^ a' ^0 ^ '^^^ /i? ♦^■"-■ 0. 1.. School grant Teachers' grant at $164.50 Atten- dance grant at $4.99 A.... 20 2 3 $2,500 3,600 $755 -20 755 -20 $329-00 493 ■ 50 $99 -80 99.80 $1,184.00 1,348.30 47% 37% B.... 40 2 3 4 2,500 3,600 4,800 755 -20 755 -20 755-20 329.00 493 ■ 50 658.00 199.60 199.60 199.60 1,283.80 1,458.30 1,622.80 51% 41% 34% C... 60 2 3 4 2,500 3,600 4,800 755 -20 755 -20 755 -20 329.00 493-50 658.00 299.40 299.40 299.40 1,383.60 1,548.10 1,612.60 55% 43% 33% 5 6,000 755 -20 822.50 299.40 1,777.10 29% D.... 100 3 4 5 6 3,600 4,800 6,000 7.SOO 755 -20 755 -20 755-20 755 -20 493-50 658.00 822.50 987.00 499 . 00 499 . 00 499.00 499.00 1,747.70 1,912.20 2,076.70 2,241.20 50% 42% 35% 30% 7 9,000 755 -20 1,149.50 499.00 2,405.70 26% E.... 300 8 10 10,500 13,000 755 -20 755 -20 1,316.00 1,645.00 1,497.00 1,497.00 3,568.20 3,897.20 34% 30% 12 16,000 755 -20 1,974.00 1,497.00 4,226.20 27% 14 16 18,500 21,000 755 -20 755 -20 2,299.00 2,632.00 1,497.00 1,497.00 4,SS5-20 4,884.20 25% 23% 76 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL In this table, as in Table IV, the amounts apportioned during the year 191 5-16 have been used, but in this table the money has been simply reapportioned under the proposed revision stated above. If now we com- bine Tables IV and V, we get Table VI, which compares the results under the present apportionment plan and under the proposed revision, and shows the greater jus- tice of the latter to all classes of schools. TABLE VI Present and Proposed Apportionment Plans Compared 1 1^ li c3 a, a Present plan Proposed plan Grant received now Per cent of cost Proposed grant Per cent of cost A B C D E 20 40 60 100 300 2 3 2 3 4 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 21 24 26 $2,500 3,600 2,500 3,600 4,800 2,500 3,600 4,800 6,000 3,600 4,800 6,000 7,500 9,000 10,500 13,000 16,000 18,500 21,000 $1,207.80 1,207.80 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,406.95 1,606.75 1,606.7s 1,606.7s 1,606.7s 2,006.3s 2,006.35 2,006.3s 2,006.35 2,006.3s 4,004.35 4,004.3s 4,004.3s 4,004.3s 4,004.3s 48% 33% 56% 39% 30% 64% 45% 33 /o 27% 56% 42% 337o 27% 22% 38% 31% 25% 22% 19% $1,184.00 1,348.30 1,283.80 1,458.30 1,622.80 1,383.60 1,548.10 1,613.60 1,777.10 1,747.70 1,912.20 2,076.70 2,241.20 2,405.70 3,568.20 3,897.20 4,226.20 4,555-2o 4,884.20 47% 37% 51% 41% 34% 55% 43% 33% 29% So% 42% 35% 30% 26% 34% 30% 27% 25% 27% tH l^^-^^^^^^^^^^ Vi^^^^^^,>i^^^^^.^^ ^^^^^ t^^^^^^^^^^^'^^ v^^^^^^y.-^y^^^^^y^,^ \iriovo.'" C^ co CO ^ O M M ■cJ- M CO 00 CO cJ 1^ t-C o\ CO o > M 8 00 1 OO < H o 8 o q ^ %5 Tl- CO ^ 2 CO VO CO M CO Q o 8 ^ "5 ^ Si o ^ ^ g ^ o ^ ^ ^ CO c CO o _ tn O vo lU o > 00 o M 8 Tf M 0> O CO 8 ■* M CO vo cu CO ^ o O Tj- o Ov t^ lo rl- M -^ en 8 ■b ?, % % ^ °^ CO ^ d c Ov ^^ 1 " ^ ■5 00 o ^ ^ ^ S CO >o O O Ov Ov M W S8 8 o o o O h" m" "* " 1^ M O CO ID a H o •* ^ 2 : ^ CO Ov CO VH O >o ^ 2 ^ CO 2 ^ i a It i-t a P S. : . .2 1= T3 >> rt .2 ^ „ ■^ fl -3 S. ° 8 >j 5 3 2 aj -= ^ 8 g ftg^ S < H" l-i tn . »- . >H . CU .4) . ■ la'oo la SCALE: STUDENTS a s TEACHERS warn s BUIL0IN6S MM a OS 40000 2000 1000 Chart IV 108 ^^;=^ V x=x x=x X=X 109 110 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pation, and no longer is it possible for a man to succeed whose methods are out of date and inadequate. The progress in business accounting, cost fixing, and the HIGH SCHOOL ENROLLS^ENT PERCENT I NUMBER OF PUPILS PUBLIC PRiwrt 88 le 89 11 90 lO 89 11 89 11 89 IS 86 14 86 14 85 18 84 18 83 17 89 18 89 18 81 19 78 ei 78 99 79 95 71 99 71 99 70 30 69 39 68 39 SCALE: GSSB = 100000 PUBLIC SCHOOLS ^M PRIVATE SCHOOLS CD Chart VII From 1890 to date there has been a steady increase in the per cent of high school enrolment found in the public high schools of the United States and consequently a falling o£E in the importance of the private high schools of the country. elimination of waste, by the use of every possible means, is very gratifying to the student of administrative and financial problems. It serves more forcibly, however, to call attention to the vast amount yet to be done before we shall have begun to attain anything like the present This chart should be compared with Chart IX. While the per cent of total high school enrolment for any year from 1906-07 to 1911-12 found in the fourth year of high school is fairly constant, varying only from 1 1.7 to 13 percent, it should be noted that the per cent retained until the fourth year, of any class enrolling four years previous, varies only from 37 to 39 per cent in the case of the classes 1906-10, 1907-11, and 1908- 12. This proves conclusively that the high schools are to-day educating a much larger per cent of the total number enrolled than the figures in Chart VIII would lead one to believe. This also proves again the tre- mendous increase in high school enrolment each year. Ill NUMBER IN CLASSES PERCENT RETAINED CLASS ISOS -08 fST NO RKCORD 2 HO »» m ^. .^^ UM ^ ^ *» 4th «■■■■■ ^ CLASS 1S08-10 SND imiiU-^-4^J»->.>b.Jll 78 4 th - ■ - ■ *r-m 3.8 CLASS 1807 - It 1st ■MamMHaaMMMM 2 HO "J 1 — 4^— . — -^ 68 3o «»i....i». 48 4 th ■■■■■■-■ 37 CLASS 1808-18 1st saBBBBaaaM^iB^asasaM 2.110 1 ^M I** ITT TTIT ■■■ II Mi — — 88 30 _«aiBBiii^Mi 48 4th *w ■■»-»-■ 38 SCALE: MM St 4000O MORTALITY IN HIGH SCHOOL Chart IX 112 I AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 113 level of business efficiency in our educational and political institutions. Individual and social welfare alike demand the highest and best possible development in the handling of public institutions, particularly the schools. Though there has been much improvement in school administration within the last few years looking toward a more effective organization of public school systems, the methods followed in most places would be disastrous if appHed to private business enterprises. If we could get the frank opinion of capable, unbiassed business men we should no doubt be told that the school falls far below the standard of "big business" in administering its work. It is run on too haphazard a basis. It pays too little attention to developments and methods of the outside world. It deals with many situations in an artificial manner. It employs incompetent clerks, makes long and unwieldy reports, fails to give an accounting to the people that they can understand, etc. Whereas, everywhere in the realm of private enterprise the im- portance of and necessity for vital information and accurate statistics in regard to each little branch of the business have been insisted upon. Because our secondary schools have developed so that we can think of them only in the aggregate as of other "big business" enterprises, it is imperative that busi- ness principles of management and administration, tests for measuring the quality of the product and teaching efficiency be worked out by schoolmen. If this is not done there will be developed in this country private con- cerns for this new field of public service. If tradition remains so strong that the conservative office superin- tendent and high school principal will not set about ac- 114 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL complishing these results, it is hoped that private con- cerns will be called in to make surveys and check up conditions; and if in the process some of the old regi- ment, pried loose from their positions, later pose as martyrs, let us waste less sympathy on them than we do on the inefficient clerk who has been supplanted by the adding-machine. The secondary schools must be standardized, and in doing so' the lame, the halt, and the blind must be pensioned off or otherwise disposed of. It is in the nature of a business and social crime for any city to maintain on its payrolls teachers, principals, or superintendents who are not thoroughly qualified to discharge such duties of their positions just because of their political or other affihations. The Unusual DiflB.culty. — The problem of the business management of the high schools is a very difiicult one. The opportunity is there to call forth the highest abili- ties of the most capable and thoroughly trained men. The business manager must not only know business principles, but he should be well informed in sociology, political science, economics, and commercial law. He should have in his employ trained men, who, under his general supervision, organize and run the affairs of the school board in the same efficient manner that the affairs of a large corporation are conducted. The salaries here, for men of insight and demonstrated business abiHty, should be such as to compete with those offered in the great industrial enterprises. Movements in the Right Direction. — ^Already, in some of the larger cities, experts in business affairs are employed to handle that side of the work. This busi- ness manager is the executive officer of the school board in all business transactions. The dates for the estab- AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 115 lishment of this officer in American cities are as follows: Cleveland, 1892; Indianapolis, 1900; Boston, 1906; Cin- cinnati, 1908; Louisville, Oakland, Cal., 1910; Chicago, 191 1 ; Rochester, N. Y., 1912. In 1905 Houston ap- pointed a business representative and in 1909 Minneapo- lis created the office of executive agent. The following rules and regulations outline the work in the latter city : The executive agent, as provided in section 11, shall have direct supervision over the school properties and the mainte- nance thereof. He shall generally represent the board in all negotiations relating to the construction, reconstruction, repair, and maintenance of school properties. He shall supervise the purchase, receipt, and distribution of all supplies, books, and materials, as authorized by the board. All requisitions for the delivery of supplies shall be approved by him. He shall have authority to engage and discharge such em- ployees as are necessary to the conduct of the activities ex- pressed herein and shall report thereon to the committee on buildings and supplies for the final approval of the board. He shall, prior to the first regular meeting of the board in June of each year, prepare a list of janitors and other employees for the various schools and such list shall have attached thereto the salary proposed to be paid each person therein shown. Such list, when approved over the signature of the executive agent, shall be delivered by him to the committee on buildings and supplies for submission to the board. He shall submit to the board monthly a report considering in appropriate detail information relating to the construction, re- construction, repair, and distribution of school supplies, with such suggestions as may be appropriate thereto. He shall attend all meetings of the board and, when requested, the meetings of standing committees. He shall devote his entire time to the interests of the board, and maintain such regular hours as may be prescribed by the board, at its office. He shall give a bond for the faithful performance of his duties, in such sum as the board may determine.^ ^Report Commissioner of Education, 1911, p. 120. 116 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL January i, 19 13, the board of education of Rochester, N. Y., authorized a permanent bureau of school effi- ciency. The functions of the efficiency bureau were outlined as follows: 1. Receiving and keeping on file all reports of enrolment, attendance, and progress of children in the schools. 2. Analyzing reports received. 3. Presenting salient features to supervising officers. 4. Reporting situations to individual schools. 5. Measuring the efficiency of local educational work with that of other cities. The files of the bureau contain the following informa- tion: 1. For each school grade and special class: a. Enrolment from September to June. b. Month end register. c. Attendance. 2. Elimination from school by permanent card record — causes grades, ages, months, and schools are recorded. 3. Progress through school for each school and grade. 4. Contributions of teachers and principals who have visited schools elsewhere. 5. Replies to questionnaires and all other inquiries about Rochester schools since 191 2. 6. Superintendents' reports from other cities, state and fed- eral educational bulletins, and other educational periodicals. 7. Newspaper clippings on educational matters. 8. Results of researches and surveys. 9. Blank forms of other cities. 10. Inventory records. 11. Per capita cost of each school, department, kind of edu- cational work, etc. 12. Special file of net enrolment from January to December for city appropriation basis. es, I AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 117 The following is the list of the office force : one director, one assistant superintendent, two stenographers, and two clerks. The need for the gathering of data showing the actual conditions in the high schools is obvious. If secondary education is to be scientifically managed, and if business principles are to be established to measure its efficiency, facts must be collected and used as a basis for this administration. Mere personal bias and unsupported opinion must be eliminated from the business manager's office. Typical Problems. — ^Among the problems upon which data must be gathered are the following: First, per capita cost per high school and per elementary pupil; second, per capita cost for each course of study in the high school; third, per capita cost for each year in the high school; fourth, per capita cost for each fixed four- year curriculum in the high school; fifth, average num- ber of pupils per class for most efficient work; sixth, maximum number of recitations that a teacher should have per day and per week; seventh, maximum number of recitations that a pupil may carry per day and per week in each year of his career; eighth, effects, educa- tional and physical, upon the pupil and the school in limiting the amount of work. Superintendent Spaulding of Newton. — We need more studies and reports of high school conditions, budgets, etc., similar to that one recently issued by Superintendent Spaulding, of Newton, Mass. Superintendent Spaul- ding has shown graphically the equivalent educational values attached to the different high school studies as measured by the purchasing power of a dollar expended for class instruction. He adds: "I greatly doubt that 118 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL we educational administrators show any greater wis- dom than the average housewife in the disposition of our always limited budgets. Unquestionably the first step toward improvement both for the housewife and for the school administrator is to secure definite, de- tailed, and significant knowledge of the actual disposi- tion of the budget." ^ Again the report shows the apportionment of every dollar expended for instruction: Comparison of the costs of the same unit under different con- ditions is perhaps the best starting-point for a campaign to re- duce unit cost or to improve the quality of units of service. To be of any practical value such comparisons must be made of costs arising under conditions that can be thoroughly studied. Of what earthly use are our interminable comparisons of teachers' salaries and annual expenditures per pupil from one end of the country to the other, when we know nothing, when we attempt to find out nothing, when it might be practically impossible if we tried to get adequate knowledge concerning the quality and quantity of teaching service rendered for which varying salaries are paid, and the amount and character of instruction given on which per pupil costs are based? Every school system presents within itself abundant oppor- tunity for the comparison of unit costs; the conditions under which these costs arise are at hand, subject to any kind and degree of study that may be necessary .^ After graphically showing the cost per one pupil recitation in the Newton secondary schools. Superin- tendent Spaulding raises the pertinent query: "Why is a pupil recitation in English costing 7.2 cents in the vocational school, while it only costs 5 cents in the technical school? Is the vocational English 44 per cent superior to the 'technical' English or 44 per cent more 1 Report Newton School Committee, 1912, p. 100. AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 119 difl&cult to secure? Why are we paying 80 per cent more in the vocational than in the technical school for the same unit of instruction in mathematics? Why does a pupil recitation in science cost from 55 to 67 per cent more in the Newton high school than in either of the other two? All the conditions under which these varying costs arise are at hand. By studying them we can answer these and scores of other similar questions. More than that, so far as the conditions are within our control, we can make changes which will vary costs and quality of service to the end that we may secure a maximum service at a minimum of cost in every school and in every subject." ^ Because the people of any given community in re- lation to their high school system are in very much the same position as the stockholders or owners in a great corporation, the directors of which should be willing to pay large and increasing dividends, the following state- ment found in the annual report of the Newton school committee for 191 2, on page 32, is very significant: " If you want a detailed and intelligible analysis of every expenditure of the past year; if you want all the prin- cipal items of expenditure compared with similar items of other years, especially of the year immediately pre- ceding the last; if you want to know how expenditures for the principal items are running for the present time; if you want adequate reasons for every expenditure; if you want full explanations for all increases and de- creases in expenditures for various items; in short if you want a presentation of the actual administration of the Newton educational policy set forth, just as fully, and clearly, as the policy itself has been outlined and ^ Report Newton School Committee, 191 2, p. 103. 120 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL explained; — ^you will find all these things in the following pages." If other school committees and superintendents would make similar reports the practice of school administra- tion would improve by strides. With many such studies available the student of educational affairs would be in a position to make fair and logical comparisons between schools and school systems. There must be the same development in the estab- lishment of unit costs in school affairs as there is now in the business and commercial world. Per capita cost for each subject in the high school, as, for example, Latin I, Algebra II, Chemistry II, Manual Training VI, should be shown for each school. Any striking increase or decrease should be commented on and the tables containing such costs should be cumulative. Again, unit costs should be established for first-year work, second- year work, etc., per organized curriculum, as, for ex- ample, in high schools offering several curriculums (the Classical, the Latin, the Latin Scientific, the Modern Language, the Enghsh, and the Commercial) the cost per student per year in each year in his career should be worked out. In curriculums where the work given the girls differs largely from that given the boys these units should be carried further and should show the cost for each sex, as, for example, manual-training cost for boys compared with the domestic-science cost for girls. Wherever possible, standards of equipment cost should be estabHshed so that in any given city enough, but not too much, money is invested in school equipment. Methods of Obtaining Per Capitas. — The methods of obtaining per capita costs (the items to be included) differ; therefore there is grave danger in offhand com- AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 121 parisons. Extra items as night schools, vacation schools, playgrounds, etc., come in to increase the cost of ele- mentary education in some cities. Length of school terms, size of classes, studies offered, and units of measurement all have to be considered in making con- clusions. In the determination of costs, then, methods must be uniform everywhere or no comparisons are possi- ble. Analysis and classification of expenditures must be carried under same ledger headings. There should be two main divisions, too, in the expenditures: those for educational administration and those for the physical administration. Legitimate Variations in Per Capitas.^ — Some varia- tion in per capita costs in our secondary schools is to be expected, even in cities of relatively the same size, due to natural, economic, and social conditions. The slightest comparative survey, however, of the available data concerning per capita expenditures reveals varia- tions that are not only startling but surely more than should be allowed to exist. More investigation in this field is needed for the purpose of getting data for a closer relation between theory and practice. For the same reason the great range in variation in the matter of the ratio of secondary expenditures per pupil to elementary cannot be justified. In bulletin No. 5 of the United States Bureau of Education for 191 2 Doctor Harlan Updegraff sets forth the results of a care- ful study of the school expenses of 103 out of the 184 cities in the United States having a population of 30,000 or over. Referring to table 1 5 , page 3 7 , the author states : It may be seen (i) that there is a wide variation in the rela- tive average cost of elementary and high schools, (2) that no 122 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL territorial lines or division of cities by population can be drawn in making the differentiation between them, each section of the country and one State, Pennsylvania, being represented in almost every column. The extreme variation in all the cities included is 2.71. The extreme variations shown in the tables indicate that proper balances are not being maintained in the school expenditures of some cities. More money in some cases should be spent upon the elementary schools; in others less money should be spent upon the high schools. The retardation and elimination statistics of such cities as have extreme ratios should be carefully studied in this connection. For instance, Baltimore, which has just been shown spends too little on its elementary schools rather than too much on its high schools, has a high percentage of retardation and elimination. More money is needed in that city for elementary schools, both to maintain its present curriculum and to widen the scope of those schools, although the expenses of the high school should not be diminished. In some cities it would be a far better distri- bution of public funds to take away from high schools having high average cost, and high percentage of funds devoted to them, and to add the same to the broadening of courses in the elementary schools in order to meet the needs of those who are backward or who are losing interest in the present curriculum. This is true especially if the city has high percentage of retar- dation and elimination. The question arises as to what is the range of proper ratio between average costs of elementary and high schools? Taken all in all the best answer for all cities is the ratio should lie be- tween 1.80 and 2.60 — a range of .80 — with 2.16 as the best representative amount. The two former figures are limits of the middle 50 per cent of the entire list of cities, and any varia- tion below and above these amounts should have reasonable justification.^ Range of Per Capitas. — The figures given by Updegraf! in table 30 show that the per capita cost, based on enrol- ment, of instruction, operation, and maintenance of 1 Bulletin, J912; No. s U. S. Bureau of Education. PER CAPITA COSTS SECONDARY EDUCATION POP. OVER 300000 ST. LOUIS MO. BUFFALO N.V: POP. 100 000 - 300 OOO SCRANTON PA. MEMPHIS TENN. POP. so 000 - 100 000 HOBOKEN II.J. WILKES BARRE PA. POP. 30 000 - SO 000 HAVERHILL, MASS. KNOXVILLK TENM. COST ♦ 89.SO 45.SO 73.30 dS.89 97.SS as.47 ae.is 11.18 Chart X 123 124 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL secondary schools in cities of 300,000 or over in 19 10 ranged from $45.50 in Buffalo to $89.20 in St. Louis; in cities of 100,000-300,000 from $25.89 in Memphis to $73.30 in Scranton, Pa.; in cities of 50,000-100,000 from $25.47 in Wilkes-Barre to $97.55 in Hoboken, N. J.; while in cities of 30,000-50,000 the range of difference was from $11.12 in Knoxville, Tenn., to $26.12 in Haver- hill, Mass. From the above we can see that the range of difference for all cities 30,000 and over in popu- lation is from $11.12 in Knoxville to $97.55 in Hobo- ken, N. J. Chart X gives a graphical illustration of the situation. From the figures in table 32 of Updegrafif's report, showing the average annual cost per pupil, based on enrolment, of instruction, operation, and maintenance of elementary schools, including kindergartens, and of sec- ondary schools and the relation of these costs to each other, we find that in cities having a population of 300,000 or over in 19 10 the range of difference in cost per pupil — ratio of elementary to secondary schools is from $1.75 in MinneapoHs to $3.90 in Baltimore; in cities having a population of 100,000-300,000 the range was from $1.66 in Paterson, N. J., to $3.15 in Scranton, Pa.; in cities of 50,000-100,000 from $1.33 in Wilkes- Barre to $4.04 in Passaic, N. J.; and in cities of 30,000- 50,000 from $1.41 in Topeka, Kan., to $3.50 in Pueblo, Colo. Chart XI gives a clear graphical illustration of the above. Interpretation of a Given Per Capita. — ^Aside from the general civic problems growing out of such figures, it will be seen at once that many misconceptions concerning expenditures per pupil for educational purposes could easily arise. The real test of the willingness of any city ^1 AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 125 to do its duty in the educational support of its children in any type of school may be measured more accurately by the per capita cost per adult member of the city's population than by the expenditure per capita of the school population. Per Capita for Elementary and Secondary Pupils Com- pared. — ^Another of the questions that will require care- ful co-operative investigation and study on the part of the business manager and his staff, the superintendent of schools, and the school board is that of deciding what proportion of the school revenue should be devoted to the elementary grades and what proportion to secondary instruction. The classes known as the grades form, per- haps, the most important part of the entire school system. Therefore it is essential that in spending the budget the cost of high school education should not be in- creased to the detriment of the elementary school devel- opment. What proportion of the budget should be ex- pended in each division of the school organization is an important and fundamental question in the business administration. The allotment of the proper amount for expenditure for each grade of work should be made, then, only after careful study. In cases where this apportionment seems to fall below the amount required for any given item, increased appropriations for the sup- port of the schools must be asked for, based upon this critical analysis of costs and proposed expenditures. The whole system should be articulated and the super- intendent should work directly with the business man- ager in bringing about increased appropriations for the schools. In this connection the following, from an ad- dress by Superintendent Holland at St. Louis in 19 12, is particularly interesting : RATIO OF EXPENDITURES Im < o z i u u III ^ III < ni-omoi'ottin^noi-' ati ira« i o o h a s RELATION TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 189 recognized gap or lack of articulation between the two grades of instruction due to differences in aim, function, methods, and general organization. Figure 2 represents a possible scheme of organization in towns where there is no possibility of getting appro- priations for industrial or vocational work and where a compromise plan could be brought about. Here the programme is to provide six years of elementary school training for all, followed by an intermediate school offer- ing instruction of a general nature with the avowed pur- pose of giving to all pupils a longer period of training and a better course of instruction up to their fifteenth year, or through the ninth grade, than is now available, and yet not giving instruction either of a trade or of a vocational or even pre- vocational type. In this scheme the ancient languages and mathematics would be post- poned to the tenth grade, or high school proper, and the emphasis would be placed on history, commercial geog- raphy, literature, elementary science, the elements of sociology, and economics and domestic science and art, and manual training. Intellectual development is the chief object of the school work, and the manual-training work is added solely as a means for providing a certain training for hand and eye and as an added inducement for the longer attendance of many who otherwise would drop out. There is no intention, however, of teaching or preparing for a trade. The manual work will, how- ever, be practical and utilitarian and will develop a cer- tain amount of skill in wood and metal work. The high school work of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades following this intermediate department will be organized chiefly and definitely for college preparation. Another plan for cities and towns that have felt the 190 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL criticism of the present time and are desirous of reor- ganizing their schools to give equal opportunities to prepare for the trades as well as for the professions is shown in Figure 3. Here the plan is for the work to be sharply differentiated, beginning with the seventh grade. Those who plan to go to high school and college are urged to enter the academic courses, while those who desire specific vocational training find a six-year voca- tional course at their command. In the academic course the attempt is made to bring down into the intermediate department some of the high school subjects and, by using high school methods, train students more effi- ciently and in a shorter time for college. A modern lan- guage is offered in the seventh year and continues throughout the intermediate department, with advanced courses as electives in the high school. Algebra also is given in the seventh and eighth grades, and the English work is of a more advanced type than now found in the grammar grades. Latin is postponed until the tenth grade for the reason that it is thought better to gain a fairly adequate knowledge of a modern language first. This group of students who are going on to high school might be divided into two sections, and the exception- ally able pupils in the seventh and eighth grades who intend to go to college may be segregated, thereby saving them one year or more in finishing high school and en- tering upon their college career. In the industrial courses in this t3^e of intermediate school the boys and girls who desire training for indus- trial work immediately on leaving school are given an opportunity to learn the elements of desirable wage-earn- ing occupations together with the general cultural courses which should broaden their ideas. The school should be RELATION TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 191 supplied with as wide a variety of equipment as the par- ticular community concerned can afford. Machines for shop work, both for wood and iron, printing-presses, a bookbinding plant, apparatus in physics and chemistry for the study of electricity and other applied problems, together with equipment for the girls in domestic sci- ence and art, millinery, household management, etc., should be provided. This group of students should have a longer school day, and half of the time should be spent in hand-work and in the shop. The school could also for them very profitably be run six days a week and twelve months a year. It is not to be expected that the larger and more pros- perous towns will restrict the curriculums of their schools when the need for such supplementary types of instruc- tion is shown. Some cities already have set a good example in offering opportunities of this sort. In Figure 4 the attempt is made to show how these larger cities and towns may organize their public school plants to offer opportunities for different sorts of train- ing. The intermediate schools are so arranged that four distinct lines of work are offered, followed in each case by higher or more advanced courses in the high school proper. The academic work is organized practically on the same basis as that suggested in Figure 3, but in addi- tion to the work offered in the former there are general and commercial courses. The general course with elec- tives in the manual training and domestic science group leads, more particularly in the case of the girls, to the city normal training-school or to certain colleges more liberal in their entrance requirements, while in the case of the boys it offers a good course of an academic char- acter as preparation for the ordinary pursuits of the city 192 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL other than the industrial trades, and one which also pre- pares for the colleges mentioned above. The commercial course is organized so that by the time the intermediate school period is finished the student has a training equal to or superior, on the me- chanical side, to that offered in the ordinary private business college, and, in addition, has a fairly adequate general training. The work offered in the intermediate industrial courses should, because of the possibility of larger financial op- portunities, be much more complete and should be fol- lowed by mechanical and practical arts high schools, and also by trade-schools of an advanced secondary grade, where boys and girls may be trained for careers in the industrial world. The industrial courses may be treated "liberally" or "vocationally." In the general course manual training will function not as preparation for a trade but as a means of developing interest in and ap- preciation of hand-work, and also as a means of pro- viding the school another point of contact with life that will appeal strongly to certain elements in the school pop- ulation, thus inducing them to stay in school longer than they otherwise would. It will have the further liberaHz- ing and also vocationalizing function of contributing to the boys' and girls' insight into the personal problem of vocational fitness. The commercial high school also, while it follows more particularly after the commercial courses offered in the intermediate schools, should be considered a vocational school and should be open to students who have not taken the commercial work in the earlier grades as well as to those who hold certificates from such courses. At the present time many school systems are top-heavy RELATION TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 193 in that they carry more high school work and have more teachers in the high school and spend a much greater per capita on the high school pupils than the elementary school conditions would seem to justify. The increased cost of these different types of schools must be justified, and they must not be built and organized at the expense of efficiency. They should consequently, as far as pos- sible, open their immense plants and place their modern equipment at the disposal of all who are likely to benefit from the courses offered. Figures 5, 6, and 7 represent schemes of organization adjusted to situations in towns where it seems best to offer only two distinct grades of work — the general and the vocational. With the school so organized that the general and industrial types of work comprise the cur- riculum, the pupils can at least be given a taste of cul- ture not guaranteed by the curriculum of our grade schools to-day. In addition, each year they will be re- ceiving a larger and larger amount of industrial training. Figures 5 and 6 differ in the one particular that in the former the community is willing to offer a six-year gen- eral course and a three-year course of limited opportu- nities for the trades, while in the other the townspeople, being largely artisans and mechanics of one type or an- other, vote for the six-year industrial course and the three-year general. In the town pictured for which the plan in Figure 7 is conceived the intermediate school comprises all the education the public schools afford beyond the elemen- tary period of six years. The financial resources are so limited under the present system that the best the town can do is to offer a two-year high school course. But as the academic training, local traditions and conditions 194 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL are not such as to bring many pupils into the high school and retain them through the tenth grade, the scheme of having no high school and offering a three-year interme- diate school with both general and vocational courses should be popular, particularly so as the emphasis would gradually be placed more and more on the industrial subjects. This type of school organization should offer a curriculum in which the traditional intellectual sub- ject-matter is entirely subordinate, and the dominant aim of the school is to return its graduates to the commu- nity socially efficient in some degree at least. In many American towns this reorganization could be effected without much difficulty. Figure 7 represents an attempt to satisfy the wants of a small community, furnishing something more than the minimum information offered in the academic work of the one, two, or three teacher two-year high school and giving some practical voca- tional training for life besides. Need for Educational Guidance in Upper Grades. — There is another phase of this whole question of the reorganization of pubHc education which is becoming more and more important and which demands consider- ation here. When one considers the relation of the ele- mentary to the intermediate schools the question arises whether the boys and girls at this critical period need careful direction and guidance in assisting them in under- standing their own needs and possibiHties, their capaci- ties, and their relation to the school and community life. There is no period, perhaps, in their lives when the home has so Httle influence as at this transitional stage. All through the grades a careful study of the individual characteristics of all pupils should have been made and recorded by sympathetic and intelligent teachers and RELATION TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 195 principals. These records should be sent to the teachers and administrators of the intermediate schools. A com- mittee of the faculty should be appointed to study both the records and the children, to become acquainted with the home conditions, and to ascertain the purposes of the parents in sending their children to school. Out of all this should come a wiser selection of the courses to be pursued by the individual pupils than can result from the hit-or-miss methods of to-day. Meetings with the parents should be arranged and many points of common concern should be discussed, as, for example, how to retain pupils in school longer or how to make the school function more broadly in the immediate life of the community. Conclusion. — Under these plans of reorganization the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades will constitute the period of high school education. In this readjustment American cities and towns can provide a system of edu- cation which will largely answer the demands noted above and go far toward reconciling the conflict of aims now prevalent. Again, those who believe in practical training and social service and who have maintained that college preparation has too large a part in the plans and purposes of the high schools of this country will find points to advocate rather than pretexts for criticism. The colleges also, who have felt that the high schools have unduly broadened their courses under pressure of local needs by including subjects that should not be offered for entrance credit, could turn their attention more particularly to that group who are coming to college, thereby helping secure more unity in the work offered for college-entrance credit. Again, if the three years of high school proper be organized carefully, the 196 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL group of students who are expecting to enter college will be given their academic training under conditions mak- ing for better scholarship and broader intellectual de- velopment than under the present arrangement. This little group of students, because of singleness of aim, will have a homogeneity that will make it possible to accomplish more than is usually done in three years. The fact that there will be fewer students dropping out will also serve to hold the group together, and in time there should be a group consciousness. Where lack of financial resources makes it impossible to offer other than the academic course in the high school, every effort should be made to give as broad a training as possible in the intermediate school. In short, it seems that some such concerted effort at making cleaner articulation be- tween our great typical grades of public education must prevail. As Frederick Paulsen says: It will be the mightiest problem of the twentieth century to build upon tlie elementary school as a general and fundamental form of school a new finishing educational institution, or to give to the elementary school instruction its necessary conclusion in a kind of vocational high school; a school whose problem will be the carrying forward and making fruitful of the general educa- tion for vocational activity. I CHAPTER VI THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ^ Clarence D. Kingsley HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTOR, MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION In this chapter we apply the term "college" to all higher educational institutions. We include not only col- leges of Hberal arts, but also such other colleges as require a high school course for admission. Preparation and Selection of Pupils for Higher Edu- cational Institutions. — Preparation for college has been and still is to a large extent defined in terms, of certain subjects which have been considered of special value for general intellectual discipHne. The subjects prescribed by colleges of Hberal arts were so highly regarded for dis- ciplinary purposes that agricultural and engineering col- leges followed the same practice. The "formal discipline" theory is now called into question and in its place we recognize the value of definite training for specific pur- * Another important aspect of the chapter topic not treated in this discussion should be here kept in mind — the conception, namely, of secon- dary education which shall embrace the work of the freshman and soph- omore years of the ordinary liberal arts college curriculum. For very suggestive discussions of this important administrative and pedagogical issue the reader is referred to two recent issues of the School Review: — articles in the issue of January, 1913, by C. H. Judd and by J. R. Angell; and an article in the issue of March, 191 3, by C. L. McLane, describing such an " extended-upward " high school at Fresno, Cal. — Editor. 197 198 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL poses both liberal and vocational. The reorganization of secondary education is a task which requires intimate knowledge of pupils from fourteen to eighteen years of age as well as a comprehension of the needs of society. The accomplishment of this task calls for the sym- pathetic co-operation of all educational agencies. To this end the largest possible freedom should be extended to the high school, and the college should be asked to criticise the product of the high school in terms of breadth of outlook, seriousness of purpose, and command of the intellectual tools which the pupil must use in college. In this chapter I shall outline the considerations which seem to me essential in planning college-preparatory curric- ulums. Heretofore, the training of pupils has been regarded as the absorbing concern of the high schools. Hereafter, these schools should be of increasing service to higher education by discovering pupils of abihty and by aiding such pupils in choosing the particular institution that will equip them to be of the greatest value to society. To perform this service the high school must organize two agencies; namely, the general curriculum and educa- tional guidance. In this chapter I shall briefly describe the general curriculum and also educational guidance. I. CONSIDERATIONS ESSENTIAL IN PLANNING COLLEGE- PREPARATORY CURRICULUMS The Previous Experience, the Capacity, and the Inter- ests of the Pupil. — Unless the course of study in each subject is organized with direct reference to the previous experience, the capacity, and the interests of the boy or 111 girl, satisfactory results cannot be expected, and many I pupils who contemplated going to a higher institution RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 199 will conclude that they are misfits and, as a result, either take up other school work or leave school. The combina- tion of subjects occasionally given to college-preparatory students in the first year, namely, ancient history, Latin, algebra, and college-preparatory EngHsh, is peculiarly inappropriate to the vast majority of boys and girls fourteen years of age, including those who would make excellent material for the A.B. course in a college of liberal arts. Unless the work of the first year is revised speedily, the defection of capable pupils from college- preparatory ranks is likely to grow still more serious. Subjects Used as Tools in Higher Educational Insti- tutions. — The colleges should indicate the subjects and the parts of subjects that are essential as tools in the work of the institution as a whole. It is generally recognized that the best command of English expression that may be expected of a pupil eighteen years of age is fundamen- tal in all higher educational institutions. In engineer- ing colleges a large part of the work is dependent upon mathematics. In colleges of liberal arts Latin was indis- pensable when text-books in all subjects were written in Latin, but at the present time no subject other than EngHsh composition seems to be employed as a tool in the work of the college as a whole. If the use of either German or French becomes common in the departments of the college, then we have the problem of furnishing a genuine command of that language. This result could not be secured by reading two or three years of the usual college-preparatory, modern-language literature. Distribution and Concentration. — It is desirable that the curriculum of each pupil going to a higher educa- tional institution should be organized as far as possible in accordance with two principles: distribution and con- 200 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL centration. The first of these principles mitigates against narrowness and overspecialization. According to this principle, subjects should be so chosen as to introduce the pupil into several relatively diverse fields of knowledge. The subjects of secondary education may for this pur- pose be classified in the following six groups, and it seems reasonable that each pupil should take work in at least four or five of them: (i) Language a. English. h. Ancient language. c. Modern foreign language. (2) Natural Sciences a. Physical. &. Biological. (3) Social Studies a. Social activities of the past — history. h. Social activities of the present — economics, civics, geography, survey of vocations. (4) Mathematics a. Pure. b. Applied. (5) Practical Arts a. Business. h. Agriculture. c. Household arts. d. Manual arts. (6) Fine Arts a. Music. h. Drawing. RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 201 The second of these principles, concentration, is in- tended to give command of methods in any given field of knowledge and to prevent superficiality and dilettan- tism. Such command of methods may ordinarily be secured only when a subject is so organized that the advanced work calls for the application and review of elementary principles and processes. Such a coherent course extending over three years, and amounting to one "unit" each year, is coming to be known as a high school major, and a course of two units is called a minor. High schools and colleges should co-operate to determine how many majors or how many majors and minors are es- sential to produce a strong curriculum. The educational value of a major is not wholly mea- sured by the extent to which the advanced work depends upon the elementary work; the close connection of the subject with the previous experience of the pupil and the extent to which it enables him to interpret his own experience are of even greater value in strengthening his intellectual processes. For this reason majors in natural science and in social studies will undoubtedly, when well organized, be for many pupils of greater educational value than majors in either foreign languages or mathematics. It is even possible that a major in household arts, when it includes appHed sciences and applied design, may prove of greater educational value to some girls than a major in mathematics. Objections to Requirement that All College-Prepara- tory Pupils Concentrate in Foreign Languages and Mathematics. — It seems unwise to require every pupil who desires to go to college to concentrate in foreign lan- guages and mathematics since this requirement debars from college many pupils who would otherwise fill impor- 202 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tant places in life. Of course, mathematics is indispen- sable in engineering and foreign languages are essential to certain courses in higher education, but the needs of society are not Hmited to such fields. A number of colleges still require, in addition to En- glish, two foreign languages. This concentration upon the language group of studies seems excessive as it leaves little opportunity to apply the principle of dis- tribution or to recognize individual interests. Training for Citizenship. — Even for those who intend to enter a higher educational institution, the public tax- supported high school cannot neglect training for citizen- ship or delegate it to the college because, first, there is no guarantee that any particular pupil will actually at- tend college, and, second, the formation of civic ideals and participation in some form of community activities is essential during the adolescent period. For this purpose a course deahng with the social activities in the pupil's own community and with movements for human better- ment, local and national, must find place in the curricu- lum of the pupil preparing for a higher institution. Limitations of Small High Schools. — Every discussion of preparation for higher educational institutions should take into account the small high schools with two, three, or four teachers. These schools are factors of large im- portance in rural communities and should contribute to the solution of the rural-life problem, thereby directly touching the national welfare. The requirement of any subject that meets the needs of only the few preparing for those colleges that make such requirement compels these small high schools either to sever their relations with these colleges, or to neglect the needs of the ma- jority, or to jeopardize efficiency by offering instruction RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 203 in a larger number of subjects than is consistent with good results. In particular, the requirement of four years of Latin for admission to the A.B. course in certain colleges of liberal arts is especially burdensome so long as the small high schools try to meet it. Desirable as it would be to keep the way open for pupils who desire to go to these colleges, the cost is almost prohibitive. Three Latin classes must be instructed each year; namely, first year, second year, and an advanced class reading Cicero one year and Virgil the next. Consequently, the Latin in- struction costs practically half the salary of one teacher. One modern language and no ancient language would imdoubtedly be far more effective in the school having only two or three teachers. II. THE GENERAL CURRICULUM Need for the General Curriculum. — While there are no national statistics available as to the proportion of high school pupils who are not decided upon their vocation or their education beyond the high school, there is abun- dant evidence to show that the proportion is large, espe- cially in the first and second years of the high school. For these pupils a general curriculum is needed in which the attempt shall be deHberately made to help pupils discover their aptitudes and decide wisely upon their educational careers. The fundamental idea in the gen- eral curriculum should be that of the discovery and the testing of aptitudes together with a broad survey of vocations and of educational opportunities. In this curriculum the principle of distribution will be empha- sized. As pupils discover their aptitudes and decide upon their vocations or educational careers they should 204 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL be transferred from the general curriculum to a special- ized curriculum. Many high schools have a so-called general curriculum which is a mere hodge podge. The grounds upon which certain subjects are Ksted as required is vague and illogical, and little guidance is given in the choice of electives. Relation of the General Curriculum to Higher Educa- tion. — It is evident that this general curriculum, when properly planned and conducted, will be the means of securing for higher education many pupils of excellent ability. There are two main reasons why the decision upon higher education so often cannot wisely be made until the third or fourth year; namely, first, aptitudes often develop slowly, and, second, contact with high school teachers, an enlarged view of the opportunities and responsibilities of life, and the development of per- sonal ideals create the desire for more adequate equip- ment for Kfe. To-day the large majority of pupils come from homes where neither father nor mother has had the benefits of even a high school education to say nothing of a college education. While these parents are ambitious for their children they have no first-hand knowledge of higher educational opportunities. The absence of such a well-planned general curriculum in the American high school is in part due to the present lack of flexibility in college-entrance requirements, com- pelling the pupil to decide, upon entering the high school, whether or not he will prepare for college. This forced decision works harm both ways. Many who begin the present college-preparatory curriculum leave school be- cause the work makes no appeal. Others who do not commence the college-preparatory curriculum would later decide to go to college if they could get entrance credit for work already done. RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 205^ III. EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE Educational Guidance Defined. — By educational gui- dance is meant the assistance which the school should give the pupil in choosing educational opportunities wisely, including the choice of electives within the high school, the decision as to attendance upon a higher educational institution, and the selection of a particular institution. This guidance does not imply that the school is to choose for the individual; it implies that the school is to furnish all necessary information upon which the pupil may base an intelligent choice and that it should aim to develop in him the power to make wise decisions. Educational guidance is closely related to vocational guidance but is not identical with it. The studies chosen before a vocation is selected should help reveal abilities and aptitudes, and should in consequence help in voca- tional guidance. Wfhen a vocation is selected many studies wiU be determined thereby, while others will be based upon supplementary needs. Educational gui- dance is really broader than vocational guidance, since it must assist in the choice of avocations as well as voca- tions and must consider preparation for all the duties of life, including duties as a member of the family, the com- munity, the state, and other social groups. Guidance in Choosing Electives. — Under a proper sys- tem of guidance much of the objection to electives in the high school will vanish. The value of each subject should be discussed with the pupils and printed state- ments given them as a basis of conference with their parents. When pupils have chosen their electives it is desirable that they should explain why they think these particular subjects will meet their own needs and super- 206 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ficial reasons should not be accepted. This kind of guidance will help develop a thoughtful attitude toward school work and in consequence yield larger returns in both character and intellectual development. This kind of training in choice will be excellent preparation for the wise use of the elective system in college. Higher educational institutions would render a dis- tinct service by formulating statements of the way in which various high school subjects will be of assistance in higher education. Such statements as these would be welcomed by the high schools as a means of increasing the interest of pupils in their work. A mere hst of pre- scribed subjects seems to have no particular value in developing genuine interest. Decision as to Higher Education. — It is occasionally difficult to decide whether or not to encourage a par- ticular pupil to go to a higher educational institution. Sometimes his parents are so much in need of his assis- tance and sometimes his capacity is so Hmited or his ambition so meagre that he ought to go directly to work. In that case, however, he should be impressed with the fact that the high school cannot complete his education and that he must improve such educational opportunities as may lie within his reach. The need for vocational training beyond the high school is best appreciated when the pupil has chosen his vocation, but even before that time he should be im- pressed with the fact that vocations for which thorough preparation, more or less specific, is not needed are con- tinually declining in number and in importance. The need for continued liberal education should be based upon its importance in developing leaders who can grap- ple in a large way with the problems of the day and upon RELATION TO HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 207 its power to give increased enjoyment and fuller under- standing of Hfe. Too often liberal education has been pictured by high school pupils as a means of social pre- ferment, a polite endowment, largely remote from the vital interests of life. Choice of Kind of Higher Education. — It is impor- tant that the high school should give adequate informa- tion regarding the many different kinds of higher edu- cation. Ordinarily this is not done, and many pupils do not go to a higher institution because they have not heard of the kind of education that they think would meet their needs. The variety of higher institutions is continually in- creasing and now includes colleges of agriculture, archi- tecture, commerce, dentistry, education, engineering, fine arts, forestry, journalism, law, liberal arts, and medi- cine. There are also trade-schools, normal schools, business schools, and schools for nurses. Colleges for women are offering secretarial and home economics courses. There are also graduate professional schools for which a college course is a prerequisite. Choice of Particular Institution.— Among institutions offering the same type of education there are important differences that will increase or diminish their value to the individual pupil. The teacher or principal who is intimately acquainted with the pupil in all his relations can often give guidance of the utmost value, but there are so many factors to be taken into consideration that the teacher must exercise great caution. It is generally better to give too little rather than too much advice. On the other hand, all information available should be placed at the disposal of the pupil so that his choice may be based upon the fullest possible knowledge. Such facts 208 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL as the following regarding particular institutions should be ascertained and freely supplied: (i) Entrance requirements. (2) Standards of work required after admission. (3) Attention paid to physical development. (4) Healthful climate. (5) Opportunities for wholesome recreation. (6) Democratic spirit. (7) Civic and social ideals. (8) Minimum and average expenses. (9) Opportunities for partial and entire self-supjjort, together with the exact nature of such oppor- tunities. (10) In case of a vocational or professional institution, success of graduates in securing remunerative employment. In addition to such facts as the above, much depends upon the attention given by institutions to the welfare and progress of individual students. While the boy should be impressed with his own responsibility, never- theless certain institutions have remarkable success in looking after individual needs, especially in matters of both scholarship and morals.^ ^As an illustration of the administrative relationship of the high school, see the Appendix. — Editor. CHAPTER VII THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY Frank Tracy Carlton, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS AND HISTORY, ALBION COLLEGE Early High School Education Was Vocational in Character. — The first American public high school, es- tabhshed in Boston in 1821, was intended to be a pre- paratory school for Harvard College; and, at this time, Harvard was almost exclusively a training-school for ministers. This and other early high schools were founded to serve practical ends; they were vocational schools. The one curriculum was definitely prescribed. By the middle of last century the student who did not wish to go to college and obtain professional training began insistently to demand attention. The line of least resistance was followed. New subjects were added to the programme of prescribed studies and advanced to a position of equal rank with languages and mathematics. At last the curriculum became top-heavy, misshapen, and burdensome. The next plan, perforce, adopted was that of offering separate curriculums, the so-called "classical," "modern language," "scientific" courses. The student was allowed to elect one of these. Finally, in the eighties, came the organization in the large cities of separate high schools, such as classical, manual train- ing, and commercial. 209 210 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Among the first concessions granted in response to the scientific and industrial progress of the century was the introduction into the old curriculum of physics and chem- istry. But the most revolutionary step was taken when manual training and laboratory work was introduced into the high school curriculum. The manual training movement offered incontrovertible evidence of a new industrial situation. It became evident that the high school was no longer to be merely a preparatory training- school for certain of the so-called learned professions. In spite of bitter opposition, the advocates of manual training persisted; they were the pioneers of a new epoch in secondary education. In 1880 the first American manual training school was opened in Saint Louis. Three years later manual training was introduced into the pub- lic schools of Boston. The Scott Manual Training School of Toledo and the Chicago Manual Training School were opened in 1884. Baltimore also introduced manual training in 1884, One year later Philadelphia opened her first manual training school. Haphazard Changes in the High School Curriculum. — Like the changes in the high school curriculum which preceded its introduction, manual training was added in a haphazard fashion. It was hastily stuck on to an already pieced-together curriculum in spite of ridicule and an appeal to tradition. The most beneficial result of the manual training movement is not the introduction of hand-work into the high school, but the impulse given to a scientific study of educational ideals, values, and methods. Since manual training was first intro- duced into the high school instead of the elementary grades, it is reasonable to infer that the vocational or utiKtarian value of manual training was not minimized RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LJfE 211 by its leading advocates. Later the pedagogical value of hand-work was stressed until, in the words of the Mas- sachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, manual training "has been severed from real life as completely as have other school activities." Manual training in our pubUc schools to-day is too often "abstract, isolated, impractical, and unsocial in character." And now the insistent demand is again being made for up-to-date industrial or vocational training in the high school This demand is not merely an irrational yearning aftei a new method or for a change. It rests upon a firm foundation; it is due to the growing need of adjustment of the content of high school education to the kind of training demanded in the various ranks of the world's workers. The German educator. Doctor Kerschen- steiner, declares that it is erroneous to assume "that it is possible to educate a man without reference to some special calling." Indeed, high school education has, in a large measure, lost its original significance. Culture is now stressed, and the non-vocational side of high school education is often upheld as its chief glory. By a curious, but not unusual, process of slow evolution the old form of voca- tional high school education is now esteemed because it gives its possessors ideals and mannerisms which are distinctly opposite to those bestowed by the newer forms of vocational training — in short, because its ideals are now non-vocational or cultural. Reform in high school education means a return to first principles, modified to fit the demands of a complex industrial Hfe in which specialization and subdivision of labor are character- istics of prime importance. Since the work of the early high school was vocational 212 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in character, surely to demand that vocational training be given by the modern high school is not radical or imwarranted. It is the duty of educators to-day, instead of holding up their hands in horror at the alleged prof- anation of the traditional curriculum and educational ideal, to seek diligently and patiently to understand the course of progress and to prepare young men and young women for efficient service in the complex heterogene- ous society of a modern democratic nation. It is in- sisted that the past and past cultural forms are of value only in so far as they assist in the correct interpretation of the present. The high school curriculum has not expanded in an orderly manner to meet adequately new conditions which industrial evolution has thrust upon an unprepared nation. A few haphazard, unsystematic leaps in the dark have been made under the guidance of one-idea educational enthusiasts. The demand of the hour is for a careful study of the educational needs of the youth of to-day, and of the appropriate pedagogical methods of supplying those needs. One leads to an investigation of industrial progress and of the new methods of doing the world's work in a democratic era when the workers are recognized not only as workers but also as citizens and as human beings worthy of living joyous and dig- nified, as weU as industrious, Hves. The other involves a careful study of the psychology of the youth. Each and every educational method and ideal, old or new, should be subjected to careful and unbiassed scrutiny from these two dissimilar educational standpoints — that of sociol- ogy and that of psychology. The High School Was Organized Before Large-Scale Industry Became Important. — When the American pub- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 213 lie school system was organized and the American high school was made an integral part of it, large-scale indus- try, subdivided labor, great industrial cities, and a large and powerful wage-earning group of working men had not yet been called into existence. Its institutional form, which includes its curriculums, methods, ideals, and values, was developed under a now outgrown industrial regime. Time is, indeed, required to remodel educational, legal, political, and ethical systems so that they will minister to the needs of modern industrial society. It is the primary function of an educational system to aid in this adjustment. But the public school system is an insti- tution and subject to the Umitations peculiar to insti- tutions. Institutionalism is a manifestation of social inertia. Institutions are the crystalhzed and formalized expression of social demands and ideals; but every insti- tution, social, rehgious, poHtical, or educational, is the product of a former and usually outgrown balance of social forces. In a progressive country and epoch, at the moment when an institution attains a certain form and quality, new forces enter the arena and a need for a new institutional form is imperative. Thus education, which should be a potent factor in hastening and direct- ing human progress and in reducing social friction, may, when attacked by the dry-rot of institutionalism, become a potent factor in delaying the adjustment of social and poKtical ideals to fit the new conditions forced upon so- ciety by industrial advance. Effect of Social Inertia upon Educational Advance. — The pressure of social inertia or of the normal institu- tional lag, reacting during decades of unprecedented in- dustrial progress, has caused the educational ideals and values of the early years of the twentieth century to be 214 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL abnormally out of harmony with the requirements of the time as manifested by a careful study of the social and industrial situation. Any investigation of the high school and its relations to the industrial life of the com- munity should begin with a careful survey. While not disregarding the lessons of the past, or undervaluing the methods evolved through past decades, the students of to-day's educational problems must look to to-day's necessities. They should be progressive without being unduly iconoclastic. The haphazard, patched-up con- dition of the American school curriculum, the contradic- tory decisions of the courts of law, the widely differing codes of morality, and the dissimilar standards of artistic criticism of the present era are, in no small measure, due to the antagonism between traditional norms and stand- ards which were conceived before the modern industrial era was ushered in, and those norms and standards which are being gradually developed under the stern pressure of to-day's unique economic and social relationships. Both reformers and reactionists in the educational world have been too prone to appeal to authority, class preju- dice, superficial manifestations, and vociferous decla- mation. The resultant clamor and confusion have ob- scured the real situation and have retarded the calm and deliberate investigation of social forces. The proper function of an organized school system, as well as of a political or a legal system, is one which con- stantly changes to fit the shifting social and industrial conditions of the country and of the epoch. Not only has the division of functions between formal or school and informal or out-of-school education changed, but the scope of school education has been immeasurably broadened with the advancement of mankind from prim- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 215 itive to civilized modes of living, working, and associat- ing. The scope of school education has been broadened not merely because of the growing intricacy and com- plexity of human life and industry, but also because the educational functions of other institutions, such as the home, the shop, and the home playground, have dimin- ished in importance. The school has been obliged to add duties which have hitherto been performed by other institutions. The home can no longer give the youth adequate training in manual industry. The shop, be- cause of subdivided labor and the speeded-up methods of modern industry, offers no adequate opportunity for the young apprentice thoroughly to learn his trade. In the process of adjustment involved in passing from small-scale and unsystematic to large-scale and routin- ized industry, social and political institutions including the public school system must undergo fundamental modifications. The scope of school education can only be definitely and scientifically delimited by determining (a) the totality or content of education in a given epoch, and (b) the portion of this entire field which can be ade- quately occupied by the various institutions which in- formally train the youth — the home, the shop, the store, the farm, the home playground. Revolutionary Changes in American Life. — During the last century industrial and scientific progress outran all other form-S of development. Rapid industrial progress wrought enormous and far-reaching changes in recent decades; and, inevitably, as has been indicated, the so- cial, political, and rehgious life of society is profoundly affected. The young and crude America, possessing an immense amount of undeveloped natural resources and free land, has been metamorphosed within a few decades 216 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of bewildering changes into the America of large-scale industries, big railway systems, and heaped-up city pop- ulations. The American people are facing the gigantic task of changing their ideals and standards to fit an en- vironment radically different from that which surrounded the American of a generation or two ago. That which is desirable in an undeveloped, fertile, and expanding coun- try may become a hindrance or even a menace in a well- developed and densely populated territory. Educational concepts, as well as legal or political ideals, formed when modern industry was in its infancy, when it was differ- entiated into small and isolated units, when standard- ization, specialization, and world markets were still of the future, do not necessarily square with the require- ments of the modern integrated and interrelated indus- trial system. The complexity and intricacy of modern society multiply the factors in the educational problem, and cause the school to assume a more dignified and important role than heretofore. The introduction of laboratory work and of manual training into the high school was the direct and visible consequence of important and revolutionary changes in American industrial methods and social conditions. These strangers in the sphere of formal education found the way smoothed because of the rapid progress in industrial development which was produced by the Civil War. Trade, business, industry did not bulk large in the direct determination of American educa- tional methods and values until after the second indus- trial revolution which followed the outbreak of domestic strife. The laboratory and the manual training school are not content with mere passive receptivity on the part of the student, but require self-activity and con- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 217 structive work. The introduction of these important educational accessories indicates clearly, to the thinking student of social science and industrial evolution, that the home, and probably the shop, had at that time lost many of their industrial characteristics. Division of labor and large-scale industry were becoming predomi- nant in the manufacturing world. The Practical Standard of Educational Values. — Not only do ethical and educational values change from gen- eration to generation in response to industrial advance and social modifications, but different classes within a given community often disagree fundamentally in regard to any customary or new educational project. For ex- ample, members of labor organizations will make de- mands upon the school system which are not in harmony with those made by manufacturers and merchants. And the view-point of the teacher does not harmonize at all points with either that of the unionist or the em- ployer. It must be frankly admitted that even the most broad generalizations in regard to the scope, content, and aim of high school education are liable to meet with opposition because of fundamental differences of opinion as to the proper function of our public school system. To-day one class of men who are insistently urging that the public school emphasize industrial and trade ed- ucation, do so because they wish an increased supply of workers who are mere workers or human automatons. Many influential employers in the United States are demanding in no uncertain tones that the public schools be utilized to turn out narrowly trained industrial work- ers who may become passive links in the great indus- trial mechanism of the present age. The business man's 218 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ideal of a worker, barring a small group of skilled crafts- men, too often seems to be that of a plodding, uncom- plaining, narrowly trained "human ox." Systematiza- tion and specialization are the favorite watchwords of a large and influential class of employers; and the appli- cation of factory methods to the management of the school is demanded in the alluring name of efficiency and economy. Standardization, not individual treatment, is the ideal of the business man. The manufacturers were not vitally interested in manual training in so far as it was introduced as a pedagogical necessity in order that each and every child might have an opportunity to use his hands in some form of constructive work. In fact, the manufacturers, because they were taxpayers, were in- clined to oppose manual training as it was expensive and increased the taxes. The purely educational value of this training did not appeal to them because it did not directly swell profits and increase dividends. But now, when skilled men are an urgent necessity, the proposi- tion is judged very differently; an organized effort is being made by captains of industry to convert the public schools, or certain departments of the educational sys- tem, into special schools for apprentices and helpers. Organized labor opposes any open or veiled attempt to use trade or vocational schools as institutions to educate young men for strike-breaking or wage-cutting purposes. The organized workers of the coxmtry object to the prac- tical standard of educational values favored by many employers; they desire the American youth to become more than a "human ox." They also insist that voca- tional education shall become an integral part of the curriculum of our public schools; and they are strenuous in their opposition to anything which savors of the con- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 219 trol or supervision of vocational instruction by the em- ployers of labor. The Social Standard of Educational Values. — Another group of people urge that the public school system should train efficient workers who are also thinking men and women capable of enjoying art, literature, and leisure and who will be able intelHgently to consider the social and political problems which inevitably arise in the twentieth century. It is demanded that a well-rounded development be given each and every child and that all students be prepared for useful and efficient work in the community. This social criterion places a high valua- tion upon forces and policies which tend to break down class demarcation, to reduce artificial inequality, and to uplift the human race as a whole. The practical, or busi- ness man's, and the social standard are almost diamet- rically opposed to each other. The business men are, however, quite harmonious in regard to their idea as to the proper scope of educational work; the members of the group advocating the social criterion, unfortunately, are not. The progressive educators of the nation, those who are attempting to formulate a real science of education or pedagogy which will enable the public school system to become an important directive factor in social progress, ought definitely to place themselves on record in favor of the social standard of educational values. Industrial or vocational education should be made an integral part of formal education in an epoch or in a nation when or where industry has become large-scale and subdivided, when the home and the shop are no longer adequately fitted to impart vocational training. But since large- scale industry and subdivided labor are necessarily only 220 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL present in a period of world markets and world inter- course, vocational training must be indissolubly linked with other forms of training which will broaden the out- look of the student, which will make of him a citizen as well as an efficient worker with hand or brain. The aim of modern education should be, if the aim be anything more than the creation of a nicely articulated industrial system, to produce men, not human machines. The school, according to a broad and reasonable social con- cept of its functions, should send from its doors healthy, efficient, and well-trained men and women who possess characteristics which will enable them to live as well as to make a hving. The Function of the Modern High School.— The social standard of educational values requires high school edu- cation to be vocational and democratic in character. The high school ought to reach workers as well as non-work- ers—hence, it should be open late in the afternoon and in the evenmg as well as in the forenoon and early after- noon. In short, the high school should reach a great variety of people and give training in citizenship as well as in technical subjects. It should have a far wider mis- sion than to be a preparatory school for the college. That a large number of boys and girls leave school soon after their fourteenth birthday is a well-known and portentous fact. A large percentage of this great horde of children enter what are commonly called the unskilled occupations. The present ever bulks large in the eyes of the impatient youth, and too often he seeks the job which temporarily offers the best wages but which gives little or no promise of future advancement. These ne- cessitous or misguided young people are the workers who become in due time the "perpetual helpers," the fre- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 221 quenters of employment agencies, the flotsam and jetsam of the industrial world. These are the young men and young women to whom our public school system is reach- ing no helping hand. It is highly important that students of educational problems recognize that the modern high school should stop the drift into "blind-alley" occupations or, at least, that it should furnish a minimum of training to those who are already in such occupations, for the purpose of enabling them sooner or later to increase their earning power and to enlarge their ideas of life and its possibiU- ties. Into appropriate classes of the continuation work of the high school should go all young workers up to their eighteenth or at least their sixteenth birthday. Em- ployers should be required, as in Germany and Wisconsin, to allow their young employees to attend the compul- sory continuation high school. Why should the super- vision which the state exercises over the young cease as soon as the child becomes a wage earner? Industrial advance and racial betterment demand that the youth of the land be saved from the evil effects of the blind- alley occupations and be lifted out of the status of per- petual helpers. If the high school is to be called upon to fit young men and young women for positions in factories, stores, and offices, it is pertinent that consideration be given to the conditions in industry. Will factory work, for example, tend to tear down that which the school tends to build up? Undoubtedly, American educators are warranted in demanding not only vocational training but also an improvement in the working conditions in the establish- ments into which the youth of the country go. Public school vocational training and improvement in the work- 222 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ing environment of the young wage earners of the nation should go hand, in hand. Practical Proposals. — It has been pointed out that educational theory is subject to the retardation pro- duced by institutional inertia; and, furthermore, educa- tional practice always lags behind our belated educational theories. Nevertheless, in spite of this double retarda- tion, in recent years certain practical steps have been proposed or taken which give promise of the opening of a new era in high school education. A few of the most important proposals for placing the high school in touch with the industrial life of the community will be briefly summarized. These are of two general types: the first provides for industrial or vocational training for boys and girls who have not yet become wage earners; the second adds continuation courses for young wage earners. As examples of the first t3^e may be mentioned the Cleveland Technical High School and the Washington Irving High School of New York City. The former has for its distinct purpose the preparation of "its pupils for industrial leadership." The school is open to both boys and girls. The course is four years in length. After two years devoted to manual training and ''general industrial intelligence," the student selects a trade in which he speciahzes during the remaining two years. The English, mathematics, science, and other studies are closely re- lated to the shop problems confronting the students. The school is in session forty-eight weeks in the year. Evening classes for workers are also conducted. The Washington Irving High School for girls departs very far from the traditional ideal of secondary education. The teachers of the school write: "We have kitchens, bedrooms, laundries, nurseries, and parlors for the train- RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 223 ing of every girl in housewifery. We have banks, stores, offices, studios, dressmaking establishments, and tele- phones for the preparation of young business women. We have the staples of culture: the languages, literature, sciences, and mathematics for the training of minds, preparing for teachers' schools and colleges." The Co-operative Plan. — The engineering department of the University of Cincinnati has for several years utihzed a system of co-operation with certain manufac- turing establishments in the city. The public schools of Fitchburg, Mass., have also tried a similar plan. In the latter city, the co-operative plan "is an arrange- ment between the high school authorities and the local manufacturers of metal machinery, saws, engines, pumps, and condensers, and other metal products." The student workers are divided into two sections. For a week one section works in the shops while the other section is in the classroom; the following week, the shop section goes into the classroom, and the other section into the shop. In this manner, the shop and the school have each a full quota. The student worker is paid for his services in the shop; he is an employee of the company, working half time. It is not intended that students shall be drawn from the regular high school courses. This co- operative plan enables many students to receive valu- able training, and to earn half pay at the same time. It is a unique plan for uniting school training and actual shop experience, for combining in one person the student and the wage earner. The theory underlying this plan is well illustrated by the following quotation from an article written by Dean Herman Schneider, of the University of Cincinnati: "The school does not attempt to teach anything concern- 224 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ing the practical side of the work. It aims, however, to teach the theory underlying the work, to teach the intent of the work, to give such training in mathematics and elementary sciences as will enable the apprentice to become more highly efficient, and to give such cultural subjects as will tend to make him a more intelligent civic unit. In other words, the course has in mind both the thing the apprentice is to do and the man he is to be." Such schools can, of course, only be successful in com- munities in which manufacturers are willing to co-oper- ate; and only a portion of those desiring or needing voca- tional training are likely to be thus accommodated. The limit is fixed by the will and needs of the employers, not by the number or the demands of the youth of the city or locality. The co-operative plan is not looked upon favorably by organized labor since it places "the veto power over the boy's right to public industrial educa- tion ... in the hands of the manufacturer." The em- ployer may under this plan find it easy to dictate the educational policy of the public school. No plan for industrial training is adequate which merely aims to supply the employers' need of skilled workers. The school ought not to be reduced to the status of a shop adjunct. The shop is not primarily an educational institution; and the plans of the foreman may often run counter to the needs of the youth in the shop. If the student worker or apprentice is to become skilled in more than one simple and minute class of work, the learner must be transferred from machine to machine, and from depart- ment to department. From an educational view-point, the student worker ought to be transferred to some new kind or class of work as soon as he becomes proficient at RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 225 a particular job; but immediate considerations of profits and the personal interests of the foreman lead the latter to keep a boy at one class of work month after month and year after year. In short, profits and pedagogy con- flict in the shop. On the other hand, the school authori- ties are not obliged to provide an expensive shop equip- ment and to hire expensive teachers of trades. The students work under actual shop conditions and make goods for the market; and wages are paid to the student workers for the time spent in the shop. The Public Works High School. — A novel modifica- tion of the co-operative plan has been proposed by Mr. William Thum. The employing firm is now the munici- pality, and the practical work is to be performed in con- nection with some municipal plant, such as water, gas, electric light, parks, etc. "The public has municipal work to do, and the greater part of this work could be done by clear-headed boys and young men from sixteen to twenty years of age who are under the supervision of the public works high school." Two shifts could be used. One group would work in the morning and go into the high school in the afternoon; the other group would reverse its programme. Six to eight years would probably be required to complete the course in the high school. Students would be enabled to earn sufficient to pay their personal expenses, and at the same time they could learn the basic principles of a trade in addition to the cultural training usually given in the high school. Men having six to eight years of such experience ought to be especially valuable in the service of the munici- pality. It has been estimated that about one in every ninety self-supporting young people of high school age are attending high school, and that, on the other hand, 226 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL over one half of those supported by parents attend. Public works high schools would furnish work for self- supporting students, and thus give all classes of young people a chance to attend high school. Wisconsin's System of Industrial Education. — The State of Wisconsin has provided for a compulsory sys- tem of continuation schools. According to the pro- visions of a law passed in 191 1, in every city or town of over five thousand inhabitants continuation or evening schools must be established. These schools are to be under the control of a local board of industrial education consisting of five members — the superintendent of schools and four others, two employers and two employees, to be appointed by the local board of education. Continu- ation schools may also be established in smaller towns. The law requires wage-earning boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years, and apprentices over sixteen, to attend the continuation school for at least five hours per week for six months each year. All work- ing permits granted to children fourteen to sixteen years of age require attendance in the continuation school. Employers are allowed to employ children under sixteen for not more than fifty-five hours per week, but at least five out of the fifty-five hours must be utilized for school attendance. The continuation schools are maintained by local taxation and State aid. The schools are sub- ject to the supervision of a State board of industrial education. In the words of Professor Commons, "The State of Wisconsin, at last, has adopted a system of continuation schools that is planned . . . first, to make the intellectual and artistic side of industry reach every boy and girl instead of a few apprentices; and, second, to make the employer and the schoolmaster co-operate with RELATION TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE 227 and supplement each other instead of duplicating and controverting each other." Cooley's Plan. — Mr. Edwin G. Cooley, ex-superin- tendent of schools of Chicago, has devised a system of vocational training which he is endeavoring to have adopted in Illinois. The plan is similar to Wisconsin's and is undoubtedly modeled in certain respects after the German system of continuation schools. It is urged that the existing system of public schools cannot adequately provide vocational training and a separate system of continuation or vocational schools is recommended. The vocational schools are not to be controlled by the ordinary boards of education but by local boards of vocational training. A special tax for the purpose of maintaining vocational schools is advocated. " Separate schools are necessary whose equipment, corps of teachers, and boards of administration must be in the closest possi- ble relation to the occupations. In such schools the ap- plications of general education to vocational work can be made only by men who know the vocations." The voca- tional schools are not intended to be substitutes for the present forms of schools but merely to supplement their work. Mr. Cooley calls attention to the necessity for training for social service and citizenship as well as for a vocation. But, it may be asked, is it not to be expected that special vocational schools controlled by separate boards and taught by special teachers will undervalue all kinds of training except the purely vocational? Is there not great danger that such an isolated system di- rected by specialist teachers will lead to narrow speciali- zation in purely vocational matters? ? Friends of the Wisconsin system and of Cooley's plan insist, however, that sooner or later the separate system 228 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of administration will prevail. "In Europe the school- men fought this system bitterly for years, but after they had demonstrated their utter inability to keep the aims of specialized vocational training from the aims of gen- eral academic training the systems were gradually but surely divorced and industrial education was put under the control of separate boards." Germany's experience is, however, not necessarily conclusive for democratic America. It might not be amiss to suggest a possible compromise. The continuation schools might be left under the control of the public school authorities, but special advisory boards, consisting of employers and employees, might be appointed. Any movement tend- ing to break the public school system into specially con- trolled units should be very carefully scrutinized by the schoolmen and the wage earners of the nation. PART II THE MORE INTIMATE SPECIALIZED RE- LATIONSHIPS OF HIGH SCHOOL WORK CHAPTER VIII SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS AND COURSES OF STUDY Colin A. Scott, Ph.D. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL Historical Beginnings.— There is perhaps nothing that characterizes the high school of the present day more than the way in which it is responding to wide-spread social influences of various kinds. In this respect it shows its vitaHty and proclaims the fact that although descended from the Renaissance and therefore old enough in tradition to run the danger of becoming stiff, it still retains the original spirit of reconstruction which characterized its inception at that time. Then the new studies were the classics and all that went with them — a new appreciation for the beauty and joy of Hfe, for the felicities of language and for the free democratic life of Greece and Rome. These were life values that in the fifteenth century could not be approached directly. They were offensive to the piety of the middle age and even to its art and government. For although there was 229 230 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL beautiful art in the middle age it had become narrow because confined too closely to religious needs. There was also government approaching in some favored spots to the democratic, but freedom was, on the whole, an exception. And there was no native literature whatever. The mind of the time took the best and most practical way of approaching these ideas. It unconsciously turned to the days when they flourished and to the monuments they had left behind. It absorbed the spirit of these times not in order to venerate it at a distance, but in order to put that spirit into the life of every day. We have been at work at this ever since, but as time has gone on the logical march of events has brought us to a place where the classics can no longer play the r61e for which they were instituted. We have a literature, we have the solid beginnings of a free government, we have a new art, new sciences, and new industries. We no longer need the indirect approach. We are in a position to attack life directly. Social Pressure on the High School. — Social pressure makes this felt in the high school. The young people that fill our classrooms are bent upon living. It is here and now for them. Their parents behind them and the community as a whole are equally convinced. What can the high school do to prepare for a Hfe or to give an opportunity itself for living that shall raise the standard of life and improve the means for gratifying it on the part of those who attend? This is the question at the bottom of the social pressure on the high school of to-day. At the present stage "courses of study" are the ob- jective points. It is assumed that "courses of study" form the essential features of a high school and that to SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 231 change these would be to change all. It is, I think, also generally assumed that a course of study is something made by a teacher or by one set over him and that it represents a certain amount of knowledge regarded as valuable for some reason by the teacher or superinten- dent. It is not expected, in most of the high schools, to be regarded as valuable by the pupils before they begin. It is sometimes not regarded as valuable after they get through. It is not meant by this that such a course of study need be "hard and fast." It may be changed from year to year. It may be changed in some details within the year itself. Such changes, I think, represent what is called "elasticity." The essential feature is that the elastic part as well as the rest of the course is made by the teacher or his superior in office. This idea of the course of study is certainly a time- honored one. It was in existence in the teaching insti- tutions of the middle ages. The universities of that time, which usually had a contingent of boys as young as ten, regarded truth as something authoritatively handed down. The root and kernel' of their effort was to pre- pare the pupil for the next world or to prepare him to prepare others for that period of his life. The Renais- sance teachers also dealt through the classics with an- other life and another world, although this time in the past and upon the earth. Superior Authority and the Course of Study. — Such courses of study must necessarily be made and engineered by the force of superior authority. The pupil must be instructed rather than educated. There is not enough in his current daily life, in the most of cases at least, to form proliferating areas, capable of growing by their own initiative. In the case of the theologically dominated 232 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL courses it was assumed that the natural man must be made over and this by the imposition of standards which he would not be capable of conceiving for himself. In the case of the classics an artificial environment was necessary for success. Instruction was given in Latin, and in many places pupils were fined or punished in other ways who used the vernacular for communication. For the purpose in mind these practices were evidences of efficiency, since an indirect approach to life was necessary. To find teachers independent of the authoritative course of study one must go back to Socrates or to Jesus. The writings of Plato give us, superficially looked at, the impression that the pupils did not have much to say about the course of thought through which Socrates travelled. They were always worsted in an argument, and the questions of the teacher were loaded from the beginning. But a very little reflection shows us that if Socrates actually did converse with any one who came, on the street corners and other public places, their ques- tions and their natural inquiries, rather than his, must have formed the solid woof for the fine-spun warp of the teacher. The pupils, moreover, were always free to leave at any moment. Not much of the authoritative course of study in this. As for Jesus, His teaching, often communicated in acts as well as words, was continually dovetailed into the people's present need. He answered the questions of the Scribes and Pharisees. He spoke about and to the as- pirations of Israel, and He met the awakening interest of His disciples when and where He found it. His was a direct rather than an indirect approach to life. Change in Courses of Study. — But the closer one gets back to the great teachers the more danger one runs in SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 233 seeming far-fetched and foreign to many high school teachers of to-day still in the shadow of the middle-age and classical idea of the course of study. And yet the social pressure surrounding and moulding the present high school is slowly changing its attitude toward this time-honored convention. It is demanding a direct ap- proach to life. It is undermining and setting aside the old-fashioned courses of study and putting in their place manual training, domestic sciences, various applica- tions of art, practical journahsm, stenography, business courses, agriculture, architecture and building, econom- ics and the study of efficiency, practical hygiene, and many other modifications of the demand for immediate equipment for the business of life. It is true that as these new studies come into the high school they are offered as courses made by the teacher or those in au- thority over him. The old form tends to persist, and there are many teachers still who emphasize the authori- tative form and teach joints in wood as if they were para- digms in Latin. But just because these subjects grow out of the current life of the time and are already grasped by the pupils in their main outline and significance, they are continually tending to run beyond the form pre- destined by the teachers' course of study. What the pupils think they are able to do, what they show a natu- ral willingness to attack and a disposition to hang on to, come to represent a great part of what is actually done in the classroom. When a recent superintendent of Wellesley asks the boys in the manual training classes to bring to school the screens and shutters that need repair- ing at home, or when Superintendent Alderman, of Ore- gon, gives school credit for making beds, washing dishes, feeding pigs, and other home work, it is evident that the 234 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL attitude of the authoritative course of study is not pre- venting a school interest in the lives of the children as they actually exist. In such cases as these it is, of course, part of the duty of the school to see that the work done is not left un- touched by the actual knowledge as well as the ethical influence of the school. Merely to give credit for feeding pigs as they have always been fed is no great part of education. The kind of food, its nutritive value, and its results in the proper fattening of the animal, graphs showing its increase in weight, its economic value in rela- tion to the market of this locality and season or that are indications of only a few of the problems involving the higher skill and knowledge which the socially service- able high school exists to impart. That this skill and knowledge are concentrated for one pupil upon a problem that lies near to him and which, preferably, he has chosen for himself makes such knowledge much more vital and no less truly universal. In some schools arrangements are made so that the pupils have control of a piece of land, and under the direction of the school crops are cultivated and the suc- cess of the different pupils compared. Clubs are formed for the exhibition of products and prizes given to the best. The interest of the whole community is engaged, picnics and excursions are organized which have for their central interest the work of the school. This does not confine itself to the high school but runs out into the upper grades of the elementary school. In Berlin, New Hampshire, the high school has for some years thrown part of the work formerly directly under the school board into the hands of the pupils. The care of grounds and buildings, e. g., has been so SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 235 treated with the interesting result that the work was done more efficiently and at a considerable saving in cost. The keeping of accounts and the actual financial management of the enterprise by the pupils were the means not only of teaching the knowledge required but gave an opportunity for education in responsibility and co-operation. The Los Angeles High SchooL — The high school of Los Angeles, California, affords an interesting instance of how social pressure is modifying courses of study and leading the school to prepare more directly for the busi- ness of Kfe. Among other things the high school pupils here, under the guidance of their teachers, have made the designs for, contracted for, and controlled the building of several of the new school buildings in that city. The superintendent of schools asserts that these buildings are among the best that the Los Angeles school board owns. It is interesting to observe that when real work of this kind is going on in a school it tends to transform the attitude of the pupils toward all of their work. The high degree of self -poise and organized responsibiUty to be found in this school are shown by a test made some months ago. The superintendent wondered whether the pupils could run the school themselves for a day. It was a new idea to the pupils and they did not seize the opportunity rashly. But after some time and due discussion among themselves they said they would like to try it. They named their day and no teacher ap- peared, but the classes went on as usual. Later in the day the manual training teacher got nervous thinking of the tools and valuable plant without his care and over- sight. He ''sneaked" in but found everything running in perfect order and was rather ashamed he had come. 236 THE MODJERN HIGH SCHOOL This is, of course, nothing but a test and does not indicate that teachers are useless. It rather shows the great power of the teachers of this school, but, further than this, it shows the value of work which grows up out of the pupil's own environment and of which he can have, when he starts upon it, some notion of its purpose and import. He is then in a position to help control and guide its progress and, instead of submitting pas- sively to the teacher-made course of study, is able to make a part of it for himself. The detail of the courses of study dealing directly with practical activities and having a considerable vocational interest has already been dealt with in other chapters of this book. The principles that He back of these changes are what most interest us at present. These principles come out in other subjects than those of a specifically vocational nature. The Practical Arts High School. — ^The Practical Arts High School for Girls, of Boston, is an instance of a school which has been newly established in obedience to social needs. It has courses in millinery, in dressmaking and domestic science, and a department of vocational gui- dance which takes charge of placing graduates in suita- ble positions and of following them up for several years after they have left the school. The art department is naturally devoted to special applications in these branches, and one sees on the walls of the studio studies of garments, fashion-plates, and designs for hats, as well as the more elementary exercises in form and color. The chemistry and physics departments put in the fore- ground the science of daily hfe. The gas service, the heating plant, the water, and sewage conveniences, to- gether with the chemistry of food form the main body of SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 237 the work. Meanwhile, history and English literature are two subjects required of every pupil. Since these subjects are not vocational, the question arises to what extent are they modified by the general aim of the school. It is felt by the Department of History, at least, that there is danger of too narrow a speciaHzation. The effort is not made to find just that kind of history which would have vocational value for a dressmaker or a mil- liner. There is no concentration on the history of trade movements to the neglect of the broader field, nor are those features of our present life which have descended to us from the past and thus proved their survival value made the exclusive starting-point of the work. On the contrary, history is taught as history and on the assump- tion that there is a real life value here for all pupils of any kind. People have other vital interests besides earning their bread, and one learns from the story of the past Hfe of civilization how to become civilized to-day. It would seem at first sight that such a view of the course marked the Hmits of the present social demands rather than their fruition, but it must be remembered that these social demands have a vague background and, although the clearest insistence is along vocational lines, the pubHc and the pupils themselves really wish more than this. They are not unresponsive to the larger life of the race. This would mean that the course is taken mainly for present interest. If not socially serviceable for a vocation, it may yet be serviceable as a mental nourishment for the social organism of the school (or class) itself. There is no objective proof, however, that the pupils, in a course made almost wholly or altogether by the teacher, feel the impulse to use their knowledge 238 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL socially or to extend it on their own account. It is pos- sible and even probable that a few will acquire an inter- est which they will continue to gratify when they leave the school. But this is not making it socially service- able in the school itself. It is not the same thing as giv- ing to the pupils as large a share as they are able to handle in producing and directing the course itself. But it is only when this is done that the teacher can regard the work as a training in social serviceableness or can even be quite sure that it grows out of the needs of the majority of the pupils with that vitality which will in- sure this study or its results a permanent place in their future life. The Aim of Social Pressure. — The result aimed at, consciously or not, by the social pressure that is modify- ing the courses of study in the high school is the same whether these courses are mainly vocational or, like his- tory, prepare for life in a larger sense. The pubHc mani- fests this aim in various ways. It criticises and com- plains of the product that is turned out of the high school. It establishes new kinds of schools and new courses in the older schools. These methods of exerting its pressure are authoritative and final, and yet they do not always reach the result aimed at. If our analysis is correct this is largely due to the fact that teachers take these new courses and turn them into authoritatively promul- gated courses run exclusively by the teacher and thus stand in the way of the pupils making a direct approach themselves and so handling actively, instead of receiving passively, the material of knowledge which seems to them practical and desirable to master. But, besides the authoritative channels referred to, the public is always exerting pressure in a direct way through SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 239 the pupils that attend the schooL This is shown by the attendance which increases or falls off as the school re- sponds or not to public needs. Although technically this pressure is held to reside in the parents of the pupils, actually it resides very largely in the pupils themselves. In very many cases it is these pupils and their represen- tations of what they need that influence the parents in de- ciding whether they will send them to school or not. This influence of the pupils is probably increasing in our times and in American communities, and it has become a prac- tical thing to recognize it directly in the school. The pupils themselves have become a considerable part of the pubhc to whose pressure the school must slowly conform. There is no reason why they should not co-operate directly as well as indirectly through their parents in shaping the contents of the courses of study. Function of the Classroom. — The place to do this is probably in the classroom and in comparatively small blocks. The pupil's view of a subject is constantly changing, and he is capable of proposing to do something in January which would not occur to him in October. He is not capable of planning a cour'se for a whole year nor, even in the case of electives, able to choose wisely one planned by some one else. But most pupils in the high school are capable of contributing something which will be found to be worth while in any reasonable course. Their modifications of, and contributions to, the course of study may very well be like that of the several builders of the great cathedrals of the middle ages. The work of each can be individual and unique, although massed together and organized into a large and comprehensive structural whole. An Instance of a Socialized Course. — As an example of what is possible in this direction, we may quote from an 240 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL article by Miss Lotta Clark, of the Charlestown High School, in the School Review (17: 255): "After having taught history in the high school for six years I determined to have the courage of my convic- tions for one year, at least, and to give my pupils a fair chance to take the responsibility of their work and to do it in their own way. Up to this time I had conducted my lessons in the usual way. I had planned the lesson beforehand, collected what illustrative material I could, and in the class had asked the questions, explained the difficulties, and carried the burden of the work on my shoulders. The pupils had answered the questions but rarely asked any and had had no chance to get the real benefit of being responsible for the continuity and prog- ress of the work nor to plan, investigate or discuss it on their own account. I determined that the class should be a social group of young people and should have an opportunity to do just those things, i. e., to co-operate — to work together — and to give each individual a chance to do anything which he particularly wanted to do. "It seemed impossible at first to get a chance to try this group work; the conditions in the high school made it difficult. Instead of having the same pupils for five hours each day we have a different set every hour and they are with us but forty-five minutes. Some of these classes we see only three times a week and as a number of them are preparing for college and normal school, there is not a moment to be wasted. Furthermore I did not feel warranted in trying any experiment which would un- settle the classes and make them harder to control in other recitations. "In spite of all this, however, I determined to give the social group work a fair trial. I talked the matter over with the classes, showed them why the lessons we had SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 241 been having were unsatisfactory and asked them how they would like to try the experiment of running their history lessons themselves. The novelty of the idea pleased them and after considerable informal discussion we decided to carry on our relations in the form of busi- ness meetings such as any group of people would have who had come together to accomplish a piece of work. A chairman was appointed from the class and there was something of a sensation when I exchanged chairs with him. He appointed a committee to nominate candi- dates for president, vice-president, and secretary. These officers were elected by ballot for one month and their duties were decided upon by the class and written down in a simple constitution. We had an amusing time when they tried to decide what they ought to do with me. I told them I should do just as Httle as possible in the class in order that they might have all the time and oppor- tunity there was. They finally decided to call me the 'executive officer' with power to exercise full authority if necessity required. "It was surprising to see the change in the whole at- mosphere of the recitations which this order of things brought about. The pupils were timid at first and I trembled for the result, but after a lesson or two they became used to it and the work went on with far more ease and spirit than I had dared hope it would. Here is a brief sketch of the new kind of recitation : "(i) The president called the class to order and called the roll. ''(2) He asked for the secretary's report, which was corrected by the class and formally accepted. "(3) The president asked if there were any unfinished business, if so that was taken up first, if not, 242 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL "(4) The lesson of the day was called for. Whoever wished to arose and began to describe the historical events in the lesson. If he made a mistake or omitted anything another pupil who noticed it arose, and when recognized by the president made the corrections he thought necessary. Sometimes these corrections were not correct or did not go far enough and several others entered into the discussion. When there were several pupils on the floor at once the one who was recognized first by the president had the right of way and the others had to do the same in turn. That prevented disorder. This part of the work proved to be of great value. The pupils questioned each other's statements and when they could not agree the point was left over as unfin- ished business until the next day. In the meantime they consulted authorities to be able to prove their points and they used their reasoning powers to good advantage. " There were all sorts of unexpected interesting develop- ments as the work went on. Whenever difficulties arose we solved them together. My opinion was considered of no more importance than theirs. When we did not agree I urged them to try their way so that they might have confidence in their own judgment if they succeeded or see its weakness if they failed. Sometimes they elected officers who were not efficient and who bungled matters uncomfortably. The pupils suffered immediately and got some pointed lessons in civil government at first hand. "To tell all this sounds as if it must have taken a great deal of time. As a matter of fact we soon found that we had time to spare. The time which previously had been taken up by the teacher's questions was all saved and the pupils could easily recite in half an hour what it SOCIALIZED HIGH SCHOOL CURRICULUMS 243 had taken them an hour to prepare. The reports of the secretary helped considerably with the review work and as the class grew more critical of both the history and the English of these reports, the secretaries grew more careful and very often we had reports read with which no fault could be found. "The roll call and report were sometimes finished in five minutes, the lesson of the day in thirty more, and we found ourselves with ten minutes to spare. "There were various suggestions as to what we had better do with the extra time. One was that they take longer lessons, and this led us into the habit of letting them assign their own lessons and they almost always took longer ones than I had been in the habit of assign- ing them. Another suggestion was that the scholars collect pictures and show them to the class during spare minutes. One boy said he didn't have much luck finding pictures but he would like to read things in other books and tell them to the class. A girl asked if she might draw some pictures from a book in the library and an- other boy asked me to get permission for him to take photographs at the Art Museum of the casts that related to our work. We did all these things and many more, and these suggestions led to the richest development of all in the work of that year. They formed themselves into little volunteer clubs, met at recess and after school and considered what they could do to contribute things of interest to the lessons. There were drawing clubs, camera clubs, and the club that brought in pictures and newspaper clippings and gave interesting accounts which they had read called themselves the 'Side-lights Club.' We used the last half of the lesson each week for the reports of these clubs. They all did well for beginners, 244 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL but the work of the drawing clubs was truly remarkable. Never before have I had such beautiful illustrative mate- rial. A point worth noting is that some of the finest drawings were made by the poorest talkers. . . . "The discipline of these three classes was the easiest I had ever had and it became alniost unnecessary as the years went on. . . . And what was the teacher's part in this new order of things? She was learning the truth of the statement that 'no teacher is equal to the dynamic force of the class before her.' Her time and energy were taxed to the utmost to utilize all that the pupils produced, to help to get materials for them, to find and suggest books to be consulted, and to give them credit for the work done." Such an organization of work consists in something much more than a mere change of method. Methods are only means for carrying out a given plan or aim. What is proposed here is to allow the pubHc, and partic- ularly that part of it the school is directly in contact with, i. e., the pupils, to help to shape the content of the course of study in harmony with their most lively and productive interests. This will not exclude the full im- pingement of the best of the teacher's contribution. He will probably find a greater opportunity than ever before to impress his best ideas upon his pupils. They become more willing to hear and to co-operate with him when he has already shown his wilHngness to co-operate with them. The following chapter will deal with other aspects and further instances of this kind of organization. CHAPTER IX THE DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT IN ITS RELA- TION TO THE FAMILY, THE OUTSIDE COMMUNITY, AND THE SUBJECT Dora Williams TEACHER OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. Initiative in Class Work. — There have come under my charge each year during the last three years no less than five parallel classes for the study of physiology and hy- giene. Every year we succeed in getting a little nearer to what we believe is the socialized class and its co-oper- tive activities. I have here undertaken to sketch the intimate history of one set of students, showing their progress from the opening of the course, when they caught their first glimpse of co-operative study until near the close, when they had begun fully to enjoy the advantages of social solidarity. These students might be described as, on the whole, good scholars. They were bright, docile, and obedient; they were willing to learn any lessons that a teacher might assign from day to day. Most of them mem- orized well and many recited with great fluency. That they considered physiology a schoolroom subject and studied hygiene as a lesson, seldom connecting it in any vital sense with their home affairs or their neighbor- hood Ufe, was not their fault. Neither was it the fault of 245 246 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL their previous teachers, who did but reflect the limita- tions that almost universally hamper the present courses of study. The schedule in physiology, Hke that of other studies, had been mapped out long ahead for the students, not by or with them as democracy would suggest. Our purpose was to cover the ground prescribed — a neces- sary precaution in order to disarm criticism — and in addition to make the classroom, as far as possible, a centre of genuine pulsating Hfe. As to subject-matter, there should, according to our plan, be drawn into this extended course whatever of current interest to the com- munity could be utilized. As regards human relation- ships, these should be socialized. Most important to estabhsh first would be the rela- tions of the students themselves one to another and to the teacher. These relations would rest upon a founda- tion of co-operative work. As this work grew these rela- tions would naturally extend more widely — like the ever- enlarging circles made by a pebble on a still pool — so as to include the family, the neighborhood, and, at least in sympathy, the world. Where, indeed, need they stop? The attitude of the class at the beginning and the means by which it was gradually changed can be shown in no better way than by an actual picture of what took place. The scene is a room intended for the study of science. Work-tables stand near the windows; there are cabinets containing models; charts hang on the walls. In the centre is a large oval table with chairs for twenty persons. The dramatis personcB are seventeen active young girls, the teacher of physiology, and numerous visitors who drop in from time to time — a high school teacher, a phy- DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 247 sician, a girl of eleven, and a mother. The extra chairs remain imoccupied during the first six lessons. FIRST LESSON Enter the girls, for the most part in twos or threes, chatting in the usual fashion. They stand until the last minute, then, still talking, sHp into the chairs which are arranged in a circle. A bell buzzes. The teacher directs the attention of the now poHtely silent class to the printed course of study for the year. It is made out in the form of topics. The so-called "Outlines," representing "What every stu- dent ought to know," have long since been mapped out by the teachers in conference and approved by higher authorities. They are spoken of as the "Required Work." How to use the outhnes in connection with the text- book is explained at some length by the teacher. One of the topics is designated to be studied and recited in the usual way at the next lesson. Teacher (who has set forth, in what she considers an attractive light, the value in daily life of the study of physiology and hygiene). Now you may have a little while each week— half an hour, to start with — in which to do any work you are particularly interested in. (Class sits in respectful silence.) Teacher. Why not think the matter over? I am sure that when you studied this subject before, there were — there must have been — a great many things that you wanted to know, which, of course, there wasn't time for. Talk it over among yourselves. Tell us about them next time. 248 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL SECOND LESSON The required work has consumed forty of the fifty minutes. Teacher (expectantly). How about the subjects that you were going to work up on your own account? "Vol- untary Work" shall we call it? (The girls look from one to another. No one speaks.) Teacher. Raise hands, please, all those who have thought of something they would like to do. (Several look uneasy. No hands are raised.) Prima (timidly). I have heard of the hookworm dis- ease. I could look it up, if that is what you want. Teacher (encouragingly). Of course it's "what I want"— I mean, if the rest of you like the idea. It might be made very profitable. How did you happen to think of it? (Prima tells how she heard of it.) Teacher. How do you propose working it up — getting the information, I mean, and making it clear and inter- esting to us? Prima (half withdrawing into her shell). I saw an article on it in The World's Work. Teacher (persuasively, with pauses for her remarks to sink in) . You could find still other articles, I am sure, and actual reports by Doctor Stiles himself, a most interest- ing man. Some day, if you like, I'll tell you about the difficulties he had to work against when I first knew him. . . . Last year one of the girls was able to get some specimens of the hookworm — on slides, you know, pre- pared for the microscope. Could you get any, do you think? ... By the way (to the rest, who straighten up DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 249 a little), some of you are probably good at handling a compound microscope. (Mild assent from several, who brighten up.) Teacher. I, for one, should enjoy seeing what you could make of this subject. (The class, during this monologue, have shown plainly their reHef at having the attention focussed principally upon one person, Prima.) Teacher (continuing). But, of course, if we are going to use the regular class period, we shall have to ask the others what they think about it. See what they say. Prima. I don't understand. Teacher. Oh, I mean ask them if they think it is going to be worth while for you to take class time — -whether it is or not, in their opinion, a suitable topic — one which they will like to listen to. Prima (in a tiny voice, her eyes cast down). What do the girls think? (Most of the class, eying the teacher, nod assent.) Teacher. Of course, this is the time — isn't it? — to speak right out if you don't exactly approve. (Class looks anxious.) Teacher. Does any one think it a little far-fetched, that is, not so very practical for us to begin upon? (Class volunteers no opinion. Then several shake their heads.) Teacher. Very well, then. Perhaps you can give Prima some hints about starting in. (Looking around.) If I may venture to guess, some one here has a doctor in her family whose advice upon any of our topics would be well worth asking — possibly a trained nurse — ^perhaps some one else equally efficient who could help us do a good piece of work. 250 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (Tertia and Nona raise their hands with an expression of satisfaction.) Teacher. Capital. I am sure Prima would be de- lighted to receive any assistance. ... In fact, if two or three of you should care to join with her (deferentially to the young girl) — with her permission, of course — it would be splendid. . . . Next week other subjects will be brought forward, I am sure. Don't fear; there are plenty. For instance: Who makes these laws about drinking-cups on trains, and why should they be neces- sary? What is all this talk about roller-towels in res- taurants? Who says we shall not put kerosene in milk , bottles? There is a great deal more discussion about the care of children's teeth now than when I was a young girl. How fortunate it would be if you should be able to coax Johnny or Susie to see the dentist! (Class smile indulgently. This class, they begin to think, is not so bad after all, although decidedly queer.) THIRD LESSON The time is the last ten minutes of the recitation period, as before. Teacher. How have you been getting along with Vol- untary Work? On these slips I am passing around will you write any subject you have in mind — if not for yourself, for somebody else? If you haven't any, just say so, signing your name, of course. (Class looks troubled. All write.) (Teacher looks at the slips. Three girls out of seven- teen suggest topics. These are submitted to the class in the same way as before. They arouse more interest than any suggestion yet made.) DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 251 Septima (one of the best scholars. Firmly. Voicing the sentiments of three friends) . Miss M., I don't under- stand what you want us to do, and I can't think of any subject. Won't you assign one to us? Teacher. Ah, well, all of us who do understand, then, will have to "throw light." (Prima, Secunda, and Decima, personally conducted by the teacher, succeed in piecing together the following explanation :) First, you are each one of you to imagine yourself as not necessarily in school — at a club, perhaps. Next, you are to hit upon some idea that shall help us all to live . . . to behave ... a little more hygienically, . . . more wholesomely, . . . than we are in the habit of doing every day. Or, if you prefer, you shall teach us some- thing about the structure of our bodies. Yes, take anything in the Outlines that pleases you. Only you don't want to make the mistake of telling us what we know already, or what we think is beyond us, or, how- ever learned it may be, is, in our opinion, too wide of the mark, or too tVivial. ... It isn't your idea to inflict your subject upon anybody. . . . You want to serve us, to do us some real good — not to bore us. All of you are quite capable of carrying out such a plan, I know, and of giving us pleasure into the bargain. It is for you to ask us how we feel about it beforehand — that is, if pos- sible, you should give us some notion of how you in- tend to take up your subject. . . . Isn't all this a little plainer now? (Brows clear.) Octavia (plaintively). I have thought a lot, but I can't find a single subject. Teacher. Do you remember the Peterkins, and Eliza- 252 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ! beth Eliza's paper for the Circumambient Club? We have a minute more. Let me read it to you. (Reads.) (Class is amused. Cheers up.) Teacher. I suggest that at our next lesson everybody bring to class a newspaper or a magazine. (Class wonders what new trouble is ahead.) Teacher. Mark beforehand, please, every allusion to hygiene. Notice, besides, all the advertisements in the street-cars or on bill-boards relating to health. (Recol- lecting herself.) Ah, yes, this is voluntary work, so, of ■ course, you needn't; but I hope you will. Don't forget to talk with the family at home, and see what they con- ' sider worth while— especially with your mother. I don't doubt she is an excellent adviser, in practical hygiene, otherwise she could not have succeeded in bringing up the strong, rosy girls I see sitting here. (Some do not look so very strong or so very rosy, but the remark somehow seems to restore good humor.) Nona. Do you mean patent medicines, chewing-gum, and everything? Teacher. I certainly do. One of the most valuable topics given last year was upon headache powders. Some of the girls had actually been buying them without a thought of harm. (Class glance furtively from one to another.) Teacher. As for me, leave me out for the present. Forget I am here even. I am almost certain to go with the majority. At any rate, I'll promise to tell you hon- estly when I don't agree with you. (Class looks as though the mere suggestion of leaving out the teacher was impolite and quite impossible.) It seems scarcely necessary to comment upon this sit- uation, which, all things considered, is very easily ex- DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 253 plained. These young girls were far from dull. They had been endowed with at least the usual amount of enthusiasm, curiosity, initiative, and love of adventure. The purpose of the teacher was nothing more nor less than to give exercise to these qualities, which had been strapped down, as it were, by the conventions of the schoolroom and by a hjrperconsciousness of the teacher's superiority. Thus they had lost their usefulness through mere inactivity. As this system of gentle gymnastics, so to speak, continued, the class, little by little, gained strength to assert themselves; the teacher retreated. The weeks flew by. It was now November. Every- body had chosen something to present to the class. Some of the subjects were ambitious, others were rela- tively unimportant. They represented the extremes and every grade between, and ranged from the careful pres- entation of such a topic as "The Germ Theory of Disease" to the mere bringing of a magazine clipping on "Fresh Air." A few students had contributed several times. The class discussions were becoming surprisingly free and frank. The teacher reserved her opinion until it was actually called for. One overheard flying to and fro comments like these: "I am not a bit afraid now. The work is getting a great deal more interesting. . . . Subjects are really not so hard to find. ... A good many of my friends are help- ing me. My father suggested 'The Water Supply' for a topic and is showing me how to make the diagrams. His friend. Doctor S., is advising me how to take it up. . . . It's too bad all the girls can't get over their shy- ness. I myself trembled at first." Class Organization. — In the meanwhile the class had organized and its business went like clockwork. A 254 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL chairman and a secretary had been elected. Members, when speaking, addressed the chair. The procedure was dignified. The feeUng of satisfaction was daily growing deeper. Thus the first milestone in co-operative work had been reached. Example of Group Work. — One day the work took a great jump ahead. An exercise was given which laid bare to the class the significance of all that they had hitherto been doing. It was volunteered by two girls who had been working in partnership. Their subject was "The Care of Milk." It had taken them several weeks to pre- pare — far longer than they had expected. The more they investigated, the more they found themselves in- volved in work. For example, they had written numer- ous letters, visited the laboratories of the City Board of Health, obtained reports from the State-house, and received pamphlets from Washington. They had col- lected pictures of model milk farms. Not contented with that, they had visited the headquarters of two milk establishments. In their own neighborhoods they were keeping a sharp watch on the habits and customs of the milkmen — yes, and on "their tricks and their manners" as they rattled from door to door. They watched how milk was handled at the corner grocery. Except so far as to give a few hints here and there of what they were doing, they preferred to keep their own counsel. The preparation for their exercise, however, and the setting out of their material, naturally could not help attracting attention. There seemed to be "some- thing doing." Three girls from other classes asked if they might not come in and visit. The mother and the younger sister of one of the leaders were also present. The girls had already requested that they might use the DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 255 whole period. Consent was given with great alacrity by their classmates but with some show of reluctance by the teacher, who did not think it wise to encourage too lengthy exercises. She thought the continued story preferable; that is, a short instalment at successive les- sons. On this particular day the material was displayed on two long tables arranged Hke a counter. Charts and pic- tures had been hung. Numerous pamphlets had been laid out for inspection. There was, besides, an array of some of the identical articles that had been confiscated from careless milkmen, contributed by their new-made friends on the Board of Health. Among the articles that spoke with ugly eloquence were a bottle caked with mud, stoppers incrusted with dirty grease, and a glass milk jar half full of ashes. Not only did the subject strike every- body as exceedingly practical — for the knowledge im- parted proved of a solid and trustworthy character — but the contrivances used in presenting it were considered unique. Co-operation of Outsiders. — The girls began by briefly recounting how they had obtained information, men- tioning first the list of books and the pamphlets that they had found valuable. Then they enumerated the visits they had paid and referred with gratitude to the many persons, most of them strangers, who had helped them. Among the number were several men of prominence who had ungrudgingly spared time to advise and assist them. It was their first contact with the rushing, hurrying busi- ness world, and they were impressed by its readiness to co-operate with them in their efforts. This little pro- logue increased the confidence that their audience had already placed in them and heightened anticipation. 