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 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 UNIVERSAL REFERENCE. 
 
DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 AND 
 
 UNIVERSAL REFERENCE, 
 
 KELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS ; 
 
 COMPREHENDING EVERY REMARKABLE OCCURRENCE, ANCIENT AND MODERN — THE FOUNDATION, 
 
 LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN CIVILISATION, INDUSTRY, 
 
 AND SCIENCE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — THE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL 
 
 TRANSACTIONS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE— ITS CIVIL, MILITARY, 
 
 AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS — THE ORIGIN AND 
 
 ADVANCE OF 
 
 HUMAN ARTS AND INVENTIONS, 
 
 WITH COPIOUS DETAILS OF 
 
 ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND; 
 
 THE WHOLE COMPREHENDING 
 
 A BODY OF INFORMATION, CLASSICAL, POLITICAL, AND DOMESTIC, 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST ACCOUNTS TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 By JOSEPH HAYDN. 
 
 EIGHTH EDITION, 
 
 WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, 
 
 By B. VINCENT, 
 
 Assistant Secretary and Keeper of the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 EDWARD MOXON, DOVER STREET. 
 
 1857. 
 
? 
 
 
 LONDON : 
 BRADBURY: AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 
 
PREFACE TO THE EIRST EDITION. 
 
 The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression 
 of the greatest body of general information that has ever appeared 
 in a single volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose 
 extensive usefulness may render its possession material to every 
 individual — in the same manner that a London Directory is indis- 
 pensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. 
 
 He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work 
 altogether upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn 
 principally from historians of the first rank, and the most authentic 
 annalists ; and the Dictionary of Dates will, in almost every 
 instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning over voluminous 
 authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, and 
 features of any particular occurrence. 
 
 It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works 
 the Compiler of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may 
 mention among the classics, Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. 
 He has chosen, in general chronology, Petavius, Usher, Blair, 
 Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the events 
 embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, 
 La Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Nouveau Dictionnaire, and 
 chief authors of their respective countries. On subjects of general 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 literature, his authorities are Cave's Historia Literaria, Moreri, 
 Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal repute. And English occur- 
 rences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, Holinshed, 
 Chamberlayne, Bapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, &c. Besides 
 these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that 
 have brought facts and dates more prominently forward ; and he is 
 largely indebted to Chambers, Aspin, Beatson, Anderson, Beckmann, 
 the Cyclopedias, Annual Register, Statutes at Large, and numerous 
 other compilations. In almost every instance the authority is quoted 
 for the extract made and date assigned, though inadvertence may 
 have prevented, in some few cases, a due acknowledgment. 
 
 The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern 
 kingdoms, are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in 
 the cases, for instance, of Greece, Bome, the Eastern Empire, 
 England, France, and Germany. But, independently of this 
 plan of reference, when any historical occurrence claims, from its 
 importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate article, 
 according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of 
 England, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, 
 the institution of honorary orders, and signature of Magna Charta ; 
 we find, in those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remark- 
 able eras in our history, set down as they have occurred ; but if more 
 ample information be necessary to the Beader, and if he desire to 
 know more than the mere date of any fact or incident, the particulars 
 are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, the pages of 
 Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all 
 instances where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is 
 memorable or momentous, the chief features of it are stated in 
 another part of the volume. 
 
 The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary of Da 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 will be received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, 
 relating, as it does, to things as those do to persons, and affording 
 information not included in the range or design of such publi- 
 cations. 
 
 Joseph Haydn. 
 
 London, May, 1841. [Died Jan. 17, 1856.] 
 
 In submitting the Eighth Edition of this' work to the public, 
 I have merely to state that very much labour has been bestowed 
 upon it, with the sole view of making it more and more in 
 accordance with its comprehensive title-page. The Chronological 
 Tables have been brought down to the present time, and a great 
 many articles respecting politics, science, and art, have been added ; 
 to make room for which many repetitions and much unimportant 
 matter have been omitted. I have to return thanks to many friends 
 for their kind communications, — not one of 'which has been passed 
 over without due consideration. 
 
 B. Vincent. 
 
 Royal Institution, 
 October 1. 1857. 
 
DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 
 
 ABA ABB 
 
 ABACUS. The capital of the Corinthian order in architecture had its origin in a simple 
 incident : — On the death of a young maid of Corinth, her loyer gathered the 
 ornaments she had most valued when living, and placed them in a wicker basket, 
 covered by a tile, upon her tomb. Close to her grave an acanthus had taken root, 
 and the flower shooting forth in the spring, its leaves twined around the basket, and 
 convolved beneath the tile in the form of volutes. Attracted by this display, 
 Callimachus, the founder of the Corinthian order, made it the model for his capital; 
 the tile being the abacus, the foliage of the acanthus the volutes, and the whole 
 forming the capital which adorns his column, about 540 B.C. — Perault. This 
 name is also given to a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads or 
 counters are strung, now used in infants' schools for instruction in arithmetic. It 
 was used by the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, &c. The multiplication table has been 
 called the Pythagorean abacus. M. Lalanne published an abacus at Paris in 1845. 
 
 ABATTOIRS. Slaughter-houses for cattle in France. In 1818 there were five in 
 Paris, created by decree cf Napoleon in 1810. The money raised from them in 1842 
 was about £48,000. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 1851. Abattoirs form 
 part of the New London Metropolitan Cattle Market. 
 
 ABBASSIDES. The descendants of Mahomet's uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdul Motalleb. 
 
 Thirty-six caliphs of this race (including Haroun Alraschid) reigned at Bagdad, from 
 
 a.d. 733 to 1257. 
 ABBA YE. A military prison near St. Germain des Pres, Paris. At this place 164 
 
 prisoners were murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, Sept. 2 
 
 and 3, 1792. 
 
 ABBEYS, monasteries for either men or women, governed by an abbot or abbess, 
 were founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of 
 St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony 
 at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a.d. 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, 
 in 360. The first in Ireland was in the fifth century : see Clogher, Mphin, Down. 
 The first in Scotland was in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain 
 was in 560 : see Bcungor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by 
 St. Benedict about 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many 
 thousands of saints to the Church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
 England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. These foundations were 
 totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry VIII. 1539. According to 
 Tanner they consisted of 374 larger monasteries (revenue 104,919/. 13s. 3d), 186 
 lesser monasteries (revenue 33,479/. 13s. 1%d), and 48 houses of the knights 
 hospitallers (revenue 2385J. 12s. 8d) : total houses, 608; revenue, 140,785?. 6s. 3d. 
 The number of persons resident in Religious houses at the Reformation has been 
 computed to amount to 47,721. Abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790. See 
 Monasteries. 
 
 ABBOT. From Ab (father); a rank adopted by the Jewish doctors, and the heads of 
 primitive monasteries. There are cardinal abbots, bishop abbots, mitred abbots, and 
 crosiered abbots, when holding their dignities from the Pope. In England, mitred 
 
 
ABD 
 
 ABE 
 
 abbots were lords of parliament; twenty-seven abbots and two priors were thus 
 distiuguished in the 4th Edward III. 1329 ; but the number was reduced to twenty- 
 five in the parliament 20 Richard II. 1396. — Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glaston- 
 bury, and St. John's, Colchester, were hanged and quartered for denying the king's 
 supremacy, and not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See Glastonbury. 
 
 ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later 
 times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, and to which 
 reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — 
 
 Henry IV., of Germany . . . .1080 
 Stephen II., of Hungary, surnamed 
 Thunder 1114 
 
 Albert, of Saxony 
 
 Lestus V. , of Poland . 
 
 Uladislaus III., of Poland 
 
 John Baliol, of Scotland 
 
 Otho, of Hungary . . . . 
 
 Eric IX., of Denmark 
 
 Eric XIII., of Sweden . 
 
 Charles V., Emperor . 
 
 Christina, of Sweden 
 
 John Casimir, of Poland . 
 
 James II., of England . 
 
 Frederick Augustus II., of Poland 
 
 Philip V., of Spain . 
 
 Victor, of Sardinia 
 
 1142 
 1200 
 1200 
 1306 
 1309 
 1439 
 1441 
 1550 
 1054 
 1669 
 1688 
 1704 
 1724 
 1730 
 Charles, of Naples 1759 
 
 Stanislaus, of Poland 
 
 Victor, of Sardinia . . . June 4, 
 
 Francis II., of Germany, who became 
 
 Emperor of Austria only . Aug. 11, 
 Charles IV., of Spain, in favour of his 
 
 son March 19, 
 
 1705 
 1S02 
 
 He again abdicates in favour of the Bona- 
 parte family. See Spain. . May 1, 1808 
 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples, to take 
 
 the crown of Spain . . June 1, 1808 
 The same (by fleeing before the British 
 
 from Madrid) . . . July 29, 1808 
 
 Louis, of Holland . . July 1, 1810 
 
 Jerome, of Westphalia . . Oct. 20, 1813 
 
 Napoleon, of France . . April 5, 1814 
 
 Emmanuel, of Sardinia . March 13, 1821 
 
 Pedro IV., of Portugal . . May 2, 1826 
 
 Charles X., of France . . Aug. 2, 1830 
 
 Pedro I., of Brazil . April 7, 1S31 
 Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving the 
 
 kingdom) .... May 20, 1834 
 
 William I., of Holland . . Oct. 8, 1840 
 Christina, of Spain, queen dowager and 
 
 queen regent . . . Oct. 12, 1840 
 
 Louis-Philippe, of France . Feb. 24, 1848 
 
 (immediately afterwards deposed.) 
 
 Louis Charles, of Bavaria March 21, 1848 
 
 Ferdinand, of Austria . .' Dec. 2, 1848 
 
 Charles Albert, of Sardinia March 26, 1849 
 
 ABELARD and HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and misfortunes, 
 commenced at Paris, a.d. 1118, when Heloise (a canon's daughter) was under 
 seventeen years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious injury, became a 
 monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of grief which never left his 
 heart, in 1142. Heloise begged his body, and had it buried in the Paraclete, of 
 which she was abbess, with the view of reposing in death by his side. She was 
 famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, and died in 1163. The ashes of both 
 were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum 
 having been subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying- 
 ground of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. The works of Abelard and Heloise were pub- 
 lished in one volume in 1616. Their letters have been frequently paraphrased and 
 imitated. Pope's imitation is well known. 
 
 ABENCERAGES. A powerful Moorish tribe of Grenada opposed to that of the Zegris. 
 From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Grenada with blood and hastened the fall 
 of the kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah) the last king, 
 who was himself dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, when his dominions 
 were annexed to Castile. 
 
 ABERDEEN. A seat of learning of considerable antiquity. Gregory the Great 
 conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen, in a.d. 893. The university was founded 
 by bishop William Elphinstone ; for which purpose he had a bull from the Pope, 
 Alexander VI., in 1494. King's College was erected in 1500-6. Marischal College 
 was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593; rebuilt in 1837. 
 
 ABERDEEN, EARL op, his ADMINISTRATION. Earl of Aberdeen, first lord of the 
 treasury ; lord Cranworth, lord Chancellor ; earl Granville, president of the Council ; 
 duke of Argyll, lord privy seal ; lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston, and the 
 duke of Newcastle, foreign, home, colonial, and war secretaries ; right hon. William 
 Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer; Sir James Graham, first lord of the 
 admiralty; sir Charles Wood, president of the India Board; right hon. Edward 
 Card well, president of the Board of Trade; hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary at war; 
 sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works and public buildings ; marquess 
 of Lausdowne, a member of the cabinet, without office; viscount Canning, lord 
 Stanley of Alderley, right hon. Edward Strutt, &c. Sworn December 28, 1852. — 
 Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secretary by the earl of Clarendon, but 
 continued a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards became president 
 
ABE 3 ABS 
 
 of the council, in the room of earl Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster. 
 On the division of his office (June 11, 1854) the Duke of Newcastle retained that of 
 war, and sir George Grey was made colonial secretary. This ministry resigned Jan. 
 30, 1855. See Palmerston Administration. 
 
 ABERDEEN, SEE of. King Malcolm III., having gained a great victory over the 
 Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found a new bishopric, in token of his gratitude 
 for his success, and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where St. Beanus was first 
 bishop, 1015. The see was removed, early in the twelfth century, to Aberdeen, and 
 was discontinued at the revolution, 1689. Now a Post-Revolution bishopric, 
 instituted in 1721. See Bishops of Scotland. 
 
 ABHORRERS. A political court-party in England, in the reign of Charles II. ; and so 
 called, in contra-distinction to another party, named the Addressers, (afterwards 
 Whigs) from their address to the king. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed 
 their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to encroach on the royal prerogative, 
 1680. — Hume. The commons expelled several members for being Abhorrers, among 
 them sir Francis Withens (whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty to 
 remove others from places of trust. They also resolved " that it is the undoubted 
 right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, and that to traduce 
 such petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to the design of altering 
 the constitution." Oct. 1680. — Salmon. 
 
 ABINGDON LAW. In the civil war against Charles I., lord Essex and Waller held 
 Abingdon, in Berks : the town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins 
 in 1644, and by Prince Rupert in 1645 : on these occasions the defenders put every 
 Irish prisoner to death without trial ; hence the term " Abingdon Law." 
 
 ABJURATION. The abjuration of particular doctrines of the Church of Rome was 
 enjoined by statute 25 Charles II., 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the 
 pretender, denying the authority of the one and the claims of the other, was first 
 administered by statute 13 William III., 1701. 
 
 ABO. A port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, (till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland). 
 It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827. The peace of Abo between 
 Russia and Sweden was signed in 1743. It was ceded to the Russians in 1809, who 
 rebuilt it in 1 827 after the fire. The University was erected by Gustavus Adolphus 
 and Christina. 
 
 ABORIGINES. The original inhabitants of Italy; or, as others have it, the nation 
 conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 B.C. — Univ. History. Their 
 posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings; and Rome was built in 
 their country. They were called Aborigines, being absque origine, the primitive 
 planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The word signifies without origin, or whose 
 origin is not known, and is now applied to any original inhabitants. 
 
 ABOUKIR. The ancient Canopns, the point of debarkation of the British expedition to 
 Egypt under general sir Ralph Abercrombie. Aboukir surrendered to the British, 
 under Abercrombie, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, 
 March 8, 1801. See Alexandria. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French 
 fleet by the immortal Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 
 was defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, July 24, 1799. 
 
 ABRAHAM, ERAof. So called from the patriarch Abraham, anciently Abram, who 
 died b.c. 1821. Used byEusebius; it began October 1, 2016 B.C. To reduce this era 
 to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 
 
 ABRAHAMITES. A sect which adopted the errors of Paulus ; but it was suppressed 
 by Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch. In the ninth century there sprung up a 
 community of monks under a like designation, and it, too, was suppressed, or rather 
 exterminated, for worshipping images. 
 
 ABSENTEES. The complaint is, in Ireland, that the wealthy of that country retire to 
 England; and in England, that the rich squander their fortunes abroad. According 
 to late returns made to the prefect of police at Paris, the entire number of British 
 residents in France was estimated at 54,000; but the thousands of continental 
 tourists who pass annually through France, are not included in this estimate. The 
 number of British settled in the Netherlands, France, Germany, Switzerland, and 
 Italy, is supposed to far exceed 100,000. 
 
 b 2 
 
ABS 
 
 ACA 
 
 ABSENTEE TAX. In Ireland, a tax of four shillings in the pound was levied on the 
 profits, fees, emoluments, and pensions of absentees, in 1715. This tax ceased in 
 1753. In 1773, Mr. Flood, the great Irish orator, proposed a tax of two shillings in 
 the pound, which was lost by a majority in the commons, of 122 to 102. The 
 question was renewed in the Irish parliament in 1783 by Mr. Molyneux, and again lost, 
 on a division of 184 to 122. — Statutes at Large; Pari. Reports. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread and water 
 daily. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius 
 lived thus to 115; Simeon, the Stylite, to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called 
 St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age. — Spottiswood. A man may 
 live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. — Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. ii. 
 Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, was said to have lived twenty 
 months without food; but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 
 1808. At Newry, in Irelaud, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two 
 years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards discovered in 
 England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See article Fasting. 
 
 ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and 
 marriage ; and were a community of harmless aud mild ascetics. They appeared in 
 France and Spain in the third century ; and some authorities mention such a sect as 
 having been numerous elsewhere in a.d. 170. — Bossuet. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. A large country in N.E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. 
 The kingdom of Auxumitse (from its chief town Auxume) flourished in the 1st and 
 2nd centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great 
 part of the royal family, and reigned 40 years. The young king escaped : and the 
 royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In 
 the middle ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The 
 Portuguese missions commenced in the 15th century, but they were expelled about 
 1632 in consequence of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments 
 of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty 
 governments. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity 
 introduced about the 4th century. Missions were sent from England in 1829, and 
 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce (1790), Salt 
 (1805—9), Riippell (1838), and Parkyns (1853). 
 
 ABYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the creation, which they 
 place in the 5493rd year before our era, on the 29th Aug. old style ; and their dates 
 consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, and 125 days. To reduce Abyssiuian time 
 to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years, and 125 days. 
 
 ACADEMIES. Societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, 
 are of very early date. A cademia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens, 
 (bequeathed to Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philo- 
 sophy, and his followers took the title of Academics, 378 B.C. — Stanley. Ptolemy 
 Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 B.C. Theodosius 
 the Younger and Charlemagne are also named as founders. Italy has been celebrated 
 for its academies ; and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. 
 The first philosophical academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1635, 
 Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes; and the Royal Society 
 of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal academies : — 
 
 Ancona, of the Caglinosi 1642. 
 
 Basil, 1460. 
 
 Berlin, Koyal Society, 1700 ; of Princes, 1703 ; 
 
 Architecture, 1799. 
 Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687; Mathematics, 
 
 1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
 Brescia, of the Brranti, 16-26. 
 Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 Brussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. 
 Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 
 Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. 
 Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 
 Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Royal Irish, Science and 
 
 Literature, 1786 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c, 
 
 1823. 
 Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
 Faenza, the Pkiloponi, 1612. 
 Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272; Bella Crusea 
 
 (now united with the Florentine, and merged 
 under that name), 1582; Bel Cimen/o, lii.",7 
 (by Cardinal De' Medici;) Antiquities, 1807. 
 
 Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
 
 Genoa, Painting, <fec, 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
 
 Germany, Medical, 1617; Natural History, 
 1652 ; Military, 1752. 
 
 GiJttingen, 1750. 
 
 Haerlem, the Sciences, 1700. 
 
 Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
 
 Loudon. See Sot 
 
 Lyons, Sciences, 1710; had Physic and Mathe- 
 matics added, 1758. 
 
 Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 
 1730 ; Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
 
 Mannheim, Sculpture, 1775. 
 
 Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
 
 Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 
 
ACA 
 
 ACH 
 
 Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 
 
 Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
 
 Eome, Umoristi, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infe- 
 condi, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi, 1690; 
 English, 1752; Lincei, about 1600; JXuovi 
 Lincti, 1847. 
 
 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 
 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. 
 
 Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 
 Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. 
 
 Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
 
 Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
 
 Venice, Medical, &c, 1701. 
 
 Verona, Music, 1543; Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705; Sur- 
 gery, 1783 : Oriental, 1810. 
 
 Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
 
 Woolwich, Military, 1741. 
 
 ACADEMIES, continued. 
 
 Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 
 
 Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 
 
 Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 
 
 Naples, Roxsana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; 
 Sciences, 1695 ; Herculaneum, 1755. 
 
 New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 
 
 Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
 
 Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 
 
 Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
 
 Paris, Sorbonne, 1256; Painting, 1391; Music, 
 1543; French (by Richelieu), 1635; Inscrip- 
 tions et Belles lettres (by Colbert). 1663 ; of 
 Sciences (by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 
 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Military, 1751 ; Na- 
 tural Philosophy, 1796. 
 
 Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 
 
 Perousa, Insensati, 1561 : Filirgiti, 1574. 
 
 Petersburg, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; 
 the School of Arts, 1764. 
 
 ACANTHUS. See Abacus. 
 
 ACAPULCO, SHIP. This was the celebrated prize, a Spanish galleon, from Acapuleo, 
 laden -with gold and precious wares, and estimated by some annalists at 1,000,000Z. 
 sterling, and upwards; taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired booty in 
 his memorable voyage amounting to 600,000Z. Admiral Anson arrived at Spithead in 
 the Centurion with his gains, after having circumnavigated the globe, June 15, 1744. 
 
 ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any 
 separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began 
 to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion 
 of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, a.d. 458. Accents were first used 
 by the French in the reign of Louis XIII. (1610). 
 
 ACCESSION, The. By this term is usually understood the accession of the house of 
 Hanover to the throne of England, in the person of George I. the elector of Hanover, 
 as the Protestant descendant of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; he being the 
 son of Sophia, who was the daughter of that princess. He succeeded to the crown 
 Aug. 1, 1714, by virtue of the act of settlement passed in the reign of William III., 
 June, 12, 1701, which limited the succession to his mother in the event of Queen 
 Anne dying without issue. 
 
 ACCUSERS. By the occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of 
 devils, whose chief is called Asteroth, or spy, and who, in the Revelation of St. John, 
 is, by way of eminence, called the accuser of the brethren. He is an accuser who 
 charges another with a crime, whether the charge be true or false. False accusers 
 were hanged in England by statute 24 Henry VI. 1446. They were burnt in the face 
 with an F by statute 37 Henry VIII. 1545.— Slow's Chron. 
 
 ACELDAMA (Chakeldam). The field which the Jewish priests bought with the thirty 
 pieces of silver given to Judas Iscariot for betraying Our Saviour. It is still shown to 
 travellers; and being small, is covered with an arched roof; and retains the name 
 Aceldama, that is, "the field of blood," to this day. Matthew, xxvii. 3 — 11; Acts i. 
 15 — 23. — This name was also given to an estate purchased by Judge Jeffreys after 
 the "bloody assizes" in 1685. 
 
 ACHAIA. This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names are all 
 forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Acbseus, the son of Xuthus, 1080 B.C. 
 The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the JEtolians until about 284 b.o. 
 The AchEei were descendants of Achreus, and originally inhabited the neighbourhood 
 of Argos ; but when the Heraclida3 drove them thence, they retired among the Ionians, 
 expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz., Pelene, iEgira, iEgeuin, 
 Bura, Tritsea, Leontium, Rhypse, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dyma3, and Pharse. 
 
 about B.C. 
 
 The Acha-an league . 
 
 Aratus made praetor 
 
 Fortress of Atlienanrm built 
 
 Defeat of the Achseans by the Spartans 
 
 and Lysiades killed . 
 Battle of Sellasia 
 The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyte, 
 
 in Arcadia ; Aratus defeated 
 
 281 
 
 22S 
 
 226 
 
 222 
 
 220 
 
 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEtolians 219 
 
 Aratus poisoned at iEgiuni . . b.c. 215 
 Battle of Mantinea ; Philopceruen defeats 
 
 the Spartan tyrant Machanidas . .208 
 Alliance with the Romans . . . 201 
 Philoiosmen defeated by Nabis, in a naval 
 
 battle 194 
 
 Sparta joined to the league . . . 191 
 The Achaeans overrun Messenia with fire 
 
 and sword 182 
 
ACH 6 ACT 
 
 The Achaean league dissolved . . B.C. 146 
 Corinth taken by Mummius . . . 146 
 Greece subjected to Rome, and named the 
 province of Acbaia 146 
 
 ACHAIA, continued. 
 
 The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off 
 
 numbers of the people, among whom is 
 
 the celebrated Polybius . . B.C. 165 
 Mctellus enters Greece . . . . 147 
 
 The United States of America seem to have adopted the plan of the Achaean league 
 in forming their constitution ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance to 
 it in then - confederacy. 
 
 ACHONRY, BISHOPRIC of. Founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of Achad, 
 usually called Achonry, about the year 520. St. Finian having built this church, 
 conferred it on his disciple Nathy, named in Irish, Dathy, or David, who was the first 
 bishop, and a man of great sanctity. In the ancient annals of Ireland, the prelates of 
 this see are, for the most part, called bishops of Luigny, or Liny, from the subdivision 
 of the county wherein it is situated. The see of Achonry has been held in commendam 
 with Killala since 1612. — See Killala. 
 
 ACHROMATIC Telescopes are those contrived to remedy the aberrations in colour. — 
 See Telescopes. 
 
 ACOLYTES. An inferior order of clergy in the Latin Church, unknown to the Greek 
 Church for 400 years after Christ. 
 
 ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and communi- 
 cation of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, was probably first 
 explained by Pythagoras, about 500 B.C. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 B.C. The 
 speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. The 
 discoveries of Galileo were made about a.d. 1600. The velocity of sound was 
 investigated by Newton before 1700. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was 
 demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; and further perfected by D'Alembert, 
 Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. 
 Chladni published his most important discoveries on the figures produced in layers 
 of sand by harmonic chords, &c, in 1787, and since. Biot, Savart, Lissajous, aud 
 others in the present century have greatly increased our knowledge of Acoustics. 
 
 ACRE. This measure was formerly of uncertain quantity, and differed in various parts 
 of the realm, until made standard by statute 31 Edward I., 1303, and fixed at 40 poles 
 or perches in length, and 4 in breadth — or 160 square poles, containing 4840 square 
 yards, or 43,560 square feet, a.d. 1303. In certain counties and places the measure is 
 larger. — Pardon. 
 
 ACRE, ST. JEAN D'. Acca, anciently Ptolemais. Taken by Richard I. and other 
 crusaders, July 12, 1191, after a siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 
 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 
 60,000 Christians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the 
 murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
 Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July, 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Sydney 
 Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable siege by the 
 French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799 ; till, baffled by the British squadron on 
 the water aud the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relinquished his object aud retreated. 
 St. Jean dAcre is a pachalic subject to the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, 
 who bad revolted, July 2, 1832. It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840, and 
 was stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
 bardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, 
 and 3000 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, November 
 3, 1840. See Syria and Turkey. 
 
 ACROPOLIS of ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and accessible 
 only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in Attic. The roof 
 of this vast pile, which had stood 2000 years, was destroyed in the Venetian siege, 
 a.d. 16S7. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenaj was marked by terraces, and defended 
 by ponderous walls, on which were high towers, each at the distance of fifty feet. 
 
 ACTINOMETER. An instrument to measure the solar rays, invented by Sir J. F. 
 Herschel, about 1825. 
 
 ACTIUM, BATTLE of. Between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, and 
 of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate of Antony, 
 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar ; fought Sept. 2, 31 B.C. This battle made 
 
ACT 7 ADE 
 
 Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the Senate upon Ctesar) master of 
 the world, and the commencement of the Eoman empire is commonly dated from this 
 year. In honour of his victory, the conqueror built the city of Nicopolis, and 
 instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 
 
 ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been uriknown to the ancients ; men 
 or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged 
 the public appearance of women on the stage in England, in 1662; but the queen of 
 James I. had previously performed in a theatre at court. — Theat. Biog. Mrs. Coleman 
 was the first actress on the stage; she performed the part of lanthe in Davenant's 
 " Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. — Victor. 
 
 ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Parliament 
 and Statutes. Between the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
 and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
 Peel (afterwards sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at large, 
 and 225 to Ireland solely. The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
 since 1800, was 562, in 1846 : of these 402 were local and personal, 43 private, and 
 117 of public interest. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), of which 
 two were private. In three instances only, the annual number was under a hundred. 
 The average number of the first ten years of the present century was 132 public acts. 
 In the ten years ending 1850, the average number of acts, of public interest, was 
 112. In 1851, the number was 106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 
 134 ; and in 1856, 120. — In 1850, 13 Yict. c. 13, was passed, for curtailing repetitions 
 in statutes. — Pari. Returns. 
 
 ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by 
 Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about B.C. 8). 
 
 ADAM akd EVE, ERA of. Set down by Christian writers as being 4004 B.C. There 
 have been as many as one hundred and forty opinions on the distance of time 
 between the creation of the world and the birth of the Redeemer : some make it 3616 
 years, and some as great as 6484 years. See Creation. 
 
 ADAMITES. A sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a.d. 130. 
 They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had 
 not sinned there would have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; 
 they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess 
 Christ. — Eusebius. This sect, with an addition of many blasphemies, and teaching 
 from the text "increase and multiply," was renewed at Antwerp in the twelfth 
 century, under a chief named Tandemus, Tandamus, or Tanchelin, who, being followed 
 by 3000 soldiers, violated females of every age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. 
 This sect became extinct soon after the death of its chief; but another of the same 
 kind, named Turlupins, appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming, 
 named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence 
 they spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle; Pardon. 
 
 ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pitt having identified himself with Roman 
 Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being thus unable to 
 propose his "resolutions" in relation to that measure, as a minister, resigned, and a 
 new ministry was formed. Right hon. Henry Addington, first lord of the treasury 
 and chancellor of the exchequer ; lord Eldon, lord chancellor; duke of Portland, lord 
 president; earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal; lord Pelham, home, lord Hawkes- 
 bury, foreign, and lord Hobart, colonial secretaries ; earl St. Vincent, admiralty ; earl 
 of Chatham, ordnance; right hon. Charles Yorke, secretary -at-war; viscount Lewisham, 
 lord Auckland, &c. March, et sea. 1801. Terminated May 11, 1804. 
 
 ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, was established by the East India Company, 
 in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian army. 
 
 ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 
 14,000 inhabitants in 1850. 
 
 ADEN. A free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia. In 1837 a British ship was wrecked 
 and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place to 
 the English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this agreement to captain Haynes, a 
 naval and military force was despatched to Aden, which captured it, Jan. 16, 1839. 
 It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c. 
 
ADM 
 
 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from the accession 
 of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favourites, or the chiefs 
 
 of administrations, in the respective reigns, 
 tion see them respectively through the volume. 
 
 KINO HENRY VIII. 
 
 Bishop Fisher, bishop Fox, and the earl 
 of Surrey 1509 
 
 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . . . 1514 
 
 The Earl of Surrey, and Tunstall, bishop 
 of London 1523 
 
 Sir Thomas More, bishops Tunstall and 
 Gardiner, and Cranmer, afterwards 
 archbishop of Canterbury . . . 1529 
 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, lord Crom- 
 well, afterwards earl of Essex ; Thomas 
 Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c. . . 1532 
 
 Henry, earl of Surrey ; Thomas, lord 
 Audley; bishop Gardiner, sir Ralph 
 Sadler, &o 1540 
 
 Lord Wriothesley; Thomas, duke of 
 Norfolk ; lord Lisle, sir William Petre, 
 sir William Paget, &c 1544 
 
 KING EDWARD VI. 
 
 Lord Wriothesley, now earl of Hertford, 
 lord protector, created duke of Somer- 
 set ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of 
 Arundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir 
 William Paget, sir William Petre, &c. 1547 
 
 John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of 
 Warwick, created duke of Northum- 
 berland; John, earl of Bedford; bishop 
 Goodrich, sir William Cecil, <tc. . . 1551 
 
 For a fuller account of each administra- 
 
 QUEEN MARY. 
 
 Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester ; 
 Edmund Bonner, bishop of London ; 
 William, marquess of Winchester ; sir 
 William Hastings, &e 
 
 1554 
 
 QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward, lord Clin- 
 ton ; sir Robert Dudley, afterwards 
 earl of Leicester; sir William Cecil, 
 afterwards lord Burleigh, <fcc. . . . 155S 
 
 Sir William Cecil, now lord Burleigh 
 (who continued minister during nearly 
 the whole of this long reign); sir 
 Nicholas Bacon, &c. . . . . 1572 
 
 William, lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas 
 Bromley; Robert Devereux, earl of 
 Essex (a favourite) ; the earl of Leices- 
 ter, earl of Lincoln, sir Waiter Mild- 
 may, sir Francis Walsingham, <fcc. . 1579 
 
 Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; 
 sir Christopher Hatton, &c. . . . 15S7 
 
 Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, after- 
 wards earl of Dorset ; Sir Thomas Eger- 
 ton, afterwards lord Ellesmere and vis- 
 Count Brackley ; sir Robert Cecil, &c. 1599 
 
 KINO JAMES I. 
 
 Thomas, earl of Dorset ; Thomas, lord 
 Ellesmere; Charles, earl of Notting- 
 ham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, Edward, 
 earl of Worcester ; Robert Cecil, after- 
 wa rds earl of Salisbury, &c. . . 1603 
 
 Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, 
 lord Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of North- 
 ampton ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; 
 Thomas, Earl of Suffolk, <fcc. . . . 1609 
 
 Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, 
 lo'-d Ellesmere ; Edward, earl of Wor- 
 cester ; sir Ralph Winwood : Charles, 
 earl of Nottingham ; Robert, viscount 
 Rochester, afterwards earl of Somer- 
 set, (fee 1612 
 
 Thomas, lord Ellesmere : Thomas, earl of 
 Suffolk ; Charles, carl of Nottingham ; 
 sir George Villiers (a favourite), after- 
 viscount Villiers, and succes- 
 sively earl, marquess, and duke of 
 Buckingham . . . . . . 1615 
 
 Sir Henry Montagu, aftenoards viscount 
 Maudeville and earl of Manchester . 1620 
 
 Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of 
 Middlesex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
 John, earl of Bristol; John Williams, 
 dean of Westminster ; George Villiers, 
 now marquess of Buckingham ; sir 
 Edward Conway, &c 1621 
 
 KINO CHARLES I. 
 
 Richard, lord Westou, afterwards earl of 
 Portland; sir Thomas Coventry, after- 
 wards lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of 
 Manchester (succeeded by James, earl 
 of Marlborough, who, in turn, gave 
 place to Edward, lord, after words vis- 
 count, Conway); William Laud, bishop 
 of London ; sir Albertus Morton, &c. 162S 
 
 William Laud, now archbishop of Canter- 
 bury ; Francis, lord Cottington ; James, 
 marquess of Hamilton ; Edward, earl 
 of Dorset ; sir John Coke, sir Francis 
 Windebank, &c. . • . . . 1635 
 
 William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir 
 John Finch, afterwards lord Fincli ; 
 Francis, lord Cottingtou ; Went worth, 
 earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of 
 Northumberland ; James, marquess of 
 Hamilton ; Laud, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury ; sir Francis Windebauk, sir 
 Henry Vane, &c 1610 
 
 [When the civil war commenced all went 
 into confusion. The unfortunate king 
 was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649.] 
 
 COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell, made protector. He 
 named a council whose number at no 
 time was to exceed twenty-one mem- 
 bers, or be less than thirteen . . 1653 
 
 Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, suc- 
 ceeded on the death of the latter. A 
 council of officers ruled at Walliugford 
 House 1658 
 
 KINO CHARLES II.* 
 
 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
 Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke 
 of Albemarle ; Edward Montagu, 
 created earl of Sandwich ; lord Saye 
 and Sele, earl of Manchester ; lord 
 Seymour ; sir Robert Long, <Src. . . 16C0 
 
 George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made 
 first commissioner of the treasury, &c. 1607 
 
 The "Cabal" Ministry. Sir Thomas 
 Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford (C) ; 
 Anthony Ashley, afterwards earl of 
 Shaftesbury (A); George Villiers, duko 
 of Buckingham (B); Henry, lord Ar- 
 lington, afterwards earl of Arlington 
 (A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). 
 This private council obtained the name 
 of the Cabal from the initial letters of 
 their five names, which composed the 
 word. — Charles Home's Ewjland . . 1670 
 
 Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of 
 Shaftesbury ; Henry, earl of Arlington ; 
 
 * Until the Restoration, there was not, in fact, anything that could be exclusively called a Cabinet. 
 The sovereign had latterly governed by a collection of privy councillors, sometimes of larger, some ti mes 
 of smaller number, the men and offices being frequently changed. 
 
ADM 
 
 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS op ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 Arthur, earl of Anglesey; sir Thomas 
 Osborne, created viscount Latimer ; 
 rt. hon. Henry Coventry, sir George 
 Carteret, Edward Seymour, c&c. . . 1672 
 
 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards 
 earl of Dauby, made lord high trea- 
 surer. June 20 1673 
 
 Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Law- 
 rence Hyde, afterwards earl of Roches- 
 ter); Robert, earl of Sunderland, vice 
 sir Joseph Williamson, <&c. . . . 1679 
 
 [The king nominated a new council this 
 year (on April 21), consisting of thirty 
 members only, of whom the principal 
 were the great officers of state and 
 great officers of the household.] 
 
 Sidney, Lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl 
 of Rochester ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
 ham ; Robert, earl of Sunderland ; sir 
 Thomas Chicheley ; George, lord Dart- 
 mouth ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
 earls of Bath and Radnor, <fcc. . . 16S4 
 
 JAMES II. 
 
 Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
 marquess of Halifax ; sir George 
 Jeffreys, afterwards lord Jeffreys ; 
 Henry, earl of Clarendon ; sir John 
 Ernley, viscount Preston, &c. . . 1685 
 
 The earl of Rochester was displaced, and 
 Johu, lord Belasyse, made first com- 
 missioner of the treasury in his room, 
 Jan. 4 ; the earl of Sunderland made 
 president of the council ; viscount 
 Preston, secretary of state ; and various 
 other changes took place in this and 
 the following year 1687 
 
 [The king left Whitehall in the night of 
 Dec. 17, and quitting the kingdom, 
 landed at Ambleteuse, in France, on 
 Dec. 23, 1688.] 
 
 KING WILLIAM III. 
 
 Charles, viscount Mordaunt ; Thomas 
 Osborne, earl of Danby, created mar- 
 quess of Carmarthen, afterwards duke 
 of Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifax ; 
 Arthur Herbert, afterwards lord Tor- 
 rington; earls of Shrewsbury, Notting- 
 ham, and Sunderland ; earl of Dorset 
 and Middlesex; William, earl (after- 
 wards duke) of Devonshire ; lord 
 Godolphin, lord Montagu, lord De la 
 Mere, <fcc. ...... 1689 
 
 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl 
 of Danby; rt. hon. Richard Hamp- 
 den ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; 
 Henry, viscount Sidney ; Daniel, earl 
 of Nottingham, <fcc 1690 
 
 [Sir John Somers was created lord 
 Soraers in 16j7, and made lord chan- 
 cellor; and Charles Moutagu, after- 
 wards lord Halifax, was made first 
 commissioner of the treasury, May 1, 
 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
 Tankerville, in 1699.] 
 
 QUEEN ANNE. 
 
 Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of) Godol- 
 phin ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke and 
 Montgomery ; John Sheffield, mar- 
 quess of Normauby, afterioards duke 
 of Normauby and Buckingham ; hon. 
 Henry Boyle, sir Charles Hedges and 
 the earl of Nottingham ; the latter 
 succeeded by the rt. hon. Robert Har- 
 ley, created earl of Oxford, <fcc. . . 1702 
 
 .Robert, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon (afler- 
 wards lord) Harcourt ; duke of Nor- 
 mauby and Buckingham ; lord Dart- 
 
 mouth ; Henry St. John, afterwards 
 viscount Bolingbroke ; Robert Benson, 
 afterwards lord Bingley, <fec. . . . 1711 
 Charles, Duke of Shrewsbury, made lord 
 treasurer three days before the queen's 
 death, July 30 1714 
 
 KING GEORGE I. 
 
 Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 
 his death by the earl of Carlisle) ; Wil- 
 liam, lord Cowper, afterwards earl 
 Cowper ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham : 
 Thomas, marquess of Wharton ; James 
 Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope ; 
 Charles, viscount Townshend ; sir 
 Richard Onslow, rt. hon. Robert AVal- 
 pole, Mr. Pulteney, &c 1714 
 
 Rt. hon. Robert Walpole, first lord of the 
 treasury and chancellor of the exche- 
 quer, &c 1715 
 
 Rt. hon. James Stanhope, afterwards earl 
 Stanhope ; William, lord Cowper, 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland ; lord Ber- 
 keley, rt. hon. Joseph Addison, <fcc. . 1717 
 
 Charles, earl of Sunderland ; Thomas, 
 lord Parker ; the earl Stanhope, lord 
 Berkeley, Mr. Craggs, Mr. Aislabie, <&c 171S 
 
 Rt. hon. Robert, Walpole, afterwards sir 
 Robert, and earl of Orford ; Thomas, 
 lord Parker, afterwards earl of Maccles- 
 field ; earl of Berkeley, lord Carteret, 
 viscount Townshend, viscount Tor- 
 rington, &c 1721 
 
 KING GEORGE II. 
 
 Rt. hon. sir Robert Walpole, continued . 1727 
 
 [Sir Robert remained prime minister 
 twenty-one years ; numerous changes 
 occurring in the time. See Walpole.] 
 
 Earl of Wilmington, lord Hardwicke, 
 earl Gower, Mr. Sandys, earl of Har- 
 rington, duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pel- 
 ham, <fec 1742 
 
 Rt. hon. Henry Pelliam, in the room of 
 earl of Wilmington, deceased . .1743 
 
 The "Broad Bottom" administration. 
 Rt. hon. Henry Pelham, lord Hard- 
 wicke, dukes of Dorset, Montagu, Bed- 
 ford, Grafton, and Argyll, earl Gower, 
 , duke of Newcastle, <fcc 1744 
 
 Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of New- 
 castle ; earl of Holdernesse ; Henry 
 Bilson Legge ; sir Thomas Robinson, 
 afterwards lord Grantham ; lord Gran- 
 ville, lord Anson, lord Hardwicke, 
 lord Halifax, rt. hon. George Gren- 
 ville, &c. 1754 
 
 Duke of Devonshire, rt hon. William 
 Pitt, earl of Holdernesse, dukes of 
 Rutland and Grafton, Mr. liogge, earl 
 Gower, &c 1756 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, after- 
 wards earl of Chatham ; earl Temple, 
 earl of Holdernesse, lord Henley, earls 
 Gower and Halifax ; rt. hon. Henry 
 Fox, afterwards lord Holland, <fec. . 1757 
 
 KING GEORGE III. 
 
 Duke of Newcastle's and Mr. Pitt's 
 ministry, continued 1760 
 
 Earl of Bute, lord Henley, sir Francis 
 Dashwood, lord Granville, earls of 
 Halifax and Egremont, lords Sandys 
 and North, rt. hon. George Grenville, 
 &c 1762 
 
 Rt. hon. George Grenville, eai-ls of Hali- 
 fax and Sandwich, lord Henley, earl 
 Gower, lord Egmont, lord Holland, 
 marquess of Gran by, lord North, cfec. . 1703 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham, earl of Win- 
 
ADM 
 
 10 
 
 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 chilsea and Nottingham, hon. Henry 
 Seymour Conway, duke of Grafton, 
 hon. Charles Townshend, earl of 
 Northington, &c 1765 
 
 Earl of Chatham, duke of Grafton, earl 
 of Shelburne, lord North, lord Cam- 
 den, gen. Conway, sir Charles Saun- 
 ders, marquess of Gran by, hon. Charles 
 Townshend, lord Hillsborough, &c. . 1760 
 
 Duke of Grafton, lord North, earl Gower, 
 earl of Chatham, earl of Shelburne, 
 viscount Weymouth, marquess of 
 Granby, sir Edward Hawke, Thomas 
 Townshend, lord Sandwich, <fec. . . 1767 
 
 Frederick Lord North, earl of Halifax, 
 earl Gower, lord Hillsborough, lord 
 Weymouth, lord Rochford, lord Gran- 
 by, sir Edward Hawke, lord Apsley, 
 sir Gilbert Elliot, &c 1770 
 
 [Lord North continued minister eleven 
 years, during the whole of the Ame- 
 rican war. The changes within this 
 period were very numerous.] 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham, lord John 
 Cavendish, lord Camden, duke of 
 Grafton ; William, earl of Shelburne ; 
 rt. hon. Charles James Fox, rt. hon. 
 Augustus Keppel, duke of Richmond, 
 rt. hon. Thomas Townshend, rt. hon. 
 Isaac Barre", rt. hon. Edmund Burke, 
 &c. March 1782 
 
 Earl of Shelburne {afterwards Marquess 
 of Lansdowne), rt. hon. William Pitt, 
 lord Camden, lord Thurlow, duke of 
 Grafton, lord Grantham, viscount 
 Keppel, rt. hon. Henry Dundas, <fcc. 
 July 1782 
 
 The "Coalition Ministky." Duke of 
 Portland, lord North, Charles James 
 Fox, lord Stormont, earl of Carlisle, 
 lord John Cavendish, viscount Towns- 
 hend, rt. hon. Charles Townshend, 
 Edmund Burke, &c. April . . 1783 
 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt, earl Gower, duke 
 of Rutland, marquess of Carmarthen, 
 earl Temple (succeeded by lord Syd- 
 ney), viscount Howe, lord Mulgrave, 
 lord Thurlow, rt. hon. William Wynd- 
 ham (afterwards lord Grenville), Henry 
 Dundas, &c. Dec 17S3 
 
 [During Mr. Pitt's long administration, 
 numerous modifications in the minis- 
 try took place.] 
 
 Rt. hon. Henry Addington, duke of 
 Portland, earl of Westmorland, lord 
 Pelham, lord Eldon, lord Hawkesbury, 
 lord Hobart, Earl St. Vincent, earl of 
 Chatham, rt. hon. Charles Yorke, 
 viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, 
 &c. March, et seq 1801 
 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Eldon, duke 
 of Portland (succeeded by lord Sid- 
 mouth, late Mr. Addington), earl of 
 Westmorland, lord Hawkesbury, lord 
 Harrowby (succeeded by lord Mul- 
 grave), earl Camden (succeeded by 
 viscount Castlereagh) ; viscount Mel- 
 ville (succeeded by lord Barham), 
 duke of Montrose, lord Mulgrave, rt. 
 hon. Mr. Dundas ; rt. hon. George 
 Canning, &c. May, et seq. . . . 1804 
 
 [The death of Mr. Pitt led to the forma- 
 tion of another cabiuet.] 
 
 "All the Talents" administration : 
 lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, lord 
 Erskine, earl Fitzwilliam, viscount 
 Sidmouth, Charles James Fox, earl 
 Sj>encer, William Windham, earl of 
 Moira, sir Charles Grey (afterwards 
 viscount Howick and earl Grey), lord 
 
 Minto, lord Auckland, &c. — Lord 
 Ellenborough, lord chief justice, had 
 a seat in the cabinet. FA. . . . 1806 
 
 [The death of Mr. Fox led to numerous 
 changes in the cabinet] 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord Eldon, earl Cam- 
 den, earl of Westmorland, hon. Spencer 
 Perceval, lord Hawkesbury, viscount 
 Castlereagh, Mr. Canning, earl of 
 Chatham, earl Bathurst, Mr. Dundas, 
 lord Mulgrave, &c. March . . 1807 
 
 Rt. hon. Spencer Perceval, earl Camden, 
 earl of Westmorland, lord Eldon, hon. 
 Richard Ryder, marquess Wellesley, 
 earl of Liverpool, lord Mulgrave, Mr. 
 Dundas, earl Bathurst, earl of Chat- 
 ham, viscount Palmerston, &c. Nov. 
 and Dec 1809 
 
 THE REGENCY. 
 
 Mr. Spencer Perceval and his colleagues 
 continued. Feb. 5 1S11 
 
 Earl of Liverpool, lord Eldon, earl of 
 Harrowby, earl of Westmorland, Mr. 
 Vansittart, earl of Mulgrave, lord Mel- 
 ville, viscount Sidmouth, viscount 
 Castlereagh, earl Bathurst, earl of 
 Buckinghamshire, marquess Camden, 
 lord Palmerston, &c. May, Junt . 1812 
 
 KING GEORGE IV. 
 
 Earl of Liverpool and his colleagues con- 
 tinued. Jan. 29 1820 
 
 [During lord Liverpool's long adminis- 
 tration, numerous changes in, and 
 accessions to, office occurred ; they 
 included the following names : Mr. 
 Charles Bragge Bathurst, Mr. William 
 Wellesley Pole (afterwards lord Mary- 
 borough and earl of Mornington), Mr. 
 Canning, Mr. Frederick John Robin- 
 son (afterwards lord Goderich and earl 
 of Ripon), duke of Wellington, Mr. 
 (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, Mr. 
 Charles Watkin Williams Wynn, Arc. 
 Lord Liverpool's ministry endured 
 fifteen years.] 
 
 Rt. hon. George Canning, lord Lynd- 
 hurst, earl of Harrowby, duke of 
 Portland, lord Dudley, visct. Goderich, 
 Mr. Sturges Bourne, Mr. Wynn, Mr. 
 Huskisson, lord Bexley, lord Palmer- 
 ston, duke of Clarence, &c. April . 182 
 
 On the death of Mr. Canning : Viscount 
 Goderich, duke of Portland, earl of 
 Carlisle, lord Lyndhurst, viscount 
 Dudley, viscount Palmerston, mar- 
 quess of Lansdowne, Mr. Huskisson, 
 Mr. Charles Grant, <tc. August . . 1827 
 
 Duke of Wellington, lord Lyndhurst, 
 earl Bathurst, lord Ellenborough, Mr. 
 Goulburn, Mr. Peel, earl Dudley, Mr. 
 Huskisson, Mr. Grant (afterwards lord 
 Glenelg), lord Palmerston, earl of 
 Aberdeen, Mr. Herries, Mr. Arbuth- 
 not, &c. Jan 1828 
 
 Duke of Wellington, lord Lyndhurst, earl 
 of Aberdeen, earl Bathurst, Mr. Peel, 
 sir George Murray, lord Ellenborough, 
 viscount Lowther, viscount Melville, 
 sir Henry Hardinge. May and June . 1828 
 
 [This last remodelling of the ministry 
 was consequent upon the retirement 
 of the carl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, 
 Mr. Grant, and Mr. Huskisson. J 
 
 KING WILLIAM IV. 
 
 Duke of Wellington and his colleagues 
 
 continued. June 26 ... . 1830 
 Earl Grey, marquess of Lansdowne, vis- 
 
ADM 
 
 11 
 
 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS op ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 count Althorpe, earl of Durham, vis- 
 counts Melbourne, Palmerston, and 
 Goderich ; sir James Graham, Mr. 
 Gz-ant, lord Auckland, lord John 
 Russell, lord Brougham, &c. Nov. . 1S30 
 
 [Earl Grey resigns office, owing to a 
 majority against him in the lords, on 
 a question relating to the Reform bill, 
 May 10, 1832 ; but he resumes his 
 post, May IS, following.] 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, marquess of Lans- 
 downe, earl Miilgrave, viscount Al- 
 thorpe, viscount Palmerston, viscount 
 Duncaunon, Mr. Spring Rice, loi'd 
 Brougham, lord John Russell, lord 
 Auckland, sir John Hobhouse, Mr. 
 Ellice, Mr. Grant, Mr. Littleton, &c. 
 July 1834 
 
 [Viscount Melbourne's administration 
 dissolved. The duke of Welliugton 
 takes the helm of state provisionally, 
 waiting the return of sir Robert Peel 
 from Italy.] 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, lord Wharncliffe, earl of 
 Rosslyn, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Goul- 
 burn, duke of Wellington, earl of 
 Aberdeen, earl de Grey, rt. hon. Alex- 
 ander Baring, lord Ellenborough, sir 
 George Murray, &c. Nov. and Dec. . 1834 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, marquess of Lans- 
 downe, viscount Duncaunon, Mr. 
 Spring Rice, lord John Russell, vis- 
 count Palmerston, lord Glenelg {late 
 Mr. Charles Grant), earl of Minto, sir 
 John Hobhouse, Mr. Poulett Thom- 
 son, lord Holland, viscount Howick, 
 sir Henry Parnell, Mr. Labouchere, 
 lord Morpeth, <fec. April . . . 1835 
 
 Sir Charles C. Pepys, created lord Cot- 
 tenham, and made lord chancellor. 
 Jan 1836 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues, 
 continued. June 20 1S37 
 
 [Among the subsequent accessions and 
 changes, were the following : rt. hon. 
 F. T. Baring, marquess of Normanby, 
 late earl of Mulgrave, earl of Claren- 
 don, Mr. T. B. Macaulay, &c] 
 
 [Viscount Melbourne resigns, and sir 
 Robert Peel receives the queen's com- 
 mands to form a new administration, 
 May 8. This command is withdrawn, 
 and on May 10, lord Melbourne and 
 his friends return to power.J . . 1839 
 
 Sir Robert. Peel, duke of Wellington, 
 lord Wharncliffe, lord Lyndhurst, duke 
 of Buckingham, sir James Graham, 
 earl of Aberdeen, lord Stanley, Mr. 
 Goulburn, earl of Haddington, earl of 
 Ripon, sir George Murray, sir Henry 
 Hardinge, lord Ellenborough, <fcc. 
 Aug. and Sept 1841 
 
 [Among the many succeeding changes 
 were : lord Fitzgerald, duke of Buc- 
 cleuch, earl of Dalhousie, Mr. Sidney 
 Herbert, Mr. W. E. Gladstone, &c] 
 
 Lord John Russell, marquess of Lans- 
 downe, earl of Minto, lord Cottenham, 
 sir George Grey, viscount Palmerston, 
 earl Grey, Mr. (now Sir Charles) Wood, 
 earl of Auckland, sir John Hobhouse, 
 earl of Clarendon, lord Campbell, vis- 
 count Morpeth (noio earl of Carlisle), 
 marquess of Clanricarde, Mr. Mac- 
 aulay, Mr. Labouchere, <fcc. July . 1846 
 
 [Among the accessions to office in lord 
 John Russell's ministry, were : earl 
 Granville, sir Francis Baring, Mr. Fox 
 
 Maule, earl of Carlisle, sir Thomas 
 Wylde, created lord Truro, <fcc] 
 [Feb. 24. Lord John Russell announced 
 to the commons, and the marquess of 
 Lansdowne to the lords, that the 
 ministers had resigned, owing to their 
 defeat on Mr. Locke King's motion re- 
 specting the Franchise, the majority 
 against them being 48 (100 to 52) ; 
 and on March 3, the same personages 
 informed parliament, that it having 
 been found impossible to construct a 
 coalition ministry, the queen, by the 
 advice of the Duke of Wellington, had 
 called upon her late ministers to re- 
 sume office. Lord Stanley had been 
 charged by her majesty, in the inter- 
 val, to form a new cabinet, but had 
 
 not succeeded.] 1851 
 
 Lord John Russell and his colleagues 
 continued. Lord John Russell, mar- 
 quess of Lansdowne, earl of Minto, 
 lord Truro, sir Charles Wood, sir 
 George Grey, viscount Palmerston 
 (succeeded by earl Granville), earl 
 Grey, sir Francis Thomhill Baring, 
 lord Broughton (late sir John Hob- 
 house), rt. hon. Heniy Labouchere, rt. 
 hon. Fox Maule (now lord Panmure), 
 marquess of Clanricarde, marquess of 
 Anglesey, &c. March . ... 1851 
 Earl of Derby (late lord Stanley), lord 
 St. Leonards, earl of Lonsdale, mar- 
 quess of Salisbury, rt. hon. Benjamin 
 Disraeli, rt. hon. Spencer Horatio 
 Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, sir John 
 Pakington, duke of Northumberland, 
 rt. hon. John C. Herries, rt. hon. 
 Joseph Warner Henley, earl of Hard- 
 wicke, rt. hon. William Beresford, &c. 
 
 Feb 1S52 
 
 Earl of Aberdeen, lord John Russell, 
 viscount Palmerston, sir James Gra- 
 ham, Mr. Gladstone, marquess of 
 Lansdowne, lord Cranworth, duke of 
 Newcastle, duke of Argyll, earl Gran- 
 ville, hon. Sidney Herbert, sir Charles 
 Wood, sir William Molesworth, «fec. 
 
 Dec. 28 1852 
 
 [In this last ministry various changes of 
 offices took place : among them, a 
 fourth secretary of state was appointed, 
 by a separation of the war from the 
 colonial department, the former being 
 retained by the Duke of Newcastle, 
 and sir George Grey being appointed 
 to the latter. See Aberdeen Adminis- 
 tration, Secretaries of State, and War 
 Minister.] 
 [The retirement of lord John Russell, 
 Jan. 24, 1855, and a majority in the 
 commons against ministers of 157 (305 
 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's motion, re- 
 specting the conduct of the war, led to 
 the resignation of lord Aberdeen and 
 his colleagues, Jan 30, following, and 
 the cabinet was reconstructed under 
 lord Palmerston.] 
 Viscount Palmerston, lord Cranworth, 
 earl Granville, lord Panmure, earl of 
 Clarendon, sir George Grey, rt. hon. 
 Sidney Herbert, sir James Graham, 
 sir Charles Wood, sir William Moles- 
 worth, duke of Argyll, Mr. Gladstone, 
 Mr. Cardwell, and (without office) the 
 marquess of Lansdowne, &c. Feb. 7 . 1855 
 [Viscount Paimerston, owing to the se- 
 cession from office of sir James Gra- 
 ham, Mr. Gladstone, and the hon. 
 Sidney Herbert, had to reconstruct 
 
ADM 12 ADM 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and op GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 his ministry anew, almost immedi- 
 ately after its formation.] 
 Viscount Palmerston, lord Cranworth, 
 earl Granville, lord Panmure, mar- 
 quees of Lansdowne (without office), 
 lord John Russell, earl of Clarendon, 
 
 sir George Grey, sir George Comewall 
 Lewis, sir Charles Wood, sir William 
 Molesworth, Mr. Vernon Smith, lord 
 Stanley of Alderley, duke of Argyll, 
 lord Canning, &c. (See Palmerston.) 
 Feb. 24 1855 
 
 The average duration of a ministry has heen set down at four, five, aDd six years ; but 
 remarkable instances have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer 
 periods : sir Robert Walpole was minister from 1721, reign of George I., to 1742, reign 
 of George II., twenty-one years. Mr Pitt's tenure of office from 1783 to 1801, 
 extended to eighteen years; and lord Liverpool's administration, from 1812 to 1827, 
 embraced the term of fifteen years. Numerous ministries, it will be seen, have not 
 endured beyond a few months, as the Coalition ministry in 1783, and the Talents 
 ministry in 1806. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSOCIATION. This body derives its origin from the 
 opinion of many eminent commercial men and others, that the disasters which occurred 
 to the army in the Crimea in 1S54-5 are attributable to the inefficient and irre- 
 sponsible management of the various departments of the state. A meeting for organ- 
 ising the association was held in London, May 5, 1855, succeeded by others in the 
 principal towns in the kingdom. Mr. W. Tite, a deputy-chairman, was elected M.P. 
 for Bath, on June 4, 1855. A meeting was held in Drury Lane Theatre, on June 13, 
 and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament was negatived June 18 following. 
 The association was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming chairman. — 
 See Civil Service. 
 
 ADMIRAL. The distinction of admiral does not appear to have been adopted in these 
 realms until about the year 1300, but the title was in use some time previously in 
 France. — Sir Harris Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings 
 had been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed in 
 France in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, 
 and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 1297. — Spdman; Rymtr. 
 
 ADMIRAL, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was created 
 by Richard II. in 1385 : there had been previously high admirals of districts — the 
 north, west, and south. This office has seldom been entrusted to single hands. 
 Prince George of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne, Mas lord high admiral in her 
 reign. Since that time (1708) the duties were uninterruptedly executed by lords 
 commissioners until 1827, when the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., was 
 appointed, on the secession of lord Melville from the Admiralty. The duke resigned 
 the rank, Aug. 12, 1828, and the office was again vested in a commission. — A similar 
 dignity existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : in 1673, the king bestowed 
 it upon his natural son, Charles Lenox, afterwards duke of Richmond and Lenox, 
 then an infant ; he resigned the office to the crown in 1703, and after the union it 
 was discontinued. — The dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) 
 was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VIII., in May 1534. See Navy. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, COURT of. Erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court for 
 the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. In Criminal matters, which commonly 
 relate to piracy, the proceedings were formerly by accusation and infoimation ; but 
 this being found inconvenient, it was enacted, by two statutes made in the reign of 
 Henry VIII., that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of 
 the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship 
 of the Admiralty was constituted, as at present, in 1514, and was filltd by two or more 
 functionaries until the Revolution, when it was restricted to one. — Bcatson. The 
 judge is now, and has usually been, an eminent doctor of the civil law. There are 
 appeals from the decisions of this court to the judicial committee of the privy council, 
 by statutes 11 George IV. and 1 William IV. 1830 and 1831. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, LORDS of tiie. In 1662 the Admiralty was, as at present constituted, 
 first put into commission, the great officers of state being the commissioners. 
 During the commonwealth the admiralty affairs were managed by a committee of the 
 parliament; and at the Restoration in 1660, James, duke of York, became lord high 
 admiral. In 1684, Charles II. held the admiralty in his own hands, until his death, 
 when James II. made himself lord high admiral. In 1688-9, the admiralty was a 
 second time put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at 
 
ADM 
 
 13 
 
 ADR 
 
 admiral Herbert's lodgings in Channel-Row, Westminster, he being at that time first 
 lord. The patent appointing him, together with six other lords, was dated 
 March 6, 1688-9. 
 
 FIRST LORDS OP THE ADMIRALTY DURING THE LAST TEST REIGNS. 
 
 1660. James, duke of York., lord high ad- 
 miral, 6 Juue. 
 1673. King Charles II., 14 June. 
 
 — Prince Rupert, 9 July. 
 
 1679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 May. 
 
 1680. Daniel Finch, esq., 14 Feb. 
 
 1681. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 
 
 1681. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 
 
 — King James II., 17 May. 
 
 1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., 8 March. 
 
 1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Mont- 
 
 gomery, 20 Jan. 
 
 1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. 
 
 1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 
 
 1694. Edward Ru ssell, esq., 2 May. 
 1697. Edward, earl of Orford, 5 June. 
 1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, 31 May. 
 
 1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Mont- 
 
 gomery, 4 April. 
 
 1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high, 
 
 admiral, 20 May. 
 
 1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Mont- 
 
 gomery, 29 Nov. 
 
 1709. Edward, earl of Orford, S Nov. 
 
 1710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 
 
 1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
 1714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
 1717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
 1727. George, Viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. 
 1733. Sir Charles Wager, knt., 21 Juue. 
 1741. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea and Not- 
 tingham, 19 Mai - ch. 
 1744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Doc. 
 1748. John, earl of Sandwich, 16 Feb. 
 1751. George, lord Anson, 22 June. 
 
 1756. Richard, earl Temple, 17 Nov. 
 
 1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea and Not- 
 
 tingham, 6 April. 
 
 — George, lord An3on, 2 July. 
 
 1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, 17 Juue. 
 
 — George Grenville, esq., IS Oct. 
 
 1763. John, earl of Sandwich, 20 April. 
 1763. John, earl of Egmont, 16 Sept. 
 1766. Sir Charles Saunders, 15 Sept. 
 
 — Sir Edward Hawke, 11 Dec. 
 1771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 
 1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, 1 April. 
 
 — Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 
 17S3. Richard, viscount Howe, 30 Jan. 
 1788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 
 1794. George John, earl Spencer, 19 Dec. 
 1801. John, earl St. Vincent, 13 Feb. 
 1S04. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. 
 
 1805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 
 
 1806. Charles, earl Grey, 10 Feb. 
 
 — Thomas Grenville, esq., 29 Sept. 
 1S07. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
 1809. Charles Yorke, esq., 24 Nov. 
 
 1S12. Robert, viscouut Melville, 25 March. 
 
 1827. H. R. H. William Henry, duke of 
 
 Clarence, lord high admiral, 2 May. 
 
 1828. Robert, viscount Melville, 19 Sept. 
 1S30. Sir James Robert George Graham, barb., 
 
 25 Nov. 
 1834. George, lord Auckland, 11 June. 
 
 — Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 23 Dec. 
 1S35. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
 
 — Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept. 
 1341. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 8 Sept. 
 IS 16. Edward, earl of Ellenborough, 13 Jan. 
 
 — George, eai - l of Auckland, 24 July. 
 1S49. Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, IS Jan. 
 
 1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 
 
 28 Feb. 
 
 1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 
 
 Jan. 
 1S55. Sir Charles Wood, bart., 24 Feb. The 
 present (1S57) First Lord. 
 
 ADMIRALTY, WHITEHALL. "At the south end of Duke-street, Westminster, was 
 seated a large house, made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was 
 removed to Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford House, against Whitehall." It was 
 rebuilt by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the 
 building, by the brothers Adam, in 1776. Great alterations in the public offices are 
 in contemplation (1857). — Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on Jan 8, 
 1806 ; and on the next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
 
 " ADMONITION to the PARLIAMENT," condemning all religious ceremonies but those 
 commanded in the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 1571. It 
 was answered by Abp. Whitgift, and its presumed authors, Field and Wilcox, were 
 imprisoned. 
 
 ADRIAN'S WALL. The wall of Adrian and Severus (to prevent the irruptions of the 
 Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, then under the Roman 
 government), extended from the Tyne to Solway Frith, and was eighty miles long, 
 twelve feet high, and eight in thickness, with watch-towers, built a.d. 121. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, BATTLE of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 3, 
 a.d. 323. Adrianople (so called after its second founder, the Emperor Adrian) was 
 taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360; and continued to be the seat of 
 the Turkish empire till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of 
 the most distinguished of the sultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was 
 born here in 1430. — Priestly. Adrianople was taken by the Russians who entered 
 in Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was restored to the sultan at the close of the then war, 
 Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 
 
 ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the Doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea was insti- 
 tuted in a.d. 1173. Annually upon Ascension-day, the doge married the Adriaticum 
 Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or state barge, and was attended 
 
ADU 14 ^EGO 
 
 on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, and foreign ambassadors, in 
 gondolas. The ceremony was intermitted, for the first time for ceuturies, in 1797. 
 
 ADULTERY, ANCIENT LAWS AGAINST IT. Punished by the law of Moses with 
 death. — Leviticus xx. 10. Lycurgus punished the offender as he did a parricide, and 
 the Locrians and Spartans tore out the offender's eyes. The Romans had no formal 
 law against adultery : the Emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law 
 to punish it, and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own 
 children. — Lenglet. 
 
 ADULTERY, ENGLISH LAWS AGAINST IT. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
 and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — Pardon. 
 King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished by cutting off the 
 hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping her through the streets, if 
 the husband so demanded it to be done, without distinction of rank, during the 
 Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stow. The ears and nose were cut off under 
 Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally, together with incest, under 
 Cromwell, May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New 
 England a law was ordained whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even 
 though the man were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At 
 the pi-esent time the legal redress against the male offender is by civil action for a 
 money compensation ; the female is liable to be divorced. A bill, altering the law on 
 this subject, is now befoi'e Parliament (July, 1857). 
 
 ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of the 
 Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest Sunday to 
 Saint Andrew's day (30th November), before or after. Homilies respecting Advent 
 are mentioned prior to 378. 
 
 ADVENTURE BAY. Captain Furneaux visited this bay, which lies at the south-east 
 end of Van Diem'en's Land, in his first voyage to the Pacific, and called it Adventure 
 Bay, from the ship Adventure in which he sailed, 1778. It was visited by Captain 
 Bligh in 1788, and subsequently by various navigators. Our present intercourse with 
 Australia now makes it better known. 
 
 ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT. A celebrated and enterprising company of merchants, 
 was originally formed for the discovery of territories, the extension of commerce, and 
 promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. This ancient company was 
 afterwards translated into England, in the reign of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth 
 formed it into an English corporation in 1564. — Anderson. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. As now published, they were not general in 
 England until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of 501. was inflicted 
 on persons advertising a reward with " No questions to be asked " for the return of 
 things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. — Statutes. The advertisement 
 duty was formerly charged according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, 
 in England at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was 
 further reduced, in England to Is. 6d. and in Ireland to Is. each, by 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 1833. The duty was altogether abolished in the United Kingdom, by 16 and 17 
 Vict. c. 63, Aug. 4, 1853. 
 
 ADVERTISING VANS, at that time a great nuisance, were prohibited by 16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 33, June 28, 1853. 
 
 ADVOCATE, The KING'S. This office was instituted about the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century ; and the advocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empowered to prosecute 
 at his own instance certain crimes, 1597. — Statutes. Lord Advocate, in Scotland, is 
 the same as the attorney-general is in England. It was decided in the parliament of 
 Paris, in 1685, that the king's advocate of France might at the same time be a judge; 
 so in like manner it was allowed in Scotland, where sir John Nisbet and sir 
 William Oliphant were lord advocates and lords of session at the same time. — Beatson. 
 
 ^EDILES. Magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b. c. There were three degrees of these 
 officers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices of the peace. 
 The plebeian fediles presided over the more minute affairs of the state, good order, 
 and the reparation of the streets. They procured all the provisions of the city, and 
 executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 
 
 JEGOSPOTAMOS,the Goat river, in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedemonian, 
 defeated the Athenian fleet B.C. 405, and ended the Peloponnesian war. 
 
iENI 15 AFF 
 
 iENIGMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews borrowed 
 their senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The philosophy of the Druids 
 was altogether senigmatical. In Nero's time, the Romans were often obliged to have 
 recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. The following 
 epitaph on Fair Rosamond is an elegant specimen of the eenigma : 
 
 Hie jacet in tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; 
 Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 
 
 iEOLIAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher, 1653 ; but 
 Richardson proves it to have been known at an earlier period than his time. — 
 Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story of the aerial 
 harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played upon by 
 the north wind. 
 
 AERIANS. A sect founded by Aerius,a presbyter, in the 4th century. He maintained 
 that there was no distinction between a bishop and presbyter ; that there was no 
 pasch to be observed by Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be 
 observed ; and that prayers should not be offered for the dead. — Epiphanius. 
 
 AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has been 
 erroneously attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
 ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well as a bird, 
 was refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that hydrogen gas is 
 at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1766. The true doctrine of aero- 
 nautics was announced in France by the two brothers Montgolfier, 1782. — See Balloon. 
 
 JSSOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor of this 
 species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b. c. iEsop's Fables are, no doubt, 
 a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits both before and after his own 
 time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 
 
 ^ETHIOPIA. See Ethiopia. 
 
 MTNA. See Etna. 
 
 JETOLIA. A country named after iEtolus of Elis, who, having accidentally killed a 
 son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. The 
 inhabitants were very little known to the rest of Greece, till after the ruin of 
 Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a consequence in the country as the opposers 
 and rivals of the Achseans, to whom they made themselves formidable both as the allies 
 of Rome, and as its enemies. They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. 
 
 The iEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- 
 ponnesus B.C. 282 
 
 Jealous of the growing power of the 
 Achseans, they prevail on Sparta to war 
 with that republic 229 
 
 They dispute the passage of the Macedo- 
 nians at Thermopylae .... 223 
 
 Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price of 
 peace 218 
 
 Battle of Lamia ; the iEtolians com- 
 manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by 
 Philip of Macedon 214 
 
 With the assistance of allies, they seize 
 Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . . 212 
 
 They put to the sword the people of 
 Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
 cities, and destroy with fire all the 
 country they invade . . .B.C. 201 
 
 They next invite the kings of Macedon, 
 Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with 
 them against the Romans . . . 195 
 
 They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Deme- 
 trias in Thessaly 194 
 
 Their defeat near Thermopylae . . . 193 
 
 They lose Lamia and Amphissa . . 192 
 
 iEtolia kept by the Romans in a state of 
 slavery 168 
 
 Made a province of Rome .... 146 
 
 This people, according to Polybius, were more like beasts than men ; but it must be 
 observed, that Polybius was an Achaean, a great enemy of the IEtolians. The republic 
 of iEtolia was governed by a senate, composed of deputies from the several towns, 
 over which a prsetor presided, and it had its magistrates, ephores, &c, like those of 
 Sparta. In other respects the commonwealth bore a great resemblance to the 
 Achaean league. 
 
 AFFINITY, DEGREES of. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibited 
 by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age, but yet took place to a 
 considerable extent. Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be 
 seen in Leviticus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
 near degrees was set forth by authority, a. d. 1563. Many of these are disputed. 
 Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety- 
 ninth canon, in 1603. All marriages within the forbidden degrees of kindred are 
 declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will IV., cap. 54, 1835. See 
 Marriage. 
 
