 1803, at the time of the purchase of Louisiana, there were not wanting those who strenuously opposed that acquisition on the ground that it would extend the area of slave ter- ritory. We have already seen that when the annexation of Texas* was proposed the same arguments were adduced against it by a large party in the country. 138. Again, when California asked admission as a free State, it was objected to by the pro-slavery party on the ground that nearly all of her territory lay south of the line fixed upon by the Missouri Compromise. The Com- promise (see p. 214) accepted at that time contained a clause known as the Fugitive Slave Law, which increased the excitement upon this question. The civil war in Kansas (p. 232 \ tlie Dred Scott decision (p. 234), John ■■- fSce u. 221.) Lincohis Adviinistration. 237 Brown's attempt to free the slaves in Virginia (p. 235), all combined to bring about the most intense feeling upon the subject of slavery. 139. At the North societies were organized to promote its abolition, open resistance was shown to the Fugitive Slave Act, escaping slaves were eagerly helped to reach Canada, the lyceum, the press, and the pulpit waged war against tlie institution and its upholders. The pro-slavery party was equall}^ zealous in defending the institution. Rup- ture became inevitable. The first step was taken by the South. Declaring her ^jeculiar institution to be in danger, she proclaimed the right of sovereign States to secede from the Federal Union. The day of argument upon this great constitutional question was now ended, and the appeal to arms for its settlement alone remained. The Civil War. — Preliminary Events. 140. Elect ion of 1S60. — As the Presidential contest of 1860 drew near, party feeling rose to an intense pitch. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, while the votes of the other political party were divided among three candidates — Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, and John Bell. 141. Tlie unanimity of the Republicans secured the election of their candidate. The Southern leaders had openly announced that in the event of Mr. Lincoln's elec- tion their States would secede from the Union, and they immediately prepared to carry this threat into execution. 142. Secession of the Southern States. — On the 20th of December a convention of delegates met at Charleston, South Carolina, and declared that State to have withdrawn from the Federal Union. Within six weeks six other States — Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas — had seceded. 238 Lincoln s A dviinistration. 143. Firing on the Star of the West-. — The seceded States at once seized all the United States niilitar}^ posts \\ithin their horders except a few, the garrisons of which refused to give them up. At Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, Major Anderson was stationed with sixty men. A government ship, the Star of the West, being sent with supplies and reinforcements for the post, was fired into off Fort Moultrie and compelled to return. In the mean time batteries had been erected to connnand fort and harbor, and Anderson daily expected an attack. 144, Organization of the Confederate Government, — On the 4th of February, 1861, delegates from the seceded States convened at Montgomery, Alabama, organized a Southern Confederacy, adopted a constitution and form of government, and elected Jefferson Davis President. Soon after the Confederate Congress sent commissioners to Washington to treat for a peaceful separation. In his reply the Secretary of State, W. H. Seward, took the ground — which was constantly maintained by the govern- Lincoln s Administration. 239 ment — that no State could be separated from the Union by its own act, but only by the decision of a convention in which all the States should be represented. 14:5, Condition of the Coiuitry. — Many United States officials, being in sympathy with the secessionists, took advantage of their positions to convey large quantities of military stores and supplies to places within the Con- federacy. The national troops were scattered in small detachments and at remote points. While the South was thus making vigorous preparations to assert its power by force of arms, no counter-effort was being put forth by the administration to avert the rapidly approaching catas- trophe or to put the country in a condition to meet the crisis When Lincoln came to the head of affairs the great Civil War was ready to burst upon the land. Events of 1861. 146, Firing on Fort Sumter, — In March, Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated. On the 11th of April a demand was made by the Confederate General Beauregard for the evacuation of Fort Sumter. Major Anderson's answer to this demand was, '' that his sense of honor and his obligations to his government would prevent his compli- ance." At half-past four on the morning of the following day the hostile batteries opened upon Fort Sumter a fire which was kept up for thirty-four hours. At the end of that time, unable to withstand the cannonade longer. Anderson surrendered, being accorded the full honors of war and safe conduct to the government steamer lying off the bar. 147, Effects of the Attack on Fort Snniter, — The at- tack on Fort Sumter had the effect to precipitate action on both sides. Virginia, Arkansas, Nortli Carolina, and Tennessee joined the C'onfederacy, In'inging the number 240 Lincohis Administration. of. seceded States up to eleven, while the remaining slave States, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, were in a wavering condition. All the government property within the limits of the seceded States was seized by the Confederacy. On the 15th of April, President Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to aid the government in en- forcing the execution of the law, now obstructed in cer- tain States. 148, Plan of the First Canipaign, — In the presence of this sudden emergency of war no opportunity was afforded to plan definitely for the conduct of it. Armies were quickly mustered on both sides, and the struggle began — (1) for the possession of the border States, Vir- ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri ; (2) for the capture of Con- federate seaports ; (3) for the defence of the two capital cities, Washington and Richmond, the Confederate govern- ment being now established at the latter place. 149, War in the Border States, — Toward the end of May, General Scott sent a detachment of the Union army under General McDowell across the Potomac for an ad- vance upon Richmond. McDowell was confronted by the main Confederate army under General Beauregard, stationed at Manassas Junction. At the same time Gen- eral Butler was at Fortress Monroe to watch the Confeder- ate General Magruder, and General Patterson, in the Shen- andoah Valley, opposed to General J. E. Johnston. Be- sides the armies guarding these important natural high- ways between the two sections of the country, there were considerable forces in West Virginia. 150, Battle of Bull Bun,— On the 16th of July, Gen= eral Scott ordered McDowell to advance. The enemy was posted on Bull Run, a small tributary of the Po- tomac, and covered the road to Richmond. McDowell opened the attack there on Sunday, the 21st. At first the Lincoln's Administration. 241 advantage was Avith tlie national troops, but a detachment of Johnston's army, eluding Patterson, who had been di- rected to prevent his junction with Beauregard, reached the field in time to change the fortunes of the day. The Union troops, broken by this renewed fire, w^ere driven back in disorder. The retreat soon became a Tout, and the contagion of terror infecting all with whom it came in con- tact, the rout became a panic. The fugitive army took its way in wild confusion tow^ard Washington, unpursued, however, by tlie Confederates. 151. Effects of this Battle. — Bull Run, because of its moral effects, may be considered one of the decisive bat- tles of the war. It aroused at the North an almost uni- versal outburst of national spirit, and the disastrous blov>^ struck at the integrity of the Union re:^ulted in immediate and powerful efforts for its preservation. Among South- erners the victory was hailed with exultation as the har- binger of an early and satisfactory adjustment of the claims of the Confederacy. 152, The War in West Virginia. — In this section most of the people were loyal to the Union, and when the Ordinance of Secession was passed by the Virginia con- vention, they appealed to Congress to erect West Vir- ginia into a distinct State under the Constitution. A Con- federate force sent to this section was defeated by the prompt movements of the West Virginians under General McClellan. Successive Union victories were gained at Philippi, at Rich Mountain, and at Carrick's Ford. Gen- eral Wise was chased down the Kanawha Valley, and General Floyd defeated at Carnifex Ferry. By the close of the year nearly all the Confederate forces had been driven from West Virginia. 15.3. The War in Missouri. — Thouerh a slave State Missouri's loyal inhabitants held her for the Union ever 242 Lincoln s Administration. against the strenuous efforts of the Secessionist governor to carry her over to the Confederacy. These efforts were foiled chiefly through the vigiUuice of Captain (afterward General) Lyon and a few loyal coadjutors. Captain Lyon secured the arsenal at St. Louis, and suhsequently march- ing upon Camp Jackson in the vicinity of that city, where the Secessionists had encamped in force, he compelled them to surrender. 154. By the 1st of July, Lyon held military control over the entire section of the State north of the Missouri River, and had advanced as far south as Springfield in his pursuit of the retreating enemy. In August, under Generals Price and McCulloch, a Confederate army 23,000 strong advanced from the south U})on Lyon at Springfield. 155. Bdffle of Wilson- s Creek. — Lyon's force was greatly inferior, l)ut fearing the moral effect of a retreat he advanced toward the enemy. The two armie-s met at Wilson's Creek, where a severe ])attle was fought (Aug. 10), in wliich Lyon was killed. The Union army, leaving the Confederates in possession of the field, withdrew to Rolla, near the centre of the State, where General Fremont took command. 156. After the hattle of Wilson's Creek the Confeder- ates spread themselves over Missouri. Fremont, having concentrated his forces with the view of driving them from the State, had advanced as far as Springfield and was pre- paring to deal the enemy a severe blow when he was superseded in his command by General Hunter. Active operations in Missouri were suspended during the re- mainder of this year. 157 » Events on the Coast. — Halt eras Inlet and Fort Royal. — An attempt was early made ])y the national gov- ernment to capture or blockade the ports of the South, and hus deprive the Confederacy of supplies from abroad. In Page 24S 244 Lincoln s Administration. August the forts guarding Hatteras Inlet were captured by an expedition under General Butler. Control was thus secured of the entrance to the great network of rivers and sounds which penetrate far into North Carolina. In No- vember a combined attack was made by General Sherman and Admiral Dupont upon Port Royal entrance in South Carolina. The forts by wliich it was defended were taken and possession obtained both of the harbor and the town of Beaufort. 158, Foreign Relations, — In view of the Civil War in the United States, England issued a proclamation of neu- trality and recognized the contending parties as bellige- rents. Toward the close of this year an incident occurred whicli threatened for a while to involve the North in hos- tilities with the British government. Two envoys of the Confederacy, Mason and Slidell, took passage for England on the British mail-steamer Trent^ from which they were forcibly removed by Ca]:>tain Wilkes of the steamship Ja- cinto, and by him brouglit to the United States. England regarded this act as an insult to her flag, and demanded rep- aration. Our government, always taking advanced ground on the subject of the rights of neutrals, restored the prisoners. Events of 1862. 159, Plan of the Campaign, — The plan of the cam- paign for this year comprised (1) the opening of the INIis- sissippi River, by which means the Confederacy would be severed, its supjDlies from the West cut off, the outlet for the great commerce of the North-west restored, and a base gained for an attack upon the enemy's rear; (2) the maintenance of the coast-guard; (3) the advance upon Richmond. KiO. Ojjening of the Mississipjn and Attacks on the Confederate Hear, — The Confederate line extended from Lincoln s Administration. 245 the Mississippi River to the Cumberland Mountains. At Columbus a force was posted for the defence of the river. Two strong forts, Donelson and Henry, guarded respec- tively the great highways to tlie interior, the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. The railroad junction at Bowl- ing Green Avas protected, and a consideraljle force stationed at Mill Spring. 161. Battle of Mill Spring, — The Union army was commanded by General Halleck, and tlie Confederates by General A. S. Johnston. The first battle along this line was fought at Mill Spring (Jan. 18 and 19), where the Confederates were driven from the field. 162. Caiiture of Forts Henry mid Donelson. — With the design of V)reaking this strong Confederate line, tlie Union army was ordered to attack its centre, the forts on the Tennessee and Cumberland. A land expedition un- der General Grant started from Cairo to co-operate with Commodore Foote in an attack on Fort Henry. Before the arrival of Grant's force the gunboats had reduced the fort (Feb. 6), the garrison escaping to Fort Donelson. After the evacuation of Fort Henry the Union forces moved against Donelson, which was forced to surrender. The Confederates fought bravely, but besides being outnum- bered, they were so worn with continued fighting that it is said some fell asleep standing in line of battle and un- der fire. It was in reply to the request made here for terms of capitulation that Grant sent his famous reply : " Unconditional surrender." On these terms the fort and 8000 prisoners were given up (Feb. 16). 163. These very important victories, besides opening the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers for a considerable dis- tance, compelled the abandonment of the remainder of the Confederate line, now broken at two such important points. Johnston, gathering together his army in Kentucl^y and 246 Lincoln s Administration. Tennessee, took post at Corinth, an important railroad centre just within the State line of Mississippi. The Union forces under Grant moved up tlie Tennessee River, and encamped at Pittsburg Landing, eighteen miles north- east of Corinth. 164:, Battle of Shiloh (April 6 and 7). — Johnston de- termined to attack Grant before the latter should be rein- forced by Buell, who was moving to his support. With an army of 50,000 he moved out of Corinth, and fell upon the Union camp so unexpectedly that one entire division was routed before it had time to form in line of battle. The army thus attacked was pressed l)ack, lighting all the w\ay, until crow^led ui)()n a narrow semicircle on the river- bank, whence further retreat was impossible. Only a ravine separated the Federal forces from Johnston's victo- rious troops, who were preparing for a final charge. 165, Grant now ordered the few^ remaining pieces of artillery, together with those of two gunboats in the river, to be trained so as to sweep the enemy's approach. By this disposition the great and imminent peril of a charge, which in the shattered condition of the Union forces would have been fatal, was averted. 166, The Confederates renew^ed the attack in the morn- ing, but Buell having come up during the night, they were unequal to the superior body of fresh troops brought against them. The ground won the day before was grad- ually lost, and the battle, wdiich began so 1)rilliantly for the Confederates, ended in a victory for the Federals. Johnston, one of the ablest generals of the South, was killed in this battle, and the retreat of the shattered army over the narrow, miry road was made still more distress- ing by a pitiless storm of sleet and hail. 167, Bragg's Invasion of Kentacky. — After the bat- tle of Shiloh the forces of both armies were broken into Lincoln s Administration. 24i detachments covering an extensive area in the Southern States. The Avar in this section poon became a conflict of guerilhis and raiders. Daring marauding exploits were performed by General John Morgan, Colonel Forrest, and others. The most formidal^le of tliese raids Avas tlie one undertaken by General Bragg with the design of securing Kentucky and Tennessee to the Confederacy. 168. Soon after the battle of Shiloh, Bragg gathered an army at Chattanooga, and General Buell, who Avas left in command at Coi'inth, Avas advancing toAvard him Avhen the Confederate general suddenly started north. Bragg routed the Union forces at Cuml^erland Gap and Rich- mond, Kentucky, Avliile Kirby Smith Avith another Con- federate colunm captured Lexington, and afterAvard took such a position as to threaten both Louisville and Cincin- nati. The latter place being Avell defended, no attack Avas attempted ; the former Avas saved by Buell. This officer had moved north in a line parallel to that of Bragg, and, garrisoning Nashville, reached Louisville in time to pre- vent its assault. 169. During nearly the entire month of September the Confederate army remained in the heart of Kentucky and Tennessee, una])le to induce the people to espouse their cause, but gathering immense quantities of plunder. By the first of October, Buell Avas ready to move against Bragg, and tlie latter sloAvly retreated, skirmishing along the route in order to give his plunder-train, said to be forty miles long, time to move on. At Perryville he re- ceived a blow Avhich compelled him to hasten his retreat, but finally made good his escape from the State Avith little loss. 170. Battles of luka and Corinth, — Buell, Avhen start- ing in pursuit of Bragg, left Grant Avith as large a force as he could s})are in the vicinity of Corintli. Not far from 248 Lincoln s Administration. this point were Confederate troops under Generals Price and Van Dorn. On the 19th of September, Price was driven out of luka. Grant was now ordered to Vicksburg, and Rosecrans took command at Corinth. On the 4th of October this general was attacked by the combined forces of Price and Van Dorn. The Confederates, in superior numbers, made a charge upon the Union army. Their leader. General Rogers of Texas, moving at the head of the wedge-shaped column, which advanced steadily not- withstanding the great gaps made in its ranks by shot and shell, was killed just as he had succeeded in planting his flag on the parapet. 171* For a few minutes a terrible fight raged, in which men used bayonets, clubbed muskets, and even their fists, but nothing could stand against the valor of Rosecrans's troops. The Confederates, who had pressed up the hill so gallantly, were driven down it in precipitate flight. In recognition of the victory thus won Rosecrans was pro- moted to the command of that department. 172, Baffle of 3Iu rfre(sboro\ — From Corinth, Rose- crans drew his forces into Nashville, there to rest and re- organize. In December he advanced toward Murfrees- boro', where Bragg lay. The armies met at Stone River (Dec. 30). Rosecrans liad planned to mass his left against the enemy's right; but Bragg had his plan of attack also, which was to throw a force against Rosecrans's right, and being first to put his plan in execution, he succeeded in dislodging the weakened Union division. For a while it seemed as if this attack would give the victory to the Con- federates, but when night separated the combatants Rose- crans still held possession of the field. 173. On New Year's Day nothing more than skirmish- ing was attempted. On the 2d of January the Confeder- ates charged again ; but Rosecrans had now taken a posi- Lincobis Administration. 249 tion from which he could not be driven, and they were repulsed with loss. From this drawn battle Bragg retired unmolested by Rosecrans, who was in no condition to follow. 174:, Advance Doivn the Mississippi River, — Island Ah. 10. — After the loss of Forts Henry and Donelson the Confederates were obliged to abandon (blumbus. They took post on Island Number 10, where, from the 13th of March until the 7th of April they were besieged by the gunboats of Commodore Foote. On the 7th, the co- operation of the land-forces under General Pope having been effected, Island Number 10, which the Confederates had thought impregnable, was given up. Its garrison moved down to Fort Pillow, an important outpost for the defence of Memphis, seventy miles below. 175, Memphis. — The victory of Shiloh left the Union fleet free to operate on the Mississippi. It accordingly moved down the river to attack the Confederate gun- boats gathered for the defence of Memphis. On the 6th of June, after a conflict of only two hours, the Confed- erates surrendered to the national flotilla. This victory, besides opening the Mississippi at every important point except Vicksburg, took also from the Confederacy the con- trol of the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, which had served as its chief route of supplies from the West. The Union army now held a strong line from Memphis to Corinth. It was partly for the purpose of breaking this line that Bragg invaded Kentucky in September. 170, Capture of New Orleans. — Early in the year a fleet under Commodore Farragut, accompanied by land- forces under General Butler, was sent against New Orleans. The approaches to that city were strongly guarded at every point. On the banks of the river, seventy-five miles below the city, were two strong forts, Jackson and 250 Lincoln s Administration. St. Philip. A flotilla of gunboat.s lay in the river, while a barrier of chains obstructed the channel, and fire-rafts were prepared for the destruction of an invading fleet. Capture of Nkw Orlkans. 177. On the 18th of April, Farragut opened on the forts a cannonade which was continued three days with little effect. On the 24th the Union gunboats ran the forts under a heavy concentrated fire, overcame the ob- structions in the river, scattered the Confederate flotilla, and soon after appeared before the city. The inhabitants began to destroy property as soon as they learned that Farragut w^as approaching. When he came within sight of New Orleans he beheld for five miles along the levee vast quantities of cotton and other merchandise wrapped in one great conflagration. Forts Jackson and St. Philip surrendered soon after this, and General Butler, coming up, took military possession of the city. 178. Attack on Vickshurg. — After the fjxll of New Orleans all tlie important Confederate posts on the Missis- Lincoln s Administration. 