256 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The two girls arranged rather cleverly that, since both had shared equally in the work, both should share in the presentation. While one. was speaking the other acted as her assistant, displaying at the right moment the illustrative material. When the first stopped the sec- ond girl, without hesitation or embarrassment, took up the thread of the story, her friend now becoming the assistant. They alternated thus a dozen times with dramatic effect. At intervals they paused a minute or two for ques- tions. Occasionally they threw out a question them- selves, to see what impression they were making and whether or not all the girls were with them. "What is the best way of washing glass jars?" they would ask. "Is uncooked milk ever, strictly speaking, safe?" The talk ended with an exhortation in this vein: "Now, girls, milk is used in every household. We want you to take hold of this matter. Will you examine your own milk bottles? Will you follow up your own milkman? . . . As soon as you can we want you to report to us."^ At the close everybody asked questions. This con- gregation simply would not break up. All wanted to linger. It was considered by the class nothing short of a triumph. The teacher, also, considered it a triumph for the fol- lowing reasons: this demonstration was not only "vol- untary work" — something offered of their own voHtion as opposed to the assigned task, however agreeable — but it was co-operative work; it had been genuinely self- organized. This meant not only that the whole range of information had been planned out and presented at the initiative of the students, with the approval but without ^ In a fortnight two families had changed milkmen. DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 257 the assistance of a teacher, but that, besides, it had been carried on in a distinctly social way. Furthermore, their aim had been social from the very start. As we have seen, they went into this bit of investigation with the definite idea of benefiting their classmates, whose ap- proval was to be the sign of success. In addition, they accompHshed this in a truly social fashion by working together as a team. The idea of self was merged in that of the group. Not a trace of pettiness, nor of anxiety as to whether one should receive more recognition than the other, crept in to mar the perfection of their effort. These partners, by the by, at the start were but sHghtly acquainted. When asked to tell their experiences a little more in detail, they said: "It did take an enormous amount of time. We thought we should never get it ready, but we enjoyed every single minute. It is great fun working with a partner. We wish the other girls would try it. We are going to coax them to. They don't know what they miss." This, then, may be considered an example of volun- tary, self-organized group work — in short, team work in study. This serves, also, as an example of how the school and the community can play the game of social better- ment together. Effect Upon the Class. — This exercise, reaching in so many ways high-water mark, gave courage to the rest of the class. Other topics followed in quick succession. Some of the girls frankly adopted the successful features of this demonstration, always giving due credit to their predecessors. Viewed from the point of intellectual accomplishment, the class work had now begun to gain greatly. It became 258 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL more thorough, more accurate, more liberal in scope. Questions — always the severest test of scholarship — were invited. An attempt was made to clear up every doubt. The results, as shown in oral and written reports (now required by the leaders so as to dispel any illusion that their aim was to please rather than to instruct), were strikingly satisfactory. Viewed socially, the class work showed that the co-operative idea had apparently been well grasped. The rewards thus far tasted had been exclusively those earned by social service. Recording Values. — ^A new task, which could be side- tracked no longer, now confronted the class. Were aU these contributions, which had been given so generously and received so appreciatively, of equal value? Should they be included in the record of scholarship for the half- year? Who should estimate their precise worth? The teacher? The scholars then must. No other decision appealed to them as logical. This proved the severest test yet of their co-operative strength. Debate upon this matter became absorbing; it used up one whole period and ran into the next. At last, by ballot, strict justice so far as lay in their power was secured and, as they agreed, all personal considerations were successfully banished. We should here like to call attention to the fact that the young girl in her teens does not take overkindly to the idea of marking her friends. Admitting frankly that it is only fair play for her to express her opinion, she pre- fers, notwithstanding, to leave this matter to a teacher. "It seems too personal," she thinks. All the more important, it would appear to us, that she should not be arrested at this point in her social develop- ment, but that she should be steered through this diffi- DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 259 culty as swiftly as circumstances permit. Here is an instance of the need of the wise guidance of an older person. A teacher watches closely the opportunity. A young person, so we find, can be successfully trained into a dispassionate weighing of opinion — the judicial habit — and a proper eliminating of personal feeling. Will not power in this direction give to the community a more useful type of woman? In this instance the grading — done by themselves — was recorded upon a large sheet of quadrille paper posted in full view. Each exercise was allotted proportionate space; that is, a certain number of squares, according to its value. The contributions ranking highest were those which the class had "got most out of." Raising the Class Level. — The completion of this chart was hailed with immense satisfaction. On sec- ond thought, however, there lurked misgivings. Some records had won deserved applause because they were such "sky-scrapers." Great was the consternation to behold that certain girls had done so little. It was an actual shock to find that, in the scramble to get one's own work in, others had been forgotten. Girls there were, too, who, for the most part, were not exceptionally dull or lazy, but perhaps shy, and by nature and habit imco-operative and exclusive. They found themselves, somehow or other, out of the contest, and nobody had noticed. Who was responsible? This was voluntary work. Of course, the teacher had foreseen from the first this sea- son of dissatisfaction and regret. Was it the teacher's business to prod the laggards? The students maintained not. Enough hints had been given, they said. Usually in a class the members feel sorry — of course 260 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL they do — for thos? who fail, but they do not regard themselves as in any way accountable. In a co-opera- tive class the thing is looked at differently. If any liv- ing bond such as "the all conquering love of comrades" exists, it surely binds classmates in co-operative work. After a moment of silence — ^which could, without exag- geration, be called solemn — the class, with one accord, arose to a higher plane of social usefulness. "We didn't realize it. . . . This will never do." Then " but what are we going to do about it?" For a lesson or two, purposely, no special inquiries were made by the teacher, but she felt in the air a certain hum of activity such as might happen at some crisis in a beehive. "We are going to raise the class level," was the way they worded it. How? Devices in plenty were now thought out, some of which were as follows: To suggest desirable topics for those who had done least. To pair off in new combinations so that a girl weak in initiative should work v/ith a strong partner. To give a backward student the first chance to report. Naturally, this meant a genuine sacrifice on the part of the most capable scholars at a time when so much was ready and when opportunities were getting scarce. To study to bring out at every point the views of the silent ones. There went on, besides, a good deal of friendly coach- ing which was never made public. The class progressed by leaps and bounds. Great was the rejoicing when, the work of the third term completed, the record of this class stood away ahead. Its total average was the highest of the six parallel classes. No student fell below eighty per cent, the passing mark being seventy per cent. There DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 261 were inequalities — that was taken as a matter of course — but solidarity had brought all into port with colors fl}TJCLg. Let us retrace for a little the steps by which we have so far come. It has been shown how, at the outset, the sense of responsibility was awakened in the classroom. Next followed the further development of initiative — imperative if new ground was to be explored and suit- able subjects selected from a bewildering number of pos- sibihties. Then came the self-imposed task of working up the information and presenting it acceptably to a company of classmates. "Will they understand this?" "Will they care for that?" was asked at every turn by the small voice within — the social voice. From the vantage-point attained, and in the glow of ha^ing rendered a ser\'ice, it now dawmed upon a few how effectively certain pieces of work might be done in partnership. Such an arrangement would furnish just the right person with whom to plan, to consult, to laugh, in times of discouragement even to \veep, and, finally, with whom to share the triumph. True comrades, be- sides, would warn each other of pitfalls and would cor- rect in private those small mistakes which one is sure one never makes. Co-operative work takes time. On the other hand, time was actually saved. This was shown in striking fashion when it came to matters that required memo- rizing. From time to time groups were organized by those who showed special talent for conducting quizzes and impromptu tests. These new brooms swept clean, I assure you. And the girls as a body }ielded with good grace to this unremitting and decidedly stiff cross- questioning, especially since, by drilHng them in details, it enabled them to gain time for the voluntary topics. 262 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Has there been surprise that team play in study or group work has advanced so slowly? At first glance it seemed capable of quick growth, but in reality it is no mushroom. Too many school traditions have for too long a time discouraged it. "I Hke to work by myself," objected a "best scholar," who afterward, by the by, became an ardent convert to co-operative work. "Then I know where I stand. I might get a partner who would spend very little time, who would expect me to do all the work, and, at the end, would claim most of the credit." So, indeed, she might. In this instance the class re- sponded rather dryly: "We don't think you can be very wise, then, in choosing a partner. Besides, if girls are mean, they soon get found out and are left out in the cold. We advise you to try again and not to be so afraid." Extension of Work. — So numerous were the outsiders connected with one phase or another of this work that those whose interest had taken some tangible form were enrolled as honorary members of the class. Nobody that could meet this requirement was too wise or too simple, too learned or too ignorant, too old or too yoimg. The Hst, in consequence, was Hke this: my dentist; our family physician; the washwoman (who had overheard some talk about septic fingers); my baby sister; the butcher around the corner; three urchins deterred (for the time being, at least) from using cigarettes. In num- bers it reached nearly a hundred. In connection with the extension of the class work to outsiders it may be worth while to know that the mem- bers, during their last term, wrote a number of interest- ing papers, chiefly in the form of letters, describing their co-operative organization. Among their correspondents were several high school teachers who had started, or DETAILS OF CLASS MANAGEMENT 263 who proposed starting, similar work in other towns. They exchanged experiences also with classes in manual training at Attleboro, with students in the Charlestown High School on the subjects of history, music, and liter- ture, and with students in the Framingham High School. Enrichment of the Programme. — ^A partial Hst of the subjects dealt with in the co-operative work will give a notion of the way in which the course was enriched. Under physiology and personal hygiene were included: the structure of the skin (illustrated by microscope slides) ; care of the complexion (warnings against quackery) ; the structure of teeth (specimens were furnished by a dentist acquaintance); the anatomy of the foot (how to choose proper shoes); approved methods of caring for the hair and the nails (fully demonstrated) ; the anatomy of the heart (specimens of the heart of an ox, a sheep, a chicken, and a frog having been donated by a friendly butcher). Family and community hygiene included: the public water-supply; the care of milk; shall we sleep outdoors and why? how to take care of a bedroom; a clean market and how to secure it; the reason why we should improve our posture (formation of a posture club) ; vegetarianism (a debate) ; and at least twenty more. Some of these subjects, to be sure, were touched upon in the outlines, but not in so live a way and never so exhaustively. The selection of a partner, or of more than one, and the organization of a group within a group, mean a long stride in the social progress. The Httle, self-organized group works for the benefit of the large group, the class. The interdependence of the small and large circles is felt by all. The class is now ready to find a way to extend its domain still further and its influence to a still larger group. This advance is, in fact, only a continuation of the same story. 264 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Outwardly, at present, the work is moving along well. The class seems to be pulling with even stroke together. More is planned for each lesson than can be given. Visi- tors express delight. Other teachers plan to try the same principle. Why concern ourselves, then, that, accord- ing to the chart, some pupils are overshadowed by the rest and are taking too small a part? Surely this is always the way in school. The answer, we repeat, is that in a socially organized group there can be tolerated no "submerged tenth." The social conscience is aroused, the strong put the weak on their feet, and finally the class level, by the strength of comradeship, is raised. By this process the power of leadership, also, is de- veloped. The training is not aimed simply at the ulti- mate welfare of the individual but at that of society. The community sorely needs in men and women — does it not? — ^precisely the qualities thus developed. The co-opera- tive class, the voluntary, self-organized group, if it does its legitimate work, educates for social service. This is our interpretation of social education. There was a time when the feasibility of thus organ- izing classes at work upon other subjects seemed an open question, although certain portions of the curriculum promised, under such treatment, signal success. This period of probation is now nearly past. I have personal knowledge of successful social education in English, music, history, mathematics, and manual training. In addition, I have myself tried social experiments in zoology, botany, and school gardening. Nor have I hesitated to recommend group work in the modern languages and in Latin — indeed, I should welcome such progress most hopefully. CHAPTER X THE DIRECTION OF STUDY AS THE CHIEF AIM OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Alfred L. Hall-Quest, A.M. ASSISTANT IN EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS The Need of Attending to the Technic of Study. — The problems of study already considered become even more significant when the importance of economizing the pupil's time and strength while studying is taken into account. Beautiful buildings and efficient administra- tion avail but little if we do not adequately supervise the pupil's habits of study not only in the class study period but wherever he may try to learn his lessons. No doubt many of us can recall our sense of utter helplessness when the teacher assigned a new lesson without giving suffi- cient directions as to how the lesson might be most readily mastered. Instead of finding school a thing of \ beauty and delight, we dreaded the teacher and worried ' sometimes the night through about the next day's recita- tion. Unquestionably there has been much improve- ment in the technic of teaching. Teachers are now better equipped to prepare the pupil for his study tasks, not depriving him, meanwhile, of the needful self-initiative without which real learning is impossible. With all of this improvement in classroom management, it still is true that the great problem of elimination and retarda- 265 266 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tion makes It imperative that the teacher's individual work for the individual pupil be emphasized. The study problem is individualistic. While investigations show that there are certain fundamental laws in every learning process, they show just as clearly that there are marked individual differences which must be kept in mind by the teacher who desires to be effective in leading the timid as well as the ever-ready pupil to the front rank of effi- ciency. Educators are now recognizing that no small part of the teacher's mission consists in the direction of the pupil's methods of study. This function must deter- mine in the last analysis the technic of teaching. The Meaning of Study. — Before considering a few of the phases of the technic of study it is important that the meaning of study be understood. In the Briggs re- port of conditions at Harvard one student is quoted as saying: "I didn't loaf; I simply didn't know how to get at things. In those days there was nobody to go to for advice, and I had never read anything, had never been inside a public library. I didn't know where or how to take hold." Presumably this freshman had not been directed how to study while in high school. He did not know what was expected of him as a student. There have been various definitions of study offered by investigators in this field. Jones says that study is the power to see, observe, comprehend, compare, reason, and deduce. It is getting an understanding of some object. A similar conception is presented by Colgrove. "No cursory looking over the pages of a book is study. No attempts merely to memorize is study. Study is the attentive application of the mind to an object or subject for the purpose of acquiring knowledge of it. Study in- volves persistent attention, the continued or prolonged THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 267 holding of the mind to the knowing of an object by acts of the will. Study means to observe with care, to dis- cover qualities and relations, to compare objects or ideas, to analyze a whole into its parts, to combine ideas into new groups, to classify knowledge; it is investigating with interest, examining with a purpose, inquiring with zeal. Study is the self-effort of the pupil to obtain knowledge." McMurry suggests that all studying must be purposeful. "The study of a subject has not reached its end until the guiding purpose has been accomplished and the knowledge has been used in a normal way and has become experience. . . . The common notion that study should consist of thinking is therefore correct." From the foregoing and several other definitions we may abstract the following elements in a composite con- ception of study: 1. Observation or experimentation in order to discover qualities and relations. 2. Interpretation, invention, or fancying. 3. The attentive, zealous, interested, and vigorous ap- plication of the mind to a specific object for the purpose of acquiring knowledge about it, be this object word, principle, thing, or person. 4. Comparison of objects or ideas. 5. Classification — the systematizing of the whole into its parts and combining them into new groups. 6. Reasoning either by deduction or induction. 7. Assimilation of knowledge gained into experience that develops, preserves, and refines individuality. 8. The continual direction of this enlarged experience. Study, we may say, then, is that activity on the part of a student or an apprentice in which he seeks to become intimately acquainted with the history, nature, and uses 268 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of a subject or object. This implies that the subject or object must be understood as to purpose and various uses. In the ready acquiring of such knowledge or skill the proper apphcation of certain functions in the learning process as instincts, imagination, memory, and perception must be highly trained. Correct studying depends also on certain at present inadequately understood emotional tones or moods which determine what phases of a problem the student will select as more significant for him at one time than at other times. Studying is not an isolated act. When- ever we attempt to learn something we make use of a multiplicity of incidents and even accidents, a variety of mental and spiritual acquaintances formed through- out our general or more specialized reading and obser- vation. Investigators in this field of study find that the learner is easily influenced by conditions of health, weather, and climate, each one of which may seriously retard the learning process. Of no less importance are the various educational policies that either awaken or stupefy interest in the things of life. It is coming to be generally recog- nized that the arrangement and the contents of our sev- eral curriculums determine to a large extent the pupil's attitude toward the main business of his school career. The high school does not exist for the exploitation of ingenious educational schemes. Being the creation of individualistic society, the secondary school must be sc organized that all of its pupils, regardless of social or mental status, receive such training as will fit the indi- vidual for effective citizenship. This doubtless seems a truism, but there are innumerable instances where high school teachers have catered to the exceptionally well- THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 269 endowed pupil and have neglected the timid, unaroused individual whose greatest problem often is to know how to study, how to use those powers of which he may be only dimly conscious. The high school, therefore, must have a large view of study as a process or activity whereby the whole, harmoniously co-operating individual becomes acquainted with several possible adjustments toward persons and things. In dealing with the problem of study, then, we are concerned with all of those forces of individuality that unitedly make the pupil efficient in attacking new lessons or in elaborating newly discovered truths. Factors in the Technic of Study. — The pupil at work is controlled in a very definite way by the school organi- zation of which he is a member. It is hardly probable that the average high school boy or girl thinks far beyond marks as a goal of study. The approval of the school au- thorities as represented in classroom marks or a diploma is doubtless a legitimate ambition of these adolescents. Closely in touch with the pupil is the teaching force of the school, represented by the principal and the teachers. It is evident that these have an inestimable influence on how the pupil studies. Text-books and other forms of literature as well as laboratory equipment are constant factors in the occupation of every pupil. Of no less im- portance are certain conditions in the classroom and in the home, not to mention all-important personal factors that make or mar study efficiency. Hindrances, often seemingly trivial, are nevertheless to be considered as bearing directly upon the pupil's success or failure. If the teacher knew the goal that beckoned the pupils on to classroom achievement, if the teacher understood the secret yearnings and battles that 270 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL only too often sap the nerve strength and distract the attention of adolescent boys and girls a large part of the study problem might be solved. In every high school are individuals whose home environment is depressing. Fre- quently teachers have in their classes girls whose gar- ments are tawdry as compared with those of their wealthier sisters. It is a serious fact that wounded pride, repressed vanity, uns5anpathetic home life, and loneli- ness tend to check mental progress unless the teacher can spread over such imfortunate boys and girls some light of hope in a friendly, helping attitude. These lacks, un- tapped springs of real mental efficiency, are perhaps of greater moment in the problem of study than the pres- ent complexity of programme can remove. Individual differences, however, cannot be disregarded in a secon- dary system of education whose purpose the community conceives to be to give every boy and girl an opportunity to reach the maximum of intellectual realization within the powers of each individual. The Teacher an Alpine Guide. — It cannot be repeated too often that good studying depends largely upon good teaching. The latter is determined not simply by the technic of presenting subject-matter to a class, but also by that intangible quahty which is conveniently called personaHty. An investigation a few years ago brought to Ught some interesting facts in this connection. Eight hundred and twenty-nine high school pupils stated that their best and most helpful teachers were pleasant, cheerful, optimistic, enthusiastic, and young. One hun- dred and forty-four of these pupils judged their favorite teacher as kind, forgiving, and generous. One hundred and twelve of them said that the popular teacher was never rude, harsh, sarcastic, nor given to the use of ridi- THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 271 cule. Cheerful, good-natured, happy, jolly, witty, even- tempered, and sociable were popular qualities. One hun- dred acnd four of these pupils regarded the favorite teacher as patient, considerate, not unreasonably strict. Fifty-nine found firmness, decision, businessHke atti- tude, and strictness desirable qualities. Doing things that helped them most was considered by several pupils as essential in an effective and popular teacher. The attractiveness and magnetism of the teacher be- fore the class will inspire the pupils to work much more quickly than an impersonal, haughty, strict attitude, which may, indeed, frighten the pupils into learning their lessons but will never focus their attention on those finer aspects of learning in which the pupil works be- cause he loves the teacher and the subject this teacher presents. There are teachers whose presence in the classroom creates an atmosphere that seems charged with the finest suggestion for intellectual achievement. In such classes the study problem is greatly minimized. The writer has in mind a teacher of geometry. Her presence in the classroom is cold, indifferent, formal, for- bidding. The whole recitation is a bore to teacher and pupils. In the same high school is a teacher of history, whose voice, general manner, interest in the subject, ingenious presentation of the lesson material, kindly but firm adherence to a well-ordered discipKne, and, withal, a friendly attitude toward every member of the class make an atmosphere laden with suggestion for the finest mental effort. Boys and girls are quick to respond to sincere friendship on the part of the teacher. Super- ficial professional attitudism in high school as well as in college creates a fixed gulf between teacher and pupil. This friendship for the pupils is best revealed in the 272 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL personal conference. Herein lies the teacher's opportu- nity. Conferences, to be sure, take time and strength. They are, however, the finest test of a teacher's fitness for the work. In many high schools teachers have a for- mal office hour which proves very helpful; but the con- ference takes on the nature of an informal visit either in the school building or in the home. In the course of a social conversation the main topic may deal with the various ways in which an especially troublesome subject can be studied. In this way the pupil is encouraged to confide in the teacher. Through this exchange of confi- dences many a pupil begins to see the worthwhileness of a school career, and whatever difficulties that may appear are met with courage and determination. Assignments. — Pupils can be greatly helped also by the teacher's method of assigning lessons. A fundamen- tal principle in this connection consists in the assignment growing naturally out of the day's discussion. The study- ing of the next ten pages may or may not be inspiring or worth while. A discriminating teacher will not attempt to cover every page in the text-book. But, if in the next ten pages there are some fascinating truths which the teacher can attractively advertise in the assigning of the new lesson, it is likely that the class will be curious enough to look over the teacher's "goods" more carefully. The teacher must always be a salesman of truth. In the next lesson, to change the figure, there may be difficult heights to scale. The teacher, knowing the lay of the land, will guide the young climbers to the appreci- ation and more thorough understanding of the meaning of these life facts. It is the teacher's function to deal not simply with the steps on the way but to lead the pupils THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 273 to the altitudes whence the broad panorama of knowledge can be seen. The true teacher does not drive but leads. Pupils will gladly follow a teacher whose insight and in- genuity unfold beauties and possibilities and analogies that the untrained mind cannot discover. The next day's lesson, therefore, must be attractively announced. It should be a natural advance upon to-day's discoveries. The teacher must map out the new lesson carefully and prepare for it with every pupil in mind. Such prepara- tion takes time and talent, but it is Just as exhilarating as preparing a party for an Alpine climb. An unprepared guide means a hazardous and fatal climb; an unpre- pared teacher means an unprepared, failing, and dis- couraged class. For this reason, the time of the assignment is important. In many schools the custom is to assign the lesson either at the beginning or at the close of the hour. A better pedagogical method would be to assign the lesson in the midst of a recitation where some point is discussed and a new problem arises. In this way the pupil sees the mean- ing of the new task. Moreover, the lesson will be at- tractive because it challenges his power of discovery. Lessons so introduced will be effectively and earnestly studied. The Study Period. — The increasing emphasis on the study period — now notable — ^indicates that the high school recognizes the need of controlling the environment and methods of the pupils at work. The time may come when teachers will do less class teaching and more "edu- cational guidance" during the study period. Perhaps it is true, as stated in the Briggs report already referred to, that at present there is too much teaching. Sutton and Horn believe that a properly arranged daily schedule )f: 274 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL provides for the alternation of recitation periods and study periods. While it is generally understood that teachers should prepare for the former, although fre- quently they do not, it is not so well recognized that teachers should prepare for the latter. Management of the Study Period. — These authors suggest that in preparing for the study period the teacher should have the aim to be accomplished during each of these periods clearly conceived. After a recita- tion dealing with the development of a new truth the pupils might spend their time in studying the same topic as treated by the text-book and by the teacher. For this reason, the materials to be used should be carefully selected. The study period should be de- voted to work of real value. Mere study as an exercise in discipline is valueless unless in connection with it a distinct purpose of objective achievement exists. The sifting and marking of the study exercises require sound judgment on the part of the teacher, involving not only the evaluation of material from the standpoint of ad- vancement of subject-matter but also from the standpoint of the advancement of the pupils. Several study groups, for instance, may not be aiming at the same accomplish- ment. What is useful for one group would not be for others. It is important also that the subject-matter bear on some course of study with which the pupil is then engaged. Recitation period and study period should be interlaced — the one supplying contents and the other increasing interest. Again, the teacher should also use judgment as to the amount of work assigned. It is ob- viously useless to require more than can well be pre- pared and yet teachers often have so little conception THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 275 of what a pupil can do that they assign impossible lessons. Plans of Supervised Study. — Originality here as else- where in school work is desirable. In the East Technical High School of Cleveland, O., the study period is distinctly social. " No rooms for the seating of pupils by classes were provided, but there were about fifty rooms with a seating capacity of thirty each, to which pupils have been assigned on coming to the school for the first time. This assignment is maintained throughout the pupil's course and has a neighborhood basis. After a time this serves to promote and utilize the 'gang motive'. . . Thus, on entering the Technical High School, boys coming from the Columbia Grammar School are always assigned to Room 105 and thenceforth are known as Mr. Meek's boys. In the same way the girls from the Columbia School are assigned an- nually to Room 207 and are known as Miss King's girls. Two or three schools sending small numbers to the high school each year are combined. To preserve democ- racy, unlike neighborhoods are fused and it is so arranged that about ten or twelve new pupils are added each year. In the case of a single school sending large numbers yearly sometimes a division is made. Thus the Bolton school has two rooms for boys and one for girls to take care of the large numbers entering the high school from this district." These rooms are for supervised studjp^ only — not for recitations. Various plans have been devised for properly adjusting the study period to the recitation hour. In Joliet, 111., a two-hour period in algebra, geometry, foreign lan- guages, and the sciences has been found effective. An extreme method of procedure is in operation in Colum- bia, Mo., where the recitation has been dispensed with 276 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ' and students are given various problems to solve by A means of supervised research during school hours. The Newark plan, described in the following chapter, retains V^e recitation but provides for a half-hour study period within each recitation hour. In other schools — Dekalb, 111., being typical of these— the class is divided into ^ several groups supervised by competent teachers, who oversee the pupils while preparing their lessons. In still others provision is made for studying in the assembly- room, which is supervised by teachers in turn, there being no attempt at specific guidance of an expert nature. Difficulties of Supervision. — The proper direction of study is claiming the attention of wide-awake principals and superintendents. One of the greatest difficulties to be overcome is the arrangement of the daily schedule so as to allow the proper amount of time for this super- vision in an already crowded programme. It is doubt- ful whether the study period should be so provided for. As will be seen in connection with the conditions of study, pupils vary in their efficiency. Whereas study- ing may be quite easy to-day, it will be difficult to- morrow. Weather, temperature, moods, and physical con- dition affect this efficiency. To force the pupil on an ofif day to spend as much time as on a successful day is mani- festly unpedagogical. Some educators beheve that the different subjects should have longer or shorter periods. A Feasible Plan. — To give every subject the same minimum or maximum time limit is unwise from the standpoint of study. If an hour be devoted to mathe- matics, a half -hour might well be spent in studying and the other half-hour to a simple review and explanation. Hour periods in Enghsh would enable the teacher to de- velop the lesson simply and tersely, and the remainder THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 277 of the time might well be spent in individual endeavor to master some principle or elaborate some problem while the teacher is at hand to make suggestions. In history map study, arranging tables of contemporaneous events, tracing causes of epochal changes, setting the stage of some great battle or assembly might well be done in the quiet of an hour spent in a room furnished with such material as suggests historical thinking and per- spectives. Or, if this hour be lengthened for mathe- matics, foreign languages, and the sciences, part of this period might be devoted to study. The exact amount of time within each period for rec- itation and for study will be determined by the nature of the subject-matter. The value of this arrangement lies in the absence of so much desk talk. The real teach- ing will be done not en masse but according to each indi- '^ vidual's capacity to learn. Any teacher who is well prepared and thoroughly acquainted with the subject can outline sufficient new material in fifteen or twenty min- utes to make profitable the greater part of the recitation period being spent in economical study. Another advantage of this plan lies in its compara- tively easy adoption, without seriously disarranging the present schedule. The time required for making shifts between classes could be recovered by adding an hour to the day's programme. With the partial ehmination of home study, there is no reason why pupils should not spend another hour in the school, where studying can be done economically, both as to time and mental assimila- tion. The teacher's spare time during unoccupied hours might be devoted to the correction of papers. It is probable that some of the amount of time now spent by pupils in writing papers for the teacher's correction would V 278 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL be greatly lessened under a system of study supervision and also that such supervision would greatly reduce the number of errors that now are the bugbear of the teach- er's work. The greatest advantage of this plan is the provision it makes for individual differences and individual fluctua- tions of mental receptivity. Within the recitation or study period the teacher can so arrange the work that no pupil is overstrained mentally or physically. The fear of not knowing the lesson is reduced if not wholly re- moved. The pupil's desire to want to know is greatly stimulated. At present the pupil is apt to feel that studying is an arbitrary and Hfeless pursuit; but within a period charged with the suggestive power of many in the attitude of mental effort, and realizing the possibihty of overcoming difhculties that before seemed unsur- mountable, the pupil will be constrained to respond to the utmost. Summary of Plans for Supervised Study. — The grow- ing interest of educators in the supervision of study is evinced in the various plans already discussed and in several other schemes, a list of which is herewith given. 1. The Assembly or Study Hall. — Usually this type does not provide for real supervision of the individual student while he studies, but in many schools this is all that is meant by supervised study. 2. The Study Coach. — Illustrations of this plan are Hillsdale and Jackson, Mich., and the high school in Newark, O. Delinquent and indifferent children are referred to this coach for special instruction. 3. The Detroit Plan of Review Groups. — Delinquents in algebra and in Latin are formed into special groups for review work together with the regular advanced work. i THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 279 4. Newark Plan. — Already discussed and more fully- explained in the next chapter. 5. The Joliet Plan. — ^Already discussed. 6. Supervised Home-Study Plan. — Proposed by Wm. C. Reavis. Pupils are expected to have a study sdhedule 'Ifor home or school study. The programme or study card contains directions how to study. 7. Columbia Plan. — Already discussed. 8. DeKalb Plan. — One study period in each subject a week. 9. Alam.eda Plan. — No home study at all but in- Vstead periods for each subject in the regular school programme. 10. East Cleveland Plan. — Already discussed. y' II. New York Plan. — One fourth of the pupil's lesson must be supervised. 12. Batavia Plan. 13. Pueblo Plan, 14. Conference Plans. In order to ascertain just what the high schools are doing in the way of supervising study the writer sent out a brief questionnaire to 976 high schools in thirty- three States. At present 517 replies have been received from these thirty-three States. The following questions were asked : 1. Have you supervised study in your school? 2. How long have you had supervised study? 3. Please state which of the following methods of study supervision you use: {a) A period in assembly-room presided over by teach- ers in turn. (h) A study period for each subject supervised by the teacher of that subject. 280 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (c) Part of recitation period devoted to supervised study. (d) The Cleveland plan of special neighborhood rooms. (e) Personal conference at stated hours (s) ... or by appointment (a). (/") Any plan different from the above. In reply to the first question 383 answered "Yes," 60 "No," 37 "Partly," and 37 gave no answer. Replies to the second question range all the way from "Three months" to "Always." From the replies it seems that supervised study in the modern sense of the term has not been in use very long in most schools. The following tables furnish additional data. Table I shows the relation between the last five replies and the first two. From this table one may see that there is not a consistent notion of supervised study throughout the replies : TABLE I Number out of 517 giving answers as below No. answering "Yes," giving replies as be- low, out of 383 No. answering "No," giving replie.s as be- low, out of 60 No. answering "Partly," giv- ing replies as below, out of 37 No. answering blank, giving replies as be- low, out of 37 Number Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent Num- ber Per cent A 424 82 327 85.6 34 56.6 21 56-4 26 70. B 74 14 69 18. I .6 I •3 I ■3 C 143 E: Stated 229 28 109 25. H 12 20. 12 32.4 7 18.9 44 191 49-8 14 2-3 9 24-3 5 ^3-5 Appt'd 247 48 19s 50-9 22 3-6 10 27. 6 16.2 Both 117 23 100 27.9 6 .1 4 10.7 S 13-5 In the third column, where 60 reply that they have no supervised study, 12 answer that they have supervised THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 281 study within the recitation period. The two replies are self-contradictory. The replies show also that 79 have only the assembly hall for so-called supervised study. Two have only (b), 5 have only (c), 7 have only the stated conference hour, 9 have only conferences by appointment, and 8 provide for conferences both statedly and occasionally. Table II shows the various combinations employed by high schools in dealing with this problem. The letters refer to the questions cited above. TABLE II Number having only the combinations as indicated ab 7 abc .... 2 ac 17 abs .... 4 as 65 aba ... .10 aa 72 abe — both 7 ae — both . 57 acs . . ....28 be bs I 2 aca ace — both ....25 ■■■■33 ba be— both . 2 I bcs bca .... 3 .... I cs 4 abcs .... 2 ca 3 abca .... 4 ce — both . 2 abce — ^both ....16 It will be observed that the largest number have the assembly hall and the occasional conference. Next come the assembly hall and both kinds of conference hours. At first glance it seems promising that 33 high schools include a modification of the Newark plan in their supervision of study, but several of these 33 mean sim- 282 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ply a more extended treatment of the assignment. The last three groups are more promising. This brief summary of the investigation does not pre- tend to offer an adequate account of conditions as they obtain in the high schools. It merely hints at what seems to exist in a fairly well distributed number of schools. Until a careful investigation into the actual results in the classroom has been made, it is impossible to say definitely what the high schools are doing in the way of effective study supervision. It seems safe to conclude from this brief survey that at present there is very little supervised study provided for in our secon- dary schools. It remains to examine into the technic of such supervision as does exist and into the recorded re- sults of supervised study. How to Use Books. — So far as the methods of study are concerned, the chief disadvantage in the use of free texts lies in the pupil's inability to mark the books either by underscoring or marginal notation. In some schools the pupils are allowed to mark the books with a very light pencil, the markings being erased by the pupils at the end of the term. A course in such a use of books for study purposes would be a distinct aid to good study- ing. The supplementing of the text-book by inserted leaves, pictures, clippings, marginal citations, outlines either in the text itself or on a page pasted in the book — these are some of the devices that the high school pupil should be taught. Reference books, supplemental and cultural readings are essential for that broad background which marks the sweep and definiteness of successful learning. The mere assignment of readings is insufficient. Pupils must be taught how to read. A wider view-point is obtained by THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 283 purposeful reading. For this reason assignments in these "extra" books should be definite and pointed as to topic, chapter, and page. The teacher, moreover, should require every pupil to note in detail the sources of information gleaned from outside reading. This practice will be of great value to them in college or in later professional Hfe and it will train them also in accuracy of informa- tion. The teacher will make these readings effective if she calls attention to the value of the author's contribution. The beauty of the contents, the circumstances of the composition, and items of biographical interest will en- hance the pupil's interest in this outside reading. In this day of rapid revision of school literature pupils should be impressed with the need of such revision, with the fact that information Limited to one text-book is apt to be inaccurate or out of date. For this reason the comparison of text-books is helpful. The noting of dif- ferent points of view on a problem will train the high school pupil to compare and to judge. In this way he will be trained in discerning criticism at a time when he is apt to be overcredulous. The Function of Books in the Technic of Study. — The kinds of books used by the pupil are text, reference, supplemental, and cultural books. Bagley divides text- books as follows : readers, manuals, or handbooks such as arithmetic and grammar texts which provide a minimum of facts and principles with a maximum of exercises or problems to be worked out by the pupils ; and text-books proper, such as geographies, histories, and physiologies in which the chief aim is the logical and systematic set- ting forth of facts and principles. Inasmuch as the pupil handles text-books more frequently than other 284 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL kinds of books, the high school should carefully instruct him in the use of these tools. Pupils have too Httle re- gard for their texts. They mishandle them in various ways, not always intentionally, however. Like many older people, they do not know how to open new books. Librarians are agreed that books should be opened in the following manner: place the new book, back down and the two covers flat, on the desk or table, then spread out half a dozen pages at a time alternating, left and right, pressing them down on the covers, running the fingers along the "hinge" of the book; continue this until the book Hes open. Conditions of Effective Studying. — Readers of biog- raphy and autobiography may be impressed with the fact that extraordinary intellectual feats have been per- formed by men and women in what at first seems to have been unpropitious circumstances. In some instances the conditions appeared wholly inadequate for fine mental work. While this is true one finds that there were also certain conditions in these same cases that made possi- ble brilliant authorship and scientific victories. It also is true that if the conditions had been more favorable many of these intellectual producers might have lived longer and produced a larger number of things worth while for mankind. It is important that the high school recognize certain conditions that will greatly ad- vance the pupil's efficiency. Incentives. — Gedinhagen makes the following divi- sion of incentives, the artificial and the natural. Under the artificial incentives he places prizes, medals, and class honors; privileges, holidays, and honor seats; im- munities and exemptions from certain tasks. Under the natural incentives he includes desire for good standing, THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 285 desire for approbation, desire for knowledge, desire for efficiency, desire for self-control and for future good, and a sense of honor, right, and duty. It will not be doubted that effective studying requires constant incen- tives of some sort. The way of learning is often steep and discouraging even in high school and can be made possible only by some all-powerful motive in the form of a dominant incentive suppHed in part by the teacher. The incentives referred to may or may not have intrin- sic worth apart from their power to function as stimuli for the best effort. Within their well-defined limits, however, they can be used by the school as powerful means of inspiring the pupils to be faithful to their tasks. Biography refers to other incentives which per- haps are less evident in the high school. Grief and disappointment, sickness, poverty, romance, and past experience — all count significantly in the pupil's school Hfe. If the teacher could ascertain some of these usually concealed conditions they could be made forceful agen- cies in a concentrated and ambitious life of study. Here as throughout his or her career the teacher must know the pupil as a friend. The appeal to the individual is possible only when we know his individual problems. The Study Room. — Again we find that masterpieces have been evolved in dismal, barren, ugly huts and that the splendors of fabulous wealth may strangle intellectual ardor. But this is no reason for neglecting the care of the young pupil's workshop. It is important that the pupil be surrounded with such influences as will bring forth his noblest and most vigorous self. Investigations in the field of school hygiene are at present confined to the structure and arrangement of school buildings and the Hfe of the pupils in these buildings. It is necessary, how- 286 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ever, that these investigations extend so as to include the life of the pupil everywhere. The pupil's room, whether in school or at home, should be intelHgently supervised. Competent investigators have found that for effective day illumination the pupil's study table should be near the window and should be so placed that the light falls over his left shoulder. If the window faces a busy street the lower part should be translucent. The Hght should always be subdued, for brilliant sunshine will eventu- ally weaken the strongest eyes. Usually shades of medium green or yellow are sufficient for the proper dilution of Hght. In schoolrooms Shaw suggests that light-green tints are to be preferred for the walls. Red and other deep tones should be avoided. In the school- room as well as at home the Hght thus diluted by windows and walls should still be strong enough to enable the pupil to read diamond type sixteen inches from the eyes. Care should be taken to prevent any reflection from the blackboards or surfaces of the desks. The well-prepared teacher will know how the light falls from every angle and every seat in the room. Of equal importance is the temperature of the room. Perhaps most young people are more apt to have their rooms too warm than too cold. For general work 65° to 68° is ample. Rooms that are too warm produce drow- siness, which, of course, destroys concentration. Where stoves are used the atmosphere will be heavy unless ven- tilation provides for continually renewed air. If cir- cumstances do not allow a scientific ventilation system, the next best device is to have the windows open about nine inches from the top. In a recent comparison be- tween pupils in a closed-window schoolroom and those in an opened-window room in Philadelphia it was found THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 287 that the class in the latter surpassed the former in almost every test. The temperature of the closed room averaged 68°, while in the open room the temperature was 47°. It may be difficult to provide the foregoing conditions in many homes. Doubtless a tactful principal or teacher can create a sentiment in favor of these conditions. As long as home study continues to occupy the place it does, it is necessary that the high school attempt some super- vision of the pupil's room conditions at home. Legisla- tion now provides for adequate plumbing conditions. Pure-food laws protect us against old and unhealthful food. Milk and dairy products are inspected. It is equally important that the habitat of the pupil be in- spected so as to conserve those conditions that will make him mentally efficient. To do this at present is obviously delicate. But the school authorities as ser- vants of society should have the right to insist on such conditions as economize the pupil's time and strength. The school board can well add this to its other duties. In the meantime, frequent references to these hygienic needs can be made at the school assembly or by each teacher during the recitation while she is attending to similar conditions in the classroom. Where the school at present cannot legally control it can at least suggest and practise its own suggestions. The Amount of Time for Sleep. — The following table by Doctor Dukes indicates the amount of sleep pupils at different ages require: No. of Hours Age Sleep Required 12-14 loX 14-16 » 10 16-18 g% 18—19 9 288 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Frequent relaxation is vital during the adolescent period. Sound sleep and plenty of it furnishes this relaxa- tion. High school authorities should insist on this im- portant condition of good studying. Nervous troubles from various causes are best cured by the rest and relaxa- tion obtained in this way. Not infrequently high school pupils become nervously depleted from overwork. Timid but conscientious pupils often try to meet high standards of scholarship and in the attempt lose needful relaxation. The appalling amount of incipient tuberculosis among young people is alarming investigators in some of our larger school systems. The causes, to be sure, are not wholly within the field of overstudy and consequent in- sufficiency of sleep; but enough of them are to make it necessary for the high school to warn and guard its pupils against such pastimes and overindulgence in late study- ing as will shorten the amount of sleep necessary for a well-toned and keen mentality and vigorous physical condition. The General Condition of Health. — Good mental effort depends on the conservation of physical health. Good health, in turn depends, upon a large intake of energy and a large outgo of energy. Dearborn says: "The balance of enjoyment in suitable hard work has its primar)^ ground certainly in good health, viewed especially as normal metabolism with normal assimilation and dis- similation — good nutrition balancing good excretion." High school boys and girls should be in the pink of condition. Euphoria should mark the individuality of these future citizens whose sane optimism will prove invaluable to the State. Some one has said that the personal devil is worry. When one sees the gloom of anxiety settling upon the faces of high school pupils THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 289 it is unreasonable to expect the finest-toned mental effort. Between the two, mental health, perhaps, re- quires more attention than physical. The former is more insidious in its encroachments, its symptoms are less generally understood, and its causes are deemed trivial or no causes at all. Here is one of the great functions of the high school — to protect the mental health of its members. That school authorities are mindful of this need is assured in the attention given to proper rest rooms and to the lunch hour and the cafeterias. In Santa Monica, Cal., the principal of the high school has placed the Hmit for high school lunches at twenty cents. The rule was made because of the tendency to overeat, which caused dulness and lassitude on the part of the pupils and in this way interfered with good work. In Cleveland, 0., the medical inspector of the schools has provided for penny lunches to counteract the habit of buying cheap and harmful penny candy. The time of eating is just as important as the kind of eating. The length of the lunch hour in many schools is all too short. Whipple suggests that it should be at least two hours. The foregoing conditions as well as others that cannot be discussed are essential to the best efforts among the population of the high school. Good studying depends very largely on these conditions. Attention to them should be provided for in all the curriculums of the high school. Much of our "curriculum thinking" would be clearer and more effective if the school studied not sim- ply the social efficiency of the pupils, through well- arranged programmes and well-developed technic of teaching, but studied as well the technic of study. The community rightly expects that in the high school citi- 290 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL zens will be developed who can readily adjust themselves to any situation. They must acquire this intellectual habit through a proper direction of the technic of study. Hindrances to Effective Studying. — There is space here to select only two or three of the hindrances that are most common. Poor health and fatigue are gener- ally recognized as hindrances. Closely connected with fatigue but frequently quite different in its nature is Laziness. — The lazy pupil is usually in bad standing with the school authorities. H. Addington Bruce de- scribes laziness as follows: "There is a perpetual waste of time, dawdling, loitering, gossiping, a seeming passion for the ways of slothful ease and aversion from sustained endeavor." No doubt all of us, if honest, would confess that we agree with Agnes Repplier: "I cannot sympa- thize with the noble theory that every man and woman should do their share of the world's work. I would gladly shirk my own if I could." The lazy person, whether in school or in the world, is so generally dis- counted that we must look into some phases of this problem as it is related to the high school pupil's atti- tude toward studying. The chief cause of laziness is infirmity of the will. Lazi- ness may be associated with a debihtated condition of the nervous system, an asthenic condition accompanied by slow heart-beat, slow arterial pressure, and poor circu- lation. The consequence, says Ribot, is that the brain shows not so much an indisposition as a real incapacity for concentrating attention and soon, owing to the fact that its nourishment is at the vanishing-point, becomes exhausted. Laziness among very young school children is caused very largely by adenoids or abnormal tissue growths in the cavity back of the nose. Another cause is far-sightedness. Any bodily defect THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 291 tending to impose excessive strain on the nervous system tends to produce an asthenic condition with accompany- ing apathy and indolence and may lead to habitual un- conscious idleness. Doctor Maurice de Fleury looks upon lazy people as neuropaths afflicted with malfunc- tioning of the brain. "The longer a man has been an idler the more deeply rooted, of course, will be his sub- conscious conviction that exertion is impossible to him; but once this conviction is broken down he will find that he can work and to good purpose." Laziness may be due, also, to reaction from some round of pleasure the day before. It may be caused by over- eating. A normal lack of interest in a subject may mani- fest itself as laziness. Pupils deficient in one subject may be even brilliant in other classes. Because inferior in mathematics a pupil may be judged a shirk and conse- quently be marked low. The facts may be, however, that the pupil has no natural aptitude for this subject and appUes himself only half-heartedly, with the result- ing stigma of being called lazy in mathematics. Mani- festly, care should be taken in the use of this term. Again, the pupil's room conditions may be a direct cause of his laziness. Overheated or poorly ventilated rooms are unsuitable for keen mental effort. Failure to keep the room clean may cause sluggish mental work. Rooms overfurnished, stuffy with the typical parapher- nalia of modern acolytes of wisdom — veritable deposi- tories of the spoils of barbarous conflicts and indulgences — weary the nerves and cause distractions. Many pupils prefer to lounge when they study. Lying back in an easy chair makes note taking difficult and also undesirable. While indulging in the ease of this posture of relaxation the pupil cultivates a lazy attitude toward his work. One sees frequently in the classroom 292 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pupils sitting in a slovenly, indifferent posture. The pupil does not have the proper setting for his work. His whole attitude suggests to him indifference and indolence. Teachers should never permit such conditions in the classroom. Pupils should be warned against becoming round-shouldered, hollow-chested, and low-spirited. Just as the soldier must obey the command, "Attention," by assuming a posture that signifies alert readiness for action, so the pupil while at work must be ready for mental action by assuming postures that help him to concentrate upon his lessons. Mind-Wandering. — The prevaiKng defect of mind- wandering is another phase of the pupil's lack of alertness. Distractions in the form of memories, plans for social affairs, noises, diverting activities in the street or in the room, poor light, bad ventilation, small type, obscure meanings in the assignment, general indifference toward the subject — all of these or any one of these may cause mind-wandering. It may become chronic and well-nigh incurable. Stern discipline controlled in the supervised study peri'od will aid in the curing of it. The method of discipline, however, must be determ'ined by the nature of the case. The Social Appeal of the High School Through Study. — Together with the searching investigation of the high school programme of studies and the most efficient ad- ministration and teaching of these subjects, the high school expert must provide for an adequate supervision of the pupil's methods of work. This field, unfortunately, has been neglected in the past. Apparently it mattered very little how pupils studied. If they knew their les- sons no questions were asked. If they came unprepared demerits and frowns and various penalties were the re- sult. With the^enlargement of experiments in the field THE DIRECTION OF STUDY 293 of educational psychology the mental habits of all who study are receiving careful and scientific attention. The how of study rs coming to be just as important as the what of study. It is not unHkely that as progress is made in the understanding of how the brain functions the contents of the school programme will undergo a thorough revision. In the various differentiated high school curriculums a large place should be given not only to the supervision of study, but there should be a course devoted to this important phase of education. We need teachers of study as much as we need teachers of English. In normal schools and schools of education the technic of study deserves as much emphasis as the technic of teaching. It is gratifying to note that a few normal schools and universities are already making this em- phasis. The pupil is in school because society must have trained citizenship. But mere knowledge of a pre- scribed amount of subject-matter is insufficient. The future citizen must know how to use his mental powers economically. He wiU be called upon to make sudden and critical adjustments. Much of his success will de- pend on perspicuity, the ability to analyze and synthe- size new situations and facts. A controlled mental life is the indispensable medium through which society will derive benefit from its educated sons and daughters. Mere learning may make a man mad. Learning, together with a knowledge of how it was acquired and how in a similar way other facts can be assimilated — this surely is the heart of wisdom. Civic problems, industrial diffi- culties, professional policies, and personal adjustments demand experts who can save time, strength, and money by means of mental skill. In the high school every boy and girl, whether they 294 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ever enter college or not, should receive mental gui- dance adequate to make their careers more quickly suc- cessful and more permanently effective. Not only this. At present many boys and girls of adolescent age fall by the wayside. It is a tragic mistake to lay all the blame for this condition on weak mentaHty or a dis- ordered economic state. Many of these young people leave high school for pecuniary reasons. But there are numbers who leave because of discouragement, neglect, timidity — in a word, because they failed to meet class- room requirement and because no effective attempt was made to guide them into an encouraging use of their mental powers. Here is a great waste of intellectual equipment that society ought to have at its disposal. Society must require of its high schools and of all edu- cational institutions the fitting of every individual to the maximum of his mental capacity. Anything less than this means waste of money, of time, of Hfe itself. If the host of children and young people in American schools to-day could be taught how to study, how to use their intellects, how to master quickly and with skill all of those prob- lems which at present occupy so much time in the school year it would be possible to give each boy and girl a real vocational preparation and send them forth ready for effective service at a time when large numbers are now battling with new conditions in the first year of the high school. In fact, the essence of vocational preparation will be this power to use the mind not only in a specific field of service but in alHed fields or in the community at large. To accomplish this, programmes of study and school administration must be organized around the all- gssential problem of the technic of study. CHAPTER. XI THE SOCIAL VALUE OF SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY William Wiener, Ph.B. principal of central commercial and manual training high school, newark, n. j. Home Study Reform Needed. — School should be but an extension of the ideal home. As such it should take into consideration the physical as weL as the mental wel- fare of the child. It should promote, control, and guide, as would the considerate parent, every activity and effort, so that nerve energy is properly directed toward husband- ing intellectual power and manual effort for the crises that in the child's future experiences demand efficiency. Children, as spontaneous critics of customs and methods, intuitively discover in them sometimes unnoticed foibles and weaknesses. What child, though it is willing to learn, does not feel the tyranny of the school which forces it after hours to devote unlimited time to extra study work on lessons, often without apparent compensation? It is time, then, that we awaken to the fact that the school has not been doing all it could to make itself home- like. No parent would knowingly allow his children to be tortured by long hours of home study if he saw a way out of this "blind thought alley" which is robbing the children of the present and future generations of their 295 296 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL heritage of health and right to other kinds of home associations. Traditional Methods of Home Study. — Traditional methods, college requirements, inflexible syllabi, and courses of study not based upon the reasonable expendi- ture of physical and mental powers of secondary school children have been largely responsible in continuing this inhumane abuse of long study periods outside of school hours. The high schools have not as yet determined for themselves, independent of the college-requirement goal, the amount of mental and physical wear and tear the average pupil can, without harm and strain to him- self, stand. When this limit is fixed, one can depend upon it that physical and intellectual life will be con- served and prolonged for the universal benefit. A way to find this limit is suggested by the method of home- study reform carried on at the Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, N. J. We hope to be able to decide in the course of our experi- ence and to fix definitely through our home-study reform method the amount of work with the minimum home study a child can, under normal conditions, accomplish. It is possible that an attempt may be made later to learn through experiment what can be accomplished if all the work of the school be done at the school. As the child becomes accustomed to our present method he requires less looking after and is more able to stand alone and effectively direct his efforts through his own intelligence. In fact, the real test which this method has thus far met is the added ability of the child to do or to accomplish set tasks without waste of effort. It is a principle of economic consideration for commer- cial, manufacturing; and even theoretical processes to SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 297 have the efficiency factor in them always at its maximum. To secure such a condition, it has been found necessary to institute experimental research along commercial, manufacturing, and theoretical lines. But education, because of its theoretical and more or less intangible character, has conservatively withstood many of the suggested "efficiency propositions," having been self-satisfied with the limited efficiency results obtained. It is hoped that it will become the future gen- eral educational policy to be on the alert for that which will mean progress and efficiency. Efficiency and Humanity in School Policy. — With effi- ciency and humanity in school poHcy as its guide, the Newark home-study reform plan marks a radical depar- ture from traditional methods, since it makes the general welfare of the child absolutely the all-important issue and influence in the school curriculum. The most important asset of any community is the child. When the fullest development of this asset is not obtained there is, there- fore, unnecessary waste of most precious material. Conference Period for Home Study.— As the school is the educational workshop, generally speaking, it should be the place where the work of the school is done. It is a fact that many children do not have the proper envi- ronment for home study. By this arrangement fitting and inspiring environment for study is offered under the guidance of the "special-subject" teachers. Besides, it is known that under certain conditions it is a physical impossibiHty to do all the school tasks at the school; but it has been clearly demonstrated in Newark that the period of home study has been materially reduced in amount for the average pupil and altogether eliminated for the more brilhant scholars. 298 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Methods and Division of the School Day. — The method involves a novel distribution of the school time among the different subjects treated in the curriculum. It differs during these periods from the usual system of time division by the fact that each subject is offered to the pupil under the best possible condition. This method gives the opportunity for judiciously directed study by the teacher of his subject in the atmosphere of the subject. The consequent psychological advantages are evident. The day's work begins at 8.30 with a five- minute written exercise in spelling. Then follow the morning exercises, and at 9 A. M. begin the daily recita- tions, with five-minute intervals between recitations. The recitation periods were formerly, under the ideal working of the plan, a full hour in length and only five in number. Now, because of the increased number of pupils, there are six periods, each fifty minutes in length. They are divided into approximately two equal parts. The first portion consists of the usual type of formal recitation, while the second is a study conference period with the teacher of the subject. The teacher of a sub- ject is present with his pupils, ready to aid by thought- producing suggestions. In the short study conference period, preceding which the recitation sets the "swing of the subject" in the pupils' minds, the student is able, because of a ready subject attitude j to use his intellectual powers promptly and economically. This simple plan often is an influence emancipating the pupil from home study, or a factor reducing to a minimum the time spent on the home work by the ambitious pupil. An addi- tional hour after school may voluntarily be devoted to^ conference and conference study with the teachers, as these teachers are in their respective classrooms ready for such conference study. SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 299 "What a school is does not require definition. The teacher is the important factor of the school. The modern teacher has too often, by force of tradition and method, become a mere automatic recitation-receiving device and a machine lesson-assigning apparatus. This implies that lessons are assigned to school attendants; but less than fifty per cent of that number, as teachers well know, do the unreasonable amount of home study required of them; the other fifty per cent 'kill time' at school under the old system. By the new plan a value is placed by the child on every school minute. Each moment spent in school on work, under the ideal condi- tions offered, releases the pupil from burdensome, ener- vating home study. Hence the appreciation of the value of time."^ Eight-Hour Day in School Work. — "The municipaHty, the State, and the United States have established eight hours as the legal day for manual workers. I do not think it right nor even humane that educators should 'work young boys and girls five or six hours in school and then set tasks that take many hours at home. If the common eight-hour law applies to the adult man for manual labor, I cannot comprehend why it should not be unhesitatingly enforced in school work in favor of the growing school child who has not reached his maturity, since mental labor is more trying and enervating. Treat your children fairly." "Under present conditions of lesson assignment the conscientious children come from play to the evening meal, hurriedly swallow that, and then work at books un- til bedtime. In this way not only do they menace their health, but they lose the association with parents and ^ Paragraphs quoted are taken from an article by the author, "Home- Study Reform," in School Review, Oct., 19 12, 300 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the necessary appreciation of family relations and inter- ests. To this is, in my judgment, partly to be attributed the children's rampant disrespect for parents and elders, who cannot understand or know their offspring because of lack of association. Further, I believe that the pres- ent undercurrent of immorality in the Hves of boys and girls is, in part, due to this loss of parental association and the lack of the moral influence of the family. Home study is a frequent excuse for children to remain away , from church on Sunday and from church functions which occur during the week. In the evenings, too, the child is of necessity debarred from attendance at lectures, at con- certs, or at the theatre. Thus it is evident that the present methods, to a certain extent, are unhygienic and deprive the child of such moral, cultural, and religious influences as would do much to educate him in the highest sense." Our system encourages the appreciation of relative values in the child. He early learns through experience that time spent in school on the assigned task at the proper moment means, perhaps, no home study or, at most, very little of it. It is to be noted that there is an evident lack of fatigue, though the school hours are long, from half past eight to three, with the extra period from three to four. There is no diminution of interest or weariness noticeable before the noon period or before the afternoon close of school. There is evident an. alert- ness and brightness of the eye indicative of good atten- tion and scholarship. Humanizing Effect on Teachers. — "Such a system as : that which we employ has the wonderful effect of human- ' izing the teachers by bringing them into that intimate association with the pupil thought and idea. The con- SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 301 sequence is that the teacher's sympathetic consideration, generous conception, and sincere appreciation of the dif- ficulties of the scholar result in inspiring refined methods of teaching the various lessons. Hence the outcome has been better, more ideal, and more humane teaching than has obtained under the usual academic plan of knowl- edge dissemination." Different Type of Recitation Required. — The new plan requires an absolute remodelling and replanning of the old type of recitation. It means, for the pupils' benefit, sacrifice of self on the part of the teacher. Through the evolution of the tyrannical pedagogue into the new teacher, that part of the teacher that is of the universal good grows and encourages the universal goodness of the child to unfold itself. The pessimistic teacher who fails to reconcile the highest ideals of progress to familiar tra- ditional conditions becomes his own destructive toxin. " One of the chief difiiculties that children meet in their study tasks is the inabiUty to distinguish for themselves, through their own observation, those trying portions in their tasks which judicious and immediate elucidation on the part of the teacher would render possible of correct conception. The new plan of study-recitation teaches and inculcates introspection in the child, so that he early learns to determine for himself his power to perceive difficult points and to fix upon correct methods for their solution through proper reasoning and under proper guidance over initial difficulties. He thus obtains for himself organized lesson conceptions instead of poorly worked study tasks." Initiative of Child Inspired to Greater Activity. — It is an axiom that children like to be doing things. The Froebel kindergarten methods and the Montessori 302 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL method aie applications of the above dictum. Teach the child a "how" and it becomes happy through the presence in itself of the power to do tasks which require intellectual or manual effort, or both. By the method advocated here the natural initiative of the child has been inspired to greater activity, because he begins to exercise a vivid imagination, to make use of concrete conceptions, and to become a creator of problem solutions and thought expressions, instead of an imitator of the teacher as un- der the traditional method. The child, therefore, uses its energy to the fullest extent. Concentration. — The power of concentration which has through this method been acquired by the pupils of the school is evident to all observers. The value of the exercise of concentration in young people cannot be overestimated. This leads here to the saving of much time from dissipation of mental energy and thus sanctions the new plan as a time-saving aid in mental efifort. Study Habits. — Correct study habits are formed by a careful observation of the suggested recitation-confer- ence plan. Intellectual courage is inspired. With this come intellectual manliness, independence, self-reliance, and a desire to penetrate, because of the adventure-loving bent of youth, even the realms of the intellectual un- known for the pleasures of intellectual surprises. Satisfied, repaid effort removes the necessity for disci- pline to such an extent that in the school school spirit and loyalty rise to a very high point. The school is sim- ilar to a corporation organized on the co-operative plan. Into this corporation each student stockholder puts as capital his best efforts and energies and receives as a re- turn such high dividends on the investment that he SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 303 returns from year to year bent upon further develop- ment and concerned for the welfare of all and self in proper, personal activities. Observe our noon recess, during which for more than a year the whole school of over one thousand five hundred pupils, both in the lunch room and on the roof playground, looks after its own wel- fare, not through student committees, not through proc- tors, but through that loyal school spirit and personal pride which come from the inspiration of value received for effort expended in the classroom. It is thought that this organized school study is the chief cause. Promotions. — Promotions under this system may be a matter of interest to all. Last term, for example — the figures for that period are given as showing the latest experiences with our plan — there were over eighty-five per cent of promotions in all subjects. Had it not been for the illness and change of several teachers in the same department of work, the record of promotion would have been over ninety per cent. This demonstrates clearly (if our judgment of the value of this plan is cor- rect), despite the high standards for promotion which were set, the especial efficiency of the plan, on the basis of economic school administration, over the old plan of school keeping. Increase in Enrolme'nt. — In our school, despite the handicap of its being a new school with incomplete equip- ment in every one of its many departments, the net reg- istration left at the close of the first term was about eighty-two and nine tenths per cent of the original total term enrolment. At the close of the second half-year the figure reached eighty-nine and two tenths per cent of the total enrolment. There is reason to beheve that at the end of the third half-year the per cent of 304 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pupils will vary between ninety-two per cent and ninety- five per cent of the original total enrolment. This record in a large city high school is due in largest mea- sure, in the opinion of those in position to judge, to this same method of conference study. Educational mortality is one of the most serious con- ditions met in the Kfe of the high school. Large num- bers of pupils begin high school careers. Many of these , educationally perish in the struggle for a certificate of graduation. Numerous reasons may be offered for this. Among them is the great difference in character between high school and grade work. The children are bewildered and discouraged by the new environment, with its strange departmental methods, departmental indifference, and lack of personal sympathy as to the child's ability to handle himself in his secondary school studies under these peculiar circumstances. By the reci- tation-conference plan the student is, very early in his school career, enabled to get his proper poise in this new environment. Increase in Amount of Work. — Now that teachers are becoming more accustomed to the new plan, we note that under it the English department finds that it is able to complete fifty per cent more work than is usually done in high schools. The German department reports that its term's work in many classes has been satisfactorily finished nearly one month earlier than usual. The mathematics department offers similar statements, as do the science and history departments. It must be borne in mind that the above results have been obtained by the teachers who have most sincerely co-operated in the new conference-study plan. "This system has not discouraged any of the usual SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 305 school activities, as we have our athletic association, our monthly school paper, our orchestra, mandolin club, dramatic and other organizations. Administrative diffi- culties dwindle in number through our method, since self-control and kindred virtues spontaneously appear. Because of our method we know that each pupil works to the best advantage and actually does some study." Home Study Minimized. — Home study should never be made a lever for influencing morals by imposing ex- orbitant requirements on the student. Has the parent no duty in this connection? If the parent is powerless, let the social-service organizations aid in strengthening moral influences, and permit the school, while co-operat- ing, to broaden the pupil intellectually and to give him greater mental and ethical power to do and to be some- thing. By our plan the boy and girl are given a chance to develop manhood and womanhood. The school thus proves itself a friend, not a taskmaster, and becomes a humane, wise ''assistant parent." Specific Advantages. — "By the plan given, home study ^ -- is minimized and, in the case of the brightest pupils, even eliminated. The plan permits the child after school hours to delve deeply into the treasures of literature while doing the laboratory work of English at the school. It offers time for other forms of research. It makes possi- ble church attendance and consequent religious and moral training. It affords time for the impress of home and family influences. It gives an opportunity for the aesthetic influence of music, the theatre, and the lecture hall. The dread that the American boy will find his way to the street and to vice if left without home study is groundless. For this system has everything to offer in the way of spontaneous inspiration to culture, re- 306 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL finement, good qualities, and the ambitious desire for advancement and progress." Conserving the Pupils' Resources. — The principle of ''the conservation of national resources" demands that the serious and constant reduction of high school num- bers be stopped at the earliest possible moment. If we note the continuous effort made to obtain from the soil, through intensive cultivation, greater and higher yields, does it not seem to be a national disaster that up to this time we have actually neglected to follow out this principle of intensive treatment, appl3dng it to the im- provement of study technic and mastery in the secon- dary schools? Long hours of home study indicate lack of consideration for the physical welfare of pupils. This yCentral High School (Newark, N. J.) plan of a longer '" ^day and of period division into recitation and confer- ence helps to solve this problem. The natural resources of the pupil must be conserved. This plan conserves them and at the same time increases the pupil's efl&ciency in school. This plan carried out in details at Newark has been adopted in whole or in part at Trenton, N. J., Norristown, Pa,, Kansas City, Mo., Detroit, Mich., and is under consideration for adoption in many cities and towns throughout the country. Explanation of Tables. — ^Appended to this chapter are several specimen tables collated from the examination data of the school. These show the reports of the various teachers of the English, German, and science depart- ments. Other departments show similar conditions. It is interesting to note that the teachers who promoted the fewest pupils did not follow the method, those who used the plan indifferently had average promotion per- centages, and those teachers who systematically and SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 307 zealously employed the new idea apparently made the best promotion records. It has been suggested that it is not reasonable to attribute the many good results obtained in the Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of New- ark to the new method employed in the administration of the school. Whether all the good conditions ascribed to the method are really due to it or not must be left to the unprejudiced judgment of scientific students of edu- cational experiments, when standard objective tests of efficiency of school administration may have been con- ceived and clearly formulated. 308 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL TABLE I— ENGLISH DEPARTMENT— JANUARY, 1913 Alden .... Goldstein . Snodgrass . Holt Denton . . . Rich Muhleman Herzberg. No. on roll day of promotion iB I A 2B 2 A 3B 3A 4B 4A No. promoted I B I A 82 60 24 96 18 24 17 36 71 30 22 38 337 181 621 318 2B 2 A 3B 3A 27 26 49 24 38 18 79 36 25 13 35 4B 19 30 4A Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages . Alden Goldstein . . Snodgrass. . Holt Denton.. . . Rich Muhleman. Herzberg. . No. not promoted iB lA 2B 3B 3A 4B 4A Per cent of promotion 87.2 84-5 9S.O 100. o 70.8 57-1 88.0 I A 80.0 75 -o 65. 1 76. g 97-4 2B 2A 90.0I89.6 8S.9 79.0 92.3 3B 83-3 3A 66.6 81.2 89.7 4B 90.4 93-7 4A Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages . 83.8 84.0 75. 1 75-3 84.0 87.2 83-9 87.8 go. 8 80.4 78.3 92.4 91.8 TOTALS Alden .... Goldstein. . Snodgrass. Holt Denton . . . , Rich Muhleman . Herzberg . . No. on roll No. promoted 174 185 199 24 24 igg 154 157 182 24 17 125 147 iSS Per cent 91.4 100. o 70.8 62.8 74-4 92.2 Departmental totals current term . General departmental averages . . 1,15s 2,066 82.9 82.4 On roll at end of term per teacher, average 183. SCHOOL STUDY VERSUS HOME STUDY 309 TABLE I— ENGLISH DEPARTMENT— JUNE, 1913 Alden .... Goldstein . Snodgrass. Holt Daggett . . Harvey . . . Rich Lewin .... Herzberg. No. on roll day of promotion iB I A2B 26 2 A 3B 4B 4A No. promoted 2B 2 A 3B 17 3A 32 62 14 29 17 32 25 68 17 18 21 19 121 113 71 66 3SO 270 229 171 4B 4A Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages 308 1047 162 244 865 57 128 Alden .... Goldstein . Snodgrass. Holt Daggett . . Harvey . . . Rich Lewin. . . . Herzberg . No. not promoted iB 1A2B2A3B3A4B 16 4A Per cent of promotion iB 71.6 76.1 84.2 85.5 68.5 86.3 lA 66.6 78.9 87.8 82.0 90-3 72.4 2B 71-5 85.7 80.7 2A 79-4 76.1 3B 3A 4B 4A 77.2 96.6 78.1 80.9 80.9 Departmental to- tals current term General depart- mental averages 64 79-2 82.6 81.7 78.1 74.6 80.6 88.7 90.6 80. c 89. S 94 -S 93-2 TOTALS Alden Goldstein . Snodgrass . Holt Daggett. .. Harvey . . . Rich Lewin. . . . Herzberg . . No. on roll No. promoted 201 172 190 60 19 200 170 72 134 151 143 156 48 16 177 122 S8 117 Per cent 75-1 83.1 82.1 80.0 84.2 88. s 71.7 80.5 87.3 Departmental totals current term . General departmental averages . . . 1218 3284 2692 81. 1 81.9 On roll at end of term per teacher, average, 174. 310 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL H < 3 ^ 9 f^ 0> 00 lo Ov r~ i>- 00 ■* ■* >o 00 r^ 00 O 00 T3 O S 2 1 o H lo OO Tj- so ro 0\ CO fO t^ M ffl m in \o CO lo r^ i^~ M < so r~ 2 W M « ■Cl- io < M P5 CO M CO < vO o m •* Ov ^ 5 =3 2 g Si a 3 o H 00 in o t^ 00 O r~ >D M M M W M M OC \nO t^ 00 so o CO < 0> CO CO H 00 CO CO m 00 O M fO 00 lO < so 0) VO o ^ <; CO t-- ^ pq < o 1 o> J IS c o 1 OOO so d lAso" ■* O^ t^ so t^ f^ 4) O s a a 3 2; "3 2^8 5- so SO CO P5 ?r ^ so < so t^ t^ M IN so O H pq Tt-sO :; O " o ft g CO 00 TS 1 ►2 2- OO .^^ ^2; o o h < 8 8 TS •^ O A pq CO a C) « w o o. s <; 2^ ■* CO u 00 ^ 1 ffl VO n CO 00 b < o t/j -t S o a M CO CO "^i o 1^ <3 o o o u CO o a >i S cq •* •* 00 & < ■s ■* o Q E n P3 VO o S u ■* CO CO a rn < \o 00 ^ Si a 3 1 CO w w ■* eq CO — « b < CJ N -g-^ a r m Ov ov u Tf CO CO _2 a rn < »0 00 •* a^ .y CO CO M. >/l ^s pq H CO ■* CO VO M OO w sj c • o 1> cd ™ y a o S v >(7i p a " 1 "^ H 1^ to S c p s Ph t -a vO t^ m r- 00 00 ^ 1 ""a O CO 00 OO CO 1 §1 V> lO O 8 IN < ID lO ■t 00 00 13 a fl ^ M u t^ t- o OO 00 ft < o o> w S 1 PM CO 00 00 PL, pq ^O Oi M CO CO O ^ 00 CO & < >o lO T) a S o .n pq Tj- ■* On M "ay u "+ S5 < CO CO H ^ pti 1— > CO « CO lO T3 & < lO lO O "a ■* a 2 ft ?^ P5 00 00 o 'J- CN CN -n <; o On a >. CO V) lO :? Pk pq . < o o _ o tn Tt- ■^ "2 '5 a §s U pq 0) CO CO xi^ < M w § ° CO t^ r~ ^1 pq CO CO o CO CO C/3 « CHAPTER XII HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION THE HIGH SCHOOL'S RIGHT ARM Mary V. Grice POUNDER OF HOME AND SCHOOL LEAGUE OF PHILADELPHIA Introduction. — The ^^ Commencement.'^ — It is com- mencement day at the high school. Lights blaze throughout the great auditorium. Down every aisle pours a flood-tide of humanity. Literally, all sorts and conditions of men — representatives from hundreds of homes come, attracted by a compelling force to this centre of community interest. The curtain, still un- drawn, hangs in dignified folds, typifying the sharply defined line dividing the two vital forces of the day. The home — eager, expectant, informal, an onlooker, waiting breathlessly for the final touch of that hand into which its "bloom and flower" have been committed during the past four years. The school — assured, di- dactic, with an air of work accomplished, breathing final- ity in every movement. The whisperings of an aunt and older sister to our left stir a sense of human interest which quickens into a flow of sympathy for the young "Pauline" of whom they speak. Such heroic efforts, such forgettings of self, as are revealed in their conversation that that one life might have reached this day successfully. The sister a 312 HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 313 maker of artificial flowers, the aunt a caretaker of a little shop, but the genuineness of their joy over the one in that white-frocked group who was theirs related them to the whole gathering with the welding power of na- ture's touch. On the other side a father and mother rehearse in low tones their plans for the university life of their son now graduating. Running on in happy fashion from this day of honor, visioning his law course until it ends in a judge's robe. Throughout the great gathering, wher- ever the home gives expression to its hopes, similar con- fidences are being exchanged. A few short hours and the school will have handed back to these homes its finished product — handed it back with the conscious knowledge that in the large majority of cases the home knows no more how to cope with the budding powers and impulses of youth than though a child had never passed through its doors. That build- ing of character through the guidance of the hot blood of adolescence into the d3niamic of self-control is as un- known to most parents as is the nebular hypothesis. Community Need versus Traditional Pedagogy. — We listened to the whole long programme with that com- bined sense of pathos and joy, that yearning surge which always stirs in facing youth pushed forward to the "firing-Hne." We found ourself at last one of the crowd, surging out into the night and melting away into the separating streams of humanity which ebbed back from the evening's flow into the homes whence they came. And ever the recurrent question persisted: Why should this great pubhc building, erected at such large expense to the people, with its force of workers trained largely at the expense of the people, be of such small 314 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL value to its community in proportion to that commu- nity's great need? The aunt and older sister with their laudable ambi- tions, the father and mother with their legitimate pride and far-reaching plans are but types that faintly shadow the wide divergence of interests and opportunity that the schools of a country like ours should be called upon to reach, not only in the old-time method of school approach, but in a broader way that shall correlate ex- isting forces, until together they shall make for greater social efficiency. Again we ask: Why should not this institution, with its splendidly organized faculty, its force of trained workers, its systematized tasks, be reaching and moulding these homes in far more vital ways than it does? Why should its influence cease with the commencement hour? As long as youth is in our midst these two forces of the home and the school will be directing their energies toward the same object. Having very largely the same end in view — the development of a manhood and woman- hood which shall finally eventuate in citizenship worthy of a democracy — why should they work so unknow- ingly of each other? Why, indeed, so often in direct op- position to each other? The answer seems very simple. It is because they never meet on common ground where they can draw from one another the strength which would mean an added power to both. If education is, indeed, to be a drawing out rather than the in-cramming process of the past, to what more profitable form of educa- tional endeavor could a school lend itself than to that of drawing out from the community about it those latent forces that will make for the upbuilding of a noble citizenship? HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 315 Night after night the surrounding streets will be filled with young Life seeking some self-expression, often falling a prey to those who in their day and generation are "wise" and have commercialized this universal spirit of youth. Yet the high school building will stand forbid- dingly closed, darkened, and aloof, frowning down on public revelling places in pharisaic attitude, thanking God it is not as they, forgetting that life is so vastly greater than its marble halls, forgetting, indeed, that the only possible excuse for its existence lies in the contribution it is able to make to the real life of its time. The School Approach — The Home's Appeal. — Was the school satisfied with its "finished" product on that commencement night? We cannot speak as one who knows, but we should judge from the wave of uncertainty and dissatisfaction sweeping over the educational world to-day that it was not. For the home we can speak, and speak from the inside. Never in the history of education has the home been more restless than now. Never has it been less willing to set its stamp of approval upon the "product" of the schools. Proof of this can be seen on all sides. Cur- rent publications are filled with denouncements of the schools. To be sure, these articles are mostly by the laity, but let it not be forgotten that the laity is com- posed largely of the taxpayers, and, should they once be awakened to their power, changes could be made. Not content with anathematizing the system, this same lay- man on all sides is "backing" mth his influence and means various educational experiments, if, perchance, he may but prove them out to the satisfaction of those in ■charge of the schools. 316 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Upon no one point has more criticism been directed than upon the high school as it has been commonly known. Academic, apart, it has been sending forth its finished (?) product almost wholly unprepared for Hfe. Back into the homes the students go, to find themselves unable to cope with the simple problems of everyday living. And the home is as powerless to supply a way to help them as the school. Is it not reasonable to sup- pose that if these two dynamics in the life of youth were but to work together, and work imderstandingly, there would come an added power to both? As it is to-day, the school fails to use its good right arm, which is none other than this influence of the home. Not until there is some method devised whereby this force can be utilized through school agencies will any system of education attain its full efficiency." Home and School Associations. — Here and there spo- radic attempts have been made to bring about a helpful co-operation between the two, but no one plan has yet crystallized into an accepted pattern. After twenty years of effort with various experiments we have come to the conclusion that so far no better way has been de- veloped than that expressed in the simple term "Home and School Association." It is wider (not better) in its service than the "Mothers' Meeting" and more flexible and far-reaching in its influence than the "Parent- Teacher" groups. It has a staying quality not to be found in the latter. It is more heterogeneous than alumni associations and has aims that reach the heart fibres of the people more directly than the civic club. It grows out of that unerring impulse to human action, the love of the child, that is bound, when coupled with knowledge, to lead on to better things for the child. HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 317 Aims. — It aims primarily to bring about a closer and more intelligent co-operation between the home and the school. To accomplish this its chief effort is to stim- ulate the home and awaken in it a keener sense of its responsibility to the mutual problems facing both. The following excerpt from the message of the president of the Philadelphia Home and School League at its last annual meeting puts it succinctly: This organization stands pre-eminently for the stimulating of the home to a deeper and more intelligent interest in those things which relate to child life. Other organizations exist for the education of the public along the lines of educational prog- ress as related to the schools. This organization exists for the education of the home as it is related to the children of the schools. It is not in our province to raise questions of school policy, to touch upon pedagogical methods, or in any way to oppose the given system of education, unless those of our mem- bers who are touching the child in the intimate relation of the home feel that school policy, pedagogical methods, or the given system are not resulting in a product that will make for the betterment of home life; then, and then only, will an organiza- tion like this fill its legitimate place when it comes to the front and raises questions in regard to any of the above-mentioned factors. Methods. — This movement is killed before it comes to birth if foisted upon the community by outside influence. No group of would-be philanthropists, no university, no faculty of a school, no board of education has the required dynamic within itself to project this thought into the hearts of the people with sufficient force to make it bite into their lives and hold. There must be a mutual com- ing together with the impulse largely from the home. Otherwise it becomes but another of the school activities and loses its local coloring. While the leader should be 318 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL chosen from the laity the school should be the guiding and directing power. Let there be called together in conference a group of representative citizens, men and women, whether they have children in the school or not; the shibboleth of their fitness should be the love and interest they have in the young. This group can be formed into a "Citizens' Committee" that will aid with its influence and its means this movement toward sociaKzing the high school. Cre- ate a bureau of speakers by inviting men and women who can give worth-while talks to pledge themselves for a once-a-season service. Even the busiest people are will- ing to make such a contribution in aid of work Hke this. Enlist women's clubs and civic clubs, with public edu- cation associations and other organized groups holding mutual interests, into an affihation with the movement. By this co-ordination the structure is strengthened for its future usefulness. The leaders should be representa- tives of the homes and the faculty of the school. Thus having launched the association in all sincerity and with as Httle "red-tape" as possible, its further course will largely depend upon the local needs and the local de- mands made upon it. Activities. — The activities into which such an associa- tion will enter will be as varied as the people who con- stitute the membership. Naturally, the early gatherings will be more or less formal. Lectures, moving pictures, music may be the ostensible reason for the gathering, but the thing accomphshed will be the securing from the school that human touch which goes far toward inter- preting to the surrounding homes the common brother- hood for which the school stands. Such meetings suc- ceed in projecting the school into the home by means HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATION 319 less formal and more readily understood than is the generally accepted method of school approach. What more fitting than that that institution which stands as the cultural custodian of the race should break the great thoughts of the ages, the heritage of the race, into fragments fitted to the comprehension of the many instead of the few. Whether this be done by story or picture or song, there will be created on the part of the school in its response to this social obhgation a new kind of pedagogy, that of the heart rather than that of the head. The high school should be such a centre as this in every community. Social Teacher. — It will mean an added force of trained workers. The thing to be done is too important to warrant putting it upon our already overworked teachers, either as a side issue or as a sop thrown to appease the present popular demands. The added workers, in turn, will need the help and power to be se- cured from a co-operating body of laymen and women of the community. The social teacher will be the con- necting link between the two. Through all meetings of the home and school there must run like the warp through the weave talks and dis- cussions concerning youth and the special period of - « M OO + 'o i2 ■BDiBismoi oq H "+ 3 O ■i eg j3 — • o u en m rt •" .S -I-) I- . IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 395 Fourth. — As to departmental policy and the idea and general educational principles behind the present prac- tice of assigning work and subjects to teachers, there is no well-developed poUcy and there have been formulated no clear educational principles. — ^When high school "de- partmentalism" is spoken of the term is used as it ap- plies in college and university administration. Units of credit, college-entrance requirements, elective and pre- scribed courses, majors and minors are discussed in terms of college departmentalism. The assumption is that high school work must be administered more or less as college work is. On the other hand, when secondary education is thought of as a work for students rather than, as above, in the interests primarily of logical divi- sions of subject-matter, the tendency is to assume that there is Uttle or no differentiation of subject-matter at all, that there are only intercorrelated not differentiated and co-ordinated courses. The thinking is in terms of the educational principles governing the making of the elementary curriculum; that is, curriculum and adminis- trative thinking about secondary education is done in terms either of the college or of the elementary school — rarely explicitly with reference to the secondary as some- thing peculiar unto itself. With respect to some of these problems, practice parallels theory. High school prin- ciples administer as is done in elementary education; pro- scribe, promote, and graduate as colleges do. The real problem here is with the desirable correlation of the actual academic and professional training of teach- ers and the subjects they are teaching. The second as- pect of this problem should be, in the discussion to follow, at any rate, the departmentalism policies now in opera- tion in different systems of high school administration 396 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL which indicate the respects in which the preparation of teachers and the grouping of subjects for teachers seem to show how high school departmentahsm must differ from and the respect in which it must be Hke either that of the elementary school or that of the college. The high school's problem here is different from that of either of the other institutions, and this is an urgent problem of administration bearing directly upon effectiveness and progress of teachers in service. If a teacher's teaching assets are not utilized they are lost to the profession. Tables and charts in Chapter IV illustrate for one State the condition which, without such large scale analysis, is not so keenly realized. It is a condition and general practice which militates against the progress of teachers in service. Fifth. — Promotion of high school teachers and means of measuring merit. No permanent progress may be effected in teachers generally unless just, systematic, and intelUgible treatment be assured them in the way of tenure and promotion in rank and salary. Once all assumed a teacher was efficient or a type of education efficient if no one successfully disproved this common claim of efficiency. To-day all are tending to hold judgments in reserve regarding either a school sys- tem or an individual teacher until it or she can meet cer- tain definite standards of efficiency. The "born not made" characterization of a good teacher, instead of in- suring the impossibility of measuring this perplexing per- sonal factor in teaching, virtually means, on the contrary, that certain recognizable types of personality are, among other things, essential in the profession of teaching. The first natural step toward determining teaching essentials and listing these in a hierarchy would be to IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 397 select a group of "best teachers," as judged by practical standards, and then analyze and define the teaching qualities which stand out for the group. Perhaps the next differentiation of desirable quaUties might be the distinguishing of native quaUties and of acquired quali- ties. At present we have more definite standards of qualification for the acquired quahties than for the na- tive. The next step is to devise a complete scale, or graduated schedule, for these groups of quahties. E. C. ElKott, of the University of Wisconsin, has developed such a schedule of the following items, with percentage values calculated for each: Physical efiiciency (health, voice, endurance, etc.), 80 points out of 1,000; moral or native efficiency (self- control, optimism, sympathy, tact, judgment, etc.), 100 points; administrative efficiency (promptness, economy, co-operation, etc.), 80 points; dynamic efficiency (scholar- ship, professional training, classroom skill, etc.), 160 points; projected efficiency (continued professional study, travel, reading, etc.), 50 points; achieved efficiency (by tests of achievement), 250 points; social efficiency (cul- tural, civic, social intra and extra mural work), 80 points; directive or supervisory efficiency, 200 points. Many school administrators have adopted in a rough way some sort of schematic method of analyzing and evaluating the different factors of successful teaching. Many of these are reported in the late 191 2-13 issues of The Educational Review. The following letter of Superin- tendent Clement is an example in point: I am enthusiastic over results secured from an experimental application of Doctor Elliott's plan of measurement. Fifty per cent of our teachers did summer-school work this past year. I attribute the interest in this direction largely to a systematic 398 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL study of a definite plan of measurement. The teachers were made conscious of certain inefficiencies as much through self- examination as through direct or constructive criticism on the part of the supervisor. In other words, this scheme of mea- surement served pretty largely as a mirror for each individual teacher. In my article I have discussed a number of the current objections offered to such a scheme. I may say that I am always frank in telling the teachers under my supervision that I am constantly looking for the best- equipped teachers that we are able to secure. No teacher is ever dropped from our list without a fair consideration. If it is evident, beyond all doubt, that a teacher is inefficient in her work and she does not make an effort to remedy the weakness she, of course, is given very little consideration for a re-election. In the use of a scheme of measurement I think it essential to allow real facts to enter into our judgments. Prejudice and su- perficial complaints must not be determining elements. The following paragraphs from different high school teachers who have worked under such a scale suggest its practicability: I would say I believe the scheme is not only feasible but desirable. I think the conscientious teacher is not embarrassed by having the points in which she is to be judged put before her, that rather this knowledge helps her to measure herself and by having some definite standard of measurement to discover weak points in herself and her work which she might otherwise over- look. Instead of making the teacher feel that the supervisor is an autocrat, to my mind it makes her feel that he is a just judge in that he puts into her hands his rule of measurement and permits her to feel that she has an opportunity to bring herself up to his standard. The supervisor who applies this scheme as it is undoubtedly intended to be applied will find that his teachers look upon him as a friend who is endeavoring to help them to reach the highest standards of efficiency. Personally nothing which has been presented to me in years IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 399 has given me more food for thought and more desire to improve myself and my work than this scheme. I firmly believe that only after this scheme has been in actual use for a number of years will we be able to appreciate fully its real worth and value. I do not think that any individual who is public-spirited enough to be a real teacher would be embarrassed or made too conscious of the particulars in which she is to be judged or measured. I place a very high estimate upon its value, not only to the teacher but reaching out beyond her to the school. I believe that the scheme is in every respect a feasible one. After numerous pioneer exploitations such as these have been recorded, and after some scientific collections and interpretations of those varied and measurably suc- cessful schemes have been made, it is certain that a defi- nite schedule of measuring teachers and of promoting them on such a basis will come about. Vagueness of re- quirement in school administration always means neg- lect, whereas requirements which are met are always defi- nite requirements. ' Such definite so-called scales to measure the fruits of teaching are devised, subject to ex- tensive modifications still, for distinguishable abilities or efficiency and for progress in arithmetic, handwriting, spelling, and English composition. This is a hopeful indication of the progress of teaching, but one should always keep in mind that one-sidedness will inevitably result, and doubtless has already resulted, from fixing too exclusively our attention upon relatively exact stand- ards in some portions of the field of the teacher's activity to the neglect of the more delicately-to-be-conceived standards for subtler aspects of the work. To over- emphasize obedience to standards in academic subject- matter and not at the same time to attempt to stand- 400 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL W ?> < n o ■^ fe; s; ^ fe V -«■ a ^ [^ ■a. tq H •a H -o, 1^ pi ■», < tn >< m hs a S w a t fe^ O "« » O -^ 2; ^ ^ o •is -^ bs K ■o f:^ »:3 O E-s ■ft, ■^ ►J ft) o c, n 1-^ u « g ■§■*« ■ u § .S -S -a o* u bo O, fe; -^ "^ ^ ^^ S S 9- ^ ■s, a c " -S * -^ O t, u « o lo n) J-" -I-' O .— s d P 13 y r5 •11 1_, (U 'I o -c ■" c ■S Sii fe; ft 5^ o •e °-3.s.g|: S g Si u iS i3 > " M&a>. >.^' M la J "" !3 rf T; G "n tj "^ ?o to ■ 'en 3 cl ^ VI ^ t^ : •- .-9 w -n o u I- ' selling! ^ 'y T3 'oCh bc-S ; T t-i > ft fl ci ■S S rs 3 u is u *J • ■ft. R S.!:; S S *4a -M . sS ^ >-3- !-3 O ■ftc a «S IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 401 S I d 4J c! 2 O is S S ? -w P 6 ."TS ^rt— ''^.i^iTdcJ'^ fi.s :-2*s ' a a & " .S -C _^ CI -g « -g Qj O c3 T^ & in E la «-:i —•ad a ).52 S 2 0"^ S 11 a! a 1..2f "3 ft >, « <_';s g -2 -^ .Hi >« XI J3 O ■d u «-i lib ■s -o ■ go- «5 ,_^ , ~ O ft ft s s ^ siqeioN uinipajv iqsns IP IB JO^ Ml „ • n S ^ ft-a 3 3 *j o2 g ^ s I §i ° •« ^ O =3 bo - "' ■ • "■5 2 S-o C H Q E a -S OS'S o_r 1 1 S 'I K ^^333 3 3i3' .■t; S 3 S fl^ (D jyj 3 "^ ft S 'E 3 ^ -^ 3 -^'S g.° H 'T3 M - •a " S 2 N g.E3 402 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ardize or to place relative emphasis upon those factors of judgment, enthusiasm, intellectual honesty, social efficiency, moral and religious wholesomeness, produc- tive imagination, aesthetic discrimination, and the Hke, is merely in another way to mechanize routine and deceive oneself into thinking his a scientific sort of teaching. The Ohio Survey card for "rating" high school teachers, reprinted on the preceding pages, seems to be thoroughgoing and illustrative of the principle here advocated. Classifications of Teachers. — A superintendent re- cently classified his teachers as follows, largely with refer- ence to the point here under discussion : There are about five classes of teachers in their attitude to- ward criticism: (i) those who are dull and do not seem to realize the force of the criticism, (2) those who understand but are indifferent and do not care, (3) those who begin to weep and wish to hand in their resignations at once, (4) those who flare up and state that they have known all along that the superintendent had it in for them and was unwiUing to give them a square deal, and (5) those who take the suggestions kindly and immediately set about to improve along the lines criticised. One can easily judge which class of teachers makes the social administration of the high school possible. It should be added that the supervisor's duty, partly, at least, is to increase the last-named class by reducing the others — and not simply by giving up this kind of supervision altogether. Another classification from a different and more pro- fessional point of view is the following : Teachers in actual service and more or less in need of after- training may be considered in groups which, omitting minor dif- ferences, are somewhat as follows: IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 403 1. Superior teachers who need no stimulation other than their own ideals of excellence. By the fine standard of work which they maintain and by their student-like habits they might, under favorable conditions, set the pace for the less efficient. With this group, supervision is chiefly concerned in gaining their co-operation in working out problems and in making their skill serviceable to other teachers. 2. Teachers possessing a good degree of executive ability and adequate scholarship of the book-learning variety, who resist change because they honestly believe the old ways are better. They are patriotic defenders of the views and traditions and practices in which they were reared. The greater number of these will as strongly support the new when fully convinced of its advantages; but in the absence of positive orders they resist proposed changes until absolutely conclusive demonstration is furnished in a concrete way. Supervision must confidently ac- cept these conditions and furnish the demonstration. 