AFF 16 AFR 
 
 AFFIRMATION. The Quakers conscientiously objecting to oaths, their simple affirma- 
 tion is accepted instead ; for the first time, a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered 
 in 1702, and again altered and modified December 1721. Quakers were relieved from 
 oaths when elected to municipal offices, by an act which extended relief, generally, to 
 all conscientious Christians not of the Established Church, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. Declara- 
 tion to be made by Quakers, statute of 1 Vict. 1837 : extension of this act to persons 
 ■who were formerly Quakers, but who have seceded from that sect, 2 Vict. 1838; 
 extended to other dissenters in Scotland, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 2 (1855). 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, India. A large country, in central Asia, conquered by the Tartars 
 about 997. The Mahommedan dynasty the Gaznerides are said to have ruled the 
 Afghans from 1159 to 1206. They were conquered by Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. 
 Baber conquered Caubul in 1504 ; on his death Afghanistan was divided between the 
 empire of Persia and Hindostan. The Afghans revolted in 1720; invaded Persia, 
 and took Ispahan, but were repulsed by Nadir Shah in 1728, who in 1737 subdued 
 the whole of their country. On his assassination in 1747 one of his officers, Ahmed 
 Shah, an Afghan, formed Afghanistan into an independent kingdom, and reigned 
 prosperously till 1773. His son and successor, Timour, died in 1793; whose son, 
 Zemaun, was dethroned and blinded after reigning 10 years. Since then to the 
 present time, the history is nothing but a Eeries of broils, crimes, and murders : till 
 Runjeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquered a large part of the country in 1818. 
 For the war with England, see India. 
 
 AFRICA. Called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and 
 the greatest peninsula of the universe ; first peopled by Ham. It was conquered by 
 Belisarius in a.d. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about 637, the Mahometan 
 Arabs subdued the north of Africa; and their descendants, under the name of Moors, 
 constitute a great part of the present population. See the several countries of Africa 
 through the volume. English merchants visited Guinea in 1550; and Elizabeth 
 granted a patent to a company in 1588. In 1723 captain Stibbs sailed up the Gambia. 
 Among the late distinguished travellei - s in this quarter of the world may be mentioned 
 Brace, who commenced his travels in 1768; Mungo Park, who made his first voyage 
 to Africa, May 22, 1795; and his second voyage, Jnnuary 30, 1804, but from which 
 he never returned (see Park) ; Salt, in 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt, in 1812 ; Horne- 
 mann, in 1816: Denham and Clapperton, in 1822; the brothers Lander, in 1830. 
 The Great Niger expedition, (for which parliament voted 61,000J.,) consisting of the 
 Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, sailed in the summer of 1841. The 
 vessels commenced the ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20 ; but when they reached Iddah, 
 fever broke out among the crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the 
 Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The 
 expedition was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hardships, 
 and all the vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando Po, on Oct. 17. same 
 year. James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and in 1849 (by 
 direction of the Foreign Office), he left England to explore central Africa, accompanied 
 by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, Sept. 27, 
 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. 
 Barth returned to England, and received the Royal Geographical Society's medal, 
 May 16, 1856. Dr. Livingston, also, returned to England in Dec, 1856, after an 
 absence of 16 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of Africa, 
 and walked about 11,000 miles. Accounts have been recently received of the 
 assassination of Dr. Vbgel (April 1857). 
 
 AFRICAN ASSOCIATION was formed in June 1788, for pormoting the exploration of 
 Inner Africa, principally by Sir Joseph Banks, and under its auspices many additions 
 were made to African geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. 
 It merged into the Royal Geographical Society in 1831. 
 
 AFRICAN COMPANY. A society of merchants trading to Africa. An association in 
 Exeter, which was formed in 15b8, gave rise to this company. A charter was granted 
 to a joint-stock company in 1G18 ; a third company was created in 1631 ; a fourth 
 corporation in 1662; and another formed by letters-patent in 1672, and remodelled 
 in 1695. The rights vested in the present company are by 23 Geo. II. 1749. 
 
 AFRICAN INSTITUTION. Founded in London in 1807, for the abolition of the slave 
 trade, and the civilisation of Africa. Many schools have been established with 
 success, particularly at Sierra Leone, where the number of scholars, male and female, 
 is said to approach 2000. — Leigh. 
 
AGA 17 AGR 
 
 AGAPiE. Feasts of Charity (from ayairfi, love, charity), mentioned Jude 12; of which 
 the first Christians of all ranks partook in common, in memory of the last meal 
 which the Lord Jesus took with his disciples. In consequence of disorders creeping 
 in, they were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the council of Laodicea in 
 361 ; and by the council of Carthage in 391. 
 
 AGAPEMONIANS, SECT of. This fanatic sect "live in a state of brotherly love, 
 delivering themselves up to innocent amusements of all kinds, not vexing them- 
 selves with the cares of ordinary mortals, and believing that they exist in communion 
 with God." This doctrine originated, within the last few years, with one Price, an 
 enthusiast, who took their name from the Greek, Ayaircu, love or friendship feasts. 
 They have their residence in a building called " Agapemone," or the abode of love, 
 near Bridgewater, in Somersetshire. In a case brought before the vice-chancellor's 
 court, May 22, 1850, by a person named Thomas Robinson, to recover the possession 
 of his child from the care of its mother (from whom Thomas had separated), the 
 application was refused on the ground that the father would instil the doctrines of the 
 sect into the child in educating it, and the court held it a duty to " save it from the 
 pollution of the parent's teaching." Several suicides have been committed by the 
 deluded females of this sect. 
 
 AGE. Historians and chronologers have, commonly, divided the time that elapsed 
 between the Creation and the birth of Christ into six periods, called ages* The first 
 age was from the Creation to the Deluge, and comprehended 1656 years; the second 
 age was from the Deluge to the coining of Abraham into the land of promise, and 
 comprehended 426 years, terminating in the year of the world 2082 ; the third age, 
 from Abraham to Moses quitting Egypt, comprising 430 years, and ending in the 
 year of the world 2513 ; the fourth age, from the going out of Egypt to the founda- 
 tion of the temple of Solomon, being 479 years, and ending in the year of the world 
 2992 ; the fifth age, from the building of the temple to the destruction of Jerusalem, 
 424 years, ending in the year of the world 3416; and the sixth age, from the 
 Babylonish captivity to the birth of the Redeemer, 584 years, ending in the year of 
 the world 4000, and fourth year before the vulgar era, or 4004. See next article. 
 
 AGE. Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
 by some the space of time commencing from Constantine, and ending with the taking 
 of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called the middle age ; 
 the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of the world may be reduced 
 to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of nature, from Adam to Moses ; the 
 age of the Jewish law, from Moses to Christ ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the 
 present year. 
 
 AGE, of. In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, and of a female 
 in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
 was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years ; previously to completing which 
 age, Henry VIII. had himself assumed the reins of government, in 1509. A male of 
 twelve may take the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen, he may consent to a marriage, 
 or choose a guardian ; at seventeen he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
 age ; but according to the statute of wills, 7 William IV. and 1 Victoria, cap. 26, no 
 will made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female 
 at twelve may consent to a marriage ; at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
 twenty-one she is of age. 
 
 AGINCOURT, BATTLE of. Between the French and English armies, gained by Henry 
 V. — one of the most glorious of our victories. Of the French there were 10,000 
 killed, and 14,000 were taken prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among 
 the prisoners were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and 
 gentlemen, and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
 were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, 
 thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights. — Oct. 25, 1415. — Goldsmith. 
 
 AGITATORS. In English history, officers appointed by the army to take care of its 
 interests : each troop or company had two, instituted by Cx-omwell, 1647. The 
 Protector himself was, however, obliged to repress the power and influence of the 
 Agitators, owing to the sedition they excited. At a review he seized the ringleaders 
 of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on 
 the ground, and thus, by a bold act, restored the discipline of the army. — Hume. 
 
 AGRA, FORTRESS of. Termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered in the war with the 
 
AGR 
 
 IS 
 
 AGR 
 
 Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 10, 1803. This was once the most splendid of 
 all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent ruins. In the 17th 
 century the great mogul frequently resided here; his palaces, and those of the 
 Omrahs, were veiy numerous; Agra then contained above 60 caravansaries, 800 
 baths, and 700 mosques. See Muusoleums. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW, Agvaria lex. An equal division among the Roman people of all the 
 lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should 
 enjoy. It was first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain the favour of the citizens, 
 486 B.C. It was enacted under the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 B.C. The law 
 at last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius Caesar, B.C. 60. — Livy ; 
 Vossius. In modern times the term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of 
 the lauds of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, such as 
 Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Sir Humphry Davy delivered lectures on this 
 subject (afterwards published), at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812 ; 
 but it excited little attention till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which 
 made a powerful impression. Boussingault's "Economie Rurale," an equally im- 
 portant work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study 
 having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction has taken place, and much 
 controversy ensued. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. The first society for the promotion of agriculture 
 in the British Isles, of whose history we have any account, was the Society of 
 Improvers of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. The establishment of the 
 Dublin Agricultural Society, in 1749, gave a stimulus to agriculture in Ireland ; but 
 the oi'igin of this society may be traced as early as 1731, when Mr. Prior of Rath- 
 downey, Queen's County, and a number of gentlemen associated themselves for the 
 improvement of husbandry. Societies for the promotion of agriculture multiplied in 
 every direction during the eighteenth century ; among them the highest rank may 
 be claimed for the Bath and West of England Society in 1777, and the Highland 
 Society of Scotland, in 1793. The London Board of Agriculture was established, by 
 act of parliament, same year. Francis, duke of Bedford, who died March 2, 1802, 
 was a great promoter of agriculture. The Royal Agricultural Society of England was 
 established in 1838 by a number of noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
 proprietors in the kingdom, and was incorporated by Royal Charter in 1840. It holds 
 two meetings annually, one in London, the other in the country. The first country 
 meeting was at Oxford, in 1839. It awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal, 
 of which 17 vols, are issued (1857). 
 
 AGRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period immediately 
 succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, perhaps, coeval 
 with their early plantation and government. Of the agriculture of the ancients 
 little is known. The Athenians pretend that it was among them the art of sowing 
 corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most 
 probability, to the honour. It was brought into England by the Romans about 
 a.d. 27. Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry" was printed in 1534, and Tusser's 
 "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry" in 1562; Blythe's "Improver" in 1649; and 
 Hartlib's "Legacy" in 1650; and Jethro Tull's "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" in 
 1701. The following Table drawn up by Mr. William Couling, C.E., in 1827, is ex- 
 tracted from the Third Report of the Emigration Committee : — 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wastes 
 capable of Unprofitable. 
 Improvement. | 
 
 Total. 
 
 England 
 
 Wales .... 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Irelaud . . . . 
 
 British Islands . 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 25,632,000 
 3,117,000 
 5,265,000 
 
 12,125,280 
 
 383,090 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 3,454,000 
 530.000 
 
 5,950,000 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 ICO, 000 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 3,256,400 
 1,105,000 
 8,523,930 
 2,416,664 
 569,469 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 32,342,400 
 4,752,000 
 19,738,930 
 19,441,944 
 1,119,159 
 
 40,522,970 
 
 15,000,000 15,871,463 
 
 77,394,433 
 
 At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was anuually 
 cropped in the following proportions : — 
 
AGR 
 
 19 
 
 ALB 
 
 AGRICULTURE, continued. 
 
 ACRES. 
 
 Wheat 7,000,000 
 
 Barley and rye 1,950,000 
 
 Potatoes, oats, and beans . . 6,500,000 
 Turnips, cabbages, and other vege- 
 tables 1,150,000 
 
 Clover, rye-grass, &c. . . . 1,750,000 
 
 Fallow 2,800,000 
 
 Hop-grounds 6U.000 
 
 Forward 
 
 21,210,000 
 
 
 ACKES. 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 21,210,000 
 
 Nursery-grounds . . . . 
 
 20,000 
 
 Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and 
 
 
 other gardens . 
 
 110,000 
 
 Pleasure-grounds . . . . 
 
 100,000 
 
 Land depastured by cattle . 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . 
 
 2,0OU,O0O 
 
 Ways, water, &c 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 Cultivated land . . 
 
 46,540,000 
 
 It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands 
 would yield above 20,000,000?. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in 
 England 82,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual value of 37,412,0002. In 
 August, 1855, a Committee presented a report on the best mode of obtaining accurate 
 agricultural statistics. There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers in Great 
 Britain, and in Ireland 1,131,715; while the cultivated land of Great Britain amounts 
 to about 34,250,000 acres, and that of Ireland only to about 14,000,000. See Wheat. 
 
 AILESBURT. Reduced by the West Saxons in a.d. 571. St. O'Syth, beheaded by the 
 Pagans in Esses, was buried here, a.d. 600. William the Conqueror invested his 
 favourites with some of its lauds, under the tenure of providing " straw for his bed- 
 chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two 
 green geese, thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1553. 
 
 AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause 
 of everything created, 530 B.C. The pressure of air was discovered by Tbrricelli, 
 A.D. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pascal, in 1647. Halley, 
 Newton, and others, up to the present time, have illustrated the agency and 
 influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions 
 have followed from them ; among others, the air-gun by Guter of Nuremberg in 
 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by Otto Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650; improved 
 by the illustrious Boyle in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer 
 of London, about 1756. See Balloon. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen). A Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here 
 Charlemagne was born 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796-804), and 
 conferred many privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been 
 crowned. The imperial insignia were removed to Vienna in 1795. The first treaty 
 of peace signed here was between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche 
 Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, 
 or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, 
 and Genoa. By this memorable peace, the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of 
 Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 
 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of 
 Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the part of England by 
 John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. A congress of the 
 sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and 
 France, was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, Oct. 9, 1818. The sum 
 then due from France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 of francs. 
 
 ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 B.C., and called Longa, because the city extended 
 along the hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and was governed by a race 
 of kings, the descendants of ^Eneas, in the order following ; but little of their history 
 is known : — 
 
 Ascanius, son of iEneas . . . B.C. 1152 
 
 Sylvius Posthumus 1143 
 
 jEneas Sylvius 1114 
 
 Beign of Latinus 
 Alba reigns 
 Atys, or Capetus 
 Beign of Capys 
 
 104S 
 
 103S 
 
 1002 
 
 976 
 
 Capetus 916 
 
 Beign of Tiberinus 903 
 
 Being defeated in battle near the river 
 Atbula, he throws himself into the 
 
 stream, is drowned, and hence this 
 
 river is now called the Tiber . B.C. S95 
 
 Agrippa — 
 
 Bemulus 864 
 
 Aventinus 845 
 
 Procas SOS 
 
 Numitor 
 
 Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes 
 
 the throne 
 
 He is restored by his grandson, Bomu- 
 
 lus, who puts Amulius to death . . 
 The kingdom is conquered by Tullus 
 
 Hostilius, who incorporates it with 
 
 his Boman dominions .... 
 c2 
 
 705 
 
 005 
 
ALB 20 ALC 
 
 When Amulius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Nuinitor, 
 to a life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, thereby to 
 assure his safety in the usurpation. Hi3 object was, however, frustrated ; violence 
 was offered to Ilia, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered 
 her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 B.C. But 
 the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near mount Aventine, 
 and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the 
 children as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, 
 was surnamed Lupa; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were 
 suckled by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wi'ongs of Ilia 
 and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome. — Varro. 
 
 ALBANIA (the ancient Epirus). The Albanians became independent during the 
 decline of the Greek empire ; and, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), baffled the 
 efforts of Mahmoud II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they 
 partially submitted. They again became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, 
 in 1812, who defeated the Turkish pashas, and governed ably, but cruelly and 
 despotically, till Feb. 1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering 
 under a solemn promise of safety. 
 
 ALBIGENSES. They had their origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Languedoc, and 
 at Toulouse ; they opposed the doctrines of the Church of Rome, and professed a 
 hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon de Montfort commanded 
 against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the 
 sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive; and at La Vaur, he 
 hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, 
 and murdering other women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse with 
 the loss of 17,000 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See 
 Waldenses. 
 
 ALBION. The island of Britain is said to have been first so called by Julius Csesar, on 
 account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 B.C. 
 The Romans partially conquered it, and held possession about 400 years. On their 
 quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons, who drove 
 the original inhabitants from the plain country, to seek refuge in Cornwall and 
 Wales ; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : from a 
 mixture of these nations, the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Britain. 
 
 ALBUERA, or ALBUHERA, BATTLE of. Between the French, commanded by 
 marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, 
 afterwards lord Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engage- 
 ment, the allies obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant achievements of the 
 peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 7000 men previously to their retreat; 
 but the allies lost an equal number. On the side of the allies, the chief brunt of the 
 action fell on the British : " Col. Inglis, 22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 
 570 who had mounted a hill, fell in the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments 
 were scarcely better off, not one-third being left standing; 1800 unwounded men, 
 the remnant of 6000 unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
 hill."— -Sir W. F. P. Napier. 
 
 ALCHEMY. A pretended branch of chemistry, which affected the transmutation of 
 metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, and things equally ridiculous. 
 If regard be had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood ; yet 
 few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, 
 mention any such thing. Pliny says, the emperor Caligula was the first who 
 prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, because the 
 charge exceeded the profit. Others say, the Egyptians had this mystery. The 
 Arabians are said to have invented this mysterious art, wherein they were followed 
 by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, Raymond Lullius, Paracelsus, and 
 others, who never found anything but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on 
 the subject is Zosimus, about a.d. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grcec. A license for practising 
 alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — 
 Rymer's Fad. Dr. Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments in 
 this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, 
 affirming that they were made by means of a red and white powder ; he being a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his 
 
ALC 21 ALE 
 
 experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; but after some equivocation he took 
 poison and died, August, 1783. 
 
 ALCORAN. See Koran, Mahometanism, Mecca, &c. 
 
 ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among 
 the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished 
 persons, on account of the experience that their age had given them. At the time of 
 the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of provinces or districts, and are so 
 mentioned up to a.d. 882. After the Danes were settled in England, the title was 
 changed to that of earl, and the Normans introduced that of count, which though 
 different in its original signification, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be 
 said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, an 
 alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. Appointed in London, where 
 there are twenty-six, in 1242 ; and in Dublin, where there are twenty -four, in 1323. 
 Chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Richard II., 1394. Present mode of election 
 established 11 George I., 1725. Aldermen were made justices of the peace 15 
 George II., 1741. 
 
 ALDERNEY, RACE of. Through this strait the French made their escape after their 
 defeat at the battle of La Hogue, by admiral Rooke, in 1692. It is celebrated for 
 two memorable and fatal occurrences: William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
 England, with a vast crowd of young nobility, (as many as 140 youths of the principal 
 families of France and Britain,) was overtaken by a storm, and all were lost, in 1120. 
 The British man-of-war Victory, of 110 guns and 1100 men, was also wrecked here, 
 October 8, 1744, when the admiral, sir John Balchan, and all his crew, perished on 
 the rocks. 
 
 ALDERSHOTT CAMP, near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April 1854, 
 the War Office, having obtained a grant of 100,000Z., purchased 4000 acres of" land, for 
 a permanent camp for 20,000 men. It is now (1857) proposed to erect barracks for 
 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements 
 in militaiy cookery have been introduced under the superintendence of captain John 
 Grant. See Cottagers' Stove. On July 7, 1856, the Queen reviewed the troops re- 
 turned from the Crimea; and on the 16th, a grand review in the presence of both 
 houses of parliament. 
 
 ALDINE PRESS. That of Aldus Manutius at which were printed many of the first 
 editions of the Classics, &c, commencing in 1494 with Musseus. 
 
 ALE and WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the former in 
 Egypt, where the soil was considered unable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a 
 beverage at least 404 B.C. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing 
 barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. The Romans and Germans very early learned 
 the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the 
 Egyptians. — Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of 
 Wessex. Booths were set up in England, a.d. 728, when laws were passed for their 
 regulation. Ale-houses were licensed in 1621 ; and excise duty on ale and beer was 
 imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles II., 1660. See Beer, 
 Porter, Wine. 
 
 ALEMANNI, or ALL MEN (i.e. men of all nations) hence Allemand, German. A body of 
 Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, a.d. 214. After several repulses 
 they invaded the empire under Aurelian, a.d. 270, who subdued them in three battles. 
 They were again vanquished by Julian, a.d. 357. They finally became subject to 
 Clovis by the battle of Tolbiac, a.d. 496. The Suabians are their descendants. 
 
 ALEPPO. A large city of Syria, called by the natives Haleb, and anciently Bei-sea. The 
 pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments into which Syria is divided. 
 The depopulation occasioned by the plague has frequently been dreadful ; 60,000 
 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797. Aleppo suffered severely 
 from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830. It has also often been the scene of 
 fanatical massacres. The last massacre was caused by an attack of the Mahometans 
 upon the Christian inhabitants — numbers falling victims to their merciless assailants : 
 the Mahometans burnt everything in their way ; three churches were destroyed, five 
 others were plundered, and the total loss of property amounted to about a million 
 sterling : no interference was attempted by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers, Oct. 
 16, 1850. 
 
 ALESSANDRIA, BATTLE of. Between the Austro-Russian army under Suwarrow, and 
 
ALE 22 ALG 
 
 the French under Moreau, when the latter was defeated with the loss of 4000 men. 
 The French had possessed themselves of Alessandria the year before, but they were 
 now driven out, May 17, 1799. It was again delivered up to them after the battle of 
 Marengo, in 1800. The village and battle-field of Marengo lie east of the town. A 
 European subscription was commenced in 1856, to fortify this place. 
 
 ALEXANDER, ERA of. Dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C. 
 In the computation of this era, the period of the creation was considered to be 5502 
 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 a.d. was equal to 
 5503. This computation continued to the year 284 a.d., which was called 5786. In 
 the next year (285 a.d.), which Bhould have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and 
 the date became 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date 
 is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that 
 time by subtracting 5492. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, Egypt. The walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by Alexander 
 the Great, 332 B.C. ; taken by Ccesar, 47 B.C., and the library of the Ptolemies, con- 
 taining 400,000 valuable works in MS., was accidentally burnt by a fire which 
 occurred during Cfcsar's attack. Another library was destroyed a.d. 390, when 
 paganism was suppressed by the decree of Theodosius. Conquered by the Saracens, 
 when the second libi'ary, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was totally destroyed by the 
 victors, who heated the water for their baths for six months by burning books instead 
 of wood, by command of the caliph Omar, a.d. 640.* This was formerly a place of 
 great trade, all the treasures of the east being deposited here before the discovery of 
 the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when 
 a massacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable 
 battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by the British, 
 under General Fraser, March 21, 1807; but was evacuated, Sept. 23, same year. For 
 later events here, see Syria and Turkey. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, BATTLE of. Between the French under Menou, who made the attack, 
 and the British army, under sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 15,000 men, 
 which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The British were victorious, 
 but sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded ; and after the retreat of Menou, 
 he was carried to the admiral's ship, and died on the 28th. The command devolved 
 on major-general Hutchinson, who baffled all the schemes of Menou, and obliged him 
 to surrender, Sept. 2 following, the victor guaranteeing the conveyance of the French 
 (whose number exceeded 10,000) to a French port in the Mediterranean. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve syllables. They were first written by 
 Alexander of Paris, and have since been called, after him, Alexandrines, about a.d. 
 1164. —Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well-known 
 couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified : — 
 
 " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
 That, like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-lcmg." 
 
 The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, pub- 
 lished in 1612. Chapman's Homer is in this measure (1598). The last line of the 
 Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. 
 
 ALFORD, BATTLE of. General Baillie with a large body of Covenanters defeated by 
 the marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. There was discovered some years since, in 
 one of the mosses near this place, a man in armour on horseback, supposed to have 
 been drowned in attempting to escape from this battle. 
 
 ALGEBRA. Where Algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely known. 
 Diophautus first wrote upon it, probably about A.D. 170 ; he is said to be the inventor. 
 Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about a.d. 900 ; and into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, 
 in 1202. The first writer who used algebraical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 
 1544. The introduction of symbols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when 
 algebra came into general use. — Moreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis 
 of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
 
 ALGESIRAS, or OLD GIBRALTAR. By this city, the Moors entered Spain in a.d. 713, 
 and it was not recovered from them until 1344. Engagement here between a British 
 
 * The celebrated saying of Omar— "That if the books agreed with the book of God, they were 
 useless ; if they disagreed, they were pernicious" — is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to 
 Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria (390), and Cardinal Ximenes (1500). 
 
ALG 23 ALI 
 
 squadron, under sir James Saumarez (afterwards lord de Saumarez), and several French 
 and Spanish ships of war, which closed in the destruction of two Spanish ships, each 
 of 112 guns, and the capture of the St. Antonio, of 74 guns, July 12, 1801. 
 
 ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman Province, 44 b.c. It 
 afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the Spaniards, the nation 
 invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he seized the government, a.d. 1516; 
 but it afterwards became subject to Turkey. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved 
 the resentment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor 
 Charles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 
 1541. Algiers was reduced by admiral Blake in 1653, and terrified into pacific 
 measures with England; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European 
 powers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775, 1783, 
 and 1784. Bombarded by the British fleet, under admiral lord Exmouth, Aug. 27, 
 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished. See next 
 article. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and Duperre", 
 after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian 
 government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to 
 retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834. Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in 
 two battles, and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. General Damremont attacked 
 Constantina (which see), Oct. 13, 1837 ; and afterwards various engagements between 
 the French and the natives took place. Abd-el-Kader, the heroic chieftain of Algiers, 
 surrendered Dec. 22, 1847, and after a contest of seventeen years, his country became 
 a colony of France, called "Algeria." He, with his suite, was embarked at Oran, and 
 landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was removed to the castle of Amboise, 
 near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 
 Oct. 16, 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to 
 reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia Minor; but in consequence of the earth- 
 quake at that place, Feb. 28, 1855, he removed to Constantinople. 
 
 ALGIERS, BATTLE of. The British fleet, under lord Exmouth, anchoring off 
 Algiers, bombarded the town, which returned the fire; but all the fortifications and 
 houses towards the sea were soon reduced to ashes, and the fleet in the harbour 
 entirely destroyed, Aug. 27, 1816. The dey was compelled to conclude a treaty by 
 which he set the Christian slaves at liberty, and engaged to cease in future from 
 reducing Christian captives to that ignominious condition; a stipulation which, 
 however, he did not afterwards strictly observe. In the end, this breach of faith led 
 to his final overthrow. See preceding article. 
 
 ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Grenada in Spain, surrendered to 
 the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent 
 work by Owen Jones 'and Jules Goury, published 1842-5. There is a court of this 
 name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
 
 ALI, SECT of. Founded by the famous Mahometan chief, son-in-law of Mahomet, 
 (who married his daughter Fatima,) about a.d. 632. Ali was called by the prophet, 
 " the lion of God, always victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpretation of 
 the Koran according to Ali, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker 
 and Omar. It is worthy of remark, that the first four successors of Mahomet — 
 Abubeker, Omar, Othman and Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in 
 establishing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he 
 styled the " cutting swords of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody 
 impostor's family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. 
 Ali was assassinated in 660. 
 
 ALIENS. In England, aliens were grievously coerced up to a.d. 1377. When they 
 were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 
 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483. 
 The celebrated alien bill passed, January, 1793. Act to register Aliens, 1795. Bill 
 to abolish their naturalisation by the holding of stock in the banks of Scotland, 
 June, 1820. New Registration act, 7 Geo. IV., 1826. This last act was repealed 
 and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV., 1836: The celebrated baron Geratnb, a 
 conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of England, 
 April 6, 1812. These disabilities were much mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 1844. 
 
 ALIWAL, BATTLE of, India. Between the Sikh army under sirdar Runjoor Singh 
 Majeethea, 24,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British under 
 
ALL 24 ALM 
 
 sir H. Smith, 12,000 men, with 32 guns; the contest was obstinate, but ended in tho 
 defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed, or drowned in attempting to 
 recross the Sutlej, Jan. 28, 1846. This battle was named after the village of Aliwal, 
 in the Indian language, Ulleewul, near which it was fought. See Sutlej. 
 
 ALL SAINTS' DAY. The festival instituted, a.d. 625. All Saints', or All-Hallows', in 
 the Protestant Church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints and 
 martyrs in honour of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. The church 
 of Home and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The reformers 
 of the English church provided offices only for very remarkable commemorations, 
 and struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving 
 only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. 
 "Our reformers,'' says Nicholls, in his Paraphrase on the Common Prayer, "having 
 laid aside the celebration of a great many martyrs' days, which had grown too 
 numerous and cumbersome to the Church, thought fit to retain this day (All Saints') 
 wherein, by a general commemoration, our Church gives thanks for them all." 
 
 "'ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION. On the death of Mr. Pitt (Jan. 23, 
 1S06), lord Grenville succeeded to the ministry, and united with Mr. Fox, and his 
 friends. This administration consisted of lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury ; 
 lord Henry Petty, chancellor of the Exchequer ; earl Fitzwilliam, lord president ; 
 viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal; Charles James Fox, foreign, 
 earl Spencer, home, and William Windham, colonial, secretaries; lord Erskine, lord 
 chancellor; sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl Grey), admiralty; 
 lord Miuto, board of control; lord Auckland, board of trade; lord Moira, master- 
 general of the oi'dnance ; Mr. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy ; right hon. Richard 
 Fitzpatrick, &c. Lord Ellenborough (lord chief justice) had a seat in the cabinet. 
 The friends of this ministry gave it the appellation of "All the Talents," which, 
 being echoed in derision by the opposition, became fixed upon it ever after, 
 Feb. 5, 1806. The death of Mr. Fox, Sept. (13, 1806) led to various changes, and 
 this ministry was finally dissolved, March, 1807. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE. The oath of allegiance, as administered in England for 600 years, 
 contained a promise " to be true and faithful to the King and his heirs, and truth 
 and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour; and not to know or hear of 
 any ill or damage intended him, without defending him therefrom." A new oath of 
 allegiance was administered in 1605. Altered by the convention parliament, 1688. 
 
 ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest instances, 
 of which Blair gives Psalm lxxx. ver. 8 — 16, as a specimen. Spenser's Faerie Queene 
 is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator, abounds in allegories: and the 
 Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is perfect in this way. Milton, among other 
 English poets, is rich in allegory. 
 
 ALLIANCE, TREATIES or, between the high European powers. The following are 
 the principal treaties distinguished by this name, and which are most commonly 
 referred to. See Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, &c. 
 
 Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 
 
 Alliance of Vienna . . . May 27, 1657 
 
 Alliance, the Triple . . Jan. 28. 1668 
 
 Alliance of Warsaw . . . March 81, 16S3 
 
 Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 
 
 Alliance, the Hague . . . Jan. 4, 1717 
 
 Alliance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 
 
 Alliance of Vienna . . . March 16, 1731 
 
 Alliance of Versailles . . May 1, 1756 
 
 Alliance, Germanic . . . July 23, 1786 
 
 Alliance of Paris . . . May 16, 1795 
 
 Alliance of St. Petersburg . April 8, 1805 
 
 Austrian Alliance . . . March 14, 1812 
 
 Alliance of Sweden . . . March 24, 1812 
 
 Alliance of Toplitz . . Sept. 9, 1813 
 Alliance, the Holy . . . Sept. 26, 1S15 
 
 In nomine Dei : — 
 Alliance of England, France, 
 
 and Turkey (signed at 
 
 Constantinople). . . March 12, 1S54 
 Alliance of England and 
 
 France ratified . . . April 3, 1854 
 Alliance of Sardinia with the 
 
 Western Powers (signed at 
 
 Turin) .... Jan. 26, 1S55 
 
 Alliance of Sweden with the 
 
 Western Powers . . . Dec. 19, 1855 
 
 ALMA, BATTLE of the. The English and French armies moved out of their first 
 encampment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, 1854, and bivouacked for the night on the 
 left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by prince Menscbikoff ) 
 mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field pieces on the heights, and on the morning of 
 the 20th, were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, 
 under lord Raglan, consisted of 25,000 men; the French, under marshal St. Arnaud, 
 of 23,000. At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made, and the river Alma was 
 crossed, while prince Napoleon took possession of the village under fire of the Russian 
 
ALM 25 ALN 
 
 batteries. At 4, after a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The 
 enemy, utterly routed, threw away their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having 
 lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss 
 of the British was 26 officers and 327 men killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men 
 wounded (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33i"d regiments) ; that of the French, 3 
 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. See Crimea and 
 Russo-Tarkish War. 
 
 ALMANACS. The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calendars were 
 anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the British Museum and 
 universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostradamus, the 
 celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufremoy. 
 Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were : 
 
 John Somer's Calendar, written in 
 
 Oxford 1380 
 
 One in Lambeth palace, written in . . 1460 
 First printed one, published at Buda . 1472 
 Pirst printed in England, by Richard 
 
 Pynson 1497 
 
 Tybalt's Prognostications . . . 1533 
 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . . 1644 
 Poor Robin's Almanack .... 1652 
 Connaissance des Terns . . . . 1698 
 
 Moore's Almanack 169S 
 
 Lady's Diary 1705 
 
 Season on the Seasons .... 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary . ... 1741 
 
 Nautical Almanack, begun by Dr. Nevile 
 Maskelyne (materially improved in 
 1834) . . . . . . . 1767 
 
 British Imperial Kalendar . . . . 1809 
 
 British Almanac and Companion . . 1828 
 
 Of Moore's, at one period (under the management of the late Mr. Andrews, who was 
 for more than forty years the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris), upwards of 
 430,000 copies were annually sold. The stationers' company claimed the exclusive 
 right of publishing almanacs, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the 
 privilege to this company, and the two universities; but the monopoly was broken up 
 by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege 
 was lost in 1779. Of foreign almanacs, the principal are the "Almanach de France," 
 first published in 1699, and the "Almanach de Gotha," 1764. The stamp duty on 
 almanacs was abolished in Angust, 1834; since when almanacs are numberless. 
 
 ALMANZA, BATTLE of. Between the confederate forces under the earl of Galway, 
 and the French and Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (the 
 illegitimate son of James II.), when most of the English were killed or made 
 prisoners of war, having been abandoned by the Portuguese at the first charge, 
 April 14, 1707. 
 
 ALMEIDA. An important position as a frontier town of Portugal, in the peninsular 
 war. Massena laid siege to it, Aug. 15, 1810, and the governor capitulated, Aug. 27 
 following. The French crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded 
 by the English, April 6, 1811. Almeida was evacuated by the French, May 11. In 
 the end, Wellington compelled Massena to retire from Portugal, but the route of the 
 enemy was tracked by horrid desolation. 
 
 ALMONER. The precise date of this office is not certain ; but we read of a lord 
 almoner in various reigns, and in various countries. The rank was anciently allotted 
 to a dignified clergyman, who had the privilege of giving the first dish from the 
 royal table to the poor; or instead thereof, an alms in money. By the ancient 
 canons, all monasteries were to spend at least a tenth part of their income in alms to 
 the poor. By an ancient canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The 
 grand almoner of France (le grand aumonier) was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in 
 that kingdom before the revolution, 1789. 
 
 ALNEY, BATTLE of, or rather single combat between Edmund Ironside and Canute 
 the Great, in sight of their armies ; the latter was wounded, when he proposed 
 a division of the kingdom, the south part falling to Edmund, a.d. 1016; but this 
 prince having been murdered at Oxford, shortly after the treaty, according to some, 
 by the treachery of iEdric Streon, Canute was left in the peaceable possession of the 
 whole kingdom in 1017. — Goldsmith. 
 
 ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at the 
 conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percys since 1310. Malcolm, 
 King of Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1093, when he and his son were killed. It was 
 taken by David I. in 1135, and attempted in 1174 by William the Lion, who was 
 taken prisoner. It was burnt by King John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. 
 Great improvements have been making in the castle since 1854, and extensive 
 works are still in progress. 
 
ALP 26 ALU 
 
 ALPACA. A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
 which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into 
 this country about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. A gigantic factory, &c. (covering 11 
 acres) for this manufacture was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley in Yorkshire, by Mr. 
 Titus Salt in 1852. 
 
 ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote 
 thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. — Blair. But Josephus affirms that he 
 had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed 
 a mistake, or fabulous. The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was 
 alcx>h, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by the moderns to A The 
 Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of 
 Cadmea, 1493 B.C., brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece; 
 they were the following : — 
 
 A, B, T, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, II, P, 2, T, T. 
 
 These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and 
 changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now 
 used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, 0, X, #, E 
 about 1224 B.C. ; and Simonides added Z, Y, H, &, about 489 B.C. — Arundelian 
 Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet 
 consisted of sixteen letters till 399 B.C., when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was intro- 
 duced. The small letters are of later invention, for the convenience of writing. The 
 alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — 
 
 English 
 
 . 26 
 
 German 
 
 . 26 
 
 Greek . 
 
 . 24 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 . 33 
 
 French . 
 
 . . 23 
 
 Slavonic . 
 
 . . 27 
 
 Hebrew . 
 
 22 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 . . 50 
 
 Italian. 
 
 . 20 
 
 Russian 
 
 . 41 
 
 Arabic . 
 
 . 28 
 
 and 
 
 
 Spanish . 
 
 . . 27 
 
 Latin 
 
 . . 22 
 
 Persian . 
 
 . . 32 
 
 Chinese 
 
 . 214 
 
 ALPHONSINE TABLES. Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by command, and 
 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise. This learned 
 prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, 
 whose value was enhanced by a preface, written by his own hand; he commenced 
 his reign in 1252. 
 
 ALPS. Roads over Mount Cenis and the Simplon were constructed by order of Napo- 
 leon between 1801-6, connecting France and Italy. See Simplon. 
 
 ALT-RANSTADT, PEACE op. The celebrated treaty of peace between Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, and Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed Sept. 24, 1706. Frederick 
 Augustus, who was deposed in 1704, was afterwards restored to his throne. 
 
 ALTAR. One was built by Noah, B.C. 2348. (Gen. viii. 20). They were raised to Jupiter, 
 in Greece, by Cecrops, who also instituted and regulated marriages, 1556 B.C. He 
 introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in 
 adoration in Egypt. — Herodotus. The term •' altar " was applied to the Lord's table for 
 the first three centuries after Christ. Christian altars in churches were instituted by 
 pope Sixtus I. in 135; and they were first consecrated by Pope Sylvester. The 
 first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. — Stow. The Church of England still 
 retains the name, applying it to the table on which the elements are placed. Since 
 the time of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the subject, and the 
 Puritans in the civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, substituting 
 wooden tables. 
 
 ALTER EGO (another or second I), a term applied to Spanish Viceroys when exercising 
 regal power; used at Naples when the crown prince was appointed vicar -general 
 during an insurrection in July 1820. 
 
 ALUM. Is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a.d. 1300; it 
 was found in Tuscany in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 1608: 
 was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is a salt used 
 as a mordant in dyeing ; it is used also to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in the 
 paper manufacture. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapours of sulphuric 
 acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; but it is usually obtained by means of 
 ore called alum slate. Sir T. Challoner established large alum works at Whitby. 
 
 ALUMINIUM, a new metal, the base of the earth alumina (clay), first obtained by F. 
 Wohler in 1827 ; and considered a scientific curiosity from the expense of the 
 process. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen, and others ; 
 
AMA 27 AMB 
 
 and in 1856 M. Ste. -Claire Deville succeeded in procuring considerable quantities of 
 this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2'25), malleable, and sonorous : it does not rust, 
 and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. These qualities will 
 render it very useful when improved processes render it cheaper. In March 1856, it 
 was £3 the ounce; it is now lis. or 12s. (June 1857). The eagles of the French 
 colours have been made of it, and many other articles. 
 
 AMAZON, West India mail steam-ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 
 Jan. 2, 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about 110 
 miles W. S. W. of Scilly, (supposed by the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
 matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board (crew and 
 passengers, women and children), 102 persons must have perished by fire or 
 drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were 
 carried into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and 13 others were picked 
 up in the bay of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distinguished 
 writer in general literature, was among those lost. 
 
 AMAZONIA. Discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Comirig from Peru, 
 Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of 
 women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of 
 Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. 
 
 AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descendants of 
 Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands, having made incursions, 
 were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows 
 resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they 
 decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. — Quintus Curtius. They were 
 said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were 
 constantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
 force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, 
 and /tta^os, a breast. About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
 Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia ; three hundred females were in 
 her train. — Herodotus. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents and representatives from one court to another are 
 referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most countries they have great 
 and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, they and their servants are 
 secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambassador was imprisoned for debt in 
 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709 ; when a law, the statute of 
 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the 
 servant of an ambassador : they were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the 
 ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to 
 be imprisoned three months, and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — Phillips. 
 
 AMBASSADORS, Interchange of. England usually has twenty-five ambassadors or 
 envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, 
 exclusive of inferior agents : the ambassadors and other agents from abroad at the 
 court of London exceed those numbers. Among the more memorable instances of 
 interchange may be recorded, that the first ambassador from the United States of 
 America to England was John Adams, presented to the king, June 2, 1785 : and the 
 first from Great Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 
 
 AMBER. A carbonaceous mineral, principally found in the northern parts of Europe, 
 of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before 
 the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of 
 amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. 
 Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting 
 the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and 
 some to the animal kingdom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording 
 something in favour of each opinion. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a 
 resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately formed insects. Sir D. 
 Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes 
 electrical, and from its Greek name tfAeicrpov, the term Electricity is derived. 
 
 AMBOYNA. One of the Molucca isles discovered by the Portuguese about 1515 ; taken 
 by them in 1564, and from them by the Dutchin 1607, who have since retained it. 
 The English factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death by the 
 Dutch on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
 
A ME 
 
 28 
 
 AME 
 
 two nations resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java, Feb. 17, 1623. 
 Amboyna was seized by the English, Feb. 16, 1796, but was restored by the treaty of 
 Amiens, in 1802. It was again seized by the British, Feb. 17, 1810; and was 
 restored at the peace of 1814. 
 
 AMEN. The word is as old as the Hebrew language itself. In that language it means 
 trice, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it implies, so be 
 it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used, both in the 
 Jewish and Christian Churches, at the conclusion of prayer. 
 
 AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an 
 infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was 
 delivered into the hands of the hangman; his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about 
 his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
 pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. 
 Amende honorable is now a term used for making recantation in open court, or in the 
 presence of the injured party. 
 
 AMERCEMENT, in LAW. A fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment 
 at the mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. 
 By Magna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to 
 the offence he has committed, 9 Henry III., 1224. 
 
 AMERICA. Discovered by Cristoforo Colombo, a Genoese, better known as Christopher 
 Colombus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of October, on which day he came in sight of the 
 island of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. The continent of America was dis- 
 covered by Columbus in 1497, and the eastern coasts by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus 
 Vespucius) in 1498; from this latter the whole of America is named. See United 
 States. 
 
 Spaniards established at Hayti or His- 
 
 l>aniola 1495 
 
 Newfoundland, the first British colony 
 in this quarter of the world, dis- 
 covered by Cabot, and by him called 
 
 Prima Vista 1497 
 
 Cabral discovers River Amazon . . 1500 
 
 Negroes first imported to Hayti . . 1508 
 Pinzon enters the Bio Plata . . . 150S 
 Diego Columbus conquers Cuba . . 1511 
 Cortez conquers Mexico . . . 1519-21 
 Pizarro conquers Peru .... 1531 
 Cartier, a Frenchman, discovers the Gulf 
 
 of St. Lawrence 1534 
 
 Mendoza conquers Buenos Ayres, &c. 1535 
 Cortez discovers California . . 1537 
 
 De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in 
 
 Acadie, now Nova Scotia . . . 1604 
 Virginia, the first English settlement on 
 the main land, by lord de la Warr . 1607 
 
 Quebec founded 1608 
 
 New England, the second, by the Ply- 
 mouth company 1614 
 
 New York settled by the Dutch . . 1614 
 A large body of dissenters, who fled 
 from church tyranny in England, built 
 
 New Plymouth 1620 
 
 Nova Scotia settled, under sir William 
 
 Alexander, by the Scotch . . . 1622 
 Delaware, by the Swedes and Dutch . 1627 
 Massachusetts, by sir H. Roswell . . 1627 
 Maryland, by lord Baltimore . . . 1632 
 Connecticut granted to lord Warwick in 
 1630 ; but no English settlement was 
 
 made here till 1035 
 
 Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams 
 
 and his brethren 1635 
 
 New Jersey, grant to lord Berkeley . . 1044 
 New York settled, first by the Dutch, 
 but the English dispossessed them 
 
 and the Swedes 1604 
 
 Carolina, by the English . . . . 1009 
 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, 
 
 the celebrated Quaker . . . . 1682 
 Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe, in 1732 
 Kentucky, by colonel Boon . . . 1754 
 Canada attempted to be settled by the 
 
 French in 1534 ; they built Quebec in 
 1608 ; but the whole country was con- 
 quered by the English .... 1759 
 
 Louisiana discovered by Ferdinand de 
 Soto, in 1541 ; settled by the French 
 in 1718 ; but eastward of the Missis- 
 sippi was ceded to England in . . 1703 
 
 Florida discovered by Sebastian Cabot 
 in 1497 ; re-discovered by Ponce de 
 Leon in 1512 ; it belonged alternately 
 to France and Spain ; ceded by the 
 latter to the English in . . . 1763 
 
 The memorable American Stamp Act 
 passed . . . March 22, 1765 
 
 The obnoxious duty on tea, paper, 
 painted glass, &c. . . June, 1767 
 
 The populace destroy the tea from ships 
 newly arrived from England, at Boston, 
 and become boldly discontented, Nov. 1773 
 
 The Boston Port Bill, by which that 
 port was to be shut up until satisfac- 
 tion should be made to the East India 
 Company for the tea destroyed, 
 passed .... March 25, 1774 
 
 The first general congress met at Phila- 
 delphia .... Sept. 5, 1774 
 
 The revolution commenced ; first action 
 between the Americans and king's 
 troops (see Lexington) . . April 19, 1 775 
 
 The colonies agree on articles of confede- 
 ration and perpetual union May 20, 1775 
 
 General George Washington appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the American 
 armies June 16, 1775 
 
 Thirteen colonies declare themselves 
 independent . . . . July 4, 1776 
 
 [For the several actions fought during 
 the war, see them severally.] 
 
 The independence of the colonies is 
 acknowledged by France, and Frank- 
 lin and others are received there as 
 ambassadors . . . March 21, 1778 
 
 American independence is recognised 
 by Holland . . . April 19, 17S2 
 
 And by England, in provisional articles 
 of peace, signed at Paris . Nov. 30, 1782 
 
 Definitive treaty signed at Paris, Sept. 3, 1783 
 
AME 29 AMP 
 
 sador from Great Britain to the United 
 
 States in 1791 
 
 [For the later occurrences of the Union, 
 see United States of America,.} 
 
 AMERICA, continued. 
 
 And ratified by congress . . Jan. 4, 1784 
 John Adams was received as ambassador 
 
 from America by George III. June 2, 1785 
 And Mr. Hammond was first ambas- 
 
 " AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen, on Aug. 22, 1851, 
 at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight, for a cup worth 100£. open to 
 all nations, came in first by 8 miles, owing to her superior construction. 
 
 AMERICA, CENTRAL, including the states of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Sal- 
 vador and Costa Rica, which declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821 ; and 
 separated from the Mexican confederation July 21, 1823. The states made a 
 treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them 
 since much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American 
 fillibusters under Kenney and Walker in 1854 and 1855. See Nicaragua. 
 
 AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion 
 of the Western world, had the largest and richest share of it. When they landed in 
 Peru, a.d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered 
 by their subjects as divinities, but they were soon subdued by their invaders under 
 the command of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers, 
 wherever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has 
 successfully asserted its freedom within the present century : it first declared its 
 independence in 1810; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty 
 of the people in July, 1814 ; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
 chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke of Spain 
 for ever. Its independence was recognised by England, in sending consuls to the 
 several new states, Oct. 30, 1823, et seq; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, 
 Buenos Ayres, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &c. 
 
 AMETHYSTS. When the amethyst was first discovered, or fii-st prized, is not known ; 
 it was the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests ; and the 
 name Issachar was engraved upon it. It i3 of a rich violet colour, and, according to 
 Plutarch, takes its name from its hue, resembling wine mixed with water. One worth 
 200 rix-dollars, having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued 
 at 18,000 gold crowns. — De Boot, Hist. Qemmarum. Amethysts were discovered at 
 Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. — Bwrns. 
 
 AMIENS, PEACE of. Between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain. The 
 preliminary articles of this memorable peace, fifteen in number, were signed in 
 London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 
 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on March 27, 1802, by the 
 marquess Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, 
 and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. 
 
 AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot : they invaded the land of 
 Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 
 1188, B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put 
 out the right eye of all those they subdued; but Saul overthrew them, 1093 B.C. 
 They were afterwards many times vanquished : and Antiochus the Great took 
 Rabboath their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C. — Josephus. 
 
 AMNESTY. Oblivion and pardon as applied to enemies and nations : first acted on in 
 Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the 
 expulsion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
 having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two 
 branches of olive, 409 B.C. — Hume's Essays. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL. Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the 
 management of all affairs relative to Greece. The celebrated council, which was 
 composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of Greece, consisted of 
 twelve delegates, 1498 B.C. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their 
 
 * Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests, records 
 many instances of it that fill the mind with horror. In Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unresisting 
 natives by thirteen at a time, in honour of the thirteen apostles ! and he has beheld them throw the 
 Indian infants to their dogs for food ! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrow the limb of a 
 human being to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of another victim 
 to the lender ! " 
 
AMP 30 ANA 
 
 citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they 
 were increased to the number of thirty. — Suidas. 
 
 AMPHION. British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth 
 Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two 
 hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, perished, Sept. 22, 1796. — Butler. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar and 
 Curio. In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the 
 people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- 
 bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, 
 under Augustus Csesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built a.d. 79 ; and is said 
 to have been a regular fortress in 1312. See Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Verona 
 was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 
 
 AMPHITRITE, the ship. See Wrecks. 
 
 AMSTERDAM. It was the castle of Amstel in a.d. 1100; and its building as a city, 
 was commenced in 1203. The famous exchange was built in 1634 ; and the stadt- 
 house, one of the noblest palaces in the world, in 1648 ; the latter cost three 
 millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and 
 the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal 
 grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the 
 king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favour of the stadtholder, in 
 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient 
 government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 
 
 AMULETS, or CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had 
 a great variety ; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they 
 were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in 
 estimation among the Romans. — Pliny; Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, 
 amulets were made of the wood of the true cross, about a.d. 328. They have been 
 sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other 
 sciences — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Roman Catholic clergy 
 make and sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 AMYLENE. A colourless, very mobile liquid, procured by distilling fousel oil (potato- 
 spirit) with chloride of zinc, discovered by M. Balard of Paris in 1844. The vapour 
 was employed instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
 tried in many hospitals here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than 
 chloroform, and more vapour must be used. It is, however, thought less dangerous. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about a.d. 1525, and was known in England before 
 .1549. John of Ley den, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the 
 time of the reformation spread its doctrines. The anabaptists of Munster (who are, 
 of course, properly distinguished from the mild sect of this name existing in England) 
 taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no original 
 sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild 
 and absurd. Munster they called Mount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared 
 to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 
 they, at length, rose in arms under pi-etence of gospel liberty. Munster was taken 
 about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. — The Anabaptists 
 of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the not baptising 
 children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the representatives of 
 above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 chapels in 
 London, and 2789 in England and Wales. See Worship. 
 
 ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after 
 Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 B.C. The odes of Anacreon are 
 much prized ; their author lived in a constant round of drunkenness and debauchery, 
 and was choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. 
 
 ANAGRAM. A transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as from Mary, the 
 name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to Our Saviour, 
 " Quid est Veritas 1 " we have this admirable anagram, " Est vir qui adest." The French 
 are said to have introduced the art as now practised, about the year 1560, in the 
 reigu of Charles IX. — Henault. 
 
 ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews ; the anathema, or 
 curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable 
 
ANA 31 ANE 
 
 instance of it in the city of Jericho (see Joshua, vi. 17). Anathemas were used by the 
 primitive churches, a.d. 387. Such ecclesiastical denunciations caused great terror 
 in England up to the close of Elizabeth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema or 
 curse, with excommunication and other severities of the Romish religion, are still 
 practised in Roman Catholic countries to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 ANATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philosophical 
 investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of medical art under 
 Hippocrates, about 420 B.C. But Erasistratus and Herophilus may be regarded as 
 being the fathers of anatomy : they were the first to dissect the human form, as 
 anatomical research had been previously confined to brutes : it is mentioned that 
 they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. In 
 England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves; 
 and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. See 
 next article. The first anatomical plates were designed by Vesalius, about a.d. 1538. 
 The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was disco- 
 vered in 1680. — FreinoVs History of Physic. 
 
 ANATOMY LAWS. The first law regulating the science was enacted in 1540; and 
 laws relating to it, and encouraging schools, have been framed, altered, and amended 
 in almost every reign to the present time. A new statute was enacted, regulating 
 schools of anatomy, 2 & 3 Will. IV., c. 75, 1832, which repealed so much of the 9th 
 of Geo. IV., as still empowered the judges to direct the body of a murderer, after 
 execution, to be dissected ; ' ' but the court may direct that such criminal be buried 
 within the precincts of the jail." — Statutes at large. 
 
 ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion, were the first anchorites. Many of the 
 early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great austerities. Some 
 were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary punishments upon themselves 
 as atonement for their sins, and as being acceptable to God ; and their modes of torture 
 were often extravagant and criminal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 
 
 ANCHORS for SHIPS. Anchors are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to 
 the Tuscans. — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
 Scythian. — Slrabo. Anchors were first forged in England a.d. 578. The anchors of a 
 first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each 
 of them will cost 450/L — Phillips. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY and ANCIENT MUSIC. Ancient history commenced in the 
 obscurity of tradition, about 1800 B.C., and is considered as ending with the destruc- 
 tion of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history began with Mahomet 
 or Charlemagne, and has lasted about 1200 or 1000 years, commencing in almost as 
 great obscurity as ancient history, owing to the ignorance of those times, a.d. 600 
 and 800. Ancient Music refers to such musical compositions as appeared from 
 the time of Palestrini to that of Bach; that is, from the year 1529 to 1684. See 
 History; Music. 
 
 ANDRE, MAJOR, his EXECUTION. This gallant and lamented soldier was an 
 adjutant-general in the British army, and was taken on his return from a secret 
 expedition to the American general Arnold, in disguise, Sept. 23, 1780. He was 
 sentenced to execution by a court of general Washington's officers at Tappan, New 
 York, and suffered death, Oct. 2 following. His remains were removed to England 
 in a sarcophagus, Aug. 10, 1821, and are now interred in Westminster abbey. 
 
 ANDREW, ST. Martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, a.d. 69, at Patrae, in Achaia. The 
 festival was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, owing to 
 Hungus, the Pictish prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in a 
 pending battle with the Northumbrians; and accordingly a St. Andrew's cross (x) 
 appeared in the air during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order 
 of knighthood, founded on this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched), and 
 of rue (an antidote against poison) ; the motto is Nemo me impune lacessit (No one 
 assails me with impunity). It was instituted by Achaius in the year 809, and was 
 revived by king James V. in 1540. See Thistle. 
 
 ANEMOMETER. To measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by 
 Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
 hour. See Winds. 
 
 ANEROID. See Barometer. 
 
ANG 32 ANI 
 
 ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a.d. 456. The Angelici 
 were instituted by Angelus Comuenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191. The 
 Angelica:, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, a.d. 1534. There 
 existed several communities in Italy under these or somewhat similar names. — Aalie. 
 
 ANGELS, in COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four penny- 
 weights, and was valued at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign 
 of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck 
 at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VI., 
 1431.— Wood. 
 
 ANGERSTEIN GALLERY. The foundation of the National Gallery in London, was a 
 small collection cf about forty pictures, the most exquisite of the art, purchased by 
 the British government for the public service for 60,000?., of the executors of 
 Mr. John Julius Angerstein, in Jan. 1822. The exhibition of these pictures was 
 opened to the public, in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. See National Gallery. 
 
 ANGLESEY, or ISLAND of the ANGLES (ey, in Saxon, signifying island). This 
 celebrated seat of the Druids was subdued by the Romans (who called it Mona), 
 a.d. 78; and by the English in 1282. The fortress of Beaumaris was built by 
 Edward I. to overawe the Welsh, 1295. The spot in Anglesey where Suetonius 
 Paulinus and his barbarous legions butchered the unoffending Druids, in a.d. 61, is 
 still shown at a ferry called Porthammel, across the Menai Straits. — Phillips. 
 
 ANGLING. The origin of the art (the rod and line), is involved in obscurity ; allusion 
 is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
 as Amos. ' It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reforma- 
 tion. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book printed on angling, 
 appeared in 1496. Izaak Walton's book was printed in 1653. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a village near 
 Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus), joined the first 
 Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom, Anglesland. East Anglia was a 
 kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Ufi'a, assumed 
 the title of king, a.d. 575 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
 
 ANGRIA. This famous pirate's fort, on the coast of Malabar, was invested by admiral 
 Watson, and destroyed. The pirate, his wife, and family, were made prisoners ; and 
 great quantities of stores which were found in the fort, and several ships in the 
 harbour, which he had taken from the East India Company, were seized, 1756. 
 
 ANHALT, HOUSE of, in Germany. A very ancient and distinguished royal house, 
 the best genealogists deduce its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the 
 Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1586, the principality was divided among the 
 five sons of Joachim Ernest, and hence the five branches of this family, of which 
 Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Bernbourg are the principal. — Beatson. 
 
 ANHOLT, ISLAND of. Owing to the injury done by the Danish cruizers to British 
 commerce, this island was taken possession of by England, in the French war. The 
 Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 4000 men, but were 
 gallantly repulsed. The British force opposed to them did not amount to more 
 than 150, yet triumphed in a close and desperate engagement, March 14, 1811. 
 
 ANIMALCULE. Leeuwenhoek's researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing 
 revelations of nature. In the milt of the cod-fish are contained, he says, more living 
 animalcules than there are people on the whole earth. A mite was anciently thought 
 the limit of littleness ; but there are animals 27,000,000 of times smaller than a mite. 
 A thousand millions of animalculse, discovered in common water, are not altogether 
 larger than a grain of sand. Yet their multitude sometimes gives the water, in the 
 summer months, a pale red, or a yellow tinge. Leeuwenhoek's Arcana Nalurce was 
 published at Leyden in 1696. The works of Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial 
 Animalcule (1838-57), will immortalise his name. 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE. "The days of our years are three-score years and ten; and if by 
 reason of strength they be four-score years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow ; 
 for it is soon cut off, and we fly away." — Psalm xc. ver. 10. Without referring to 
 ante or post-diluvians, or to the authority of the Scriptures, many extraordinary 
 instances of length of human life will be found under the article Longevity. The 
 following is the duration of life in some of the lower animals, taken from a table 
 published by sir Richard Phillips : — 
 
ANI 33 ANO 
 
 ANIMAL LIFE, continued. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 The Horse . 8 to 32 
 Ox . . . . 20 
 Cow . . .23 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 Mule . . .18 
 Sheep . . . . 10 
 Ram . . .15 
 
 Swine 
 Goat . 
 Cat . 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 . 25 
 
 Goose . 
 
 . 28 
 
 . . S 
 
 Parrots 
 
 30 to 100 
 
 . 10 
 
 Ravens . 
 
 . 100 
 
 . . 8 
 
 Turtles 
 
 50 to 200 
 
 Ass . . . . 33 Dog . 14 to 25 Pigeon 
 
 Ashe mentions many other animals whose ages, however, are too well known to be 
 noticed here ; he also mentions several, the duration of which he himself deems 
 extreme and uncertain. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced by father Hehl, at Vienna, 
 about 1774 : and had wonderful success in France about 1788. It had its dupes in 
 England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended 
 mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympathetic affection between the 
 sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on 
 certain motions of the fingers and features of th^ operator, he placing himself imme- 
 diately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this 
 manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number 
 of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. See Galvanism, 
 Mesmerism, &c. 
 
 ANIMALS, CRUELTY to. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., zealously laboured as a senator 
 to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 
 1824, effects much good in this way. See Cruelty to Animals' Society. Mr. Martin's 
 act passed 3 Geo. IV. (1822). See 7 & 8 Geo. IV. (1827) ; 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59 (1835) ; 
 for Ireland, 1 Vict. c. 66 (1837). Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught by 2 & 3 
 Vict. c. 47 (1839); see also, 12 & 13 Vict. c. 92 (1849), and 17 & 18 Vict. c. 60 (1854). 
 
 ANJOU or BEAUGE, BATTLE of. Fought between the English and French armies; 
 the latter commanded by the dauphin of France, who defeated the English, on whose 
 side the duke of Clarence and 1500 men perished on the field: the duke was slain 
 by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, who commanded a company of men at arms; 
 and the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon, were taken prisoners. Beauge" was 
 the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English, April 3, 1421. 
 The university of Anjou, so celebrated for learning, was founded in 1349. 
 
 ANNATES, or FIRST FRUITS. They were first exacted by Antonius, bishop of Ephesus ; 
 but the exaction was condemned by the council of Ephesus, a.d. 400. Clement V. 
 was the first pope who imposed annates on England, 1306. See First Fruits, 
 
 ANNO DOMINI, a.d. The Christian era commenced Jan. 1, in the middle of the 4th 
 year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome, and in the 4714 
 of the Julian period. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, a.d. 532 
 It is now held that Christ was born 4 years previous, as noted in the margin of our 
 Bibles, Luke, ch. ii. It was introduced into Italy in the 6th century, but not 
 generally employed for several centuries. Chai"les III. of Germany was the first who 
 added " in the year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 
 
 ANNUITIES, or Pensions. They were first granted in 1512, when 201. were given to 
 a lady of the court for services done ; and 61. 13s. id. for the maintenance of a gentle- 
 man, 1536. The sum of 13/. 6s. 8d. was deemed competent to support a gentle- 
 man in the study of the law, 1554. An act was passed empowering the government 
 to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen per cent, 4 & 6 William 
 and Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became general among 
 civilised governments. An annuity of 1/. 2s. lid per annum, accumulating at 10 per 
 cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20, 0001. 
 
 ANNUNCIATION of the VIRGIN MARY. This festival commemorates the Virgin's 
 miraculous conception, denoting the tidings brought her by the angel Gabriel; its 
 origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. 
 The day, the 25th of March, is also called Lady-day (ivhich see). In England, before 
 the alteration of the style, Sept. 3, 1753, our year began on the 25th of March, a 
 reckoning which we still preserve in certain ecclesiastical computations. The religious 
 order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232; and the military order, in Savoy, 
 by Amadeus, count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended 
 Rhodes against the Turks, 1355. 
 
 ANOINTING. The ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and other 
 
 D 
 
ANO 
 
 34 
 
 ANT 
 
 eminent personages, and a very ancient custom. It was first used at coronations in 
 England on Alfred the Great, in 872; and in Scotland, on Edgar, in 1098. The 
 religious rite is referred to a very early date in the Christian church: by some 
 authors, to 550, when it was practised with consecrated oil, as extreme unction (one 
 of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church) on dying persons, and persons in 
 extreme danger of death, and is done so to the present day. 
 ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sending of letters denouncing persons, or demanding 
 money, or using threats, made felony by the Black Act, 9 Geo. I., 1722.— Statute* at 
 large. Several persons have been executed in England for sending anonymous 
 letters, imputing crimes and making exposures ; and the present laws against these 
 practices are still very severe, but not more so than just. 
 ANTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north or arctic pole. 
 A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west, and 64 to 66 degrees south, was 
 discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French and American navigators on the same 
 day, Jan. 9, 1840 ; a coincidence th,e more singular, as the discoverers were at a distance 
 from each other of 720 miles. Mr. Biscoe, a merchant captain, fell in with land, 
 which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the year 1S30. See South Pole. 
 ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people 
 in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the 
 enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 1482. Burnet has 
 supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the end of the first century, 
 ten married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple 
 proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons 
 than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multipli- 
 cation only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen 
 centuries that preceded the Flood : — 
 
 I. . 
 
 . 19 
 
 V. . 
 
 . 2,560 
 
 IX. . 
 
 655,360 
 
 XIII. 
 
 167,142,160 
 
 II. 
 
 . . 40 
 
 VI. . 
 
 . . 10,240 
 
 X. . 
 
 . . 2,621,440 
 
 XIV. 
 
 671,0S8,640 
 
 III. . 
 
 . 160 
 
 VII. 
 
 . 40,960 
 
 XI. . 
 
 . 10,4S5,760 
 
 XV. 
 
 . 2, 684,354,460 
 
 IV. 
 
 . . 640 
 
 VIII. . 
 
 . . 163,840 
 
 XII. 
 
 . . 41,943,040 
 
 XVI. 
 
 . 10,737,418,240 
 
 This calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, by at 
 least ten times, the present number of mankind, which, at the highest estimate, 
 amounts to only a thousand millions. 
 
 ANTHEMS, or HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers, and St. Ambrose were the first 
 who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — Lenr/let. They were 
 introduced into the Church service in 386. — Baker. Ignatius is said to have intro- 
 duced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were 
 introduced into the Reformed Churches in Queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the world. The 
 Cyclops and Lestrygones are represented as man-eaters, by Homer ; and the Esse- 
 donian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might 
 as well eat the flesh of men, as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in 
 Africa, the South Sea Islands, &c. In order to make trial whether there was any 
 repugnance in nature to the feeding of an animal on its own species, Leonardus 
 Floroventius fed a hog with hog's flesh, and a dog with that of a dog, when he found 
 the bristles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to become full of ulcers. The annals 
 of Milan furnish an extraordinary instance of anthropophagy: a Milanese woman, 
 named Elizabeth, from a depraved appetite, had an invincible inclination to human 
 flesh; she enticed children to her house, and killed and salted them; and on a 
 discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 1519. Various 
 more recent instances of this kind have occurred. See Cannibalism. 
 
 ANTICHRIST. The name given by way of eminence by St. John (1 Ep. ii. 18) to 
 him whom St. Paul calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3), who, at the latter end of the 
 world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. His reijrn, it is 
 supposed, will continue three years and a half, during which time there will be a 
 persecution. This is the opinion of the Roman Catholics ; but the Protestants, as they 
 differ from them, so they differ among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond sup- 
 pose the time to be past, and the characters to be furnished in the persons of Caligula, 
 Simon Migus, and the Gnostics. An opinion once prevailed, that the pope was the 
 true antichrist, and, at the council held at Gap, in 1603, they inserted in their confes- 
 sion of faith an article whereby the pope was declared to be antichrist. — Brown; Pardon. 
 
ANT 35 ANT 
 
 ANTIGUA. A West India Island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 : settled by the 
 English in 1632. 
 
 ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients to 
 various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as 
 appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries is thus used 
 to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes types for printing ; and in physic its 
 uses are so various that, according to its preparation, alone, or in company with one 
 or two associates, it is sufficient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's 
 shop. — Boyle. We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various 
 processes, about 1410. — Priestley. 
 
 ANTINOMIAN (from avrl, against, and ySfios, law). The name first applied by Luther to 
 John Agricola, in 1538. The Antinomians, it is said, trust in the gospel, and not in 
 their deeds ; and hold that crimes are not crimes when committed by them ; that 
 their own good works are of no effect; that no man should be troubled in conscience 
 for sin ; that God does not love any man for his holiness ; and similar doctrines. 
 
 ANTIOCH. Built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 B.C. In one day, 100,000 
 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 B.C. In this city, once the capital of Syria, 
 the disciples of the Redeemer were first called Christians. The Era of Antioch is 
 much used by the early Christian writers attached to the churches of Antioch and 
 Alexandria : it placed the creation 5492 years B.C. 
 
 ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes 
 existed, about 368 B.C. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said 
 to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. The 
 antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand ; and near the spot is a 
 small island, called Antipodes Island. — Brookes. 
 
 ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the productions of 
 the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption of the Goths into 
 Italy, in a.d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 
 years B.C.; but this has very little pretensions to credit. A society was founded by 
 archbishop Parker, Camden, Stow, and others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was 
 made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, 
 James I., was far from favouring the design. In 1717 the Society of Antiquaries was 
 revived, and in 1751 it received its charter of incorporation from George II. It 
 began to publish its discoveries, &c, under the title of Archceologia, in 1770. The 
 British Archaeological Association was founded in December 1843, and in 1845 the 
 Archaeological Institute of Great Britain, was formed by a seceding part of the Asso- 
 ciation : valuable journals are published by both societies. — The Society of Antiquaries 
 of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. Since 1845 many county Archaeological societies 
 have been formed in the United Kingdom. 
 
 ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first 
 who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. 
 This doctrine spread widely after the Reformation, when it was adopted by Lselius 
 and Faustus Socinus. — Bayle. See Arians, Socinians, and Unitarians. 
 
 ANTOIGN, BATTLE op. Between the central army of the French and the allies, in 
 which 4500 Austrians and Prussians were killed, 3500 taken prisoners, and 600 
 emigrants shut up in Longwy ; 900 French were killed in the action ; thirty pieces of 
 battering-cannon and howitzers, with all the baggage of the combined army, were 
 captured, August 13, 1792. 
 
 ANTWERP. First mentioned in history, in a.d. 517. Its fine exchange built in 1531. 
 Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, in 1585. It was 
 then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil war caused by the tyranny of 
 Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The remarkable crucifix of bronze, thirty- 
 three feet high, in the principal street, was formed from the demolished statue of 
 the cruel duke of Alva, which he had himself set up in the citadel. The Barrier 
 treaty was concluded here in 1715. — Antwerp was the seat of the civil war between 
 the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. The Belgian troops having entered 
 Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, which, after a dreadful conflict, being 
 driven into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing 
 immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830. General Chasse surrendered the citadel to the 
 French, after a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. 
 
APO 36 APP 
 
 APOCALYPSE. The Revelation of St. John, written in the isle of Pattnos, about a.d. 
 95. — Irenceus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to 
 John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, 
 and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of 
 Laodicea. but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, 
 held in 1545, et scq. Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and 
 others, and its authority questioned in all ages from the time of Justin Martyr (who 
 wrote his first Apology for the Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical authority is 
 still almost universally acknowledged. 
 
 APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, " These books are neyther 
 fouud in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde."— Blbh, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha 
 ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, but were received as canon- 
 ical by the Roman Catholic Church, at the council of Trent, in 1545. 
 
 APOLLINARIANS. The followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught 
 that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his flesh was 
 pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, aud that it was sent down from heaven, 
 and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel ; that there were two sons, 
 one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. Apollinarius was deposed in a.d. 378. 
 
 APOLLO, TEMPLES of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
 poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost every 
 country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid temple was at 
 Delphi, built 1263 B.C. See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a 
 period in which pestilence raged, was burnt in a.d. 362, and the Christians accused 
 of the crime. — Lenglet. 
 
 APOSTLES' CREED. This summary of the Christian faith, attributed to the apostles 
 by Ruffinus, a.d. 390, is generally believed to have been composed a great while after 
 their time. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons a.d. 177, repeats a similar creed. Its compo- 
 sition doubtless was gradual. Its repetition in public worship was ordained in the 
 Greek Church at Antioch, and in the Roman Church in the eleventh century, 
 whence it passed to the Church of England. 
 
 APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century; the second sect 
 was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, A.D. 300. They wandered 
 about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accom- 
 panied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the 
 growing corruption of the Church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. 
 