251 sippi were given up except Vicksburg, which almost alone obstructed the passage, and served as the point of connec- tion between the eastern and western members of the Con- federacy. After the battles of luka and Corinth an expe- dition was planned against this post. General Grant's army advanced through Mississippi to co-operate with General Sherman and the fleet under Commodore Porter. The enemy having succeeded in cutting ofi' Grant's line of sup- plies at Holly Springs, he was obliged to retreat. Sherman attacked the Confederates at Chickasaw Bayou, and was repulsed. After one more unsuccessful attempt against Vicksburg, operations for its reduction were abandoned for that year. 179, Battle of Pea nidge (March 7 and 8).— After Hunter left Springfield (1861), Price gained i)ossession in the western part of Missouri, but afterward, being pursued by General Curtis, he retreated to Arkansas. There Price was joined by Van Dorn and Pike, the latter at the head of an Indian brigade. Tbe Confederates, thus reinforced, turned and attacked Curtis, Avho had taken a j^osition at Pea Ridge. The former were defeated after two days of fighting. Curtis returned to Missouri, where, aside from guerrilla attacks, there was little more of fighting during the war. The War on the Coast. 180. Korth Carolina. — In accordance with the plan for capturing or blockading the seaports, and thus depriv- ing the Confederacy of supplies from abroad, a govern- ment expedition was despatched under General Burnside and Commod(^re Goldsborough against the North Carolina coast. On tlie 8th of February, Roanoke Island, Avhich commanded the entrance to the extensive inland naviga- tion of that State, was captured. The Confederate fleet 252 Lincoln s Administration. was soon after destroyed, and the important city of New- bern taken (March 14). On the 25th of April, Fort Macon, commanding the entrance to the important -har- bor of Beaufort, was captured. The government thus gained control of nearly all the coast of North Carolina. 181, South Cat'oUna, Georgia, and Florida, — On the 11th of April an expedition under General Hunter, by the reduction of Fort Pulaski, closed tlie port of Savannah against Confederate cruisers. From Port Royal — which, after its capture in 1861, had afforded the Union army a base for operations in that quarter — several coast-expedi- tions were sent out, by means of which the ports of Georgia and Florida were closed. Charleston, Mobile, and Wil- mington now remained the only Confederate ports at which blockade-runners could evade the coast-guard. 182, The 3Ierrimach and the Monitor, — On the 8th of March, the Confederate iron-clad ram, Merrimack^ ad- vanced from Norfolk to attack the Union blockading squadron at Hampton Roads. Moving into the midst of the fleet she destroyed two ships, the Congress and the Camberland, without sustaining any damage from the fire of heavy balls with which she was met. Grave fears were entertained that this formidable engine of naval warfore might be able not only to break up the blockade, but also to attack the rich and populous seaports of the North, unless something could be devised to cope Avith her. 183, During that night, however, the little iron-clad Monitor arrived at Hampton Roads. The form and con- struction of this vessel were then entirely new and un- tried, and she certainly did not seem equal to a contest with the Merrimack, which was five times her size. In the morning the dreaded ram again appeared. The little Monitor steamed close alongside the giant Merrinmck, and Lincoln s Administration. 253 after a conflict of five hours the latter was compelled to withdraw to Norfolk. This victory was highly important in checking the threatened devastation, but far more so in its effects upon naval warfare throughout the world. Advance toward Richmond. 184. Plan of the Cmnpaign. — The winter of 1861-62 was spent by McClellan in recruiting and drilling the army of the Potomac, and by the opening of spring he had a force of nearly 200,000 in a fine state of discipline. The Confederates were concentrated at Manassas during the winter, but in March moved to the south side of the Rapidan. It was decided not to attempt the advance on Riclimond by land, as the intervening country is traversed by many rivers, which could only be crossed by an army at certain points, and these points were capable of being held, one after another, by a small body of troops against a large attacking force. 185, It was therefore decided to transport the army of the Potomac to Fortress Monroe, and from thence move up the York Peninsula against the Confederate capital. In :54 Lincoln s Adviinistratioii. this way easy water-communication with Washington, and also tlie aid of the gunboats, could be secured. Gen- eral Banks was left to hold the Shenandoah Valley and prevent any advance upon Washington through that con- venient highway. McDowell commanded the forces left for the defence of the capital. 186, Siege of Yorktoivn, — By the 4th of April, McClel- lan's army, numbering over 100,000, had been transported to the Peninsula, and confronted the Confederate force under General Magruder at Yorktown. This general, though really having only 11,000 men, disposed them so skilfully that McClellan refused to venture an assault upon what he considered the strong defences of Yorktown, and began a siege. When the Union army was ready for an assault, Magruder had retreated, having held his op- ponent in check an entire month. 187, Battle of WilUanishiirg, — After the siege of Yorktown, General J. E. Johnston, Avho commanded the Confederates, made a stand at AA^illiamsburg. The Pen- insula is here quite narrow, and his lines extended en- tirely across. On the 5th of May, Johnston was attacked, and, after a bloody battle of nine hours, fell back, pur- sued by McClellan. The Union fleet at that time went up the James River to a point only eight miles below Pvich- mond, but was there stopped by the guns of Drewry's Bluft: 188, Battle of Fair Oalis, — McClellan moved up the valley of the Chickahominy, his passage being disputed by the Confederates, who were assembling from all points for the defence of their capital. The Union army was advancing in two lines, one on either side of the river. The Confederates, improving the opportunity when a rain- storm had swollen the river and made the roads difficult, fell upon the southern division at Fair Oaks (May 31). Lincohis Achninistration. 255 A severe battle was fought, lasting two days. At first the advantage was with the Confederates, who were gaining ground when General Sedgwick effected the crossing of a part of the force from the opposite side, sufficient to repel the attack. The Confederates fell back toward Richmond, pursued by the Union army to a point within six miles of the city. Johnston was wounded in this battle, and the command of the Confederate army devolved upon the able General Robert E. Lee. 189. Jaclxson^s Campaign in the Shenandoah Val- ley, — Besides the advance of the army under McClellan, movements were attempted by Banks and McDowell to- ward Richmond. Any effective co-operation of their forces was, however, completely neutralized by the tactics of the popular Confederate general, " Stonewall " Jackson, in the Shenandoah Valley. Jackson drove Banks down the valley and menaced Harj^er's Ferry. There, hearing of the approach of the Union divisions under Banks, Fre- mont, and McDowell, he returned and by rapid and well- executed movements, striking Fremont a blow at Cross Keys on the 8th of June, and again the following day re- pelling Banks's advance at Port Republic, he himself escaped in safety from the valley to join Lee in the de- fence of Richmond. By drawing off the attention of Banks and McDowell, Jackson had frustrated, for that year, the attack upon the Confederate capital. 190. The Seven Days' Battle before liichmond. — Instead of waiting behind his defences for McClellan's attack, Lee suddenly assumed the offensive. Jackson, who had just returned from the Shenandoah, was sent against the Union army, which, marching up the north side of the Chickahominy, had reached Mechanicsville (June 25). The results were not decisive. McClellan withdrew to Gaines's Mill, where Lee fell upon him the 256 Lincoln s Administration. next day, inflicting severe loss and threatening to prevent his crossing the Chickahominy to rejoin his division on the south side of that river. 191, The base of supplies for the Union army had been at White-House Landing on the York River, whence the stores were forwarded by railroad. Cut off from this point by being driven across the Chickahominy, McClellan was farced to seek a new base of supplies on the James River, seventeen miles distant. The single road which he must traverse to reach his new base lay through a swamp, and over the entire length of this j^oad he was pursued b}^ Lee. His army fought every day and fell back by night. Savage Station (June 29), Frazier's Farm (June 30), are the names of the heavier engagements, but the entire route was a battle-field. 192, On the 1st of July, McClellan took a strong posi- tion on Malvern Hill, where he was able to repulse Lee in a fierce battle. The loss in this retreat, from Mechanics- ville to Malvern Hill, Avas about 20,000 on each side. The Union army moved to Harrison's Landing, and gave up all hope of capturing Richmond that year. The Confed- erates, freed from anxiety for their own capital, began a movement toward Washington. 193, Le€\s Invasion of the North. — Movements against Pope. — After McClellan 's retreat Lee set a part of his army in motion down the Shenandoah Valley. The divisions of Banks, Fremont, and McDowell were consolidated un- der Pope to oppose this force and protect the capital from an assault in that direction. The advance under Banks met Stonewall Jackson at Cedar Mountain (Aug. 9), where a severe though indecisive battle was fought. Pope began a retreat, with almost the entire Confederate army of Vir- ginia in pursuit of him. 194, McClellan was ordered to take a part of his force Pnn. 3.-1? 258 Lincoln s Administration. from the Peninsula and quickly join Pope for the defence of Washington. On the old field of Bull Run a battle was fought (Aug. 29-30), in which Lee gained the advantage. Pope continued his retreat until his shattered forces found shelter behind the defences south of A\^ashington. In this campaign the Union army lost 30,000 men. Mud property was destroyed and great anxiety was felt for tlu safety of the national capital. 195. The Invasion of Maryland. — Instead of following Pope to the defences of Washington, Lee now turned to the west and entered Frederick, Maryland, where he issued an address inviting the people to join the Confederate cause. Failing to elicit any response, he moved toward Harper's Ferry, pursued by the Union forces, again under McClellan, who, having accidentally come into possession of Lee's order of march, was able to make the best dispo- sition of his army to follow and attack him. A part of Lee's force was to move in three divisions — one to attack Harper's Ferry, while the second and third moved respect- ively north and south of that line, intercepting the retreat of the garrison from that place and gathering supplies. The remainder of Lee's army Avas to act as a rear-guard. 196. jMcClellan fell upon this rear-guard (Sept. 14) at Turner's Gap in the South JMountain, and drove them from their strong position there, though not without n hard-fought battle. Harper's Ferry was surrendered the next day to Stonewall Jackson, before the Union army could come to its relief. Lee, whose position was becom- ing perilous, quickly called in his scattered army and con- centrated them at Sharpsburg, on the Avest side of An- tietam Creek. 197. Battle of Antietam.. — A battle was begun early on the following morning (Sept. 17) by Hooker, who opened with an attack on Lee's left. For several hours the struggle Lincoln 's A dminist ratio n. 259 was obstinate and victory doubtful ; early in the afternoon reinforcements came up and decided that portion of the battle for the national troops. The other divisions failed to cross the stream until later in the day, wlien Jackson, having come in from Harper's Ferry, lielped to repulse their attack. The battle was not renewed, and the next day Lee began to retreat across the Potomac. Althougli the Confederate general had inflicted much injury by this invasion, it was for him practically a defeat, as he gained nothing by it, and retreated with an army greatly worn and reduced by hard marching and hard fighting. Constructing a Pontoon Bridge. 198, Battle of Fredericksburg, — The Union forces did not cross the Potomac in pursuit of Lee until November. Soon after, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside. In December this general moved to the Rappahannock, threatening Richmond from that direction. Lee, havint fortified the hills in the rear of 260 Lincoln s Administration , Fredericksburg on that river, posted himself to oppose the Federal advance. On the 12th of December, Burnside, after much delay for lack of pontoons, crossed the Rap- pahannock, and the next day ordered an assault on the enemy's Avorks. The order was obeyed, but every foot of the ground over which his men advanced was raked by Lee's guns ; corps by corps, they were forced back with dreadful slaughter. Tliat night the Union army retreated, having lost nearly 15,000 killed and wounded. 199. lleview of the Year. — By the efforts put forth this year the Mississippi River had been cleared of every important obstruction except those at Vicksburg. In the western part of the Confederacy, thus severed from the eastern, no considerable force remained. Western Ten- nessee was' also secured to the Union. On the coast every port except Wilmington, Charleston, and Mobile had been either seized or blockaded by the government. By these important advantages the Confederacy was firmly held within reduced limits on three sides. On the north it had proved itself much more formidable, and the na- tional arms had met with serious defeat and loss. Events of 1863. 200. Tlie Emancipation Prochnnation. — The Con- federacy was enabled to recruit its forces because slave- labor released white men at the South from the toil by which their troops were armed, fed, and clothed, thus sending large numbers into the ranks. Slaves were also employed in building fortifications. As a military ne- cessity, therefore, in September, just after Lee had witli difficulty been repelled from invading the Northern States, President Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring free " all slaves in those States or parts of States in rebellion against the government." This proclamation took effect on and after January 1, 1863. Lincohis Administration. 261 201, Plan of Campaign for 1863,— The plan for this year was similar to that of 1862: 1. An advance ui)on Richmond ; 2. A strong guard over all the seaports of the Confederacy ; 3. Operations in the West, in Avhich the INIississippi was to be opened at Vicksburg and Port Hud- son, the only points still held by the Confederates, while another army, that of the Cumberland, should push in and occupy the States bordering on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. 202, The Advance upon IiirJunon(L — Battle of Chan- ceUorsville. — After the disaster at Fredericksburg, Burn- side was succeeded by Hooker, wlio, after two months spent in improving the condition of the army, moved toward Richmond. General Sedgwick was despatched against Fredericksburg to draw Lee's attention to that point, while Hooker crossed the Rappahannock several miles farther w\). This diversion so far succeeded that Hooker effected the crossing safely at Chancellorsville. As soon as Lee discovered the real design and jiosition of the Federals, he sent Stonewall Jackson to dis})ute Hooker's advance (May 2\ After a day of fierce assaults and bloody resistance, Hooker Avas driven l)ack. In tliis action the Confederates lost Jackson, one of their bravest and most successful generals. 20S, On the next day the l)attle was renewed witli dreadful slaughter on both sides. At night tlie Union army fell l)ack to tlie Rappahannock. Sedgwick liad, in the mean time, crossed at Fredericksburg and made some advance, but could not reacli Hooker in time to tiu'n the fortunes of the day at Chancellorsville. On the 5tli of May, Lee turned upon Sedgwick and drove him back across the river. Hooker soon recrossed t(^ the northern side, having gained nothing by this movement, which had cost so many lives. 262 Lincoln 8 Admijiistration. 204, Lee's Second Invasion of the North, — While Hooker was still resting on the Rappahannock, Lee started up its right bank for a second invasion of the North, and was well on the way before his design was penetrated. His object was twofold — to draw off a part of the force then besieging Vicksburg, and to collect supplies for his army. The Shenandoah Valley was guarded by a force at Winchester under General Milroy, who, before he fairly comprehended the situation, was surrounded by Lee's army (June 15). Though some of his troops escaped, the greater number were captured. 205, Lee, passing through portions of Maryland and Pennsylvania which were cultivated, rich, and wholly undefended, collected whatever army stores he needed, and destroyed such railroads and bridges as might aid the Union forces in their pursuit. Hooker started his army on Lee's track, and had advanced to Frederick, Maryland, when he was superseded Ijy General Meade. 206, Battle of Gettysbuvg, — The army of the Potomac overtook Lee at Gettysburg, in the southern part of Penn- sylvania. This little village lies near two parallel lines of hills, the one on the south called Cemetery Ridge, the one on the west. Seminary Ridge. Meade's advance took a position on Seminary Ridge, where it was attacked (July 1) and driven back through the village with con- siderable loss, finally halting on Cemetery Ridge. 207* During that night the two generals-in-chief took position with their respective armies on these opposite lines of hills and prepared for battle the next day. Hancock commanded the centre of the Union line. The next day (July 2) an assault was made on the Union left by which it was driven from its position ; but, being supported by Hancock, the troops made a stand farther back and repelled their assailants. The right and left Lincoln s Adviinistration. 263 The Battlk-field of Gettysburg. wings now rested respectively on Cul])'s Hill and Round Top, eminences at the north and south of the ridge. Night closed upon an undecided contest. The confronting forces were about equal in number, and Lee's men, the flower of the Southern army, inspired by the victories which they had already won, slept in confidence and hope. 208, The decisive action took place on Friday, July 3. At 1 p. M., Lee opened his heavy guns upon the Union lines, and for two hours sought by a concentrated fire to weaken them. At 3 o'clock his troops, in magnificent line of battle more than a mile long, emerged from behind their batteries, advanced steadily over the intervening ground swept by the Union guns, which tore great gaps in their ranks, and charged uj3on the Union lines. So impetuous was the assault, and so resistless, that men in the rifie- pits were literally lifted up and pushed back. But when the Confederates reached the guns an enfilading fire from Cemetery Hill swept them away like chaff". Nothing 264 Lincoln s Administration. could withstand that terrihle storm of shot. Whole regiments threw down their arms and surrendered ; the shattered remnant escaped to their own lines. That one charge decided the battle. Neither army was able to make any further effort. The loss in this three days' conflict was 53,000, of which number 30,000 were Con- federates. 209. The next day Lee began to retreat. He was pur- sued by ^leade, but no general engagement took place, and the Confederate army escaped across the Potomac. This most important battle of the war demonstrated the hopelessness of any attempt to invade the North, and in connection with the surrender of Vicksburg, which took place the next day, greatly reduced the strength and spirits of the Confederates. 210. The War in the West.— Capture of Vicksburg.— Vicksburg is situated four hundred miles above New Or- leans, on a high blufif commanding the Mississippi River. In 1862 it had resisted a seventy days' bombardment from the fleet of Admiral Farragut, and subsequently repelled the desperate assault of General Sherman. Early in 1863, Grant made the most persevering eff'orts against this stronghold. Having failed in various attempts to turn the enemy's position from the north, he moved his army in April down the river on the west side, to a point several miles below Vicksburg. 211. Crossing the river (April 30), Grant quickly ad- vanced ag{unst the Confederate general Pemberton, who had marched out of Vicksburg to oppose him. General J. E. Johnston, who had been appointed to the command of the Confederate forces in the South-west, hastened to make a junction with Pemberton, and, considering the pos- session of Vicksburg less important than the preservation of the force by which it was held, ordered the latter gen- Lincohis Administration. 265 eral to join him before Grant should interpose between their forces. Pemberton did not move quickly enough to carry out this order, and Grant was able to take such a position that while with his right he could ward off the approach of Johnston, with his left he succeeded, after a series of battles, in driving Pemberton into Vicksburg. The Union army twice (May 19 and 22) assaulted the strong works before it, but was each time repulsed. 212. At last Grant began regular siege operations, and had advanced his lines to a point favorable for attack when the garrison, having insufficient rations to hold out much longer, offered to capitulate. On the 4th of July the long and heroic siege was terminated by the uncon- ditional surrender of Vicksburg, with its garrison, arms, and munitions of war. The surrender of Vicksburg was followed by that of Port Hudson, and thus at the close of July the possession of the Mississippi River, which, in the language of General Sherman, " is the possession of Amer- ica," was finally and permanently secured. 213. The War in Tennessee. — Battle of Chickainauga. — After the battle of Murfreesboro', Rosecrans and Brao^g remained facing each other until June, 1863, when Rose- crans made an advance. Bragg retreated before him over the mountains to East Tennessee, finally ])ausing at Chat- tanooga. When, however, Rosecrans aj^peared on the north side of the Tennessee River, the Confederate general with- drew to Georgia, fearing to be shut up in Chattanooga as Pemberton had been at Vicksburg. 214. Rosecrans, conceiving this to be a retreat, followed ; but Bragg, who had been reinforced, turned upon him, the two armies meeting at C^hickamauga Creek. Here (Sept. 19 and 20) very severe battles were fought. On the first day Rosecrans held the field, though at great expense of lives. The next day a desperate charge routed a part of 266 Lincoln s Adminstration. his army, sending it in wild tumult back to Chattanooga Rosecrans himself was borne along in the rush, but Gen- eral Thomas, who commanded the left wing, stood like a rock, and though the Confederate army beat against him all day, he remained firm till night, and then retreated in good order to Chattanooga. 