3. Teachers lacking adequate scholarship or practical skill, or both; self-conscious and timid because unacquainted with standards of work and valid guiding principles; desirous of avoid- ing observation; doing their work in a more or less perfunctory and fortuitous way. Supervision needs to give these teachers courage by an exhibition of standards plainly within their reach and by personal work in their own schoolrooms. 4. Teachers lacking adequate scholarship or practical skill, or both, but not conscious of this lack and therefore unaware of any need of assistance. Some form of positive direction is here necessary in the first stages of supervision. 5. Teachers yet in the early years of their service. They have, as a rule, had some professional training, and from it they have gained one thing at least of value beyond all else — namely, a professional attitude toward the work of teaching. Super- vision should be able to concern itself chiefly in keeping these teachers in Class i so far as their professional attitude is con- cerned. There will, of course, always be a difference among them in scholarship and personal power, but all should have guidance in kind and quantity adapted to prevent any of them, even the weakest, from developing the characteristics of Class 2, Class 3, or Class 4. If these new recruits are to be able to lead children to be open-minded, to "hold opinions tentatively, to be 404 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL sure but not too sure, to be willing to give both sides of a ques- tion a hearing before reaching a final conclusion, they must keep themselves open-minded. To aid them in doing this, super- vision will keep itself free from dogmatism even in dealing with the youngest teachers. Sixth. — Scientific investigations by high school teach- ers. Professor George Herbert Palmer, senior philoso- pher of Harvard, said he voted for the establishment of a graduate school at Harvard, when graduate schools were ventures in America, not for the sake of the graduate student but for the sake of the undergraduate, not in the interests of research for the professor but in the interests of the research professor's teaching of undergraduates. A person without a problem cannot teach. In this way, on general principles, doubtless it is safe to advocate in- vestigations by high school teachers. This is becoming common in the graduate work of summer schools and in the absentia work, notably such as that done by high school teachers under the direction of the University of Wisconsin. There are many problems which require co- operative solution by groups of teachers, the principal, if he is capable and a master of the method of getting results worth interpretation, leading and directing the work. Such questions as individual differences and some systems of recording these on individual cards which would make the records essential to better administra- tion of the school might well occupy a large portion of the faculty of any number of schools for a year or more and lead the teachers into exploring fields of educational psychology, of physical and mental tests, of statistical method, of school administration, and of many others. The marking system or the problem of scales of credit for quality in high school work leads one into equally IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 405 alluring and limitless fields. Numerous other fields are just as full of problems. The co-operative effort at de- termining even roughly some reasonable standards of accomplishment for some or any of the courses in the high school, or the comparative study of distinguishable methods of teaching some subject like beginning geome- try, by sectioning classes on some fair basis, would quite likely rejuvenate the whole teaching and speculative spirit of a school. Or, if local problems are not easily conceived, some schools could get into communication with the permanent committee on the reorganization of Secondary Education of the National Education Asso- ciation. This important committee has ten active sub- committees of experts projecting a most fascinating pro- gramme for investigations concerned with problems not in any case foreign to the every-day experience of high school teachers generally. The problems and methods of investigation are given in some detail. Seventh. — Civic and social equipment of the modem high school teacher. Judge Ben Lindsey thinks there is *' a sad need of some practical system of instruction in the principles of justice; not necessarily, nor at all, those advocated by any particular party." "I believe," says he, "that there should be some more practical instruction in politics, the meaning of poHtics, and the necessity of an interest in politics, in order to bring about social and industrial justice in civic, municipal, and national affairs. I beheve this could be done (in the schools) without being offensive to any faction or party." The whole problem is, What is the legitimate field of activity of, high school teachers as public servants? What must be their abilities in the way of enlightenment and training of the genuine civic and political insights which must be pro- 406 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL vided for high school students before graduation? In addition to the layman's suggestion above and to the need for the school's co-operation with various home and school associations, there should come frequently from school administrators candid counsel and clear ad- monition to the ranks of high school teachers as to how to become real citizens, to get outside the traditional academic confines, to have views and to stand for im- portant convictions on local, municipal, county, State, social, moral, and broadly national issues. Cattell con- cludes a recent lengthy arraignment of our public schools thus: "The influence of our half million teachers on the problems of democracy and civilization is entirely in- significant." This is untrue and unjust, but it is well for all teachers to admit that a personal embodiment of modern citizenship qualities in such a way as to weave them into the daily instruction and to inculcate such principles into the school organizations of the student body is a fine teaching asset and will make for progress of teachers in service. The most effective organizations through which parents and teachers may co-operate in inculcating those common civic principles and in form- ing genuine civic consciences in high school students have not yet, perhaps, been adopted or even conceived anywhere. It is, however, distinctly and specifically written down in the immediate future programme for high school extension and has been dealt with exten- sively in Chapters XII and XIII of this book. Eighth. — Common mistakes of new teachers and amount and kind of supervision of class work required. It is a common saying of schoolmen that raw high school teachers must, under present conditions, do their unsu- pervised teaching on high school students for a year or IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 407 more somewhere. Some supply this by requiring the practice to be done in the city grades; others in some smaller and more helpless high school; others still provide for it — New York, Rochester, St. Paul, for examples — by assigning such persons to the substitute positions and requiring an apprenticeship of a year or two under expert supervising critic teachers who at other times, also, demonstrate good teaching to these same apprentices. The survey report of Boise City above quoted suggests that those teachers doing superior work, in some subject and by some method with novel features, conduct at times for younger teachers a demonstration lesson and follow this by discussions of the method employed. The committee thinks this plan, tactfully handled, offers one of the best means available for improving teachers in service. The Michigan Association of School Superin- tendents recently appointed a committee to investigate the situation with reference to this yearly crop of raw high school teachers in that State. The committee's re- port, the product of a year's investigation, later adopted and printed, in substance said that raw high school teach- ers persisted for the greater part of their first year in trying out university methods of teaching and organi- zation of subject-matter in high schools, and that the State high schools needed, if it could be supplied, a teacher-training institution where this crudeness in work might be allowed less harmfully to wear away and where the chief aim might be to help such people, under con- trolled conditions, to anticipate the real teaching condi- tions of high schools. The general agreement is that inexperienced teachers require the great proportion of co-operative classroom supervision, that the work for first-year students requires a large amount of super- 408 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL visory attention, and that the first month of the first year for those students is the most critical period. The larger aspects of this topic have been briefly outlined in the discussion above of "Constructive Supervision." Ninth. — ^Miscellaneous plans for improvement of teachers in service. There seems to be a general feeling that teachers should be urged to attend summer schools. In most cases this doubtless works well — doubtless in all except those when such study reduces the necessary physical vitality of the teacher. Some cities lay no stress upon summer schools nor any other effort at professional development by teachers. What they lose in service is immeasurable. Others practically require summer- school attendance without any tangible reimbursement. This is a hardship on teachers. Others in increasing numbers promote teachers largely on the basis of credits in professional study of education or in their particular academic branches. Still other city boards of education with more foresight— as Pittsburgh or Rochester again — pay definite sums of money in cash reimbursements for such outlay and such indication of professional integrity of purpose. Several other cities encourage teachers to take leaves of absence for a year for purposes of study, with assurance of re-election, some even with no re-elec- tion necessary, but without pay. Boston, Cambridge, Rochester, and a few other cities, our most advanced group in this respect, have made provision by which teachers may be granted leaves of absence on half pay for study and travel. No other means of professional growth can be compared with this one for those who can take advantage of it. The summer-school expense allowance or, in other cases, assurance of promotion, the consideration for credits gained in extension or correspon- IMPROVEMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 409 dence courses, even the expenses and day off for " visiting- day" when this becomes an educational arrangement with systematic supervisory features, and also the atten- dance without salary reduction at sectional teachers' meetings — all indicate hopeful signs of appreciation of the necessity of continual and carefully planned means for securing the improvement of teachers in service. There is no danger of going backward on any of these measures. The forward movement has gone too slowly for reactions. Educational advance in this particular is, however, now in an era when there is general recog- nition, by laymen as well as by school administrators, to quote a prominent city superintendent, "that prepara- tion in a professional school for teachers, experience pre- liminary to permanent appointment, continuous train- ing during service as a permanently appointed teacher are all so vital to the school system as to prompt, when fully appreciated, the most liberal provisions possible for securing the training desired." CHAPTER XVI THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Jesse B. Davis, A.M. PRINCIPAL OF THE CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL AND DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. Attitude of the Administrative Body. — In the "good old days," so often mentioned by the critics of modern education, the entire aim of the school was to develop the intellect to its highest pow^ers, regardless of the physical or social needs of the individual. This was a natural aim, and, in its own time, it was not so harmful as would now appear. The physical needs of the pupil were well cared for by the labor that was required about the farm and the house; and as for his social needs, there were few. The population was scattered. Many of the social attractions or distractions of to-day were unknown. Organization, co-operation, and combination in business had not yet appeared, so that those who attended the high school or academy were the select few who were preparing for the learned professions. Social activities among students were, in the modern sense, also unknown. The so-called "student pranks" were the only evidence of a breaking out of social impulses, and these were elim- inated by severely punishing the culprits whenever they could be caught. 410 ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 411 A Period of Toleration. — During the last two decades of secondary education the growth of the high school has been phenomenal. With this growth came a broad- ening of purpose, a more cosmopolitan body of students, and an imitation of the social life of the college and of the community in which the school was located. This era brought many perplexing problems to the administra- tion of the school. Athletics took form in interscholastic contests that gave rise to many evil conditions that for a time bafHed all attempts at control. Secret societies flourished because it was only through them that stu- dents might indulge in social entertainment. Principals and teachers ignored the opportunity to enter into these social functions, and when they found it impossible to crush them they simply allowed them to exist as a tol- erated evil. Attempted Restriction of Privilege. — In many cities the social problem arising in certain high schools became notorious. Drastic rules were passed by school boards. Principals used their utmost power and ingenuity to curb the power of the secret societies. State laws were passed prohibiting secret societies in high schools, and cases were tried in the courts to little avail. This attempt to restrict the social impulses and advantages of pupils of high school age was a failure, because it was unnatural, illog- ical, and unsympathetic. It was too clearly interfering with the rights and privileges of socially endowed human beings. The problem was attacked from the wrong direction. Results of Past Neglect. — The results of attempt- ing either to prohibit social activities among pupils or to restrict them by legislation were evident in the after- lives of the pupils. Those who entered from homes with- 412 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL out social advantages were turned out as socially deficient as when they entered. Those who had outside opportu- nities for social development were fortunate, but they could not exercise their powers legitimately within the school except in very limited ways. The faithful book- worm, who upon his graduation was proclaimed vale- dictorian of his class, too often proved to be a failure in the world outside. On the other hand, and to the sur- prise and chagrin of his instructors, the boy who was the leader of every scheme of outlawry and the plotter of every prank during his school career, and who may have been expelled from school because of his ability to lead others into mischief, became a great and successful or- ganizer and leader of men in the field of business. Both the narrowly developed valedictorian and the outlaw were cheated out of a part of their rightful education. The social nature of the one should have been drawn out so that he might have become socially efficient, and the crude powers of the other should have been trained co- ordinately with his intellectual attainment. Training for Social Efficiency. — It is only within the last few years that the obligation resting upon the school authorities to meet the demand for socially efficient graduates has been appreciated. After much discussion and investigation of the evil conditions resulting from undirected social activities, teachers have found that the fundamental difficulties were not in the school societies themselves. They have found that the evil conditions arose because the faculties of our high schools did not guide and train those immature boys and girls in the proper conduct of their social activities. Schoolmen deliberately ignored the opportunity that was being forced upon them to use these very organizations as a ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 413 training school in social efficiency. Wherever these evil conditions have been successfully eliminated from the student life of the high school, it has been accomplished by substituting better activities for the old and by the co-operation of sympathetic members of the faculty with the students who worked with them upon the same plane and who led them, with better methods, to more suc- cessful achievements. Some progressive principals have undertaken systematically to organize all forms of social activities among students so that the benefits of the social training to be obtained will be open to the largest possi- ble number. Those pupils showing powers of initiative, qualities of leadership, and executive ability have been given opportunity to develop these traits along with their scholastic attainments, to the advantage of the social life of the school, to the support of the school administration, and to their own social improvement. This is quite gen- erally the attitude of school authorities to-day. Those who have held back or hesitated have been waiting to see the results of the experiments of others and to be shown the way. Problems of Reformation; Traditions. — Every high school principal or teacher who attempts to work reform in the social life of a school is bound to meet with serious difficulties and possibly with opposition. School tra- ditions are very tenacious. Students are loath to depart in any particular from historic social custom or prac- tice except to excel the achievements of former gen- erations. In some schools the modern principal will meet with an inheritance from former administrations that will make it difficult for him to obtain the good- will and confidence of the student body. If the at- titude of the faculty in past years has been one of 414 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL opposition to student activities, if the principal has spent his time in police and detective work to catch those who disobey his unreasonable rules, if every pupil has been looked upon as a natural enemy to authority and has been treated with suspicion regarding his motives and acts, then the reformer has much to Hve down or to over- come before he can begin his socializing work. Social Democracy. — One of the chief objections to the fraternity system was its artificial aristocracy, its exclu- siveness, and its general undemocratic tendency. This same tendency is bound to appear in any social group. The leader of social activities among boys and girls every- where has to battle with this problem of human nature. Can you find about you any such thing as real social democracy? If you cannot find it in neighborhoods, in communities, or even in churches, can you expect to find it among high school boys and girls who are but imitators of those around them? We are all more or less guilty of a certain amount of exclusiveness. We are just a little particular with whom we associate intimately, and we are anxious to guard our children in the same way. The high school of to-day is a cosmopolitan community in itself. The pupils come from all parts of the district, from all kinds of homes and environments. There are many nationalities and many widely differing types. Their habits, desires, tastes, and characters are of vary- ing kinds. Is it possible or is it desirable to insist upon a programme of so-called social democracy that will com- pel every social organization to open its membership to include any who may see fit to demand entrance? This question is put to arouse thought and not to force an affirmative or negative answer. There is a real problem here that every leader of young people has to meet and to answer as best he is able. ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 415 Conduct of Social Functions. — Closely related to the problem of democratic membership in school organiza- tions is the proper conduct of the social functions given by any society or by the school. The question of dancing is still a troublesome one in certain localities. When there is no great objection to permitting dancing in a school building, there is the ever-present question of propriety. Questionable forms of dancing must be prohib- ited. The ordinary formalities of social occasions must be insisted upon. The invitation lists must be supervised so that the names of some who may be morally objection- able shall be omitted. Moreover, suitable games and entertainment must be provided for those who do not dance, and these young people must be made to feel that there is a place for them as well as for those who do dance. Each party or social occasion will present its peculiar problems to the leader who is trying to direct the school functions in a manner that will prove of edu- cational value to all of those participating. Efficient Leadership. — Not all teachers are adapted to the work of directing social activities among students. Some are lacking in tact, in sympathy, in social interest, or in personality, so that it is impossible for them to do successful leading. Still other teachers have not yet been convinced that it is their duty or any part of their func- tion to do what they call this "outside" work. How- ever, in every school there are a few teachers who are known among the pupils as their friends, and who have the faculty of getting down into the lives of the boys and girls so that they will come to them in perfect confidence. These teachers are valued not only by the pupils but are appreciated by the principals and loved by the commu- nity. This is the type of teacher that is needed in the direction of student activities. Certain activities require 416 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the direction of experts, as music, dramatics, and ath- letics. Schools that have teachers in charge of such de- partments are usually well equipped for leadership in these particular Hnes. The high school teacher of the future must be conscious of his social mission. He or she must see this great opportunity to mould boys and girls into well-rounded social beings prepared to live efficient and useful lives as members of a community. When schools are equipped with such teachers, the most difficult problem in connection with reform in the social activities of high school students will have been solved. A Suggested Plan of Administration.^ — Every principal who attempts to organize or reorganize the social life of a school must use a great deal of diplomacy. He will rarely succeed if he attempts to force any cut-and-dried programme upon either his pupils or his teachers. He must begin with the situation as it is in his particular school. Local traditions, customs, ideals, and personali- ties must be carefully understood and considered. One step at a time as opportimity offers will eventually lead up to a complete ideal. A plan that will work success- fully in one school may not be good in another. How- ever, suggestions are helpful, and for this reason the following plan that is the culmination of experiences in different schools is offered. Advisory Boards. — As has been mentioned before, the failure of the fraternity system in the high school was largely, if not entirely, due to the fact that it was not guided or directed into right paths. All other social activities are in the same danger if they are not wisely supervised. For this reason every society that receives recognition should have its "advisory" board. The word "advisory" is used rather than "control" or any ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 417 other word, because it is intended that the board shall act in just that capacity. The board should consist of two teachers who are chosen by the pupils and approved by the principal, and of two or more students, including the president and secretary — according to the size of the or- ganization, — and also the principal as an ex officio mem- ber. The teachers on the board are not to act as cen- sors, but as leaders who are interested in the work of the society, who will attend its meetings, who will help plan and execute its work, and who, by their wisdom and experience, will lead the organization successfully in its undertakings. In this way there can be no possible clash between students and faculty, and harmonious co- operation will be the result. An Advisory Council. — The teachers who act upon the various advisory boards may be brought together by the principal as an advisory council to consider the general problem arising from the social activities among the stu- dents. These teachers are all actually in the work of the societies and are best able to assist the principal in estab- lishing the social policy of his school. This council may also be used for special duties or in the consideration of special matters relating to social activities. Where hon- ors are granted for exceptional achievement along lines of social efficiency, this is the logical body to pass upon the awarding of such honors. Each school will in many ways find such a council a force for good. A Student Council. — Under the plan being described the students who are members of the various advisory boards, and also certain students chosen at large to rep- resent those who may not be members of any society, act as a student council. Such a body may be chosen in different ways, varying with local conditions. In any 418 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL case, it will be found a very useful organization in con- nection with the school. The young people may initiate many movements for the betterment of the social life of the school; they can bring about many needed reforms at the suggestion of the principal; they can make investi- gations of conditions regarding the social life of the school or the community; they may nominate candidates for special honors to be approved by the advisory council of teachers; in fact, they can be made a most potent factor in handling difficult problems of social adminis- tration. This may be considered as a legitimate recog- nition of students' rights. The experience of many with student self-government schemes is that they are more scheme than government. It is not wise to build up machinery just for the sake of the niachine. When cer- tain conditions arise that can best be handled by the student body or their representatives, it is time then to build the machinery necessary to care for the situation. For ordinary matters of general student concern any council which fairly represents the student body will prove a very valuable means of securing the good-will and loyal support of the pupils for the administration of the school, as well as an effective means of carrying into effect certain reforms in the social life of the school. Leadership Clubs. — In one school the principal di- vided the boys and the girls of the student council into two groups or clubs known as Leadership Clubs. The principal led the boys and the lady vice-principal the girls, They met once in two weeks to discuss in an inti- mate way the problems of high school life and the funda- mental principles of leadership. They also undertook certain investigations of conditions within the school, such as cheating, gambling, smoking, etc. For one sea- ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 419 son Professor Jenks's little book, ''Life Problems of High School Boys, " was taken as a basis of study, inves- tigation, and discussion. In this way the influence of the principals was spread through the leaders of the stu- dent activities into the work of the several societies and thus into the very spirit of the student body. Rules and Regulations. — On general principles a school should have as few rules as possible. It should be mutu- ally understood that the pupil knows what is proper and what ought to be done without being constantly re- minded, watched, and punished. As much responsibility as possible should be placed upon the pupils for their own conduct. When rules are necessary it is a great help to invite the students to participate in their formation and execution. Through the co-operation of the student council and the advisory council, rules and regulations regarding the administration of student activities may be adopted and executed very satisfactorily. The fol- lowing code now in use in a city high school may prove suggestive. Rules Governing Student Organizations I. All organizations composed wholly or in part of high school pupils or using in any manner the name of the high school, or in any way connected with the High School of , shall be under the direction of an advisory board composed of two members of the faculty chosen by the society and approved by the principal; of an equal number of student representatives of the individual society, including its president; and of the prin- cipal or vice-principal as an ex officio member. II. This advisory board shall pass upon aU matters involving the general policy of the organization and shall supervise its work, using its influence in such a way as to avoid aU objection- able features, and to assist the members in developing higher standards of social efficiency. The faculty members gf the sev- 420 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL eral advisory boards shall constitute the advisory council of the school. The student members of the advisory boards shall by virtue of this office become members of the student council of the school. in. No pupil shall belong to more than one organization under the same classification at the same time. IV. No pupil shall be permitted to hold office or to become a candidate for office who is not eligible under the following inter- scholastic athletic rule: namely, that he or she shall have passed fourteen hours of work during each of the previous two semesters and shall be carrying fourteen hours of work satisfactorily during the semester of candidacy for office. V. No pupil shall be permitted to hold office in more than one organization at the same time, nor to serve in more than one executive capacity at the same time, except upon the special ap- proval of the advisory council. VI. Rule number III does not apply to such musical organi- zations or other activities for which credit is given toward gradu- ation. VII. Any question regarding the interpretation of these rules shall be decided by the advisory council. The Classification of Student Activities. — Some pupils are socially inclined, virhile others are very retiring and hard to draw into the activities that would do them the most good. For both classes of students it is quite necessary to provide that the socially inclined do not overdo this tendency to the detriment of their studies, and also to provide ample opportunity for the social de- velopment of the other class of students. Each school will find it necessary to work out its own classification, as some organizations may have certain characteristics that would place them in one group rather than in another. The classification outlined may be found helpful to those who are working along similar lines. The Academic Group. — Most common among the ac- tivities that may be classified as academic are the literary ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 421 and debating societies. These organizations are modern forms of the lyceums and forums of earher generations. They have a real place in the life of the school and they offer an opportunity for the free exercise of literary and forensic ability that is not hampered by the formality of the classroom. Many a citizen of mature years will testify that of all his school experience the one thing that did most for his present success in Hfe was the training received in the hterary or debating society. Literary societies are under various names, but the work done is usually of a clearly defined type. One society that has had a successful career of twenty-six years has the follow- ing numbers on its weekly programme: — an original poem, an essay, a book review, a recitation, a reading, and an extemporaneous speech on some current topic. Each member must appear in his turn in each of these numbers on the programme, so that his training is varied. At the close of the programme every member present is called upon to criticise the presentation of each number. This same society has three annual events: — a ''feed" the evening before Thanksgiving, a formal banquet on Washington's Birthday, and an *' outing" or picnic on Decoration Day. Usually an exhibition programme is given to the public some time during the winter season. Debating societies that have proved very successful have been modelled after the national Senate or House of Representatives. One such organization has now been in existence for about twenty years and has established similar societies in neighboring cities with whom annual debates are held. Dramatic clubs might be classified under the heading of the "arts," but in the school from which this grouping is taken there is a department of public speaking and 422 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL dramatics, and all clubs that come under the direc- tion of a regular department are considered as academic. Modern high schools are being built with auditoriums of large seating capacity, but few of them are equipped with a stage that is adapted to efficient dramatic work. The new Central High School in Grand Rapids, Mich., has in the place of the auditorium a completely equipped theatre. This is the headquarters of the department of public speaking. Voice culture, declamation, oratory, and debate lead up to the work in dramatic art as one of the forms of interpreting literature. This department has proved itself of great value to the pupils entering the work, to the school as a socializing influence, and to the community at large. In each department are usually to be found a certain group of students who are particularly interested in the subject studied and who desire to go beyond the work of the classroom. Under the inspiration of some enthusi- astic teacher a club will be formed such as a German Club, a French Club, a History Club, a Travel Club, a Mathematics Club, a Home Economics Club, a Fauna and Flora Club, or a Wireless Club, etc. These organi- zations, while having an academic aim, are social in prac- tice and serve the purpose of grouping the pupils ac- cording to natural lines of common interest. The Arts Group. — Under this rather unsatisfactory heading may be classified the organizations that bring together those who are more or less talented along cer- tain artistic lines. This would include the musical clubs ; namely, the orchestra, band, Boys' Glee-Club, Girls' Glee- Club, and Choral Society. Mandolin and banjo clubs are now almost obsolete. For successful leadership and ad- ministration these clubs should be directed by the teacher ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 423 of music in the school or at least by a member of the faculty when one can be provided. Professional leaders not connected with the school, while they may be very good musicians, are not satisfactory from the point of view of the school administration. Music plays a most important part in the social life of the school. The weekly assembly means much more as a means of creating a spirit of unity, of inspiring loyalty, and of establishing a real school atmosphere when it has a splendid orchestra or uniformed band, glee-clubs, or choral society to lead the singing of patriotic airs or of a genuine local school song. Other organizations that are classified under the Arts Group are the Camera Club, the Sketching Club, and the Arts and Crafts Club. These societies bring together those of similar tastes and abilities, and through the as- sociation of kindred spirits lend inspiration to the work. The Athletic Group. — As the subject of athletics is fully treated in another chapter very little need be said here. The whole school, including both faculty and stu- dents, should make up the membership in the athletic association. Besides the usual groups whose social rela- tions are very close, and in which friendships become very strong, such as the football team, the basket-ball team, the baseball team, and the track team, an athletic honor society, composed of all those who have won their "letters," has proved to be of great value in maintaining high standards among those interested in athletics. This society known as the ''Monogram Club," or by any other name that may be chosen, necessarily contains the leading athletes in the school, who are usually the boys of greatest influence in the student life. To organize these young men for the purpose of promoting the ath- 424 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL letic interests and of establishing manly ideals in the realm of sport is to establish a power for good in the stu- dent life and to secure real help to the administration of the school. The Social Group. — This classification may seem superfluous. The failure of the fraternity system is in part due to the fact that its only aim has been social exclusiveness in the narrow use of the term. No school society should exist without a larger, better, and more practical aim than getting together for a "social" good time. While this may appear harmless, it will soon wear itself out and is bound to degenerate into more harmful practices. However, there are some legitimate organ- izations that are purely social. These would include the class organizations commonly called senior, junior, sophomore, and freshmen societies. Only a few class meetings may be held in large schools in which there are a number of smaller organizations, and yet these meet- ings serve a real purpose in developing loyalty and social efficiency in the school. General School Organizations. — By this division in the classification it is intended to include all organizations or organized movements that are not to be found above. First among these would be the editorial staff of the school paper. It is considered as "general" because it should represent all grades in the school and both faculty and students. Editors-in-chief should be selected by competition or because of excellence in that special line of work. The organization of the editors, the managers, and the representatives from the several classes and the faculty will form a society that, under the right kind ol leadership, can do much to mould the public opinion of the school and of the homes interested in the school. ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 425 The administration cannot afford to lose sight of this powerful factor. Under this same classification may be included schol- arship honor societies, the Bible-study clubs which are being promoted by the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A. throughout the country, and general civic clubs. Among the latter is one organization that is proving very popu- lar, called the Junior Association of Commerce, taking the name of the local commercial organization. This club is affiliated with the men's club of the city and has for its purpose the study and investigation of the indus- trial, commercial, and civic conditions of the city. The regular programme consists of a business meeting, a voca- tional address by some man prominent in the industrial, business, or professional world, a period of questions and discussion, and usually a trip of investigation to the place of business or industry described by the speaker. Temporary organizations often are necessary to carry out some campaign, celebration, or general social func- tion. In order that the rule regarding the distribution of offices and executive positions might be carried out, such organizations are classified under this heading. Social Efficiency and School Records. — When a pupil leaves school there is usually very little on file in the way of a permanent record except the percentages gained in certain subjects. This really tells very httle about the ability or general worth of the pupil. The employer who asks for a recommendation cares very little whether the pupil's standing in history was eighty-five per cent or ninety-c«ie per cent. What he usually asks is : " What kind of boy is he?" Has he ambition or any marked ability? Is he honest, industrious, prompt, and loyal? Has he ini- tiative, energy, push? Can he work harmoniously with 426 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL others and can he lead? Is he socially efficient? These are the important qualifications that school records have failed to preserve. A card system is quite generally used to-day for all manner of records. If the reverse side of the scholarship card is not used, it can be put to very valuable service under the following headings: — "Plans for Future," "Special AbiHty," "Vocational and Social Experience," and "Character." This record should be made at the close of each semester by the teacher who has been in charge of the pupil. Only positive facts should be recorded. If there should be anything that would injure the reputation or future prospects of the pupil it might better be omitted. Such an instance may be referred to by the remark "see Mr. Blank," indicating the teacher who personally knows of the facts in the case. If that teacher is at hand when reference to the record is needed he may be consulted, but if not, nothing is lost. Mistakes of youth should not be taken too seriously in passing judgment upon character. School records are very incomplete if they do not afford the information necessary to enable us to answer the positive questions of abihty and character suggested above. Credit toward Graduation for Social Efficiency. — In the large high school there are certain offices connected with student activities that require so much time, energy, and special abihty that to do the work well necessarily interferes with the regular requirements of the curriculum. To edit a school paper or act as its business manager not only takes a large amount of time but affords a rich busi-t ness experience and training that is educationally of as much value as, if not greater than, much of the work now credited for graduation. To represent the school in an interscholastic debate or oratorical contest also takes ADMINISTRATION OF SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 427 time from the regular work and at the same time gives a training that cannot be gained from the credited studies. The same can be said of well-conducted musical organi- zations and of other activities. Many schools are grant- ing certain credits toward graduation for such work as is considered worthy of recognition by the school author- ities. About as satisfactory a plan as any to be found is to make certain allowances of time and material in those subjects which deal most directly with the nature of the "outside" or "social" work. As an illustration: pupils acting as editors-in-chief of the school paper, rep- resenting the school in an interscholastic debate or orator- ical contest, or taking a leading part in a dramatic pro- duction during a given semester may be excused from a certain portion of the work in Enghsh; and the character of the outside work done may be graded and credited as a part of that subject. Those students who undertake the business management of the school paper or the athletic teams in large schools are handling large sums of money and are getting a business experience that cannot be taught in a class in bookkeeping. Such work under the supervision of the head of the commercial department could be passed upon and credited under that heading. Faithful and proficient service in an orchestra or other musical organization is often deemed worthy of similar recognition. If there is a department of music in the school, the organizations are considered a regular part of the course and are credited as such. The same can be said of athletic work. When the school is equipped with a gymnasium and has a physical instructor, work done upon the teams may be taken into account in crediting the work in physical training. More and more as the social activities of students are brought under the direc- 428 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tion pi expert faculty leaders, and as the demand for social efficiency as a product of the high school is ap- preciated, proper standards of efficiency and of educa- tional values in terms of credit hours will be estab- lished. Conclusion. — Schoolmen are evidently more deeply interested in the social development of adolescent boys and girls than they have ever been before. The social demands of modern business, of indastry, and of profes- sional life are pointing out to educators certain essential social qualifications for successful entrance upon these fields of endeavor. The social spirit of the age is reflected in the student life and it has introduced new problems that schoolmen are called upon to solve. This obliga- tion can no longer be ignored nor wilfully pushed aside. It must be faced squarely as an educational question. In spite of traditional ideals regarding the purpose of the high school and of our theories regarding the responsibil- ities of the home, the church, and the community for the social training of youth, the fact remains that the prob- lem of guiding and directing the social activities of high school students is one for the school definitely to face. Those who have the responsibility of organizing and man- aging a modern high school are compelled to accept the administration of the social activities among students as a legitimate and regular function of the office and one full of possibilities for education and character making. CHAPTER XVII HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS AND GYMNASTICS AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE CORPORATE LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL James Naismith, M.D. PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS The Broad Setting of Organized Athletics in the Health Movement and in School Administration. — The agencies which extended and varied experience has shown to bet- ter the health of school children, safeguard them from disease, render them healthier, happier, and more vigor- ous, and to insure for them such physical and mental vitality as will best enable them to take full advantage of the free education offered by the State are the follow- ing as enumerated by Leonard P. Ayres: 1. Medical inspection for preventing the spread of contagious disease; and for the discovery and cure of remediable physical defects; 2. Dental inspection for the purpose of securing sound teeth among school children; 3. School nurses, who work with doctors, teachers, and parents to improve the health of the children; 4. Open-air schools, for giving to the physically weak such ad- vantages of pure air, good food, and warm sunshine as may enable them to pursue their stuclies while reffainin? their physical vigor; 429 430 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 5. Special classes for the physically handicapped and mentally exceptional in which children may receive the care and instruction fitted to their needs; 6. School gardens, which serve as nature-study laboratories, where education and recreation go hand in hand, and increased knowledge is accompanied by increased bodily efficiency; 7. School playgrounds, which afford space, facilities, opportu- nity, and incentive for the expression of play instincts and impulses; 8. Organized athletics, which aid in physical development, and afford training in alertness, intense application, vigorous exertion, loyalty, obedience to law and order, self-control, self-sacrifice, and respect for the rights of others; g. All adjuncts of better sanitation in schoolhouses, such as sani- tary drinking cups and fountains, systems of vacuum clean- ing, improved systems of lighting, heating, and ventila- tion. " The health movement in our public schools has been transformed during the past decade from a merely nega- tive movement, having as an object the avoidance of disease, to a splendidly positive movement, having as its aim the development of vitality. We desire for the youth of the future schools in which health instead of disease will be contagious, in which the playground will be as important as the book, and where pure water, pure air, and abundant sunshine will be rights and not privileges. In these schools the physical, the mental, and the moral will be developed together and not separately; the child will live not only in healthy surroundings, but in sur- roundings where he will acquire habits of health which will be lifelong." Definition and Aims. — Physical education is that di- rection of motor activity by means of which we develop indirectly the mind in so far as it directs, the character HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 431 in so far as it controls the physical nature; and directly the body, its structure, functions, and powers. There are two contending aims of physical activity. One seeks the recreation, education, and development of the indi- vidual; the other seeks the entertainment and applause of the spectators. Each has its proper place and should be appreciated as a means for the accomplishment of cer- tain ends. Each should be given sufficient but not un- due and never exclusive prominence. Each should have its proper place in the course of development laid out for the student. A just balance of emphasis and a wise choice of the means for the accomplishment of these ends will make a course in physical education eminently suc- cessful; while a neglect of either will mean that the course will neither reflect credit on the school nor will it achieve the results which should be expected. The spectacular type aims at popularity for the contestant, the coach, and the school; the developmental aims at the good of the individual. One seeks the applause of the spectators, the other the reward of a hard-earned ''well done"; one sub- ordinates the individual's welfare to the gate receipts, the other considers the individual of greater importance; one helps the student in order to magnify the sport, the other uses the sport to help the student; one makes the sport the end and the student the means, the other makes the sport the means and the student the end. Forms of Motor Activity. — There are three forms of motor activity, distinguished by the motive that leads to action. Work is an activity which has for its incentive the accomplishing of some object without reference to the effect upon the individual; exercise is an activity which has for its incentive the development of the indi- vidual in physique, reflex ability, and moral attributes; 432 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL play is a motor response to an inner desire for activity. Work is objective, exercise is subjective, and play is in- stinctive. Muscular activity may belong to any one of these forms. We get the same muscular development regardless of the motive. However, associated with play is the joyous attitude which is beneficial, while with work may be associated an antagonistic attitude which robs the individual of the recreative features. Some qualities are developed mainly in play, while others are developed only when there is an ulterior motive to be attained. In play we follow the instincts and when we have had enough we promptly stop ; but in work we push ourselves beyond that point, thereby gaining concentration and perseverance. To get the best results, it is necessary to have in proper proportions all three forms, adapted, as the case may be, to the needs of the individual concerned always rather than to the interests of the coach or the school. Value of Muscular Activities. — Hygienic. — The hy- gienic value of exercise is of primary importance, because health is fundamental to all other kinds of activity; through all previous stages of evolution muscular activ- ity has been the dominant factor. In the course of civi- lization we have made the forces of nature do our motor work, and we depend more and more on the activities of the mind to relieve us of motor activity. Thus we tend to neglect that part of our organism by which we reached our present status. A too sudden change from muscular activity to one of inaction gives an opportunity for all manner of abnormal conditions to arise. This is true of the whole race as well as of the individual. To-day we compel our children to spend in school the hours which were formerly spent in developing a good, strong phy- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 433 sique, taking no pains to preserve the proper balance of growth between the physical and the intellectual. We attempt to transfer our children from the era of muscular activity to that of mental concentration without the care that we should give a transplanted garden plant. At the time of life when youth is by nature and instincts developing the body and its powers, we keep him in a state of muscular inactivity while we mould his mind by a narrow sort of mental routine. On the playground, if indeed we give him that much, we leave him without guidance and grant him the widest choice, if there be any, of the means of development. We induce a habit of in- activity in youth which later costs us time and effort to correct in order that he may eke out a life of pain and suffering. What we need is a habit of exercise in youth which is not too great a tax on the vitality at the time, and one that will stay with us later in life, or a wise choice in kind and a moderate amount of muscular activ- ity in youth which will give us the power and the incli- nation to indulge in recreation activities throughout life. All our life mental efficiency is dependent on physical integrity, and it is just as necessary to have a "health conscience" as it is to have a moral conscience. Indeed, it is impossible to have the latter without the former. In addition to the mental, the emotional side of man is dependent on health. Good health is accompanied with an even temper, a poise, and a consideration for others that makes human association a pleasure; while lack of health is a source of family and social discomfort. A most important phase of the health question is the fact that the next generation is dependent on the physi- cal health and vigor of this one, not only for actual exis- tence but also for the normal powers and pleasures of life. 434 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL We have no more right to rob this next generation of a good body and a healthy heritage than we have to rob it of its wealth. The community insists, by means of laws and truant of&cers, that the youth spend so many hours per week in developing his mind, while we have neither laws nor officers to compel our boards of educa- tion, our principals, and our teachers to give a develop- ment to the student's body, which is fundamental to all other forms and without which all other development is void. Therefore, no school system is complete without a systematic course of physical education nor is any course complete without health as a fundamental ele- ment of it. Recreative Value. — ^In recreation we set to work the re- building processes. We change the activities from the thought centres to the reflex centres, and the greater the reflex ability of the individual the more easy is recre- ation. We also re-establish the equilibrium of the blood supply. In tense application to an intellectual subject, the blood is carried to the brain away from the motor organs. In play this is reversed and the normal state is restored. Recreation, likewise, gives vent to the joyous side of life. During study the feelings are restrained while the mind is busy. In play the feelings are free to express themselves in response to immediate sur- roundings. Competition in games is an incentive which relieves the voluntary centres occupied in producing muscular activity. Social Value. — The social value of physical education is illustrated when it is seen that on the athletic field every one finds his true level. The one who will perfect himself physically for the good of the institution is re- spected, regardless of his ancestry or his financial stand- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 435 ing. Mere manhood is recognized, while lack of it is sufficient to bar a student from the honors of his fellows. The leader on the field is chosen for his inherent qualities, even though some other may have been given the nom- inal post of honor. True leadership is recognized and followed in all games of physical skill and prowess. In athletics the individual is secondary to the organization and the individual does the part assigned to him. Out of the proper number of units an efficient organization is evolved. Furthermore, all games are governed by sets of rules formulated in order that the player may know the rights of others as well as his own, and also the limits beyond which he may not go, the overstepping of which incurs a penalty. True sportsmanship is a recognition of the rights of others and our own in playing the game in accordance with these fundamental principles. With the proper guidance the spirit of fair play and square deal is inculcated. Educational Value. — ^The educational value of physical education is seen when we recognize the fact that it de- velops the reflexes, thus leaving the volitional part of the mind to do more effective work of a different order. Thus the student learns how to get recreation. The adult who attempts to learn a game must first pass through a period of strain, because all reflexes are first voluntary. It is a strain on his judgment to gain con- trol of a new reflex. Many men are unable to stand the strain of Hfe because they have never learned how to play, and it is impossible for them to become expert in later years. Consequently, they are unable to indulge in proper recreation. Youth, especially high school age, is the time to gain control of all the reflexes that we are to use in our after-life. Failure to do so at this time 436 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL frequently means that we are to go through life without that power. Again, it develops physical judgment or the ability to estimate the motion of moving objects and to accommodate ourselves to them. This ability en- ables one to make his way through a crowd without con- fusion or nervous strain and to estimate the amount of energy needed to accomplish a certain result without waste of effort. It develops also intensity and con- centration without undue strain. The expert is able to keep his mind on the object in hand, while one who cannot do this is a failure. It is this attribute that is developed by successful participation in competitive contests. Exercise and training, furthermore, develop perseverance. It is not always he who gets his blow in first who wins out. It is always he who gets his blow in last. The ability to continue in a course and to compel conditions to yield to our will is of inestimable value in every phase of life. This is par excellence the aim of physical education. Cases are common where men have been chosen for difficult positions because of this attri- bute shown and developed in sport. A football guard said that the game had given him the stamina to with- stand homesickness and discouragements and to con- tinue his work to a successful issue, and, furthermore, that it was the only part of his education that had dealt directly with that necessary factor in life. Character Value. — By character we mean the kind of response which a man makes to the opportunities which are presented to him. There are two forms of response, the voluntary and the reflex. The voluntary response comes after deliberation, when the individual has had time to make his judgment, and is apt to be correct. These responses, however, are not frequent. The ma- fflGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 437 jority of our responses are reflex, made without delibera- tion, dependent on the activities of our past life. The kind of reflex response that we make to a condition is determined by the way in which we have responded to similar conditions in the past. The boy who has high ideals and has lived up to them on the playground will let these same ideals control his relations in the business world. But no matter how high the ideals that have been presented to a youth may have been, if he forgets them on the playground he will forget them in after-life in his business and social relations. Athletics alone will not develop these ideals, but they must be instilled by some one who has the respect and confidence of the student and who has the power to see that fair means are recognized and employed by both teams. Thus we see that the athletic field can be the laboratory in which ethics may be taught and practised. The athlete, furthermore, learns to appreciate a clean body, one that is under his control all the time. The man who indulges in habits which weaken his efficiency may last for a short time, but he is soon relegated to the side-lines and his native ability, instead of being a source of pride and honor, becomes a subject of re- proach because he is unable to use it for the good of his organization. It is not play but the strenuous work aspect of athletics that tests and develops a student's strength of character and moulds his nature into sterner stuff. In athletics, too, a man must learn to control his entire self, not his muscular self alone but also his emotional or temperamental self. The individual who constantly loses his temper is a handicap to his team. Not only does he fail to do his best because of inattention to the 438 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL object in hand but he frequently brings punishment and disgrace to his team. The hot-headed and impetuous are taught to restrain themselves, while the lethargic and phlegmatic are often aroused to the necessary pitch for self-assertion and self-discovery. Notable examples of this may be found on nearly every football team. For example, a player on a Kansas team who was noted and named for his fighting propensities made the statement at the beginning of his senior year that he would not "slug" once during the entire season. This he fulfilled to the letter, putting the energy that he formerly wasted on watching for an opportunity to get even with his oppo- nent into playing the game. During the season he cov- ered himself with glory for his playing ability. He was not a poorer player but a better after learning to control and direct his temper. Self-sacrifice is one of the noble qualities of character which is developed by many forms of athletics. In games that require team-work, when the choice comes to one between conflicting interests of the team and self, the latter must be made subordinate. The thing to be done must be done in accordance with the plans and for the sake of the organization. The individual who sacrifices the team for self is automatically and sum- marily ostracized. He has failed to meet the crucial test. The Place of Physical Education in the School Pro- gramme. — If physical education performs such important functions in the development of the individual, can we relegate its operation to the few who care to take part, neglecting all the mass of the students? If it is good for the few who are expert it is much better for the many who need the development. It is an integral function of HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 439 the school and should be so connected and administered. If it is left to the initiative and caprice of the student it will be neglected by the ones who need it and overdone by those who are already well developed. Like children playing with a sharp knife, they may be benefited in their power to use it but may also be sadly disfigured in the process of learning. Physical education may be a great benefit or a great injury to the participant accord- ing as it is wisely or carelessly administered. The responsibility rests with the school board to see that it is put on the proper basis of financial support. It is the duty of the superintendent, or the principal, to put it before the board in its true light as a fundamental educational issue. It can no longer be looked on as a necessary evil, but must be dovetailed into the other dominant work of the school and be accepted as quite on a par with intellectual exercises. It is now not so much a neglected subject which has been rediscovered, as a new need brought about by the change in our civiKzation. The boy who works gets a certain amount of muscular development. If he is a normal boy his instincts lead him to play whenever the opportunity offers. On the farm or in the small town there is a certain amount of physical activity which he necessarily gets, but with this he should have the educative benefits of games. The school system which does not provide play for the child is depriving it of that which is natural and instinctive. Such a policy is a crime against nature and one for which as a nation we shall have to pay in enfeebled constitu- tions and inefficient men and women. Again, we have been too long drearily endeavoring to find some way of de- veloping the ethical standards and some practical way in which the standards could be applied. All the time the 440 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL very best laboratory for this ethical ministration has been pushed aside or overlooked. The sooner we recognize the value of sport in the full development of the indi- vidual the sooner shall we begin to make our educational system efficient. Less than fifteen years ago the high school athletes who came to college represented the least-developed group, so far as true sportsmanship was concerned, chiefly because they had been accustomed to playing a game unrestrained and without co-operation. All sorts of tricks were used to win a contest, such as importing players, choosing biassed officials, and resorting to unfair tactics in general. It was no unusual thing to have the game end in a fight in which players and spectators par- ticipated. To-day our athletes from the high schools represent the best sportsmanship possible. To-day a track meet in which there are hundreds of contestants may be run off without a hitch or a dispute, even though there are always plenty of opportunities for the partici- pants to feel that they have not received all that was their due. The coaches and the managers attempt to get only impartial officials and trust them to give a square deal. To-day men of opposing teams applaud a good play of their opponents, a thing that was un- known when the games were regulated by the "sports" of the town. Now the presence of the principal and other teachers lends a dignity and an educational sanc- tion to the events. Conduct of Sports. — Something should be said with ref- erence to the methods of conducting the work of physical education, especially athletics. As there are two phases of the work, so there are two factors to be considered in the plans for administering it. When the question is HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 441 one of the development of the individual, the only com- petent authority is the one who understands the struc- ture and the functions of the body as well as the nature of the exercises. When we look at exercise as develop- ing the individual, the person in charge cannot have too much knowledge of the whole subject, and he should have the power to direct the student for his good. On the other hand, when there are contests between schools the competition must necessarily be between students, and it is well that they should have some voice in the admin- istration of affairs. There are several things that the students can do better than any other person, and indeed, if they do not do these things they must remain undone. No influence is so strong as student sentiment, and once it is brought to bear on any phase of school life it has great weight. There are certain phases of the work that can best be done by some one who has had experience and who is permanently connected with the school. Thus the management of games can best be done by a faculty member, provided his knowledge of the subject is suffi- cient to keep him from making mistakes. In scheduling games, it is necessary to look forward as well as backward, and arrange them with a view to the succeeding years. Only a permanent manager can do this well. Again, some phases of the work can best be done by students themselves. Preceding every great contest there are days and weeks of hard, grinding work, and the student can call out the enthusiasm that is neces- sary to carry the candidates through the hard grind. A combination of the two is necessary for the proper en- forcement of eligibility rules, for it is necessary to have a view from both angles. Accordingly, there are the three methods in vogue in 442 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL different institutions: viz., faculty control, where some member of that body manages the whole subject; second, where the students do all the managing; and third, where there is a combination of the two. The ideal is for the faculty to be responsible for the financial arrangements, the choice of officials, and arrangement of schedules; a combined faculty and student committee to take charge of the eligibility, and a student committee to be responsi- ble for the energy and enthusiasm that are necessary for the best results. A student sentiment can get men out who are careless, indifferent, or ineligible, while no amount of coaxing from the manager and coach would have the same result. Faculty management is progres- sive and economical, while student discipline is whole- some and thorough if undertaken in the right spirit. When the ineligibility of a player is viewed as a breach of loyalty to the institution, on the part of the student rather than an attempt on the part of the faculty to kill the sport, the athletic tone of the school becomes a purposeful constructive factor in the life of the institu- tion. A principal with the true ideals of sportsmanship, if he has the backing of his teachers and the sympathy of his boys, can set a high standard of sportsmanship and have his students proud to live up to that ideal. The sentiment of the main body of students is always for the best, but in every institution there are a few in- dividuals who think that they represent the whole school in their views, but who simply follow in the footsteps of the sporting element of the town. There are always enough good, sensible boys and girls in the institution who can mould public opinion if they are organized. If the principal will organize these he can accomplish won- ders. If he fails to set the ideals high enough, or fails to HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 443 have his boys Hve up to them, he fails in his social duty to the highest interest of his school and his students in- dividually. Legitimate Aims of High School Athletics. — These might be classified as follows: first, to benefit the indi- vidual with reference to his health, his education, and his morals, and, second, to advertise the school. In doing this the loyalty of the student is exercised and his interest in the school is increased. On the other hand, we have no right to demand too much from the student in the way of exalting the school, unless he himself is thereby bene- fited. If in order to glorify the school he must sacrifice health, education, or opportunity; if he must resort to trickery or unfair tactics, it is better that the school go without the glory. The school is made for the student, not the student for the school. A third aim is to furnish an opportunity for comparing one student with another, or one school with another. Such a comparison stimu- lates better work and widens the view of life. While it may be true that athletics are not the highest form of education, yet they furnish the most practical form for the purpose of comparison, and provide a good criterion of earnestness and enthusiasm as well as of sportsman- ship. The high school student is in the developing stage and needs the most careful attention, both physically and in the interests of his emotions. If the coach does not un- derstand this he will condemn the contestant as being a quitter and a coward, whereas the fault may lie in nature's way of growth. At this time many boys are disheart- ened and cease to attempt any form of athletics. If this had been noted and the period safeguarded, he would have had no serious misgivings about his ability. This is 444 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL true of the runs, especially the long distance. These races depend more on condition than on skill, and it is impossible to keep up a high degree of endurance for a long time. Thus few of the distance runners of the high school make good in the university, unless they have come up through a long course of cross country or hare and hounds, where the development of the heart has been gradual and without strain. One noted athlete, one of the strongest runners of his university, developed himself while in high school, not on the track but on the road going to and from school. Bailey, of Kansas, a long-dis- tance runner, developed himself by running to and from the route where he carried papers. These men and others developed first strong physiques, and then went on the track when they were more mature. The Type of Physical Instructor Wanted. — The in- structor problem is likewise a critical one in this con- nection. We demand trained teachers for the intel- lectual development of our students, but in the field of physical education we are satisfied with a man who knows little about his subject save the team-work of some one sport. We put him in charge of the physical activities even when he is utterly ignorant of any other form of exercise. It is a greater recommendation with the ma- jority of principals for a man entering this work that he have a "letter" from some university for his participa- tion in some sport than that he have expert knowledge of the broad field of physical education. It would be different if he were put in charge of his own subject, but when he takes charge of the development of the body, he is biassed by his experience in football and has a contempt for anything but that in which he excels. Few men who were simply football athletes have made good as high HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 445 school directors. Baseball, basket-ball, and track men do better. There is little encouragement to spend time on such subjects as anatomy, physiology — which are fun- damental to all physical development — when a knowledge of some sport counts so much more in obtaining a posi- tion in high school physical education. While every di- rector should have some sport in which he is a specialist, his knowledge should not be confined to one sport. It should be extensive enough to give a wide view of the whole field and of the benefits to the individual. When the authorities recognize the proper status of physical education, the men preparing for this profession as a life work will elect an extended curriculum that will be of per- manent value to them and enable them to carry on a suc- cessful work, as judged by the valid educational stand- ards. Factors Determining Choice of Games. — While any game will give us a certain development, it is necessary in order that we get the best to select our games with care and judgment and with a due regard to the conditions under which they will be played. Many factors should be taken into consideration. The age of the participant is important. High school age is a critical one for certain lines of development. It is the period when the organs and functions of the body are adjusting themselves to the future needs of the individual, the whole system being in a state of unstable equilibrium. It is a period of growth of the muscular and skeletal systems. We should, therefore, eliminate all those exercises which will put too great a strain on the muscles, heart, and blood-vessels, such as the long-distance runs. This principle does not refer to such games as hare and hounds ; for here periods of rest alternate with activity. High school age, again, is 446 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the time when the nervous system is assuming control over the various muscle groups, therefore this phase should be accepted. It is the logical time for the student to acquire facilities which he will need in later life. It is the period in which to take up, for example, such events as the broad jump, the high jump, hurdles, pole-vault, and shot put. For the arms and chest such exercises as the parallel bars, the horizontal bar, and rings are valuable. Desirable Qualities and the Games Required to De- velop Them. — ^Again, we are concerned at this time of life with the inhibitions which are undeveloped. Our high school student is enthusiastic to the point of reck- lessness, and while this may have its disadvantages it gives us an excellent opportunity to develop the ability to take care of himself in times of danger. Later, he will be too cautious to attempt the feats that develop this power. Courage comes from the knowledge of what to do when the unexpected arises. We can, therefore, de- velop courage by a judicious oversight and direction at this time. This is the gregarious period. We must call forth the instinct of co-operation and sublimate it into a loyalty to the institution. The qualities that should be developed in this period are skill, speed, suppleness, agility, physical judgment, co-operation, and courage. Those games should be se- lected which will tend to develop the right type of man. Those which will make the clumsy agile, the weak strong, the nervous vigorous, and the phlegmatic active are the ones to be chosen for this period. A sport which calls out a moderate amount of each quality will have this effect, especially if each position in the game calls forth these qualities. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 447 A consideration of the foregoing principles will show that the games best suited for this period are baseball, soccer, lacrosse, sprinting, the various forms of jumping, elementary apparatus work, basket-ball, and some of the defensive sports such as boxing and singlestick. Baseball is good because it demands skill and judgment and a great many of the qualities suggested. Soccer is an excellent game for high school students as it develops skill, alert- Per Cent. 1 10 20 30 <«> 50 60 70 80 90 100 Height, 69 .0 S2.0 64,8 S6.2 66.9 67.6 6S.2 68.8 g9..S 70,0, 71.0 72.7 7C .?, Weight ; ,7>7, c 95 116 128 ISO JV -flf 144 Ij^ € 168 198 l50 .0 Neck. 13 LI ISO ISO W^ ff IS 7 IS 9 14.1 5 Ih" 16.2 16.2 14 .5 Chest, contracted. 30 ,1 '8.0 J ^1.1 31.8 32.5 SS.Oj iP** 34 ;o 34.6 36.0 89.0 33 .1 Cheat, expanded. 34 ,0 30.0 iS.2^ U^ 35.0 35.7 36.^ 36.8 37.3 38.0 40.0 42.0 56 .5 Waist. 28 ,8 25.5 27.0 27.9 ^.0 u ig.9 30.5 31.3 33.5 86.0 29 .8 R, arm down. 9 f^ 7.8 8.9 9.4, r^ 9.9 10.1 10^ U).6 11.0 12.1 13.0 IC .S R. arm np. 11 2 9.0 lO.S ■i 10.6 lO^ 11 .3 ir.5 11.7 \ 12.4 13.1 14.0 12 ,1 R. forearm. 10 Z 88 91 9.6 99 K JO.S 10 4 10.6 V 11.2 11.4 13 .0 L, arm down. 9 7.8' 8.9, ^00 -ff 9.9 l(Ltg t^ ^of n 12.1 13.0 IC ,1 L. arm up. 10 6 9.0 lO.S \. U.O lis, p 11.7 12.0 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .4 L. forearm. 9 8 8.S 9.1 9.^ |9.9 10.1 10^ l^ 10.6 flO.8 „. II. 4 10 .4 R. thigh. , 19 5. 17.0 rg.s 19.0 t 20.0 20.2 > >■% ?u* 22.8 24.0 21 .4 R. calf. 13 .4 11.7 12.5 12.9 13^ I&4 13.6 18.8 14.0 .s. 15.8 16.1 14 .5 U thigh. 19 5 17.0 18.8 • 19.0 ^ w 20.0 20.2 20.4 20.8 J 228 24.0 21 .4 L. calf, 13 4 11:7 12.5 12.9 13^ ikL 13.6 18.8 14.0 L 15.8 ,.,. 14 .3 Chart I. — This chart shows the physical development reached through a course in all-around athletics. This student devoted his time to development in skill so that, before graduation, he held the college record in high jump, pole-vault, and hurdles, and was among the best at the broad jump. This is a record of four years' consistent work in athletics. However, all the other ad- vantages of athletics, in addition to this development of his phy- sique, he enjoyed to a high degree, as shown by his record. 448 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ness of action, quick judgment, and a certain amount of self-assertion and self-confidence combined with co-oper- Ter Cent, 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Height, yc .1 B2.0 64.8 65.2 66.9 67.6 68.2 68.8 69.3 :7o.o ,71.0 72.7 70 .5 Weight, 155F ,Q 9B 116 123 ISO ^L_ "^SS 53s 6 R. forearm. ■ 10 .?, 8.3 9.1 9.6 9.9 ^:^' 10.4 10.6 10.8 11.2 11.4 10 .0 L. arm down. 10 .?, 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.»joT^ JO. 3 10.6 11 12.1 13.0 10 .0 L. arm up. IS ,0 9.0 10.3 10.6 U.O 11 3 11.5 bj iCO 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .9 L. forearm. IC ,4 8.3 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 3*' ■^ 10.6 10.8 11.2 11.4 10 ,3 E. thigh. 19 .4 17.0 18.3 19-9, ■aifo" 20.2 IDA 20.8 21.4 22.8 24.0 19 .?, R. calf, 13 ,2 11.7 12.5 12.9 Xa' t5N, ^3.6 13 .8 14.0 14.4 15.3 16.1 IS ,5 L. thteh. 19 ,s 17.0 18.3 19.(^ ^i% 20.0 20.2 20.4 20.8 21.4 22.8 24.0 19 L. calf, IS ,0 il.7 12.B l^l kj3.2 13.4 13. « 13,8 14.0 14.4 1B.3 16.1 IS 1 Chart II. — This chart shows the development from long-dis- tance running. This student was on the freshman team for one year and on the varsity team for three. His events were the mile, the two mile, and cross country. The heavy black line represents his measurements on entering college and the broken line those taken on the eve of his graduation. Comment is unnecessary as the lines speak for themselves. When the hy- pertrophy of the heart, which is a necessary part of a runner's equipment, has been reduced to the normal, and the muscular system has lost the tone of vigorous training, what is left to the runner save a few medals and honors? The athletic ability he has acquired is simply that of an automaton with the power to concentrate and drive the body beyond its normal limits; a power which is a menace to the person once the heart and mus- cles have lost their tone. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 449 ation with the other members of the team. It is an excellent preparation for football, as it teaches one to work on Ms feet and with his feet, also to meet an oppo- nent without flinching and in such a way as to eliminate the shock. Fewer accidents would result from the other game if the individuals were first taught soccer. It is one of the least expensive games as very little new equip- Percent, 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 ■70 80 90 100 Hefeht. R6 ^ mo R4.R 6S.2 66.9 67.6 68.2 68.8 69.3 70,0 71.0 72.7 66 .2 Weight. : P7 95 116 *1 123 P?» ► 136 142 144 150 157 168 193 15f .0.. Neck. 13 .s 1«0 irfo jJ f 18, B 13,7 13,9 ^1' ■t4fl ,14:5 15.2 16.2 1< .5 Chest contracted. '^?, ? 28.0 80.1 81.1 3^ ^2.6 83,0 33.4 ,34R) 34.6 36.0 89.0 32 .7 Chest, expanded. .■^7 30.0 33.2 34.3 35.0 35.7 sS9 586 H^i 38.0 40.0 42.0 37 .4 Waist. ?.8 1 RB.B 270 279 hR^ l^fi? 29,4 80. B 31.3 83.5 36.0 29 ,5 Xc. am down. 9 5 7.S 8.9 9.4j 9.7 ■ 9.9 10,1 V ■^"-^ 11.0 12.1 13.0 IC ,5 R.armap, 11 4 90 lOfl in.fi S> *»*1 11. S 11.7 's. 12.4 13.1 14.0 li .5 R. forearm. 10 !^ Rft 9,1 9.B 99 10.1 58"'' 10.4 im 10.8 11.2 11.4 IC .6, L. arm down. 9. 6 7,8 8.9 9.4 ^9 10.1 10.3; Wo. 6 11 12.1 13.0 IC A L. arm up. 10, 8 9.0 10.3 10.6 ri.o 11,3 11.5 „,| 12,0 12.4 13.1 14.0 11 .8 li. forearm. 9. 7 8.3 9.1 9.6 ' 9.9 10.1 ^ 10.4 10,6 10.8 11.2 11.4 IC .2 E. thigh. IP, 7 17.0 18.3 19.0 20.0 20.2 20.4 2?? «k4 ,22.8 24.0 21 ,8 Rcalf, 13 .2 11.7 12.B 12.9 Ij^ 13.4 13.6 ^■l^ fl^ 14.4 1B.3 16.1 15 .8 h.thisK 19 .5 17.0 18.3 19.0 p9.6 20.0 20.2 20.4 2^ •li 22.8 24.0 21 .5 L.calf, 12 .7 11.7 12. B / 13.2 13.4 18.6 13.8 ,im 14.4 15.3 16.1 IS .9 Chart III.— The chart of a student who took the regular class work in physical education — soccer one half term, basket-ball one half term, and apparatus work one term. The soHd line represents his measurements on entering and the broken line his measurements at the close of his freshman year. This was not a selected case but one that came into the office for his second measurement while this chapter was being written. There was no special attempt on the part of the student to make a record. It came in the ordinary course of the school work. 450 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ment is required. Lacrosse is an ideal game for this pe- riod as it develops the best type of athlete — the wiry, supple, agile man with good arms and shoulders. The objection that it is difficult to learn is a point in its favor, once it is started; for then there is so much to learn that it never becomes tiresome. It is not an expensive game as it requires no special uniform but is played in a running suit. The crosse is not expensive and lasts Per Cent. 1 IQ 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Heishn RR if>' s'.o B4.8 B6.2 S6.9 67.6 68.8 68. 8| 69.8 70.0 71.0 72.7 sa. Weight 14 1 r «5 116 123 ISO 136 142 144! iWi J67 168 Ife Neck. li :.0 12.0 13.0 13.3 13.5 18.7 13. 9^ jfri 14. S 14^ 15.2 16.2 14 .6 Chest, cODtraeted. 52 L? 28.0 30.1 31.1 31.8 32.6 ^ 33.4 34.0 afe 36.0 39.0 34 .5 Chest, expanded. Z5 6 30.6 33.2 34.3 36.0 d. 36.3 36.8 37.3 40.0 42.0 38 .5 Waist, 7>0 8 26.6 27.0 27.9 28,6 29.0 29.4 W H««S, mi 33.5 36.0 51 .7 R, arm down. 10. 7 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.9 10.1 10.3 lo.efii.o, I12.I 13.0 11 .€ R. arm up. 1?,, 4 9.0 10.3 10.6 11.0 11.3 11.6 11.7 12.0 \.4 \ 14.0 15 .5 R. forearm. 10, 7 8.S 9.1 9.6 9.9 10.1 10.3 10.4 10.6, p. 8 /: 11.4 10 ,9 L, arm down. 10, 7> 7.8 8.9 9.4 9.7 9.9 10.1 1(^1 ^Te 11 S 12.1 18.0 11 .1 L. arm ap^ n Fi 9.0 10.3 10.6 11. 11,3 11.5 i5 p.O 12.J 13.1 14.0 12 .6. 1^ zorearm. 10 1 8.3 9.1 9.6 9.9 1^ i^TS IOjI -.^ 10.8 11.2 11.4 10 A R-thiKh. ?pO, 17.0 18.3 19.0 19.6 To 20.2 20.4 w IPM ■22.fe 24.0 21 ,4. R-calf, 1,"^ 4- 11.7 12.5 12.9 13.2 il 13.6 13.8 ll* <,'. 15.3 16.1 14 .0 Lthtsh, 19, 9 17.0 18.3 19.0 19.6 /o 20.2 20.4 20.8 ^i 22.8 24.0 21 .5 L.calf. T!^' 4 11.7 12.5 12.9 13.2 \.4 13.6 13.8 14.0 ►^4 15.3 16.1 1^ .1 1 J Chari IV. — This chart shows the results of three months' work in a deliberate attempt to make the body more symmetrical. The subject was a medical student whose classes ran from 8 A. M. to 5.30 p. M. The exercise was taken at 12 m. until 12.30, when a light lunch was partaken of, allowing him to get back to work at 1.30. His work consisted of pulley weights and clubs for the chest, squatting and tumbling for the neck and legs, and the horse and parallel bars for the arms and legs. HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 451 for several years. The game is one in which there is a certain amount of personal contact, enough to make it strenuous and demand self-control. Basket-ball is for the winter months, indoors, what the above games are for outdoors. The development derived from basket- ball resembles that obtained from lacrosse. It was an attempt to get a game like lacrosse that introduced basket-ball. All these games must be regulated as there may be too great a strain on the heart. However, there is this difference between these and the long-distance runs, that the strain on the heart becomes less as the player becomes more expert, and skill in passing takes the place of individual running. With all these should be associated some form of apparatus work, as there is no game that brings out the development of the arms and chest. See Chart No. I. Certain Practical Considerations. — There are several practical phases of the subject of physical education which should be taken into consideration. First, as to equipment; some games cannot be used because we may not have the necessary equipment. This is especially true of apparatus work in a gymnasium. But the great majority of the really valuable sports can be played on almost any kind of ground. Baseball, lacrosse, and soc- cer can be played on almost any clear space. Second, there should be plenty of opportunity for competition. It is almost useless for one institution to select a game, no matter how good it may be, unless the near-by insti- tutions adopt the same game, although it may be made interesting as an interclass game. In this matter a county or district organization can do effective and valu- able work in getting the schools together and deciding upon the best sport to be encouraged in that particular 452 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL C/\MES KINDERGARTEN GRADES KICN SCIIOOI. COLLEGE IteCKNICAlI - 1 / ?. .1 4 ,-)" fi 7 R q IC II « 1.^ H- /T If '7 /S m 70 2L Z* 23 2-i ?'' dji 7;8 ?F. 51 * hSO' flERONflUTICS "" ~ ■~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ >i EB _i ANTE-OVER — ^ — ^ IflRCHERY ^ — ^-o — — ' ■" — -" "■ ■"^ fMJTO POLO _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ _ _ - = r — f= — - ^ _ BASE BALL BflSKCTB/ILI. - - - - - - - - - — — — — - — ~ - ^- — — — BEAN BflCS _ = ^ - - _ - _ _ __ _ ! BOXING — - - - - - - — •m ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ !^ = ^ ^-. a — 1 BROflD-JUMP — •- n - "• - CftNOEING »J OM — CRPTRIN BALL „ ,. n^ _ _ CflT/qPULT CROQUET - - - ~ ~ = ~ ^ E E ^ ~ ~ ^ — 4 - — - iCROSS COIJWTRY fcROSS TRG - - - - - - ^ ^ ^ - - " = — L - - CURLING Discus — - - - - - - - - - - ^ ~ ^ - ~ -■ - - distance: running ■ " " - _ . DODGE BALL n >&■ LJ •m DUCK ON THE ROCK «» Lr _n L rCNCING > — roOTBflLL >■ » •• - GOLF _ _ _ M — HAMMER THROW J - - a HflNOBflLL HANG TAG «, L> .1^ ■I 'h/?re and Hffl;Nn n an «3 a HIGH JUMP - HOCKEY COELD) „ "— =^ " ™ ■■ HOCKEY Ocr) B B ■> HORIZONTAL RflR ~ a HORSE LONG — HORSE SIDE Mi MB n ■■ MP HURDLES fHIGH) aa . HURDLES (LOW) a _ ^ B> JflVETLIN THROW n -> KITE FLYING- LACROSSE ■i L - MARBLES ~ MARCHING HUMBLY PEG » ■»• B » m PMRRLI El BRRS H ^ .- ^ POLZ VAULT ■" "' "■ ■ ■■ "" ~ " ^ ii _ ^ - B "1 ■ PONY POLO _ - o a prisoner's base » _ _ m auoiTs _ » - — « RELAYS " "1 - — a ^ aa » RUN shee:p run B E> n ~" ~ SINGLE STICK -a a SHOT PUT la .- B a SOCCER •■ IB B ■a M > SPRINTING 1 •m B •• _ Bl >» ai SW/MMINt? <~ H n i> ■• TAG — — — " ~ — ^ r — _ _ TPNA//5 THREE Pf EP TOPS ~" - - - ~ - — E — = - = I ~'_ ~ - TUMBUMG m.LF.Y efli-;. WATER POLO - : - I = - •£^ - - - = = i^ I 1 •■ 1 1 = ss - CAar^ V. — ^In making this chart, a questionnaire was sent to the leading directors of physical education in colleges, private pre- HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 453 paratory schools, and high schools. The data obtained from the answers are used in the chart. In a great number of cases the agreement was approximate and the point was selected. When there was a divergence of opinion and a majority favored a certain point, that was chosen. When there was a divergence and the opinions scattered, an average was struck. Thus the chart will not correspond exactly to the ideas of any individual, but the variation is not greater than the personal-equation factor would lead us to expect. The author does not agree with the chart in every particular, but he feels that the consensus of opinion of experts is preferable to his own. The kindergarten games and many that would be found in the grade school period are omitted. The games are arranged alpha- betically rather than by groups, mainly for convenience in refer- ence. A glance at the chart will show some of the points emphasized in the preceding pages. For example, thirty-two of the games listed have their beginning in the grade school age, twenty-five in the high school period, two in the college and one in the tech- nical school, and not one in a later period. No better illustration could be found for the necessity of a systematic course in games in the grades and high school years. Again, the length of useful- ness of a game is shown, e. g., archery, baseball, and several others begin early and continue till late in life, while ice-hockey, water- polo, and several others begin late and last but a few years. The chart wiU suggest other evaluations of games in terms of their relation to the periods of development. locality. Again, the expense of playing the game, such as travelHng and other expenses, must be considered. A small school may be able to get together a few men of sHght build and develop them in skill, whereas it would be impossible for it to get enough big men to make a game of football interesting. Furthermore, the time taken to train a team is also a problem. Some games can be mas- tered bit by bit. Two or three men can pass the ball so as to become expert in lacrosse, and the more of this that 454 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL is done the better the team; or they might learn the dif- ferent methods of kicking a soccer ball; whereas it is impossible to get a respectable team of football unless every man is present, even the substitutes. The Coaching Problem is frequently a perplexing one. It is sometimes dif&cult to get men who can coach the game most desired and who have the other desirable qualifications. A start can be made, however, and soon knowledge and skill will come. One physical director whom I knew had never seen a game of soccer until his opponents lined up against him. Yet his team made a creditable showing, winning all but one of the games played. In most of the games co-operation is a factor rather than team-work, the players go on their own initi- ative and frequently work out combinations for them- selves. In this case the coach is not such an important factor as in those games where the team must work ac- cording to a preconceived plan and follow directions. In the latter case the coach is the field general and directs the game from the dressing-room before the start, some- times, indeed, from the side-Hnes during the progress of the game — a violation of ethical standards and happily passing. Athletics and Medical Supervision. — Before entering upon any kind of physical exercise the student should undergo a thorough medical and physical examination. This is necessary in order to determine the parts of the physique that need development, and to discover any abnormalities that need correction, thus safeguarding the student. There are several conditions which indicate that exercise should not be taken. This condition may be temporary and it is necessary that care be taken at certain times. There are conditions that demand HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 455 exercise, when the exercise must be of such a nature that it will not injure the individual. Other conditions de- mand a vigorous and strenuous form. It is also neces- sary to safeguard the institution. This examination, especially the medical, is essential in the case of those who take part in athletics, not because the exercises are so strenuous in themselves, but because in compe- tition the contestant cannot stop when he knows that it would be best for him to do so. If he fails to keep going he is called a quitter. This principle is one of great educational value, yet it may cause a student to go beyond the danger point, and suffer heart complications. Exercise, properly directed, is of great value in cases of heart trouble. It must, however, be employed for the benefit of the individual and not to win contests. There are plenty of cases where a student has taken part in all kinds of interscholastic contests only to be rejected when appearing as a candidate for a varsity team. Doubtless, many of the fatalities in football result from a lack of supervision rather than from the roughness of the game. Most of these fatalities have occurred in high school football. During the period of competition, close watch should be kept on the players. In football, where the whole team is strained to the limit, injuries come when the player becomes tired out. A blow which would not be noticed when the body is in good condition will, with his muscles relaxed and the joints strained, sometimes result seriously. Whenever a player shows signs of fatigue, he should be allowed to recover before exposing himself to possible injury. The heart grows during a period of training, but the growth is not uniformly steady when the time of training is short. There is a period of growth 456 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL when a strain causes a dilatation of the heart and a thin- ning of the walls. When this occurs, it is necessary to rest the individual for a short time. The growth will then continue. A strain at this time may cause serious trouble. When the body is put to such a severe test, as in many athletic contests, it is necessary for the player to be constantly watched, and that not by the coach but by some one who knows the conditions and whose busi- ness it is to subordinate the game to the individual. The growth of the body is not uniform. It has nodes of growth. At these times the strength of the individual is not equal to unusual strain. The high school student is in this period of growth and needs the most careful attention. In the case of a boy under observation during the past season this can be illustrated. From December to March the growth in height was two and one half inches; during April and May the growth was three tenths of one inch; in June the increase was three tenths of an inch. If medical supervision is necessary in col- lege, it is much more so in high schools, where the stu- dent is in a formative period and should have the best possible guidance in his development. Equipment-Floor. — So often we hear a principal say that he would be glad to put such a course in physical education as advocated above into the school, but lack of funds prevents it. He keeps putting off its introduc- tion until he is able to begin with a large gymnasium and a full staff of directors. A great deal may be done with very little equipment if the director is resourceful and interested in the highest things of his department. Ten years ago the equipment of some of our State uni- versities was sadly inadequate. The gymnasiums of Kansas and Missouri Universities at that time were in HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 457 the basements of buildings, and yet a fairly good class of work was done on floors 35 x 80 and 11 feet high. In- deed, the tendency, when the equipment is very good, is to utilize it for the benefit of the few experts rather than for the whole student body. Almost every high school has a room that might be used for the purpose, that could be fitted up at little expense, and could be used for a few years. It can then be used for some other purpose, and the expen- diture is seldom if ever lost. The great desideratum is to have a floor space that can be used for practice of the simpler games and for mass class work. It may range from 30 x 40 up to any size that can be secured. A good game of basket-ball can be played on a floor 30 X 40. The aim in the selection of a room, or in the erection of a building, should be to accommodate the greatest number possible, at the greatest variety of exercises, and cover the greatest number of hours daily. The general aim should be to have a room arranged so that it can be opened up to accommodate a large meet or divided into rooms to acconmiodate a number of small classes at dif- ferent kinds of work. This may be accomplished by means of sliding doors or by nets or curtains. Unless some arrangement of this kind is planned, a game of basket-ball will occupy the whole available area, and thus ten men will use the space that might accommodate one hundred. An ideal arrangement, where economy is con- cerned, is to have three floors, one for lockers, swimming pool, bowling-alleys, handball courts, etc. ; the next floor to be used for apparatus, boxing, and wrestling rooms. The upper story is to be used as a game room and to be always available. This should cost, fully equipped, $100,000, having two gymnasiums on the first floor, one 458 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL for boys and one for girls, each 50 x 70 and alwaj^s avail- able for apparatus work and indi\-idual development. The second floor should be 12SX 71 and 29 feet high. On this floor should be marked out a full-sized tennis- court, an indoor base-ball court, and a full-sized basket- ball court with room for 1,500 spectators. Besides, there would be two basket-ball courts crosswise, 45 x 55, with out-of-bounds all around. This is the construction at the University of Kansas. The main points to be considered are the accommodation of the greatest number of men at the best time of the day and such an arrangement that the director can control the greatest number. It should interfere as little as possible with, the best schedule of studies. Many school builduigs have a large attic — a waste room that could be utilized for this purpose. An attic is better than a basement room, as it is lighter and drier, with better ventilation. The attic in a building 60 x 125, or even smaller, -^-ith a pitched roof, could be utilized to excellent advantage. Apparatus. — When a gymnasium is mentioned we think of a great array of machines and apparatus as a necessary part of the expenditure, but the apparatus to be eflicient need be neither extensive nor expensive. A good floor space without apparatus is better than fine apparatus without the space. So far as health and rec- reation are concerned, tliese can be obtained by games which need nothing but the space in which to play them. The first requisite m apparatus is a number of good mats. They should be of such sizes that they can be placed side by side for wrestling or end to end for tumbling. In tliis way we can have variety and yet have them com- bined when necessary, e. g., three mats, one, 5 feet by 10 feet by 2 inches, and two, 5 feet by 5 feet by 2 HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 459 inches. These can be used for tumbling, high jumping, and a great variet}* of work of the ver}- best kind. The light apparatus is inexpensive and if necessary can be turned out in the manual- training department. These include dumb-bells, clubs, wands, rings, and hoops. A pair of parallel bars comes next in usefulness and variety, as well as being moderate in price. At this point it is well to duplicate a good piece rather than to spend the same mone}' on too great a variety of appa- ratus. Class work can be conducted better when it can be di^"ided into squads, each one of them doing the same exercise on different pieces of apparatus of the same make. The instructor is able to give better attention in this way. With three sets of parallel bars an instructor can take care of six squads of from six to ten students each doing the exercise which he has set. The next best piece of apparatus is the low horizontal bar or better still an adjustable bar which can be used as a high and as a low bar. These may be folded against the wall and be put out of the wa}' of games. It is needless to go over the different pieces of apparatus, but the general plan is clear. The apparatus of a high school is not necessarily like that of a Y. M. C. A. or athletic dub. In the latter there are a greater variety of persons and a greater va- riation in their tastes. Class work is the ideal for the high school, as the students need the incentive of compe- tition and compan}- to do good work. Apparatus Suitable for a Small Gymnasium.^ — ^The fol- lowing equipment will accommodate a class of from twenty to thirty pupils: 1 Gymnastic apparatus may be obtained from the following firms: Xarragansett Machine Co., Pro\-idence. R. I.; A. G. Spalding & Bros., 126 Nassau St., Xew York, 149 Wabash Avenue, Chicago; Fred IMedart Manig. Co., DeKalb and President Sts., St. Louis; A. Mandl & Co. Chicago, HI. 460 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 30 pairs clubs, iK lbs $16.50 30 pairs dumb-bells, i lb 15 -oo 3 doz. wands 4 . 80 2 mats, 2 in. thick, 5 x 10 60.00 4 mats, 2 in. thick, 5x5 60 . 00 1 set parallel bars. 45 -oo 2 adjustable vaulting bars 52 .00 2 basket-balls 10 . 00 Set basket-ball goals and backstops 24.00 Volley-ball net and ball 6 . 00 I spring-board 2 7 . 00 $320.30 This equipment is quoted at list price and in many cases is subject to discount. Another cut on this could be made by selecting apparatus from several firms, as some pieces are cheaper in one catalogue than in another or, again, some pieces are better from one firm than from another. Again, some of this can be made by a carpenter, or by the manual-training department of the school. The basket-ball backstops can be made on the grounds and at less expense than by shipping them long distances. Outdoor Equipment. — ^A small field near the building is better than a large field at a distance. The sports that are best adapted to high school age are those that can be carried on in a small field. High jump, pole-vault, broad jump, shot put, and even hurdles might well be a part of the regular work of the students. A city lot 75 X 125, well planned and arranged, close to the school, can do more for athletic development of a school than the finest field, beautifully equipped, which is inaccessible to the general student body. Of course, a good field, well equipped and well conducted, is better still if it is easily accessible to students between class hours. Athletics HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS 461 can and should be carried on in classes just as well as apparatus work. The aim of the athletic field should be the same as that of the whole school, first the classroom and the laboratory and then the auditorium. In ath- letics, however, we are apt to reverse this and make the spectator part primary and the laboratory secondary. The responsibility for this rests with the principal and the board of education. So long as they measure the success of a director by the number of cups that he can put in the trophy room, rather than by the straight backs, ruddy complexions, and vigorous physiques of the stu- dent body, so long will he of necessity spend his time and energy on the few and neglect the many. It is just as great a discredit to the director to have students stoop-shouldered and anaemic as it is for the teacher to have failures in his classes. In our class work we are inclined to hold the good stu- dent back, push the poor student on, and mould all to the median. In athletics we push the good student to the limit, and even beyond, and neglect the others. Neither practice is correct; rather, the good student should have exceptional opportunities, the normal should be stimu- lated, and the poor driven forward by the best means at hand — none should be neglected. Physical education will never fulfil its function until director, principal, and governing body reaHze its possibilities and responsibili- ties. They must insist that it be put on a proper basis, with the proper financial backing, being relieved from the necessity of making the gate receipts cover the ex- penditures. Apparatus. — The same principles should govern the outdoor equipment as the indoor. The accommodation of a large number of men is of prime importance. Sets 462 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of jump standards fixed with proper runways, arranged in groups, will accommodate classes as in a laboratory of any other kind. When we realize that this is the very best form of training that can be given to high school students it is a wonder that we have not before appreci- ated it. CHAPTER XVin STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES A. Monroe Stowe, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, DE PAUW UNIVERSITY The Adolescent and the Debating Instinct. — The ado- lescent period is a critical one in the development of the tendency to debate, for it is in the period of ado- lescence that this tendency develops most rapidly. Fol- low any healthy-minded adolescent through a day's activities and you will be surprised at the number of times his ideas, convictions, and beliefs come into conflict with those of other people. You cannot help but admire the way in which he stands by his guns in these conflicts. He is eager not only to defend but also to force others to accept as their own his ideas, convictions, and beliefs. Unfortunately, however, he is not always wise in what he thinks and in what he would have others think and do. He is overhasty in generalizing and in drawing infer- ences. He needs to be taught how to study a problem in a scientific way, to draw tentative conclusions, and to suspend his judgment. He is too eager to debate. He must learn the value of discussion, not only as a means for clearing the way for debate, but also as a means for enlarging knowledge and clearing vision, thereby often making debate unnecessary. And, finally, he needs to learn how to organize and to present his arguments in a logical and forceful way. 463 464 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Such are the needs which high schools without debate courses are endeavoring to meet through high school de- bating societies and through inter-high school debating. It is the aim of the present chapter to discuss infor- mally some of the most important problems which con- front schools that are endeavoring to meet these needs through such student activities. Genuine Debates and Pseudo-Debates. — As student debating activities in too many cases result in what might be called pseudo-debates which develop super- ficiality, insincerity, and other immoral and anti-social tendencies in audiences, as well as in contestants, the problems which we shall consider are but phases of the larger one: Under what conditions and by the util- ization of what methods of procedure may these activi- ties be made to result in genuine debates which shall develop in both audience and debaters thought, sin- cerity, moral purpose, and social capacities? Although our discussion is thus limited to the moral and social education phases of the high school debate problem,^ still the pages which can be devoted to such a discussion are so few that even these phases cannot be given the detailed treatment they deserve. This has been particularly true in the discussion of inter-high school debates. Appar- ently our greatest need for reform is in our inter-high school debate procedure. In reality our greatest imme- diate problems are those associated with the activities of high school debating societies. When these problems are solved in practice we shall have little difficulty in working out a practical solution of the problems of inter- high school debates. The truth of this thesis will become ^The pedagogical aspects of the question are dealt with in High School Education, Chapter XII. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 465 more apparent as we note in our discussion of high school debating societies the many educational and social values which may become realized through the activities of such societies. HIGH SCHOOL DEBATING SOCIETIES Time of Meetings. — Many a debating club has failed because the school has not provided a suitable time for its meetings. If student activities have the educational possibiUties latent in them that in some schools they are giving evidence of possessing, their educational value ought to be officially recognized in the programme of the school, i. e., there ought to be set aside in the programme at least two hours per week for the meetings of the vari- ous student organizations. At this time every student ought to be free from all regular work of the school so that he may attend the meeting of the organization of which he is a member.^ In doing this the school would not only encourage student activities, but also show the students that it appreciates the educational value of what they are endeavoring to accomplish through their organizations.^ Relation of Faculty to Debating Society. — If student activities are to become a vitally important part of the educational work of the school, the faculty as a faculty ^ For students not members of organizations meeting at such times special work should be provided so that they will not be forced to choose between an organization and a free period for loafing or for doing work which should be done at another time. ^ The author has for a long time felt that the school ought to show its appreciation of the work of student organizations by allowing for each year an hour of elective student activity credit, thus making it possible for a student to earn during his course four hours of such credit, the amount of which to be earned in any one form of student activity to be fixed by the faculty. It is recommended that in order to secure an hour 466 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and as individuals must co-operate with the various stu- dent organizations. While plans, constitutions, and by- laws should originate with the students, they ought to be submitted for approval to the faculty or to a committee of the faculty invested with power to grant the students permission to complete their organization if everything is satisfactory. When the plans of the students interested in the pro- posed organizations are being thus considered, the stu- dents concerned are apt to be in a receptive frame of mind for suggestions from those interested in their enterprise. In the case of students interested in the formation of a debating society, it is not difficult to lead them to see that if they are to do successful debate work it will not be wise to organize a literary-debating society or to make their organization "co-educational," since in the literary- debating society the debate work suffers at the expense of the literary and musical interests, and since in societies in which the membership is not limited either to boys or to girls, as the case may be, the members tend to sacrifice debate work for social enjoyment.^ Among the conditions which every student organiza- tion should be required to meet is that of having a fac- ulty adviser, to be chosen by the organization, whose choice, however, should be subject to the approval of either principal or superintendent. To be of genuine of such credit a student must be a member of a student organization which has been officially recognized and approved by the faculty, he must have been regular in his attendance upon the meetings of the organ- ization for a year, and he must be recommended by the organization as one who has during his membership willingly and efficiently performed his duties as a member, all of which must be certified to and approved by the faculty adviser of the organization. ' The writer favors an occasional "open" meeting, to which both sexes are invited and at which the debate work is the most important feature. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 467 service to a debating club, the person chosen as its ad- viser should be one vitally interested in young people and capable of giving them intelligent constructive crit- icism in their work, a person with a knowledge of the best methods of studying a question and of the principles of debate, and, if possible, a person with considerable skill as a debater. Methods of Procedure to Secure Greatest Educational Value. — The customary method of procedure may be sketched as follows: The power to assign questions and sides to members is held by a programme committee Not infrequently a member who is assigned to a side has little interest in the question to be debated, and often when interested in the question he is called upon to advocate the side opposed to his convictions. While he may have had from two to four weeks' notice, the de- bater postpones his preparation until the last minute. The debates are consequently uninteresting, phrased in words which unfortunately express very superficial thought. Three judges are usually appointed to decide which side has "done the better work." Sometimes after the formal debate the question is thrown open for a discussion which many times is the only real and natur ral part of the whole procedure.^ From the point of view of meeting the needs of the students participating, this method of procedure is weak ^ The entire procedure is artificial, since it is based upon a mistaken idea of the nature of debate. In an article entitled, "The Motivation of Debate in Our Secondary Schools," published in The School Review, 19, 546-9, of which much in the next few pages is necessarily a repro- duction, the writer thus briefly contrasts the artificial school debate with the debates experienced in life: "In life the aim of debate is to lead others to act or think as we feel they ought to act or think. In our school debates the aim most frequently is to gain the decision of the Judges. In life we have little respect for the person who is not sincere 468 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in that it fails (i) to give the club an opportunity to select the questions to be debated, (2) to give the indi- vidual member an opportunity to study the problem scientifically, and (3) to give the debater in every case an opportunity either to speak in accordance with his convictions or to convince somebody, which is the very essence of life's debates. Selection of Question. — Such negative criticism of our customary methods of procedure indicates the points at which reform is needed. The club ought to be al- lowed to select the question to be debated. The pro^ cedure of a club with which the writer was at one time associated as adviser is suggestive of what may be done in a positive direction. In this club each of the twenty members presented at the beginning of each term a question which he believed would be of vital interest to the other members of the club. From the questions thus proposed the club selected a number for investiga- tion. This brings us to the second point at which reform is needed. Study of Question. — A satisfactory method of pro- cedure must not only give the adolescent an opportu- nity to study the problem scientifically, but also give him every encouragement to do so. We have already in his efforts to convince us, who really does not believe in the course of action which he would have us take. In our school debates it is not uncommon for debaters to argue against their convictions. In life, logic, voice, gesture, and personality are important means which we use in our endeavors to accomplish the aim of debate. In our school de- bates these means become ends in themselves, points to be noted and scored by judges who use such data in determining their artificial decision. In life we may see the light during debate and capitulate. In school de- bating the student who becomes convinced that he no longer believes in his side is urged to continue in his preparation for what may be justly called an intellectual prize-fight." STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 469 noticed the natural tendency of the adolescent to be an advocate and to look at a question from a biassed point of view. While it may be admitted that the de- bater, in order to win, must study both sides of a ques- tion, there is a difference between the way a scientific investigator and the way a determined advocate "study both sides of a question." The investigator studies all sides in order to discover the best solution of the prob- lem; the advocate studies "the other side" for the purj)ose of discovering its weak points in order to ex- pose them and its strong points in order to find argu- ments with which to weaken their strength. The latter training is not that which the adolescent needs. He needs to learn how to go to a problem with an open mind ready to learn from both sides and to suspend his judgment until he has evidence enough to warrant draw- ing a final conclusion. Then he is ready to begin the work which looks forward to convincing his fellows. Returning to our account of the method of procedure of the club just mentioned, let us note how that club endeavored to encourage its members to study questions scientifically. Of the questions selected for investiga- tion, one was chosen for discussion at the following meet- ing. It will be noted that the question had not yet been formulated as a resolution but was still regarded as a problem to be solved, as, for example: "Ought our city to own and operate its telephone system?" In prepa- ration for the second meeting each member was sup- posed to study the problem and at roll-call report whether or not he had done so. Discussion of Question. — ^At the meeting devoted to the discussion of the problem investigated the various so- lutions were presented together with the arguments and 470 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL data in their support. If, as a result of the discussion, the members came to an agreement as to the best solu- tion of the problem, the question was dropped. If, on the other hand, the discussion failed to result in such an agreement, there resulted a clash which naturally called for debate, and thereupon one of the solutions proposed was incorporated into a resolution to be adopted by the club, as, for example: "Resolved, That it is the sense of this club that our city should own and operate its tele- phone system." Selection of Debaters. — From those eager to have the resolution adopted two affirmative debaters and their two alternates were selected, while from those who believed in other solutions of the problem were chosen the two negatives and their alternates. It will be noted that, as a result of this method of selecting debaters, all the men selected are vitally interested, and that each man is an ardent advocate of the side he has espoused, not because it strikes his fancy, but because it is an expression of his solution of a problem to which he has given an impartial study. Real Debate. — ^After the debaters had been selected a date for the formal debate was fixed. At the meeting at which the formal debate occurred the resolution was formally presented by the first speaker on the affirmative side and was seconded by the second speaker on that side. The debate then proceeded according to any rules which may have been agreed upon with respect to the length of speeches and to the number of rebuttals. At the close of the last rebuttal speech the previous question was moved and a written ballot taken. In voting, each mem- ber expressed his conviction as it stood after he had listened to both sides. In order to pass the resolution STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 471 it was necessary to secure a two-thirds vote. If the neg- ative side received two thirds of the votes cast the reso- lution was considered "killed," while if neither side re- ceived such a vote the resolution was placed on the list of debatable questions. In preparing themselves for such debates the debaters knew that the debate would call for more than a mere marshalling of logical arguments. Arguments had to be presented in such a way as to carry conviction in the minds of a group of live men, each of whom was more or less prejudiced by his previous study of the question. In order to carry such conviction to the minds of others, the debater himself had to be convinced. If during his preparation any one of the debaters discovered evidence which destroyed his conviction, it was his duty to with- draw and to allow his place to be taken by one of the alternates working on his side. It will readily be seen that this method of procedure introduces life situations which naturally evoke debate and which permit the aims of debate to be realized. All members have training in investigating and solving problems. These problems are proposed by the mem- bers themselves. Only questions upon which there is a genuine disagreement are debated. The integrity of each debater is preserved, since all taking an active part in the debate on the adoption of the resolution have ar- rived at their convictions through an independent study of the problems involved. The real motive for debate is preserved, since all the efforts of the debaters are con- centrated upon convincing their fellow members. Excellent as the method of procedure Just described may be from the point of view of the reahzation of the educational values of student debating, the writer has 472 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL discovered from experience that no matter how satis- factory a method of procedure may prove to be at first, the students tend to tire of it unless there is introduced from time to time a change. He therefore recommends the following modifications of the method just proposed : the "open-debate" plan and what might be called a "jury" or "commission" scheme. The Open-Debate Plan.— In the open -debate plan the method of procedure is unchanged up to the point of formulating the resolution, the formulation of which should be left to the meeting at which the formal debate is to occur. The first speaker recognized by the chair at that time has the privilege and the advantage of express- ing his solution in the form of a resolution to be adopted by the club. As it is not known which solution will be- come the resolution to be debated, each member preparing to take part in the debate has to prepare a defence and a number of attacks upon solutions with which he dis- agrees. After the first speaker has finished speaking the question is open to the club for debate, each member having the privilege either of speaking a certain number of minutes or of allowing his time to be taken by another speaker on his side. The club is free to make what rules it desires concerning the number, length, and character of rebuttals. At the close of the period set aside for de- bate the previous question is moved and a written ballot taken, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to carry the resolution. The Commission Plan. — In the "jury" or "commis- sion" scheme the club divides itself into groups of seven or eight. Each of these groups takes a problem of inter- est to its members, studies it, discusses it, and in case of disagreement incorporates one of the solutions into a STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 473 resolution and reports to the club the date when it will be ready to debate a solution of the problem it has been studying. Upon the date set for the debate the resolu- tion is read to the club, which, if it is a large one, selects a jury, or impartial commission, to Listen to and weigh the arguments of both sides and report back to the club a decision either in favor of or against the resolution. Each member of the commission is requested to divest himself of all prejudice so far as possible and to base his decision only upon the evidence presented. His re- port reads: ''After listening to and weighing the argu- ments of both sides and taking into consideration only the evidence introduced in the debate, I recommend that the club ^ adopt the following resolution, "2 A majority of the votes of the "commis- sioners" is necessary in order to present a favorable report, while a failure on the part of the affirmative to secure such a majority is considered a victory for the negative. In either case the report, together with the names of the "commissioners," is entered in the minutes of the meeting. Although all of the three methods proposed present life situations which naturally call forth debate and thereby motivate the work, the "jury" or "commission" scheme has several advantages over the other two in that (i) it permits of a larger number of problems being studied and discussed at one time, and (2) it furnishes an opportunity to train members for meeting situations in life where one has to make a decision based upon evi- dence presented rather than upon private opinion or prejudice.' ^ Either do or do not to be inserted. ' Insert resolution. ^It is recommended that for the sake of variety the three methods ^be used interchangeably. 474 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Work of Faculty Adviser. — While the methods just proposed motivate the debate work as well as provide safeguards against mistakes which the adolescent is prone to make, still, without the active guidance of the faculty adviser debate work carried on in accordance with any of the plans suggested will fail to realize the educational value which it is possible to realize with the co-operation of an intelligent and sympathetic adviser. It is the ad- viser who from time to time gives helpful suggestions concerning the best methods of studying the problems proposed, concerning the best sources and methods of collecting and organizing data, and concerning the best ways of finding the main issues in the discussions. It is he to whom the debaters go for suggestions for making briefs before the debate and from whom after the debate they receive constructive criticisms which indicate clearly to them any fallacies in reasoning, any mannerisms or forms of expression which hindered them in their ef- forts to carry conviction to the minds of their listeners. The hsteners, too, receive from him their share of help- ful criticism when, either as voters or as members of a "jury" or ''commission," they give evidence that they have been misled by fallacies of reasoning or by tricks of speaking, or that they have allowed their prejudices or preconceptions to stand in the way of the proper weigh- ing of the evidence presented in the debate. INTER-HIGH SCHOOL DEBATING Relation of High School Faculty to Inter-High School Debating. — ^Those who have come into close touch with inter-high school debates appreciate not only the value of the training which may be gained through them but also the justice of the claims made by thoughtful ob- STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 475 servers that too often these debates tend to develop superficial thinkers and insincere speakers and to foster in those participating in them deceit, trickery, and dis- honesty. If the social and educational possibilities in inter-high school debating are to be developed, the fac- ulties of the schools participating must co-operate with the students, and in order to protect their students from the evils of inter-high school debating they must deter- mine the number of contests which the students may hold only after the faculty has approved the rules under which the debate games are to be played. Methods of Procedure Needed to Realize Social and Educational Possibilities. — A critical examination of the customary methods of procedure in inter-high school de- bates will reveal the following weak points: the meth- ods of procedure utilized fail to give the student body a chance to accept or to reject debate as a "school activity" or to express its ideas as to what schools ought to be challenged; the present methods of procedure fail to give the students participating an opportunity to study the question impartially, to debate in accordance with their convictions, or to convince any one that their con- tention is right; the present methods tend to encour- age too great dependence upon the debate coach and too much attention upon winning the decision of the judges; and, finally, they encourage an ti -social conduct at debates. If inter-high school debates are to become genuine interschool contests, the student bodies of the schools participating must have opportunity to accept the re- sponsibilities connected (i) with determining who shall be the opponents, (2) with the choosing of debaters, (3) with approving the rules of the game, and (4) with 476 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL financing the contests. This means that the students interested in debate should very early in the year come to some decision among themselves upon these four points, and should secure the provisional approval of their plans by the school authorities, who should give them permission to present to the student body the ap- proved definite proposals concerning each of the above- mentioned points. The time at which the students con- sult the authorities concerning debate plans for the year is a favorable one for making any of the following rec- ommendations which may appeal to the reader as worth trying. The suggestions which follow assume the use of the triangular-debate plan.