 APOTHECARY, the KING'S. The first mention of one attending the king's person 
 in England, wa3 on Edward III., 1344; when he settled a pension of three pence 
 per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, for taking care of him during his illness in 
 Scotland. — Rymer's Fcedera. Apothecaries were exempted from serving on juries or 
 other civil offices, 10 Anne, 1712. The Apothecaries' Company was incorporated in 
 London, 1617. The Botanical Garden at Chelsea was left by Sir Hans Sloane to the 
 Company of Apothecaries, Jan. 1753, on condition of their introducing eveiy year 
 fifty new plants, until their number should amount to 2000. The Dublin guild was 
 incorporated, 1745. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised 
 their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. This honour of deifying the deceased 
 emperor was begun at Rome by Augustus, in favour of Julius Cpesar, B.C. 13. — Tillemont. 
 
 APPEAL of MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of murder 
 might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 
 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered 
 by Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, 
 which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the 
 challenge, and the accused escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately 
 afterwards struck from off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III., 1819. 
 
 APPEALS. In the time of Alfred, appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in 
 council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he 
 framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. — 
 Hume. For ages previously to 1533, appeals to the pope were frequent upon ecclesi- 
 astical, judicial, and even private matters, but they were thereafter forbidden. 
 Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced, 19 Stephen, 1154, 
 
APP 37 AQU 
 
 but abolished by act 24 Henry VIII. — Viner's Statutes. Appeals in cases of murder, 
 treason, felony, &c, were abolished, June, 1819. See preceding article. Courts of 
 appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King's Bench, 
 Common Pleas, and Exchequer, were regulated by statutes 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV., 
 1830 aud 1831. See Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. 
 
 APPLES. Several kinds of apple are indigenous in England ; but those in general use 
 have been brought at various times from the Continent. Eichard Harris, fruiterer 
 to Henry VIII., is said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and 
 Lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in the reign of Charles I., many of those in 
 Herefordshire. Pay reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). 
 
 APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in 
 England : and so early as 11 Edward I., 1282, it was a law, that if they valued the 
 goods of parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. 
 
 APPRENTICES. Those of London obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
 gowns in winter, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great 
 apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of 
 James I. — Stoice's Survey. The apprentice tax enacted, 43 Geo. III., 1802. 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS, in the CHURCH. Were introduced in the time of William I.; 
 the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and temporal 
 clergy Normans. These made no scruple to impoverish the inferior clergy to enrich 
 monasteries, which were generally possessed by the Conqueror's friends. Where the 
 churches and tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as 
 the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. This prevailed so far, that pope 
 Alexander IV. complained of it, as the bane of religion, the destruction of the Church, 
 and as a poison that had infected the whole nation. — Pardon. 
 
 APRICOTS. Prunus armeniaca. They were first planted in England in a.d. 1540. 
 They originally came from Epirus ; the gardener of Henry VIII. introduced them 
 into this country, and some say they excel here their pristine flavour. 
 
 APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the 
 second according to the ancient Romans : Numa Pompilius introdxxced Januarius 
 and Februarius, 713 B.C. — Peacham. 
 
 APRIL-FOOL. The origin of the jokes played under this name is conjectured to rest 
 with the French, who term the object of their mockery un poisson d'Avril, a name 
 they also give to mackerel, a silly fish easily caught in great quantity at this season. 
 The French antiquaries have vainly endeavoured to trace this custom to its source. 
 It is said that we have borrowed the practice from our neighbours, changing the 
 appellation from fish to fool ; but, in England, it is of no very great antiquity, as 
 none of our old plays, nor any writer so old as the time of Queen Elizabeth, have 
 any allusion to it. In Scotland it is termed hunting the gowk (cuckoo). — Butler. 
 
 AQUARII. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by Tatian in the 
 second century, who forebore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used 
 nothing but water. During persecution, when the Christians met secretly and in the 
 night, for fear of discovery they sometimes used water instead of wine, when they 
 received the sacrament, for which certain of them were censured by Cyprian. 
 
 AQUARIUM, oe AQUA VIVARIUM. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in 
 which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails 
 being introduced as scavengers. In 1849 Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing 
 sea weeds in artificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the 
 conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in jars of water; and in 
 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up under the 
 skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published " The Aquarium." 
 Mr. W. Alford Lloyd of Portland Road, by his enterprise in collecting specimens, has 
 done much to increase the value and interest of aquariums. 
 
 AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, which was 
 therefore called the Appian-way, about 453 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among 
 the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : 
 that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and 
 that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three 
 stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet 
 in length, and 126 feet high; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
AQU 
 
 38 
 
 ARC 
 
 AQUILEIA, BATTLES of. Constantino II., slain in a battle with Constaus, fought at 
 Aquileia towards the close of March, a.d. 340. Maximus defeated and slain by 
 Theodosius near Aquileia, July 28, a.d. 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius aud 
 Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aqtiileia, and remained sole emperor, Sept. 6, a.d. 394. 
 Eugenius was put to death, aud Arbogastes died by his own hand, mortified by his 
 overthrow. — Aspin. Rom. Hist. 
 
 AQUITAINE. Formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of England, 
 as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a principality in 1362, 
 and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the 
 crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418; but was lost 
 in the reign of Henry VI. 
 
 ARABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered. The Arabians made no 
 figure in history till a.d. 622, when, under the new name of Saracens, they followed 
 Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and prophet, and made considerable 
 conquests. — Priestley. 
 
 ARABICI. A sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
 soul died with the body, aud also rose again with it, a.d. 207. There have been some 
 revivals of this sect, but they were confined to the middle ages, and have not been 
 known in civilised Europe. — Bossuet. 
 
 ARBEL A, BATTLE of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and 
 Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 B.C., on a plain between the 
 towns of Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 of foot 
 and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. 
 — Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
 which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and 
 the jewels aud other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules 
 and 5000 camels. — Plutarch. 
 
 ARBITRATION". Submissions to arbitration may be a rule of any of the courts of 
 record, and are equivalent in force to the decision of a jury, 9 & 13 Will. III. 
 Submissions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of law or equity, and 
 arbitrators may compel the attendance of witnesses, 3 and 4 Will. IV. cap. 42, 1833. 
 See Ouzel Galley. 
 
 ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England 
 from the Levant, about 1724. Although this tree was not much known in Loudon 
 until 1770, yet the arbutus is fouud in great plenty and perfection in the islands 
 which beautify the lakes of Killarney in Ireland, where it was probably introduced 
 by the monks who inhabited that part of the country at a very early period. 
 
 ARCADES, or WALKS ARCHED OVER. Some fine public marts of this kind have 
 recently been built in these countries. The principal, in London, are the Burlington 
 arcade, opened in March, 1819; and the Lowther arcade, Strand, opened at the period 
 of the Strand improvements. See Strand. The Royal arcade, Dublin, opened June, 
 1820, was burnt to the ground, April 25, 1837. Exeter Change, London, an old aud 
 very celebrated mart of this kind, was rebuilt by the marquess of Exeter, and opened 
 in 1845. See Exeter Change. 
 
 ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned themselves of 
 longer standing than the moon; they were more rude in their manners than any of 
 the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley surrounded with mountains. 
 Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their 
 former food; and for this discovery they honoured him as a god, 1521 B.C. 
 
 Pelasgus begins his reign . .B.C. 1521 
 
 Lycaon institutes the Lupercalia, in 
 honour of Jupiter 1514 
 
 Reign of Nyctimus * * 
 
 Of Areas, from whom the kingdom re- 
 ceives the name, of Arcadia . . . * * 
 
 ITe teaches his subjects agriculture and 
 the art of spinning wool ; and after his 
 deatli is made a constellation with his 
 mother. — Pausanias . . . . * * 
 
 The Lycaiau games instituted, in honour 
 of Pan 1320 
 
 Reign of Aleus, celebrated for his skill in 
 building temples. — Paxtsaniai . . * * 
 
 Agapenor, grandson of Lycurgus, ap- 
 pears at the head of the Arcadians at 
 the siege of Troy .... B.C. 110 
 
 Reigu of Epitufl 1174 
 
 Orestes, king of Myceuas, arrives at Trie- 
 zene, to be purified of the rnurder of 
 his mother and her paramour . . 110'J 
 
 The Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and 
 are beaten by the women of the coun- 
 try, in the absence of their husbands . 1102 
 
 Aristocrates I. is put to death for offer- 
 ing violence to the priestess of Diana . 71 
 
 Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and 
 Arcadia made a republic . . .681 
 
ARC _39 ARC 
 
 Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians 
 were fond of military glory, although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to 
 fight the battles of other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted 
 by (Enotrus into Italy, 1710 B.C., and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
 called Magna Grazcia. A colony under Evander emigrated in 1244 B.C. — Idem. 
 
 ARCHANGEL. A monastery founded here to St. Michael in 1584 gave the city its 
 name. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English in 1553, and it was 
 the only seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and 
 foundation of St. Petersburg, in 1703. The dreadful fire here, by which th? 
 cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a.d. 320. Athanasius con- 
 ferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the 
 establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three 
 sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin 
 he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, a.d. 596. York continued archi 
 episcopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caerleon was found, previously, 
 to be too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the time of king Arthur, the 
 archbishopric was transferred to St. David's, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and 
 last Welsh archbishop. See St. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the 
 jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York until the erection of the archiepiscopal sees of 
 St. Andrew's and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the 
 Revolution. See Glasgow and St. Andrew's. 
 
 ARCHBISHOPS op IRELAND. The rank of archbishop was of early institution in 
 Ireland. See Ferns. Four archbishoprics were constituted in a.d. 1151, namely, 
 Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam; until then the archbishop of Canterbury had 
 jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop 
 of York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland. See preceding article. Of the four 
 archbishoprics of Ireland two were reduced to bishoprics, namely, Cashel and Tuam, 
 conformably with the statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833, by which also the number of sees in 
 Ireland was to be reduced (as the incumbents of ten of them respectively died) from 
 twenty-two to twelve, the present number. See Bishops, Cashel, Tuam; Pallium, &c. 
 
 ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. An officer of the German empire, and the same with our great 
 chamberlain of England. The Elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditaiy 
 arch-chamberlain of the empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that 
 quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. 
 
 ARCH-CHANCELLORS. They were appointed under the two first races of the kings 
 of France; and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, 
 and Treves, became arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. 
 
 ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church officers of this rank in England, and thirty-four 
 in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended on the 
 bishop, without any power: but since the council of Nice, his function is become a 
 dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The 
 appointment in these countries is referred to a.d. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the 
 lowest in ecclesiastical polity : an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 
 Henry VIII., 1532, 
 
 ARCHERY. It originated, according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Claudian, from 
 the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was offended. Plato 
 ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was communicated to the Cretans. The 
 eastern nations were expert in archery in the earliest ages, and the precision of the 
 ancient archer is scarcely exceeded by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, 
 upon being slighted by Philip, King of Macedonia, aimed an ai'row at him. The arrow, 
 on which was written "Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it and put it out; and 
 Philip threw back the arrow with these words : " If Philip take the town, Aster shall 
 be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
 
 ARCHERY, in ENGLAND. It was introduced previously to. a.d. 440, and Harold 
 and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman 
 • soldiers at the battle of Hastings in 1066 ; that which killed the king pierced him in 
 the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by 
 an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won 
 chiefly by archers. The usual range of the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. 
 Robin Hood and Little John, it is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand 
 
ARC 40 ARD 
 
 archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the kiug and the members, 
 21 Richard II., 1397.— Stowe. The citizens of London were formed into companies of 
 archers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporate body by the 
 style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII., 1538. 
 
 ARCHES. The triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their 
 architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a.d. 114) and Constantine were magnificent. 
 The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble arch 
 which formerly stood before Buckingham Palace, (whence it was removed to Cum- 
 berland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine. See 
 Hyde Park. 
 
 ARCHES of STONE. In bridge architecture they were not in use in England until the 
 close of the eleventh century. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
 great magnitude, and are built with stone arches similar to those that have been 
 considered as a Roman invention. Bow bridge was built in 1087. One of the largest 
 stone arches hitherto built in England, is that of the new bridge of Chester, whose 
 span is 200 feet; it was commenced in 1829. The central arch of London bridge 
 is 152 feet; and the three cast-iron arches of Southwark bridge, which rest on 
 massive stone piers and abutments, are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the 
 centre 240 feet; thus the centre arch is the largest in the world, as it exceeds the 
 admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at 
 Venice, by 167 feet. 
 
 ARCHES, COURT of. Chiefly a court of appeal from the inferior jurisdictions within 
 the province of the archbishop of Canterbury ; it is the most ancient consistory court, 
 and derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, London (de Arcubus) where 
 it was held ; and whose top is raised of stone pillars built archwise. — Cowell. Appeals 
 from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy council, by statute 11 Geo. 
 IV. and 1 Will. IV, 1830. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. It was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 B.C. Their king, 
 Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials for the Temple 
 in the building of which he assisted, 1015 B.C. The art passed to Greece, and from 
 Greece to Rome. The style called Gothic came into vogue in the ninth century. 
 The Saracens of Spain, being engaged during peace to build mosques, introduced 
 grotesque carvings, elliptic arches and buttresses, &c. The circular arch distinguishes 
 the Norman-Gothic from the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian 
 style did not fully revive till about the reign of James I., 1603. The five great orders 
 of architecture are, the Greek — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian ; the Roman — the 
 Tuscan and Composite. See the Orders respectively, and Gothic. 
 
 ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive government was 
 vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, 
 eldest son of Codrus, was the first who obtained the dignity of archou, 1070 B.C. 
 
 ARCOLA, BATTLE of. Between the French under general Bonaparte, and the 
 Austrians under field-marshal Alviuzi, fought November, 1796. The result of this 
 bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of 
 the Austrians of 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, and eighteen 
 guns. The French became masters of Italy. In one of the contests Bonaparte 
 was in most imminent danger, and only rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. 
 
 ARCOT, East Indies. This city was established in 1716 ; it was taken by colonel 
 Clive in 1751 ; and retaken, but again surrendered to the British under colonel 
 Coote in 1760. Besieged by Hyder Ali, when the British, under colonel Baillie, 
 suffered a severe defeat, Sept. 10 and Oct. 31, 1780. Arcot has been subject to Great 
 Britain since 1801. See India. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North- West Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. 
 
 ARDAGH. An ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew 
 the first bishop, previously to a.d. 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilmore; 
 but since 1742 it has been held in commendam with Tuam {which see). 
 
 ARDFERT and AGHADOE. Bishoprics in Ireland long united; the former was called 
 the bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the fifth century. William Fuller, appointed 
 in 1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfertand Aghadoe have 
 been united to that prelacy. Near the cathedral, an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, 
 the loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. 
 
ARE 
 
 41 
 
 ART 
 
 AREOPAGITiE. A famous council, said to have heard causes in the dark, because the 
 judges were blind to all but facts, iustituted at Athens, about 1507 b.c. — Arund. 
 Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Apeos Kayos, the Bill of Mais, because 
 Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had 
 violated his daughter, Alcippe. Whatever causes were pleaded before them were to 
 be divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, 
 and corrupt their judgment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 
 
 ARGENTARIA, BATTLE of. One of the most renowned of its times, fought in Alsace, 
 between the Allemanni and the Romans, the former being defeated by the latter, with 
 the loss of more than 35,000 out of 40,000 men, a.d. 378. — Bufresnoy. 
 
 ARGENTINE (or LA PLATA) CONFEDERATION. Originally 14, now 13, pro- 
 vinces, — Buenos Ayres having seceded in 1853. This country was discovered by the 
 Spaniards in 1517 ; settled by them in 1553, and formed part of the great vice-royalty 
 of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined the insurrection 
 in 1811 and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 
 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte-Video. 
 It was at war with France from 1838-40. See Buenos Ayres. 
 
 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION". Undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of Phryxus 
 and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus 
 had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the 
 poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece. 
 This is the first naval expedition on record. Many kings and heroes accompanied 
 Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder, 1263 B.C. — Bufresnoy. 
 
 ARGOS. This kingdom was founded by Inachus, 1856 B.C., or 1080 years before the first 
 Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder were called Inachidce, of whom 
 the fourth was Argus, and he gave his name to the country. When the Heraclidse 
 took possession of Peloponnesus, B.C. 1102, Temenus seized Argus and its depen- 
 dencies. Argos was afterwards a republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of 
 Greece. — Euripides. 
 
 Inachus founds the kingdom . .B.C. 1856 
 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . . . 1807 
 Apis reigns thirty-five years . . . 1747 
 The city of Argos built by Argus, son of 
 
 Niobe 1711 
 
 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 
 
 father, and reigns fifty-four years . 1641 
 Phorbas reigns thirty -five years . . 15S7 
 Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part 
 
 of the kingdom, and calls it after his 
 
 wife, Messenia 1552 
 
 Reign of Crotopus 1506 
 
 Sthenelus reigns 1485 
 
 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . . 1474 
 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honour of 
 
 Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- 
 
 band, while her forty-nine sisters sa- 
 crificed theirs. (See Flambeaux) B.C. 1425 
 
 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose life had 
 been preserved by his wife, dethrones 
 Danaus 1425 
 
 Reign of Abas, son of Lynceus, and 
 father of Proetus and Acrisius . . 13S4 
 
 Reign of Proetus, twin- brother of Acri- 
 sius 136I 
 
 Bellerophon comes to Argos; the passion 
 for him of Sthenobcea .... 1361 
 
 Rebellion of Acrisius 1344 
 
 The brothers divide the kingdom . . 1340 
 
 Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- 
 cenae {which see) 1313 
 
 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a.d. 1686. It was lost to 
 the Turks in 1716, since which time it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos 
 became united in the sovereignty of. Greece under Otho, the present and first king, 
 Jan. 25, 1833. See Greece. 
 
 ARGYLL, BISHOPRIC of. Founded a.d. 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the 
 diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld; but was disjoined by Pope 
 Innocent III.; and it ended, with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. 
 Argyll is now one of the post-revolution bishoprics of Scotland. See Bishoprics. 
 
 ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect, who deny the deity of Christ ; they 
 arose about a.d. 315. Arius died in 336. The Arians were condemned by the 
 council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in 
 the East. It was favoured by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the 
 Vandals in the fifth centuiy, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus (see Servetus) 
 published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt 1553. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. Of uncertain origin. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by 
 Thales, about 600 B.C. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, 
 and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 B.C. The sexigesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy 
 was used a.d. 1 30. Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thirteen books of 
 
ARK 42 ARM 
 
 arithmetical questions (of which six are now extant) ahout 156. Notation by nine 
 digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — intro- 
 duced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into England, 1253. 
 The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic 
 of Decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic (de Arte 
 Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham, 1522. The theory of decimal 
 fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rhabdologia, in 1617. 
 
 ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place 
 on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal Deluge, 2347 B.C. But Apamea, in 
 Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on 
 the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of 
 Ararat. The ark wa3 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high; but most 
 interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical 
 one of six. There were, we are told, three floors — the first for beasts, the second for 
 provisions, and the third for birds and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, 
 but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There 
 was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 
 
 ARKLOW, BATTLE of. Between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a 
 small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 1798. The 
 town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. — Native gold was 
 discovered in Arklow in Sept. 1795. — Phil. Trans., vol. 86. 
 
 ARMADA, the INVINCIBLE. The famous Spanish armament, so called, consisted of 
 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 volunteers, under 
 the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was 
 defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into 
 the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return to 
 their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took 
 many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to 
 the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a 
 storm dispersed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North 
 Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5000 
 men : seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 
 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship. — 
 Rapin, Carte, flume. 
 
 ARMAGH, BATTLE of. Fought against Edward Bruce, who was defeated, taken, and 
 beheaded at Dundalk; and with him 6200 Scots lost their lives, a.d. 1318. — 
 Buchanan. The city of Armagh is most ancient. See next article. It was destroyed 
 by the Danes on Easter-day, a.d. 852. — Burns. 
 
 ARMAGH, SEE of. The first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland ; was founded by St. Patrick, 
 its first bishop, in 444. One Daire, a man of great reputation among his own people, 
 and of considerable wealth, granted the site whereon the church was erected, near 
 the river Callan. The first name of this place was Druim Saileg ; but from its 
 situation on a rising ground, was afterwards called Arhmach or Ardmach; that is, 
 editus campus, a high fidd. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been bishops of 
 this see. In the king's books, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is valued at 400/. 
 sterling a year ; and, until lately, was estimated at 15,000Z. per annum. The see was 
 re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. — Beatson. 
 
 ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers against 
 England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780; but its objects were 
 defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to 
 cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, Dec. 16, 1800. The 
 principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime 
 system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker 
 destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in 
 consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of 
 England to the empire of the sea. The Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 
 
 ARMENIA. Hero Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B.C. After 
 having been subject successively to the three great monarchies, Armenia fell to the 
 kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original worshippers of fire ; they also paid 
 great -veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose priests even the highest classes of the 
 people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage. — Martin's Memoires sur I'Armenie. 
 
ARM 
 
 43 
 
 ARM 
 
 ARMENIA, continued. 
 
 City of Artaxarta built . . .B.C. 186 
 Autioclms Epiphaues invades Armenia . 165 
 Tigraues the Great reigns . . . .93 
 He is called to the throne of Syria, assumes 
 
 the fastidious title of " King of Kings," 
 
 and is served by tributary princes . . 83 
 Tigraues defeated by Lucullus . . .69 
 Again defeated, and lays his crown at the 
 
 feet of Pompey 66 
 
 His sou, Artavasdes, reigns . . .54 
 Crassus taken prisoner, and beheaded . 53 
 Artavasdes assists Pompey against Julius 
 
 C£esar 48 
 
 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against 
 
 Marc Antony 36 
 
 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded 
 
 with silver chains to Egypt, to grace 
 
 his triumph ...... 34 
 
 The Armenian soldiers crown his son, 
 
 Artaxias 33 
 
 Artaxias deposed 30 
 
 He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 
 Blair . . . . . . B.C. 
 
 Reign of Venones .... a.d. 
 
 He abdicates in favour of his son, Orodes 
 
 Gernianicus Csesar, grandson of Augus- 
 tus, dethrones him .... 
 
 Zenon reigns 
 
 Tigranes IV. reigns 
 
 He is cited to Rome, and deposed . . 
 
 Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power 
 paramount in Armenia 
 
 Armenia reduced to a Persian province 
 under Sapor 
 
 Subdued by the Saracens 
 
 Irruption of the Turks . . . . 
 
 Again made a Persian province, under 
 Uffan Cassanes 
 
 Subdued by Selim II 
 
 Overrun by the Russians 
 
 Surrender of Erzeroum . . July, 1829 
 (See Syria and Runno- Turkish War.) 
 
 18 
 18 
 36 
 3T 
 
 62 
 
 365 
 6S7 
 755 
 
 1472 
 1522 
 1S28 
 
 The sovereigns of Armenia seem to have been absolute in their authority over their 
 subjects. The most known of them is Tigranes the Great, the second of that name. 
 The Armenians were numerous and brave, but rude. Of their peculiar customs very 
 few vestiges remain ; though they had a practice of transmitting to their posterity 
 the deeds of their ancestors in songs ; but these are all lost. 
 
 ARMENIAN ERA. Commenced on the 9th of July, a.d. 552 ; the Ecclesiastical year on 
 the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; and 
 in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the 
 old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. 
 
 ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner 
 that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and 
 motion, the whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by 
 Eratosthenes, about 255 B.C. 
 
 ARMINIANS. So called from James Arminius, a Protestant divine, of Holland. The 
 Arminians chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally 
 espouse the principles of the Church of England ; especially asserting the subordination 
 of the Christian Church to the civil powers. They also contend for the efficacy of 
 good works, as well as their necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and 
 Charles I. favoured the doctrines of the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect 
 prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of 
 Dort (see Dort) in 1618. Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 
 1609.— Brandt. 
 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS. Became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth 
 century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different 
 figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen 
 in battle, a.d. 1100. The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
 intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 
 1798— and again in 1808. 
 
 ARMOUR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. 
 Skins and padded hides were first used; and brass and iron armour, in plates or 
 scales, followed. The first body armour of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, 
 exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. 
 This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale 
 armour, a.d. 449. The Norman armour formed breeches and jacket, 1066. The 
 hauberk had its hood of the same piece, 1100. John wore a surtout over a hauberk 
 of rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, 
 Hetny III., 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and scull caps, same reign. Armour 
 became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced 1407. 
 Black armour, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V., 1413. The 
 armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, 
 about 1500. Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I., 1625. In the reign 
 of Charles II., officers wore no other armour than a large gorget, which is commemorated 
 in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrich. 
 
ARM 44 ARM 
 
 ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, 
 pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient weapons were bows and 
 arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various 
 weapons Ihrowjk the volume. 
 
 ARMS, in HER A.LDRY. See A rmorial Bearings and Heraldry. Those of England, at first 
 simple, varied with the conquests which she made, and included the insignia of Wales, 
 Ireland, Scotland, France, and Hanover, as these countx-ies successively fell to her 
 sovereignty. The arms of England and France were claimed and quartered by 
 Edward III., a.d. 1330. They were discontinued by the English kings on the union 
 with Ireland, and a new imperial standard was hoisted, Jan. 1. 1801. The escutcheon 
 of Hanover was discontinued on the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover 
 by the death of William IV. in 1837. 
 
 ARMS' BILL, IRELAND. A celebrated bill, whose object was the repression of crime 
 and iusurrection, was passed Oct. 15, 1831. It was a revival of the expired statutes 
 of George III. The guns registered under this act throughout the kingdom at the 
 close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally small 
 of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill passed August 22, 1843 ; but though 
 it has been since renewed, it has not been latterly very rigidly enforced. 
 
 ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting 
 men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed 
 by Saul, 1093 B.C. — Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any 
 account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in 
 modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies 
 were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 
 31 Charles II., 1679; but one was gradually formed in his reign. In 1685 it con- 
 sisted of about 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The chief European nations have had 
 in their service the following armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; 
 Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560,000; and France, 
 680,000. 
 
 ARMY, BRITISH. The effective rank-aud-file of the army actually serving in the pay 
 of Great Britain on the 24th Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082; and the estimates of 
 the whole army in that year were 17,973,000Z. The militia, volunteer, and other 
 auxiliary forces were of immense amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. 
 The strength of the volunteer corps was greatest between the years 1798 and 1804, 
 in which latter year this species of force amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 
 were Irish; and the militia had increased to 130,000 men, previously to the regular 
 regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809. The following are statements of 
 the effective military strength of the United Kingdom at the periods mentioned, and 
 of the sums voted for military expenditure : 
 
 1780, Time of war : troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men ; sum voted £7,847, 000 
 
 1800, War ditto 168,000 men ditto 17,973,000 
 
 1810, War : army, including foreign troops . ditto 300,000 men ditto 26,748,000 
 
 1815, Last year of the war ditto 300,000 men ditto 39,150,000 
 
 1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 88,100 men ditto 1S,'_'53,000 
 
 1830, Peace ditto 89,300 men ditto 6,991,000 
 
 1840, Peace ditto 93.471 men ditto 6,890,267 
 
 1850, Peace ditto 99,118 men ditto 6,763,488 
 
 1852, Peace; (but Kaffir war). . . . ditto 101,937 men ditto 7,018,164 
 
 1«54, War with Russia ditto 112,977 men ditto 7,167,486 
 
 1855, War with Russia ditto 178,645 men* ditto 13,721,158 
 
 1S50, War with Russia (effective men 154,806) ditto 206,836 men ditto 14,545,059 
 
 (Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, exclusive of the Indian army.) 
 
 ARMY, NAVT, AND OTHER CHARGES OP THE WAR WITH RUSSIA. 
 
 Original Estimate 1854-5 Actual Cliarge 1854-5 Estimate for 1855-6 
 
 Army . . 6,287,486 .... 7,167,486 .... 13,721,158 
 
 Navy . . . 7,487,<48 10,417,309 10,716,338 
 
 Ordnance . 3,845,878 .... 5,986,662 .... 7,808,042 
 Transports (increase in Navy) . . . . 3,582,474 5,181,465 
 
 Total £17,621,312 . . . .£27,153,931 . . . .£37,427,003 
 
 * Besides this national army, 14,950 foreign troops were voted for the service of the year 1855-6 ; 
 and the English militia was called out, and increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming 
 a total of 313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay. 
 
ARM 
 
 45 
 
 ARS 
 
 ARMY, BRITISH, continued. 
 
 BRITISH ARMY; NON-OOMMrSSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATE*, IN 1840. 
 
 English . 
 
 Scotch . . . 
 
 Irish 
 
 Life Guards. 
 
 Horse Guards. 
 
 Foot Guards. 
 
 Cavalry. 
 
 Infantry. 
 
 724 
 67 
 19 
 
 307 
 22 
 10 
 
 4,3U 
 
 472 
 64 
 
 6,174 
 
 781 
 
 2,569 
 
 35,7S5 
 12,046 
 
 36,531 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 810 
 
 399 
 
 4,S50 
 
 9,524 
 
 84,362 
 
 This is the last parliamentary return, of its kind, of the relative number of rank-and- 
 file contributed by the three countries respectively, to the British standing army. 
 The proportions, no doubt, more or less, continue, and may be inferred from it at the 
 present time. On Sept. 5, 1856, the army was ordered to be reduced from about 
 150,000 (exclusive of the Indian army) to 125,000. The Army Service Acts are 12 
 & 13 Vict. c. 37 (June 21, 1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 (Feb. 27, 1855). The Mutiny Act 
 is passed annually ; alterations were made in this Act and in the Articles of War in 
 1855. — See Militia and Volunteers. By a memorandum dated, " Horse Guards, 
 25th April, 1855," it was determined that officers in the service of the East India 
 Company should have the same rank and precedence as those in the regular army. 
 — The office of Master-General of the Ordnance was abolished, and the civil adminis- 
 tration of the Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of Lord Panmure, the 
 Minister of War, on May 25, 1855. — An examination of staff-officers, previous to their 
 appointment, was ordered April 9, 1857. 
 ARMY of OCCUPATION. The army distinguished by this name was that of the 
 allied powers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, which occupied the northern frontier 
 towns of France by the treaty which established the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
 lated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, — 
 signed Nov. 20, 1815. 
 
 AROMATICS. Acron, of Agrigentum, is said to have been the first who caused great 
 fires to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which 
 means he put a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 B.C.— -Nouv. Diet. 
 
 ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and the 
 calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, 
 persons who refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by large iron 
 weights being placed upon the breast. A person standing mute is, by the existing 
 law, convicted, 12 Geo. III. 1771. See article Mute. 
 
 ARRAS, TREATY of, between France and Burgundy, often quoted, was concluded, 
 1435. Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of 
 France, whereby the countries of Burgundy and Artois were given to the Dauphin as 
 a marriage portion; this latter was entered into in 1482. — L'Abbe Telly. 
 
 ARREST for DEBT. The persons of peers, members of parliament, &c, protected. 
 See remarkable case of Ferrars' Arrest. Clergyman performing divine service privileged 
 from arrest, 50 Edw. III., 1375. Seamen privileged from debts under 20/., by act 
 30 Geo. II., 1756. Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, attending 
 upon, and returning from, court, on the business of their clients. By statute 29 
 Charles II. no arrest can be made, nor process served, upon a Sunday. This law was 
 extended by William III. Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May 1733. Pro- 
 hibited for less than 10/. on process, 1779: and for less than 20/., July 1827. 
 Arrests for less than 20/. were prohibited on mesne process in Ireland, in June 1829. 
 Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, except in cases wherein there is 
 ground to show that the defendant designs to leave the country, 2 Vict., Aug. 1838. 
 By 7& 8 Vict. c. 96 (1844), the power of imprisonment even upon final process, that 
 is judgment debts, is abolished if the sum does not exceed 20/. exclusive of costs : 
 and by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, (1846), the judge has no power to punish except in case 
 of fraud or contempt of court. 
 
 ARSENIC. A mineral substance, caustic and corrosive to so grent a degree, as to be a 
 deadly poison. There are divers kinds, yellow or native, red and crystalline. Native 
 arsenic is of an orange or yellow colour, and it is called orpiment : it is commonly 
 found in copper mines ; and the heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral 
 
ARS 46 AS 
 
 obliged the legislature to enact regulations for its sale, 14 Vict., cap. 13, June 5, 1851. 
 The sale of all colourless preparations of arsenic are regulated by this act. 
 
 ARSON. This felony has always been deemed capital, and been punisbed with death ; 
 it continued to be so punished, on a consolidation of the laws by statute 7 & 8 
 Geo. IV., 1827. If any house be fired, and persons be therein, or if any vessel be 
 fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 1 Vict., July 1837. 
 
 ARTICLES or RELIGION. Six were published by Henry VIII., 1 539 ; and forty-two 
 were published without the consent of parliament, in 1552. These forty-two were 
 reduced to thirty-nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority and the 
 authority of parliament in 1571 : one hundred and four were drawn up for Ireland 
 by archbishop Usher in 1614, and were established in 1634. On the union of the 
 churches, the Irish adopted the English articles. 
 
 ARTIFICERS and MANUFACTURERS. They were prohibited from leaving England, 
 and those abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the 
 notice given them; a fine of 100?., and imprisonment for three months, were made 
 the penalties for seducing them from these realms, — 9 Geo. II., 1736. 
 
 ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a German 
 cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is 
 said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341 ; it was used, according 
 to our historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces 
 of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 
 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — 
 Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish 
 artists, in Sussex, 1543.— ifywier's Foedcra. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by 
 Browne, 1728. See Iron. 
 
 ARTILLERY COMPANY or LONDON. Instituted for weekly military exercises in 
 the Artillery-Ground, Finsbury, in 1610. The ground was at first (in 1498) a spacious 
 field for the use of the Loudon archers. The Artillery Company consisted of about 
 300 men, and served as a nursery of officers for the City Militia. — Noorthouck's Hist, 
 of London. 
 
 ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was com- 
 posed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, 
 geometry, and astronomy.- — Harris. The Royal Society of Englaud {icliich see) 
 obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, 
 commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the 
 patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkestone. The first 
 public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the 
 rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, 
 the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British 
 Artists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19 
 1824. See British Museum, ; British Institution ; National Gallery. 
 
 ARUNDEL CASTLE. Built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the 
 earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the castle, 
 without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, 
 was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was 
 thoroughly repaired by the late duke at a vast expense. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. Containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 
 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 statues, 
 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of 
 James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel and given to the 
 university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are Greek, of which there are two 
 translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Pridec.ux, 1676. See Kidd's Tracts; and Poison's 
 Treatise, 1789. 
 
 ARUSPICES. Roman priests or soothsayers, who foretold events from observing 
 entrails of animals; of Etruscan origin; introduced to Rome by Romulus; and 
 abolished by Const uitine, a.d. 337, at which time they were seventy in number. 
 
 AS. A Roman weight and coin : when considered as a weight, it was a pound ; when 
 a coin, it had different weights, but always the same value. In the reign of Servius, 
 the as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 
 
ASB 47 ASS 
 
 264 B.C. ; in the second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards, half an 
 ounce ; its value was about three farthings sterling. 
 
 ASBESTOS. A native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and 
 which is endued with the property of remaining unconsumed in the fire. — Chamb. 
 Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians. — Herodotus. Napkins made of it in the time 
 of Pliny, a.d. 74 ; paper made of it by the ancients ; the spinning of asbestos known 
 at Venice, about a.d. 1500. — Baptista Porta. 
 
 ASCALON, BATTLE of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian 
 forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and 
 other infidels, on Sept. 16, 1191. It is said that no less than 30,000 of the enemy 
 were left dead on the field of battle. Richard marched to Jerusalem, a.d. 1192. 
 
 ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the Church 
 celebrates the ascension of Our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from 
 the dead, May 14, a.d. 33; first commemorated, a.d. 68. Some Christian writers 
 affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part of Mount Olivet where he 
 last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible in his time. 
 
 ASHANTEES. A warlike tribe of Negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered 
 Fantee, in which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death 
 of the king who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began, and on Jan. 21, 
 1824, the Ashantees defeated about 1000 British under Sir Charles M'Carthy at 
 Accra, and brought away his skull with others as trophies. They were thoroughly 
 subdued in 1826. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the 
 Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a.d. 487, first added the 
 four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the number of fasting days to 
 forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four 
 additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cinevum, or Ash-Wednesday : at the 
 Reformation this practice was abolished, "as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 
 
 ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY. His manuscripts, library, coins, and other rarities, were 
 presented by Elias Ashmole, the celebrated herald and antiquary, to the University 
 of Oxford about 1683. Mr. Ashmole died at Lambeth in 1692. 
 
 ASIA. So called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and 
 Tethys, the wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled; here 
 the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest monarchies of the 
 earth had their rise; and from hence most of the arts and sciences have been 
 derived. — Pardon. 
 
 ASPERNE, BATTLE of. Between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and 
 the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In this most 
 sanguinary fight the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 men, and the loss of 
 the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who com- 
 manded in person, and was the severest check that he had yet received. The bridge 
 of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat endangered ; but the success of the 
 Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. 
 
 ASSAM and ASSAM TEA. Assam came under British dominion in 1825 ; and the 
 right to the principality was renounced by the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-plant 
 was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A superintendant of the tea- forests was' 
 appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having been recommended by lord 
 William Bentinck. The Assam Tea committee was formed same year ; and the 
 Assam Tea Company established in 1839. The tea was much in use in England in 
 1841. Chinese labour has been introduced. 
 
 ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Aylesbury 
 and others to assassinate] king William III., near Richmond, Surrey, as he came from 
 hunting. The object of the conspiracy was to have been consummated, Feb. 14, 
 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. — Hist. England. 
 
 ASSASSINS, ob ASSASSINIANS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the 
 Mahometans, settled in Persia in a.d. 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of 
 land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat 
 in 1192 : they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary was 
 murdered in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 12;'7 ; and were extir- 
 pated in 1272. The chief or king of the corps assumed the title of " A ncieut of the 
 
ASS 48 ASS 
 
 Mountain," and " Old Man of the Mountain." They trained up young people to 
 assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction.* — Henault. From 
 this fraternity the word assassin has been adopted into the European languages, to 
 denote a murderer. — Aspin. See Old Man of the Mountain. 
 
 ASSAY of GOLD axd SILVER. Originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal 
 treasurer in the reign of Henry I. — Du Cange. But certainly some species of assay 
 was practised as early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England, 
 1354 ; regulated, 13 Will. III., 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters appointed at 
 Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of 
 silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard 
 silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver. See Goldsmith' Company. 
 
 ASSAYE, BATTLE of. The British army, under general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards 
 duke of Wellington) entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of 
 Ahmednugger, Aug. 12 ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 
 Sept. 23, 1803. This was the gallant chieftain's first great battle, in which he opposed 
 a force full ten times greater than his own. The enemy retired in great disorder, 
 leaving behind the whole of their artillery, ammunition, and stores. 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the 
 taxes coming under this head have been defined — all things having been assessed, from 
 lands and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some, the date is referred to the reign 
 of Ethelbert, in 991; by others, to the reign of Henry VIII., 1522; and by more, to 
 the reign of William III., 1689, when a land-tax was imposed. See Land Tax. The 
 assessed taxes yielded, in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 
 6,524,766Z., their highest amount. These imposts have varied in their nature and 
 amount, according to the exigencies of the state, and the contingencies of war and 
 peace. They were considerably advanced in 1797; and "°01, et seq. Con- 
 
 siderably reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years.-;, .u together abolished in 
 Ireland. The last act for the repeal of certain assessed taxes, was passed 16 & 1 7 Vict, 
 cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853, which was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. cap. 1, 
 Feb. 17, 1854. — 17 & 18 Vict. cap. 85, was passed for the better securing and accounting 
 for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854. See Income Tax. 
 
 ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the 
 Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It began in 1689 and was 
 vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht it was transferred 
 to the English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This 
 contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. 
 
 ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, 
 ordered by the National Assembly of France, April 1790. At one period the enormous 
 amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were 
 in circulation in France and its dependencies. — Alison. 
 
 ASSIZE of BREAD. The first statute for it was in the third year of John, 1202, when 
 the regulations thereof were ordered to be observed upon pain of the pillory. The 
 chief justiciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the inspection of the 
 assize. — Matthew Paris. The assize was abolished in England, and the sale of bread 
 regulated as at present, in August, 1815. The sale in Ireland was regulated by statute, 
 2 Will. IV., May 1832; Bread act, 7 Will. IV., 1836; Bread act, Ireland, placing its 
 ' sale on the same footing as in England, 1 Vict., 1838. See Bread. 
 
 ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit). They are of very ancient institution in England, 
 and in ancient law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial 
 men, with the j ustice, to meet at a certain time and place ; regulated by Magna Charta, 
 a.d. 1215. The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute 
 of Westminster, 13 Edw. I., 1284. — Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no 
 lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize 
 in their sessions in the counties of England^ upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 
 Rich. II., 1396. — Statutes, Brovgh Act. Assizes are general or special; they are 
 general when the judges go their circuits, and special when a commission is issued to 
 take cognisance of one or more causes. See Bloody Assize. 
 
 * The "Old Mmi of the Mountain" Beat his emissaries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called 
 St. Louis ; but being afterwards affected by the fame of this king's virtues, and he being at the time 
 in his minority, he gave the prince notice to take care of himself. The fact is mentioned by ail our 
 historians, yet, latterly, some doubt is thrown upon it. — IlcnauU. 
 
ASS 
 
 49 
 
 AST 
 
 ASSUMPTION, FEAST of the. This festival is observed by the Church of Rome in 
 honour of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Roman Catholics believe, was taken up to 
 heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a.d. 45. She is supposed 
 to have been then in her 75th year. The festival was instituted a.d. 813. — StiUingjleet. 
 
 ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes 
 the contrivance to Claudius Cassar, a.d. 43. It is certain that assurance of ships was 
 practised in the year 45. The first regulations concerning it are in the Lex Oleron, by 
 which it appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom 
 of Lombard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low 
 Countries; but the first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 
 43 Elizabeth, 1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. 
 
 ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire — that of Bacchus wanting 
 records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the 
 Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 B.C.* It arose out of the union of two powerful 
 kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending 
 with Sardanapalus, 820 B.C. When this last-named prince was conquered by Arbaces, 
 he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to 
 be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed 
 the Assyrians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. 
 
 The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. 6; 
 xi. I— Blair B.C. 2247 
 
 The kingdom of Babylon- begins under 
 Belus, supposed to be the Nirnrod of 
 holy writ. — Lenglet 2245 
 
 Astronomical observations begun by the 
 Chaldeans 
 
 Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher . . . 
 
 Ninus, son of BeluaW^; '-in Assyria, 
 and names his ca,,. : Jti en. - ^himself, 
 Nineveh. — Idem. 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus, who having 
 subdued the Armenians, Persians, 
 Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, esta- 
 blishes what is properly the Assyrian 
 monarchy, of which Nineveh was the 
 seat of empire. — Blair .... 
 
 Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . 
 
 Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, enlarges 
 and embellishes Babylon, and makes 
 it the seat of her dominion. — Lenglet 
 
 2234 
 2124 
 
 20C9 
 
 2059 
 2017 
 
 2017 
 
 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, and 
 
 India. — Lenglet . . . . B.C. 1975 
 The Arabs seize Nineveh . . . . 1937 
 Semiramis is put to death by her son, 
 for so long usurping his throne, which 
 
 he recovers 1970 
 
 Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . 1969 
 
 Reign of Aralius 1907 
 
 Belochus, the last king of the race of 
 
 Ninus. — Blair 1446 
 
 He makes his daughter Atossa, sur- 
 named Semiramis II., his associate on 
 
 the throne 1433 
 
 Atossa procures the death of her father, 
 
 and marries Belatores .... 1421 
 Belatores, or Bellapares reigns . . . 1421 
 * * * * * 
 
 The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, 
 
 and foretells its destruction. — Blair . 840 
 Nineveh taken by Arbaces . . . 820 
 
 ASSYRIA, PROPER. After the destruction of the first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, the last 
 king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 B.C., and the kingdom con- 
 tinued until 621 B.C., when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being besieged by the Medes 
 and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, 
 a fate somewhat similar to that of Sardanapalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh 
 was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. In modern 
 history, it was finally conquered by the Turks in 1637 a.d. — Priestley. 
 
 Phul raised to the throne, about the 
 year — [Blair] b.c. 777 
 
 He invades Israel, but departs without 
 drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kings xv. 
 19, 20 . . 770 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser invades Syria, takes Da- 
 mascus, and makes great conquests . 740 
 
 Shalmaneser, takes Samaria, transports 
 the people, whom he replaces by a 
 colony of Cutheans and others, and thus 
 finishes the kingdom of Israel. — Blair . 721 
 
 He retires from before Tyre, after a 
 siege of five years. — Blair . . . 713 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his geno- 
 
 ral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, 
 when the angel of the Lord in one 
 night destroys 180,000 of his army. — 
 Isaiah, xxxvii. .... b.c 710 
 [Commentators suppose that this mes- 
 senger of death was the fatal blast 
 known in eastern countries by the 
 name of Sainiel.'] 
 Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes 
 
 Babylon. — Blair 680 
 
 He invades Judea. — Blair .... 677 
 Holo femes is slain by Judith . . . 677 
 Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher . . . 667 
 Nineveh taken and razed to the ground . 621 
 
 On the destruction of Nineveh, the Assyrian monarchy was divided between the 
 Medes and Babylonians. — Blair. For the late discoveries of Layard and others in 
 Assyria, see Nineveh. 
 
 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldseans, and hence was trans- 
 
 * Dr. Blair calculates this king's reign from the establishment of the monarchy, 2059 ; but the Abbe" 
 Lenglet reckons it from his accession to the throne of Assyria ten years before ; the latter mode is 
 here adopted. 
 
 E 
 
AST 
 
 50 
 
 ASY 
 
 mitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in France in 
 the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. The early history of astrology 
 in England is very little known : Bede was addicted to it, 700; and so was Roger 
 Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and 
 all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjuror; 
 but the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology amongst U3. Sir Walter Scott 
 has made ample use of Sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
 period; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
 escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of Babylon, 
 about 2234 B.C. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldiea 
 under Nabonassar ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 B.C.; some say many 
 centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 
 720 B.C. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by 
 Tholes, 640 B.C. Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of 
 celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 B.C. Bipparchus 
 began his observations at Rhodes, 167 B.C. — began his new cycle of the moon in 143, 
 and made great advances in the science, 140 B.C. The precession of the equinoxes 
 confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy, a.d. 130. 
 After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected, 
 it was resumed by the Arabs, about 800 : and was brought into Europe by the Moore of 
 Barbary and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 
 
 1284 
 1500 
 
 1530 
 1582 
 
 The Alphonsine tables (which see) were 
 
 composed . . . . .a.d, 
 Clocks first used in astronomy, about . 
 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
 netary bodies revived by Copernicus 
 The science greatly advanced by Tycho 
 
 Brahe, about 
 True laws of the planetary motions, by 
 
 Kepler 1619 
 
 Telescopes and other instruments used 
 
 in astronomy, about .... 1627 
 The discoveries of Galileo were made 
 
 about 1631 
 
 The transit of Venus over the Sun's disk 
 
 first discovered by Horrox . Nov. 24, 1639 
 Casaini draws his meridian line, after 
 
 Dante. See Bologna . . . . 1655 
 The aberration of the light of the fixed 
 
 stars discovered by Horrebow . . 1659 
 Discoveries of Picart . . . . 1669 
 
 Map of the Moon constructed by Hevelius 1670 
 Motion of the suu round its own axis 
 
 proved by Halley .... 1676 
 
 Discoveries of Huygens . . a.d. 1686 
 Newton's Principia published, and the 
 system as now taught incontrovertibly 
 
 established 1687 
 
 Catalogue of the stars made by Flam- 
 stead 1688 
 
 Satellites of Saturn, <fec, discovered by 
 
 Cassini 1701 
 
 Aberration of the stars clearly explained 
 
 by Dr. Bradley 1737 
 
 Celestial inequalities found by La Grar ge 1780 
 Uranus and Satellites discovered by 
 Herschel, March 13. See Qeorgium 
 
 Sidus 1781 
 
 Mecanique Ce'leste, published by La Place 1796 
 Ceres discovered by Piazzi . Jan. 1, 1801 
 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers . . March 28, 1802 
 Juno, by Harding . . . Sept. 1, 1804 
 Vesta, by Olbers . . March 29, 1807 
 
 Astronomical Society of London founded 1820 
 
 [For the several planets recently dis- 
 covered, see article Planets.] 
 
 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from us than 
 we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; so that a 
 cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing 
 there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes 
 about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six 
 years in coming from one of those stars ; but the calculations of later astronomers 
 prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can 
 reach us, and that every particle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes 
 from three or fourhundred years ago. — Objects of Sc encc, 
 
 ASYLUMS, or PRIVILEGED PLACES. At first they were places of refuge for those 
 who, by accident or necessity, had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the 
 law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The pos- 
 terity of Hercules is said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against 
 such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, and Romulus one 
 at Mount Palatine. A while after the coming of Christianity into England, super- 
 stitious veneration i an so high, that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' 
 houses became asylums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would; of 
 which very ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
 secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salisbury-court, 
 Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, 
 Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This security was abolished a.d. 
 
ATH 51 ATH 
 
 1696; but the last was not wholly suppressed until the reign of George I. See 
 Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regarding the 
 divinity of Christ arose and extended between a.d. 333 and 351. Athanasius, who 
 was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians 
 for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for them again and again. The creed 
 which goes by his name is supposed by most authorities to have been written about 
 the year 340; but it is affirmed by other writers to be the compilation of an African 
 bishop in the fifth century. — Du Pin. 
 
 ATHEISM. This doctrine has had its votaries and martyrs. Spinoza was its defender 
 in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was 
 condemned to be burnt at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly 
 professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; 
 he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciaries, because 
 they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men of 
 various countries have been professors of atheism, and even in England we have had 
 writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe. "Though a small draught of philo- 
 sophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back 
 again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. "Si Dieu n'existait pas, il faudrait 
 Yinventer." — " If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one."— Voltaire. 
 
 ATHENiEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. 
 One of them was called Panathensea, and the other Chalcea ; they were first insti- 
 tuted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 B.C.; and Theseus afterwards renewed them 
 and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, the first every fifth 
 year, 1234 B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 ATHENAEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philoso- 
 phers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athensea were 
 at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and 
 was erected by the emperor Adrian, a.d. 125. — Tillemont's Life of Adrian. The 
 Athenseuni Club of London was formed in 1824, for the association of persons of 
 scientific and literary attainments, artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of 
 learning, &c. ; the club-house was erected in 1829, on the site of the late Carlton- 
 palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Pana- 
 thenseic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The Liverpool 
 Athenaeum was opened Jan. 1, 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and other places, 
 buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. 
 
 ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent ruins yet 
 attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valour. The first 
 sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned in Bceotia, and 
 was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some 
 supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or Noah's flood) that laid waste 
 the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the 
 Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled, and twelve cities 
 founded, 1556 B.C. The first state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising 
 a period of 487 years, but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous; 
 in its second state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 
 years; in its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 
 years ; and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
 Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalised them- 
 selves by their valour, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and perhaps not 
 one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so 
 great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more 
 peculiar manner, called it Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. — 
 Plutarch. 
 
 Arrival of Cecrops .... B.C. 1556 
 The Areopagus established . . . 1507 
 
 Deucalion arrives in Attica . . . 1502 
 The Panathensean Games . . . . 1495 
 Erichthonius teaches husbandry . . 1494 
 Ceres arrives in Attica . . . . 1383 
 Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eu- 
 
 molpus . 1356 
 
 Erechtheus lulled in battle with the 
 
 Eleusinians 1347 
 
 iEgeus invades Attica, ascen dsthe throne, 
 and reigns 4S years . . . B.C. 12S3 
 
 He throws himself into the sea, and is 
 drowned ; hence the name of the 
 iEgean Sea. — Eusibius . ... 1235 
 
 Theseus, his son, succeeds and reigns 30 
 years • 1235 
 
 He collects his subjects into one city, 
 and names it Athens . . ■ ■ 1234 
 
 Seizure of Helen by Theseus . . .1223 
 r2 
 
ATH 
 
 52 
 
 ATH 
 
 ATHENS, continued. 
 
 Reign of Mnestheus . . . B.C. 1205 
 
 Reign of Dernophoon .... 1182 
 
 Court of Bphetes established . . . 1179 
 
 The Prianepsae instituted . . .1178 
 
 Oxynthes reigns 12 years . . . . 1149 
 
 He is succeeded by Aphidas . . . 1137 
 
 Aphidas assassinated 1136 
 
 Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single 
 combat, and is chosen king . . . 1128 
 
 Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king 
 of Athens 1091 
 
 In a battle with the Heraclidae, Codrus 
 rushes into the thickest of the fight, 
 resolved to perish ; the oracle having 
 declared that the victory should be 
 with the side whose leader was killed 1070 
 
 Royalty abolished 1070 
 
 Athens governed by archons . . . 1069 
 
 Alcmeon, last perpetual archon . . 754 
 
 Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty ; 
 among other acts he exposes his own 
 daughter to be devoured by horses, on 
 account of an illicit amour . . . 713 
 
 Erixias, seventh and last decennial 
 archon, dies 684 
 
 Draco, the twelfth annual archon, pub- 
 lishes his laws 623 
 
 Solon supersedes them by his code . . 578 
 
 Pisistratus, the tyrant, seizes the su- 
 preme power 560 
 
 First tragedy acted at Athens, on a 
 waggon, by Thespis . . . . 535 
 
 Pisistratus dies 527 
 
 Hipparchus assassinated . . . . 513 
 
 The law of ostracism . . . .510 
 
 The Lacedaemonian war . . . . 505 
 
 The isle of Lemuos taken by the Athe- 
 nian general Miltiades .... 504 
 
 Memorable battle of Marathon, in At- 
 tica. See Marathon . . . . 490 
 
 Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished 
 by ostracism 487 
 
 Athens taken by the Persians, during 
 their invasion of Greece . . . . 480 
 
 Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . 479 
 
 Rebuilt and fortified the next year . . 478 
 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all 
 Thrace, even to Macedou . . . 469 
 
 Cimon banished through the intrigues 
 of Pericles 468 
 
 The Athenians defeat the Persians in a 
 naval battle in Egypt .... 462 
 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over the rest 
 of Greece 459 
 
 The first Sacred War, which see . . 448 
 
 Tolmidas conducts an expedition into 
 Boeotia, and is defeated and killed 
 near Chserouea. See Chceronea . . 447 
 
 The thirty years' truce between the 
 Athenians and Lacedaemonians . . 446 
 
 Herodotus reads his history in the coun- 
 cil at Athens 445 
 
 Pericles subdues Samos ; the battering- 
 ram is first used here .... 441 
 
 Comedies prohibited at Athens . . . 410 
 
 The Peloponnesian war begins, and lasts 
 27 years 431 
 
 A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged 
 Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, 
 
 The Venetians got possession of Athens in a.d. 1204, and the Turks in 1687.— 
 Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a province of European Turkey ; and 
 is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, and the seat of its legislature, established 
 under king Otho I., Jan. 25, 1833. See Greece. 
 
 ATHLONE. Once a place of great strength and beauty; the castle was founded by 
 king John. The town was destroyed by fire during the fury of the war in 1641. 
 The English army under general Ginckel stormed Athlone, which was then a town 
 of prodigious strength, crossing the Shannon in the face of the Irish army, yet not 
 
 extends to Athens, and continues for 
 
 five years B.C. 430 
 
 Death of Pericles, who had governed 
 
 Athens forty years .... 429 
 Second great pestilence ; owing to the 
 depopulation, each man is permitted 
 
 to have two wives 426 
 
 The Decelian war begins . . . . 414 
 The battle of Cyzicum : which see . 408 
 The inhabitants of Miletus put to the 
 
 sword, and Lycia entered . . . 408 
 Alcibiades accused of aspiring to sove- 
 reign power 407 
 
 Athenian fleet of 180 ships defeated by 
 
 Lysander, in the Hellespont . . 405 
 Lysander besieges Athens by land and 
 sea ; its walls are destroyed, and it 
 
 capitulates 404 
 
 The Peloponuesian war terminates . 404 
 Rule of the thirty tyrants . . . . 403 
 Socrates put to death .... 400 
 The Corinthian war begins . . . 395 
 The sea-fight at Naxus ; the Lacedaemo- 
 nians defeated 377 
 
 Philip, king of Macedon, gains his first 
 victory at Methon, over the Athe- 
 nians. See Macedon . . . . 360 
 Second Sacred war commenced . . 357 
 It terminates. See Sacred War . . . 348 
 Battle of Chasronea ; the Athenians and 
 Thebans defeated by Philip and his 
 son, Alexander. See Chceronea . . 338 
 Athens submits to Alexander the Great, 
 
 who enters Greece 335 
 
 Demosthenes, Hyperides, and Demades 
 
 put to death 322 
 
 Demetrius restores liberty to Greece, 
 and re-establishes the democracy at 
 
 Athens.— Usher 337 
 
 Demetrius takes Athens .... 296 
 The revolt from Demetrius . . . 287 
 A league formed between Athens, 
 
 Sparta, and Egypt .... 277 
 Athens taken by Antigonus, king of 
 
 Macedon, and held twelve years . . 268 
 Restored to liberty by Aratus . . 256 
 The Athenians join the Achaean league . 256 
 The original manuscripts of J3sch_vlus, 
 Euripides, and Sophocles, pledged to 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt, for 
 
 fifteen talents 233 
 
 The Athenians join the ^Etolians and 
 their allies against Macedon, and send 
 for assistance to Rome . . . . 215 
 A Roman fleet arrives in the ports of 
 
 Athens.— Blair 211 
 
 Subjugation of Greece . . . . 145 
 
 The Athenians implore assistance against 
 the Romans from Mithridates, king of 
 
 Pontus 88 
 
 His general, Archelaus, makes himself 
 
 master of Athens 88 
 
 Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman 
 general : it surrenders the following 
 year, being reduced by famine . . 87 
 The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow 
 
 the interests of Caesar . . . 47 
 
 They are subjected to Rome ... 21 
 
ATM 
 
 53 
 
 ATT 
 
 losing more than fifty men. This bold and successful enterprise procured for 
 Ginckel the title of earl of Athlone, 1691. — Bum's Annals. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, stating it to 
 be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern idea, about 79 B.C. Its weight was 
 determined by Galileo and Torricelli, about 1630; its density and elasticity by Boyle ; 
 and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. Its composition 
 was ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and 
 its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. See Ozone. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. Experiments were made on a line of rail, laid down 
 between Shepherd's- bush and the Great Western railroad across Wormwood Scrubs, 
 London, by which to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air- 
 pump, and speed of carriages upon this new principle of railroads in June, 1840. 
 In Ireland the first atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and Kil- 
 liney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 : it was also the last in use, being dis- 
 continued in 1855. It was proposed to be used in the streets of London by Mr. T. 
 W. Rammell in 1857. 
 
 ATTAINDER, ACTS of, have been passed in numerous reigns; two witnesses in cases 
 of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the 
 party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 Will. III., 1694-5. — Blackstone. 
 The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July 21, 
 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of 
 attainder passed in the reign of king James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 
 Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Amongst the last acts 
 so reversed, not the least interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward 
 Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 
 
 ATTILA. Surnamed the " Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his conquests 
 and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a.d. 447. He invaded the Roman empire with an 
 army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the provinces. He died of an uncommon 
 effusion of blood on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, 
 having retired late to bed, oppressed with wine, about a.d. 453. — Goldsmith. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. 
 It is among his duties to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters 
 criminal; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in 
 inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills against the king's attorney. The 
 first attorney-general was William de Gisilham, 7 Edward I., 1278. — Beatson. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERALS SINCE THE RESTORATION. 
 
 Jeffery Palmer a.d. 1660 
 
 SirHeneage Pinch, afterwards lord Pinch 1670 
 Sir Francis North, knt., afetrwards lord 
 
 Guildford 1673 
 
 Sir William Jones 1674 
 
 Sir Cresvel Levinz, knt 1679 
 
 Sir Robert Sayer, knt 16S0 
 
 Sir Thomas Powis, knt 1687 
 
 Henry Pollexfen, esq 1688 
 
 Sir George Treby, knt 1689 
 
 Edward Ward, esq 1693 
 
 Sir Thomas Trevor, knt. , afterwards lord 
 
 Trevor 1695 
 
 Sir John Somers,. knt. , afterwards lord 
 
 Somers 1697 
 
 Edward Northey, esq 1701 
 
 Sir Simon Harcourt, knt 1707 
 
 Sir James Montagu, knt. . . . 1708 
 Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; afterwards 
 
 lord Harcourt 1710 
 
 Sir Edward Northey, knt., again . . 1710 
 Nicholas Lechmere, esq., afterwards lord 
 
 Lechmere 1717 
 
 Sir Robert Raymond, knt., afterwards 
 
 lord Raymond 1720 
 
 Sir Philip Yorke, knt., afterwards earl 
 
 ofHardwicke 1723 
 
 Sir John Willes, knt 1733 
 
 Sir Dudley Ryder, knt 1736 
 
 Hon. William Murray, afterwards earl of 
 
 MansBeld 1754 
 
 Sir Robert Henley, knt., afterwards earl 
 
 of Northington 1756 
 
 Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord 
 
 Camden a.d. 1757 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 
 
 Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., afterwards 
 
 lord Grantley 1763 
 
 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards 
 lord Morden, and lord Chancellor. See 
 Chancellors . . . ... 1765 
 
 William de Grey, afterwards lord Wal- 
 
 singham 1766 
 
 Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord 
 
 Thurlow 1771 
 
 Alexander Wedderburne, esq., after- 
 wards lord Loughborough . . . 1778 
 
 James Wallace, esq 1780 
 
 Lloyd Kenyon, esq 1782 
 
 James Wallace, esq 1783 
 
 John Lee, esq 1783 
 
 Lloyd Kenyon, esq. , again ; afterwards 
 
 lord Kenyon 1783 
 
 Sir Richard Pepper Arden, afterwards 
 
 lord Alvanley 1784 
 
 Sir Archibald Macdouald . . . . 1788 
 Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon . 1793 
 Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redes- 
 dale . 1799 
 
 Sir Edward Law, afterwards lord Ellen- 
 borough .... Feb. 14, 1801 
 Hon Spencer Perceval (murdered by Bel- 
 
 lingham, May 11, 1812) . April 15, 1802 
 Sir Arthur Pigott . . . Feb. 12, 1S06 
 Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice 
 of the common pleas . April 7, 1S07 
 
ATT 
 
 54 
 
 AUG 
 
 Sir Thomas Wilde . . July 3, 1841 
 
 Sir Frederick Pollock, again ; afterwards 
 
 chief baron . . ' Sept. 6, 1341 
 
 Sir William W. Follett April 17, 1844 
 
 Sir Frederick Thesiger . . July 4, 1845 
 Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards 
 
 lord Truro, and lord chancellor, July 6, 1S46 
 Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice 
 
 of the common pleas . . July 13, 1846 
 Sir John Romilly, afterwards master of 
 
 the rolls . . July 11. 1850 
 
 Sir Alexander James Edmund Cock- 
 burn .... March 28, 1851 
 Sir Frederick Thesiger, again March 2, 1852 
 Sir Alexander James Edmund Cock- 
 burn, again ; afterwards chief justice 
 of the common pleas . . Dec. 28, 1852 
 Sir Richard Bethell (the present attor- 
 ney-general, 1857) . Nov. 15, 1856 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL, continued. 
 
 Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice- 
 chancellor of England . . June 26, 1812 
 
 Sir William Garrow . . . May 4, 1813 
 
 Sir Samuel Shepherd . . May 7, 1817 
 
 Sir Robert Gifford, afterwards lord 
 Gifford .... July 24, 1819 
 
 Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards 
 lord Lyndhurst . . . Jan. 9, 1824 
 
 Sir Charles Wetherell . . Sept. 20, 1826 
 
 Sir James Scarlett . . . April 27, 1827 
 
 Sir Charles Wetherell, again Feb. 19, 1828 
 
 Sir James Scarlett, again ; afterwards 
 lord Abiuger .... June 29, 1829 
 
 Sir Thomas Denrnan, afterwards lord 
 Denman . . . " . Nov. 26, 1830 
 
 Sir William Home . . . Nov. 26, 1832 
 
 Sir John Campbell . March 1, 1834 
 
 Sir Frederick Pollock . . Dec. 17, 1834 
 
 Sir John Campbell, again ; now lord 
 Campbell .... April 30, 1835 
 
 ATTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the 
 whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI., 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in 
 Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. 
 The number of attorneys now practising in England, or registered, or retired, is about 
 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000, 
 An act for amending the several acts for the regulation of attorneys and solicitors 
 passed 14 and 15 Victoria, cap. 88, August 7, 1851. 
 
 ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the 
 Creator impressed upon all parts of matter : about 1520. It was described by Kepler, 
 to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 1687 Sir I. Newton published 
 his " Principia," containing his important researches on this subject. There are the 
 attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity, which see. 
 
 AUCTION. A kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, 
 by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he had 
 brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. Various acts of 
 parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, which had, in some cases, 
 risen to five per cent. Among these acts were, 43, 45, 54, 55 George III. and 
 5 George IV. By the Act 8 Vict., cap. 15 (passed May 8, 1845), the duties were 
 repealed, and a charge imposed " on the licence to be taken out by all auctioneers in 
 the United Kingdom, of 10Z." Certain sales are now exempt from being conducted 
 by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under a distress for rent, and 
 sales under the provisions of the Small-Debts' acts for Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 AUERSTADT, BATTLE op. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and 
 Prussian armies, they were commanded by their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon 
 obtained a,decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 
 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 prisoners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the 
 field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French Emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, 
 from whence he issued his memorable Berlin decree. See Berlin Decree. 
 
 AUGHRIM, BATTLE or, near Athlone in Ireland. Between the Irish, headed by the 
 French general, St. Ruth, and the English under general Ginckel, when the former 
 lost 7000 men, the latter only 600 killed, and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was slain. 
 This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests of James II. in Ireland. 
 Ginckel was immediately after created earl of Athlone; fought July 12, 1691. The 
 ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still preserved, suspended in the choir of St. 
 Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. 
 
 AUGMENTATION op POOR LIVINGS' OFFICE. This office was established 3 Anne, 
 . 1704. As many as 5597 poor clerical livings of under 10Z. and not exceeding 50£. per 
 annum, were found by the commissioners under the act of Anne capable of augmenta- 
 tion, by means of the bounty then established by parliament. 
 
 AUGMENTATION COURT. At the suppression of the monastic institutions of 
 England, Henry VIII. erected this court, whose business it was to increase the royal 
 . revenues by adding those of the various monasteries thereto, 1534. — Pardon. 
 
 AUGSBURG, BATTLE of. Between the Imperialists and the French army, the latter 
 
AUG 55 AUS 
 
 commanded by Moreau, who obtained a victory so decisive in its consequences, that 
 Augsburg and Munich were opened to him ; fought August 24, 1796. Moreau, Sept. 2, 
 following, again defeated the Austrians on the Inn ; and again, Sept. 7, at Mainburg. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION op FAITH. The confession or articles of faith drawn up at 
 Augsburg by Melanchthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. 
 in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twenty-one articles, and 
 the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept into the Church of 
 Rome. The elector of Saxony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed 
 this confession, which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of 
 Augsburg, and hence is called the confession of Augsburg. 
 
 AUGSBURG, LEAGUE of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland and other 
 European powers which had for its object the causing the treaties of Munster and 
 Nimeguen to be respected, 1686. See Munster and Nimeguen. Many of the important 
 diets of the empire have been held in Augsburg. So early as a.d. 952, a council here 
 confirmed the order for the celibacy of the priesthood; and in 1555, here was signed 
 the celebrated treaty, by which religious liberty was secured to Germany. 
 
 AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long 
 before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several 
 orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 B.C. There was a community of them, 
 appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and other circumstances. The 
 king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is named, was the inventor of augury by 
 birds. — Vossius. The augurs of Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the 
 heavens, and chirping and flight of birds, and various strange casualties. 
 
 AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honour of Augustus 
 Caesar, from whom it was named in the year 8 B.C., because in this month he was 
 born, was created consul, or chief magistrate, thrice triumphed in Rome, subdued 
 Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the civil wars. It was previously 
 called Sextilis, or the sixth from March. 
 
 AULIC COUNCIL. A sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor 
 Maximilian I., in 1506, being one of two courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber, 
 formerly held at Spires, and afterwards at Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic Council, 
 at Vienna. These courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were instituted for appeals 
 in particular cases from the courts of the Germanic states. 
 
 AURIFLAMMA, or ORIFLAMME. The holy and golden national banner so often 
 mentioned in French history; it was a costly standard that belonged to the abbey of 
 St. Denis, and was suspended over the tomb of that saint, a.d. 1140. Louis le Gros 
 was the first king who took this standard from the abbey, to battle. — Henault. At 
 the battle of Agincourt, 1415, it appeared for the last lime. — Tillet. It is said, 
 however, that Louis XL also took the orifiamrne to battle in 1465. See Banner. 
 
 AURORA BOREALIS, or NORTHERN LIGHTS. This sublime phenomenon, though 
 rarely seen in the middle of Europe, is almost constant in the arctic and antarctic 
 regions, covering the whole heavens, and eclipsing by its splendour the stars and planets. 
 There was a memorable appearance of the aurora borealis, when it extended from 
 the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia, in March, 1716. It overspread the 
 whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. in one continued fixed haze of a dismal red during 
 the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Nov. 1765. The electri- 
 city of the aurora borealis was discovered at Jena in 1769. Mr. Forster the com- 
 panion of Captain Cook, saw the aurora borealis in 58° S. lat. ; it had been previously 
 matter of doubt whether it ever appeared in the southern hemisphere. — Butler. 
 
 AURORA FRIGATE. Sailed from Britain in 1771, to the East Indies, and was never 
 again heard of. 
 
 AUSTERLITZ, BATTLE of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by the 
 former, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of 
 Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
 exceeded 30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost besides, forty standards. 150 pieces 
 of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive victory of the French led 
 to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, same year. See Presburg. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. The fifth great division of the world. This name was originally given 
 it by De Brosses, but it is now generally called Australia. It includes New Holland, 
 Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New Zealand, &c, mostly discovered 
 
AUS 
 
 56 
 
 AUS 
 
 within two centuries. Some accidental discoveries were made by the Spaniards as early 
 as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these south lands was made by the Dutch 
 in 1605, they having, in that year, explored a part of the coasts of New Guinea. 
 Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that 
 island and continental Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter mass of 
 land, 1606. The Dutch appear to have been the chief discoverers during the next 
 forty years; and between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed the discovery of a great 
 part of the Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen's Land, now 
 pretty generally called Tasmania. It was late before the English entered on the 
 career of discovery : Dampier, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the west 
 and north-west coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the 
 track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries; and in 1770 Cook first made known 
 the east coast of Australia. Fumeaux pursued the circuit in 1773; and Bligh in 
 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 1792, Portlock same year, Bampton 
 and Alt in 1793, and towards the close of the 18th century, Bass and Flinders 
 explored various portions of the coasts and the islands. Grant in 1800, and Flinders, 
 again, in the five succeediug years, completed the survey. — M'Culloch. 
 
 AUSTRALIA, the smallest continent, or largest island, in the world ; about six times 
 smaller than America, and ten times larger than Borneo or Papua ; its area being 
 estimated at about three million square miles. Its colonisation by convicts was first 
 proposed after the separation of the American colonies from this country. It is now 
 divided into four provinces — New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria (or Port 
 Phillip), and Western Australia (or Swan River), all situated on the sea coast. 
 