215. Battles before Chattanooga. — Bragg surrounded the Union army in Chattanooga, cutting off' tlieir supplies, so that they were in danger of starvation. Grant, who, after the victory at Vicksburg, had been promoted to the com- mand of all the forces at the West, immediately prepared to relieve this beleaguered garrison. From the army of the Potomac 23,000 men were detached and forwarded to his aid. Sherman also joined him wdth his force from luka. 216. Bragg was at this time holding the heights which not only commanded the town, but all the lines by which supplies could be brought to Chattanooga. His right wing rested on Missionary Ridge, his left on Lookout Mountain, while an advance force held Orchard Knob. On the 23d of November, General Thomas was ordered to seize this latter position. The movement was made with such reg- ularity and precision that the enemy, who was watching the advance of Thomas's division, took it to be an ordi- nary review of trooj^s ; the Confederate pickets were driven in, their rifle-pits seized, and the position won before Bragg had time to send reinforcements. 217. On the following day Sherman carried the north- ern extremity of the Ridge, wdiile Hooker, scaling the slopes of Lookout Mountain to attack the enemy's left, fought his famous " battle above the clouds," with such success that by the 25th the Confederates held only a part of Missionary Ridge. Sherman and Hooker con- tinued the next day to advance from the north and south respectively, and w^hile Bragg was engaged in conflict Lincoln s Administration. 267 with them, Grant, from his own position at Orchard Knob, ordered an assault on the enemy's centre. His men ran forward with the great- est enthusiasm, carrying the rifle-pits at the foot of the ridge, and then dashing up its side, each eager Battle of Lookout Mountain. to be fore most. Tlu Confederate driven from the entire army routed 218, The Siege of Knox- ville. — After being relieved from the command of the army of the Potomac, Burn- side had been sent to East Tennessee to protect the Union interests in that quarter. A force under General Longstreet, detached from Bragg's army before Chatta- nooga, besieged Burnside in Knoxville ; but when the enemy at Chattanooga had been routed, Sherman was sent to the relief of Burnside. His forces, approach- ing Knoxville early in December, compelled Longstreet to abandon the siege and retreat with all haste toward Virginia. 268 Lincoln s Achninistration. 219. Oil the Coast. — Attack on Charleston. — The port of Charleston had long afibrded entrance to blockade- runners, and in this year renewed attempts were made to close it. The Confederates had made the defences of their harbor as formidable as possible. The side-chan- nels were obstructed Avith sunken vessels, chains, and torpedoes, Avhile those which were unobstructed in this way were defended by strong forts and batteries. The principal operations of this year against Charleston were those conducted by General Gillniore. Assaults upon the harbor defences of Charleston having failed, regular siege operations were opened. By the close of the year Fort Wagner had been abandoned b}' the Confederates and Sumter reduced to a mass of ruins. Blockade-run- ning was etfectually prevented at that port. 220. Events Elsewhere. — Indian Hostilities and Quan- trelVs Raid. — Tlie effects of the war were felt in remote parts of the country. In the far West the Sioux In- dians began hostilities upon the settlements, and an armed force Avas maintained there to keep them in check. Quantrell, a Southern guerrilla leader, entered the defenceless city of Lawrence, Kansas, burned a large portion of the town, and massacred many of the inhab- itants. The border counties of Kansas and Missouri were ravaged by similar parties, Avho took advantage of the existing confusion to perpetrate murder and robbery under the name of Avar. 221. The Draft Riot. — During this year, volunteers not offering in numbers suflficient to fill the ranks of the Union army. President Lincoln ordered a draft for that pur})ose. This measure encountered much oppo- sition, especially in the city of Ncav York, Avhere its enforcement Avas resisted by a mol3. For three days the insurgents held a reign of terror in that city. Lincoln s Administration. 269 Many inoffensive people were murdered, and much property was destroyed or stolen before the riot was quelled. 222, Beview of the Year. — During the first half of this year the preservation of the Union seemed doubt- ful. The overwhelming defeats of Fredericksburg and Chancellors ville, followed by Lee's invasion of the North, the success with which Vicksburg resisted Grant, and the little advance that was made in any direction, filled the friends of the Union with the gravest apprehensions. In the Confederacy high hopes were entertained of speedy recognition and help from foreign powers. On the 4th of July the telegraph flashed over the country the news of Lee's retreat from the North, and also the surrender of Vicksburg. From that day the tide of suc- cess changed, and by the close of the year the President could say, " Peace does not appear so distant as it did. I hope it will come soon, and come to stay, and so come as to be worth the keeping in all future time." Events of 1864. 223, Plan of the Campfdffii. — Tlie achievements of the preceding year had so far narrowed the field of military operations that it had now become possible to combine the Union armies in a comprehensive plan of advance. Grant, whose solid successes had gained for him the confidence of the peoj^le, was in March made lieutenant- general, and proceeded at once to organize a jDlan for the campaign. Sherman, then at Chattanooga, was directed to move against Atlanta, Georgia, an important railroad centre and the seat of extensive manufactures of Confed- erate supplies. Grant himself, with the army of the Potomac, proposed to advance on Richmond, still de- fended by the Confederate army under Lee. 270 Lincoln s Administration. 224. Shet'nian\s Catnpaif/n, — Capture of Atlanta. — Early in May, Sherman began operations upon the de- fences of Athinta. General J. E. Johnston was posted at Dalton to dispute liis advance. His army Avas smaller than that of Sherman, but to the advantage of a stronger position lie added that of an almost impregnable line of outworks. An eye-witness writes : " The enemy seems to have marked out this whole country, from the Allatoona Mountains to the Chattahoochee River, with line after line of rifle-pits, intrenchments, and fortifications. No sooner do we take possession of one formidable line of works, than another confronts us ; and each seems to be stronger than the preceding." 225. Both generals were masters of strategy, and while Johnston showed his skill in the selection and acquisition of strongholds, Sherman's was displa^'ed in a series of flanking movements by wdiich he repeatedly gained the rear of his antagonist and compelled him to quit his positions. At Allatoona Pass a severe battle was fought, in which the Federal troops obtained the advantage, and Johnston fell back to KenesaAV Mountain. Here Sherman, attacking him, suffered a bloody repulse (June 27), but by flank movements compelled Johnston to abandon his position and take again the line of pursuit. Both armies crossed the Chattahoochee, and Johnston drew his forces within the immediate defences of Atlanta. 22($. Johnston's Fabian method of warfare not meeting the approval of the Confederate government, he was super- seded in his command by General Hood. This more dash- ing though less prudent commander made three desperate sallies upon the Union troops, but each time was driven back with disastrous loss. Sherman, having cut the Con- federate line of railway communication south of Atlanta, compelled the evacuation of the city. Lincoln s A dministration. 271 227» Shermmi's March to the Sea. — For a month after the capture of Atlanta the two armies remained in its vicinity. Hood sought to cut Sherman's railroad con- nections and destroy his supplies at Allatoona. Failing in this, he next moved north^vard, hoping that Sherman would follow him and thus be diverted from the invasion of the Atlantic States. Instead of this, Sherman, leaving General Thomas to watch Hood, himself moved eastward through the Ccmfederacy. 228. Divesting his army of 65,000 men of every super- fluity, on the 2d of November Sherman cut all his communications by railroad or telegraph, and began his famous march to the sea. The army advanced in two columns over a belt of territory forty miles wide, subsisting upon the country through which they passed. As his destina- tion could not l)e predicted with any degree of certainty, it was impossible for the Confederates to concentrate a force against him, and his progress was nowhere seriously disputed. He reached the sea at Savannah on the 21st 272 Lincoln's Adyninistration. of December, captured Fort McAllister, and soon after entered the city, presenting it, with its guns, ammuni- tion, and 25,000 bales of cotton, as a Christmas gift to the government. 229, HooiVs Invasion of Tennessee. — When Thomas became convinced that Hood meant to enter Tennessee, he collected his scattered forces and slowly retreated toward Nashville. At Franklin, General Schofield's di- vision was attacked by Hood, but effected its retreat, though not without considerable loss. For two weeks the Union army lay in Nashville surrounded by Con- federates. On the loth of December, Thomas came out and attacked the enemy, compelling him after two days of severe lighting to retreat. Hood, pursued by the Union forces, witli difficulty made his escape to the south bank of the Tennessee, having lost in this campaign of twenty days 19,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Grant's Campaign. 230. In aid of Grant's advance General Crook was sta- tioned at the Kanawha River, General Butler at Fortress Monroe, while General Sigel commanded a force in the Shenandoah Valley. 2.31. Battle of the Wilderness. — In May, Grant began his overland advance on the Confederate capital. With an army of 100,000 he crossed the Rapidan, with the design of turning Lee's position south of that river and inter- posing between him and Richmond. Scarcely had the Union troops crossed when they were engaged in a bloody conflict amid the gloomy thickets of the Wilder- ness. For two days (May 5 and 6) the battle raged, military skill availing little on a field where the move- ments of troops were hidden and impeded by forests. Lee had the advantage of knowing the country, and ^vas able to inflict heavy loss upon the Union army. Lincoln $ Administration. 273 232, Instead of retreating across the river after this costly and ineffectual conflict, Grant moved by his left flank to Spottsylvania Court-House. Lee, having con- trol of the shortest route, reached that point before him, however, and the two armies again, from the 8th to the 12th, engaged in bloody but indecisive contests. So desperate Avere their efforts that the hostile flags were sometimes planted on the opposite sides of the same breastwork. The characteristic and often-quoted des- patch of General Grant, " I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all sunnncr," w^as sent during this five days' conflict. 233, Battle of Cold i/(/77)07-.— Finding the attack at Spottsylvania fruitless, Grant again outflanked Lee, and succeeded in crossing the North Anna. The Confed- erates once more used their knowledge and control of the roads to reach the Ghickahominy in advance of the Federals and contest its passage. With courage undis- mayed by the succession of fierce battles the Union army again attacked (June 3). At the first assault 10,000 men fell dead or wounded. When another assault was or- dered, the men remained motionless, refusing to waste their lives in attempting the impossible. 2,34. The causes which had induced McClellan to avoid the march through a country so naturally defen- sible now led Grant to transfer his army to the south bank of the James and attempt an advance from that direction. 23,5, Events in the Shenandodh Valley, — Defeat of Sigel and Hunter. — Tlie co-operative movements which Sigel and Crook were to have made from their respec- tive positions had been frustrated. Sigel having been badly defeated at New Market (May 15), General Hun- ter was sent to supersede him. This general met with 274 Lincoln s Administration. some success in forcing the Confederates back from Piedmont ; but at Lynchburg, joined by reinforcements from Lee's army, they turned upon Hunter, routed him, and drove liim over the mountains into West Virginia (June). 23(i. Earh/H Raid. — While Grant was moving from Cold Harl)or to his new base on the James River, Lee seized the opportunity to detach a part of his army under General Early down the Shenandoah Valley to menace Washing- ton. Early was opposed only by a small force under Gen- eral Lew Wallace. This force was defeated at Monocacy, and Early moved forward, threatening the capital. Find- ing its defences too strong for attack, and learning that a force was rapidly collecting against him, he retreated. On its return this Confederate force gathered a large amount of plunder. Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, failing to raise the demanded ransom of $500,000, was burned. 237. Sheridan in the Valley. — In August, General Sheri- dan was sent to the Shenandoah Valley. He defeated Early at Winchester (Sept. 19), and again, two days later, at Fisher's Hill. At this juncture, Sheridan being tem- porarily absent. Early turned upon his pursuers (Oct. 19), and by an unexpected and violent attack drove them about four miles. Sheridan, who was at ^^'inchester, made aware of the situation, rode quickly to the scene. Meeting his defeated troops, he called out, without once slackening his horse's speed, " Face the other way, boys ! We are going back to our camps." Inspired by his pres- ence, they did turn, and before night had regained their lost field and nearly destroyed Early's army. 238, To prevent the possibility of another raid down the Shenandoah Valley, Sheridan Avas ordered to destroy everything in it which could give support to a hostile force ; and this order was strictly carried out, the build- Lincoln s Adniinistration. 275 ings being burned, crops destroyed, and cattle driven off, so that no subsistence was left there for man or beast. 239. The advance which Butler was to have made by the James was checked by a force under Beauregard, who succeeded in shutting him up at Bermuda Hundred. 240. Grant's Advance from the Jaines, — Petersburg. — The operations of the arm}' of the Potomac after its re- moval to the James were directed to the siege of Peters- burg. The reduction of this strongly-defended place was essential to the success of an advance upon Richmond from the south. Vigorous attempts were made to carry the works by assault, but they were repulsed in every instance ; and at the close of the year this formidable outpost and defence of the Confederate capital still de- fied the efforts of the army of the Potomac. 24:1, Weldon Railroad. — Later in the year Grant applied himself to intercepting the enemy's communications and cutting off his supplies. One of the most successful opera- tions of this character was the destruction of a part of the Weldon Railroad, by means of which the enemj^ had re- ceived his supplies from the south. The year closed Avith Grant still lying before Petersburg, having lost in liis ad- vance to Richmond about 70,000 men. 242, On the Coast, — Mobile and Wilmington Avere now the only ports which remained to the Confederacy. So inadequate were tlie resources of the Sout?iern States to furnish the necessaries of life and material of war that these supplies commanded enormous prices. To reap the benefits of such a market foreign merchants fitted out a class of steamers especially adapted to evade the blockade, and they frequently succeeded in landing their cargoes. 276 Lincoln s Administration. 24:3. Mobile. — In July, a fleet under Admiral Farragut was sent against Mobile. The city was defended by two strong forts, a fleet, and the formidable ram Tennessee. The Union gunboats ran past the forts under a heavy fire from their batteries, during which the brave admiral insisted upon remaining lashed to the mast of his flag- ship, that he might the better observe and direct the operations of his fleet. The Confederate flotilla, includ- ing the Tennessee, was disabled and the forts compelled to surrender (Aug. 5). The city Avas not taken at this time, but the port was effectually closed. The " KKAKSARiiK" AND " Alabama. " 244. Destruction of the Alabama, — During the war a great amount of property was destroyed by Confederate privateers. The vessels for this purpose were largely fitted out in England and manned there, though com- missioned and officered by the Confederate government. The commerce of the United States was materially in- jured by these privateers, and there seemed to be at the time no effectual means of coping with the difficulty. Lincohis Administration. 277 245, One of the most noted of these privateers was the Alabama^ a fast-sailing steamer, Avhich had been fitted out in England and placed at the disposal of Cap- tain Raphael Semmes. Of the one hundred and ninety- one vessels destroyed since the war began, this cruiser had alone captured or destroyed sixty-five. In June of this year an encounter between the Alabama and the United States steamer Kearsargc, Captain Winslow com- manding, took place in the English Channel. At the end of an hour's conflict the Alabama was reduced to a sinking condition. Semmes and some of his crew were, however, rescued by an English yacht, and escaped capture. 246, Review of the Year. — In the spring some minor defeats had been sustained. An expedition undertaken up the Red River proved a failure. Sherman met with some losses in Northern Mississippi, and a repulse was suffered at Olustee in Florida. In the main work of the year, how^ever, the government had established its power beyond question, though not without great ex- pense of blood and treasure. 247, On the coast, Wilmington alone afforded access to blockade-runners. Sherman's campaign had sev- ered the Gulf States from the Confederacy, and demon- strated its weakness and poverty. Grant's operations had forced Lee's army into the close vicinity of Rich- mond, and held it there, with every assurance that its lUtimate surrender would only be a question of time. The resources of the South in men and money were exhausted, while the government was still strong and able to carry on the conflict with unabated vigor. In the fall of this year the re-election of Mr. Lincoln to the Presidency stamped his policy with the approval of the people. 278 Lincoln* s Administration. Close of the War. 24S. Captut'e of Wilinington, — Early in January, 1865, General Terry was sent to co-operate with Porter's fleet against Fort Fisher. By a bombardment the fort was reduced to ruins, and on the 15th the land-forces in two columns advanced to the assault. The charge of the first column was repulsed, but that of the second, after eight hours of desperate lighting, carried the fort. The other defences of Wilmington were subsequently abandoned, and on the 19th of February, General Scho- field occujjied the city. 249, Sh(t'niait\s Moveiiients. — After resting a month at Savannah, Sliernian began a movement northward, intending to march through the Carolinas and unite with Grant. The Confederates under General Johnston, now recalled to the command, began to concentrate against him. Sherman says : " Christmas found us at Savannah. Waiting there only long enough to fill our wagons, we began another march, which for peril, lal)or, and results will compare with any ever made by an organized army. The floods of the Savannah, the swamps of the Combahee and Edisto, the high hills and rocks of the Santee, the flat quagmires of the Pedee and Cape Fear Rivers, were all passed in' midwinter, with its floods and rain, in the face of an accumulating enemy ; and after the battles of Avery sboro' and Bentonsville we once more came out of the wilderness to meet our friends at Goldsboro'." 250, These "friends" Avere the armies of Schofield and Terry. The former, having advanced from Newbern and defeated the Confederates at Kingston, was ready at Goldsboro' to receive the army of Sherman, as were also the forces of Terry, Avhich had come U]) from Wilming- ton, all uniting at the very place and on the very day appointed by the commander (March 21). On his Lincoln s Administration. 279 march Sherman took possession of Columbia, South Carolina (Feb. 17). Before the abandonment of the cap- ital the cotton stored there had been fired, and, the flames spreading, the city was burned. 251. As the Union army pressed on, the Confederate troops, to escape capture, abandoned Charleston. Before leaving (Feb. 17) they set fire to the cotton warehouses, and a magazine of powder was exploded, causing terrible loss of life and destruction of property. On the 18th of February, after a siege of 585 days, Charleston sur- rendered to General Gillmore, but the finest portions of the city were a mass of ruins. 252. Fall of Richmond. — During the winter there had been fighting before Petersburg, and thougli no sin- gle engagement proved decisive in itself, the important general result had been the wedging of a force between Lee and Johnston, thus making a union of their armies im23ossible, and, moreover, cutting off liCe's sup])lies from tlie Soutli. In March, Lee's forces attempted to break through the Union lines by attacking Fort Steadman, but were driven back with heavy loss. On the 1st of April, Sheridan, who was at the extreme left of the na- tional troops, advanced to Five Forks and defeated the Confederates stationed tliere. On the following morning Grant moved forward his whole line before Petersburg. During that night Lee abandoned both Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate capital, so long fought for, was entered l)y the Union army on the 3d of April. 253. Surrender of Lee. — Lee's army, unable to move to the south, fled westward, closely pursued by the Fed- eral troops. Several partial engagements took place before Sheridan succeeded in bringing the C'on federates to a halt at Api)omattox Court-House, but further effusion of blood was prevented by the acceptance of the terms of surren- 280 Lincoln's Administration. der which Grant now offered Lee (April 9). The war- worn, hunger-wasted veterans of Lee's army disbanded, and returned to their homes. Johnston, confronted by Sherman, held Raleigh until the surrender of Lee made further resistance fruitless, when he too capit- ulated (April 13j. 254, Death of President Lincoln, — AVhile the joy of the nation was at its height in the prospect of a return of peace, all noisy demonstrations were hushed and a thrill of grief and horror awakened in every heart by the assassination of the President. Mr. Lincoln was one of those men who seem to be especially raised up by Providence to meet great exigences. Brought to the head of affairs at a time when the very existence of the nation was threatened, his wisdom, honesty, and fidelity had brought it safely through the storm. He possessed qualities which won for him the personal af- fection as well as the confidence of the j^eople, and the place he holds in the nation's heart is second perhaps only to that of Washington. 