^ This plan would necessitate the challenging of two schools, B and C, by the students of school A. While schools B and C would be free to choose their debaters as they please, the student body of school A would approve a plan for selecting theirs at the above-mentioned mass-meeting. A plan which is fair to all concerned is that of allowing all students inter- ested in making the inter-high school debate teams the privilege of joining a "debate squad" which in its rela- tion to the faculty should be considered a student de- bating club entitled to the privileges of such clubs as well as bound by the obligations of such societies. Among these obligations is that of choosing a faculty adviser, such choice to be subject to the approval of the principal or the superintendent. Selection of Question and Debaters. — The choice of a question should be left to the students from whom will be chosen the debaters. What the "squad" of school A may insist upon is that the question be one which ^ C/. " High School Education," C. H. Johnston and others, 250-1. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 477 they have had an opportunity to study impartially and upon which there has developed in the "squad" a genu- ine disagreement. Such disagreement, coming as a re- sult of an impartial study of the problem, will naturally divide the "squad" into two groups, one upholding the contention of the affirmatives, the other that of the nega- tives. By the time the question has been officially ac- cepted by the schools, the number of men in the squad will probably have decreased until there are left the men who will become the debaters and alternates. As the time for the debate draws near the men will probably desire the adviser to make the final selection of the de- baters. Place of Debate. — To do away with the intense parti- sanship which mars so many debates as well as to take advantage of the inter-high school debates as a means for training students socially, it is recommended that the debate schools B and C be held at school A, that be- tween A and C at B, and that between A and B at C. According to this plan each school on the date of the debate would become the host of the representatives of the other two schools. Everything in the power of the schools acting as hosts should be done to make the visits of the representatives of the other two schools as plea- surable and profitable as possible. Our students need to learn both how to entertain visiting teams and how to be entertained when members of such teams. A great many educational values which might be realized through such visits are not realized to-day. Provisions for the Debate. — To provide persons for the debaters to convince it is suggested that the authori- ties of the schools in which the debates are to be held be requested to select a "jury" of twelve students, to be chosen because of their intelligence and their reputa- 478 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tion for fairness as well as on account of the fact that they have no decided opinion upon the question and no prejudices for or against either schools or individuals con- testing.^ These twelve should promise to listen carefully to the arguments and evidence introduced in the debate, at the close of which they are to conscientiously report their decision on some such form as: "After having care- fully listened to and weighed the arguments and evidence submitted by both sides, and taking into consideration only those arguments and that evidence, I am ^ the resolution, "^ In order to provide for giving due credit to argumenta- tion, it is recommended that a judge, a capable lawyer, or some other person qualified to pass intelUgent judgment on arguments be chosen from the community in which the debate is to be held to act as judge of briefs ^ and of arguments presented in the debate.^ In order to provide for giving due credit to public speaking, it is recommended that a committee of repre- sentative citizens of the community in which the debate is to take place be chosen to give a decision in favor of the team doing the better public speaking.^ ^ Responsible members of the community may be selected as "jurors" if this seems advisable. Students are suggested with a view to giving them the valuable training described on pages 472-3. ^ Insert either in favor of, or opposed to. ^ Resolution should be written or printed in full. * Briefs should be submitted to the judge on argumentation in time for him to give them careful consideration before the debate. ^ The judge on argumentation might also be requested to give to the "jury" before the debate such instructions as might be necessary to assist them in making intelHgent decisions in the light of the evidence which may be presented. ^ This committee should keep in mind the fact that a debate contest is not a declamation contest, but one the aim of which is to develop the ability of students to express thoughts which they have carefully thought out but the form of which they have not committed to memory. STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 479 Finally, it is recommended that two points be allowed for the decision of the "jurors," one point for the decision of the judge on argumentation and one point for the committee on public speaking, and that the team re- ceiving three or more points be awarded the victory. In case there is a tie vote of the "jurors," it is recommended that one point be awarded each side. Difficulties. — One difficulty in the way of adopting the recommendations just made is the financial problem. It will take considerable money to send two teams away from home and to entertain the visiting teams, but this will probably require little more than has been required in the past to pay the expenses of teams and of judges. It is the contention of the writer that debates conducted in accordance with the recommendations offered can be made of so great educational value that boards of educa- tion, if the matter is properly presented to them, will be wilHng to bear part of the expenses, while the student body, since it has voted to make inter-high school debate a school enterprise, may be counted upon to see that the balance is raised either by small assessments or by sub- scription. This would make it possible to have the de- bates free entertainments to which both the school and the community might be cordially invited. Would students attend a debate in which neither of the teams contesting belong to their school? While only a trial of the plan proposed will answer this question, it would seem that if the student body had voted to accept the plan and the responsibility of entertaining the visit- ing teams it ought not take very much persuasion on the part of any one to get them to attend the debate, espe- cially if the other parts of the programme were furnished by the best talent of the school. 480 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL No plans for the reform of inter-high school debating can be successfully carried out without the active co-op- eration of the faculties of the schools participating. The suggestions which have been presented in this chapter require such faculty co-operation. The opportunities offered the adviser of a ''debate squad" are even greater than those of the advisers of debating societies, since his men are preparing for a public contest. If he proves merely the old-time debate coach who gives his teams not only their arguments but also the verbal expression of those arguments, we shall have under the proposed plans results just as unsatisfactory as those to which attention has been called. If, on the other hand, he recognizes the educational possibilities of his work and helps the men of his "squad" to do such foundation work as will enable them to work independently, the situations pro- vided in the suggested plans are such as to inspire the men to put their best efforts into their work as well as to call forth and develop in the students participat- ing not only knowledge but also those traits and abili- ties which make for the best type of social and civic efi&ciency. Editor's Footnote As in several other instances, the editor requested the author to formulate, in addition to his ideal scheme, some possible grad- ual modification of the method of procedure now general and which now results in what the author terms "pseudo-debates." The author, however, is convinced that no gradual modification of the present vicious method of procedure is desirable. He would go further and even advocate instead of such a policy the temporary discontinuance of inter-high school debating until changed conditions make a radical departure from present meth- ods possible. To answer queries which the editor thinks will arise in the minds of many readers he appends the following author's note: STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 481 Author^s Note To the reader who has not studied carefully principles of social action and of debate in life, the suggestions offered in the discus- sion of inter-high school debates will probably appear "ideal," "radical," and "impracticable," all of which the writer admits, with some qualifications. The suggestions are "ideal" in the sense that they embody principles of real life. Lack of interest in debate on the part of the student body is due, to a great extent, to a neglect or disre- gard of fundamental principles of social co-operation. The stu- dent body has been appealed to at the wrong time and the appeal has too often been one fundamentally false. Student bodies have been begged to "come out to support those who were to defend the honor of the school in debate." That the students feel there is something wrong with the appeal is indicated by the way in which they come, or rather fail to come. That they have misconceptions as to the nature of the support which they ought to give is evidenced by their anti-social conduct at the debates. And then there is always that embarrassing question: "Who gave the debaters authority to defend the honor of the school? " The failure on the part of those interested in debate to secure the approval and acceptance of the student body of their plans and purposes has resulted in inter-high school debates which are such in name only, while their failure to incorporate in their procedure principles of debate in life has resulted in pseudo-debates which, as we have noted, develop superficiality, insincerity, and anti- social tendencies in audiences as well as in debaters. The suggestions are radical in that they go to the root of the difficulty. We have suffered from misconceptions of the true nature of debate and of the function of inter-high school debating. We have aped the colleges here as elsewhere. Unfortunately, college methods of procedure were such as to prove harmful to college students, while when transplanted to high school soil they produced an even greater harvest of evils. Educational laymen are awakening to these evil tendencies which are thus briefly mentioned by Mr. Roosevelt in the first chapter in his "Chapters of a Possible Autobiography" {Outlook, No. 103, p. 406): "Personally, I have not the slightest sympathy with de- 482 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL bating contests in which each side is arbitrarily assigned a given proposition and told to maintain it without the least reference to whether those maintaining it believe in it or not. . . . There is no effort to instil sincerity and. intensity of conviction. On the contrary, the net result is to make the contestants feel that their convictions have nothing to do with their arguments. ... I am exceedingly glad that I did not take part in the type of debate in which stress is laid not upon getting the speaker to think rightly but on getting him to talk glibly on the side to which he is assigned, without regard either to what his convictions are or to what they ought to be." It is time that we go to the root of the difi&culty. We need to be radical. Turning to the third criticism, I admit that conditions in many high schools are such that the suggestions are impracticable at the present time. In such cases I would recommend action which would so change conditions that within a year or two the suggestions could be easily and naturally incorporated into practice. At the proper time, faculties of such high schools should say very frankly to those interested in making arrange- ments for inter-high school debates: "We believe most heartily in genuine inter-high school debates; but while we shall be glad to do all in our power to encourage such debates, we are deter- mined to prevent our students from suffering from the evils of many so-called inter-high school debates. We shall therefore allow inter-high school debates to take place only under the fol- lowing conditions: (i) when the student bodies of the schools concerned have approved the plans and have accepted the re- sponsibilities connected with the debate; and (2) when the rules of the game are such that debaters will have genuine opportu- nities (a) to study the problem impartially, (b) to debate only in accordance with convictions arising from such preliminary study, and (c) to convince 'judges,' 'jurors,' or 'commission- ers ' who return the ' verdict ' that their contentions are right, just, or reasonable and are to be accepted in preference to the contention of the other side." The announcement of such a policy would probably result, in many cases, in a discontinuance of inter-high school debating for a year or two, which would be very good for the schools con- cerned, since it would give them ample opportunity to concen- trate all their attention upon the problem of developing strong STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES 483 debating societies within the school. Such societies under the supervision of competent faculty advisers will, within a year or two, develop (a) a number of skilful and sincere debaters who are well prepared to become members of a debate squad, (b) well-balanced and careful students capable of serving as non- partisan judges or jurors, and (c) an interest in debate on the part of the student body which may be counted upon to encour- age debate as an "all-school" activity. We must rely upon our high school debating societies to develop for us the well-prepared debaters and the sympathetically yet intelligently critical audi- ences absolutely needed, if we are to successfully solve our inter- high school debate problem. It is the steady educational work done by our high school debating societies which will bring about the change in conditions that will make the incorporation of the suggestions into practice not only practicable but advisable and natural. Hence the space given to the problems of high school debating societies. My attention has been called to the difficulty which would be experienced in an endeavor to put my financial suggestion into practice. Here, again, I believe that our hope lies in the high school debating society. Get any school board or group of citi- zens intelligently interested in the work of our schools to visit a wide-awake meeting of a high school debating society under the supervision of a skilled faculty adviser. You will have little diffi- culty in securing the funds for your inter-high school debate con- tests if you show them clearly how such contests will tend to improve still further the debate work of the students and explain to them the educational and social values which can be secured through such contests. In conclusion the author desires to say that he will be glad to answer any personal inquiries sent to him concerning questions raised in this chapter or note and to receive reports from those who endeavor to put into practice any of the suggestions offered in this chapter. CHAPTER XIX HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM: STUDYING NEWS- PAPERS AND UTILIZING THE SCHOOL PAPER Merle Thorpe, A.B. professor of journalism, university of kansas High school teachers are overlooking a valuable asset by not making an intelligent use of a good city newspaper as a supplementary text. In addition to the cultural value, it would seem to vitalize the work in all courses; and while we are on the subject of high school journalism, a discussion of the school paper is in order. It is gener- ally considered a bugbear by faculties, but under the skilful direction of teachers it could be made a powerful educational agent. I. STUDYING THE NEWSPAPER Some teachers already require a study of "current events," but for the most part the results do not justify the energy expended, as the work is not systematized. The usual method of conducting such a class is to allow students to bring in haphazard items clipped from ran- dom newspapers. Without direction, youth is apt to place more value on the news that a cat was rescued from a telephone pole by the fire department than on an account of a peace treaty between two world powers. Crime and the details of crime too often submerge the significant news of the day. Indeed, this is the excuse 484 HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 485 generally given by editors for publishing "inconsiderate trifles" — the majority of their readers makes the demand imperative. A student first of all should be taught to read the news- ■ paper for significant events. His reading should be sys- tematized for him. Instead of the haphazard items, the student should be trained to look for the most important happening, say, in national politics, appearing in to-day's paper. One member of the class may consider the Presi- dent's charge that there is an insidious lobby at work in Washington to be the most important. Another may ex- press his opinion that the administration's views on "dol- lar diplomacy" are more significant. These and other opinions will lead to a hvely discussion, after which the class may vote on the relative impontance of the news items, jotting down in note-books the result. After national politics have been discussed, foreign and state affairs and news of the scientific, literary, dramatic, and religious world should be taken up in the same way. It will be found that the student will take a keen inter- est in comparing his judgment with that of the editors of the Literary Digest, Outlook, a,nd Independent at the end of the week's work. Here the teacher is availing himself of the strongest incentive of youth — the spirit of contest. He makes the work a game. To the suc- cessful teacher the plan has possibilities of variation. After the student has made out a dummy of what he thinks ought to be treated in the week's Literary Digest, he may extend his view over the month and compete with the editors of Current Opinion and the Review of Reviews. The value of the information thus gained is apparent. University students, to say nothing of high school stu- 486 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL dents, are wofiilly ignorant of what is going on about them. They are not only provincial but pathetically ridiculous. In a recent examination, members of a soph- omore class at the University of Kansas thought Gif- ford Pinchot a senator from Oregon, that Bryan was President of the United States Senate, that Albania was in Asia, and that Jane Addams was an actress. As an Aid in Teaching Geography and History. — There is another value not so apparent. In the daily paper before me there is an account of the recall of Ambassador Wilson, an editorial charging the President with usurping the powers of Congress, and a Kansas executive advo- cating a commission form of government for the State. What an opportunity for a teacher to use this paper in making real certain chapters in civil government! In the same paper is shown a map of Europe to make clear the Bulgarian campaign; reference to various Mexican cities and provinces involved in revolution; and a sched- ule of the stops and route of a cross-continent automobile path-j&nding trip. What an excellent opportunity for the teacher to visualize geography and history! As an Aid in Teaching English Composition. — If there were no other benefits, the value to teachers of English composition would justify the study of the newspaper. In addition to the wide-spread criticism that students are not taught to express themselves in either written or spoken English, there is a feehng among teachers them- selves that something is wrong with the present system. It is lamentably true that a freshman in college fails to show the results of a four-year training in high school EngHsh. Nor does the university seem able to send him out four years later equipped to express himself clearly. Rhetoric in college and in high schools is generally HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 487 looked jpon by students as the most disagreeable of sub- jects. The English teachers have felt this aversion and, be it said to their credit, have tried to make the work more interesting — witness the two hundred or more texts on the subject and the commission now at work investi- gating the teaching of English. I believe that the dis- like for the subject is due to the fact that it is approached from the wrong side. The student is not led to see the rhetorical principles as his friends, as the tools with which he can express himself clearly and forcefully in conversation and in written discourse. Another reason for the student's aversion is that he feels that rhetoric is fit and proper for the author and poet who are to write the world's masterpieces but a lot of grind and rubbish for the ordinary student. After the student has learned to discriminate between the froth and worth-while news material, let him take note of the means by which the workaday writers have made themselves clear. Here in the good newspaper he will find excellent examples of description, narration, ex- position, and argument. In this well- written "story" he will be surprised to learn that the reporter has had re- course to figures of speech, to negation, to inverted sen- tence structure, and the hundred other tools found in his despised rhetoric. And he comes to admire these tools because he sees them doing bread-and-butter jobs. He finds them enlisted to help a man paint a picture clearly and faithfully, to put an opinion forcefully, to arouse emotion by the rightly chosen word and proper sentence structure. I am not forgetting that many imperfections are to be found in the best-edited newspapers, but the goal of a newspaper is to make itself understood, and nowhere will you find clearer English. Society will be 488 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL satisfied if the student is taught clearness; beauty and force will follow naturally. The teacher must be ready to point out the well-written stories and to teach his students to recognize the imperfections of hastily writ- ten copy. Under the head-line, "A Poet Mused of Eternity," the Kansas City Star, before me, prints the following tele- graph story from Indianapohs : The sun, which had shone warm and bright upon James Whit- comb Riley's anniversary last Monday, was hidden in gray clouds yesterday. There was a dampness and chill in the October air. At noon a friend who had dropped in at the old, tree-hidden house on Lockerbie Street, famous the world over, found the poet sit- ting alone in his study before a bright fire of sea coal. Clustered roses, sent by his friends, shed their fragrance through the dark- ened room, their petals slowly dropping in the warm air. On every piece of the quaint, old-fashioned furniture that Riley al- ways has clung to lay messages of congratulation from friends. A sofa was heaped with letters and telegrams that told of re- joicing over the fact that the poet was beginning a new year. The little room, as always, spoke again of friends, friends, friends. And before the dancing fire in the hearth sat Riley, musing on the friends of yesterday. It was not long, in the silence, before he repeated, as though half to himself, those lines of Walter Savage Landor: "I warmed both hands before the fire of Hfe; It sinks, and I am ready to depart." But he did not allow the beautiful, melancholy words to die out without a more cheerful gloss. "Landor's old age was un- happy, wasn't it?" he asked. "While I — " The sentence did not need completion. The story runs on for a column, telUng of a motor ride with Mr. Riley and the poet's ideas of eternity. To point out the perfect blending of description and narra- HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 489 tion, exposition and argument, the maintenance of tone, the hundred rhetorical devices used, is of more value to the student than to commit a dozen pages of rhetoric text. And here, in another paper, is an account of the John- son-Jeffries fight. It overflows with graphic description and stirring narration, brought about by skilful use of rhetorical principles. There is room for only three para- graphs of the two-column story. Reno, Nevada, July 4. — To-day we saw a tragedy. A tre- mendous, crushing anticlimax had happened, and we are dazed. Some 15,000 of us went out and broiled ourselves in the sun to see a great prize-fight, and, while it was great from the standpoint of a spectacle and from the courage displayed, it was in reality no fight at all. It was a pitiful, pitiful tragedy. Time had outwitted the keenest of us, and instead of the Jeffries we had known and had come to think was still among us, we saw the shell of a man, fair to the eye and awe-inspiring in his shape, to be sure, but empty of the youth's vigor. The spark had died. The years had done their work. No fierceness of will, no gallant determination could fan it to a flame again. And so he lost. Time had cunningly hidden her work, and no man was gifted with the sight to see cold ashes that lay where once a flame had flickered. It was a cruel lesson, marking as it did the inevitable march of years and age and the waste of a Godlike heritage. While in actual point of days there was little difference in the two, the negro had maintained his youth through a life of exer- cise and physical care, while the white man had grown heavy with idleness. And for an application of the principles of argumen- tation or persuasion, where could a better example be found than on the editorial page? Or where get that lively interest that comes to a student with the knowl- edge that here is a man who, in urging a community to 490 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL action, must resort to the rules laid down in his English book on composition. Pick up any good newspaper and . there will be found such editorials as the following from the New York Times, practising the theory of the text: The concerted action of the police against the annoyance of beggars in the streets and other pubHc places is gratifying. There has been entirely too great laxity of late in this matter. Street beggars are almost always impostors. They ply their trade in defiance of the law. Latterly they have infested not only Fifth Avenue but many other streets, especially Central Park West and Upper Broadway. They loom upon solitary pedestrians out of the shadows, with their whining pleas, in which may be often detected a threatening tone. Beggars should be driven from the streets and kept away from all public places. The police always attack this nuisance energetically when the order to do so is given. But they are too frequently discouraged by the magistrates. There is a pen- alty for public mendicancy which magistrates should enforce. It cannot be politics which causes many magistrates contemp- tuously to dismiss cases of this kind with a gratuitous rebuke to the officer making the charge. It may be sentimentality, some of our magistrates are exceptionally soft-hearted — or it may be down-right perversity. Whatever it is, it should be stopped. Street beggars are undesirable persons. They are frequently thieves. Indeed, such a critical study of rhetorical forms and methods in the newspaper will not only prove helpful to the student, but it should serve to invigorate the teacher himself. It should keep him from losing sight of the fact that the ultimate purpose of teaching English com- position is to equip students to use intelligible English in every-day speaking and writing. Too often the teacher, with the student, forgets this and looks upon the instruc- tion as a training for the composition of a deathless essay or epic. HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 491 II. UTILIZING THE HIGH SCHOOL PAPER In general, the high school paper is a plaything. It is brought forth in ignorance, both on the part of the faculty and students. In too many cases it is distinctly harmful, in that it presents to receptive minds low ideals of humor, faulty emphasis on news values, and poor standards of business methods. It is a waste of energy and vitality. Properly directed, however, the high school publication can be made a powerful help to the school and its activi- ties. First of all, it should contain the news of the school, the information on athletics, debating, oratory, social affairs, assemblies, and the work of the various de- partments of the school, such as accounts of unique experiments in the sciences, the acquisition of new appa- ratus, addition of new courses, changes in policy or direc- tion of the work, and the development of different courses. The paper should also contain a department of opinion and comment on school affairs. Not only ought it to contain the opinion of the paper's editors but it should invite its readers to use this department for healthy criticism. Nor can the entertainment side be ignored. The paper must reflect first of all the life and atmosphere of the school. It cannot be made into a tract, or being unread, will fail of its first object — to be read. But there are qualities and qualities of entertainment. The silly per- sonal reference should be eUminated. The humor must be in good taste. The best literary efforts of the stu- dents should be sought out and pubHshed. A bit of clever verse is desirable. The paper can encourage stu- dents of an artistic bent by giving outlet for their work. 492 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL I have already spoken of the student's aversion to rhetoric. The high school paper will offer golden oppor- tunities to the resourceful teacher. Instead of dry-as- dust exercises "On an October afternoon," "Why I came to High School," or an essay on "Truth," the student can get practice in writing descriptive narration of a football game, a chapel speech, or a school rally. And he will gladly miss his dinner to do it. He has the human incen- tive of seeing his creation in print; he is dealing with life; he has the desire to reproduce faithfully because his effort will be put to the test by his fellows. With a well- defined picture in mind and a burning desire to paint it, he feels the need of help. When assisted to find the pre- cise word, the well-turned sentence, the value of sugges- tion, negation, climax, or what-not, he makes friends of these processes at first hand. He learns rhetoric. And what is of no small importance, he enjoys it. Accuracy in observation, accuracy in drawing con- clusion, accuracy in expression should be the first and last commandments of the high school journahsts. The gathering and the writing of the news should be conducted on as accurate a basis as the working out of a problem in geometry or an experiment in chemistry. The high school paper has boundless opportunities to further the best interests of the school. Its powers are limited only by the ability of those directing it to grasp the importance of their trust. •^ It can unify the school by discouraging dissension among the various classes of students and between students and faculty; it can pro- mote a healthy pride by emphasizing the good in school life and denouncing the bad; it can promote respect for authority by not treating lightly matters of disciphne; HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 493 it can create a better taste by avoiding petty gossip and personal inanities. The social significance of this plan is apparent to the thoughtful reader. Such a study of the daily newspaper will result in a better culture because of the wider information and broader outlook it gives the citizens of to-morrow. It will serve to vitalize the class work by interpreting the text-book in terms of every-day use- ful information. It will apply rhetoric to the practical problem of clear expression. It will make more dis- criminating readers of newspapers and consequently create an insistent demand for better newspapers. Getting the Paper Started. — In getting the paper started, the faculty will have a twofold problem to meet: first, to put the paper on a sound financial basis, and sec- ond, to make it efficient editorially. From the beginning the paper should be controlled in an advisory way by the faculty. The students should be allowed freedom to work out their own policies, but under the direction of some older head. A faculty supervisor, or adviser, should be appointed, preferably some one who combines business experience with newspaper training, or who possesses either of these quaHfications. In his hands should be left the entire project. Selecting the Staff. — The first move of the faculty adviser will be the selection of the staff. The two lead- ers of the different divisions of the paper, the editorial and the business, should be named first. As far as pos- sible, the students themselves should be given a voice in the election of the members of the staff, but in no way should the success of the paper be endangered by per- 494 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL mitting popular but weak students to take the leading positions. The business manager should be appointed by the faculty adviser. He ought to be a hard-working, intelligent student, who shows an aptitude for business affairs. The election of the editor might be left to the senior class with the provision that the candidates meet the approval of the faculty adviser. The class could offer from four to ten names for the post, and these could be thinned down by the faculty adviser to two candi- dates, upon whom the class could vote. The selection of the other members of the staff could be made in the same way, or be appointed by the teachers of the classes they represent. A working staff should consist of a business manager, an advertising manager, a circulation manager, an editor and an assis- tant editor, reporters for each class or roll room, the editors of the various departments of the paper such as society, sporting, exchange, debate, literary, humor, and alumni. Duties of the Staff. — The business manager should have charge of the entire financial end of the paper, di- recting the circulation and advertising managers. He should be responsible for the funds, and should make regular reports to the faculty adviser, who should audit his books from time to time. The advertising manager should soHcit advertising, gather the copy, and assist the business manager in collecting the bills. The duties of the circulation manager include signing up subscrip- tions, keeping accounts of the circulation, and distrib- uting the papers. The editor and his assistant should decide the poHcies of the paper, plan the news for each issue, give out assign- ments, prepare the copy for the printer, write the heads, and make up the paper. The rest of the staff HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 495 will act as news gatherers, each covering some special school activity or some classroom. Preparing for Publishing. — The faculty adviser, the business manager, and the editor should decide definitely the size and general typographical characteristics of the paper. A convenient form would be a three or four col- umn quarto, twelve inches long, set in eight-point type, leaded. The volume of the circulation should be esti- mated, and with this information, approximate bids on the cost of the printing should be obtained from the publishers of the city or the town. A four-page pam- phlet such as that described with five hundred circula- tion, allowing one third for display advertising, should cost from eight to fifteen dollars an issue. With this information at hand, the subscription and advertising rates can be worked out to insure the financial success of the paper. The advertising rates should not drop lower than twenty-five cents an inch and the subscrip- tion rate not below fifty cents a year, or twenty-five cents a semester. Campaigning for Circulation. — ^The faculty adviser and the staff should make a vigorous circulation cam- paign, with a view of getting a subscription from each student, each faculty member, and as many citizens and alumni as possible. An assembly should be held to promote the plan, each member of the staff should be enlisted as a subscription agent, and other agents should be appointed until the entire field is covered. The campaign should be carried on briskly, not more than one week being given over to it. Enthusiastic work should bring in within that time orders from every pos- sible subscriber in the field. If some have trouble raising the cash at the time, their signatures and promises to pay should be taken at once and filed. 496 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Gathering Advertising. — Under direction of the faculty adviser, the business manager and the advertising man- ager should make the rounds of the merchants present- ing the opportunities of the paper as an advertising me- dium. A rate card of prices should be made out, giving reductions to those who take fifty inches or more, and this rate card should be strictly maintained, no cutting in any way being countenanced. If the rate is fixed at twenty-five cents an inch, the contract price for fifty inches or more should run about twenty cents an inch. The price of advertising reading notices should be main- tained at one cent a word, with a minimum charge of fifteen cents. An effort should be made to induce each merchant to sign a contract for the number of inches he will take during the year. The Physical Appearance of the Paper. — Care should be taken to have the paper present a quiet, neat appear- ance. Bold-faced type should be avoided as far as pos- sible. On account of the size of the paper, small type such as the following should be used in the head-lines : For News Stories JUNIORS WIN HONORS IN FIRST ORATORY CONTEST Eighteen to twenty letters to a line (count I as half space; M and W as one and a half spaces). Seniors to Entertain Faculty Three or four short words For Feature Departments WITH THE ALUMNI HIGH SCHOOL JOURNALISM 497 III. WRITING FOR LOCAL PAPER Teachers finding it inadvisable to start a school paper might enlist the support of the local editor in pre- paring assignments of town or city feature stories for the students, or the better students might be given news assignments. The teacher, of course, would " read copy," and thus train the student in English composi- tion. Writing about live subjects, the student has an incentive to do his best. This is necessary in creative work of any kind. IV. CONCLUSION Too often the newspaper editor is forced to the de- fence: "I must give my readers what they want. I'm sorry the public likes this kind of newspaper, but an economic law compels me to furnish it the commodity it will pay for." Better newspaper readers will make for better newspapers. If a million high school pupils were taught to read their papers with discrimination, were taught to distinguish the significant from the trivial, to place a ready finger on opinion in the news, to regard with disgust those attempts to play upon the baser emotions, the American press would quickly re- spond. And herein lies the social value of a study of the newspaper in the schools. CHAPTER XX SIGB. SCHOOL FRATERNITIES AND THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SCHOOL John Calvin Hanna, A.M. STATE SUPERVISOR OF HIGH SCHOOLS OF ILLINOIS, FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF THE OAK PARK AND RIVER FOREST TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, OAK PARK, ILL, The Change in the High School. — ^At first sight the character of the high school in America would seem to have changed radically, thoroughly, and in almost every particular ''^within the last thirty or forty years. The remarkable development in the architecture and material equipment of high school buildings; the extension and strengthening of the courses offered; the increased prev- alence of the elective system; the growth of many sorts of unofficial and semiofficial activities such as athletics, periodicals, clubs — all these and many more give so striking an impression of change and contrast that a sincere student of secondary education is likely to come to the conclusion that the high school is not only im- mensely developed but that it is totally changed in character. Signs of the Change. — When we hear references to action by the ''high school faculty"; when we see a news- paper item about such and such a person as "dean of girls" in the Grand Trunk High School; when we know of a Shakespearean comedy or a Gilbert and Sullivan 498 HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 499 opera staged by the class of 191 2; when we see head- lines discussing the action of the board of control of the high school athletic league or see an account of a field meet rivalling in descriptive language and apparent im- portance the great intercollegiate gatherings ; or when we know of a five-thousand mile trip taken by a high school football squad to settle a championship — when these things are brought to our attention, we look back upon the modest little high school of the seventies, where we sat two by two, in a room up-stairs above the "primary kids," and studied and recited lessons in algebra and "analysis" (perhaps of "Lady of the Lake"), in Latin possibly, and a little English history; and where it was considered progressive, indeed, if we had a course in Steele's "Fourteen Weeks in Astronomy (or Chemis- try)"; where there was no thought of class organiza- tion or rivalry; where no one dreamed of instruction in orchestral music, stenography, trigonometry, domestic economy, foundry, pottery, pure-food testing, swim- ming, basket-ball, and the critical study of Burke's Speech on Conciliation; nay, where even a baseball game was a thing wholly outside of and unrelated to school and where a victory of the "Eastsiders" over the "Bughunters" was wholly a back-lot performance and never even heard of by the instructors — we are likely to say to ourselves: "Truly this is the people's college in more senses than one." The activities and dignities of the modern metropolitan high school are vastly more complex and more dignified and receive more official rec- ognition than those of Siwash College and its ilk, as those institutions flourished in the eighties. The Change only Superficial. — And yet in the funda- mentals and in the real aims of secondary education 500 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL there has been no change. An extension and an expan- sion, no doubt, but the essence is the same. The child becoming adolescent is separated from the little ones who are younger and is put in a school by himself, to be watched and guarded and trained and developed through the difficult and trying years of adolescence and early youth to the door of manhood and womanhood. The problem is the same; the material is the same; the funda- mentals in method must ever be the same. Among the waving banners and sounding bombs that at first seem to indicate a revolution in the character of the high school none is more conspicuous than the high school fraternity. The attitudes and ambitions and ri- valries of the Alfalfa Delts and Eta Beta Pis of George Fitch's creation are farther from those of the present-day college fraternity than they are from the eruptive excres- cences of the average high school fraternity as mani- fested in the first decade of the present century. People's college! College ideals, college ways, college "student activities," college yells, college athletics, col- lege banners, college parades, "proms" and picnics, col- lege functions, festivities, and sports — all these seem to come forth in a form hardly modified in the "big" high school of the last decade. And the very natural conclu- sion is that since these things have grown up there must have been a real demand for them and a real need to be satisfied. The logical outcome is that if these are natu- ral growths and really needed they should be encouraged, regulated, and utilized rather than frowned upon and suppressed and done away with; that, for example, if col- lege fraternities are useful and worthy institutions, cer- tainly high school fraternities must be so; in short, that the latter have grown up to supply a real need. HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 501 The fact that a growth has occurred of itself does not indicate that it is a healthy or useful growth. It may be an excrescence; it may be a diseased growth; it may be a noxious weed. Example of a Healthy Growth. — Athletics are a ne- cessity in education because man's nature is physical as well as intellectual and moral. The relation between each of these three and either of the others, moreover, is now considered a direct relation, and if the education of the child, adolescent, and youth is to take care of his whole nature, the physical training must be systema- tized and controlled as definitely as must the intellectual training. And, in addition, the justification of athletics in school life, as distinguished from calisthenics is, a recog- nition of the instinctive cry of the youthful soul that itself shall see its training directed to a result which itself can comprehend. Therefore, the seemingly remote aim of bettering the average of the human race physically, or the strengthening of the next generation so as to prepare for the "yellow peril," or even the health and happiness of the individual in middle life and old age — these do not present to the adolescent mind a sufficient raison d'etre for the work of the gymnasium. The game in- stinct is strong and it can be and should be utilized to justify to the mind of the youth his physical training. The foregoing is an interesting and convincing ex- ample of one of the newer school activities that does re- ceive and should receive welcome and recognition as a satisfactory, reasonable, and natural demand and that is not by any means a mere aping of college activities. The Imitative Instinct. — The imitative instinct, to be sure, is still strong in the "teens" but by no means as dominant as in the years below the adolescent period. 502 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The solving of a problem for itself is the mightiest im- pulse in the budding soul that comes to our hands from "the grades." Those activities and manners and motio^is that are merely imitative in character and origin and that have manifested themselves just before this period are likely to slough off in the presence of the new and commanding spirit for independent solution of problems that is born with adolescence. For this reason playing with dolls and wooden swords is cast aside and the fourteen-year- old, even if his stature is small, is passionately anxious to show that the imitative instinct no longer controls him, or, as he would put it, that he is no longer "a kid." I have given an example of the newer activities, name- ly, athletics, conspicuous in the modern high school when contrasted with the old-time high school, which is founded upon and grows out of a real, vital demand and which for that reason cannot be and should not be ignored or sup- pressed, but rather encouraged and handled as a scientific problem and a proper field of pedagogic activity. Other Legitimate Activities.— Many of those named above as challenging, by way of contrast, the attention of one familiar with the old-time high school are of this sort — are legitimate, important, worthy, and deserving of the best thought and encouragement and study that we can give them, and are not merely excrescences, imi- tative phases, temporary fads destined to pass away. Among those that are thus important and that are be- coming essential parts of high school education are ath- letics, class organization, clubs with legitimate aims and functions and democratic spirit, school publications, dramatics. Errors in Imitation. — Others of them are imitative only and have no part in secondary education. Such is HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 503 the idea of a high school teaching corps as a faculty. This is purely an imitation of the college idea or rather a misnomer in imitation of the college term. I doubt whether the administrative and disciplinary relation be- tween the teaching corps of any modern public American high school and the individual student is in any impor- tant degree analogous to that between the ordinary col- lege "faculty" and its students. This error almost de- generates to the insignificance of the ludicrous blunder whereby a sermon addressed to the graduates of a high school is pompously though innocently referred to as a "baccalaureate sermon." Such terms as "matricula- tion," "degree," and the like would be inappropriate and, of course, merely imitative if used with reference to a high school. Causes for Development of the High School Frater- nity. — Others, such as the high school fraternities, are imitative in their titles, insignia, and superficial behavior, and yet, perhaps, are the product of other causes operat- ing conjointly with the imitativeness which has been de- veloped by the increase of colleges and universities and the proximity of many of the later ones to cities where large high schools have grown up, as well as to the fre- quency of "meets" and "conferences" and other occa- sions which bring high school students into familiar con- tact more or less frequently with the outer life of the colleges. In order to understand more clearly the problem of the high school fraternities, let us see if we can trace some of these other causes which operated, along with the re- maining imitativeness left over from childhood to ado- lescence, to bring them into being. The Gang Spirit and Its Corrective. — The gang spirit belongs to an age rather earlier, say from ten to fourteen, 504 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and lasting over, under some conditions, into the real adolescent period. It is as natural as is any manifesta- tion of later childhood. It is developed in every school- house yard, every alley, every back lot, about every swimming hole, and has been so developed from time immemorial. ' ' Tom Sawyer and his gang ' ' — it is merely a type, and truthful because a t)rpe. It appears among girls, though usually the groupings are less aggressive and less coherent. When Hatty twined her arms about Emmy Lou and said "Le's us be nintimate friends," there was presented the germ of the gang spirit. This is a nat- ural and therefore, in its beginnings, a healthy tendency. It must be recognized and welcomed. These groupings are as natural and as inevitable for later childhood as are grimy fists and falsetto screamings for the same period. And no one of these is a curse, nor should it break the mother's heart. Each has its corrective. The corrective for falsetto screamings is in change of voice and the ridicule of older boys. The corrective for fists is the beginning of calf- love. The corrective for too intense a manifestation of the gang spirit is twofold. First, it is in the fickleness of childhood. The groupings and the cleavages change, if left alone, from year to year and sometimes from month to month. Those intense loyalties and affections which persist, such as are touched upon in Briggs's immortal cartoons on "The Days of Real Sport," when Fatty (if that is his name) everlastingly calls for Skinnay to "Cm' on over," and is unhappy even while playing hooky if Skinnay fails to join the truants — those in- teresting and persistent attachments are not manifest among the members, generally, of "de gang" but be- tween two only. They are among the most interesting HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 505 phenomena of childhood and youth and deserve special study and a monograph of their own. But the gang spirit is a tendency that is dangerous. It should not, for that reason, be repressed but should be given direction through the big-brother method, and should be left to form integers and these to disintegrate from period to period as they will if left alone. The Hankering for Organization. — The new element that enters into the period of high school life and that is likely to unite with the remnants of the gang spirit and to crystallize it into something harmful is the han- kering for organization that begins to manifest itself at the very beginning of the adolescent period. This long- ing comes to the surface often at thirteen or fourteen, especially if exposed to the influence of sixteen-year-olds, and begins to take a violent form in a short time unless harnessed and utihzed for legitimate purposes. When combined with the imitative tendency and the general craze for insignia and self-decoration, especially of a symbolic sort, and when given a semblance of real life by an infusion of the elixir of mystery, then this hanker- ing for organization results in the high school fraternity. Easy to Study the Development. — This has been the history of this growth which, starting without at first attracting much attention and almost unconsciously to itself, succeeded within a few years in growing to large proportions and in accomplishing evil out of all apparent proportion to the causes which brought it forth. The whole period of this growth is thus seen to be within our immediate view, and it is, therefore, possible to make a thorough study of it with greater ease and accuracy. A careful, discriminating study of the situation will show that the circumstances which brought this into 506 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL being, near the close ol the nineteenth century, and de- termined its character and its power for good or evil, will show a vital difference between the environment un- der which this phenomenon appeared and that which brought into being the college fraternity, of which it is usually looked upon as a direct imitation and with which it is frequently confused, especially in what may be called "the legislative mind." The Need that Called Forth the College Fraternity.— Attention has been called by several writers, and particu- larly by Doctor Frances W. Shepardson, to the fact that the period within which the college-fraternity system came into being — namely, from 1820 to 1830 — was con- spicuous for the development of individuahsm in Ameri- can society. When Robert Burns sang in the lines now so famihar to us in sound and in sense — ! " The rank is but the guinea's stamp, The man's the gowd for a' that," — he spoke not only a protest against the tyranny of aris- tocracy, but he pointed the way to individualism, and this became the vital spot in American education. No- body knew that it was the vital spot. The slow, con- servative college authorities still clung to the fixed cur- riculum. Electives and all that goes with them came long after — but they came. The germ of freedom for the individual soul, its right to make the most of itself in its own way, these were manifest among the college students all their life long before college faculties waked up to the new birth. This was a social movement, a phase in the development of social character. Blind though it was, unrecognized by even the wisest of wise men in the col- HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 507 lege chairs, it came into being — the college-fraternity system — to supply that imperative need of college students which the colleges and universities have even to the present time absolutely failed in themselves to supply. And curiously enough that imperative need was cre- ated by the college system of education itself. College life is artificial and not natural. Family life is based upon sex and the helplessness of childhood; therefore it is natural and will persist as long as human nature. The school is a special institution developed and maintained by the community (which is merely an association of neighboring families) for the purpose of performing, in part at least, more conveniently, economically, and ef- fectively certain portions of the function of the family in the training of helpless childhood to efficient manhood and womanhood. The State, in a democracy, steps in to control the activities of this institution— which is merely an extension of the family — so as to provide citizens capable of self-government and for the perpetu- ation of the State. The public school, therefore, is a natural institution and merely an extension of the family, controlled for self-protection by the State. College Life Artificial.— But the college is artificial. It continues the instruction of youth and professedly fits them for the responsibihties of independent manhood and womanhood, but in order to do this under our modern system it calls them away from home and from the fam- ily ties and influences that heretofore have supplied the social education, and, although it provides the intellectual education and latterly is giving a little attention, in sporadic fashion, to moral and physicd education, it has wholly neglected social education. The youth in college. 508 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL therefore, so far as anything which the college does, is worse off in this particular than the youth who does not go to college. The latter is thrown head first into the world in which he is to live and learns by contact with the countless social institutions of that world how to adapt himself socially to his environment. But the college youth is taken from family and family environment, isolated from the world for four years, con- fined with hundreds of others in the same plight and left to work out his own social problem without guidance or supervision, except to be disciplined if he offends certain conventions more or less reasonable. These are the con- ditions of college life and have been from the beginning. Under these conditions and because of these facts and to supply this need, otherwise wholly unprovided for before or since, the college fraternity system grew up and has developed and strengthened until now it is prev- alent in i8o colleges, maintains 1,500 chapters with over 30,000 undergraduate members, and owns property worth $5,000,000. Moreover, it has exerted a lifelong in- fluence, mainly for good, upon the character of hundreds of thousands of young men and women, many of whom have grown old and in lives of usefulness have stamped upon the history of their country the character-making influence gained largely through their membership in college fraternities. College Fraternities and Individualism. — It was very natural, coming as it did in that period of the twenties or thirties, when individualism began so strongly to assert itself in America, that the new social system springing up in the college world should largely set before itself as its aim the betterment and advantage of the individual. The help given to the individual brother through mem- HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 509 bership in the fraternity was the key-note in all these inchoate organizations. Every one of them has that in its constitution, its ritual, its declaration of principles. The fellowship of artificial brotherhood came in to sup- ply to the lonely freshman, away from home and family ties, that which he had lost by going into and becoming a part of this artificial and one-sided community. And the college fraternity thus justifies itself. In spite of all mistakes and extravagances and just criticisms, it still has been and is worth while, and should not be abolished and done away with because here and there it has had a drinker or two, or here and there a group of snobs. Drunkards and snobs existed before college fraternities were dreamed of. An Earnest Suggestion. — The writer craves the indul- gence of his readers at this point to call their attention, whether they, like himself, are believers in the value of the college fraternity system or not, to a matter which he believes of vital importance to the college fraternities themselves and of even greater importance to the inter- ests of higher education generally, as well as to the na- tional problem of self-government, which is destined always to be a live question in America. Furthermore, he believes that what he has to say is important in its relation to the high school fraternity question. Individualism Giving Way to Altruism. — Here is the matter. The view-point of the thinking mind has changed since 1830. Since that day altruism has taken hold upon the minds and hearts of men. "No man liveth to himself alone" — the weight of this truth is borne in upon us in the twentieth century as never before. '^ Apres nous le deluge" can no longer be the comforting utterance of the aristocrat. Cain's scream to his in- 510 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL quiring Creator, "Am I my brother's keeper?" has been answered in the affirmative, and the answer has sunk into the hearts of men in this land of enhghtenment and is shaping their thoughts, their words, and their deeds. Whatever individual and whatever institution in this new century undertakes to meet the social problem of the time must cast aside the creed and code of the first mur- derer and must remember that spirit which is embodied in the words: "Bear ye one another's burdens." For years the leaders among alumni workers of the college fraternities, supported and inspired by the character, utterances, and achievements of the great and good men who have grown out of their wide-spread chapter rolls from the fine ideals that were in their college life to the finer and higher ideals of service to which the call of the future summons them and which in an increasing degree is responded to even by the college boys — these leaders and officials have set up a new standard round which the college fraternity men and women shall rally, on which is emblazoned: "Loyalty and service to the college and its ideals; loyalty and service to the fraternity and its aims; loyalty and service to all the students whether in or out of fraternities ; and loyalty and service to our coun- try in whose service college men should be leaders." If, and in so far as, the college fraternities rise to this stand- ard, they will abide and will fulfil their mission and will be approved and utilized by authorities everywhere. Otherwise they will pass away. Why Not Applicable to High School Fraternities. — Now, these are high aims and good to dwell upon. Why do they not apply also to high school fraternities? Why should there be a distinction? The answer is not far to seek. It is in the environment. First, the college fra- HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 511 ternity supplies a real need — the need of the youth away from home and family for something which shall take care of his social nature and supply in brotherhood that which he had at home in his family and which he has lost by leaving home and going to dwell for four years in the artificial atmosphere of college life. The high school fraternity does not supply such a need, for the good and sufficient reason that no such need exists. There is no absence from home. There is no separation from family and all its ties and restraints and protections. There is no lonely student, far away from mother and fireside, thrown too young upon his own re- sources and craving and needing artificial brotherhood to supply that which he has lost. No ! The high school youth is at home, under the eye of his father and the touch of his mother, with the sympathetic companion- ship of brother and sister and schoolmates, with whom he has grown up and between whom and himself are de- veloped a thousand social ties and influences supplying every real need of his social nature and protecting him from every folly, every trouble, every embarrassment. The forming of a brotherhood under such circum- stances is a rank superfluity. The development of an elaborate and select organization, setting apart its mem- bers as hereafter officially and permanently chums — "No others need apply" — ^is absurd, useless, painful in its immediate consequences, and most serious in its effect upon the member himself, whose formation and shifting of close friendships in a natural way from month to month and from year to year are thus interfered with on artificial fines and with no good purpose to serve. A Machine without a Work to Do. — All of the super- ficial faults that at any time appear in college fraterni- 512 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ties appear in even greater degree in the high school fra- ternities: extravagance, false sense of proportion in the estimate of the relative importance of things, exclusive- ness, snobbishness, envy, heart-breakings, and the gen- eral artificial unfolding of the human bud before its time. Every complex machine without a real work to do, and if not hooked up to something worth while, is bound to run amuck and cause wreckage. The college fraternities have found lately that their interest lies in the direction of opposing, rather than fa- voring, these useless imitations, and the weight of their influence from this time on is likely to be cast against them. Testimony of School Authorities. — It is the universal testimony of high school principals and teachers that where fraternities and sororities have come into the life of the high school, they have served no good purpose that could not be better served without them; that they have added nothing to the possibilities even of social pleasure for the young people themselves; that they have invariably caused much pain and bitterness in the stu- dent body; that they have in many cases assisted in developing direct evils of the personal sort; and that they have invariably created and fostered a wrong spirit to- ward the school and its administration and best ideals; furthermore, that when they are once finally removed from any school, a great change for the better has re- sulted in the atmosphere of the school and, moreover, that all the social advantages are secured for the individuals themselves as readily and even more so than when the fraternities were dominant. Hostile legislation has been enacted against them in thirteen States and in many cities in other States. In- variably the attitude of the courts has been to uphold HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 513 the authority of boards of education in suppressing them, even when not supported by the enactment of special statutes. How to Eliminate Them. — The best method of elim- inating them is a serious and difficult question, the answer to which may vary in different localities. The main fea- ture is the education of local public sentiment, and, of course, where they have been long established this is often a slow and difficult process. Parents are pro- verbially blind to faults in their own children, and in these days the child and his opinions too often rule the house- hold. Sane discussion, calm and convincing statements are more likely to be effective in creating intelligent pub- lic opinion than are severe methods of restraint. When pubHc opinion is developed, then strict rules may be adopted and enforced. In the opinion of the writer much depends upon the general relation between the teachers and principal on the one hand and the pupils of the school on the other — the "spirit of the school." It is possible, with great patience, to maintain to a large extent relations of re- spect and friendHness between the teacher and the pupil even when the beHef of the teacher that the fraternities are evil is known to the pupil. And sometimes this, if wisely used, may lead to a genuine conversion of the pupil himself. More than once effective service has thus been done through pupils themselves who have been led to recog- nize higher aims and ideals and to be willing to sacrifice, for the sake of others and for the school, something of their own petty, selfish interest, and so to become real missionaries in creating among their fellows a healthy sentiment in favor of an attitude of loyalty to the school and its authorities. 514 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Substitutes — Other Activities. — "Satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do." It behooves the wise school administrator to develop in his school many forms of activity that not only will occupy the studious but those less so, that not only will give a field of achievement to the individual but will encourage and direct the for- mation of natural and legitimate groups whose member- ship shall be based on special interest and activity in any given direction rather than upon the personal preference of those already members, and whose aim shall be the maintenance of some legitimate activity naturally con- nected with the school. Co-operation of Parent and Teacher. — Avowedly so- cial gatherings for purposes of amusement, entertain- ment, and social training, handled under the direction of teachers or speciaHsts trained for that purpose, are attempted with success in some places and are likely, when wisely handled and watchfully guarded, to supply the recreation which otherwise would naturally be sought in fraternity parties and "hops." The question as to how far the solving of this problem of social activity and development should be done by the family or by the community, through the agency of the public school, is not as yet a settled question; the final answer must come after further study and experimentation. The main feature in every effort to meet this most difficult of social problems in the high school is the intelli- gent, harmonious, and sympathetic co-operation of par- ents and teachers. Need for Legislation.-r-It ought to be the aim, more- over, of all loyal and intelligent citizens who are inter- ested in educational improvement to secure in every State the enactment of statutes forbidding in all pubhc HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES 515 high schools membership in such organizations ; and such statutes ought to be enacted discriminating, on the one hand, between college fraternities, which have done some harm and much good, which have a genuine mission of helpfulness, and which supply a real need that can hardly be suppHed in any other way, and, on the other hand, high school fraternities, which have done practically no good and much evil, and which have no real mission or aim to fulfil. This distinction, based on so manifest a differ- ence, is, nevertheless, hard to establish in the minds of some legislators whose experience has given them no first-hand knowledge of these two whoUy different sorts of organizations, who are misled by the similarity in the sounds of their names and by other whoUy superficial indications, and who are sometimes influenced by the ex-parte arguments of selfishly interested persons posing as champions of democracy. The Legal Status. — The legal status of this question has been weU summed up in published articles named in the bibliography. The courts have unanimously upheld the boards of education in all cases that have been brought before them. Two decisions have been handed down by State supreme courts — namely, those of Wash- ington in the Seattle case and of Illinois in the Chicago case. The decisions as to the authority of boards of education to punish by expulsion violations of the rules prohibiting membership have been made only by trial courts, but supreme-court decisions in other cases in- volving the same principle would seem to make it sure that this final authority would be supported by the courts of last resort if any such question should finally reach them. The summing up of the legal phase of the matter is so 516 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL comprehensively presented in an article by S. J. Wetter- ick in the December, 1910, number of The World oj To-Day that it is quoted here in full : The principles of law deducible [from the court decisions quoted] are these: First, school authorities have authority to make all reasonable and necessary rules for the government of the school; Second, it is the duty of pupils attending a school to obey its rules; Third, the right to attend a public school is not absolute but conditional; Fourth, the right to attend may be denied for a violation of rules prohibiting acts that are detrimental to the interests of the school. If it is admitted, then-, that high school fraternities are detri- mental to the interests of a school, we are forced to the con- clusion that they may be prohibited, and that pupils who par- ticipate in them to the injury of the other pupils and the school may be suspended or expelled and may be denied any or all of the privileges of a public school. PART IV ADDITIONAL SOCIALIZING FUNCTIONS OF THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL CHAPTER XXI THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE Clarence Arthur Perry, B.S. associate director, department of recreation, russell sage foundation A Study in Educational Evolution. — The subject be- fore us is one of educational evolution. The high school is in the process of expanding its social function; it is developing a new and more immediate relationship with its constituency. The present stage of this development, the impulses within the system, and the conditions in its environment which are producing the new power and its future relation to the school's prime function — these are the general aspects of the theme to be considered in the present chapter. Extension of Public Education General. — In the be- ginning the State universities instructed only the stu- dents in residence on the campus ; to-day their extension departments^ are reaching out to the utmost confines of ^ See " A University that Runs a State," by Frank Parker Stockbridge, in World's Work for April, 19 13. 517 518 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the commonwealth and are endeavoring to benefit adults as well as adolescents. Through its kindergarten the primary school has recently taken in a younger set and through its evening classes it is bringing in the grown- ups, while the secondary school has not only got hold of the men and women but it, too, is making overtures to a group lower down in the age scale than the one it has traditionally served. These three institutions are not only extending their benefits to new classes of persons but they are also ren- dering new kinds of service. The university extension divisions are sending out material for debating clubs and social surveys as well as the lecturers and demonstrators with which they began. To the elementary-school build- ing the outside pubHc is increasingly resorting for its games, its athletics, its entertainment, and its social Hfe; at the high school it is finding not only these same en- joyments but the illustrated lectures, theatrical repre- sentations, and art exhibitions which its more spacious quarters make possible. In these novel and more direct relations with society the secondary school is simply fol- lowing the trend of a general educational movement. Present Stage of the New Development. — In the case of the university the evolution has reached a more ad- vanced stage than it has in the lower institutions. Its extension work is deliberately planned and supported from within. But in the public-school systems the newer enterprises are only beginning to emerge from the category of "outside activities." The authorities still permit them more often than they promote them. Evening classes and public lectures, it is true, have a recognized status in school systems, but the position of club work, quiet games, and social dancing is not so THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 519 fixed. High school principals have a well-defined policy regarding the social and recreational activities of their own students, but their attitude toward public forums, citizens' organizations, and outside basket-ball teams is still in the process of formation. In most instances where public schools are now used for popular recreational and civic activities these are administered either by a volun- tary organization^ or by a separate staff directly under the city superintendent, and, excepting the greater es- teem shown for the superior accommodations in the av- erage high school building, little discrimination is made between it and the elementary school in the selection of edifices for the "wider use." High School Centre Not Yet Differentiated.— That the high school's function as a social centre is not yet con- sciously distinguished from that of the elementary school is due to the fact that the heads of these schools have not generally been made responsible for the various ac- tivities which constitute the new relationship. Whether the local playground association maintains its club work for young people in a large building or a small one, its characteristics will not be perceptibly affected, but a high school staff could not manage such an undertaking long before it would display different features from those of a similar one in the hands of an elementary-school organization. When the extension activities begin to emanate from the two institutions themselves their re- spective spheres in this respect will become more clearly defined. And if the transfer of the initiative to the 1 In Boston where several high school buildings are used as " Evening Centres" the first one (1911-12) was supported by the Women's Munic- ipal League. During the season of 191 2-13 four such centres were main- tained by the school committee, their administration devolving upon the "assistant director of evening and continuation schools." 520 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL principals can be made without losing the enthusiasm possessed by the voluntary organizations or the particu- lar abilities developed by the special board of education staffs the social-centre function will have a better oppor- tunity to show vigorous growth and individuality than the present arrangement permits, because it will then be freed of the friction which must always exist when two bodies with differing aims attempt to work in the same quarters. Basis of Future Growth. — Differentiation, however, only marks growth; it does not produce it. "What grounds are there for believing that differentiation will take place? Why may we expect to see the new social function of the high school become definitely a part of the responsibilities of the principal, to be consciously developed and expanded by him, to be correlated with the work of his faculty and his students, and, finally, to be so thoroughly integrated in the life of the municipaHty as to give his institution a power and influence now hardly conceivable? A prediction of so sweeping a char- acter can find a rational basis only in the existence of permanent forces or tendencies which, working together, will produce such a result. How soon it may be realized no one can confidently say; that the outcome will be pre- cisely as prophesied no one can guarantee; but that the course of evolution is already in that direction is a fact which needs no demonstration. The Dominant Forces. — The fundamental motive fac- tors in this development are those which are bringing and will increasingly continue to bring the outside pubHc into the high school building to enjoy its facihties or its offerings. These are of two kinds: the disposition of the high school organization to set up attractions which tend THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 521 to pull the public in and the social conditions on the out- side which tend to drive it in. Principal's New Attitude toward Community. — The first of these is due to changes in the principal's conscious- ness of his relation to his community. The tendency of high school administration is to place more and more initiative in his hands. The affairs under his control have become, in many instances, so vast and so complex that it is a practical impossibility for the city superin- tendent to give them intelligent detailed supervision. More and more it is the principal, rather than the au- thorities over him, who selects the instructors, lays out new courses, plans extensions to his building, and who, in the final analysis, determines the amount of the ap- propriation to be asked for to maintain his school. It is his increasing control over the school budget that is causing the principal to think more and more about the taxpayer. Once he would have repelled the sug- gestion to issue a printed report upon the work of the school as in the nature of tooting his own horn. In those days the board which passed upon his work included some of the best minds in the community. Their occa- sional inspections enabled them to decide whether or not he did it well, and their favorable opinion was all he needed to strive for. With the advent of trustees, who judged the success of their schools largely by the public's reaction to them, he was obliged to take a different atti- tude, and it became necessary to see that the public was adequately informed about them. Gradually there de- veloped the policy which is now generally followed and which involves systematically laying before the high school's constituents, through attractive reports and the columns of the press, such evidences of successful en- 522 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL deavor as may be found in student productions, college- entrance examinations, athletics, debating contests, and the careers of graduates. Encouraging Direct Enjoyment by All. — But such ac- counting of stewardship touches mainly the alumni, the parents of the students, and the leading citizens — a com- paratively small part of the community. In these demo- cratic days the expenditure of public funds must be jus- tified to all the people. And so the modern principal, with his increased financial control and a correspondingly increased sense of responsibility, is being compelled to go even further in his efforts to create a favorable public sentiment toward his undertakings. He is discovering that the most effective way to convince the man in the street of his wisdom in erecting a magnificent auditorium is to bring him in to enjoy it. If he needs new equip- ment for the gymnasium he brings the taxpayers into such contact with the situation that they, too, experience the need for the new apparatus. Student exhibitions and entertainments have, indeed, long been provided, but, although open to the public, they have reached mainly the pupils' parents and friends. Now, in a growing num- ber of places, principals are encouraging a more general use of their auditoriums by arranging for popular con- certs and lecture courses, and facilitating their utiliza- tion as rehearsal halls for choral societies and the place of mass-meetings for the presentation and discussion of current civic problems. They are beginning to give their gymnasiums for the evening physical training of outside young people and their classrooms for the club activities of public-spirited men and women — in short, there is an increasing tendency to make all the facilities of their costly plants directly beneficial to the individuals out- side of school as well as those within. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 523 Most Noticeable in Rural High School. — The cor- relation of this tendency with the principal's sensitive- ness to the financial implications of his undertakings is well illustrated in the case of the new type of rural high school. Coming to life in regions little accustomed to such luxuries, confronted by traditions opposed to liberal expenditure for public service of any sort, and in the face of a general scepticism as to the value of higher educa- tion, its administrators have naturally felt an urgent necessity to "make good" with its supporters, not years hence when its graduates could show their mettle, but immediately. Accordingly, we find the modern country high school not only opening its doors for all sorts of neighborhood meetings, entertainments, illustrated talks, exhibitions, and educational institutes, but also sending out its instructors to advise with farmers, judge stock, or plan crop rotations; putting its students to work testing neighborhood cows or selecting fertile seed for patrons, and in various other ways directly serving its constit- uency.^ Here where the sense of responsibility to the community is keenest the secondary school has gone furthest in its conscious development as a social centre. Force of Social Conditions. — The other force which is more and more bringing the pubUc into the high school has come into play through a radical change in method on the part of many reformatory and uphft agencies. Besides attempting through moral suasion to strengthen the human will against evil choices, they are now trying to improve its action by surrounding it with more means for wholesome expression. Vicious conduct, they say, is resulting from bad environments, hence they are en- deavoring to substitute good environments. Investiga- ^ For instance, see the Eleventh Biennial Report of the Superinten- dent of Public Instruction for Idaho. 524 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tors find that the inmates of the brothel are often re- cruited in the indecorous dance-hall, and there ensues an agitation for social dancing in public-school buildings under proper auspices. The corrupting effects upon young men of the saloon, pool-room, and other gambling resorts is responsible for a movement to afford organ- ized games, athletic sports, and allied forms of recreation in school gymnasiums and basements, and the same op- portunities are demanded in the interests of national health and vigor because of the lack of physical exercise on the part of office workers and others leading seden- tary city lives — a need which is only partly met by the Y, M. C. A. and similar institutions. The extraordinary growth of the motion-picture theatres, with their some- times questionable entertainments and unsanitary and immoral environment, has produced another problem the solution of which is sought in the use of school auditori- ums for like purposes. The city's demand for wholesome opportunities for recreation and social life is based prin- cipally upon the need of substitution; in the country it is the scarcity of such opportunities that is responsible for the movement which is demanding a more extended use of school property. In the political world the continually repeated spec- tacle of corrupt boss control is causing wide-spread ap- preciation of the need of meeting-places which will invite a loftier and more general discussion of platforms and a dignified transaction of electoral affairs. When pri- maries and political rallies are held over saloons or in halls of equal unsavoriness it is difficult to secure the attendance of the more respectable citizens. The result is that the more unselfish elements of the community are not represented in the deliberations and choices which THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 525 determine the efficiency of governmental machinery, and the men who make poHtics their business are able to have things all their own way. The necessity for renting halls also adds to the excuse for raising campaign funds, with the inevitable feeling of indebtedness on the part of the successful candidates to the individuals or special inter- ests which contributed to their financial support. The experience already had in the use of school buildings for political meetings and balloting purposes tends to sub- stantiate the arguments advanced in its favor. In the case of the meetings the more elevated tone was partly due to the increased proportion of women in the audi- ences, and the improved atmosphere at the school voting places was helped by the same cause where woman suffrage obtains, the probable granting of which in other States will itself give emphasis to the demand for the use of schools for these purposes. The general existence of commodious auditoriums in high schools gives both ap- propriateness and insistence to the movement for their more universal dedication to the clarification of civic questions. Another requisition upon school halls, plainly marked by the spirit of the age, is expressed in the agitation for free lectures, concerts, municipally subsidized theatrical undertakings, and other forms of State-supported cul- tural opportunities. Reinforcing this demand, as well as all the others, is the economical temper which animates the movement to conserve the nation's natural resources and is manifested in the various schemes for "scientific management." The sight of costly, magnificent buildings lying idle dur- ing periods when they could be beneficially used is re- pugnant to the business sense of the community, and 526 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL as a consequence every legitimate appeal for their more extensive utilization meets with a quick response from public sentiment. Doubt as to the reality of the school's increasing r61e in public recreation may be aroused in some minds by such instances as Chicago's park and playground sys- tem with its luxurious field houses, the several cities which have erected auditorium buildings, and the rapid growth of municipal baths, parks, and museums. These are to be interpreted, however, only as evidences of the general advance of the recreation movement. In its course it is affecting schools, parks, piers, squares — every institution, in fact, that is susceptible of application to recreational needs. What makes it certain that school property will be universally appropriated is its unusual capacity for this broader community use. Auditori- ums, gymnasiums, baths, museums, Hbraries, play fields — these things schools need for their own purposes, and the people are providing them with an increasing liber- ality. Is it likely that they will be overlooked in the popular requisitioning of facihties for enjoyment, espe- cially in view of the fact that these are usually idle at the very time when the people are free to use them? In no community is there yet an adequate provision for recre- ation and social life, and even if all the future parks have field houses and all the squares be converted into play- grounds, considerations of fitness and economy will still require the school to meet a large part of this need. Chicago, despite its magnificent system of parks and recreation buildings, is progressively equipping its public schools as social centres. More Power to Principal. — ^At the present time there is no tendency either in secondary school administration THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 527 or in current social development that will bring about a permanent diminution of the forces which are increasing the public's immediate enjo5anent of high school facili- ties. The growth of commercial amusement resorts seems only to render more necessary the competition of those under safer auspices, while friction with the regular school work produces at most only a temporary let-up in the outside activities. The pressure behind the latter is continuous, and an attempt to shut them off would create an intolerable situation. An examination of the causes of irritation, the misuse of equipment by volunteers or the board-of-education staff, the public criticism of badly managed meetings, or the annoyance of having con- stantly to decide between conflicting requests for various facilities — these, when analyzed, would show that they were all due either to a division of responsibility, inade- quate help, or some other defect in the administrative machinery. The activities themselves not being intrin- sically illegal or socially undesirable, but, on the other hand, highly important, the remedy would obviously be found to consist in providing the organization necessary for their smooth and proper direction. Accordingly, as these situations arise, and their in- creasing inevitability seems guaranteed by all the ten- dencies of the times, principals will point out that with more assistance they can themselves handle these mat- ters with less friction and more efficiency, and eventually they will be granted the requisite additions to their staffs. Even in the cases where the extension activities are now carried on by a special department of the board of edu- cation or of the municipal government the frequent col- lisions between them and the principal's own public pro- grammes and the need — which will increase with the 528 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL development of efficiency standards — of adapting the former to the peculiarities of the school's constituency will ultimately bring about the combination of both sets of activities under the local head. Thus through the very growth in the volume of the high school's incidental activities will come the structural change required for the adequate discharge of the new social function. Development of New Function by Principal.— The placing of social-centre assistants under the principal will inevitably stimulate his enterprise in this field. The natural desire to retain the new power and even ag- grandize it will make him strive to justify his possession of it. Through its emplo3rment he will be better able to impress the public with the usefulness of his institution and their wisdom in giving it liberal support. When, however, he devotes himself thoroughly to the task of working out better administrative methods — an unavoid- able necessity because the social-centre technic is still in the making — there will be opened up to him a new source of interest. For he will discover in the extension activities themselves unsuspected assistance for the solu- tion of the new and perplexing problems which society is more and more adding to his main function. Changing Content of Public Education. — The agitation for the school inspection of children's teeth has not yet accomplished its purpose in some places, while in others it is not only estabHshed but some of the wisdom which it carries in solution has been precipitated in the form of a tooth-brush drill administered by the teacher. Herein we see a new phase of personal conduct becoming, under the influence of social expediency, a subject of school training. Not many years ago a girl's experience in helping her mother with the housework was considered THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 529 a sufl&cient preparation for the responsibilities of house- keeping. But industrial and urban conditions have so changed many homes that that experience is no longer generally considered adequate, and the school has been called upon to supply this part of the future housewife's training. Cooking and sewing were the first parts of housekeeping to be added to the curriculum, but now in many systems it includes laundry work, serving meals, and room decoration. The extraordinary extent to which formal education is being called into the traditional realm of family life is indicated by the agitation for voca- tional guidance and sex education and by the instruc- tion concerning personal expenditures and avocations already being given in some schools. An example here is to be found in Mrs. Famsworth's course in practical arts for girls, which is outlined in "High School Educa- tion " (page 428) . These instances point to a progressive extension of the secondary school curriculum until it shall comprehend the preparation of pupils for the suc- cessful meeting of all of the important situations encoun- tered in human living. Practically only one phase of life, the religious one, is now omitted from its scope, and even that, so far as its applications to conduct meet with general approval, is represented in the schemes for moral education at present projected or in operation. The pupil's ultimate success is dependent not only upon the possession of trained powers but upon his abihty to co-ordinate them, upon his skill in arraying them for attack upon the resistant situations of Ufe. He may graduate with honors in electricity, but if he is un- able to make an effective presentation of his case to em- ployers, has not been trained in team-work, or has not formed the habit of achieving obvious and available re- 530 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL suits he will be a failure and bring reproach upon the insti- tution which hopefully turned him out. The increas- ing esteem in which vocational courses, especially home economics in its highly elaborated form, are held by both educators and society in general is undoubtedly largely due to the fact that they do effect practical S3nitheses of abilities. Similarly, the tendency in these courses to require work under the actual industrial and domestic conditions shows a growing appreciation of the necessity of training the pupil in the art of applying his powers. Even more significant is the increasing seriousness with which managing glee and athletic clubs, society presi- dencies, and participation in other "student activities" are regarded by school authorities. The conspicuous after-success frequently achieved by the graduate who had led in these non-academic affairs has caused an examination of their preparative value, and it is being discovered that they afford most useful practice in the art of forming social relationships. They derive their ef&cacy from the fact that they are exact facsimiles, slightly reduced, of adult social functionings. Skill in "making" the miniature organizations was bound to en- hance the ability to "make" the bigger groups through which the affairs of mature life are practically all trans- acted. The success, then, for which society demands that the high school shall give an adequate training is certitude in the ability of the outgoing individuals to make vital connections with the groups^ of which society itself is composed. Development of all the pupil's faculties is 1 See further amplifications of this point in the sections which follow upon the high school as a vocational, social, civic, recreation, and cultural centre. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 531 not enough: he must be adapted for group life, not that he may lose his individuality but that it may come to that fuller realization which is made possible only by working with others and dividing tasks. Pedagogical Value of Social-Centre Function. — The fact that social-centre work is essentially a group-form- ing process makes it immediately apparent why the high school principal is going to find it of value in connec- tion with his newer, social duties to his regular pupils. Hitherto he has not been accustomed to think about the basis upon which people divide into sets, cliques, and societies, but in supervising club activities, basket-ball teams, and dancing parties his thoughts will immediately be engaged by that problem. He will find new generali- zations and little recorded knowledge by which to guide his steps, but as he tries one plan after another in the new work he cannot fail to accumulate helpful experience. The social-centre annex will be a laboratory in which he can experiment without endangering his main work with the consequences of costly mistakes, a place where he can acquire skill for the moulding of the social destinies of his regular pupils. It will enable his instructors to gain practical experience in the fields of their teaching and bring their students into actual contact with the con- crete realities underlying the abstractions of the class- room. Further explanation of the social centre's applicability to the high school's latest problem is to be seen in the fact that its main aspects^not yet all equally emerged, however — correspond fairly closely to the lines along which the natural groupings of human beings occur. These are the vocational, social, civic, recreational, and cultural lines, and it is significant that they mark the 532 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL principal categories into which the achievements and failures of men and women fall. High School as a Vocational Centre. — Only he who supplies all his wants with the products of his own hands has a vocational problem that is devoid of social aspects. Every one else has to find persons with whom to exchange the things he makes for those he wants. The task of connecting laborers with the consumers of labor, or with bodies standing in an intermediate relation to them, has not yet been undertaken to any extent by systems of public education. Some private institutions systemati- cally endeavor to "place" their graduates, and universi- ties are giving the matter increasing attention, but, with the exception of a few instances, high schools have not yet assumed this responsibility. Furthermore, neither the instructor who prepares nor the principal who at- tempts to "place" a student has become sufficiently con- scious of the fact that in these days it is a firm, a cor- poration, a staff, a force, a corps, a bureau, a gang, a field party, a union, or some other kind of a group with which their charge will have to make connection, and that while his initial admission may depend upon his satisfying an individual, his permanence therein will, in the long run, be determined by his acceptability to the whole body of which he forms an intimate part. Consciousness of pre- cisely this sort is what will result from any attempt by the high school social-centre staff to fit persons into posi- tions in modern professional, commercial, or industrial hfe. Employment bureaus as a part of the school's social function have been advocated by Professor Commons and others, and in connection with several social-centre undertakings an effort has been made to furnish in- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 533 foimation about both vacant positions and jobless workers. Nourishment for the seed thus planted is bound to be afforded by the attempts to render a voca- tional guidance to high school graduates, as it will be found that valuable advice can be given only upon a much larger basis of information than is at present pos- sessed. It is the exceptional youth who at so early an age sees clearly what his calling will be or whose pecuHar abilities are so distinct as to enable others to decide for him. For the great majority the final determination will be made only after much experimentation, and many mistakes will be avoided and much time saved if there can be some official to whom after each trial he can freely go for advice as to the next step. Manifestly, the per- son most suitable for this office is one to whom the appli- cant's class records would be accessible. The data in time gathered by such an officer would not only make his counsel of priceless value to the graduate but would also have great significance for the faculty in its task of fit- ting young people for advantageous economic connec- tions with society. While such a service would be jus- tified if its benefits were given only to alumni of the school, its effectiveness, even in serving them, might be enhanced if it were open to the public at large.^ It would thus receive a wider knowledge of the various occupa- tional conditions, have more experience for comparative purposes, and be able to command more generous sup- port from the State. And who knows but that out of its operations there might finally be distilled an essence that * See " The Wisconsin Free Employment Offices," a bulletin (vol. II, no. 9) of the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, for an account of their workings and the need of separate provisions (p. 218) for clerical and skilled workers. 534 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL would tend to quiet the troubled waters in which labor and capital are now immersed! A Centre of Social Life. — Adjustment to groups for purposes of companionship is an affair in which the aver- age young person seldom attains to the height of his opportunity. And yet success in this respect is quite as important as success in any other phase of life. For evi- dence, one needs only to recall the acquaintance whose career has been changed permanently for the better by joining a certain club, or that other whose reputation has been irretrievably damaged through association with a fast set, or, still more convincing, those numerous friends whose futures have been made or umnade by their mar- riages. At the first glance it might seem that here was a department of life in which no rules could be applied. A little reflection reveals, however, that any province of action in which one course is followed with evil results and another with good is amenable to generalization because there must be reasons for the different effects, and where reasons exist there, sooner or later, will be found material for the teacher. Young people who are reared in homes having well-defined social traditions cus- tomarily step out into the world of relationships with assurance; but the example, the precept, and the atmos- phere which have moulded them are not by any means universal, even in the habitations of the rich, and, as a consequence, the school is being called upon to supply the deficiency. The private school has already begun to give a definite social training (see the syllabus of the Horace Mann School, Section IV, Social Relations and Conduct, vol. I, p. 439) and the public secondary school is about to follow in its steps. Preparation for social life is still largely a matter of THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 535 ample practice under wise oversight. Before generali- zations suitable for impartation to students to be ap- plied by themselves can be worked out much observa- tion and experimentation will be required. For both the practice and the study the social centre offers excep- tional opportunities. In the undertakings of this sort now being carried on conclusions of general application are already being reached,, but so far they are mainly retrievals of the mistakes which are always made in the beginning of novel enterprises. For example, it was felt that extensions of social opportunities under public aus- pices must necessarily be gratuitous, open to all, because the pubUc pays for their support. It is now seen that making them free to all tends, in effect, to limit them to a part of the public — to those persons, namely, who are not in the enjoyment of the usual social relationships and advantages. People associate with one another because they enjoy one another's com^pany, not from a sense of duty or any other form of compulsion. Since differences of tastes, manners, creeds, languages, and innumerable other variations prevent everybody from Hking every- body else, pleasurable fellowship can only take place on the basis of groups in which there is some sort of com- munity of feehng. And so the wise social-centre director is now deahng with coteries and cliques, and mainly those which are self-formed, because the business of dividing a crowd into groups which will stick together has not yet been reduced to a science. Another principle which appears to be emerging indicates that groups must be allowed to have, as they do in the outside world, different scales of expenditure, since in this way they find greater opportunity for distinctive expression, but the range and limitations of this principle have not been clearly defined. 536 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL One of the most vital of the many problems still un- solved in the field of social relations concerns dancing. The obvious inability of the home either to afford it proper opportunity or to prohibit its occurrence else- where, the disastrous results of the laisser-faire policy, and, lastly, its probable relevancy to that most important of all social processes, mating, make it imperative that the school, and because of its adolescent relation, es- pecially the high school, endeavor to find its wise solu- tion. The addition of the social centre will not only facilitate the giving of systematic supervision to the social activi- ties of present students, which is their immediate need, but promote their deHberate development into forms less disfigured by an undesirable class consciousness. It will be able to do this because of the wider circle which it will include and because of the study and experimentation that will be made necessary by the exigencies of the larger and more difficult undertaking of improving social life generally. As a Centre of Civic Activity. — The tremendous im- portance to our civic welfare of the basis upon which electors form party ties needs no ampHfication. And yet the method of determining what party to join or when to leave it is a subject comparatively untouched in institutions which the State is supporting ostensibly for the preservation of the democratic form of government. It is another striking evidence of the lack of a social view-point in our systems of public education. A com- plete treatment of the manner in which converting the high school into a civic centre^ will remedy this defect * The civic aspects of the social centre are fully discussed in " The Social Center," by Edward J. Ward. D. Appleton and Co., New York. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 537 is not possible in the compass of this chapter, but a few of the main points may be set down. In the first place, by opening the building to party raUies, non-partisan discussions, primaries, and the bal- lot-box, the tone of political activity will be raised and it will be brought under the eyes of the students where its lessons can be effectively deduced by the faculty. Again, by promoting and organizing full and fair discus- sions of civic questions the distinction can be sharply drawn between groups for forming opinion and groups for securing action. The institution of a political forum^ in a public school is, it is true, a perilous proceeding and one which can be successfully carried through only by those possessed of the greatest tact and ability. But if success can be attained there is no more effective way of impressing upon the minds of future voters the need of clear thinking before and separate from action, and thus restoring some badly needed idealism to American politi- cal life. A basis for deciding when to compromise with personal convictions in order to secure results and when to hold out at all hazards can be developed by means of a systematic observation and analysis of the activities of civic clubs, adult or otherwise, miniature congresses, and local improvement associations which are organized in the social-centre department. The instructional value of holding in the auditorium meetings for the consideration of amendments proposed for the State constitution, or welcoming ceremonies for newly naturalized citizens when certificates are presented to immigrants and addresses are delivered by the mayor ^ See "Lessons Learned in Rochester," by Professor George M. Forbes, a bulletin issued by the University Extension Division of the University of Wisconsin. 538 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and leading citizens — this needs no further comment. How they will vivify the images received in the history and civil government classes is obvious to every one. As a Recreation Centre. — The social nature of the really successful forms of recreation is already widely recognized. The predominance of team games and com- petitions over calisthenics and solitary training is every- where evident. The high school graduate of to-day needs no admonition to join a club, a team, or some other group when he wishes to build up tired muscles or remove the cobwebs from his brain. It is true, also, that the reg- ular athletic activities of the average high school give its facilities fairly constant utilization; but there are also pedagogical advantages to be gained from an extension of their use, so far as possible, to individuals outside the student body. Through the opportunity of observing further the development of old students, the school's regular physical-training staff will be able to draw useful conclusions as to the after-effects of the several kinds of athletic competitions and the different regimens pre- scribed to secure proficiency. Proclivities whose vicious- ness was hardly distinguishable in adolescent students will be seen in adulthood in their true character. The instructors will also compare with interest the physiques, sporting standards, and moral habits of graduates and those of persons without a secondary education. The fixing of amateur ideals among the students will be facilitated through the mere increasing of the volume of non-professional sports in the city, and in the same way the cause of clean athletics will be advanced. Those of the faculty interested in moral training will be able to observe the working of various rules with groups of different stages of culture and in general to watch habits of fair play being woven into the warp of char- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 539 acter, while for mankind as a whole there should come greater progress in the solution of the problem of indi- vidual recreation. The prediction that the extension activities will bear fruit of value to the regular curriculum of physical educa- tion is verified in New York City by the fact that some of the group exercises developed by the PubHc Schools Athletic League, an organization to promote after-class sports among pupils, have been incorporated in the offi- cial course of study. Among the passive agencies of recreation are to be in- cluded motion pictures, theatricals, concerts, illustrated lectures, and other forms of mental entertainment, but since these are so intimately related to cultural activities in general their treatment will be reserved for the follow- ing section. As a Cultural Centre. — That canon of art instruction which exalts even crude versification, so it be animated with genuine feeling, over the slavish imitation of classic models, will receive much reinforcement in the minds of the regular students from the efforts to socialize the cul- tural activities of the community. The democratization of art proceeds not alone by popular entertainment but by popular participation as well. The great masters do indeed inspire, but if no outlet is given to the feelings thus stimulated the transmission of the art movement is stopped. Accordingly, in this department of the social centre there will be continual endeavors to arrange liter- ary, musical, and artistic programmes in which ama- teurs generally, rather than professionals exclusively, will take the active part. Local dramatic clubs, for example, will be encouraged to present significant plays, using those of local origin whenever these attain to a feasible standard. Incipient instrumentahsts will be or- 540 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ganized into orchestras, and popular choruses will be formed to give a musical background to the numerous lectures and general entertainments at the centre. A very effective means of objectifying current Hfe and giving it a common meaning is to be found in the pag- eant, especially in its modern form, wherein all the social forces, which have made the community's past and are now making its future, are realistically or symbolically presented in a moving, spectacular, out-of-doors drama. In the case of a high school favored with a stadium, Hke the one at Tacoma, such an event might fittingly take place upon its grounds; but, wherever it were held, its organization, conduct, and leading parts might very properly be undertaken b}^ a social-centre staff. Other occasions calling for broad activities of a similar order are afforded by the national and local holidays. The effort to make the observance of the Fourth of July not only harmlessly enjoyable but also significant has of necessity made it a community affair. To celebrate properly the nation's natal day, May Day, and Labor Day, it is the growing practice to arrange a parade, a festival, a car- nival, or some other city-wide occasion in which all the elements of the community are joyfully fused by some magnificent spectacle resplendent with color, jubilant with sound, and redolent of patriotic meaning. The or- ganization or at least stimulation of and participation in such events as these come within the proper function of the social centre, and they, like many of its own affairs, would also afford excellent outlets for the athletic, lit- erary, oratorical, musical, and artistic activities of the regular high school students.^ ' See Chapter XXII for an account of a high school which has become the art centre of a community. THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 541 The debating clubs and singing societies of the ward school centres might be organized into leagues and fed- erations for the purpose of holding contests or tourna- ments, the final events of which — or possibly all of them — could appropriately be held in the high school auditorium under the auspices of its social-centre staff. The emula- tion thus stimulated would quicken and refine intellec- tual and emotional life in all parts of the community. The informative and entertaining power of motion pic- tures could be increased and purified if exhibitions of films of the best educational and literary types were reg- ularly held in the auditorium. The charging of a small admission fee would not only help to distribute the ex- pense more equitably but tend to hold the management up to a higher level of efficiency, while the extension of the market for films of a high character would give a much-needed stimulus to their production by the man- ufacturers. In the selection of subjects for lectures, picture exhibi- tions, in the planning of all the incidental activities, the special needs of the community, whether uttered or still unconscious, should be borne in mind, as the degree in which these were met would determine the amount of patronage and support the offerings would receive. Sim- ilarly, in the public-library service,^ which would form a part of the social-centre equipment, the books and lists displayed could all be related to the current topics of the times. The policy of thus making the social-centre facili- ties quickly responsive to the wants of the community could not fail of a fertilizing influence upon all its expres- sional activities. Upon the minds of both instructor and 'In this connection see also Chapter XVIII, "The Socializing Func- tion of the High School Library." 542 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pupil would be continually impressed the fact, too little appreciated in existing systems of education, that art is a product of the interaction between society and the individual. Differentiation of the Social Centre in High and Ward Schools. — If the educational and social tendencies which have been outHned herein are real and, through their reciprocal action, cause a development along the Hnes which have been indicated, the high school social centre will in time show characteristics plainly distinguishing it from that of the elementary school. Its clientele will probably come from the city as a whole or at least a large district thereof, and it will, therefore, serve naturally as the centre at large. In athletics it will tend to be the place where the matches between teams representing social centres in different sections of the city are held rather than the place for the regular practice of neighbor- hood groups. The city-wide basket-ball tournament among department-store fives, for instance, may begin in the ward centres, but it will probably culminate in the more spacious gymnasium at the high school. In social activities there will be a natural selection of the participants on the basis not of locality but of sim- ilarity of tastes or purposes. A reception to a person of more than local prominence will naturally take place here, while affairs of a more neighborhood character will occur in the ward school. The municipal choruses, the mem- bership of which comes from all parts of the city, will have their home in the high school, and here the great oratorios and more pretentious amateur theatricals will be presented. As a civic forum the high school platform will be the place where questions of the municipality will be thrashed out, while in the ward school the local im- THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 543 provements will be the more pertinent subjects for dis- cussion. Lectures and other occasions of a cultural na- ture which appeal to highly developed tastes and abilities will find their home in the high school auditorium, as well as those of a more general import. The facilities and need for study and experimentation possessed by the faculty of the secondary school will tend to make it a social and civic laboratory, while the activity of the ward school staff will be mainly that of administration. Steps Immediately PracticaL — In advance of the granting to the high school organization of the adminis- trative machinery which would be required for the com- prehensive plan that has been sketched, there are certain feasible steps by which a beginning can be made. The first of these is the adoption of a definite policy in favor of the social-centre activities. One of the ways in which such an attitude would first manifest itself would be in arrangements whereby some of the regular staff could assist with the extension work.^ For example, the phys- ical-training director would probably be willing, for a slight additional compensation, to give some time to the development of athletics among the youths who attend the evening high school. The woman in charge of the girls' physical education could probably find time for some instruction in folk dancing for the young women from stores and factories. As soon as possible, of course, an assistant should be appointed who could give time and thought to the de- velopment and management of all the social-centre ac- tivities. Such an official would be able to obtain much assistance from voluntary organizations interested in ^ In the Los Angeles High School the night school and the social centre have been placed under one head. 544 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL social welfare, or if there happened to be none available, he might himself well undertake the promotion of one among some of the more prominent citizens. With the sympathy and aid of the school authorities behind him, he might find among the faculty some volunteers for club work, chaperonage, and other supervisory duties. The policy of organizing self-supporting activities would, in time, enable an extension of the social-centre force. Motion-picture shows, social dancing, club memberships, and entertainments, if properly managed, can all be made to give an income which could be appKed to the maintenance of these and similar activities. In the inauguration of new and unusual uses of the schoolhouse, the wise director will give considerable thought to the inculcation in the minds of the incoming public of the right ways of using the school building. When the political meetings were first held in the Jersey City High School careful directions about the proper exits and ingresses were published in the papers and dis- seminated by means of handbills. Sometimes, on such occasions, admission is only by ticket, a method which has the advantage of limiting the crowd and assuring the selection of the right people. A clear statement of the various privileges and prohibitions at the outset will pre- vent much friction later. It is always difficult to enforce rules which have not been well promulgated. Conclusion. — The preparation for life's struggles which boys and girls received at home in the period before the industries had departed from it is still extolled by stu- dents of education. In those rural days the boy worked beside his father, observed and imitated him in the per- formance of an infinitely varied round of tasks. Every lesson learned was inseparably associated with some THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE 545 difficulty of vital importance which the lad himself had experienced. No sooner had one responsibility found a secure place upon his shoulders than another and bigger one slipped into position ready for their squaring. Edu- cation was a growing rather than a forcing process be- cause it took place in the midst of a real life and was a natural part of it. Is it beyond the realm of possibility that the high school will some day be the scene of so much of the city's social and civic life that the youth reared therein, inti- mately associated with the leaders and helping to bear their burdens, will receive a training for citizenship to which future historians will be able to award an equal meed of praise? CHAPTER XXII CONTINUATION WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Calvin Olin Davis, Ph.D. JUNIOR PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Definitions. — The expressions "Continuation School" and "Continuation Work" are employed in America with equivocal meanings. Seeking to embody the idea and spirit of the Forthildungschulen of Germany, the first enthusiasts for these schools very naturally over- stressed the features that stood out most prominently to the superficial observer. This feature is the vocational one. Hence continuation schools at the outset came to imply a type of school usually organized and adminis- tered by authorities other than those having charge of the regular system of schools, and aiming to give a voca- tional training to such youths as have completed the elementary schools or have reached the age of fourteen and have engaged in some form of industry or other work. Viewed thus, the new type of school merely continued the opportunities to secure the elements of an education, or- ganized, however, with reference solely to skill in the particular arts of their trade. Regarded in this sense, continuation schools are nearly or quite synonymous with apprenticeship schools and trade-schools. A second interpretation of the expressions was truer to the German ideal. This was not only to continue the 646 CONTINUATION WORK 547 opportunity for securing an elementary education beyond the age of fourteen but to compel attendance at such schools for a definite period. Moreover, while vocational training constituted the nucleus of the work, the training did not stop there but included also religious, civic, moral, and hygienic instruction. Recently continuation work has come to have a still larger and broader signification. Under the caption are now included all forms of instruction and training, both general and technical, which are provided for pupils who have left the elementary schools and which aim to continue or supplement the education received in the regularly organized elementary school — excepting only such education as is secured in the traditional courses and in the traditional forms and ways of the regular high school. Indeed, every extension of subject-matter made in the interest of social and practical needs, every differ- entiation of courses made with reference to some newly felt demand, and every change in administration affect- ing the question of hours of attendance, election of work, and modification of method represents, even in the tra- ditional high school, something in the way of continua- tion work. Such work has for its aim the development of an individual not only as a workman but as a citizen and a man. It seeks equally to improve the personal, the economic, and the social worth of each human being to whom it ministers and hence very aptly is sometimes designated "improvement work." It is "continuation work" or "improvement work" in this larger and broader meaning of the terms that is considered in this chapter. Historical Sketch. — Continuation schools as distinct from apprenticeship schools and as agencies for con- 548 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tinuing the rudiments of education received in the ele- mentary schools had their rise in Germany as early as the latter part of the sixteenth century. At the outset they were organized as Sunday schools and sought dur- ing an hour or two each Sunday to give instruction in the three R's and religion. Attendance upon such schools soon was made obligatory on all youths, girls as well as boys, up to the age of eighteen, or (in case of girls) till marriage. In time vocational or apprenticeship instruc- tion was added to the course, and the aim of the schools became threefold; namely, personal culture, industrial skill, and patriotism. In time, too, week-day and eve- ning continuation schools grew up. In 1869, exactly three hundred years after the first continuation school was established, the North German Federation of States authorized by law any local political body to compel attendance at continuation schools upon all workmen up to the age of eighteen years and to require employers to grant the necessary time to em- ployees to attend such schools. This law became the basis for the Imperial Industrial Law of 1891, which has continued in force until to-day the essential provisions of the older law. With the larger awakening to social responsibility in the United States in the past decade, with the intensification of industrial conditions and the specialization of labor everywhere during the same period, and with the fuller appreciation of the educational needs of the age and the educational efforts being put forth by Germany and other European countries to meet these needs, there has come into America also, since about 1900, an enthusiasm for continuation schools. And yet, withal, there has been but relatively little progress toward the actual establish- CONTINUATION WORK 549 merit of schools of this kind. To quote from the latest report of the United States Commissioner of Education/ it seems that "with the vocational principle fully ac- knowledged, with more or less complete systems of vo- cational education in operation in a half-dozen States and in numerous cities, and with constant demands from all sources for the extension of vocational training, the movement is not yet making the headway in practice that it should." The fact of the case is that up to a very recent date continuation work in the United States has signified solely vocational work. To-day there is seemingly a keener appreciation of what real continuation training involves. There is a recognition that vocational train- ing cannot safely nor feasibly be given without founding it upon the fimdamentals of a general education. Hence, the period upon which America has entered at present is one of experimenting and testing, one fraught with great possibilities but likewise with great dangers. It is in the hopes of presenting the saHent conditions that confront the situation to-day, of suggesting some principles upon which procedure must be based, and in offering some practical suggestions that this chapter has been undertaken. The Present Situation. — It seems clearly apparent to any who make a study of social conditions in the United States and who scrutinize the work of the public schools that the present organization, administration, and re- sults of education are unsatisfactory. Investigate where one may, the same general defects are to be found. "Retardation," "elimination," and "dissatisfaction" are almost universal complaints. Scores of yoimg peo- ' Commissioner of Education Report, 191 2, vol. I, p. 2^. 