 Census— 87,200 males ; 4.3,500 females . 1841 
 
 Captain Cook, Sir Joseph Banks, &c. 
 
 land at Botany Bay . . April 28, 1770 
 Governor Phillip founds the future city 
 of Sydney near Port Jackson, with 
 1030 persons . . . Jan. 26, 1788 
 Great distress, in consequence of the loss 
 
 of the ship " Guardian," Captain Riou 1790 
 First church erected . . Aug. 1793 
 
 Government gazette first printed . . 1795 
 Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and 
 
 Flinders 1798-9 
 
 First brick church built .... 1802 
 Flinders surveys the coast of South 
 
 Australia 
 
 Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled 
 Governor Bligh deposed by an insurrec- 
 tion for his tyranny .... 
 Superseded by Governor Macquarie . . 
 Expeditions into the interior by Went- 
 worth, Lawson, Bloxland, and Oxley, 
 &c. . . . 1813, 1817, and 1S23 
 
 Population 29, 7S3 (three-fourths convicts) 1821 
 Legislative council established . . 1829 
 Sturt's expedition into South Australia 1834 
 Sir T. Mitchell's expedition . . . 1835 
 First R. C. Bishop (Folding) arrives Sept. 1835 
 Port Phillip colonised . . Nov. 1835 
 
 First Church of England Bishop of 
 
 Australia (Broughton) arrives, June 1S36 
 Colony of South Australia founded, Dec. 1836 
 Melbourne founded . . . Nov. 1837 
 Suspension of transportation . . . 1S39 
 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm : esta- 
 blishment of " Home for Female Emi- 
 grants" 1841-6 
 
 1802 
 1804 
 
 1808 
 1809 
 
 "Very numerous insolvencies . . 1841-2 
 Incorporation of city of Sydney . . . 1842 
 Census (including Port Phillip) 114,700 
 
 males ; 74,800 females .... 1846 
 Great agitation against transportation 
 
 revived by Earl Grey . . . . 1849 
 Port Phillip erected into a separate pro- 
 vince as Victoria 1850 
 
 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, and 
 
 others 1851 
 
 Census— males, 106,000 ; females, 81.000 
 
 (exclusive of Victoria, SO, 000) .' .1851 
 Mints established . . . March, 1853 
 Transportation ceased .... 1853 
 
 GOVERNORS. 
 
 Captain Arthur Phillip .... 1788 
 
 Captain Hunter 1795 
 
 Captain Philip G. King .... 1800 
 Captain William Bligh . ... 1806 
 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and 
 
 successful administration) . . . 1809 
 General Sir Thomas Brisbane . . . 1821 
 Sir Richard Bourke .... 1831 
 
 Sir George Gippa 1838 
 
 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-geueral of 
 all the Australian colonies, with a cer- 
 tain jurisdiction over the lieutenant- 
 governors of Van Diemen's Land, Vic- 
 toria, and South and Western Australia 1846 
 Sir William T. Denison, now (1857) 
 
 governor-general 1854 
 
 See New South Wales, South Australia, 
 Victoria, and West Australia. 
 
 Act for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. cap. 22, May 14, 1829. 
 South Australia erected into a British province, 4 and 5 William IV.- cap. 95, Aug. 15, 
 
 1834. Act to continue the first mentioned act, 5 and 6 William IV. cap. 14, July 3, 
 
 1835. Act with similar purpose, 6 and 7 William IV. cap. 68, Aug. 13, 1S36. Act 
 for regulating the sale of waste lands in the Australian colonies, 5 and 6 Victoria, cap. 
 36, June 22, 1842. And act for the better government of the Australian colonies, 13 
 and 14 Victoria, cap. 59, Aug. 5, 1850. 
 
 AUSTRALIA, GOLD REGIONS of. The first discovery of gold in Australia was made 
 by Mr. Edward Hargraves, who, having a farm near Bathurst, went to California in 
 search of gold, and was struck with the similarity between the rocks and strata of 
 California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles west of 
 Bathurst. On his return home, he accordingly examined the soil, and after one 
 
AUS 
 
 57 
 
 AUS 
 
 or two months' digging, found a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He at once applied 
 to the colonial government for a reward, which he readily obtained, with an appoint- 
 ment as commissioner of crown lands. The excitement soon becoming intense 
 throughout the colony of New South "Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
 other places; and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly 
 attached to the Wellington mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, 
 discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among a heap of quartz. Three 
 blocks of quartz from two to three hundred weight, contained 112 lb. of pure gold, 
 valued at 4000?. These blocks were found on the Murroo Creek, fifty miles to the 
 north of Bathurst. The gold fever now became general, and the gold since found in 
 numerous other places, and often in large blocks, has been of enormous amount, vast 
 quantities (many tons' weight at a time) being shipped to England, the continent of 
 Europe, and to America. The " Victoria nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, 
 weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo diggings : and a 
 piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also found. From the gold fields of Mount 
 Alexander and Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to October 1852, there were 
 found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons, 10 cwt. of gold; and the gold exported up to 
 the same date represented 8,863,477?. sterling. In Nov. 1856 the "James Baines" 
 and " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued at 1,200,000?. 
 
 AUSTRIA. Anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hungary and 
 annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a.d. 1040. This was 
 after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, Austria being a part of 
 what was called Eastern France, its name in the German language (Esterreich, imply- 
 ing, Eastern Kingdom. The sovereigns of the house of Austria (see Hapsburg) have 
 been emperors of Germany for more than five hundred years: in 1804 they relin- 
 quished the title, and became hereditary emperors of Austria only. For the succes- 
 sion of the emperors, see Germany. 
 
 Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, seizes Aus- 
 tria from Bohemia, and makes him- 
 self arch-duke . • . . a.d. 1273 
 Revolt of Switzei'land from the house of 
 
 Austria, in the reign of Albert I. . 1307 
 Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds to 
 three crowns, — the imperial, and those 
 of Hungary and Bohemia ; his family 
 (of which the male line was extinct in 
 1740) still possess the empire . . . 1438 
 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the 
 marriage of Maximilian with the heir- 
 ess of that province .... 1477 
 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. 
 of Austria, with the heiress of Arragon 
 
 and Castile 1496 
 
 Charles V., reigning over Germany, 
 Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
 the Netherlands, and their dependen- 
 cies, abdicates and retires from the 
 world, leaving his German dominions 
 to bis brother Ferdinand, and Spain 
 and the Netherlands to his son Philip 
 
 II. — See Spain 1557 
 
 The Protestant princes of Germany, 
 being opposed by the house of Austria, 
 call in the aid of Gustavus Adolphus 
 of Sweden, and this leads to the treaty 
 
 of Westphalia 1648 
 
 Leopold I. reigns. — See Germany . . 165S 
 Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign 
 in the male line, of the house of Haps- 
 burg ... .... 1740 
 
 Accession of Francis, Duke of Lorraine, 
 who marries the celebrated queen of 
 Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of 
 the deceased emperor, Charles VI. . 1745 
 
 Reign of Joseph II 1765 
 
 Religious toleration granted . . . 1776 
 The emperor controls the pope . . . 1782 
 
 Reign of Leopold II 1790 
 
 Reign of Francis II 1792 
 
 Austria becomes a distinct empire, and 
 Francis II. of Germany takes the title 
 of I. of Austria . . . Aug. 9, 1804 
 The emperor issues his declaration 
 
 against France . . . Aug. 5, 1805 
 
 Napoleon, after many victories, enters 
 
 Vienna Nov. 14, 1805 
 
 Vienna evacuated by the French, Jan. 12, 1806 
 The formal renouncement of the empire 
 
 Aug. 6, 1806 
 The French again take Vienna . May 13, 1809 
 But restore it at the peace . Oct. 24, 1S09 
 Napoleon marries the arch-duchess 
 Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 
 emperor .... April 1, 1S10 
 Congress at Vienna . . . Oct. 2, 1814 
 Treaty of Vienna . . . Feb. 25, 1815 
 Death of Francis I., and accession of 
 
 Ferdinand .... March 2, 1835 
 New treaty of commerce with England 
 
 signed July 3, 1838 
 
 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 
 dour at Milan . . . Sept. 6, 1S3S 
 He abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
 Francis- Joseph, the present emperor, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1S4S 
 Constitution of March 4, 1S49, abolished, 
 
 Dec. 31, 1851 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor 
 
 by Libenyi .... Feb. 18, 1853 
 Commercial Treaty with Prussia, Feb. 19, 1853 
 Marriage of the emperor to Elizabeth, 
 daughter of Maximilian, Duke in 
 
 Bavaria April 24, 1854 
 
 Austrians enter Principalities . Sept. 1854 
 Treaty of Alliance with England and 
 France relative to Eastern question, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1854 
 Great reduction of the army . June 24, 1855 
 Important concordat with Rome, Aug. IS, 1S55 
 (See also Germany, Vienna, &c.) 
 
 The affairs of Austria being so interwoven with those of the empire of Germany, it 
 has been deemed better to continue the annals of Austria, under the general head of 
 Germany, where they will be found. The emperor of Germany surrendered the 
 
AUT 
 
 58 
 
 AZO 
 
 dignity of the empire on Aug. 11, 1S04; and again renounced the title by a formal 
 and public declaration, in which he assumed the rank of emperor of Austria only, 
 Aug. 6, 1806 : and the German princes, seceding from the Germanic empire, placed 
 themselves under the protection of Napoleon I. of France. 
 
 Emperors of Austria. 
 
 [From the year 1S04, when the Emperor of 
 
 Germany became Emperor of AvMria only.] 
 
 1804. Francis 1. (late Francis II. of German y), 
 
 emperor of Austria, only, Aug. 11, 
 
 1804 ; died March 2, 1835. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; resigned 
 in favour of his nephew, Dec. 2, 
 184S. 
 
 1848. Francis-Joseph, Dec. 2, 1848, the pre- 
 sent (1857) emperor of Austria. 
 
 Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Francis ceased 
 to be emperor of Germany, as mentioned above, and became hereditary emperor of 
 Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
 Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was again declared hereditary head of 
 that body. See Germany. 
 
 AUTHORS. For the laws securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary property. 
 
 AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. 
 This is called an act of faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first 
 practice in a.d. 1203, more than 100,000 victims have been sacrificed by the sentence 
 of the inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last 
 executions of this kind was at Goa, where twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
 1717. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain.- — Ashe. 
 
 AUTOMATON FIGURES, or ANDROIDES. They are made to perform human actions, 
 and are of early invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar 
 Bacon made a brazen head that was said to speak, a.d. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent 
 thirty years in making another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, 
 a lady inside, were made by Camus, for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and 
 figures moved naturally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson made an artificial 
 duck, which performed every function of a real one, even an imperfect digestion, eating, 
 drinking, and quacking. Vaucanson also made a flute-player, 1738. The writing 
 automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. 
 The automaton chess-player was exhibited the same year, and "the invisible girl," 1800. 
 
 " A VE MARIA ! " The salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin.— Luke i. 26, 27, 28. 
 A formula of devotion in the Roman Church, ordered by pope John XXII. in the 
 fourteenth century. — Butler. This prayer to the Virgin is repeated in Roman Catholic 
 countries daily at the ringing of the matin and the vesper bell. — Ashe. It can be 
 traced no higher than the beginning of the fifteenth century, when Vincentius Ferrerius 
 used it before his discourses. — Bingham. 
 
 AVIGNON. Ceded by Philip III. of France to the pope in 1273. The papal seat was 
 removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the 
 French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the sup- 
 pression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assembly, 
 1791. Horrible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the 
 Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 
 
 AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and various others 
 of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by 
 Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and 
 sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many of these are represented in the Egyptian monuments. 
 
 AYDE, or AIDE. The tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. 
 In France and England an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest son, and was 
 demanded by Philip the Fair, in 1313. This aide being due upon the birth of a 
 prince, it was ordained by the statute of Westminster, in the reign of Edward I., that, 
 for the ease of the subject, it should not be levied until he was fifteen years of age. 
 In England, Normandy, and elsewhere, an aide was exacted for the marriage of the 
 king's eldest daughter ; but by the above statute it could not be demanded, in this 
 country, until her seventh year. In feudal tenures, there was an aide for ransoming 
 the chief lord ; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of 
 Germany, an aide was enforced of 20s. upon every knight's fee, to redeem him. 
 
 AZOFF, SEA of, the Palus Msootis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
 kale - (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by 
 Russian territory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal places. An expedition 
 
AZO 59 BAB 
 
 composed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by Sir G. Brown, landed 
 at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the foi-tificationa. 
 On the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikald, which also offered no resistance. On 
 the same evening the allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff, and in a few days completed 
 their occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An 
 immense amount of stores were destroyed by the Russians, to prevent them falling 
 into the hands of the allies. 
 
 AZORES, or WESTERN" ISLES. Supposed to be the site of the ancient Atlantis. They 
 were discovered by John Vanderberg, a.d. 1439; and were settled by the Portuguese, 
 in 1448. Martin Bekem found one of them covered with beech-trees, and he called it 
 therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it 
 Ftores ; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. A violent 
 concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating 
 earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's 
 destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near 
 St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called 
 Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 
 
 B. 
 
 BAALBEC, Heliopolis, both which mean " City of the Sun." . An ancient city of Syria, 
 of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1757), and others. Its 
 origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Antoninus Pius is stated to have 
 built a magnificent temple of Jupiter here. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 
 a.d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 
 
 BABEL, the TOWER of. Built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. The temple of Belus, 
 originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world ; it had lofty 
 spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In 
 the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the 
 Sacred Scriptures), who was deified after death. — Blair. 
 
 BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY. Formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for 
 which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Babington was a 
 gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of his own persuasion (the 
 Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and deliver Mary. He seems 
 to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that 
 Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband, 1586. 
 
 BABYLON, EMPIRE of. Founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of Holy Writ, 
 the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C. — Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized 
 on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the 
 two sovereignties, 2059 B.C. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years; 
 according to Justin, 1300 years; according to Herodotus 500 or 600 years. Of these 
 opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the 
 empire by Ninus, B.C. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was 
 dethroned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Babylonian, 
 and Median kingdoms, 820 B.C. See Assyria. 
 
 The tower of Babel built . .B.C. 2247 
 
 The kingdom of Babylon begins . . 2245 
 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 
 
 Nineveh 2245 
 
 The astronomical observations are begun 
 at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — Blair ; 
 
 Lmglet 2234 
 
 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- 
 pire over the neighbouring states, 
 defeats the Babylonians, and makes 
 them tributary. — Usher . . .2124 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, 
 and names his capital after himself, 
 
 Nineveh. — Lenglet 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus. . . . 2059 
 The Assyrian Empire ends . . . 820 
 
 Belesis governs in Babylon . . . 766 
 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon . . . 680 
 Nabopolasser assumes the title of king . 625 
 [This is the Nebuchodonosor of Tobit.J 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar makes his first expedi- 
 tion into Syria . . . . b.c. 606 
 
 He invades Judea. — Blair . . . 605 
 
 He returns to Babylon with the spoils 
 of Jerusalem. — Blair; Lenglet . . 604 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's dream of 
 the golden-headed image. — Daniel ii. . 602 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar goes a third tim e against 
 Jerusalem, takes it, and destroys the 
 temple. — Blair ; Usher . . 5S9 to 5S7 
 
 The golden image set up, and Shadrach, 
 Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into 
 the furnace for refusing to worship it. 
 — Daniel iii 570 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's second 
 dream, and Nebuchadnezzar is driven 
 from among men — Daniel iv. . . . 560 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar recovers his reason and 
 his throne 562 
 
 He dies about a year after . . . . 561 
 
BAB 
 
 80 
 
 BAD 
 
 BABYLON, EMPIRE of, continued. 
 
 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- 
 sians, under Cyrus . . . B.C. 538 
 
 Daniel thrown into the lions' den. — 
 Daniel vi 537 
 
 [The history of Susannah, as recorded 
 in the Apocrypha, may also be placed 
 about this time.] 
 
 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world ; and in later 
 times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its greatness was so 
 reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate 
 wilderness. — The laborious researches of Mr. Layard, Col. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and 
 others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country within the 
 last seven years, have caused very much attention to be given to the history of 
 Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have 
 been translated, principally by Col. Rawlinson, and published in the Journal of the 
 Royai Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855 the Colonel returned once more to 
 England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, &c, which are now in the 
 British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, May 30, 
 1851, and June 15, 1855. — The Hanging Gardens are described as having been of a 
 square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as high as the walls of 
 the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was 
 sustained by vast arches raised on other arches; and on the top were flat stones 
 closely cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of 
 lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, 
 and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were five of these gardens, each 
 containing about four English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. — 
 Strabo ; Diodorus. 
 
 BACCHANALIA. Games celebrated in honour of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and 
 were brought into Greece by Melampos, and were there called Dionysia, about 1415 
 B.C. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under the name of Bacchanalia. 
 The priests of the drunken revelries and feasts of Bacchus were called Bacchanals, 
 and were crowned with ivy and sprigs of vine, and carried in their hands staffs 
 wreathed with the same emblems. 
 
 BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men; and 
 men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid 
 hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various 
 marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After twenty-five years of age, a tax was 
 laid upon bachelors in England, V21. 10s. for a duke, and for a common person, one 
 shilling, 7 Will. III., 1695. Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male 
 and female servants, in 1785. 
 
 BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly 
 one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 B.C. It is stated by some to have 
 been invented in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. — Henry. 
 
 BADAJOS. SIEGE of. This important barrier fortress had surrendered to the French, 
 March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wellington on March 16, 
 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6 following. This victory obliged the French, 
 to commence a precipitate retreat from Portugal. 
 
 BADEN, HOUSE of. The house of Baden descended from Herman, son of Berthold I., 
 duke of Zahringen, who died a.d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches 
 of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden-Baden 
 and Baden-Dourlach. 
 
 Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a 
 great general, born 1655, died 1707. 
 
 Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, 
 born 1679, died 1746, succeeded by his son, 
 
 Charles Frederic, niargrave, afterwards grand 
 duke of Baden-Dourlach, born 17:28, who 
 joined to his dominions Baden-Baden in 
 1771, which were also increased by the 
 favour of Napoleon : he died in 1811, suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, 
 
 Charles Louis Frederic, who died without 
 
 issue in ISIS : succeeded by his uncle, 
 Louis William, who also died without issue 
 
 in 1830 : succeeded by his brother, 
 Leopold, who died in 1852 : succeeded by his 
 
 second son (the first being imbecile), 
 Frederic, as regent to Sept. 5, 1856, when 
 
 he was declared grand duke, and still 
 
 remains so (1S57). 
 
 BADEN, TREATY of. Between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to 
 the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden, formerly a margraviate, was erected into a 
 grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confederation, August 13, 1806. Its tern- 
 
BAF 61 BAL 
 
 torial acquisitions by its alliances with France were guaranteed by the congress at 
 Vienna, in 1815. 
 BAFFIN'S-BAY. Discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature 
 and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Boss and 
 Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered 
 Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name. These voyagers 
 returned home in 1818. See article North- West Passage. 
 
 BAGDAD. Built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a.d. 762. 
 
 Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been 
 often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Turks. — Blair. 
 
 BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scot- 
 land ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece of Grecian sculpture 
 of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a bagpiper dressed like a 
 modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51. 
 
 BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador 
 
 was seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th of October, 1492. The 
 
 Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667, when Captain Seyle was driven 
 among them on his voyage to Carolina. Seized for the crown of England, 1718 when 
 the pirates who inhabited them surrendered to Captain Rogers. 
 
 BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies were 
 bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. the power of 
 bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away, 1274. Bail was 
 further regulated, 23 Henry VI., 2 Philip and Mary, and in later reigns. Bail is 
 now accepted in all cases, those of felony excepted ; and in cases wherein a magistrate 
 refuses bail, it may be granted by a j udge. 
 
 BAILIFFS, or SHERIFFS. Said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-reve 
 prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in 
 England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 
 1308 ; and the name was changed to sheriff, 1548. There are still some places 
 where the chief magistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. The 
 term Bum- Bailiff is, a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter 
 into bonds of security for his good behaviour. — Blackstone. 
 
 BAIZE. This species of coarse woollen manufacture was brought into England by some 
 Fleming or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, in the reign of 
 Charles II., about the year 1660. It has flourished in this quarter ever since. These 
 emigrants had peculiar privileges granted them by act of parliament, 12 Charles II. 
 The trade is under the control of a corporation called the governors of the Dutch 
 Baize-hall, who examine the cloth previous to sale. — Anderson. 
 
 BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from 
 Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the Allies advanced upon this place 
 Sept. 26, 1854. On Oct. 25, following, about 12,000 Russians, commanded by Gen! 
 Liprandi, attacked and took some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been entrusted 
 to about 250 Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whom they were compelled 
 to retire, mainly through the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by Brigadier Scarlett 
 under the orders of Lord Lucan. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of 
 Lord Raglan's order, Lord Lucan ordered Lord Cardigan with the light cavalry, to 
 charge the Russian army, which had re-formed on its own ground with its artillery in 
 front. This order was most gallantly obeyed. Great havoc was made on the enemy, 
 but of 607 British horsemen, only 198 returned. The British had altogether 9' 
 officers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men put hors cle combat. The Russians had 550 
 
 men killed, and 6 officers (among whom was one general), and 190 men wounded. 
 
 A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol on the night of March 22, 1855, led to a 
 desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the 
 loss of 2000 men killed and wounded, the Allies losing about 600 — The Electric Tele- 
 graph between London and Balaklava was completed in April, 1855, and com- 
 munications were then received by the British Government. — A Railway between 
 Balaklava and the trenches was completed, June, 1855. 
 
 BALANCE of POWER: to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control 
 ambition ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian politicians of the 
 fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France. — Robertson. By the 
 treaty of Munster, the principle was first recognised by treaty, Oct. 24, 1648. 
 
BAL 62 BAL 
 
 BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean. Called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
 the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging : they include 
 Majorca and Minorca, with the small isle of Cabrera. These islands have been 
 severally taken and retaken at various times. See Minorca. 
 
 BALKAN, PASSAGE of the. This adventurous experiment was deemed impracticable 
 by a hostile army, until effected by the Russian army under Diebitsch, whose march 
 through the Balkan mountains is a memorable achievement of the late great Russian 
 arid Turkish war : the passage was completed July 26, 1829. An armistice was the 
 consequence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14 following. 
 
 BALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons. — Turner. 
 Adhelme, who died a.d. 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into 
 England. "The harp was sent round, and those might sing who could." — Bede. 
 Alfred sung ballads. — Malmesbwy. Canute composed one. — Turner. Minstrels were 
 protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made 
 punishable among rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 
 
 BALLADS, National. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you make the 
 l aws ." — Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea ballads of Dibdin inspired many a brave 
 defender of his country in the late war; he died Jan. 20, 1833. 
 
 BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at 
 the interview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, in the field of the 
 Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Guicciardini. In the next century they reached the summit 
 of their glory, in the splendid pomps at the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and 
 their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. 
 
 BALLOON. Galieu of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint 
 as to hydrogen in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfier, 
 in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Pilatre Desrozier 
 and M. Romain perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the 
 balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At the battle of Fleurus, the French made 
 use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by 
 telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4000 feet, 
 and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the 
 height of 23,000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at 
 night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took fire, and she was preci- 
 pitated to the ground and killed, July 6, 1819. An Italian aeronaut ascended from 
 Copenhagen, in Denmark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subsequently found on the 
 sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to pieces. 
 
 BALLOONS in ENGLAND, &c. The first attempt to navigate the atmosphere in 
 England in a balloon was by Signor Lunardi, who ascended from Moorfields, Sept. 
 15, 1784. Blanchard and Jeffries passed from Dover to Calais, in 1785. Mr. Arnold 
 went up from St. George's-fields, and fell into the Thames ; and major Money 
 ascended from Norwich, and fell into the North Sea, but was saved by a revenue 
 cutter. The first ascent from Ireland was from Ranelagh gardens, Dublin, in 1785. 
 Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in England, fell into the sea near 
 Holyhead, but was taken up Oct. 9, 1812. Sadler, jun., was killed, falling from a 
 balloon, in 1825. Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall ; the parachute, in its 
 descent from the balloon, collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, July 24, 
 1837. Green and others made many ascents in the vicinity of London, in 1852. — 
 The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and which had for some time 
 previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from 
 Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three 
 individuals in the car, and after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at 
 Weiiburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. 
 
 BALLOONS. EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from 
 London, on a horse attached to a balloon, in May, 1828 ; though few persons seem to 
 be aware that the experiment was made. He performed a feat of this kind, however, 
 from Vauxhall-gardens, in July 1850; his "steed "being a very diminutive pony. 
 To M. Poiteviu, of Paris, appears to belong the " honour " of this species of aerosta- 
 tion : he ascended on a horse, in the vicinity of that capital, about the time just 
 mentioned. Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent from the Hippodrome of 
 Vincennes, near Bordeaux, Sept. 8, 1850. On descending, and detaching the animal 
 from the balloon, the people who held its ropes, from some misconception, prema- 
 
BAL 63 BAN 
 
 turely let them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne in the air before 
 he was quite ready to resume his voyage. He was discovered next morning dashed 
 to pieces in a field a mile from where the balloon was found. The ascent of Madame 
 Poiteviu from Cremorne gardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull " (a feat she 
 had often performed in France), and several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
 concerned before the police courts on a charge of cruelty to animals, and put an 
 end to experiments that outraged public feeliug, Aug. 1852. 
 
 BALLINAHINCH, BATTLE of. A sanguinary engagement on the estate of the earl 
 of Moira, afterwards marquess of Hastings, between a large body of the insurgent 
 Irish and the British troops, June 13, 1798. In this battle a large part of the town 
 was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. 
 
 BALLOT. Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled " The 
 Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was published 
 in the " State Tracts," 1693. The ballot box was used in a political club which met 
 in 1659 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. It was proposed to be used in the 
 election of members of parliament in a pamphlet published in 1705. The ballot has 
 been an open question in Whig Governments since 1835. It became part of the 
 electorial law of Victoria, Australia, in 1856.— Secret voting existed in the chamber of 
 deputies in France from 1S40 to 1845 ; and was employed also after the coup 
 d' etat in 1851. — It is adopted in many of the United States of America. 
 
 BALMORAL CASTLE, in Aberdeenshire ; visited by her Majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850; 
 and purchased by her in 1851. In 1854 the new building, in the Scotch baronial 
 style, was commenced, from designs by Mr. W. Smith of Aberdeen. The large tower 
 will be 100 feet high. 
 
 BALTIC EXPEDITION against DENMARK. This was also called the Copenhagen 
 expedition, the Danish expedition, &c. There were two : in the first expedition 
 under lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight 
 sail of the Danish fleet were taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801. See Armed 
 Neutrality. In the second expedition under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 
 eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty-one brigs and gun-boats surren- 
 dered to the British, July 26, 1807. 
 
 BALTIC EXPEDITION against RUSSIA. The British fleet sailed from Spithead in 
 presence of the Queen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, March 11, 1854. 
 It consisted of a crowd of steam-ships of the line, of which, five were each of 120 
 guns and upwards, the whole under the command of vice-admiral sir Charles 
 Napier, whose flag floated on board the Duke of Wellington, of 131 guns. The 
 fleet arrived in Wingo Sound, March 15, and in the Baltic, March 20, following. 
 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the Baltic in English ships of war, in 
 presence of the emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland 
 Islands, and surrender of the garrison, took place Aug. 16. See Bomarsund. The 
 English and French fleets, the latter having joined June 14, commenced their return 
 homeward to winter, Oct. 15, 1854. — The second expedition (of which the advanced 
 or flying squadron sailed March 20), left the Downs, April 9, 1855. In July it 
 consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), commanded by admiral R. S. Dundas and 
 16 French ships (408 guns), under Admiral Pernand. On July 21, three vessels 
 silenced the Russian batteries at Hogland island. The fleet proceeded towards 
 Cronstadt. Many infernal machines * were discovered. Sveaborg was attacked Aug. 
 9. See Sveaborg. Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 
 
 BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On Sept. 
 12, 1814, the British army under Gen. Ross, advanced against this place, who was 
 killed in a skirmish. The command was assumed by Col. Brooke, who attacked and 
 routed the American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. 
 The projected attack on the town was, however, abandoned. — Alison. 
 
 BAND of GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. A court retinue instituted by Henry VIIL, 
 1509. The Earl of Essex was appointed their first captain. — Salmon. This retinue 
 now bears the more suitable name of the "Hon. Corps of Gentlemen-at-arms," by 
 an order of his majesty William IV., dated March 17, 1834. — Capt. Curling. 
 
 * These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in diameter 1 , and 20 inches long. Each contained 
 9 or 10 lbs. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. Little damage was done by them. 
 They were said, to be the invention of Jacobi. 
 
BAN 64 BAN 
 
 BANGALORE, SIEGE of. Commenced by the British under lord Cornwallis, March 6, 
 and the town taken by storm, March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo 
 in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 
 
 BANGOR. Here was one of the earliest monastic institutions in Britain, and its monks 
 were mercilessly murdered by the Danes ; its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its 
 founder is unknown ; the church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, anno 
 516. Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral; but a more cruel ravager than 
 he, the bishop Bulkely, alienated many of the lands, and even sold the bells of the 
 church, 1553. The see is valued in the king's books at 1S11. 16s. 4d. An order 
 in council directing that the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph be united on the next 
 vacancy in either, was issued, Oct. 1 838 ; but this order was rescinded by the act 
 10 Vict., 1846. See St. Asaph. 
 
 BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, was occasioned by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, 
 preaching a sermon before George I., March 31, 1717, from the text, "My kingdom is 
 not of this world," in which he descanted on the spiritual nature of the kingdom of 
 Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indignation of almost all the clergy. 
 
 BANK. The first established was in Italy, a.d. 808, by the Lombard Jews of whom 
 some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name 
 bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the 
 exchange of money. The Mint in the Tower of London was anciently the deposi- 
 tory for merchants' cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon the money and 
 destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some 
 other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their appi'entices 
 frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge 
 it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for 
 their own valuable wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. 
 
 Bank of Venice formed . . .a.d. 1157 Bank of Scotland . . . a.d. 1C95 
 
 Bank of Geneva 1345 
 
 Bank of Barcelona 1401 
 
 Bank of Genoa 1407 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam .... 1607 
 
 Bank of Hamburg 1619 
 
 Bank of Rotterdam 1635 
 
 Bank of Stockholm 168S 
 
 Bank of England 1694 
 
 Bank of Copenhagen .... 1736 
 
 Bank of Berlin 1765 
 
 Caisse d'Escompte, France . . . 1776 
 
 Bank of Ireland 1783 
 
 Bank of St. Petersburg . . . .1786 
 
 In the East Indies 1787 
 
 And one in America .... 1791 
 Branch Banks in these realms . . . 1823 
 
 BANK of ENGLAND. (See preceding article.) Originally projected by a merchant 
 named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in consideration of 
 1,200,000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to government. The capital 
 has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the 
 discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at eight different 
 intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter.* When first 
 established, the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 
 1745, they were under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank 
 post-bills were issued 1754; small notes were issued 1759; cash payments were dis- 
 continued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and two pounds were put into circu- 
 lation. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798; and afterwards Spanish dollars, 
 with the head of Geox-ge III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV, were made cur- 
 rent. Cash payments were resumed partially, September 22, 1817, and the restriction 
 had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years, the financial measures of the 
 crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reservoir of wealth. The 
 average amount of the Bank of England notes in circulation is as follows : — 
 
 In 171S (earliest account) . . £1,829,930 ! In 1830 £20,620,000 
 
 1778 7,030,6SO 
 
 1790 10,217,000 
 
 1800 15,450,000 
 
 1810 23,904,000 
 
 1815 26,803,520 
 
 1820 27,174,000 
 
 1835 18,215,220 
 
 1840 17,231,000 
 
 1845, Jan. 1 . 19,262,827 
 
 1850, Jan. 1 19,776,814 
 
 1855, Jan. 1 19,616,627 
 
 1856 20,058,000 
 
 Dec. 27, 1856. — Average assets— Securities . . . . £29,484,000 \ «,„ 5g9 000 
 Bullion . . . . 10,105,000)- 
 Liabilities 36,329,000 
 
 £3,260,000 
 
 * By 3 & 4 Will. 4 (1833), the charter was continued till one year's notice after Aug. 1, 1S55 ; but power 
 was reserved to determine the charter in 1844. In that year an act was passed, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 32, effect- 
 ing important changes in the management of the bank, but not affecting the duration of the charter. 
 
BAN 65 BAN 
 
 At some periods the note circulation has largely exceeded these amounts. The 
 amount of gold and silver coin and bullion in the bank fluctuates considerably, and 
 was of late years as low as twelve, and as high as seventeen millious, until 1852, 
 when the increase of gold, consequent chiefly on the discovery of the gold fields of 
 Australia, almost suddenly became immense, and the gold bullion in the bank 
 amounted, on July 10, in that year, to 21,845,390/!. On Jan. 1, 1853, the amount was 
 20,527,662/. The returns of the bank are now (pursuant to the act 7 and 8 Vict., 
 cap. 32) made weekly, To secure the credit of the bank it was enacted, " that no 
 other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne, 1707. 
 There are branch banks of the Bank of England in the chief towns of the kingdom : 
 as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Gloucester, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, 
 Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c, all formed since 1828. A branch bank was opened 
 in Burlington-gardens, Oct. 1, 1856. See Funds. 
 
 BANK op IRELAND. Established by act of parliament and opened at Mary's-abbey, 
 Dublin, June 25, 1783. The business was removed to the late houses of parliament, 
 in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have been 
 formed in most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. 
 
 BANK of SCOTLAND. The old bank was set up in 1 695, the year after the establishment 
 of the Bank of England, and was the second institution of the kind in these kingdoms. 
 The Royal bank was instituted in 1727; the Commercial bank in 1810; National bank, 
 1825. The first stone of the present Bank of Scotland was laid June 3, 1801. 
 
 BANK OF SAVINGS. See Savings' Banks. 
 
 BANKS, JOINT STOCK. A vast number of banks under this denomination have been 
 established in England since the act of the 7 Geo. IV., 1826; they have been instituted 
 in almost every large town in the kingdom. In 1840, the amount of paper currency 
 issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 4,138,618/.; the amount in circulation by 
 private banks, same year, was 6,973,613/. — the total amount exceeding eleven millions. 
 In Ireland many similar banks have been instituted, the first being the Hibernian 
 bank, established by a special act in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, 
 on Oct. 1, 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800/.; in Scotland, 4,280,000/.; and in Ireland, 
 6,785,000/.; total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000/.; and with the 
 Bank of England, above 39,000,000/. See British Bank. 
 
 BANKRUPTS in ENGLAND. The first law enacted regarding them was 35 Henry 
 VIII. 1543; again, 3 Eliz. 1560; 1 James I., 1602; again, 1706; and more recently. 
 It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested, except in 
 going to, or coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 13, 1780. 
 The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate, because he had lost 
 five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. In 1812 it was enacted that 
 members of the House of Commons becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
 in full, should vacate their seats. See next article. 
 
 NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 
 1700 38 
 
 1725 416 
 
 1750 432 
 
 1S00 .... 1339 I 1830 .... 1467 
 
 1S10 2000 1840 1308 
 
 1S20 . . . .1358 1845 England . . 1028 
 
 1775 520 1S25 2683 | 1850 Ditto . 
 
 According to a return to parliament made at the close of February, 1826, there had 
 become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every 
 succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
 and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble 
 speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY COURT. Act empowering his majesty to erect and establish a court 
 of judicature to be called the Court of Bankruptcy, and to appoint a judge thereto, 
 2 Will. IV., cap. 56, passed Oct. 20, 1831. Bankruptcy act, Ireland, consolidating all 
 the statutes relating to bankruptcy, and founding a complete system of administering 
 bankrupts' estates, 6 "Will. IV., cap. 14, passed May 20, 1836. An important act in 
 relation to the Bankrupt court for England and Wales, was passed (12 & 13 Vict., 
 cap. 106) Aug. 1, 1849 ; it repeals several previous acts; defines the jurisdiction of 
 the court ; prescribes the duties of the official assignee, accountant, and master; makes 
 various provisions ; regulates fees ; and enumerates the traders and others that shall 
 
BAN 66 BAR 
 
 be deemed bankrupts and liable to become so. The laws relating to Bankrupts were 
 further amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 119, passed August 11, 1854. — Statutes at Large. 
 
 BANNER. Almost every nation had its banner to distinguish it in battle, and under 
 which it fought, inspired with superstitious confidence of success. The standard of 
 Constantine bore the inscription In hoc signo vinces — "In this sign thou shalt conquer," 
 under the figure of the cross. — See Cross. The banner was early in use in England ; 
 the famous magical banner of the Danes was taken by Alfred, a.d. 879. — Spelman. 
 St. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oriflamme, were the 
 standards of France, about 1100. See Auriflamma, Standards, &c. 
 BANNERET. Some trace the origin of bannerets to France, others to Biitanny, and 
 more to England. These last attribute the institution of this order to Conan, 
 lieutenant of Maximus, who commanded the Roman legions in England, a.d. 383. 
 Banneret is an almost obsolete title of nobility, conferred by the king himself, under 
 the royal standard. The knights led their vassals to battle under their own banner, 
 but knight -bachelors were commanded by a superior. The dignity lies between 
 baron and knight. — Beatson. Created in England, 1360 ; renewed by Henry VII., 
 1485. It was disused from the reign of Charles I., but was revived by George III. in 
 the person of Sir William Erskine in 1764. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE of. Between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. 
 of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Edward of 
 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the 
 attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and 
 were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, 
 and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. 
 
 BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of anything, and hence 
 arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. Matrimonial 
 banns are said to have been introduced into the C-allican Church, about a.d. 1210; 
 and are proclaimed in the Church of England to this day. 
 
 BANTAM. The celebrated rich British factory here was first established by captain 
 Lancaster in 1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the 
 Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the British in 1811, but was restored to the 
 Dutch at the peace in 1814. It was not, in fact, worth retaining ; the harbour is now 
 choked up and inaccessible to vessels of burden. 
 
 BANTRY BAY. A French fleet, with succours of arms, ammunition, and money, to the 
 adherents of James II., attacked in this bay by admiral Herbert, May 1689. A French 
 squadron of seven sail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen 
 transports, anchored here for a few days, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay 
 squadron under admiral Mitchell was in Dec. 1801, and Jan. 1802. Twenty-two of the 
 mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at Portsmouth, when seventeen were 
 condemned to death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others were sentenced to 
 receive each 200 lashes : the executions took place on board the Majestic, Centaur, 
 Formidable, Temeraire, aud L'Aclnlle, Jan. 8 to 18, 1802. 
 
 BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ, and practised by all sects 
 professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John the forerunner of Our Saviour, is 
 eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly baptised with a spiritual 
 intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptised by John, a.d. 30. 
 Originally the people were baptised in rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, a.d. 
 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places specially to baptise in, which in the 
 eastern countries was done by dipping the person all over. In the western and colder 
 parts, they use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistry belonging to it ; 
 our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 
 
 BAPTISTS, or ANABAPTISTS. A sect distinguished from other Christians by their 
 opinions respecting (1) the proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : the 
 former, they affirm to be those who are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter, 
 total immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists. They have suffered much 
 persecution. The first Baptist church formed in London was in 1608. Rhode Island, 
 America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. See Anabatpists. 
 
 BARBADOES. The first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation 
 gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, with other Carribee 
 islands, settled by charter granted to James, earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I., 1627. 
 
BAR 67 BAR 
 
 Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations ; in a dreadful hurricane 
 in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with 
 all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to anothei', 
 and covering everything in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; 
 and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands 
 of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 1831. Nearly 17,000 
 persons died of cholera here in 1854. 
 
 BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century B.C. In England, 
 from the earliest time. "No person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
 occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of teeth," 
 32 Henry VIIL, 1540. Barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; 
 and the barber's pole afterwards used by them was a burlesque imitation of the former 
 sign. The pole is now confined to humbler barbers' shops. 
 
 BARBER-SURGEONS. Anciently the business of a surgeon was united to that of barber, 
 and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company was formed under this name 
 in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 1 Edw. IV., 1461. This union 
 of professions was dissolved by a statute of Henry VIIL 
 
 BARCLAY, CAPTAIN. His wager, to walk 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours, each 
 mile within each hour, and upon which hundreds of thousands of pounds depended, 
 was accomplished July 10, 1809. This feat occupied, without intermission, every 
 hour (less eight) of forty two days and nights. — A wager was won by a young lady, 
 at Newmarket, who had undertaken to ride 1000 miles in 1000 hours, which she per- 
 formed in little more than two-thirds of the time, May 3, 1758. — See Walking. 
 
 BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. 
 Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
 among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The Druids among the English were 
 philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. They were the recorders 
 of heroic actions in Ireland and Scotland, almost down to our own times. Ossian 
 nourished in the third century, Merlin in the fifth. The former speaks of a prince 
 who kept a hundred bards. Irish ballads are the chief foundations of the ancient 
 history of Ireland. See Ballads. 
 
 BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell having the power of the three kingdoms in 
 his hands, and not yet thinking it a proper time to usurp the whole authority of the 
 state, summoned about 120 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who, with 
 six from Scotland, and five from freland, met, and assumed the name of parliament. 
 One of them, a leather-seller, who, according to these fanatical times, was called 
 " Praise-God Barebones," as being a great haranguer and frequent in prayer, gave to 
 the assembly the derisive name of the " Barebones' Parliament." But soon finding 
 the weight of government too great for their shoulders, they resigned their power, 
 upon which Cromwell became invested with the supreme management of public 
 affairs, 1653. — Charles Home. 
 
 BARFLEUR. At this port "William the Conqueror equipped the fleet by which he 
 conquered England, 1066. Near it, prince William, son of Henry I., in his passage 
 from Normandy, was shipwrecked, 1120.* Barfleur was taken and destroyed by the 
 English in the same campaign in which they fought and won the battle of Crecy, a.d. 
 1346. Destruction of the French navy near the cape by admiral Russell, after the 
 victory of La Hogue, in 1692. 
 
 BARING ISLAND, discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and so named by him after 
 sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty, in 1849. 
 
 BARK. See Jesuits' Bark. 
 
 BARNET, BATTLE of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Edward IV. 
 gained a decisive and memorable victory over the Earl of Warwick, Easter-day, 
 April 14, 1471. The earl of Warwick, his brother the marquis of Montacute, and ten 
 thousand of his army were slain. At the moment Warwick fell he was leading a 
 chosen body of troops into the thickest of the slaughter, and his body was covered 
 
 * In this shipwreck perished his legitimate son, William, Duke of Normandy ; the prince's newly- 
 married bride, Matilda, daughter of Fulke, earl of Anjou ; the king's natural son, Richard; his niece, 
 Lucia ; the earl of Chester, and the flower of the nobility, with one hundred and forty officers and 
 soldiers, and fifty sailors, most of whom were intoxicated, which was the occasion of their running 
 upon the rocks near Barfleur. This lamentable catastrophe had such an effect upon Henry, that he 
 was never seen afterwards to smile. — Henault; Hume. 
 
 f2 
 
BAR 68 BAR 
 
 with wounds. — Goldsmith. A column commemorative of this battle has been erected 
 at the meeting of the St. Alban's and Hatfield roads. — Brooks. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction 
 existed, and that water did not rise in a pump, owing to nature's abhorrence of a 
 vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, 
 in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. Wheel barometers were contrived 
 in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695; marine in 1700. — The Aneroid barometer, from 
 o, no, and vrtpos, watery, no liquid being employed in its construction; the atmospheric 
 pressure being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention is variously attributed to 
 Conte\ in 1798, and Vidi, about 1844. It excited much attention in 1848-9. 
 
 BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in England was 
 Vavasour, which, by the Saxons, was changed into Thane, and by the Normans into 
 Baron. Many of this rank are named in the history of Euglaud, and undoubtedly 
 had assisted in, or had been summoned to parliament; but such is the deficiency 
 of public records, that the first precept to be found is of no higher date than the 
 49 Henry III., 1265. The first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John 
 de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first 
 summoned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and compelled him 
 to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of our forests, at Runny- 
 mede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on Ms 
 restoration : they attended parliament in complete armour in the reign of Henry III. 
 
 BARONETS. The first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, 
 instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619. The 
 rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise to this order, it having been required of 
 a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer as much as would maintain 
 "thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a day, in the province of Ulster in Ireland." 
 It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, and have a clear 
 estate of 1000^. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose suc- 
 cessor is therefore styled Primus Baronettorum Anglioz), May 22, 1611. The first 
 Irish baronet was sir Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 
 Sir Robert Gordon was the first baronet. All baronets created since the Irish union 
 in 1801, are of the United Kingdom. 
 
 BARRACKS. This word is not to be found in our early lexicographers ; it comes to us 
 from the French, and in the Diet, de VAcad. is thus defined : " Baraque — Hutte qui 
 font les soldats en campagne pour se viettre a convert." — Barracks were not numerous 
 in these countries until about 1789. A superintendent-general board was appointed 
 in 1793, since when commodious barracks have been built in the various garrison 
 towns and central points of the empire. See AldershM. 
 
 BARRIER TREATY. By this celebrated treaty, the Low Countries were ceded to the 
 emperor Charles VI. It was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, on 
 the part of their respective sovereigns, Nov. 15, 1715. 
 
 BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I., about 1291 ; 
 but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. There are various 
 ranks of barristers, as King's or Queen's Counsel, Serjeants, &c, which see. Students 
 for the bar must keep a certain number of terms at the Inns of Court, previously 
 to being called ; and by new regulations in 1853 they must pass a public examination. 
 Irish students also must keep eight terms in England. 
 
 BARROSA, or BAROSSA, BATTLE of, between the British army, commanded by 
 major-general Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, and the French under marshal 
 Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved one of the most glorious triumphs 
 of the Peninsular war. Although they fought to great disadvantage, they compelled 
 the enemy to retreat, leaving nearly three thousand dead, six pieces of cannon, and 
 an eagle, the first that the British had taken; the loss of the British was 1169 men 
 killed and wounded, March 5, 1811. 
 
 BARROWS. The circular mounds found in Britain and other countries to record a burial 
 on the spot. They were the most ancient sepulchres; but lest the relics of the dead 
 should be violated by enemies, the custom of burning the dead was commenced by 
 Sylla, and it was not in disuse until the time of Macrobius. Sir Richard Hoare 
 caused several barrows near Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found a number 
 of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and brooches, in 
 amber, wood, and gold, — Nov. 1808. 
 
BAR . C9 BAS 
 
 BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, 
 in lat. 74° 26' N„ and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered on August 2, 1819. 
 The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. These straits 
 were so named by him, in honour of sir John Barrow, bart. 
 
 BARROW, JOHN, ISLAND. Discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and so named by 
 him in honour of John Barrow, esq., keeper of the records of the admiralty, and son 
 of the late sir John Barrow, bart. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, ST. Martyred, August 24, a.d. 71. The festival was instituted in 
 1130. Monastery of St. Bartholomew (Austin Friars) founded in the reign of Henry 
 I. by Rahere, 1102. On its dissolution the hospital of this name in London was 
 enlarged, 1539, and was incorporated in the last year of the reign of Henry VIII. 
 1546-7. It was rebuilt by subscription in 1729. — The charter for the fair was granted 
 by Henry II. ; and was held on the ground which was the former scene of tournaments 
 and martyrdoms. The spot where the latter took place is situated in the centre of 
 the pens, where the gas-lamp now stands (1857). Here Wat Tyler was killed by 
 the lord mayor Walworth in 1381, in consequence of which the dagger was added to 
 the city arms. The fair was discontinued in 1850. See Smithfield. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE of ST. This dreadful massacre in France, commenced 
 at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. According 
 to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, were murdered throughout the 
 kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of the queen dowager, 
 Catherine de' Medici his mother. The massacre was attended with circumstances of 
 demoniacal cruelty, even as regarded the female and the infant. The number of the 
 victims is differently stated by various authors. La Popelionere calculates the whole 
 at 20,000; Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou, say 30,000; Davila states them at 
 40,000 ; Sully (whose account is the received one) at 70,000 ; and Pere"fixe makes the 
 number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior condition, 
 perished in Paris alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. — Davila. 
 
 BARTHOLOMITES. A religious order founded, a.d. 1307, at Genoa, where is preserved 
 in the Bartholomite church, the image which it is said Christ sent to king Abgarus. 
 The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X., 1650. 
 
 BASILLANS. The order of St. Basil, of which, in the saint's time, there were ninety 
 thousand monks; it was reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect founded by 
 Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, on the most extravagant notions : they rejected the 
 books of Moses, and also the eucharist and baptism, and had everything, even their 
 wives, in common, 1110. Basil was burnt alive in 1118. 
 
 BASQUE ROADS. Heroic achievement in these roads by the British. Four French 
 ships of the line, while riding at anchor, were attacked by lord Gambier and lord 
 Cochrane (the latter commanding the fire-ships), and all, with a great number of 
 merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, April 12, 1809. But a serious difference 
 between these officers on this occasion led to a court-martial on charges preferred by 
 lord Cochrane, against lord Gambier, who was honourably acquitted. 
 
 BASS'S STRAITS. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, penetrated in 1797 as far as 
 Western Port, in an open boat from Port Jackson, and affirmed that a strait existed 
 between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Flinders circum- 
 navigated Van Diemen's Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 
 
 BASSET, oe BASSETTE, or Pour et Contre. A game at cards, invented by a noble 
 Venetian, for which he was banished; introduced into France, 1674. 
 
 BASTARD CHILDREN. An attempt was made in England in 1272, to make bastard 
 children legitimate by the subsequent marriage of the parents, but it failed, and led 
 to the memorable answer of the barons assembled in the parliament of Merton, 
 Nolumus leges Anglice mutari — We will not the laws of England to be changed. 
 Women concealing their children's birth, deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I. 
 1624. — Viner's Statutes. In Scotland, bastard children had not the power of dis- 
 posing of their moveable estates by will, until the 6 Will. IV. 1836. A new act, 
 facilitating the claims of mothers, and making several provisions for proceeding in 
 bastardy cases, was passed 8 Vict. cap. 10, in 1845. 
 
 BASTILE of PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 1369 
 et seq., for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. It was 
 
BAS 70 BAT 
 
 afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and became the scene of 
 the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It was of such strength that 
 Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the 
 intestine war that desolated France between the years 1587 and 1594 ; yet it was 
 pulled down by the infuriated populace, July 14, 1789, and thus was commenced the 
 French revolution. The governor and other officers were seized, and conducted to 
 the Place de Greve, and having had their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. 
 The furious citizens having fixed their heads on pikes carried them in triumph 
 through the streets. — " The man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner 
 ever known, died here, Nov. 19, 1703. See Iron Mask. 
 BATAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, 
 fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese were massacred here in one 
 day, 1740. Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by the British, under 
 general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 8, 1811. 
 BATH. This city was very early a favourite station of the Romans, and was remark- 
 able even in their time for its springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have given this 
 city a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned here, a.d. 973. Bath was 
 plundered and burnt in the reign of William Rufus, and again in 1137. The Abbey 
 church was commenced in 1495, and was finished in 1532 : the Assembly-rooms were 
 built in 1791; the Pump-room, in 1797; the Theatre, Beaufort-square, was opened 
 in 1805. The Bath Philosophical Society was formed in 1817. 
 BATH, EARL of; HIS ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Pelham and his friends having 
 tendered their resignation to the king (George II.), the formation of a new ministry 
 was undertaken by William Pulteney, earl of Bath ; but it expired within two days 
 while yet incomplete, and received the name of the " Short-lived " administration. 
 The members of it actually appointed, were : the earl of Bath, first lord of the 
 treasury ; lord Carlisle, lord privy-seal ; lord Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty ; 
 and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his 
 pocket, "to be given to whom he might choose." Feb. 10, 1746. Mr. Pelham and 
 his colleagues returned to power, Feb. 12. — Coxe's Life of Pelham. 
 BATH and WELLS, BISHOPRIC of. An ancient see, whose cathedral church was 
 built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704 ; it was erected into a bishopric, 
 5 Edward the Elder, 905. John de Villula, the sixteenth bishop, having purchased 
 the city of Bath for 500 marks of Henry I., transferred his seat to Bath from Wells, 
 in 1088 ; and from this, disputes arose between the monks of Bath and the canons of 
 Wells about the election of a bishop ; but they were compromised in 1136, when it 
 was decreed, that from henceforward the bishop should be styled from both places, 
 and that the precedency should be given to Bath. This see is valued in the king's 
 books at 531?. Is. 3d. per annum. 
 BATH ORDER of the. The origin of this order is ascribed to the ancient Franks, with 
 whom it is probable the Saxons who invaded England had the same common descent, 
 and who with other customs, upon their settling here, introduced the same method 
 of knighthood. These ancient Franks, when they conferred knighthood, bathed 
 before they performed their vigils, and from this ablution came the title of knights 
 of the Bath. Henry IV. instituted a degree of knighthood of the Bath, and on his 
 coronation in the Tower he conferred the order upon forty-six esquires, who had 
 watched the night before, and had bathed. After the coronation of Charles II. the 
 order was neglected until 1725, when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
 number of knights at 37. In 1815, the prince regent enlarged the order, forming the 
 present classes of knights grand crosses (72), and knights commanders (180), with an 
 unlimited number of companions. By an order published May 25, 1847, all the 
 existing statutes of this order were annulled ; and by the new statutes, the order, 
 hitherto exclusively military, was opened to civilians. In 1851, Dr. Lyon Playfair, 
 and other promoters of the great Exhibition, received this honour. 
 
 Constitution :— 1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 military and 25 civil. 
 
 2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 military and 50 civi!. 
 3rd Class. Companions, 525 military and 200 civil. 
 
 BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Maecenas into Rome. The thermae 
 of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The marble Laocoon 
 was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla. 
 
 BATHS in ENGLAND. The baths of Somersetshire are said to have been in use eight 
 centuries before Christ. In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, is a spring 
 
BAT 71 BAT 
 
 of great antiquity, and was well known in the time of Henry VIII. St. Chad's-well, 
 Gray's-inn-road, derived its name from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield, in 
 a.d. 667. Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, was in use in 1697. A bath opened in 
 Bagnio-court, London, is said to have been the first bath established in England for 
 hot bathing. — Leigh. 
 
 BATHS and WASH-HOUSES, PUBLIC. An act to encourage the establishment of 
 public baths and wash-houses, "for the health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants 
 of populous towns and districts," was passed (9 & 10 Vict. cap. 74) Aug. 26, 1846. 
 In the same session (cap. 87) a similar act was passed for Ireland. Several of these 
 institutions were forthwith opened in London, and have been most successful in 
 realising their contemplated objects. In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, as many as 
 537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in the different districts of London, 
 and in this period there were 85,260 washers. Baths and wash-houses have been 
 established also at Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle, Sunderland, Coventry, Maid- 
 stone, Windermere, Bilston, and other places. 
 
 BATON, or TRUNCHEON. Borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by 
 the marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the throne, 
 was made generalissimo of the army of his brother, Charles IX., and received the 
 baton as the mark of his high command, 1569. — Henault. 
 
 BATTEL-ABBEY. Founded by William the Conqueror, on the plain where the battle of 
 Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066 It was built in atonement for the many thousands 
 who were slain in that memorable battle. This monastery was dedicated to St. Martin, 
 and was given to Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The 
 original name of the plain was Heathfield. See Hastings. 
 
 BATTEL-ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fate of England, and 
 subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list was taken of William's chiefs amounting to 
 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and among these chiefs the lands and distinctions of 
 the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed, 1066. 
 
 BATTEL, WAGER of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed by our laws, where the 
 defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof 
 thereby of his guilt or innocence. See Appeal. 
 
 BATTERIES. They were introduced immediately after the use of cannon by the English 
 along the coasts. The famous floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked in 
 the memorable siege of that fortress were the scheme of D'Arcon, a French engineer. 
 There were ten of them, and they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-pound shot, but 
 ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, Sept. 13, 1782. See Gibraltar. 
 
 BATTERING-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which 
 are still in use, invented by Artemones, about 441 B.C. These ponderous engines by 
 their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our battering-cannon. — Desaguliers. 
 Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. 
 Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the new edifice in 1675. 
 
 BATTERSEA PARK. This park (now in formation) was originated by the act 9 & 10 
 Vict. c. 38, August 1846, which empowered her majesty's commissioners of woods to 
 form a royal park in the well-known waste, called Battersea-fields, on the Surrey side 
 of London. Acts to enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 
 1851, and 1853. The commissioners are also empowered "to construct an embank- 
 ment and roadway on the north shore of the Thames from Battersea-bridge to Vauxhall- 
 bridge, and to build a suspension-bridge over the Thames, near Chelsea-hospital, with 
 suitable approaches thereto." 
 
 BATTLE-AXE. A weapon of the Celtge. The Irish went constantly armed with an 
 axe. — Burns. At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce clove an English 
 champion down to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 1314. — Hume. The 
 battle-axe guards, or beaufetiers, who are vulgarly called beaf-eaters, and whose arms 
 are a sword and lance, were first raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally 
 attendants upon the king's buffet. See Yeoman of the Guard. 
 
 BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE of, near Shrewsbury. Between king Henry IV. and Percy* 
 surnamed Hotspur ; the victory was gained by Henry, whose usurpation of the throne 
 had laid the foundation of the factions of the houses of York and Lancaster, and the 
 civil wars that ensued, July 21, 1403. See Shrewsbury. 
 
BAT 
 
 72 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regular line of 
 battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by 
 giving him a watch-word. — Lenglet. The following are the most memorable battles, 
 in chronological order. 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 •The Trojan war commenced 
 ♦Troy taken and destroyed 
 •Spartans and Argives . 
 
 Ithome taken 
 
 Assyrians and Jews 
 ♦Horatii and Curiatii . 
 
 Corcyra (Sea-fight, first on record) 
 
 Rages (Medes and Assyrians) 
 •Halys (Eclipse of the Sun) 
 
 Sybaris, in Magna Qreecja . 
 *Maratlion 
 
 ♦Thermopylae (Leonidas) 
 *Salamis .... 
 *Mycale (Sea-fight) 
 •Platsea (Mardonius slain) 
 •Eurymedon 
 
 Mycale (Cimon) 
 ♦Sacred War 
 ♦Chasronea (Tolmidas) 
 
 Torone (Clean) . 
 *Cvzicum .... 
 
 Hannibal and Syraeusans 
 
 jEgospotamos . 
 •Retreat of the Greeks 
 
 Cnidos (Lysander killed) . 
 
 Allia (Brennus) . 
 
 Rome burned by the Gauls . 
 
 Volsci defeated by Camillus 
 
 Volsci defeat the Romans 
 
 Naxus (Sea-fight) 
 *Leuctra 
 
 Camillus defeats the Gauls 
 ♦Man tinea (Epaminondas slain) 
 
 Methone (Philip) 
 ♦Sacred War (the Second) . 
 
 Timoleon and Carthaginians 
 •Chasronea (Philip) . 
 
 Thebes destroyed by Alexander 
 *Granicus .... 
 
 •lssus (110,000 Persians slain) 
 *Arbela (Fall of Persia) . 
 •Cranon in Thessaly . 
 
 Perdiccas and Ariarathes 
 
 Fabius defeats the Tuscans 
 *Ipsus {Anligonus slain) . 
 
 Beraea (Pyrrhus) 
 
 Pyrrhus and Romans . 
 
 Romans and Pyrrhus 
 ♦Punic Wars begin . 
 
 Xantippus and Regulus . 
 
 Asdrubal and Metellus . 
 
 Lilybasum (Elder Hannibal) 
 
 Sellasia in Laconia 
 
 Caphyae, in Arcadia . 
 ♦Hannibal takes Saguntum 
 •Punie War (the Second) begins 
 ♦Raphia (Antiochus defeated) . 
 
 Trebia ( Victory of Hannibal) 
 ♦Thrasymenus (do.) 
 *Canna3(do.) .... 
 
 Marcellus and Hannibal . 
 ♦Mautinea (Machanidas slai7i) 
 
 Nero and Asdrubal . 
 ♦Zama (Seipio and Hannibal) . 
 
 Abydos (Siege of) 
 
 Cynocephalus 
 
 Perseus and the Romans . 
 
 Prusias and Attalus . 
 ♦Punic war (the Third) . 
 ♦Carthage taken by Publius Seipio 
 
 Metellus defeats Jugurtha 
 
 Aquas Sextiae 
 
 CHRIST 
 
 . 1193 
 . 1184 
 
 . 735 
 
 . 724 
 
 . 710 
 
 . 669 
 
 . 664 
 
 . 636 
 
 . 585 
 
 . 508 
 
 . 490 
 
 . 480 
 
 . 480 
 
 . 479 
 
 . 479 
 
 . 470 
 
 . 450 
 
 . 448 
 
 . 447 
 
 . 422 
 
 . 408 
 406 
 
 . 405 
 
 . 4IH 
 
 . 394 
 
 . 390 
 
 . 387 
 
 . 381 
 
 . 379 
 
 . 377 
 
 . 371 
 
 . 367 
 
 . 363 
 
 . 360 
 
 . 356 
 
 . 340 
 
 . 338 
 
 . 335 
 
 . 334 
 
 . 333 
 
 . 331 
 
 . 322 
 
 . 322 
 
 . 310 
 
 . 301 
 
 . 294 
 
 . 279 
 
 . 275 
 
 . 265 
 
 . 255 
 
 . 251 
 
 . 250 
 
 . 222 
 
 . 220 
 
 . 219 
 
 . 218 
 
 . 217 
 
 . 218 
 
 . 217 
 
 . 216 
 
 . 209 
 
 . 208 
 
 . 203 
 
 . 202 
 
 . 200 
 
 . 197 
 
 . 191 
 
 . 155 
 
 . 149 
 
 . 146 
 
 . 109 
 
 . 102 
 
 ♦Cimbri and Romans 
 
 Nicomedes and Mithridates 
 
 Athens besieged by Sylla 
 ♦Chaeronea (Sylla) 
 
 Marius defeated by Sylla 
 
 Jericho 
 
 ♦Pharsalia .... 
 ♦Zela (Ccesar ; Veni, vidi, vici) . 
 
 Munda, in Spain . 
 ♦Philippi (Roman Republic ends). 
 
 Octavius and Ponipey the Younger 
 ♦Actium (the empire of Rome is confirmed 
 to Augustus Ccesar) . 
 
 ANNO 
 
 ♦Shropshire (Caractacus taken) 
 
 Boadicea and Romans 
 •Jerusalem 
 
 Silures defeated in Britain 
 
 Antoninus and the Mours 
 
 lssus (Niger slain) 
 
 Claudius and Goths (300,000 slain) 
 
 Constantius and Alectus . 
 ♦Constantine and Maxcntius ("In 
 
 signo vinces") 
 ♦Adrianople (Constantine) . 
 •Aquileia (Constantine 11. slain) 
 ♦Argentaria, in Alsace 
 ♦Aquileia (Maximus slain) 
 ♦Aquileia (Euyenius slain) . 
 
 Mountains of Fesute 
 •Rome taken by Alaric 
 
 Alemanni and Goths 
 •Ravenna .... 
 
 Franks defeated by Ae'tius . 
 
 Genseric takes Carthage . 
 •Stamford (Britons and Saxons) 
 
 Chalons sur-Marne . 
 
 Ebro (Suevi and Goths) . 
 
 Crayford, Kent . 
 
 Ipswich (Britons and Saxons) 
 
 Saxons and Britons . 
 
 Pevensey Moor 
 
 Saxons and Britons . 
 
 Bath 
 
 Banbury .... 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Hatfield (Penda and Edwin) 
 
 Oswestry (Penda and Oswald) 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Landisfarn .... 
 
 hoe 
 
 DANISH INVASIONS, ETC 
 
 Helston (Banes and Egbert) 
 
 Romney (Etlulwolf and Bancs) 
 
 Stoke-Courcy (Banes) 
 
 Canterbury (Banes) 
 •Thanet (Banes now settle here) . 
 
 Merton (Bams) 
 
 Assendon (Banes) 
 
 Wilton (Banes) 
 
 Farnham (Banes) 
 
 Bury (Edward and Ethelwald) 
 
 Maldon (Banes) .... 
 
 Stamford, Lincolnshire . 
 
 Widendane 
 
 Brombridge .... 
 ♦Semincas, Spain 
 
 [The Saxons and Danes fought with 
 different success from 938 to 1016. j 
 
 Ashdon (Canute and Edmund) 
 
 B.C. 
 
 101 
 90 
 87 
 86 
 82 
 67 
 48 
 47 
 45 
 42 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 DOMINI 
 . 51 
 
 . 61 
 
 . 70 
 
 . 70 
 
 . 145 
 
 . 194 
 
 . 269 
 296 
 
 312 
 323 
 340 
 378 
 388 
 394 
 405 
 410 
 417 
 425 
 428 
 439 
 449 
 451 
 456 
 457 
 466 
 477 
 485 
 508 
 520 
 542 
 571 
 633 
 641 
 665 
 740 
 
 834 
 840 
 S45 
 852 
 854 
 871 
 871 
 872 
 894 
 905 
 918 
 923 
 938 
 938 
 938 
 
 1016 
 
 [The battles which are thus (") maikcd will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through the volume, for more particular reference.] 
 
BAT 
 
 73 
 
 BAT 
 
 Oct. 5. 
 Oct. 14 
 
 Aug. 19. 
 
 of the 
 Aug. 22, 
 
 July 25 
 
 . Feb. 2 
 
 and De, 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 Crossford (with the Welsh) 
 *Cloutarf, Ireland . 
 ♦Dunsinane . 
 
 Stamford (Harold) . 
 ♦Hastings (Conquest) . 
 
 Llechryd, Wales 
 
 Alnwick 
 *Crusades commence 
 *Tinchebray, Normandy 
 
 Rouen, in Normandy 
 
 Brenneville, Normandy . 
 
 Cardigan ( Welsh and English) 
 
 ♦Northallerton, or battle 
 
 Standard .... 
 
 York (castle besieged) 
 ♦Ourique, Portugal 
 
 Leeds (besieged by K. John) 
 ♦Lincoln .... 
 
 English defeat off Anglesey 
 
 Renfrew (Argyll and Angus) 
 
 Farnham, Surrey (Leicester 
 Lucy) .... 
 
 Alnwick (Win. the Lion) . July 13 
 ♦Ascalon (Richard I.) . . Sept. 3. 
 ♦Gisors (Bieu et mon droit) . Oct. 10. 
 
 Black Mountains (Adolphus) . 
 "Bovines (French and Germans) 
 ♦Lincoln May 19, 
 
 Tholosa 
 
 ♦Lewes May 14. 
 
 ♦Evesham .... Aug. 4 
 
 Chesterfield .... 
 
 Llewellyn and the English 
 ♦Dunbar (King of Scots taken) . 
 ♦Falkirk (Wallace) . . July 22, 
 
 Courtray, in Flanders 
 
 Roslin, Scotland . . Feb. 24 
 ♦Bannockburn .... June 25 
 ♦Boroughbridge . 
 
 Duplin, Scotland (Edward Baliol and 
 Earl of Mar). . . . July 31 
 ♦Brechin (Siege of) .... 
 ♦Halidon Hill, Berwick . . July 19, 
 ♦Dunbar (Siege of) .... 
 
 Auberoche, France . . Aug. 1 
 ♦Cr..ssy (Ich Dim) . . Aug. 25 
 ♦Durham, Nevil's Cross . . Oct. 17 
 ♦Poitiers .... Sept. 19, 
 
 Auray, in Brittany . . Sept. 29, 
 ♦Montiel .... March 14 
 
 Najara April 3, 
 
 Rochelle 
 •Berwick . 
 ♦Rosbach .... Nov. 17 
 
 ♦Sempach July 
 
 ♦Otterburn (Chevy Chase) . 
 
 Myton-upon-Swale, York 
 ♦Nicopolis (Turks and Christians) 
 
 Kincardine, Scotland 
 
 ♦Nisbet May 7. 
 
 ♦Holmedon Hill Sept. 14 
 
 ♦Shrewsbury (Battb field) . July 21 
 
 Monmouth .... May 11 
 
 ♦Harlaw . . - . . July 24, 
 ♦Agincourt .... Oct. 25, 
 
 ♦Nicopolis (second) .... 
 
 ♦Anjou, or Beague .... 
 
 ♦Crevant, Burgundy . . June 11 
 ♦Verneuil ...... Aug. 16 
 
 ♦Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) . 
 
 ♦Herrings 
 
 ♦Brechin, Scotland .... 
 ♦Castillon, in Guienne . 
 
 A.D. 
 103$ 
 1039 
 1054 
 1066 
 1066 
 1087 
 1092 
 1096 
 1106 
 1117 
 1119 
 1136 
 
 1138 
 1138 
 1139 
 1139 
 1141 
 1157 
 1164 
 
 1173 
 1174 
 1191 
 1198 
 1212 
 1214 
 1217 
 1220 
 1264 
 1265 
 1266 
 1282 
 1296 
 129S 
 1302 
 1303 
 1314 
 1322 
 
 1332 
 1333 
 1333 
 1337 
 1344 
 1346 
 1346 
 1356 
 1364 
 1369 
 1369 
 1371 
 1378 
 1382 
 1386 
 1388 
 1391 
 1396 
 1397 
 1402 
 1402 
 1403 
 1405 
 141] 
 1415 
 1420 
 1421 
 1423 
 1424 
 1429 
 1429 
 1452 
 1453 
 
 ♦Bloreheath . 
 ♦Northampton . 
 ♦Wakefield . 
 Mortimer's Cross 
 ♦Towton 
 ♦St. Alban's (second) 
 
 Sept. 23 
 . July 19 
 Dec. 31 
 . Feb. % 
 March 29 
 . Feb. 15 
 
 ♦Hexham (Yorkists defeated) May 15, 
 
 Banbury July 26 
 
 ♦Stamford .... March 13 
 *Ba,rnet (Edward IV.) . . April 14, 
 ♦Tewkesbury .... May 4 
 
 Murten (Charles the Bold) . June 22, 
 ♦Bosworth .... Aug. 22, 
 
 Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) . 
 
 St. Aubin, in France .... 
 
 Knocktow, Ireland 
 ♦Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . 
 ♦Ravenna (Qaston de Foix) . April 11 
 •Flodden .... Sept. 9, 
 
 Guinegate, or Battle of Spurs Aug. 18. 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 Feb. 24 
 Aug. 19 
 Nov. 25, 
 
 Feb. 17 
 Sept. 10 
 
 WAR OF THE EOSE8. 
 
 ♦St. Alban's (York and Lancaster) . . 1455 
 ♦Belgrade 1456 
 
 [The battles which are thus (♦) marked will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through the volume, for more particular reference. J 
 
 ♦Marignan, Italy 
 
 Bicocco, near Milan 
 ♦Pavia (French and Austrian!) 
 
 ♦Mohatz 
 
 ♦Solway Moss . . . 
 
 Ancram, Scotland . 
 ♦Pinkey .... 
 ♦Ket and "Warwick . 
 ♦St. Quintin . . . Aug. 10, 
 ♦Calais (taken) .... Jan. 7, 
 
 Gravelines, in Flanders . July 13, 
 
 Dreux, in France .... 
 
 St. Denis (Montmorency) . 
 
 ♦Langside May 13 
 
 ♦Jarnac .... March 13 
 
 Moncontour (Raleigh) . 
 ♦Lepanto Oct. 7, 
 
 Coutras (K. of Navarre and France) 
 
 Arques (Huguenots victorious) . 
 
 Blackwater, Ireland 
 
 Nieuport, Flanders . 
 
 Kinsale (Siege of) .... 
 ♦Prague .... Nov. 7, 
 ♦Lutzingen (Gustavus slain) 
 
 Arras, in France 
 
 CIVIL WAR COMMENCES 
 
 ♦Worcester .... Sept. 13 
 ♦Edgehill fight . . . Oct. 23 
 
 Liscarrol, Ireland . 
 