255, Just as the consummation so devoutly wished, so lieroically striven for, seemed within his grasp, an assas- sin's shot suddenly closed his great and good life, and deprived the nation of its trusted head. On the night of Good Friday (April 14), while attending the play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth. 256, When the news of this assassination was flashed through the land, together with that of the attack made at the same time upon Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State, suspicions of the complicity of the Confederate authorities became widely disseminated. It was, however, soon ascer- tained that these assaults were the unauthorized 'attempts of a band of fanatics, who vaguely supposed that they Lincoln s Administration. 281 might by this desperate deed aid the lost cause of tlie Confederacy. 257* The grief felt upon the death of Mr. Lincoln was as universal as it was deep and sincere. Mournful, yet triumphal, was the journey which bore the remains of the beloved President to their last resting-place. For two entire weeks that funeral procession lasted. Millions of heart-stricken mourners, of all classes and conditions, of all races, of all religions, and of all political parties, gath- ered along the route to offer the tribute of their sorrow and their affection. 258. Disbanding of the Army, — Toward the end of May the armies of Grant and Sherman, to the number of 200,000, w^ere assembled at AA^ashington for a grand review, after which they were disbanded. By the close of summer the scattered forces of the Confederacy had laid down their arms and returned to their homes. The release of prisoners and the removal of all obstructions to communication with the South were soon effected. 259. Wlien it became evident that Lee could no longer protect Richmond, the President and officers of the Con- federate government fled. Mr. Davis was arrested and imprisoned at Fortress Monroe, where he remained over a year, but was finally released by the clemency of the government. 260. Effects of the War. — This great war, lasting four years and costing nearly one million of men and three bil- lions of money, established the principle that the United States is a single nation, and not a union of sovereign States. Slavery was abolished in the States in rebellion during the war, and an amendment of the Constitution following shortly after abolished the institution in the remaining slave States. 282 Johnsons Administration. 261, Much bitterness of feeling existed between the two sections of the country at the close of the war, but this has gradually softened with the lapse of time. The national government has not only been generous, but ex- ceedingly lenient, toward those who took up arms against it, not an individual ever having suffered capital punish- ment or confiscation of property in consequence thereof. Citizens of the seceding States were not only restored fully to their previous rights, but many of them have been called to the highest offices of honor and trust under the Federal government. Leading Southern men frankl}^ ac- cept the solution which the war gave to the principle of State Sovereignty, and it is probable that both North and South have more intelligent ideas than ever before of the value of the Union, and stronger desires for its preser- vation. Johnson's Administration, 1865-1869. 262, Within a few hours after the death of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, was inaugurated chief magistrate. At the beginning of the secession move- ment Mr. Johnson Avas a Senator from Tennessee, and, though his colleagues joined the Confederate cause, he remained loyal to the Union. His course won great ad- miration, and, although a life-long Democrat, he Avas nom- inated Vice-President by the Republican party in 1864. Upon his accession to the Presidency, Mr. Johnson found the great questions arising out of the war awaiting settle- ment. It is not to be wondered at that his views were at variance with those of the party by which he had been elected, or that, owing to this conflict of opinions, his ad- ministration was a stormy one. 263, The Presidents Policy of Restoration. — In May, 1865, Mr. Johnson issued a proclamation of amnesty to all citizens, with the exception of certain classes who Johnsojis Administration. 283 had taken part in the secession movement. A second proclamation provided for the settlement of the late Con- federate States. By the terms of the latter provisional governors Avere appointed, who were to call conventions in eacli of these States. These conventions were required to rescind the ordinance of secession, repudiate the debts of the Confederacy, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution. This amendment, at that time before all the States for ratification, provided for the entire abo- lition of slavery. These terms were accepted and acted upon by the several State conventions. 264, The Coiif/ressioiial Policy of Meconstruetion, — When Congress assembled a majority was found which strongly opposed the President's policy of restoration. This Congress insisted upon a partial reconstruction of the governments of seceding States before they should be restored to their former privileges in the Union. It de- manded til at these States should, moreover, accept and ratify those measures wliich afterward became the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, and which was adopted by the nation in July, 1868. (See Appendix.) These terms were so repugnant to South- ern sentiment that they were not accepted until two or three years later, and in the mean time these States re- mained under military rule. 26o, Disagreeinent between the President and Con- gress. — The breach between the President and Congress was widened by the passage, over his veto, of the Freed- men's Bureau, the Civil Rights, and the Tenure-of-Office Bills. The first of tlicse provided a new bureau in the War Department for the protection of poor whites and free negroes at the South. The second guaranteed equal privileges to all citizens. The third demanded that no officer whose appointment required confirmation by the 284 Johnsons Administration. Senate should be dismissed before his term of office ex- pired without the consent of that body. 266. Impeachment of the I*resUlent. — The hostil- ity between the President and Congress culminated in Mr. Johnson's impeachment by the House of Represent- atives, January 24, 1868. The immediate cause of this measure was the attempt made by the Executive, in defiance of the Tenure-of-Office Bill, to remove Edwin M. Stanton from his position as Secretary of War. The trial began before the Senate in February, 1868. Mr. Johnson was finally acquitted, the two-thirds majority necessary for conviction lacking but one vote. 267. Purchase of Alaska.— DwYing this administra- tion the government made a peaceful extension of its ter- ritory by the purchase of Alaska. This country, 500,000 square miles in extent, is chiefly valuable for its seal- fisheries and fur-trade. It also affords several good harbors. 268. Treaty tvith Cliina. — In 1868 another treaty was made with the oldest and most exclusive nation on earth. Mr. Anson Burlingame, United States minister to China, so won the respect and confidence of the government of that country that he Avas invited to conduct a Chinese embassy to the courts and governments of the Western nations. Through this embassy our government concluded an important treaty by which, besides commercial inter- course, toleration for Christian worsliip in China was guaranteed. 269. The French in Mexico. — Napoleon III. of France, taking advantage of the opportunity aff'orded him by the Civil War, established a monarchy in Mexico. Contrary to the wishes of the Mexicans, Maximilian of Austria was sent thither in the character of emperor^ and his authority maintained by the presence of French Grant's Adniinistration. 285 trooj)S. After the settlement of our own troubles, Napo- leon was informed that the United States intended to enforce the Monroe Doctrine (see p. 215), and in conse- quence of this implied threat the French troops were immediately withdrawn. The Mexicans resumed their former government, and Maximilian sufiered death at their hands as the penalty of his usurpation. Grant's Administration, 1869-1877. 270, In 1869, General Grant became the chief magis- trate of the United States. His administration of two terms was marked by a great reduction of the national debt, by a peaceful adjustment of the affairs of the Southern States in their relations with the government, and other important political events. 271* Tire Washhigton Treaty. — Several points of dispute having arisen between Great Britain and the United States, some of them being of a nature liable to interrupt peaceful relations between the two countries, plenipotentiaries met at Washington (1870) for an ami- cable adjustment of the difficulties. The questions con- sidered at this time were — The unsettled boundaries be- tween Washington Territory and British Columbia; the possession of the island of San Juan in tlie Strait of Juan de Fuca; the navigation of the St. Lawrence canals ; the rights of United States fishing-vessels in the bays of British America; the indemnity of British sub- jects for losses sustained by them in consequence of the Civil War; and, most prominent of all, whether Great Britain had not violated her obligations under the law of nations by permitting the Alabama and other privateers to be fitted out at her ports. (See p. 277.) 272. By the treaty then concluded the various claims 286 Grant's Administration. were adjusted in a manner highly creditable to the advanced civilization of the two nations engaged, the minor questions to be settled either by the arbitration of disinterested judges or by a board of commissioners composed of members from both countries. The ''Ala- bama Claims," as involving important points of inter- national law, were referred to a tribunal composed of five members — one from Great Britain, one from the United States, and three from disinterested nations (Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil.) Before this tribunal, which sat at Geneva, Switzerland, Great Britain and the United States appeared by counsel and pleaded their respective causes. The judges, after the hearing, decided that Great Britain had been negligent in the fulfilment of her obligations to the United States, and estimated the damages at $15,000,000, which sum was promptly paid by the British government. 273, This peaceful settlement of disputed points by arbitration in the place of an appeal to arms inspired the friends of universal peace with hope that the day might yet come when the disputes of nations would be adjusted by an international code of laws and settled without bloodshed. 274r, The Fifteen fit Ainendnient, — Another important measure of this administration was the adoption (March, 1870) of the Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution, by which was given the right of suffrage to all citizens of the United States, without regard to race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 27o. Indian Affairs. — During this administration un- usual efforts were made to devise some policy of dealing with the Indians which should be just and humane, and at the same time restrain them from hostilities against the frontier settlements. Grant's Administration. 287 270, tSonie of the difficulties in managing the affairs of the Indians were as follows: (1) When the savages were more formidable in numbers a system of treaties and gifts had been resorted to, either to terminate wars or secure peace. This system, continued long after its ne- cessity had passed away, had not only supplied the tribes with the means of resisting the government, but had flattered them with an undue estimate of their own strength. (2) The intractable nature of the savages, which makes it seem impossible for them to accept civ- ilization. (3) The influence of degraded whites, who live among the savages and infect them with their own vices. (4) The dishonesty of agents, who frequently diverted to their own use supplies intended for the Indians, thus causing a distrust of the government and consequent hostility. 277' Tlie Indian Policy. — The new features of Presi- dent Grant's Indian policy were the reservation of suit- able tracts of land for the permanent residence of Indians, and the transfer of the management of their affairs from the former agents to others who should be recommended by various religious societies, especially Friends, in whom the Indians always placed confidence. These agents were to be assisted in the discharge of their duties by the of- ficers of the regular army stationed among the tribes. ]]y these means it was hoped that the Indians might be kc]ti upon their reservations, the duty of the government toAvard tliese people discharged by an adequate supply of their needs, and the safety of the frontier settlements secured. Notwitlistanding the Ijenevolent intentions of the govern- ment, many of the savages remain implacable. 27 S. TJie Modoc War, — The Modocs were a tribe from tlie vicinity of Lake Klamath. They had shown hostility toward the Klamath Indians and to the white settlers, and 17 288 Grant's Administration. in 1855 a large number of their tribe had been treacherously massacred by the whites— an act for which the survivors never ceased to cherish revengeful thoughts. Some time after this event the Modocs were induced to go upon a reser- vation which, unfortunately, was unsuited to their needs and in close neighborhood to their old enemies, the Klamaths. 279, Not receiving supplies promised by the govern- ment, the IModocs became restless and hostile. When troops were sent to subdue them, they retreated to an Modocs Fighting United spates Troops. inaccessible place known as the Lava Beds, and the gov- ernment commissioners sent to treat with them. General Canby and Dr. Thomas, were treacherously murdered (1873). Vigorous measures were at once taken against Grant's Adviinistration. 289 this fierce band, and at last their leaders, Captain Jack and others, having been captured and put to death, they were subdued and removed to a reservation in the Indian Territory. 280, Sioux War, — This nation, once the most power- ful and numerous west of the Mississippi River, had been gradually pushed westward until they were mostly con- fined to the vicinity of Montana and Wyoming Territories. When gold was discovered upon their reservation among the Black Hills, the government tried to induce the Sioux to relinquish that country in favor of the miners. Their chiefs, Red Cloud and Spotted Tail, were invited to Wash- ington, but refused to treat for that object. 281, As miners and explorers invaded their country, tliese savages became hostile, and the presence of troops was required to control them. In June, 1876, a detacli- ment of the regular army under General Custer fell upon a body of Sioux near the Little Big Horn River. In the fierce fight that followed every one of the command, numbering 250, fell. Since that time the Nez Perces have been troublesome, as have also wandering bands of other tribes. 282, Dijfictilties in Lotiisiana and South Carolina, — During this administration there arose in the govern- ments of some of the Southern States local difficulties rc(|uiring national interference. During the war and after the fall of New Orleans a government, partially civil and partially military, was organized in Louisiana by Presi- dent Lincoln. In 1868 the government of the State be- came wholly civil, but through irregularities at the ballots both political parties claimed the election of their respec- tive governors and legislatures, and each threatened to use force, if necessary, to sustain its candidate. In this unfor- tunate state of affairs President Grant considered it neces- 290 Grant's Administration. sary to send United States troops to preserve the peace. These troops sustained the authority of the Repubhcan party in the State. South Carohna had been siniilarly situated poUtically, and was Hkewise held in restraint by the presence of Federal troops. 283, Fhianclal Depressioti, — In 1873 the country en- tered upon a period of financial depression. Some of tlie probable causes of these "hard times'' were — 1. The enormous debt incurred in the prosecution of the late war. 2. The inflation of the currency during the war and the withdrawal of many from the ranks of producers stimulated prices, and the rise of prices induced a spirit of speculation and reckless disregard of debt. 3. The difficulty with which the great number of men that formed the Federal and Confederate armies were re-established in the pursuits of civil life, their tendency being to settle in cities and villages, to the desertion of the farming districts. 4. Over- production in manufactures. 284, For a few years after the w^ar the country had the api^earance of great prosperity, but when the currency began to be contracted, debts to fall due, and i)rices to decline in consequence of overstocked markets, the times grew distressingly "hard." In business circles failure or contraction became frequent, and as a consequence many laboring people were thrown out of employment or suffered a reduction of wages. 285, Some of these laborers, especially foreigners, fail- ing to secure employment, have become " tramps," living by begging or theft, and constituting a class so large and so dangerous as to demand the attention of society and the government. In many instances discontented work- men have combined to demand higher wages, and these ^' strikes " have resulted in the further derangement of Hayes s Administration. 291 business und much suffering to the " strikers " them- selves. In the sunnner of 1877 the raih'oad emph)yes of jMartinsburg, W. Va., began a hxbor-riot which became so formidable as to require the presence of national troo|)s. The disturbance spread along thousands of miles of rail- road, causing the loss of many lives and millions of prop- erty l^efore it could be quelled. The greatest amount of damage was sustained at Pittsburgh, Pa. 286, The rresidenfial meet ion of lS76.—The elec- tion contest in 1876 was attended with unusual results. This contest was everywhere very close, while from some of the States the returns were disputed, and each party claimed the victory for its candidate. When Congress assembled in Deceml^er the disi)uted Presidency was brought up for discussion ; but the Constitution not giv- ing that body power to decide upon tlie election in any State, it was agreed, after much controversy, to refer the question to a joint high commission, by whose decision l>oth parties agreed to abide. This commission, com- posed of memliers from both Houses and from the Su- preme Court, having canvassed the election returns of each State, decided (March 2) that by these returns Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, had been legally elected. Mr. Hayes assumed the duties of his office three days later. Hayes's Administration, 1877-1881. 2 jNIexican cession. This country was first visited b}- Coronado in 1546. United States exploring parties under Lieutenant Pike (1806) and Colonel Long (1820) examined this region, but there were no inhabitants except a few Mexicans and Indians until 1858, when gold was dis- covered there. From that time Colorado was very rapidly peopled and its sources developed. In 1876 it was ad- mitted into the Union as the " Centennial State." 312 The Territories. Seal of Colorado. Seal of "West Virginia. S42, West Virginia, — During the Civil War the peo- ple of the western part of Virginia were loyal to the Union. (See p. 241.) At Wheeling a poi^ular convention was held (May, 1861), at which the Secession Ordinance was repu- diated, and steps taken toward establishing a loyal gov- ernment in that quarter. In July of the same year a leg- islature assembled and framed a new constitution, which was soon after ratified by the people. In 1863, by Act of Congress, the new constitution went into operation and West Virginia became a separate State. The Territories. 34S, Besides the thirty-eight States, the United States has ten Territories, eight of which have been organized and two, Indian Territory and Alaska, are still unorganized. 344. Arizofia was first entered by Vasconcellos, a Spanish explorer, in 1526, and the ruins of Spanish towns which are found there show that it must have been the scene of early and active colonization. Still more ancient ruins of pueblos, reservoirs, aqueducts, and terraces abound, showing that the Spanish occupants of the countr}" were preceded by a large and civilized population. Arizona is rich in minerals, Ijut the mines are not worked on account of the hostility of the Apache The Territories. 1 '^ Indians and the inaccessibility of a country without railroads. This Territory was organized in 1853. 3^5. Dalxota was settled in 1859, and organized as a Territory in 1861. 34:6, Idaho, — The Coeur d'Alene ikeur da len) Mission was established by the Catholics in this Territory as early as 1842, but settlements were not begun until 1860. It became an organized Territory in 1863. 347. Montana was settled by miners in 1861, and or- ganized as a Territory three years later. 348. Neiv 3Iexico was traversed and described by De Vaga {da vah'sa), a member of the unfortunate expedition of De Narvaez (see p. 28), as early as 1537. A mission-station Avas founded at Santa Fe in 1583 by Espejo (es-palho)^ a Spaniard (see p. 30), and the missionaries were very successful in converting the Pueblo Indians. The cruelty and avarice of the Spaniards in com- pelling the natives to work in the mines roused the hatred of the latter, and, turning upon the intruding race, they drove them from the country. New Mexico was organized as a Territory soon after its acquisition from Mexico. 349. Utah,—Th\^ Territory was settled in 1847 by a peculiar religious sect known as Mormons. Their re- ligion was introduced by a certain Joseph Smith, who claimed to have found a new book of revelations which he called the Book of Mormon. Smith's followers in- creased in numbers, and they formed a community in Missouri ; but their practices being obnoxious to the peo- Seal of Nkw Mexico. 314 The Territories. pie of tliat State, they were compelled to remove. The Mormons next went to Illinois, where they founded the city of Nauvoo and built a splendid tem- ple. At Nauvoo they received large additions to their numbers, but their practices again bringing them into collision with local sentiment and the State laws, they were again compelled to remove. This time they determined to go beyond the frontiers of civilization and found a State in the wilder- ness. The population of Utah has for a long time been sufficient to entitle it to admission into the Union, but on account of its resistance to the government authority its admission has been refused by Congress. 