550 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL pie seek and grasp at the most trivial excuses to forsake the schools. Economic pressure, ill health, and mental incapacity are, of course, responsible for a considerable number of these defections, but they account for only a small percentage of the total. Bulletins recently issued by the United States Bureau of Education prove conclu- sively that "from one half to three fourths of the girls at work in the factories [at Worcester, Mass.] could have had further schooling if they had wanted to or if their parents had cared to insist upon it." ^ Investigations in other communities reveal similar conditions. Moreover, " the majority of young girls who leave school to go to work are only fourteen years of age" and "the work offered in the grammar-schools has been completed by only a small proportion" of them. More alarming still is the fact that "the number of four- teen- to-sixteen-year-old girls leaving school to go to work is increasing" at a much greater rate than "the percent- age of increase in population." ^ What is true respecting girls is likewise true respecting boys — and in a more exaggerated form. The real explanation, therefore, of the excessive school mortality between the ages of ten and fifteen is the dis- like of the school as it is to-day organized and admin- istered and the desire for greater manual, physical, and social activity than the school affords. "Such facts em- phasize the large demand for training which gives oppor- tunity for manual combined with mental development." They also give warrant and justification for providing improvement or continuation work on a generous scale and for extending the period of State control over the ^Special Bulletin 2A, 1152, of the U. S. Bureau of Education. 2 Bulletin No. 17, U. S. Bureau of Education, p. 11. CONTINUATION WORK 551 education of individuals until the age of sixteen or eighteen. To exempt youths suddenly from institutional control at the period of early adolescence — the most critical and unstable period of life and the period in which parental control is least effective — is psychologically most illogical, morally most reprehensible, economically most wasteful, and politically most unwise. Freed from close parental care and from school discipline, they not infre- quently drift upon the active world of business and seek to satisfy their newly awakened sense of responsibility, personality, and power in its bustling life. Moreover, the business world unconsciously fosters the determina- tion of many boys and girls to forsake school permanently by inviting them to enter any number of youthful jobs in which regularity of hours of labor, considerable free time, and relatively attractive compensation prove irre- sistible allurements. But, for the most part, such posi- tions offer little opportunity for growth in insight, skill, or financial advancement. They afford the maximum of rewards at the outset and hence yield diminishing returns. Meanwhile, natural and social interests are multiplied for the youths and economic demands are increased. In- ability to satisfy these in a legitimate and normal manner leads, too often, first to dissatisfaction with the job, then to carelessness in work, and, finally, to dismissal or resig- nation. For some months the story is repeated at in- tervals, each new venture producing a more calloused individual, a more antisocial citizen, and a more irre- sponsible workman. The inevitable final result is degen- eration to the ranks of the criminal or the socially de- pendent, or the crushing of spirit and the reduction to the condition of stolid, embittered workmen, or else a re- 552 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL arousing of aspirations and an effort to increase one's efficiency and social ranking even at a belated day. The Awakened Interest. — Revelations of the existing conditions have recently awakened the state and indus- try alike to an appreciation of their mutual interests and of their higher obligations. Industry has felt the lack of apprentices and of workmen properly trained to fill important positions as foremen, supervisors, and direct- ors. It has recognized, too, that skill alone cannot pro- duce the desirable workman, but that intellectual alert- ness, moral responsibility, and physical health are equally essential elements. Likewise, the state has come to a clearer conception of her legitimate functions. She has come to appreciate the fact that her own highest political, civic, economic, commercial, and social interests can best be conserved and promoted if the body of her citizens be trained not only to contented self-support but to a real- ization of the aims and functions of government, the instruments and processes of civil society, and the interre- lations and interdependencies of social and political insti- tutions. That is to say, in place of the old laissez-faire doctrine of the function of government there is substituted the newer socialistic or paternalistic theory of the state. Conclusions from the Facts and Theories. — In the light of the newer theories respecting the obligations of state and industry there is but one conclusion — namely, a more complete democratic realization of society and of the agencies employed by society to promote its welfare and progress must be developed. The schools, repre- senting one type of these agencies, cannot escape the ef- fects of this general evolutionary tendency if they would. The lesson is plain: public education must be made avail- able for all and adapted to the special needs of each. CONTINUATION WORK 553 It is just this enlarged conception of the purpose and function of pubHc education that has produced the de- mand for continuation work for those who in their eariier years were unable to avail themselves of the opportuni- ties of the regular school, or neglected to take advantage of them, or were unable to profit from the instruction fur- nished therein. Moreover, since the first law of life is self-preservation and hence of an activity that shall pro- vide a livelihood, and since the dominant impulse of adolescence is participation in social affairs that are seen to function not too remotely in useful forms, continua- tion work that is to attract and stimulate and prove thoroughly successful must, in the majority of instances, be centred in vocational interests and be dominated by the vocational spirit. Vocational training, in turn, is in- timately connected with the questions of vocational and avocational guidance and with the employment of the school buildings as social centres, topics treated elsewhere in this book. Principles Governing Continuation Work. — Before considering the ways and means of conducting continua- tion work, wisdom dictates the policy of formulating at least a few guiding educational principles. These may be categorically stated thus: 1. Human interests are diverse and express themselves in different forms and in varying degrees in each in- dividual. 2. Personal power and happiness, and hence social wel- fare, are most enhanced when each individual has, as fully as possible, developed his real native interests — provided these interests are not immoral or antisocial. 3. Personal development can take place in greatest degree when it is kept in harmony with natural apti- 554 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tudes and ambitions and not sought by agencies working against or at cross-purposes with these. 4. It is impossible truly to educate any being without reference to some clearly conceived end or aim — though such ends or aims may be set up more remotely for cer- tain types of minds than for others. 5. For a large proportion of mankind the only appeal that is effective at the outset of their development is the egoistic, practical, or vocational appeal. 6. Industry and vocations are not ends in themselves but means to personal culture and happiness and to so- cial justice and progress. 7. The first step to personal culture and to social inter- est is "joy in one's work." 8. The first element in the development of joy in one's work is the recognition of the economic and aesthetic worth of the product produced and the social significance of the operations involved. 9. The recognition of the social value of one's voca- tional efforts alone gives an apperceptive basis for learn- ing the greater lesson of the function of the state and the community and of the demands for civic co-opera- tion, personal loyalty, and social justice. 10. The vocational, semi-vocational, or continuation school is the most available and promising agency soci- ety possesses for securing this gradual transformation of many of its members from selfish, egoistic individuals to unselfish, altruistic, social agents. The Problem Restated. — Edwin G. Cooley has formu- lated the problem in a clear and concise manner in his "Vocational Education in Europe." He says: We may sum up the problem of the continuation school as fourfold: CONTINUATION WORK 555 1. It must strengthen and deepen the moral ideas of the youth and give him further moral development out of his new surround- ings and experiences. 2. It must put him into social relations with the community and state. 3. It must advance his vocational training, and, in connection with this, develop his general education. 4. It must fill up the gaps in general training which seem likely to be detrimental to success in the vocational world. Cooley continues: From an ethical point of view it may be hard to justify taking the third idea as the centre and grouping the others about it. There is, however, no question but that the third is the peda- gogical centre of all the instruction in the continuation school; through it we may strengthen the other three ideals. Through their desire to become efficient vocationally, these boys are brought to see their relations to society and the state and to realize the advantages of a broad intellectual development. ^ Thus, it is clear that while vocational training must, for the most part, be used as the lure to attract youths to the continuation school, such schools must go far beyond the vocational in their efforts. Moreover, for adults of eighteen years or older the vocational aspects may some- times be entirely incidental and the appeal may be made strictly through the general cultural improvement to be derived. For Whom Is Continuation Work to Be Provided. — With the foregoing facts, principles, and theories to guide, it seems clear that if continuation work in the United States is to be provided in a way adequate to meet the needs of all who should be encouraged to avail themselves of such opportunities, provision must be made for the following classes of persons: *E. G. Cooley, "Vocational Education in Europe," p. 86. 556 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 1. Those boys and girls over fourteen years of age who, for various reasons, have completed only a portion of the regular elementary school course and have entered upon rather permanent lines of vocational work. This group needs a training that will fill the gaps in their earlier ele- mentary education, *' improvement work" to fit them better for citizenship and for the enjoyment of health and leisure, and specific vocational instruction. 2. Those who have completed the elementary school curriculum and possibly also a portion of the high school course, have engaged temporarily in various forms of unskilled work or vocations offering little opportunity for advancement, and seek to fit themselves for admission to college, technical schools, or more remunerative positions in industrial or commercial fields. It is due members of this class that such culture and practical work of the high school as is needed to fit them for their life career shall be given them. 3. Those who have received a fairly ample liberal edu- cation but who desire to supplement their training by courses dealing with recently organized knowledge or by courses taught in ways different from the manner in which they formerly were presented to them. Such work may be pursued for culture only or for practical utility. It includes, for example, manual-training work for the pro- fessional or business man, literaiture or language study or art work for the ambitious women of leisure, and domestic science and art or bookkeeping or millinery work for the women seeking to apply the knowledge to home problems. 4. Those immigrants who have had little or no train- ing in American elementary schools and who seek a practical knowledge of our language and our business and poUtical institutions. CONTINUATION WORK 557 5. Those who, whatever their previous education, de- sire to acquire a knowledge and training in a single special trade and to secure this education in the short- est time possible. The members of this group differ from those in groups one and two in that the continuation work sought is narrowly utilitarian and specialized. Thus, considering the classes of individuals for whom continuation work must in the nature of the case be de- signed, there is ample justification for making it, in the majority of cases, centre about vocational interests. Classification of Types of Continuation Work in the United States. — Ignoring for the present the content of continuation and vocational work, it is doubtless within the limits of fact to say there is no form of such training undertaken in any European country that has not had its counterpart in America. Indeed, there have been experiments undertaken in the United States that (it seems safe to say) are as yet unknown elsewhere. Inas- much, however, as it is at present extremely difficult to lay down hard-and-fast limits to (so-called) elementary education, secondary education, vocational and techni- cal education, and even higher education, it is a ques- tion of delicate judgment as to what portions of such work fall within the Hmits of a book that professes to deal only with high school education. Nevertheless, since the tendency throughout the land seems to be to confine the period of the undifferentiated elementary school to six years and to include the present seventh and eighth grades^ (and in some places also the thirteenth and fourteenth grades, that is to say, the first two years of academic study beyond the present high 1 For a detailed analysis of these tendencies see Chapter IV in vol. I of this series. 558 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school 1) in the scope of secondary education, it seems fitting and proper to regard all forms of vocational or improvement work that is provided for youths outside the regular traditional schools or traditional courses, and that is open to pupils twelve years of age or older, as appropriate material for discussion in this chapter. The complete classification of the various types of vo- cational and continuation work will then be as follows: CLASSIFICATION OF VOCATIONAL AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS I. Day Schools. 1. Preapprenticeship schools. 2. Trade or vocational schools. 3. Vocational curriculums in general high schools. (a) Short-term. (b) Long-term. 4. Vocational high schools. (a) High schools of commerce. (6) Commercial high schools. (c) High schools of manual arts for boys. (d) High schools of practical arts for girls. (e) Industrial high schools. (/) Technical high schools. {g) Agricultural high schools. 5. Vacation schools. II. Evening Schools. III. Part-Time Day Schools. I. Co-operative work. (a) Half-day classes. (b) Alternate-week (or fortnight) classes. (c) Weekly short-session classes (or continuation schools, in the popular meaning of the term). ^ Many regular high schools now offer two years of graduate study in academic subjects. The State of California in particular has taken an active lead in such a plan and has by law specifically authorized such extension. CONTINUATION WORK 559 (i) Within public-school buildings. (2) Within shops, stores, and business houses, 2. Independent work. (a) Adult classes. (b) Special-student work. (c) Visiting-student work. (d) Supervised out-of -class work. (i) Independent study and special reports. (2) Private instruction and certification. (e) Extension courses. (/) Sunday schools. IV. Schools for Exceptional Children. 1. Physically defective. (a) Deaf and dumb. (b) Blind. (c) Tubercular. (d) Deformed and crippled. 2. Morally defective. (c) Incorrigibles. 3. Mentally defective. (c) Morons. V. Miscellaneous Improvement Work. 1. Parents and Teachers' Associations. 2. Teachers' institutes. 3. Teachers' study clubs. 4. People's high schools. 5. People's eleven-day courses. 6. People's institutes (one or two days). 7. High school extension work. Analysis of the Various Types. — A brief analysis of each type of vocational or improvement work mentioned is desirable. I. Preapprenticeship Schools. — These are also fre- quently styled general industrial or preparatory trade or prevocational schools. They are schools ordinarily open to boys and girls who have not completed the 560 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL elementary schools and who often are under fourteen years of age, but whose interests, capacities, and eco- nomic resources demand that they shall be given an in- tensely practical training if they are to be retained in the schools with any large degree of advantage to themselves. These schools are, therefore, but the result of a dififer- entiation of the elementary school at the end of the sixth or seventh grade. The instruction consists of English, mathematics, and science taught with more than usual reference to industry; of history, civics, physical train- ing, and hygiene; and of elementary work in commer- cial branches, manual arts, domestic arts, and general- trade instruction. Schools of this type— usually offering a two-year course — are found in several of our larger cities, e. g., Buffalo, Chicago, and Pittsburg, and could wisely be adopted in other places. 2. Trade-Schools or Vocational Schools. — The trade- school, so-called, is not infrequently synonymous with the preapprenticeship school. It differs in theory from that type of school in that the dominant feature is special- trade rather than general-trade instruction. Pupils are admitted to the trade-schools at fourteen years of age but often before they have completed the elementary school curriculum. The courses are usually short — from four months to two years — and include a modicum of general knowledge applied to the special trade in question. In some places, however, the courses are three or four years in length, provide a rather general training in commercial, industrial, and domestic arts, and differ from the vocational courses in the general high school chiefly in the facts that not all students have completed the elementary curriculum, that the work is organized in a separate building, and that a greater portion of the CONTINUATION WORK 561 school day is devoted to practice in the chosen art than is possible in the high school. Schools of this type have been established in many American cities and their numbers are fast multiplying. They take many diverse forms. Thus, for example, Buffalo has provided five vocational schools and gives instruction in the following work: cabinetmaking, car- pentry, pattern-making, electrical construction, machine- shop practice, printing, commercial subjects, and girls' industrial work. Buffalo has recently also "instituted a survey of the principal occupations for women and girls in Buffalo" and is making plans to establish separate vo- cational schools for girls. Likewise, Detroit is about to open several vocational schools of a similar character for both boys and girls. Illustrations could be multiplied. But not only are cities establishing vocational schools, but in several instances State trade-schools have been founded. Among these are the State trade-schools at New Britain and Bridgeport, Conn.; the New York Trade-School for Girls at Syracuse, N. Y.; the Girls' Trade-School at Boston, and the Milwaukee School of Trades for Boys at Milwaukee. The New Britain State Trade-School will furnish an illustration of this type of schools. Here boys are taught the following trades: machinist, tool-making, pattern-making, carpentry, cabinetmaking, draughting, printing and bookbinding, and plumbing. Girls are taught dressmaking and millinery. The only entrance requirements are: ability to read and write English cor- rectly and a minimum age limit of fourteen years. In this trade-school, as in many others, the guiding principle is to make the work real in the fullest meaning of the term. No undertaking is pursued merely for 562 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL "practice," but from the very outset of the course the output is fashioned to fill definite orders from business firms. Hence each product has commercial value, the orders from regular customers furnishing a varied line of work and development in each special trade, enabling the producer to "learn and earn" at the same time. Recently the boys from this school have engaged in house-building for contractors and have constructed houses complete — from the excavation work to the in- stallation of the plumbing and electrical equipment. The girls supply certain firms in New York City with regular shipments of garments and ladies' hats. There can be no question but that such trade-schools or voca- tional schools, established by municipalities, counties, and States, are destined to become established in increasing numbers and to afford a very important kind of continu- ation work. Properly differentiated and wisely distrib- uted, it is certain that they not only will make a wide appeal but will serve social and economic interests in very advantageous ways. There seems, however, no very convincing reason for removing the control of these schools from the hands of the regularly constituted school authorities, as some would advise. No doubt the dual system works satis- factorily in Germany and other foreign countries, but there is no reason to believe that the present school ma- chinery in America is incapable of handling vocational education wisely. On the other hand, there is real dan- ger that a dual system of administration will lead to friction, duplication, waste, and possibly extravagance. Moreover, such an arrangement is fraught with the men- ace of intensifying class feelings and of mechanizing vo- cational work. The wisest plan of conducting all public CONTINUATION WORK 563 school matters is through the agency of trained experts selected by a body of truly representative non-experts. Hence a single board of education, advised by a consultative com- mittee of business men, can best determine general educa- tional policies and raise the moneys to support them. Such a consultative committee, ready and willing to furnish the responsible school authority with data and suggestions respecting vocational needs, will add breadth, depth, and positiveness to policies that may be under- taken. The expert administrators, selected by the board, can then best be left to execute the policies decided upon. 3. General High Schools. — Within the general high school to-day are to be found two types of vocational curriculums — the short-term curriculum, usually two years in length, and the long-term curriculum of four years. The former marks a very recent development; the latter is of several years' standing. Within each of these two types of curriculums from one half to three fourths of the subject-matter is "academic" in char- acter — though often presented with a vocational flavor. The remainder of the work is professedly vocational. The most commonly organized curriculums of the four-year type are the commercial, the manual training, and the domestic science and arts. Los Angeles, how- ever (which has probably differentiated its curriculums most fully of any city), provides the following vocational curriculums : Commercial art, hand- wrought metal work, interior decorating, leather work, pottery work, general farmer, specialty farmer, truck gardener, landscape- gardener, nursery man, dairy-farmer, poultry man, farm mechanic, multigraph operator, adding-machine operator, filing clerk, billing clerk, office assistant, office manager, 564 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL accountant, auditor, bank clerk, bookkeeper, cashier, stenographer, reporter, private secretary, shipping-clerk, receiving clerk, business manager, post-office employee, civil-service employee, commercial teacher, caterer's assistant (cooking and supplying home-made articles for delicatessen stores and private families) , teacher domestic science and art, housekeeper, waitress, dressmaker, mil- liner, seamstress, boat-builder, engineer (marine-gaso- line), merchant marine, naval architect, aquarian archi- tect, cataloguer of marine life, chart designer, curator of museums, fish commissioner, fish expert, fish propagator, assayer, blacksmith, cabinetmaker, chemist, architectural draughtsman, mechanical craftsman, foundryman, cen- tral station electrical work, substation electrical work, telephone work, electric-light work, electrician, machine- shop work, pattern-making, and surveying — being sixty- six in number. The above courses are offered in one or more of the six regular high schools of Los Angeles and are grouped under the following six main divisions of vocations: art work, agricultural occupations, commerical work, do- mestic science and domestic art, marine vocations, tech- nical and semitechnical vocations or trades. In each of these curriculums are found (besides the major subject and EngHsh) from two to four years' work in history, from one to four years' work in mathe- matics, together with a minimum amount of work in music, physical education, and oral expression. The principle of differentiation revealed here is being widely accepted, and vocational curriculums in the general high school are multiplying rapidly. There is no reason to doubt that for the smaller community this mode of providing vocational or continuation work is CONTINUATION WORK 565 one of the best and most feasible and that the practice will continue. The short-term vocational curriculum differs from the four-year curriculum chiefly in that the subject-matter is more completely vocational, thus allowing the individual pursuing it to secure quickly the practical training he seeks and to enter upon his vocational career at an early date. Among the cities offering curriculums of this type are Kansas City, Kans.; Pittsburg, Pa.; South Bend, Ind., and Chicago, 111. — the latter city providing ten distinct two-year curriculums of a vocational char- acter. The plan here revealed possesses decided merits. With some possible modifications, it is adapted to every high school in the land in which vocational courses of any character are offered. The scheme does not signify a four-year course with the last two years omitted, but it permits such a reorganization of the vocational work offered as to provide for intensification and relative com- pleteness at the end of a two-year period. Continuation work of this kind differs less in character than in mode of organization from the work provided in the so-called vocational schools already discussed. Here the instruc- tion is given in the regular high school, and ordinarily is open to none excepting those who have completed the elementary schools. By making the admission require- ments as liberal here as in the vocational schools, smaller communities can provide this form of continuation work as readily as larger communities. The short-term courses are worthy of encouragement. 4. Special High Schools. — Special vocational high schools are practicable only in cities of larger size, wherein the demands for extensive specialized work in particu- 566 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL lar fields come from a considerable body of candidates. Within these schools the principle of differentiation of work of an advanced secondary kind is carried to its logical end. In form the special school is not different from the special or differentiated courses within the sin- gle general high school, but in spirit and method there is a decided unHkeness. These schools foster a unity of purpose and a soHdarity of interest that are clear-cut, definite, and articulated. The methods, too, are the methods of practical education — all subjects being pre- sented with reference solely to their appKcation. They seek to do for the youths who have superior ability in particular lines or who enjoy unusual economic and edu- cational advantages what the vocational schools seek to do for the less fortunate boy or girl. There are as many as seven distinct subdivisions of this type of special high schools: (a) The High School of Commerce aims to give a broad knowledge of business affairs and processes, and, in particular, a specialized training in connection with the problems of trade, transportation, and finance. It seeks to fit young men to take their places among the directive agencies of the business world. Such schools have arisen out of the demands of the larger commercial interests of the country and are found only in cities of considerable size, as, for example, in New York, Boston, Philadelphia. In such cities they are desirable and feasible. (&) The Commercial High School aims chiefly to fit boys and girls for subordinate positions in offices, stores, and business houses. It takes the place of the private "commercial college" or the "commercial course" in the general high schools. CONTINUATION WORK 567 (c) The High School of Manual Arts (boys) centres its activities about work in drawing and manual training. It seeks to train young men for positions as draughts- men, foremen, engineers, architects, and managers of manufacturing establishments, but presupposes a sup- plementary period of apprenticeship after leaving the school. Schools of this type are desirable in all large industrial centres. {d) The High School of Practical Arts (girls) is not infrequently given other names, as, for example, high school of domestic arts, vocational high school for girls, and girls' technical high school. Within these schools two lines of work run parallel and are interwoven in each girl's curriculum — one seeking to give a practical training that will enable her to earn a respectable liveli- hood for the uncertain period preceding her marriage and the other seeking to give such knowledge and train- ing as will fit her for the higher calling of home maker, motherhood, and citizenship. Boston, New York, and some other cities provide schools of this type. In several other cities the same purpose is sought in schools of other names — particularly in technical high schools. {e) The Industrial High School. The first school of this kind to be established in the United States is the Industrial High School of Columbus, Ga., which was opened in 1906. This school provides a three-year cur- riculum and articulates with a seven-year grammar- school course. In addition to the usual academic work in English, mathematics, history, and science, each pupil is required to pursue one of five distinct trade courses. These are: (i) home economics, (2) dressmaking and millinery, (3) mechanic arts, (4) textile arts, and (5) business training. 568 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL A quotation from an official bulletin makes clear the character of this school: "The academic work is related as closely as possible to the trade courses. For instance, the science teacher co-operates with the specialist in charge of the textile department in matters of dyeing. The chemistry course, so far as the pupils in this department are concerned, has special reference to the work of that department; while in the domestic-science department the chemistry has special reference to the analysis of foods and their nu- tritive values. In the English department pupils are required to take topics from their trade courses as sub- jects for themes, and the special teachers of the trade courses correct the papers with reference to facts, while the head of the English department criticises and grades them with reference to their form and literary value. The problems in mathematics used in the classroom grow largely out of the work of the shops. And the history teacher presents his subject especially from the industrial point of view."^ One half of each day in this school is devoted to in- dustrial work and the other half to academic studies. Visits to mills, factories, and machine-shops are fre- quent. As in the case of practical-arts work for girls, a num- ber of cities have, since 1906, provided industrial training in speciahzed schools but frequently have given to such institutions the name technical schools. Whether vo- cational training is furnished in a high school specialized to include but one line of study or in schools organized into several co-ordinate divisions is a matter of little 1 "Industrial Education in Columbus, Ga.," U. S. Bureau of Educa- tion, Bulletin 25, p. 16. CONTINUATION WORK 569 significance and can best be left to the judgment of the local authorities. (/) The Technical High School includes under one roof the work that in other cities is frequently organized in manual-arts schools, commerical schools, and often- times, too, practical-arts schools. Schools of this type have recently been established in Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburg, and other cities and give promise of much further extension. {g) Agricultural High Schools seek to serve rural boys and girls in the same manner that the other types of vocational high school serve the urban resident. The aim is to fit for a life of contentment and efficiency on the farms. Such schools include, usually, academic sub- jects, .domestic science and art, manual training, farm mechanics, bookkeeping and other commercial education relatable to farm processes, farm beautifying, rural soci- ology, and other technical branches. Schools of this type are authorized by law in several States and in certain sec- tions of the United States many have been established. In some instances they are organized as State schools, e. g., the State School of Agriculture at Alfred, N. Y., and the Murray State School, Oklahoma; in many instances they are county schools, e. g., the Milwaukee (Wis.) School of Agriculture and the Menominee County (Mich.) School of Agriculture. It seems clear that wherever the unit of organization is sufficiently populous to make the specialized high school economically justifiable, and wherever a strong vo- cational demand is felt for a distinct school of this kind, this way of organizing and administering vocational ed- ucation possesses many advantages. Among these are the feehng of solidarity and pride in work on the part 570 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL of the students, the possibihty of employing a freer spirit in discipline than in the cosmopolitan schools, economy of equipment, longer school periods and a longer school day, and the closer articulation of shop and school. 5. Vacation Schools have much to recommend them to public consideration, and many communities are pro- viding for them. Omitting from consideration vacation schools designed for very young children (though even these are in a certain sense continuation schools, since they depart in a notable way from the traditional ele- mentary school), it seems plausible to assert that the schools of this type may be made to yield the following advantages: First, they permit the healthy, capable, and ambitious high school pupil to shorten his four-year course very materially; secondly, they enable the high school student who for one reason or another has failed to pass a portion of his work the previous year to regain his ranking and to proceed with his class; thirdly, it per- mits students who are seeking to acquire a vocational training within a limited period of time to complete a definite portion earlier than they otherwise would be able. Moreover, it furnishes a chance for a student to do extra work in the subjects in which he wishes to specialize. There is no question but that the vacation school fur- nishes a form of continuation work that is capable of filling an important educational and social service. It is feasible to conduct such a school in almost any com- munity in which the demand is made articulate. De- troit, Cleveland, Chicago, New York, Pittsburg, and many other cities provide schools of this type, and it seems probable the movement will be rapidly extended. Wherever the regular school year extends over ten CONTINUATION WORK 571 months the vacation school must, perforce, be shortened below a term of twelve weeks. Where this is done economy of administration would suggest, doubtless, that the number of courses elected by any individual should be reduced to two or three, that class periods should be correspondingly lengthened, and that thus the work carried in any course in the summer should be made equivalent to the same course during the regular quarter or semester. By confining the work to the morning and to the hours of early afternoon, and by providing op- portunities for study within the school building, ample time for rest and recreation is still allowed later in the day. An incidental result of the vacation school is the impulse given to the all-year schools. If developed, this plan of organization will permit four terms of eleven or twelve weeks each, and hence will provide an additional means for securing flexibility. Evening Schools. — The second large division of schools that deal with continuation work consists of the evening schools. Established now in nearly every large city and town, these schools seek to provide an academic and a vocational training in all lines of work for which there is a well-expressed request. Organized in courses that are given three evenings per week (usually Monday, Wednesday, and Friday) and in courses that meet but twice per week (Tuesday and Thursday), continuation work (where thus given) is made available for all who possess the physical strength, intellectual alertness, and moral stamina to seek it. Although tens of thousands of boys and girls and men and women do attend evening continuation schools, the fatigue of strenuous day labor unfits many times that number for pursuing any courses that demand concentration, alert thinking, or physical 572 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL effort. Hence it is clear that the evening continuation school, as the chief agency for bettering the intellectual, vocational, and social welfare of the classes who toil, is destined to prove an inadequate agency. As a volun- tary school it doubtless can serve a most useful purpose; but as a means of securing compulsory continuation schooling it is ill adapted. Other difficulties to the adequate administration of evening continuation schools lie in the inequality of at- tainments among those who do attend, the insufficiency of well-trained teachers, and suitable text-books. Nev- ertheless, these are but temporary administrative prob- lems and doubtless will gradually be solved in satisfac- tory ways. It is important to note that, despite the obstacles that have stood in the course of the full realization of the ideals of this type of school, it has nevertheless proved itself capable of real and wide-spread service and has been the agency for providing continuation work in manifold ways. Merely to list a few of the courses of instruction given in various schools to-day is to suggest the illimitable range of possibiHties that inhere in schools organized after this type. The list includes the various academic subjects, semiacademic courses in manual training and domestic science and art, commercial work of many kinds, plumbing, laundering, telegraphy, telegraph and telephone construction, bookbinding, printing, electrical work, mining processes, marine engineering, boat-build- ing, gas-engines, automobile building, chauffeuring, avia- tion, millinery, dressmaking, cigar making, nursing, do- mestic service, public service, office practice, secretarial work, etc., etc. Wherever the population of the com- CONTINUATION WORK 573 munity contains a large proportion of foreign-born citi- zens, courses in spoken and written English are also com- mon and are, in many cases at least, eagerly pursued. Thus it is that the evening school affords an important means of providing continuation work for many classes of persons. It constitutes, moreover, a form of continu- ation work that can be carried on in practically every high school in the land. Wisdom, of course, will dictate that futile efforts shall not be encouraged. As in all other forms of education, local demands must in large measure determine the scope, intensiveness, and char- acter of the work provided. Nevertheless, however urgent the needs in any given community, the school will not organize itself. Its in- auguration and perpetuation will depend on the efforts of some leader. Inarticulate interests must be made artic- ulate, incentives to attendance must be presented, and the work must be organized and continued in a vital, gripping manner. Progressive and ambitious school- men should recognize their opportunities to render greater educational service by studying local situations and, if conditions warrant, organizing evening continua- tion work of appropriate kinds. Part-Time Day Schools. — A third very promising mode of administering continuation work is through part-time instruction. Wherever such provision is made the im- pelling thought is that students shall be permitted to attend school in the daytime (rather than at night) and shall not entirely interrupt their regular occupations. The work falls into two main divisions, namely, co- operative work and independent work, and each of these divisions in turn may be subdivided into several distinct minor forms. 574 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL By Co-operative continuation work is meant the shar- ing of the responsibility and the burden of support by both the State and the business firm in which the stu- dent is employed. The principle that serves as a jus- tification for this arrangement is that the employer is directly benefited by the increased training given to his employees as fully as is the State. This improvement is found in increased intellectual power, deepened sense of moral responsibility, and enhanced technical skill. On the other hand, the State derives benefit through the promise of more enlightened citizenship and the economic independence on the part of its members. Co-operative continuation work is, for the most part, carried on under three main forms — namely, in half-day classes, in alternate-week classes, and in weekly short- session classes. The last form is not infrequently styled "continuation work," pure and simple, the term here being used in its narrowest meaning. In Half-day continuation work students spend one half of each school day in the school pursuing such work as they may elect. The other half day is employed in shop, store, or other place of business in which they may be engaged. Obviously, wherever an arrangement of this sort is made the special interests of the employer require that at least a portion of the school work shall bear some- what closely upon the technical duties devolving upon the youth in the place of business. The possibilities of this form of schooling are not, however, exhausted here. Many forms of business suffer no great inconvenience if the operations of the work are not continuous through- out the entire day. Moreover, among many business firms a boy's or a girl's services are desired but part of a day, readily enabling the individual, therefore, to devote CONTINUATION WORK 575 the other half to school work. Since one of the secrets of keeping young men and women a longer period in the schools is to provide ways and means "to earn and learn" at the same time, and to engage in greater social and physical activities, it devolves upon the adminis- trators of our schools to set such machinery in operation as will increase the interest in half-day schools. Alternale-Week Schools are much more common than half-day schools but perhaps give less promise of suc- cessful extension. The core for their organization is found in industrial interests. Schools of this kind con- template the organization of the continuation-school students into two groups— one group to devote its entire attention and efforts for a certain definite period (usu- ally a week or a fortnight) to the theoretical instruction of the particular trade, the second group to be engaged, meanwhile, in applying the theoretical knowledge (ac- quired the previous week in the school) in the actual work of shop or factory. At the end of the given period the two groups exchange places, each group thereby al- ternately receiving the benefits of theoretical and prac- tical training. Schools of this type are found in Fitchburg, Mass.; Cincinnati, O.; Kalamazoo, Mich., and several other cities. In no case is the instruction confined solely to technical trade knowledge, but includes English adapted to the needs of the future artisan, shop mathematics, industrial geography, industrial and commercial history, mechanical drawing applied to immediate interests, fun- damental processes of physics and chemistry so far as they relate to the vocation in hand, shop practice and problems, and elemental topics in civics and in hygiene. As in the case of half-day classes, the form of part- 576 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL time training considered here offers great possibilities for incorporation into the school system of every indus- trial community, but just as in the case of half-day classes the successful organization and administration of them depend to a large degree upon the strength, fore- sight, and tact of the superintendent or other school administrator in charge. For the time being only the voluntary co-operation of employees can be expected; but even this will not be secured in large measure unless the plan and purposes are clearly revealed to them and the mutual advantages are pointed out. In most cases, therefore, the initiative must come from the public- school officials. The type of part-time co-operative school that offers the most promise of all, that is, seemingly, easiest of es- tabUshment and of administration, and that has, up to date, made the strongest appeal to educators and to lay- men is the Weekly short-session class, or the continua- tion school in the popular meaning of the term. These schools are designed to receive young men and women for a few hours per week and to give them theoretical instruction in the field of their daily occupations. But in order to buttress this theoretical special knowledge the instruction most commonly seeks to teach also the fundamental principles and processes upon which the special art depends and to give a practical training in instrumental subjects, such as EngHsh, arithmetic, spell- ing, writing, and drawing. In many instances some at- tention is given to hygiene, civics, ethical principles, gymnastics, folk dancing, swimming, and the conventions incident to the special vocation. The time allotted to these short-session classes varies from two hours per week to ten or twelve hours. Most CONTINUATION WORK 577 frequently the class meets one half day per week for a period of six months or longer. Thus, for example, in Kansas City, Kans., the afternoon sessions of this type of school extend from 2.30 to 5.30 o'clock. In Detroit, Mich., the forenoon sessions extend from 7 o'clock to 11 for girls in factories, and from 8 to 1 2 o'clock for girls in stores; the afternoon sessions for young men extend from I to 5.30 o'clock. In both cities all classes meet weekly. It is, of course, highly essential to students and em- ployers alike that any continuation work that is under- taken shall be carried forward sufficiently long and suffi- ciently regularly to yield real advantages to both. To insure this prolonged effort, Detroit, for example, admits no student to this type of continuation classes until a contract has been executed by the student, the employer, and the agent of the school. By this contract the em- ployer agrees to permit his employees to attend the con- tinuation school one half day per week throughout a period of two years, and the student agrees to "attend the school regularly and promptly the full time and to perform all work to be done both in and out of the school to the best of his ability." The ideal plan also contem- plates that the employer shall not deduct from the wage of his employees because of their attendance on the school, inasmuch as such instruction conduces to his own (direct) advantage. In all schools of this kind the work must, in the nature of the case, be flexible. To quote from the Detroit an- nouncement: " It is not the aim to maintain hard and fast courses of study, but rather to give the student what he needs to know next, in order that his efficiency may increase as rapidly as possible." That the results of the short-session continuation 578 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school are thoroughly satisfactory (if the work is well conducted) can be gathered from excerpts from a recent bulletin issued by the Board of Education of Detroit: " Progress has been marked from the very first and employers are unanimous in their opinion that the work is a paying investment. The students have shown great earnestness and sincerity of purpose, voluntarily doing considerable study and preparation outside of shop and class hours. The general comment of super- intendents and foremen is that the boys are neater in their personal habits and dress, show keener interest in their work, and more loyalty to the firm." An essential feature of all types of continuation in- struction is " follow-up work." Through visits to the homes and shops continuation school administrators should seek to become familiar with the home and working conditions of their charges and to help each one to solve the particular problems that surround him. In addition, vocational bureaus should be maintained and students aided in planning their careers and in se- curing suitable positions. Obviously, the teachers in continuation schools must be men and women who are acquainted with the prac- tical side of industry as well as with the theoretical principles underlying it. In the nature of the case it is not easy as yet to secure many teachers who are thus adequately fitted for the work. No doubt practical shopmen who have had a fair degree of liberal culture will render the best service under existing conditions. But there is imperative need for the development of training schools that shall prepare teachers for these newer t3^es of work. In addition to the short-session continuation work CONTINUATION WORK 579 held wlthiii public-school buildings, there is need for sim- ilar schools that shall be conducted within the shops or stores or other places of business themselves. For some time past private undertakings of this kind have been instituted by employers for their employees, but the newer ideal contemplates the incorporation of this work in the public-school system. Under this arrangement the factory or store is, as heretofore, to furnish the school- room and the equipment, but, in place of purely technical instruction given by some of the more experienced em- ployees of the plant itself, the instruction is to include both general and trade knowledge and is to be presented by trained public-school teachers who visit the places of business for that purpose. Where the consent of the employer can readily be obtained, work of this kind can doubtless best be given at stated times within the work- ing day. Where employees are more or less indifferent to the obligations, the work can best be conducted dur- ing the hour of noon intermission. This latter alterna- tive must, however, be but a temporary experiment to demonstrate to proprietor and employees the mutual advantages to be derived from continuation work of the kind. Obviously, continuation work conducted in the shop or store has the doubtful advantage of reducing the time necessary to receive the instruction. It also will often save car-fare for many persons to and from the school building. It is a question, though, if the change in environment secured by conducting classes in other places than the industrial centre itself may not prove a stimulus that is educationally and economically ad- vantageous. As a means, however, of interesting em- ployers in the operation of the other types of co-opera- 580 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tive continuation work, the factory or store school has its values. Of the Independent or non-cooperative part-time con- tinuation schools little has as yet been heard. Nev- ertheless, they are rich in possibilities for extending the scope and advantages of the public schools. Among the various forms which continuation work of this kind takes are adult classes in the regular and evening schools. The object of such organizations is to enable adults who desire to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the public schools to do so without interfering with the instruction of younger people in the schools, and without subjecting themselves to their unthinking criticisms. Adult classes may be organized to give education purely in the interest of Hberal culture and enjoyment, or for the sake of application in the workaday routine of the individual receiving it. Thus, for example, the Kansas City, Kans., afternoon and evening schools are organized (among other purposes) " to offer opportunities for adults who may desire to carry on some definite and systematic educational work," and the following subjects are of- fered: arithmetic, English grammar, penmanship, short- hand, spelling, elementary English, advanced English, physical training, reading (for persons desiring to learn the English language), science of government, book- keeping, typewriting, cooking, sewing, china painting, mechanic arts, and mechanical drawing. If an articu- late demand should be made for their inclusion, there is no logical reason why any other subjects regularly found in the programme of studies should not be offered to adults on equal conditions with the above. In fact, the following courses are offered in some parts of the coun- try: history, music (including harmony, counterpoint, CONTINUATION WORK 581 and the history of music), history of art, foreign lan- guages, special courses in science, gymnastics, and swim- ming. In the future, therefore, adult classes in the high schools must be made a permanent feature of all sys- tems, for one of the clearest lessons continuation work is impressing is that the schools are organized in the inter- est of all members of society, provided they choose to take advantage of their opportunities. Still another form of part-time provision is the opening of the regular high school courses to the special student. This plan not only permits but encourages the ambitious young man or woman whose main interests lie in fields outside the school, or whose state of health will not per- mit carrying the full allotment of work in the school, to elect a single course (if desired) and to be exempt from all regular school discipline. This plan does not require the toleration of the drone, the hopelessly incompetent, or the lawless; it merely tempers the breeze to the shorn lamb. While it is true nearly every high school in the past has had its irregular or special students, the fact is nevertheless true that aU cours,es have been made unrea- sonably difficult rather than guardedly easy of entrance to the special student. Visiting-Student Work differs little from work per- mitted to the special student. The latter pursues the courses he elects and receives credit toward graduation when satisfactorily completing them. Within the par- ticular course elected the special student is held amen- able to the requirements exacted of all others. The auditor or visiting student attends the course with no thought of credit and does as much or as little inde- pendent study as he sees fit. His object in attending classes is to listen to the discussions and to gain a general appreciation of the subject treated. 582 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Supervised Out-oJ-Class Work has as yet received little attention by the high schools. There are, how- ever, two feasible ways of providing this kind of con- struction work. One is through private study and special reports made directly to the teacher in charge at regular, stated intervals. The other allows high school credit for work done outside the school provided it be certified to by some responsible person. In the first case supervision is frequent and direct; in the second case it is at longer intervals and indirect. Both plans have for their object the fostering of continuation work — the one seeking to encourage the youth who cannot attend school at all to continue systematic study by himself; the other seeking to stimulate the regular stu- dent who has aptitudes and interests not cultivated in the school to pursue those interests under private tui- tion and to be accorded high school credit therefor. Among the subjects thus recognized should be the study of music, fine arts, and commercial branches and ac- tivities carried forward at home or in business. Among the latter may be included domestic science and art work, agricultural and horticultural work, and similar occupations when regularly and satisfactorily performed. Sunday Schools. — ^A last form of continuation work to be mentioned under this category is that provided in Sunday schools. Little advantage has so far been taken of the possibilities of this type of school. Whatever be one's religious beliefs and whatever be one's attitude toward the appropriate observance of the Sabbath, there is no gainsaying the fact that the spirit of a day of rest implies not wasteful idleness but wholesome activities tending to strengthen the body through change of occu- pation. Hence, by opening the high school on Sundays CONTINUATION WORK 583 to such as are unable to pursue work at other times, and by making the appeal varied and strong, true bene- fits may be rendered to many types of people who would otherwise not only not receive them at all but in many cases (it must be believed) would employ the day in ac- quiring vicious knowledge and habits. Certainly there can be no more serious objection to Sunday lectures in the high school than in the art gallery or museum, nor to pursuing class work quietly than to playing base- ball noisily. Continuation Schools for Exceptional Children. — Schools of this kind fall under three classifications, viz., those for the physically, the morally, and the mentally defective. In the past such schools (where organized) have rarely provided more than elementary instruction. The new conception of the function of public education demands, however, that (if ability will permit) the edu- cation of these unfortunate classes shall not terminate here. Hence it is that continuation work particularly adapted to the special needs of each t3^e of defectives finds co-ordinate place in any complete scheme of public schools. For the deaf and dumb, the bUnd, and the deformed and crippled children special equipment, specially trained teachers, and specially outHned vocational material are obviously absolutely essential to any adequate prosecu- tion of the work. For the tubercular children and for other children of delicate health the most promising agency of benefit is the open-air schools. For the in- corrigibles the current psychological, sociological, and economic theory is that the inhibition of antisocial ten- dencies can best be secured through the substitution of counteracting interests and the habituation to beneficent 584 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL actions. Hence the demand arises for the isolation of the individuals of this type in classes in which much training in social responsibiHty may be secured and in which appeals may be made in unusual ways. For the treat- ment of the higher types of mental defectives much the same principles and poHcies must be adopted as in the case of the incorrigibles. Hence, continuation work of appropriate kinds can alone provide a schooling that will prove of much personal and social benefit to mem- bers of these exceptional classes. In the nature of the case much of this instruction must centre about motor interests, and therefore an unusual proportion of the material must consist of plays, games, and specific vo- cational knowledge. Improvement of Teacher. — Two forms of continua- tion work relating primarily to the improvement of teachers in service may be mentioned. These are Teachers^ Study Clubs and Teachers' Institutes. A third form in which the continued development of the teach- ers constitutes a Joint object with the instruction of the parents is the Teachers' and Parents' Associations. In each of these the work is usually conducted within the public-school buildings and, in part at least, at public expense. It may, therefore, appropriately be styled con- tinuation work. Within each association topics are con- sidered that have for their object the vocational im- provement of teachers or the general enlightenment of parents. The work is, therefore, distinctively of an edu- cational character and is entitled to a conspicuous place in any scheme of public schools. People's Schools. — Three other types of continuation work that may be mentioned, but that as yet have re- ceived little attention, are the People's High Schools, CONTINUATION WORK 585 the People's ^'Eleven-day Courses,'''' and the People's Institutes. The first of these contemplates the or- ganization of systematic high school instruction for adults, such schools to be operated during the three, four, five, or six months of winter, and to provide those who wish to attend them with the means of securing a con- tinuous high school course of training during the period in which they are open. This type of school is in very successful operation in Denmark and other northern European countries and is spreading to other parts of Europe. For the most part, the schools are designed for young men and women eighteen years of age or older whose early education has been interrupted or neglected, and whose more mature ambitions lead them to seek to improve their general education. To quote from Sadler : "The Danish schools of this type have in an unwonted degree fostered the love of country, given a thirst for knowledge, imparted to industry ingenuity and success, and made life in many simple homes fuUer of nobler in- terests and higher cares. "^ This type of school offers great promise for American educators. It here (as in Denmark) can be made to serve the residents of rural communities in a most wholesome and beneficial manner. People's "eleven-day courses" constitute a second form of continuation work for adults that has received its most complete testing in Denmark but that is not entirely untried in America. Under this form (as con- ducted in Denmark) new courses of instruction in various lines of practical knowledge are begun in certain schools on the first and third Tuesdays of each month and ex- tend for eleven days. Not infrequently husbands and wives attend these schools together for a fortnight or ^ Sadler, "Continuation Schools," p. 483. 586 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL more at a time, and much good is accomplished in dis- seminating scientific knowledge and scientific ways of carrying on vocational occupations. Just as with the people's high schools, the "eleven-day courses" or some courses of similar form suggest enormous possibilities for America. A modified type of the "eleven-day courses" is the people's institute. This seeks to do in a Kmited way and by means of a school lasting though two or three days what other t3^es of schools just mentioned seek to accomplish (in a larger way) during a longer period of time. Thus, for example, at Bangor, Mich., people's institutes are held once or twice per year in cormection with the agricultural courses in the high school. At these institutes (at which are gathered farmers and their wives as well as the students in the agricultural course in the high school) addresses are given by agricultural college men or others; visits of inspection are made to adjoining farms, stables, shops, and stores; illustrative materials are studied; discussions are carried on; and, finally, the leader in charge summarizes the findings and points out the practical lessoris. Among the features of these institutes are stock judging, corn judging, soil- fertility tests, and similar activities. Like the people's high school and the people's "eleven-day courses," the people's institute constitutes a feasible and desirable mode of providing continuation work for rural communi- ties. Such institutes can be multiplied with great ad- vantage to society. Extension Courses. — Finally one further mode of pro- viding continuation work may be considered. This is through high school extension courses. This plan of making the school serve a wider educational function is CONTINUATION WORK 587 already in extensive operation throughout many sections of the country. By means of semipopular lectures on vocational, semivocational, and liberalizing topics; by means of moving pictures, stereopticon entertainments, dramatics, and musicales; and by means of school exhibi- tions, school contests, and meetings for open discussion, a constituency is being reached by the high school that is in pote equal to the population of the school district. Indeed, the expenditure of public moneys for the oper- ation of this kind of continuation work has, in many places, aggregated tens of thousands of dollars annually. Nor seemingly is there any wiser or more legitimate form of expenditure of public-school funds. Where courses of these kinds are provided they usually are given in the evening, but there is no vaHd reason why they should not, be given Saturday and Sunday after- noons and on holidays, provided only an audience can be secured at those times. High school extension work of this kind has barely entered th^ field of possibilities. It can advantageously be developed in various ways. Continuation work in America, therefore, has already been instituted in many places and in many diverse forms. The movement must continue. If the public schools are, indeed, to be truly public schools, the scope of their work must expand as knowledge and processes increase and as society becomes more complex. More- over, the ideal requires that an increased fiexibiHty shall be introduced in all forms of administration and that the schools shall not be conducted to give training to in- dividuals with certain interests only or to those who are included within certain arbitrarily chosen age limits. What particular form the continuation work shall take 588 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL in any particular place can best be left to local condi- tions to determine. The ideal must be, however, to pro- vide it in such ways and in such manner as shall appeal to all types of citizens. To accompKsh this, undoubtedly several of the different agencies above must be employed in each community. Administration. — Whether continuation work shall be administered as a separate and distinct type of public- school work and be controlled by a body of administra- tors other than the administrators of the existing regular schools is, after all, of little significance. The essential thing is in some way to secure continuation work for all. The only argument against the dual form of administra- tion that is of any importance is that class distinctions will be formed in the schools, and hence in society, if the dual form is perpetuated. If the danger were realizable it would be critical, but it is not realizable. Class and group and community interests will always exist, but providing for these lender separate roofs is no whit differ- ent in principle than providing for them under the same roof. A public school will ultimately serve social needs or it will be abolished. If the separate continua- tion school shall be found to serve social needs best, that will be the permanent form. But throughout this chapter the position has been held that there is no valid reason why continuation work shall not be administered as a co-ordinate, organic part of our present system of schools. The true scope of the high school has been considered as extending over the entire period of adolescence and including all forms of work provided for it. This conception requires, therefore, that continuation work, i. e., work different from work as at present organized and administered, must begin with CONTINUATION WORK 589 the seventh grade and be carried through to an unde- fined limit of age and attainment. Continuation work considers the welfare of the State and of civil society as fully as it considers the individual. Hence, ways and means must be provided for giving continuation training to all classes of youths. This fact makes incumbent on society the establishment of a much longer period of compulsory school attendance. Some States have already enacted laws requiring boys and girls to be in school until sixteen years of age unless they have secured permanent positions. The law is inadequate. Compulsory continuation work for all dur- ing a period of four or five hours per week for at least two years must be the legal requirement. Morality, business, government, and culture alike demand this continued training. Obstacles. — The greatest obstacles to the further de- velopment of continuation work at the present time are two : first, the lack of money, and, secondly, the lack of adequately prepared teachers. Public education is an affair of the State or nation, not of the local community alone. Hence, it is both essential and proper that the burdens of the schools shall be borne, in part at least, by the State and the United States. To this end friends of pubHc education everywhere, and particularly the friends of continuation work, must co-operate in the effort to secure national and State aid for public education. With adequate financial means available, the second obstacle — that of securing quahfied teachers — will disappear; for, whenever the position of teachers is made as at- tractive as other professions and callings, there will be available teachers. To summarize, it is clear that at the present time there 590 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL- is a complete reversal of attitude on the part of school administrators respecting the purpose, plan, and admin- istration of public education. Formerly the position most frequently taken was: Here is a school and a cur- riculum organized alike for all. It is the privilege of all to enter it and remain a definite period of time, but uni- formity must be the guiding principle of administration. To-day the ideal is to give every boy and girl the educa- tion that he or she needs. Post-elementary education in particular calls for differentiation of schools and school work. The response to this call is the development of the continuation school. Such schools already have proved themselves socially expedient, administratively feasible, poHtically advantageous, and economically prof- itable. Investigations, too, prove conclusively that, to be of most service, continuation work, as the term is here used, must begin with early adolescence and continue into mature adulthood. This is the work that, in Amer- ica, falls primarily within the range of secondary educa- tion. It is, therefore, appropriate to regard all forms of it as added functions of the high school. Moreover, if continuation work is to be adequate to meet the urgent demands of business, the State, and civil society, it must be obligatory on all and must gradually lead out from the egoistic vocational interests of individuals to higher social, civic, and moral interests. Hence, continuation work in the schools must of necessity relate itself to allied social questions and to social agencies other than the school which seek the general welfare of human beings. CHAPTER XXIII SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY Florence M. Hopkins LIBRARIAN, CENTRAL SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Growing Conception of the Function of the Library. — The marked growth of the high school Hbrary in the past decade reveals the fact that we are facing the rising tide of its place and influence in high school life and educa- tion. The attention given to it in conventions and jour- nals of late years is another evidence of the fact that its value is being appreciated and its development stud- ied. According to the report of the Bureau of Educa- tion, there were 11,734 public and private high school libraries in the United States in 191 2, representing nearly 9,000,000 volumes. The first step, therefore, that of supplying books for definite reference work, has been taken. The need of supplying books in duplicate for large classes is also generally conceded. The seeking of the library by the pupil, when he is in need of infor- mation, is an estabhshed habit; but the seeking of the pupil by the library is a field just beginning to be de- veloped and might be termed the socializing function of the library. The Socializing Function of the Public Library. — The seeking of the patron by the library is best illustrated by the marked change in public-library administration in 591 ] 592 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the past generation. Most of us adalts never knew, as children, the joy of a room all our own in a library, with friezes on the wall, inviting grate fires, beautifully illus- trated books for us to handle, and some one to tell us stories from them. The children's Ubrary, with its free- dom in handhng books selected by experts, and with direction through the story hour, is a comparatively re- cent feature which, no doubt, will prove to be one of the farthest-reaching influences for culture in Ameri- can childhood. A corresponding social feature for adults is being developed by popular lectures, general open shelves, and study rooms. Indeed, the entire archi- tecture of the Ubrary has been changed to meet this growing social need. No public Hbrary is now erected without including a children's room and an auditorium, as unquestionably as it does a reference room or a stack room. Attention is also being given to encouraging the appointment of social directors in connection with the use of the pubUc-library plant.^ The Socializing Function of the College Library. — Col- leges are also enlarging their conception of the function of the Ubrary so as to include the social element. Brows- ing rooms, social-study rooms, club rooms, and racks of new books for general reading are to be found in most university libraries. In Yale University a special room has been estabUshed in Byers Hall as a social and reading centre for the students of the scientific department. It aims to be a select library of a few thousand volumes, covering standard works in a wide field, and is open with- out restriction, though books are not withdrawn from its shelves for outside use. The room is comfortably fur- nished and is an attractive lounging and browsing place ^Survey, February, 1913, p. 675. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 593 for the students. It is also used as a social meeting-place for informal addresses. The Brothers and Linonia Library, a somewhat simi- lar institution at Yale, is housed in the University Li- brary and contains, roughly, twenty-five thousand vol- umes, with free access to the books. It is selected to cover the whole field of knowledge, and aims to meet the demands of the general readers as opposed to those of the special students whose wants are met elsewhere. The Socializing Function of the High School Library. — The college library, however, reaches only that very small percentage of high school pupils who continue their education beyond high school age; the public library, on the other hand, can reach all who have a por- tion of leisure time and the power and desire for self- direction. One of the most important functions, there- fore, of the high school Hbrary is to introduce pupils to the wise use and enjoyment of the pubUc library. This introduction should be made by bringing the library to the pupil. Trips, conducted by the school librarian, through the public library, talks by the public-hbrary staff to parents and pupils on home reading, books sent by the public Hbrary to the school and examined in- formally by pupils and school librarian together, and many other plans can be devised for awakening this feel- ing of an ownership in and a responsibility for the pubHc library. One of the most progressive libraries in its social activ- ities is the Girls' High School Library, Brooklyn, N. Y. At the beginning of each term the head of the EngKsh department arranges for each entering class in English to spend one period in the library or to visit the Hbrary after school hours. The librarian shows them the illus- 594 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL trated books which will make their English work inter- esting, escorts them over the library, explains the pictures on the walls and available mounted pictures, shows them where different classes of books are shelved and where to find books recommended for outside reading. An in- formal reception each term is also given the pupils of the incoming class. Shortly afterward an evening re- ception is extended to parents by the principal, the li- brarian, and the teachers to encourage the discussion of general reading and the building up of home libraries. The library is the centre of many clubs which meet after school hours under the direction of teachers and librari- ans; for example, a City history club, a Biology read- ing club, a General literary club, and others. The use of bulletin-boards in the corridors for the post- ing of newspaper clippings on current events is another prominent and valuable social feature of this library. The cHppings are made by pupils under the direction of the librarian. Different pupils, usually in sets of two or four, are given charge of the boards for a week at a time. The plan is a very simple one and does much in creating a social atmosphere. Pupils who have free study periods are urged to go to the library to read for the pure joy of reading. A browsing corner of good editions of interesting biog- raphies, novels, poems, and essays is made attractive by the use of picture post-cards and bulletin-boards. Plants in all the windows and a spirit of welcome make the library a most beloved place, and from fifty to one hundred students use it every forty minutes. Different High Schools Developing Special Phases. — Several special phases of work in connection with high school libraries have been developed in different high SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 595 schools and are more or less definitely embodied in the school curriculum. We might name these phases as the practical phase, the vocational phase, the civic phase, and the cultural phase. No one school has, as yet, been able to embody them all, nor will it be able to do so until the library is made a department in the school with the power to develop its interests under special directors, just as different courses of language, of science, of mathematics are now being developed under teachers especially pre- pared for the work. The Practical Phase and the Vocational Phase.— The practical phase, that of teaching the use of reference books, simple indexes, and necessary library tools to aid pupils in their search for material is now quite generally introduced. It has been so thoroughly outlined in Vol- ume I of this work as to need no further discussion here. The vocational phase, that phase which studies and directs the reading of pupils in Hnes of their vocational interests, is probably best systematized in the Central High School of Grand Rapids, Mich. Under the direc- tion of the EngHsh department, readings and essays are assigned which aim to awaken the pupil's interest in his future place in the world of action, and to aid him to de- termine what he is best fitted to do and how he can best prepare himself for doing it. The following outline describes the work in general from the eighth grade through the twelfth: 8th Grade, ist Semester Topic — A mbition Object: To arouse in the pupil a desire to be something and somebody in the world; to begin to look forward and not to live entirely in the present. Aids: i. Saturday excursions. 2. Brief talks on biography. 596 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 8th Grade. 2d Semester Topic — The Vakie of an Education Object: To guide the pupil to take the steps beyond the re- quirements of the compulsojy education laws that will be of greatest advantage to his future career; to lead to a proper choice of schools, or, when necessary, to the best kind of employment. Aids: i. Catalogues of local high schools, academies, technical or commercial schools. 2. Catalogues of trade-schools, etc., of high school grade. 3. Placement bureau. 4. Talks by high school pupils who have returned to school after several years of struggle in the world. 9TH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Elements of Success in Life SUBTOPIC — self-analysis Object: Through the study of the elements of character that make for success the student is led to reveal himself to the teacher or vocational counsellor. Personal experiences, environ- ment, associates, tastes, and ideals are brought to bear upon the possible future bent of the pupil. Aids: i. Themes handed in are strictly confidential and often are discussed only with the teacher. Discussion in class is always of a general nature to determine the fundamental habits that tend toward successful living. 9TH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Elements of Success in Life SuBTOPic — Biography Object: To study the elements of character that made for suc- cess in the lives of truly successful men and women and to com- pare their characteristics with those of the writer. Aids: i. Debates and the discussions comparing the merits in certain characters. More oral than written work in this grade. lOTH Grade, ist Semester Topic — The World's Work : A Call to Service Object: To broaden the pupil's vision of the opportunities for service beyond the horizon of his past experience; a study of vocations. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 597 Aids: i. The Junior Association of Commerce (boys). 2. Work of women's organizations (girls). 3. Card index of vocations (compiled by students). 4. The "Home Study Club" (girls). loTH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Choosing a Vocation Object: To assist the pupil in making a definite choice of a vocation. Here is applied all that has been developed before. Again the pupil examines himself as to his ability and possible future and makes a careful application of these to the field of opportunity before him. The key-note is obedience to the call to service. Aids: i. Vocational Counsellors (in co-operation). (a) Teachers of English. (&) Parents or guardians. (c) Session-room teachers or grade principals. {d) Principal of school, chief counsellor. iiTH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Preparation for Lifers Work Object: To begin immediately to connect daily tasks and duties with future achievement; to select the subjects necessary to meet the requirements of the college or the industry that it is proposed to enter. Aids: i. Comprehensive selection of catalogues of colleges, universities, professional and technical schools. 2. Vocational card index to catalogues. 3. Trade journals. 4. Vocational bulletins, etc. IITH Grade. 2D Semester ^ Topic — Business and Professional Ethics Object: At this period the pupil should take time to con- sider the ethics of his calling. He should understand the moral responsibilities that will rest upon him in his life-work. This topic gives a personal and concrete application to the study of moral ethics that is extremely practical. Aids: i. Investigations of questionable transactions. 598 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 2. Talks by men and women able to give of their experience to the subject. 3. Criticism of questionable advertising. 4. Problems of the home. I2TH Grade, ist Semester Topic — Social Ethics : The Individual in His Vocation and Society Object: To make a practical study of social ethics from a con- crete point of view. Aids: i. Assisting in social work as helpers or entertainers at: (a) Slum districts. (b) Social settlements. (c) Playgrounds. (d) Social centres (schoolhouses). (e) Charity organization. (/) Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. (g) The Church. 2. Girls' social service club. 3. Boys' leadership club. I2TH Grade. 2D Semester Topic — Civil Ethics. The Individual in His Vocation and the State Object: To present the obligations of government upon the individual in a personal and concrete manner and to arouse an interest in civic problems that will result in a more righteous citizenship. Aids: i. Schemes for getting into actual touch with civic conditions. 2. Tours to inspect such things as: (o) Pavements. (&) Lighting of streets. (c) Enforcement of juvenile laws. , {d) Health conditions. {e) Fire protection. (/) Safeguarding public money. (g) Pure-food laws, etc. 3. Boys' "House of Representatives." (Debating club) SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 599 The permanent school records are kept on a card-filing system. Scholarship records are made on one side of the card and on the reverse side is the "vocational record." The Civic Phase. — That phase which develops the pupil's interest in the history, the growth, and the gov- ernment of his locaHty could be made to contribute a valuable service to the social Hfe of the community. An excellently planned system for the study of local govern- ment has been adopted in Newark, N. J. Twenty-seven leaflets have been prepared through the co-operation of high school teachers, Hbrarians in the pubhc library, and others, and printed by the board of education. The leaflets are studied by the pupils in the city schools under school direction. Topics of some of the leaflets are as follows: "Public-School System of Newark"; "Police Department of Newark"; "Fire Department of Newark"; "Newark Geography"; "Playgrounds"; "Transportation"; "City Government"; "Noise in City"; "Juvenile Courts"; "Men and Women of New- ark" (biographical sketches) ; "Water-Supply"; "Street Paving"; "City Cleaning"; " Charities." ^ Such a plan could be adapted to almost any city through the use of city manuals, reports of city commissioners, news- paper cHppings, and local history. Professor James H. Tufts, of the University of Chicago, has given many ex- cellent reasons for developing work of this character. To quote in part: " To get before boys and girls at the out- set the idea that all our industry has, as its end, to serve man, would be a great gain. ... To get young people to make some intelligent appraisal of what society does for them, and what it ought to do that it fails to do, to ' Certain phases of this plan are discussed in the Library Journal for April, 1913, p. 198. 600 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL get definitely before them the vision of the public inter- ests and public welfare, as having claims paramouni to private gain — this is a task for the future: existing materials are not adequate, new materials must be provided." A plan for aiding those interested in conducting lec- tures on social subjects of vital interest is being system- atized by Josiah Strong and W. D. P. Bliss, editor of the Encyclopedia of Social Reform. Each lecture is type- written and is accompanied by a box of fifty slides, care- fully packed. These lectures have been recommended by colleges, churches, Y. M. C. A. secretaries, and other social workers. A high school librarian with limited time for preparation could well use one or more of this series for a course of evening lectures. The series en- titled "Social Problems" includes the following six lectures, rented for fifteen dollars. (Address, American Institute of Social Service, 80 Bible House, New York.) "Hours and Wages, or How the Other Half Live." "Housing, or Where the Other Half Live." "Women and Children in Toil, or the New Slavery." "Amusement Problems, or Social Centres vs. Dance- Halls." "Battle for Health." "The Coming City." The Cultural Phase. — The cultural phase might be considered as representing that intangible something which reveals those finer spiritual elements in literature and life which we all love, but which we cannot define, nor systematize, nor examine; and yet real culture touches the deepest and most vital springs from which a nation's life is watered and determines the uplifting power of that nation's place in history. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 601 But cultural growth is no more a haphazard develop- ment than is intellectual growth. In the rush of this utiHtarian age are we not in danger of curtailing some of the influences which feed the finer feelings and touch the deeper needs? As the growth of the body requires pe- riods of unconscious sleep, so the growth of our finer nature requires periods in which we are unconscious of the active, commercial, temporary life. These periods for the development of the better self come through the occasional leisure hours, for life is not all activity; it requires periods of rest if it is to be musical, even as music requires rest. How to use leisure hours, therefore, becomes the most vital of questions, which carries with it a duty to train young people to be wisely self-directing in choosing what is worthy of their time, and to give them a master-key which can unlock only the best in the great world of books and magazines and newspapers. If the school library should take for one of its aims a revelation, through social readings and popular talks, of what con- stitutes the best and of what can be accomplished by oneself after school direction is over, it would indeed render a rich service. Lectures Including Parents. — A well-chosen series of graded lectures in general cultural subjects would do much in awakening this desire for the best, and in reveal- ing how to find it for oneself. If such lectures were given after regular school hours, or, better yet, in the evening, so that parents could be included, a social atmosphere could be made to take the place of a school atmosphere, and thus a broader interest could be de- veloped. Some simple system of giving extra credit for taking these lecture courses might be devised which 602 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL would insure attention and protect the pupil's time. Many parents would welcome such an opportunity for their own development and thoroughly enjoy it in con- nection with the school life of their children. A few printed notes, on slips about the size of an average pro- gramme, would be a very simple way of systematizing the information for which the pupils could be held responsible. One grade might work out the topic of great myths and legends as illustrated by artists, showing the pictures on the screen with the aid of the stereopticon or reflec- toscope. Another grade might treat musicians in a similar way, using a Victrola if necessary; another, a course in epoch-making events in science and history; continuing thus, some large topic of general interest could be given in each grade of the school. In vocational schools many of the cultural subjects are necessarily limited. A course of this nature might soften the practical and open a way for self-direction out of the sordid into the real. It would offer an oppor- tunity to recommend and introduce many good books for suggestive but not required reading. Such a series of lecture courses should aid materially in familiarizing high school pupils with common allusions in literature and history. It might well be culminated with a selected list of the most common allusions which are supposed to be recognized by intelligent people, with the requirement that the greater number of them be mastered.^ In voca- tional high schools, or high schools where elective courses * A pamphlet containing a graded alphabetical list of nearly one thousand such allusions has been prepared by the author. Particu- lars can be ascertained from the author for a self-addressed stamped envelope. SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 603 prevail, it has become possible for pupils to be graduated who have never heard of Virgil, or of Beethoven, or of Darwin. We certainly owe a duty to high school edu- cation to introduce somewhere a rounding process which shall enable pupils to have something of an intelligent response, at least, to the names of great men in different Unes of the world's work, and to the epoch-making books and events and music and science in the progress of civilization.^ Training for Large Views. — Now, no one department of the school is so well adapted to fulfil this rounding process as is the library. In the multipHcity of school departments, is there any other one which could have for an aim the development of the power to take broad views of many subjects without a specialized study in any one? The ability to make a wise discrimination between essential and non-essential points is rare in both adults and pupils; yet such a mental grasp is most desirable. To train the mind for broad views is quite as essential as it is to train it for speciaKzed views. Even as we need wide views of life to prepare us for complete living, so a student needs a wide view of what the library has to offer to prepare him for the complete use of his opportunities in the intellectual field. The person who has never left his native town becomes provincial and shows the effect of limited environment; so also does the mind which has never left its own specialty or its own intellectual preferences. The value of travel in educa- tion is recognized to-day to such an extent that many colleges and even public schools are granting a Sabbati- cal year to teachers, on part salary, that they may have ^ For a further discussion of this plan, see Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1912, Library Department, p. 1285. 604 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the opportunity of a wider experience and of developing broader interests. If pupils can be systematically introduced to a kind of outline map of the extent and range of subjects under which the material in the libraries is classified and be given a rudder and compass to guide them, with a word of suggestion regarding the ports that are really worth sailing into and the snags and quicksands of the medi- ocre, many a voyage through books will be taken which otherwise would never be attempted or realized as pos- sible. Many times all that is necessary to insure the safe passage through the ocean of books is a little personal guiding, or suggestion, or revelation. Suggestion often has more motor power than direction. Libraries are the avenues through which this power of suggestion can best find a medium, and high school education should be broad enough to include in its curriculum a course in the choice and use of books which shall be recognized as of equal value with language or mathematics or any other subjects, and therefore be allowed a dignified consider- ation and be given sufficient number of hours of credit to insure its success. Libraries Should Be Recognized as Departments. — Each one of the phases discussed above has so many avenues for growth that it is manifestly impossible for any one person to develop them all. If progressive schools large enough to warrant the step would or- ganize the library interests into a department, place at the head of this department one who is college-bred, with library training in addition, and who is also tempera- mentally fitted to be a social, an intellectual, and a cul- tural leader, a great step forward would be taken. An organized department could, with what assistance the SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 605 growth of the work demanded, render most valuable ser- vices to the social interests of the school in working out lecture courses, suggesting and arranging intergrade de- bates, planning dramatic entertainments or programmes for special-day celebrations, and otherwise selecting lit- erature for the social as well as the academic life of the school. Such an organized department could also do much for the vocational interests of the school in ar- ranging talks by business men for the pupils and their parents on the business interests and possibilities of the locality, or lectures on local government by city officials or other plans. Present versus Future Status of the Library. — But under the present condition of the school library one person, who is usually rated, in status and salary, as between a clerk and a teacher, must develop all that is developed from the library centre. If forward move- ments are to be encouraged, the librarian must be recog- nized in the school system as a department head; she should be required to comply with the educational quali- fications and special training which such a position should demand; and she should be granted the same salary, status, and necessary assistants as are tendered heads of other departments of the school. That condition which accepts the library as an adjunct to the principal's office, or merely as a centre for encyclo- pedic information, or for the exchanging and recording of books, or as a branch only of the public library, with no developing power of its own, must soon pass away. In most high schools all other departments are well organized, yet the library has larger opportunities for touching the cultural side of the school life and of awak- ening a response to a wider number of interests than 606 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL has any other single department. One who has never studied the possibilties of a high school Ubrary cannot reaHze the need of placing in charge of it the best-trained, the most adaptable, the most devoted, the most original of workers if forward movements are to be developed. The very fact that its duties cannot be definitely out- lined makes it doubly necessary to place in charge of them one who is self-directing and possesses executive abihty in addition to educational qualifications. The dream of high school libraries equipped with spe- cial rooms for different phases of the work, with a gen- eral room even including rocking-chairs and a grate, is not unduly Utopian. It has already been realized in some of our Western high schools, as, for example, Spo- kane and Pasadena. It is as attainable, generally, as were laboratories, or athletic fields, or manual-training equipment. The recognition of the college library as a department, essential in the university Hfe, and a unit which must be under scholarly direction, with adequate assistance, is universally conceded. A corresponding dignity and opportunity should be conceded to the high school Hbrary if it is to fulfil its possibilities in secondary education. Many high schools which devote a very large percentage of space to gymnasiums, dining and cooking rooms, sewing rooms, swimming pools, commercial rooms, and similar equipments, and which place in charge of these interests men and women who are trained for their work and compensated in salary and opportunity as de- partment heads, devote to the library a small, crowded room, inadequate funds, no assistants, often estimating the care of free text-books as legitimate library duties, and compensate the librarian with a salary less than that of a regular teacher. Once recognize this situation, and SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE LIBRARY 607 realize the power that a well-directed and adequately supported library can be in a school, and the future will vote the necessary support. Library Section national council of teachers of english Statement adopted at Chicago, November 28, 1913 In view of the rapid growth of the Hbrary and its function in modern education, the Library Section of the National Council of Teachers of EngUsh, in session at Chicago, November 28, 1 9 13, presents for the consideration and approval of educational and civic and State authorities the following: First. — Good service from libraries is indispensable to the best educational work. Second. — The wise direction of a library requires scholarship, executive ability, tact, and other high-grade qualifications, to- gether with special training for the effective direction of cul- tural reading, choice of books, and teaching of reference prin- ciples. Third. — Because much latent power is being recognized in the library and is awaiting development, it is believed that so valuable a factor in education should be accorded a dignity wor- thy of the requisite qualifications, and that, in schools and edu- cational systems, the director of the library should be recognized as a department head who shall be able to undertake progres- sive work, be granted necessary assistants, and be compensated in status and salary equally with the supervisors of other de- partments. CHAPTER XXIV VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND THE HIGH SCHOOL Meyer Bloomfield director of the vocation bureau, of boston; adviser in vocational guidance, teachers college, new york The New Movement. — Within less than a decade a new Hterature has come into being. Ten years ago there was not a printed reference to vocational guidance. In a recent bibliography on the subject pubHshed by the United States Bureau of Education, more than thirty pages are covered with technical references to this field of educational service. It is just eight years since Professor Frank Parsons gave the closing years of his life to the founding of the pioneer Vocation Bureau at the Civic Service House in Boston. Since that time a great movement, aiming to organize career-making opportunities through educa- tion and employment, has taken more and more definite shape. In this development the high school teacher has played a conspicuous part. AU that is new in the present movement is the wiser organization of a fact-basis for this kind of help, and more responsible supervision of the vocational welfare of the boys and girls. Through such organization and supervision have come the significant enterprises of oc- cupational surveys, vocational information courses in 608 VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 609 high schools, teacher-counsellors, high school vocational help bureaus, life-career clubs and classes, the "follow- up" schemes for wage-earning adolescents, the college courses for training vocational counsellors in the schools, and employment supervisors or managers in industrial establishments, and the literature devoted to the prob- lems and methods of vocational guidance. Waste and Control. — While the movement for voca- tional education has been conspicuously advocated from the side of industry, the vocational-guidance movement has been distinctively the product of present-day social service. Both movements in their present developments and in their future activities belong to the socially minded educator, philanthropic worker, and employer. Drifting from school to work, and from job to job, is now clearly regarded as a very costly kind of human waste. Working in undeveloping employments means a waste of time and energy to the worker and a loss to society. There is a human waste due not only to pov- erty, ignorance, and lack of opportunity, but due also to misdirection of effort. To stop this waste and to encourage each boy and girl to make the most of life are the chief aims of the vocational movement. Vocational Guidance. — ^The most fruitful field of vocational guidance, like that of vocational education, is the pubHc school. A few simple principles which ap- peal to the conscience and the common sense of the thinking person underlie vocational guidance. One can no longer judge the merits or the drawbacks of an occupation through hearsay, tradition, or casual inspec- tion. Only expert inquiry, carried on with the stan- dard tools of modern research, can bring to Hght such vital facts in an occupation as its bearing on health. 610 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL personal development, and economic well-being. Genu- ine vocational guidance, therefore, emphasizes not only a concrete, intimate, and enduring interest in the indi- vidual pupil, but, above all else, it insists upon expert study (as opposed to dilettante guessing) of the voca- tional progress of children in school and at work. Two Important Facts. — Two facts strike one forcefully as one considers the need of vocational guidance in our schools. One is that never before in the world's history have fourteen or fifteen year old children had it so much in their own hands to make some of the most momentous decisions of life: such decisions as the sort of school or course they will enter, how long they will stay, the work they will leave school for, and how long they will stay in this work. The other fact is that never as much as now have we needed a constructive policy on the part of the schools to make up to these children what an in- dustrial age has taken from them in the way of home influence, normal surroundings, and the vocationally di- rective value of their daily experiences. The Opportunity of the High School. — The high school is singularly well placed to render a large measure of vocational-guidance service. To it come the children at their most critical age, vocationally. It is the period when, if ever at all, foundations of vocational efficiency are laid. Adolescence is the period of decisive battles, the time when the history of many an individual is almost finally written. Into the schoolhouse every boy and girl brings his or her small world — a world of plenty or of privation, temptation or inspiration, care or irrespon- sibility. Rare is that school which can pierce this en- veloping shell and speak to the real child. Every class- room is a tell-tale of its environment. Our many child VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 611 problems reflect the aloofness of the average school from economdc influences which bear so many children down. Neither brightness nor hard study determines alone the quality of a pupil's school work. More important than these factors is the sense of economic worthwhileness, which the school must bring home to the many children tossed between the conflicting interests of the school and the challenging world outside. Ruskin has said: " No teacher can truly promote the cause of education until he knows the conditions of the life for which that educa- tion is to prepare his pupil." For that vast majority of our high school children who do not complete the high school course, instruction unmindful of their probable vocational destinies and possibilities is positively an in- jury to them and to society. Invidious distinction is sometimes made between training for self-support and non-vocational education. This discrimination, so pro- foundly undemocratic, is a serious obstacle to the even- tual lifting of the common employments into the dignity of recognized community service. We have not more than begun, as yet, to fathom the now neglected possi- bilities of life-career training, and of daily work, too, as spiritualizing influences; while in our book-enslaved routine of teaching we have scarcely sensed the injustice to that large class of hand-gifted children, the boys and girls born to think through action and to serve their fellows through the exercise of bodily energies. The High Schoors Responsibility to Individual Boys and Girls. — Obviously, in the high school, of all places, there is need of the closest understanding of the personal capacities and the personal problems of the children. "The special aim of secondary education," Professor Hanus has said, "and the teacher's greatest responsi- 612 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL bility — a responsibility not often recognized or acknowl- edged hitherto — therefore, consists in the discovery and the special development of each pupil's dominant inter- ests, in so far as these interests represent possibilities of development in harmony with the general aim of educa- tion, and in the constant use of the course of study as a means of intelligent experimentation, until the pupil's self-revelation is complete. During this stage, therefore, as the pupil advances, the relative educational values of different subjects for each pupil correspond more and more with the relative degrees of interest they develop." Professor Hanus believes that a proper application of these principles will lead to that desirable although at present apparently unattainable result that each youth will learn to know his powers and defects and will be aided to select deliberately that calling for which he is best fitted by nature. Vocational Guidance and Educational Guidance. — The vocational-guidance movement has, among other things, made clear one of the most important and gener- ally neglected services which a school can render, and that is educational guidance. In Boston, for example, where vocational-guidance interest is keen among the teachers, and the work of vocational assistance to chil- dren in the schools is active, it was found that vocational information and guidance could not well go on without steps being first taken to organize a scheme of giving information about existing vocational-training oppor- tunities in the city. A curious situation was revealed — not at all peculiar to Boston — showing that there was a gap, so far as any genuine and informed relationship was concerned, between the elementary school and the high school, almost as marked as that between the school and VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 613 the job. Children drifted into the high school very much as they drifted into a job. It became necessary, there- fore, in the Boston work, to inform the vocational counselors specifically as to what the high schools of the city could offer to children of various aptitudes and hfe- career plans. Educational guidance, therefore, the Bos- ton vocational counselors maintain, is the foundation of vocational guidance. If children cannot be intelligently directed to the course of study most appropriate from the view-point of their needs and capacities, it is idle to expect effective service in the infinitely more difficult field of vocational information and assistance. Such educational direction, however, needs the same careful preliminary investiga- tion and scrutiny of the high school plant and scheme as does the vocation. An excellent illustration of such pro- cedure is to be found in the inquiry carried on by Miss Bessie D. Davis, of the Somerville, Mass., high school, and a member of the Vocation Bureau Guidance Course. The following questionnaire was employed by Miss Davis to ascertain from the two thousand or more pupils of this school just why they happened to be in the courses in which they had enrolled themselves. This school has five departments, as follows: The general, the college- preparatory, the manual arts, the commercial, and the two-year commercial. QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS high school, somerville, mass. Name Age Yrs. Mos. Class Room 1. Do you expect to complete a course of four years in the high school? 2. If not, how many years do you expect to stay? 614 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL 3. If you do not expect to remain four years, what is the reason: (o) Financial conditions? (b) Lack of success in school work? (c) Desire to go to work? (d) Loss of interest? 4. Please underline the course which you are now taking: (o) General; (c) Manual Arts; (b) College Preparatory; (d) Commercial; (e) Two-year Commercial. 5. What led you to choose this course: (a) Advice of parents, teachers, friends? (b) Success of others? (c) Belief in your personal qualifications and ability for the work of this course? 6. Do you know what studies are included in this course: (a) In the first year? (b) In the second year? (c) In the third year? (d) In the fourth year? 7. What qualifications do you think, you have for the work of this course? 8. What line of work do you intend to follow after you leave high school? 9. What do you understand to be the requirements of this work? 10. How have you ascertained these requirements? 11. Is this the work which you really desire to do? 12. What have your parents advised? 13. To what extent, if any, have possible financial benefits in- fluenced your choice? 14. If this is not the work which you really desire to do, why are you not preparing to follow your personal choice? VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 615 15. What service to the community are you planning to render through your vocation? Extra: A. For College Preparatory Pupils: 1. For what college are you preparing? 2. Why have you chosen this college? 3. What are its requirements? B. For Scientific, Normal School, Normal Art School, etc., Preparatory Pupils: 1. For what school are you preparing? 2. Why have you chosen this school? 3. What are its requirements? Note. — Please answer questions in full where space is given; otherwise, as briefly as possible. The purpose of this inquiry is to help in the conduct of the school rather than to be inquisi- tive concerning the personal affairs of the pupils. Please answer frankly. Replies will be considered confidential. January, 1913. A printed copy of this questionnaire was, without warning, given each pupil of the three upper classes one morning in February, 191 2. One period, about forty-five minutes, was allowed for the answering of the questions. No attempt was made to have absent pupils answer them later. The same plan was followed a week later in an afternoon session with first-year pupils. The present report is based on only 1,226 of these papers. These 1,226 include, however, every year and every course, and are, therefore, enough from which to draw conclusions. No attempt has been made to reduce all the answers to tables and schedules. Summaries are here given, or actual quotations which give real insight into the pupil's mind and heart. For the first two questions, however, a table seems most illuminating: 616 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL QUESTION I QUESTION II YEAR NO. OF PUPILS AVER- AGE AGE YES NO. YRS. ? I I 1-2 2 2-3 3 5 ? 3 I I 4 I9I3 I9I4 I9IS I916 I9I7 Totals... 188 240 394 230 174 18.27 17.29 16.5s 15-36 14.72 184 233 361 187 137 I 16 32 29 2 5 5 7 6 25 2 3 I 5 I I I I 2 3 6 I 3 3 7 II 23 20 54 3 I 4 6 6 9 1,226 1,102 78 It is evident that there is less certainty in the minds of first and second year pupils regarding the length of stay in the school. The large number of two-year statements is doubtless due to the fact that most of these pupils belong to the two-year commercial class. The reasons given for less than four years' stay fall under the respec- tive headings, as follows : YEAR A B c D OS 13 ss I9I3.... I9I4 I9I5.... I916. . . . I9I7.... Totals . . I I 9 10 I 2 3 2 4 8 9 2 I I 2 4 4 6 5 To prepare at Exeter Academy. Three other schools — one moved away. Five other schools or business college, one 2-year course. Four other schools, one account of knowledge. 21 6 23 6 19 Financial conditions and desire to go to work are evi- dently the chief reasons. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 617 Of the 1,209 pupils 154 are in the general course; 489 in the college preparatory, which includes normal and scientij&c pupils also; 29 in the normal-arts course, which is new and not well understood; 480 in the commercial course; 56 in the two-year commercial; and i special stu- dent. In the senior and junior classes more are in the college divisions; in the sophomore and freshman classes the commercial course predominates. It is in the reasons for choice of these courses that special interest lies, and in the change of course. Of the latter 11 were mentioned. Several of these are worth noticing: 1. Started in B. Changed to A — due to poor marks and death of father. 2. Changed to A because he had no definite plan at first. 3. Changed from A to B at the beginning of the fourth year, etc. That they and others needed guidance is shown by such reasons for choice as these: 1. " Chosen at random." 2. (D) " Mostly because there was nothing I really wanted, and I had to take something." 3. (A) " Did not intend to go to college or take busi- ness course." 4. (D) " Didn't know what else to take." In view of these answers one is not surprised to find that of 1,118 answers to question 6 only 426 indicate knowledge of the work of the four years; 145 of three years; 272 of two years; and 275 of the first year. The first and the second year pupils know little about the years ahead; no wonder they make serious errors in choice. 618 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Their ideas for their qualifications for the course taken range from " None " or " I'm sure I don't know " to statements of personal factors, special abilities or inter- ests, etc. Among the most interesting are these : " Ability to do mathematics better than many girls." " A brain and ability to study until I get what I want." " Willingness to work hard." " Ambition, honesty, common sense, good health, etc." The occupations to be followed later cover much groimd. They are divided into four groups for com- parison: 1. Commercial, including bookkeeping, stenography, etc. 2. Future study, including college, normal school, etc.; professional and semi-professional work, including law, medicine, music, art, etc., and the trades. Of the 1,226 only 1 1 indicated a desire to engage in the work of trades. Many already know what profession they purpose to engage in; and many plan to go into commercial life — 172 as stenographers, 36 as bookkeepers, and 56 in office work. Knowledge of the requirements of these occupations is limited. Personal factors are named in much the same way as in answer to question 7. Business factors, ability to work, appreciate the value of time; "wilHng- ness to do what is required, and more, if necessary," are mentioned. Special demands are spoken of in very few instances; viz., apprenticeship or special training. Is it any wonder that, looking for information concerning employments, one says later, "There is nothing to take to be a nurse," and another, that he made a mistake in taking the wrong course and cannot, therefore^ prepare for the vocation he desires? VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 619 Information has been gained from many sources — - people, reading, inquiry, experience, observation, and thought. One suggested examining and checking off subjects aheady taken. And one, bewildered, asked for advice. His case was followed up with care. Answers to question 14 show that financial conditions and family objections are the chief obstacles. But one finds as reasons: "I made a mistake in taking the wrong course." "I couldn't change my course." "I do not want to carry out the course." "No personal ability for any kind of work." These are the people likely to be discouraged and leave school. That parents know too little about the school and play too small a part in the child's choice of work there is indicated by the next group of answers: AGREE DISAG&EE NOTHING OWN CHOICE GENERAL ADVICE IQI^ 127 145 287 130 III 10 25 27 18 15 7 13 8 7 4 16 24 17 5 5 6 I 3 12 IQI4. IQIC IQI6 IQI7 Totals 800 95 39 67 22 Unfortunately, too many of the first group may be like the case of one pupil who said parental advice was: "Think and decide; then let me know to approve or dis- approve." One has reason to believe that such is often the case because so many say that they made their own choice. As one puts it: "They have given a good deal of 620 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL advice, but let me be guided by my own wishes." An- other says: "Nothing. I chose this work of my own ac- cord. I am putting myself through school." Still an- other: "No advice to give." And a boy whose longing for ornithology has not yet been met by information or help wrote concerning parents' advice: "Nothing. Ab- solutely nothing." His mother died only a few years ago.^ Financial benefits have much to do with choices. Two hundred and eighty-three say frankly that it did. One says that he has a brother going to college. An- other: "Must support parents." "Family need sup- port; father is not living." "College graduates obtain better-paying positions." "Want to earn money for a musical career." "Most money in it for me." "I shall have to work my way if I go to college. If I really knew what I should like to become I should go to college; but I think that it would be a waste of time to do some- thing that I do not know anything about." Service to the community was to many a new idea. Twenty admitted that they had not thought about it and 58 did not know what they could do. Some cared little for others. One said: "None. I am going to look after myself first." "None. I expect to be a peaceful citizen," answered another. Many, however, showed much thought and under- standing of what service might mean. The answers are grouped under the headings — through work, social help, as a citizen, through character, all possible. Some were, like the last, mentioned in vagueness. Others were very specific. Here are several typical replies: "Hope to be instrumental in alleviating suffering caused by cancer." VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 621 "Aid city government." "Be a credit to S-— ." "The better I am educated the more I can do for the community." "To better conditions where I live." "To lay out better cities." "Design public buildings so that they will last." "Defend innocent men and women who are accused of crime." "Help unfortunate people." And with unintentional humor and perhaps sad com- ment on what he has heard and read: "Justify wrong." To awaken the minds of all pupils to the idea of noblesse oblige is surely the duty of any school. "Not, however," Miss Davis asserts, "until gram- mar school masters and teachers work more closely with high school masters and teachers, and both groups work with pupils and parents, can the needs indicated in these papers be met. Every master of a grammar school should visit the high school of his city, study its work, and be ready with co-operation of the high school teachers to give such information as will help pupils choose carefully courses which will look far ahead. Then, in the high school there should be flexibihty enough to permit of readjustments. There is no reason why those in the wrong course by mistake must stay there. Finally, the high school must give to the pupils, whether they ask it or not, definite, clear, simple infor- mation regarding the work they may do in the world. Not until all this is adequately done will the gap between the high school and the grammar school, on the one hand, and the high school and after-life, on the other, be bridged." 622 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL One of the most profitable sessions of the Boston School Counsellors (a body of teachers representing every elementary and high school in Boston and meet- ing fortnightly) was that devoted to a brief descrip- tion on the part of their head masters of what the six central high schools of the city offered and what kind of boys and girls could make best use of the opportunities. In the effort of the elementary school counsellor to understand the requirements of the high school and in the co-operation between these two divisions children will be positively stimulated to stay in the schools until they are better prepared to enter occupational life. Following is a Ust of some of the topics treated by experts at the Boston counsellors' meetings: The shoe industry, the boy and girl in the department store, the machine industry, a group of trades for boys, the telephone industry for girls, stenography and typewriting for girls, book- binding for girls, architecture, the use of statistics, mechanical and civU engineering, electrical engineering, the machine trades, agriculture, textUe-mUl working, the buUding trades, the selling clerk, the needle trades, opportunities in the department store, a social suggestion on boys and girls as wage-earners, trained nursing, condition in industry for the young girl wage-earner, vocational opportunities for the girl who completes the high school, the shoe and leather industry, lunch-room and restaurant work for young women, the department store, education for store employment, the metal trades, the profession of business, girls in the candy factory, printing, the new child-labor law. Results of School Guidance. — There is plentiful tes- timony showing that fathers and mothers now turn to the Boston schools as never before for advice and help concerning their children's future. Questions as to what high schools or vocational schools and what courses to choose are continually coming before the counsellors. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 623 The abilities, the interests, faults, and promising ten- dencies in the children are topics of grave discussion between parent and teacher or principal, the view point being not only that of present school requirements, but also that of the probable careers of the children. In the classrooms the occupational talks have been repeated in order to make clear the efficiency requirements of the practical world outside. School programmes, and even commencement-day programmes, have begun to show how schools are facing the challenging world which is soon to claim the productive years of these children. This awakened practical interest of the schools in the life-work of the children cannot stop short of compre- hensive supervision and protection of the after-school careers of boys and girls. Already teachers, on their own initiative and with an expenditure of much time and energy, have gone into the homes of their pupils, and have sought to get first-hand knowledge of the indus- trial environments. If our schools are to have any guiding relation to life, and all educational reform clam- ors for this relation, teachers must be given every in- centive to touch in such personal ways the realities of the Ufe which their pupils will live. The Child in Industry. — The child-welfare organiza- tions of the country have made clear the social waste- fulness of tolerating the employment of children from fourteen to sixteen years of age without at least a com- pensating provision for training. Many an employer, too, admits the unprofitableness of employing children at these ages. These years are, as has already been said, the seed-time of efficiency. Skilled mechanics know this, for they often try to protect their growing boys by a search for available apprenticeship opportuni- ties. The modern high school must care for them. 624 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Articulation of Elementary an4 High School. — The main defect in our traditional education ladder is that, being left without landing-places, it has forced the chil- dren to improvise jumping-off places instead. In a num- ber of high schools, however, the rigidity of this ladder scheme has been, fortunately, abandoned, and in its place has been substituted a structure more adjustable to facts. In the schools of Newton, Mass., for example, fourteen and fifteen year old children have been, for several years, transferred from the grammar grades to a special high school conducted by a capable teacher whose duty it is to fit them into flexible high school programmes of study. Effort is made to ascertain the future plans, special aptitudes, the home, and economic conditions of these special pupils, so that the secondary instruction may subserve their needs. In some other cities the de- partment heads in the high schools have been required to prepare statements showing both the vocational and cultural bearing of each of the courses given. Such ad- justments and such reinterpretations of the high school scheme make for a fresh sense of values in secondary education. Causes of Elimination. — ^A sufficient number of in- vestigations have been carried on through both public and private agencies in this country to establish the fact that only a small porportion of the children who drop out of the elementary school to go to work do so because of pressure of circumstances. Miss Eleanor Colleton, a Boston teacher, assigned to a vocational-guidance in- vestigation in certain school districts of the city, tells of a girls' school in which the fourteenth birthday is regarded as the leaving signal. In the neighborhood of this school it seems to be a matter of course that a fourteen-year-old VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 625 girl should be workin,g in a candy factory, tailoring shop, or department store. This is true with respect to boys also. Academic appeals to continue in school seem futile beside the lure of wage-earning independence, of mingling with sophisticated adults, of counting with older brothers and sisters, and of helping struggling par- ents who in their narrow field of livelihood probably rep- resent even less economic value than do their blind-alley children. Pitiful necessity does, indeed, tear ambitious children out of school. Every teacher counts among her most pathetic experiences such separations and in mo- ments of reflection must marvel at the supineness of so- ciety in the face of this continual shipwrecking of child ambition and capacity. When talent saving becomes a community duty we shall probably find scholarships provided for these children after the effective manner shown by the scholarship committee of the Henry Street Settlement of New York and the Schmiddlap Fund of Cincinnati. For these children we shall see, too, a sys- tem of continuation schools provided which shall assure to working youth an opportunity to develop into nor- mal citizens. A School Investigation. — For that other and large mass of children who go and come as they please in the upper grades of the elementary school and in the high schools (children with no intention to go to college and no desire to prepare for a professional life), a large variety of ex- perimental investigations will be necessary in order to work out a programme which can win their interest and fit them for a right start in life. One such highly in- structive experiment has been in operation for three years at the North Bennett Street Industrial School, a philanthropic institution in the North End of Boston. 