 Kilrush .... 
 
 Ballintobber .... 
 
 Hopton Heath . 
 
 Rocroy (French and Spaniards) 
 
 Drayton-in-Hales . . Jan. 25 
 
 Barnharn Moor . . March 29, 
 
 Ross, Ireland 
 
 Lansdown (Royaliits beaten) . July 5, 
 
 Round-away-down . . July 13, 
 ♦Newbury (Lord Falkland killed) Sept. 20, 
 ♦Strattou (poet Waller) . May 16, 
 ♦Alderton Moor 
 
 Donnington, Lincoln 
 
 Liskeard, Cornwall . . Jan. 29, 
 
 Alresford .... March 29, 
 
 Friedburg, Suabia 
 
 Oldcastle, Chester 
 ♦Cropredy Bridge, Oxford . June 6, 
 ♦Marston Moor .... July 3, 
 ♦Newark . 
 ♦Newbury (second battle) . Oct. 10 
 
 ♦Naseby June 14 
 
 ♦Alford (Covenanters) . . . July 
 
 Donnington, Gloucester 
 
 Beuburb, Ireland .... 
 
 Kingston, Surrey .... 
 ♦Dungau-hill . . . July 10, 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1459 
 1460 
 1460 
 1461 
 1461 
 1461 
 1464 
 1469 
 1470 
 1471 
 1471 
 1476 
 1485 
 1487 
 1488 
 1491 
 1497 
 1512 
 1513 
 1513 
 1515 
 1522 
 1525 
 1526 
 1542 
 1544 
 1547 
 1549 
 1557 
 1558 
 1558 
 1562 
 1567 
 1S68 
 1569 
 1569 
 1571 
 1587 
 1589 
 1597 
 1600 
 1601 
 1620 
 1632 
 1640 
 
 1642 
 1642 
 1642 
 1642 
 1642 
 1642 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1643 
 1644 
 1644 
 1644 
 1644 
 1644 
 1644 
 1644 
 1645 
 1645 
 1645 
 1646 
 1647 
 1647 
 
BAT 
 
 74 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Maidstone 1648 
 
 ♦Rathmines, Ireland 1649 
 
 *Drogheda (taken by storm) . . . 1649 
 
 ♦Dunbar .... Sept. 3, 1650 
 
 Invercharron (Montrose and Strachan) . 1650 
 
 Bothwell-Bridge 1651 
 
 *Worcaster (Charles II.) . . Sept. 3, 1651 
 
 [End of the civil war in England.] 
 
 Galway (surrendered) 1652 
 
 Arras, France 1654 
 
 Dunkirk .... June 14, 1658- 
 Estremos, Portugal . . June 8, 1663 
 Brod (Emperor and Turks) . . . 1668 
 Seneffe, Flanders (P. oj Orange) . .1674 
 Mulhausen (TVmme) . . Dec. 31, 1674 
 Altenheim .... July 28, 1675 
 
 ♦Saltsburg (Turenne) . . July 28, 1675 
 Bothwell Bridge, Sec tland . . .1679 
 Argos (Allies and Turks) . . . 1683 
 Vienna .... July 18, 1683 
 
 *Sedgemoor .... July 5, 1685 
 Corou (Allies and Turks) . . . . 1685 
 
 *Mobatz, Hungary . . . . . 1687 
 Torven (Germans and Turks) . . . 1688 
 Walcourt 1689 
 
 J)RA OP THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 Newton-Butler, Ireland . . . . 1689 
 
 ♦Killiecrankie, Scotland. . July 27, 1689 
 
 ♦Charleroi . 1690 
 
 Cavan Feb. 7, 1690 
 
 ♦Boyne, Ireland .... July 1, 1690 
 
 *Fleurus, in Flanders .... 1690 
 
 ♦Aughriin, Ireland . . July 12, 1691 
 
 Leus* (Allies and French) . . . 1691 
 
 *Salenkamen (Auslrians and Turks) . . 1691 
 
 Steenkirk July 24, 1692 
 
 *Lauden ( William III.) . . July 29, 1693 
 
 Pignerol, Piedmont . . . Oct. 4, 1693 
 
 'Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) . . 1697 
 
 ♦Narva (Charles XII. of Sweden) . . . 1700 
 
 Chiara (Auslrians and French) . . 1701 
 
 Riga (Russians and Poles) . . . . 1701 
 
 Carpi, Modena (French and Allies) . 1701 
 
 *Vittoria, Spain 1702 
 
 Pultusk . ■ 1703 
 
 WARS OF QUEEN ANNE. 
 
 ♦Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2 (13 n. s.) 1704 
 Schellenburg, Bavaria .... 1704 
 Mittau (Swedes and Russians) . . . 1705 
 Cassano (Prince Eugene) .... 1705 
 Tirlemout (French and Allies) . . . 1705 
 ♦Ramilies (Marlborough) . . May 23, 1706 
 Turin (French and Germans) . . . 1706 
 
 Lerida, Spain 1707 
 
 Offenberg (Germans and French) . . 1707 
 Calish, Poland . . . April 14, 1707 
 ♦Alraanza, in Spain . . April 14, 1707 
 Lezno (Russians and Swedes) . . . 1708 
 Lisle (taken by the Allies) .... 1708 
 Winnendale (French and Allies) . . 1708 
 ♦Oudenarde (Marlborough) . July 11, 1708 
 ♦Pultowa (Charles XII.) . . July 8, 1709 
 ♦Malplaquet (Marlborough) . Sept. 11, 1709 
 
 ♦Almanza July 16, 1710 
 
 Elsiuburg 1710 
 
 Saragossa .... Aug. 20, 1710 
 Villa Viciosa . . . Dec. 12, 1710 
 
 Arleux 1711 
 
 Bouchain(Mc<Wioro«0/<) . Sept 13, 1711 
 Friburg ( French and Germans) . . 1713 
 Bitonio (Auslrians and Spaniards) . . 1713 
 
 scots' rebellion.- 
 
 Preston 
 
 -GEO. I. 
 
 . Nov. 12, 1715 
 
 ♦Dumblane ; Sheriff-muir . 
 
 A D. 
 
 Nov. 12, 1715 
 
 [These were the principal actions, but 
 the rebellion yet endured.] 
 
 Peterwarden .... Aug. 5, 1717 
 
 ♦Belgrade 1717 
 
 ♦Parma (Austrians and French) . . . 1734 
 Kouli Khan and Turks . . May 22, 1734 
 Guastalla .... August 21, 1734 
 Cboczim, Hungary . . July 21, 1739 
 ♦Molwitz .... April 10, 1741 
 Williamstadt .... July 23, 1741 
 Czaslaw (Austr. and, Pruss.) May 7, 1742 
 Teyn, Bohemia (Aust. and French) . 1742 
 Brenau (Austrians and Ilavarians) . . 1743 
 
 Campo Santo 1743 
 
 ♦Dettingen (George II. ) . June 16, 1743 
 ♦Foutenoy .... April 30, 1745 
 ♦Friedburg .... June 4, 1745 
 Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) . 1745 
 Eri van (Turks and Persians) . . . 1745 
 
 FOOTS' REBELLION. — GEO. II. 
 
 ♦Preston Pans . . . Sept. 21, 
 ♦Falkirk, Scotland . . . Jan. 18, 
 
 Rocoux (French and Allies) . Oct. 1, 
 ♦Culloden (Puke of Cumberland) Apr. 16, 
 
 St. Lazaro .... May 31, 
 
 Placentia .... June 15, 
 
 Kesseldorf .... Dec. 15, 
 ♦Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) . . . . 
 ♦Laffeldt [Duke of Cumberland) 
 
 Valle (Saxe and, Cumberland) . . . 
 
 Exilles, Piedmont . July 19. 
 
 Bahoor, India . . . .Aug. 7, 
 
 Fort du Quesne . . . July 9, 
 ♦Lake of St. George Sept. 8, 
 
 ♦Calcutta, India . . . June, 
 
 Lowoschutz . . . Sept. 3, 
 
 Reicheuberg (Prussia and Awtria) 
 
 Schweidnitz, in Silesia . 
 
 ♦Prague May 6, 
 
 ♦Kollin (Prussia and A ustria) June 18, 
 ♦l'lassey, India. See India June 23, 
 
 Jagersdorff .... Aug. 3, 
 
 ♦Rosbach Nov. 5, 
 
 ♦Breslau Nov. 22, 
 
 ♦Lissa Dec. 5, 
 
 ♦Creveldt .... June 23, 
 
 Meere (French and Allies) . Aug. 5, 
 
 Zomdorff .... Aug. 25, 
 
 Olmutz ( Prussio.ns and Austrians) 
 ♦Hoclikirchen .... Oct. 14, 
 
 Iloya (French and Allies) . . . . 
 ♦Bergen April 13, 
 
 Niagara, North America . July 24, 
 ♦Mindeu, (Prince Ferdinand) . Aug. 1, 
 
 Warburg .... July 31, 
 ♦Cunnersdorf .... Aug. 12, 
 ♦Montmorenci . . . Aug. 10, 
 
 Pcterswalde . .... 
 
 ♦Quebec, or the Plains of Abraham 
 
 ( \V«lu ■killed) 
 
 Wandewash, East Indies 
 
 Landshut, Silesia . 
 •Before Quebec . 
 ♦Pfaffendorf . 
 "Torgau 
 
 Plains of Sillery . 
 
 Warbourg 
 
 Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) 
 
 Homburg .... 
 
 Johannesburg .... 
 ♦Schweidnitz . 
 
 Errore, India 
 
 Buxard, India. 
 
 Choczim 
 
 Sept. 18, 
 
 Jan. 22, 
 June, 
 April 2S, 
 Aug. 15, 
 Nov. 11, 
 
 Aug. 16, 
 
 1745 
 1746 
 1746 
 1746 
 1746 
 1746 
 1746 
 1747 
 1747 
 1747 
 1747 
 1752 
 1755 
 1755 
 1756 
 1756 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1757 
 1768 
 1758 
 1758 
 17 OS 
 1758 
 1758 
 1759 
 1759 
 1759 
 1759 
 175i» 
 1759 
 1759 
 
 1759 
 1760 
 1760 
 1760 
 1760 
 1760 
 1760 
 1760 
 1762 
 1762 
 1762 
 1762 
 1763 
 1764 
 1769' 
 
 [The battles which are thus (*) marked will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through the volume, for more particular reference.] 
 
BAT 
 
 .75 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 *Braillow 1770 
 
 Silistria 1773 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 ♦Lexington (first battle) . . April 19, 
 ♦Bunker's Hill . . . June 17, 
 ♦Long Island .... Aug. 27, 
 *White Plains . . . Nov. 30, 
 *Bhode Island .... Dec. 6, 
 
 Of the Lakes .... July 5, 
 
 Skenesborough . . . July 7, 
 
 Albany .... Aug. 16, 
 *Brandywine .... Sept. 11, 
 ♦Saratoga .... Oct. 17, 
 *Germanstown . . . Oct. 4, 
 
 St. Lucie 
 
 ♦Briar's Creek 
 
 ♦Camden .... Aug. 16, 
 
 Broad Biver .... Feb. 
 
 ♦Guilford .... March 16, 
 ♦Camden .... April 25, 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill 
 
 Eutaw Springs 
 
 ♦York Tom .... Oct. 19, 
 
 1775 
 1775 
 1776 
 1776 
 1776 
 1777 
 1777 
 1777 
 1777 
 1777 
 1777 
 1778 
 1779 
 17S0 
 1781 
 1781 
 17S1 
 1781 
 1781 
 1781 
 
 [Other, but inferior actions took place 
 with various success during this war.] 
 
 ♦Porto Novo, India 1781 
 
 Beduore, India . . . April 30, 17S3 
 Lassmere .... Aug. 28, 1789 
 ♦Ismail (taken, by storm) . Dec. 22, 1790 
 
 ♦Seringapatam 1791 
 
 ♦Again (Tippoo reduced to give his sons as 
 hostages to lord Cornwallis) . . . 1792 
 
 ♦Antoign 
 
 Conde . 
 
 Hanau 
 ♦Jemappes 
 
 Tirlemont . 
 
 Varoux . 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Louvain . 
 
 Coblentz 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Aug. 13 
 
 . . Oct. 2 
 
 Oct. 27 
 
 ♦Tournay 
 
 S. Amand 
 ♦Valenciennes 
 ♦Mannheim 
 ♦Fumes 
 
 Villiers . 
 
 Cambray, or Caesar's 
 ♦Lincelles . . 
 
 ♦Dunkirk 
 
 Camp 
 
 Menin 
 ♦Toulon . 
 
 Maubeuge; Boufieurs 
 
 Orchies . 
 
 Weisenau . 
 
 Landau . 
 
 Toulon 
 
 Lebacb. . 
 
 Mons . 
 
 Bousillon 
 
 Perpignan . 
 
 Oppenheim 
 
 Bayonne 
 ♦Cateau (Cobourg) 
 
 Cracow 
 
 Piedmont 
 
 Warsaw 
 ♦Landrecy (taken) 
 
 Courtray . 
 
 Ostend . 
 
 Tournay 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 17 
 
 . Nov. 27 
 
 Jan. 15. 
 March 22 
 
 April 1 
 
 . April 7 
 
 . May 8. 
 
 . May 10; 
 
 May 23 
 
 . May 30 
 
 June 21 
 
 . July 18 
 
 Aug. 9, 
 . Aug. 18 
 
 Sept ' 
 
 . Sept. 11 
 
 Sept. 15. 
 
 . Oct. 1 
 
 Oct 16, 
 . Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 
 . Nov. 29 
 
 Nov 15. 
 . Nov. 27, 
 
 . Dec. 4 
 . Dec. 11 
 
 Dec. 20 
 
 Jan. 8 
 
 March 19 
 
 March 28 
 
 April 4 
 
 . April 6, 
 
 April 21 
 
 . April 24 
 
 April 29 
 
 . May 10 
 
 May 18 
 
 1792 
 1792 
 1792 
 1792 
 1792 
 1792 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1793 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1724 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 
 ♦Espierres 
 
 Barcelona . 
 ♦Charleroi ; Fleurus 
 
 Aost . 
 ♦Mannheim 
 
 Fontarabia 
 
 Bellegarde 
 ♦Bois-le-Duc 
 ♦Boxtel . 
 
 Maestricht . 
 
 Clermont 
 ♦Warsaw 
 ♦Nimeguen 
 ♦Warsaw 
 
 Navarre . 
 
 Mentz 
 
 Nantes (Ohouans) 
 
 Piedmont . 
 ♦Quiberon (Emigrants) 
 ♦Mannheim . 
 
 Wormes . 
 
 Moselle 
 
 Deux Ponts 
 ♦Lodi . 
 
 Mantua . 
 
 Edengen 
 ♦Castiglione . 
 ♦Augsburg 
 
 Hovered o . 
 
 Cavella . 
 
 Munich 
 ♦Areola 
 
 Mantua 
 
 Oct. 28, 
 
 IRISH REBELLION 
 
 ♦Kilcullen .... 
 ♦Naas . 
 
 Stratford-upon-Slaney 
 
 Dunlaven . 
 ♦Taragh . 
 
 Carlow 
 
 Monastereven 
 ♦Oulart 
 
 Kildare . 
 ♦Newtownbarry . 
 ♦Gorey 
 ♦New Ross . 
 
 Antrim . 
 
 Arklow 
 ♦Ballynahinch . 
 
 Oviotstown 
 
 Ballynarush . 
 ♦Vinegar Hill 
 ♦Hacketstown . 
 
 Clonard 
 
 . May 22 : 
 
 Juue 14 
 
 . June 17l 
 
 June 26, 
 
 . July 12! 
 
 Aug. 2 
 
 . Aug. 26, 
 
 Sept. 14. 
 
 . Sept. 17 
 
 Sept. 18 
 
 . Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 and Nov. 4 
 
 Nov. 8! 
 
 . Nov. 25, 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 . Jan. 18 
 
 June 24 
 
 . July 21 
 
 Sept. 23, 
 
 . Nov. 8. 
 
 Nov. 22, 
 
 . Nov. 28, 
 
 May 10 
 
 . May 29, 
 
 . July 1 
 
 . July 2 
 
 . Aug. 24 
 
 Sept. 4 
 
 . Sept. 6. 
 
 Sept. 11 
 
 . Nov. 19. 
 
 Jan. 31 
 
 . May 23 
 
 May 24. 
 . May 25. 
 
 May 25 
 
 May 26: 
 
 May 27. 
 . May 27! 
 
 May 27 
 . May 27 
 
 June 1 
 . June 4, 
 
 June 4. 
 
 . June 5 
 
 June 9 
 
 . June 13. 
 
 June 19 
 . June 20 
 
 June 21 
 . June 25 
 
 July 11 
 
 [In most of these and other actions 
 
 the insurgents were defeated ] 
 ♦Castlebar (French) . . . Aug. 28 
 
 Colooney (French) . . Sept. 5 
 
 Ballinamuck (French) . . Sept. 8 
 ♦Killala .... Sept. 23 
 
 Verona ..... March 5 
 ♦Acre (siege commenced) . March 18! 
 
 ♦Milan April 27, 
 
 ♦Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) May 4 
 ♦Alessandria . . . May 17 
 
 Bank of the Adda . . . May 22 
 ♦Acre (Sir Sydney Smith) . May 27^ 
 ♦Zurich June 4 
 
 Trebia .... June 19. 
 ♦Parma (Suwarrow) . . . July 12J 
 
 Aboukir (Turks) . . July 26, 
 ♦Novi (Suwarrow) . . . Aug. 16. 
 ♦Bergen and Alkmaer . Sept. 19 
 
 ♦Zurich Sept. 24 
 
 ♦Bergen . . Sept. 19, and Oct. % 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1794 
 1795 
 1795 
 1795 
 1795 
 1795 
 1795 
 1795 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1796 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 179S 
 1798 
 1598 
 1798 
 179S 
 1798 
 1798 
 179S 
 1798 
 1798 
 
 1798 
 1798 
 1798 
 179S 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 1799 
 
 [The battles which are thus (♦) marked will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through the volume, for more particular reference.] 
 
BAT 
 
 76 
 
 BAT 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 •Alkmaer. See Bergen . . Oct. 6, 1799 
 
 Mimdevi .... Nov. 6, 1799 
 
 Philipsburg . . . Dec. 3, 1799 
 
 •Novi (second battle) . . . Jan. 8, 1800 
 
 Savona, in Italy . April 8, 1800 
 
 Stokach May 1, 1800 
 
 Montebello . . . June 9, 1800 
 
 Bronni, in Italy . . . June 10, 1800 
 '.Marengo .... June 14, 1800 
 
 *Ulm June 21, 1800 
 
 *Hohenlinden . . . Nov. 3, 1800 
 
 Mincio Dec. 25, 1800 
 
 •Alexandria (Abercrorabie) . March 21, 1801 
 
 Scindiah and the British . Aug. 11, 1803 
 
 •Assaye(JffMeaiey) . . Sept. 23, 1803 
 
 Ferruckabad, India . . Nov. 17, 1804 
 
 •Bhurtpore (Hollar) . . April 2, 1805 
 
 •Ulm (surrendered) . . . Oct. 19, 1805 
 
 Moelk .... Nov. 10, 1805 
 
 *Austerlitz .... Dec. 2, 1805 
 
 •Buenos-Avres (Popham) . June 21, 1806 
 
 •Maida, in Sicily . . . July 4, 1806 
 
 *Castel Nuovo . . . Sept. 29, 1806 
 
 *Auerstadt j . . . . Oct. 14, 1806 
 
 *Jena . i . . Oct. 14, 1S06 
 
 Halle (Bernadotte) . . . Oct. 17, 1806 
 
 *Pultusk .... Dec. 26, 1806 
 
 •Eylau Feb. 8, 1807 
 
 *Friedland .... June 14, 1807 
 
 •Buenos- Ayres ( Whitdock) . July 6, 1807 
 
 Bombardment of Copenhagen, Sept. 2-7, 1807 
 
 •Baylen (Spaniards) . . July 20, 180S 
 
 [Most of the preceding battles were of a 
 sanguinary and decisive character. J 
 
 PENINSULAR CAMPAIGNS BEGIN. 
 
 •Vimeira (Wellington) . . Aug. 21 
 Tudela .... Nov. 23, 
 
 *Corufla (Moore) . . . Jan. 16 
 Braga (Portuguese) . . March 19 
 Landshut (Austrian*) . . April 21 
 
 *Echmuhl .... April 22 
 Oporto May 11 
 
 *Aspern ) . . . . May 22, 
 
 •Essling j . . . . May 22, 
 Raab June 14, 
 
 •Wagram July 5 
 
 •Talavera de la Reyna . July 27, 28 
 
 *Ocana (Spaniards) . . . Nov. 19, 
 •Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) . June 11 
 *Busaco . . . . Sept. 27 : 
 
 *Palma .... March 2, 
 
 •Barrosa March 5 
 
 *Badajos (taken by the French) March 11 
 •Fuentes d'Onoie . . . May 5. 
 *Albuera .... May 16 
 •Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed) . Jan. 19, 
 •Tairagona .... Jan. 24, 
 •Badpjos (taken by the allies) . April 6 
 •Villa Franca . . . April 10, 
 •Salamanca .... July 22 
 
 •Mohilow July 23, 
 
 Ostrovno .... July 25 
 Polotzk .... July 30, 
 •Smolensk© .... Aug. 27, 
 •Moskwa \ Sept. 7 
 
 •Borodino j" . Sept. 7 
 
 •Queenstown (Americans) . Oct. 13 
 •Moscow (burnt) . . . Sept. 14 
 •Polotzk .... Oct. 20 
 
 •Moscow (retaken) . . . Oct. 22, 
 •Witepsk .... Nov. 14 
 •Krasnoi Nov. 16, 
 
 [Ney's corps, of which 10,000 men laid 
 down their arms, defeated by the 
 Russians, Nov. 17, 1812] 
 
 1808 
 1808 
 1809 
 1809 
 1S09 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1S09 
 1810 
 1810 
 1811 
 1811 
 1811 
 1811 
 1811 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1S12 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1S12 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1S12 
 
 Borissou . 
 •Beresina 
 •Wilna . 
 •Kowno 
 •French Town. Canada 
 
 Miami (Americans) . 
 •Kalitch (Saxons) 
 
 Bejar, Spam 
 
 Castella . 
 •Lutzen 
 •Bautzen . 
 •Wurtzchen . 
 
 Fort George, Niagara 
 •Burlington Heights . 
 •Vittoria . 
 
 Valley of Bastan 
 •Pyrenees. 
 
 San Marcial (Spaniards 
 •Dresden . 
 
 St. Sebastian stormed 
 •Toplitz 
 ^Dennewitz 
 
 Elster (Blucher) . 
 •Mockern . 
 •Leipzic 
 •Hanau (Wrede) 
 •St. Jean de Luz. 
 
 . Nov. 27, 
 
 Nov. 27, 
 . Dec. 11, 
 
 Dec. 14, 
 . Jan. 22, 
 
 Jan. 22, 
 . Feb. 13, 
 
 Feb. 20, 
 . April 13, 
 
 . May 2, 
 . May 20, 
 
 May 21, 
 . May 27, 
 
 June 6, 
 . June 21, 
 
 July 24, 
 
 . July 28, 
 
 I . . Aug. 4, 
 
 Aug. 26 and 27, 
 
 Aug. 31, 
 
 Aug 30, 
 
 . Sept. 6, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 . Oct. 14, 
 
 Oct. 16 and 18, 
 
 . Oct. 29, 
 
 Dec. 10, 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1812 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 1813 
 
 [Passage of the Neve ; several engage- 
 ments between the Allies and French, 
 Dec. 10 to 13, 1813.] 
 
 •St. Dizier, France . 
 
 *La Rothiere 
 •Brienne . 
 •Champ Aubert . 
 
 Janvilliers 
 •Fontainebleau . 
 •Moutereau 
 •Orthez 
 
 •Bergen-op-Zoom 
 •Laon . 
 
 Rheims . 
 •Tarbes 
 
 •Fere Champenoise . 
 •Heights of Fontenoy . 
 
 [Battle of the Barriers — Marmont eva- 
 cuates Paris, and the allied armies 
 enter that capital, March 31.] 
 
 •Toulouse April 10, 1814 
 
 . Jan. 27, 1814 
 
 . Feb. 1, 1814 
 
 . Feb. 2, 1814 
 
 Feb. 10 aud 12, 1814 
 
 . Feb. 14, 1814 
 
 Feb. 17, 1814 
 
 . Feb. 25, 1814 
 
 Feb. 27, 1814 
 
 . March 8, 1814 
 
 March 9, 1814 
 
 March 13, 1814 
 
 March 20, 1814 
 
 March 25, 1814 
 
 March 30, 1814 
 
 AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 Christler's Point, Canada . Nov. 11 
 black-rock, America . . Dec. 3 
 
 Chipawa 
 •Erie, Fort 
 
 Bladensbuig 
 •Bellair 
 •Baltimore . 
 •New Orleans . 
 
 •Ligny . 
 •Quatre Bras . 
 
 "Waterloo . 
 
 •Algiers (Exmouili) . 
 
 Larissa (Greeks) . 
 
 Thermopylae (Greeks) 
 
 Cadiz (Trocadero) 
 
 Prome (Burmese) . 
 
 Malloun (Burmese) 
 
 Anatolia (Greiks) 
 
 Brohilow (Russians) 
 
 Akhalzic. 
 
 Czoi oi . 
 •Varna (surrenders) . 
 •Morea (Castle surrenders) 
 
 July 5 and 25, 
 
 . Aug. 15, 
 
 Aug. 24 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Sept.. 12, 
 
 Jan. 8, 
 
 June 16, 
 June 1 6, 
 June IS 
 
 Aug. 27, 
 . July 8 
 July 13 
 Aug. 31 
 Dec. 2 
 Jan. 20 
 May 23 
 June 19 
 Aug. 24 
 Sept. 26 
 Oct. 11 
 Oct. 30 
 
 1813 
 1813 
 1814 
 1814 
 1814 
 1814 
 1814 
 1S15 
 
 1815 
 1815 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 1822 
 1822 
 1822 
 1825 
 1826 
 182S 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 1828 
 
 [The battles which are thus (*) marked will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through tho volume, for more particular reference.] 
 
BAT 
 
 BAY 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 ♦Lepanto (Greeks) . . . May 9 
 Kulertscha, near Schumla June 11 
 Silistria (surrenders) . . June 18 
 * Balkan (Passage of the) . July 26 
 ♦Adriauople (entered) . . Aug. 20 
 *Algiers (French) .... July 4 
 ♦Paris (Days of July) July 27, 28, 20 
 "Brussels (Dutch). . . Sept. 21 
 
 ♦Antwerp Oct. 27 
 
 Grochow. See Warsaw . Feb. 20 
 
 Wawz (Poles) . . . March 31 
 
 ♦Seidlez (Poles) . . . April 10 
 
 *Zelicho (Poles) . . . . April 10 
 
 *Ostrolenka (Poles) . . May 26 
 
 ♦Wilna (Poles) .... June 12 
 
 ♦Warsaw (taken) . . . Sept. 8 
 
 Vallonga (Don Pedro) . . July 23 
 
 ♦Koniah .... Dec. 21 
 
 Leiria (Portugal) . . . Feb. 14 
 
 ♦St. Sebastian .... May 5 
 
 ♦St. Sebastian .... Oct. 1 
 
 ♦Bilboa (British legion) . Dec. 24 
 
 Hernani May 15 
 
 *Irun (British Legion) . . May 17 
 
 Valentia July 15. 
 
 "Herera (Don Carlos) . . Aug. 24 
 
 ♦Constautina (Algiers) . . Oct. 13 
 
 ♦St. Eustace (Canada) . . Dec. 14 
 
 Pennecerrada (Spain) . . June 22 
 
 Altura (Spain) . . . June 25 
 
 *Prescott (Canada) . . . Oct. 17 
 
 ♦Ghiznee (India) . . . July 23 
 
 *FallofMorella . . . May 31 
 
 ♦Capture of Sidon. See Syria Sept. 27 
 
 ♦Fall of Beyrout . . . Oct. 10 
 
 Afghan War. See India . . Nov. 2 
 
 ♦Storming of Acre . . . Nov. 3 
 
 Kotriah (Seinde) .... Dec. 1 
 
 Chuen-pe. See China . . Jan. 7. 
 
 Canton (Bogue forts taken) . Feb. 26 
 
 Amoy (City taken) . . . Aug. 27 
 
 Chin-hae (taken) . . . Oct. 10 
 
 ♦Cabul (massacre) . . . Nov. 2 
 
 Tu-yaou (taken) . . ' . Dec. 28 
 
 ♦Cabul pass (massacre) . . Jan. 8 
 
 Candahar (Afghans) . . March 10. 
 
 Ning-po. See China . March 10 
 
 Jellalabad (India) . . April 5 
 
 Chin-keang. See China . July 21 
 
 ♦Ghiznee (India) . . . Sept. 6 
 
 ♦Meeanee (Ameers of Seinde) . Feb. 17 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1829 
 1829 
 1829 
 1S29 
 1829 
 1830 
 1830 
 1830 
 1830 
 1831 
 1831 
 1831 
 1S31 
 1831 
 1831 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1S36 
 1836 
 1836 
 1837 
 1837 
 1837 
 1837 
 1837 
 1837 
 1838 
 183S 
 183S 
 1839 
 1840 
 1840 
 184D 
 1840 
 1840 
 1840 
 1S41 
 1841 
 1841 
 1S41 
 1841 
 1841 
 1842 
 1842 
 1S42 
 1S42 
 1842 
 1842 
 1843 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Maharajpoor See India . Dec. 29, 1843 
 
 ♦Moodkee (India) . . . Dec. IS, 1S45 
 
 ♦Ferozeshah(/>KZia) . . Dec. 21, 1845 
 
 Phulloor (Sir H Smith's army attacked 
 
 on the Sutlej by the Sikhs) . Jan. 21, 1846 
 
 * \liwa,l (India) . . . Jan. 28, 1846 
 
 ♦Sobraon (India) . . . Feb. 10, IS 16 
 
 Montery (Mexico) . . Sept. 24, 1846 
 
 Bueno Vista (Mexico) . . Feb. 22, 1847 
 
 St. Ubes (Portugal) . . . May 9, 1847 
 
 Mexico (Scott) . . . . Aug. 19, 1847 
 
 Sonderbund . . . Nov. 13, 1847 
 
 Valauese (Hungarians) . . Sept. 29, 1848 
 
 ♦Mooltan (India) .... Nov. 7, 1848 
 
 ♦Chilliauwallah (India) . . Jan. 13, 1849 
 
 ♦Goojerat (India). . . Feb. 21, 1849 
 
 Vigevano (Radetski) . March 21, 1849 
 
 Novaro (Sardinians) . . March 23, 1849 
 
 Kronstadt (Hungarians) . June 21, 1849 
 
 Acs (Austr. and Hung.) . . July 2, 1849 
 
 Waitzen (ditto) . . . July 14, 1S49 
 
 Schassburg (Bern) . . July 31, 1849 
 
 Temeswar (Haynau) . . Aug. 9, 1849 
 
 Ilstedt (Danes and Holts) . July 25, 1850 
 
 RUSSO-TOBKISH WAR. 
 
 ♦Oltenitza (Turks and Russians) Nov. 4, 1853 
 
 ♦Citate (Turks and Russians) Jan. 6, 1854 
 
 Giurgevo (Turks and Russians) July 8, 1854 
 
 Bayazid (Russians and Turks) July 30, 1854 
 
 Kuruk-Derek (Russ. and Turks) Aug. 5, 1854 
 
 ♦Alma (Allies and Russians) Sept. 20, 1854 
 
 ♦Balaklava (Allies and Russians) Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 ♦Iukermann (Allies and Russians) Nov. 5, 1854 
 
 *Eupa,tqria, (Turks and Russians) Feb. 17, 1855 
 
 Before Malakhoff tower, Sebastopol, 
 
 (Allies and Russians) . May 22, 23, 1855 
 
 Capture of the Mamelon, <&c. June 7, 1855 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff 
 
 tower and Redan (do.) . June 18, 1855 
 
 "Tchernaya (Allies and Russians) Aug. 16, 1855 
 
 ♦Malakhoff taken by the French, Sept. 8, 1855 
 
 ♦Ingour (Russians and Turks) . Nov. 6, 1855 
 
 Baidar (Russians and French) Dec. 8, 1855 
 
 ♦Bushire. (Persians and English) .Dec. 10, 1856 
 Kooshab (ditto) .... Feb. 8, 1857 
 Mohammerah (ditto) . March 26, 1857 
 ♦Before Delhi (English and Indian rebels) 
 
 May 30, 31, and June 8, 1857 
 See Naval Battles. 
 
 [The battles which are thus (♦) marked will be found described in their alphabetical order 
 through the volume, for more particular reference ] 
 
 BAUTZEN, BATTLE op, Between the allied army under the sovereigns of Russia and 
 Prussia, and the French commanded by Napoleon ; the allies were signally defeated, 
 and this battle, followed by that of Wurtzohen, compelled them to pass the Oder, 
 and led to an armistice, which, however, did not produce peace. May 20, 1813. 
 
 BAVARIA, HOUSE of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century : this house 
 has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of the Guelphian family; 
 Henry Guelph was made duke of Bavaria by Conrad II., emperor of Germany, who 
 reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelsbach, was made duke in 1179; aud Maximilian I. 
 elector in 1624. Bavaria was erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December, 1805, 
 and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the whole of the Italian 
 and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
 kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. 
 
 DUKES OF BAVARIA. 
 
 1156. Henry the Lion. Dispossessed by the 
 emperor Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 1179. Otho, earl of Wittelsbach, created duke 
 by the same emperor. 
 
 1231. Louis of Wittelsbach. 
 
 1253. Otho II., the Illustrious ; his son Louis 
 was raised to the electoral dignity. 
 
 1253. Louis the Severe. 
 
 1293. Louis III. 
 
 1294. Louis IV. Elected emperor of Germany 
 
 in 1314. 
 
 ♦ ♦ Stephen I. 
 1375. Stephen II. 
 1413. John. 
 
 * ♦ Albert. 
 
BAV 78 BEA 
 
 BAVARIA, HOUSE of, continued. 
 
 1508. William. 
 1550. William II. 
 
 * * Albert II. 
 
 * * William III. 
 
 1597. Maximilian the Great ; the first elector 
 
 of Bavaria. 
 1651. Ferdinand. 
 1679. Maximilian Emanuel. 
 1726. Charles Albert ; elected emperor of 
 
 Germany in 1742. 
 1745. Maximilian-Joseph I., as elector. 
 
 1777. Charles Theodore. 
 
 1799. Maximilian-Joseph II., as elector. 
 
 KINGS OF BAVARIA. 
 
 1805. Maximilian-Joseph I., the preceding 
 elector, created king. 
 
 1825. Louis-Charles, 13th October: abdicated. 
 
 1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. : succeeded his 
 father, Louis-Charles, on his abdica- 
 tion, March 20.* The present (1857) 
 king. 
 
 BAYEUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by Matilda, 
 the- queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, from the signa- 
 ture of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of William, 1066. — Rapin. 
 This curious monument of antiquity, embroidered by Matilda, ia 19 inches wide, 
 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the train of events, 
 commencing with the visit of Harold to the Norman court, and ending with his death 
 at Hastings ; it is now preserved in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 
 
 BAYLEN, BATTLE of. The French, consisting of 14,000 men, commanded by 
 generals Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Pena, Compigny, 
 and other generals, whose force amounted to 25,000. The French had nearly 3000 
 killed and wounded, and the division of Dupont, which consisted of about 8000 men, 
 was made prisoners of war, July 19, 1808. 
 
 BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This weapon 
 was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. According to 
 the abbe" Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 1 693, " with great 
 success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter with so formidable a novelty." 
 Adopted by the British, Sept. 24, 1693. — Aspin. 
 
 BAYONNE. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in favour of " his friend and ally " the 
 emperor Napoleon ; and Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, and Don Carlos and Don 
 Antonio renounced their rights to the Spanish throne, May 1, 1808. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of Bayonne was much desperate fighting between the French and the 
 British armies, Dec. 10, 11, and 13, 1813. t Bayonne was invested by the British, Jan. 
 14, 1814, during which the French made a sally, and attacked the English with 
 success, but were at length driven back. The loss of the British was considerable, 
 and lieut-gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. 
 
 BAYREUTH. The margrave was a branch of the Brandenburg family. The margravate 
 of Bayreuth, with that of Anapach, was abdicated by the reigning prince in favour of 
 the king of Prussia, 1791. The archives of the principality had been previously (in 
 1783) brought from Plassenburg to the city of Bayreuth, the capital of the domain, 
 now incorporated with Bavaria. 
 
 BAZAAR, OR COVERED MARKET. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar of 
 Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times 
 held 30,000 men in order of battle. Places of this name have been opened recently 
 in these countries. In London, the Soho-square bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 
 1815. The Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive one, was (with the 
 Diorama) burnt down, and the loss estimated at 50.000J., May 27, 1829 : a new one 
 has since been erected. The St. James's bazaar was built by Mr. Crockford in 1832. 
 There are also the Pantheon, the Western Exchange, &c. 
 
 BEACHY HEAD, ENGAGEMENT off. Memorable defeat of the British and Dutch 
 combined fleet, near this promontory on the S.E. coast of Sussex, between Hastings 
 and Seaforth, by a superior French force ; the British, whose ships were commanded 
 
 * The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused by his unfortunate attachment to an 
 intriguing woman, known throughout Europe under the assumed name of Lola Montes, who, in the 
 end, was expelled the kingdom for her interference in state affairs, and has since led a wandering life. 
 
 t Soult issued out of Bayonne and attacked the left of the British army under sir Johu Hope, and 
 twice succeeded in driving the fifth division of the allies, but was twice repulsed, Dec. 10. Next 
 morning, Soult again directed several columns, also against the British left, which withstood the 
 attack, and at the close of the day each army maintained its position, Dec. 11 In the night, Soult 
 moved with his main force to attack the British right; Gen. Hill commanded above 13,0(0 men, 
 and Soult a force of 30,000. Two attacks were at first successful; but the French were ultimately 
 defeated, and Soult drew back his troops towards his intrenched camp at Bayonne, Dec. 13, 1813. — 
 Sir Wm. F. P. Napier. 
 
BEA 79 BEA 
 
 by the earl of Torrington, suffered very severely in tlie unequal contest, June 30, 1690. 
 The Dutch lost two admirals and 500 men ; the English two ships and 400 men. 
 Several of the Dutch ships were sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands of 
 the enemy. The admirals on both sides were blamed ; on ours for not fighting ; on 
 the French side, for not pursuing the victory. 
 
 BEADS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by dervises 
 and other holy men in the East. They were in general use in Roman Catholic 
 devotions, a.d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of 
 whose souls a certain number of prayers were recited, which the devout counted by 
 a string of beads. — Butler. 
 
 BEAGUE, BATTLE of, in Anjou. Between the English and French, the former com- 
 manded by the duke of Clarence, the latter by the dauphin of France, who waa aided 
 by a body of 7000 Scotch under the earl of Buchan. The English were defeated with 
 the loss of 1500 men killed ; and the duke himself was slain by a Scotch knight ; the 
 earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners, April 3, 1421. — Hume. 
 
 BEAM and SCALES. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, " as it weighs 
 so much at the king's beam." A public beam was set up in London, and all com- 
 modities ordered to be weighed by the city officer, called the Weigh-master, who was 
 to do justice between buyer and seller, statute 3 Edw. II. 1309.— Stowe. Beams and 
 scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to be examined by the justices at 
 quarter sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794. They have been frequently the subject of penal 
 acts to assure justice in public dealings. — See Weights and Measures. 
 
 BEANS, BLACK and WHITE. Used by the ancients in gathering the votes of the 
 people, and for the election of magistrates. A white bean signified absolution, and a 
 black one condemnation. The precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, 
 abstine a fabis, has been variously interpreted. "Beans do not favour mental 
 tranquillity." — Cicero. 
 
 BEANS, GARDEN. The finer kinds of beans were brought to these countries at the 
 period of the introduction of most other vegetables, in Henry VIII.'s reign. 
 
 BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. The 
 Tartars, out of a religious principle waged a long and bloody war with the Persians, 
 declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their beards after the rites of 
 Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, who ordered the 
 Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 
 330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 297 B.C. They have been worn for 
 centuries by the Jews. In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, 
 a.d. 1066, until the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. 
 The Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few years ; 
 and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, was obliged to 
 keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Beards are now much more worn 
 in England than formerly. 
 
 BEARDS on WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the battle 
 of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard measured 1^ yard. 
 A woman is said to have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her whole body 
 covered with hair. — Diet de Trevoux. The great Margaret, governess of the Nether- 
 lands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a 
 long black beard. Mile. Bois de Chene, born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was 
 exhibited in London in 1852-3, when, consequently eighteen years of age, she had a 
 profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms 
 and down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 
 
 BEAULIEU, ABBEY of, founded by king John, in the New Forest, Hampshire, in 
 1204. It had the privilege of sanctuary, was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, and 
 was devoted to monks of the reformed Benedictine order. This abbey afforded an 
 asylum to Margaret of Anjou, Queen of Henry VI., after the defeat and death of the 
 earl of Warwick at the battle of Barnet, April 14, 1471. Here, too, Perkin Warbeck 
 sought and obtained refuge in the reign of Henry VII. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, HEROINES of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by Charles the 
 Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women under the conduct 
 of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distinguished themselves, and the 
 duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of their noble exploits 
 
BEC 80 BEH 
 
 during the siege, the females of Beauvais walk first in the procession on the anni- 
 versary of their deliverance. — Hcnault. 
 
 BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the altar, 
 Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say in a moment of exasperation, 
 " What an unhappy prince am I, who have not about me one man of spirit enough to 
 riil me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon Becket's assassination ; and rushing 
 with drawn swords into the cathedral of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they 
 announced their design, when he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the 
 Almighty, not to hurt any other person here, for none of them have been concerned 
 in the late transactions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church; 
 but not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed him 
 on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a groan. The bones 
 of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 1220; they were taken up 
 and burned in the reign of Henry VIII. 1539. — Slowe. 
 
 BED. The practice was in the first ages for mankind to sleep upon the skins of 
 beasts. — Whittaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and Romans, and of 
 the Britons before the Roman invasion. They were afterwards changed for loose 
 rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used in the royal chambers of England 
 so late as the close of the 15th century. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 
 
 BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in hi3 
 famous retreat, 401 B.C. Beer was drunk generally in England in the 13th century. 
 By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty paid on " ale called here," one 
 quart of the best thereof wa3 to be sold for a penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. 
 There have been various statutes passed from time to time regulating the sale of 
 beer. In England the number of retailers under the late acts of 1 Will. IV. and 
 4 Will. IV. 1834, amounts to about 60,000. By 11 & 12 Vict. c. 49 (Aug. 1848) and 
 17 & 18 Vict. c. 79 (1854), the sale of beer and other liquors on Sundays was 
 restricted to certain hours. The time was enlarged by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 79. 1855. See 
 Victuallers. 
 
 BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of 
 honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, in Attica, is also 
 famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest 
 ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B.C. There are 292 species 
 of the bee or apis genus, and 111 in England. Strange to say, bees were not originally 
 natives of New England : they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, 
 and have since spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw auy. 
 
 BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the 
 table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. 
 M. Achard produced excellent 6 ugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at 
 the instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 
 60,000 tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France 
 from beet. It is also largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery of sugar 
 from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 
 
 BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, 
 in 1207, some say 1226. The " Grand Beguinage " of Bruges was the most extensive 
 of modern times.— Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
 could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impeccability. The 
 council of Vienue condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 1311. 
 
 BEHEADING. The Dccollatio of the Romans. Introduced into England from Nor- 
 mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William 
 the Conqueror, 1074, when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and North- 
 umberland, was first so executed. — Salmon's Chron. Our English history is filled 
 with instances of this mode of execution, particularly in the reigns of Henry VIII. 
 and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent 
 lives, thus suffered death.* 
 
 * Among other iustances (besides queens of England) may be mentioned the lady Jane Grey, 
 beheaded Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury,— the latter remarkable for her 
 resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do 
 it ; telling him that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pursued 
 her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, after mangling 
 the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter of George, 
 Uuke of Clarence, and last of the royal line of Plantagenet. May 27, 1511. — Hume. 
 
BEH 
 
 81 
 
 BEL 
 
 BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in 
 three languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered 
 and translated by Sir H. Rawlinson, in 1844-6, and published in the Transactions of 
 the Royal Asiatic Society. 
 
 BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the 
 service of Russia, whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
 of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about thirty-nine 
 miles, 1728. The current from the west, between the shores is very inconsiderable, 
 the depth not being more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. 
 
 BELFAST. First mentioned about a.d. 1315. Its castle, supposed to have been built 
 by John de Courcy, was then destroyed by the Scots, under Edward Bruce. Belfast 
 was granted by James I. to Sir Arthur Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612. It was erected 
 into a corporation, 1613. The long bridge, 2000 feet in length, and of 21 arches, was 
 commenced in 1682. William III. resided here several days, June, 1690. Here was 
 printed the first edition of the Bible published in Ireland, 1704. The castle was burnt 
 April, 1708. The bank built, 1787- The mechanics' institute, established, 1825. Of 
 three colleges established in Ireland under the act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed in 1845, 
 one was inaugurated in Belfast, October, 1849. See Colleges in Ireland. The mer- 
 chants of Belfast are the only commercial men in Ireland who have uniformly used 
 their own vessels as the carriers of their own trade. —Hardy's Tour. 
 
 BELGIUM, late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently 
 the territory of the Belgse, who were conquered by Julius Cajsar, 47 B.C. Under the 
 dominion of France so late as a.d. 1369 ; formed into a kingdom in 1831. 
 
 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 
 
 Became an acquisition of the house of 
 
 Austria 1477 
 
 Charles V. annexed the Netherlands to 
 
 the crown of Spain 1556 
 
 Seven provinces, under William, prince 
 of Orange, revolt, owing to the 
 tyranny of Philip II. ; freed . . 1579 
 The ten remaining provinces are given 
 
 to the archduke 1598 
 
 These again fall to Spain . . . 164S 
 Seven again ceded to Germany . . . 1714 
 And three to France .... 174S 
 Austrians expelled ; but their rule after- 
 wards restored 17S9 
 
 The French entered Belgium , Nov. 1, 1792 
 United to France. . . Sept. 30, 1795 
 Placed under the sovereignty of the 
 
 house of Orange 1814 
 
 The great revolution commences at 
 
 Brussels .... Aug. 25, 1S30 
 The Provisional Government declares 
 
 Belgium independent . . Oct. 4, 1830 
 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
 Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
 whence they cannonade the town, 
 
 Oct. 27, 1830 
 
 Belgian independence acknowledged by 
 
 the allied powers, announced by Van 
 
 de Weytr .... Dec. 26, 1830 
 
 Duke de Nemours elected king ; but his 
 
 father, the French king, refuses his 
 
 consent Feb. 3, 1S31 
 
 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
 of Belgium .... Feb. 24, 1831 
 
 king July 12, 1S31 
 
 He enters Brussels . . . July 19, 1S31 
 
 The king of the Netherlands recom- 
 mences the war . . Aug. 3. 1831 
 
 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
 Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 
 
 A conference of the ministers of the five 
 great powers is held in Loudon, which 
 terminates in the acceptance of the 24 
 articles of pacification . . Nov. 15, 1S31 
 
 Leopold marries Louise, eldest daughter 
 of Louis-Philippe, king of the French,* 
 
 Aug. 9, 1S32 
 
 The French army commences its return 
 to France .... Dec. 27, 1832 
 
 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much 
 mischief ensues . . April 6, 1834 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium 
 signed in London . . . April 19, 1839 
 
 Death of the queen . . Oct. 10, 1S50 
 
 The king and duke of Brabant visit 
 England . - . . . . Oct. 1852 
 
 Increase of the army to 100,000 men 
 voted .... May 10, 1S53 
 
 Marriage of duke of Brabant (heir to 
 the throne) to Marie Henriette, arch- 
 duchess of Austria . . . Aug. 22, 1853 
 
 Ministerial crisis . . Aug. and Sept., 1S54 
 
 Great opposition to religious charities 
 bill ; legislative session closed June, 1857 
 
 The treaty above-mentioned arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
 question ; by the decision of which, the treaty of Nov. 15, 1831, was maintained and 
 the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the 
 territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible. The population of Beh'ium 
 was 4,407,241 on Jan. 1, 1851, according to the Belgian census returns of 1852. 
 
 KING OF THE BELGIANS. 
 
 [Belgium having separated from the king- 
 dom of the Netherlands, the sovereignty was 
 offered to Louis Charles, due do Nemours, 
 second sou of Louis Philippe, king of the 
 French, but declined. It was next offered to 
 
 Leopold, prince of Coburg, by whom it was 
 accepted.] 
 
 1831. Leopold, first king of the Belgians; in- 
 augurate d .] uly 20, 1831, at Brussels, the capital 
 of his kingdom. The present (1S57J king. 
 
 Leopold married, in May, 1S16, the princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of 
 u'tcrwards Gc< rge IV. of England ; she died, Nov. 0, 1817. 
 
 the i rince regent, 
 
BEL 82 BEL 
 
 BELGRADE, BATTLE of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which the 
 latter was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade was taken by 
 Solyman, 1522, and retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted 
 to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 1717 {see next article), and kept 
 till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been 
 demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, 
 in 1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. 
 
 BELGRADE, SIEGE of, was undertaken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On 
 Aug. 5 of that year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and 
 a sanguinary battle was fought, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle 
 Belgrade surrendered. It has been frequently besieged, See Sieges. 
 
 BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE. An ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish Church, used 
 in Excommunication, which see, and also Interdict. The bell is rung, the book closed, 
 and candle extinguished ; the effect being to exclude the excommunicated from the 
 society of the faithful, depriving them of the benefits of divine service and the sacra- 
 ments. — Pardon. Swearing by bell, book, and candle, is said to have originated 
 in the manner of the pope's blessing the world yearly from the balcony of St. Peter's 
 at Rome. 
 
 BELL-ROCK LIGHT-HOUSE, esteemed one of the finest structures of the kind in 
 Great Britain. It is nearly in front of the Frith of Tay, and is 115 feet high ; it is 
 built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length and 200 in breadth, and ia about 
 12 feet under water. Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the ancient monas- 
 tery of Aberbrothock succeeded in fixing a bell in such a manner that it was rung by 
 the impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their impending danger. Tradition 
 also tells us that this apparatus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was afterwards 
 lost upon the rock, with his ship and crew. The present lighthouse was commenced 
 in 1806 ; it is provided with two bells, for hazy weather. 
 
 BELLAIR, BATTLE of, in America. The town was attacked by the British forces 
 under command of sir Peter Parker ; but after an obstinate engagement, in which 
 the result was a long time doubtful, they were repulsed with considerable loss, and 
 their gallant commander was killed, Aug. 30, 1814. 
 
 BELLEISLE. Erected into a duchy in favour of marshal Belleisle, in 1742, in reward 
 of his brilliant military and diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken 
 by the British forces under commodore Keppel and general Hodgson, after a des- 
 perate resistance, June 7, 1761, but was restored to France in 1763. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles-lettres in 
 Europe, after the darkness of previous ages, to Brunetto, Latini, and other learned 
 men in different countries, about a.d. 127*2. — Univ. Hist. Learning greatly promoted 
 by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fontana. Literature began to flourish in 
 France, Germany, and England, about this time. The belles-lettres commenced with 
 us in the reign of Elizabeth, and flourished in that of Anne. See A cademies. 
 
 BELLMEN First appointed in London, to proclaim the hour of the night before public 
 clocks became general. They were numerous about a.d. 1556. The bellman was to 
 ring his bell at night, and cry " Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to 
 the poor, and pray for the dead." — Noorthouck's History of London. 
 
 BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of them, about 
 569 B.C. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors 
 for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The production 
 of the great leviathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic 
 bellows) must have been early, but we cannot trace the time. — See Blowing Machines. 
 
 BELLS, were used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The responses 
 of the Dodonsean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. The monument of 
 Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. — Pliny. Introduced 
 by Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campagna, about a.d. 400. First known in France in 
 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, was frightened from the siege of Sens 
 by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's Church. The second Excerption of our 
 king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
 church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX.. about 900, as 
 a defence, by ringing them, against thunder and lightning. First cast in England by 
 Turketel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor improved the inven- 
 
BEL 
 
 83 
 
 BEN 
 
 tion, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. — Stowe. 
 The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his discourse at the Royal 
 Institution, March 6, 1857, on the Westminster bell: — 
 
 Tons. Cwt. 
 Moscow, 1736;* broken, 173T . 250 ? 
 
 Another, 1817 110 ? 
 
 Three others 16 to 31 
 
 Novogorod 31 
 
 Olmutz 
 
 Vienua, 1711 .... 
 Westminster, 1856 f 
 Erfurt, 1497 .... 
 
 Paris, 16S0 .... 
 
 Sens 
 
 Montreal, 1S47 . 
 
 Cologne, 144S . . ... 11 
 
 Breslaw, 1507 11 
 
 Gorlitz 10 
 
 York, 1S45 10 
 
 Bruges, 16S0 10 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 18i 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 ? 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 St. Peter's, Rome 
 Oxford, 1680 
 Lucerne, 1636 . 
 Halsberstadt, 1457 
 Antwerp . 
 Brussels 
 Dantzic, 1453 . 
 Lincoln, 1834 
 St. Paul's, 1716 t 
 Ghent . 
 Boulogne, new 
 Exeter, 1675 
 Old Lincoln, 1610 
 Fourth quarter-bell, Westminster, 
 1857 
 
 Tons. Cwt. 
 8 
 
 12 
 11 
 10 
 3 
 
 1J 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 18 
 18 
 10? 
 
 BELLS, BAPTISM op. They were early anointed and baptised in churches. — Du 
 Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were baptised by the 
 names of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c, in 1501. — Weever. 
 The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was baptised by the name of Duke of 
 Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, in Roman Catholic states, they baptise bells 
 as we do ships, but with religious solemnity. — Ashe. 
 
 BELLS, RINGING of, in changes of regular peals, is almost peculiar to the 
 English, who boast of having brought the practice to an art. There were formerly 
 societies of ringers in London. — Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of five, 
 in the church of St. Michael, 1430. — Stowe's Survey. Nell Gwynne left the ringers of 
 the bells of St. Martin's-in-the-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and 
 very many others have done the same. 
 
 BENARES, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
 nabob of Oude, Asoph ud Dowlah, to the English, in 1775. An insurrection took 
 place here, which had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. 
 The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. 
 Conway, and others, were assassinated at Benares by vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. See India. 
 
 BENCOOLEN. The English East India Company made a settlement here, which pre- 
 served to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 
 1682. — Anderson. York Fort was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 
 1693, a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town being built on a 
 pestilent morass : among those who perished were the governor and council. 
 Marlborough Fort was built, 1714. The French, under count D'Estaign, destroyed the 
 English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the govern- 
 ment of Bengal, in 1801. See India. 
 
 BENDER is memorable as the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after his defeat at 
 Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709. The celebrated peace of Bender 
 was concluded in 1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in 1770 ; and 
 was again taken in 1789. It was restored at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the 
 peace of 1812. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the first that 
 introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in the beginning of the 
 sixth century. No religious order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and 
 men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. It spread over a large portion of 
 Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it possessed by other religious com- 
 munities about a.d. 1100. The Benedictines appeared early in England; and William 
 
 * The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at £66,565. Gold and silver are said to have 
 been thrown in as votive offerings. 
 
 t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the present chief com- 
 missioner of works), cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, under the superintend- 
 ence of Mr. E. Beckett Denison and the rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of £3343 14s. 9<£ The com- 
 position is 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The diameter is 9 ft. 5J in. ; the height 7 ft. 10J in. The clapper 
 weighs 12 cwt. — Rev. W. Taylor. 
 
 % The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs ISO lbs. ; the diameter of the bell is 10 feet, and its thickness 
 10 inches. The hour of the day strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones beneath. 
 See Clocks. 
 
 g2 
 
BEN 84 BEN 
 
 I. built them an abbey on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
 See Battel Abbey. William de Warrenne, earl of Warren, built them a convent at 
 Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are deno- 
 minated Benedictine dames. — Leigh. Of this order it is reckoned that there have 
 been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 4 emperors, 
 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canonised. 
 — Baronius. Many valuable works have been produced by the Benedictines, e. g. I'Art 
 de Verifier les Bates (first published in 1750), and many ancient authors edited. 
 
 BENEFICES. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then the priests 
 were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should become vacant in 
 the space of sis months were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. — 
 Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in Eugland and Wales, according to the 
 latest parliamentary returns, is 11,728, and the number of glebe-houses 5527; these 
 are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, 
 secondaries, and similar church preferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and 
 of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number of parishes in Ireland is 1456, to 
 which there are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
 glebe-houses. See Church of England. 
 
 BENEFIT of CLERGY, a privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but afterwards 
 extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and particularly manslaughter. 
 The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, 
 from which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said, " Legit ut clericus," the 
 offender was only burnt in the hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
 This privilege was abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as 
 also the claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII. 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was 
 wholly repealed by statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV. June, 1827. See Clergy, Benefit of. 
 
 BENEFIT SOCIETIES. These institutions originated among the humble and indus- 
 trious classes in England. An act was passed for the regulation of them in 1795, 
 since when various statutes for their protection and encouragement have served to 
 make them more numerous and important. Building societies and Friendly societies 
 have also been promoted by the protection afforded to them by the legislature. The 
 Benefit and other societies having accumulated large amounts of money, a plan 
 was adopted to identify their funds with the public debt of the country. See 
 Savings Banks. 
 
 BENEVENTO. Near here was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 114. Benevento 
 was formed into a duchy by the Lombards, a.d. 571. The castle was built, 1323; the 
 town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the archbishop, afterwards 
 pope Benedict XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its subsequent 
 rebuilding again. 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored to the pope 
 on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Perigord, Bonaparte's arch- 
 chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. 
 
 BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no record. It 
 was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 1340, when it became 
 independent, and remained so until 1560. It afterwards fell to the Mogul empire. 
 Bengal is now the chief pi*esidency of our possessions in India, and Calcutta, its 
 capital, is the seat of our government. See India. 
 
 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole 
 (see Black-hole) . . . .ad. 1756 
 Retaken by colonel Clivc . . . 1757 
 New fort at Calcutta commenced . . 1758 
 Imperial grant vesting the revenues of 
 
 The English were first permitted to 
 trade to Bengal . . . . a.d. 1534 
 
 First regular dispatch received by the 
 Company at home 1642 
 
 Oppression of the natives — the Com- 
 
 pany's factories withdrawn . . 1656 
 
 Factories of the French and Danes . . 1664 
 Bengal made a distinct agency . 1680 
 
 First factory at Calcutta .... 1690 
 The settlements first placed in a state of 
 
 defence 1694 
 
 Calcutta bought, and fortified . . . 1700 
 Ics garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 
 diers, of whom but 66 were Europeans 1706 
 Calcutta taken by Surajah Dowla; and 
 
 Bengal in the Company, by which the 
 virtual sovereignty of the country was 
 obtained .... Aug 12, 1765 
 India-Bill ; Bengal made the chief pre- 
 sidency .... June 16, 1773 
 Supreme court established . June 16, 1773 
 Mr. Pitt's celebrated India-Dill, Aug. 13, 17S4 
 Courts of Judicature erected for civil, 
 
 causes Fob. 11, 1793 
 
 Bishop of Calcutta appointed July 51, 1813 
 See India. 
 
 The appointments of governors-general, chief judges, and bishops, of the first for India, 
 of the second and third for Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, will be found severally 
 under the article India. 
 
BER 85 BER 
 
 BERBICE, in Guiana, surrendered to the British by the Dutch, April 23, 1796, and 
 again Sept. 22, 1803. It was finally ceded to England in 1814 (since when it has 
 much improved), and was placed in the same relation as to trade with the British 
 West India Islands in 1816, and is now a British colony. See Colonies. 
 
 BERESINA, BATTLE OF. Total defeat of the French main army by the Russians on 
 the banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it when escaping 
 out of Russia, Nov. 28, 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men in this 
 battle, and in their retreat (which was attended by the greatest calamity and 
 suffering). 
 
 BERGEN, BATTLE of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 14, 
 1759. The allies were again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In 
 another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4000 men; and, on the 6th, 
 they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5000 men. On the 20th, the duke 
 of York entered into a convention, by which he exchanged his army for 6000 French 
 and Dutch prisoners in England. 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM. This place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was taken by 
 the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. An attempt made by the British, under 
 general sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by storm, was 
 defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter 
 ensued; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. 
 
 BERKELEY CASTLE was begun by Henry I. in 1108, and finished in the next reign. 
 Here Edward II. was traitorously and cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his 
 queen Isabella (a princess of France), and her favourite and paramour, Mortimer, 
 earl of March. This wicked woman first deserted, next invaded, then dethroned, 
 and lastly caused her unhappy king and husband to be inhumanly deprived of life 
 by the most frightful means in Berkeley Castle, Sept. 21, 1327. Mortimer was 
 hanged on a gibbet at the Elms, near London, Nov. 29, 1330; and Edward III. 
 confined his guilty mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn in Norfolk, 
 till her death. 
 
 BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its five 
 districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714; and it was subsequently made 
 the capital of Prussia. It was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and 
 Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, 
 thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin ; and from its palace 
 Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree. See next article. Berlin was declared in 
 a state of siege, Nov. 1848. The continuation of this state of siege was declared to 
 be illegal by the lower chamber without its concurrence, April 25, 1849. 
 
 BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. It 
 declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all Englishmen found in 
 countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as prisoners of war ; the 
 whole world, in fact, was to cease from any communication with Great Britain. It 
 was issued by Napoleon from the court of the Prussian king, shortly after the battle 
 of Jena, Nov. 21, 1806. See Jena. 
 
 BERLIN, CONVENTION of, entered into with Prussia by Napoleon, Nov. 5, 1808. 
 By this treaty, he remitted to Prussia the sum due on the war-debt, aud withdrew 
 many of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 
 
 BERMUDAS, ok SOMERS' ISLES, were discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 
 1527; but were not inhabited until 1609, when Sir George Somers was cast away 
 upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I. 1612. Among the exiles 
 from England during the civil war, was Waller the poet, who wrote, while resident 
 here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, Oct, 31, 
 1780, and another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping 
 driven ashore, July 20, 1813. 
 
 BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and vertu, collected by Ralph Bernal, Esq., 
 many years chairman of committees of ways and means in the House of Commons, He 
 died Aug. 25, 1855, The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days; and enormous prices 
 were given. The total sum realised was 62,680L 6s. 8cl. 
 
 BERNARD, MOUNT ST. Velan, its highest peak, is 11,066 feet high, covered with per- 
 petual snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into 
 Italy (b.c. 218) ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte led his troops to the 
 
BER 86 BIB 
 
 plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. The order of 
 Bernardine monks was founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, in the 12th century. 
 On the summit of Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain in 
 their convent all travellers gratis for three days. — Brooke. 
 
 BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the English 
 and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always 
 claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. 
 Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and 
 annexed to England, in 1333; and after having been taken and retaken many times, 
 was finally ceded to England in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, 
 and afterwards to general Monk. Since the union of the Crowns (James I. 1603), the 
 fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 
 
 BETHLEHEM. The birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who had an order 
 in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished city. It now contaius a 
 church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross ; also a chapel, called 
 the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ 
 was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. 
 Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. 
 
 BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL. So called from having been originally the hospital of 
 St. Mary of Bethlehem. A royal foundation for the reception of lunatics incorporated 
 by Henry VIII. in 1546. The old Bethlehem Hospital, which was erected in 1675, 
 on the east side of Moorfields, was pulled down in 1814. It was built in imitation of 
 the Tuileries at Paris ; which gave so much offence to Louis XIV. that he ordered a 
 plan of St. James's palace to be taken for offices of a very inferior nature. The 
 present hospital, in St. George's Fields, was begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. 
 In 1856 extensive improvements were completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney 
 Smirke, costing between nine and ten thousand pounds. 
 
 BETTING-HOUSES. These establishments affording much temptation to gaming, and 
 consequent dishonesty, in the lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed Aug. 10, 
 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119), a penalty of 100^. being enforced on the owners or occupiers. 
 
 BEYROUT. This city, which was colonised from Sidon, was destroyed by an earth- 
 quake, a.d. 566. It was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and 
 Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of Amurath IV., 
 since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, 
 in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
 Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place Oct. 10, 1840. 
 
 BHURTPORE, India, was besieged by the British, Jan. 3, 1805, and attacked five times, 
 up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by general Lake, after a 
 desperate engagement with Holkar, April 2, 1805. The defeat of Holkar led to 
 a treaty, by which the rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, and 
 ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, delivering up 
 his son as hostage, April 10, 1805. Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Com- 
 bermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See India. 
 
 BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons, twins, Eury- 
 sthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be 
 given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102, 
 B.C. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. — Herodotus. 
 
 BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by seventy-two 
 interpreters, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphius : it is thence called the Septuagint 
 version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at Alexandria, 277 B.C. — Josephus. It 
 was commenced 2S4 B.C. — Lenglet. In 283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted 
 of seventy or seventy-two-members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two 
 translators of Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, 
 and each pair translated the whole ; and on comparison, it was found that the thirty- 
 six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin Martyr. See Polyglot. 
 
 BIBLE, ANCIENT COPIES of the. The oldest version of the Old aud New Testa- 
 ment belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which was written in the 
 fourth or fifth century, and published in 1587. The next in age is the Alexandrian 
 MS. in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I., and said 
 
BIB 
 
 87 
 
 BIB 
 
 In the New. 
 
 Total. 
 
 27 
 
 66 
 
 260 
 
 1,189 
 
 7,959 
 
 31,173 
 
 181,253 
 
 773,746 
 
 838,380 
 
 3,566,480 
 
 to have been copied nearly about the same time. The most ancient copy of the 
 Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, about a.d. 1000; and the copy of Ben Asher, of 
 Jerusalem, was made about 1100. 
 
 BIBLE, DIVISION of the. The Old Testament was divided into twenty-two books by 
 the Jews, the number of letters in the alphabet. The Christians divided it into thirty- 
 nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made by the rabbi Nathan, 
 about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and a part into verses, by arch- 
 bishop Langton, who died in 1228; and this division was perfected by Eobert 
 Stephens, about 1534. The following are laborious and interesting computations : — 
 
 In the Old Testament. 
 
 Books 39 
 
 Chapters 929 
 
 Verses 23,214 
 
 Words 592,493 
 
 Letters . . . . .2,728,100 
 
 The middle chapter and the least in the Bible, is the 117th Psalm; the middle verse 
 is the 8th of the 118th Psalm ; the middle line is the second book of Chronicles, 4th 
 chapter and 15th verse. Old Testament : The middle book is Proverbs; the middle 
 chapter is the 29th of Job ; the middle verse is the 2nd book of Chronicles, 20th 
 chapter and 13th verse ; the least verse is the 1st book of Chronicles, 1st chapter 
 and 1st verse. New Testament: The middle book is the 2nd Thessalonians ; the 
 middle chapters are the 13th and 14th of the Romans ; the middle verse is the 17th 
 of the 17th chapter of the Acts; the least verse is the 35th of the 11th chapter of the 
 Gospel of St. John. The word and occurs in the Old Testament 35,535 times ; the 
 same word occurs in the New Testament 10,684 times ; and the word Jehovah, in the 
 Old Testament occurs 6855 times. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra has in 
 it all the letters of the alphabet ; and the 19th chapter of the 2nd book of Kings 
 and the 37th chapter of Isaiah, are alike. 
 
 BIBLE, EDITIONS of the. The vulgate edition in Latin was made by St. Jerome 
 a.d. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Boman Catholic church to be authentic; 
 it was first printed in 1462. — Blair. The first perfect edition in English was 
 printed, as appears from the colophon, by Tindal (who had printed the New Testa- 
 ment in 1526) and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this edition was made, 
 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 1549. The Bishops' Bible 
 was printed in 1558. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch; bishops Davis and 
 Sandys, the Historical Books ; bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop Home, the 
 major Prophets; bishop Grindal, the minor Prophets; bishops Parkhurst and Barlow, 
 the Apocrypha; bishop Cox, the Gospels, and Acts; and archbishop Parker, the 
 remainder. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
 translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now generally 
 used in Great Britain. The Bible was first printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. 
 It was permitted by the pope to be translated into the language of the Roman 
 Catholic states, 1759. The Bible was printed in 
 
 Spanish . 
 
 . a.d. 1478 
 
 Russian 
 
 A.D. 15S1 
 
 Manks . 
 
 . A.D. 1771 
 
 German 
 
 . . 1522 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 . 1589 
 
 Italian 
 
 . . 1776 
 
 English . 
 
 . 1534 
 
 Polish 
 
 . . 1596 
 
 Bengalee 
 
 . 1801 
 
 French 
 
 . . 1535 
 
 Modern Greek 
 
 . 163S 
 
 Tartar 
 
 . . 1813 
 
 Swedish . 
 
 . 1541 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 . . 1666 
 
 Persian . 
 
 . 1815 
 
 Danish 
 
 . . 1550 
 
 Irish 
 
 . 16S5 
 
 African 
 
 . .. 1816 
 
 Dutch . 
 
 - . . 1560 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 . . 1748 
 
 Chinese . 
 
 . 1820 
 
 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared in several instances at 
 earlier dates, particularly in European languages. Till 1360 the Psalter appears to be 
 the only part of the Bible translated entirely in English. Between that time and 
 1385, John Wickliffe and his followers translated the whole Bible from the Latin 
 Vulgate (which was published in 1850 at Oxford, edited by Forshall and Madden). 
 See Polyglot. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the 
 dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : 
 — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698; Society for 
 Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society, in Scotland, for Promoting 
 Christian Knowledge, 1709; Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the 
 Poor, 1750 ; Naval and Military Bible Society, 1780 ; Sunday School Society, 1785 ; 
 
BIB 88 BIL 
 
 French Bible Society, 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 ; * Hibernian 
 Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812. A bull from the 
 pope against Bible Societies appeared iu 1817. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. The following works on this subject are 
 highly esteemed: Peignot, Manuel, 1823; Home, Introduction to the Study of 
 Bibliography, 1814; Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarke, and Dibdin; English, 
 Watts, Bibliotheca Britanuica, 1824 ; Lowndes, Manual, 1S34 ; French, Querard, 
 1828 et seq. As a general work of reference, Brunet, Manuel du Libraire, 1842, 
 is exceedingly valuable. 
 
 BIDASSOA, PASSAGE of the. The allied army effected the passage of this river, 
 Oct. 7, 1813, under lord Wellington; who, having thus completed his glorious career 
 in Spain and Portugal, pursued his conquered enemy into France, where were fought 
 the crowning battles of the campaign. See the battles severally. 
 
 BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at 
 Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of 
 twenty acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named 
 Chulkhurst, who, tradition states, were born joined together by the hips and shoulders, 
 in a.d. 1100 ; and having lived in that state to the age of thirty-four, died within six 
 hours of each other. Cakes bearing a corresponding impression of the figures of two 
 females, are given on Easter-day to all who ask for them. Halsted deems this tale 
 fabulous, and states that the print on the cakes is of modern origin, and that the 
 land was given by two maiden ladies, named Preston. See Siamese Twins. 
 
 BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark; with us, 
 the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was 
 passed 5 Edw. I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit 
 of clergy, 1 James I. 1603, Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit 
 larceny, 35 Geo. III. 1794.— The bigamist is now punished, according to the degree 
 or circumstances of the offence, by imprisonment or transportation. 
 