350. Washinfffoiif originally a part of Oregon, was erected into a Territory in 1853. It was settled eight years before this date. Solo Wyoniuig was settled in 1867 and organized as a Territory the next year. A large tract in its north- western part is, on account of its natural wonders, re- served by the government as a national park. 352, The Indian Territory has never been organized. It contains seventeen reservations, besides some tracts not yet assigned. 353, Alaska was discovered by Vitus Behring, a Rus- sian explorer, in 1741. Cook's Inlet, on the southern coast, was entered by Captain Cook in 1778. This terri- tory was governed by a Russian trading company until its purchase by the United States in 1867. (See p. 284.) 354, Area and Population of the United States, — The extent of our country at the close of the Revolution Br ogress. 315 was ji])out 800,000 square miles. By its various accessions it has now over 3,000,000 square miles of territory. The number of States has increased from thirteen to thirty- eight, and its Territories are being rapidly developed. Social Progress. Si>ii. Public Schools. — Probably no other single cause, aside from the moral and religious character of its found- ers, has been so largely conducive to tlie prosperity of the country as its system of public schools. The ruling prin- ciple of this system, tliat of giving to every individual an opportunity to secure an education, is based on the uni- versal right of mankind to knowledge, and on the belief that the state rests more securel}' on a cultivated than an ignorant population. 356. These principles were brought to the country by our forefathers, and found an early expression, especially in the common scliools of New England. Our public school system ranks with the best in the world, and is justly regarded as one of the great bulwarks of our free- dom and prosperity. In addition to the public schools, there are in the country many academies and seminaries which were founded and endowed by private munificence. That the cherished plans of our forefathers for the general diffusion of knowledge have been so faithfully carried out, and our system of education made to keep pace with, and even surpass, improvements in other lines, is largely due to the philanthropy and far-seeing statesmanship of a comparatively small number of men, prominent among whom are Horace Mann and Henry Barnard. 357* Burefin of Education. — Although the national government looks upon schools as local institutions to be controlled by the State governments, it so far recog- nizes their necessity as to maintain a National Bureau 316 Progress. of Education, whose function is to collect information in regard to schools and publish it for the i)ublic benefit. 33S. Universities^ CoUeyeSf Professioiud, (tnd Techni- cal Schools, — There are (n'er four hundred universities and colleges in the country, among which those of Har- vard and Yale stand foremost. Opportunities for profes- sional study are afforded in a large number of theolog- ical, medical, law, and normal schools. The government maintains a military school at AVest Point, New York, and a naval school at Annapolis, Maryland. A\'ithin the last twenty years the physical sciences have become very popular, and a demand has been made for their application to industrial arts. To meet this demand a large number of scientific and technical schools have been founded, where students may receive practical instruction in agriculture, mining, engineering, and other arts. 359. Neivs})apers, — Not least among the educating in- fluences of the nation is the newspaper. Previous to the Revolution only a few of these were printed in the country, but the demand for information on the questions raised by that conflict led to a rapid increase in their number. Since that time the influence of the newspaper has steadily increased. Inventions have fa- cilitated the speed and cheapness with which they can be produced, and the telegraph supplies news from every quarter of the globe. Individuals of National Influence. ,56*0. Besides the influence of political parties, wars, and other circumstances, the history of every country is modified by individuals, who, though almost silent forces, nevertheless mould opinions and direct action. Among Americans there are those who have a right to a place in history as having exerted a national influence. Progress. 317 Siil, Writers, — During the unsettled and stormy period of our early history there were few writers, and their works were mostly confined to the discussion of the theo- logical and political questions which at that time ab- sorhed the j)ublic interest. American books were not read abroad. \\'ithin the past century, however, writers have arisen among us who take honorable rank with those of the Old World. The leading American poets are distin- guished for a fresh, simple style and for an appreciation of Nature. At their head are Bryant, Longfellow, Lowell, and Whittier. Our famous prose-writers are Bancroft, Hil- dreth, Prescott, Motley, and Parkman. Emerson is our most celebrated essayist and philosopher. Hawthorne, Cooper, and Mrs. Stowe represent the novelists ; Irving and Holmes miscellaneous writers. 362, Statesmen and Orators, — The more noted states- men, later than those of Revolutionary fame, are Webster, Calhoun, Clay, Lincoln, and Sumner. Horace Greeley was our greatest journalist. Webster, Calhoun, Clay, Everett, Choate, Phillips, and Beecher rank high among our orators. 363, Artists, — In the fine arts of painting and sculp- ture we have but few names. Benjamin West, Allston, Weir, Church, and Trumbull, the latter noted for the his- torical fidelity of his Revolutionary paintings, are among our first artists. Hiram Powers and Harriet Hosmer art our best sculptors. 364, Scientific Men, — In science, Agassiz, Dana, and Whitney are especially eminent — Agassiz for original re- search in zoology, and for the enthusiasm with which he inspired others by his methods of teaching; Dana for original research in mineralogy and geology, and for great ability in systematizing information attained by others ; Whitney for his achievements in philology. 318 Progress, 365. Great Tiweiitious, — Americans are noted for in- ventive genius, and some of the products of their skill have changed the currents of industry and greatly ad- vanced modern civilization. 306, The Telegraph. — The identity of electricity and lightning was discovered by Franklin, who, in 1753, util- ized this discovery by the invention of the lightning-rod. Subsequent researches by various learned men led to the invention of the electric telegraph, which was first put in successful operation by Prof. Morse in 1844. In 18(36 a submarine telegraph was, mainly through the exertions of Cyrus W. Field, put into successful operation between Europe and America. The rapidity and ease with wliich communication can now be maintained between the most distant })oints of our globe have effected changes even in the policy of governments and the intercourse of nations. 307, The Telephone. — Rivalling the telegraph as a mar- vel of invention is the telephone. This instrument, by means of an electric circuit, transmits vocal and other sounds, reproducing them at a distance. It was probably invented independently by several persons, but was first brought into public use in 1876 by Prof. A. G. Bell, and has become as common as the telegraph in transmitting messages to short distances. 3(>. Capture of Newbern. March 14. Capture of Island No. 10. April?. Capture of New Orleans. April 25. Siege of Yorktown. April 25. Battle of Williamsburg. May 5. Battle of Fair Oaks. May 31 and June 1. Capture of Memphis. June 6. Seven days' battle before Richmond. June 25 to .July 1. Battle of Cedar Mountain. August 9. Pope's defence of Washington. August- Lee's invasion of Maryland. September. Battle of Antietam. September 17. Battle of luka. September 19. Battle of Corinth. October 4. Battle of Fredericksburg. December 18. Battle of Murfreesboro'. December 31 and January 2, 1863. 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. January 1= Battle of Chancellorsville. May 2, 3, and 5. Lee's second invasion of the North. June Battle of Gettysburg. July 1-3. Surrender of Vicksburg. July 4. Battle of Chickamauga. September 19 and 20. Battles before Chattanooga. November 23-25. West Virginia admitted. j:564 Battle of the Wilderness. May 5-7. Movements for capture of Atlanta. May 7 lo July 28. Port of Mobile closed. August 5. Battle of Cold Harbor. June 1-3. Alabama and Kearsarge. June 19. Battle of Winchester, September 19. Battle before Nashville. December 15. Capture of Savannah. December 31. Nevada admitted into the Union, 1865 Capture of Wilmington. February 19. Battle of Five Forks. April 1. Richmond taken. April 3. Lee surrenders to Grant. April 9. Death of President Lincoln. April 14. Purchase of Alaska. 1867 Nebraska admitted into the Union. 1868 Treaty with China. 1869 Union Pacific R. R. in operation. 1870 The Washington Treaty. 1873 Modoc War, 1876 Centennial Celebration. Sioux War, Colorado admitted into the Union. 1878 The Silver Bill passed. Index and Pronouncing Vocabulary. Acadia, 35, 107, 108. Accessions of Territory, 294, 295. Acts of Trade, 128, 129. Adams, Jolin, 178, 195, 197, 215. Adams, J. Q., 215. Aix-ia-CUiapelle, Treaty of, 102. Alabama, State of, 299. Alabama, privateer, 27G, 277, 286. Alamo (a'h-ld-tno), 305. Alargon (a-lar'song), 31. Alaska, 284. Albemarle Colony, 87. Alien and Sedition Laws, 197. Allen, Ethan, 146. Americiis Vespucius, 30. Andre, Maj., 172, 173. Andros, Sir Edmund, 74. Annapolis (Nova Scotia), 100. Antietam, 258. Anti-Federalist, 195. Appomattox Court House, 279. Area of the United States, 309. Arkansas. 301. Arnold, Benedict, 146, 147, 156, 172, 173. Articles of Confederation, 179, 180. Atlantic Theory, 12. Aztecs, 14, 15, 19. Bacon's Rebellion, 57. Balboa {bal-ho'-a), 27. Baltimore, History of, 75, 211. Baltimore, The Lords, 75, 77, 93. Bank of the United States, 216, 217. Beau Sejour (bo-sa-zhoor'), 108. Bennington, 157. Berkeley, Lord, 86. Black Hawk War, 217. Block's Explorations, 40. Board of Revenue Commissioners, 134. Bojador {bozh-a-dur'), 24. Bonhomme Richard (bo-nomre-shar'), 179. Boscawen {bos-caw'-en), 110. Boston Massacre, 136. Tea Party, 138. PortBiH, 139. Evacuation of, 148. Braddock's Defeat, 105, 106. Bradford, Gov., .59, 61. Brags, Gen., 246, 247, 248, 265, 266, 267. Brandywine, Battle of, 160-162. Brewster, Elder, 59. Brown, John, 235. Buena Vista (biv'a-na ves'-in), 223. Bunker Hill, Battle of, 143, 144. Bureau of Education, 310. Burgoyne, 155-158. Burnside, 259, 267. Burr, Aaron, 198. Cal)ots {ca'b-ols), 31. Cabrillo (cn-breei'-yo), 31. • California, 229, 230, 231, 306, 307, 308. Canada, 111, 146, 147. Cauonicus (ca-non'-i-cus), 61. Carteret {car'-(er-et), Sir George, 86. The Colony, 89. Cartier (car-tc-n'), 34. Carver, Gov., 59, 61. Causes of Revolution, 127-141. Cedar Mountain, 256. Centennial Celebration, 315. Cerro Gordo (cher'-ro gor'-do), 225. Champlain, 37 ; Battle at Lake, 210. Chancellorsville, 261. Chapultepec (cha-pool-te-pek), 227. Charleston, 268, 279, 148, 166, 176, 177. Charters, 58, 81, 83, 63, 75. Chattanooga, 266, 267. Cherokees, 218. Chesapeake and Shannon, 208. Chicago, 297. Chickamauga, 265. Chiliuahua {che-iva'-wd), 223. China, Treaty with, 223. Chrysler's Field, Battle of, 208. Churubusco (koo-roo-boos'-ko), 227. Cincinnati, 297. Circular Letter of Massachusetts, 135. Civil Rights Bill, 283. Civil Service Reform, 292. Civil War, 235-282. Clayborne's Insurrection, 76. Clinton, Gen., 169, 148, 149, 152, 158. Cold Harbor, Battle of, 273. Coligny (co-ken' -ye), 35. Colonial Congress of 1765, 132. Colonization, 47-119. Colorado, 309. Columbus, 25-27. Commerce, 201, 202, 213. Commissioners, British, 151, 164; Board of, 134. Compromise of 1850, 231. Confederate Government, 238. Conflicting claims to America, 47, 48. Congress at Albany,104 ; in N.England,80. Congress of the United States, 191. Connecticut, 77-81. Continental Army, forming of, 143; dis- banding of, 178. Continental Congress, 140, 143, 162, 191. Constitution of U. S., 180, 181 ; of Va., 56 ; of Conn., 79. Contreras (con-tra'-ras), 227. C-ordova, 27. Corinth, Battle of, 247. Cornwallis, 154-159, 161, 169-171, 173- 175, 277. Coronado {cor-o-nd'-do), 30. COrtez. 27 COwpens, Battle of, 173, 174. Creek War, 208. Crevecoeur [krdve-keur), 38. Croghan (cro'tm), 206. Crown Colonies, 132. Crown Point, 103, 105, 107, 145. 333 334 Index and Pronouncincj Vocahidary. Custer, Gen., 289. Davis, Jefferson, 288, 281. Deane, Silas, 150. Decatur, Lieut., 200. Declaration of Independence, 149. De Kalb, 170. De la Roche {ru.sh), 34. Delaware, Lord, 5;5-5o ; Colony of, 84.35. De Monts {de mong'), 35. De Narvaez {nar vah'-eth), 28. Denys (de-ni), 34. J)eSoto, 28-30. D'Iberville {de'-hdre-vel), 97. Dieskau (de-es'-ko), 107. Discovered Colonies, 132. Dun more. Gov., 145. Du Quesne (du kane'), 104, 105, 111. Dutch Explorations, 38-40. Diaft Riot, 268. Drake, Sir Francis, 31, 32. Drt'd Scott Decision, 234. Education, 64, 117-119, 309-311. Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians, 64. Emancipation Proclamation, 260. Embargo, 201. Endicott, 63. English Explorations, 31-33. Eric {tr'-ic), 15. External taxes, 128, 134. Fair Oaks, Battle of, 279. Farragut, Com., 249, 250, 264. Federalist party, 195. Fifteenth Amendment, 286. Filibustering, 231. Finance, 193, 219, 220, 290. Five Forks, Battle of, 279. Florida, 28-30, 215, 304. Foreign Relations, with Great Britain, 192, 193, 200-213, 220, 244, 302 ; with France, 192,194- 196; with Spain, 192, 194. Forts Washington and Lee, 150. 154: Henrv and Donelson. 245 ; Maconi 252; Pulaski, 252; Wagner, 268; Fisher, 278; Edward, 187; Ticou- deroga, 107, 112; William Henrv, 107, 109. Fourteenth Amendment, 283. Franklin, Benjamin, 150, 178. Fredericksburg, Battle of, 259. Freedmen's Bureau, 283. Fremont, John C, 225, 255, 256. French Explorations, 34-38; in Mexico, 284; Settlements, 95, 96. Frenchtown, 205. Frobisher, Martin, 31. Fugitive Slave Law, 231. Gadsden Purchase, 232. Gage, Gen., i;^5, 144 142,. Gaspee, 137, 138. Gaspereau (gns-pa-ro'), 108. Gates, Gen.. 143, 157, 170. Genet, 194. Georgia, 93-95. Gettysburg, 262. Ghent, Treaty of, 213. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 32. Goliad, 305. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 33. Government of Colonies, 48, 53, 54, 56, 62, 63, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81, 85, 87, 89, 91, 91, 115; under the Articles of Confede- ration, 179; under Constitution, 180. Grand Model, 88. Grant, Gen.. 245-248, 251, 264-267, 272-273, 280, 281, 285-291. Grants of Land, 32, 35, 37, 48, 58, 61, (\>^, 70, 73, 75, 77, 83, 86, 87, 90. Greene, Gen., 143, 173-175. Gridley, 143. Grijah'a {greh'nl-va), 27. Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwd-dd-loo'pa he-dtil' go), 228. Guerriere (gere-nr'e), 204. Guilford Court House, Battle of, 174. Halifax, 101. Hamilton, Alexander, 192. Harrison, Gen., 205-207, 220. Hartford Convention, 211. Hatteras Inlet, 242. Hayes, R. B., 291-294. Hessians. 147, 154. Hooker, Gen.. 261, 266. Hooker, Rev. Thomas, 78. Howe, Admiral Lord, 151. Howe, Gen., 148, 151-154, 160-162. Hudson, Henry, 38. Huguenots, 35, 36. Hull, Gen., 203. Illinois, 297, 165. Impeachment of Pres. .Johnson, 284. Impressment of seamen, 200, 202. Indiana, 296. Indian hostilities, 168, 193, 56, 66, 67, 72. 78, 79, 114, 203, 208, 217, 218, 219, 268, 287-289. Indian Policy, 61, 64, 91, 28ii, 287. Indians, 12-20. India Trade, 25. Individuals of national influence, 311,312. Intercolonial Wars, 98-114; Effects of, 129. Internal Improvements, 232. Internal Taxation, 128, 130, 134. Invasion of Canadn, 146, 147, 203, 204, 207, 209. Invasion of the North during Civil War, 258, 2i;2-264. Inventions, 312-315. Iowa, 302. Iroquois (ir'-o-kwoy), 20. Island No. 10, 249. luka. Battle of, 247. Jackson, Andrew, 208, 211, 212, 215, 216-219. Jackson, Stonewall, 255. Jalapa (hd-ld-pd'), 226. James's Patent, 48. Jamestown, 50. Japan, Treaty with, 233. rfav, John, 178, 192, 194. Jefferson. Thomas, 150, 192, 197-202, 215. Jesuits, 36. Johnson, Gen. William. 107. Johnson, Andrew, 282-285. Johnston, Gen. A. S., 245, 246. Index and Pronouncbig Vocahidanj. 335 Johnston, Gen. J. E., 254, 264, 270, 271, 278, 281. Joliet [zho-led), 36. Jones, John Paul, 179. Juan Ponce de Leon {hirdii pdn-tha da la-un). Kansas, 232, 303. Kansas-Nehraska Bill, 232. Kearney {kar-ni'), 223-225. Kentucky, 298, 246, 247. Kev, Francis S., 211. Kieft, Gov., 71. King George's War, 101, 102. King Philip's War, 66, 67. King's Mountain, Battle of, 170, 171. King William's War, 98, 99. Knisteneaux {nis'tt-no), 20. Knox, Gen., 192. Knoxville, Siege of, 267. Knyphausen {nip-how'zen), 161, 171. Lafayette, 162, 175. La Salle, 37, 38. Le Boeuf ije-bef). Lee, Arthur, 150. Lee, Charles, 143, 148. Lee, Richard Henrv, 150. Lee, Robert E., 255-259, 261-264, 272-279. Leisler (lis'ler), William, 74. Leopard and Chesapeake, 200, 201. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 302. Lexington, 142. Lincoln, Gen., 166. Lincoln, Pres., 235-282. London Company, 48, 49. Long Island, Battle of, 151, 152. Lookout Mountain, Battle of, 266. Louisburg, 101-103, 105, 109, 110. Louisiann, 197, 198, 289, 300. Loudon, Lord, 109. Lundy's Lane, Battle of, 209. Lyon, Gen., 242. Madison, Pres., 202-213. Magellan, 30. Maine, 68, 295. March to the Sea, 271. Marquette (mar-keC), 36, 37. Maryland, 7o-77. Massasoit (mas-sa-so' if.). Massachusetts, 58-69, 135, 139, Mayflower, 59. McClellan, Gen.. 241, 253-259. McDonough, Com., 210. Meade, Geii., 262, 263. l^Ielendez (mn-len'deth), 30. Mempliis, 249. Menomonies (me-nom'o-nies), 20. Merrimack and Monitor, 252, 258. Mexican Acquisition, 306-309. Mey, Capt., 40. Miami {mi-a'h-mi), 14. Michigan, 203, 297. Middle Ages, 23, 24. Mill Si)nng, Battle of, 245. Minnesota, 301. Minute Men. 141. Missionary Ridge, 266. Mississippi, 299. Missouri, 241, 242, -300. Missouri Couipromise, 214. Mobile, 275, 276. Modoc War, 287, 288. Muliuo del Rey {mo-le'no del rd), 227. Monmouth, Battle of, 164. Monroe, Pres., 213-215. Montcalm, Gen., 109, 113. Monterey, 223. Montgomery, 143, 146. Montreal, 146. Morgan, Col., 147. Morris, Robert, 216. Moultrie, Col., — . Mounds and Mound-Builders, 13-15. Murfreesboro', Battle of, 248. Naval Warfare— of Revolution, 178, 179 War of '12, 204, 206, 208, 209. Navigation Acts, 128. Naunikeag (itahm-ke-a'g), 63. Nebraska, 303. Newfoundland, 32. New Hampshire, 69. New Haven, 80. New Jersey, 86, 87. New Orleans, 212, 249, 250. Newport, 165. Newspapers, 311. New York, 70, 75, 134, 150. Niagara, 105, 106. Non-Importation, 132, 184. North Carolina, 87, 88. Northmen, 18. North-West Territory, 295. Ohio, 103, 296. Oglethorpe, 94, 95. Ojeda (o-hd'da), 27. Opechancanough (o-jjeka'n-ka-no), 56. Oregon, 302. Palo Alto (^^aVo al'(o), 221. Palos ( pd'loce), 25. Pea Ridge, Battle of, 251. Pennsylvania, 90-93. Pequod AVar, 78, 79. Perote ( ]jd-ro-fd'), 226. Perry, Capt. Oliver, 206, 207. Personal Liberty Bills, 234. Petersburg, 275. Phenicians, 13. Philadelphia. 160-164. Phipps, Sir William. CS, 99. Pierce, Pres., 232-234. Pilgrims, 59. Pitt, William, 110. Plymouth Colony, 59-62. Plymouth Company, 48, 58. Pocahontas, 54. Poictiers ( pird-tf-d ), 204. Political parties, 195, 233, 2:'.4. Polk, President. 221-230. Pontiac's War, 114, 115. Port Hudson, 256. Port Roval (S. C), 242. Prescott, Col., 143. Presqu' Isle ( prex-keel'), 108. Princeton, Battle of, 158, 159. Pring, Martin, 33. Progress, 309-316. Provincial Congress of Massachusetts 140, 141. Public Schools, 309, 310. 336 Index and Proyiouncing Vocabulary. Putnam, Israel, 143. Quautrell (kivdn-treW), 268. (iuarteriiii,' Act, 133, 134, 139. Quebec, 9o. 112. Queen Anne's War, 100, 101. Raids, British and American, 159, 168. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 32, 33. Reconstruction of Southern States, 283. Religious intolerance in Mass., 64. Religious tolerance in Md., 75; in R. I., 83. Representative government, first in America, 55. Resaca de la Palma {re-sn-kd di la pdl-md), 221. Restoration of seceded States, 282. Review questions, Per. I., 19 ; Per. II., 40 ; Per. III., 119, 120; Per. IV., 181, 182; Per. v., 316-31S. Revohition, 123-182. Rhode Island, 82-84. Richmond, 279. Roanoke Island, 32, 251. Roberval {ro-bdr-vdl'), 34. Rochambeau (ro-skdng-bo'), 172, 177. Rosecrans, 248, 265. Roger Williams, 64, 82, 83. Rvswick, Peace of, 99. Sa'ltillo isdl-ieel'-yo), 223. Sainoset {sam'-o-set), 61. San Francisco, 308. San Juan de UUoa {sdn whan da oo-lo'-a), 225. San Salvador, 26. Santa Anna, 305, 223, 22.5. Santa Fe, 30. Saranac {sar-a-nac'), 210. Saratoga, Battles of, 157, 158. Sault Ste. Marie (soo sent mcL-re'), 36. Savannah, 166, 176. Saybrook Colony, 79. Schools, 309-311. Schuyler, Gen.. 143, 156, 157. Scott, Gen., 209, 225-229, 240. Secession, 237. Seminole War, 218. Shenandoah Valley, 254, 255, 262, 273, 274. Shepherd Kings, 12. Sheridan, Gen., 274. Sherman, Gen., 264, 266, 267, 270-272, 278, 280, 281. Shiloh, Battle of, 246. Silver Bill, 293. Sioux War, 289. Slavery, 56, 281, 235-237. Slave Trade, 134. Smith, John, 49-53, 58. Sons of Liberty, 131, 132. South Carolina, 89, 100, 337, 289. Southern Policy, 292. South-west Territory, 299. Spanish Explorations, 25-31. Specie Circular, 219. Springfield, Battle of, 171, 172. Stamp Act, 130-133. Standish, Miles, 59. Star of the West, 238. Star-Spangled Banner, 211. State Sovereignty, 235. St. Augustine {sent aw-gns-teen'), 30. 36. St. Clair, Gen., 159. St. Leger's Expedition, 156. Stony Point, 168. Stuyvesant, Gov.. 73. Sullivan, Gen., 143, 161, 165. Sumter, Fort, 239. Swedes in Del., 72. Tanev (iauf-nl), 234. Tariff', 216. Taxation, 126, 127. Taxed tea sent to America, 138. Tax on tea, lead, etc., 134, 1.37. Tavlor, Gen., 221-223, 230, 231. Tecumseh, 203, 207. Tennessee, 265-272, 299. Tenure-of-Office Bill, 283. Terra Incognita, 24. Texas, 304, 306, 221. Thames, Battle of, 207. Theories of peopling of America, 12, 13. Ticonderoga, 110, 145. Tippecanoe, Battle of, 203. Tories, 148. Treaties of Paris, 114, 178. Trenton, Battle of, 154. Tripoli, war with, 200. Troops sent to Boston, 135. Tyler, President, 220-221. Utrecht, Treaty of, 101. Valley Forge, 163. Van Buren, President, 219, 220. Vasco da Gama {vahs-co da gd'-ma), 30. Vera Cruz, 225. Vermont, 295. Verrazzano (rer-raht-sah'-no), 34. Vicksburg, 250, 251, 264, 265. Virginia, 49-58, 136, 140. Ward, Artemas, 143. War in South in Revolution, 145. War of 1812, 202-213. War with Mexico, 221-229. Washington Citv, 210. Washington, George, 145, 143, 148, 150, 152, 153-155,160-163,176, 177, 178,180,191-196. Washington Treaty, 285. Weldon R. R.. 275. Welsh Traditions, 15. Weslevs, 94. West Point, 153, 172. West Virginia, 241. Whitefield, 94. White Plains, Battle of, 153 Wilderness, Battle of, 272. Williamsburg, 251. Williams College, 107. Wilmington, 275, 27^. Wilmot Proviso, 229. Winchester, Battle of, 274. Winthrop, the elder, 63. Winthrop, the younger, 81. Wisconsin, 297. Witchcraft, 65. Wolfe, Gen., 111-113. Writs of Assistance, 129, 134. Wyoming, 164, 165. Yeardlev, Gov., 55. fork Pe'ninsula, 176, 253, 254. Declaration of Independence. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED, ADOPTED JULY 4, 1776. Whex, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary lor one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected tliem with another, and to assume, among the powers of tlie earth, the separate and equal station to whieli tlie laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel tliem to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident :— That all men are created equal ; that tliey are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pui'suit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- riving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to tliem shall seem most likely to effect their safety and liappi- ness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suflfer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpa- tions, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to tlirow off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of gov- ernment. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- lishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- sentation in the legislature,— a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measm-es. 20 ^^37 338 Declaration of Independence. He has dissolved representative liouses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the riglits of tlie people. He lias refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; wliereby tlie legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to tlie people at large, for tlieir exercise, tiie State remain- ing, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- out, and convulsions witliin. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose, obstructing tlie laws for naturalization of foi'eigners, refusing to pass others to encourage tlieir migration liither, and raising the condi- tions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He lias made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of tlieir offices, and the amount and payment of tlieir salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has aflTected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation, — For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murdei'S which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: For imposing taxes on us without our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov- ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the powers of our governments: For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and de- stroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar- barous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored CO bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages. Declaration of Iiidependence. 339 whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury, A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and b^' the authority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publisli and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and inde- pendent States, they have fu41 power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And, for the support of this declara- tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mu- tually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, and signed by the following members:— JOHN HANCOCK, of Massachusetts. New Hampshire.— Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thorn- ton. Massachusetts Bay.— Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island.— Stephen Hopkins, William El- lery. Connecticut.— Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Wil- liams, Oliver Wolcott. New York.- William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey, — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Penn- sylvania.— Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross, Delaware,— Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland.— Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Car- roll, of Carrollton. Virginia. — George Whyte, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr,, Francis Light- foot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina.— William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina.— Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hey- ward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia. —Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. ANALYSIS OF THE Constitution of the United States. CO u 1. Preamble. 2. Departments of Government. ] ( House of Repr«' Leffislative. { Congrrss. -l sentatives. Executive. (_ Senate. Judicial. 1- f Pi'ojiot'tiou, .'>. < How Ajtportioued, 5, lOO. H Bfif/ihiliti/, 4, ^2. CO a UJ 1- House of Rep- resentatives. Term, 3. Bif Whom Elected, 3. Electors, 3. Vacancies, 6. •<< Census, 5. I House rowers, 7,'^i3, '2, 94. z ^ =) :^ How Conrposed , 8. ^ Eliyihilittj, 10, '^'-i. u ^ Term, 8. X Ci. Bif Whom Chosen, 8. Li. o When Chosen, 9. ^ •nstitutional Amendments, 78, Slavery, 44, 9S. General Law-Mahiny, 43. Meetiny, 10. C First Process, 2U. Proceedinys. } Second Process, 2!+. ( Third Process, SU. Orders, Resolutions, and Votes, 25, Proliibitioiis on the United States. r Habeas Cori>us, 4,^. I Direct Tajces, 5, 47. Export Duties, 4S. Inter-State Commerce, 4S. Public Money, 49,37. I Nobility, 50. j Penalties, 40, 70. Foreiyn Slave Trade, 44, 78. I Itepndiation, 70, 79. I r Civil, 83, su. 1 Freedom. | ^,;,.^;^,,,^ gl, 83. 342 Analysis of the Constitution. Relating to Officers. c {U.S. Officers, 5k, I IneHgihilitu. | Congressvien, 5k, I Foreign Fntronage, 50. 1 The President, 58. I Inipeacliment, 64, 14. Riglits of States. State Siil)or(li- nation. State Proliibi- tions. Personal Rights. f Representation, 5, 78. I frivilefje.s of Citizenship, 72. I State Am it!/, 71. New States, 75. I Kleetions, 15. I Militia Offieers, 41. \ Federal Froteetion, 77. ( From Justice, 73. Fugitives, j ^.^.^^^ ^^,g,.^,.^,^^ j,^^ Reservations, 92, 91. r Origin of State ( Constitution, 82. I OhHg«itions. \ Amendments, 7S. 1 Sapreniaetj of U. S. Authority, 80. y Official Oath, 81. f State Relations, 51, 52. Commercial, 51. War, 51, 52. Fennlties,51. Nohilitg, 51. Duties, 52. Slavery, 97. Citizenship, 99. Domicile, 85. Seearitij, 86. Judicial, 87. Citizenship, 99. r A ccusntion, S8. I Trial by Jury, 88. I Witnesses, 87. Criminal Actions, -j Counsel, 88. Bail, 90. Fines, 00. Punishments, 90. Civil Actions, 89. f Definition, 69. Treason. | Conviction, 69. Official Tmniu- iiities. Freedom from Arrest, 21. Freedom of Speech, 21. ■to Analysis of the Constitution. 343 111 whom Vested, 53. The President. Election. J f Term, 53. EliffihUity, 5ii. r Electors, 5k. Proceedings of Electors, 9U. 1 Proceedings in Congress, 9U. [ House of Representatives, 9k. Oath of Office, 59. HoiV ReuKnuihle, 64. Sal art/, 58. [ Milt tar I/, 60. g* I f Over Departments, GO. 'Z \ " Reprieves and Pardons, ?C. q I I " Treaties, 61. ^1 " Appointments, 61. " Vacancies, 62. Messages, 63. Over Congress, 63. Reception, 63. Executor of the Laws, 63. [ I Commissions, 63. Civil. Yice-Presideiit. JSligibiUty, 96. { In Congress, 95. Election. | ^^^ ^,^,^^^^^_ g^^ (hith of Office, 81. Term, 53. rowers and Duties, 11,57, 94 ^1^ ^ ( Where Tested, 65. I Iloiv Appointed, 61. I Oath of Office, 81. Judges. -i Tenure of Office, 8.'i, How Removable, 64. I Salary, 65. Jurisdiction. C Zilniitation, 66. Orifjinal, 66. 67, 93. [ Appellate, 66, 67. COiNSTlTUTlON OF THE UNITED STATES. I*rea}nble, 1. We. the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- mon defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Consti- tution for the United States of America, ARTICLE 1.— Legislative Department. Section I. — Cougvess iti General. 3. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Rep- resentatives. Section II. — House of Representatives . 3. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature, 4. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen, 5. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The num- 344 Constitution of the United States. 345 ber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enume- ration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Planta- tions one, Connecticut five. New York six, New Jersey four. Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 6. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof sliall issue writs of election to fill such va- cancies. 7. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section Ill.—Settate. 8. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state chosen by the Legislature thereof for six years, and each senator shall have one vote. 9. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at tlie expira- tion of the second year, of tlie second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one- third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resig- nation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 10. No person shall be a senator who shall not liave attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 1.1. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 12. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 13. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted witliout the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 14. Judgment in case of impeachment shall not extend farther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. Section IV. — Both Houses. 15. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives sliall be prescribed in each state by the Legislature there- 346 Constitution oj the Vyiited States. of; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regula- tions, except as to the place of choosing senators. 16. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section V. — The Houses seiinrateJy. 17. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quali- fications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 18. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 19. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be en- tered on the journal. 20. Neither house during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section VI.—THsahilities of Members. 31. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. aa. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil ofllce under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section VII.— Mode of Passing Laws. 23. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre- sentatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 34:. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have orig- inated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- ceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- Constitution of the United States. 347 tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that liouse, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against tlie bill shall be en- tered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 35. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- tion of adjournment), shall be presented to the President of tlie United States; and before the same shall take ettect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of tlie Sen- ate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section VIII. — Pott'crs {/ranted to Congress. The Congress shall have power— 36. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; '47. To borrow m.oney on the credit of the United States; 38. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 39. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States; 30. To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 31. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 33. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 33. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their re- spective writings and discoveries; 34. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 35. To define and punish felonies committed on the high seas, and of- fenses against the law of nations ; 36. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 37. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 38. To provide and maintain a navy ; 39. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 40. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 348 Co7istitution of the United States. 41. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining tlie militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- pline prescribed by Congress; 43. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other need- ful buildings; and, 43. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- ment or officer thereof. Section IX.— Powers denied to the United States. 44. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- lars for each person. 45. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended un- less when, in case of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 46. No bill of attainder, or ex-post-facto law, shall be passed. 47. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 48. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 49. No money shall be drawn from the treasui'y but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 50. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foi'eign state. Section X.—T'otvers denied to the States. 51. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law. or law impairing the obliga- tion of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. 53. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce of all duties and Constitution of the United States. 349 imposts laid by any State ou imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such im- minent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II.— Executive Department. Section I. — President and I'ice- President. 53. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United Slates of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 54. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the t^ongress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify-, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Sen- ate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person hav- ing the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall iriimediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person hav- ing the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-Presi- dent. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.*] 55. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 56. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been four- teen years a resident within the United States. * Altered by the 12th Amend tnent. See page 361. 350 Constitution of the United States. 57. In case of the removal of the President from oflice, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, deatli, resignation, or inabil- ity, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the dis- ability be removed or a President shall be elected. 58. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and lie shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 59. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the fol- lowing oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, pre- serve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States," Section II. — Potvcrs of the I* resident. 60. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; iind he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 61. He shall have poAver, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present con- cur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein. otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the Presi- dent alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 63. The President shall have power to fill up nil vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their ne.\t session. Section III. — Duties of the l*resi(1ent. 63. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occa- sions, convene both houses, or either of them ; and in case of disagi'eement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section IV. — InijH'ftcJituent of the President. 64. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Constitution of the United States. 351 ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department. Section 1. — United Stdtes Courts. 05. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su- jMenie Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be dimin- ished during their continuance in office. Section II.— Jurisdiction of the United States Courts, G6. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity aris- ing under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authoritj' ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admi- ralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States; be- tween a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States; and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and for- eign States, citizens, or subjects.* 67. In All cases afTecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 68. The trial of all crimes, except In cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section III. — Treason. 69. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and com- fort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 79. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section I. — State Records. 71. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. * Altered by the 11th Amenduient. See page 351. 352 Constitution of the United States. Sectioti Il.—Pt'lviloges of Citizens, etc: 73. The citizens of eacli State shall be entitled to all privileges and im- munities of citizens in the several States. 73. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he tied, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 74. No person hfeld to service or labor in onv. State, under tlie laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regula- tion therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be deliv- ered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section III.—Neiv States and Territories. 75. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the j unction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 76. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in thig Constitution shall be so con- strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section IV.— Guarantee to the^ States. 77. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a re- publican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inva- sion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE v.— rower of Aiiiendment. 78. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it ne- cessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the appli- cation of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when rati- fied by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by con- ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of rati- fication may be proposed by Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aflTect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI.— Public Debt, Supremacy of the Constitution, Oatli of Office, Religious Test. 79. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confedei-ation. Constitution of the United States. 353 80. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 81. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several St^vtes, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be requii'ed as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII.— Ratification of the Constitution. 8:^. The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names : GEORGE WASHINGTON, President and Deputy from Virginia, Nkw Hampshire.— John Langdon, Nicholas Oilman. Massachusetts.— Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. Connecticut.— William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. New York.— Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey.- William Livingston, William Patterson, David Rrearley, Jonathan Dayton. Pennsylvania.— Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Thomas Fitz- simons, James Wilson, Thomas Mifflin, George Clymer, Jared Ingersoil, Gouverneur Morris. Delaware.— George Read, John Dickinson, Jacob Broom, Gunning Bedford, Jr., Ricnard Bassett. Maryland.— James M'Henry, Daniel Carroll, Daniel of St. Tho. Jenifer. Virginia.— John Blair, James Madison, Jr. North Carolina.— William Blount, Hugh Williamson, Richard Dobbs Spaight. South Carolina.— John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Pierce Butler. Georgia.— William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 21 354 Constitution of the United States. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I.— Freedom of Religion, etc. 83. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or proliibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redvess of grievances. ARTICLE II.— Right to bear Arms. 84. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III.— Quartering Soldiers on Citizens. 85. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with- out the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV.— Search Warrants. 8G. The right of the people to be secui-e in their persons, houses, papers, and etTects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- lated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE v.— Trial for Crime, etc. 87. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infa- mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand j ury , except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or In the militia when in ac- tive service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be sub- ject for the same ofTence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compen- sation. ARTICLE TI.— Rights of Accused Persons. 88. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII.— Suits at Common Law. 89. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall ex- ceed twentj- dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII.— Excessive Bail. 90. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, uor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted. Constitution of the United States. 355 ARTICLE IX. 91. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. 93. The powers not granted to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people. ARTICLE XI. 93. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICIiE XII.— Mode of olioosinsr the President and Vice-President. 91. Tlie electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots tlie person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all per- sons voted for as President, and of all jjersons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of government of the United States, di- I'ected to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such num- ber be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the higliest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately by ballot the Piesident, But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in tlie case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 95. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shail be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of tlie whole •number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President: a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shail be necessary to a choice, 96. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII. 97. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishmeni for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or anyplace subject to their jurisdictiou. 