626 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL In September, 1909, a class of twenty-one boys about thirteen years of age, ranging from fifth to eighth grades, was received from the Eliot School, a neighboring public grammar-school, for instruction in a modified course in- cluding both academic and industrial work. Four pupils left during the year for sufficient reasons. The remain- ing seventeen were, many of them, poor boys. Previous to entering this class they had expressed their intention of leaving school as soon as possible. They were now of age to receive work papers, yet in September, 1910, all but one returned to the class. He had moved to Italy. Five new pupils were received. Results of Prevocational Course. — In a recent an- nual report of this institution, it is stated that the prevocational course had accomplished the following results : 1. Stimulated intelligent appreciation of industrial life and processes. 2. Developed habits of industry and a love for pro- ductive and constructive work. 3. Encouraged the spirit of co-operation on which de- pends not only the success of the modern shop but also the success of the individual life. 4. Brought the life and interests of the school more closely in touch with the working life to be lived after school-days are over. 5. Revealed to the pupils, to some extent, their pecu- liar bent, so that the choice of an occupation may be more intelligently made. 6. Given the ability to make and read simple working drawings. 7. Given facility in handling common tools and the ability to keep them in good working order. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 627 8. Retained the pupils in school two years longer than would otherwise have been possible. 9. Secured from the entire class the voluntary prom- ise to return in the fall for a second year. The work during the second year was even more prom- ising. One boy, formerly very troublesome, was only prevented from leaving by the fact that he was under fourteen; he took such interest in his work that he said he would leave home rather than leave the school, as his family wished. As his family had no sufficient means of support, he worked on a milk wagon from two o'clock in the morning till school time. Boys bring many tools from home to have them sharpened — axes, knives, etc. A few boys have borrowed tools from the school over Sunday to do outside work for which they have been paid. Two boys took a job putting in a partition in a house and cutting a ticket window in a wall, while an- other roofed a piazza for his father. This experiment is suggestive of the adjustments which a high school will have to make in order to hold on to the children other- wise destined to dead-end employments. If parents and teachers have been, as yet, only par- tially aware of what the high schools might actually do to advance the life-career interests of the children, they have been, on the whole, thoroughly ignorant as to the relative merits and disadvantages of the various em- ployments. Vocational investigations have disclosed the fact that the jobs which give no training offer good wages to fourteen and fifteen year old boys and girls, while those in which there is real opportunity pay very little to beginners. Almost the smallest factor in the taking of a particular job is a desire to learn a trade or the business. Plan plays but a small part in the career of 628 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL most children. One of the most imperative duties of the high school, then, is to make sure that its pupils do not wander through the four years, or even through one year, in this planless way. It makes little difference whether such plans be permanent; but whether there is a guiding purpose does make very much difference in the child's attitude toward school and work. For generations the schools have been literally eating out of the employer's hands. Social considerations de- mand that this situation be ended. The chief agency for social service in the future will be the public school. Within less than a generation school work has been transformed — text-books, curriculums, teaching methods and material, and even school architecture have been reconstructed in response to broadening community de- mands. More far-reaching changes are ahead and many of these are in the line of this far-reaching vocational- guidance movement. The high school which respects the unlikenesses in its pupils and shapes its work in sensitive regard for their individualities, which gives its boys and girls a vital grasp on the present and a vision of the more fruitful future, and which augments with its large constructive influence the world-wide striving to free youth from un- timely economic blight — that high school will be teaching with the strength of accomplishment and will be a power in the land. CHAPTER XXV AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE William C. Ruediger, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, THE GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY Recognition of the Problem. — The idea is beginning to prevail more and more that education should function not only in the home, in citizenship, in industry, and in business, but that it should function also in those activi- ties that people pursue for the purpose of enjoyment. This is manifesting itself in the relatively frequent dis- cussion of such topics as education for leisure, education for play, and education for recreation. It is asserted that the needs and opportunities for recreation have changed with the developments in other phases of Ufe, that these needs can no longer be adequately met on an instinctive and untutored plane, and that, therefore, the school should make equipment for the pursuits of leisure one of its specific aims. Activities Influenced by Education. — The activities of life that education should influence may for the purposes of this chapter be divided into the following four classes : vocational activities, group or social activities, avoca- tional activities, and diversions. The first two of these may, from the standpoint of the maintenance of human life and institutions, be regarded as primary or basal and the other two as secondary or supplementary. 629 630 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Vocational activities under ordinary conditions are all those that are undertaken for economic gain or for mak- ing a livelihood. Intelligent skill in them is desired by the individual because it tends to furnish him more abundantly with the material basis of existence and by society because it tends to keep the individual from becoming a public charge. Social or group activities include all those that are undertaken for the purpose of maintaining or improving the social whole. Education in them is obviously desir- able for both social and personal reasons. They may be further subdivided into : (a) Family activities, including courtship and mar- riage, home making and home life, care and education of children, and the like. (b) Political activities, including such acts as atten- dance upon caucuses and conventions, political propa- ganda, voting, and the discharge of military duties. (c) Religious and charitable activities, including per- sonal religious observances, church life, religious propa- ganda, acts of charity and altruistic co-operation, partici- pation in charitable organizations, etc. (d) Society activities, including calls and friendly cor- respondence, club life, receptions, parties, picnics, com- panionship, and the like. From the standpoint of the maintenance of social relationships, of furnishing social cement, it is no doubt proper to place these activities here, although from the personal standpoint they may be classified also under the head of social diversions. The two classes of supplementary activities may for the present be considered together. They include all those activities that are undertaken for the diversion, enlarge- ment, and enrichment of the personality. Economic AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 631 gain and the perpetuation and elevation of the social whole are in the immediate view either disregarded alto- gether or are relegated to a secondary position. The immediate aim is the gratification of the personal tastes and interests for the enjoyment that this gratification affords. Objective and Subjective Standpoints. — It is clear that the points of view from which the basal and the supplementary activities have just been considered are not alike. The former were considered from the objec- tive and the latter from the subjective standpoint. Both groups may, of course, be considered alternately from both standpoints. The increase of Hfe is the sig- nificance of the supplementary activities from the sub- jective standpoint only, the furnishing of recreation being their significance from the objective standpoint. Simi- larly, the economic and social activities not only furnish the material basis of existence and preserve and improve the social whole as a necessary medium of human life, but they are also enjoyable in themselves; and the more enlightened they are the more enjoyable they are. Nevertheless, it appears to be true that the objec- tive standpoint is characteristic of the basal, and the subjective standpoint of the supplementary activities. Even the individual wants intelligent economic and so- cial efficiency primarily for the objective rewards that these will bring him, while in the supplementary activi- ties this matter is reversed, although society always has a right to step in and put a veto on socially harmful activities. The recreation that the supplementary activities bring is always obtained best as a by-product. This in itself would shift the regard in these activities primarily to the 632 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL subjective side, but this is not all. Even when it is granted that the conditions of life are prior to Hfe itself, it is still true that the ultimate end of life is not the making of a living, the perpetuation of the social whole, or recreation, but Hfe. It is to this that all must ulti- mately minister, as they unquestionably do, and the direct and vital manner in which the supplementary activities minister to life is what constitutes their pri- mary significance. Avocations and Diversions Distinguished. — The basis of dividing the supplementary activities into avocations and diversions lies in the permanency with which they are respectively pursued. An activity to which one turns for a relatively brief period of time, without neces- sarily any systematic recurrence, may be called a diver- sion, while the term avocation may well be reserved for those unconstrained activities to which one turns fre- quently and systematically, much as one turns to one's vocation. This follows 'the more careful common usage. The difference, however, is not so much one of kind as of degree. Instead of two distinct classes, we have here rather two limits between which the gratuitous activi- ties of life are distributed, no sharp dividing Hne being evident. As examples of diversions may be mentioned a stroll through the woods to-day, attendance upon a ball game to-morrow, and visiting with friends in the evening. As avocations may be mentioned the pursuits of music, painting, literary production or criticism, scientific re- search, and craftsmanship alongside of one's vocation. The two are obviously supplementary, neither one being able to take the place of the other. In a rounded life both have a legitimate place. Avocations, however, are AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 633 on a more distinctly acquired plane and are, therefore, deserving of more attention by the school. Prevalence of Avocational Pursuits. — Among eminent people of history avocational pursuits in the sense here used appear to have been common. Thomas Jefferson, a lawyer and statesman by profession, was a skilled vio- Hnist and is said to have played or practised three hours a day. Joseph Jefferson, the actor, painted in his leisure hours and ultimately produced pictures of high merit. Grote, the historian, followed banking as his primary occupation till the age of forty-nine. The extent to which eminent men have pursued avo- cational pursuits was recently made the subject of in- quiry by one of my graduate students, WilHam James Mundy. In consultation with me, Mr. Mundy studied a selected list of 20 musicians, 20 statesmen, 20 European rulers, 20 scientists, 20 divines, and 25 Presidents of the United States. He obtained the following statistics of avocational activities pursued: Musicians 70 per cent Statesmen 40 " Rulers 70 " Scientists 45 " Divines 90 " Presidents 16 " Average 55 per cent When the Presidents of the United States are excluded the average rises from 55 per cent to 65 per cent. All the figures are probably too low, for Mr. Mundy con- sulted, in the main, only the brief biographies found in cycplopaedias. Space forbids the inclusion of all the detailed descrip- 634 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL tions given by Mr. Mundy, but that pertaining to the scientists, which is one of the briefest, follows: " Agassiz was a naturalist, geologist, and physician. Sir Humphrey Davy was a lecturer and a writer of prose and poetry. The poet Coleridge said that, 'had he not been the first chemist, he would have been the first poet of his age.' Charles Darwin daily devoted some time to reading, listening to reading and music, and to walking. Erasmus Darwin wrote poetry. Gal- ileo even in early life ranked in musical skill and inven- tion with the best professors of the art in Italy. Sir Frederick W. Herschel became a very skilful musician, theoretical and practical. Sir John F. W. Herschel sol- aced his declining years with translating the Iliad into verse, having earlier executed a similar version of Schil- ler's ' Walk.' From an early period in his Hfe, Newton paid great attention to theological studies. He wrote a complete 'Church History' and many divinity tracts, besides his scientific works." Qualities of Acceptable Avocations. — With due con- sideration of time and purse, the first item to take into account in choosing an avocation is personal interest. It is here that the iiative bent of a person can be given large and even full sway. Conditions do not always permit a person to choose his vocational pursuit along the line of his greatest inclination, and whenever this is the case an avenue of relief is always open in a well-chosen avocation. But even when the vocation is well chosen and is diversified in its activities, a person still needs a pursuit that is unconstrained, that enlists the full measure of his spontaneity, and that grips his personality. The feature through which an avocation most sue- AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 635 cessfuUy grips the personality is progressive achievement. This must be considered central, for there is no joy so life-giving as the joy of achievement. Not mere indul- gence of the powers but expression with a purpose and outcome is the core of a happy life; and when this is accompanied by the use of skill the combination is ideal. The examples of avocational activities given above, it will be remembered, were not stated merely in such terms as literature, art, science, and industry, but in such terms as literary production, painting, scientific re- search, and craftsmanship. This was intentional. It was the purpose to bring into the foreground the expres- sive rather than the absorptive side of the activities. The mere reading of Kterature, for example, while valu- able from other standpoints, is not sufhcient from the standpoint of an avocational pursuit. This should cul- minate ultimately in some form of literary expression, be this composition, criticism, dramatics, recitation, or in- terpretative reading. The same principle holds also in science, art, social work, and other fields of activity. But while creative or expressive achievement should be regarded as the ultimate goal, it should not be in- ferred that reading and study do not also have an hon- ored place in an avocational pursuit. They form an in- dispensable aspect of nearly every type of progressive activity. The stage of independent expression must of necessity not only be preceded by a prolonged course of reading and study, but it must throughout life be accom- panied thereby. The progressive feature of achievement implies, as a third characteristic of an avocational pursuit, appeal to the intellect. Without this characteristic progressive 636 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL study and achievement would be impossible, and with- out progress or growth interest would soon wane. Mere sensory or emotional appeal is not sufficient, for this soon exhausts itself and settles back to the common- place. As a fourth desirable quality of an avocation may be mentioned possibility of individual pursuit. This is de- sirable because one of the chief functions of an avocation is to serve as an elevating means of self-entertainment. We cannot always depend on our friends for amusement, but without having recourse to a cultivated and expand- ing interest we are Hkely to become a burden to ourselves when alone. This does not mean, of course, that the fruits of an avocational pursuit are not to be shared with others. Indeed, this sharing must always be looked upon as one of the most attractive outcomes of an avocational activity. We are inherently so constituted as to want to display our achievements before others in the hope of receiving their approval and admiration, and without this an activity would for most people be quite empty. But this by no means precludes periods of private work and study; it rather requires them. Neither does this characteristic deny that the isolated worker, such as the factory hand or office clerk, should, as a general rule, aim to choose an avocation that will bring him into companionship. He should undoubtedly aim in his leisure hours to associate with his fellows both from within and from without his own calling. This is an objective as well as a subjective social desideratum, and when it can be provided for in an avocational pur- suit it should be done. Such pursuits as church work, choral societies, study clubs, and athletic organizations AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 637 do provide companionsliip, but they also offer opportu- nities for individual study. Yet it must be remembered that social activities and diversions have a place in life on their own account, quite independent of an avoca- tional pursuit. These four characteristics, then, may be regarded as desirable in an avocational pursuit: (i) appeal to per- sonal interest; (2) opportunity for creative or expres- sive achievement; (3) appeal to the intellect; and (4) possibility of individual pursuit. Relation of Avocation to Vocation.-^The statement is usually made that the vocation and the avocation should supplement each other; that when the vocation is of a mental nature the avocation should be of a mechanical or physical nature; when the vocation keeps one indoors the avocation should take one outdoors, and so on. The teacher, the lawyer, or the merchant should, on this basis, select an avocation like cabinetmaking, gymnas- tics, or golfing, while the farmer, the builder, or the sur- veyor should select a literary, scientific, or artistic pur- suit as his avocation. This supplementary relation between the vocation and avocation may be ideal but it cannot be taken as the primary criterion for the selection of an avocation. This must always be personal inclination. It is desir- able, above all things, that the avocation offer an oppor- tunity for whole-hearted devotion. Then, if it also con- trasts with the vocational pursuit, so much the better, but if it falls in a similar line of activity it should still be chosen. The teacher of reading may make dra- matics his avocation, the teacher of English may be a poet, and the teacher of science may gain his highest joy from scientific research. A farmer, builder, engi- 638 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL neer, or business man may pursue a special phase of his vocation as his avocation. This close relation of avocation to vocation is likely to be more advantageous than disadvantageous. It may serve as a source of immediate help and inspiration in the vocation and furnish additional motive for the avocation. The objection that under this condition no avocation but only a vocation exists is without force. Any absorbing activity that is not of necessity included in one's vocation satisfies the requirements of an avoca- tional pursuit. It may even be argued that to have the vocation and avocation fall in unrelated lines of activity is undesira- ble. Under this condition the interest engendered in the avocation may detract time and attention from the vo- cation. This has happened; and while the argument is not final it does help to support the conclusion that the nature of one's vocation is secondary in determining the choice of one's avocation. It should be remembered again in this connection that an avocation in the sense here used is not the only activity through which one gains relief from the strain and routine of one's vocation. There are also the so- cial, intellectual, and physical diversions which aid in maintaining the balance of one's personality. These are so varied that they are inherently adapted to appeal to all sides of one's nature. Physical exercise is, indeed, so important that it must often be given special con- sideration. It is only occasionally that one may expect to have it taken care of in one's avocation. Vocation and avocation touch also on the financial side. As a rule, an avocation costs rather than produces money. Music, art, and science as avocational pursuits AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 639 are proverbially expensive and one chooses them usually with no expectation of financial return. To choose them with this end in view would obviously be incongruous for it would transfer the activity into the vocational field. But as an incidental or secondary consideration it is not always possible to disconnect avocatlonal activities from financial gain. Some activities naturally involve financial considerations in their culmination, without which they are largely pointless. When a farmer makes a phase of his calling an avocational pursuit it is diffi- cult for him not to profit thereby, and the test of literary achievement, although followed incidentally, is, to some extent at least, the salabihty of the product. Other ac- tivities may be similarly involved. The beneficiaries may reinvest their gains in the extension of their avoca- tional pursuits, but this does not remove the fact that they have gained. So long as this gain is looked upon as incidental it need not professionalize the avocational activity, but it brings us face to face with another relation that the avo- cation may bear to the vocation. After having gained sufficient skill in one's avocation one may make it one's vocation or one may fall back upon it temporarily as a means of support. Both of these conditions occasionally come about. The papers have only recently told us of a barber who gained such proficiency in musical composi- tion, practised for his enjoyment in leisure hours, that he forsook his vocation for it. Plant and animal breed- ers occasionally decide to specialize in the lines in which they started primarily for recreational purposes, and music has often proved a source of income in emergen- cies. But this transfer of affections must, in the begin- 640 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ning at least/be unpremeditated, otherwise the activity- would have to be looked upon as vocational from the start. This topic should not be left, however, without em- phasizing the desirabiUty of keeping the avocation on an amateur basis. It is only on that basis that free, child- Hke, and unalloyed enjoyment can be obtained. Finan- cial considerations are always likely to bring in the ele- ment of constraint. Relation of Avocation to Social Activities. — It should be evident by this time that it is not the nature of the activity but the spirit in which it is pursued that de- termines an avocational pursuit. The avocation may, therefore, fall not only within the field of the vocation but also within the field of social activities, including all four of the subdivisions made above. The social field appears to be especially well suited for avocational pur- suits. Opportunities for the doing of far-reaching good abound, yet relatively few of these have been placed in the hands of paid and professional guidance. Plenty of room, therefore, is left for volunteer effort. The good that may be accompHshed is well suited for leaving a rich, subjective reward, and all the activities offer op- portunities for companionship and social leadership. Within the church opportunities for avocational inter- ests may be found in the Sunday-school, in missionary activities, and in directing young people's societies; in civic life, social relief work, playgrounds, adult educa- tion, the beautification of the community, and the like may occupy one's attention; and in poHtics the entire field in this country is largely on an amateur basis. In the home the care and training of children, the furnish- ing of the house, the qualities and preparation of food, AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 641 etc., may be raised to avocational interests. Much aid in this matter may be obtained from women's clubs, which furnish social stimuU and serve as clearing-houses. Needs for Avocational Training. — The needs for avo- cational training and guidance are both general and specific. From the general standpoint it should require little argument to show that young people stand in need of guidance and training in the choice and pursuit of avo- cational activities. Relatively few adults are equipped for the spending of leisure hours in a significant and elevating manner. As a result, they know no better than to spend all their time in a continual and monotonous grind or they waste or dissipate the leisure they do have. By the age of thirty-five or forty life has become nar- row and uninteresting. Vocational activities have be- come largely a matter of routine, their novelties have been exhausted, and a basis for an avocational pursuit is lacking. Pedagogically, the need for avocational training is more rather than less urgent than the need for vocational training. The conditions of Hfe compel nearly every one to choose a vocation, to prepare for it, and to pursue it, but they do not similarly compel one to choose, master, and follow an avocational pursuit. Consequently, avo- cational pursuits worthy of the name usually go by de- fault. It is especially important that young people be im- pressed with the psychological fact that the interests to be enjoyed in middle and later life must be developed in youth and cultivated at least occasionally throughout maturity. Unless this is done, well-nigh insurmount- able difficulties are encountered. Interests that are not cultivated after they have been developed atrophy and 642 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL even die. The experience of Darwin is typical. In his youth Darwin was fond of poetry and music, but when he tried to come back to them after years of inten- sive application to scientific research he found that his taste for them had vanished. His mind, as he says, had become a mere machine for grinding out scientific gen- eralizations. Ignorant of this fact, young men entering a life career frequently say to themselves: "I shall now spend the next period of my life in laying up a fortune, and after that is obtained I shall lay off and have a good time." The outcome is nearly always the same. Not infre- quently they succeed measurably well in the former, only to learn, when it is too late, that they have left within themselves no resources for enjoyment outside of their callings. Women in the home are exposed to narrowing influ- ences even more than men in business. They are under great temptation to devote all their time and energy to their home and children, neglecting their taste for read- ing, art, and social activity, and when their children are grown they find themselves with no interest to take the place of caring for them. The specific needs for avocational training grow out of the social and industrial transformation through which we are passing. Because of the specialization and concentration of industry made possible by the applica- tion of the sciences and the invention of labor-saving machinery, the division of labor is being carried further and further, and in consequence labor is making a pro- gressively narrower and narrower appeal to the varied powers and impulses of the personahty. This is affect- ing not only the industries but also commerce and the AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 643 professions. In only a few callings, such as the ministry, teaching, and farming, is a reasonable amount of breadth still maintained, and even here monotony may be found. The point involved in specialized labor is not so much that it is narrow in a mechanical sense as that to vast numbers of workers it does not furnish opportunity for initiative and constructive achievement. All but a few are carrying out orders from above. They are following directions conceived by some one else and are using their own minds for self -direction in but a limited degree. In the not far distant past this was very different. Then the shoemaker made the entire shoe and the watchmaker the entire watch. In this there was room for thought and the joy of achievement. Furthermore, trained and specialized labor increases production, and among the effects of this is, or should be, more leisure for the worker. Employers or members of their families have long had some leisure in which they have, in a measure, cultivated avocational pursuits; and the struggle of labor against capital for shorter hours is, in part at least, a struggle for the leisure to which the econ- omy of production would seem logically to entitle labor. With this leisure the life of the "man- with- the-hoe" type of laborer might be transformed into the life of a gentleman, meaning by this term not the "gentleman of leisure" but the man in a democracy who has some time and taste for the gentle things of life. But if this ideal is to be reached not only leisure but training for leisure is necessary. Without this training every one command- ing leisure, whether rich or poor, is likely to flounder. The need for training in this connection is further emphasized by the fact that dissipation on the part of employees is rapidly being forbidden by railroad com- 644 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL panies and other corporations. The Lackawanna Com- pany recently issued instructions to its employees that contained the following: " Employees in engine, train, yard, and station service are prohibited from using their time while off duty in a manner that may unfit them for the safe, prompt, and efficient performance of their respective duties for the company. They are strictly enjoined and required to use their time while off duty primarily for obtaining ample rest. The use of intoxi- cants while on or off duty, or the visiting of saloons or places where liquor is sold, incapacitates men for rail- road service, and is absolutely prohibited. Any viola- tion of this rule by employees in engine, train, yard, or station service will be sufficient cause for dismissal." The School and Avocational Guidance. — In raising the question of what may be expected of the school in help- ing young people to equip themselves for the effective pursuit of such avocational activities as we have de- scribed it should be borne in mind that the school is only one of several agencies concerned in this matter. The responsibility should be shared especially by the home and the church; but in the present state of social development the school can probably do the most. The school can, in the first place, direct the attention oj young people to the importance of definite preparation for the spending of leisure. Young people now pay Kttle or no attention to this matter, mainly because they are unaware of its existence. They think much and are told much of the need of trained vocational efficiency and of being pubHc-spirited citizens, but the matter of recrea- tion and unconstrained achievement is allowed to take care of itself. As a result, it is usually neglected and the person finds himself in middle life high and dry. AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 645 The possibilities of his vocation are exhausted, the few diversions he has now seem superficial, and the interests upon which an engaging avocational pursuit might be founded are largely atrophied. The duty of directing the attention of young people in this matter falls primarily to the upper grades, the high school, and the college. The high school principal, it would seem, occupies the most advantageous position. He has the pupils at the most favorable age. Their minds are just opening to the larger meanings and values of Hfe and they are ripe for instruction. This instruc- tion the principal could give nowhere more effectively than at the general exercises of the school. And while the teachers are engaged in directing the attention of young people to avocational pursuits let them aim also to cultivate a taste for the simple and inexpensive pleasures. The life-giving value of a diver- sion is not necessarily proportional to its cost or to the glare and gUtter by which it is accompanied. A view of the lake from the hilltop, a walk or drive through the country, an outing in the woods, the reading of the even- ing paper, the writing of a friendly letter, and a con- templation of the stars at night are among the pleasures that never pall and never grow old. Closely related to the choice of an avocation is the criticism that the interests which the school so laboriously cultivates are not permanent and that, therefore, the effects of education are lost. Pupils study and, as a rule, are interested in literature, art, history, science, and philosophy while in school, but few keep up their interests when out of school. Like the educated Indian, they return to the blanket. In meeting this criticism it may be said, to begin with^ 646 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL that by no means all of the educative effects of a study are lost if an active interest in the study is not main- tained after school Hfe. The liberalizing and socializing values, once obtained, are largely permanent; and the same may be said of mental discipline, properly con- ceived. In the second place, it should be observed that there is a vast difference between school life and after-life in the opportunity for cultivating a large variety of interests. It is the business of a student in school to cultivate a broad range of interests in order that he may find himself and gain perspective and social interest, but in after-life the pursuit of a specific vocation becomes his chief con- cern. This necessarily consumes the major portion of his time and makes it impossible for him to keep alive all the interests he cultivated in school. Thirdly, we should realize that the vocation should, and usually does, keep alive some of one's higher inter- ests. It will surely do this if it can be properly chosen. The solution regarding the interests not taken care of by the vocation is to keep alive the choicest ones by means of one or two avocational activities. The re- mainder may occasionally serve as diversions, but in the main they must, as active interests, be allowed to sub- side. In regard to them we may say with James: "Not that I would not, if I could, be both handsome and fat and well dressed and a great athlete, and make a million dollars a year, be a wit, a bon-vivant, and a lady-killer as well as a philosopher; a philanthropist, a statesman, a warrior, and African explorer as well as a tone 'poet' and a saint. But the thing is simply impossible." But in this matter of diversions and avocations the school can do more than direct attention ; it can also lead AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 647 the way. It can do this especially through the clubs and organizations of the students. The clubs of the school, in addition to their other functions, may be regarded as veritable training grounds for the intellectual and aesthetic diversions and avoca- tions. It should be their aim to put into practice in a free and enjoyable way the activities of the various de- partments. The physics club may develop a permanent interest in photography; the biological club may teach the language of the birds and the flowers; the social- science club may develop momentum in social activities; the German club may impart a mastery over the songs and literature of Germany; the dramatic club may foster the drama; the art club may develop skill with the brush or pencil, and so on; while the literary and debating societies, in addition to their specific activities, may serve as clearing-houses for all the clubs. The number of clubs running in any one year would depend both on the size of the school and the opportu- nity for gaining competent leadership. A large school could naturally support more clubs than a small one. The leadership would most likely come from the faculty, but it might also come from the home. Here is a point where the home and the school, as well as other social forces and the school, might often work together. In order to conserve the energy of both the teachers and the pupils, the teachers might take turns from year to year in directing clubs along their own lines of interest. Especial care would have to be taken to conserve the energies of the pupils. No pupil should be allowed to attend too many clubs in any one year. He can try him- self out in successive years. Neither should the teach- ers forget that the pupils should be led clearly to realize 648 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL that the clubs, as well as being immediately enjoyable, are opportunities for cultivating tastes and activities that may be carried into after-life. The development of permanent interests in athletic activities rests largely with athletic associations. Inter- est in athletics touches especially closely the relation of the school to health and the establishment of health habits. It is now expected that the health of pupils instead of being enfeebled should improve with progress through the school, and that definite and lasting habits and ideals for the maintenance of health become estab- Hshed by the time the student leaves the high school. In this matter it appears to be necessary to make a distinction between physical education and physical exercise. The former has as its function the shaping of the form and bearing of the body and the latter the maintenance of physical buoyancy and vigor. One be- longs to the realm of work and the other to the realm of play. The school has a primary obligation toward both, but its obhgation toward the latter is the more far- reaching. The body and bearing once formed may be maintained through habit or a minimum of attention, but exercise is needed continually throughout life. The fact that the maintenance of health through ex- ercise is a perpetual problem places the duty upon the school of equipping young people with physical diver- sions that may be carried through life. The pupils should be made clearly aware of the need of the diver- sion and should be led consciously to prepare for it. The development of physical diversions that will ac- tually be carried into life presents peculiar difficulties. This is because people differ greatly in the amount of exercise they require and because individuals will not for AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 649 any considerable length of time follow systematic courses of exercise by themselves. The fact that people will not exercise regularly by themselves makes it necessary that the social factor be included in physical diversions whenever possible. Plays and games must be socialized. Unless this is done they are not likely to be long effective. The revival of folk-dances is significant in this connection, but tennis, croquet, baseball, and the like also require social co- operation; and walking, driving, rowing, swimming, and skating may easily be made social. Municipal play- grounds and amusement halls, in sufficient number for adults no less than for children, would go far in solving this problem. Children's playgrounds should adopt it as one of their explicit functions to develop skill in games that may be adopted as permanent diversions. But, to achieve this end, games in which adults take an interest, such as tennis, baseball, and water sports, will have to be extensively substituted for the childish games that now monopolize the arena. In all this the difference in the amount and kind of exercise needed by individuals should receive conscious consideration. Whereas, one needs one hour or more of vigorous exercise in the open air every day to keep in trim, another may require much lighter exercise and per- haps only an hour or two a week. If he takes more he becomes exhausted and will actually have his enjoy- ment and efficiency lowered. A vital point in developing and practising physical diversions is the fact that the attention should always be centred primarily on the activity or the achievement and not on the profit of the exercise itself. Play and not work should be the dominating attitude. It is only 650 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL when the spirit of play dominates the mind that care is relegated to the background and that depth of breath- ing, fulness of heart-beat, and freedom of activity are achieved. Health, like pleasure, is delusive, being gained best by indirection. It is this principle that demands the classification of the physical exercises among the diversions. Another opportunity through which the school may exert an elevating influence on the choice of diversions and avocations is the content and method of instruction. Young people cannot be expected extensively to choose art, literature, or science as recreative pursuits unless the school succeeds in enlisting their interest in these sub- jects, and the school cannot hope to enhst this interest without significant and contentful subject-matter that is taught in a meaningful and appreciative manner. We are still aiming too much for the form and the symbol and not enough for the content and function in our teaching. This not only kills the interest in the thing taught but also stupefies the method of teaching. It is this that accounts in a large measure for the fact that many students in the high school, the elementary school, and the college are pleased to have done with many of their studies and hope never to be obliged to turn to them again. Studies in school should be pursued in the same spirit in which they are meant to be pursued in life. This holds for all studies, but is particularly true for music, art, and literature, which form the main body of the aesthetic diversions and avocations. It is the primary function of these subjects to entertain, to inspire, and to add to the richness of life, and these should be the ends aimed for in school. The method of study should be at- AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 651 tuned to harmonize with these ends. The spirit of the classroom should be one of sympathy and co-operation, the teacher and the pupils contributing and appreciating in turn. If the course is one in content, the attention should always be primarily on the content, formal mat- ters being brought in only to the extent that they are needed to make the content clear. Only in this way can a deep and permanent interest, one likely to be carried over into life, be developed. True, the teacher must be one who knows the goals of instruction and who him- self profoundly appreciates what he is teaching, but this is true of all teachers who make a success of their work. Let no one jump to the hasty conclusion either that the spirit of delight is incompatible with hard work or with the invocation of the concept of duty. A joyful end is the very kind that will elicit strenuous effort, pro- vided only that the effort is relevant to the end. That aesthetic appreciation of the cultivated kind pre- supposes hard work is undeniable, and young people should be led to realize this fact early in their educa- tional career. The masters in literature, art, and music cannot be appreciated through casual attention. They must be studied, and only after careful study is the door of ready appreciation opened. This study must not only include underlying princi- ples and historical relationships, but also practice in the technic. Without having practised with a pen, brush, voice, or musical instrument, one cannot fully appreci- ate literature, art, and music. Like other educational ends, this appreciation involves both impression and expression. Literature is now granted about as much time in courses of study as can be afforded for it. It is studied 652 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL both from the contentful and the historical standpoint and if it is not chosen often enough as a diversion or avocation, the fault must be ascribed to those who teach it. But the same cannot be said of art and music. These subjects have only begun to be studied from the contentful side in elementary and high schools. The drawing work in these schools should be accompanied by, or culminate in, the systematic study of painting, sculpture, and architecture, now readily done through copies, and the music work should lead to an acquain- tance with the masterpieces of music. Here the player- piano, Victrola, and other devices may serve as means of presentation. With these artificial aids young people may become acquainted with the masters and master- pieces of painting, sculpture, and music quite as readily as with the masters and masterpieces of literature. The principles that must be observed in securing the recreative values of the aesthetic subjects apply also to the natural and the social sciences. In these subjects, as in others, the content itself must be aimed for if a sympathetic attitude toward them is to be developed. The social sciences should interpret human institutions, having in view both practical and social ends, while the natural sciences should perform a similar service in re- spect to the phenomena of nature. Both groups should be made to connect vitally with the immediate environ- ment of the student, . History should mean the home locality with its pioneers and heroes, as well as Harper's Ferry and John Brown; botany should mean the weeds and grasses in the back yard as well as microscopes and herbariums, and so on. But these results are now not often achieved. Students take economics and sociology, but of the actual conditions of our industrial, commer- AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 653 cial, and social life they often learn little. Physics in most high schools is still a matter of accurate measure- ment and appKed mathematics, with seldom a view be- yond the classroom and laboratory, while botany and zoology are studied in an equally schematic and tech- nical way. The natural sciences in particular are rich in recrea- tive content that the school can help to reveal. The endless varieties of plants and animals may go quite un- noticed without the systematic and appreciative insight that may be given by the school; and the person who knows the stars and the planets, who understands their movements, and who is acquainted with the constella- tions and their associated myths has a source of delight that he would not readily exchange. And what would a person with a real and vital knowledge of physical, chem- ical, and geological phenomena take in exchange for what these add to the appreciation of the world in which he lives? These three avenues, then, are open to the school for developing diversions and avocations on a plane com- mensurate with human endowment: (i) the school may direct the attention of young people to the character and importance of these activities and to the necessity of preparing for them; (2) it may help them to get a foretaste of these activities through the club life of the school; and (3) it may order its subject-matter and methods of instruction so that vital and sustained inter- ests will be developed. CHAPTER XXVI CO-OPERATION IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH James Fleming Hosic, Ph.M. professor of english, chicago normal college The Importance of Co-operation. — The subject of co- operation in teaching the use of the vernacular has not received the attention it deserves. Mastery of the na- tional language is easily the most important attainment which it is the business of the school to bring about. The growth of the mind and the power to press any life purpose to a successful outcome are alike dependent upon it. But, as I shall presently show, unless progress in learning to speak, to write, and to read correctly and effectively is enabled by the conduct of the work of every class in the school, the good ofhces of the EngHsh teacher will result in but meagre fruitage. Difficulty of Learning Language. — If any are unim- pressed with the importance of co-operation they have but to reflect upon the character of the processes which the learning of language involves. These constitute a group of habits at once the most significant and the most difficult to establish of all those which make up the human personality. So intimate is the relation between speech and character that Charles Lamb was, no doubt, justified in saying that he could judge of a man's culture and intellectual force by means of a few moments' con- versation with him while waiting under a friendly door- 654 THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 655 way during a passing shower. The adjustments, on the other hand, which speech and writing require far exceed in delicacy and complexity those demanded by any other aspect of human behavior. Consider what happens when an idea comes into the mind, sets up the appropriate motor response, and is expressed in a series of articu- late sounds, in the making of which the whole vocal organism is called into rapid action, the tongue, lips, and throat assuming position after position with Hghtning rapidity and with wonderful accuracy. Even more marvellous is the process of reading aloud from the printed book, as Dearborn, Huey, and others have re- cently set forth. Consider now that these language adjustments begin in early infancy, are operative during every waking hour, and have fairly estabHshed themselves by the time a child enters the high school. If the pupil then speaks and writes and reads well, it is necessary only that the new environment foster a growth well begun, not hinder it or destroy it. If, however, the entering student has made small progress in language or has accumulated a stock of bad practices, to save him will require the united efforts of all the teachers he may meet. How profoundly true this is appears in the doctrine, now widely accepted, that language habits are special, not general; that pro- ficiency in a given situation gives no positive assurance that we shall find it in another. To illustrate from our common experience, pupils often express themselves well in the English classroom and very badly elsewhere. Hence it is in a sense true that unless all instructors teach English it is nearly useless for any to do so. For this reason co-operation deserves our most serious con- sideration. 656 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL OBSTACLES TO BE OVERCOME By "co-operation in English" we mean the working together of all the teachers of a school to secure, on the part of their students, the correct and effective use of oral and written expression. We have glanced at the necessity of this; let us now consider with some care the difficulties which any plan of co-operation will involve. I. Lack of Uniform Standards.^ — There can be no progress in co-operating in English teaching so long as some departments support by example, or at best tolerate, language which others condemn, or — what is equally destructive — offer no positive stimulus to accu- rate and adequate expression in speech and in writing. It may be that the teacher of English is overprecise, a purist, and prizes too little the plain and straightforward expression of the results of observation and thought. It may be that the teacher of science prides himself on his freedom from conventionality and has scant respect for good usage. It is, at any rate, more than likely that each goes his own way, quite unfamiHar with the attitude of the other, while the pupil finds it easy to choose the path of least resistance. Evil of Overspecialization. — One reason for such a state is the overspecialization of students in the univer- sities and of teachers in the high schools. It is now pos- sible for young men and young women to secure the bachelor's degree, and with it a recommendation to a high school position, without adequate training in the arts, acquaintance with the humanities, or grounding in the sciences, as the case may be. The result is a high school course made up of a series of unrelated units and THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 657 high school instruction in which each department not only fails to support the others but may even nullify their efforts. The teacher who knows neither science nor in- dustrial art will make small headway in training a class to express their live interests, while the teachers of those subjects who know little English constantly offend good taste in language and signally fail to complete the train- ing which the English teacher has begun. All Teachers Should Be Trained in English. — A strong reaction against a one-sided preparation, which can only result in mutual lack of S3nnpathy and support, and which tends to disintegrate the Hfe of the pupil in- stead of unifying and harmonizing it, has already set in. It may be desirable to require each teacher in the large schools to give instruction in at least two departments in order to secure the necessary breadth and catholicity oi interest. From the numerous suggestions which have come to my notice I quote the following, which is part of a series of resolutions presented by a special committee to the Conference of High Schools with the University of Illinois in November, 1912.^ All candidates for high school teaching positions should have work in English extending through at least two years, with emphasis upon oral and written composition. The committee is impelled to make this recommendation because of the defi- ciencies in English that so frequently characterize high school teachers. The committee recognizes, however, that even the best technical training in English composition will not alone suffice to accomplish the desired results. In addition to this, every effort should be made in all classes to develop adequate habits of clear and concise expression and to encourage effective 1 The committee was composed of the following: L. C. Lord, Theodore Kemp, W. C. Bagley, H. B. Wilson, and W. R. Spurrier, chairman. See the English Journal, for February, 1913, p. 135. 658 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL standards of diction, syntax, and logical organization. We recommend that the conference urge upon college and univer- sity authorities the importance of emphasizing this phase of education in all classes in which intending high school teachers are enrolled. The last recommendation is an interesting confirma- tion of the necessity of co-operation in English even in the college. 2. Absence of Common Aims. — But granting that the teachers of a school have been broadly and adequately prepared and that there exists among them reasonable agreement as to what standards of expression in language should be set up, difficulties will remain. Prominent among these is that of setting up common aims. Over- speciaHzation is the chief stumbling-block here also. The teacher of physics wants to make scientists and the teacher of English wants to make novelists, while both should be eager to make men. Neither has time, or will take it, to visit the classes of the other, and no com- mon interests are discovered. Moreover, co-operation is very generally viewed as one-sided. It is supposed to be a device for giving English a large place in the pro- gramme or, on the other hand, a means by which teach- ers of other subjects may unload their manuscripts and escape the grind of correcting them. These objections must first be removed before the necessary willingness to co-operate can be secured. English and Other Studies. — It is not the business of the science teacher to give instruction in the principles of English composition. That subject has its technic, and instruction in the technic of composition requires skill born of experience as in the case of any other sort of instruction. It will be sufficient if the science teacher THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 659 will but require his pupils to employ to the full whatever command of language they possess. So far as correct- ness is concerned, it is certainly true that high school pupils rarely make mistakes out of ignorance. They know what is right but fail to choose it. This all teachers must insist that they do and, Hke Goldsmith's village preacher, practise it themselves. Teachers in departments other than English need not, then, fear encroachment, for it is demanded only that they re- quire the pupils to use the knowledge they have. This doctrine may, however, be too narrowly inter- preted. Many proceed on the supposition that co-opera- tion in English means merely correcting bad grammar, bad pronunciation, and bad spelling, with the possible addition of insistence on neat manuscript. These are cer- tainly desiderata. " These ought ye to have done and not to have left the other undone." Language is almost identical with thought. Meagreness, confusion, and in- exactness of expression are fairly indicative of Hke quali- ties of idea. When all is said that can be said for those who think by means of images, attitudes, or what-not, the fact remains that almost all of our thinking is done with words. Hence, when the teacher of geometry in- sists on crystal clearness of statement, he is wisely mak- ing sure that the pupil has grasped the idea; when the teacher of history requires the evidence on a point to be properly arranged and adequately set forth he is in re- ality bringing the individual and the class to a complete consciousness of the facts involved, is assuring full knowl- edge where half knowledge lurked before. As soon as all teachers understand this and act accordingly, our prob- lem will be practically solved. As it is now, we divine what is passing in the pupil's mind, supply the words 660 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL which he cannot find, and hasten on, with a resulting lack of thoroughness which is the most crying weakness of our schools. A few things properly mastered, a few steps carefully taken, would result in more knowledge and better training than we now secure by our hurried attempt to orient the boy in his teens in all the formu- lated and predigested experience of the race. And there is no more efficient means of assimilation and mastery than complete, accurate, and adequate expression in speech and writing. Hence the teacher of English should enforce a few simple principles of composition that will enable the pupil to plan and execute an oral report or a paper in history or in science, and the teachers of those subjects should aid the pupil to secure such a grasp of the subject-matter as will make such reports and papers possible. 3. Bad Working Conditions. — But quite enough has been said about teachers. They are unable, however willing, to solve the problem alone. School officers and administrators must provide the necessary conditions. Suppose the English teacher meets a class of forty pupils each period of the school day. This is a situation some- what worse than the average, but it is by no means un- known. How, in that case, will he give sympathetic attention to the interests of his pupils so that their prac- tice in speaking and writing may react favorably on their work in other classes? How will he attend carefully to the individual in order that his grasp of principles may be assured? How will he retain sufficient energy to con- sult with his colleagues and devise plans of assault on particularly stubborn fastnesses of metropolitan polyglot or rural patois? We write a course of study for the English teacher and crowd it with literary masterpieces THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 661 — thought important for those who will attend college. Then we demand more than twice as much work of him as he can possibly do well, and wonder why he does not succeed in vanquishing, single-handed, the foes of clear thinking and correct and clear expression which have been intrenched for years and which can now command aid and succor from all sides during every waking hour. As for teachers of other subjects, while they are not so grievously overburdened, yet they, too, are often under the necessity of hurrying through a heavy course, with too many pupils to be able to think of the possibility of dividing with some one else responsibility for mastery of the vernacular. Co-operation a Problem of Economics. — Ultimately the problem of co-operation is one for the principal, the superintendent, and the school board. It is primarily a question of economics. The task of providing a people's college in every town and section, to which the humblest may freely go and in which he may receive instruc- tion in almost every branch of human knowledge and training in every art known to man, is greater than is generally realized. To make our already large invest- ment pay, we must more than double it. A fair ques- tion may be raised as to whether we are justified in diverting large sums for the purchase of equipment to turn out a few would-be engineers, for example, when we do not provide adequately for training all in the funda- mental arts of life. At all events, it will require as much zeal and pride and generous outlay to secure notable re- sults in English as in moulding and turning, and the sooner this is realized the sooner we shall get results. The Principal Must Lead and Direct. — In a given school, then, co-operation in English must be brought 662 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL about by the principal. He alone can see the problem from all sides; he alone is free, or ought to be, from pre- dilection for one activity or interest; he should see his boys and girls as developing beings with whole, undi- vided lives; he is in a position not only to institute plans, but to see that they are carried out and to judge of the results. Wherever any measure of success in co-opera- tion has been secured, the principal has been the chief guiding force. SUCCESSFUL PLANS This brings us to the point where we can speak briefly of a few successful plans. Most notable, perhaps, is that now in operation in the Cicero Township High School near Chicago, 111. This is a school in an indus- trial community. The parents are largely of foreign birth and not well-to-do. The pupils enter high school as much in need of training in the vernacular as any that can be found. What Principal Church is doing here will be done elsewhere — as soon as the importance of it is reaUzed. Mr. Church recognized at the outset the economic aspect of the problem and began reform by inducing his board to supply him with additional teachers. He has thus reduced the number of pupils assigned to a teacher of English to sixty. These teachers are on duty in their classrooms throughout the school day and after- ward, to deal with individuals and to discuss their oral and written work with them. The next step was to secure unanimity of effort in certain specific matters. This was attained by having the English teachers pre- pare a brief statement as to what other teachers might do to enforce the instruction they were giving; as, for THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 663 example, the correcting of grammatical errors, the use, when appropriate, of full sentences, etc. Eventually it was found desirable to issue a monthly bulletin by means of which each teacher might know what instruction in English was being given and might demand that it be observed in his recitations. It was agreed that all de- partments should keep a separate and distinct record of the quality of the English used by each pupil and that the average of such marks should constitute twenty- five per cent of the composition grade given to the pupil at the end of the semester. The effect is described by competent observers as wonderful. The entire school is pervaded by an at- mosphere of good English, and the performance of the pupils, coming as they do from homes of little culture, is comparable to that which may be found in the small high-grade private school. Another typical example of successful co-operation is to be found in the Boston High School of Commerce. The principal, Mr. O. C. Gallagher, describes the plan as follows :^ To keep the pupils on the watch for accurate, effective, and smooth composition in all their work, they were informed that at frequent, though unstated, intervals their papers in other sub- jects would be corrected by their English teachers to ascertain their observance of the principles taught in the English classes. The marks thus obtained are entered upon the regular compo- sition work, and unsatisfactory papers are revised or rewritten — the same as unsatisfactory themes. In addition, teachers of other subjects are urged to send batches of papers whenever pupils seem to be growing careless — a condition that often pre- 1 See Leaflet No. 67, New England Association of Teachers of English, Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. 664 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL vails immediately after the correction of sets of papers in sub- jects other than English. The teacher of the other subject demands that the work be clear and substantially correct in spelling, punctuation, and sen- tence structure. Failing to secure the first, he lowers the pupil's mark and, at his option, demands revision; failing to secure the second, he withholds all credit until the work is presented in a satisfactory form. The teacher of English insists that every piece of writing shall be regarded as an English theme to be cor- rected, revised, and rewritten and to count in the making up of the mark in English. The collection of papers at unexpected moments convinces most pupils of the unwisdom of taking chances, for, even if the English teacher fails to collect a set, the teacher of the other subject is likely to send him any piece of slipshod work. Again, a conscientious attempt is made to teach pupils how to answer questions in other subjects. We correlate the English work in the first year with history; in the second with commer- cial geography; in the third with local industries and civil govern- ment; in the fourth with business law and economics. By draw- ing upon these branches for occasional subjects, and correcting the themes orally for sentence structure, unity, mass, and co- herence, we try to train the pupils to bear in mind the principles of English while their attention is focussed upon another subject. Similarly, in connection with science, descriptions of apparatus and expositions of experiments are required, and the teacher of science is consulted as to the adequacy of the productions from a technical standpoint. With foreign languages the English department has found most need for co-operation in drill upon points of grammar as they are taken up in German and in French. Besides "corrective" co-operation, there is such a thing as "preventive or anticipating" co-operation, which is quite as important as the other. Since most teachers are interested in English as a means rather than as an end, the use of English must be made effective in recitation as well as in writing. Sev- eral subjects taken up in the first year of a secondary school lend themselves readily to such drill, especially history and elementary science. After consultation between the teacher of English and the teacher of history, the history text-book may be taken up in the English class and the pupil taught how to make his En- THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 665 glish do the work that the author tried to have his do. What has the author aimed at? Did he hit it? Why? How? This brings the pupil to the outline; he must get his sights in line. Then the discharge — oral delivery. The class watch as mark- ers, criticise the sighting, aiming, line of flight, and the hit. The aim is thus upon the English essentials of unity and coherence, in whole composition, paragraphs, and sentences. The result is easier work for the teacher of history, for the teacher of English, and for the pupils, since the work in the En- glish class is "a practical job." The pupils can measure the success of their effort in one class by their achievement in the other. Various Plans of Co-operation. — Reports from several other schools embody some of these ideas and suggest a number in addition. One of the most striking is that of keeping pupils on probation in English throughout the course. Delinquents who have been warned and who fail to improve are remanded to the English department for such further training as seems necessary. This may result in the establishing of a sort of hospital squad. Naturally, pupils wish to get out of the hospital as soon as they can. Sometimes it is desirable to require those who persist in making mistakes in externals, such as spelling, to take a course in typewriting. This is a very effective remedy. Again, certain teachers or departments find it possible to employ the same subject-matter for parts of their courses. Science note-books are made the basis of studies in sentence structure in the English class, pupils engaged in shop work are taught how to organize notes on their projects in the form of analytical outlines, etc. The outside reading of the pupils is some- times directed to lists of books which have been made up by all departments in conference, and care is exercised that only a reasonable amount of collateral reading shall 666 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL be required of any pupil. Or, again, the amount and distribution of written work is determined and the form of note-books agreed upon. Of great importance is the compiling of a standard guide to the preparation and correction of manuscripts, which should reflect the prac- tice of good publishers and which should be in the hands of all teachers and pupils and be consistently adhered to. It goes without saying that teachers of foreign languages should, without fail, insist upon correct En- glish idiom in translation. Methods of Grading. — Various attempts have been made to work out a practicable method of grading so that due account may be taken of the value of substance on the one hand and externals of form on the other. Some years ago Mr. G. H. Browne, head master of a preparatory school in Cambridge, Mass., established in his institution the custom of dual marking by means of a "numerator" and a "denominator." The mark above the line was to stand for substance in all papers, including those for the English teacher, while the mark below the line was to indicate excellence in "mother tongue," that is, spelling, etc. Marks of the latter sort were sent in by all teachers, averaged, and reported to the parents. The effect is said to have been immediate and gratifying. Recently the practice of holding occasional conferences at which a few papers are examined, corrected, and graded by members from all departments has been grow- ing in favor. The participation in this work of teachers from the grammar grades is of great value. Marking has been further systematized in a few cases by the working out of some sort of scale after the general plan of that invented by Professors Thorndike and Hillegas. These conferences are necessary, and may be made the THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 667 means of unifying and co-ordinating the activities of the different departments of a school to a remarkable degree. To summarize, co-operation in English composition, to be successful, must be organized and administered by the head of the school for the good of all. This will in- volve the setting up of common aims and the establish- ment of suitable working conditions. Instruction in the technic of speaking and writing should be regarded as the work of the teacher of English. Teachers of other subjects should refuse to accept oral reports or written papers which are below the standards agreed upon. If the delinquent student fails to repair his deficiency, he should be reported to the principal and sent to the English department for further training. In matters of substance, particularly clearness and completeness, the teacher of each subject should point out the weakness, cause it to be removed, and apportion credit to the paper in accordance with the degree of success attained. By means of class visitation and conference, teachers of EngHsh and teachers of other subjects should seek to combine their efforts so as to accomplish the most effec- tive training of the student in the arts of study and of expression with the greatest economy of his time and the most consistent unifying of his life. CHAPTER XXVII THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL MEDICAL SUPERVISION, SCHOOL SANITATION, HYGIENE OF INSTRUCTION Louis W. Rapeer, Ph.D. department of psychology and education, new york training school for teachers Medical Sociology. — The principal problems of life set the problems for education, and one of the serious prob- lems of individual and social life is the maintenance of good health. How serious the problem is for individ- ual and nation probably very few people realize. Low- ered vitality, sickness, physical defects, operations, and death are common enough, but the traditions of the an- cients are still too much with us, and we are prone to accept anything less than "life more abundant" in a fatalistic manner, as the Mohammedan does his bad roads. It is quite time that our people begin to learn from their community leaders, our prospective high school graduates, that it is just as possible to get con- trol of the forces of nature which mould human life as it is to control, through breeding, cultivation, and pro- tection, our domestic animals and plants, and, further- more, that this new century of science is making pos- sible, for those who will work for it, a finer type of 668 THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 669 human being with much greater natural vigor, an aver- age term of life much longer than the present, and an enormous decrease of sickness, physical defects, wasted expenditures, and premature death. Eugenics. — The fundamental determinants of social progress are those of nature and nurture — controlling the admissions to the life of society and providing adequate environmental conditions for the greatest development of the membership so established. The world has made wonderful progress in the control of plant and animal life; our power over animate and inanimate nature seems almost deistic; man can to-day remodel and shape the world very largely as he likes; but over himself, the high- est type of animal life, he has as yet gained little positive control. The world is filled with the unfit of all descrip- tions — feeble-minded, idiots, mentally backward, insane, antisocial and criminal, deaf, blind, and mute, natural paupers, physical defectives, and the great host of hered- itary deviates below a normal humanity who have been denied the first great right of the individual to be well born. As the great evolutionist, Wallace, points out in his recent volume, a ^^^ery large proportion of these "undesirable citizens" are not so much the results of heredity as of our extremely defective social environ- ment: " Taking account of these various groups of un- doubted facts, many of which are so gross, so terrible, that they cannot be overstated, it is not too much to say that our whole system of society is rotten from top to bottom, and the social environment as a whole, in relation to our possibilities and our claims, is the worst that the world has ever seen." ^ 1" Social Environment and Moral Progress," p. 169. 670 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL He urges that "Nature — or the Universal Mind — has not failed or bungled our world so completely as to re- quire the weak and ignorant efforts of the eugenists to set it right, while leaving the great fundamental causes of all existing social evils absolutely untouched. Let them devote their energies to purifying this whitened sepulchre of destitution and ignorance and the benefi- cent laws of human nature will themselves bring about the physical, intellectual, and moral advancement of our race." Social reform, he says, will be followed by ade- quate and natural feminine selection of the fittest. Doctor Davenport of this country, on the other hand, strongly emphasizes the hereditary factor and shows in his book on "Heredity in Relation to Eugenics" and the various bulletins of the Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., that a large share of the mental and physical defectiveness of human beings is primarily due to the inheritance of traits which have been passed down through families from primitive, pre- human defectives. The genealogy of the Jukes and the IshmaeHtes on the one side and of the Edwards and Bankers on the other, as well as of a growing multitude of other families, reveal distinctly the hereditary factors in national degeneracy and national greatness. Daven- port names forty-one different classes of traits which are demonstrably inheritable, and the number is constantly growing. The two points of view are differences of emphasis on what are the first steps in social progress. Both are sound when taken together. We hardly need the exact methods of science to dem- onstrate the inheritability of most of the characteris- tics of human beings. The common expressions, "the image of his father," mother, great-grandparent, "takes THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 671 after his" specific ancestors, "gets that from" his mother, father, etc., and the many folk traditions about marrying cousins, and the Hke, demonstrate a more or less vague understanding of the forces of heredity in human beings, working as they do before the eyes and under the guidance of every farmer and stock-breeder. And, furthermore, the many State legislatures that are rapidly, and with relatively little or very inadequate investigation, placing various eugenic laws on the statute books, such as medical regulation of marriage and the segregation and the sterilization of certain types of the unfit, indicate that we have already begun a vigorous movement for the improvement of the inborn qualities of humanity. Blanket laws such as the prohibition of marriage between first cousins, of a mental defective to a normal person, and the like, will be modified; investiga- tions of heredity in the State and nation will be made; and accurate genealogical census records, eugenic special- ists for expert guidance, and the education of the youth in the biological and social principles and importance of proper matings will all soon come about. Heredity and the High Schools. — Because they can- not exercise eugenic control over their membership, the pupils, but must take them as they come, with their infinite variety from top to bottom in many traits, the educators and public school lawmakers have in the past vastly overemphasized the factor of environment and of schooling, following the lead, to some extent, of Ward, Odin, and Wallace. They will, in the future, give wiser emphasis to the factor of heredity. The truth for the schools lies in the emphasis of both factors — in education along the lines of the improvement of the racial stock by scientific and reasonable control of parentage and by 672 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL a vastly extended improvement of the conditions and means of living and development for all people. The schools have their naturally bright, medium, dull, and mentally defective children. They have their physical longs and shorts of a thousand different types. They have retardation, elimination, non-promotion, incorrigibility, motor-minded, abstract-minded, social and non- or anti-social pupils, inheritedly predisposed toward a multitude of weaknesses and diseases which may easily lead to elimination, backwardness, failure, or death by the slightest encouragement of bad envi- ronmental conditions. With greater eugenic control by society, with ampler physical and psychological tests and standards, with a knowledge of each pupil's here- ditary predispositions, surely we have for the schools an instrument of incalculable value in promoting in- dividuaHty and genuine socialization of our prospective citizens. What we can do in the high schools will depend largely upon our knowledge of the scientific conditions, both biological and sociological, of human progress. Practically, we must have teachers who know the hered- itary and acquired natures of our adolescent youth and who have also a broad understanding of the sociological forces of the school community and modern complex society. In the biology, civic, social economy, hygiene, and industrial courses real teaching for social efficiency will emphasize among others these great hereditary and sociological factors: the importance of the choice of suit- able and hereditarily complementary mates in marriage, the varying original individualities of people, the impor- tance of avoiding environmental conditions in the way of occupations, indoor or outdoor life, associates, certain THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 673 types of excesses, etc., which will tend to bring out and encourage hereditary weaknesses, and, vice versa, the choice of studies best suited to original nature, not only vocational but all-round Hfe guidance in the Hght of this growing science, the organization and the methods which will cultivate and foster those common and uncommon traits desirable in modern life — all these and many more adjustments, adequate knowledge of eugenics and hered- ity in their co-operation with environment will develop in the high school of the future. The coming social and pragmatic high school in place of the old socially isolated and academic institution will in the future send out such leaders as will contribute materially, in a few generations, to improve the stock that now twenty millions strong fills our pubHc schools. As yet we have little more than the problem and the first tentative and halting steps in the right direction. Educational Hygiene. — ^When we come to the environ- mental control we are, however, on surer ground. Con- scious human evolution has so far contented itself with controlling the conditions of environment surrounding individuals after they have entered the world fully equipped with their original nature made up of millions of separate inheritable traits. We have great and sur- prising success in controlling the death-rate, the amount of morbidity, the length of human life, the intelHgence, the social responsiveness, and the ability and power of individuals and nations. We have before us here the single problem of what the high school can do to promote the health of the nation — the problem of educational hy- giene in secondary schools. The Administration of Educational Hygiene.— The science of educational hygiene is yet in its infancy, but 674 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL it can point to five fairly definite and standard divisions — namely : 1. Medical Supervision. 2. School Sanitation. 3. Physical Education, 4. Teaching Hygiene. 5. Hygienic Teaching. The manifold functions of these divisions are graphi- cally represented by the following chart which names many of the various functions and covers also the work of the elementary schools. This new science, with these various divisions, is being developed in response to serious national and school health needs and problems. About two per cent of our entire population die ofif each year, about half of which loss is preventable and postponable. There are all the time between three and four milHons of our population seriously ill and losing wages and causing enormous sickness-care losses to private and public agencies. Be- sides these there is an extremely large amount of pre- ventable minor ailments and defects which greatly lower vital and working efficiency and happiness. In another volume the writer has estimated some of the most im- portant of these school and national losses and their reasonable preventability by the adoption of present- known scientific instrumentalities and precautions.^ Three other writers of chapters in this series, Doctors Berry and Warthin in "High School Education," and Doctor Naismith in this volume, have admirably shown how improved teaching of hygiene and reorganized phys- ical education can aid in the promotion of health and national vitality. We have, then, in this chapter the 1 " School Health Administration." THE DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE Supervisor of Hygiene MEDICAL SUPERVISION INSPECTIONS AND ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS DISCOVERINO HEALTH NEEDS. CO-OPERATINQ WITH BOARDS OF HEALTH AND PRIVATE ORGANIZA- TIONS. LIMITING DOCTORS TO EXAMINA- TIONS, SUPERVISION OP NURSES AND VirORK IN CLINICS. PSTCHOLO- GISTS, OCULISTS, SURGEONS, DENTISTS, PHYSICIANS. SUPERVISION OP SCHOOL FEEDING. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OP PREVENTION AND CAUSE OP. DISEASE. CAREFUL RECORDS EMPHASIZIN3 SERIOUS AILMENTS FOUND AND. CURED. TRAINING SCHOOL NURSES FOB ALL INSPEC- TION AND EXAMINATION. NURSES AS ATTENDANCE OFFICERS. SCHOOL SANITATION SCHOOL SITES AND ARCHI- TECTURE. VENTILATION. DRINKING WATER AND FOUNTAINS. HYGIENIC TOILET FACILITIES. DECORATION. THE STAND- ARD SCHOOL ROOM. FIRE-PROOP CONSTRUC- TION. HEALTH, REST. AND EMER- GENCY ROOMS. PLAYGROUNDS. DRYING AND WARMING SEATS. mVESTIGA- TIONS OP RE- CIRCULATION. HUMIDITY, AIR-CLEAN- ING, DISIN- FECTION, ETC. PHYSICAL EDUCATION PHYSICAL TRAINING AND GYM- NASTICS. POSTURE AND CORRECTIONAL EXERCISES. ASSISTING IN MEDICAL SUPERVISION. SCHOOL EXCURSIONS AND TRAMPS. BOY SCOUTS AND CAMP FIRE GIRLS. GYMNASIUMS AND ATHLETIC FIELDS. POOLS, SHOW- ERS AND BEACHES. PHYSICAL EDUCATORS WITH MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE. PAY FOR SUPERVISING PLAY AFTER SCHOOL AND SATURDAYS. CULTIVATING THE GREEK IDEAL OF ■ PHYSICAL AND MENTAL PERFECTION. TEACHING HYGIENE HEALTH EDU- CATION OP TEACHERS. ADVISING CHOICE OP BEST HYGIENE TEXTS AND TOPICS. FORMING PERSONAL HYGIENE HABITS. PUBLIC HYGIENE STUDY AND CO-OPERATION. HEALTH EDU- CATION OF PARENTS. FEEDING, CLOTHING AND SLEEP OF CHILDREN. HOME HYGIENE IN DOMESTIC SCIENCE. VOCATIONAL HYGIENE IN INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS. TALKS BY DOCTORS, NURSES AND SPECIALISTS. FIRST AID. SEX HYGIENE, STUDYING COMMUNITY HEALTH PROBLEMS AND METHODS OP IMPROVE- MENT. DAILY ORAL QUESTION- NAIRE ON HOME HYGIENE : USE OF TOOTH-BRUSH. COFFEE DRINKING, VENTILATION, ETC. HEALTH KNOWLEDOB, HEALTH IDEALS, HEALTH EFFICIENCY. HYGIENIC TEACHING "THB HYGIENE OF INSTRUCT TION." FATIGUE, OVER-WORK AND UNDER- WORK. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOL SUBJECTS. INTER-RECI- TATION RE- CREATION. TRANSFORM- ING NEURAS- THENIC AND "CRANKY" TEACHERS. MO.TOR ASPECTS OP TEACHING. THE HYGIENE OP JOY IN SCHOOLS. PREVENTINO PHYSICAL DEFECTS AND PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS. INFLUENCE OP VACA- TIONS AND HOLIDAYS. HYGIENIC EFFECTS OP DIFFERENT METHODS. THE TEACHER AS MEDICAL GUARDIAN. 675 676 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL three remaining divisions of the subject: Medical Super- vision, School Sanitation, and Hygienic Teaching. To show more definitely a phase of the health problem which the high school must help the nation to solve, we present the following table on the number of preventable deaths each year among children of high school age. The ra- tios of preventability for the twenty-five causes of death given are those constructed by Professor Irving Fisher, with the help of thirty leading medical, sanitary, and insurance experts, and are printed in the author's book on national vitality. A careful study of these prevent- ability estimates will convince most candid persons that they are conservative and scientific figures and that they make no effort to state what the preventability will be with the rapidly increasing knowledge of health improve- ment. The deaths of pupils during the high school years by no means measure the number that may reasonably have been prevented by a more genuine high school edu- cation. The number of persons dying in the five and ten year periods immediately following the high school age is much greater and increasing. Besides the inherited weaknesses and predispositions of heredity as causes, a very large proportion is plainly due to disgraceful health ignorance, to lack of adequate health knowledge, of health ideals, of health habits, and of splendid bodily resistance to ever-assaiHng disease bacilli — all of which it is so largely the province of the public schools to de- velop in our citizenship. The high school cannot reach all youth of this age, of course, but it does have the op- portunity of sending out most of the leaders in every community, who function largely in making public health agencies and private health standards what they are. Here is the table; THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 677 Estimated Preventability of Deaths of Children of High School Age, Fifteen-Nineteen, Inclusive, for the Twenty-Five Most Numerous Causes of Death in 1910 Causes of Deaths No. Deaths in Regis- tration Area Per Cent Prevent- able Total No. Deaths in All States No. Deaths Prevent- able . Piolmonary tuberculosis . . . Accidents . Typhoid . Heart disease, organic .... . Pneumonia . Tuberculosis, other parts . . Appendicitis . Bright's disease . Suicide . Meningitis . Rheumatism, articular. . . . Diabetes . Scarlet fever . Diphtheria and croup .... . Nephritis, acute . Endocarditis (heart) . Epilepsy . Peritonitis . Broncho-pneumonia . Cancer and other tumors . . Spinal cord, other diseases . Influenza, grippe . Intestinal obstruction. . . . . Measles . Apoplexy, cerebr. hem. . . Totals 5,166 2,525 1,681 1,158 1,140 933 754 440 326 294 261 258 232 228 199 196 172 162 158 152 130 119 117 112 103 75 ? 85 25 45 75 50 40 ? 70 10 10 50 70 30 25 o 55 50 o ? 50 25 40 35 8,650 4,230 2,830 1,940 1,920 1,570 1,270 740 550 500 450 450 400 400 340 340 300 280 280 260 220 200 200 190 180 17,016* 42 1 28,690 6,487 ? 2,405 485 864 1,177 635 296 ? 350 45 45 200 280 102 8S o 154 140 50 76 63 14,039 *86% of total for this age period. t67% Fisher's average. Total number of deaths, 15-19, in registration area, 19,772 — -all causes. Total number of deaths, 15-19, in the United States, about 34,000 — all causes. Total number of deaths, 15-19, preventable, about 24,000— all causes. Based on 1910 United States mortality statistics and Fisher's pre- ventability tables in his "National Vitality." Accidents are very largely preventable, probably 75 per cent. 678 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL These statistics of death taken from the United States mortality statistics for 1910 are, in the light of their pre- ventability, appalling; and demonstrate, as can nothing else, the need of our high schools treating our youth, not as disembodied mentalities to be sharpened by mediaeval instruments into some theoretical and hypothetical form, but as actual human beings in the actual complex situ- ations of the present. Death is, however, only a partial measure of the prob- lem. There are also a large amount of illness and a great number of physical defects, largely curable or pre- ventable, which we cannot take space here to describe. Sufficient to say that no public high school of America is at present adequately meeting the health problem, and that a very large number are in many ways actually manufacturing defects, bringing out latent inherited de- fective and disease tendencies, and faiHng to provide that all-round, generous health-and-vitality education which would help us not only to match the old-time Grecian education but go far beyond it into that scien- tific health-and-development education demanded by the times. Medical Supervision. — In another place the writer has worked out a plan for the administration of educa- tional hygiene. Therein we have shown that the weak- ness of the health-and-development work of schools has been its separateness, the isolation of its parts, and the poor educational and professional equipment of its directors, including school superintendents. All these heterogeneous health agencies, so recently pushed or pulled into the schools by various agencies and for vari- ous purposes, should be and are being integrated in one department of hygiene for each school system under the THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 679 direction of a supervisor of hygiene who is both a physi- cian and a physical educator versed and experienced in medical sociology, pediatrics, and educational hygiene. With him will be associated a school nurse for each fifteen hundred to two thousand pupils in a school system and a part-time physician, in the beginning at least, for each three thousand pupils, counting the supervisor of hygiene as one physician. A city of twelve thousand pupils would, then, begin with a hygiene supervisor, three assis- tant, part-time physicians (two hours a day at least) , and six or more nurses. Additions and changes can be made by supervisor and superintendent of schools after in- vestigation and intelligent study of conditions. To these, of course, must be added all-round school clinics with skilled attendants. Duties of Physicians and Nurses. — The typical high school of the country being one with less than four teachers, and the high school enrolment being only about one twentieth that of the elementary schools, with the further conditions that the number of defects decreases somewhat upward through the schools and that high school pupils are of such a social class and with such ability for self-help as makes medical care somewhat less necessary than for elementary pupils of all social classes and much younger — all these factors tend to make the health problem of the high school only a small part of the general problem of medical supervision and hygiene, and tend toward a lamentable neglect therein. If the gymnasium teachers were what they should be in the large city high schools, where we frequently find a woman and a man as directors of physical education for girls and boys; if they were physicians skilled in medical phases of adolescence, with the occasional assistance of 680 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the nurses and with capable teachers of hygiene, there would be little need of medical supervision of high schools from the outside. Unfortunately, very few such directors of physical education are physicians, and even when they are they get little credit for it or opportunity to use their medical knowledge in the service of the high school. Moreover, such directors as exist who are also physicians are now speedily being drawn away to take the newly created positions of supervisors of hygiene in various cities. Consequently, we shall have to plan, for the present, to get along with teachers who are only physical educators in the high schools; but we shall de- mahd of them that they increase their knowledge of medical and physical diagnosis and medical gymnastics as rapidly as possible, through summer schools, the rap- idly developing literature on the subject, and through teaching by the general supervisor of hygiene. Public opinion, at the inception of medical inspection for adolescents, demands cautious methods and the exam- ination of girls by women and boys by men, although in many schools both sexes are being medically examined by male physicians. Probably the best solution in most cities and country districts- — say a township or county — will be for the supervisor of hygiene to take charge of medical work in the high schools, getting the assistance of a first-class woman physician wherever possible. The nurses will make such inspections of pupils as is neces- sary probably without very many room inspections of pupils and principally those referred to them by teachers and physical-training directors if any. The high school physician will devote himself almost entirely to the ex- amination of pupils. Such examinations should be dis- tributed over the school year, perhaps, in order that the THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 681 physician may visit the school at regular intervals and for consultation with the nurse. The nurse will also refer all perplexing cases to the physician at his office for confirmatory inspection. Where there are two to four thousand high school pupils or more it may be well for one or two physicians to devote their entire time to high school medical examination and supervision. The supervisor should devote only a part of his examining time each day to such work, since it is necessary for him to keep in close touch with the elementary-school problem. Where there are intermediate schools they should be treated as high schools. The need is for an- nual or biennial physical examinations of all pupils, as many inspections as prove necessary, and adequate follow-up work. The responsibility for cure and treat- ment of ailments should be placed upon the shoulders of the pupils, who may be required to report regularly on what they have done for their health. The Medical Examination. — The physician will visit the high school at regular intervals and examine thor- oughly with the assistance of the nurse, or occasionally a capable student, for recording and for making vision tests. Where there are physical- training directors they should lend assistance and make as much of the exam- inations as their training permits. Those pupils going into athletics should be examined first with special atten- tion to heart and lung defects, then should come the graduating class of the term, and, finally, the freshmen and higher-class students. Each pupil's record should be placed on the following, or similar, cumulative health- record card five by eight inches in size. The nurse should use red and the doctor black ink for the record. These record cards may be kept in the principal's office, 682 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL gymnasium ofi&ce, or, rarely, in the rooms of the official or class teachers. Whenever the student is suspected of any ailment by teacher, principal, physical-training teacher, or nurse he is to be sent to the health room for closer inspection by the nurse or for inspection or com- plete examination by the physician. The nurse may visit the high schools each day for referred cases and may make occasional inspections of part or of all the pupils. A nurse who has had experience in inspecting upper-grade elementary-school pupils will have no diffi- culty in handHng the high school situation. The nurse will make weekly reports of her own work and that of the physician on a report probably similar to that pub- lished by the writer in another volume.^ The records of high school pupils should be kept separate from those of elementary pupils in the central office. The principal ailments which will probably be found in the high schools, with their probable frequency given as medians for the number of ailments to be found in any one school year among a thousand pupils, caimot ac- curately be stated. A tentative, working classification, terminology, and frequency table for elementary schools is here presented. High schools may well use the same classification. I, NON-COMMUNICABLE AlLMENTS A. PHYSICAL DEFECTS Probable No. Ailments per 1,000 El. Pupils. 1. Adenoids, nasal obstruction, etc 50 2. Anaemia 10 3. Deafness, defective hearing 5 4. Dental, teeth , 660 ^"School Health Administration." THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 683 Probable No. Ailments per 1,000 El. Pupils. 5. Enlarged tonsils 60 6. Eyesight, vision 70 7. Eyes crossed, strabismus, squint 7 8. Glands enlarged, adenitis 10 9. Heart defects 9 10. Lungs very weak, not tuberculosis 5 11. Malnutrition, debility, indigestion, general condition. . 20 12. Mentality, defects of 10 13. Nervousness, chorea, habit spasm, nervous exhaustion. 2 14. Palate defects 7 15. Skeleton: orthopedic defects (flat-foot, club-foot, etc.) . . 2 16. Spine: curvature, posture, round shoulders, etc 8 17. Speech: stuttering, stammering, lisping, etc 9 B. COMMON AILMENTS 18. Abscess, boils, etc 5 19. Acute sore throat, cough, etc 7; 2 20. Bronchitis i 21. Cleanliness needed 20 22. Catarrh, rhinitis 10 23. Colds, bad. Coryza 30 24. Ear discharge, otitis media 15 25. Ears: ear wax (impacted cerumen), foreign bodies, etc., minor 5 26. Eczema 7 27. Eyes: "sore," blepharitis, sties, iritis, etc., minor 20 28. Headache (a symptom), migraine, neuralgia 15 29. Laryngitis 5 30. Nose-bleed, epistaxis 2 31. Pharyngitis, chronic sore throat 3 32. Rheumatism i 33. Sex ailments and habits 10 34. Skin ailments, minor: herpes, seborrhea, acne (black- heads), etc 15 35. Stomatitis, mouth ulcers, "canker sores" i 36. Wounds, sores, sprains, poison-ivy, chilblains, "first- aid," etc 1 50 37. Urinary ailments: incontinence of urine, enuresis 2 684 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL II. Communicable Ailments A. PARASITIC AND MINOR INFECTIOUS AILMENTS Probable No. Ailments per I, GOO El. Pupils. 38. Conjunctivitis, "pinkeye," etc 30 39. Favus, yellow scalp sores i 40. Impetigo "contagioso," infectious sores 20 41. Influenza, grippe, infectious colds of a serious character. i 42. Pediculosis, head lice and vermin 50 43. Ringworm, body and scalp 4 44. Scabies, itch 5 45. Tonsillitis, quinsy 10 B. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 46. Chicken-pox 6 47. Diphtheria 2 48. Measles '..... 4 49. Mumps 4 50. Scarlet fever 4 51. Trachoma, "granulated eyelids" i 52. Tuberculosis of the lungs, "consumption". i 53. Tuberculosis of the bones and other parts of the body.. i 54. Whooping-cough, pertussis 2 Total 1*409 THE AILMENTS OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS We give below the average number of ailments found for the years 1911-12 and 191 2-13 by medical inspectors in the three high schools of Newark, N. J. The classi- fication and figures at the left are those of the writer's tentative standard classification of school ailments in fifty-four divisions; the figures at the right show the probable number of ailments which the physicians of Newark will find in any one year among each thousand pupils examined compared with those for elementary- THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 685 A.VERAGE Number of Physical Defects Found Among These 1,384 Defective Pupils, with Frequency of Ailments Given as Number to Be Found Among 1,000 High and Elementary School Pupils I. Physical Defects I. Adenoids, nasal obstruction, etc 3. Deafness, defective hearing 4. Dental, teeth 5. Enlarged tonsils 6. Eyesight, vision 8. Glands enlarged, adenitis 9. Heart defects 10. Lungs very weak, not (?) tuberculosis. . . 11. Malnutrition, debility 12. Mentality defective 13. Nervousness, chorea, nervous exhaus- tion, etc 14. Palate defects 15. Skeleton: orthopedic defects, chest 16. Spine: curvature, posture, round shoul- ders, etc 17. Speech defects Totals. II. Common Ailments All skin ailments are given together . lOI 103 740 298 555 17 X02 22 78 I 5 8 42 19 5 2,096 41 41 340 136 254 8 41 10 36 3 4 19 945 43 ELE- MENTARY 50 5 660 60 77 10 9 5 or 6 20 10 2 7 2 934 Examinations Average number of pupils examined 2,186 Average number of pupils normal 802 Average number of pupils with defects. ..... 1,384=63 per cent. Average for pupils defective, about 2 686 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL school pupils. Records are not here given of all the ail- ments suffered by these pupils, only those found in the schools. Practically all the pupils of the high schools were examined during these two years and there were an average of 1,627 inspected for infectious ailments, mostly pupils referred by teachers. INSPECTIONS Aside from the thorough-going examinations, an aver- age of 1,627 inspections of pupils were made, with the result that an average of 12 pupils were excluded each year. The many common and serious non-infectious ailments are not given in the report — only causes of the twelve exclusions, averaging about one each for the fol- lowing infectious ailments: 38, eye diseases; 41, influenza; 43, ringworm; 44, scabies; 45, tonsillitis; 47, diphtheria; 48, measles; 50, scarlet fever; 51, trachoma, fever, and headache combined, not vaccinated, and 4 "others." ANALYSIS OF THE TABLE We see according to these figures that practically two thirds of the high school pupils are physically de- fective without counting some thirty classes of ailments not here recorded. This happens to be my estimate derived from the study of the data for many cities as to the proportion of elementary pupils defective for all (54 classes) ailments. We should judge from this that high school pupils (of Newark, at least) are even more de- fective than the average rim of elementary pupils. Our estimate is that one third of the elementary school children will be found in any one school year to be free from all serious ailments, one third with only teeth de- THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 687 fects, and one third with teeth and other defects. Here, in Newark, only a third (340) have teeth defects; and the total number of ailments, for defects at least, is but 642 to our estimate of 943 for elementary pupils among 666 defectives found among a thousand pupils. The following Newark figures for the high school ail- ments are probably unconscious exaggerations with ref- erence to cases of defective hearing, enlarged tonsils, defective vision, heart, and orthopedic defects. The standard for defective vision is set at 20/30 instead of 20/40, and this permits the recording of many minor cases of defective vision that are not serious enough to be referred for glasses. We should expect more pupils of the high schools to need glasses, according to modern systems of schooling, but not as many as 25 per cent (254 in a thousand). The teeth cases are probably un- derestimates, although we should expect the high school pupils to have much better teeth and mouth conditions than elementary pupils. The defective high school pu- pils have about one ailment each while the elementary pupils have an average of nearer two. The kind and frequency of the ailments found in the two types of schools seem remarkably aUke. On the whole, we see that the problem of health in the high school is one of the most serious which the institu- tion must meet. The supervisor of hygiene, will, of course, have power to alter a pupil's programme of study, to prohibit his entering athletic contests, and to exclude him from school for infectious ailments or for not getting cured ailments of which he has been notified — all, of course, under the general supervision of the superintendent of schools. 688 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The best general statement of the needs, the methods, and the advantages of first-class medical inspection and examination of high schools, to the writer's knowledge, has been made by Doctor Thomas Storey, supervisor of hygiene in the College of the City of New York, includ- ing the large secondary school connected with it. The study made by Doctor W. S. Small of the Eastern High School, Washington, D. C, is also an important contri- bution, showing what can be done without physicians.^ School Sanitation. — ^Adequate medical supervision demonstrates the need for improved school sanitation, hygiene of instruction, physical education, and health teaching. The health needs and problems of the pupils and of the people of the community set the hygiene problems of the high school. School sanitation is so largely a technical and detailed subject and varies so much with the different t3rpes of high schools that our space permits little more than its mention here. The principles involved are largely those involved in the ele- mentary schools, but there seems to be a better tendency toward improved sanitary conditions in high schools than in elementary schools, largely because the high schools are generally the show buildings of towns and much money is put into their construction. The newer buildings have good Ughting, heating, ventilating, and sewage facilities. Many more of them are being made absolutely fire-proof or nearly so. The decorations are attractive and restful; toilet conveniences and sanitary drinking fountains are found on every floor; the clean- ing is done with vacuum-cleaning appliances ; the school gymnasiums for boys and girls have attached to them numerous shower-baths, with sometimes a swimming ^ Address at Fourth International Congress on School Hygiene. THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 689 pool; and there are medical rooms, rest and emergency rooms, and a large, well-lighted and ventilated assembly hall. In most of the larger buildings lunch rooms have been provided which, under skilled faculty control, are furnishing wholesome and nourishing food to the student body at nominal prices. The furniture, especially the seating, is comfortable, easily moved about, and adjust- able to the size of pupils in all classrooms, being adjusted so as to provide for pupils of different heights, so pupils may find seats to fit them when they pass from room to room. The standard for lighting should be glass space equal to one fourth of the floor space, with windows reaching to the ceilings and with the narrowest possible mullions or piers between windows; the curtains should be translu- cent ecru or light green and should roll either way from the middle of the windows or should be on adjustable fixtures for moving them up and down. For details of lighting, heating, ventilating, cleaning, and other sanitary features and measures, the reader is referred to some standard text-book on the subject such as Dresslar's "School Hygiene." In this volume there is some statement of the special adjustments necessary to meet the high school situation. Hygienic Teaching in the High School. — This phase of health work in schools is yet in embryo. We know that the health of girls has been ruined by overstudy and bad methods of work, by being under the domina- tion of irritable, petty, neurasthenic teachers; that rigid uniformity with Httle adaptation to the individuahties of pupils frequently creates a distaste for the high school amounting almost to nausea; and, in general, that the methods of teaching and of study, the subjects, the per- 690 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL sonalities of the teachers, the corporate life of the schools, the amount of practical industrial work and socializing, idealizing talks and literature, or their lack or opposite, may be such as to M the pupils with joy, ideals, vigor, enthusiasm, and ambition, or their opposites of "sliding through somehow," "beating the game," "wonder if I shall be called upon," dislike for school, the elimination of "two thirds of the pupils the first year" with thirty per cent discharged each year, and less than ten per cent of those entering remaining to graduate, and all that lack of vitality, efficiency, and hygienic living conditions which develop under formal, mechanical, and academic systems with Gradgrind teachers divorced from the larger life of the world and of the adolescent life about them. The hygiene of instruction or the problem of hygienic teaching in the high school will concern itself with these problems of health, happiness, and efficiency which mean so much for the adequate socialization and education of America's best citizenship. They are, as yet, mainly problems and they can be solved only by persons will- ing and able to study them especially in the high schools themselves. The present reorganization of sec- ondary education which is resulting in the throwing out of a good deal of the formal, unapplied subjects less valuable as educative machinery than other easily ob- tainable material nearer the lives of the pupils and the need of the communities, with the introduction of motor and industrial subjects, up-to-date literature appealing to twentieth-century boys and girls in a vital way, the social-science courses which start with the chief commu- nity problems of a public character, introducing and keeping the pupils in touch with vital, throbbing issues, THE HYGIENE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL 691 the development of agriculture and hygiene courses instead of so much of the dead languages and mathe- matics—all these changes, even the introduction of par- ticipation in the government of the school, student gov- ernment, will, just as much as the study of fatigue and the type, or print, of books, make for radical changes in the hygienic influences of the high school. When the whole system of hygiene in the pubHc schools is under a scientific specialist, a physician-physical educator, to lead, to study, and to inspire interest in the various phases of health, and when we obtain teachers in touch with the problems of life, then we shall have the indis- pensable elements of adequate high school hygiene. CHAPTER XXVIII THE HIGH SCHOOL AS THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY Ella Bond Johnston CHAIRMAN ART DEPARTMENT, GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS. MEMBER ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON SELECTION OF PAINTINGS, PANAMA- PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION. PRESIDENT, 1898-I913, THE ART ASSOCIATION OF RICHMOND, IND. Complete Living Threefold. — Our public educational system was not conceived in a big view of the essentials of complete living; and the much-talked-of "whole boy" is, after all, viewed by educators as only one third, or at most two thirds, of a complete human being, if the offer- ings of our lopsided school curriculums indicate all his needs and capacities. Ages ago complete living was declared to be threefold, and truth, goodness, and beauty are as necessary for it now as in the ancient days. Nevertheless, our educa- tors have been interested principally in truth. They have been fascinated with the facts of science and cap- tivated with the alluring output of the printing-press. Following the easiest way, they have built up a marvel- lous system of cramming the facts contained in books into the "boy" in forgetfulness of his whole need in complete living. As a result, we have the absurd spec- tacle of a well-filled, so-called "educated" population, 692 THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 693 yet with inadequately trained will-power to use its facts for good purposes and with no taste to insure happiness and beauty in their use. The emotions that make up so much of the conscious secret Hfe of youth and are the great source of inspira- tion — that fine, invisible power which drives character and lends charm to personaUty — are these to be ignored? Our educators do not, apparently, think it necessary to make children intelligently acquainted with their own emotions, to graduate them sensitive to the beauty of nature and aHve to the pleasure of art. They can re- ceive the highest degrees from our greatest universities and not know ragtime from Beethoven and prefer a chromo to Rembrandt. They can become, under our educational ideals, marvels of information in some ob- scure field of scientific research and yet be monstrous personalities, crude children, incapable of appreciative enjoyment of the world's wealth of art. We do not yet understand that to be completely ready to live — to be educated — is not only to know the truth, to do the good, but also to have the taste to be beautiful in all the visible, outward expressions of life. It has been too long in America taken for granted that taste is inborn. Different degrees of capacity for ac- quiring it, doubtless, may be innate in individuals, but taste is not inborn. Bad taste is ignorance. Good taste is as much a matter of education as proficiency in any branch of learning, but it cannot be learned out of books nor by the psychological and scientific methods in use in our schools for presenting other subjects. Taste requires for its development the actual, environing pres- ence of works of art — poetry, music, painting, to hear and see familiarly. 694 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Rightful Place of Art in Public Schools. — Appreciation by the many with the consequent happiness and spir- itual enlargement thus added to Hfe is the primary pur- pose of art in the public schools rather than technical efficiency in drawing for the few. This will require changes in attitude and methods, but it is the business of the pubHc school to carry the burden and take the lead in fostering all the splendid ideals to be realized in our democracy. Our system must be broad enough to build a civilization founded on the facts of science, ad- ministered in righteousness, and visibly expressed in the language of beauty and art. Uniqueness of the Richmond Story. — The caption of this chapter is unique in the history of education, and it can be readily understood that its contents have not been compiled from the results of research work in the high school field, neither is it an essay on art full of theories and idle dreams. It is, in truth, a plain tale of sixteen years' work in establishing an art movement in connection with the public high school of Richmond, Ind., that has attained the status indicated in the chap- ter heading. It does not advance a theory for making a high school an art centre, but tells how one high school grew to be an art centre in a community, and in the telling, perhaps, can give some of the inspiration that made that possible. Organization. — In 1897 there was organized in Rich- mond, Ind., a city of less than twenty-five thousand in- habitants, an art association by a few art-loving citizens, school officials, and local artists, that has developed a democratic community art movement which is an inspi- ration and a model to the rapidly increasing number who are interested in the spread of art in America, and THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 695 especially those who believe in the use of a schoolhouse as a centre of the intellectual life of a community. Existing Conditions. — Happily, in this small city there were no iron-clad, rock-ribbed traditions about art being too fine a thing for the daily life of the people, nor was the growth of this movement blighted in the bud by those fixed standards of taste that have not changed since the Italian Renaissance. There was, however, in this peo- ple a conscious human desire for beauty, for happiness, and for some greater degree of satisfying perfection in their community life. The leaders in this art move- ment realized that no institution in their midst was en- deavoring to meet this need and set about heroically to supply the deficiency. Drawing was taught in the Richmond schools as well as in most towns, and prob- ably better. This offered training for the hand and eye and some knowledge of the principles and the history of art, but it did not give that which is of greater spiritual value to the individual or the community, the opportu- nity to enjoy and appreciate works of art, and in their actual presence to acquire higher standards of taste and the refinement of the emotions which an intimate ac- quaintance with art gives. Efforts of Art Association. — The efforts, then, of this Art Association were directed toward supplying to the established drawing work in the schools an appreciative side by adding to the armual school exhibit the best obtainable works of art in oil and water-color painting, sculpture, arts and crafts, etc. Community interest, very wisely considered more important in the beginning than standards of taste, was obtained by borrowing for the exhibitions every picture, every piece of handicraft, every curio having any artistic merit, and some that had 696 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL none, from the citizens of the town, and also by exhibit- ing the work of local artists and craftsmen. The work was begun in the democratic spirit of William Morris, who did not want art for the few any more than edu- cation or freedom for the few. Thus always the doors of this art exhibit, held in a pubHc schoolhouse, were open free to every one in the community. And thus early was here realized the social-centre ideal. Expenses. — The expenses of these free annual art ex- hibits were met by the fifty-cent dues of a large member- ship and five-dollar subscriptions from interested citi- zens, called "sustaining members," made up from that class of business men who ever3^where are loyal to all movements for the good of their town. The school board assisted by furnishing the building, lights, and janitor service. After seven years of successful work, the importance of the art exhibits established, the common council of the city began annually to appropriate one hundred dol- lars from the city treasury to the expense fund, which necessarily increased as the size and quality of the ex- hibits increased. Schoolhouse for Art Gallery. — For fourteen years the exhibitions were held in June, during the last week of the school year. The centrally located departmental school building, where only a few final examinations were held, was turned over to the Art Association, and by the re- moval of all desks, closing of unnecessary windows, put- ting up of suitable backgrounds this building of twelve rooms and two large corridors was magically transformed into an art gallery where it was possible to display works of art attractively. Early Exhibits. — Beginning in the easiest as well as THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 697 the most logical and effective way, by exhibiting all that was of local production or interest, these annual exhibi- tions were gradually extended to include the work of the artists of the State, and prizes were offered for the best local and State work, awards being made by a competent jury of artists living outside the State. In this way poor work was gradually eliminated without of- fence to prevailing standards of taste. Unconsciously the public was educated to better standards by the perva- sive influence of accredited work. With a thoroughly aroused community interest it was easy, after a few years, to enlarge the exhibits by the addition of representative work from the foremost American painters, sculptors, and craftsmen. Increased possibilities for getting the best works of art were obtained and a great reduction in cost was made by inducing other cities in the State to join in a circuit with Richmond to undertake an ex- hibit and share the general expense of handHng it. Attendance. — These exhibitions were attended by fifty per cent of the population, including the public-school children under the guidance of their teachers, who had first visited the exhibit with the supervisor of drawing. The children and teachers of three parochial schools of the town also attended. Visitors were attracted from all the near-by towns to this annual "democratic festival," as the exhibit was called by a noted publicist. Limitations. — ^After fourteen years of normal growth this art movement was thoroughly established in the hearts of the citizens of the town and regarded by school officials as a legitimate part of the year's work for the children, but it had three serious limitations: First, the exhibits remained too much a matter of mere entertainment to satisfy the leaders in the move- 698 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ment, who regarded them as an earnest effort to promote genuine art education and culture in the community. Second, the time at the end of the school year left but little opportunity for the teacher to talk over the pictures with the children and fix permanent ideals in their minds. Third, there was no suitable place to display the per- manent collection of paintings which the Art Association was gradually acquiring by special gift and by purchase with the Reid purchase fund of five hundred dollars given by a former Richmond citizen. In other words, all the Richmond art lovers needed was an art gallery where their collection might hang permanently and where there would be time and opportunity for works of art to make a more lasting impression both on the children and citizens. Gallery in High School. — Here, again, the inevitable happened. The seeming miracle of a real art gallery in a high school building followed, naturally, the continuous development of art culture in this city. After the school officials and Art Association had co- operated in holding free art exhibits for fourteen years the school board deemed them of such important edu- cational value as to justify including an art gallery in the new high school then being built. This building was designed by WilHam B. Ittner, of Saint Louis, to whose imagination the unusual feature of an art gallery at once appealed as a suggestive motif to include in the fagade of the building, with what effective charm the accompanying photograph shows. School- houses as near as may be ought always to be beautiful and to provide such conditions, at least, in our country that architects need not follow traditions but may in- THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 699 corporate something truly expressive of our national Ufe. The gallery occupies the space on the third floor above the auditorium and has three rooms — one large room, twenty-five feet by forty-eight feet, opening on one side into two smaller rooms, twenty-four by thirty-five, which have openings between. This arrangement makes easy the handling of crowds and gives opportunity for vistas so essential in the good hanging of large pictures requiring distance. The larger gallery opens on the right into the library and there are two entrances from the corridor into the galleries, as the diagram shows. Corridor The walls are ceiled with boards over plaster ten feet high to the base of the cove, which rises to the inner sky- light of diffusing glass. The rooms are supplied with excellent electric light in trough reflectors. The ceiled walls are covered first with stout brown paper over which 700 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL is fitted and stretched a background of all-wool terry of a bronze-gray-green in which no one of these colors pre- dominates, making an ideal background into which frames retire and from which paintings can stand out. This terry background, besides being ideal in color and texture, is very durable and has also the great advan- tage of taking the nails in its mesh without injury. Thus, with the board ceiling behind, it is possible, in hang- ing pictures, to drive nails wherever an artistic arrange- ment requires. Between the entrance doors in the corridor the wall is recessed to contain a stone basin for the "Tortoise Fountain," in bronze, by Janet Scudder, an Indiana woman. This fountain was given to the Art Association by a New York man who was once a pupil in the old Richmond High School and wished to help the cause of art in his native city. This deHghtful work of art, with its ceaseless tinkle of falHng water and its setting of greenery, lies in the daily path of the pupils, unknowingly, perhaps, to them but surely, fijiing in their forming minds an ideal of beauty which will remain for all time an ideal, lifting their taste above the ugly and commonplace. Management. — To obviate any uncertainty in regard to the management of this public art gallery, as it was named, an agreement was entered into whereby the school board was to furnish the gallery, Hght, curator, and janitor service, and the Art Association to hang its permanent collection of works of art in the gallery, ar- range all exhibits to be shown there, paying the ex- penses thereof, except the drawing and manual-training exhibits of the public schools. This arrangement has worked out most satisfactorily. THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 701 Schedule of Exhibits for One Season. — During the season of 191 2-13 nine exhibits were held, rotating in such manner that something was nearly always in the gallery. The following is the schedule: October 1-27, 1912: "The Sixteenth Annual Exhibi- tion of American Paintings." Seventy-five oils and water-colors, mostly by New York artists. This exhibit was also shown on a circuit of fifteen other cities in the Middle West. November 8-29, 191 2: "The Sixteenth Annual Ex- hibition by Indiana Artists." One hundred and twenty- three paintings and seventy-five pieces of handicraft. A selected group of fifty paintings was afterward shown on a circuit of eight Indiana cities. December i-io, 191 2: Spanish paintings and color prints of paintings in the Prado Gallery, Madrid, loaned by W. D. Foulke, of Richmond. December 14, 1912-January i, 1913: Hand-colored prints, series of the Abbey Holy Grail decorations in the Boston Pubhc Library, loaned by Curtis and Cameron. January 1-29, 1913: Philadelphia Water-Color Club Exhibit of eighty-one water-colors and pastels. February 12-March 31, 1913: Oil paintings, forty, by Mr. and Mrs. J. Ottis Adams, of Brookville, Ind. April 8-1 1, 1913: Japanese prints, stencils, and kake- monos, loaned by Mrs. Virgil Lockwood, Indianapolis. June 1-13, 1913: Sixteenth Annual Exhibition of the Drawing and Manual-Training Departments of the Richmond Public Schools. There were also held in the gallery, during this season, eighteen meetings of women's clubs, twenty-one recep- tions for clubs and schools, and twelve art lectures, be- 702 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL sides many art lessons for teachers and pupils. The number of visitors in the gallery for the season was eleven thousand three hundred and twenty-four. Opportunity for New Relationships. — The foregoing brief statement of facts, taken from the president's an- nual report to the Art Association, does not disclose, ex- cept to the experienced in such work, their far-reaching influence. When the principal and teachers of a ward or high school hold an evening reception — which happens many times during the year^to the parents and children of their school in beautiful art galleries, with paintings, music, good clothes, good manners, refreshments, it means the establishment of a new relationship between teachers and pupils more intimate and human than that of the schoolroom, and under elevating and refining conditions superior to any known elsewhere by many pupils and parents. It means, too, the possibility of socializing beauty and art, which, in a country where the people are sovereign, is fundamentally essential to the "beautiful America" of which we dream. Use by High School.