356 Constitution of the United States. 98. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. 99. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 100. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United .States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male members of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of repre- sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty- one years of age in such State. 101. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- tary, under the United States, or under any State; who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or ju- dicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. lOri. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the Ifnited States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void, 103. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legisla- tion the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. .104. The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 105. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legisla- tion the provisions of this article. - property^ they were allowed to count tliem as persons (three-fifths entering the enumeration on which representation was based). This virtually made a Southerner who owned five huiidred slaves the political equal of three hundred and one free white citizens of the North. Moreover, the Constitution provided (Art. IV., Sec. 2, P. 3) for the re- The Rise of the Slave Potuer. 9 turn of slaves who raiglit fly from one State to another. It is true that here, as elsewhere, the word "slave" does not occur ; but the omission was only a very pitiable trick by which men lied to themselves and to the world about facts that could not be lied away. IS. The First Fugitlve-Slave Law, — In 1793, Con- gress passed a fugitive-slave law. This was, perhaps, the first explicit national recognition of slavery. By this act it was possible for any one claiming to be the owner, or the agent of an owner, to arrest any negro any- where, claim him as a slave, and bring the case for im- mediate trial before any justice of the peace. The testi- mony of the pretended master or agent would be sufii- cient, if the magistrate should so decide ; and the negro must prove the fact of his freedom, when all justice re- quired that the alleged owner should prove that the man was a slave. The negro was not entitled to a jury trial ! 10. The Cotton-Gin, — In this same year Eli Whitney invented the cotton-gin. This separated the seed from tlie cotton. In thus preparing the crop for the market it did the work of three hundred and fifty men. Tlr's gave a great impetus to the cultivation of this plant, and increased the profit in slave -labor, and hence increased the demand for slaves. 17. Tmj^opfation of Slaves Forbidden. — In January, 1806, Congress formally forbade the impc^rtation of slaves from and after January 1, 1808, the date prescribed by the Constitution. This sounds well, but it was really a mere paper law; and all debates concerning the punish- ment to be inflicted for breakino- it show that there was no serious thought of enforcing it. The importation went on as before, both North and South engaging in it more and more zealously — the former rather outstripping the latter in this nefarious business. 10 A History of Kansas. 18, The Colonization Society, — This was founded at Washington, in 1816, for the purpose of colonizing the free negroes in some part of Africa. Many phihanthropic men, from all sections of the country, engaged in this work. But it is not questioned now that the real pur- pose of most Southern members was to get the free blacks out of the country; their association with slaves and their influence over them being considered dangerous. Many of the radical Northern anti-slavery men saw this from the beginning, and refused to have anything to do with the society. Out of its work finally grew the Ee- public of Liberia. 19, Anti.Slavery Feeling in the Nor'th. — The desire to free the country from the plague-spot, slavery, was slowly but surely gaining ground at the North. The Quakers had taken a firm stand against the institution as early as the beginning of the preceding century. Other denominations were slower to move, but in every Northern State was an increasing number who were at least unwill- ing to extend slave territory. Many foresaw that, sooner or later, the question must result in a sharp struggle, which might involve the life of the nation. 20, The Missouri Compromise. — When Missouri asked to be admitted as a State, several grave questions came before Congress. Among these were : Can Congress impose conditions on the admission of a State? Can Congress prohibit slavery in the Territories ? Can free blacks be considered citizens ; and are they, as citizens of certain States, entitled to the privileges of citizens in all the other States? The first was already settled by several unquestioned precedents. The second ought to have been answered sharply in the affirmative, under the express terms of the Constitution (Art. IV,, Sec. 3, P. 2). Nor should there have been anv hesitation as to the The Rise of the Slave- Poiver. 11 third. But in the long debate and in the so-called com- })romise which followed, the first and third were really avoided, and the power of Congress to forbid slavery in Territories south of 36° 80' was renounced in flivor of the South. The supposed gain — that slavery should not exist north of 36° 30' — was (1) simply the expression of a right which had always been in the hands of Con- gress ; and (2) a breathing-spell gained by the slave-power Avithin which to better prepare for a new struggle. Men who thought this " compromise " settled the status of slavery were never able to shake off* the Missouri ques- tion. Timid men had yet to learn that " in a free coun- try nothing can be settled that is not right." 21. The Admission of Texas, — Texas was colouized by the South, though there is no good reason to believe that at the outset annexation was thought of. But it soon became evident that more slave States must be cre- ated, or the balance of political power in the National Senate would be lost. Moreover, Mexico abolished slavery^ and this threatened to hem in the South with free labor — which would be disastrous in time. Then all the slave- power went at work to secure Texas. The attitude of our country towards Mexico — the rightful owner of Texas, the courses of action pursued, and the measures adopted, were disgraceful in the extreme. At the last moment of Tyler's Administration, in March, 18-15, by a measure which was entirely unconstitutional, Texas was annexed ; becomino- a State in the followino- December. From the outset, annexation was opposed by all anti- slavery men ; and the final success of the South hastened the com i no- strife. o 22, The Wilmot Proviso.— Iw 1S46, David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, oft'ered a bill in Congress to exclude slavery from any newly-acquired territory. This re- 12 A History of Kansas. ferred to tlie territory which the United States then hoped to purchase from Mexico, thus closing the Mexican War. The measure became historical as the Wilmot Proviso. The South phainly said, that if the proviso should pass, the time had come to have recourse to the sword. Slavery recognized that as the world advanced its own position became more and more untenable— except by force. 23, The Compromise of 1850. — Early in Taylor's Administration the Missouri State Legislature declared that the Missouri Compromise had ceased to have any bind- ing force. Other slave States repeated the cry. California adopted a Free-state Constitution and asked for admission, Feb. 13, 1850. Previous to this, Henry CLay, in the United States Senate, offered a compromise of all diffi- culties, consisting of eight points : the most important being, the admission of California, at its own request; the organization of territories acquired from Mexico with- out the AYilmot Proviso; the retention of slavery, but the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Colum- bia ; a more stringent fugitive-slave law. The debates over these points, at first united in what was called "the Omnibus bill," was marked by great bitterness; and the word "disunion" was frequently heard. In August and September, however, all were passed. Clay himself said that the chief merit of his measure was that it ig- nored the admitted opposition of principles. In this feeble way was it sought to stay the irrepressible conflict between freedom and slavery. The anti-slavery party was stirred to renewed energy by this compromise, and the over-zealous enforcement of the new fugitive- slave law was like oil to flames. 24, Earlij Occirpation of Kansas, — In 1834 Congress declared that all the country west of the Mississippi River, The Rise of the Slave-Power. 13 and not in Louisiana, Arkansas, or Missouri, should be called the Indian country. A large part of this, including what is now Kansas, was placed under the jurisdiction of Missouri. Part of it, on the east bank of the Missouri River, from the mouth of the Kaw to the north line of the State, was a portion of the State of Missouri, in de- fiance of the terms of the Missouri Compromise. In 1827 a military post was established at what is now Fort Leavenworth. Somewhat later. Rev. Joseph Meeker es- tablished near the present site of Ottawa a Baptist Mis- sion to the Indians, and in 1831 brought the first printing- press into the Territory. In 1835 Col. Henry Dodge, while on a return trip from the Rocky Mountains, estab- lished Fort Dodge on the Arkansas River, near the present site of Dodge City. In 1812 a military post was estab- lished at Fort Scott. Five years later the Catholics founded the Osage Mission, in what is now Neosho County. In 181:9 the great rush to California, on the discovery of gold, carried thousands across the State; and the "Great American desert " was discovered to be a veritable land of promise. 25, The Crisis. — It soon became evident that the South intended to secure this territorj^, if possible. The Free-state men were determined to avert this. Neither party wished to strike the first blow. But in 1852 Wil- lard Hall, a Congressman from Missouri, offered a bill to organize the Territory of the Platte, including Kansas and Nebraska. It was laid on the table ; and, before its consideration was reached, Solomon A. Richardson, of Illinois, in February, 1853, offered a bill to organize the same territory as the Territory of Nebraska. Neither of these specifically proposed a slave State. The latter passed the House, Stephen A. Douglas, Senator from Illinois, reported it in the Senate without amendment. 14 A Flistory of Kansas. It was laid on the table. In December of the same year, Augustus C. Dodge, of Iowa, offered a bill in the Senate to organize the Territory of Nebraska ; which Douglas amended, in January. Before it could be considered, Douglas reported a bill of his own as a substitute. This provided for two Territories, Kansas and Nebraska; and expressly provided that as to Kansas the Missouri Com- promise was suspended, and declared null and void. After a long and bitter discussion the bill passed, in March, 1854. The struggle had begun. THE TERRITORY. Events of 185^. 20, Squatter Sovereir/uti/. — The Douglas bill had pro- claimed what was known as "Squatter Sovereignty;" that is, the people of the Territory were to decide by their votes whether or not slavery should exist within its limits. The act under which the Territory was created contained the same provision. The question then became, of course, wdiich class of people should constitute the majority in Kansas — the Free-state men or the Pro-slavery party. Therefore both parties put forth most strenuous efforts to secure emigration to this new domain. 27, Population, — Tlie Territory was occupied, when organized, by about fourteen hundred wdiites. Of these some seven hundred were soldiers and those attached to the army in various capacities ; and the remainder were scattered here and there at the Missions and Trading Posts. Of the latter the most im.portant were those at Elm Grove, at Council Grove, and at Delaware Post- Office — about ten miles from the mouth of the Kaw. The Mission Posts were quite numerous ; the most well- The Territory. 15 known being Shawnee, some three miles from Westport, Mo.; St. Mary's, in Mission Township; and Osage. 28. Pro-Slavery Preparatioris, — There is abundant evidence that for some time previous to the introduction of the Douglas bill, the Pro-slavery party was making preparations to occupy Kansas. Slaves had been carried into the country by some of the missionaries, and were even given as presents to a few Indian chiefs. It was hoped in this way to make slavery an accomplished fact from the very outset. Secret treaties had been made with some Indian tribes, that there might be no hindrance to immediate occupation and pre-emption. In all this, Mis- souri was peculiarly interested. Slave property would become insecure should Kansas be made a free State. It would not do to have only an imaginary line between two such opposite civilizations. Clubs were formed all along the border for the purpose of securing the Territory and keeping out the " Abolitionists." In June, Missouri ans formed, near Fort Leavenworth, the Squat- ters' Claim Association. This passed many resolutions, tlie most noticeable beino; that " we recog-nize the institu- tion of slavery as already existing in this Territory, and advise slaveholders to introduce their property as early as possible ; " and " we will afford no protection to an Abolitionist as a settler." Throughout the South large meetings were held, and men and means were pushed on as rapidly as possible. 29. Free-State Preparafiojis. — The open violation of the Missouri Compromise sent men over to the ranks of the Abolitionists by thousands. Massachusetts chartered an Emigrant Aid Society, the most prominent members of which were Eli Thayer, Henry Wilson, and Anson Burlingame. The object was to assist emigration, by giving correct information; by securing guides and 16 A History of Kansas. special rates by certain routes of travel ; jind by estab- lishing stores, hotels, saw-mills, and other necessary ad- juncts of civilization. County branch leagues were created by which to call attention to this movement. This New England Society was sometimes called "a plan for freedom." Somewhat later, under a new charter, Amos A. Lawrence and Edward Everett Hale came into the company. A Union Emigrant Aid Company was also formed at Washington ; and Kansas Leagues were established at Cincinnati and in other Western towns. The purposes of these companies seem to have been legitimate, and fairly carried out. 30, T'oivn CoiitjKinies, — These organizations became well known and popular in the new Territory. Sites tliought to be detdrable were pre-empted or purchased, and then laid out into towns. Ownership of these was indicated by shares, which were paid in town lots, de- termined by a "drawing." The first was the Leaven- worth Town Company, and was organized at Weston, Mo., in June. 31, First Free.State Emigrants, — The first Free-state party, thirty in number, left Boston on the seventeenth of July, under the leadership of Charles H. Branscombe. They reached what is now Lawrence about the first of August, and put up their tents on the side of Mount Oread ; so named from Mount Oread School, Worcester, Mass. Two weeks later the second party arrived ; hav- ing with them Dr. Charles Robinson, afterwards Governor, and Samuel C. Pomero}^, afterwards United States Senator. In October came a third party under Branscombe: and the collection of tents and of log and board huts, hitherto called Wakarusa (though some dated their letters from "New Boston," while the Pro-slavery men spoke con- temptuously of "'Yankee settlement"), was given the Events of 185 Jf. 17 name of Lawrence, in honor of Amos A. Lawrence, of the Aid Conipan}^ 32, The First Church. — The first denominational organization in tlie Territory, outside the Missions, was the Congregational Church at Lawrence, under tlie care of Rev. S. Y. Lum ; dating from October loth, with only seven names attached to the original articles. 33. The First Kewspajyers. — The first newspaper issued in the Territory was the Leavenworth Herald^ printed under an elm tree, on the site of the present city, and sent out to represent the Pro-slavery cause. This was on September 15th. One month later came the first number of the Kansas Tribune^ of Lawrence, published by John Speer ; and of the Herald of Freedom^ publislied at the same place, by George W. Brown. The first issues of both papers were outside of Kansas ; the Tribune be- ing printed in Ohio, and the Herald of Freedom in Penn- sylvania. Both were staunch Free-state papers. In No- vember the Kansas Pioneer made its appearance. It was printed at Kickapoo, of which place there was almost nothing but the name. These four papers relied for their circulation and support on the interest felt in other com- munities, their subscribers being largely in Eastern and Southern States. 5=^. The First Election. — The first election held in the Territory was in November, for deleo'ate to Consrress. J. W. Whitfield was the candidate for the Pro-slavery party; J. A. AYakefield and R. P. Flenniken represented the Free-state men. Men rode over the Missouri border by hundreds, voted for Whitfield, and rode home. There were many threats, but no actual violence occurred. The Free-state men were outnumbered more than four to one. The Pro-slavery candidate was declared elected, and took his seat in Conoress. 18 A History of Kansas. 35. TopeTid Founded. — In December, some twenty- five people, Free-state men, selected the site of Topeka and founded the town ; the most well-known names in this connection being those of G. K. Holliday and F. W. Giles. Early in the next spring it received large additional numbers, and from the outset asserted its claims to be chosen as the capital, 8(i. Work of the Year* — The year closed showing Lawrence and Leavenworth as villages of some four hundred people each; Topeka just organized; and Kickapoo little more than a paper tow^n. Of actual, legal settlers, the Free-state party had the greater num- ber. The towns on the Missouri Eiver refused to pa- tronize steamers that carried Free-state men or supplies for them. It was hoped in this way to check emigration, and to starve out those who had ventured within the Territory. Events of 1855. ♦57. Prelude. — The first three months of this year gave little promise of the exciting scenes which followed. Everybody knew that neither party would relinquish con- trol of the Territory without further struggle. Just what course the conflict would take could not be clearly foreseen, and it was left to shape itself. The Pro-slavery men were united in their purpose to use all means, good or bad, to devote the Territory (and the future State) to slavery. The Free-state men were divided into three quite distinct parties : those who determined to act on the defensive only ; those who still looked to the general government for protection in a full and fair expression of opinion at tlie ])olls ; and those who wished to strike a blow, and the sooner the better. The first two w^erc about equally Events of 1855. 19 divided as to numbers; the conservatives regarding Dr. Kobinson as tlieir leader, the administration men looking to James S. Emerj. The radicals were decidedly in the minority. The first post-office in the Territory was established at Lawrence, in February. In this month, also, was taken the first census — showing a population of 8,500, with some 2,900 qualified voters. 38. The March Election. — The election for the Terri- torial Legislature was held on March 30th. The Gov- ernor's proclamation called for thirteen members of the Council, and twenty -six members of the House. For some time previous, the Missourians, under the leader- ship of David K. Atchison, who had been for twelve years a United States Senator, had been planning to con- trol the law-making. On the day before the election, about a thousand men marched across the line to Frank- lin, three miles from Lawrence, and went into camp. They came in wagons and on horseback and on foot ; were armed with rifles, muskets, shot-guns, revolvers, and bowie-knives ; and carried with them a small cannon, and a lars-e amount of whiskev. Their comins^ had been anticipated, and supplies had been secretly stored for them at the house where the voting was to take place. On election day they entered Lawrence, made the morn- ing hideous with their drunken brawling, captured the polls, cast more than eight hundred illegal votes, and then separated into small bands, which were marched off to secure other doubtful districts. The Free-state men were entirely overpowered, no resistance was offered, and so there was no real violence — though, of course, there were many threats and some collisions. Similar scenes were enacted at all the river towns ; the Missourians crossing the line, voting, and returning home 20 A Tlislory of Kansas. the same night. The election returns showed more than twice as many votes cast as the census — completed but a month earlier — had shown voters. 39. The Result. — The Pro-slavery newspapers were loud in their expressions of triumph, and called on the South to fill up the Territory with slaves at once. A Vigilance Committee was formed at Leavenworth, with the avowed purpose of driving out of the Territory all who, "by the expression of abolition sentiments, produce disturbance to the quiet of citizens, or danger to their domestic institutions." The Free-state men were driven into closer union. Formal protests were filed against the returns from several districts, and in six of these Gov. Reeder called a new election. No Missourians being present, in one only (Leavenworth) was a Pro-slavery man cliosen. 4:0. The LyncJiing of rhilfips. — William Phillips, a Lawyer of Leavenworth, had protested against the fraud- ulent election in his district, and was one of those who filed with the Governor a formal affidavit in this matter. The Vigilance Committee notified him to leave the Terri- tory, which he refused to do. In May, a party of Mis- sourians seized him, carried him across the river to Wes- ton, shaved his head, stripped him, tarred and feathered him, rode him on a rail for more than a mile, and then compelled a negro to sell him at auction — the price bid beino^ one dollar. At a public meeting held afterwards in Leavenworth, all this was deliberately and warmly endorsed b}^ a num- ber of prominent citizens, and by members of the Legis- lature; and was thus lifted above the hasty act of a few irresponsible border ruffians. This is considered the first personal outrage dictated by political motives only. Events of 1855. 