— The gallery is a special class- room for the high school pupils where they learn the languages of form and color. They see the exhibits with the drawing teacher and learn about artists from their works, becoming familiar with their ideals and expres- sions of beauty, studying their technic by making small sketches of the paintings in colored chalks or water-col- or's. Thus they acquire the ability to discriminate be- tween what is good and what is bad in art. This is taste. Chromos cannot be sold to all the graduates of the Richmond High School. This was probably possible sixteen years ago. THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 703 The English teachers make good use of the exhibits for themes, for here is, in truth, something concrete, visi- ble, and near at hand to write and talk about. Of course interest runs high. By Grades. — It is an interesting sight to see fifty sixth-grade pupils, seated on the gallery floor before one of Elizabeth Nourse's most beautiful paintings, answer- ing all the teacher's questions as to why the figures were placed on the canvas as they are, where the artist stood when painting the picture, what was on the level of her eye, where the window was that let in the light so beautifully on the baby's face, why the mother's dress was blue instead of red, and, finally, what was the really beautiful thing the picture had to say, to which the worst boy in the class answers quite solemnly: "A mother and her little baby." Would any one contend for a moment that arithmetic would have a more valuable influence on the life of that boy than this kind of art study or that any drill sub- ject can so function? Yet he has years of arithmetic and only rare days of art, even in favored Richmond. By Clubs.— The Art Study Committee of the Art Association meets in the gallery to study the exhibits with the aid of lectures and the best works on modern art, as, for instance, "Landscape Painting," by Birge Harrison. The various women's clubs of the city visit the gallery to hear talks on the exhibits. The Music Study Club has placed pianos in the gallery and uses this as a regular meeting-place. By Local Artists. — To the local painters and crafts- men the gallery furnishes a place to display their own work and the opportunity in the passing exhibits to get help and inspiration from the work of their contempo- 704 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL raries in art. That this has been valuable to them is shown in the remarkable improvement in their work during the years of these exhibits. This Richmond community has profited by the work of its local painters and has learned from them to see its own familiar landscape with new, "seeing" eyes, to get the artist's point of view, and to love first when they see them painted things they had passed, perhaps, a hun- dred times, nor cared to see, as Browning so weU says it. Open Days. — The art gallery is open to the pubHc during all school hours, Saturday and Sunday after- noons, night-school evenings, and many special evenings. Artistic catalogues are sold for ten cents, containing much information about the pictures and artists. Permanent Collection of Works of Art. — The perma- nent collection of the Art Association hangs in one of the smaller galleries and is always on view. It contains the following works of art : The Art Association Purchases 1899. T. C. Steele, "Whitewater Valley." 1900. J. E. Bundy, "Blue Spring." 1901. Mrs. H. St. John, "Roses." 1 90 1. John Vanderpoel, "Sunlight and Shadow." 1901. Pauline D. Rudolph, "In Wonderiand." 1902. Charles Curran, "Building the Dam." 1903. R. B. Gruile, "In Verdure Clad." 1903. Frank Girardin, "Sunshine and Shadow." 1904. Charles Conner, "November Day." Purchased with the REro Purchase Fund 1903. Henry Mosler, "The Duett." 1904. Ben Foster, "Late Afternoon, Litchfield Hills." 1905. Leonard Ochtman, "Old Pastures." 1906. H. M. Walcott, "Hare and Hounds." THE ART CENTRE OF THE COMMUNITY 705 1907. Frank V. DuMond, "At the Well." 1908. Albert L. Groll, "The Hopi Mesa." 1909. Robert Reid, "Peonies." 1910. John C. Johansen, "Fiesole, Florence." Gifts to the Art Association 1902. J. Ottis Adams, "A Summer Afternoon." (Presented by Tuesday Aftermath Club.) 1909. Janet Scudder, "The Tortoise Fountain." (Presented by Warner Leeds.) 1910. Gladys H. Wilkinson, "A Corner in the Studio." (Whit- ney-Hoff Museum Purchase, presented by Inter- national Art Union, Paris.) 1910. Robert W. Grafton, "Portrait, Timothy Nicholson." (Indefinite loan by Nicholson family.) 191 1. E. T. Hurley, Three etchings. (Presented by E. T. Hurley.) 1911. Misses Overbeck, "Vase, Overbeck Pottery." (Pre- sented by the Misses Overbeck.) 191 2. Walter Shirlaw, Sketches, three oils, one water-color. (Presented by Mrs. Walter Shirlaw.) Conclusion. — This Richmond experience seems to demonstrate that an art gallery for art exhibits fills a deficiency in our high school education and meets the natural human demand for beauty in life. It proves that an art gallery is as useful in a high school as is a laboratory or a gymnasium, a Hbrary or an auditorium, and that it is as interesting and educative for children to learn about art and artists as about war and warriors or any other of the subjects that make up the curriculum. The quahties possessed by a work of art — unity, sin- cerity, harmony, simpHcity, idealism, beauty — stand in closer relation to the building of a perfect life than the laws of physics or chemistry; and the "whole boy" is to be educated for complete Hving. 706 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL The art gallery cannot be omitted from the future high school, which more and more is to become the people's college if we would develop a nation of completely edu- cated people, with reverence for the beauty of the earth and a passion for recording the fine ideals of our nation in enduring art forms that will add charm to our com- mon life, and to our splendid democratic institutions something of the "glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome." Henry Turner Bailey thus voices his appreciation of this art movement in The School Arts Book for April, 1912: " The Richmond people have produced a model educa- tional institution. Think of it! A kitchen, a gymna- sium, and the oldest of the constructive arts on the ground floor, and a library and an art gallery on top! Verily the people who have turned the educational world right side up at last live in Richmond, Ind. They have put the solid living-rooms of the manual worker beneath, and the 'chambers of imagery' of the poet and artist above; they have builded at last a sure house, fully equipped for every good work and word, a fit home in which to bring up children who shall be worthy dtizens of a republic." CHAPTER XXIX THE MORAL AGENCIES AFFECTING THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT John Calvin Hanna, A.M. STATE SUPERVISOR OF HIGH SCHOOLS, ILLINOIS, FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF OAK PARK AND RIVER FOREST TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, / OAK PARK, ILL. / A Reasonable Classification. — The agencies that have had a part in the moral training of men have been fairly classified by Professor Tufts under three heads: (i) What may be called indirect agencies; that is, those through which is produced a moral result, even though such a result is not consciously intended. Ex- amples may be given as follows : Work undertaken to earn a living is one of the most effective agencies in developing responsible conduct. Family life, though entered into not at all with a moral purpose, naturally becomes a school of kindness and sympathy. The company of one's fellows, sought per- haps for economic gain or in obedience to the herding instinct, leads to interchanges of goods and rendering of services and ideas which undermine the primitive dis- trust and hostility of men. Struggles for mastery or for liberty or for possession, though prompted by conflict- ing interests, force men to closer union to establish order and to think of rights and justice. 707 708 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (2) Agencies of Custom. — Certain ways of acting started by society, sometimes on rational groimds, some- times through chance, have come to be regarded as im- portant. These judgments of society are impressed upon all members through praise or ridicule or blame, through taboos, or even through force. By drill of ritual or cere- monial, by investing with sacredness through art and music, the members of society are trained to observance of these ways. Many rules of rehgion, etiquette, and other fields of behavior are thus developed. (3) Direct Agencies of Reflective Morality. — Moral lead- ers have arisen who have set forth clearly and directly moral standards or have persuaded to moral advance. These have most readily found a mission when old customs have become unsuited to new conditions. Moses, Isaiah, Socrates, Jesus are familiar examples. Space has been given to this sensible and important classification in order to remind students of the moral agencies which affect the high school pupil, and that all these agencies suggested by and belonging under these categories must be included and reckoned with. The School Not the Only Agency .^ — The question as to the moral development of any individual youth in a high school will be determined not alone by any system of moral instruction that may be given in the schools, nor alone by the character and influence of his teachers, nor alone by the influence of his fellow pupils, nor alone by the routine of the activities of the school, official and unofficial, nor alone by all of these together. It is as truly important in estimating the final outcome in his matured character to know what is the nature of the family life of which he forms a part, the economic prob- lems and responsibihties that are carried by that family MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 709 and by its members, including himself, the pressure of work outside of school upon the youth, the relation of his life to the poHtical movements that so mightily influence and are influenced by private life. It will be necessary to know what he has to do with his neighbors and how, what his training, conscious and unconscious, has been and is in the tangled details of social and religious life. It wiU be necessary to know what influence has been exerted on him directly or indirectly by the great moral leaders through the sanctions and pressures of the vari- ous agencies that have sprung from these sources. Is the boy's father a millionaire, and does th,e boy have a valet at home? Does he get up at four o'clock to look after a newspaper route? Is he accustomed to finger-bowls and dinner clothes? Does he get his midday meal from a tin pail or from a free-lunch counter? Does he attend a catechism class regularly? Which occupies him on Sunday mornings — the international lessons or the comic supplements? Whatever may be said by the anxious theorist as to the burden resting upon the public school for the moral care of the children and youth of the country, all these other agencies do work and always will work and ought to work actively, constantly, and to an important de- gree in accomplishing the moral development of the young. Utilize All Agencies. — Moreover, every plan and intel- ligent effort to exert an uplift upon high school pupils through the agencies that are effective in and through the school must take into account all of these outside influences, must study and adapt and utilize every one of these in order not only to accomplish the very best 710 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL results but even oftentimes to escape disaster and ridicule. A failure on the part of schools to face and grapple with these other moral agencies of whatever sort and of whatever origin often leads the youth to defy or to laugh at the anxious, well-meant efforts of the teachers in whose hands he is placed or, at any rate, to appear almost wholly impervious to the influences which the school exerts. A college classmate of mine not long ago unearthed a crude and long-forgotten cartoon for which my pencil was responsible. The art was nil, the wit was not impressive, and the aptness of the satire to the occasion may not have been clear, but the lesson in it was based on sound pedagogy. The faculty, repre- sented by an anxious hen mother, stood on the bank of a puddle vainly urging certain recreant seniors, typified by complacent, paddling ducklings, to come back to the bank like good chicks. Ignoring the Facts. — Too often we attempt to ignore the eternal facts of society in dealing with children. And this "we" means the very earnest and very igno- rant young schoolma'am fresh from the university; it means the "experienced" high school principal (whose experience, like the wisdom of the famous oculist, has, perhaps, been obtained by "spoiling a peck of eyes"); it means no less the psychologists and other wise men who attack the problem from the safe standpoint of philosophic theory, starting, consciously or uncon- sciously, with the convenient assumption not only that the school ought to take entire charge of the child's moral training but that it can so take charge and can, if the problem be handled according to wise theories of moral conduct, take the youthful soul, unformed and plastic, mould it into beauty, breathe into its nostrils the MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 711 breath of spiritual life, and then point with pride to its own handiwork, saying: "Behold the perfect man and woman of my creation!" To an unkind and coldly scientific casual inspector the result sometimes reminds one of the philosopher who ridiculed Plato's definition of a man — "a, featherless biped" — by plucking a goose and exclaiming: "Behold Plato's man!" What Is the School's Responsibility? — What, then, is the extent of the school's responsibility for moral train- ing and wherein does it lie? These are questions of pe- cuHar importance in a democracy where the school is maintained by the state. The school is the "main reli- ance for democratic optimism." The question whether the experiment of self-government, now in its second century, is to be a permanent success depends for its answer, in the opinion of many besides President EHot, on the public school. Alice Freeman Palmer's definition of the moral edu- cation of a child, that it "consists in imparting to him the three quahties, obedience, sympathy, dignity," would seem to reach to the essence of the demands for a safe citizenship. Humboldt wisely said: "Whatever we wish to see introduced into the life of a nation must be first introduced into the school." The limitation is suggested by Dewey's remark that, "apart from participation in social life, the school has no moral end nor aim." Co-operation Necessary. — Because of the interrelation, intentional or not, of the many influences suggested above as inevitable moral agencies, it is not only wise but necessary that between these institutions, home, school, church, state, in so far as conscious, each of its own particular aim, there should be intelligent and harmonious co-operation. 712 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Why Are There Bad Boys and Girls? — Some one asked the question: "If the schools are doing so much for character building, why are there so many bad boys and girls?" This inquiry, made every day in one form or another and in one spirit or another, must be faced; and it is answered thoughtfully and temporarily by George H. Martin in an article in Religious Education. " What," says he, "confronts a child on looking away from the school and its teaching? He finds in the home laxity of discipline and little insistence on even the outward marks of respect. He does not find in the world that practice of justice and fair deaHng that he has been led to respect. He cannot help seeing that fraud and chi- canery and dishonesty are prevalent and their practice by the people in good society is winked at and condoned. In business and politics and often in social affairs he learns that a sacred regard for truth is not considered consistent with a workable policy. He finds that 'man's inhumanity to man' still 'makes countless thousands mourn.' When he has formed in school a standard of temperate and frugal living he is confronted in his own home by domestic waste and expenditure for unnecessary luxury and on every corner by a drinking saloon licensed by pubUc authority. He has been taught industry, and he sees the idle rich faring sumptuously every day and the idle poor supported at pubHc expense. And as for chastity, he finds that society insists upon it only for women. He sees every form of vice made heroic in the yellow journal and on the yellow stage." A depressing outlook, truly, for a permanent moral uplift to come from the public school, if that institution must alone carry the responsibility! In Loco Parentis. — When we say that the teacher stands in loco parentis we do not mean it in reality. If MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 713 it were to be so, then woe unto the foundation of society, w^hich is not the school but the family! Said the wisest of Greek dramatists in knowledge of human nature: "The errors of the parents the gods turn to the undoing of their children." No attacks upon the school by critics, no discussion of the theoretical questions involved, no consensus of the wise men, no pouring out of treasure by the public, no zeal on the part of trained and devoted leaders will ever place the teacher in loco parentis. God made the fam- ily; man made the schools. The Eternal Problem. — The magnitude of the problem of the moral education of the young is not yet within our comprehensive grasp. It must be more clearly and vitally related to the institutions that are, that ever have been, and that always will be. No one of these institutions can solve the eternal problem alone. Even rehgion cannot solve it alone for adolescent youth and its needs. The secondary school is created for the development of character in youth, but the father and mother cannot evade the responsi- bility for themselves. The Responsibility of the Family. — ^Whatever the school may or may not be able to do, it is in the home in which in whole or in part that are determined habits of industry, conceptions of God, duty, honor, honesty, emotional reactions of many sorts, habits of speech, motor reactions as posture, carriage, etc., habits of obedi- ence, industry, and cleanliness, and in large measure the standards of conduct. If there were no other proof of this assertion, we must not forget that for many of these things the school gets the child too late. The habit of obedience, or disobedience, for example, is formed before 714 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the child is two years old. As Doctor Athearn has put it: " The school has too long been the dumping-ground for the problems of home." Teach the Family. — Of course, the weakness of family training does not dispose of the question for the devoted student of Hfe problems. The reforms of society must begin somewhere and they must come slowly. It is for the school, in so far as opportunity and resources fit it for the task, not to do the work for the family but to teach the family to do certain work for itself. The Impossible and the Possible. — This sounds like attempting to solve a problem by doubhng or trebling that problem. But there is much that teachers can do. We may and we must cease to consider ourselves as only "servants of the people" and remember that we are a part of the people with rights and duties as mould- ers of public opinion. We must not forget that we con- trol the educational press and that the religious and secular press is largely open to our contributions. We must keep in mind the many gatherings, school exhibi- tions, conventions, and the like where the utterances of teachers are Ustened to. Why not for the next dec- ade make this the teachers' cry and the teachers' aim: ''Back to home Hfe." 1 School Momentum. — It is worth while to remember that the very momentum of school activity, highly or- ganized as it is and wholly devoted in theory to uplift, will carry over into the home much of what is worth while, to set in motion there, in spite of moral inertia, the currents of life. An Unorganized Field of Inquiry. — A large field this and one that is ploughed largely at haphazard, with ' Walter S. Athearn, Religious Education, s, 124-130. MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 715 hardly a systematic furrowing, let alone an intelligent ordering of seeding and harvesting. Harris said in re- gard to moral training in the public schools : " There is no topic concerning which the suggestions made are more idle and unprofitable." After literally wading through thick volumes of the utterances of jurists and moralists and statesmen and philanthropists and pro- fessors and ''practical" teachers, a humble student can bless the good doctor for his somewhat cynical utterance. And yet amid all the chaff there are grains of wheat. There are bright sajdngs, profound and logical argu- ments, sharp utterances that like lightning clear the murky atmosphere of pedagogical platitude. Some Helpful Suggestions. — Here is a handful of wise and practical suggestions gathered almost at random and placed here for the encouragement (as the writer was encouraged) of those who grow weary of analyzing pon- derous bibliographies: (a) " Thinkers regard as the chief factor in man's as- cent from the brute his increasing brain capacity and consequent thereupon his increasing power of memory — in other words, the increasing power of his ideas over his instincts." — (F. H. Haywood, in Sadler's "Interna- tional Inquiry into Moral Training in Schools.") (b) "Loose, slipshod work has an immoral effect upon the student." — (C. W. Barnes, National Education Asso- ciation Proceedings, 1909.) (c) The whole suggestive outline of Brumbaugh, "The Problem Stated," in the Report of the National Educa- tional Commission on Moral Education, 191 1 — particu- larly his definition of the fields of elementary, secondary, and higher education in this region. (d) David R. Porter's statement, after a depressing 716 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL array of data as to low moral conditions in high schools, that "in most cases evils exist because boys are igno- rant, not because they are vicious," and that " there is no difficulty in winning support in seeking better things." {e) His interesting suggestion, now in process of ex- periment in many places, that a purely voluntary moral and religious movement may succeed when compulsory moral and religious training must fail, even if it were possible to attempt it. Three Natural Stages. — There must be a sound psy- chology at the basis of every intelligent effort to furnish moral training in the high school. The clear recogni- tion of the three natural phases of moral activity corre- sponding to the development of the mind from childhood through adolescence to manhood is helpful here; the three stages when successively fear, faith, and insight are each the guiding star for the soul in meeting moral questions. The second of these must control in the adolescent stage, and this goal helps to emphasize the importance of the personal relation between teacher and pupil at this age. There must be a hero; it will be the teacher if he is fit and wise. This longing for a hero is a mighty factor to the ad- vantage of the high school teacher, provided always that the work properly belonging to the age of childhood has been well done, and that, of course, is the work of form- ing the habit of obedience. The story is in point of the question asked of George Washington's mother by French officers at the banquet after Cornwallis's surren- der, how she had made so great a man, and her reply: "I taught George to obey." An Illustration. — An illustration of the necessity of recognizing this all-important factor in the psychology MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 717 of the adolescent is that, as Porter puts it: "The strong- est influence on high school boys in the United States to-day is the influence of college men. Home, church, politics do not begin to exert such influence as (for ex- ample) college athletics and college fraternities." The high school boy must have his hero, and he will imitate his vices as readily at least as his virtues. How to Use Hero-Worship. — It is here that there is a point of contact to be watched most closely between the worship of the college man and athlete on the one hand and his power for discipHne in the handling of boys occu- pied in athletics. The boy soon comes to see that the habits of thoroughness, obedience, hard work, and co- operation (which means the opposite of selfishness and self-conceit) are called for as truly and as inevitably when he follows his hero on the athletic field as when he faces his instructor in the class. The Adolescent Collapse. — ^We must not complain when we discover in the individual boy or girl that fact which is present in the adolescent period of all boys or girls — namely, that "during this period there is a pro- gressive loss of interest in the things the school deals with; that there is a sense of escape from connections that have held the child and a marked disinclination to make other connections. The blame for this collapse cannot be laid entirely upon the schools, but we must recognize and help to make it clear to those who control the springs of society that the moral problems of this dangerous period will not be solved until the individual can drift easily out of the school into organizations whose influence is in the direction of clean activity." School Virtues and Life Virtues. — Too often the dis- cussion of moral training in the high school is narrowed 718 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL to the possibilities of inculcating what are commonly enmnerated as the "school virtues." President Eliot wisely insists that we must teach children the funda- mental truths that lie at the foundation of the demo- cratic social theory. These he enumerates briefly as follows: " ist, the intimate interdependence of each hu- man individual on a multitude of other individuals, not in infancy alone but at every moment of Hfe — a depen- dence which increases with civilization and with the de- velopment of urban life; 2d, the essential unity of a democratic community in spite of endless diversities of functions, capacity, and achievement among the indi- viduals who compose the community; 3d, that service rendered to others is the surest source of one's own satis- faction and happiness (this doctrine is a tap-root of private happiness among all classes and conditions of man, but in a democracy it is important to public hap- piness and well-being) ; 4th, to see and utihze the means of happiness which lie about them in the beauties and splendor of nature; 5th, what the democratic nobility is — fidelity to all forms of duty which demand courage, self-denial, and zeal, and loyal devotion to the demo- cratic ideals of freedom, serviceableness, unity, tolera- tion, public justice, and public joyfulness." This broad platform for moral instruction I have quoted by way of contrast to the narrower list some- times enumerated as the "school virtues" and insisted upon instead of what may be called the "Hfe duties." The danger to the child is great; he is "born with a natural desire to give out, to do, to serve." ; The school virtues enumerated by Harris are: (i) regularity, (2) punctuality, (3) silence, (4) industry. White adds: (5) neatness, (6) accuracy, (7) obedience. But Charles MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 719 Edward Rugh, in the famous California prize essay, points out that the successful bank robber would practise all of them in a single robbery! These are the mint and anise and cumin, tithes proper to pay, but let us not, even with adolescents, neglect the weightier matters of the law; or, if they are to be considered fundamental to the well-being of society, let us admit it, but let us bear in mind that, if the school is to develop these good habits, all of them should have become second nature to the child by the time it reaches adolescence. The Newer Aim of Education. — ^The aim of education, if it is to include secondary education — and that is now beyond the stage of argument with all but those whose faces are set hopelessly backward — is something more and broader and higher than the development of the virtues named above, important as they are. Social efficiency, in the words of W. C. Bagley, "is becoming the con- scious aim of all educational effort." He insists, and in our saner moments we all believe, that, if those who come to the teacher for instruction and training act in no way more effectively after they leave him than they would have acted had they never come under his influence, then his work as a teacher must be adjudged a failure. Washington Gladden, in pleading for effective educa- tional unity, asserts that, no matter what the intellec- tual achievements of the schools may be, they shall be deemed to have wholly failed of their highest function if they do not give us good men and women. Character is surely the ultimate aim of education, and if the imme- diate aim of the successful completion of the task of the hour, of the day, or the course is not kept in direct line with this the ultimate aim it is time to inquire what is wrong with the system. 720 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Why Moral Training Is Necessary. — The pupil should be trained for efficiency — to make a living; the industrial aim is a right one, but the state insists that this is not all. It is not sufficient in a democracy that the educa- tion furnished by the state should be such as to prevent its products from becoming economic charges upon the body politic; they must be trained to be fit for citizen- ship, and this training is largely a moral training. It is necessary for the state to see to this if all inhabitants are trained to become citizens. There must be moral training, and the state cannot halt because of the sensi- tiveness of this or that avowed religious or moral in- stitution. De minimis non curat lex. Patriotism as a Basis. — The state's education must develop patriotism as a moral quality, and all the means to that end are commendable moral agencies. No words of Lincoln are more to be pondered by those who train the young, whether parent, priest, or pedagogue, than these: "I like to see a man proud of the place in which he lives. I like to see a man who Hves in it so that his place will be proud of him. Be honest, but hate no one; overturn a man's wrong-doing, but do not overturn him unless it must be done in overturning his wrong. Stand with anybody that stands right. Stand with him while he is right, and part with him when he goes wrong." One of the epoch-making state documents of all time is the Japanese Imperial Rescript of 1890, which makes patriotism the basis of the moral training consciously inserted in their school system as the one thing lacking when that wonderful new-born nation borrowed the American public school system. It behooves us to see whether we can do better than to imitate our imitators. MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 721 The ground for Roosevelt's square deal in governmen- tal affairs was that it is demanded by the welfare of the community. Our patriotism is ready to hand as a means of moral training, for, as pointed out by Miinster- berg, it is unique in that it is directed neither to the soil nor the citizen but to a system of ideas — -and ideals — ■ respecting society, and is a community of purpose for their realization. The most dangerous element in the later Roman re- public was that group of youth corrupted by personal vices and absorbed by schemes for overthrowing their country — dissipated and disloyal. As Charles Whitney WilHams declares, patriotism is the one social force fit- ted above all others for accomplishing the gravest con- ceivable purposes. The great wisdom of Bismarck con- sisted largely in his clear recognition of this truth. It is here that Christianity, as it is developed in the modern world, has been too individualistic to exert the greatest force where broad social unity in effort and effect is vital. Recognition by the State. — ^The statute-books of the various States not only recognize the importance of morality as a foundation for the character necessary to safe citizenship, but in many cases they require the teacher to impress upon his pupils, both by example and precept, directly and indirectly, the principles of truth, justice, morality, patriotism, and refinement, which reach to the roots of character and, therefore, to the fruit of safe citizenship. These actual laws may be safely and wisely taught, even directly, to the youth without stirring up religious dissension. The spirit of these laws cannot be miscon- strued. 722 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Have the Schools Done Well?^ — The specific work of the public school for years has been recognized in vari- ous ways as training for citizenship, and it must be ad- mitted that the school has done its work well in giving the state trained minds. It is mainly true that what- ever ills in this regard America is suffering from they are not ills that the pubUc schools, under this conception of their function, are supposed to remedy. The Broader Conception. — There is, however, a big- ger conception of the purpose of the schools than either the industrial aim or the training directly for the duties of citizenship. The old view of training for citizenship, of fitting the young to vote intelligently and to have a disposition to obey the laws, is too narrow a view of the function of the public school. In the words of Dewey: "The child is an organic whole, intellectually, socially, and morally as weU as physically." He is to be "not only a voter and a subject of law, but also a member of a family, probably a parent, also a worker; furthermore, he is to be a member of some neighborhood or commu- nity and must contribute to the values of Hfe and add to the decencies and graces of civiUzation wherever he is." Preparation for this variety of function means " train- ing in science, art, and history; in the command of fundamental methods of inquiry and the fundamental tools of intercourse and communication. It means a trained mind, a sound body, a skilful eye and hand; and no less important, it means the development of habits of industry, perseverance, and general service- ableness." The product of this preparation must, in America, be democratic and progressive; we must not be deceived into the silly position apparently main- tained by some advocates of vocational education of MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 723 educating the child for any fixed station in life. Not only the industrial but the cultural aim is the American ideal. Here, as so often, "the answer to which is hoth.^^ And how closely all these aims are linked! Witmer suggests that the first reader instead of starting off, " See the kitty!" should start off, "See the tooth-brush! " and he makes a convincing argument in defence of his sug- gestion. The School and the Family. — Here we come to the question of the overloaded teacher. Shall all these things be loaded upon the poor teacher? Must the schools be charged with the physical, intellectual, social, moral welfare of the child? Shall he be farmed out utterly to the school? What are we coming to? Is America a modern Sparta? Nay, verily — not in the opinion or wish of the writer, as has been sufficiently shown already. The family, for its own sake, must retain and live up to its responsibilities in all these re- gards, but the school, a special institution estabUshed by the family and taken over by the state to perform more conveniently and economically and effectively cer- tain functions of the family and to provide the state with material for the safe handhng of self-government, may reasonably modify its methods, its curriculum, its standard of training for teachers, its attitude toward physical, poHtical, and social as well as moral problems so as to accompHsh two things: ist, to fit the child for life in all its many phases of one organic whole; and, 2d, to improve, through this changed and broadened con- ception of the school's function, the work that it does in the older and more beaten paths of travel. Moral training must be part and parcel of all the processes of education. Character making is the aim of it all, from 724 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL algebra to athletics. Every problem, every element, every equipment, every activity must have and will have part in the work of moral agencies. Material Moral Agencies. — The arrangement and equipment of a building, the selection and training of a janitor — every material element is a moral element and, whether we will or no, enters into the moral training of the children and youth in the schools. Direct Moral Instruction. — The battle as to direct moral instruction in the pubKc schools has been fought with varying result and still rages. If I am not mis- taken, the latest utterance of G. Stanley Hall is in favor of talks by the teachers to the school on a list of moral subjects, which he characterizes as "nothing more nor less than conscience building." Many lists and many suggestions have been presented, and yet the consensus of opinion seems to confirm R. R. Reeder's belief that "one moral experience is worth more than a score of formal lessons on morality." There is practical wisdom in the advice of the Widow O'Callahan quoted by Mar- garet E. Shallenberger: '^It is my belafe that's what makes some b'ys so unruly — takin' 'em at the wrong toime. Sure and b'ys has their feelin's loike the rest of the world. Spake to 'em by their lone silves when you've aught to say to 'em. There's niver a man of 'em all would loike being bawled at in a crowd about somethin' that needed thinkin' over." Sound pedagogy — because it recognizes boy (and girl) nature as it is. It is not a loss of time to quote here some of the "ways" suggested by this writer in which we should train for right conduct (and this for high schools in particular) : 1. In a way to arouse and sustain thought. 2. In a way to produce excitement. MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 725 3. In a way to stimulate good action rather than emphasize the bad. 4. In a way to develop proper humility. 5. In a way to develop responsibility for the welfare of others. 6. In a way to form standards of conduct applicable anywhere. 7. In a way to produce right conduct. Each of the above might furnish a theme for a chap- ter, but the second and fifth are of especial practical importance. Make It Attractive. — A moral truth, a rule of conduct must be given an attractive aspect if it is to win respect from the unsettled soul of the adolescent. Being good and doing good are often made too tame. There is no reason at all why the exercise of good conduct should not often be very exciting. Let us not forget the hankering for a hero that belongs to this age. If surprises are not possible in the routine of school life, we may utilize holiday occasions, music, dramatics, and turn their powerful influence in this direction. Daily Work as a Moral Agency. — There is nothing more clearly established by the experience of real teach- ers, whether it be generally accepted by theorists or not, than that the daily routine of school life, if directed in the right way, may become a moral agency as powerful, as insistent, as effective as any other influence that comes into the life of a boy or girl. When a study is taught as a group of facts to be learned or as a task to be ac- complished it may be of very little ultimate moral value, but when it is taught "as a mode of understanding it has positive ethical import." The well-conducted reci- tation is a social event, and in it, as in every social event, is the working of a moral agency. "The power to handle spelling and numbers and geography," says Rugh 726 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (and we might substitute rhetoric and algebra and botany), "with moral results cannot be sent to a teacher by mail, by essay, or by book. It comes by insight, but it is within easy reach of teacher and pupil." The ethical value of a school study is the moral force of the teacher presenting the subject. Illustrations abound showing how various studies may furnish such training without its being forced or repellent; and the mechanical routine and necessary discipline of the school afford, even without recognition, endless opportunity for moral training. Manual Training. — A review in the Elementary School Teacher for February, 1909, of the "Report of an In- ternational Inquiry," edited by M. E. Sadler, speaks of numerous suggestions made by various writers and thinkers in response to inquiries and closes by stating that Wm. James is the only one who really touches the question, and his contribution is short: "I should in- crease the amount of manual or motor training relatively to the book work and not let the latter predominate till the age of fifteen or sixteen." The carrying out of that suggestion would, in the opinion of many careful stu- dents of school problems, result in a great lessening of the distaste for school work and responsibihties among adolescents and would have a definite and strong influ- ence in the development of moral character. Says John Dewey: "Manual training is more than manual; it is more than intellectual; in the hands of any good teacher it lends itself easily, and almost as a matter of course, to development of social habits." Hartmann said, as quoted by Superintendent Mott in a paper before the National Education Association in 1906: "It ap- pears that the efforts of the mind to control the hand in MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 727 well-directed manual work are repaid a hundredfold not only in clearer insight into details of form and com- position, of proportions and relationship, of materials used and of objects turned out but also in nobler aspira- tions, higher hopes, greater firmness of purpose, calmer self-reliance, and a nearer approach to an all-sided free- dom." A List of Practical Suggestions. — ^There are scores of practical suggestions in cormection with the various sides of high school life, all of which will repay careful study and experiment on the part of loyal, intelligent, and open-minded teachers. Other Suggestions. — There are interesting and prac- tical suggestions by Ella Lyman Cabot, among which may be mentioned debates, physical training, instruc- tion in business etiquette, and the need for a larger pro- portion of men in any high school corps of teachers. Social Experimentation. — The experiments made in meeting the social and so the moral problem at many schools, and most conspicuously at the University High School of the University of Chicago, are presented in a readable and suggestive article by the head of that school, Franklin W. Johnson, in Religious Education for February, 191 2. One of the most important suggestions in this valuable paper is the statement that the main thing we in America have to learn from the English schools is the attitude of teachers toward the social life of the pupil, with the equally interesting remark, that "it is only fair to expect that time and effort spent by teachers in these directions shall be taken into consider- ation in the amount of work assigned in the more formal work of teaching." Another suggestion comes from a statement regarding the experiment of directing the stu- 728 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL dents of that school to a share in the University settle- ment work. The carefully planned and directed formation of clubs with real purposes under the intelligent and sympathetic guidance of teachers satisfies the natural hankering at this period of life for organization, stimulates worthy aims, and avoids the evil effects of the spontaneous, mushroom growths which are known as high school fraternities and sororities. What is sometimes referred to as the Grand Rapids plan is treated fully in another chapter of this volume and need not be dwelt on here. Preparation of Teachers. — The classification of meth- ods followed in the training of teachers for responsibili- ties in moral training is presented by W. C. Bagley in Religious Education for February, 191 1. It shows that there is a lack of thorough mastery of the problem on the part of those having in charge the exceedingly im- portant matter of leading would-be teachers to an in- telligent recognition of and preparation for this part of their work. Miscellaneous Suggestions. — There is a wider range of suggestions of very unequal value, presented by Principal C. E. Rugh in the same volume, which came to him from California schoolmen as the result of a request for such suggestions. The study of morals by teachers, the planning that pupils shall undertake the care of poor children, the development of playgrounds, personal supervision of all school activities — these are among the most important. This paper has an inter- esting account of how the pool-room evil was dealt with successfully by a wise high school principal in a town of 40,000. MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 729 Vocational Guidance. — A practical suggestion by Principal F. M. Giles, of Dekalb, 111., is that the per- sonal discussion between teacher and pupil as to the choice of a life-work affords an excellent opportunity for the conveying of moral lessons. The School Must Be Made a Social Institution. — The summing up of the best thought of late writers on this subject and the outcome of careful experimentation in many places leads to the conclusion that until the school is viewed and organized and operated as a social insti- tution it will fail of securing the best results in its at- tempts to co-operate with other agencies for moral training. When thus organized and operated the high school, without interfering in the least with its function in training and developing the minds of pupils and help- ing them to mastery of certain fields of knowledge, may do much to help in establishing and strengthening the influence of what Bagley has entitled the " emotionalized prejudices," which are the salvation of all of us under sudden or repeated temptation to wrong acts. "It is only as the school becomes organized as a social whole and as the child recognizes his conduct as a reflection of that society that it will be possible to have any moral training in our schools." ^ Student Government. — Various experiments have been tried in the way of training adolescents to fitness for self-government by placing the responsibility for the discipline of the school actually upon their shoulders and thus seemingly making a democracy out of a school. The proposition is a tempting one to many, but in the judgment of the writer it is fraught with danger and, if used at all, should be handled with constant reference to ^ George H. Mead, in Elementary School Teacher for July, 1909. 730 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the fact that the real responsibility is with the teacher who cannot shirk it by devices of student self-govern- ment. Furthermore, there seems to be no good reason why the school dealing with those who are young, weak, and inexperienced should be turned into a repubhc or a town meeting any more than the family should be, a part of whose work the school is established to do. The Creator made all people young to start with; made them little and helpless and ignorant and inexperienced. Ac- cording to Fiske's discovery, that was for the purpose of developing, through the extraordinarily long period of infancy, the moral sense, under training and the power of love. The artificial creation of a governmental ma- chine composed of those units and set going without control or authority is as absurd as the estabhshment of a self-teaching geometry class. The really wise teacher need not be led astray by these false gods, but may de- vise methods by which authority is maintained, obedi- ence developed, and at the same time a growing sense of responsibility brought toward the perfection of manhood. Public Opinion in Schools. — These experiments are, one and all, practical efforts to take advantage of the strong regard of the adolescent for the opinion of his fellows. In this connection we should bear in mind this line of thought: {a) The adolescent is peculiarly sensitive to the good opinion of his fellows — those of his own age — to school tradition, school sentiments, and ideals. (6) But pubHc opinion in the schools is, or ought to be (and can be), in great measure, the teacher's opin- ion — the expression of his personality — crystallized in the minds of his pupils. The Spirit of the School. — This is what I mean when I speak of that all-powerful influence " the spirit of the MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 731 school"; not exactly "school spirit," yet a something intangible but mighty which it should be the first care of a principal, supported by all of his teachers who are gifted to respond to his ideals, to develop and maintain. It will be a means to his hand for attaining all that is worth while in the work of the school. It will grow and develop and become deeply seated. It will prove itself an incalculable and far-reaching blessing to the com- munity. Soon these boys and girls will he what we commonly call the community. School Sports. — ^Right in this connection comes in the importance not only of the regulation but the en- couragement, study, control, and utilization of school sports as a mighty moral agency because of their rela- tion to the possibilities in developing the " spirit of the school." The teaching of self-restraint and control of temper in well-handled athletic games is of great value to the youth. The Moseley Commission made the criticism upon American school sports that " the boy in America is not being brought up to punch another boy's head or to stand having his own punched in a healthy and proper manner." This report must have been made without a careful study of American football, which, if wisely handled, secures the same effect in training that this "head-punching" criticism had in mind. It is interest- ing to observe that warm friendships have developed be- tween boys of opposing teams from acquaintance gained in the fiercest of football contests. Unselfishness is an- other great lesson that is learned, and that which is so often lacking in men of English race and so essential in a self-governing state, the habit of co-operating with others. The matter is put in a nutshell from another 732 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL point of view by Mr. Paton, high master of Manchester grammar-school, when he says: "His (the boy's) native combativeness, which if neglected would make him a hooligan and if repressed makes him a coward, is thus utilized to make him a man." The above is an excellent illustration of the impor- tance of the lesson which so many adults — both parents and teachers — have yet to learn, that it is wise and necessary to recognize and utilize the traits and quali- ties and ambitions and likings of the adolescent for his training instead of frowning upon and criticising him for being — for a short period of his life — no longer a child, and not yet a man or woman, but an adoles- cent. The University and the Teacher. — David R. Porter calls attention to another fact which should be studied and utilized more intelligently than it has been thus far, and that is that no one commands the attention and influences the feeling of a high school boy or girl so much as a college man or woman. High school teachers ought to be, as they are, recruited from the ranks of the colleges and universities for that reason if for no other, and in their preparation for their profession they are better off if they escape the common frost-bitten effect of the highly trained specialist without losing the com- mand and power that high training in a special field can give. The Teacher the Chief Moral Agency. — Every one of the agencies referred to is to be made operative and to secure its highest effectiveness through the agency of the teacher, who is always and everywhere the chief equipment of the school whether for intellectual or for moral training, whether the boy and girl are to be MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 733 "fitted for a vocation," "fitted for citizenship," or "fitted to live." The School Board's Function. — H. Suzzallo has called attention, as many writers have, to the plain distinction that must be made between what matters fall properly to the charge of the pubhc, voiced through the legis- lators and boards of education, and what must be left to the teacher. Broad policies and ultimate ends are to be determined by the former; but "the administra- tion of the schools, the making of the course of study, the selection of texts, the prescription of methods of teaching, these are matters with which the people or their representatives upon boards of education cannot deal save with danger of becoming mere meddlers." The Change in the Teacher's Status. — The teacher is set on a pinnacle in the modern world, at least in the sense of being in the public eye and subject to criticism. When Epictetus asked whether, if the worst should come, a man could not transcribe writings, teach children, or be a doorkeeper, he spoke in proper old-world ignorance of what the function and status of an American school teacher was to become! The Duty of the State in Training Teachers.— With this higher station and this larger responsibility, it be- hooves the state to provide better than it has done thus far for the training of its teachers. It should provide and require more careful and thorough professional training. We ought to insist on more than a bachelor's degree as sufficient preparation for a high school teacher. The universities must provide "schools of education" and dignify them by all the means available. The pedagogical training for a high school teacher must more and more come to include careful study of the psy- 734 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL chology of adolescence and the laws and agencies that govern moral training. Let us hope also that something will come to introduce into such preparation an antidote to a certain solemn priggishness which seems sometimes to characterize the attitude of persons who have gone through courses that are supposed to correspond to my suggestion just made. Humor is a moral tonic, and the sense of it seems to have been crushed out of some who are called teachers. The sad picture of children and youth given over into the care of these denatured speci- mens of pedagogical product would bring tears to the Olympians. Let me iterate and reiterate the need of a hero for the guidance of the adolescent in the dim paths that lead to morality. And his hero, if the youth's own imagination were to create him to order, would be neither gloomy nor impervious to the influences of the saving grace which we call humor. Remember the origin of the word; without it virtue is jejune and very hard for the adolescent soul to absorb. Meeting the Situation as It Is. — Finally, once more let me point to the necessity of recognizing and utihzing the qualities that are, rather than grumbling at those that are not yet. If the high school freshman is loyal to his instinct not to " snitch," do not with elephantine tact trample this tender shoot of virtue by "expelling" him forsooth because he will not tell. This poor little virtue, like Audrey, may be an ill-favored thing, but 'tis his own, and it may grow, if the gardener be wise, to a plant of " loyalty even to loyalty," to use the happy phrase of Royce. Training by Means of Service. — No other discovery is more surprising and more delightful to the anxious ex- perimenter with young souls than to discover that these MORAL AGENCIES AND THE STUDENT 735 hard, sour, Kttle, unripe apples have real seeds in them. Patience will discover to you, O teacher, as it has to others, that these youngsters may easily and gladly be trained to self-sacrifice and service for others, a real example of the highest of virtues, more attractive often to them than the humdrum virtues, appealing as it does to their sense of the heroic. Such training wisely man- aged is the finest and most powerful of all the moral agencies that affect the high school student, y CHAPTER XXX THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT Emil Carl Wilm, Ph.D., LL.D. professor of philosophy and education, wells college The Religious Influences of the High School, Direct and Indirect. — The formal influences affecting the re- ligious life of the high school student group themselves naturally into two classes: (i) those directly exerted by the school itself, through the studies, the instructing staff, and the general exercises, and (2) influences from other institutional agencies, Hke the church and the Sunday-school, which seek to impart ethical and re- ligious instruction and training of a specific and supple- mentary type. The duties of the high school, therefore, in so far as it can be said to have such duties, would seem to be: (i) to organize and to make as efficient as possible those agencies within the high school itself which may contribute to the strengthening and enrichment of the religious life of those intrusted to its care, and (2) to co-operate with institutions, like the church, the Sunday- school, Christian associations, and similar institutions, which are aiming at the same ultimate object as the school, the object at which all forms of educational en- deavor must ultimately aim if they are to justify them- selves — the building of character. 736 RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 737 What Are Religion and Religious Education? — The dis- cussion of the relation of the high school to the rehgious development of its students will, I think, be compara- tively fruitless without some preliminary understanding as to just what we shall mean by religion and by religious education. Most of the current discussions of the prob- lem of religious education are thoroughly vitiated by the entire absence of any clear notions of what the discus- sions are about, or of what, precisely, we are trying to achieve when we are engaged in so-called religious in- struction and training. The majority of writers either assume a knowledge of what is meant by religion (a matter which has taxed the best powers of expert stu- dents of the subject) or else content themselves with vague suggestions of religion as a name for moraHty, or as a certain conception of God and of man, and the Hke.^ In the spirit of the mediaeval monk, therefore, in Mr. Chesterton's book, and at the risk of being unceremoni- ously jostled by those who are anxious to get on, let us first undertake some analysis, however rough and sketchy, of that fact or form of consciousness which we call religion. ReHgion may be viewed, objectively, as a social fact, as a name for the church, with all its multiform activi- ties, its doctrines, rites, and ceremonies. These, how- ever, as is evident on a moment's reflection, do not stand by themselves; they are merely the outward forms and expressions of certain inward experiences of persons. Thus theology is but the embodiment, in systematic out- ward form, of the religious ideas and opinions of men given to reflection upon religious objects; religious art * For a typical example of this method of dealing with the topic read chap. X, Religion, in Sisson's "The Essentials of Character." 738 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL and religious ceremony are the outward expressions of religious emotions; the social and philanthropic activities of the church are the organized and outward expressions of the reHgious impulse to service, etc. If we penetrate, therefore, beneath the external forms through which re- ligion objectifies and expresses itself and seek for the fundamental fact of rehgion itself, without which religion as an institutional and social form would not exist at all, we shall come upon a characteristic state of mind, a spiritual attribute of persons, a fact of a purely psychic order. When we come to an analysis of this state of mind, we find it to be something very complex and pervasive, in- volving every phase of activity of man's many-sided psy- chical nature. Indeed, the most common error in our definitions of the religious consciousness has been that we have viewed it too narrowly, as a set of theological behefs, or as an emotional attitude, or as a form of eth- ical endeavor, and the like. These views of religion do not entirely fail of their purpose; they only err in being too simple, too exclusively one-sided to express so com- plex and many-featured a phenomenon as religion really is. Religion is, indeed, a theology, and it involves emo- tional attitudes and a specific form of conduct or Hfe. But it is not either of these things exclusively; it is all of them at once. It will be well, I think, to take a para- graph or two to make this a little clearer. Religion as a Theoretical World View. — Religion re- presents, in the first place, a certain Weltanschauung, a certain view of the universe which purports to be true. It is, indeed, the only philosophy of the world and of life which enjoys anything like universality. To be sure, the view of the world which it represents does not pretend RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 739 to possess technical adequacy and it does not enjoy the complete sanction of the philosophers nor of the schools. That, however, detracts Httle from the force and the finality of its appeal to those who are its devotees. And it is a weighty recommendation of the methods of common sense and an interesting testimony to the sure-footedness of our dumbest and most inarticulate instincts that the profoundest philosophy often brings us back to the fundamental things of religion. For, as Bacon said, " it is true that a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bring- eth men's minds about to religion." As an Ethical Imperative. — But what is true of any genuine philosophy of Hfe vitally held, that it is no mere theoretic structure but cuts deeply into the conduct of life, that it is no set of views merely, held, as it were, in the hand, but is enacted and lived, is pre-eminently true of religion. While it is, indeed, on one of its sides, a theory of Hfe, it is also a force in Hfe. Its solution of the world problem is not merely theoretical, it is also practi- cal. The riddle of the universe is for it not only an in- tellectual problem, an enigma to be resolved by reason, it is just as much a problem of conduct, an object of the will. Religion is always more than speculative; it is remedial as well. It is an ethical imperative, a call to duty, a programme of salvation.^ The universal asso- ciation of morality with reHgion, from the ancient He- brews, who ascribed the origin of the moral law directly to the wiU of God, to Kant, who defined reHgion outrightly as morality conceived as divine command, and Wordsworth, who apostrophized duty as the "stern ^Cf. E. C. Wilm, "The Problem of Religion," especially chaps. H and VIII. 740 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL daughter of the voice of God," bears witness to the close connection which exists between reHgion and the con- cepts and practices of morahty. Indeed, so conspicuous are the ethical features of religion that the description of religion given by St. James, however unsatisfactory it might prove to the psychological analyst, remains for many the most satisfactory and final view of religion's true nature: " Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the fatherless and the widows in their affliction, and to keep himself unspotted from the world." Its Imaginative Redundancy. — There is still a third aspect of religion which is so conspicuous as to be no- ticeable even in the most cursory examination of it. Mr. G. Lowes Dickinson has suggested this aspect in his view of religion as any attitude toward the uni- verse which is "greatly and imaginatively conceived."^ Whether its imaginative character proves to be a truly differentiating characteristic of religion or not, there can be no question that religion has always contained impor- tant imaginative and poetic elements. And the reason for this is not far to seek. Man's life is set in the midst of a universe incomparably grand and unfathomable. His every problem ends in a mystery. As a consequence of his intellectual and physical impotence, his position in the universe is one of great helplessness. Beset on every side by forces and potencies which he can neither comprehend nor control, the central problem of his life becomes one of salvation, the problem of escaping from the universal burden — a burden of ignorance, of fate, of sin.^ Small wonder, then, that man should construct ^ " Religion, A Criticism and a Forecast," chap. III. I 'Cf. Royce, "Sources of Religious Insight." RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 741 in his imagination a world more friendly to his interests and ideals than this mundane sphere in which his lot is cast. Religion has been surpassingly exuberant in the images and symbols with which man has invested and through which he has expressed his deepest ethical needs and aspirations. It is the imaginative wealth of religion, its noble redundancy, the very thing which makes it a stumbling-block to sober science, which ac- counts for its perennial appeal to the best minds. And nothing, on the other hand, so much reveals a lack of comprehension of the true nature of religion, nothing has so completely vitiated religious culture, as the blunder of mistaking the images and symbols of religion, objects of religious faith and fancy, for objects whose existence can be proved by logical demonstrations which satisfy the intellect. The objects of religious adoration are, partly at least, objects of faith, not of proof; creations of the will and of the imagination, not objects of the logical understanding.^ The Problem of Religion in Public Education. — It is the social heritage of the religious ideas, mandates, and fancies characteristic of any given civilization which con- stitutes the religious environment, to use President But- ler's term,2 into which the child passes when he enters life and becomes a member of human society. Has the school a duty in introducing the child or the youth to this part of his world, to this portion of his social heritage ? This question has, singularly enough, often been an- swered in the negative, and for reasons which I shall wish briefly to examine, and, if possible, to refute. 1 For some particularly fine remarks on the dangers of confusing fact and fancy in religion, see Paulsen, "System der Ethik," vol. I, pp. 437- 443; Engl, tr., book II, chap. VIII, 4. ^ "The Meaning of Education," I. 742 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL Difficulties Due to Outworn Conceptions of the Object and Methods of ReUgious Education. — The difficulty of the problem of reUgion in pubUc education, particularly in the United States, where religious Hfe and institutions are endlessly differentiated, has often been dwelt upon. The difficulty, I beheve, is largely gratuitous and avoid- able. It is a difficulty created, on the one side, by a somewhat stiff and one-sided conception of religion it- self and, on the other, by an obsolete view of the proper methods of religious instruction and training. With a disposition of these initial misconceptions, the so-called problem of religion in education will largely solve itself. Let us make these points somewhat clearer. By re- ligious education was formerly meant, and still is widely meant, the inculcation of a set of ready-made theological dogmas by methods of didactic instruction. The older- fashioned methods of catechetical instruction illustrate both the matter and the manner of traditional reUgious instruction in its most t5rpical and wide-spread (and, one is tempted to say, virulent) form. Now, from the point of view of the State, which recognizes and protects equally a number of religious sects with their differing theologies, the prohibition by the State of instruction in any given system of theology or sectarian doctrine is evidently the only logical and possible course. But the legal veto of doctrinal instruction, logical and appropriate as it has been in the past, has, thanks to the progress of peda- gogical ideas and of religious liberalism, become largely unnecessary and useless. In other words (and this is in a way the central point of my whole contention) even if there were no legal difficulties in the way of didactic in- struction in theological and sectarian doctrines, no mod- ern student of education and of educational technic RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 743 would think of giving such instruction. The primary objection to dogmatic religious instruction, in short, is not legal or theological, but pedagogical. I cannot en- force my point better than by repeating a passage which I have printed in another connection: "The most serious blunder of all religious education in the past has been that it has sought to convey to the pupil formally and didactically certain advanced theological ideas for which there was nothing whatever corresponding in his own experience. The professions of faith we have often ex- acted of children have too often been professions not of their own faith but of the faith of some theologian long since dead. It is, of course, the same pedagogical error that has been committed in all other branches, and if we have blundered more seriously in religious educa- tion than in other branches it is probably due to the fact that we have regarded theological truths as somewhat more important than other kinds of truth. Teaching everywhere has been too formal, too didactic, too direct; everywhere has it furnished the child too exclusively with words and too little with experiences; everywhere has it sought too much to convey information and made too little of the child's own activities in observation and inference. Good teaching, especially in the more ele- mentary branches, must proceed from the concrete to the abstract, from the empirical to the rational, from facts to principles. Religion, ever conservative, has no- toriously reversed this order. Is it not high time that we were applying to the most important of all our con- cerns those educational principles which have borne such rich fruit in other branches? We must, above all, see to it that the child is furnished the concrete data out of which he will, with proper adult assistance, construct a 744 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL view of the world which shall be in some genuine sense his own, instead of requiring him to learn by rote ab- stract formulas which his experience has not enabled him to assimilate. If we do not, we must be prepared to expect that reHgion will remain a mere department of the child's life, a mere accretion which will be sloughed off just as soon as the child passes out from under the im- mediate influence of his religious guardians. If, on the other hand, the religious life is based upon the solid rock of the child's experiences, as gained in life and through his studies, nothing will be able to shake it from its se- cure foundations. It will have become an organic part of life itself, and it can never be disengaged from the other genuine elements of the child's culture so long as life itself remains." ^ Significance of the Secular Curriculum for Religious Culture. — If, therefore, the question is asked, What is the Lernstoff, what are the proper materials and instru- ments of religious culture? the answer is: Everything! History, nature study, literature, the fine arts, mathe- matics, manual and industrial training, as well as the more specifically religious materials, the history of re- ligions, religious literature, religious art and mythology, etc. — anything, in short, which will help the boy to find himself, which will strengthen his ethical and religious sentiments and raise the tone and efficiency of his life. The religious view of the world, and the attitudes and habits of will associated therewith, will thus be a growth, not an external addition, an individual possession, not an alien trait; it will be a view of the world which is the upshot of the normal exercise of life rather than a col- 1 Wilm, "The Culture of Religion: Elements of Religious Educa- tion," pp. 70-73. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 745 lection of preformed ideas and judgments into which he has been indoctrinated by methods long since in dis- repute wherever the methods of modern pedagogy are known and employed. And this is of no small impor- tance for the stability of the reHgious Hfe upon which the effectiveness and happiness of Hfe so much depend. A religious view of the world, if it is to be more than a temporary and flimsy structure ready to collapse at the first rude shock it receives at the hands of science or of philosophical reflection, must be in some genuine sense the result not of dogmatic teaching or authoritative prescription, but of the ideas and experiences gained from the observation of nature and of men, from the study of Hterature and of science, and from the intelli- gent assimilation of these inevitable materials of our spiritual culture. Not the least of the advantages accruing from the em- ployment of what we may call the inductive or natural method of reHgious education is that, as a result of it, religion will not be looked upon as a separate depart- ment of Hfe, something more or less occult and unreal, and set apart from the rest of man's affairs, but rather as a quaHty of mind and character which penetrates the entire personaHty even as it penetrates and permeates the whole social mass and the movements of history. The Importance of the Teacher. — It would be only fair to expect that I should explain somewhat in detail just how a religious view of the world would result from the pursuit of the usual academic studies without the introduction of explicit religious teachings. I have dealt with this subject rather fully and in systematic connec- tion in another place, and I do not deem it necessary, therefore, to go over the ground again, particularly since 746 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL it is a matter which requires too detailed an explanation to be given very advantageously in the brief space avail- able here.^ The part which the teacher himself plays in the interpretation and application of the knowledge acquired cannot, of course, be easily overestimated. All depends upon his own attitude toward philosophical and life problems, upon his personality, upon the dignity and worth of his character, and upon the skill with which he is able, without sacrifice to scholarship, to elicit from the studies their unique philosophical and spiritual sig- nificance. There are those rare characters among teach- ers under whose magic touch the most intractable and unpromising material is transmuted into gold, and, on the other hand, no matter how full of possibilities the studies and the opportunities, they will fail to be real- ized if the teacher is lacking in moral earnestness, in- sight, and teaching power. Religion or irreligion will be present in the school, some one has said, just as surely as teachers are present. It is they who have it in their hands to determine to a large extent that indefinable but very real and soUd thing called the atmosphere and tone of the school. And by their tone, as the late Wil- liam James finely said, are all things human either lost or saved. Nothing promises more for the future of pub- lic education in the United States than the increased emphasis which is everywhere being placed upon per- sonality and character in the selection of teachers as well as upon their scholarly and technical equipment. It is calculated to give one a fresh sense of the dignity and importance of the teaching profession to reflect that ^Cf. "The Culture of Religion," especially chap. Ill, "The Relation of the Public School to Religious Education." Consult also De Garmo, "Principles of Secondary Education," vol. III. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 747 it is not only the general intelligence but the moral in- tegrity and idealism of the nation as well which rests very largely in its hands. The inculcation and enforce- ment of the ideals of right living and the moral regenera- tion of cities and nations depends not primarily upon the church and courts of justice, which have to do with virtue and corruption whose strength is the strength of years, but upon the home and the school, where Hfe is new and ideals are plastic and where the influences of teaching and example are most vivid and potent. The Question of Specific Instruction in Biblical Lit- erature and History. — The view put forward here that the whole curriculum and conduct of the school must contribute in a large sense to the ends of ethical and religious culture, and the larger spiritual significance which this view attributes to the so-called secular mate- rials of the coiu*se of study, is not meant to obscure our estimate of the value of those more specific means of reUgious culture which the church and the school have from time immemorial employed: the more specifically religious literatures, the history of religious ideas, the poetry and music of devotion, and the rest. The arti- ficial exclusion of materials of this kind from the schools is not only unpedagogical, reveaHng a defective sense of the importance of historical and psychological continuity in educational processes, but it is unjust to the pupil himself, who is thus deprived of one of the most inter- esting and significant forms of our common social in- heritance. Nothing, for example, is more strained and short- sighted than the exclusion from the schools of instruc- tion in the Bible, a practice in which a surprisingly large number of people concur and which they appear to ac- 748 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL cept as an educational and practical necessity. The ob- jections to instruction in Biblical literature have largely depended upon views of the nature of the Biblical writings which are being widely abandoned nowadays, so that some rehef in respect to this feature of the re- ligious education problem may fairly be hoped for and expected. For the strained and unnatural views of the Bible, and the consequent educational loss entailed through its exclusion from general educational use, both the religious and the secular factions are alike responsi- ble. The church party objected to the use of the Bible by secular agencies because the Bible was a " sacred " book which could receive adequate interpretation only through the appointed agencies of the church,^ while the secular faction held that the whole view of the Bible as a source of absolute and irreversible truth was false and that the Bible was, therefore, not utilizable at all for educational and school purposes. Now that our views of the nature of these writings have been pretty thoroughly unstiffened and recast, so that we no more think of apply- ing the terms " true " and " false " to large portions of the Bible than we do to Homer or Dante, we should at length be in position to utilize these literary materials for the pedagogical and cultural purposes for which they are so incomparably adapted. Nothing, indeed, promises more for education than the wide-spread interest, at once cor- dial and scientific, in the phenomena of the spiritual life, the unanimity of opinion regarding the primacy of the ethical aim in education, and the unqualified approval ' One naturally associates this view with Catholicism; the Protestant view, however, is the same in principle, only still narrower, if possible, since it often assumes that the true understanding of Biblical teachings is monopolized by this or that denomination. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 749 of all those agencies, irrespective of uninformed or pseudoscientific prejudices against them, which possess unquestioned pedagogical and cultural value. As an example both of the scientific spirit of the psychologist and of an unbiassed view of the pedagogical importance of the Bible, there is nothing finer than the utterance of President G. Stanley Hall in his recent "Educational Problems": "The belief in the absolute and literal truthfulness and finaUty of the Bible often makes the Book of Books a pedagogic incubus and monstrosity. It is, as Moulton says, the worst-printed book in the world, with sins unnumbered against the hygiene of the eye; but it is also, as Kornfeld urges, the worst-taught of all books and, as it might be added, the most grossly mis- understood. To eliminate it from education, as the sec- ular schools do, is as preposterous pedagogically as it would have been in the days of Plato to taboo Homer in the education of the Greek youth. It is not only a model of English, translated just at that period and in just the way that makes it one of the best monuments in our language of direct, simple, forcible Saxon style, but it is impossible to understand the culture history of any country of Europe without it, as it has influenced the Uterature, history, and the life of the Western nations as no other book has begun to do. Now that we have a new historical revelation of it by the higher criticism, this outrageous abuse should cease. The best myth is philosophy pedagogically adapted to the young, and philosophy is only myth written and revealed in terms of the adult intellect." It follows, of course, from the time and circumstances under which the Bible was com- posed, that there is much in it which is not fitted for the individual or the life of to-day, so that expurgation is 750 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL reqmred. "But this done, the remainder, fitly printed, arranged, and understood, should be taught to every child as an inalienable birthright. Even its miraculous records are mostly, as now interpreted, psychopedagogic chefs-d'oeuvre of imique power into all the higher mean- ings of which their symbols unfold as the soul ripens to maturity. Thus there is no such text-book of both the higher anthropology of races and of genetic psychology showing how the individual expands and approximates the dimensions of the ethnic consciousness." ^ What is here said in such an admirably impartial spirit of the Bible appHes to all other reHgious materials whatsoever. As an organic part of the race's culture, they are a part of the child's rightful inheritance, and it is only a fanciless religiosity or an equally hard and one-sided scientificism and secularism which is unable to recognize the school's manifest opportunities and duties in relation to the normal development of the student's spiritual culture. Should Biblical Instruction Be Given in Separate Periods? — ^As regards the question of separate instruc- tion in the Bible and similar materials in religious his- tory and Hterature, in periods specially set aside for the purpose, it seems rather important that such instruction should be kept in the closest possible connection with the rest of the curriculum and that the suggestion of the uniqueness of the Bible and other religious materi- als should be as far as possible avoided. The separate teaching of the Bible in a special ''Department of Bible" or "Bibhcal Literature," such as is found in many col- leges, seems, on the whole, an unwise practice and one which is likely to rob the instruction in such a depart- ^Vol. I, pp. IS4-5- RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 751 merit of its full effect through illegitimate prejudices and associations which are sure to be aroused. Much, of course, depends upon the personality and the skill of the instructor in charge. The associations referred to are more likely to be avoided, however, and the actual pedagogical values of the Biblical writings are more likely to be reaUzed, in my opinion, if they are treated in as broad a context as possible, in a department, say, of Semitic history and Hterature or, in the high school, in the departments of Hterature and of ancient history; in other words, in their concrete connections with other historical and literary materials with which they logi- cally or historically belong. There is no reason why Job or Isaiah should be badly taught any more than Homer or Horace. The Situation in Germany. — The suggestion to intro- duce in a natural way and in their natural connections Biblical and similar materials into the courses of study of our national school system has been met with the mis- giving, expressed in some quarters, that this would mean a backward movement in educational poHcy rather than an advance, inasmuch as a number of the leading Euro- pean countries have either, like France, excluded reHgion entirely from the pubHc schools or, like England and Germany, are striving to rid the public-school system of the incubus of religious instruction. The Hmits of the present chapter render impossible an adequate discus- sion of the status of the religious education controversy in England and Germany or of the precise issues which are involved.^ It is noteworthy, however, that the re- 1 For an excellent brief account of the status of religious education in England, France, and Germany, see De Garmo, "The Present Status of Religious Instruction in England, France, Germany, and the United 752 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL cent objections to religious instruction in Germany, where such instruction has long been in vogue as a regular part of the public-school curriculum, have not been to re- ligious instruction as such, but to dogmatic instruction along ecclesiastical and confessional Unes, a type which no one would, of course, think of advocating for our sys- tem of national education. What Germany is seeking to do is not to exclude reUgion from its public schools but simply to modernize the methods of instruction in re- ligious knowledge and to free religious instruction from clerical supervision and control, reforms which are sorely needed and which will receive the sympathy and vigor- ous support of progressive educators of every class and name. "The entire exclusion of rehgious instruction from the schools is impossible; on the other hand, its recon- struction is imperative." This ringing statement from the late Friedrich Paulsen may be said to represent thoroughly the sentiment of the progressive reform ele- ments in Germany as distinguished from the extreme wings in the present education controversy, the orthodox- confessional group, on the one hand, and the agnostic- positivist factions on the other. The German Programme of Reform. — The situation in Germany is so typical and the reform movement so sanely and aggressively championed that an examina- tion of the fundamental programme of reform cannot but prove instructive in the present connection. The nine resolutions passed upon and indorsed by the teachers of States," in "Principles of Religious Education," edited by H. C. Potter, pp. 47-75. For a fuller account, see Sadler, "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools. Report of an International Inquiry." For a de- tailed statement of the situation in Germany, Show, "The Movement for Reform in the Teaching of Religion in the Public Schools of Saxony," U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1910, No. i. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 753 Saxony, widely known as the Zwickau theses, are so tj^ical of the attitude of the teaching profession in Ger- many, and so thoroughly represent the position taken upon the whole question of religious training in the pres- ent chapter, that it will be well worth while to reproduce them in full:^ " (i) ReHgion is an essential subject of in- struction and rehgious instruction an independent de- partment or branch of the public school. (2) Its task is to make the mind of Jesus live in the child. (3) The course of study and method of instruction must conform to the nature of the child mind, and the determination of these is exclusively the business of the school. Cleri- cal oversight of religious instruction is to be aboHshed. (4) Only such materials of instruction are to be used as present rehgious and ethical life clearly to the child. Rehgious instruction is essentially historical instruction. At the centre is to stand the person of Jesus. Besides the appropriate Bibhcal materials, especial attention is to be given to life pictures of the promoters of religious and ethical culture, with special reference to modern times. The experiences of the child must be utilized in a helpful way. (5) The public school must exclude sys- tematic and dogmatic instruction. In the upper grades the Ten Commandments, the Sermon on the Mount, and the Lord's Prayer can be prescribed as an appropri- ate basis for a summary of the ethical ideas contained in the Christian religion. Luther's catechism cannot be the basis and point of departure for the rehgious instruc- tion of the young. As an historical document and as ^ For the text and discussions of the Zwickau theses, see Bruck, "Zur Umgestaltung des Religionsunterrichts in der Volksschule " ; Rietschel, "Zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts"; see also Show, op. cit., and bibliography cited there. 754 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL the Evangelical-Lutheran creed, it is to be esteemed. (6) The religious matter to be learned should be re- modelled and materially reduced in accordance with psychological-pedagogical principles and the amount re- quired should be lessened. (7) Rehgious instruction as an independent subject of instruction should not come in before the third school year. In order that the inter- est of the child may not suffer, the number of hours should be lessened in all grades. The customary division of religious instruction into Biblical history and catechism is to be abolished. Likewise, examinations and censor- ships in religion are to be abolished. (8) The entire in- struction in religion must stand in harmony with the established results of scientific research and with the enlightened moral sentiment of our times. (9) Along with the reform of religious instruction in the public school there is needed a corresponding transformation of rehgious instruction in teachers' training colleges." The intent of these theses is so plain that further comment upon them is unnecessary. It is my own view that a scheme of ethico-religious instruction, broadly in har- mony with the German plan, would be of distinct bene- fit to American education. A possible exception might be made, as already suggested, of the first provision re- garding the isolation of this instruction as a separate branch of the curriculum. Even this point would, I recognize, be open to discussion if it were not for an in- stitution, well domesticated in America and in England, which is especially devoted to formal religious instruc- tion — the Sunday-school. With the subject of the possi- ble ways of co-operation between the high school and this teaching department of the church we must deal briefly in conclusion. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 755 Lines of Co-operation between the High School and the Sunday-SchooL — It is a very important point, in the first place, for teachers and educators generally to view the Sunday-school, or the church school of whatever name, as an organic part of the educational system as a whole, instead of regarding it as one of the appendages of the church, which is really negligible as an educa- tional agency. The perspective gained through the classification of the Sunday-school with the general school system cannot but be of benefit both to the high school and the church school, as it will make possible certain lines of co-operation which would not be so likely to be estabHshed if the unity of the whole educa- tional scheme is lost sight of. This mental association between the secular and the rehgious forces in education once established, several lines of possible co-operation are easily discernible. On the side of the Sunday-school two things are of special importance: (i) The materials of the Sunday- school curriculum must be treated in as close a corre- lation as possible with the studies which the pupil is pursuing outside of the Sunday-school. The close con- nection which exists between the more purely secu- lar studies and religious studies in the German public schools and in the Catholic parish schools furnishes the ideal condition for bringing the entire curriculum under a single aim. The loose relation which has existed in America between the two sides of education, the secu- lar and the rehgious, has doubtless been one of the greatest weaknesses of our system of rehgious education under church auspices. The result is that the pupil thinks of his religious lessons as deahng with a world of unrealities and shadows which has no connection what- 756 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL ever with his daily duties or with the world in which he lives. This can be easily brought out by asking any Simday-school pupil with what event in secular history some event in Hebrew history is contemporaneous. The child will hkely reveal the fact that it has never realized that the Biblical event ever occurred in the world at all! Lines of connection between the secular and the re- ligious curriculum can be most naturally and ejffectively estabHshed in the various branches of nature study, in geography, history, literature, and mythology. The pu- pil has a large and varied background of experiences and truths in these fields which could be utilized to great advantage in rendering the whole course of study more real and significant. (2) If Sunday-schools expect to enlist the interest of high school students in their work they must pro\'ide for instruction and teachers suited to the grade of academic advancement and mental maturity which these pupils have reached. One of the main reasons why the Sun- day-school fails to interest and to hold young people of this age is that it does not furnish them with material sufficient in amount and difficulty to command their re- spect and to keep them healthfully employed. Much could be done, in my opinion, to interest growing young people in Sunday-school instruction if the curriculum were more difi'erentiated in the upper grades, so as to offer a greater variety of interests and branches than is now offered in the yearly repetition of half-familiar Biblical materials; if instruction in Bible, for example, were sup- plemented by courses in biography, ecclesiastical his- tory, comparative religion, in practical ethics and so- ciology, in the music of the church, much of which is of an extremely high grade but is practically imknown to RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 757 American young people, and other such courses. It seems little less than criminal to starve the interest of young people in a subject of really profound significance and of intrinsic appeal by feeding them upon the dead straw of antiquarian pedantry and upon the insufferably tedious moralizing so often indulged in when the mate- rials for true rehgious and social culture are at once so interesting and so vastly abundant. One of the leading difficulties of Sunday-school work, the difi&culty of secur- ing strong and competent teachers, would in this way incidentally be solved. There would be little difficulty, I imagine, in enlisting the interest of persons of academic training and personal culture if they believed that the instruction which they were called upon to give could be made really modern and significant. The aid which the high school, on its part, can render the Sunday-school, though simple, is very considerable. I wish to mention here only three ways which seem to me unquestionably important. (i) The high school can render a substantial service to religious education through the participation of its officers and teachers in the actual work of Sunday-school supervision and instruction. There would be two main advantages in this. In the first place, the teachers would bring with them a natural aptitude for teaching, classroom experience, and likely some professional train- ing. Second, the plan would go far toward solving the problem of correlation between the work of the public school and the Sunday-school, on the importance of which I have already insisted, since the teacher would be presumed to have an acquaintance with the pupil's other school studies and acquirements which the special teacher would naturally not possess. 758 THE MODERN HIGH SCHOOL (2) Whether they take part in the actual work of Sunday-school instruction or not, high school teachers can do much for religious education by encouraging in their pupils regular attendance upon Sunday-school in- struction, an indispensable condition, as every teacher knows, of effective work along any line of school work. This is the more important because attendance upon religious instruction offered by churches cannot, in this country at least, be made compulsory, as attendance upon the secular school can, so that regularity of at- tendance is something which depends almost entirely upon the conscientious discharge of their duty in this respect on the part of parents and teachers. (3) The pressing problems of attendance and disci- pline of the Sunday-school can both be partly solved through the high school by according recognition for work done in the Sunday-school through a specified amount of credit for proficiency in rehgious and Biblical subjects. An important initial step in this direction has recently been taken by the State board of education of North Dakota, which in 191 2 published and author- ized a syllabus outlining a course of Biblical study for the completion of which a half-credit out of the fifteen required for graduation is granted. While the teaching of the Bible courses is left to the Sunday-school or to private instruction, standardization is secured through examinations which are given by the board of education as a regular State examination. Although the move- ment has just been started, many classes have been formed, and much interest is manifested. It is unneces- sary to say that the official recognition thus accorded to Sunday-school instruction is bound to dignify and stiffen the work of the Sunday-school as nothing else could. RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE STUDENT 759 In these various ways, then, the three problems which are often mentioned as the three main problems of Sunday-school instruction — the securing of adequately prepared teachers, of regular attendance, and of proper standardization and discipline — will, through the gen- erous co-operation of the high school, get well under way toward solution. Incidentally, the unity of the educational organism, the indispensable condition of the spiritual integrity of the pupil, will be increasingly achieved. BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTERS I AND II THE SOCIAL ADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ENTERPRISE Armstrong, E. T. — "Is Our Present High School System Ineffi- cient?" American School Board Journal, 42:3-4, 29. Balliet, T. M.— "High School of the Future." Educational Foundations, 18:209-16, Nov., 1906. Gary, C. P.— "The Opportunities of the Modern High School." National Education Association. Journal of Proceed- ings and Addresses, 1910. pp. 457-62. Davis, C. O. — "The Reorganization of Secondary Education." Educational Review, 42:270-301, Oct., 1911. Dutton, S. T., and Snedden, D. — "The Administration of Public Education in the United States," chap. XX, pp. 356-85. References: pp. 383-85. $2.00, Macmillan. EUiff, J. D. — "A Study of the Principles Underlying the Founda- tions of the Modern High School." Southern Educational Review, 2:533-47, 641-44, Dec, 1905, Jan., 1906. Elliott, E. C. — "The Genesis of American Secondary Schools, in Their Relation to the Life of the People." In National Society for the Scientific Study of Education. Fourth Year-book. University of Chicago Press, 1905. Pt. I, pp. 11-26. Fisher, W. J. — "The Drift in Secondary Education." Science, n. s. 36:587-90, Nov. I, 1912. Hall, G. S.— "Educational Problems," vol. II, pp. 634-66. Chapter on "The American High School." $7.50, Ap- pleton. Judd, C. H.— "On Scientific Study of High School Problems." School Review, 18:84-98, Feb., 19 10. 761 762 BIBLIOGRAPHY "The Meaning of Secondary Education." School Review, 21 : 11-25, Jan., 1913. Martin, G. H.— "The Peculiar Obligation of the Public High School." Educational Review, 43: 461-71, May, 1912. Moore, E. C. — "Present Tendencies in Secondary Education." Burlington, Vt., University of Vermont (191 1), 20 pp. 8vo. Snedden, D. — "The Opportunity of the Small High School." School Review, 20: 98-110, Feb., 1912. Also in "Educa- tional Readjustment," chap. VII. $1.25, Houghton. Wilson, H. B. — "Industrial Training in the Cosmopolitan High School." In National Society for the Study of Educa- tion. Eleventh Year-book, pp. 68-74. Part I. Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 191 2. CHAPTER III THE LEGAL AND FINANCIAL STATUS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Brown, E. E.— "The Making of Our Middle Schools." Long- mans. Cubberley, E. P. — "School Funds and Their Apportionment." Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. "The California System of High School Support." High School Conference Proceedings, University of Illinois, 1912. Eliot, C. W., and Ernesto Nelson. — "Needed Changes in Sec- ondary Education." U. S. Bureau of Education, 19 16. EUiott, E. C— "State School Systems." U. S. Bureau of Edu- cation, Bulletin No. 2, 1910. Hand, W. H. — "The County as a Unit for the Organization and Administration of High Schools." High School Confer- ence Proceedings, University of Illinois, 191 2. HoUister, H. A. — "High School and Class Management." 191 5, Heath. "Annual Report of the High School Visitor." University of Illinois (191 5-16). Letters from State Superintendents of Public Instruction. Massachusetts State Board of Education — "High School Edu- cation in Massachusetts." Bulletin No. 2, 1916. BIBLIOGRAPHY 763 Monroe, Paul (Editor). — "Principles of Secondary Education." Macmillan. School Laws of the Various States. Snyder, E. R. — "The Legal Status of the Rural High School." Teachers College, Columbia University. Strayer, G. D., and Thorndike, E. L. — "Educational Adminis- tration." $1.50, Macmillan. Updegraff, H. — "A Study of Expenses of City School Systems." U. S. Bureau of Education, 191 2. Wheelock, C. F.— "New York Plan of State Aid of High Schools and the Results." High School Conference Proceedings, University of Illinois, 191 1. CHAPTER IV THE, AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL AS A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE Ayres, L. P. — "Laggards in Our Schools." $1.50, Charities Pub. Co. Blan, L. B. — "A Special Study of the Incidence of Retarda- tion." Teachers College, Columbia University, Contri- butions to Education, No. 40. Boston. — Annual Report School Committee, 191 2. Brown, J. F. — "The Training of Teachers of Secondary Schools in Germany and United States." $1.25, Macmillan. Bryan, J. E. — "A Method for Determining the Extent and Causes of Retardation in a City School System." Psychol. Clinic, vol. I, p. 41. Census. — Report of the Thirteenth Census of United States, 1910. Cubberley, E. P.— "School Funds and Their Apportionment." Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 2. Elliott, E. C. — "Some Fiscal Aspects of Pubhc Education in American Cities." Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, Contributions to Education, No. 6. National Education Association Annual Reports, especially 1910-11-12. Newton. — Annual Reports of School Committee, 1911-12. Pritchett, H. — Sixth and Seventh Annual Reports of Carnegie Foundation. 764 BIBLIOGRAPHY Snedden and Allen. — "School Reports and School Efficiency." $1.50, Macmillan. Strayer, G. D. — "City School Expenditures." Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, Contributions to Education, No. 5. ■ "Standards and Tests for Measuring the Efficiency of Schools and School Systems." Bulletin No. 13, 1913, United States Bureau of Education. Strayer and Thorndike. — "Educational Administration." $1.50, Macmillan. Thorndike, E. L. — "Education." $1.25, Macmillan. "The Elimination of Pupils from School." Bulletin No. 4, 1907, United States Bureau of Education. "The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the United States; Amount of Education, Length of Experience, Salaries." Bulletin No. 4, United States Bureau of Ed- ucation, 1909. Updegraff, H. — "A Study of the Expenses of City School Sys- tems." Bulletin No. 5, 191 2, United States Bureau of Education. "Teachers' Certificates Issued under General State Laws and Regulations." Bulletin No. 18, 191 1, United States Bureau of Education. Van Denburg, J. K. — " Causes of the Elimination of Students in Public Secondary Schools of New York City." Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Educa- tion, No. 47. Also indispensable as means of reference are the following: Annual Reports of Commissioner of Education for United States. Annual Reports for the larger city school systems. Annual Reports of the National Education Association. Report of the Committee on Uniform Records and Re- ports. Bulletin No. 3, 1912. United States Bureau of Education. BIBLIOGRAPHY 765 CHAPTER V THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Alton, G. B. — "Principles Underlying the Making of Courses of Study for Secondary Schools." School Review, 6 : 369. Balfour, G. — "The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland." Oxford. Bolton, F. E. — "The Secondary School System of Germany." $1.50, Applet on. Boston. — Annual Report of School Committee, 191 2. Boynton, F. D. — "A Six- Year High School Course." Educa- tional Review, 20:515. Brooks, S. D. — "Electives in the High School." School Review, 9:593- "The Scope and the Limitations of a Small High School." Education, 22:434. Brown, E. E.— "The Making of Our Middle Schools." $3.00, Longmans. Brown, J. F. — "The American High School." $1.25, Macmillan. "The Training of Teachers of Secondary Schools in Ger- many and the United States." $1.25, Macmillan. Brubacher, A. R. — "Some Adjustments in Secondary Educa- tion." Education, 24:613. "A Trade School for Girls." Bulletin No. 17, 1913, United States Bureau of Education. Butler, N. M. — "Scope and Function of Secondary Education." Educational Review, 15:15. "The Reform of Secondary Education in United States." Atlantic Monthly, 73:384. Dean, A. D.— "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century. De Garmo, C. — "Principles of Secondary Education." $1.25, Macmillan. Revised Edition, 191 3. Dexter, E. G.— " A History of Education in the United States." $2.00, Macmillan. Draper, A. S. — "Our Children, Our Schools, and Our Indus- tries." Annual Report, 1908. Dutton and Snedden. — "Administration of Public Education in the United States." I2.00, Macmillan. 766 BIBLIOGRAPHY ^ Eliot, C. W. — "Elective Studies in the Secondary School." Ed- ucational Review, 15:442. "Tendencies of Secondary Education." Educational Re- view, 14:417. Farrington, F. C. — "The Public Primary School System of France." Teachers College, Columbia University, Con- tributions to Education. HaU, G. S.— "The High School as the People's College." Ped- agogical Seminary, 9:63. Hanus, P. H. — "Secondary Education." Educational Review, 17:346. "Six- Year High School Program." Educational Review, 25:455- Industrial and Trade- Schools. New York State Education Department. Johnston, Charles Hughes, and others. — "High School Educa- tion," chap. IV. $1.50, Scribner. Lexis, W. — "A General View of the History and Organization of Public Education in the German Empire." Berlin. Parker, C. — "History of Modern Elementary Education." $1.50, Ginn. Perry, A. C, Jr. — "Outlines of School Administration." $1.50, Macmillan. Sharpless, I. — "English Education in the Elementary and Sec- ondary Schools." $1.00, Appleton. Smith, A. — The Educational Bill of 1906 for England and Wales as it passed the House of Commons. Bulletin No. i, 1906, United States Bureau of Education. Snedden, D. S.—" Six- Year High School Course." Educational Review, Dec, 1903, p. 525. "Educational Readjustment." $1.50, Houghton, 1913. Thorndike, E. L.—" Principles of Teaching." $1.50, A. G. Seller. Weeks, A. D.— "The Education of To-morrow." $1.25, Stur- gis and Walton, 1913. Yaldin, J. E.— "The Short Course Trade School." Reprinted from the annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science for Jan., 1909. BIBLIOGRAPHY 767 CHAPTER VI RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS The most comprehensive treatment from the standpoint of the efficiency of colleges, of high schools, and of the whole educa- tional system is given in the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh annual reports of the Carnegie Foundation for the Ad- vancement of Teaching (576 Fifth Avenue, New York City), The fourth and fifth annual reports for 1909 and 1910, respec- tively, treat the subject most fully. The Proceedings of the National Education Association con- tain many important addresses and reports upon this subject. In 1895 the departments of secondary and higher education ap- pointed the committee of ten on college entrance requirements, and the report of this committee is contained in the Proceedings for 1899 and also published separately by the association as a pamphlet of one hundred and eighty-eight pages. The Pro- ceedings for 1911, 1912, and 1913 contain reports of the com- mittee of the secondary department on the articulation of high school and college. The Proceedings for 191 2 contain also a report of the committee of the manual- training department on college entrance requirements. The High School Teachers' Association of New York City issued in 1910 a pamphlet on "The Articulation of High School and College," containing a statement by the association and nearly one hundred opinions received in reply from college presi- dents, superintendents, and high school principals. Bulletin No. 6, 1913, "College Entrance Requirements," is- sued by the United States Bureau of Education, contains a tabu- lation and analysis of the entrance requirements of two hundred and four colleges of liberal arts, eighty -five colleges of engineering, and thirty-one colleges of agriculture as they were in Septem- ber, 191 2. The bureau is now issuing a bulletin on the "Reor- ganization of Secondary Education," containing preliminary statements by the chairmen of the various committees consti- tuting the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. Bulletin No. 41, 1913. The reports of the New England College Entrance Certificate 768 BIBLIOGRAPHY Board and the documents of the College Entrance Examination Board contain discussions of the certificate system and syllabi of college entrance courses, respectively. Aley, R. J. — "Articulation of Higher and Secondary Education through Teaching and Teachers." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 198-203. ■ "Needed Adjustment between Secondary Schools and Col- leges." Proc. N. E. A., 191 1, pp. 461-466. Allen, J. E. — "For Closer Relations between Secondary Schools and Colleges." West Virginia Educator, May, 1908. Beers, L. W. — "The Dominance of the High School by the Uni- versity." Soiith Dakota Educator, April, May, 1910. Bishop, D. H. — "Should Not the University and Colleges of Mississippi Adjust Their Entrance Requirements to What the High Schools Can Properly Do? " Mississippi School Journal, June, 1909. Bolton, F. E. — " What is Meant by College Domination." School Review, Sept., 1909. Editorial. Brooks, S. D. — "The Relations of the University to the Secon- dary Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 192-198. Brown, C. A.— "The Extent to Which the High School Should Adjust Its Courses to College Requirements." Proc. Alabama Educational Association, 1909, pp. 153-158. Brown, J. F. — "The American High School." Chapter on the " Function of the High School." $1.25, Macmillan, pp. 54-71- Brown, J. S. — "The Autonomy of the High School." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 480-485. Brownson, C. L. — "The Relation between Secondary Schools: Tendencies and Possibilities." School Review, Oct., 1910. Butler, N. M. — "A New Method of Admission to College." Educational Review, Sept., 1909. Caldwell, O. W. — "The New University of Chicago Plan for Admission." Proc. N. E. A., 191 1, pp. 572-575; also pp. 471-474- Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh annual reports of the President, 576 Fifth Avenue, New York City. BIBLIOGRAPHY 769 Gary, G. P. — "Opportunities of the Modern High School." Proc. N. E. A., 1910, pp. 457-462. "Proposed Ghanges in the Grediting of High Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 207-212. Ghadsey, G. E. — "The Relation of the High School to the Gom- munity and the Gollege." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 203- 207. Gooper, R. F. — "The Functions of the High School as Gompared with Those of the Gollege." Proc. Alabama Education Association, 1910, pp. 262-268. Goulter, J. M. — "What the University Expects of the Secondary School." School Review, Feb., 1909. Davis, H. N. — "The New Harvard Plan for Admission." Proc. N.E.A., i9ii,PP- 567-571- Draper, A. S. — "American Education." Ghapter on " Gommon Schools and Universities." $2.00, Houghton, pp. 165-183. Duniway, G. O. — "Universities and High Schools." Proc. Na- tional Association of State Universities, 1909, pp. 188-190. Flexner, A. — "The American Gollege." Ghapter on "The Gol- lege and the Secondary School." $.90, Gentury, pp. 60- 115. Harding, H. P.— "The Gollege and the High School." Proc. North Carolina Teachers' Association, 1908. Edwards & Broughton Printing Go., Raleigh, N. C, pp. 306-312. High School Teachers' Association of New York Gity. "The Articulation of High School and Gollege." A pamphlet containing a statement by the association and nearly one hundred replies from college presidents, superintendents, and principals, 19 10. Hill, A. R.— "The State University's Duty to the Public High School and How It Should Be Performed." Proc. Na- tional Association of State Universities, 1909, pp. 136-141. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration." Chapter on the "Relation of the High School to Colleges and Univer- sities." $1.50, Heath, pp. 237-252. "Some Results from the Accrediting of High Schools by State Universities." Education, Nov., 1908. Hosmer, S. M. — "Should Alabama Colleges Allow High School Courses to Count toward a Degree? " Proc. Alabama Ed- ucational Institution, 1909, pp. 151-152. 770 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ingalls, E. I. — "Inspirational Effects of College Possibilities." Pamphlet published by University of Vermont, 191 1, on "College Requirements and the Secondary Curriculum." Johnson, O. A. — "The Correlation of High School and Univer- sity." Western Journal of Education, July, 1908. Judd, C. H. — "The Accrediting System." Proc. North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1910, pp. 162-173. Kent, C. W.— "The High School and the College." Proc. North Carolina Teachers' Assembly. Edwards and Broughton Printing Co., Raleigh, N. C, pp. 305-306. Kingsley, C. D. — "College Entrance Requirements." Bulletin No. 6, 1913, United States Bureau of Education. Con- tains a tabulation and analysis of the requirements of two hundred and four colleges of liberal arts, eighty-five col- leges of engineering, and thirty-one colleges of agriculture. Lewis, W. D. — " College Domination of High Schools." Outlook, Dec. II, 1909. Lough, J. E. — "Preparation for College." Pamphlet published by University of Vermont, 1911, on "College Require- ments and the Secondary Curriculum." Luckey, G. W. A. — "Needed Adjustment between Secondary Schools and Colleges." Proc. N. E. A., 1911, pp. 466-471. Mann, C. R. — "The Interpretation of the College Entrance Examination Board's New Definition of the Require- ments in Physics." Educational Review, Sept., 1909. Manny, F. A. — "The Background of the Certificate System." Education, 1909. McAndrew, W.— "The High School Itself." Proc. N. E. A., 1910, pp. 450-457- McCartney, T. B., Jr.— "The Relation of High School and College." Proc. Kentucky Education Association, 1908. Frankfort Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky., pp. 29-34. Mell, P. H.— "The College Attitude toward the High School."' Southern Educational Review, 1909. Monroe, J. P. — "How the Colleges Ruin the High Schools." World's Work, May, 1909. Moore, E. C. — "Present Tendencies in Secondary Education." Pamphlet published by University of Vermont, i9i][, on BIBLIOGRAPHY 771 "College Requirements and the Secondary Curriculum." An excellent statement. Moulder, J. L. — "The Effect of Our College Entrance Require- ments on the Development of the High School." Proc. Alabama Educational Association, 1910, pp. 255-256. O'Shea, M. V.— "The Dual System Must Go. Advantages of an Inspection Board." Wisconsin Journal of Education, Jan., 1910. Editorial. Owen, W. B.— "What the Colleges Can Do. Where the Shoe Pinches." School Review, May, 1910. Editorial. Parlin, C. C. — "The University and the High School." Ameri- can College, Aug., igio. Patterson, J. K. — "The University and Its Relation to the Pub- lic High School." Proc. Kentucky Educational Associa- tion, 1909. Frankfort Printing Co., Frankfort, Ky., pp. 131-138. Price, S. E. — "Shall the High School Curriculum Subserve the College Curriculum or the Business World?" Interstate Schoolman, Feb., 1909. Rodeheaver, J. N. — "Should the High School Train for Col- lege?" Proc. South Dakota Educational Association, 1908, pp. 121-130. Roosevelt, T.— "The High School and the College." Outlook, May 10, 1913. Roscoe, E. M.— "The Small High School and the College." Pamphlet published by the University of Vermont, 191 1, on "College Requirements and the Secondary Curricu- lum." Schumacher, M. — '"The Affiliation and Accrediting of Catholic High Schools and Academies to Colleges." Proc. Cath- olic Educational Association, 1909. Published by the As- sociation, Columbus, Ohio, pp. 132-140. Taylor, J. P. — "The Doomed Pupil." Educational Review, May, 1912. Thomas, J. M.— "The Mission of the New England College." Address published by Middlebury College, Middle- bury, Vt. Yocum, A. D. — "The Relation of the University of Pennsyl- vania to the Public School System." Teacher, May, 1910. 772 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER VII THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE INDUSTRIAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY Brown, H. A. — "The Readjustment of a Rural High School to the Needs of the Community." Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education, No. 20, 191 2. Burks, J. D. — "Getting Our Bearings on Industrial Education." The Elementary School Teacher, May, igog. Carlton, F. T. — "Education and Industrial Evolution." $1.25, Macmillan. ■ "The History and Problems of Organized Labor," chap. XVII. $2.00, Heath. • "The Social Demands of Modern Education." The Pro- gressive Journal of Education, April, 1909; Sept., 1909. Commons, J. R. — "Industrial Education and Dependency." La Follette's Magazine, April 12, 19 13. Cooley, E. G. — "The Need of Vocational Schools in the United States." Pamphlet issued by the Commercial Club of Chicago. Dean, A. D.— "The Worker and the State." $1.50, Century. Dewey, J. — "The School and Society." $1.00, University of Chicago Press. Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education." $1.00, American Book Company, Hanus, P. H. — "Beginnings in Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Kerschensteiner, Georg. — "Education for Citizenship." $1.00, Rand McNally. "The Fundamental Principles of Continuation Schools." The School Review, vol. XIX, pp. 162, 225, 295. Leavitt, F. M. — "Examples of Industrial Education." $1.25, University of Chicago Press. Person, H. S. — "Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Report of the Commission on Industrial and Technical Educa- tion. Massachusetts, 1906. Report of Committee on Industrial Education. American Fed- eration of Labor, igio. BIBLIOGRAPHY 773 Report of Committee on the Place of Industries in Public Edu- cation. National Education Association, 1910. Report of the Michigan State Commission on Industrial and Agricultural Education, 1910. Sadler, M. E. — "Continuation Schools of England and Else- where." Manchester University Press. Schneider, H. — "Partial Time Schools." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. XXXIII. Thirty-Five Teachers of Washington Irving High School, "What We Are Trying to Do." The World's Work, May, 1913. Thum, W.— "The Public Works High School." The Arena, vols. XXXVIII, XXXIX. CHAPTERS VIII, IX, X, XI LITERATURE ON SPECIAL PHASES OF THE HABITS OF STUDY Breslich, E. R.— "Teaching High-School Pupils to Study." School Review, vol. XX, pp. 505-15, Oct., 1912. Colvin, S. S. — "The Learning Process." $1.25, Macmillan. Cramer, F.— "Talks to Students on the Art of Study." $1.00, Hoffman Edwards. Dresser, H. W. — "Human Efficiency." $1.50, Putnam. Earhart, L. B.— "Teaching Children to Study." $.60, Hough- ton. "Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools." $1.00, Teachers College. Hinsdale, B. A. — "The Art of Study." $1.00, American Book Co. Jones, O. M.— "Teaching Children How to Study." $.80, Macmillan. McMurry, F. M.— "How to Study." $1.25, Houghton. Meumann. — "The Psychology of Learning." $1.75, Appleton, Minnick, J. H. — " An Experiment in the Supervised Study of Mathematics." School Review, vol. XXI, pp. 670-75. Moore, G. W. — " Outline of the Science of Study." $1 .00, Hinds. 774 BIBLIOGRAPHY Reavis. — "Importance of a Study-Program for High School Pupils." School Review, vol. XIX, pp. 398-405, June, 1911. Roberts, G. L. — "How to Study." Educator-Journal, vol. X, pp. 626-29, Aug., 1910. Rowe, S. H. — "Study Habit and How to Form It." Education, vol. XXX, pp. 670-83, June, 1910. Stockton, J. L. — "An Analysis of Study." Western Journal of Education, vol. V, pp. 117-21, March, 1912. Strayer, G. D.— "Teaching Children to Study." Atlantic Edu- cational Journal, vol. IV, pp. 285-86, 299, April, 1909. Swett, H. P. — "Teaching Pupils to Study." Journal Educa- tion, vol. LXIX, pp. 631-32, June 10, 1909. Tighe, R. J.— "Teaching Children How to Study." North Car- olina Association City Public School Superintendents and Principals, 1910, Raleigh, N. C. Welch, W. M.— "How to Study." $1.00, Welch and Co. Wells.— "How to Study." $.50, United C. E. Society. READING AND BOOKS IN RELATION TO STUDY Bagley, W. C. — "Classroom Management," p. 190, $1.25, Macmillan. Educational Review, vol. XLV, Feb., 1913, p. 193- Hall, G. S. — "Educational Problems," vol. II, pp. 244-246. $7.50, Appleton. Huey, E. B.^"The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading." $1.40, Macmillan. Koopman, H. L. — Education, vol. XXXIII, May, 1903, pp. 563-569. Mc Andrew, Wm. — The World's Work, vol. XXV, Nov., 191 2, pp. 72-79- Paulsen, Frederick. — The German Universities, pp. 314-317^. $3.00, Scribner. Perry, B. — The Atlantic Monthly, vol. XC, p. 144. Prevost, M. — Normal Instructor, Nov., 191 2, p. 15. Sidis, B.— "Philistine and Genius." $.75, Moffat, Yard. Sogard, J. — American School Journal, May, 1913, p. 11. The English Journal, vol. II, No. 3, March, 1913, p. 148- White, A. D.— "Autobiography," vol. I, p. 262. $7.50, Century, BIBLIOGRAPHY 775 THE RELATION OF THE TEACHER TO STUDYING Barker, J. F. — School Review, vol. XXI, April, 1913, p. 235. Berle, A. A.— "The School in the Home." $1.00, Moffat, Yard. Colgrove, C. P. — "The Teacher and the School," pp. 239-252, 314-316. $1.25, Scribner. Educational Review, vol. XLV, Feb., 1913, p. 193. Hickman, J. E. — Education, vol. XXXI, June, 191 1, p. 663. McKensie, D. — Public School Monthly, vol. LXXXII, March, 1913, p. 243. McMurry, C. — Proc. N. E. A., 1906, pp. 102-108. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. XII, Sept., 1905, pp. 239-288. Reudiger, W. C. — Education, vol. XXIX, March, 1909, p. 437. Sutton, Wm., and Horn, P. W. — "Essentials of School Manage- ment." The Briggs Report. — Harvard Grad. Magazine, June, 1904. CONDITIONS or EFFECTIVE STUDYING Angell, J. R. — "Chapters from Modern Psychology," pp. 279- 280. $1.35, Longmans. Caldwell, O. W.— " Detroit Central High-School Plan." Popu- lar Science Monthly, vol. LXXXII, pp. 243-51. Dearborn, G. — "The Sthenic Index in Education." Pedagogical Seminary, vol. XIX, p. 164. Duke. — The Teachers^ Encyclopedia, vol. IV, p. 100. Education, vol. XXV, p. 503. Gedinhagen. — "Outlines of School Management." Hamilton. — "The Recitation," p. 59. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration," p. 400. $1.50, Heath. James, W.— "The Energies of Men." $.50, Moffat, Yard. Keatinge, M. W. — "Suggestion in Education," $1.75, Mac- millan. Meriam, J. L. — " Recitation and Study." School Review, vol. XVIII, pp. 627-33. Popular Science Monthly, vol. LXXXI, Aug., 191 2, p. 194. Rowe, S. H. — "Habit Formation and the Science of Teaching," pp. 164-65. $1.50, Longmans. Stedman, W. — "Oxford — Its Social and Intellectual Life," p. 159- 776 BIBLIOGRAPHY Swift, E. J. — "Mind in the Making," p. 184. $1.50, Scribner. Taylor, J. S.— "Proper Use of the Study Period." School Work, vol. IV, pp. 274-90. INHIBITIONS Ayres, L. P. — "Laggards in Our Schools." $1.50, Charities Publishing Co. Bruce, H. A. — McClure's, vol. XLI, May, 1913, p. 109. Heck, W. H.—" Study of Mental Fatigue." Warwick and York. Marks.— "A Girl's Student Days and After." Martin, G. W. — Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, vol. I, nos. I and II. Munsterberg, H. — "Psychology and Industrial Efl&ciency," p. 213. $1.50, Houghton. Offner. — "Mental Fatigue." Warwick and York. Osborne, L. A. — Pedagogical Seminary, vol. XIX, June, 191 2. Reed, C. A. — Normal School Instructor, Nov., 1912, p. 14. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING TECHNICALLY TREATED Dewey, J.— "How We Think." $1.00, Heath. Meumann, E. — " The Psychology of Learning." $1.50, Appleton. Meyer, Max. — "The Fundamental Laws of Human Behavior." $2.00, Badger. Miller, I. E.— "The Psychology of Thinking." $1.25, Mac- millan. Pillsbury, W. B.— "The Psychology of Reasoning." $1.50, Appleton. Ribot, Th. — "Evolution of General Ideas." $1.25, Open Court. Swift, E. J. — "Mind in the Making." $1.50, Scribner. SOCIAL PHASES OF THE HABITS OF STUDY Bagley, W. C— "The Educative Process." $1.25, Macmillan. "Classroom Management." $1.25, Macmillan. Carlton, F. T. — "Education and Industrial Evolution." $1.25, Macmillan. Chancellor, W. A. — "Motives, Ideals and Values in Educa- tion." $1.75, Houghton. Charters, W. W. — "Methods of Teaching" (2d Edition). $1.10, Peterson. BIBLIOGRAPHY 777 Cooley, C. H. — "Human Nature and the Social Order." $1.50, Scribner. Davenport, E. — "Education for Efl&ciency." $1.00, Heath. Dewey, J. — "Moral Principles in Education." $.35, Houghton. Draper, A. S. — "American Education." $2.00, Houghton. Dutton, S. T. — "Social Phases of Education in the School and the Home." $1.25, Macmillan. King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. Kirkpatrick, E. A. — "Fundamentals of Child Study." $1.25, Macmillan. McDougall, W.— "Social Psychology." $1.50, Luce. Mead, G. H. — "Psychology of Social Consciousness." Science, vol. XXXI, p. 688. Munsterberg, H. — "Psychology and the Teacher." $1.50, Appleton. Ross, E. A. — "Social Psychology." $1.50, Macmillan. Scott, C. A. — "Social Education." $1.50, Ginn. Vincent, G. E.— "The Social Mind and Education." $1.25, Macmillan. Yocum, A. D. — "Culture Discipline and Democracy." $1.50, Sower. CHAPTER XII HOME AND SCHOOL ASSOCIATIONS — THE HIGH SCHOOL'S RIGHT ARM a' GENERAL Barnum, Mrs. O. S. — "Women's Work in the Socialization of the Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 1231-36. Discussion, pp. 1237-38. Baxter, S. — "Widening the Use of the Public Schoolhouse." World's Work, 5:3247-48, March, 1903. Berry, G. — "Open Schoolhouse." Bookman, 34:517-24, Jan., 1912. Bobbitt, J. F. — "A City School as a Community Art and Musi- cal Centre." Elementary School Teacher, 12:119-26, Nov., 191 1. 778 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bridgman, L. B., comp. Partial list of References concerning the Socialization of the Public Schools. Western Journal of Education, 10:222-23, March, 1905. Burns, R. L. — "Schools as Community Centres." Pennsyl- vania School Journal, 57:490-92, May, 1909. Butterfield, K. L. — "Neighborhood Co-operation in School Life." "The Hesperia Movement." Review of Reviews, 23:443- 46, April, 1 90 1. Carlton, F. T. — "The School as a Factor in Industrial and So- cial Problems." Education, 24:74-80, Oct., 1903. Crosby, D. J. — "How May the Rural Schools Be More Closely Related to the Life and Needs of the People?" Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 969-71. Discussion, pp. 971-74. Crosby, D. J., and Crocheron, B. H. — "Community Work in the Rural High School." Department of Agriculture. Year- book, 1910. Washington, Government Printing Office, 191 1, pp. 177-88, illustrated. Curtis, H. S. — "The Rural School as a Social Centre." Social Centre, 1:92-94, Dec, 191 2. "City School as a Community Centre, The." National Society for the Study of Education. Tenth Year-book, Part I. University of Chicago Press, 79 pp., 8vo. Contents: Adult education and the New York plan of Public Lectures, by H. C. Leipziger and C. A. Perry; Public Lectures, the Cleveland plan, by Sarah E. Hyre; Vacation Playgrounds, by R. D. Warden; Organized Athletics, by C. W. Crampton; Evening Recreation Cen- tres, by E. W. Stitt; The Rochester Civic and Social Centres, by E. J. Ward; Home and School Associations, by Mrs. E. C. Grice; The Community-Used School, by C. A. Perry; Bibliography of City and Rural Schools as Community Centres. Dewey, J. — "The School as a Social Centre." Annual Report, N. E. A., 1902, pp. 373-83- Dutton, S. T.— " The School as a Social Centre." In his " School Management," pp. 213-24. $1.00, Scribner. Grice, M. van M. — "Home and School United in Widening Cir- cles of Inspiration and Service," with prefatory notes by Elmer Ellsworth Brown and Martin G. Brumbaugh. Philadelphia, C Sower Co. (1909), 154 pp., illus., i6mo. BIBLIOGRAPHY 779 Hanmer, L. F.— "The Wider Use of the School Plant." In New York State Teachers' Association. Proceedings, 1911, pp. 68-73. Leipziger, H. M. — "The Family and the School." Social Edu- cation Quarterly, 1:18-26, Jan., 1908. Mowry, D. — "Use of School Buildings for Other than School Purposes." Education, 29:92-96, Oct., 1908. — — "Wider Use of the School Plant." Introduction by Luther Halsey Gulick, M.D., New York, Charities Pubhcation Committee, 1910. XIV, 423 pp., illus., 8vo. (Russell Sage Foundation Publications.) "References" at the end of most of the chapters. Nelson, N. O. — "The Rural School as a Social Centre." In Conference for Educational Review, 33 : 141-43, Dec, 1911. Gives the activities which the rural social centre must be prepared to carry on in addition to those which the social centre performs in cities, "Rural School as a Community Centre, The." National So- ciety for the Study of Education. Tenth Year-book, Part 2. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 191 1, 75 pp., 8vo. Contents: The Rural School as a General Educational Centre: (o) Community work in the Agricultural High School, by B. H. Crocheron; (b) The District Schools in a County as Educational and Social Centres, by Jessie Field. Rural School Extension: (o) Through Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs, by F. W. Howe; {b) Relation of Rural School to Better Housekeeping, by E. C. Bishop; Rural School Libraries, by A. B. Graham; The Rural School as a Means of Developing an Appreciation of Art (indoor and outdoor), by O. J. Kern; Organized Recrea- tion in Rural Schools, by M. T. Scudder. The General Problem of the Relation of the Rural School to Com- munity Needs — a Summary, by E. M. Davis; Bibliog- raphy prepared by the Bureau of Education and editor. Scudder, H. E. — "The Schoolhouse as a Centre." Atlantic Monthly, 77:103-19, Jan., 1896. Smith, H. L.— " The Full Use of the School Plant." Educational Journal, 11:353-60, March, 1911. Questionnaire and answers. 780 BIBLIOGRAPHY Spargo, J. — "Social Service of a City School." Craftsman, lo: 605-13, Aug., 1906. Swift, E. J. — "Community Demands upon the Public School." In National Conference of Charities and Correction. Proceedings, 1910, pp. 169-77. • "The Schoolhouse as the Civic and Social Centre of the Community." Interstate Schoolman, 10:21-24, 9-12, June, July, 191 2. Wirt, W. — "Utilization of School Plant." American School Board Journal, 44:24, March, 1912. Yerkes, H. K. — "Social Centres." Playground, 2:14-18, Dec, 1908, illustrated. "Every principal was granted by the Board of Educa- tion the right to use the school building for the work (of the Home and School Associations.") B women's betterment clubs: work (Not Including References to Mothers' Clubs and Parent- Teacher Associations) Barnum, Mrs. O. S. — "Women's Work in the Socialization of the Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 1231-36. " Club and the School, The." American Academy of Political and Social Science. Annals, 28:207-12, Sept., 1906. Grenfell, H. L. — "The Influence of Woman's Organizations on Public Education." Proc. N. E. A., 1907, pp. 125-33. Moore, E. P.—" Educational Work of Women's Clubs." In association of collegiate alumnae. Publications. Series 3, pp. 27-35, Feb., 1900. Mumford, Mrs. B. B. — "Report upon Woman's Educational Work in Virginia." Southern Educational Review, 3: 970-72, June, July, 1906. C mothers' clubs and parent-teacher associations Brown, E. E. — "How Can the Home and School Get into Closer Relations?" Philadelphia, Pa., The After School Club of America, 8 pp., 12 mo. BIBLIOGRAPHY 781 "Home and School League of Philadelphia." Report, i-6, 1906-11. "How to Start a Mothers' Club." Progressive Teacher, 18: 14-15, Sept., 12. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association Between Parents and Teachers." New York City, Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation (191 1), 13 pp., 8vo. (Russell Sage Foundation. Department of Child Hygiene. Pamphlet.) Health, Education, Recrea- tion. No. 87. D RECREATION Scudder, M. T. — "Rural Recreation, a Socializing Factor." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 40:175-90, March, 1912. Stern, E. C. — "The Organization and Administration of Recrea- tion and Social Centre Work." American School Board Journal, 45:10, 51, Oct., 191 2. CHAPTER XIII THE school's co-operative AGENCIES Addams, J. — "Democracy and Social Ethics." $1.25, Mac- millan. Andrews, F. F. — "Parents' Associations and Public Schools." Charities and the Commons, 17:335-43, Nov. 24, 1906. "Parents' Associations in Common Schools." School Jour- nal, 75:490-96, Nov. 30, 1907. "A Successful Parents' Association." School Journal, 73: 366-67, Nov. 3, 1906. Arnold, C. B. — "Parent-Teacher Work Among the Foreigners." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 2:95-98, Jan., 1908. Baldwin, J. M. — "Individual and Society." $1.50, Badger. Bergdell, Mrs. G. M. — "Our Home and School League." School Progress, 3:5-7, Jan., 1912. 782 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bright, C. C. — "The Scope of Parents' Associations and Pro- gramme." Child-Welfare Magazine, 5:119-20, April, 1911. Brown, E. E. — "The Work of Women's Organizations in Educa- tion." Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 1218-22. Brumbaugh. M. G. — "Functions of Parent-Teacher Associa- tions. ' National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 1908, pp. 219-24. Buller, N. B. — "Work of the Associations," School Review, 16:77-88, 1908. Bulletin, University of Wisconsin, General Series, nos. 292, 301, 302, 306, 310-14, 317-18, 323, 327, 330. Burnham, W. H. — "The Group as a Stimulus to Mental Ac- tivity." Science, new series, 1910, vol. XXXI, pp. 761-67. Butler, N. — "Parents' Associations." School Review, 16:78-88, Feb., 1908. California Congress of Mothers. — "History of California Con- gress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations." Los Angeles, Cal., 1908, 45 pp., front., ports., 8vo. Carlton, F. T. — "Home and School." Education, 26:209-16, Dec, 1905. Child-Welfare Magazine. Published by National Congress of Mothers, Philadelphia, Pa., vols. IV-VII, 1909-13. Close, A. D. — "Bethany Parents' Club of Brooklyn." Kinder- garten Review, 18:431-36, March, 1908. Davis, M. M. — "Psychological Interpretations of Society." $2.00, Longmans. Denison, E. — "The Making of Citizens in our Public Schools." American City, Sept., 1911. "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harper. Dewey, J. — "The School and Society." $1.00, University of Chicago Press. Dutton, S. T. — "Social Phases of Education." $1.25, Mac- millan. Ellis, A. C. — "Circular of Information on Organization and Conduct of Parents' and Teachers' Clubs." Austin, University of Texas, 1899, 19 pp. Fitchburg, Mass. — "The Kindergarten Mothers' League." Kindergarten Review, 18:444-45, March, 1908. BIBLIOGRAPHY 783 Fontaine, E. C. — "Home and School League Organization in Worcester County for Improving Relations between Par- ents and School System." Atlantic Educational Journal, 7:11-13, Sept., 1911. Fuller, S. — "On Parents' Associations in Connection with the Public Schools." 8, p. 80. Goodwin, E. J. — " School and Home." School Review, 16 : 320-9, iro8. Grice, Mrs. E. C. — "Conference on Parent-Teacher Associa- tions." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 2:3-8, Sept., 1907. Grice, Mrs. M. V.— "Home and School." $.60, Sower. "Home and School Associations; Object of the Work." Chicago, 191 1, 4, p. 80. Reprinted from tenth Year- book, part I, of the National Society for the Study of Education, VII. ' " How Can the Home and School Get into Closer Relations? " Philadelphia, Pa. The After-School Club of America (1910), 8, p. 120. " Parent-Teacher Associations." National Congress of Moth- ers' Magazine, 11:74-76, Feb., 1907. Hall, G. S. — "Some Social Aspects of Education." Educational Review, 23:443; 15:147- Hanna, J. C. — "The Oak Park Parents' and Teachers' Associa- tion." School Journal, 73:490-92, Dec, 1906. Harding, C. F. — "The Parents' Association of the School of Education." School Review, 18:153-58, March, 1910. Hefferan, Mrs. H. M. — "Notes from Parents' Associations." Elementary School Teacher, 5:372-75, Feb., 1905. Hefferan, Mrs. W. S. — "Suggestions for Mothers' and Parents' Circles." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 4: 8-10, Sept., 1909. Hersey, Mrs. H. J.—" Parents' Obligation to the School." Proc. N. E. A., 1909, pp. 1012-6. "Home and School League of Philadelphia." Reports 1-6, 1906- II. Address, 112 So. 13th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. "How to Start a Mothers' Club." Progressive Teacher, 18:14- 15, Sept., 1912. Johnston, E. L. — "The Ideal Mothers' Club." Kindergarten Review, 21:628-31, June, 1911. 784 BIBLIOGRAPHY King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $i.6o, Macmillan. "Education for Social Efficiency." $1.50, Appleton. Ledyard, M. E. — "Parent-Teacher Associations in California." In National Congress of Mothers. First International Congress in America for the Welfare of the Child, 1908, Published by the National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 1908, pp. 225-28. Ledyard, M. E., and others. — "Parent-Teacher Work from Coast to Coast." National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, y. 4-10, Sept., 1908. Lindsay, S. M. — "New Duties and Opportunities for Public Schools." Social Educational Monthly, March, 1907, p. 79. McDougall, W. — "Introduction to Social Psychology." $1.50, Luce. Macmillan, J. V. — "Local Association of Teachers and Parents." School Topics, 1:428-34, May, 1906. Mead, G. H. — "Social Consciousness and Consciousness of Meaning." Psychological Bulletin, VTI, no. 12. Montgomery, Mrs. F. H. — "Meeting of Parents' Association." Elementary School Teacher, 6:55-62, 1905. Moore, Mrs. E. A. — "Meeting of the Parents' Association." Elementary School Teacher, 6:167-70, 1905; 6:361-64, March, 1906. Murchie, Mrs. W. A. — "Work of a Parent-Teacher Associa- tion." Augusta, Me., 191 2, 6, p. 80. National Congress of Mothers. Literature published in Na- tional Congress of Mothers' quarterly report, 1:166-67, March, 1901. How to organize parents' associations or mothers' circles in public schools, with suggestions for programmes. National Congress of Mothers, 227 So. 6th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations. Triennial hand-book, 1908-11. 48, p. 160; 1911-14. 70, p. 160. National Congress of Mothers' Magazine, The. Published by the National Congress of Mothers, Philadelphia, Pa., vols. I-III, 1900-09. Continued as Child-Welfare Magazine. BIBLIOGRAPHY 785 Oldham, B. M'L.— "Influence of the Mothers' Club." Pro- gressive Teacher, 18:14-15, Feb., 191 2. "Mother Club Work." Progressive Teacher, 18:9-11, Oct., 1912. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. "Parent-School Club, A." Religious Education, 6: 574-77, Feb., 191 2. Tells of the steps of organization and the early activities of a recently organized club. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association between Parents and Teachers." New York City, Department of Child Hygiene of the Russell Sage Foundation (191 1), 13, p. 80. (Russell Sage Foundation. Department of Child Hygiene. Pamphlet No. 87, Health, Education, Recreation.) "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Charities Publish- ing Co. "Philadelphia League of Home and School Associations." Na- tional Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 2:89-92, Jan., 1908, illustrated. "Public School Relief Association and Mothers' Meetings," New York, 1906, 15 pp. Ross, E. A. — "Social Psychology." $1.50, Macmillan. "School Clubs." Chautauquan, 43:282-83, May, 1906. "School Officers and Parents' Association." What some promi- nent educators say of the mothers' club and the parent- teacher movement. National Congress of Mothers' Mag- azine, 2:93-95, Jan., 1908. Smith, L. R. — "Mother's Day." Primary School, 14:205-206, Feb., 1905. Stowe, A. M. — "The School Club." Elementary School Teacher, 9:364-68, March, 1909. Swift, E. J.— "Youth and the Race." $1.50, Scribner. Vincent, G, E. — "The Social Mind and Education." 1897. $1.25, Macmillan. Von Krog, O. S. — "Purpose of Parents' and Teachers' Associa- tion." Midland Schools, 25:196-99, March, 1911. "What One Mothers' Club Has Done in the Past Year." Na- tional Congress of Mothers' Magazine, 4:17, Sept., 1909. 786 BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER XIV THE INTERNAL GOVERNMENT AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE SOCIAL CHARACTER OE THE HIGH SCHOOL Brinton, D. G. — "The Basis of Social Relations," chaps. II (part I), III (part II). $1.50, Putnam. Eliot, C. W. — "Education for Eflficiency." Riverside Educa- tional monographs. $.35, Houghton. Giddings, F. H. — "Elements of Sociology." $1.10, Macmillan. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration," chaps. VII, IX, X, XV, XVII. $1.50, Heath. Johnston, C. H., Editor. — "High School Education," chap. V, by E. C. Elliott. $1.50, Scribner. King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. ■ "Education for Social Efl&ciency," chap. V. $1.50, Ap- pleton. Klapper, P. — "Principles of Educational Practice," chaps. VII, VIII, IX, XXV. $1.75, Appleton. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. Puffer, J. A.— "The Boy and His Gang." $1.00, Houghton. Ross, E. A. — "Social Control." $1.25, Macmillan. "Social Psychology." $1.50, Macmillan. Sachs, J. — "The American Secondary School." $1.10, Macmil- lan. Thomas, W. I. — "Source Book for Social Origins." $2.75, The University of Chicago Press. Weeks, R. M.— "The People's School." Riverside Educational Monographs. $.60, Houghton. Weyl, W. E.— "The New Democracy," chaps. XI, XIV, XVI, XIX, XX. $2.00, Macmillan. References to Periodical Literature: Butler, N. M. — "Vocational Preparation as a Social Problem." Educational Review, 45:289. Findlay, J. J.— "The Corporate Life in the High School, II." School Review, 1 6 : 60 1 . Gibbs, L. R.— "Making a High School a Centre of Social Life." School Review, 17:634. BIBLIOGRAPHY 787 Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:665, King, I. — "The Problem and Content of a Course in the Social Aspects of Education." Journal of Educational Psy- chology, II :l. 23/. Lange, A. F. — "Preparation of High School Teachers." Proc. N. E. A., 1907, p. 718. Mead, G. H. — "The Psychology of Social Consciousness." Science, 31:688. Pressland, A. J. — "The English Public School as a Training Ground of Citizenship." Educational Review, 40:499. Snedden, D. S. — "History Study as an Instrument in the Social Education of Children." Journal of Pedagogy, 19:259. Suzzallo, H. — "Education as a Social Study." School Review, 16:330. Tucker, W. J.— "How Shall Pupils Be Taught to Estimate Themselves?" School Review, 13:597. CHAPTER XV THE IMPROVEMENT OP HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS IN SERVICE AS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE SOCIAL ADMINISTRATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS Baldwin, W. A. — "The High School: Its Weaknesses and Sug- gested Modifications." Report made to the New En- gland Association of School Superintendents. Boston, New England Publishing Co., 1910, 12 pp. i2mo. Reprinted from Journal of Education. Boston. Summarizes criticism of high schools under two general heads: i. The work is too much dominated by colleges. 2. The teaching is not peda- gogical. Makes recommendations under four general heads: I. Standardization. 2. Modification of curriculum. 3. Profes- sional Training of Teachers. 4. Method. Balliet, T. M.— "High School of the Future." Educational Foundations, 18:209-16, Nov., 1906. Bell, S. — "A Study of the Teacher's Influence." Pedagogical Seminary, V, p. 493. Book, W. F.— "The High School Teacher from the Pupil's Point of View." Pedagogical Seminary, Sept., 1905. 788 BIBLIOGRAPHY Boyce, A. C. — "Qualities of Merit in Secondary Teachers." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. Ill, pp. 144-157. Burnham, W. H. — "Some Aspects of the Teaching Profession." Forum, June, 1898. Brown, J. F. — "The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools." $1.25, Macmillan. Gary, G. P.— "The Opportunities of the Modern High School." Proc. N. E. A., 1910, pp. 457-62. Clement, J. H. — "A Measuring Rod for Teaching Efficiency." Kansas School Magazine, March, 19 13. King, I. — "The Social Aspects of Education," chap. XVI, article by J. T. Ray. $1.60, Macmillan. Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:665-80, Dec, 1909. Johnston, G. H., Ed.— "High School Education," XXII, 555, p. 12. Bibliography -.47 1-53 1. $1.50, Scribner, Judd, G. H.— "On Scientific Study of High School Problems." School Review, 18:84-98, Feb., 1910. "The Meaning of Secondary Education." School Review, 21:11-25, Jan., 1913. Lange, A. F. — "Self-Directed High School Development." Uni- versity of California Chronicle, 12:381-95, Oct., 1910. Moore, E. G. — "Present Tendencies in Secondary Education." Burlington, Vt. University of Burlington (191 1), 20 pp., 8vo. Ruediger, W. G. — Agencies for the Improvement of Teachers. United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 191 1, no. 3. Ruediger, W. G., and Strayer, G. D.— "The Quality of Merit in Teachers." Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. I, pp. 272-278. Sachs, J. — "The American Secondary School and Some of Its Problems." $1.10, Macmillan. Appendix contains ref- erences. "Departmental Organization of Secondary Schools." Edu- cation, 27:484-96, April, 1907. Syllabus of a general course on the theory and practice of teaching in the secondary school. New York Gity, Teachers GoUege, Golumbia University, 31 pp., 8vo. (Golumbia University, Teachers GoUege, Extension Syl- labuses, Series A, no. 16.) BIBLIOGRAPHY 789 Thorndike, E. L. — "The Teaching Staff of Secondary Schools in the United States, Amount of Education, Length of Experience, Salaries." Washington, Government Print- ing Office, 1909, 60 pp., 8vo. (United States Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1909, no. 4.) Tucker, H. R. — " Government in the High School." Education, 25:1-11, 81-89, 152-61, Sept.-Nov., 1904. CHAPTER XVI THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Brown, J. F. — "The American High School." $1.25, Macmillan. Chesley, A. M. — "Social Activities for Men and Boys." Asso- ciation Press. Crousen, B. — " Pupil Self -Government." $1.00. Forbush, W. B. — "The Coming Generation." $1.50, Appleton. Gibbs, L. R. — "Making a High School a Centre of Social Life." School Review, 17:634. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Administration." $1.50, Heath. Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organization of the High School." School Review, 17:665, 1909. Keller, P, G. — "Open School Organizations." School Review, 13:10-14, 1905. King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. O'Shea, M. V. — "Social Development and Education." $2.00, Houghton. Owen, W. B.— "The Problem of the High School Fraternity." School Review, 14:492, 1906. "Social Education through the School." School Review, 15:11-26, 1907. Religious Education, June, 1913. " Better High Schools." Religious Education, February, 1913. "Social Education in the High School." A symposium contributed by William McAndrew, Irving King, Edgar J. Swift, Charles Mc- Kenny, Franklin W. Johnson, Colin A. Scott, James H. Tufts, Charles E. Rugh, Jesse B. Davis, Frank C. Sharp, J. W. Carr, H. B. Wilson, Percival Chubb. Sheldon, H. D, — "Student Life and Customs." 790 BIBLIOGRAPHY Stamper, A. W. — "The Financial Administration of Student Organizations." School Review, 19:25. Tyler, J. M.— "The Boy and the Girl in High School." Educa- tion, 26:462. Wetzel, A. — "High School Student Organizations." School Review, 13:429. CHAPTER XVII HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS AND GYMNASTICS AS AN EXPRESSION OF THE CORPORATE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL Anderson, W. G. — "Light Gymnastics." $1.50, Maynard, Angel, E. D.— "Play." Little, Brown. Bancroft, J. H. — "School Gymnastics." $1.75, Heath. Bancroft, J. M. — "Games for the Playground, Home, School, and Gymnasium." $1.50, Macmillan. Bishop, E. M. — "Americanized Delsarte Culture." Published by the author, Chautauqua, N. Y. Burchenal, E.— "Folk Dances and Singing Games." Schirmer. Crampton, C. W. — "Folk Dance Book." $1.50, Barnes. Davison, W. J. — "Gymnastic Dancing." $1.00, Y. M. C. A. Press. Dudley and Kellor. — "Athletic Games in the Education of Women." $1.25, Holt. Galbraith, A. M. — "Personal Hygiene and Physical Training for Women." $2.00, Saunders. Graham, J., and Clark, E. H. — "Practical Track and Field Ath- letics." $1.00, Duffield. Gulick, L. H. — "Physical Education by Muscular Exercise." $.75, Blackiston's. Hough, J., and Sedgwick, W. T. — "Human Mechanism." I2.40, Ginn. Johnson, G. E. — "Education by Plays and Games." $.90, Ginn. Jones, A. K., System of Roberts, R. J. — "Classified Gymnastic Notes." W. F. Adams Co. Koch and others. — "Essays Concerning the German System of Gymnastics." Freidenker Pub. Co. Leland and Leland. — "Playgrounds Technic." $2.50, Bassette. McCurdy, J. M. — "Bibliography." Press of Springfield Col- lege, Springfield, Mass. BIBLIOGRAPHY 791 McKenzie, R. T. — "Exercise in Education and Medicine." $5.00, W. B. Saunders. Posse, N. B. — "Swedish System of Educational Gymnastics.'' $.50, Lee and Shepard. Sargent, D. A.— "Health, Strength and Power." $3.00, H. M. Caldwell Co. Y. M, C. A., International Committee of. — "Nomenclature." New York. CHAPTER XVIII STUDENT DEBATING ACTIVITIES^ Churchill, G. B. — "Public Speaking Work in the Secondary School." School Review, 11:369-87, April, 1903. Foster, W. F. — "Intercollegiate Debates." Nation, 86:420-21. Gardner, B. L. — "Debating in the High School." School Re- view, 19:534-45; 20:120-24. Green, C. — "Debating at School." Nation, 90:637. Hartwell, E. C. — "Debating in High School." School Review, 19:689-93. Kittridge, H. W. — "Function of the High School Debating So- ciety." School Review, 10: 2g2. Lyon, L. S. — "Inter and Intra High School Contests." Educa- tion, 33:38-79- Stowe, A. M. — "Motivation of Secondary School Debate." School Review, 19:546-49. "A Danger in College Debates." Literary Digest, pp. 14, 27, June 28, 1913. CHAPTER XX HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES AND THE SOCIAL LIFE OE THE SCHOOL I. General Blanchard, C. A. — "Are Fraternities Fraternal?" Century, 1909, 56:641-42. Brief argument against all secret so- cieties. ^ For a carefully selected and adequate bibliography of references for public speaking and voice training, see Johnston's " High School Ed- ucation," Chapter XII, pp. 491-493. 792 BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, J. F. — "Secret Societies." In "The American High School," pp. 319-327. Condensed statement concerning their growth, with arguments pro and con. $1.40, Mac- millan. Button, S. T., and Snedden, D. S. — "Administration of High Schools," chap. XX in "Administration of Public Schools in the United States," p. 378. $1.75, Macmillan. A similar statement somewhat more condensed. Hard, W. A. — "High School Fraternities. Farce, Tragedy, Statesmanship." Everybody's, 1909, 26:73-83. Witty, satirical arraignment of this phenomenon in modern education. Hill, R. C. — "Secret Societies in High Schools." Educational Review, Feb., 191 2, 43:168. Work done for master's de- gree from University of Colorado. Full, thorough treat- ment of the whole question historically, with citations of opinion and discussions of legal questions involved. Ac- companied by a good bibliography which has been freely used in the preparation of this. HoUister, H. A. — "High School Fraternities." Several para- graphs in his "High School Administration." $1.50, Heath, pp. 45-46, 181, 183, 196. Discussion of various phases and problems of this question. Melius, M. — "Are Secret Societies a Danger to Our High Schools?" Review of Reviews, igo"], 2,()'-2>3^-3A'^- Thor- ough, comprehensive discussion of the problem from all points of view. Morrison, G. B. — "Secret Fraternities in the High School." Report of committee appointed in 1904. Proc. N. E. A., 1905. Full statement of all that was known up to that date, with results of questionnaire investigations and cita- tions of opinions. This report led to the adoption of resolutions by the National Educational Association which appear in the same volume. "Social Ethics in High School Life." School Review, 1905, 13 : 361-70. Careful discussion of the fundamental ethical questions underlying the whole matter. Smith, S. R. — "Questions Regarding Fraternities in Secondary Schools." School Review, igo4, 12:2-$. Preliminary re- port of committee appointed by the University of Chicago BIBLIOGRAPHY 793 Annual Conference of Co-operating Schools, and showing the elaborate questionnaire sent out by the committee. "The Influence of Fraternities in Secondary Schools." School Review, 1905, 13 : i-io. Final report of same com- mittee, with very full presentation of statistics and of opinions and arguments, including those of principals, col- lege presidents, and members of the fraternities. Travis, S. S. — "High School Fraternities." Proc. New York Association of Academic Principals, 1908, pp. 83-91. Issued as Educational Department Bulletin, No. 458, Nov. I, 1909. Also in Midland Schools, 1909, 23: 207-10. "High School Fraternities." Education, 1909, 29:517-527. Historical and suggestive as to ways of handling the problem. Wells, A. R. — "Secret Societies in the High School." Journal of Education, Jan. 5, 1911, vol. LXXIII, no. i. Gen- eral discussion, presenting results of correspondence with principals and college presidents. Whitcomb, C. T. C. — "Report on Organizations among New England Pupils." Massachusetts Board of Education, Sixty-Ninth Annual Report, 1904-5. Presents results of one of the earliest investigations, with both favorable and hostile opinions. An Address from the Board of Education of Oak Park and River Forest Township High School. Printed privately, 1907; second edition, 191 1. Presents arguments prepared by teachers of the school showing effects upon boys and girls separately, both those within and those without the organizations, and upon the spirit of the school. Elementary School Teacher, 1904-5, 5:576-82. Editorial. Gen- eral statement of the problem to date, with arraignment of high school curriculum as cause. Elementary School Journal, 1904-5, 6:47-54. Editorial. His- torical statement and full presentation of the arguments for and against. Journal of Education, April 16, 1908; July 23, 1908; July i, 1909. News items and brief discussions. Ladies' Home Journal, 1907, 24:12. Ohio Teacher, 1908, 28:435-36. Pennsylvania School Journal^ Feb., 1909, 57:321-23. 794 BIBLIOGRAPHY "Public School Fraternities." United States Bureau of Educa- tion. In report of commissioner for iQog, pp. 1 13-14. A brief presentation of the general situation to date. 2. Special Hanna, J. C. — "High School Fraternities as Related to College Fraternities," Banta's Greek Exchange, 191 2, vol. I, no. I. Read before the National Pan-Hellenic Congress of Women's College Fraternities, 191 2, and also privately printed. Shows essential differences between college fra- ternities and high school fraternities, and urges upon the former the responsibility of taking a stand against the latter. Heller, H. H.— "The Social Life of the Adolescent." Educa- tion, 1905, 25:579. Incidentally important in a study of the basic principles involved. Johnson, F. W. — "The Social Organizations of the High School." School Review, 1909, 17:665. An interesting account of the experiments conducted at the University of Chicago High School in an attempt to take care of the social life and training of the pupils. Keller, P. G. W. — "Open School Organizations." School Re- view, 1905, 13:10-14. An account of the various organ- izations developed and encouraged in the Manitowoc, Wis., High School. Kohlsaat, P. B. — "Secondary School Fraternities Not a Factor in Determining Scholarship." School Review, 1905, 13: 272. The result of observations in detail for three quarters in the Lewis Institute, Chicago. Owen, W. B. — "Social Education through the School." School Review, 1907, 15:11-23. A discussion of the principles involved in the plans for controlling social education in the University of Chicago High School, the results of which are described in Principal Johnson's paper (men- tioned above). Wetzel, A. — "Student Organizations in a High School." School Review, 1905, 13:429. An explanation of the system of handling these matters in the Trenton, N. J., High School, where all are kept close to the administration. BIBLIOGRAPHY 795 3. Legal (a) Publications neming, J. D, — "The Legal Aspects of High School Fraterni- ties." Colorado School Journal, 1908, 23:175-178. A summary of the legal questions raised in the courts and the arguments and decisions up to date. Shannon, R. A., and Pettis, H. S. — Reply Brief for Appellant. Appellate Court of Illinois, first district, October term, 1912. Smith V. Board of Education of Oak Park and River Forest Township High School. Presents argu- ments defending thesis that judgment of board of edu- cation as to fact of membership is not subject to review by the courts. Wetterick, S. J. — "Courts and the High School Fraternities." The World To-Day, Dec, 1910, 19:1337-1342. A full, clear, and fair discussion of main legal points involved in all cases that have come before the courts, with their decisions, and a forecast of probable decisions on points not yet passed upon. Quoted from in chap. XV of this volume. (b) List of Cases Involving, Directly or Indirectly, the Chief Legal Questions Concerning High School Fraternities \. Dealing with limitations of pupils' right to attend school: 1. Vermilion et al. v. The State ex rel Englehart, no S. W., 736. 2. Sherwood v. The Inhabitants of Charleston, 8 Cush. (Mass.), 160. 3. State ex rel Statland v. White, 82 Ind., 278; 42 Am. Rep., 496. (The famous "Purdue case.") XL Dealing with question of court's interference with authority of boards of education: 4. Wayland v. Hughes et al., 43 Wash., 441; 86 Pac, 642. (The "Seattle case" — passed upon by Supreme Court.) ■ 5. Wilson V. Board of Education, 233 111., 464; 84 N. E., 698. (The first "Chicago case" — passed upon by Supreme Court.) 796 BIBLIOGRAPHY 6. Favorite et al. v. Board of Education, 235 111., 314; 85 N. E., 402, (The second "Chicago case" — reaffirmation.) N. B. — These last three decisions were followed also by the Supreme Courts of Colorado and Kansas. 7. Kinzie v. Toms et al. 29 la., 441; 105 N. W., 686. 8. Edward Smith v. The Board of Education of Oak Park and River Forest Township High School, N. B. — Decided for plaintiff in Circuit Court and appealed by defendant to Appellate Court. Judgment of lower court reversed by Appellate Court and case remanded with directions to dismiss the petition. Involves the fundamental question of court's right to re- view judgment of a board of education. The decision of the higher court contains this language: "The power of the board to exercise its honest and reasonable discretion in such cases without the interference of the courts is well settled. School Directors v. Trustees, 66 111., 247; Wilson V. Board of Education, 233 id., 464; Kelly :;. City of Chicago, 62 id., 279; Dental Examiners i>. Cooper, 123 id., 227." III. Dealing with authority of school boards over actions out- side of school hours: 9. Burdick v. Babcock, 31 Iowa, 562. 10. Kinzie v. Toms et al. (see No. 7 above). 11. State ex rel Dresser v. Board of Education of St. Croix Falls, 135 Wis., 619; 116 N. W., 332. 12. Lander v. Seaver, 32 U. T., 114; Am. Dec, 156. CHAPTER XXI THE HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTRE Anthony, W. B.— "Teaching Real Life in School." World's Work, 25:695-698, April, 1913. Bloomfield, M.— "The Vocational Guidance of Youth." $.35, Houghton. Boone, R. G. — " Manual Training as a Socializing Factor." Ed- ucation, 22:395. Carr, J. F.— "A School with a Clear Aim." World's Work, 19: 12363. Work of the Interlakeu School, La Porte, Ind. BIBLIOGRAPHY 797 Cubberley, E. — "Changing Conceptions of Education." $.35, Houghton. Denison, E. — "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harper. Dewey, J. — "School and Society." $1.00, University of Chi- cago Press. "The School as a Social Centre." Elementary School Teacher, 3:73. Button, S. T., and Snedden, D. — "Administration of Public Education in the United States." $1.75, Macmillan. Eberhart, A. O.— "What I Am Trying to Do." World's Work, 25:671-675, April, 1913. Eliot, C. W.— "The Full Utilization of a Public School Plant." Proc. N. E. A., 1903, pp. 241-247. Ellwood, C. A. — "Sociology and Modern Social Problems." Chap. XV, "Education and Social Progress." $1.00, American Book Co. Foght, H. W.— "The American Rural School." $1.25, Macmil- lan. Grice, M. V. — "Home and School." $.60, Christopher Sower Co. Gulick, L. H. — "Popular Recreation and Public Morality." Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Sci- ence, July, 1909. Hanus, P. H. — "Vocational Guidance and Public Education." School Review, 19:57. Jenks, J. — "Citizenship and the Schools." $1.25, Holt. Johnston, C. H., and others. — "High School Education," vol. I. $1.50, Scribner. Kern, O. J. — "Among Country Schools." $1.25, Ginn. Kerschensteiner, G. — "Education for Citizenship." (Trans, by A. J. Pressland.) $.75, Rand, McNally. King, I. — "Education for Social Efficiency." $1.50, Appleton. ■ "Social Aspects of Education." $1.60, Macmillan. Lee, J. — "Play as a School of the Citizen." Charities, 18:486- 491. Leipziger, H. M. — "Free Lectures." Critic, 28:329. A his- tory of the movement. Annual Reports of Public Lectures, from 1889 to date, De- partment of Education, City of New York. 798 BIBLIOGRAPHY Monroe, P. — "Influence of the Growing Perception of Human Inter-relationship on Education." American Journal of Sociology, March, 1913, p. 622. Mowry, D. — "Use of Schoolhouses for Other than School Pur- poses." Education, 29:92. Parsons, F. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. Perry, C. A. — "School as a Social Centre," in Cyclopedia of Ed- ucation. $5.00, Macmillan. "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Survey As- sociates, Inc. Poole, E. — "Chicago's Public Playgrounds." Outlook, 8^:77 $- 781, 1907. Sadler, M. E., and others. — "Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere." 8s. 6d., University Press, Manchester, Eng. Scott, C. A. — "Social Education." I1.25, Ginn. Stern, R. B. — "Neighborhood Entertainments." $.75, Sturgis & Walton. Stockbridge, F. P.— "A University that Runs a State." World's Work, 25: 699-708, April, 1913. Students' Aid Committee of the High School Teachers' Asso- ciation of New York City, E. W. Weaver, Chairman. — "Choosing a Career" and other vocational bulletins. Tenth Year-book of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation. Part I, "The City School as a Community Cen- ' tre"; Part II, "The Rural School as a Community Centre." Edited by the Secretary, S. Chester Parker, University of Chicago. Price of each part, $.75. Ward, E. J. — "Rochester Social Centres." The Playground Association, Proceedings, 3:387-395, 1910. Ward, E. J., and others. — "The Social Centre." $1.50, Appleton. Ward, L. — "Applied Sociology." Two editions, $2.50 and I3.00, Ginn. Whitney, F. L. — "High School Extension in Agriculture." Amer- ican School Board Journal, 46: 15, May, 1913. BIBLIOGRAPHY 799 CHAPTER XXII CONTINUATION WORK IN THE HIGH SCHOOL Bibliography A Addams, J. — "Democracy and Social Ethics." $1.25, Mac- millan. Carlton, F. T. — "Education and Industrial Evolution." $1.25, Macmillan. Carmen, G. N. — "Co-operation of School and Shop." School Review, 18 : 108. Cooley, E. G. — "Vocational Education in Europe." "The Continuation School." American School Board Journal, 45:11. Cubberley, E. B. — "Does the Present Trend toward Voca- tional Education Threaten Liberal Culture?" School Review, 19:454. Davenport, E. — "Education for EflSciency." $1.00, Heath. Dean, A. D. — "Industrial Education as a State Policy." Forbes, G. M. — "Organization and Administration of Indus- trial Schools." American School Board Journal, 46:11. Gibson, C. B. — "Recent Tendencies toward Industrial Educa- tion in Europe and America." Hanus, P. H. — "Beginnings in Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Kerschensteiner, G. — "The School of the Future." School and Home Education, 31:278. "Fundamental Principles of Continuation Schools." School Review 19: 162. "Organization of the Continuation Schools in Munich." School Review, 19. "The Technical Day Schools in Germany." School Review, 19. Sadler, M. E. — "Continuation Schools in England and Else- where." Longmans. Special bulletins and circulars issued by various boards of educa- tion. Bibliography of Industrial, Vocational, and Trade Education. Bulletin No. 22 (1913) of United States Bureau of Education. 800 BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography B Additional References and Notes on Continuation Schools I. Bureau of Labor, Twenty-Fifth Annual Report, igio. II. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. i, 1907. III. Report on Vocational Training, Committee of City Club, Chicago, 191 2. IV. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 10, 1909, Eaton, J. S. Education for Efl&ciency in Railroad Ser- vice. V. Snedden, D. S.— "Problem of Vocational Training." $.35, Houghton. VI. Dean, A. D.— "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century. VII. Hall, G. S.— "Educational Problems," vol. I, chap. VIII. $7.50, Appleton. VIII. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion, Bulletin No. 3, A Symposium on Industrial Educa- tion. IX. Ibid., Bulletin No. 11, A Descriptive List of Trade and Industrial Schools in the United States. X. Ibid., Bulletin No. 12, Legislation upon Industrial Educa- tion in the United States. XI. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 191 1. XII. Ayres, L. P.— "Laggards in Our Schools." $1.50, Chari- ties Pub. Co. XIII. Thorndike, E. L.— "The Elimination of Pupils from School." Washington, Government Printing Office, 1908. XIV. Monroe, P. — Cyclopedia of Education. $5.00 per vol., Macmillan. Page References by Topics to Bibliography B (The repeated Roman numbers refer to the respective sources listed above by title.) Definition.— I, Ch. i, p. 15; XI, Vol. i, pp. 18-19; H, p. 7; X, Pt. II, Sec. I, pp. 18-22. Need of Continuation Schools. — I, Ch. V, pp. 185-186; II, BIBLIOGRAPHY 801 pp. 9-33; III, Pt. II, Ch. II, pp. 28-41; VI, Ch. IV, pp. iio- 147; XII, p. 13; XIII, VII, pp. 540-546. Types. — Evening Schools. — Historical, II, pp. 82-97; XIV (Evening Schools). Statistics, II, pp. 21-25; 1; P- 214, XI, VII, pp. 873-876. Description of, II, pp. 82-97; IX, pp. 81-111; I, Ch. VI, pp. 213-248. F. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. — Statistics, I, pp. 366-373; IX, 101-103; II) 25-28. Description of, I, Ch. XII, pp. 363- 373; II, 101-107; IV, pp. 78-79- Correspondence Schools. — Historical, XIV. (See Correspon- dence Schools.) Statistics, VII, pp. 549-550; III, Ch. X, pp. 251-256. Description of, I, Ch. XI, pp. 351-360; II, 107-112; IX, pp. 124-125; IV, pp. 88-104; III, Ch. X, pp. 251-256. Co-operative Plan. — Description of, I, Ch. V, pp. 183-210; IV, pp. 84-88; IX, pp. 111-115; II, pp. 113-131. Discussion, VIII; VI, Ch. VII, pp. 211-246; V, pp. 38-42; III, pp. 200-209; II, 133-145- Legislation X. — I, Ch. XVI, pp. 499-518. Bibliographies.— I, Ch. XVII, pp. 521-539; VI, 34S-3SS; H. pp. 145-149. CHAPTER XXIII THE SOCIALIZING FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL LIBRARY (The bibliography of high school libraries in High School Education is complete through 191 1. No references given there are repeated in this volume.) Boynton, P. H. — "Suggestions for the English Literature Sec- tion of a High School Library." School Review, 25:111- 116, Feb., 1912. Chubb, P.— "Duty of the School to Educate for the Right Use of Leisure." Religious Education, vol. VII, pp. 699-704, Feb., 1 913. Presents forcefully the responsibility of de- veloping the play side of education. Coult, M.— "How Can We Best Direct the Reading of High School Pupils." New York Libraries, 3:52-55, Jan., 191 2. The author suggests various ways in which the teacher could stimulate an interest in books and guide the high school students in their reading. Dana, J. C. — "Public Libraries and Publicity in Municipal Affairs." Library Journal, s^:igS-2oi. Gives outline 802 BIBLIOGRAPHY of civic work carried on in Newark, N. J., through the co-operation of public schools and the public library. Davis, J. B. — "Use of the Library in Vocational Guidance." Proc. N. E. A., 1912, 1267-1273. Outlines reading by grades for vocational guidance. Dracass, C. E. T. — "The Growth of the High School Library in Chicago." Educational Bimonthly, 7:153-156, Dec, 1912. Fargo, L. — "Place of the Library in High School Education." Education, 2,:^ ".473, April, 1913. Argues that the librarian should be recognized as a teacher and should give in- struction in the use of books. Forbes, G. M.— "Place of the Library in the High School." New York Libraries, 3 : 170-174, Nov., 191 2. Argues that the school librarian is in charge of one of the most impor- tant centres of the s'chool plant and should understand the philosophy, methods, and ideals of modern education so that he may co-operate intelligently with those who are endeavoring to free education from outworn tradition and shape it to meet the needs of to-day. An excellent article. Freeman, M. W. — "Joint Work of the High School and the Public Library in Relating Education to Life." Library Journal, 38:179-183, April, 1913. Discusses vocational guidance, giving a list of books for vocational guidance and for debaters' aids. Greenman, E. D. — "Development of Secondary School Libra- ries." Library Journal, 38 : 183-189, April, 1913. Gives history of the growth of high school libraries with statis- tics and full bibliography. "State Aid for Public School Libraries." Library Journal, 37:311-316. Outlines aids offered by different State Library Commissions: arranged alphabetically by States. Hall, M. E.— "The Possibilities of the High School Library." American Library Association, Papers and Proceedings, 1912, 260-266. An inspiring paper which discusses: creating right attitude toward the library; use of study* period; library as a social centre; vocational guidance. Hopkins, F. M. — "Is There Need for a Course in the Choice and Use of Books in Our High Schools? " Proc. N. E. A., BIBLIOGRAPHY 803 igi2, 1 285-1 288. Gives the outline of an experiment in the Central High School of Detroit, Mich., of a course in library economy for juniors and seniors. Jones, T. L.— "What the Public Library Can Do for the High School." Public Libraries, 17:274-276, July, 1912. An address before the Wisconsin Library Association in which the author gives a practical illustration of how the public library should assist the high school. McAndrew, W.— "The High School Librarian." Proc. N. E. A., 1910, 994-998. Shows the place and importance of high school librarians in the work of the high school. Mendenhall, I. M. — "Training of High School Students in the Use of the Library." New York Libraries, 3:138-140, July, 191 2. "Training in the Use of Books." Library Journal, 38: 189-192, April, 1913. Valuable suggestions for normal courses in library work by the chairman of the Commit- tee on Normal School Libraries, N. E. A. Ryan, J. V. — "Library Conditions in American Cities." Educa- tional Bimonthly, 7:157-172, Dec, 1912. A paper read before the English section of the Chicago High and Nor- mal School Association. This paper is a report of a com- mittee appointed to investigate the conditions in high school libraries throughout the country. It is a valuable and exhaustive compilation of the work which the high schools in various sections of the country are doing. Shaw, A. B. — "History Reference Library for High Schools." History Teacher's Magazine, 3:79-81, April, 191 2. Tanner, G. W. — "The Library Situation in Chicago High Schools." Educational Bimonthly, 7:9-15, Oct., 1912. Walter, F. K. — "Teaching Library Use in Normal and High Schools." American Library Association, Papers and Pro- ceedings, 191 2, 255-260. Need of instruction in use of books discussed under: Education a Continual Process; Complication of Modern Life; Education not Confined to Books; Modern Teaching Demands Comprehensive Grasp of Books. Wilson, H. B. — "Schools Enabling Students to Discover Them- selves Vocationally, with an Outline of a Course in a Life Calling." Religious Education, 7:691-699, Feb., 1913. 804 BIBLIOGRAPHY An account of an experiment in vocational guidance and reading by the superintendent of city schools in Decatur, 111. Wilson, L. R. — "A Constructive Library Platform for Southern Schools." Library Journal, 37:179-185, April, 1913. Argues that progressive work will require school library inspectors, instruction of pupils in the use of books, nor- mal school instruction in library economy, and other mod- ern methods. Wolfe, L. E. — "The Many-Book versus the Few-Book Course of Study." Educational Review, 45:146, Feb., 1913. Enlarges on the statement: "If the teacher is to be pre- pared for social efl&ciency he must be brought into vital contact, through books and pictures, with the lines of race achievement." Plans and Miscellaneous. — " Co-operation between the Public Schools and the Public Libraries of Greater New York." Library Journal, 37 : 383, July, 191 2. A brief statement of the plan of co-operation of New York Board of Educa- tion and the City Library System, with recommendations. New York Libraries, 3, Nov., 191 2. Editorials: "Books to Enrich Life," p. 163; "Books to Aid in the World's Work," p. 163. Reports of Special Committees. — Report of the Committee on High School Libraries. Proc. N. E. A., igi2 12 73-1 281., Reviews the situation of and makes suggestions for high school libraries under the topics: The Librarian; Building up the Library; Library Rooms and their Use; Instruc- tion in the Use of Libraries; Co-operation with Public Libraries. Report of the Committee on Normal School Libraries. Proc. N. E. A., 1912, 1258-1262. A syllabus of library in- struction for normal schools. Report of Committee on High School Libraries, New York Library Association. — A Survey of Recent Library Prog- ress in High Schools. New York Libraries, 3:182-184, Nov., 191 2. A strong plea for the recognition of the ed- ucational power of the school library and for trained directors and supervisors in charge who shall also or- ganize the teaching of library economy. BIBLIOGRAPHY 805 Religious Education for Feb., 1913, is devoted to the subject of Social Life in High Schools and contains many valuable articles on this subject in general. CHAPTER XXIV VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND THE HIGH SCHOOL Bibliographies of the Public Libraries of Brooklyn, N. Y., Grand Rapids, Mich., Pittsburg, Pa., and of the United States Bureau of Education. Bloomfield, M.— "The School and the Start in Life." United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 4, 1914. "The Vocational Guidance of Youth." $.60, Houghton. Boston School Superintendent's Report, 1913. Bray, R. A.— "The Town Child." T. Fisher Unwin, London. Buller, E. B. — "Saleswomen in Mercantile Stores." Charities Publication Committee. Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, Department of So- cial Investigation. "Finding Employment for Children Who Leave the Grade Schools to Go to Work." $.25, Russell Sage Foundation. Cooley, E. G. — "Vocational Education in Europe." The Com- mercial Club of Chicago. Davenport, E. — "Education for EflGiciency." $1.00, Heath. Davis, B. D. — "Inquiry into Vocational Aims of High School Pupils." Somerville (Mass.) School Report, 1913. Dean, A. D.— "The Worker and the State." $1.20, Century. Eliot, C. W.—" Education for Efficiency." $.35, Houghton. Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education." $1.00, American Book Co. Gordon, Mrs. O. — "Handbook of Employments." The Rose- mount Press, Aberdeen, Scotland, 1908. Greenwood, A. — "Juvenile Labor Exchanges and After-Care." P. S. King & Son, London. Hanus, P. H. — "Beginnings in Industrial Education." $1.00, Houghton. Keeling, F. — "The Labor Exchange in Relation to Boy and Girl Labor." P. S. King & Son, London. Keppell, F. P. — "The Occupations of College Graduates." Ed- ucational Review, Dec, 1910. 806 BIBLIOGRAPHY King, I. — "Social Aspects of Education." $1.50, Macmillan, 1912. Laselle, M. A., and Wiley, K., with an introduction by Meyer Bloomfield. "Vocations for Girls." $.85, Houghton. "Mein Kiinf tiger Beruf." A series of booklets published in Leipzig by C. Bange. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Reports. 105 East 2 2d Street, New York. Parsons, F. — "Choosing a Vocation." $1.00, Houghton. Sadler, M. E. — "Continuation Schools in England and Else- where." Especially chap. XV, on Apprenticeship and Skilled Employment Committees. University Press, Manchester, Eng. Snedden, D. — "The Problem of Vocational Education." $.35, Houghton. Students' Aid Committee of the High School Teachers' Associa- tion of New York City. Publications. Benjamin C. Gruenberg, Secretary, Commercial High School, Brook- lyn, N. Y. Talbert, E. L. — "A Study of Chicago's Stockyards Community." No, I, Opportunities in School and Industry for Children of the Stockyards District. University of Chicago Press. Teachers College Record, "Educational Survey and Vocational Guidance," Jan., 1913; "The Making of a Girls' Trade School." Sept., 1909. Columbia University Press. Thorndike, E. L.— "Individuality." $.35, Houghton. Address, Teachers College Alumni, Bulletin, March, 1913. "Trades for London Boys"; "Trades for London Girls." Long- mans. Twenty-Fifth Annual Report of the United States Commis- sioner of Labor, 19 10. Vocation Bureau. — Proceedings of Vocational Guidance Con- ventions. Vocations for Boys and Young Men. Voca- tions for Boston Girls (first issued by the Girls' Trade Ed- ucation League). 6 Beacon Street, Boston. Vocational Guidance, National Association of, Proceedings of. J. B. Davis, Grand Rapids, Mich. Vocational Guidance Survey of Minneapolis. Unity House, Minneapolis, 191 2. BIBLIOGRAPHY 807 "Was Werde Ich?" — A series of booklets published in Leipzig by Albert Otto Paul. Weeks, R. M.— "The People's School." $.60, Houghton. Winslow, C. H. — "Vocational Guidance, in Industrial Educa- tion." Twenty-Fifth Annual Report of the Commis- sioner of Labor, 1910. Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington. Women's Educational and Industrial Union. " Vocations for the Trained Woman Other Than Teaching." 264 Boylston Street, Boston, 1910. Women's Municipal League. — "A Handbook of Opportunities for Vocational Training in Boston." $1.25, Women's Municipal League, 6 Marlboro Street, Boston, 1913. CHAPTER XXV AVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE Bagley, W. C. — "Educational Values." Pp. 216-241 treat of the recreative and the interpretative values of studies. $1.10, Macmillan. Butler, N. M. — "Training for Vocation and for Avocation." Educational Review, 36:471. Chubb, P. — "Education for Play." Religious Education, 7 : 699. Davis, M.M. — "The Exploitation of Pleasure." Pp.61. $.10, Russell Sage Foundation. Garber, J. P. — " Current Educational Activities." Pp. 23-83. $1.25, Lippincott, 1912. Griggs, J. H. — "The Use of the Margin." Huebsch, 1907. Groos, K.— "The Play of Man." $1.50, Appleton. Gulick, L. H.— "The Efficient Life." $1.20, Doubleday. Hamerton, G. — "The Intellectual Life." $1.00, Little, Brown. Lubbock, Sir J. — "The Pleasures of Life." $1.25, Macmillan. Perry, C. A. — "Recreation the Basis of Association between Parents and Teachers." Pp. 13. $.05, Russell Sage Foundation. Recreative Bibliography. — Contains thirty-seven pages of classi- fied bibliography on the various types of recreative activi- ties, f.io, Russell Sage Foundation. 808 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ruediger, W. C. — "Principles of Education." Pp. 133-15S and 236-241 discuss respectively the subjective values of studies and avocational training. $1.25, Houghton. Schaeffer, N. C— "Education for Avocation." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Sharp, F. C— " Moral Instruction for the High School." Pp. 41-51. University of Wisconsin, 1913. Spencer, H. — "Education." Pp. 70-84. Appleton. CHAPTER XXVI CO-OPERATION IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH Avery, E. H. — "The Training of the English Teacher — One Experience. ' ' English Journal, 2:322. Breitenbach, H. P. — "Literature and Composition." The Na- tion, 86:464. Browne, G. H. — "Successful Combination against the Inert." New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 3, Oct., 1901. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cam- bridge, Mass. Carpenter, G. R. — "English in Secondary Education" in "The Teaching of English," by Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, pp. 229-234. $1.50, Longmans. Charters, W. W.— "A Spelling 'Hospital' in the High School." School Review, 18:192. Chubb, P. — "The Teaching of English in the Elementary and the Secondary School." $1.00, Macmillan. See espe- cially "Limitations of the School in Dealing with Illiter- acy," pp. 8-16; "Composition and Other Studies," pp. 176-184; and "Requiring Pupils to Live up to What They Know," pp. 326-329. Colby, J. R. — "English in the School." Educational Bimonthly, 3: I- Earle, S. C— "The Organization of Instruction m English Com- position." English Journal, 2:477. "English and Other Teaching."— Editorial, The Nation, 86:253. Fulton, M. G.— "A Deference of the Special Teacher of Compo- sition." The Nation, 86:46s- BIBLIOGRAPHY 809 Gallagher, O. C. — "Co-operation in English." New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 67, Jan., 1909. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Gardiner, J. H. — "English in Relation to Other Studies." The Nation, 86 : 509. "Training in Illiteracy." School Review, 17:623. Gray, R. P. — "English and the Foreign Languages." Educa- tional Review, 41:306. Groce, B. — "Some Successful Experiments in Co-operation." Report of a committee of the New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet no. 78, Feb., 1910. Sec- retary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Herr, C. B. — "Co-operation in the Teaching of English Compo- sition." English Journal, 2 : 183. Hooper, C. L. — "An Experiment in Co-operation." English Journal, 1:173. Hopkins, E. M. — " Can Good Work in Teaching Composition be Done under Present Conditions? " English Journal, 1:1. " Cost and Labor of English Teaching." The final report of a committee of the Modern Language Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. Lawrence, Kan., April, 1913. Hopkins, F. M. — "Methods of Instruction in the Use of High School Libraries." Proc. N. E. A., 1905, p. 858. Koch, T.— "The High School Library." Chap. XXVI of "High School Education." $1.50, Scribner McLaughlin, M. — "English in Relation to Other Studies." The Nation, 86 : 509. O'Shea, M. V. — "Linguistic Development and Education." $1,25, Macmillan. See especially "Efficiency as Special, not General," pp. 232-236; "Development of Efficiency in Oral Expression through the General Activities of the School," pp. 241-246. Partridge, G. E. — "The Genetic Philosophy of Education of G. Stanley Hall," pp. 239-245. $1.50, Sturgis & Walton. Sachs, J. — "The American Secondary School," pp. 1 16-120. $1.10, Macmillan. Smith, J. F. — "Report on English in Secondary Schools in England and Scotland." Educational Review, 40:266. . 810 BIBLIOGRAPHY Stevens, W. LeC. — "Co-operation in English Teaching." The Nation, April 2, 1908. 86 : 303. "The Teaching of English in Secondary Schools." Circular 753. Board of Education, London, 1910. Thurber, S. — "An Address to Normal School Teachers of En- glish." School Review, S:i2g. "Five Axioms of Composition Teaching." School Review, 5:7- CHAPTER XXVII The Hygiene oe the High School medical supervision, school sanitation, the hygiene of instruction In many references all or several of the five divisions of edu- cational hygiene are discussed, and the reader of this chapter is referred to the lists given for the chapters on Physiology and Hygiene and Sex Pedagogy in the high school in High School Education and the one on Athletics and Gymnastics in the present volume. Some of the more recent and valuable con- tributions follow, including a small selected group of books for every-day use in schools. I. Books AUen, W. H.— "Civics and Health." $1.25, Ginn. "Woman's Part in Government." $1.50, Dodd, Mead. A5rres, L. P. — "Medical Inspection Legislation." Sage Foun- dation, New York. Barry, W. F.— "The Hygiene of the Schoolroom." $1.50, Silver, Burdett. Bergey, D. H. — "The Principles of Hygiene." $3.00, Saunders. Burgerstein, L. — "Schulhygiene." B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. * Burks, F. W., and J. D.— "Health and the School." Appleton. Burrage and Bailey. — "School Sanitation and Decoration." $1.50, Heath. Chisholm, C. — " The Medical Inspection of Girls in Secondary Schools." Longmans. Coleman—" The People's Health." Macmillan. BIBLIOGRAPHY 811 * Cornell, W. S. — "Health and Medical Inspection of School Children." $3.00, F. A. Davis Co. Crowley, R. H.— "The Hygiene of School Life." Muthen & Co., London. Curtis, S. H.— " Play and Recreation." Ginn & Co. * " Cyclopedia of Education," in five volumes. Articles and bib- liographies on all phases of educational hygiene. $5.00 each, Macmillan. Davenport, C. B. — "Heredity in Relation to Eugenics." $2.00, Holt. Denison, Elsa. — "Helping School Children." $1.40, Harpers. * Ditman, N. E. — "Home Hygiene and the Prevention of Dis- ease." $1.50, Duffield. * Dresslar, F. B.— "School Hygiene." $1.25, Macmillan. Ellwood, C. A. — "Sociology and Modern Social Problems." $1.00, American Book Co. Emerson, C. P. — "Essentials of Medicine." $2.00, Lippincott. Fisher, I. — "National Vitality." $.15, United States Senate Document. Fitz, G. W. — "Principles of Physiology and Hygiene." $1.12, Holt. Foster, W. T.— " The Social Emergency." Houghton. Gerhard, W. P.—" Sanitation of Public Buildings." Wiley & Sons, London. Gesell, A. L., and B. C— "The Normal Child and Primary Ed- ucation." $1.50, Ginn. Gillette, J. M. — "Constructive Rural Sociology." $2.00, Stur- gis & Walton. * Gulick and Ayres. — "Medical Inspection of Schools," 1913. The Survey Associates Co. Gulick and Jewett. — "The Gulick Hygiene Series." Ginn. Hall, G. S. — "Adolescence." $7.50, Appleton. "Educational Problems." $7.50, Appleton. Hall, W. S. — " Sexual Knowledge." International Bible House; * Hoag, E. B.— "The Health Index of Children." $.80, Whit- aker & Ray-Wiggin Co., San Francisco. Hogarth, A. H. — "Medical Inspection of Schools." I6.00, Henry Froude, Oxford University Press, London. Holmes, A. — "The Conservation of the Child." $1.25, Lippin- cott. 812 BIBLIOGRAPHY Holt, E. — "Diseases of Childhood and Infancy." Appleton. Hough and Sedgwick. — "The Human Mechanism." $2.00, Ginn. * Hutchinson, W.— "Handbook of Health." $.65, Houghton. • "Common Diseases." $1.50, Houghton. "Preventable Diseases." $1.50, Houghton. Hutt, C. W. — " Hygiene for Health Visitors, School Nurses, and Social Workers." P. S. King & Son, London. Kelynack, T. N. — "Medical Examination of Schools and Schol- ars." King, London. Lippert and Holmes. — "When to Send for the Doctor." Lip- pincott. McCombs, R. S. — "Diseases of Children for Nurses." $2.00, W. B. Saunders Co. Mackenzie, W. L.— "The Health of the School Child." Me- thuen & Co., London. Mackenzie and Matthew. — "The Medical Inspection of School Children." Hodge & Co., Edinburgh, Scotland. Mangold, G. B.— "Child Problems." $1.25, Macmillan. Marshall, J. S. — "Mouth Hygiene." $5.50, Lippincott. Moll, A.— "The Sexual Life of the Child." $1.75, Macmillan. Newmayer, S. W. — " Medical and Sanitary Inspection of Schools." Lea & Febiger. Nutting, Read, and Stewart. — "The Nurse in Education." $.75, University of Chicago Press. Perry, C. A.— "Wider Use of the School Plant." $1.25, Chari- ties Publication Committee. * Rapeer, L. W. — "School Health Administration." Teachers College, Columbia University. Ritchie, J. W. — "Primer of Hygiene." (New World Science Series.) $.40, The World Book Co. School of Civics and Philanthropy. Chicago. "The Child in the City." Schubert, P. — "Das Schulartzwesen in Deutschland." Leopold Voss, Hamburg, Germany. Shaw, E. R. — "School Hygiene." $1.00, Macmillan. Sill, E. M.— "The Child— Its Care, Diet, and Common Ills." $.40, Holt. Steven, E. M. — "Medical Supervision in Schools." Bailliere Tindall & Cox, London. BIBLIOGRAPHY 813 * Terman, L. M.— "The Teacher's Health." $.60, Houghton. " The Hygiene of the School Child." Houghton. Terman and Hoag. — " Health Work in the Schools." Houghton. Tolmon, W. H. — " Hygiene for the Worker," American Book Co. Wallace, A. R. — "Social Environment and Moral Progress." Cassell & Co. Ward, E.J.—" The Social Centre." Appleton. Weeks, A. D. — "The Education of Tomorrow." Sturgis & Walton Co. Wile, I. S.— "Sex Education." Duffield. Willson, R. N. — "The Education of the Young in Sex Hygiene." Published by the author, 1708 Locust Street, Philadelphia. Wood, T. D. — "Health and Education." University of Chicago Press. Woodworth, R. S.— "The Care of the Body." $1.50, Macmillan. II. Small Selected List for the Beginning of a Profes- sional Library Burks. — "Health and the School." Appleton. Cornell. — "Health and Medical Inspection of School Children." F. A. Davis Co. " Cyclopedia of Education." 5 vols., $5.00 each, Macmillan. Ditman. — "Home Hygiene and the Prevention of Disease." Duffield. Dresslar. — "School Hygiene." Macmillan. Gulick and Ayres. "Medical Inspection of Schools." (1913 ed.) Survey Associates. Hoag.— "The Health Index of Children." $.80, Whitaker & Ray-Wiggin. Hutchinson. — "Handbook of Health." $.65, Houghton. Rapeer. — "School Health Administration." Teachers College, Columbia University. Terman. — "The Teacher's Health." $.60, Houghton. " The Hygiene of the School Child." Houghton. Terman and Hoag. — " School Health Work." Houghton. III. Articles A very rapidly increasing number of articles on various phases of school health in both educational and other magazines have appeared since 1906. Many of these will be found 814 BIBLIOGRAPHY in the bibliographies below. The various indexes may be used for finding others. Practically all that has been said in articles is incorporated in the recent books men- tioned. IV. Reports — American Bulletins of the United States Bureau of Education. No. 528. Dresslar and others. — "Report of the Fifteenth In- ternational Congress on Hygiene and Demography." No. 496. Dresslar, Wood, and North. — "Current Educational Topics." No. 475. Nutting, M. A. — "Educational Status of Nursing," 191 2 Annual Report of the Commissioner, vol. I. Dresslar, "Typical Health-Teaching Agencies." Child Hygiene Division of the Sage Foundation. Ayres, "What American Cities Are Doing for the Health of School Children and Others." Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Cl'eveland, O. Annual Reports of the Health Ofl&cer of Providence, R. I. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Newark, N. J. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in South Manchester, Conn. Various Reports in the Journal of the American Medical Associa- tion. " U. S. Mortality Statistics." Various Reports in the Proceedings of the National Education Association. Reports in the various magazines for nurses and physicians. Various city school and board of health reports. Bulletins of the Life Extension Institute, N. Y. City. Volumes of Proceedings of the National and the International Congresses on School Hygiene. Secretary, Doctor Thos. Storey, College of the City of New York. V. Reports — Foreign Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Dunfermline, Scotland. Annual Reports of Medical Inspection in Scotland, by W. L. Mackenzie, and published by H. M. Stationery Office, 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh. BIBLIOGRAPHY 815 Annual Reports of the Chief Medical OfiScer of the English Board of Education, covering England, Ireland, and Wales. Whitehall, London. Wyman & Sons, Fetter Lane, E. C, London. The Scottish re- ports may also be purchased at this office for a small sum. From these reports the cities that have exceptionally good medi- cal inspection work and reports may be learned. London County Council. Special reports on Medical Inspection, School Feeding, and the like. The work of medical inspection in other countries may be learned in the various volumes of Proceedings of the Interna- tional School Hygiene Congress. Secretary, Doctor Thos. Storey, College of the City of New York. VI. Bibliographies The United States Bureau of Education and the Library of Con- gress at Washington will furnish bibliographies on this subject on request. Annotated Bibliography of Medical Inspection and Health Su- pervision of School Children in the United States for the Years 1909-12. United States Bureau of Education. Teachers College, Columbia University. A Bibliography on Educational Hygiene. By Doctor Thos. D. Wood and Mary Reesor, New York City. Bibliography of Child Study for the Years 1908-09. By Louis N. Wilson. United States Bureau of Education. See also the bibliographies at the end of various articles on school hygiene in Monroe's " Cyclopedia of Education." Mac- millan. CHAPTER XXVIII THE HIGH SCHOOL AS THE ART CENTRE OE THE COMMUNITY Books. Beatty, J. W. — "Illustrated Catalogues of Annual Exhibits, 1896-1913." Carnegie Institute, Pittsburg, Pa. Caffin, C. H. — "American Masters of Painting." $1.25, Double- day, Page. • "Art for Life's Sake." Prang. ■ "How to Study Pictures." $2.00, Century. 816 BIBLIOGRAPHY Emery, M. S. — "How to Enjoy Pictures." $1.50, Prang. Garesche, M. R. — "Art of the Ages." $1.25, Prang. Haney, J. — ^"Art Education in the Public Schools of the United States." American Art Annual. Harrison, B. — "Landscape Painting." $1.50, Scribner. Hartmann, S. — "A History of American Art." $4.00, L. C. Page. "Japanese Art." $1.50, L. C. Page. Isham, S. — ^" American Painting." $5.00, Macmillan. Morris, W. — "Hopes and Fears for Art." $1.50, Longmans. Munsell, A. H. — "A Color Notation." $1.00, George H. Ellis. Munsterberg, H. — "The Principles of Art Education." $1.00, Prang. Noyes, C. — "The Enjoyment of Art." $1.00, Houghton. Reinach, S.— "Apollo." $1.50, Scribner. Stevenson, R. A. M.— "Velasquez." G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. Taft, L. — "The History of American Sculpture." $6.00, Mac- millan. Van Dyke, J. C. — "History of Painting." $1.25, Longmans. "Art Education for High Schools." $1.25, Prang. Magazines. The International Studio. $5.00, John Lane Co., New York. The Craftsman. $3.00, Craftsman Pub. Co., 41 West 34th Street, New York. The School Arts Magazine. $1.50, School Arts Pub. Co., Boston, Mass. Magazine Articles. "An Art Association for the People." E. B. Johnston, The Out- look, April 27, 1907. "A Notable High School." H. T. Bailey, The School Arts Book, April, 191 2. "Art in Indiana." E. B. Johnston, The Outlook, June 24, 191 1. "Arts and Crafts in Civic Improvement." Mrs. M. F. John- ston, The Chautauquan, June, 1906. BIBLIOGRAPHY 817 CHAPTER XXIX THE MORAL AGENCIES AFFECTING THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT Addams, J. — "The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets." Widely known as a challenge to the community responsi- ble for things that are out of joint. Full of suggestions to any one who is in earnest. $1.25, Macmillan. Adier, F. — "The Moral Instruction of Children." Deals avow- edly with the problem for the primary and grammar school grades. Important suggestions in the preface. $1.50, Appleton. Athearn, W. S. — "The Responsibility of the Public School to the Family." Religious Education, 5:124-130. Shows the changed social conditions and suggests the school's real work with reference to the family. Bagley, W. C. — "The School's Responsibility for Directing Con- trols of Conduct." Elementary School Teacher, 8:349- 360. Defines the aim of educational effort and relates the school's work in moral training to the "emotionalized prejudices." • "The Present Status of Moral Education in Institutions for the Training of Teachers." Religious Education, 5:612- 640. Barnes, C. W. — "Moral Training through the Agency of the Public Schools." Proc. N. E. A., 1909. Emphasizes im- portance of the teacher's personal influence. Brown, E. E. — "Government by Influence." One of a collec- tion of addresses with that title. Aims to show that the power of government by influence should increase and that this greatly concerns modern education. $1.35, Longmans. Brownlee, J. — "Character Building in School." Presents clearly the true basis of the teacher's equipment for his work. Abounds in real problems and practical sugges- tions. $i.oc Houghton. Brumbaugh, M. L.— "The Problem Stated." In report of Comrnittee on Moral Education, Proc. N. E. A., 1911. Commented on in this book, chap. XXIII. 818 BIBLIOGRAPHY Cabot, E. L. — '"Moral Training in the Public Schools." A sym- posium conducted by Frederic Allen Tupper. Journal of Education, 71 : 11 7-1 23. Has many practical suggestions. Carr, J. W. — "A Course by Grades." In report of Committee on Moral Education. Proc. N. E. A., 191 1. Carefully prepared outline for course of instruction. The qualities demanded of the teacher are well chosen. "Scope of Moral Education in the Public Schools." New Jersey State Teachers' Association Proceedings, 1909. Covers somewhat same ground as preceding. "Means Employed in Teaching Morality in Public Schools." In "The Bible in Practical Life." $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Carroll, C. F. — "Moral Instruction and Training in the Public Schools of New York." Religious Education, 5:640-644. Calls attention to spiritual influence of teachers even in "Godless" schools. Chubb, P. — "Direct Moral Education." Religious Education, 6:106-113. Opposes vigorously the arguments of Pal- mers and Dewey against direct moral instruction. "The Function of the Festival in School Life." Pamphlet, Ethical Culture Co., New York. "Festivals and Plays in Schools and Elsewhere." Shows how festivals may be used for moral training and gives descriptions in detail for carrying out the suggestions. $2.00, Harper. Coe, G. A. — "Education in Religion and Morals." Nearly half of the volume devoted to "selected and classified bib- liography." $1.35, Revell. Coleman, G. W. — "Education through Social Service." In "Education and National Character," a collection of monographs, several of which are indexed in this bib- liography. Presents numerous examples of the value of social service. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Cook, J. W. — "Moral Training in Secondary Schools." Illinois State Teachers' Association Proceedings, 1903. Empha- sizes importance of the person as a concrete embodiment of the moral code. Cope, H. F. — "A Selected List of Books on Moral Training and Instruction in the Public Schools." Religious Education, BIBLIOGRAPHY 819 5:718-732. Carefully prepared and classified; used freely in preparing this bibliography. "Character Training of High School Boys." Association Boys, vol. VII, no. 4. Shows how the high school should meet the need of students in the four directions: physical exercise, self-knowledge, social training, study of ethical problems. Dewey, J. — "Moral Principles in Education." Crowded with stimulating suggestions and helpful warnings and argu- ments to show fallacy of many commonly accepted con- clusions. Every teacher should own this book. $.35, Houghton. "The Chaos in Moral Training." Popular Science Monthly, Aug., 1894. Strongly insists upon appeal to child's own consciousness of a reason for right doing. Drayton, H. S. — "Moral Education in the Schools." Field & Young, Jersey City. Dutton, S. T. — "Social Phases of Education in School and Home." One in a collection of addresses published under that title. Shows that vocational and cultural aims are one and the same. Insists on importance of social con- tact and social experience. $1.25, Macmillan. Eliot, C. W. — "Democracy and Manners." Century, 61:173- 178. Interesting and helpful; brings out connection be- tween manners and morals, particularly in educational work. "Moral Training in the Public Schools." A symposium conducted by F. A. Tupper. Journal of Education, 71 : 1 1 7-1 23. Develops clearly the fundamental moral truths that must be taught children in a democracy. Ellis, F. H.—" Character Forming in Schools." A tabulated outline, from actual experience, of exercises for work of this sort, in two parts — ist, for an infants' school; 2d, for a girls' school. $.90, Longmans. Fairchild, M.— "The Moral Education Board." Atlantic Edu- cational Journal, 6: lo-ii, 28. Illustrated. Presents and illustrates the interesting work of this body (now called "National Institution for Moral Instruction"), with pho- tographs as carried out by Mr. Fairchild himself. Flack, A, G. — "Moral Education." $.50, Cochrane Pub. Co. 820 BIBLIOGRAPHY Gilbert, C. B. — "The School and Its Life." Important chapters on the morale of the school and social functions of the school. $1.25, Silver, Burdette. Gillette, J. M. — "Vocational Education," Discussion of four well-recognized ends of education, viz., perfection, disci- pline, culture, vocational, as compared with social end. Important chapter on "Pathological Demands on Edu- cation." $1.00, American Book Co. Gladden, W.—" Effective Educational Unity." In "Educa- tional and National Character," a collection of mono- graphs. Quoted in chap. XXIII of this volume. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Goodwin, E. J, — "Exclusion of Religious Instruction from the Public Schools." Educational Review, 35: 129-138. "Sci- ence must meet the situation." Greenwood, J. M. — "Systematic Formal Moral Training in the Schools." Journal of Education, 71:740-^41. Insists on a combination of both methods. Hall, G. S.— "What Changes Should Be Made in Public High Schools to Make Them More Efficient in Moral Training? " Religious Education Association Proceedings, 1905. A systematic plan for increasing the efficiency of the schools in this regard. Hall, W. S.— "From Youth into Manhood." A sane, helpful guide for high school boys in matters of sex hygiene along the lines of Doctor Hall's effective addresses made before so many schools. $.50, Y. M. C. A. Harris, W. T. — "The Separation of the Church from the School Supported by Public Taxes." Proc. N. E. A., 1903. Contends for the necessity of this action. Challenges earnest attention and discussion such as its delivery called forth. Huntington, F. D. — "Unconscious Tuition." Full of inspira- tion to every real teacher. $.30, Bardeen. Hyde, W. D. — " Practical Ethics." A text-book for high schools in moral instruction. $1.00, Holt. Jenks, J. W. — "Life Questions of High School Boys." A con- venient manual for use in clubs for boys; has been used successfully in carrying out David R. Porter's suggestion about voluntary moral movements. $.40, Y. M. C. A. BIBLIOGRAPHY 821 Johnson, F. W. — "Moral Education through School Activities." Religious Education, 6:493-502. An interesting study of conditions in English public schools and of methods used in experiments conducted especially at the University High School of the University of Chicago. King, H. C. — In "Education and National Character." A col- lection of monographs. $1.00, Relig. Educ. Assn. Kirkland, J. H. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Gratis, Relig. Educ. Assn. Leonard, M. H. — "Moral Training in Public Schools." Educa- tion, 3:218-223. Discussion of the effect of court de- cisions apparently excluding religious worship from the public schools. Mark, H. T. — "Individuality and the Moral Aim in Education." The Gilchrist Report presented to the Victoria Univer- sity. Comprehensive and interesting. Part I contains a general and thorough discussion of individuality in American education. Part II is a discussion of the moral aims in American education in its relation to the principle of individuality. $1.50, Longmans. Martin, G. H. — "School Activities for Moral Development." Religious Education, 6:503-570. A valuable article call- ing attention to the responsibility resting on various agen- cies and the necessity for intelligent co-operation. Mead, G. H. — "Moral Training in the Schools." Elementary School Teacher, 9:327-328. Editorial, commenting espe- cially on the Fairchild and Brownlee systems and point- ing the only way in which the school can become an ef- fective moral agency. Reviews on several educational publications, particularly Sadler's "Report of an International Inquiry into Moral Training." Elementary School Teacher, 9:328. This re- view is clarifying. Moral Education Board. — "How It Was Done by the Moral Education Board." Brief monograph on the work of this body. Pamphlet, Natl. Inst, for Moral Inst., Baltimore. Mott, T. A.— "The Means Afforded by the Public School for Moral and Religious Education." Proc. N. E. A., 1906. Quoted in regard to manual training in chap. XXIII of this volume. 822 BIBLIOGRAPHY Myers, G. E. — "Moral Training in the School. A Comparative Study." Pedagogical Seminary, 13: 4og~46o. Contains a bibliography. Appears as one of "The California Prize Essays." Advocates the policy that teachers be especially trained and then left free to work out individual methods. Page, W. H. — "Teaching Morals by Photographs." World's Work, 19:12715. A full and clear popular presentation of the Fairchild method. Palmer, G. H. — "Ethical and Moral Instruction in Schools." A masterly discussion of the issues involved in the three views regarding moral instruction. $.35, Houghton. "The Ideal Teacher." One of the gems of educational lit- erature. $.35, Houghton. Partridge, G. E. — "Moral Education." A chapter in his "Ge- netic Philosophy of Education," which is a summary of the numerous writings and teachings of President G. Stanley Hall, and a most convenient handbook for teachers. The philosophy in this chapter is stimulating and is accompanied by many practical hints. 1 1.50, Sturgis & Walton. Porter, D. R. — "Moral Conditions in High Schools." Religious Education, 4 : 197-202. The report of a first-hand detailed study of conditions. Referred to in chap. XXIII of this volume. Reeder, R. R. — "Moral Training an Essential Factor in Elemen- tary School Work." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Contains many thoughtful utterances. Rees, W. E. E.— "The Folly of the Secular System." Fort- nightly Review, 89 : 905-913. Argues for the necessity of religious instruction. Rugh, C. E. — "Moral Training and Instruction in the Schools of California." Religious Education, 5:644-663. A very elaborate report with many interesting details. " Moral Training in the Public Schools." The winning paper in the group known and published together as "The Cali- fornia Prize Essays." Referred to in chap. XXIII of this volume. $1.50, Ginn. Sadler, M. E. — "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools." The result of an international inquiry with contributions from a large number of writers in many countries. See BIBLIOGRAPHY 823 review of this book by G. H. Mead in Elementary School Teacher, referred to under his name in this bibliography. Two vols., I1.50 each, Longmans. Schroeder, H. H. — "The Psychology of Conduct; Applied to the Problem of Moral Education, in the Public Schools." $1.25, Row, Peterson. Calls attention to need for more men teachers and a higher salary schedule. Search, P. W.— "The Ethical Basis of the School." A chapter in his "An Ideal School, or Looking Forward." An in- teresting book. $1.20, Appleton. Shallenberger, M. E. — "The Function of the School in Training for Right Conduct." Proc. N. E. A., 1908. Worth read- ing. Quoted in chap. XXIII of this volume. Sharp, F. C. — "A Study of the Influence of Custom on Moral Judgment." Deserves attention from thoughtful teach- ers as a careful, first-hand study of actual problems in moral judgment and how they may be dealt with. $.30, Univ. of Wis. Sharp, F. C, and Neumann, H. — " Course in Moral Instruction for the High School." School Review, 20:226-245. An elaborate outline with references. Sisson, E. O. — "Can Virtue Be Taught?" Educational Review, 41:261-279. A historical discussion of theories with a hopeful appreciation of the value of child study. Slattery, M. — "The Girl in Her Teens." Sex hygiene for girls. $.50, S. S. Times Co. Spiller, G. — "Bibliography on Moral Instruction." In his "Re- port on Moral Instruction." Watts & Co., London. "Moral Education in Eighteen Countries." Part I, Atti- tude of the churches and the general problem of moral education. Part II, Detailed report of the procedure in each country considered. Part III, Bibliography, 56 pages. Watts & Co., London. Stevenson, T. E. — " Moral Training in the Public Schools." One of the papers in the group included in "The California Prize Essays." Urges teaching of existing laws in the schools as a moral agency. $1.50, Ginn. Strayer, G. D. — "The Legal Aspect of Moral Education." Re- ligious Education, 5:599-611. A comprehensive state- 824 BIBLIOGRAPHY ment of legislation in different States on the subject of moral training and education. Sutton, W. S. — "Moral Instruction and Training in the Public Schools of Texas." Religious Education, 5:678-688. Presents a great variety of opinions. Points out the dan- ger in too great emphasis upon individualism. Suzzallo, H. — Introduction to Dewey's "Moral Principles in Education" listed in this bibliography. Quoted in chap. XXIII for its important definition of the fields of re- sponsibility in public education. Taylor, C. K.— "The Moral Education of School Children." Printed for C. K. and H. B. Taylor, Philadelphia. Teitrich, R. B. — "The School as an Instrument of Character Building." National Education Association Proceedings, 1908. Emphasizes importance of environment. Thomas, J. M. — "Moral Instruction in High Schools and Col- leges." University of the State of New York Convocation Proceedings, 1909. Issued as Educ. Dept. Bulletin no. 460. Thompson, W. O.— "The Effect of Moral Education in the Public Schools upon the Civic Life of the Community." Proc.N.E. ^4., 1906. Sets forth interesting reasons why the teacher's influence is conservative of democratic ideals. Tufts, J. H. — "How Far Is Formal Systematic Instruction De- sirable in Moral Training in the Schools." Religious Ed- ucation, 3:121-132. Quoted freely in chap. XXIII of this volume. Tupper, F. A. — "Moral Training in the Public Schools." Jour- nal of Education, 71:117-123. A symposium referred to in this bibliography under names of contributing authors. Votaw, C. W.— "Moral Training in the PubHc Schools." Bib- lical World, 34:295-305. Emphasizes the social theory. Williams, C. W. — "Moral Training through Patriotism." One of the papers under the title, "Education and National Character." Proc. Relig. Educ. Assoc, 1908. An in- teresting presentation of the plans adapted in this line in various nations, and a definite proposition for American schools. Williams, H. G. — "The Scholar as an Instrument of Character Building." One of several addresses in Proc. N. E. A., 1908. BIBLIOGRAPHY 825 Wilm, E. C— "The Culture of Religion. Elements of Religious Education." A discussion of the aims and instruments of moral and religious education. Chap. Ill has espe- cially to do with the public school. Stimulating and reasonable. $.75, Pilgrim Press. Wilson, C. D. — "Making the Most of Ourselves." A text-book for high schools. Chapters of especial interest are those on meliorism, personal magnetism, the duty of learning to laugh, obscure success, the art of conferring benefits. Two series, $1.00 each, McClurg. CHAPTER XXX THE RELIGIOUS LIFE OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT Adler, F.— "The Moral Instruction of Children." $1.50, Ap- pleton. Arendt, F. — "Ein Beitrag zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts." Halle, 1908.1 Bagley, W. C. — "The Pedagogy of Morality and Religion as Re- lated to Periods of Development." Religious Education, April, 1909. Barnes, C. W. — Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 453-457. Bell, G. C. — "Religious Teaching in Secondary Schools." Lon- don, 1897. Brockman, F. S. — "A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of Two Hundred and Fifty-one Preparatory Students in the United States." Pedagogical Seminary, Sept., 191 2. Brown, E. E. — "The Culture of Righteousness." Methodist Re- view, Sept., 1909. Bryce, J. — "Religion and Moral Education." Religious Edu- cation, 4:30-40. Buisson, F. — "La Religion, la Morale et la Science." Paris, 1900. Burton and Matthews. — "Principles and Ideals for the Sunday School." $1.00, Univ. of Chicago Press. * Foreign books whose publishers are not designated may be had through G. E. Stechert & Co., 151-155 West Twenty-fifth Street, New York. 826 BIBLIOGRAPHY Butler, N. M. — "The Meaning of Education." $i.oo, Macmil- lan. Coe, G. A. — "Moral and Religious Education from the Psycho- logical Point of View." Religious Education, 3:165-179. "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Religious Education, April, 1909. "Education in Religion and Morals." $1.35, Revell. Conway, J. — "Catholic Education in the United States." Edu- cational Review, Feb., 1905. Doring and others. — " Konf essionelle oder weltliche Schule?" Berlin, 1904. Faguet, E. — "L'Anti-Clericalisme." Paris. Faunce, W. H. P. — "Survey of Moral and Religious Progress." Educational Review, April, 1905. Franke, Th. — "Der Kampf um den Religionsunterricht." Leip- zig, 1909. Gansberg, F. — "Religionsunterricht?" Leipzig, 1906. Griinweller, A. — "Nicht Moral- sondern Religionsunterricht." Berlin, 1899. Hall, C. C. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education." Educational Review, June, 1904. Hall, G. S. — "Adolescence." $7.50, Appleton. "Educational Problems." $7.50, Appleton. Harvey, W. L. — "How May the Teaching of Religion Be Made Potent for Morality?" Proc. Congress of Arts and Sci- ences, St. Louis, Houghton. Hirsch, E. G. — "Religious Education and Moral Efficiency." Religious Education, June, 1909. Home, H. H. — "Psychological Principles of Education." $1.75, Macmillan. Jackman, W. S. — "Nature Study and Religious Training." Ed- ucational Review, June, 1905. Jenks, J. W. — "Moral and Religious Training from the Social Sciences." Religious Education, Dec, 1911. King, H. C. — "The Future of Moral and Religious Education.'' Religious Education, Oct., 1909. Kirkland, J. H. — "Progress in Religious and Moral Education," Religious Education, April, 19 10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 827 McMurry, F. M. — "The Use of Biography in Religious Instruc- tion." In "Principles of Religious Education." Long- mans. Mott, T. A.— "The Means Afiorded by the Public Schools for Moral and Religious Training." Proc. N. E. A., 1906, pp. 35-42. Moulton, R. G. — "The Bible as Literature." $1.50, Crowell. Penzig, R. — "Zum Kulturkampf um die Schule." Berlin, 1905. Potter, H. C. (editor). — "Principles of Religious Education." Longmans. Report of Committee on Moral Training in the Public Schools. In Proc. N. E. A., 1908, pp. 448-457. Rietschel, G. — "Zur Reform des Religionsunterrichts in der Volksschule." Leipzig, 1909. Sadler, M. E. — "Moral Instruction and Training in Schools." Report of an International Inquiry. Two volumes. $3.00, Longmans. "The Unrest in Secondary Education in Germany." Lon- don. Salter, W. M.— "The Bible in the Schools." American Ethical Union. Seeley, L. — "Religious Instruction in American Schools." Ed- ucational Review, Feb., 1898. Show, A. B. — "The Movement for Reform in the Teaching of Religion in the Public Schools of Saxony." United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1910, no. i. Sisson, E. O. — "The Spirit and Value of Prussian Religious In- struction." American Journal of Theology, April, 1907. Spalding, J. L. — "Means and Ends of Education." $1.00, McClurg. Spiller, G. — "Moral Instruction in Eighteen Countries." Lon- don, 1909. Starbuck, E. D. — "Moral and Religious Education. Sociologi- cal Aspect." Religious Education, Feb., 1909. Tews, J.—" Schulkampfe der Gegenwart." Leipzig, 1906. Wilm, E. C— "The Problem of Religion." $1.25, Pilgrim Press. "The Culture of Religion. Elements of Religious Educa- tion." $.75, Pilgrim Press. 828 BIBLIOGRAPHY Proc. Congress of Arts and Sciences, vol. VIII, Houghton. Proc. International Moral Education Congress. London, 1908 J?. Proc. Northern Illinois Teachers^ Association. "Moral and Re- ligious Training in the Public Schools." Elgin, 111., 1908. APPENDIX THE UPWARD EXTENSION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL By Charles Hughes Johnston, Editor The following statement from Superintendent C. C. Starr, of Fresno, Cal., dated February 4, 19 14, is of interest and signifi- cance as relating to the problem of the upward extension of the American high school: "The junior college had its origin in California in Fresno. It is proving entirely satisfactory to patrons and educators in this community. The element of uncertainty on the start was that of the amount of patronage. The city is growing rapidly, and with it the junior college, so that now it is on a firm footing from every point of view. The junior college would probably not be successful except in the larger centres of population. The smaller the attendance, the higher the cost per capita. " The junior college has the advantage of being a college at home. Home life and home influence are best for the student. The economy of free home education is evident. The free home college opens up a college education to many who either could not or would not otherwise be able to secure its advantages. The junior college enlarges the number of centres of college in- fluence in the State, and in that way leaves its impress upon a larger and better-distributed citizenship. " The close relation to the high school results in economy in administration. The instructors in the junior college become heads of the high school departments, and teach some of the advanced high school subjects. The library and apparatus of the junior college are also at the command of the high school, and the high school department becomes unusually well equipped and strengthened as a consequence." California has, indeed, taken the lead in this "junior-college" 829 830 APPENDIX policy. Bills for State aid are formulated and are expected in the near future to be enacted into law. Professor Alexis F. Lange, Dean of the Faculties of the Uni- versit)'- of California and head of its Educational Department, in tracing the development of the movement for the upward exten- sion of high schools in California, says that this movement aims to relegate the work of college freshmen and sophomore years in universities to the high schools sufficiently equipped to carry such work, and so to have American universities gradually approxi- mate the standards for entrance of the continental European universities. It is becoming more and more necessary to elimi- nate secondary studies in our highest institutions of learning and to put them in high schools where they belong. Presidents James of the University of Illinois and Judson of Chicago Uni- versity are vigorous proponents of this same idea. At the University of California the courses are divided into "lower division" and "upper division." The lower division in- cludes the freshman and sophomore years, and the completion of the lower-division work entitles the student to the "junior certificate." Only then, when he has qualified for this certificate, is the student enabled to become a member of the university proper; for the real university commences with the junior year and extends through the graduate courses. Hence, the first two college years are essentially preparatory, for the work of these years is only a continuation of preparatory education. By com- mencing to relegate all this secondary work to the secondary schools, the university aims to lessen the swamping of its premises with enrolments of freshmen and sophomores it is not equipped to care for. The present equipment is only suffi- cient for upper divisions, real university work. In view of the rapidly increasing population of this State, this policy becomes all the more imperative. President Judson, of Chicago, in this connection points out that thirty per cent of the work of the four-year A.B. course of the Liberal Arts College is of "secon- dary" not "collegiate" grade. Furthermore, Doctor Lange stated that, because of having to mass lower-division students at the University of California in very large classes, it is impossible to give them anything like the opportunities they need. The instructors and the equipment are overtaxed. He asserted expressly that Fresno students had a APPENDIX 831 better chance and could do better college freshman and sopho- more work in their local "junior college" than at the university. Here, at home, in their small classes, they could get closer to, and keep closer to, their studies and to their instructors. One point Doctor Lange emphasizes clearly, namely, that the University of California would recognize, and could afford to recognize, the college work done by Fresno students in their home institution; that if the principal approved of the college work done by any student in Fresno High School, that work would be accepted by the university, and that it would count in every respect the same as if the work had been done at the University of California, and without the necessity of any further •examinations. Doctor Lange also dwells on the opportunity "upward exten- sion" in the high school affords to students who will never go to a university, and who never intend to go, and how desirable it is for this college work to adapt itself to the needs of the com- munity. Santa Baibara, Los Angeles, and other cities are fol- lowing the lead of Fresno in this development. The Fresno six-year high school curriculum, it should be noted, is also preparatory to the affiliated colleges at San Francisco, Hastings College of Law, and the California College of Medicine and Dentistry. Commencing with the year 1913, these colleges will require for entrance two more years of preparatory studies in addition to graduation from the regularly accredited high school. Students promoted from Fresno Junior College will be admitted to any of these affiliated colleges on equal terms with students who have completed the sophomore year at the Uni- versity of California, and without any examinations or condi- tions. Stanford University is also recognizing this upward extension movement. In fact, the term "junior college" is said to have originated with President Jordan. Professor Bentley, Stanford inspector, has expressed great interest and solicitude in having lower college work done in high schools. The two great Cali- fornia universities are, therefore, one in their attitude toward "junior-college" work in our secondary institutions. In addition to the advantages already indicated, the "fact" should commend itself, to parents particularly, that they are enabled to have their children at home, and under home influ- '832 APPENDIX ences for two years longer, to say nothing of economy in ex- penses. This applies more especially to students living in or near the home city, but also to students Irom more remote homes who are enabled to be at home during the week's end. The State law governing high school tuition will also apply to junior-college students. President David Starr Jordan in 191 2 thus expressed his views: "I am looking forward, as you know, to the time when the large high schools of the State in conjunction with the small col- leges wiU relieve the two great universities from the expense and from the necessity of giving instruction of the first two uni- versity years. The instruction of these two years is of necessity elementary and of the same general nature as the work of the high school itself. It is not desirable for a university to have more than about two thousand students gathered together in one place, and when the number comes to exceed that figure then some division is desirable. The only reasonable division is that which will take away students who do not need libraries or laboratories for their work. The value of the university is highly dependent on its possession of great and expensive libra- ries. I am interested in the experiment which is going on at Fresno and in high schools in Los Angeles." Professor Alexis F. Lange, Dean of the Faculties, University of California, has this to say : "Far-sighted and progressive educators are agreed that the establishment of 'Junior Colleges' denotes a necessary develop- ment in the right direction. Such extensions of the four-year high school would (i) enable the universities to concentrate their efforts on university work proper, (2) receive for young people from eighteen to twenty years of age the immense educational advantage of being taught and trained in small groups, not far from home, (3) make it possible for thousands who are unable to attend a university to round out their general education, (4) reduce very materially the cost of college and university educa- tion, (5) provide — a most important factor — finishing vocational courses in agriculture, the industries, commerce, applied civics, domestic science, etc., which cannot be adeijuately provided either by the four-year high school or by the universities, (6) tend to create a number of educational centres of a high order whose APPENDIX 833 U W a El. Hi. Li. Ml. GSi. < -3 ro2 CO ^^ 1. « ai (1< o u^^p:! CO o Ex g 3 3 1 w < «3 1-=) i^ 1 "3 ■fe3 <3 ^- -d^' rinds' i§ it < §0 §u >* a h4 (I) o s^ .S" • • . S2i't5 re ^3 25 •=*• -4 lo in ^S . -^ ^ . . . PH CO "^ ^ S "s 2 ^ • Z Z £ ai!cai]S3Jj 3J0UI jomnf joiuog oSo\[<>j 9 ajomoqclos 3331103 sasano") avinDay ananoo aoiNnf 834 APPENDIX influence for good would extend in many directions over large areas of the State. " The State University has stood for the junior-college plan for more than fifteen years, and its policy is to further the establish- ment of junior colleges in every possible way. This implies, of course, that the university stands ready to recognize the courses of junior colleges as the equivalent of corresponding courses at Berkeley and to give full credit for successfully completed work. " The city of Fresno is to be greatly congratulated on being the first city in the State to establish a junior college. May this prosper and become year by year more useful, especially to those who would otherwise have to forego the chance of higher voca- tional training. Those recommended for university work at Berkeley will, I feel confident, have no reason to regret that their freshman and sophomore work was done in Fresno." President E. J. James, of the University of Illinois, further calls attention to the necessity that high schools, thus extended in equipment and instructorial force, relieve State universities of much of the present elementary "extension service" they are now forced to render communities, such as water analysis, elemen- tary advice in sanitary and other forms of engineering, agricul- ture, and pubhc health. In this connection it should be noted that five high schools in Illinois have now practically "Junior College" annexes. The schematically arranged instructional programme for the thus "extended" public-school system of Fresno gives the reader some idea of the scope and differentiation of work now possible, and also of the possible further extensions in various directions. STUDIES AND ABBREVIATIONS Language and Literature English — E. Pre-Normal, English Grammar (A) Gr. Latin — L. Modern Language — ML. German — G. French — F. Spanish — Sp. History Ancient History — Hi. Med. and Mod. History — H2. APPENDIX 835 English History — H3. U. S. History and Civics — H4. Mod. European History — Hs. Industrial History — H5. Institutional History — H6. Mathematics Elementary Algebra — Mi. Plane Geometry — M2. Solid Geometry (B)— M3. Trigonometry (A) — M3. Advanced Algebra — M4. Synthetic Projective Geometry (B) — Ms. Plane Analytical Geometry (A) — M5. Differential Calculus (B)— M6. Integral Calculus (A)— M6. Surveying Surveying — Su5. Pre-Normal Arithmetic (B) — A. Science, Pure and AppLna> General Science — GSi. General Agriculture — Ag2. Chemistry — C3 . Dairying (B)— Ag3. Soil and Crops (A) — Ag3. Animal Husbandry (B) — Ag4. Farm Mechanics and Management (A) — Ag4. Physics — P4. Advanced Physics — P6. Organic Chemistry — Cs. Qual. Chem. Analysis (B) — C6. Quant. Chem. Analysis (A) — C6. Music Technic and History — MU3. History and Interpretation — MU4. Drawing and Art Work Free-Hand Drawing — D. Art Metal— AM4. Geometric Drawing — GD3. Commercial Com'l Arithmetic — CA3. Short Hand — S. 836 APPENDIX Typewriting — T. Com'l Law (B)— CL3. Economics (A) — Ec. Mechanical Training Woodwork — W. Machine Shop — MS. Domestic Training — DT Cooking and Sewing. College Electives — (CE) elected from high school undergraduate sub- jects, comprising E3, E4, L3, L4, G2, G3, G4, F2, F3, F4, Sp2, Sp3, H4, M3, M4, C3, P4, D(2), 003(2), which studies are available for advanced university credits. Notes 1 . In the courses, expressed by abbreviated notation used on the reci- tation schedules, the heavily typed subjects are required. Studies in lighter type are recommended as preferable, but students may substitute other electives. 2. The following studies are required: Ei, E 2, two years of history in- cluding H4 usually, two years of science for boys, one of which must be either C3 or P4, at least one year of science for girls, which must be either C3 or P4 for girls intending to enter the university, and Mi and M2 ex- cept for pupils taking only two years commercial course. 3. Undergraduate students are expected to carry four full studies; in addition they may, without asking permission, carry also a "half-credit" study, i. e., one period per day in one of the following: AM, D, GD, T, and W. But pupils may not take five full studies without the permis- sion of the principal, except in the senior year in order to graduate. 4. Junior-college students who expect to continue work in the univer- sity must take five full subjects for two years in order to qualify for the "junior certificate" at the university. Junior-college students not intending to go to the university are free to elect any studies given in the high school. 5. Pupils who do not wish to pursue a regular course, as listed above, may elect studies as they wish, except that they must meet the require- ments mentioned in note 2. 6. One year of Latin is urged before commencing any modern language. Students commencing a modern language are urged to continue at least two years in the language selected. 7. (B) Denotes first term, (A) second term subjects. The number after abbreviations denotes the year in which the study regularly comes. The number in parenthesis after the study denotes periods per day. 8. If L3 and L4 are not taken in the high school, social-science students APPENDIX 837 must complete them at the university. The university recommends that these studies be finished in the high school. 9. Members of musical organizations, if woricing under the direction of the musical director, and practising the equivalent of one hour per school day throughout the year are entitled to a full-term credit. 10. Any single study five times per week for one year counts as i unit; 16 units are required to graduate. From the important point of view of the future character of strictly "collegiate" and "university" work, contingent upon the above-sketched developments in high school education, the following quotation from President Judson, taken from The President's Report of the University of Chicago, 1911-12, may well be carefully considered: "In the Annual Report for 1910-11 (pp. 11-15) attention was given to what was believed to be the undue length of the course of study in our various schools and colleges. It was urged that at least two years should be eliminated from this course, and that this ought to be done without lessening efficiency of instruction. " As a further contribution to this study I am glad now to report that in the University Elementary School (one of the laboratory schools in the School of Education) one step toward this time- saving has already been taken successfully. It has been found possible to accomplish all the purposes of the elementary school in seven grades instead of eight, and this change has been effected. Boys and girls, in other words, hereafter will pass through the elementary school and reach the high school one year earlier than heretofore has been the case, and it is believed that they are no less qualified to take up high school work. This leaves the question of saving still another year as between the high school and the early years of the colleges.* "As bearing on this subject, attention is invited to the situation in the curricula of the colleges. An investigation of this subject shows plainly that from 20 to 30 per cent of the work required in the four-year college course is in content and essentially in mode of treatment merely high school work. In other words, we re- quire the student in order to enter one of the colleges to have ' It will be seen that the suggestion of saving only one more full year is a modest one when we observe from Table XX, p. 196, that the median age of graduation June, 191 2, was 22.90, showing that the median age of entering college for these students was about 19. 838 APPENDIX spent four years in a good high school, and then, not satisfied with that, we require him before taking serious college work to spend at least a year more in high school training. " Obviously this leads to the question as to what is the distinc- tion, if any, between work properly adapted to the high school and work better adapted to the college. Is not almost every sub- ject taught in colleges also made a part of the high school cur- riculum? " The answer to these questions is on the whole not difficult and is rather easily found by an inspection of the content of the courses of instruction. In general terms it may be said that the content of a high school course is essentially elementary, whereas the content of a college course, involving more maturity of mind and of treatment, is distinctly advanced in character.^ " The application of these principles is obvious. In the first years of the colleges instruction is given for two full years in elementary French and in elementary German, and one full year in general history; to the extent of two thirds of a year in English composition and literature; to the extent of one quarter in polit- ical science; and also there is more or less elementary work in Latin, in physics, in chemistry, in mathematics, and in biology. The content of these courses is not different essentially from that of the same subjects as treated in the high school classes. The students, of course, are a year older; otherwise there is no material difference. All of these things should be taught in the high school, and it is difficult to see any adequate reason for requiring five years instead of four years of high school instruction. A stu- dent really begins his college work when he has finished his fifth high school year, usually misnamed the college freshman year. " What is gained by doing this large amount of elementary work at the beginning of the college course? No doubt, the student is put in the way of learning something of some branches of knowl- edge which did not come his way in the high school. Would not this, however, quite as well justify a sixth year or a seventh year of the elementary subjects? The field of knowledge is wide, and the amount of elementary knowledge which any given indi- vidual can attain on a multiplicity of subjects is limited only by ^ Also, no doubt, a college course may well include subjects which in their nature belong to a relative maturity of mind. Perhaps Sanskrit and philosophy may be cited as illustrative. APPENDIX 839 the time at his disposal. Is it not idle to attempt to cover the whole field of human knowledge in the case of any one student? Why not frankly recognize that there are some things which even an intelligent and educated man is not expected to know very much about? " A distinctly injurious effect of this additional high school year lies in the fact that when a student — a young man or woman seventeen or eighteen years old — enters college he finds that there is not a more intellectual atmosphere; he finds himself doing the same sort of things in essentially the same sort of way, perhaps in fact not quite so well, as was the case in the school from which he comes. How can we expect under these circum- stances that the student shall get any new intellectual eager- ness? How can we expect that he will not make up his mind that, after all, study doesn't yield anything very fresh or of any great value? How can we expect that he should not find far more interest and value in the multiform activities which beset the student on his entering college? The average student is by no means deficient in intellectual acumen. He generally forms a fairly accurate judgment as to what is worth while and what is not worth while, and I strongly suspect that the dissipation of energy which marks the early years of the college course is not something which results primarily from the innate pernicious qualities of freshmen but that it comes more likely from an irra- tional requirement by college authorities. In other words, on entering college the student should find that he is studying ad- vanced subjects in a new way, treated seriously, and yielding results which he at once realizes to be of importance to himself. "An examination of the record sheets of a number of our own students who have been graduated from the colleges in recent years substantiates what has been said above as to the amount of elementary subjects of high school nature which form part of the college curriculums. No complete study has been made of the cur- riculums of other colleges. Still it may be said that conversation with parents and students who are in a position to know what some other important colleges are doing would lead to the same conclusion as above. " The best thing to do with the freshman year is to abolish it." INDEX Administration of athletics, 440- 443- Adolescent, 730. Adolescent and debate, 463, 464. Advisory Board of student functions, 416, 417. Advisory Council of student func- tions, 417. Agassiz, 634. Agricultural schools, 569. Ailments, communicable, 684; non- communicable, 682, 683. Aims of athletics, 443, 444. Aims of high school, 36. Alabama, state laws of, 81. Alderman, Superintendent of Oregon, 233, 234- Altruism and individuaUsm, 506-510. American Institute of Child Life, 320- 322. Apparatus, gymnastic, 458-460; out- door, 460-462. Arizona, state laws of, 90. Art Association of Richmond, Ind., 694-700; management of, 700-705. Art association, 695; opportunity for new relationships, 702. Art centre, high school as the. Chapter XXVIII. Art clubs, 423, 703. Art gallery, exhibits of, 696-698; open days for, 704; schoolhouse for, 696. Articulation of elementary and high school, 624. Artists, local, 703, 704. Athletics, high school. Chapter XVII, 411, 423; administration of, 440- 443; student interest in, 442. Attendance, high school (1911-12), 21; (1889-90), 21; increase in, 22. Austria, elementary education in, 174, 175- Authorities, testimony of school, 512- 514- . Avocation, relation to social activi- ties, 640, 641; relation to vocation, 637-639- Avocational guidance, Chapter XXV: the school and, 644-653. Avocational pursuits, prevalence of, 633-637- Avocational training, needs of, 641- 644. Avocations and diversions, 632. Ayres, L. P., 429, 430. Bad boys and girls, 712. Bagley, W. C, 719, 728, 729. Bailey, H. T., 706. BerUn, N. H., 234. Berry, C. S., 674. Bibhcal History, specific instruction in, 747-751- Bibhcal Literature, specific instruc- tion in, 747-751. Bliss, W. D. P., 600. Boise Survey, 392. Boston, 337; High School of Com- merce, 663-665. Brown, J. Stanley, 389. Bruce, H. Addington, 290. Brumbaugh, Martin, 333. Buildings, high school, 22; decoration of> 33Q> 340; number of (1889-1910), 103. Bureau of School Efficiency, functions of, no; files of, no. Business enterprise, high school as. Chapter IV. Business manager for schools, 114; office established, 115; rules and regulations of, 115. Butler, N. M., 741. California Plan, the, 44-79; ad- vantages and defects of, 70, 71, 72. California, state laws of, 54-78. Calvinists, attitude on education, 164, 165. Canada, elementary and secondary education in, 175. Caste system, 172. Cattell, J. McK., 406. Central Commercial and Manual Training High School of Newark, N. J., 296-306. Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich., 422. 841 842 INDEX Centralization tendency, 134, 135. Centre of social life, high school as, 534-536. Character, laboratory for, 436, 437. Charts, physical development, 447- 452- Chesterton, G. K., 737. Choice of games, 445-451. Cicero Township High School, 662, 663. Cincinnati, co-operative plan. Univer- sity of, 223, 224. Citizens' Committee, 318. Civic activity, centre of, 536, 537. Civic and social equipment of teach- ers, 405. Civic phase of library, 559, 600. Clark, Lotta, 240-244. Classification of high school teachers, 402-404. Class management. Chapter IX. Class organization, 253, 254. Class organizations, 424. Cleveland Technical High School, 222. Clubs, art, 423; dramatic, 421, 422; leadership, 418; musical, 422, 423. Coaching, athletic, 454. Coleridge, 634. Colgrove, C. P., 266, 267. CoUege fraternity, 506-509. Colleton, E., 624, 625. Colonies, Dame schools in, 164; Latin or grammar schools in, 164; ver- nacular schools in, 164. Commercial high school, 566. Commission plan of debate, 472, 473. Committee of Ten, report of, 169. Common aims, absence of, 658. Commons, John R., 226, 227. Community high school, 45. Community needs versus traditional pedagogy, 313-315- Community, principal's new attitude toward, 521, 522, 526-528. Complete living, 692. Concentration in study, 302. Conduct of sports, 440-442. Connecticut, state laws of, 8g, 97. _ Continuation schools, administration of, 588-590; awakened interest in, 552; history of, 547-552; principles governing, 535. 5545 Wisconsin, 226, 227. Continuation work in high school. Chapter XXII, obstacles to, 589, 590; types of, 557-573- Cooley, E. G., 227, 228, 554, 555. Co-operation, 3, 4, 16-19; various phases of, 665, 666. Co-operation between high school and Sunday school, 755-759. Co-operation in the teaching of Eng- lish, Chapter XXVI; importance of, 654; a problem of economics, 661. Co-operative agencies, the school's. Chapter XIII, 331, 332. Co-operative plan, 223-225. Cost of public school (1889-1910), 103. County High Schools, 46. Courses of study, elasticity of, 230- 233- Credits, school, 426, 427. Cultural centre, high school as, 539- 542. Cultural education, need of, 35. Cultural phase of library, 600, 601. Culture of religion, 744-746. Current problems in high school ac- counting, 117. Curriculum, concentration of, 201; distribution of, 200; enrichment of, 169, 170; general, 198, 203, 204; necessity for reorganization, 179, 180; secular, for religious culture, 744, 745 ; thinking, 388. Daily work as a moral agency, 725. Dame schools in colonies, 164. D. A. R., 337- Darwin, Charles, 634. Darwin, Erasmus, 634. Davis, Bessie D., questionnaire on vocational guidance, 613-616. Davy, Sir Humphrey, 634. Debaters, selection of, 470. Debates, genuine and pseudo, 464, 465, 470, 471; inter-high school, 474, 475; methods of, 467-474. Debating activities, Chapter XIX. Debating instinct, 463, 464. Debating societies, 421, 465-474. Decoration of school buildings, 339, 340, 698-700. De Garmo, Charles, 746-751. Delaware, state laws of, 85. Department, library recognized as, 604, 605. Dewey, John, 18, 711, 726. Dickinson, G. Lowes, 740. Direct moral instruction, 724, 725. Diseases, high school students, 677, 682, 685. Diversions, avocations and, 632. Division of school day, 298, 299. INDEX 843 Dramatic dubs, 421, 422. Dukes, Doctor, 287, 288. East Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio, 275. Editorial policy, 16-19. Educational guidance, 198, 205, 206, 612-617. Educational systems of Europe, 172. Educational value of athletics, 435, 436. Elementary education, in Austria, 174, 17s; in Canada, 175; in England, 174; in France, 174; in Germany, 172-174; in Japan, 175; in Sweden, 175- Elimination, causes of, 624, 625. Eliot, C. W., 711, 718. Elliott, E. C, 397. Emotions, education of, 692-694. Employers, educational demands of, 217. England, elementary and secondary education in, 174. English and other studies, 658-660. English composition, 486-490. Enrolment, in high school (1890- 191 1), 106, no; distribution of, in; of high school teachers (191 1), 105; of public school teachers (1889- 1910), 102, 103. Equipment, physical education, 456- 462. Ethical imperative, 739. Eugenics, 669-671. Europe, educational systems of, 172; industrial training in, 228. Evening schools, 569-573. Examination, medical, 681-684. Exceptional children, 583, 584. Exercise, definition of, 431. Exhibits, schedule of, for one season, 701. Expenditure per pupil (1900) (1909), 103, 104. Extension courses, 586-588. Extension of public education, 517- I sig. Faculty advisee of debates, 474; meetings, 387-391; relation of, to debating societies, 465-467. Family, responsibility of the, 713, 714; school and the, 723, 724. Financial reports of high school, 132. Financial status of high school, 46-54. Fitchburg, Mass., co-operative plan, 223; schools of, 575. Fleury, Maurice, Doctor, 291. Florida, state laws of, 81. Forbes, George M., 537. Formal Discipline, 198. Forthildungschttlen, 546. France, elementary and secondary education in, 174. Fraternities, high school. Chapter XX, 416, 424. Fraternities, legal status of, 515, 516; substitute for, 514. Froebel, 301, 302. Functions, of high school, 24; of prin- cipal, 362, 363; of superintendent, 362. Galileo, 634. Gallery in high school, 698-700. Gang spirit, 503-506. G. A. R., 337- Gedinhagen, 284, 285. General high school, 563-565. Geography, 486. Georgia, state laws of, 81. Germany, 751, 752; continuation schools of, 546; elementary and secondary education in, 172-174. Girls' High School, library of, Brook- lyn, N. Y., 593. Grading, by pupils, 258, 259; methods Z^-' of, 666, 667. '^ Grammar of Latin schools in colonies, 164. Grand Rapids Central High School, SQS- Grice, M. v., 333, 336, 337. Grote, 633. Grouping of studies, 372. Group work, examples of, 254, 255, 264. Guidance avocational, Chapter XXV; educational, 198, 205, 206; voca- tional. Chapter XXIV, 205, 206. Gymnasiums, equipment of, 456-462; temporary, 460; typical, 456-45S. Gymnastics, high school. Chapter XVII. Hall, G. S., 323, 724. Hanus, P. H., 611, 612. Harris, W. T., 718. Harrison, Birge, 703. Heredity and the high school, 671, 672. Hero-worship, 717. Herschel, F. W., 634. High school as aid to young workers, 215, 220, 221. 844 INDEX High school as cultural centre, 539- 542. High school as social centre, 334~336- High school athletics, 411, 423. High schools, consolidated and county, 81-84; miUtary training in, 99, 100. High school consoUdation, 45. High school, development of, 503. High school, early, 209. "High School Education," Charles Hughes Johnston, Ed., 12, 16, 388, 464, 476, 557, 674, 750. High school education, changing scope of, 216. High school, grants to, 47, 48, 49. High school, small, problem of, 44. High school, state aid for, 46, 50, 51, 52, S3, 61, 62. High school fraternities. Chapter XX, 416-424. High school inspection, 98, 99. High school "Major," 201. High school "Minor," 201. High school paper, 490-497. High school principal, 526-528. High school, small, 202. Historic conception of high school, 25, 27. History, 486. Holland, Superintendent, 125, 127. Home and School Association, Chap- ter XII, 316; Activities of, 318, 319; aims of, 317; constitution of, 348- 351; formation of, 331; material benefits of, 336-339; methods of, 317, 318; organization of, 346, 347; purpose of, 332; vdtimate goal of, 326, 327- Home and school visitor, 324, 352, 353. Home study, conference period for, 297; reform, 295; school study versus. Chapter XI; traditional methods of, 290. Horace Mann School, 534; adminis- tration of, 673-678; divisions of, 67s, 676; educational, 673. Humboldt, 711. Hygiene, 245, 246, 252, 263; of the high school, Chapter XXVII; sex, 322. Hygienic teaching in high school, 689- 691. Idaho, state laws of, 85. Ideal of high school, 16. lUinois, state laws of, 45, 86. Imitative instinct, 501-503. Immigrants, 556. Improvement of high school teachers in service. Chapter XV, 382, 383, 584- Indiana, state laws of, 87. Individual education, a necessity to- day, 170. Individualism and altniism, 506-510., Industrial high school, 567. Industrial training in Europe, 228. Industry, the child in, 623. In loco parentis, 712, 713. Inspection, health, 686. Institutionalism, 221, 222. Inter-high school debating, 474-483; difficulties of, 479-483. Intermediate department, text-books for, 189, 190. Internal government of high school. Chapter XIV. Iowa, state laws of, 88, Sg. Ittner, W. B., 698. James, William, 726, 746. Japan, elementary education in, 175. Japanese Imperial Rescript, 720. Jefierson, Joseph, 633. Jefferson, Thomas, 633. Jenks, Professor, 419. Jersey City High School, 544. Johnson- Jeffries, 489. Johnston, Charles Hughes, "High School Education," 12, 16, 388, 389, 464, 476, 557. 674. Joliet, 111., 389- Jones, O. M., 266. Journalism, high school. Chapter XVIII. Junior Association of Commerce, 425. "Jury Plan" of debate, 472, 473. EIansas, conditions in secondary SCHOOLS OF, 141-163; state laws of, Kansas City, Kans., 371; schools of, 577- Kansas City, Mo., 361. Kansas City Star, 488. Kant, 739- , „ Kentucky, state laws of, 84. Key, Ellen, 323. Klapper, Paul, 367. Ladies' Circle and Corps, 337. Lange, Alexis F., 356. _ Latin or Grammar Schools in Colo- nies, 164. Leadership Clubs, 418. INDEX 845 Legal status of the high school. Chap- ter III. Legislation, need for (fraternities), 516.. Libraries, 96-98. Library, high school. Chapter XXIII; function of, 591-595; extension, "Packet Libraries," 320. Lindsey, Judge Ben, 18. Literary societies, 421. Local paper, writing for, 497. Los Angeles High School, 235, 236, 543- Louisiana, state laws of, 81, 87. Maine, state laws of, 85, 88. "Major," high school, 201. Manual training in high school, 210; as a moral agency, 726; pedagog- ical value of, 218. Maryland, state laws of, 94. Massachusetts, state laws of, 84, 85, 86. Material equipment, 5-9. McAndrew, William, 18. McMurray, F. M., 267. Medical examination, 681-684. Medical inspection, athletics and, 454, 456. Medical sociology, 668, 669. Medical supervision, 678, 679. Michigan, state laws of, 102. Minnesota, state laws of, 82, 86, 88, 94. "Minor," high school, 201. Mississippi, state laws of, 81, 82, 92. Missouri, state laws of, 82. Montana, state laws of, 82, Montclair, N. J., 337. Montessori, 301, 302. Moral agencies. Chapter XXIX. Moral agencies, co-operation of, 711; direct, of reflective morality, 708; indirect, 707; of custom, 708; other than school, 708-710; the teacher, the chief, 732, 733. Moral and religious problems, 341, 342. Moral training, recognition by the state of, 721. Morris, William, 696. Mortality, high school, 112, 220, 304. "Mothers' Meetings," 316. Mundy, William James, 633. Municipal problems, 325. Musical clubs, 422, 423. National Congeess for Mothbbs, 338. National Council of Teachers of Eng- Ush, 607. Nebraska, state laws of, 87. Nevada, state laws of, 83, 84, 96. Newark, N. J., High School of, 687; library work in schools of, 599, 600. New Jersey, state laws of, 78. New Mexico, state laws of, 99. Newspaper, studying the, 484, 485; as an aid in history and geography, 486; as an aid in English composi- tion, 486-490. Newton, annual reports of School Committee, 119, 120, 128-132; schools of, 624. New York, state laws of, 86, gi, 92, 93, 97. 99-. New York Times, 490. Non-resident, tuition problem, 63, 64. North Bennett Street Industrial School, 625-627. North Dakota, state board of educa- tion of, 758; state laws of, 82, 88. Nurses, duties of physicians and, 679, 680. Obstacles to continttation wore, 589, 590. Ohio, state laws of, 94, 98, 99. Ohio Survey, 402. Oklahoma, state laws of, 83. Open days for art gallery, 704. Open-debate plan, 472. Opposing views of high schools, 9, 10. Oregon, state laws of, 86, 97. Organization, class, 253, 254. Organizations, class, 424. Outworn conceptions of religious edu- cation, 742-744. Overspecialization, evils of, 656, 657. "Packet Libraries," 320. Palmer, Alice Freeman, 711. Palmer, George H., 404. Parents, Ubrary lectures to, 601, 602. "Parent-teacher groups," 316. Part-time schools, 573-581. Patriotism as a basis for morality, 720. Paulsen, Frederick, 196, 741, 752. Pennsylvania, state laws of, 83, 92. Pensions for teachers, arguments for, 136-138. "People's College," 9. People's High School, 584-586. Per capita costs, comparison of, for elementary and secondary pupils, 125; interpretation of, 124, 125; 846 INDEX methods of obtaining, _ 120, 121; table of, 123; variations in, 121, 122. Permanent collection of works of art, 704, 705. Terry, C. A., 335. Philadelphia Home and School League, 317, 336, 337- Physical education, 30-32; character value of, 436-438; definition and aims, 430, 431 ; educational value of, 435; forms of, 431 (exercise, 431; work, 431; play, 432); hygienic value of, 432, 433; recreative value of, 434; social value of, 434, 435. Physical instructor, 444, 445. Physicians and nurses, duties of, 679, 680. Physiology, 245, 246, 263. Plan of book, 16-19. Plans for supervised study, 280-282. Plato, 232, 711. Practical arts, high school, Boston, 236-238. Pre-apprenticeship schools, 559, 560. Preventability of deaths of high school pupils, 677, 678. Prevocational course, results of, 626- 628. Principal, function of, 362, 363, 661- 665; new attitude toward com- munity, 521, 522, 526-528. Principal's day, 394. Problems, typical high school, 11, 12. Professional reading, 383-387. Programme of high school, flexibiUty of, 39-41; instructional, 12; place of physical education in, 438-440. Promotion of high school teachers, 396; of high school students, 303. Public education, changing content of, 528-531- Public opinion in schools, 730. Qualities, desirable, of different GAMES, 446-451. Questionnaire, vocational guidance, 613-621. Questions for debates, discussion of, 469, 470; selection of, 468, 476, 477; study of, 468, 469. Recitation, type of, 301, 302. Records, school, 425, 426. Recreation, 434. ■ Recreation centre, 538, 539. Relation of high school to elementary school, Chapter V, 175-178; to higher educational institutions. Chapter VI; to industrial life of community. Chapter VII. Relationship between principal and teachers, 364. Religion, as social fact, 737, 738; as Weltanschauimg, 738, 739. Religion in pubUc education, 741- 744- Religious education, outworn concep- tions of, 742-744; in the home, 322- 324- Religious life of the high school stu- dent. Chapter XXX. Religious and moral problems, 341, 342. Reports, financial, 132. Rhodes scholarship, 376. Ribot, 290, 291. Richmond, Indiana, 337, 694. Richmond, Va., 338. Right arm, the high school's. Chapter XII. Riley, James Whitcomb, 488, 489. Rochester, N. Y., 371, 393, 408. Roosevelt, T., 481, 482. Ross, E. A., 359. Royce, J., 740. Rules governing student organiza- tions, 419, 420. Rural high school, 7, 8, 523. Ruskin, 611. Sadler, M. E., 715, 726, 752. Salary of teachers, 139, 140. Sanitation, school, 688, 689. Schneider, Dean Herman, University of Cincinnati, 223, 224. School Board, function in moral train- ing, 733- School buildings, decoration of, 339, 340, 698, 700. School credits, 426, 427. School funds, census basis of appor- tionment for, 46, 47. School paper. Chapter XVIII, 424, 425- School records, 425, 426. School sanitation, 688, 689. School sports, 731, 732. School study versus home study. Chapter XI. Scudder, Janet, 700. Secondary education, in Austria, 174, 175; in Canada, 175; in England, 174; in France, 174; in Germany, 172-174; in Japan, 175; in Sweden, 17s. INDEX 847 Secret societies, 411. Service, training by means of, 734, 735- Sex hygiene, 322. Sisson, E. O., 737. Six-year high school, 358. Social activities of high school stu- dents, administration of. Chapter XVI. Social administration. Chapter I, 12. Social appeal of study, 292. Social centre, high schools as. Chap- ter XXI, 519-521, S3i, 532; in high and ward schools, 542, 543. Social conditions, force of, 523-526. Social economy, 28, 29. Social education, 34, 35. Social enterprise, high school educa- tion as a. Chapter II. Social experimentation, 727, 728. Social expert, 3SI-3S3- Social functions, 415; advisory board of, 416, 417; advisory council of, 417; student coimcil of, 417, 418. Social inertia, 213, 214. Social institution, school as, 729. Social pressure on high school, 238, 239- Social side of athletics, 434, 435. Social standard of educational values, 218, 2ig. Social teacher, 319-352. Social utility, 29; of traditional sub- jects, 36-39. Socialized curriculums and course of study. Chapter VIII, 240-244. Society and school, 3, 4. Sociology, medical, 668, 669. Socrates, 232. Spaulding, Superintendent, 117, 120, 128-132. Special student in high school, 581. Specific instruction in Biblical litera- ture and in Biblical history, 747- 751- Spirit of the school, 730, 731. Sports, school, 731, 732; conduct of, 440-442. Standards, lack of uniform, 656. State aid, for high school, 46, 50, 51, 52, 53, 61, 62; for special courses, 87-93. State, duty of, in training teachers, 733. 734- Statistics for high schools, 104-107. Statistics for public schools, 102-104. Status, change in the teacher's, 733. Stockbridge, F. P., 517. Strong, Josiah, 600. Student council of social functions, 417, 418. Student self-government, 377, 418, 729, 730. Study, factors in, 269, 270; function of books in, 279, 280; habits, 302, 303; home-reform, 295-297; plans for ad- justment, 275, 276; psychology of, Chapter X; social appeal of, 292; supervision of, 276, 280-282; tech- nic of, 266-294. Study room, 285; illumination of, 286; temperature of, 286, 287. Sumner, Dean, 341, 342. Sunday schools, 582, 583; co-operation between high school and, 755-759. Superintendent, function of, 362. Supervised out-of-class work, 582. Supervision, 12, 13, 14, 391, 394. Sweden, elementary education in, 175. Teachers, old-fashioned, 330, 331; qualities of helpful, 270, 271. Teachers' training classes, 93-96. Technic of study, 266-280, 294. Technical high school, 569. Termessee, state laws of, 83. Texas, state laws of, 92, 93. Text-books for elementary schools, 190. Theology, 737, 738. Thorndike, E. L., 666. Thum, WiUiam, 225. Township high school, 45. Trade-schools, 560-562. Traditional pedagogy, community need versus, 313-315. Traditional subjects, social utility of, 36-38. Transportation, 86, 87. Tufts, James H., 599, 707. Tuition, 84-86. Univeesity High School, Chicago, 727. Updegraff, Doctor Harlan, 122, 124. Utah, state laws of, 83. Vacation schools, 570. Vernacular schools in Colonies, 164. Victrola, 692. Virginia, state laws of, 89, 90, 96. Visiting student work, 581. Vocational centre, high school as, 532- 534- Vocational courses, 358. Vocational education, 32-34. INDEX Vocational guidance, Chapter XXIV, 205, 206, 234, 325, 609, 610, 729. Volksschulen, 173. Wallace, 669. Ward, E. J., 536. Warthin, A. S., 674. Washington Irving High School, 222, 223. Washington, state laws of, 84, 97, 98. W. C. T. U., 337. West Virginia, state laws of, 83, 94, 96. Wetterick, S. J., 516. Wihn, E., 744. Wisconsin, continuation schools of, 226, 227; state laws of, 84. Wordsworth, 739. Work versus play in athletics, 432. Works of art, permanent collection of, 704, 705. Y. M. C. A., 524. Zwickau Theses, 753, 754. " ^ -%. V ^ ^ ■* ^ -%, .^^ i^ ^ ^ V ^ 'i ** ^ V^^ ^- o ■^^0^ ^ <^ V - ^ « <^ v^^^- ■• ' " / -% V" ^ ^ ■> ,. .<^ °^ ,^ y "^WJS'.SSr CIV LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 731 959 6