21 4 /. Meeting ofihe Legislature. — The Territorial Legis- lature met at Pawnee, July 2d. The Free-state men who were returned from the districts in which new elections were ordered, were deprived of their seats. The Legis- lature at once determined to transfer the seat of govern- ment to Shawnee Mission, about three miles from West- port, Mo. They carried this proposal over the Governor's veto. Because of this, Reeder refused to longer recog- nize the Legislature or its acts. On the 16th, the mem- bers reassembled at Shawnee, many of them spending each night on the Missouri side of the line. The two remaining Free-state members resigned, on the ground that the Legislature was an illegal body, because of the fraud and violence of the election. This left law-making entirely in the hands of the Pro-slavery men. Most of tliese were residents of Missouri while legislating for the new Territory. 42. The Bogus Laws. — The laws passed at this session are known as the "Bogus Laws," from the general char- acter of the Legislature. They were little more than a transfer of the statutes of Missouri, with a few necessary changes in names. But the laws in favor of slavery were intensified, and have been very properly designated " a code of horrors." Given the power to enforce tliem, the Legislature could have soon made every Free-state man a convict in chains, working side by side with the slaves of the pro-slavery citizens. Of course, this overshot the mark, and made the code a dead letter from the day of its enactment. But nothing could better exemplify the character and temper of the men who had set their hearts on the conquest of Kansas. 43, Lecompfon. — Early in August the capital was transferred to Lecompton, then as now a small village 22 A History of Kansas. between Topeka and Lawrence, but which was for ihe next four years tlie center of a great struggle. It is said that the name of no city in tlie world was ever such a party cry ; and that from 1S66 to 1859 "Lecompton'' was spoken in as many languages as the name of London, Paris, or Berlin. 44. Pardee Butler, — A few days before the removal, Eev. Pardee Butler, who had acted as agent for the Emi- grant Aid Society, was detained over night in Atchison, while on his way East for more settlers. He frankly stated his mission, and his opinion of the general condition of affairs in the Territory. The next morning he was re- quested to sign some pro-slavery resolutions recently passed in Atchison. Refusing, the letter R (" Rene- gade") was painted in bhack on liis forehead; he was placed on a raft made of two loos lashed tooetlier ; a flas: covered with sentences threatenino; similar fate to all Abolitionists, was fastened to the craft ; his baggage and a loaf of bread were given him ; and he was set adrift on the Missouri River. He managed to get safely on shore about six miles below the city. 45. Biff Springs Convention, — The events of the year thus far showed the neccvssity of united action on the part of the Free-state men. Though the distinctions already mentioned never entirely disappeared, the fac- tions drew nearer together, and virtually united in the Big Springs Convention, on September oth; when th.e Free-state party was formally organized. The platform resented all interference of non-residents at the polls or elsewhere ; declared against slavery, but deprecated abolitionism ; thought all negroes should be kept out of the Territory ; denounced the bogus Legislature and its laws as " an infamous despotism ; " and called on the peo- ple of the Territory to organize and discipline volunteer Events of 1855. 23 companies, and to be prepared to resist " to a bloody issue" if peaceable means of redress failed. While the general temper of the convention was conservative, the radicals evidently held the pen. 46, Be-electlou of Whitfield, — The second election for delegate to Congress occurred on October 2d. By common consent the Free-state men avoided the polls; knowing that their presence there would be the signal for another invasion, and that in any event their candi- date would not receive his seat. J. W. Whitfield was therefore returned to Congress. On the ninth of October, by resolution of the Big Springs Convention, an election was lield in Avhich only tlie Free-state men participated ; resulting in the choice of Eeeder as Territorial delegate. lie had previously been removed from the office of Governor — without doubt because he favored the Free-state cause ; and W^ilson Shannon had been appointed in his stead. 47* Topeka CotistUutional Couventloti, — On the or- ganization of the Free-state party it was determined to call a convention, secure the adoption of a Constitution, and apply to Congress for admission as a State. Accordingly, duly elected delegates met at Topeka, October 23d. Tlie most well-knowm names connected with this move- ment are : Charles Robinson, James S. Emery, James H. Lane, Mark Delahay, J. K. Goodin, C. K. Holliday, M. J." Parrott, W. Y. Roberts and J. A. Wakefield. Lane was made President of the Convention, and a Constitution was adopted which for three years was the rallying-point of nearly all the more intelligent Free-state men. It de- clared against slavery, but limited the elective franchise, to white male citizens, and to civilized male Indians who, had adopted the habits of the white man — a rather pecu- liar and doubtful clause. 24: A History of Kansas. 48. The Wakarusa War. — Towards the last of Novem- ber, Charles Dow, a young Free-state settler, was shot and killed by one Coleman, a Pro-slavery man. The murder was committed near Hickory Point, about nine miles from Lawrence. A land claim had given rise to a dis- pute, which was undoubtedly intensified by political feel- ing. The dead body was left in the road from noon till sundown. Coleman fled to Missouri. In the evening a meeting was held by the Free-state men of that vicinity, and resolutions were passed de- n» Marais des Cygnes 3Iass(im\ — Among the raids and counter-raids of this year, that which resulted in the massacre of Marais des Cygnes (Swans' Marsh) is the most noted. This occurred in May, and was under the leadership of Capt. Chas. A. Hamilton — one of a family driven out of Fort Scott but a short time before. He had secured a list of some seventy Free-state men, who had been pro- scribed — that is, they were to be killed at sight. With a force of some thirty men he unexpectedly crossed to Trading Post, in Linn County ; captured eleven men, then engaged in peaceful avocations ; drew them up in line, and shot them down without mercy or delay. Five men were killed outright; five were wounded, but recovered; one was unharmed, and escaped by feigning death. Montgomery was at once informed of what had hap- pened, and soon after was furnished a list of those who had been proscribed. The latter were guarded so care- fully, and Hamilton was watched so keenly — for the Osagres were determined to kill him — that no further o outrages were possible. Five years afterwards, Griffith, one of Hamilton's men, was captured, tried, and convicted in the District Court of the new State, sentenced, and hanged. One of the wounded men was chosen as the executioner. This was the only one of tliose murderers who was brought to justice. 80, The Last Border Feuds hi the South, — The mas- 40 A History of Kansas. sacre, and the subsequent action of Montgomery, created such excitement at Fort Scott and in the vicinity, tliat Sam. Wallier, of Fort Titus fame, now deputy mar- shal, was sent to arrest the leader of the Osages. He accomplished this, and without force, though at great personal risk ; but released his prisoner on the follow- ing day, hearing that Pro-slavery disturbers, whom he had also arrested and turned over to the military author- ities, had been freed. This was the only time that Montgomery ever submitted to arrest. Within a week the Osages were again at Fort Scott, attempted to burn the Western Hotel — Pro-slavery head- quarters — and fired into the town from the south- west. Gov. Geary, like his predecessors, fearing assassin- ation by the Pro-slavery men, had left the Territory and resigned; and Gov. Walker had been removed, undoubt- edly, because of his fairness. On hearing of this dis- turbance, ex-Secretary Denver, now Governor, went to Fort Scott, and after a long conference concluded a truce between all parties. The terms included the dis- banding of all bodies of armed men, and the suspension of all old writs issued against members of either party. It was hoped that peace had come. It is difficult to say which party first broke the truce ; but in November Benjamin Rice was arrested for a "bygone" offence, and on the same day the Osages were at work. For a fortnight there was indiscriminate plun- dering and threats of personal violence. Another con- ference followed, but without results, Montgomery being determined to release Rice. He accordingly attacked Fort Scott, captured the hotel in which Rice was con- fined, and set him free, and retreated in safety with property worth some $6000. One man, on the Pro- slavery side, was shot and killed. The War in the South. 41 Under advice of tlie Governor, a company of militia was qniclvlj organized and duly equipped. In Febru- ary, 1859, this force began operations against the Osages, with some promise of success ; but the General Amnesty Act passed by the Territorial Legislature closed the strug- gle, and Montgomery's men and their deeds became things of the past. 81, Conclusion, — -la the last attack on Fort Scott John Brown took part, though he did not enter tlie town. After the Pottawatomie massacre and the events which immediately followed, he gave most of his time to raids into Missouri for the purpose of freeing slaves — in which he met with considerable success. These acts came to be regarded by even the Free-state men [is simply tending to increase the border troubles, and finally a reward was offered for his capture. Few cared to undertake this task, however, and his Canadian colony of blacks grew steadily though slowly. Having left Montgomery, after the Fort Scott raid, he crossed the line, brought out fifteen slaves, and escaped Avith them by the Iowa route. It was the last time he saw the Territory. Within a year came the descent on Harper's Ferry, and his subsequent execution. In the following spring Montgomery and a few of his men undertook to rescue the rest of Brown's party — then in jail at Charlestown, Va. — but the deep snow prevented a successful effort. Constitution Making. 82, Prelude, — Contrary to all expectations, the sharp conflicts of 1856 were the last serious disturbances known in the disputed ground around the Territorial 42 A History of Kansas. capital, the Free-state tow-n, and tlie villages of the Nortli-eastern border. Though the fairness and firmness of Gov. Geary and of his successor, Robt. J. AValker, ultimately drove them from their positions, they held contending parties in check long enough for all to begin to realize that moral forces were worlcing out the salva- tion of the Territory more rapidly than could the sword. 83. Changes, — In February, 1857, the House of Repre- sentatives declared all Acts of the Territorial Legislature to be void, on the ground that they were cruel and oppres- sive, and that the Legislature was not elected by tlie legal voters of Kansas, but was forced on them by non- residents. In May occurred the trial of Gov. Robinson and other officers under the Topeka Constitution. At tlie close of the first week all the charges were with- drawn. About the last of June, the Free-state men carried the city election in Leavenworth. In July, Law- rence refused to recognize a charter issued by the Lecompton Legislature, and organized an independent government — and no invasion followed ! Evidently the end was at hand. Lender Gov. Walker's assurance that the October elec- tion should be fair and free, and in spite of the protest of the more radical leaders, enough Free-state ballots were cast for members of the Territorial Legislature to secure control of that body by nearly a two-thirds vote. The Pro-slavery men never came into power again. At the Legislative session in 1858, the most obnoxious of the bogus laws relating to slavery whtq repealed. At the next session, in 1859, an Act was passed granting gen- eral amnesty for all past political offences — which was so construed as to cover nearly all offences committed thus far in the Territory — and repealing the bogus laws. A bill abolishing and prohibiting slavery was not signed by the Constitution Mahing. 43 Governor. The session closed at midnight, a huge bon- fire was built, and copies of the bogus laws were burned. Both these sessions were held in Lawrence, after adjourn- ing from Lecompton. S4, The Constitutions, — Four Constitutions were cre- ated by the people before the Territory became a State. These are, in their order, that of Topeka, of Lecompton, of Leavenworth, and of Wyandotte ; under the last of which Kansas was admitted to the Union. 85. The Topeka Constitution, was adopted in De- cember, 1855 ; and under it, in the following month, was completed the first State organization. As has been stated elsewhere, it prohibited slavery, but limited suffrage to white males and to civilized Indians who had adopted the habits of the white man. The radical Free-state men, under the lead of Gov. Eobinson, clung to this organization. When it became evident, after the election of 1857, that their principles could be advocated with but little doubt of success through the Lecompton, or Administration, Legislature, and that this gave them a definite legal status, their ranks stead il}^ grew weaker ; till in May, 1859, a second Big Springs Convention showed conclusively that they had lost their hold on popular interest. The last meeting of the Legislature was in March, 1858. Not enough mem- bers were present to form a quorum. SO, The Lecompton Constitution, — During the last session of the Territorial Legislature before the Free-state men came into power, steps were taken to secure, if possi- ble, the admission of the Territory under a Pro-slavery Constitution. The Convention met in September, 1857, and was composed entirely of Pro-slavery men — their opponents having refused to take any part. The Consti- 44 A History of Kansas. tution asserted tliat " the right of property is before and higher than any Constitutional sanction," and " the right of the owner . . . to a shive . . . is the same and asinvioLa- ble as the right of the owner of any property whatever." Suffrage was extended to "every male citizen of the United States " — meaning to limit citizenship of the Union to whites. " Free negroes shall not be permitted to live in this State under any circumstances." The Legis- lature was to have no power to emancipate slaves with- out consent of the owners, and then only on full com- pensation. The word "freeman " was substituted for the word " person " in the usual Bill of Rights. No amend- ment to the Constitution adverse to slavery could be made. Before the day appointed for the election on this Con- stitution, it became evident that the Free-state men were in the majority in the Territory. They had already secured possession of the Territorial Legislature. But so deter- mined were they in their policy of refusing all recogni- tion of the bogus Legislature, and so much did they still fear invasion, that they very generally refrained from voting on this Cvonstitution. Of course, the Pro-slavery men carried the day, and by a majority of 5500 votes. More than a third of the entire ballot was fraudulent. But the better class of Democrats now joined with the Free-state men in denouncins^ the Constitution ; and even the State officers elected under it signed a memorial to Congress asking it to refuse to admit the Territor}^ under such an organization. In January, 1858, it was again submitted to the people, and buried under a majority of more than 10,000. The more radical Pro-slavery members of Congress insisted on offering it, and the result was a sharp conflict, ending with a compromise bill, offered by Wm. H. Eng- lish, of Indiana. This virtually sent the Constitution Constitation 3faJxing, 45 back to the people once more, with the threat that if not adopted they must wait for 98,000 population before admission. This was known as the " English Swindle," or " Lecompton Junior." It was re-submitted in August, and in a general vote was buried under nearly 10,000 majority, with no hope of a resurrection. This ended tho struggle to make Kansas a slave State. 87* The Leavenworth Const ttitf ion. — Before all this came about, however, the Free-state men were anxiously looking for something with which to supplant it. Tne Topeka Constitution was, for reasons already given, a })()i)r weapon with whicli to go into the fight. They must have sometliing by which to beat back all attempts to conquer the State under the Lecompton Act. If Con- gress betrayed them, then they would put an independent oi'ganization in force, and appeal to the people. With this thought in mind a Constitutional Convention was called by the Territorial Legislature — now in the hands of the Free-state men. . It met at Minneola, in March, 1858. There was much ill-feeling about the location — said to have been chosen as the site of the Capitol through the influence of certa n landowners and lot-bribes; and the Convention at once adjourned to the city from which it takes its name. The woi-k was speedily accomplished — the Assembly adopting tlic Topeka Constitution with a few chnnges, but these important. Opposed to the words and interpretation of "all freemen" in tlie Lecompton Constitution, stood the assertion "the right of all men to control their persons exists prior to law and is inalienable." Slavery was expressly prohibited. The franchise clause was identical wdth that of the Lecompton Constitution, but the mean- ing was far diiferent — the thought being that every man boi'n on our soil is an Ameiican citizen. 46 A History of Kansas. l^lie Constitution was adopted in May, but with tlie defeat of the Lecompton measure ceased to have any cause for being, and the movement was quietl}^ dropped. 88, The Wyandotte Constitution, — The Territory would have been a State some years earlier than the date of its final admission, but for the make-up of the United States Senate. The opposition there steadily denied its petition. But the successful organization of the National Eepublican party, and the rapid change in public senti- ment, again made success seem possible ; and on July 5th, 1859, the delegates to the Wyandotte Convention assembled. The members of tlie Topelca and Leavenworth Con- ventions were largely prominent Free-state men. But at the last Convention it was noticed that nearly all the pioneers were absent. The men who were to bring tlie Territory into the Union at last, were Yery generally young men and quite as noticeably new-comers. More than two-thirds were under thirty-five years of age, more than one-third under thirty, and less than one-third over forty. One-half had been in the Territory less than two years, and very few had previously represented the peo- ple in any assembly. But there was less jealousy, less WTangling, and more work. On the 29th, the Conven- tion adjourned.' Some important features of this Constitution connect it with this narrative, and deserve especial mention. Slavery Avas prohibited. Suffrage was restricted to white males, with the usual limit as to age. The Convention rejected a proposition to exclude free negroes from the State. It Avill be seen that a conservative temper pre- vailed. The Constitution of Ohio Avas selected as a model; but the changes and adaptations showed much originality and strength. Review Quesiixms. 47 8i), Coiicltision, — The Constitution was adopted, by a vote of 10,000 to 5,000, early in October of tlie same year. Two montlis later caine the election of State offi- cers, Gov. Robinson again heading the successful ticket. But public aft'airs were destined to remain a year longer in the hands of the Territorial Legislature. Not till the shadows of civil war darkened the land, and the Senators from the South abandoned their seats at Washinoton to o strike at the Government wliich had protected and cher- ished them, Avas the oft-repeated request granted. On January 21st, 1861, with the cloud that had obscured its own horizon now covering the entire sky, and with the roar of the approaching storm distinctly heard, the long- tried Territory realized that for which men had endured privation, suffering, and death, and became A free State. God save the Commonwealth! Review Questions. 1. What is the geographical position of Kansas? What is its area ? Describe its system of water-courses. Describe its surface. What are its principal products? Name its leading cities. ^Yhy is its history of peculiar interest? 2. When and where was slave-labor introduced into the United States? What was the feeling about slavery at the time of the devolution? How does the Constitution recognize slavery? AVliat were the terms of the first fugitive-slave law? What in- vention helped to strengthen slavery, and how? What was the work of the Colonization Society? What was the Missouri Com- promise? What Avas the purpose of the AVilmot Proviso? Give the terms of the Compromise of 1850. State the early occupation of Kansas. 3. What was the doctrine called "Squatter Sovereignty" ? What two parties arose under this doctrine? State the preparations 48 A History of Kansas. made to control Kansas. Where, when, and by whom was the first Free-state settlement made? Name and describe the first newspapers. Which party carried the first election, and how? 4. Describe the election in the spring of 1855. What was the first personal outrage springing from political motives only ? AVhat were the Bogus Laws, and under what circumstances were they enacted? Where was the Territorial capital ? Where Mas the first Free-state Convention held, and wdth what result? Where was the first Constitutional Convention held, and what was done? Name the leaders in this. Give the causes and events of the Wakarusa war. 5. What outrages occurred in the early part of 1856 ? Describe the sacking of Lawrence. What was the Pottawatomie massacre ? AVhere and when was fought the first pitched battle on Kansas soil? Who dispersed the Free-state Legislature, and why? What town was entirely destroyed in this year, and by Avhom ? Who w^as the third Governor, and what was his character? AVhat was his work, and what were its results? 6. What town was the center of the struggle in the southern part of the Territory ? Describe the land troubles. AVlio was the Free-state leader in the South ? What were his followers called ? Give an account of tlie Trading Post massacre. Describe the sub- sequent troubles at and around Fort Scott. 7» What were the changes in 1S57 which favored the Free-state party? Name the Constitutions of Kansas. Who favored tlie Topeka Constitution, and how long? State the provisions of the Lecompton Constitution respecting slavery. AVhat became of this Constitution? Why was the Leavenworth Constitution adopted? How did it treat the question of slavery? AVhy was it not put in force? AVhen and where was the Constitution drawn under which Kansas became a State? Describe the members of this Convention. What was its attitude towards slavery? When was Kansas admitted to the Union? Why was it not admitted sooner? Who was the first Governor, and what had been his connection with the history of the Territory ? LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 011 447 508 7