 BILBOA, BATTLE of. This place, which had been invested by the Carlists under 
 Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered, by the defeat of the besiegers 
 by Espartero, assisted by British naval co-operation. Espartero entered Bilboa in 
 triumph next day — Christmas-day, Dec. 25. 1836. 
 
 BILL of EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering to a judge upon a trial between 
 parties a bill of exceptions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to remedy 
 other errors of the court, was provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 
 Edw. I. 1284. Such bills are tendered to this day. 
 
 BILL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, was 
 obtained from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. This bill recognised all the legal 
 privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all manner of arts 
 and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass it into a law. The Bill 
 of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, passed 1 William and Mary, 
 Feb. 1689. This is the only written law respecting the liberties of the people, except 
 Magna Charta. — Viner's Statutes. 
 
 BILLS of EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their 
 property from nations where they were persecuted, a.d. 1160. — Anderson. Bills were 
 used iu England, 1307. — The only legal mode of sending money from England, 
 4 Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782— duty advanced, 1797— 
 again, June, 1801 ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 
 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that 
 there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and 
 promissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 
 many statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV., 1828. 
 An act regulating bills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great alterations were^ 
 made in the law on this subject by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), & 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 
 (1855). 
 
 BILLS of MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about a.d. 
 1536, 28 Hen. VIII., but in a more formal and recognised manner in 1593, after the great 
 plague of that year. No complete series of them has been preserved. They are now 
 
 * At the end of 1S50 this society harl issued 24,247,607 copies of the Bible. In 1S57 they published 
 a catalogue of their library, which contains a large number of remarkable editions of the Bible. 
 
BIL 
 
 89 
 
 Bill 
 
 superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general. The following show 
 the numbers at decennial distances : — 
 
 In the year 17S0, Christenings 
 1790, Christenings 
 1800, Christenings 
 1810, Christenings 
 1820, Christenings 
 1S30, Christenings 
 1840, Christenings 
 1S50, Christenings 
 
 16,634 
 
 18,980 
 19,176 
 19,930 
 26.15S 
 27,028 
 30,3S7 
 39,973 
 
 In the year 1780, Burials 
 1790, Burials 
 1800, Burials 
 1810, Burials 
 1820, Burials 
 1830, Burials 
 1840, Burials 
 1850, Burials 
 
 . 20,507 
 . 18,038 
 . 23,068 
 . 19,892 
 . 19,348 
 . 23,524 
 . 26,774 
 . 36,947 
 
 IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1S40 . . Births, 502,303 Deaths, 356,634 
 1S45 . . Births, 543,521 Deaths, 349,366 
 1849 . . Births, 578,159 Deaths, 440,853 
 
 1853 . . Births, 612,341 Deaths, 421,775 
 
 1854 . . Births, 634,506 Deaths, 438,239 
 1S56 . . Births, 657,704 Deaths, 391,369 
 
 IN LONDON AND SUBURBS. 
 
 1S54 . . Births, S4,684 Deaths, 73,697 
 
 1855 . . . Births, 84,944 Deaths, 61,506 
 
 1856 . . Births, 86,833 Deaths, 57,786 
 
 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and 
 Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — Nouv. Diet. The 
 French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist, in the reign of 
 Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England in 1827. 
 
 BILLINGSGATE, the celebrated market-place for fish, in London, is said to have 
 derived its name from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 
 400 B.C., but Stowe thinks, from a former owner. — Mortimer. It was the old port of 
 London, and the customs were paid here under Ethelred II. 979. — Stowe. Billingsgate 
 was made a free market, 1669. — Chamberlain. Fish by land-carriage, as well as sea- 
 borne, now daily arrives here. In 1849, the market was very greatly extended and 
 improved, and is now well cleaned, lighted, and ventilated. 
 
 BINARY ARITHMETIC. That which counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining 
 the property of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented by baron Leibnitz of 
 Leipsic, the celebrated statesman, philosopher, and poet, a.d. 1694. — Moreri. 
 
 BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra. Composed of only two parts connected with the signs 
 plus or minus; the term was first used by Recorda, about a.d. 1550, when he 
 published his Algebra. The binomial theorem, the celebrated theorem of Newton, 
 was first mentioned in 1688. — Button. 
 
 BIRCH TREE. The black (Betula nigra), brought from North America, 1736. The 
 birch tree known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by 
 Mr. James Gordon, from North America, 1762. The tree known as the Birch is now 
 largely cultivated in all the countries of Europe. — Hardy's Annals. 
 
 BIRDS. Divided by Linnseus into six orders (1735); by Blumenbach into eight (1805); 
 and by Cuvier into six (1817). 
 
 BIRKENHEAD. The troop ship Birkenhead, iron paddle-wheeled, and of 556 horse- 
 power, sailed from Queenstown, January 7, 1852, for the Cape, having on board 
 detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 
 74th, and 91st regiments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock off Simon's bay, 
 South Africa, and of 638 persons only 184 were saved by the boats; 454 of the crew 
 and soldiers perished by drowning, some of them, perhaps, swallowed by sharks that 
 were seen swimming around, February 26, following. The rock broke through into 
 the engine-room, and literally rent the ship in two, the parts sinking on its opposite 
 sides, while those clinging to the wreck calmly resigned themselves to inevitable 
 death. 
 
 BIRMAN EMPIRE, or AVA. See Burmese Empire and India. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a.d. 872 ; but its importance 
 as a manufacturing town commenced in the reign of William III. 
 
 Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . 1643 
 Soho works established by Matthew 
 
 Boulton 1764 
 
 Birmingham canal was originated . . 1768 
 Memorable riots commenced here, on 
 some persons commemorating the 
 French revolution . . July 14, 1791 
 Theatre destroyed by fire . Aug. 17, 1792 
 
 More commotions . . . Nov. 1S0O 
 
 Theatre again burnt 1817 
 
 And again . . ' . . Jan. 7, 1820 
 Birmingham Political Union formed . 1831 
 Dissolved itself. . . . May 10, 1834 
 
 Town-hall built 1833 
 
 Birmingham and Liverpool railway 
 opened as the Grand Junction, July 4, 1837 
 
BTR 90 BIS 
 
 Queen's College organised . . Jan. 1853 
 Public park opened (ground given by 
 
 Mr. Adderley) . . . Aug. 3, 1856 
 New music hall opened . Sept. 3, 1856 
 Another park opened by the duke of 
 Cambridge (ground given by lord 
 Calthorpe) .... June 1, 1857 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, continued. 
 
 London and Birmingham railway opened 
 
 its entire length . . Sept. 17, 1838 
 Great political riot, firing of houses, and 
 
 other outrages committed by the 
 
 Chartists .... July 15, 1839 
 Birmingham police act passed, 3 Vict. 
 
 Aug. 96, 1839 
 Corn Exchange opened . . Oct. 27, 1847 
 
 BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz., birth of a duke, ZQl. — of 
 a common person, 2s. — 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four 
 children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery recorded in 
 modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five children at a birth, 
 Sept. 3, 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of 
 Oxford-market, London, had five children at a birth, in October, 1800. — Annals of 
 London. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 
 
 BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the inspection of 
 the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer; but now it means only that 
 person who has the government of church affairs in a certain district. In England, 
 the dignity is coeval with Christianity. St. Peter, styled the first bishop of Rome, 
 was martyred a.d. 65. The bishops of Rome assumed the title of pope in 138. The 
 rank was anciently assumed by all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the 
 title of pope should belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 
 
 BISHOPS op ENGLA ND. See the Sees severally. The first was appointed in a.d. 180. See 
 York, London. Made barons, 1072. The Conge tfElire of the king to choose a bishop 
 originated in an arrangement of king John with the clergy. Bishops were elected by 
 the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Hen. VIII. 1535. Seven were deprived for being 
 married, 1554. Several suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. 
 Bishops were excluded from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 
 Charles I. 1640. Several were committed for protesting against the legality of all 
 acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, 1641 ; regained 
 their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the Tower for not reading the king's 
 declaration for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the Roman Catholics into 
 ecclesiastical and civil power), and tried and acquitted, June 29-30, 1688. The arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
 Norwich, and Peterborough) were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William 
 and Mary, 1689, and deprived 1690. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. The sees of Bristol and 
 Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, 1836. An order in council, Oct. 
 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in 
 either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon : this order, as regarded 
 the union of the sees, was rescinded 1846. See Manchester* 
 
 BISHOPS OF IRELAND. See the Sees severally. Bishops are said to have been consecrated 
 in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted 
 at Saiger, was founded a.d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. The 
 bishopric of Trim has been named as the first by some writers, although not erected 
 before the year 432. Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the bishoprics in 
 Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, legate from pope Eugene III. a.d. 1151. Several 
 prelates were deprived by Queen Mary, 1554. One (Atherton) suffered death 
 ignomiuiously, 1640. Two were deprived for not taking the oaths to William and 
 Mary, 1691. One was deprived (Clogher) in 1822. The Church Temporalities Act 
 for reducing the number of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, passed Aug. 14, 
 1833. By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and 
 Cashel, the last two were abolished on the decease of the then archprelates, which 
 has since occurred; and it was enacted that eight of the then eighteen bishoprics 
 should, as they became void, be henceforth united to other sees, viz. : 
 
 Bishoprics when and as void to be united to other Archbishoprics and bishoprics to which those 
 
 archbishoprics or bishoprics : becoming void are to be united : 
 
 1 . Dromore . . . to be united to . . Down and Connor. 
 
 2. Raphoe to be united to . . Derry. 
 
 3. Clogher . . . . to be united to . . Armagh. 
 
 4. Elphin to be united to . . Kilmore. 
 
 5 Killala and Achonry . . to be united to . . Tuam, now a bishopric only. 
 
 * Retirement of Bishops. In 1856 the bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new 
 bishops hold their sees subject to future provision. In 1857 the bishop of Norwich resigned. 
 
BIS 
 
 91 
 
 BIT 
 
 . Killaloe and Kilfenora. 
 
 . Dublin and GLindelagh. 
 
 . Ferns and Leighlin. 
 
 . Cashel and Enily, now a bishopric only. 
 
 . Cloyne. 
 
 BISHOPS of IRELAND, continued. 
 
 6. Clonfert and Kilmacduagh . to be united to 
 
 7. Kildare to be united to 
 
 8. Ossory to be united to 
 
 9. Waterford and Lismore . to be united to 
 10. Cork and Ross . . - to be united to 
 
 All these sees have now merged into the bishoprics respectively mentioned, so that 
 the Irish Church establishment, conformably with the above act, at present consists 
 of two archbishops and ten bishops. 
 
 BISHOPS op SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. The see of 
 St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, who, according to a legend- 
 ary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Regulus, a Greek monk of Patrse, 
 about a.d. 370. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and episcopacy abolished 
 in Scotland, at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. There 
 are now, however, seven bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church : they 
 are called post-revolution bishops. 
 
 POST-REVOLUTION BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 Aberdeen, re-instituted . 
 Argyll and the Isles, ditto . 
 Brechin . . ditto 
 
 Edinburgh . . ditto . 
 
 . 1721 
 
 . 1847 
 
 . 1731 
 
 . 1720 
 
 Glasgow and Galloway, re-instituted . 1731 
 Moray and Ross . . ditto . . . 1727 
 St. Andrew's (late Fife) ditto . . 1733 
 
 Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal church of Scotland with that form 
 of it which is now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of Edinburgh from 1687 
 till 1720, when, on his death, Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution bishop of 
 that see. Fife (now St. Andrew's, so called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
 Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Duublane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross 
 (of uncertain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and 
 the Isles never existed independently until 1847, having been conjoined to Moray and 
 Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that year. Galloway has but recently been 
 added to the see of Glasgow. 
 
 BISHOPS, PRECEDENCY of, was settled by statute 31 Hen. VIII. to be next to 
 viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1540 ; and they have the title of Lord and 
 Right Rev. Father in Ood. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of 
 all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester 
 have precedence of all bishops; the others rank according to seniority of conse- 
 cration. A late contest in Ireland between the bishops of Meath and Kildare for 
 precedency was decided in favour of the former, who now ranks after the archbishop 
 of Dublin. The others rank according to consecration. 
 
 BISHOPRICS," COLONIAL. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Seabury, con- 
 secrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 
 November 14, 1784. The bishops of New York and Pennsylvania were consecrated 
 in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4, 1787, and the bishop of 
 Virginia in 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll 
 of Maryland, in 1789. Bishops of Quebec, Jamaica, Gibraltar, &c, were afterwards 
 appointed. Colonial bishoprics have since been established in all our important settle- 
 ments. That of Calcutta, by act 53 Geo. III. c. 155, passed July 21, 1813 ; of Madras, 
 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, passed Aug, 28, 1833 ; and of Bombay, same time. There are now 
 thirty-one bishops for the colonies, all appointed since 1836, those above excepted. 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 Antigua. 
 
 Barbadoes. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Cape Town. 
 
 Christchurch. 
 
 Colombo. 
 
 Fredericton. 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Graham's-town. 
 
 Guiana. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Mauritius. 
 
 Melbourne. 
 Montreal. 
 Natal. 
 Newcastle. 
 Newfoundland. 
 New Zealand. 
 Nova Scotia. 
 Perth. 
 
 Rupert's Land. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Sierra Leone. 
 
 Sydney. 
 
 Tasmania. 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 Victoria. 
 
 By 15 & 16 Vict. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 49, the colonial bishops may perform all 
 episcopal functions in the United Kingdom, but have no j urisdiction. 
 
 BISSEXTILE. See Calendar and Leap Tear. 
 
 BITHYNIA. This country, previously called Bebricia,-w&s first invaded by the Thracians 
 under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia. It was subject 
 successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of the cities 
 
BLA 
 
 92 
 
 BLA 
 
 were built by Grecian colonists. The first king of whom we have any knowledge is 
 Dydalsus, who, in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon (B.C. 383) made himself inde- 
 pendent. Of the customs of the Bithynians we know little more than their similarity 
 to the Persians. 
 
 Dydalsus appears on the throne of 
 
 Bithynia b.c 383 
 
 Botyras, his son, succeeds . . . . 378 
 Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras . . . 334 
 
 Zypoetes, son of Bias 318 
 
 He defeats the Syrian general Patrocles . 279 
 Zypoetes dies, leaving four sons, of whom 
 
 the eldest, Nicomedes, succeeds . . 278 
 His queen, Ditizele, torn to pieces by dogs 
 
 that guarded her palace . . . 251 
 Zeilas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . 243 
 Intending to massacre the chiefs of the 
 Gauls at a feast, Zeilas is detected in his 
 design, and is himself put to death . 230 
 His son, Prusias, succeeds . . . . * * 
 Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes 
 
 several of their cities .... 223 
 Prusias forms an alliance with the king 
 
 of Macedon, and marries Apatnea, the 
 daughter of Philip . . . B c. 208 
 
 Prusias II., his son 186 
 
 Defeats the army of Attalus, king of Per- 
 
 gamus, and takes that city . . . 155 
 Nicomedes II 149 
 
 Assassinated by his brother 
 
 Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopater 
 
 Deposed at the head of 50,000 men, by 
 
 Mithridates, kiug of Pontus, who enters 
 
 the kingdom with an army of 250,000 
 
 infantry, 40,000 cavalry, and 130chariots 
 
 armed with scythes 
 
 The fleet of Bithynia surrender to that of 
 
 Pontus 
 
 Nicomedes, dying, bequeaths his kingdom 
 to the Roman republic . . . . 
 
 03 
 
 In modern history, Bithynia makes no figure, except that from its ruins rose the 
 Othman Turks, who, in a.d 1327, took Prusa, its capital, and made it the seat of 
 their empire before they possessed Constantinople. 
 
 BLACK BOOK. A book kept in the exchequer, which received the orders of that court. 
 A book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities 
 practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry 
 VIII. 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar 
 phrase, " I'll set you down in the black book." 
 
 BLACKBURN, in Lancashire, so called in Doomsday -book. The manufacture of a 
 cloth called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded by Blackburn 
 greys. In 1767, James Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for 
 which he was eventually expelled from the county; and it was not till 1810 or 1812 
 that the townspeople availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged largely in the 
 cotton manufacture, now their staple trade. 
 
 BLACK-HOLE at CALCUTTA. Here 146 British gentlemen, merchants, and others, 
 in the service of the East India Company, were seized by order of the nabob, Surajah 
 Dowlah, and thrust into a dungeon called the " Black -hole," in the fort, by his 
 soldiers. These latter saw that the place was too small for such a number, but they 
 were afraid to awaken the nabob, then asleep, for further orders. One hundred and 
 twenty-three of the sufferers died before morning, having been suffocated by the heat, 
 crushing, and stench of a dungeon only eighteen feet square, June 20, 1756. Calcutta 
 was retaken next year, and the nabob was deposed and put to death by his successor. 
 — Holwell's India Tracts. 
 
 BLACK MONDAY. Easter Monday, 1351, "when the hailstones are said to have killed 
 both men and horses in the army of our king Edward III. in France." — Bailey. This 
 was a memorable Easter Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III. " happened 
 to be full dark of mist and hail, and so cold, that many men died on their horses' 
 backs with the cold," 1351. — Stowe. In Ireland, it was the day on which a number of 
 the English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 
 
 BLACK ROD. The usher belonging to the order of the Garter is so called from the 
 black rod he carries in his hand. — Cowel. It has a gold lion at the top, and is carried 
 by the king's chief gentleman usher, instead of the mace, at the feast of St. George at 
 Windsor, instituted a d. 1349-50. He also keeps the door when a chapter of the 
 order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends the house of lords. 
 
 BLACK FRIARS. Friars of the order of St. Dominic, instituted in 1215 by Dominic de 
 Guzman, a priest of Spain. They had monasteries throughout Europe, and their 
 power, influence, and authority became almost universal. Among their convents in 
 England were those at Oxford, and in London on the banks of the Thames ; the site 
 and vicinity of the latter are called Blackfriars to this day. 
 
 BLACKFRIARS-BRIDGE, London. The first stone of this bridge was laid Oct. 31, 
 1760, and it was completed by Mylne, in 1770, though for some time previously 
 made passable. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in which 
 
BLA 93 BLE 
 
 arches approaching to the form of an ellipsis were substituted for semicircles. It is 
 about a thousand feet in length and forty-five wide. It was partially repaired in 
 1S31 : but the thorough repair of its arches and piers (which had suffered from the 
 combined exciting action of wind and water, and the vicissitudes of temperature) was 
 commenced in 1837 ; the carriage-way was closed for the purpose of levelling the 
 centre, and reducing the ascent, July 22, 1840 ; and the bridge was again opened with 
 improved approaches, October 1 following. The carriage-way sunk considerably in 1850, 
 and. several arches have since required propping up, owing to their dangerous state. 
 
 BLACKHEATH. On this plain the celebrated Walter the Tyler assembled his 100,000 
 men : his rebellion arose out of the brutal rudeness of a tax-collector to his daughter. 
 The indignant plebeian, having killed the collector in his rage, raised this multitude of 
 followers to oppose a grievous impost called the poll-tax, June 12, 1381. Subsequently 
 in an interview with the king (Richard II.), in Smithfield, Tyler having frequently 
 raised his sword in a menacing manner, William of Walworth, then lord mayor of 
 London, struck him down with the mace, and one of the king's knights despatched 
 him. His awed followers, on being promised a charter by Richard, submitted, and 
 dispersed ; but the grant of it was afterwards revoked by parliament. Here, also, 
 Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, 1451. See Cade. Battle of Black- 
 heath, in which the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flannoc's insurrection quelled, 
 June 22, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade, and the 
 haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered in 1780. 
 
 BLACK SEA, the Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a large internal sea lying 
 between the S. W. provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea of 
 Azoff by the straits of Yenekale', and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
 Constantinople. This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians, till it was 
 closed to all nations by the Turks from the 15th to the 18th centuries : but after the 
 fall of Constantinople in 1453, all but Turkish vessels were excluded till the Russians 
 obtained admission by the treaty of Kainardji, in 1774. In 1779 it was partially 
 opened to British and other traders, since which time the Russians have gradually 
 obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the British and French fleets, Jan. 3, 
 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of the Turkish fleet at 
 Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30, 1853. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from 
 Nov. 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
 for the allied armies. — See Russo-Turhisk War. The Black Sea is now open to the 
 commerce of all nations. 
 
 BLACKWALL, LONDON. In this neighbourhood are erected the finest commercial 
 docks and warehouses in tbe world. The West India docks were commenced Feb. 3, 
 1800, and opened Aug. 27, 1802. The East India docks were commenced under an 
 act passed July 27, 1803, and opened Aug. 4, 1806. The Blackwall railway was opened 
 to the public July 4, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Blackwall wharf, and the 
 western in Fenchurch-street. 
 
 BLANKETS are said to have been first made at Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705. 
 
 BLASPHEMY. This crime is condemned both by the civil and canon law of England. 
 Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland the tongue was ampu- 
 tated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 Will. III. 1696-7. — Statutes at large. 
 In England this offence has been subjected, on some late occasions, to the visitation 
 of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 
 13th March, 1812. Aprotestant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London 
 twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
 and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among other things) 
 reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as late as Dec. 1840, two 
 prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings subjected the offenders to the 
 sentence of the court of Queen's Bench. 
 
 BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and became hereditary in 
 families in France and England, about a.d. 1192, owing to the knights painting their 
 banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. — Dugdale. 
 
 BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Syria, and India, and in ancient 
 Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century, an improved chemical system was adopted 
 by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1768. There 
 are now immense bleach-fields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire and 
 in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in 
 
BLE 94 BLO 
 
 Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was introduced in 1795. The 
 bleaching-powder now extensively used is chloride of lime, invented by Mr. Tennant, 
 of Glasgow, by whose firm it is still extensively manufactured. In 1822, Dr. Ure 
 published an elaborate series of experiments on this substance. 
 
 BLENHEIM, BATTLE of, fought Aug. 2, 1704, between the English and confederates, 
 commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under 
 marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated, 
 with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter : 
 the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The nation testified its 
 gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honour of Woodstock and hundred of 
 Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the 
 domain and house of Blenheim. — Hume. 
 
 BLIND. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 
 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. The first public school for 
 the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England 
 was at Liverpool in 1791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London 
 in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun 
 at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at Glasgow in raised Roman 
 characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited by the rev. W. 
 Taylor, F.R.S , so eminent for his exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was published in 
 1855-6, but is now discontinued. There is hardly any department of human know- 
 ledge in which blind persons have not obtained distinction. 
 
 BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment 
 inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages they 
 changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the con- 
 quered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a whole army was deprived of their 
 eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern 
 emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 
 
 BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides. — Freind. Blisters are said 
 to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of 
 Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. — Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD, CIRCULATION of the. The circulation of the blood through the lungs was 
 first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Csesalpinus 
 published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused 
 ideas ; improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called 
 Father Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
 which served for the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the 
 circulation of the blood belongs to our immortal countryman, Harvey, by whom it 
 was fully confirmed, between 1619 & 1628. — Freind' s Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD-DRINKING was anciently tried to give vigour to the system. Louis XL, in his 
 last illness, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his 
 decayed strength, 1483. — Henaidt. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. ; 
 and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition was repeated by the apostles at an 
 assembly at Jerusalem, Acts xv. 
 
 BLOOD, TRANSFUSION of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that the 
 declining strength and vigour of old people might be repaired by transfusing the 
 blood of young persons, drawn from their veins into those of the infirm and aged. 
 It was countenanced in France by the physicians about 1668, and prevailed for many 
 years, till the most fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an edict. It was 
 attempted again in France in 1797, and practised more recently there, in a few cases, 
 with success ; and in England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Journ. 
 " One English physician, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way ; he died in 
 1691.'' — Freind's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded oflicer of Oliver Cromwell's household, 
 and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to 
 Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends. Blood, after- 
 wards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the regal crown from the Jewel-office in 
 the Tower: yet notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only pardoned, 
 but had a pension of 500?. per annum settled on him by Charles II., 1673. 
 
 BLOODY ASSIZES. Those held by Jeffreys in the West of England, in Aug. 1685, 
 
BLO 95 BCEO 
 
 after the defeat of the Duke of Monmouth at the battle of Sedgmore. Upwards of 
 300 persons were executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, 
 and fined; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the American Plantations. 
 
 BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress. 
 
 BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an influential political party in the reign 
 of George III., in consequence of the then duke of Bedford being at its head. The 
 marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct. 26, 1803. 
 
 BLOWING MACHINES. The first cylinders of magnitude, iised in blowing machines, 
 erected by Mr. Snieaton at the Carron iron-works, 1760. One equal to the supply of 
 air for forty forge fires lately erected at the king's dock-yard, Woolwich. By means of 
 the Blow-pipe the alkalies are melted, and even volatilised, in a few minutes ; rock 
 crystal and quartz are converted into glass ; opal and flint into enamel ; blue sapphire, 
 talc, emerald, and lapis lazuli, are converted into glass ; gold and diamond are vola- 
 tilised; platina and brass wire burn with a green flame; copper melts without 
 burning ; but iron burns with brilliant light. — Phillips. 
 
 BLUE-COAT SCHOOLS. There are numerous schools in the empire under this deno- 
 mination, so called in reference to the costume of the children. The Blue coat 
 school in Newgate-street, London, is regarded as the first charitable foundation of the 
 kind in the world ; it was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. See Christ's Hospital. 
 
 BLUE-STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally conferred 
 on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most active promoters of 
 the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished naturalist, and miscellaneous 
 writer, who always wore blue worsted stockings, and hence the name : the society existed 
 in 1760 et seq. — Anecd. of Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is 
 said to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this 
 peculiarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 
 
 BOARD of HEALTH. See Health. 
 
 BOARD of CONTROL. Mr. Pitt's celebrated bill, establishing this board for the 
 purpose of aiding and controlling the executive government of India, and of super- 
 intending the territorial concerns of the company, was passed 24 Geo. III. May 18, 
 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled, 33 Geo. III. c. 52, 1793. The 
 president of the board is a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one of the 
 members of the Cabinet. See East India Bill, India Bill, and India. 
 
 BOARD of TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Cromwell seems to have given the first 
 notions of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords 
 of his council, judges, and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of London York 
 Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c, to meet and consider by what means the trade 
 and navigation of the republic might be best promoted. — Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. 
 Charles II., on his restoration, established a council of trade for keeping a control 
 over the whole commerce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of 
 trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of super- 
 inspection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade on its 
 present plan was appointed Sept. 2, 1786. 
 
 BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, that the art cannot be 
 traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in England in the reign 
 of the Conqueror : the flat-bottomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a Dutch- 
 man, about 1690. The life-boat was first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built 
 by Mr. Greathead, the inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. See Life Boat. 
 
 BOCCACCIO'S Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or novels, not of moral 
 tendency, feigned to have been related in ten days ; severely satirising the monks and 
 clergy. A copy of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was knocked down at the 
 duke of Roxburgh's sale to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260£., June 17, 1812. This 
 identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5 1819. 
 
 BOZOTIA, a political division of Greece, north of Attica. Thebes, the capital, was equally 
 celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its kings 
 and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
 Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. From the general character of the inhabitants, the 
 term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a synonyme for dulness; but unjustly, 
 since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished and 
 beautiful Corinna, were natives of Bceotia. 
 
B(EO 
 
 96 
 
 BOI 
 
 of obscurity follow 
 
 tho 
 
 Battle of Chseronea, in -which 
 Thebans defeat the Athenians . 
 
 Haliartus, son of Thersander, bu'lds the 
 city so called 
 
 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemonians 
 at Leuctra, restores his country to in- 
 dependence, and puts it in a condition 
 to dictate to the rest of Greece . 
 
 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the 
 Thebans and Athenians near Chse- 
 ronea ....... 
 
 Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares 
 the house of Pindar .... 
 
 371 
 
 335 
 
 BCEOTIA, continued. 
 
 Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Oad- 
 mea b.c. 1403 
 
 Reign of Polydore 1459 
 
 Labdacus ascends the throne . . . 1430 
 
 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, 
 and dethrone Lai'us 13S8 
 
 (Edipus, not knowing his father La'ius, 
 kills him in an affray, confirming the 
 oracle as to his death by the hands of 
 his son 1276 
 
 (Edipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
 solves her enigmas 1266 
 
 War of the Seven Captains . . . 1225 
 
 Thebes besieged and taken . . . 1216 
 
 Thersander reigns in Thebes . . .1215 
 
 The Tbebans abolish royalty, and ages 
 
 BOGS, commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving 
 bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Of recent acts, 
 one relating to Ireland for their drainage, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of Ire- 
 land has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000; 
 and that of England at near 1,000,000 of acre3, In Jan. 1849, Mr. Rees Reece took 
 out a patent for certain valuable products from Irish peat. Candles are now sold in 
 London, produced from peat (1857), and various other articles. 
 
 BOHEMIA. Bokmum. — Tacitus. This country derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic 
 tribe. It was originally governed by dukes : till the title of king was obtained from 
 the emperor Henry IV. The kings at first held their territory of the empire, but 
 they at length threw off the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came into the 
 house of Austria, in which it is now hereditary. 
 
 The Slavonians, seizing Bohemia, are 
 ruled by dukes . . . . a.d. 
 
 City of Prague founded . . . . 
 
 Introduction of Christianity . 
 
 Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
 Henry III., who spreads devastation 
 through the country . . . . 
 
 The regal title is conferred on Uratislas, 
 the first king 
 
 The regal title is farther confirmed to 
 Ottoacre I 
 
 Reign of Ottoacre II., who carries his 
 arms into Prussia 
 
 Ottoacre refusing to do homage to the 
 emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
 quished, aud deprived of Austria, 
 Styria, aud Carniola . . . • 
 
 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
 silver are first discovered, and agricul- 
 ture is encouraged and improved 
 (etseq.) 1284 
 
 Wmceslas IV., becoming odious for his 
 vices, is assassinated . . . . 1305 
 
 John, count of Luxemburg, is chosen to 
 succeed 1310 
 
 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia . 1342 
 
 King John slain at the battle of Crecy, 
 fought with the English . . . 1346 
 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
 of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
 
 1041 
 1061 
 
 1199 
 
 125S 
 
 128 2 
 
 heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
 tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
 them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
 are driven from the kingdom 1415 and 1416 
 Ziska, leader of the Hussites, dies of the 
 
 plague 1424 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
 daitghter of the late emperor and king, 
 and receives the crowns of Bohemia 
 
 and Hungary 1437 
 
 The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
 
 son of the king of Poland, and George 
 
 Podiebrad, a Protestant chief 1400 to 145S 
 
 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
 
 king of Bohemia, on the death of 
 
 Podiebrad 1471 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, 
 sister of Louis the late king, and 
 obtains the crown .... 1527 
 The elector palatine Frederic is driven 
 
 from Bohemia . . ... 1618 
 
 The crown secured to the Austrian 
 
 family by the treaty of . . . li.-is 
 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . 1742 
 Prague taken by the Prussians .1744 
 
 The memorable siege of Prague . . 1757 
 
 Revolt of the peasantry .... 1775 
 Edict of Toleration promulgated . . 1781 
 The French occupy Prague . . . 1806 
 See Germany. 
 
 This kingdom has suffered much from contending armies and civil wars ; its capital, 
 Prague, is famous in modern history for sieges aud battles. See Prague. 
 
 BOILTNG of LIQUIDS. Liquids first ascertained by Dr. Hooke not to be increased 
 in heat after they have once begun to boil ; and that a fire, if made fiercer, can only 
 make them boil more rapidly, but without adding a degree to their heat, a.d. 1683. 
 The following have been ascertained to be the boiling poiuts of certain liquids : — 
 
 Ether 
 
 . PS degrees. 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 . 140 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 . 176 
 
 Water . 
 
 . 212 
 
 Muriate of Lime 230 degrees. 
 Nitric Acid . . 248 
 Sulphuric Acid. 500 
 Phosphorus . . 554 
 
 Oil of Turpentine 5H0 degrees. 
 Sulphur . . . 570 
 Linseed oil. . r.00 
 Mercury. . . 660 
 
 These arc the results of various experiments made from time to time by eminent 
 chemists of our own country, and of Germany and France. 
 
BOI 
 
 97 
 
 BON 
 
 BOILING to DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Hen. VIII. 
 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by Rouse, 
 the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the offence of poisoning was made treason, and 
 it was enacted to be punished by boiling the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a 
 young woman, suffered in the same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 
 
 BOIS-LE-DUC, BATTLE of, between the British and the French republican army, in 
 which the British were defeated, forced to abandon their position, and to retreat to 
 Schyndel, Sept. 14, 1794. This place was captured by the French, Oct. 6, following; 
 it surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in 1814. 
 
 BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, formerly part of Peru ; was declared inde- 
 pendent Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honour of General Bolivia, Aug. 11, 
 1825. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, took 
 place in 1780-2. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre governed ably from 
 1826 to 1828; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which many disorders 
 occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cordova is the present 
 president (1857) ; elected in 1855. 
 
 BOLOGNA, distinguished for its many rare and magnificent specimens of architecture. 
 Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theodosius, a.d. 433. Pope 
 Julius II., after besieging and taking Bologna, made his triumphal entry into it with 
 a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting (as Erasmus observes) for the vice- 
 gerent of the meek Redeemer, Nov. 10, 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, 
 which is remarkable for its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of 
 the seventeenth century. It was taken by the French, 1796; by the Austrians, 1799; 
 again by the French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; and restored to the pope 
 in 1815. A revolt in 1831 was suppressed by Austrian interference. 
 
 BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles. Sir Charles Napier, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the Baltic expedition, gave orders for the disembarkation of the 
 armament on Bomarsund, which was completed on Aug. 12, 1854, and the bombard- 
 ment of the western tower was commenced by the French, who had furnished the 
 military contingent of this expedition, under General Baraguay d'Hilliers. On the 
 16th the fortress surrendered, and the Russian authority over the Aland isles ceased. 
 The governor-general Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, surrendered 
 prisoners of war to England and France. The fortifications were destroyed. The 
 English portion of the prisoners was sent for confinement to Lewes. 
 
 BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of our three Indian presidencies, was given 
 (with Tangier, in Africa, and 300,000?. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage por- 
 tion of the infanta, Catherine of Portugal, 1661. Granted to the East India Company 
 "in free and common socage, as of the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent of 
 10/." 1668. Confirmed by William III. 1689.- Bombay wasatfirstthe seat of govern- 
 ment over all the company's establishments in India. See India. 
 
 BOMBS. Invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a century 
 after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously used only in the 
 Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in France, in 1681. — 
 Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make 
 it explode before it reaches the enemy; a thirteen-inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 
 
 BONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary 
 man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the 
 Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various achievements 
 under their respective heads throughout the volume : 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio. in 
 
 Corsica Aug. 15, 1769 
 
 He first distinguished himself in the 
 
 command of the artillery at Toulon . 1793 
 Marries Josephine, and appointed to 
 
 command the army of Italy March 9, 1796 
 Victories in Italy .... 1796-7 
 He embarks for Egypt . . May 10, 1798 
 Is repulsed before Acre . May 27, 1799 
 He returns from Egypt . . Aug. 23, 1799 
 Deposes the French directory, and be- 
 comes first consul . . Nov. 9, 1799 
 Sends overtures of peace to the king of 
 England .... Jan. 1, 1800 
 
 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- 
 chine" .... Dec. 24, 1800 
 Elected president of the Italian, late 
 
 Cisalpine republic . . Jan. 25, 1802 
 
 Elected consul for 10 years . . May 8, 1S02 
 Made first consul for life . . Aug. 2, 1S02 
 Accepts the title of emperor from the 
 
 senate in name of the people May IS, 1804 
 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec. 2, 1804 
 Crowned king of Italy . May 26, 1805 
 
 Divorced from the empress Josephine, 
 
 she having no heir . . Dec. 16, 1S09 
 Marries Maria Louisa of Austria, April 7, 1810 
 A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, 
 
BON 
 
 BOO 
 
 BONAPARTE'S EMPIRE op FRANCE, continued. 
 
 (styled king of Rome, and afterwards 
 Napoleon II. ) see France March 20, 1811 
 His overtures of peace to England are 
 
 rejected .... April 14, 1812 
 Unfortunate Russian campaign . 1812-13 
 He renounces the thrones of France and 
 Italy, and accepts the Isle of Elba for 
 his retreat . . . April 5, 1814 
 Embarks at Frejus . . . April 28, 1814 
 Arrives at Elba . . . May 3, 1814 
 
 Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes March 1, 1815 
 Enters Lyons . . . March 10, 1815 
 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 
 
 Joined by all the army . March 22, 1815 
 The allies sign a treaty for his subjuga- 
 tion .... March 25, 1815 
 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29, 1815 
 Leaves Paris for the army . June 12, 1815 
 Is defeated at Waterloo . . June 18, 1815 
 Returns to Paris . . . June 20, 1815 
 And abdicates in favour of his infant 
 
 son June 22, 1815 
 
 Intending to embark for America, he 
 
 arrives at Rochefort . . . July 3, 1815 
 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the 
 Bellerophon .... July 15, 1815 
 
 Transferred at Torbay to the Northumber- 
 land, and admiral sir George Cockburn 
 sails with him for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 
 
 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is decreed 
 by the allied sovereigns he shall remain 
 for life)* Oct. 15, 1815 
 
 The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
 ever from France by the law of am- 
 nesty Jan. 12, 1816 
 
 Death of Bonaparte . . . May 5, 1821 
 
 His will registered in England(see article 
 Wills) Aug. 1824 
 
 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 
 
 The French chambers decree, with the 
 consent of England that the ashes of 
 Napoleon be removed from St. Helena, 
 and brought to France . May 12, 1840 
 
 They are exhumed . . . Oct. 16, 1840 
 
 The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives 
 at Cherbourg with the remains of 
 Napoleon, in the care of the Prince 
 de Joinville . . . Nov. 30, 1840 
 
 They are interred with great solemnity 
 in the Hotel des Invalides . Dec. 15, 1840 
 
 BONDAGE, or VILLANAGE. Bondage was enforced under William I. soon after the 
 conquest. A villain in ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release 
 from this species of servitude was ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574, and 
 led to its final overthrow in England. See Villanage. 
 
 BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to have been 
 practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather imperfectly under- 
 stood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at Paris, about 1600, led to the 
 general study of bone-setting as a science. — Freind's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered about a.d. 1688, and they were 
 used in the manufacture of cutlery, and for various other purposes immediately 
 afterwards. The declared value of the bones of cattle and of other animals, and of 
 fish (exclusive of whale-fins) imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
 Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c, amounts annually to nearly 200,0002. 
 
 BONHOMMES. These were hermits of simple and gentle lives, who made their appear- 
 ance in France about the year 1257 ; and they came to England in 1283. The prior 
 of the order was called Le bon homme, by Louis VI., and hence they derived their 
 name. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 BOOKS, ANCIENT. Books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees : and 
 bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parchment was 
 substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that country. Books 
 whose leaves were vellum were invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 
 B.C., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist 
 of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted together by the fire, and are about nine 
 inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 
 The Pentateuch of Moses and the history of Job are the most ancient in the world ; 
 and, in profane literature, the poems of Homer and Hesiod. 
 
 BOOKS, PRICES of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of 
 the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, by Alfred, 
 about a.d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for about 302. ; and a Homily was 
 exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat ; and they usually fetched double 
 or treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices varying from 102. to 402. each, in 
 1400. In our own times, the value of some volumes is very great. A copy of 
 Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas.— 
 Butler. A yet more superb copy was insured in a London office for 30002. — See Boccaccio. 
 
 BOOKS PRINTED. The first printed books were hymns and psalters, and being 
 printed only on one side, the leaves were pasted back to back. The first printed 
 
 * Longwood, the residence of Napoleon in St. Helena, was bought from the British government 
 for 180,000 francs in 1857. 
 
BOO 99 BOR 
 
 book was the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schoeffer, his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 
 1457. Several works were printed many years before ; but as the inventors kept the 
 secret to themselves, they sold their first printed works as manuscripts. This gave 
 rise to an adventure that brought calamity on Faust ; he began in 1450 an edition of 
 the Bible, which was finished in 1460. The second, printed was Cicero de Officiis, 
 1466. — Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of the 
 Chesse, by Caxton. 1474. The first in Dublin was the Liturgy, in 1550. The first 
 classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vitce, in 1762. Lucian's Dialogues 
 was the first Greek book printed in America (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of 
 astronomy and geometry were ordered to be destroyed in England as being infected 
 with magic, 6 Edw. VI. 1552. — Stowe's Chronicles. See Bibliography. 
 
 BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is supposed 
 to have been bound about a.d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards was bound in the 
 ninth century. A MS. copy of the Four Evangelists, the book on which our kings 
 from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation oath, .was bound in oaken boards, 
 nearly an inch thick, a.d. 1100. Velvet was the covering in the fourteenth contury ; 
 and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was 
 stamped and ornamented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. 
 Cloth binding superseded the common boards generally about 1831. Caoutchouc or 
 India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes were introduced in 1841. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, 
 was taken from the course of Algebra which was published by Burgo, at Venice, then 
 a great commercial state, in the fifteenth century. It was made known in England by 
 James Peele, who published his Book-keeping in 1569. — Anderson. 
 
 BOOKSELLERS' ASSOCIATION. A number of eminent publishers of London had 
 formed themselves into an association for the regulation of the trade, and for some 
 years restricted the retail booksellers from selling copies of works under the full 
 publishing price. A dispute hence arose as to the right, maintained by the latter, to 
 dispose of books (when they had once become theirs by purchase) at such less profit 
 as they might deem sufficiently remunerative. This dispute was, in the end, referred 
 to lord chief justice Campbell, before whom the parties argued their respective cases, 
 at Stratheden House, April 14, 1852. His lordship gave judgment, in effect against 
 the association, which led to its immediate dissolution, May 19 following. 
 
 BOOTHIA FELIX, discovered and named by sir John Ross, in honour of sir Felix 
 Booth, who had presented him with 2O,O0OZ. to enable him to fit out his Polar 
 expedition. Sir Felix Booth died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 
 
 BOOTS are said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were made of iron, 
 brass, or leather ; of the last material, some time after their invention, boots were 
 known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them, about 907 B.C. They are frequently 
 mentioned by the Roman historians. 
 
 BORAX was known to the ancients. It is used in soldering, brazing, and casting gold and 
 other metals, and was called chrysocolla. It is also used in medicine, and in composing 
 
 fucus, or a wash or paint for the ladies Pardon. Borax is naturally produced in the 
 
 mountains of Thibet; and was brought to Europe from India about 1713. It has 
 lately been found in Saxony. 
 
 BORNEO. An island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia, 
 was discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 1604, 
 established factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. A large part was 
 inhabited or infested by pirates, upon whom the British made a successful attack in 
 1813. They were again chastised by captain Keppel, in March, 1843. By a treaty 
 with the sultan, the island of Labooan, or Labuan, on the north-west coast of Borneo, 
 and its dependencies were incorporated with the British Empire, and formally taken 
 possession of in presence of the Bornean chiefs, Dec. 2, 1846. His excellency James 
 Brooke, rajah of Sarawak, by whose exertions this island was annexed to the British 
 crown, and who had been appointed governor of Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, 
 subsequently visited England, and received maDy honours, among which was the 
 freedom of the corporation of London, Oct. 21, 1847. Labuan was made a bishopric 
 in 1855; the bishop was consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 1855 (the first English bishop 
 consecrated out of England). In the night of the 17th and 18th Feb. 1857, the 
 Chinese in Sarawak rose in insurrection and massacred a number of Europeans. The 
 governor sir J. Brooke escaped by swimming across a creek; he speedily returned, and 
 
 h 2 
 
BOR 100 BOS 
 
 with a force of Malays, &c, severely chastised the insurgents, of whom 2000 were 
 killed. 
 BORNOU. An extensive kingdom in central Africa, explored by Denham and Clap- 
 perton, who were sent out by the British government in 1822. The population is 
 estimated by Denham at five, by Barth at nine millions. 
 
 BORODINO or MOSKWA, BATTLE of, one of the most sanguinary in the records of 
 the world, was fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians; commanded 
 on the one side by Napoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 240,000 men being 
 engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so 
 immense ; but it was rather in favour of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently 
 retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French 
 entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little opposition. See Moscow. 
 
 BOROUGH, anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been 
 applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses 
 in the reign of Henry III., 1265. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish 
 parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 ; and into the Irish, 1365. 
 
 BOROUGH-ENGLISH, was an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits, and 
 is mentioned as occurring a.d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by 
 Malcolm III. in 1062. 
 
 BOROUGH-BRIDGE, BATTLE op, between the earls of Hertford and Lancaster and 
 Edward II. The latter, at the head of 30,000 men, pressed Lancaster so closely, that 
 he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient force, and being defeated 
 and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an eminence near Pontefract, 
 or Pomfret, with great indignity, and beheaded by a Londoner, 1322. — Goldsmith. 
 
 BOSCOBEL, a village in Shropshire. Here Charles II. concealed himself in the renowned 
 oak, after the battle of Worcester (See Worcester), in which Cromwell defeated the 
 Scots army, that had marched into England to reinstate Charles on the throne, Sept. 
 3rd, 1651. — Qoldsmith. 
 
 BOSPHORUS (properly BOSPORUS), now called Circassia, near the Bosphorus Cim- 
 merius, now the straits of Kertch, or Yenikale. The history of the kingdom is 
 involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
 from the Oimmcri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archeanactes of 
 Mitylene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by Spartacus, in 
 438 B.C. See Azof. 
 
 The Archeanactids; rule here . B.C. 502-480 
 They are succeeded by Spartacus I. 480-438 
 Seleucus 431 
 
 Satyrus 1 407 
 
 Leucon 393 
 
 Spartacus II. 353 
 
 Parysades 348 
 
 Eumelus, aiming to dethrone nis brother 
 Satyrus II., is defeated; but Satyrus is 
 
 wounded and dies 310 
 
 Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the 
 throne, but is soon after murdered in 
 his palace by Eumelus . . . 310-9 
 Eumelus, to secure his usurpation, puts 
 to death all his relations . . . . 309 
 
 Eumelus is killed 304 
 
 The Scythians invade Bosphorus . . 285 
 
 [During their rule of 204 years, even the 
 names of the kings who were tributary 
 to the conquerors are unrecorded and 
 unknown.] 
 
 Mithridates conquers Bosphorus . B.C. 80 
 An awful earthquake lay s numerous cities 
 
 and towns in ruins 65 
 
 Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Csesar 
 
 over Pharnaces 47 
 
 Cassar makes Mithridates of Pergamus 
 
 king of Bosphorus 47 
 
 Asander usurps the crown . . .46 
 Polemon conquers Bosphorus, and, fa- 
 voured by Agrippa, reigns . . . 14 
 
 Polemon killed by barbarians of the Pains 
 
 Ma;otis a.d. 33 
 
 Polemon II. reigns 33 
 
 Mithridates II. reigns . . . .40 
 Mithridates conducted a prisoner to 
 Rome, by order of Claudius, and his 
 kingdom made a province of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, THRACIAN (now channel of Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw 
 a bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B.C. See Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 BOSTON, America. Here originated that resistance to the British authorities which led 
 to American independence. The act of parliament laying duties on tea, paper, colours, 
 &c, was passed June, 1767, and so excited the indignation of the citizens of Boston, 
 that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of tea, Nov. 1773. Boston was pro- 
 scribed in consequence, and the port shut by the English parliament, until restitution 
 should be made to the East India Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The 
 
BOS 101 BOU 
 
 town was besieged by the British next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle 
 between the royalists and independent troops, in which the latter were defeated, took 
 place in June, 1775. The city was evacuated by the king's troops, April, 1776. The 
 inhabitants have been lately very zealous against slavery. An industrial exhibition 
 was opened here in Oct. 1856, and lasted two weeks. 
 
 BOSWORTH FIELD, BATTLE of, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York 
 and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, afterwards 
 Henry VII. the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. The crown of Richard was found 
 in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was crowned 
 on the spot with that very crown. In the civil contests between the " Roses," many 
 of the most ancient families in the kingdom were entirely extinguished, and no less 
 than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. 
 
 BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany (about B.C. 
 347). The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 B.C. Authors on 
 botany are numerous from the eai'lier ages of the world, to the close of the fifteenth 
 century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by 
 Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Csesalpinus, and others, between 1535 and 1600. — Melchior 
 Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, the first botanist of modern times, 
 was made known about 1750 ; and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournefort's, and 
 called "the Natural System," in 1758. At the time of Linnaeus' death, a.d. 1778, the 
 species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of 
 species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 
 
 BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The 
 first governor, capt. Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at 
 the settlement in Jan. 1788. The bay had been discovered by captain Cook in 1770, 
 and the place took its name from the great variety of plants which abounded on the 
 shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of 
 the bay. See New South Wales and Transportation. 
 
 BOTTLE-CONJUROR. The famous imposition of this charlatan occurred at the old 
 Haymarket theatre, Jan. 16, 1748 ; he had announced that he would jump into a 
 quart bottle, and so imposed upon the credulous multitude, that the theatre was 
 besieged by 10,000 persons, anxious to gain admittance and witness the feat. The 
 object of filling the house was accomplished ; but the duped crowd (who really 
 expected to see the man enter the quart bottle), in the storm of their indignation, 
 nearly pulled the whole edifice down. 
 
 BOTTLES in ancient time were made of leather. Bottles of glass were first made in 
 England about 1558. See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses 
 was known to the Romans at least before 79 a.d., for these articles and other vessels 
 have been found in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads 
 was blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January 1747-8. 
 
 BOULOGNE, a French seaport in Picardy, was taken by the British on Sept. 14, 1544, 
 but restored to France upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, dis- 
 abling ten vessels and sinking five, Aug. 3, 1801. In another attempt he was repulsed 
 with great loss, and captain Parker of the Medusa and two- thirds of his crew were 
 killed, Aug. 18, following. In 1804, Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 
 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts 
 of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and 
 nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is 
 supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that 
 Bonaparte never seriously intended the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully 
 attempted to burn the flotilla with fire machines called catamarans, Aug. 31, 1805. 
 Congreve-rockets were used in another attack, and they set the town on fire, Oct. 8, 
 1806. The army was removed on the breaking out of the war with Austria in 1805. 
 Prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of the French republic, and now emperor) 
 made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840, without success. On 
 July 10, 1854, he reviewed the French troops destined for the Baltic, and on Sept. 2, 
 following, he entertained prince Albert and the king of the Belgians. See France. 
 
 BOUNTIES were first granted on the exportation of British commcdities — a new prin- 
 ciple introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first bounties granted 
 on corn were in 1688. They were first legally granted in England, for raising naval 
 stores in America, 1703, and have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. 
 
BOU 102 BOX 
 
 BOUNTY. MUTINY on board the Bowity, an armed ship returning from Otaheite, 
 with bread-fruit, April 28, 1789. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nine- 
 teen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 
 1789 ; they reached the island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a 
 perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to mira- 
 culous. The mutineers were tried, Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of 
 whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. 
 
 BOURBON, HOUSE of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, 
 so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of 
 the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly styled the Great, was son of 
 Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The crown of Spain was settled on a 
 younger branch of this family, and guaranteed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. 
 The Bourbon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 
 1791, and were restored, 1814. The family was again expelled on the return of 
 Bonaparte from Elba, and again restored after the battle of Waterloo, 1815. The 
 elder branch was expelled once more, in the person of Charles X. and his family, in 
 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorable days of July in that year. 
 The Orleans branch ascended the throne, in the person of the late Louis-Philippe, 
 as " king of the French," Aug. 9, following, who was deposed Feb. 24, 1848, when his 
 family also was expelled France. See France. 
 
 BOURBON ISLE of. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1545. The French first settled 
 here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, Sept. 21, 
 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. — Alison. It is near the Isle of France, and 
 the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in Feb., 
 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the island. See 
 Mauritius. 
 
 BOURDEAUX (or BORDEAUX) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England, 
 by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his 
 royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, 
 and here held his court during eleven years : his son, our Richard II., was born at 
 Bourdeaux, 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. 
 Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army after the battle of Orthes, 
 fought Feb. 25, 1814. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 
 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, 
 and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and some thousands of sectarists, 
 about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, 
 but in an inward feeling and supernatural impulse. This visionary published a book 
 entitled the Light of the World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained 
 and taught her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good 
 estate. She died in 1680. 
 
 BOVINES, BATTLE of, in which Philip Augustus of France obtained a complete 
 victory (though not without great danger of his life) over the emperor Otho and his 
 allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The earls of Flanders and Boulogne 
 were taken prisoners. The chevalier GueVin had the command of the king's army, 
 not in order to fight, but to animate the barons and other knights in honour of God, 
 the king, and kingdom, and in defence of their sovereign lord. Matthew de Mont- 
 morenci, who was constable of France four years after, had a considerable share in 
 this victory. Fought a.D. 1214. — Henault. 
 
 BOWLS, or BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century. 
 Charles I. played at it, and it formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II. at 
 Tunbridge. — Qrammont. 
 
 BOWS and ARROWS, see Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. They 
 were known in England previous to a.D. 450. The use of them was again introduced 
 into England by the Conqueror, 1066; and greatly encouraged by Richard I. 1190. — 
 Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the 
 length of the bow was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock 
 of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. 
 
 BOXING, or PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatus of the Romans, and a favourite sport 
 with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage 
 which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. 
 
BOX 103 BRA 
 
 A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it 
 in Tottenham-court — Brough ton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. 
 Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Mendoza 
 opened the Lyceum in the Strand in 1791. Boxing was. much patronised from about 
 1820 to 1830, but is not at all now (1857). 
 
 BOXTEL, BATTLE of, between the British and allied army, commanded by the duke 
 of York, and the army of the French republic. The latter attacked the allies and 
 obtained the victory after an obstinate engagement, taking 2000 prisoners and eight 
 pieces of cannon, and the duke retreated across the Meuse, Sept. 17, 1794. 
 
 BOYDELL'S LOTTERY was a lottery of a gallery of paintings, got up at vast expense 
 by the eminent alderman Boydell, of London, a great encourager of the arts. The 
 collection was called the Shakspeare Gallery, and every ticket was sold at the time 
 the alderman died (which was before the decision of the wheel), Dec. 12, 1804. 
 Alderman Boydell was lord mayor of London in 1791. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES, instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of Cork) a 
 philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and benevolence. He instituted 
 eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which az*e delivered at St. Mary- 
 le-bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 
 September to November— endowed 1691. 
 
 BOYNE, BATTLE of, between king William III. and his father-in-law, James II., fought 
 July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, losing 1500 men ; the protestant army 
 lost about a third of that nurnbei'. James immediately fled to Dublin, thence to 
 Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle, 
 having been shot by mistake, as he was crossing the river Boyne, by the soldiers of 
 his own regiment. Near Drogheda is a splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected 
 in 1736 by the protestants of the empire, in commemoration of this victory. 
 
 BOYNE, MAN of WAR, of 98 guns. This magnificent ship was destroyed by fire at 
 Portsmouth, when great mischief was occasioned by the explosion of the magazine, 
 and numbers perished, May 4, 1795. Large portions of the Boyne have been recovered 
 from time to time, and explosions with the view of clearing the harbour of the wreck, 
 were successfully commenced in June, 1840. 
 
 BRABANT was erected into a duchy a.d. 620, and devolved upon Lambert I., count of 
 Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in regular 
 succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by 
 Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant and Walloon. These provinces underwent 
 many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken 
 by the French 1746 — again in 1794 by their republic ; and it now forms part of the 
 kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, since 1831. See Belgium. 
 
 BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients : those that were 
 called armillce were usually distributed as rewards for valoixr among the Roman 
 legions. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and bracelets 
 are still female ornaments. 
 
 BRAGANZA, HOUSE of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless 
 revolution in Portugal, a.d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, 
 which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on 
 which and on that of Brazil, this family continues to reign. — See Portugal and Brazil. 
 
 BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Pythagoras is 
 thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsychosis; and it is 
 affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse 
 with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of three 
 beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he 
 formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all 
 carnal enjoyments. — Strabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the 
 depositaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. 
 
 BRANDENBURG, FAMILY of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was 
 founded by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which signifies Guard of 
 the Forest. Henry I. surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburg, a.d. 923, to serve 
 a8 a rampart against the Huns. He bestowed the government on Sifroi, count of 
 Riugelheim, with the title of Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or 
 
BRA 104 BRE 
 
 frontiers, in 927. »The emperor Sh'ismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick 
 IV. of Nureinburg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 
 
 BRANDENBURG-HOUSE, Hammersmith, celebrated as the residence of queen Caroline, 
 the unfortunate consort of George IV., who took possession of it Aug. 3, 1820, and 
 here received the various addresses and deputations of the British people, conse- 
 quent upon her trial in the house of lords, under a bill of pains and penalties, that 
 year. She expired at Brandenburg-house, Aug. 7, 1821, which was pulled down in 
 18i3. See Queen Caroline. 
 
 BRANDYWINE, BATTLE of. Between the British royalist forces and the revolted 
 Americans, in which the latter (after a fight, sometimes of doubtful result, and which 
 continued the entire day) were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the 
 possession of the victors, Sept. 11, 1777. 
 
 BRASS was known among all the early nations.— Usher. The British from the remotest 
 period were acquainted with its use. — Whittaker. When Lucius Mummius burnt 
 Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., the riches he found were immense, and during the 
 conflagration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
 formed the valuable composition described as Corinthian Brass. This, however, may 
 well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before obtained great credit for 
 their method of combining gold and silver with copper ; and the Syriac translation of 
 the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. 
 Articles made of this brilliant composition were highly valued. — £>u Fresnoy. 
 
 BRAURONIA. Festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where Diana had a temple. The most 
 remarkable that attended these festivals were young virgins in yellow gowns, dedicated 
 to Diana. They were about ten years of age, and not under five, and therefore their 
 consecration was called " dekateuein," from 5e/ca, decern; 600 B.C. 
 
 BRAY, the VICAR op. Bray, in Berks, is famous in national song for its vicar, the 
 rev. Symon Symonds, who was twice a papist and twice a protestant in four suc- 
 cessive reigns — those of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Upon being 
 called a turn-coat, he said he kept to his principle, that of " living aud dying the vicar 
 of Bray : " between the years 1533 and 1558. — Fuller's Church History. 
 
 BRAZEN BULL. Perillus, a brass-fouuder at Athens, knowing the cruel disposition of 
 Phalaris of Agrigentum, contrived a new species of punishment for him to inflict 
 upon his oppressed subjects. He cast a brazen bull, larger than life, with an opening 
 in the side to admit the victims. Upon their being shut up in this engine of torture, 
 a fire was kindled underneath to roast them to death ; and the throat was so con- 
 trived that their dying groans resembled the roaring of a bull. He brought it to the 
 tyrant, and expected a large reward. Phalaris admired the invention and workman- 
 ship, but said it was reasonable the artist should make the first experiment upon his 
 own work, and ordered his execution. Ovid mentions that the Agrigentes, maddened 
 by the tyrant's cruelties, revolted, seized him, cut his tongue out, and then x'oasted 
 him iu the brazen bull, by which he had put to death so great a number of their 
 fellow-citizens, 561 B.C. — Vita Phalaridis. 
 
 BRAZIL was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon 
 its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the land of the Holy Cross ; but it 
 was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored 
 by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The gold mines were first opened in 1684 ; and 
 the diamond mines were discovered 1730 (see Diamonds). The French having seized 
 on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
 took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Dom Pedro 
 assximed the title of emperor, Nov. 18, 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal 
 May 2, 1826; and that of Brazil, in favour of his infant son, now (1857) emperor, 
 April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — See Portugal. 
 
 1S25. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) first emperor, 
 Nov. 18, abdicated the throne of 
 Brazil iu favour of his infant son, 
 April 7, 1831 : died Sept. 24, 1834. 
 
 EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 
 
 Dom Pedro II. succeeded on his father's 
 abdication. Assumed the govern- 
 ment July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 
 1841. The present emperor (1857). 
 
 BREAD. The word is sometimes used for all the necessaries of human life, especially 
 in the Scriptures. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
 first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making 
 bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. — Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was 
 
BRE 105 BRE 
 
 known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus, xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession 
 at Rome, 170 B.C. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine 
 which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
 pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, 
 a.d. 1594. — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was 
 made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread ; 
 and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as 
 bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will 
 ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Louisiana eat a white earth with 
 salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth. — Oreig ; Phillips. 
 
 BREAD, HOUSEHOLD. There was an assize of bread in England in 1202. The 
 London Bakers' Company was incorporated iD 1307. Bread-street in London was 
 once the market for bread in that city, and hence its name. Until the year 1302, the 
 London bakers were not allowed to sell any in their shops. — Stowe. Bread was made 
 with yeast by the English bakars in 1634. See Assize of Bread. 
 
 BREAD-FRUIT TREE. It is mentioned by several voyagers, — by Dampier, Anson, 
 and Wallis, among others. A vessel under the command of captain Bligh was fitted 
 out to convey these trees to various parts of the British colonies in 1791. The 
 number taken on board at Otaheite was 1151. Of these, some were left at St. 
 Helena, 352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew Gardens, 1793. The Bread- 
 fruit tree was successfully cultivated in French Guiana, in 1802. In the West Indies 
 the negroes prefer their own preparations of the plantain fruit to bread ; and hence 
 the bread-fruit tree, transported at such an expense from the South Sea Islands, has 
 been attended with little success in the colonies. 
 
 BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work was lowered 
 in the presence of a multitude of spectators, Aug. 12, 1812. It was designed to break 
 the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound; it is 360 feet in 
 breadth at the bottom and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons 
 of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 : and cost a million 
 and a-half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on 
 its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 
 
 BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 B.C. The breast- 
 plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages 
 to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armour. Ancient breast-plates are 
 mentioned as made of the more costly metals, as gold and silver, until iron and steel 
 were found of greater security to the warrior. — Atkins. 
 
 BRECHIN, in Scotland. The siege here was sustained against the army of Edward III. 
 1333. The battle of Brechin was fought between the forces of the earls of Huntly 
 and Crawfurd ; the latter defeated, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by David I. 
 in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 
 1556. The bishopric was discontinued soon after the revolution in 1688; but was 
 revived as a post-revolution bishopric in 1731. See Bishops of Scotland. 
 
 BREDA, in Holland, was taken by Prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590 ; by the Spaniards 
 in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Our Charles II. resided here at the time 
 of the restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793, 
 and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the 
 burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. 
 
 BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
 Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; and in Italy, it is said, was worn 
 in the time of Augustus Ca?sar. In the reign of Honorius, about a.d. 394, the braccarii, 
 or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome; but soon afterwards the use of 
 breeches was adopted in other countries, and at length became general. 
 
 BREHONS were ancient judges in Ireland, and are said to have administered justice 
 with religious impartiality, but in later times with a tendency to love of country. It 
 was enacted by the statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to the 
 Brehon law, 40 Edw. III. 1365. This law, however, was not finally abolished or 
 disused until some time after. — Burn's Annals. 
 
 BREMEN, said to have been founded in 788, and long an archbishopric and one of the 
 leading towns of the Hanseatic league, was allowed a seat and vote in the college of 
 imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and erected into a ducby and held 
 
BRE 106 BRI 
 
 by Sweden till 1712, when it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by whom 
 it was ceded to Hanover. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were expelled 
 by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; but again seized it in 1806. Bremen was annexed by 
 Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its independence was restored in 1813, 
 and all its old franchises in 1815. See Hanse Towns. 
 
 BRESLAU, BATTLE of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince 
 Bevern, who was defeated. The engagement was most bloody on both sides, 
 Nov. 22, 1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained the same year. It was besieged 
 by the French, and surrendered to them, Jan. 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 
 
 BREST, in France, was besieged by Julius Csesar, 54 B.C. — possessed by the English, 
 a.d. 1378 — given up to the duke of Britanny, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a British 
 fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, 
 to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with 
 fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine agajn destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784. 
 From this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against 
 England during the late war, among them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on the 
 1st June, 1794. England maintained a large blockading squadron off the harbour 
 from 1793 to 1815 ; but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station 
 of that kingdom, and from the fortifications and other vast works of late construction 
 it is considered impregnable. 
 
 BRETHREN. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 BRETIGNY, PEACE of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which England 
 retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, 
 Bigorre, Angoumois, and Rovergne, and renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, 
 Touraine, and Normandy ; England was also to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to 
 release king John, who had been long a prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 
 
 BREVIARIES. The Breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. 
 It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and 
 laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders 
 about a.d. 1 080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by 
 Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The quality of type in which the breviary 
 was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day. 
 
 BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. — 
 Tindal. "One William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two 
 horses all trapped with gold, 1414." — Stowe. In Oct. 1851, there were 2305 licensed 
 brewers in England, 146 in Scotland, and 97 in Ireland; total 2548: these are 
 exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers; and there are, besides, victuallers, 
 &c, who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
 many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and the sale 
 of beer have been enacted from time to time. See A le, Beer, Porter. 
 
 BRIAR'S CREEK, BATTLE of ; one of a series of successful actions which occurred 
 with the revolted Americans, in 1779. The Americans, 2000 strong, under the 
 command of their general, Ashe, were totally defeated by the English forces under 
 general Prevost, at same place, March 16, same year. Another action was fought, 
 with the like result, at Briar's Creek, May 3, following. 
 
 BRIBERY. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288 ; 
 he was chief justice of the common pleas. William de Thorpe, chief justice of the 
 king's bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000/. for 
 the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the Tower for 
 bribery, in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish house of 
 lords, for soliciting a bribe, January, 1784. See next article. 
 
 BRIBERY at ELECTIONS made, as in the preceding cases, an indictable offence. 
 Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold were fined and imprisoned for bribery at an election, 
 March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July, 1803. Messrs. Davidson, 
 Parsons, and Hopping convicted and imprisoned for bribery at Ilchester, April 28, 
 1804. Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, and sir Manasseh Lopez 
 sentenced to a fine of 10,000/. and to two years' imprisonment for bribery at 
 Grampound, Oct. 1819. Of late years several elections have been made void, and 
 boroughs disfranchised for bribery : among others, the members for Liverpool and 
 Dublin were unseated, in 1831, and new elections proceeded with. The friends of 
 Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, were convicted of bribery, Feb. 20, 1835; and 
 
BRI 107 BRI 
 
 the elections for Ludlow and Cambridge were made void in 1840. The borough of 
 St. Alban's was disfranchised by act passed, June 17, 1852; and the Corrupt Practices 
 at Elections bill (15 & 16 Vict. c. 57) was passed June 30, same year. Elections at Derby 
 and other places were declared void, for bribery, in 1853, and at some places in 1857. 
 
 BRICKS. Bricks for building were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, 
 and Rome. Used in England by the Romans about a.d. 44. Made under the direction 
 of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Ghron. The size regulated by order of 
 Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England 
 in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,000,000; in 1840 it 
 amounted to 1,400,000,000 ; and in 1850, to 1,700,000,000. The duties and draw- 
 backs of excise on bricks were repealed in the last-mentioned year. See Building. 
 
 BRIDEWELL, originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near Fleet-ditch, 
 London; it was built anew by Henry VIII., in 1522, and was given to the city by 
 Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this name throughout the 
 kingdom ; among others is a new house of correction for Westminster, so called, and 
 for which an act was passed in 1826. There is a new Bridewell in Southwark, as also 
 various houses of correction. The new Bridewell prison was erected in 1829, and 
 that of To thill-fields was rebuilt in 1831. The first London Bridewell was in a 
 locality near to St. Bride's well, Fleet-street. 
 
 BRIDGES were so early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various 
 that their origin cannot be traced. They were first of wood. The ancient bridges in 
 China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the 
 bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone 
 bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in a.d. 103. The Devil's 
 Bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on 
 two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many 
 fabulous stories were invented to account for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordinary 
 bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in 
 the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it : a man 
 of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet waggons heavily laden 
 passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. 
 
 BRIDGES in ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were 
 fortified with planks and merlined; the first bridge of stone was built at Bow, near 
 Stratford, a.d. 1087. Westminster-bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, 
 and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve 
 years, 1750. The first large iron bridge, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 
 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 
 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge was completed and opened May, 1, 1845. See 
 Blackfriars, Hungerford, London, Waterloo, Victoria, and Tubular Bridges. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER, in Somersetshire, was incorporated by king John, in a.d. 1200, and 
 made a distinct county by Henry VIII. In the war between Charles I. and the 
 parliament, the forces of the latter reduced part of the town to ashes. Here stood 
 an ancient castle, in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when he was 
 proclaimed king in 1685. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by 
 the duke of Bridge water, styled the father of canal navigation in this country, in 1758 : 
 Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal commences at Worsley, seven miles from 
 Manchester; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, 
 conveys the canal across the river Irwell ; its length is about twenty -nine miles. 
 
 BRIEF, a written instrument in the Roman Catholic Church, of early but uncertain 
 date. Briefs are the letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public 
 affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or 
 preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are distinguished from bulls. The 
 latter are ample, and are always written on parchment. A brief is sealed with red 
 wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, and always in the presence of 
 the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. 
 
 BRIENNE, BATTLE of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and the 
 French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2nd February, 1814. The allies were 
 defeated with great loss ; this is one of the last battles in which the French achieved 
 victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 BRIGHTON, in Sussex, now a place of most fashionable resort, though formerly in- 
 
BRI 108 BRI 
 
 habited chiefly by fishermen. From here Charles II. embarked for France, after the 
 disastrous battle of Worcester, in 1651. The prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., 
 built a fanciful yet magnificent marine palace at Brighton, formerly known as the 
 Pavilion, 1784. It was afterwards greatly enlarged, and the entire exterior altered 
 into a general resemblance of the Kremlin at Moscow, and was distinguished as a 
 royal palace : lately sold to the corporation of Brighton. The Block-house was 
 swept away, March 26, 1786. Part of the cliff fell, doing great damage, Nov. 16, 
 1807. The chain pier, 1134 feet long and 13 wide, was completed in 1823. The 
 length of the esplanade here from the Steyne is about 1250 feet. 
 
 BRISTOL was built by Brennus, a prince of the Britons, 380 B.C., and is mentioned in 
 a.d. 430 as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of Bath ; 
 and sometimes, by way of eminence, Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons 
 Brighstowe, pleasant place. Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the fifth and 
 seventh centuries. The city was granted a charter, and became a distinct county in 
 the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence of his 
 sister Maud, the empress, against king Stephen, A.D, 1138.* St Mary's church was 
 built 1292. A new charter was obtained in 1581. Bristol was attacked with great 
 fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. An act was passed for a new exchange in 1723, 
 but it was not erected until 1741. The bridge was built May, 1760. The memorable 
 attempt to set the shipping on fire was made Jan. 22, 1777. 
 
 BRISTOL RIOTS. Riot at Bristol on account of a toll, when the troops fired on the 
 populace, and many were wounded, Oct. 25, 1793. Riot on the entranco of sir 
 Charles Wetherell, the recorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special 
 force, to open the sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the 
 citizens, a riot ensued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did not 
 terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, 
 some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses had been burned 
 and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four were 
 executed and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by 
 court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 
 
 BRISTOL, SEE of, one of the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils 
 of the monasteries and religious houses which that monarch had dissolved. The 
 cathedral was the church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by Robert Fitz- 
 Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, a.d. 114S. It is valued 
 in the king's books at 338?. 8s. 4d. Paul Bushe, provincial of the Bons-hommes was 
 the first bishop, in 1542 — deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bristol was 
 united by an order in council with that of Gloucester, in 1836, and they now form 
 one see under the name of Gloucester and Bristol. 
 
 BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manusci*ipts and 
 poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern 
 Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Britain, including England, Scot- 
 land, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all 
 the islands collectively — Albion to only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded 
 Britain under Julius Caesar, 55 B.C., but they made no conquests. The emperor 
 Claudius, and his generals Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces 
 after thirty pitched battles with the natives, a.d. 43 and 44. The conquest was 
 completed by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a.d. 85. 
 
 First invasion of Britain by the Romans, I He dies at York . . . . a.d. 211 
 
 under Julius Cassar . . .B.C. 55 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne of 
 
 Cyrnbeline, king of Britain . . . . 4 Britain 286 
 
 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, ad. 40 He is killed by Alectus, who continues 
 
 London founded by the Romans . . . 49 J the usurpation 293 
 
 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome . 51 
 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 
 
 slain, and London burnt . . . . 01 
 A vast army of Britons is defeated by 
 
 Suetonius, and 80,000 slain . . .01 
 Reign of St. Lucius, the first Christian 
 
 king of Britain, and in the world . . 179 
 Severus keeps his court at York, then 
 
 called Eboracum 207 
 
 Constantius recovers Eritain by the defeat 
 of Alectus 296 
 
 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
 York . 306 
 
 The Roman forces are finally withdrawn 
 from Britain . . . . 420 to 426 
 
 The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
 aid the natives against their northern 
 neighbours, the Picts and Scots . . 449 
 
 * From the period of Henry II. in the twelfth to the middle of the eighteenth century, Bristol 
 ranked next to London, as the most populous, commercial, and flourishing place in the kingdom ; but 
 since the latter time it has declined, and been exceeded in these respects by Liverpool, Manchester, 
 Leeds, Birmingham, and Glasgow. 
 
BRI 
 
 109 
 
 BRI 
 
 BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Saxons 
 attack the natives themselves, driving 
 them into Wales . . . ad. 455 
 
 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 
 since called Britanny . . . . 457 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy; Britain divided 
 into seven kingdoms .... 457 
 
 Reignof the renowned Arthur . a.d. 506 
 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 
 
 establishment of Christianity . . 596 
 
 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 
 
 began his reign 678 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ends . . . 828 
 See England. 
 
 KINGS OR GOVERNORS OP BRITAIN. 
 
 FROM JULIUS CjESAR TO THE SAXONS. 
 
 [Where dates are not mentioned, it has been 
 found impossible to reconcile the conflicting 
 authorities for them ; and in the same way 
 in the orthography of names, a like diffi- 
 culty occurs. 
 
 
 BEFORE 
 
 CHRIST. 
 
 * 
 
 Cassibelan. 
 
 
 * 
 
 Theomantius. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Cymbeline. 
 
 
 * 
 
 Guiderius. 
 
 
 
 AFTER 
 
 CHRIST. 
 
 45. 
 
 Arviragus. 
 
 
 73. 
 
 Marius. 
 
 
 125. 
 
 Coilus I. 
 
 
 IT;'. 
 
 St. Lucius. 
 
 
 207. 
 
 284. 
 293. 
 
 296. 
 
 306. 
 
 [The first Christian king of Britain, and 
 in the world. He dies, and leaves the 
 Boman emperors his heirs.] 
 
 Severus, emperor of Rome. Died at 
 York in 210. 
 
 Bassianus 
 
 Asclepiodorus duke of Cornwall. 
 
 Coilus II. 
 
 G'arausius, tyrant of Britain. 
 
 Alectus, sent from Rome by the senate. 
 
 f St. Helena. 
 
 \ Constantius, emperor of Rome. 
 
 Constantine, son of the two former, who 
 added Britain to the Roman empire, 
 and was the first Christian emperor of 
 Rome, in 306. 
 
 Constantine ; son of the above. 
 
 Constans ; his brother. 
 
 Magnentius. 
 
 Constantius ; Gratianus Funarius, and 
 afterwards Martinus, his vicars in 
 Britain. 
 
 Julian the Apostate. 
 
 Jovian ; found dead in bed. 
 
 Valentinian. 
 
 Gratian. 
 
 Maximus ; assumes the purple in Bri- 
 tain ; is slain. 
 
 Valentinian ; colleague of Gratian above 
 named. 
 
 Honorius. 
 
 Vortigern, who called in the Saxons. 
 
 Vortimer. 
 
 Vortigern, again. 
 
 Aurelius Ambrosius ; a Roman. 
 
 Uthur Pendragon. 
 
 Arthur, the renowned king. 
 
 Constantine, cousin of Arthur. 
 
 Aurelius Conan ; a cruel prince. 
 
 Vortipor ; a vicious ruler. 
 
 Cuneglas ; also a tyrant. 
 
 Malgo Coranus ; another tyrant. 
 
 Careticus. 
 
 Cadwan VI. ; prince of N. Wales. 
 
 Cadwallan. 
 
 Cadwallader ; after whose death the 
 Saxons conquer all the country east of 
 the Severn and divide it. The British 
 princes lose the name of kings, and are 
 called princes of Wales. 
 
 KINGS OP THE HEPTARCHY. 
 
 [Co-extensive zoith the shire of Kent.'] 
 
 455. Hengist. 
 
 48S. iEsc, Esca, or Escus, son of Hengist ; in 
 honour of whom the kings of Kent were 
 for some time called iEscings. 
 
 512. Octa, son of jEsc. 
 
 542. Hermenric, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
 
 560. St. Ethelbert; first Christian king. 
 Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
 
 640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 
 
 664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
 
 673. Bother, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 
 
 685. Edric ; slain in 687. 
 
 [The kingdom was now subject for a time 
 to various leaders.] 
 
 694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 
 
 {£ Ethelbert II. } sons of Wihtred succeed- 
 760. Alric. J mg each other. 
 
 794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 
 796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 
 805. Baldred; who in 823 lost his life and 
 kingdom to Egbert, king of Wessex 
 
 SOUTH SAXONS. 
 
 [Sussex and Surrey.] 
 
 490. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 
 
 514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and 
 
 peaceful, exceeding 70 years. 
 
 [The South Saxons here fell into an almost 
 
 total dependence on the kingdom of 
 
 Wessex, and we scarcely know the 
 
 names of the princes who were possessed 
 of this titular sovereignty. — Hume.] 
 
 648. Edilwald, Edilwach, or Adelwach. 
 
 688. Authun and Berthun, brothers; they 
 reigned jointly ; both were vanquished 
 by Ina, king of Wessex, and the king- 
 dom was finally conquered in 725. 
 
 WEST SAXONS. 
 
 [Berks, Southampton, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, 
 Devon, and part of Cornwall] 
 
 519. Cerdicus. 
 
 534. Cynric, or Kenric, son of Cerdic. 
 
 559. Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished by his 
 subjects, and died in 593. 
 
 591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 
 
 597. Ceolwulf. 
 
 611. ) Cynegils, and in 
 
 614. } Cwichelm, his son, reign jointly. 
 
 643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 
 
 672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, 
 king of Mercia ; of great qualities : 
 probably deposed. 
 
 674. Escwine; in conjunction with Centwine; 
 on the death of Escwiue 
 
 676. Centwine rules alone. 
 
 685. Ceadwal, or Cseadwalla : this prince went 
 in lowly state to Rome, to expiate his 
 deeds of blood, and died there. 
 
 6S8. Ina, or Inas, a brave and wise ruler : he 
 also journeyed to Rome, where he 
 passed his time in obscurity, leaving 
 behind him an excellent code of laws. 
 
 72S. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
 
BRI 
 
 110 
 
 BRI 
 
 BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 
 
 754. Sigebryht, or Sigebert;* having mur- 
 
 dered a nobleman, he fled, but was 
 recognised and slain. 
 
 755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe.f a 
 
 noble youth of the line of Cerdic : mur- 
 dered by a banished subject. 
 
 784. Bertric, or Beorhtric : \ poisoned by 
 drinking of a cup his queen had pre- 
 pared for another. 
 
 800. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of 
 England. 
 
 EAST SAXONS. 
 
 [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 
 
 527. Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 
 
 587. Sledda ; his son. 
 
 597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son of the pre- 
 ceding : first Christian king. 
 
 614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly 
 with Sigebert and Seward : all slain. 
 
 623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of 
 Seward. 
 
 655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; bro- 
 ther of Sebert : put to death. 
 
 661. Swithelm, son of Sexbald. 
 
 663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or 
 Sebba, who became a monk. 
 
 693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
 
 700. Offa ; left his queen and kingdom, and 
 became a monk at Rome. 
 
 709. Suebricht, or Selred. 
 
 738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
 
 792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
 
 799. Sigered. 
 
 823. The kingdom seized upon by Egbert 
 king of Wessex. 
 
 NORTHUMBRIA. 
 
 [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmorland, 
 Durham, and Northumberland.] 
 
 *** Northumbria was at first divided into 
 
 two separate governments, Bernicia and 
 
 Deira : the former stretching from the river 
 
 Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
 
 Tyne to the Humber. 
 547. Ida ; a valiant Saxon. 
 560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 
 — Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards sole king 
 
 of Northumbria. 
 567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea ; Bernicia. 
 
 572. Heodwulf; Bernicia. 
 
 573. Freodwulf; Bernicia. 
 680. Theodric ; Bernicia. 
 588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 
 593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 
 617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590. 
 
 The greatest prince of the Heptarchy 
 in that age. — Hume. Slain in battle 
 with Penda, king of Mercia. 
 634. The kingdom again divided ; Eanfrid 
 
 * The fate of Sigebryht, and of the two monarchs that immediately succeeded him, strikingly 
 illustrates the condition of society in Britain at this time :— Sigebryht had treacherously conspired 
 against, and murdered his friend, Duke Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, who had given him an 
 asylum when expelled from his throne. For this infamous deed he was forsaken by the world, and 
 wandered about in the wilds and forests, where he was at length discovered by one of Cumbran's ser- 
 vants, who took vengeance upon him for the murder of his master, by cutting him to pieces.— Hume. 
 
 t Cynewulf had an intrigue with a young lady, who lived at Merton, in Surrey, whither having 
 secretly retired, he was suddenly environed in the night-time, by Kynehard, brother of Sigebryht, 
 whom Cynewulf had banished, and, after making a vigorous resistance, was murdered, with all his 
 attendants. The nobility and people of the neighbourhood rising next day in arms, revenged the 
 slaughter of their king by putting every one concerned in it to the sword. — Hume. 
 
 X Beorhtric had married Eadburga, natural daughter of Offa, king of Mercia, a woman equally 
 infamous for cruelty and incontinence. She had mixed a cup of poison for a young nobleman, an 
 object of her jealousy ; but the king drank of the fatal cup along with the nobleman, and both soon 
 expired. The crimes of Eadburga obliged her in the end to flee to France, whence she was expelled, 
 and she afterwards wandered to Italy, where she died iu poverty and want. — Hume. 
 
 rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira : 
 both put to death. 
 
 Oswald slain in battle. 
 
 Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 
 
 Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 
 
 Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 
 
 Osred, son of Ealdferth. 
 
 Cenred ; sprang from Ida. 
 
 Osric, son of Alcfrid. 
 
 Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 
 
 Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monas- 
 tery. 
 
 Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
 
 Edilwald or Mollo; slain by Aired, who 
 was impatient for the throne. 
 
 Aired, Ailred, or A lured ; deposed. 
 
 Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 
 
 Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 
 
 Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 
 
 Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
 795. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 
 808. Alfwold II. ; succeeded by Erdulf, and 
 perhaps others ; but the kingdom after 
 so many fatal revolutions lost all 
 attachment to its government and 
 princes, and was prepared for its sub- 
 jection to the yoke of Egbert. — Hume. 
 
 EAST ANOI.ES. 
 
 [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Isle of My.] 
 
 575. Uffa ; a noble German. 
 
 5S2. Titilus or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 
 
 599. Redwald ; son of Titilus : the greatest 
 
 prince of the East Angles. 
 624. Erpwald or Eorpwald. 
 629. Sigebert ; half-brother to Erpwald. 
 632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
 635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 
 
 654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 
 
 655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
 664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
 713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
 746. Alphwuld. 
 
 749. Beorn and Ethelred, jointly. 
 
 758. Beorn alone. 
 
 761. Ethelred. 
 
 790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryht ; treacherously 
 put to death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, 
 king of Mercia, overran the country, 
 which was finally subdued by Egbert. 
 
 MERCIA. 
 
 [Counties of Gloucester, Hereford. Chester, Staf- 
 ford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, 
 Derby, Leicester, Sucks, Northampton, Notts, 
 Lincoln, Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon and 
 part of Herts.] 
 
 586. Crida, or Cridda ; a noble chieftain. 
 
 593. [Interregnum.] 
 
 597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 
 
 615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 
 
BRI 
 
 111 
 
 BRI 
 
 BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 626. Penda, a fierce, cruel, and revengeful 
 warrior ; killed in battle. 
 
 655. Feada, son of Penda ; murdered. 
 
 656. Wulf here, brother of Peada ; to make 
 
 way for whom Peada was slain : he 
 
 slew his two sons with bis own hand. 
 675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 
 704. Cenred, Cendred, or Kendred; became 
 
 a monk at Borne. 
 709. Ceolred, or Celred, or Chelred, son of 
 
 Ethelred. 
 716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by one of 
 
 bis own chieftains, his successor, after 
 
 a defeat in battle. 
 755. Beornred, or Bernred : bimself slain. 
 755. Offa ; he formed the great dyke on the 
 
 borders of Wales known by his name. 
 794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Offa : be had 
 
 ruled jointly with his father for somo 
 
 years : died suddenly. 
 794. Cenulph, or Kenulph ; slaiu. 
 819. Kenelm or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned 
 
 five months : killed by his sister 
 
 Quendreda, from the ambitious hope of 
 
 assuming the government. — Hume. 
 819. Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; driven from 
 
 the throne. 
 821. Beornulf, or Burn wulf ; killed by his 
 
 own subjects. 
 823. Ludecan ; a valiant ruler : slain. 
 825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
 838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
 852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
 
 [This last kingdom merged, like the other 
 
 kingdoms of the Heptarchy, into that 
 
 of England.] 
 
 The Saxons, although they were divided into seven different kingdoms, yet were for 
 the most part subject to one king alone, who was entitled Hex Gentis Anglorum, or 
 King of the English nation ; those which were stronger than the rest giving the law 
 to them in their several turns, till, in the end, they all became incorporated in the 
 empire of the West Saxons under Egbert. The following were kings or octarchs 
 during the Heptarchy : * — 
 
 KINGS, OR OCTARCHS, 
 
 457. Hengist, first king of Kent. 
 490. Ella, king of the South Saxons. 
 519. Cerdic, king of the West Saxons. 
 
 634. Kenric, ditto. 
 560. Cealwin, ditto. 
 
 593. St. Ethelbert, ditto, and of Kent. 
 616. Bedwald, king of the East Angles. 
 630. Edwine, king of Northumbria. 
 
 635. Oswald, ditto: slain. 
 644. Osweo, or Oswy, ditto. 
 670. Wulfhere, king of Mercia. 
 675. Ethelred, ditto. 
 
 OF THE ENGLISH SAXONS. 
 
 704. Cenred, king of Mercia. 
 
 709. Celred, ditto ; slain in battle. 
 
 716. Ethelbald, ditto ; slain. 
 
 75S. Offa, ditto. 
 
 796. Egferth, or Egfrido, ditto. 
 
 796. Kenulph, ditto. 
 
 820. Egbert, king of the West Saxons; the 
 first and absolute monarch of the whole 
 Heptarchy, who vanquished all or most 
 of the Saxon kings, and added their 
 dominions to his own. 
 
 That Britain formerly joined the continent has been inferred from the similar cliffs 
 of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the constant encroachments 
 of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, a large part of the cliffs of 
 Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. — Phillips's Annals. 
 
 BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. See Tubular Bridge. 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science. The first meeting was held 
 at York in 1831. One of its main objects is "to promote the intercourse of those 
 who cultivate science with each other." A volume containing Reports of the 
 proceedings is published annually. 
 
 BRITISH BANK, ROYAL. Established in 1849, under sir R. Peel's joint-stock banking 
 act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113 (1844); an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of 
 cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stopped payment, occasioning much 
 distress and inconvenience to a large number of small tradesmen and others in 
 middling circumstances. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence of fraud 
 in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination before the court of 
 bankruptcy; the government determined to prosecute the manager, Mr. H. Innes 
 Cameron, and several of the directors, who are now in custody (June, 1857). In April, 
 1857, dividends bad been paid to the amount of 8s. in the pound, and a further 
 dividend of 2s. is expected. The attorney-general brought in a bill to prevent the 
 recurrence of such transactions. 
 
 BRITISH INSTITUTION, Pall Mall. Founded in 1805, and opened Jan. 18, 1806, 
 on a plan formed by sir Thomas Bernard, for the encouragement of British artists. 
 The gallery that was purchased for this institution was erected by alderman Boydell, 
 to exhibit the paintings that had been executed for his edition of Shakspeare. — Leigh. 
 
 * The term "Octarchy" is sometimes applied, by writers, to the Saxon kingdoms, inasmuch as 
 Northumbria, the seventh kingdom, was at different periods divided into two kingdoms, Bcrnicia and 
 Deira, ruled by separate kings. Other writers apply the term to the successive kings whose authority 
 was acknowledged by the other princes of the Heptarchy ; these they call Octarchs. 
 
BRI 112 BRU 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was the grant by 
 parliament of 20,000/. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloaue, in payment for his fine 
 library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which bad cost him 
 50,000/. The library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles 
 of vertu were enumerated in the catalogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 
 1753 : and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place 
 for the reception of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
 to an immense extent, by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, 
 MSS., sculpture, and work of art, and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, 
 Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the 
 museum in 1823 the library collected at Buckingham-house by George III., consisting 
 of 65,250 volumes, and about 19,000 pamphlets. In 1846 the right hon. Thos. Grenville 
 bequeathed to the museum his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes. For the Assyrian 
 sculptures and other treasures that now enrich this great national repository, seeNineveh. 
 Great additions to, and improvements in, the buildings have lately been made by the 
 munificence of parliament, independently of a large annual grant for scientific pur- 
 poses. A gigantic iron railing, enclosing the frontage, was completed in 1852. The 
 present magnificent reading-room was opened to the public on May 11, 1857. It was 
 erected by Mr. Sydney Smirke, according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the present 
 librarian (1857), at a cost of about 150,000/. The height of the dome is 106 feet, 
 and the diameter 140 feet. The room contains about 80,000 volumes, and will accom- 
 modate 300 readers. The library contains above 562,000 volumes exclusive of tracts. 
 MSS. &c. The alphabetical catalogue is completed from A to F (about one-third of 
 the entire catalogue) in nearly 500 volumes. 
 
 " BROAD BOTTOM " ADMINISTRATION. This ministry was so called because it 
 comprised nine dukes and a grand coalition of all parties. — Coxe's Memoirs of Pelham. 
 Rt. hon. Henry Pelham, first.lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer; 
 duke of Dorset, president of the council ; earl Gower, lord privy seal ; duke of New- 
 castle, and the earl of Harrington, secretaries of state; duke of Montagu, master- 
 general of the ordnance ; duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty ; duke of 
 Grafton, lord chamberlain ; duke of Richmond, master of the horse ; duke of Argyll, 
 keeper of the great seal of Scotland ; marquess of Tweeddale, secretary of state for 
 Scotland ; and lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor ; all of the cabinet. The duke of 
 Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of the cabinet. Nov. 1744. Dissolved by 
 the death of Mr. Pelham, March 6, 1754. — Coxe. 
 
 BROCADE, a silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and enriched with 
 flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chinese. — Johnson. The 
 trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. Its manufacture 
 was established with great success at Lyons in 1757. 
 
 BROCOLT. An Italian plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are 
 varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cyprus, in the 
 seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Barns. The cultivation of this 
 vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of England, and came into great 
 abundance, about 1680. — Anderson. 
 
 BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, were known early in England. See Apprai- 
 sers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be 
 licensed before transacting business, 8 & 9 Will. III. 1695-6. Their proceedings in 
 cases of distraint and fees are regulated by 57 Geo. III. c. 93, and 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 
 17. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 6 Geo. I. 1719, and 10 Geo. 
 II. 1736, and by subsequent acts. See Pawnbrokers. 
 
 BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various other 
 articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis 
 XIV. 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demolished Aug. 10th, 1792), was the 
 most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lb. weight of bronze. Bronze is two 
 parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. 
 
 BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robei*t Brown, 
 about 1615, and the first Independents. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesias- 
 tical distinctions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other 
 communions ; but the founder subsequently recanted his doctiues for a benefice in 
 the Church of England. 
 
 BRUCE'S TRAVELS were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. Bruce, the 
 
BRU 
 
 113 
 
 BUB 
 
 "Abyssinian Traveller," set out in June, 1768, and proceeding first to Cairo, he navi- 
 gated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at 
 Jidda, passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions reached 
 Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained the 
 great object of his wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to 
 England in 1773, and died in 1794. 
 BRUNSWICK, HOUSE op. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. 
 Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III. duke 
 of Bavaria), a son, who was Guelph IV., the great-grandfather of Henry the Lion. 
 This last married Maud, daughter of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon 
 as being the founder of the Brunswick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion 
 were the most extensive of any prince of his time : but having refused to assist the 
 emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against Pope Alexander III., he drew the 
 emperor's resentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
 The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of 
 Bavaria; the duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; 
 and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England; but on 
 Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The house of 
 Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from tbe 
 second ; and from this last sprang the royal family of England. See Hanover. 
 A revolution took place at Brunswick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the 
 reigning prince (Charles-Frederick- William) was obliged to seek an asylum in England, 
 Sept. 7, 1830. 
 
 DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 
 
 1634. Augustus ; who left three sons, Rodol- 
 phus-Augustus, Anthony-Ulrick, and 
 Ferdinand- Albert ; the two first suc- 
 ceeded 
 
 1666. Rodolphus-Augustus ; who associated 
 his next brother, Anthony-Ulrick, in 
 the government, from 1685 ; died 1701. 
 
 1704. Anthony-Ulrick ; brother of the preced- 
 ing ; now ruled alone : became a Roman 
 Catholic in 1710 ; died in 1714. 
 
 1714. Augustus-William, his son : died without 
 issue, 1731 ; succeeded by his brother. 
 
 1731. Ludowick-Rodolphus : died without 
 male issue in 1735. 
 
 1735. Ferdinald-Albrecht : died same year ; 
 succeeded by his son, 
 
 1735. Charles ; who transferred the ducal 
 residence to Brunswick ; succeeded by 
 his son, 
 
 1780. Charles-William-Ferdinand : married 
 
 the princess Augusta of England : 
 killed on the battle-field of Jena, Oct. 
 14, 1806 ; succeeded by his fourth son, 
 his eldest sons being blind, and abdi- 
 cating in favour of 
 
 1806. Frederick- William, whose reign may be 
 dated from the battle of Leipsic in 
 Oct. 1813. Fell at Waterloo (battle of 
 Quatre-Bras) commanding the avant- 
 garde under the duke of Wellington, 
 June 16, 1815 ; and was succeeded by 
 his eldest son, 
 
 1815. Charles-Frederick- William, deposed by 
 his younger brother William in 1830. 
 
 1830. William (Augustus-Louis); born April 
 25, 1806 ; succeeded Sept. 7, 1830, pro- 
 visionally ; and on the demand of the 
 Germanic diet definitively, April 25, 
 1831 ; the present duke (1857) ; un- 
 married. 
 
 BRUNSWICK CLUBS, were established to maintain the principles of the revolution, 
 the integrity of the house of Hanover, and Protestant ascendancy in church and state. 
 The first was formed in England at a meeting held at Maidstone, in Sept. 1828. The 
 first general meeting for the formation of Brunswick clubs in Ireland was held at the 
 Rotunda in Dublin, Nov. 4, same year. 
 
 BRUSSELS, capital of the kingdom of Belgium, was founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, 
 in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by marshal Ville- 
 roy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 
 1746. Again by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 
 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. 
 The Hdtel de Ville has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure 
 of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. The costly furniture of 16 
 principal houses was demolished in consequence of a display of attachment to the 
 house of Orange in a riot on 5th April, 1834. A maritime conference to endeavour 
 to obtain uniform meteorological observations was held here in 1853; and an inter- 
 national philanthropic congress met here in Sept. 1856. 
 
 BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon 
 false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disastrous consequences, in 
 France and England, in 1719 and 1721. In these years the bubbles in England alone, 
 of which was the South Sea scheme, involved a capital to the amount of 300,000,000^. 
 — Kearsley. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825; and in 
 
BUC 114 BUE 
 
 1844 and 1845 many of the railway schemes, afterwards abandoned, may be classed 
 under this description of enterprise. See Companies and Law's Babble. 
 
 BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, com- 
 menced their depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after the latter had 
 taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of 
 the first expeditions were Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, who murdered 
 thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was 
 undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont, in 1685 ; and that of Pointis in 1697. 
 
 BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, who 
 promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, prophesied the end of the world, 
 and maintained many absurd doctrines, which appeared to take their rise in a 
 disordered mind. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when her 
 followers dispersed. 
 
 BUCHAREST, TREATY OF. Preliminaries of peace were ratified at this place between 
 Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of 
 those empires ; signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those powers 
 altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. The original edifice called Buckingham-house 
 was built on the site known as Mulberry- gardens, by John Sheffield, duke of Buck- 
 ingham, in 1703. In 1761, it became the property of the queen, Charlotte, who made 
 it her town residence ; and here all her children, with the exception of the eldest, 
 were born. Here likewise several royal marriages took place — the duke of York and 
 princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816; 
 prince of Hesse-Homburg and piincess Elizabeth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge 
 and princess of Hesse, in the same year. Buckingham-house was pulled down in 
 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site ; and after an expenditure of nearly 
 a million sterling it was completed, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, 
 July 13, 1837, and is now her ordinary London residence : further improvements 
 were made in 1853. The marble arch was taken down from the exterior of this 
 palace, and re-erected at Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, and completed, March 29, 1851. 
 
 BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acrisius, of 
 Argos, about 1370 B.C. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took from 
 them their bucklers, which were of gold and silver, 309 B.C. In modern warfare the 
 buckler has been laid aside, but the light cuirass of horse-soldiers, called cuirassiers, 
 is something akin to the ancient buckler. See article Armour. 
 
 BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II., but people 
 of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their 
 shoes some years after that period : these last were, however, ridiculed for their 
 singularity in using them. Buckles continue to be used in court dress and by persons 
 of rank in most countries of Europe. 
 
 BUDA, on the Danube, once called the Key of Christendom, in conjunction with Pesth, 
 the capital of Hungaiy. It was taken by Solyman II. at the memorable battle of 
 Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects 
 carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants 
 were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Re- 
 taken by the Imperialists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the 
 soldiers, 1686. See Hungary. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES. This vast country was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1 526, and the 
 capital founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in 1535. In 1585, the city was re-built, 
 and re-colonised, after several abandonments. A British fleet and army, under sir 
 Home Popham and general Beresford, took the city with slight resistance in 1S06, 
 but it was retaken Aug. 12, after six weeks' possession. Monte Video was taken by 
 storm by sir Samuel Auchmuty, Feb. 3, 1807 ; but evacuated July 7, following. See 
 Monte Video. The British suffered a dreadful repulse here, in an expedition of 
 8000 men under general Whitelock (who was disgraced), July 6, 1807. On entering 
 the town they were attacked by a superior force of musketry and grape from every 
 quarter, and perished in great numbers, without occasioning any corresponding loss 
 to the enemy. A convention followed, by which the British were allowed to re- 
 embark in their ships. — The peace of Buenos Ay res was disturbed in the beginning of 
 the last century by rival chiefs, who defied the authority of Spain, but after great 
 
BUP 115 BUL 
 
 havoc and bloodshed they were quieted. The independence of the province was 
 declared, July 19, 1816; aud it was recognised in February, 1822, as forming part of 
 the Argentine confederation ; but for some past years, the country has been made a 
 prey to civil war by various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, and Rosas. 
 The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1S52, by Urquiza, to whom Buenos Ayres 
 capitulated, and Rosas, fleeing to England, arrived at Plymouth, April 25, 1852. 
 General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 1852, invested the city Dec. 28. 
 He defeated his opponent's squadron April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces July 
 13, and the civil war ended. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado the present governor (1857), 
 was elected Oct. 12, 1853. In 1853, Buenos Ayres seceded from the Argentine 
 confederation, and has been generally recognised as an independent state. 
 
 BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of 
 the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abolished by Trajan, a.d. 
 98. Our ancient kings had jesters, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of 
 indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some 
 writers state that James I. converted the jestej-s into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates 
 existed long before; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 
 
 BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in 
 the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone was early anion"- 
 the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different 
 system. Building with stone may be referred iu England to Benedict, the monk 
 aboiit a.d. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. In 
 Ireland, a castle was built of stone at Tuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161 • 
 and it was "so new and uncommon as to be called the Wonderful Castle." Building 
 with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged 
 it in England, in 886. It was generally adopted by the earl of Arundel, about 1598 
 London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London 
 was prohibited within three miles of the city-gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that 
 one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. The buildings from Hi»h 
 Holborn, north and south, and Great Queen-street, were erected between 1607 and 
 1631. — Strype. Enormous increase in buildings round London since 1820. 
 
 BUILDING ACTS. The early and principal statutes relating to building were passed 
 viz. 5, 23, and 35 reign of Eliz., 19 & 22 of Chas. II., and 6 & 7 of Anne. The 
 principal statutes since were 33 Geo. II. and 6 Geo. III. followed by enactments in 
 1770, 1772, and 1783. The recent acts are very numerous; and building is now 
 regulated by stringent provisions enforced by law. The Building Act for the Metro- 
 polis is 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844). 
 
 BULGARIANS. They defeated Justinian II., a.d. 687 ; and were subdued by the em- 
 peror Basilius, in 1019. On qne occasion, this emperor having taken 15,000 Bulgarians 
 prisoners, caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth 
 man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen home. Bulgaria was governed by 
 Roman dukes till 1186 ; subdued by Bajazet, 1396. — Vniv. Hist. 
 
 BULL oe EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and 
 generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name 
 from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the 
 heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and year of his 
 pontificate. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abettors, and consigning them 
 to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 1588. — The celebrated Golden Bull of 
 the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal, and was made the 
 fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremberg, a.d. 1356. 
 
 BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. A sport in Spain and Portugal, somewhat 
 equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It 
 is recorded as being an amusement at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. 
 Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of 
 the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls 
 and huge bears were baited with dogs ; " and near the Clinic, London, was the Paris, 
 or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhibition of bear- 
 baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown 
 out in the commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham, who 
 made a singular speech in favour of the custom, May 24, 1802. — Huiler. It has since 
 been declared illegal. See Cruelty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into 
 
 l2 
 
BUL 116 BUR 
 
 Spain about 1260 : abolished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. 
 There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Cainpo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 
 spectators, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 
 
 BULLETS of stone were in use a.d. 1514. Iron ones are fh - st mentioned in the Fce.de.ra, 
 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and con- 
 tinue to be in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some eastern 
 countries is still of stone, instead of iron. — Ashe. 
 
 BUNKER'S-HILL, BATTLE of, June 17, 1775. Fought between the British forces and 
 the revolted Americans, who made a formidable stand against the royal troops, but 
 were ultimately defeated with considerable loss — the Americans were nearly 2000, 
 and the British near 3000 men. It was one of the earliest actions of the provincials 
 with the mother country ; and notwithstanding its issue, and the retreat of their 
 forces, the American people refer to it with national pride, on account of the obstinate 
 fight they made against the superior numbers of the British. — Hist. American War. 
 
 BUONAPARTE. See Bonaparte. 
 
 BURFORD CLUB. The appellation given (according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a 
 conspirator) by the Pretender and his agents, to a club of Tory lords and others, of 
 which the lord Orrery was chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, lord Cowper, 
 Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, sir Constantine Phipps, general Webb, lord 
 Bingley, lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord Batliurst, Mr. Shippen, and 
 lord Gower, were members. This club met (according to the same tainted evidence) 
 at one another's houses, to form designs against the government. The improbability 
 of this story was strengthened by the solemn declaration of lord Cowper, on his word 
 of honour, that he did not know of its existence ; and a like asseveration was made by 
 lord Strafford, in his place in the house of lords. The list of this pretended club of 
 conspirators was published in the WeeMy Journal, printed in Whitefriars; but when 
 Read, the printer of the paper, was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
 absconded from his home. March, 1722. — Salmon. 
 
 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corpora- 
 tions. Burgesses were called to parliament in England, a.d. 1265 ; in Scotland, in 
 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
 sented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. 1413. — Viner's Statutes. See Borough. 
 
 BURGHER SECEDERS, were dissenters from the Church of Scotland. Their separation 
 from the associate presbytery arose in a difference of sentiment regarding the lawful- 
 ness of taking the burgess oath, 1739. The number of this class of separatists was, 
 however, even at the time, comparatively small. 
 
 BURGLARY until the reign of George IV. was punished with death. Formerly, to 
 encourage the prosecution of offenders, he who convicted a burglar was exempted 
 from parish offices, 10 & 11 Will. III. 1699. Statute- of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1706, and 
 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be transported, 10 
 Geo. III. 1770. Persons having upon them picklock-keys, &c, to be deemed rogues 
 and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. The laws with respect to burglary were amended 
 by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's acts, between 4 & 10 Geo. IV. 1823 and 1829. 
 
 BURGOS, SIEGE of. Lord Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca 
 (fought July 22, 1812) on Sept. 19. The castle was besieged by the British and allied 
 army, but the siege was abandoned Oct. 21, same year. The fortifications were 
 blown up by the French, June 12, 1813. 
 
 BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a.d. 413. Conrad II. of Germany being 
 declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to annex it to the empire 
 when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed the four provinces of Burgundy, 
 Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Burgundy becomes a circle of the German 
 empire, 1521. It falls to Philip II. of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions 
 cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy 
 was annexed to France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 
 
 BURIAL, and BURIAL-PLACES. The earliest mode of restoring the body to earth. 
 The first idea of it is said to have been formed from observing a live bird covering a 
 dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See Barrows. Places 
 of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — Eusebius. The Greeks had 
 their burial-places at a distance from their towns; the Romans near the highways; 
 hence the necessity for inscriptions on tombs. The first Christian burial-place was 
 
BUR 117 BUR 
 
 instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 
 758. Vaults were erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds 
 ■were used in England, 1666. Linen scarfs were introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
 1729 ; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1783. The 
 acts relating to metropolitan burials are 15 & 16 Vict. c. 85 (1852) ; 16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 134 (1853); 17 & 18 Vict. c. 87 (1854); and 18 & 19 Vict. cc. 68, 79, 128 (1855). 
 See Cemeteries. 
 
 BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were instituted in 
 England by Cromwell, lord Essex, about 1536.— Stowe. A tax was exacted on burials 
 in England— for the burial of a duke 501. and for that of a common person 4s., under 
 Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. 17 SB. —Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. 
 
 BURKING, a new and horrible species of murder committed in England, thus named 
 from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpetrated being called Burke. 
 His victims were strangled or made lifeless by pressure or other modes of suffocation, 
 and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the 
 surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh, in February, 
 1829. The crime was also perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. The 
 monster named Bishop was apprehended in November, 1831, and executed, Dec. 5, 
 with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian boy named 
 Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be 
 sought after. They confessed to this and other similar murders. 
 
 BURLINGTON HEIGHTS, BATTLE of, between the British and the United States 
 American forces, an obstinate and memorable engagement, contested with great 
 valour on both sides. Neither force was of large amount, but the latter was more 
 numerous. The Americans were routed, and the British carried the heights, June 6. 
 1813. — Hist, of tlve American War. 
 
 BURMESE or BIRMAN EMPIRE, founded in the middle of the last century, by 
 Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this 
 formidable power occurred in 1795, but it was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. 
 Hostilities were commenced by the British in 1824, when they took Rangoon. The 
 fort and pagoda of Syriam were taken in 1825. After a short armistice, hostilities 
 were renewed, Dec. 1, same year, and pursued until the successive victories of the 
 British led to the cession of Arracan, and to the signature of peace, Feb. 24, 1826. 
 For the events of this war, and of the Burmese war commenced in 1852, see India. 
 The province of Pegu was annexed to our India empire, Dec. 20, 1852. The war was 
 declared at an end, June 20, 1853. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the 
 betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest in the ascending and descending 
 degrees. The Jews had two ways of burning alive : one with wood and faggots to 
 burn the body ; the other by pouring scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, 
 combustio animce, to burn the soul. See Suttees. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE in ENGLAND. Even in England burning alive was a punishment 
 upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in 
 wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the 
 pope ; and witches suffered in this manner. See Witches. Many persons have been 
 burned alive on account of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William 
 Sawtre, parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Hen. IV. Feb. 9, 1401. In the reign of 
 Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop of London ; Latimer, 
 bishop of Rochester; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury; who were burned 
 at Oxford in 1555 and 1556.* 
 
 BURNING the DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the Theban war; 
 it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Homer abounds with 
 descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was very general about 1225 B.C. 
 and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead in graves should be violated; and 
 to this day the burning of the dead is practised in many parts of the East and West 
 Indies. See Barrows. 
 
 * It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign, there were 277 persons brought to 
 the stake ; besides those who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those 
 who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, 
 servants, and labourers, 55 women, and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen were the 
 bishops Gardiner and Bonner. The latter is said to have derived a savage pleasure Ironi witnessing 
 the torture of the sufferers. 
 
Time. 
 
 Substances fused. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Time. 
 
 4 seconds. 
 
 A topaz . 
 
 . 3 grains 
 
 45 seconds 
 
 3 
 
 An emerald 
 
 • 2 „ 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 A crystal pebble . 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Flint 
 
 • 10 „ 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 Cornelian 
 
 • 10 „ 
 
 '■> >• 
 
 12 „ 
 
 Pumice stone . 
 
 • 10 „ 
 
 24 
 
 BUR 118 BUT 
 
 BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to 
 Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful by the 
 modern improvements of Settalla : of Tschirnhausen, 1680; of Buffon, 1747; and of 
 Parker and others, more recently. The following are experiments of the fusion of 
 substances made with Mr. Parker's lens, or burning mirror : 
 
 Substances fused. Weight. 
 
 Pure gold . . .20 grains 
 Silver . . . . 20 „ 
 
 Copper . . . . 33 ,, 
 Platina . . . . 10 „ 
 Cast iron . . 10 „ 
 
 Steel 10 „ 
 
 Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are calcined ; 
 and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. 
 
 BURWELL FIRE. A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-show at Burwell, 
 near Newmarket, in the evening of September 8, 1727. The entertainment was in a 
 barn, and a candle having been placed too near a heap of straw, a fire was occasioned, 
 which was one of the most fatal on record. Seventy-six individuals perished in the 
 fire, and others died of their wounds. AmoDg the sufferers were several young ladies 
 of fortune and many children. 
 
 BURY ST. EDMUND'S, took its name from St. Edmund, who was murdered by the 
 Danes in 870, and buried here, and to whom its magnificent abbey was founded. It 
 shares with Runnymede the honour of producing Magna Charta in 1215. At this 
 town the barons met, and entered into a league against king John ; and Henry VI. 
 summoned a parliament in 1446, when Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, 
 and died here, it is supposed by poison. It was almost consumed by fire in 1608; 
 and an awful and desolating plague raged in 1636. 
 
 BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, 
 the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225, B.C. The Roman vestals were sub- 
 jected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress or conduct that could 
 excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on a charge of 
 incontinence, 337 B.C. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive 274 B.C. The vestal 
 Cornelia, a.d. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had 
 been buried alive ; the famous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo 
 d'Istria, president of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick 
 walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species 
 of torture until they died, Oct. 1831. See Greece. 
 
 BUSACO, OR BUZACO, BATTLE of, between the British under lord Wellington and 
 the French army, commanded by Massena. The latter were repulsed with great 
 slaughter, losing one general and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men 
 wounded, and several hundred prisoners ; the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300 
 in the whole. The British subsequently retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, 
 which were too strong for Massena to attempt to force, and the two armies remained 
 in sight of each other to the end of the year : fought Sept. 27, 1S10. 
 
 BUSHEL. This measure wa3 ordered to contain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII. 
 1520; the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1697; the imperial 
 corn bushel of 2218-192 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42, as 32 to 31. 
 Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV. June, 1824, which act came into operation Jan. 1, 1826. 
 
 BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by Sir H. Leeke and by land by 
 General Stalker,* was taken Dec. 10, 1856. The place proved stronger than was 
 expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and Col. Malet were killed 
 in a previous attack on the fort at Reshire, Dec. 9. The loss of the British was 4 
 officers killed, and one wounded; five men killed, and 35 wounded. 
 
 BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same 
 with the henna of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds 
 from which he cast wax figures, 328 B.C. — Pliny. Busts from the face in plaster of 
 Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about .a.d. 1466. — Vasari. 
 
 BUTCHERS.^ Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, 
 the Boarii oxen, and the Zanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' trade is very 
 
 * Who, in a fit of insauity produced by physical and mental depression, committed suicide, March 
 14, 1867. 
 
BUT ' 119 CAB 
 
 ancient in England ; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated 
 until the second year of James I. 1604. — Annals of London. 
 
 BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John, earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury; sir Francis 
 Dashwood, chancellor of the exchequer; lord Granville, president of the council; 
 duke of Bedford, privy seal ; earl of Halifax, admiralty ; earl of Egremont and rt. 
 hon. George Grenville, secretaries of state ; lord Ligonier, ordnance ; rt. hon. Henry 
 Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the forces ; viscount Barrington, treasurer 
 of the navy; lord Sandys, first lord of trade; duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord 
 Huntingdon, lord North, &c. May, 1762. 
 
 BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early 
 Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Christians of Egypt 
 burnt butter in their lamps instead of oil, in the third century. Butter forming an 
 important article of commerce a3 well as food in these countries, various statutes 
 have passed respecting its package, weight, and sale ; the principal of which are the 
 36th & 38th Geo. III. and 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during 
 the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. 
 — In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer 
 taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Parle. 
 
 BUTTONS. Of early manufacture in England : those covered with cloth were prohi- 
 bited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late 
 years, although it has, notwithstanding, much improved. — Phillips. 
 
 BYNG, Hon. Admiral JOHN. Shot on board the Monarch ship of war at Spithead, 
 March 14, 1757. This brave officer, so distinguished by his services, and who had 
 given so many signal proofs of his courage as a commander, was charged with neglect 
 of duty in an engagement with the enemy off Minorca on the 20th of May preceding. 
 As his conduct couldmot merit the accusation of cowardice, and as he was too British 
 for that of disaffection to be hazarded against him, he was condemned for an error of 
 judgment, and suffered death. The following bold inscription was cut upon his tomb, 
 at South-hill, Bedfordshire : — 
 
 TO THE PERPETUAL DISGRACE OF PUBLIC JUSTICE, 
 
 THE HONOURABLE JOHN BTNG PELL A MARTYR TO 
 
 POLITICAL PERSECUTION, MARCH 14, 1757 : 
 
 WHEN BRAVERY AND LOYALTY WERE INSUFFICIENT SECURITIES 
 
 FOR THE LIFE AND HONOUR OF 
 
 A NAVAL OFFICER. 
 
 BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England on his voyage round the globe, 
 June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he discovered the populous 
 island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Aug. 16, 1765. Though brave and 
 intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of 
 the fleet " Foul-weather Jack." — Bellchambers. 
 
 BYZANTIUM, now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715 B.C. — 
 Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans a.d. 73, and was laid in ruins by Severus 
 in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after him it received the 
 name of Constantinople. See Constantinople. 
 
 c. 
 
 CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, and the 
 Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English history, the Cabal was 
 a council which consisted of five lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners 
 of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the Cabal, from the initials of their 
 names : sir Thomas Clifford (C), the lord Ashley (A), the duke of Buckingham (B), 
 lord Arlington (A), and the duke of Lauderdale (L); 22 Charles II. 1670. — Hume. 
 
 CABBAGES. Three varieties were brought to these realms from Holland, a.d. 1510. 
 To sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, the first planting them in England is ascribed. This 
 vegetable was previously imported from the Continent. It was introduced into 
 Scotland by the soldiers of Cromwell's army. See Gardening. 
 
 CABINET COUNCIL.* There were councils in England so early as the reign of Ina, 
 
 * The term cabinet council originated thus: The aflairs of state in the reign of Charles T. were 
 principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of btrafford, and the lord Cottiugton ; 
 
CAB 
 
 120 
 
 CAD 
 
 king of the West Saxons, A.D. 690 ; Offa, kiDg of the Mercians, ad. 758 ; and in other 
 reigti3 of the Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. — Spelman. 
 Cabinet councils, properly so called, are, however, of comparatively modern date. 
 The cabinet councils in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of 
 his chosen friends, and the great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the 
 second council, now styled the privy council, originated in the reign of Charles I. 
 — Salmon. The great household officers were formerly always of the cabinet. "But 
 in Walpole's time there was an interior council, of Walpole, the chancellor, and 
 secretaries of state, who, in the first instance, consulted together on the more con- 
 fidential points." — Croker's Memoirs of Lord Hervey. The modern cabinet council 
 has usually consisted of the following twelve members : — 
 
 Lord chancellor. 
 First lord of the treasury. 
 Lord president of the council. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer. 
 Lord privy seal. 
 
 Home, foreign , and colonial secretaries of state. 
 First lord of the admiralty. 
 President of the board of control. 
 President of the board of trade. 
 Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
 
 In 1850, the number was fifteen, and included the secretary -at- war, the postmaster- 
 general, and the chief secretary for Ireland. The present number (1857), including 
 the marquess of Lansdowne, without office, is fifteen. See Palmerston. The cabinet 
 ministers of the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of England. 
 
 CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making the largest, 
 by which human labour was reduced nine- tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine 
 was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain 
 cables were introduced into the British navy in 1812. 
 
 CABRIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets (vulgo Cabs) were introduced into the streets of 
 London, as public conveyances, in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 1831 
 they had increased to 165, and then the licences were thrown open. The number at 
 present running in the metropolis exceeds five thousand. Previous to throwing open 
 the trade, the number of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when, it is worth 
 noting, there were few omnibuses {which see). The hackney coaches are now almost 
 extinct. On June 28, 1853, an act (which has been called Mr. Fitzroy's act) was 
 passed for "the better regulation of Metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, and 
 for prohibiting the use of advertising vehicles," by which the cab fares were re- 
 duced to 6d. a mile. The act came into operation July 11, and on the 27th a general 
 strike of the Loudon cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was felt, and every 
 kind of vehicle was employed to supply the deficiency. The cabs re-appeared on the 
 stands on the 30th : some alterations (previously agreed on) were made in the act. 
 
 CADDEE, or LEAGUE of GOD'S HOUSE, the celebrated league of independence in 
 Switzerland, formed by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, a.d. 1400 to 1419. A 
 second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League, 1424. A third league, 
 called the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436. — Hist, of Switzerland. 
 
 CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his country on 
 account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 20,000 Kentish 
 men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." 
 Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and 
 beheaded the lord-treasurer, lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. 
 The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade 
 finding himself deserted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his 
 apprehension, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
 Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451. 
 
 CADIZ, anciently Gadiz ; called by the Romans, Gades. Built by the Carthaginians 
 530 B.C. — Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing as the Spanish 
 Armada, against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. 
 Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, Sept. 15, 
 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he failed. Bombarded by 
 the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two 
 years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, Oct. 1800. A French 
 
 to these were added, the earl of Northumberland, for ornament ; the bishop of London, for his place, 
 being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, Vaue and Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the 
 marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a 
 mind. These persons made up the committee of state, reproachfully called the junto, and afterwards, 
 enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Clarendon. 
 
C2ES 121 CAL 
 
 squadron of five ships of the line and a frigate, surrendered to the Spaniards and 
 British in Cadiz harbour, June 14, 1808. Besieged by the French, but the siege was 
 raised after the battle of Salamanca, July «1812. Massacre of a thousand inhabitants 
 by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. 
 
 C&SARIAN OPERATION. The Csesarian section, it is said, first gave the name of 
 Caesar to the Roman family : it is performed by cutting the child out of the womb, 
 when it cannot be otherwise delivered. Of twenty-two cases operated on in these 
 islands, twenty-one of the mothers died, and ten of their children were born dead. 
 Of twelve extracted alive, four survived only a few days. The case of Alice O'Neil, 
 an Irishwoman, who survived the section, which was performed by a female, is 
 authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan Stewart, of 
 Dungannon. In January, 1847, the operation was performed in Bartholomew's 
 hospital, London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under the influence of 
 ether ; but she died the next day. — House Returns. On the Continent the operation 
 has been more frequent and more successful. — M. Baudelocque. 
 
 CAESARS, ERA of the; ob SPANISH ERA, is reckoned from the 1st of Jan. 38 B.C. 
 being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It wa3 much used in 
 Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was 
 abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
 abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 
 1383. It was used in Portugal till 1455. The months and days of this era are 
 identical with the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract 
 thirty-eight from the year ; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 
 
 C.VFFRARIA, and CAFFIR WAR. See Kaffraria. 
 
 CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the commander of 
 the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its 
 embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of the besiegers perished ; 
 but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the 
 citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, a.d. 1642. 
 
 CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO, the modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets 
 of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs, in what is called the city of 
 the dead. It was built by the Saracens, in a.d. 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation 
 by the Crusaders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
 empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 1754, when 
 40,000 persons perished. Set on fire by a lady of the Begler-beg, Dec. 1755. Taken 
 by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and 
 Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. 
 
 CALAIS, taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held by England 
 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, and its loss so deeply 
 touched the queen's heart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, which 
 occurred soon afterwards, Nov. 17, same year. " When I am dead," said the queen, 
 " Calais will be found written on my heart." It was bombarded by the English, 
 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 24, 1814. 
 
 CALCULATING MACHINES. With the utmost care, errors in computation and in 
 printing will always occur in logarithms and tables of figures. To avoid them, 
 machines to calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when 19 years of age, 
 invented one, about 1650. The construction of Mr. C. Babbage's machine was com- 
 menced at the expense of government in 1821, and continued till 1833, when the 
 work was suspended after an expenditure of above £15,000. The portion completed 
 is in the library of King's College, London. — In 1857, Messrs. G. and E. Scheutz, two 
 Swedish engineers, published in London specimen tables, calculated and printed by 
 machineiy, constructed between 1837 and 1843 after a study of the account of Mr. 
 Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their machinery to England in 1854, 
 which has been bought for £1000 by Mr. T. F. Rathbone, an American merchant, to 
 be presented to Dudley observatory in his own town, Albany. 
 
 CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It was 
 purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked 
 by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the 
 capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a 
 dungeon about eighteen feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the 
 next morning alive. See Black-hole. Calcutta was retaken the following year, and 
 
The country is invaded by the Scuyths, 
 or Scots, and the government is over- 
 thrown, about .... a.d. 306 
 
 The Caledonian monarchy is revived by 
 Fergus II 404 
 
 After many sanguinary wars between the 
 Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Kenneth 
 II. obtains a glorious victory over the 
 Picts, unites the whole country under 
 one monarchy, and gives it the name 
 of Scotland .... S38 to 813 
 Sec Scotland. 
 
 CAL 122 CAL 
 
 the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supreme Court of Judicature established 1773. 
 College founded here, 1801. Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act 53rd Geo. III. 
 c. 155, July, 1813. See Bengal and India. 
 CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived from Quel 
 or Gaelmen or Oadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died a.d. 99, 
 distinguishes this portion of Britain by the appellation of Caledonia ; but the etymo- 
 logy of the word seems undetermined. Venerable Bede says, tbat it retained this 
 name until a.d. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. 
 The ancient inhabitants appear to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the 
 Celts, who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of 
 the fourth century of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
 rities) by the Scuyths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts 
 into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. 
 Hence the distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons which is still so 
 remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders. 
 
 Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
 
 founded by Fergus I., about . B.C. 330 
 
 The Picts from the north of England 
 
 settle in the southern borders . . . 140 
 Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
 
 Caledonia, with little success, in the 
 
 reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
 
 bred II a.d. 79 
 
 He is signally defeated by the forces of 
 
 Corbred 80 
 
 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
 
 in the reign of Donald I. 201 
 
 The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the history of the 
 country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III. surnamed Canmore reigned 
 (1057), is obscure, and intermixed with many improbable fictions. 
 
 CALEDONIAN CANAL. The act for this stupendous undertaking — a canal from the 
 North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean — received the royal assent, July 27, 1803; and the 
 works were commenced same year. By means of this magnificent canal the nautical 
 intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland to 
 the North Sea and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 
 miles. A sum vastly exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from 
 time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was 
 completed, and opened Oct. 30, 1S22. 
 
 CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all 
 nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, com- 
 prising 304 days, 738 B.C. The year of Romulu3 was of fifty days less duration 
 than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement 
 did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b.c. 
 corrected this calendar, by adding two months; and Julius Caesar, 45 B.C. desirous 
 to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, every 
 fourth year being bissextile or leap year. See Leap Year. This almost perfect 
 arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed generally throughout 
 the Christian world till the time of Pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius 
 Caasar was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 
 clays, five hours, and forty-nine minutes ; and not of 365 days, six hours. This 
 difference, at the time of Gregory XIIL, had amounted to ten entire clays, the vernal 
 equinox falling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, 
 Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only; and to 
 prevent further irregularity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should 
 not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 
 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the year 2000 will 
 be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the 
 lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the 
 calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year; 
 and future errors of chronology are avoided. See New Style. 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1S57- 
 
 Year of the world (Jewish) . . . 5617 
 
 Julian period 6570 
 
 Hegira 1273-4 
 
 Foundation of Koine (Varro) . . . 2010 
 
 United States' Independence . . 81-82 
 Year of Queen Victoria . . . 21-22 
 Napoleon III 6 
 
CAL 123 CAL 
 
 CALENDAR, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY. See French Revolutionary Calendar. 
 
 CALENDER. This machine, which is used in glazing various kinds of cloth, was 
 introduced into England by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution from 
 France, Holland, and the Netherlands, to these countries, about 1685. — Anderson. 
 
 CALENDS, the first day of the Roman months. 
 
 CALICO, the well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which 
 was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by 
 the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the Dutch loom engine, were 
 first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn, in 
 1700; and again in 1721. They were first made a branch of manufacture in 
 Lancashire in 1771. See Cotton. 
 
 CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Caliente Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the 
 climate), was discovered by Cortez in 1537 ; and taken possession of by sir Francis 
 Drake, who had his right to it confirmed by the king of the country iu 1578. The 
 Jesuits made their settlements here about 1690 ; but they were subsequently expelled 
 by the Spaniards. This peninsula for a long period before 1846 belonged to Mexico ; 
 but in July in that year the whole territory, by a bloodless conquest, was annexed 
 to the possessions of the United States of North America. The late discovery of the 
 auriferous region here has attracted a universal tide of emigration to it from Europe, 
 America, and the countries of the utmost East ; tens of thousands from the British 
 Isles being among the earliest adventurers. The first known discovery of gold in its 
 wonderful quantity was made by a located captain, named Sutter, and his friend 
 Mr. Marshall, in September, 1847 ;* but it is supposed that the existence of gold was 
 known to numerous individuals previously, who concealed the source of their 
 enormous gains, while they trafficked ostensibly in the inferior products of the land. 
 The recent discovery of the gold-fields of Australia (April, 1851) has turned the 
 stream of emigration from these kingdoms to that country. See Australia. — 
 California is advancing rapidly in wealth and importance, but society is still in a very 
 disorganised state. There were many murders committed in 1853, and Lynch law is 
 still in operation. 
 
 CALIPER COMPASS, an instrument whereby founders and gunners measure the bore 
 of diameter of cannon, mortars, and other pieces of ordnance, and also of small arms, 
 and the diameter of shot. This compass is said to have been invented by an artificer 
 of Nuremberg, in 1540. 
 
 CALIPH (in Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title assumed by the Sophi of Persia, in the 
 succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the successors of Mahomet. The 
 caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose 
 arms he died, a.d. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the 
 civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs v and that chiefly in matters 
 of religion. — Sir T. Herbert. 
 
 CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, the first observer of the revolution of 
 eclipses — a series of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he imagined the 
 new and full moons returned to the same day of the solar year, which is a mistake ; 
 for in 553 years they come too late by one whole day : this period was begun about 
 the end of June, in the third year of 112th Olympiad, in the year of Rome 424, and 
 329 b.c. — Pardon. 
 
 CALIXTINS, a sect derived from the Hussites, in the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 
 * Captain Sutter says : he was sitting one evening in his room writing, when Mr. Marshall 
 suddenly entered, with great excitement in his face, and, unable to speak, flung upon the table a handful 
 of scales of pure virgin gold. He at length explained that, while widening a channel which had been 
 made too narrow to allow a mill-wheel to work properly, a mass of sand and gravel had been thrown 
 up by the excavators. Glittering in this sand, Mr. Marshall noticed what he thought to be an opal, a 
 stone common in California : it was, however, a scale of pure gold, and the first idea of the discoverer 
 was, that some Indian tribe or ancient possessors of the land had buried a treasure. But examination 
 showed the whole soil to teem with the precious metal ; and then mounting a horse, he rode down to 
 carry the intelligence to his partner. To none but him did he communicate it, and they two agreed to 
 keep it secret. Proceeding together to the spot, they picked up a quantity of the scales; and with 
 nothing but a small knife, captain Sutter extracted from a little hollow in the rock a solid mass 
 of gold weighing an ounce and a half. The attempt to conceal this valuable discovery was not suc- 
 cessful. An artful Keutuckian labourer, observing the eager looks of the two searchers, followed, 
 and imitated them, picking up several flakes of gold. Gradually the report spread, and as the 
 would-be monopolists returned towards the mill, a crowd met them, holding out flakes of gold, 
 shouting with joy, and calling out, Oro ! Oro ! Gold ! Gold ! 
 
CAL 124 CAL 
 
 They asserted the use of the cup as essential to the Eucharist. Among the Lutherans 
 they are those following the sentiments of Calixtus, who died in 1656. Calixtus wrote 
 a treatise against the celibacy of the priesthood. 
 
 CALIYUG ERA, or ERA of CHINA, dates from 3101 B.C. and begins with the entrance 
 of the sun into the Hindoo sign Aswin, which is now on the 11th April, N.S. In the 
 year 1600, the year began on the 7th of April, N.S., from which it has now advanced 
 four days, and, from the precession of the equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of 
 a day in sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 3102 from any given 
 year of the Caliyug era, will be the Christian year in which the given year begins. 
 
 CALLAO, in Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and 
 returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a.d. 1687. The same 
 phenomenon took place Oct. 28, 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the 
 exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succour a 
 wave providentially threw a boat. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY, beautiful writing, in a small compass. Invented by Callicrates, who 
 is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B.C. The modern 
 specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth 
 century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, and decalogue, two short Latin 
 prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign 
 of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle 
 of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so 
 accurately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the 
 whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. — Holinshed. 
 
 CALMAR, TREATY or. The celebrated treaty, whereby Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway were united under one sovereign ; Margaret of Waldemar, " the Semiramis of 
 North," being the first, 1397. The deputies of the three kingdoms assembled at 
 Calmar for the election of a king; and Margaret, having defeated Albert of Sweden 
 (whose tyranny had caused a revolt of his subjects), in 1393, she was made choice of 
 to rule over Denmark, as well as Sweden and Norway, of which she was then queen. 
 This treaty is commonly called the Union of Calmar. — Henault. 
 
 CALOMEL (beautiful black), a compound of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of 
 sodium, first mentioned by Crollius early in the seventeenth century, but must have 
 been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those 
 announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known some 
 centuries before. 
 
 CALORIC SHIP ERICSSON. In this vessel it was attempted to supersede steam, as a 
 motive power, by caloric or heated air. The ship Ericsson was constructed in 
 America on this new principle of motion, and sailed down the bay of New York, 
 Jan. 4th, 1853 ; and, it was thought, proved that caloric was adapted to locomotion, 
 and destined, perhaps, to work a complete revolution in navigation. The vessel was 
 designed by captaiu Ericsson, whose name she bore, and on this trial trip sailed 
 fourteen miles an hour, at a cost of fuel full eighty per cent, less than is consumed 
 by ordinary steam-ships. The caloric engines are generally considered unsuccessful ; 
 but captain Ericsson is still continuing his researches. He patented a modified 
 engine in 1856. 
 
 CALVARY, MOUNT, the place where the Redeemer suffered death, a.d. 33. Calvary 
 (which cannot now be traced, for the ground is an entire plain) was a small eminence 
 or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See 
 Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his persecution of the Christians, erected a 
 temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at 
 Bethlehem, a.d. 142. Within the city of Jerusalem is the church of the Holy 
 Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all Christian countries. See Holy Places. 
 
 CALVES'-HEAD CLUB. Some noblemen and gentlemen who composed it having 
 ridiculously exposed raw heads in bloody cloths at the windows of the tavern where 
 it was held, the mob would have pulled down the house if the guards had not dis- 
 persed them, Jan. 16, 1734. The club was in consequence suppressed. — Salmon. 
 
 CAL VI, SIEGE of. The British forces besieged the strong fortress of Calvi on the 
 12th June, 1794, and after a close investment of it for fifty-nine days, it surrendered 
 on August 10, following : the garrison marched out with the honours of war, and 
 were conveyed to Toulon. Calvi surrendered to the French, in 1796. 
 
CAL 
 
 125 
 
 CAM 
 
 CALVINISTS, named after their founder, John Calvin, one of the great Protestant 
 Reformers, who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, in 1509 : but adopting the principles 
 of the Reformers, he fled to Augouleme, where he composed his Imtilutio Christianm 
 Keligionis, in 1533, published in 1536, two years afterwards. He subsequently retired 
 to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential 
 points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from 
 the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of 
 Poissy, in 1561, where they expressly rejected the tenth article of "the confession of 
 Augsburg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 
 
 CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its 
 name. The city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable surprise in 1595. 
 Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution 
 it was invested by the Austrians, Aug. 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, 
 replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do that, 
 but his soldiers kuew how to fight." In 1794, the French were defeated at Csesar's 
 Camp, in the neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke of York, April 23. 
 It was seized by the British, under general sir Charles Colville, June 24, 1815. The 
 citadel surrendered the next day, and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. 
 This was one of the fortresses stipulated to be occupied by the allied army for 
 five years. 
 
 CAMBRAY, LEAGUE of. This was the celebrated league against the republic of 
 Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and 
 whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of 
 Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. A treaty was concluded here in 1529, between 
 Francis I. of France and Charles V. of Germany; also a treaty between the emperor 
 Charles VI. and Philip V. of Spain, in 1724-5. 
 
 CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics were first 
 worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliz. 1580. — Stowe. The 
 importation of cambrics was restricted in 1745; and was totally prohibited by statute 
 of 32 Geo. II., 1758. Re-admitted in 1786, but afterwards again prohibited. The 
 importation of cambrics is now allowed. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE. Once called Oranta, and of most ancient standing, being frequently 
 mentioned in the earliest accounts of the old British historians. Roger de Mont- 
 gomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. 
 The university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert, king of the East Angles, 
 about a.d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it 
 Buffered much. It was somewhat restored by Edward the Elder, in 915 ; and leai-ning 
 began to revive about 1110, when Henry I. bestowed many privileges upon the town; 
 as did Henry III. In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, in the reign of 
 Richard II., the rebels entered the town, seized the university records, and burnt 
 them in the market-place, 1381. Cambridge now contains thirteeen colleges and four 
 halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest 
 foundation in Europe ; and the chapel is esteemed to be one of the finest pieces of 
 Gothic architecture in the world. 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 Peter-house College, by Hugo de Bal- 
 sham, bishop of Ely, founded . a.d. 1257 
 
 Pembroke College, founded by the 
 countess of Pembroke . . . . 1347 
 
 Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville 1348 
 Enlarged by Dr. John Caius in . . 1558 
 
 Corpus Christi, or Benet . . . . 1352 
 
 King's College, by Henry VI. . . 1441 
 
 Christ College, founded . . . . 1442 
 
 [Endowed by Margaret, countess of Rich- 
 mond, mother of Henry VII. J . . 1505 
 
 Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou, 
 consort of Henry VI 1448 
 
 Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop 
 of Ely 1496 
 
 St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, 
 countess of Richmond . . . . 1511 
 
 Magdalene College, by Stafford, duke of 
 Buckingham . . . . a.d. 1519 
 
 Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . 1546 
 
 Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mild- 
 may 1584 
 
 Sidney-Sussex College, founded by F. 
 Sidney, countess of Sussex . . . 1598 
 
 Downing College, by sir George Downing, 
 by will, in 1717 ; its charter . . . 1800 
 
 HALLS. 
 
 Clare Hall, first by Dr. Richard Baden, 
 in 1326 ; destroyed by fire, and re- 
 established by Elizabeth de Burg . . 1326 
 
 Trinity Hall, by William Bateman, 
 bishop of Norwich 1350 
 
 Catherine Hall, founded .... 1473 
 [Cambridge University Calendar.] 
 
 In 1687, the university refused the degree of M.A. to father Francis, a Benedictine 
 monk, recommended by the king ; and the presidency of Magdalene College was also 
 refused to Farmer, a Roman Catholic, notwithstanding the mandate of James. 
 
CAM 126 CAN 
 
 Commissioners were appointed for the government and extension of this university 
 and Eton College, by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 88 (1856). 
 
 CAMDEN, BATTLES of. The first battle between general Gates and lord Cornwallis, 
 the former commanding the revolted Americans, who were defeated, was fought 
 Aug. 16, 1780. The second battle between general Greene and lord Rawdon, when 
 the Americans were again defeated, April 25, 1781. Camden was evacuated, and 
 burnt by the British, May 13, 1781. 
 
 CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674.— Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an 
 instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera obscura, or dark chamber, 
 was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297; it was improved 
 by Baptista Portn, the writer on natural magic, about 1500. — Mortri. Sir I. Newton 
 remodelled it. By the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera 
 are rendered permanent. See Pliotographs. 
 
 CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland (so called from Archibald Cameron), which 
 separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings iu 
 the fields, and afterwards took arms against Charles II. on account of his breaking 
 the solemn league and covenant. At the Revolution of 168S they were formed into 
 a regiment by William III., and permitted to retain many of their religious pecu- 
 liarities. The 26th and 79th regiments are still called Cameroniau. 
 
 CAMLET. This stuff was originally made of silk and camel's hair, but now it is manu- 
 factured of wool, hair, and silk. Camlet is mentioned by writers of the middle ages, 
 a3 a stuff prepared from camel's hair alone. The true oriental camlet first came to 
 these countries from Portuguese Iudia, in 1660. — Anderson. 
 
 CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps. The disposition of the Hebrew 
 encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and 
 Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encamp- 
 ments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. A camp 
 was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. See Chobham and Aldershott. 
 
 CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a.d. 1520 ; it was taken by the English in 1659; 
 by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the freebooters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These 
 last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood-cutters made 
 their settlement here in 1662. 
 
 CAMPERDOWN. BATTLE of, off Camperdown, south of the Texel, where a signal 
 victory was obtained by the British fleet, under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch 
 fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, either taken 
 or destroyed. This was one of the most brilliant naval achievements of the war, 
 Oct. 11, 1797. This victory obtained the brave British admiral a peerage. He died 
 suddenly on his way to Edinburgh, Aug. 4, 1S04. 
 
 CAMPO FORMIO, TREATY of. Concluded between France and Austria, the latter 
 power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, 
 Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memorable and humiliating 
 treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, 
 however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for 
 the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. 
 
 CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a.d. 1499, and 
 was settled by the French in 1608, but it had been previously visited by them. 
 Canada was taken by the English in 1628, but was restored in 1631. It was again 
 conquered by the English in 1759 (see Quebec), and was confirmed to them by the 
 peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower 
 Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, 
 that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. Fox seemed anxious for 
 a reconciliation, but Mr. Burke rejected it with disdain. Canada was made a bishopric 
 in 1793. In the war of 1812, the Americans invaded Canada at different points, with 
 30,000 men, but they were forced to retire after several sanguinary battles, discomfited 
 in their attempts to reduce the country. — The Papineatj Rebellion commenced at 
 Montreal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. Eustace, 
 Dec. 14, following. See St. Eustace. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were 
 repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Apj)ointnient of lord 
 Durham as governor-general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
 April 12, 1838. Lord Durham announced his resolution to resign his government, 
 
CAN 
 
 127 
 
 CAN 
 
 Oct. 9, 1838, and immediately returned to Europe. The spirit of rebellion agjain mani- 
 fested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 183S. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville 
 under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes took place, and they 
 were routed with the loss of many killed and several huudred prisoners. Sir John 
 Colborue announced the suppression of the rebellion in his despatches, dated Nov. 
 17, 1838. Au act to make temporary provision for the government of Lower Cauada 
 passed Feb. 1838, and was amended by act 2 & 3 Vict. Aug. 1839. The act 16 & 
 17 Vict. c. 21, authorising the Canadian legislature to make provision concerning the 
 clergy reserves, was passed May 9, 1853. The grand trunk railroad of Canada, 850 
 miles long, from Quebec to Toronto, was opened Nov. 12, 1856. 
 
 CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 
 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Lan- 
 guedoc, which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was commenced in 
 1666. That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, commenced in 1675. That 
 betweeu the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to 
 Gottenberg, commenced 1751. That between the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 
 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The great 
 American Erie Canal, 330 miles in length, was commenced in 1817. See Ganges 
 Canal, the most stupendous modern one. The first canal made in England was by 
 Henry I. when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a.d. 1134. The most 
 remarkable canals in Great Britain are : — 
 
 New River canal, commenced . a.d. 160S 
 Brought to London . . . . 1614 
 
 Thames made navigable to Oxford . 1624 
 Kennet made navigable to Reading . . 1715 
 Lagan navigation, commenced . . 1755 
 Caermarthensbire caual . . . . 1756 
 Droitwich to the Severn .... 1756 
 Duke of Bridge water's navigation (first 
 
 great canal), commenced . . . 1758 
 Northampton navigation . . . 1761 
 Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand), com- 
 menced (opened to Sallins, 1782) . . 1765 
 Stafford and Worcester, commenced . 1765 
 Forth to Clyde, commenced . . . 1768 
 Birmingham to Bilston . . . .1 768 
 Oxford to Coventry, commenced . . 1769 
 Lea made navigable from Hertford to 
 Ware, 1739 ; to London .... 1770 
 
 Leeds to Liverpool 1770 
 
 Monkland (Scotland), commenced . . 1770 
 Ellesmere and Chester .... 1772 
 Basingstoke canal, commenced . . . 1772 
 Liverpool to Wigan .... 1774 
 
 Stroud to the Severn 1775 
 
 Staffordshire caual, commenced . . 1776 
 Stourbridge canal, completed . . . 1776 
 Runcorn to Manchester .... 1776 
 Trent and Mersey, opened . . . . 1777 
 Chesterfield to the Trent . . . 1777 
 Belfast to Lough Neagh . ... 1783 
 Thames to Leachdale .... 17S3 
 Sallins to Monastereven . . . . 1786 
 Dublin to the Shannon (Roj'al) . . 17SS 
 Severn to the Thames, completed . . 17S9 
 Forth and Clyde, completed . . . 1790 
 Bradford, completed 1790 
 
 Grand Junction canal . . .a.d. 1790 
 Birmingham and Coventry . . . 1790 
 Monastereven to Athy .... 1791 
 Worcester and Birmingham . . . 1791 
 Manchester, Boulton, and Bury . . 1791 
 
 Lancaster, act passed 1792 
 
 Warwick and Birmingham . . . 1793 
 
 Barnsley, cut 1794 
 
 Rochdale, act passed .... 1794 
 Huddersfield, act passed . . . . 1794 
 
 Derby, completed 1794 
 
 Hereford and Gloucester . . . . 1796 
 Paddington canal, commenced . . 1798 
 Kennet and Avon, opened . . . . 1799 
 Peak-forest canal, completed . . . 1800 
 Thames to Fenny Stratford . . . 1S00 
 
 Buckingham canal 1801 
 
 Grand Surrey, act passed . . . . 1801 
 
 Brecknock canal 1802 
 
 Caledonian canal (the Great) commenced 1803 
 
 Ellesmere aqueduct 1805 
 
 Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened . . . 1805 
 
 Aberdeen, completed 1807 
 
 Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened . . 1811 
 Leeds and Liverpool, opened . . . 1S16 
 
 Wey and Avon 1S16 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow Union . . 181S 
 
 Sheffield, completed .... 1819 
 
 The Regent's canal 1820 
 
 Caledonian canal, completed Oct. 30, 1S22 
 Birmingham and Liverpool, begun . . 1S26 
 Gloucesterand Berkeley ship-canal, com- 
 pleted 1827 
 
 Norwich and Lowestoft navigation, 
 opened 1S31 
 
 In England, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length 
 of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are 300 miles 
 of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
 Limerick : in all, 510 miles. — Williams. Their progress has been largely checked by 
 the formation of railways. 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. 
 The first meridian was referred to the Canary Isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B.C. 
 They were re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, a.d. 1402 ; and were 
 seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The 
 canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it 
 was brought into England in 1500. 
 
 CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida. It was seized by the Saracens 
 A.D. 823, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the 
 
CAN 128 CAN 
 
 Venetians, 1194, and held by them until the Turks obtained it, after a twenty-four 
 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. 
 
 CANDLE, SALE by INCH of. The custom of selling at public auctions by inch of 
 candle is said to have been borrowed from the Church of Rome, where there is an 
 excommunication by inch of candle, and the sinner is allowed to come to repentance 
 before final excommunication, while yet the candle burns. 
 
 CANDLES. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped 
 in pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light among the lower classes in 
 England, about ad. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed 
 a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The Wax-chandlers' company was 
 incorporated 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, 
 of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese make candles 
 from wax obtained from the berries of a tree, which wax is fragrant, and yields a 
 bright light. See Candleberry Myrtle. The duty upon candles in England amounted, 
 previously to its abolition, to about 500,000?. annually ; it was repealed by statute 
 1 & 2 Will. IV. and the makers were placed upon the same footing as melters of 
 tallow, 1831. All the great improvements in the manufacture of candles are due to the 
 researches of Chevreul on oils and fats, dating as far back as 1 811 ; and published in 1823. 
 At Price's manufactory, at Lambeth, the principles involved in many patents are 
 carried into execution ; including those of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and 
 Wilson in 1844. Palm and cocoa-nut oils are now extensively used. At the Belmont 
 works 900 persons are employed, and in the winter 100 tons (7000J. worth) of candles 
 are manufactured weekly. 
 
 CANDLESTICKS. Anciently candlesticks with seven branches were regarded as 
 emblematical of the priest's office, and accordingly they were engraven on their seals 
 and on their cups while living, and on their tombs when dead. Candlesticks were 
 known and used in Britain in the days of king Edgar, a.d. 959, for historians of his 
 time mention " silver candelabra and gilt candelabra well and honourably made;" 
 but even in 1388 they were not common. They are fast giving place to lamps and gas. 
 
 CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE. Plants of this extraordinary tree came to this country 
 from N. America, in 1699. The tree is found in perfection at Nankin, in China, 
 where it flourishes with beautiful blossoms and fruit. The latter, when ripe, is gathered 
 and thrown into boiling water ; the white unctuous substance which covers the 
 kernels is thereby detached, and swims at the top ; it is skimmed off and purified by 
 a second boiling, when it becomes transparent, of a consistence between tallow 
 and wax, and is converted into candles. 
 
 CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who consecrated on 
 this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in 
 the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, sub- 
 mitting to the law under which she lived, presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. 
 Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the 
 Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English 
 Protestants, by an order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548; but it is still continued in the 
 church of Rome. 
 
 CANDY, in Ceylon. In an expedition against it, a whole British detachment, which 
 took possession Feb. 20, 1803, capitulated June 23 following, anxious to evacuate the 
 place on account of its unhealthiness, and the perfidy of the Candians ; but on the 
 third day they were treacherously massacred at Columbo, or imprisoned. The war 
 against the natives was renewed in October, 1814. The king was vanquished and 
 made prisoner by general Brownrigg, Feb. 19, 1815; he was deposed, and the 
 sovereignty vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815. 
 
 CANNiE, BATTLE of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the 
 Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards; 
 and Paulus iEinilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of whom 40,000 were slain. 
 — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman 
 knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful 
 earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the 
 field of blood; fought May 21, 216 B.C. — Bossuet. 
 
 CANNIBALISM. It has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that 
 it was a primitive and universal custom ; and many of the South American tribes and 
 
CAN 129 CAN 
 
 natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propen- 
 sity for it prevails more or less ia all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some 
 British tribes ate human flesh. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. 
 Columbus found cannibals in America. See Anthropophagi. 
 
 CANNING ADMINISTRATION. The illness of lord Liverpool in April, 1827, led to 
 this administration. Right hon. George Canning, first lord of the treasury and 
 chancellor of the exchequer ; lord Harrowby, president of the council ; duke of 
 Portland, lord privy seal; lord Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges Bourne, 
 secretaries of state; Mr. Wynn, president of the India board; Mr. Huskisson, board 
 of trade; lord Pahnerston, secretary at war; lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster; duke of Clarence, lord high admiral ; lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c. 
 The marquess of Lansdowne had a seat in the cabinet, to which were soon added the 
 seals of the home department. The death of Mr. Canning caused a reconstruction of 
 this cabinet, August following. 
 
 CANNON, are said to have been used as early as a.d. 1338. According to some 
 historians they were used at Cressy in 1346 ; but this Voltaire disputes. They are 
 said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first 
 used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Rich. II. 1383. — Rymer's 
 Fcedera. Louis XIV. upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, 
 inscribed upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Artillery. 
 
 CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, cast in India 
 in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite 
 Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, a foot 
 and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breach. The 
 ball made for it weighs 180 lbs. and its charge of powder 94 lbs. The inscription on 
 it shows that it was made by one Simon, in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called 
 Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol, which was presented to her by the states of Holland ; 
 this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the 
 States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 
 
 " Charge rue well, and sponge me clean, 
 I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 
 
 Some fine specimens are to be seen in the tower. A leathern cannon was fired three 
 times in the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The Turkish piece, 
 now in St. James's Park, was taken by the French at Alexandria, but was retaken, 
 and placed there in March, 1803. — Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun was 
 completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 
 21 tons, 17 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs. Its cost was 3500/. With a charge of 25 lbs. it struck 
 a target 2000 yards' distance. 
 
 CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated a.d. 380. — Usher. Canonical 
 hours for prayer were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously 
 to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Pasquier. Canon law was first introduced 
 into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law author, in 1151 ; and was introduced 
 into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — Stowe. 
 
 CANONS, APOSTOLICAL. Ascribed by Bellarmin and Baronius to the Apostles; by 
 others to St. Clement : but they are certainly a forgery of much later date (since 325). 
 The Greek Church allows 85, the Latin only 50 of them. 
 
 CANONISATION, of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish 
 Church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallentfs Tables. Saints have so accumulated, 
 that every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. " The first canonisation made by 
 papal authority was that of St. Udalricus, in 993. Before this time, that is, during 
 the nine first centuries, it was settled that all bishops had an equal power in regard 
 to the canonisation of saints ; but the authority of the pope, as well as the number 
 of canonisations, having much increased, people had recourse to the see of Rome, in 
 order to give a greater solemnity to the affair. Hence we find that Alexander III. 
 issued a decree, declaring that the canonisation of saints was one of those higher 
 causes reserved to the apostolic see alone. Boniface pretended the same thing; and 
 Urban VIII. strictly forbade any reverence or worship to be given to those who died 
 even in the reputation of sanctity, before they had been beatified or canonised by 
 the Church of Rome." — Htnault. 
 
 K 
 
CAN 130 CAP 
 
 CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of 
 Kent, who reigned a.D. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, 
 and was several times burnt and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of 
 Beckefc (3ee Becket), and within it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black 
 Prince. The present cathedral is a revival of that begun by archbishop Lanfranc. 
 During the rebellion against Charles I. the usurper Cromwell made it a stable for hi3 
 dragoons. St. Martin's Church here is said to have been the first erection for Christian 
 worship in Britain ; but this is doubted. The riot at Broughtou, near Canterbury, 
 produced by a fanatic called Thom, who assumed the name of sir William Courtenay, 
 occurred May 31, 1838. See Thomites. 
 
 CANTERBURY, ARCHBISHOPRIC of. This sea was settled by Augustin, -who 
 preached the gospel in England, a.d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of Kent. 
 The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great favours upon 
 Augustin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church 
 was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ At one period it was called 
 St. Thomas, from Thomas a Becket, murdered at its altar, December, 1171. The 
 archbishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, and is the first peer in the 
 realm, having precedency of all officers of state, and of .all dukes not of the blood 
 royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was 
 styled a patriarch. This see has yielded to the church of Rome 18 saints and 9 
 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. 
 Augustin was the first bishop, 596. The see was made superior to York, 1073. See 
 York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at 2SIQI. 17 s. 9d. — Beatson. 
 
 CANTHARIDES, a venomous kind of beetles, which when dried and pulverised, are 
 used principally to raise blisters. They are of a green colour, and are commonly 
 found in Spain, hence they are called also Spanish flies. They were first introduced 
 into medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. — Freind. 
 
 CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans had been allowed to trade, till 
 the treaty of Aug. 29, 1842. Merchants first arrived here for this purpose in 1517- 
 Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England surpasses all others 
 in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found 
 under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton; and an 
 inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 persons, in Oct. 1833. On Oct. 8, 
 1856, the British lorcha "Arrow" in the Canton River was boarded by the Chinese 
 officers, 12 men out of the crew of 14 carried off, and the national ensign taken down. 
 After strong remonstrances no adequate reparation being afforded, hostilities were 
 resorted to, and on the 24th all the forts guarding the city externally were captured 
 with slight resistance. The city was partially bombarded on the 29th. Sir J. Bowring, 
 governor of Hong-Kong, applied to India and Ceylon for troops. On March 3, 1857, 
 the House of Commons by a majority of 16 censured Sir John for "the violent 
 measures " he had pursued. The ministry dissolved the parliament ; but obtained 
 a large majority in the new one. See China. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, or INDIA RUBBER. An elastic resinous substance that exudes by 
 incisions from several trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called Hcevia 
 caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought 
 to Europe from South America, about 1733. It has latterly been in domestic use for 
 various purposes, and preparations of it have been introduced into our manufactures; 
 among others, bookbinding and clothing. Vulcanised rubber, formed by combining 
 India rubber with sulphur, was patented in America by Mr. C. Goodyear in 1839; and 
 is said to have been invented also by Mr. T. Hancock, of the firm of Mackintosh and 
 Co., in 1843. 
 
 CAP. The Romans went for many ages without regular covering for the head, and hence 
 the heads of all the ancient statues appear bare. But at one period the cap was 
 a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves, it entitled them to 
 freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews 
 wore distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts 
 were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is 
 referred to the year 1449. They were worn at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen, 
 from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. The velvet cap was 
 called mortier ; the wool cap, bonnet. The clerical or university square cap was 
 invented by Patrouillet. See Capper. 
 
CAP 131 CAP 
 
 CAPE BRETON. Discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 
 1632, but was afterwards restored; and again taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. 
 It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 
 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were 
 captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to England at the peace of 1763. 
 
 CAPE-COAST CASTLE, in S.W. Africa. Settled by the Portuguese in 1610; but it 
 soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by Admiral Holmes in 1661. All the 
 British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
 Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, in 1665. This cape was confirmed to the English by the 
 treaty of Breda, in 1667. See Ashantees. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Originally called the "Cape of Tempests," and also named 
 the "Lion of the Sea," and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by 
 John II. of Portugal, who augured favourably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
 reached the extremity of Africa. The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 
 discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Dutch, 1651. Taken 
 by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and 
 restored at the peace in 1802. Again taken by sir David Baird and sir Home 
 Popham, Jan. 8, 1806; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to 
 arrive here from Britain, in March, 1820. The neighbouring Caffres have made 
 several irruptions on the British settlements at the Cape ; they committed dreadful 
 ravages at Grahamstown, Oct. 1834. See Kaffraria. In consequence of the resist- 
 ance of the inhabitants to the attempt to make the Cape a penal colony, commenced 
 May 19, 1849, the project was abandoned. The constitution granted to the colony 
 was promulgated on July 1, 1853, and has been received with much rejoicing. 
 — General Prsetorius, the chief of the Trans-Vaal Republic, died in Aug. 1853. The 
 British government having given up its jurisdiction over the Orange river territory, 
 March 29, 1854, a free state was formed. See Orange River. In Aug. 1856, the 
 Caffres were much excited by a prophet named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of 
 sir George Grey, the present governor, tranquillity is still maintained (1857). 
 
 CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands (a cluster so called in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 near the Cape of the same name) were known to the ancients under the name of 
 Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, 
 a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a.d. 1446. The Portuguese have 
 possessed them ever since their discovery. 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, BATTLES of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, and 
 the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force 
 vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch 
 men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, 
 June 16, 1693. — Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of 
 the British navy. Sir John Jervis being in command of the Mediterranean fleet of 
 fifteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off this 
 Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships 
 and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to 
 the English peerage, by the title of earl St. Vincent. 
 
 CAPET, HOUSE of. The third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of 
 Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Capetians and 
 Capevigians), seized the throne on the death of Louis V. called the Indolent, who 
 reigned but one year ; he was supposed to have been poisoned by his queen, who did 
 not love him. His uncle should by right have succeeded. Thus ended the Carlo- 
 vingian race, which lasted 236 years. Hugo was a man renowned for his military 
 valour and public virtues ; a.d. 987. — Henault. The first line of the house of Capet 
 expired with Charles IV. the Handsome, in 1328, when the branch of Valois ascended 
 the throne in the person of Philip VI. — Idem. 
 
 CAPITOL. The principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built to 
 Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tarquinius Priscus, 
 616 B.C. The Roman consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor 
 Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof 
 was composed, while its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with 
 shields of solid silver. Destroyed by lightning 188 B.C.; by fire, a.d. 70. The 
 Capitoline games instituted by Domitian, a.d. 86. 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 B.C. The successors of 
 
 k2 
 
CAP 
 
 132 
 
 CAR 
 
 Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, 
 after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathea II. became king of Cappadocia. 
 The people are described as having been addicted to every vice that man is capable 
 of committing. They worshipped the Sun, under the emblem of Fire; and had, 
 besides, temples erected to most of the deities of Greece, as Jupiter, Apollo, Diana, 
 and Bellona. Of these temples, that of Comana was the most superb and celebrated. 
 It was dedicated to Diana Taurica, under the name of Bellona. The high-priest, who 
 was always chosen from the royal family, had upw.irds of 6000 persons under his 
 command, and possessed so absolute a power, that he often became an object of 
 jealousy to the sovereign. 
 
 Pharnaces is declared king . .B.C. 744 
 [His successors are unknown for nearly 
 three centuries.] 
 
 ***** 
 
 Reign of Ariarathes 1 362 
 
 Perdiecas takes Cappadocia, and Ariara- 
 thes is crucified 322 
 
 Defeat of the Parthians . . . . 217 
 Irruption of the Trocmi .... 164 
 M ithridates, surnamed Philopator, ascends 
 
 the throne 162 
 
 Oropherues dethrones Philopator . . 161 
 Attalus assists Philopator, and Oropher- 
 
 nes is dethroned 154 
 
 Philopator joins the Romans against Aris- 
 
 tonicus, and perishes in battle . . 153 
 His queen Laodice, desirous of usurping 
 
 the throne, poisons five of her own chil- 
 dren; the sixth and only remaining 
 child is saved, and the queen put to 
 
 death b c. 153 
 
 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes 
 
 VII 153 
 
 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. . 97 
 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated . . . 96 
 Cappadocia declared a free country by the 
 
 senate of Rome . . . . .95 
 The people elect a new king, Ariobar- 
 
 zanes I. .... 94 
 
 His son, Ariobarzaues II., reigns . . 65 
 
 He is dethroned by Marc Antony . . 38 
 
 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 
 
 dies, and bequeaths his kingdom to the 
 
 Roman empire .... a.d. 17 
 
 CAPPER or HATTER. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20d. 
 nor cap above 2s. 8d. 5 Henry VII. 1489. Caps were first worn at the entry of 
 Charles VII. into Rouen, 1449. A law was enacted that every person above seven 
 years of age should wear on Sundays aud holidays a cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, 
 and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of three 
 farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. From this law the following persons were 
 excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, aud every lord, knight, aud gentleman, of 
 twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of worship, in any 
 city, town, or place, and the warden of the London companies. See Cap, and Hats. 
 
 CAPRI, the Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tiberius, and 
 for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, during the seven 
 last years of his life : it was embellished by him with a sumptuous palace and most 
 magnificent works. The emperor Augustus had also made Capri his residence. 
 Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 
 
 CAPUCHIN FRIARS, a sort of Franciscans, to whom this name was given from their 
 wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to 
 their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by 
 Matthew Baschi, about a.d. 1525. Although the rigours of this order have abated, 
 still the brethren are remarkable for their extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. 
 
 CAR (The). Its invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about 1486 B.C. The 
 covered cars (currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. The lectica (a soft- 
 cushioned car) was the next invented ; and tlm gave place to the carpentum, a two- 
 wheeled car, with an arched covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were the 
 carrucw, in which officers of state rode. Triumphal cars were introduced by Tarquin 
 the Elder, and were stately chariots formed like a throne, in which the victor rode. 
 
 CARA.CCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries by Columbus, a.d. 1498. After 
 many unsuccessful attempts to settle it by the missionaries, it was at last reduced by 
 force of arms, and assigned in property to the Welsers, a German mercantile house, 
 by Charles V., but, owing to the tyranny of their administration, they were dispos- 
 sessed in 1550, and a supreme governor appointed by the crown. The province 
 declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812 it was visited by a violent 
 convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks aud mountains 
 split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened, or their courses changed ; 
 and many towns swallowed up and totally destroyed. 
 
 CARBONARI, a dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, 
 which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states. 
 They were suppressed, however, by the Austrian government in Sept. 1820, pre- 
 
CAR 133 CAR 
 
 viously to which year their numbers and power had grown to then- greatest height ; 
 in 1819 they had become most formidable. 
 
 CAREONIC ACID GAS, a compound of carbon and oxygen, which occurs in the air, and 
 is a product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Caue yields 
 200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of beer, &c, 
 is due to its presence in a compressed state. It was liquefied by Faraday in 1823. 
 
 CARDINALS. Ecclesiastical princes in the Church of Rome. They are properly the 
 council of the pope, and constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they 
 were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this 
 footing they, continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive 
 power of electing the popes till a.d. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind 
 them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared 
 princes of the church by Innocent IV. 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 : 
 and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say, in 1623. — Du Cange. 
 
 CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans; but it is generally supposed that 
 they were invented in France in 1391, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a 
 melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave. — Mezeray, Hist, de 
 France. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is 
 no very favourable specimen of wisdom. — Malkin. Cards are of Spanish, not of 
 French origin. — Dairies Barrington. Piquet and all the early games are French. 
 Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 
 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 
 packs were stamped; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 
 packs paid diity in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5th 
 Jan. 1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5th Jan., 1850. — Pari. Reports. 
 
 CARICATURES. Caricatures originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter; 
 he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad 
 masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — De Piles. 
 The modern caricatures of Gilray, Rowlandson, H B (John Doyle ™ = EB), R. Doyle 
 and J. Leech are justly celebrated. The well-known " Punch " was first published 
 in 1841. 
 
 CARISBROOK CASTLE. Supposed to have been a fortress, even under the Britons 
 and Romans, but the earliest historic notice of it refers to the year a.d. 530, when it 
 was taken by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Its subsequent 
 Norman character has been ascribed to "William Fitz-Osbome, earl of Hereford in 
 William I.'s time. Much interest has been attached to this castle from its having 
 been the place of imprisonment of Charles I. immediately before his trial and death. 
 That part of the castle in which the king lay is much decayed, but the window can 
 be shown through which the royal captive endeavoured to escape. Here died his 
 daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, too probably of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650. 
 
 CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong 
 garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed 
 the whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the Great Roman 
 highway. The great church, called St. Mary's, is a venerable old pile ; a great part of 
 it was built by St. David, king of Scotland, who held this country, together with 
 Westmoreland and Northumberland, in vassalage from the crown of England; it has 
 also another church called St. Cuthbert's. The castle, founded in 1092, by William 
 II., was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by 
 the parliament forces in 1645, and by the pretender in 1745. 
 
 CARLISLE, SEE of. Erected by Henry I. in 1133, and made suffragan to York. The 
 cathedral had been founded a short time previously, by Walter, deputy in these parts 
 for William Rufus. The church was almost ruined by Cromwell and his soldiers, and 
 has never recovered its former great beauty, although repaired after the Restoration. 
 It has been lately renovated at a cost of 15,000Z. and was re-opened in 1856. This 
 see has given to the civil state one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers; it is 
 valued in the king's books at 52>0l. 4s. lid. per annum. 
 
 CARLOW. The celebrated castle here was erected by king John. It surrendered after 
 a desperate siege to Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parliamentary forces, 
 in 1650. In a recent attempt to new-model this venerable pile, its foundations were 
 so sapped, that the whole fabric gave way, and it now constitutes a heap of indiscri- 
 
CAR 131 CAR 
 
 minate ruins. Battle here between the royal troops and the insurgents, the latter 
 routed, May 27, 1798. 
 
 CARLSBAD, CONGRESS of, on the affairs of Europe. The popular spirit of emanci- 
 pation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government led 
 to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press and 
 liberal opinions, and in which the great continental powers decreed measures to 
 repress the rage for limited monarchies and free institutions, Aug. 1, 1819. 
 
 CARMELITES, or WHITE FRIARS. Named from Mount Carmel, and one of the four 
 orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. The order 
 settled in France in 1252. — Renault. Their rigour was moderated about 1540. They 
 claim their descent in an uninterrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. See 
 Mos/teim'8 Eccles. Hist. Mount Carmel has a monastery, and the valley of Sharon lies 
 to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with 
 steep and barren sides : it is often referred to in Jewish histories. 
 
 CARNATIC. This country of Southern Hindostan, and which extends along the whole 
 coast of Corouiandel, is now under the control of British power. Hyder Ali entered 
 the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, and was defeated by the British under sir Eyre Coote, 
 July 1, and Aug. 27, 1781 ; and decisively overthrown, June 2, 1782. The Carnatic 
 was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have assumed entire authority over the 
 Carnatic since 1801. See India. 
 
 CARNATION. This beautiful flower, in several of its varieties, together with the gilly- 
 flower, the Provence rose, and a few others, was first planted in England by the 
 Flemings, about 1567. — Stoioc. The carnation was so called from the original species 
 being of a flesh-colour, and the term is applied by painters to those parts of the human 
 body that have no drapery. See article Flowers. 
 
 CARNEIAN GAMES. These games were observed in most of the Grecian cities, but 
 more particularly at Sparta, where they were instituted about 675 B.C. in honour of 
 Apollo, surnamed Carneus. The festival lasted nine days, and was an imitation of the 
 manner of living in camps among the ancients. 
 
 CARNIVAL. (Carnivale, Italian.) A well-known festival time in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice; it begins at Twelfth-day, and holds 
 till Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth, feasting, rejoicing, 
 and indulgence ; and numbers visit Italy during its continuance. The carnival grew 
 into its later festivities, from a merely religious festival, in the seventeenth century. 
 
 CAROLINA. Discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1500. A body of English, amounting to 
 about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667; and Carolina was granted to lord 
 Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See America and United States. The 
 Caroline Islands were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 1686. 
 
 CAP.P. The esteemed fresh water or pond fish. In the palate of the carp is sometimes 
 found a stone of a triangular form. — Pardon. The carp was first brought to these 
 countries about a.d. 1525. — lzaak Walton. A large pond in the village of Falmer, 
 near Lewes, is said to have received the first carp imported into England from 
 Normandy by the monks of a monastery in the vicinity, subordinate to the great 
 priory of Southover, in the county of Sussex. — Lewis's Diet. 
 
 CARPETS. They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of Amos, about 
 800 B.C. — Amos ii. 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons sat who 
 dwelt in tents ; but when first used in houses, even in the East, we have no record. 
 In the 12th century carpets were articles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned 
 as an instance of Becket's splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were 
 every day in winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a.d. 1160. The manufacture 
 of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., 
 between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust came to 
 England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 1750. With us, as with most 
 nations, Persian and Turkey carpet3 are most prized. Our Axminster, Wilton, and 
 Kidderminster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. 
 
 ACRRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, who pro- 
 duced the first chariot about 1486 B.C. Carriages were known in France in the 
 reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547; but they were of very rude construction, and rare. 
 They seem to have been known in England in 1555 ; but not the art of making them. 
 Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used by persons of the highest 
 
CAR 
 
 135 
 
 CAR 
 
 quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Henry IV. had one, but without 
 straps or springs. Their construction was various : they were first made in England 
 in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Bucking- 
 ham, in 1619, drove six horses; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove 
 eight. They were first let for hire iu Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence 
 the name, fiacre. See Car, Cabriolets, Chariots, and Coaches. 
 
 CARRICK FERGUS. The celebrated castle of this town is supposed to have been built 
 by Hugh de Lacy, in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg, 
 Aug, 28, 1689. William III. landed here, June 14, 1690, to reduce the adherents of 
 James II. Memorable expedition of the French admiral Thurot, when the castle 
 surrendered to his force of 1000 men, 1760. See Thurot's Invasion of Ireland. 
 
 CARR01ST IRON-WORKS. They are situated on the banks of the Carron, in Stirling- 
 shire, and form the largest foundry in existence, established in 1760. The works 
 employ about 1600 men, and occupy about 100 acres of land in reservoirs, pools for 
 water, and dams built about two miles above the works ; the streams after turning 
 18 large wheels, fall into the tide navigation, which conveys their castings into the 
 sea. Here are made the pieces of ordnance called carronades, so named from this 
 foundry — first made in 1776. See Cannon. 
 
 CARROTS. These, among other edible roots, were imported from Holland and Flanders. 
 It was not until about the close of the reign of Henry VIII. or alter the year 1540 
 that they were produced in England. Originally, or when first brought to England, 
 this esculent was of much more diminutive size than now; the carrot has much 
 improved both in growth and flavour under English culture. — Mortimer. 
 
 CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene* Des Cartes, the French philo- 
 sopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker: his metaphy- 
 sical principle, "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke; and his physical 
 principle that " nothing exists but substance," is disproved by the Newtonian 
 philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great singularities and originalities ; 
 but a spirit of independent thought prevails throughout it, and has contributed to 
 excite the same spirit in others. Des Cartes was the most distinguished phdosopher 
 of his time and country. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 CARTHAGE. Founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 869 B.C. 
 She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. 
 Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of the world with Rome, 
 which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total demolition of that city. Taken by 
 Scipio, and burned to the ground, 146 B.C. when the flames raged during seventeen 
 days, and many of the inhabitants perished in them rather than survive the sub- 
 jection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no 
 trace might remain of this once powerful republic. — Eusebius. 
 
 Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. 
 
 — Blair B.C. 869 
 
 First alliance of the Carthaginians with 
 
 the Romans 509 
 
 The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated 
 by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. 
 
 — Herodotus, I. vii 480 
 
 They send 300,000 men into Sicily . .407 
 The siege of Syracuse .... 396 
 The Carthaginians land in Italy . . . 379 
 Their defeat by Trmoleon . . . . 340 
 They are defeated by Agathocles, and 
 immolate their children on the altar of 
 Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods 310 
 The first Punic war begins . . . . 264 
 The Carthaginians deteated by the 
 
 Romans in a naval engagement . . 260 
 Xantippus defeats Regulus . . . . 255 
 Asdrubal defeated by Mttellus . . 251 
 
 Regulus put to death 250 
 
 Romans defeated before Lilybseum . 250 
 End of the first Punic war . . . . 241 
 War between the Carthaginians and Afri- 
 can mercenaries 241 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he 
 takes with him his son, the famous 
 
 Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
 having first made him swear an eternal 
 enmity to the Romans . . .B.C. 237 
 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
 tones' 227 
 
 Asdrubal is assassinated .... 220 
 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as the 
 
 Iberus 219 
 
 The second Punic war begins . . . 218 
 First great victory of Hannibal . . . 217 
 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters 
 
 Italy with 100,000 men . . . .217 
 Great battle of Cannse (which see) . . 216 
 New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio . 210 
 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 
 
 and slain in Italy 207 
 
 The Carthaginians expelled Spain . . 206 
 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to 
 
 Utica . 204 
 
 Hannibal recalled from Italy . . . 203 
 Great battle of Zama (which see) . . . 202 
 An ignominious peace ends the second 
 
 Punic war 201 
 
 The third Punic war begins . . . 149, 
 Destruction of Carthage, which is burned 
 to the ground 146 
 
 The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless and treacherous people, so that 
 
CAR ] 36 CAS 
 
 the term Punic faith became proverbial. They were superstitious and offered humnn 
 victims to appease the gods in times of public calamity ; these sacrifices were usually 
 their own children ; and when they had none they purchased infants for the purpose, 
 and, unmoved by their cries and agonies, obliged the mothers to present them to 
 their burning idol.* Their usual mode of executing criminals was by crucifixion, to 
 which they frequently added most aggravated circumstances of torture. 
 
 CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage, in Spain. Built by Asdrubal, the Carthaginian 
 general, 227 B.C. From here Hannibal set out on his memorable march to invade 
 Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 B.C. This city was taken by a British force under sir 
 John Leake in 1706, but it was retaken soon afterwards by the duke of Brunswick. — 
 Carthagena, in Columbia, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged 
 by the French of 1,200,000/. in 1697; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 
 1740-1, but he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 
 
 CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from 
 the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Dauphine\ 
 Their rules were formed by Basil VII. general of the order, and were peculiarly dis- 
 tinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, or speak, 
 without express leave ; and their clothing was two hair-cloths, two cowls, two pair 
 of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, 
 the principal monastery, from which the order is named. — Auberli; Mirai, Origines 
 Carthus. A Carthusian monastery, founded by sir William Manny, in the reign of 
 Edward III., was built on the site of the present Charter-house, London. See Charter- 
 house. The Carthusian powder, so called because it was first administered by a friar, 
 father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first compounded about 1715. 
 
 CARTOONS of RAPHAEL. They were designed (for tapestries) in the chambers of the 
 Vatican under Julius II. and Leo X. about 1510 to 1515. The seven that are pre- 
 served were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton 
 court palace, in 1629. The works represent — 1, the Miraculous Draught of Fishes ; 
 2, the Charge to Peter ; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the gate of the 
 Temple; 4, the Death of Ananias; 5, Elymas the Sorcerer struck with Blindness; 6, 
 the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. The tapes- 
 tries executed at Arras from these designs are at Rome. They have been twice 
 carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798. They were restored in 1815. 
 
 CARVING. See Sculptures. 
 
 CASH-PAYMENTS. The Bank, by an order of council, stopped its payments in cash, 
 Feb. 27, 1797 ; and the Bank-restriction bill passed immediately afterwards. Pre- 
 viously to this measure, many private banks bad been ruined by the demand upon 
 them for gold, the country being considerably drained of the precious metals, which 
 found their way to Fiance and other states with whom we were at war. Notes of 
 one and two pounds were issued March 7, 1797. Partial return to cash-payments, 
 Sept. 22, 1817, when notes, which bad been it-sued previously to January 1 in that 
 year, were paid in gold. The restriction was taken off soon afterwards. 
 
 CASHEL, SEE of. Cormac Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, is reputed to be 
 either the founder or the restorer of the cathedral ; and until his time a.d. 901, there 
 are but few traces of the bishops of this see. In 1152, bishop Donat OLanergan was 
 invested with the pall. See Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, by an 
 extent returned 29 Henry VIII., at 66/. 13s. Ad. Irish money. By the Church 
 Temporalities act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, this see has ceased to be archiepiscopal ; 
 and the see of Waterford and Lismore has been united to it. 
 
 CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls is described 
 as being " the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." The true Cashmere 
 shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that of Thibet They were first 
 brought to England in 1666 ; but they are well imitated by the spinning at Bradford, 
 
 * The Carthaginians had two principal deities, whom they honoured more than any of the rest. 
 The first was the Celestial Goddess, in other words, the Moon. The second Moloch, or Saturn, to whom 
 their infants were sacrificed. This idol was contrived with a hollow body, in which a fire was kindled, 
 with amis and hands bent in a position for receiving the devoted victim. Into these hands, while the 
 idol was of a glowing heat, the unhappy child was placed, and, in the struggle occasioned by the 
 torture, it fell forward, through a hole in the base on which the idol sat, into the fire beneath. These 
 sacrifices were not always confined to children ; the Carthaginian generals, when the event of a battle 
 seemed likely to be against them, made no scruple to offer their soldiers and prisoners to this 
 destructive superstition. 
 
CAS 137 CAT 
 
 and the looms of Huddersfield. Shawls for the ouirabs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 
 150 rupees each, about the year 1650. — Bemier. 
 CASTEL NUOVO. This town has several times suffered under the dreadful visitation 
 of earthquakes. In the great earthquake which convulsed all Naples and Sicily, in 
 1783, it was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant being on a hill at 
 do great distance, looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke: 
 4000 persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. 
 
 CASTIGLIONE, BATTLE of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French arms, 
 under general Bonaparte, against the main body of Austrians, commanded by general 
 Wurmser : the battle lasted five days successively, from the 2nd to the 6th July, 
 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, 
 all his caissons, between 12,000 and 15,000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 
 
 CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about 
 a.d. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand 
 of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dominions 
 in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. By degrees the kings of Castile brought 
 the whole peninsula subject to their control. See Arragon and Spain. 
 
 CASTILLON, BATTLE of, in Guienne. Between the armies of Henry VI. of England, 
 and of Charles VII., who was surnamed the Victorious, of France. The English were 
 signally defeated, and an end was put to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 
 remaining, July 7, 1453. " The earl of Shrewsbury was killed in the battle ; contrary 
 to his own opinion, he attacked the French in their entrenchments, and though at 
 first successful, yet his horse having been killed by a cannon-shot, and himself 
 immediately after by a wound in the throat, his forces yielded." — Henault. 
 
 CASTLEBAR, BATTLE of. Between a body of French troops which had landed at 
 Killala, assisted by an insurgent Irish force, and the king's troops : the latter, after a 
 sharp contest, were obliged to retreat, Aug. 28, 1798, the period of the rebellion. 
 
 CASTLEPOLLARD. Fatal affray here between some peasantry attending a fair and a 
 body of police, when thirteen persons lost their lives, and many, more than twice that 
 number, were wounded, May 23, 1831. The coroner's jury returned a verdict of 
 manslaughter against the chief constable, Blake, and eighteen of his men; but the 
 grand jury of the county (Westmeath) ignored the bills. 
 
 CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on 
 the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower- 
 keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight of steps in front. There were 
 eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, 
 a.d. 1135 and 1154 : most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the 
 barons of such possessions, on his accession, in 1154. 
 
 CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted the tombs 
 of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places of all martyrs. 
 They were numerous in Egypt; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many 
 catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years ago : among others, a 
 chef-d'oeuvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psammetichus the Powerful, whose 
 sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he 
 brought to England. Many other nations had their catacombs; there were some 
 of great extent at Rome. The Parisian catacombs were projected a.d. 1777. The 
 bodies found in. catacombs, especially those of Egypt, which are better preserved, are 
 called mummies. See Embalming. 
 
 CATAMARANS. Fire-machines, called also carcases, for destroying ships; invented and 
 tried on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. Nearly 1 60,000 
 men were encamped on the coast, with an immense number of small craft in the harbour 
 to convey them over. Sir Sydney Smith made a desperate attempt to burn the flotilla 
 by means of these machines, but failed, Aug. 31, 1805. See Boulogne. 
 
 CATANIA, or CATANEA. At the foot of Mount Etna. Founded by a colony from 
 Chalcis, 753 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women were permitted 
 to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful overthrows to which it 
 has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, which has discharged, 
 in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing 
 at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an 
 eruption of Etna in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was 
 
CAT 138 CAT 
 
 nearly swallowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
 buried in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number of 
 persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 
 
 CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phrygians, who 
 followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the 
 blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with needles, and then looked upon 
 them as martyrs. — Pai'don. They baptised their dead, forbade marriages, and mingled 
 the wine in the Lord's Supper with the blood of young children. — Harris. 
 
 CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines, of formidable construction, for throwing 
 stones of immense weight, darts, and arrows; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of 
 Syracuse, 399 B.C. — Joxepkus. They were capable of throwing darts, javelins, and 
 other missiles of four and five yards length. — Pardon. 
 
 CATEAU, PEACE of, concluded between Henry II. of France, and Philip II. of Spain ; 
 to which latter country France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy 
 and the Low Countries, 1 559. — Battle of Cateau, in which the allies under the prince 
 of Coburg, defeated the French, whose loss amounted to 5000 killed, and five pieces 
 of cannon, March 28, 1794. 
 
 CATECHISM. A short one was published by the bishop of Winchester, a.d. 1552. The 
 catechism used by Protestants originally contained no more than a repetition of the 
 baptismal vow, the creed, and Lord's prayer ; but James I. ordered the bishops to 
 enlarge it by adding an explication of the sacraments, 1612. It was increased 
 subsequently by the doctrinal points of the established religion. The catechism of 
 the council of Trent was published in 1566; that of the Assembly of Divines at 
 Westminster in 1648. 
 
 CATHERINE. The order of knighthood instituted in Palestine, a.d. 1063. The order 
 of nuns called Catherines was founded in 1373. An order of ladies of the highest 
 rank, in Russia, was founded by Catherine, empress of Peter the Great, 1714. They 
 were understood to be distinguished, as the name (from icadapos, purus) implied, for 
 the chastity and purity of their lives and manners. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by Pope Gregoiy III. to 
 Alphonsus I. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed the Catholic; a.d. 739. — 
 Licenciado. The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V. 1474. It was 
 bestowed upon Ferdinand and his queen by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal 
 for the Roman Catholic religion, and their establishment of the inquisition in Spain. 
 — Rabbe. See Spain. 
 
 CATHOLICS OF THESE KINGDOMS. See article Roman Catholics. 
 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having 
 squandered away his fortune by debaucheries and extravagance, and having been 
 refused the consulship, secretly meditated the ruin of his country, and conspired 
 with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to extirpate 
 the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely 
 discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder; and on seeing five 
 of his accomplices arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling 
 an army. Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreius 
 attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspirator was 
 killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 B.C. His character has 
 been branded with the foulest infamy ; and to the violence he offered to a vestal, he 
 added the murder of his own brother ; and it is said that he and his associates drank 
 human blood to render their oaths more firm and inviolable. — Sallust. 
 
 CATO, SUICIDE of. Termed as the "era destructive of the liberties of Rome." Cato, 
 the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which alone "sustains 
 the name and dignity of man :" unable to survive the independence of his country 
 he stabbed himself at Utica, Feb. 5, 45 B.C.— Montesquieu. 
 
 CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and desperate 
 politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of the crown, with a 
 view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, and the overthrow of the 
 government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and bis 
 four principal associates, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, after a trial commenced 
 on April 17th, which ended in their conviction, were executed according to the then 
 horrid manner of traitors, on May 1 following. 
 
CAT 139 CAY 
 
 CATTLE. The importation of loomed cattle from Ireland and Scotland, into England, 
 was prohibited by a law, 16 Charles II. 1663; but the export of cattle from Ireland 
 became and continues to be a vast and beneficial branch of the Irish trade with the 
 sister country. From the inferior port of Waterford alone, the value of imported 
 cattle and provisions amounted in 1841, to nearly half a million sterling. By the 
 act 5th and 6th Vict. c. 47, passed July 9th, 1842, the importation of horned 
 cattle and other living animals was admitted into England from foreign countries at 
 a moderate duty per head. The English markets have, in consequence, been since 
 largely supplied from France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and even remoter countries. 
 Various amendments have been made by subsequent acts. In the year 1846, the live 
 imports from Ireland were, black cattle, 81,592; sheep, 100,366; swine, 381,744. In 
 1850, were imported of all sorts of cattle, 217,247 ; in 1854, 397,430, from all countries. 
 In April, 1857, great disease arose among cattle abroad, but by great care it was 
 almost excluded from this country. 
 
 CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of Mount 
 Taurus, between the Euxiue and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently by various savage 
 nations, who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It was covered with snow in 
 some parts, and in others was variegated with fruitful orchards and plantations ; its 
 people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but 
 they afterwards lived without making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top 
 of Caucasus by Jupiter and contimially devoured by vultures, according to ancient 
 authors, 1548 B.C. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasia Porta, and it 
 is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their way when 
 they invaded the provinces of Rome a.d. 447. — Slrabo ; Herodotus. 
 
 CAUDINE FORKS, in Samnium, S. Italy. The Romans hemmed in by the Samnites, 
 commanded by C. Pontius, (after a defeat, according to Cicero) surrendered at 
 discretion, B.C. 321. The Roman senate broke the treaty. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. Called the queen of vegetables, was first planted in these kingdoms 
 about the year 1603 ; it came to England from the isle of Cyprus, but was not raised 
 in sufficient perfection and abundance so as to be sold at market until the reign of 
 Charles II. about 1670. Sixty years ago, cauliflowers were a usual present from 
 England to Portugal ; but they are now largely produced in the Portuguese gardens. 
 See Gardening. 
 
 CAUSTIC in PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the 
 colours into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon, was the inventor of this 
 process. He made a beautiful painting of his mistress Glycere, whom he represented 
 as sitting on the ground, and making garlands with flowers : and from this circum- 
 stance the picture, which was bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received 
 the name of Stephanoplocon, 335 B.C. — Plinii Hist. Nat. 
 
 CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who 
 espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charles I. to 
 the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the 
 parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. 
 
 CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for their 
 cavalry, and for its dicipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the Roman legions 
 was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmse; the commander was always a veteran, 
 chosen for his experience and valour. The Persians brought the greatest force of 
 cavalry into the field: they had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C.; and 10,000 
 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 CAVALRY, BRITISH. Horse soldiery were introduced early into Britain. They were 
 used by the Romans against the natives, and were of large amount in the first wars in 
 Wales. — Welsh Hist. In the late continental war they reached to 31,000 men. Our 
 present cavalry force consists of regiments of various denominations ; in 1840 it was, 
 rank and file, viz. household troops, 1209 ; dragoons, hussars, and lancers, 9524; total, 
 10,733. In 1856 the total was 21,651. See Horse Guards, &c. 
 
 CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. It was after- 
 wards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were 
 expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, 
 but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced 
 the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 
 
CED 
 
 140 
 
 OEM 
 
 CEDAR TREE. The Red Cedar (Juviperus Vinjiniuna) came from North America 
 before 1664. The Bermudas Cedar was brought from Bermudas before 1683. The 
 Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrvs) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of 
 venerable cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on Lebanon. The Cedar of Go;i 
 (Cupresms Lusitanica) was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about the same 
 period. There are other species of this tree. See Cypress. 
 
 CELERY. " A winter sallet herb." — Bailey. A species of parsley. — Johnson. Celery is 
 said to have been first introduced to the tables of the English by the French 
 marshal, the count Tallard, after his defeat at Blenheim by the duke of Marlborough, 
 and during his captivity in England, in 1704. 
 
 CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C. 
 A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B.C. The celestial globe 
 was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of 
 Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brahe, and erected at the expense of the 
 duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter ; and that at Pembroke-college, Cam- 
 bridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. 
 
 CELIBACY. The monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about a.d. 305. 
 The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places, till regular 
 monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the council of Nice, a.d. 325. 
 Celibacy was enjoined to bishops only, in 692. The Romish clergy generally were 
 compelled to a vow of celibacy, in 1073. Its observance was finally established by the 
 council of Placentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, 
 the following were unfriendly to matrimony : — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, 
 Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus. and Diogenes; and the following among the 
 moderns : — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, 
 Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir Francis Drake, earl of Essex, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the 
 three Caraccis, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, 
 Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thomson, and Jeremy Bentham. 
 
 CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all their dead 
 in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow precincts of a place reputed 
 sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom of their fanes and temples. The 
 burying-places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance -from their towns; and 
 the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens — John, xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among 
 rocks and mountains — Matthew, xxvii. 60. The present practice was introduced by 
 the Romish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
 interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are handsome and 
 agreeable, which is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that grow in them, and 
 which they carefully place over their dead. — It is only within a very few years that 
 public cemeteries have been formed in Great Britain, although the danger to health 
 through the crowded state of our many church-yards and burial-places in the midst of 
 dense populations, called for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated Pert 
 la Chaise at Paris. Several public cemeteries have of late years been opened in London 
 suburbs, of which the principal are : 
 
 The Kensal-green or general cemetery, 
 containing £3 acres, established by act 
 2 & 3 Will. IV. 181)2 ; consecrated by 
 the bishop of London . . Nov. 2, 1£32 
 
 The South Metropolitan and Norwood 
 cemetery, containing 40 acres, insti- 
 tuted by act 6 <fc 7 Will. IV. 1836 ; 
 consecrated by the bishop of Win- 
 chester Dec. 6, 1837 
 
 The Highgate and Kentish-Town ceme- 
 tery, formed by act 7 & 8 "Will. IV. 
 and containing 22 acres, was opened 
 and consecrated by the bishop of Lon- 
 don Way 20, 1S39 
 
 The Abney Park cemetery and Arbore- 
 
 tum, containing 30 acres, is on the 
 eastern side of London, at Stoke New- 
 ington, and was formally opened by 
 the loid mayor . . May 20, 1S40 
 
 The Westminster cemetery, at Earl's- 
 court, 1< ensington ros.d, called also the 
 West London, consecrated . June 15, JN40 
 
 The Nunhead cemetery, containing 
 about 60 acres, consecrated by tl.e 
 bishop of Winchester . . July 29, 1S40 
 
 City of Loudon and Tower Hamlets 
 cemetery, containing 30 acres, conse- 
 crated by the bishop of Loudon, 
 
 established 4th Vict 1841 
 
 See Catacombs. 
 
 The London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at Woking, Surrey, contains 2000 
 acres ; the company was incorporated in July, 1852. This vast cemetery was opened, 
 Jan. 1855. The enclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid out in 
 walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* The extensive City of London cemetery 
 
 * Pere la Chaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favourite of Louis XIV., and his 
 confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by this 
 
CEN 141 CEY 
 
 at Ilford was opened June 24, 1856. There are similar cemeteries in Manchester, 
 Liverpool, and other large towns; and in Ireland, at Cork, Dublin, &c. 
 
 CENSORS. Roman magistrates whose duty was to survey and rate and correct the 
 manners of the people ; their power was also extended over private families, and they 
 restrained extravagance. The two first censors were appointed 443 B.C. The office 
 was abolished by the emperors. 
 
 CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal 
 effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years ; established by Servius 
 Tullius, 566 B.C. — Legal Polity of the Roman State. In England the census, formerly 
 not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the last were the years 
 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, and 1851. See Population. 
 
 CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT. A new court established for the trial of offences 
 committed in the metropolis and parts adjoining; it being expedient that such trials 
 should be had before justices and judges of Oyer and Terminer. Statute 4 Will. 
 IV. 1834. By this act commissions issued to two of the judges of the higher 
 courts, for the periodical delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of offences 
 of greater degree, committed in the county of Middlesex and certain parts of Essex, 
 Kent, and Surrey; the new district to be henceforth considered as one county. 
 
 CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion 
 which consisted of 100 men, and was called a cent aria. He was distinguished by a 
 branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the Roman census, each hundred of 
 the people was called a centaria, 556 b.c. 
 
 CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally observed in 
 ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our Redeemer's incarnation, 
 a.d. 1. It is a period of time that is particularly regarded by Church historians, to 
 whom we are indebted for it. — Pardon. It was adopted in chronological history first 
 in France. — Dupin. Early adopted by all civilised nations. — Dufresnoy. The Greeks 
 computed time by the olympiads ; and the Romans, by indictions, the first of which 
 began Sept. 24, a.d. 312. 
 
 CERBERE, French Brig of War. The capture of this vessel claims record as one of the 
 most gallant exploits of British seamen during the French war: — the Cerbere mounted 
 nine large guns, had a crew of eighty-seven men, and was lying at Port Louis. The 
 harbour was entered in a ten-oared cutter manned with only eighteen men ; and, 
 directed by their gallant officer, lieutenant Paddon, they cut oat and made good 
 their prize, July 29, 1800. 
 
 CEREMONIES, MASTER of the. This office was instituted for the more honourable 
 reception of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603. — Baker's 
 Chron. The famous master of the ceremonies at Bath, or president over the amuse- 
 ments of that city, called " Beau Nash," and the " King of Bath," extended the name 
 beyond the purlieus of the conrt, and led to its general adoption in ordinary assem- 
 blies : he died in his 88th year, 1761. — Ashe. 
 
 CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, 
 astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st of January 1801. He named it Ceres, after 
 the goddess, who was highly esteemed by the ancient inhabitants of Sicily. To the 
 naked eye the planet is not visible, nor will glasses of very high magnifying power 
 show it with a distinctly defined diameter. 
 
 C EST US. Among the ancients this was the maid's girdle, which the bridegroom untied 
 when he led her as his bride into his house. It had the power of charming and 
 conciliating love. — Homer. According to the poets, it was first worn by Venus. But 
 the Roman prize-fighters wore a leathern cestus garnished with lead, in their combats 
 with each other. The latter was more properly called a girdle. 
 
 CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise. It was discovered by 
 
 beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the graves of 
 the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it is then usual to 
 throw a sort of herb (our sweet basil) upon the tombs : which in Asia Minor, and Turkey in Europe, 
 are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or cypresses planted at the 
 head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamental stone, filled with earth, 
 in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cultivated by females, who 
 assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, which they diligently 
 propagate, because they are beautiful and remain long green, to put about their graves. — Mailet; 
 Chandler; Butler. 
 
CH^E 142 CHA 
 
 the Portuguese, A.D. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 
 a.d. 41. The capital, Columbo, was taken by the Hollanders in 1603, and was 
 recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The Dutch again took it in 1656. A large 
 portion of the country was taken by the British in 1782, but was restored the next 
 year. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British; Trincomalee, Aug. 26, 
 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the 
 peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or im- 
 prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Columbo, June 26, 1803. The complete 
 sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 
 
 CH^ERONEA, BATTLES op. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tol- 
 midas, their general was slain, 447 B.C. Battle of Chgeronea, in which Greece lost its 
 liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the 30,000 Thebans and Athenians, 
 Aug. 2, 338 B.C. Battle of Chseronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, 
 is defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C. 
 
 CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that 
 at Kiugtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to 
 the top of another. The honour of constructing the first chain-bridge on a grand 
 scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension-bridge over the 
 strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, July, 1818. See Menai Bridge. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a 
 people intimately connected with the Belgse of Britain in the time of Caesar, 55 B.C. 
 These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 
 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, was invented by the 
 Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain-pumps were first used on board the Flora, 
 British frigate, in 1787. 
 
 CHAINS, HANGING in. To augment the ignominy of the scaffold in the cases of 
 great malefactors and pirates. This punishment long disgraced the statute-book. By 
 the 25th Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should direct the bodies of pirates 
 and murderers to be dissected and anatomised; and he might also direct that they be 
 hung in chains. An act to abolish the custom of hanging the bodies of criminals 
 in chains was passed 4 Will. IV. 1834. 
 
 CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 
 B.C., and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C., being 
 a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle. 
 Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into 
 these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra about B.C. 445. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN. Eai'ly an officer at court, of high rank, in France, Germany, and 
 England. Various officers, also, in these countries were called chamberlains. In 
 England, the Lord Great Chamberlain is, in rank, the sixth great officer of state, and 
 is distinct from that of Lord Chamberlain of the Household. See next article. There 
 existed, until lately, two officers called chamberlains of the exchequer: this office was 
 discontinued in 1834. The title of chamberlain is also conferred upon civic person- 
 ages, as in London. " It was given 'to a military officer and sometimes a priest, 
 according to the office of which he was governor or head." — Pardon. 
 
 CHAMBERLAIN, LORD, of the HOUSEHOLD. An office of antiquity and rank. 
 The title is from the French word Chumbellun, and in Latin it is called Camera) ius 
 Hnspitii. He has the oversight of the king's chaplains, notwithstanding he is a 
 layman; also of the officers of the standing and removing wardrobes, beds, tents, 
 revels, music, hunting, and of all the physicians, apothecaries, surgeons, messengers, 
 tradesmen, and artisans, retained in his majesty's service. Sir William Stanley, knt., 
 afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. A vice-chamberlain 
 acts in the absence of the chief; the offices are co-existent. — Beatson. See Lord 
 Great Chamberlain. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS. A vast open square in front of the Military School at Paris, with 
 artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. Here was ' 
 held, 14th July, 1790, the famous "fe'de'ration," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to 
 the "patriot king" and new constitution : great rejoicings followed, public balls were 
 given by the municipality in the Champs Elysees, and Paris was illuminated. On 
 July 17, 1791, a great meeting of citizens was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
 clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the country," praying for the enforced 
 
CHA 143 CHA 
 
 abdication of Louis XVI. Another constitution sworn to here, under the eye of 
 Napoleon I. May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. The prince president 
 (now the emperor Napoleon III.) had a grand review in the Champ de Mars, and 
 distributed the eagles to the army, May 10, 1852. 
 
 CHAMPION op ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the coronation of 
 Richard II. in 1377. At the coronation of English kings the champion rode com- 
 pletely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenged any one that would deny the 
 title of the sovereign to the crown. The championship was hereditary in the Dymocke 
 family, by whose descendants it is still enjoyed. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. See Lord High Chancellors of England. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, op IRELAND. See Lord High Chancellors of Ireland. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD, of SCOTLAND. See Lord Chancellors of Scotland. 
 
 CHANCELLOR op the EXCHEQUER. This officer is mentioned in the reign of 
 Henry III. Ralf de Leycestre surrendered the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 32 Henry III., 1248, and the king committed the exchequer seal to Edward de 
 Westminster. The same king by his writ commanded Albric de Fiscamp to execute 
 the office, and he gave leave to Geoffrey Giffard, chancellor of the exchequer, to 
 substitute a fit person to act for him as often as his affairs should render his absence 
 necessary. Henry III. also, by his writ, had the custody of the exchequer seal 
 delivered to Roger de la Leye, to be kept' by him durante bene plaoito. — Thomas's 
 Notes of the Rolls. The equity jurisdiction of the exchequer, which had long existed, 
 was transferred to the court of chancery in 1841. See Exchequer. 
 
 CHANCERY, COURT op. Instituted as early as a.d. 605. Settled upon a better 
 footing by William I. in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in the desire to 
 render justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of other courts that are bound 
 to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against infants, notwithstanding 
 their minority; and to or against married women, notwithstanding their coverture; 
 and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress 
 at common law, are relievable here. — Blachstone. See Lord High Chancellors. In 
 1852, two very important acts were passed to amend the practice in the court of 
 Chancery and relieve the suitors in that court, 15 & 16 Vict. cc. 86, 87, and others in 
 1853 and 1855, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 98, and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 134. 
 
 CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of 
 the donors. First mentioned in the commencement of the seventh century, when 
 Gregory the Great established schools of chanters, about 602. See Chaunting. 
 
 CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of inactive 
 elements which, as the poets supposed, pre-existed the formation of the world, and 
 from which the universe was formed by the power of a superior being. This was 
 advanced by Hesiod, from whom others have copied it ; it is probable that it was 
 drawn from the account of Moses (Gen i. 2), copied into the annals of Sanchoniathon, 
 whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy, in 1193 B.C. 
 
 CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of ease, the chapel royal, &c. — Cowel. The 
 gentlemen pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who were instituted by the 
 direction of Henry VIII. in his testament, a.d. 1546-7), were called knights of the 
 chapel. The place of conference among printers is by them called a chapel, because 
 the first work printed in England was executed in a ruined chapel in Westminster- 
 abbey, converted to the purpose by Caxton. — Pardon. 
 
 CHAPLAIN. The clergyman who performs divine service in a chapel, or that is retained 
 by a prince or nobleman. There are about seventy chaplains attached to the chapel 
 royal.. The personages invested with the privilege of retaining chaplains are the 
 following, with the number that was originally allotted to each rank : — 
 
 Archbishop 
 
 . 8 I Earl 
 
 . 5 
 
 Knight of the Garter 3 
 
 Baroness . . 2 
 
 Duke . 
 
 . . 6 
 
 Viscount . 
 
 . . 4 
 
 Duchess . . . 2 
 
 Master of the Roll s 2 
 
 Bishop 
 
 . 6 
 
 Baron . 
 
 . 3 
 
 Marchioness . . 2 
 
 Almoner . . 2 
 
 Marquess 
 
 . . 5 
 
 Chancellor 
 
 . . 3 
 
 Countess . . . 2 
 
 Chief Justice . . 1 
 
 Besides these, the treasurer and comptroller of the king's house, the king's secretary, 
 the clerk of the closet, the dean of the chapel, and the warden of the Cinque Ports, 
 were each allowed chaplains. — Statutes Henry VIII. 
 
 CHAPLETS. The string of beads used by the Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord's 
 
CHA 144 CHA 
 
 prayer, Ave Maria, and other orisons, is said to have been introduced into their church 
 by Peter the Hermit, about a.d. 1094. Beads were in use, we are told, by the Druids 
 as well as dervises and other religions of the East. The chaplet came into geueral 
 use among the Roman Catholics about 1213. 
 
 CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist 
 the former in performing holy offices and governing the church, until the reign of 
 Henry VIII. The chapter is now an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
 cathedral. — Oowel. The chapter-house of Westminster-abbey was built in 1250. By 
 consent of the abbot, the commoners of England held their parliaments there, 1377, 
 and until 1547, when Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 
 
 CHARING CROSS. So called from one of the crosses which Edward I. erected to the 
 memory of his queen Eleanor, and Charing, the name of the village in which it was 
 built. Some contend that it derived its name from being the resting-place of the 
 chere reyne, dear queen. It was yet a small village in 1353, and the cross remained 
 till the civil wars in the reign of Charles L, when it was destroyed on the pretence of 
 being a monument of popish superstition. — Built nearly as it appeared before the late 
 improvements, and joined by streets to London, about 1678. The new buildings at 
 Charing-cross were commenced in 1829. The first stoue of Charing-cross hospital 
 was laid by the Duke of Sussex, Sept. 15, 1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing- 
 cross bridge) was opened May 1, 1845. See Hungerford bridge. 
 
 CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots and the harnessing horses to draw them is 
 ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 B.C. Chariot racing was one of the exercises 
 of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts, viii. 27, 28, 31, 
 was, it is supposed, something in the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. 
 Cfesar relates that Cassibelaunus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no 
 fewer than 4000 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were 
 like our phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaclies, &c. 
 
 CHARITABLE BEQUESTS. Statute constituting a board for the recovery of charitable 
 bequests, and to enforce the due fulfilment by executors of testamentary writings in 
 this particular, enacted 4 Geo. III., 1764. The present board was constructed by a 
 new act, in 1800. Act constituting a board of commissioners in Ireland, they being 
 chiefly prelates of the established church, 1825. The Roman Catholic Charitable 
 Bequests act passed 7 Vict. 1844. 
 
 CHARITIES and CHARIT Y SCHOOLS. It has been justly said, that notwithstanding 
 the variety of sects that are found in England, and diversity of religious sentiment, 
 the consequence of free discussion with respect to disputed doctrines, there is no 
 country on earth where there are more positive acts of religion. They do not indeed 
 consist of rich shrines, or votive tablets consecrated to particular saints, but of 
 efficient charity applied to every purpose of philanthropy. There are tens of thou- 
 sands of charitable foundations in this great country ; and the charity commission 
 reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted 
 to 1,500,0002. annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in 
 London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 
 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. An act for the better administration of Charitable Trusts 
 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 137) was passed Aug. 20, 1853. 
 
 CHARITABLE BRETHREN, order op, Founded by St. John of God, and approved 
 by pope Pius V. 1572; introduced into France, 1601 ; settled at Paris, 1602. — Henaidt. 
 
 CHARLEROI, BATTLES of. Great battles were fought near this town in several 
 wars; the principal were in 1690 and 1794. See Fleurus. Charleroi was besieged by 
 the prince of Orange in 1672, and was again invested by the same prince witli 60,000 
 men, in 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon 
 attacked the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, just previous to the 
 battle of Waterloo, June 16, 1815. 
 
 CHARLESTON, Massachusetts. Burnt by the British forces under General Gage, 
 Jan. 17, 1775. The English fleet at Charleston was repulsed with great loss, June 
 28, 1776. Charleston taken by the British, May 7, 1779. Charleston, South Carolina, 
 was besieged by the British troops at the latter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 
 May 13 following, with 6000 prisoners; it was evacuated April 14, 1783. 
 
 CHARTER-HOUSE, a corruption of the French word Cliartreuse, the name of a 
 celebrated monastery of Carthusian monks, which formerly stood on the site, but 
 
CHA 145 CHA 
 
 which was suppressed by Henry VIII. at the period of the Reformation. Mr. Thomas 
 Sutton, a man of immense wealth, purchased the vast premises of the Duke of Norfolk, 
 in May, 1611 ; and founded an hospital which he endowed with a large estate; and 
 hence this extensive charity bears also the name of Sutton's hospital. 
 
 CHARTER-PARTY, A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the 
 ship and cargo, containing the particulars of their agreement. It is said to have been 
 first used in England so early as the reign of Henry III., about 1243. — Anderson. 
 
 CHARTERS op RIGHTS. The first granted by the kings of England to their subjects 
 were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry I. a.d. 1100. The famous bulwark of 
 English liberty, known as Magna Charta, or the great charter, was granted to the 
 barons by king John, June 15, 1215. The rights and privileges granted by this 
 charter were renewed and ratified by Henry III. in 1224 et seq. Sir Edward Coke 
 says that even in his days it had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to cor- 
 porations were of frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Cftarta. 
 
 CHARTISTS. Large bodies of the working people, calling themselves Chartists, assembled 
 in various parts of the country, armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
 carrying torches and flags, and conducting themselves tumultuously, so that a pro- 
 clamation was issued against them, Dec. 12, 1838. Attack on Newport by the 
 Chartists, who assembled from the neighbouring mines and collieries to the number 
 of nearly 10,000, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, Nov. 4, 1839. In this 
 affray, the mayor of Newport and several persons acting with him against the rioters 
 were wounded ; but a detachment of the 45th regiment having made a sortie, the 
 Chartists fled, leaving about twenty dead and many wounded. Frost and others were 
 brought to trial Dec. 31 following; the trial lasted seven days, and ended in their 
 conviction of high treason ; but their sentence of death was afterwards commuted to 
 transportation. On May 3, 1856, an amnesty was granted to them, and on their return 
 an assembly of persons met them on Primrose Hill, Sept. 15, 1856. — See Birmingham. 
 
 CHARTISTS, theib DEMONSTRATION on April 10, 1848. The threatened meeting 
 on Kennington common, London, which was to have mustered 200,000 men, to march 
 thence in procession to Westminster, and present a petition to parliament, numbered 
 only about 20,000. The metropolis had felt great alarm on this occasion, and the 
 bank and other establishments had been fortified and protected by military against 
 aggression ; but the preventive measures adopted by the government proved so 
 completely successful, that the rioters, alarmed in turn, dispersed, after some slight 
 encounters with the police force ; their monster petition, in detached rolls, beiDg 
 despatched in hackney cabs to the house of commons. The determination of the 
 citizens to oppose their designs operated more powerfully on the Chartists than the 
 display of power by the executive ; not less than 150,000 persons, among them 
 nobles and others of the highest rank, having pressed forward to be sworn as special 
 constables. From this time, the proceedings of the Chartists ceased to alarm th« 
 friends of order, and the subsequent trial and transportation or imprisonment of 
 their ringleaders have checked their proceedings. 
 
 CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celestial 
 charts, about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew 
 Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
 1489. These charts were the foundation of the discovery of the western world. 
 See Mercator. 
 
 CHARYBDIS. A dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite the formidable 
 rock called Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sailors, and it 
 proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of the Charybdis 
 is not discovered by the modems, as no whirlpool sufficiently tremendous is now 
 found to correspond to the description of the ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam 
 qui vult vitare Charyhdim, became a proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid 
 one evil, we may fall into a greater. 
 
 CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self or relatives ; 
 and our laws justify a woman for killing a man who would defile her ; and a husband 
 or a father may take the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or daughter. 
 In 1000 years from the time of Numa, 710 B.C., to the reign of Theodosius the Great, 
 a.d. 394, but eighteen Roman vestals had been guilty of incontinence. See Vestals. 
 Many remarkable instances of chastity are recorded. See A ere, Lucretia, &c. Ebba, 
 the abbess of Coldingham, near Berwick, cut off her nose and lips, and persuaded 
 
 h 
 
CHA 146 CHE 
 
 the younger nuns to follow her example, to reader themselves hideous, at the 
 invasion of the Danes, a.d. 886. — Stowe's Okron. 
 CHATHAM DOCK. Commenced by queen Elizabeth. One of the principal stations of 
 the royal navy. Its dock-yard, containing immense magazines, furnished with all 
 sorts of naval stores, is deemed the first arsenal in the world. The Chatham Okest 
 for the relief of wounded and decayed seamen was originally established here by 
 queen Elizabeth, in 1588, after the defeat of the Spanish armada. In 1667, on the 
 10th June, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De Ruyter, sailed up to this town and 
 burnt several men-of-war; but the entrance into the Medway is now defended by 
 Sheerness and other forts, and additional fortifications are made at Chatham. 
 
 CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION. The illustrious lord Chatham's (second) adminis- 
 tration * was composed as follows : — the earl of Chatham, first minister and lord 
 privy seal; duke of Grafton, first lord of the treasury ; lord Camden, lord chancellor; 
 non. Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer; earl of Northington, lord 
 president ; earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state ; sir Charles 
 Saunders (succeeded by sir Edward Hawke), admiralty ; marquess of Granby, ordnance ; 
 lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade ; lord Barrington, secretary-at-war ; lord North 
 and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters; viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy; 
 duke of Ancaster, lord de Despeuser, &c, Aug. 1766. Terminated Dec. 1767. See 
 Duke of Devonshire's Administration, 1756. 
 
 CHATILLON, CONGRESS op. Held by the four great powers allied against France, and 
 at which Caulaincourt attended on the part of Napoleon, Feb. 5, 1814 ; but the nego- 
 tiation for peace, the object of the congress, was broken off on March 19, following. 
 
 CHAUMONT, TREATY of. Entered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively, March 1, 1814. This treaty was 
 succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April 11 following, by which Napoleon 
 renounced his sovereignty over France. See Treaties of Paris. 
 
 CHAUNTING. Chaunting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pagan cere- 
 monies of the Romans, about a.d. 350. — Lenglet. Chaunting in churches was introduced 
 into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory the Great, who established schools 
 of chaunters, and corrected the church song. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), imprisonment, 
 and fine, 1 Hawk. L.C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against cheats, 33 Henry 
 VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than 101. or any 
 valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer punishment as in cases of 
 perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Blackstone's Comm. 
 
 CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the process 
 of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts with them) about 
 the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. Wilts, Gloucester, and 
 Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annually, about 31,000 tons. The 
 Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Huntingdon, are as much esteemed with us as 
 the cheese of Parma, and of Gruyere in Switzerland. In 1840 we imported from abroad 
 10,000 tons; and year ending Jan. 1850, as many as 27,000 tons. 
 
 CHELSEA COLLEGE. On the site of a college founded by James I. for theological 
 disputations, but converted by Charles II. to its present better purpose, stands this 
 magnificent asylum for wounded and superannuated soldiers. — Founded by Charles II., 
 carried on by James II., and completed by William III. in 1690. But the projector 
 was sir Stephen Fox, grandfather of the late celebrated patriot. The architect was 
 sir Christopher Wren, and the cost 150,000£. The physic garden of sir Hans Sloane, 
 at Chelsea, was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721. The Chelsea water- 
 works were incorporated 1722. The first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea wa3 
 laid by Frederick, duke of York, June 19, 1801. The body of the duke of Wellington 
 lay here in state, Nov. 10 — 17, 1852. The bridge now constructing to connect 
 Chelsea with Battersea park is nearly completed (1857). 
 
 CHELTENHAM. Now a great resort of our nobility and fashionable persons, as well as 
 convalescents, and containing many handsome edifices and mansions. Its mineral 
 spring, so celebrated for its salubrity, was discovered in 1718. The king's-well here 
 
 * Lord Chatham, in his first administration (when Mr. Pitt), secretary of state for the Southern 
 department, 1756 ; and privy seal in the above administration, his second, 17(36. 
 
CHE 147 CHE 
 
 was sunk in 1773; aud other wells were sunk by Mr. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian 
 salt was found in the waters in 1811. The theatre was erected in 1804. 
 
 CHEMICAL SOCIETY of LONDON. A chemical society was formed in London in 
 1780, but its meetings were not long continued. The present society was established 
 in 1841. It consists of the most eminent chemists of the day, and publishes a 
 quarterly journal. 
 
 CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, 
 about a.d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, and these from the 
 Egyptians. In Egypt they had, in very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, 
 separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; and embalming was a kind of 
 chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. 
 The first chemical students in Europe were the Alchemists (see Alchemy); but 
 chemistry could not be said to exist as a science till the seventeenth century ; during 
 which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon and the researches of Hooke, 
 Mayow, and Boyle. In the early part of the eighteenth century, Dr. Stephen Hales 
 laid the foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaave combined 
 the study of chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, 
 Stahl, &c. In 1772, Priestley published his researches on air, aud then commenced a 
 new era in the history of chemistry. He was ably seconded by Lavoisier, Cavendish, 
 Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The nineteenth century opened with the brilliant discoveries of 
 Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. — Organic Chemistry has been very 
 greatly advanced by the labours of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hofmann, &c, 
 during the last thirty years. See Pharmacy, Electricity, and Calvanism. 
 
 CHERBOURG. Memorable engagement between the English and French fleets : the 
 latter were defeated, and twenty-one of their ships of war were burnt, or otherwise 
 destroyed, near Cape La Hogue, by admirals Rooke and Russell, May 19, 1692. The 
 forts, arsenal, and shipping were destroyed by the British, who lauded here in 
 August, 1758. The works were resumed on a stupendous scale by Louis XVI. ; but 
 their progress was interrupted by the revolution. The Breakwater, commenced in 
 1783, resumed by Bonaparte about 1803, and finally completed in 1813, is a stu- 
 pendous work, forming a secure harbour, capable of affording anchorage for nearly 
 the whole navy of France, and protected by batteries and fortifications of enormous 
 strength, which have recently been increased to unparalleled magnitude. It is now 
 considered proof against any armament in the world. 
 
 CHERRIES. The Prunus Cerasus, so called from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence 
 the tree was brought by Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C. The cherry-tree was first 
 planted in Britain, it is said, about a.d. 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, 
 and planted in Kent, with such success, that an orchard of thirty-two acres produced 
 in one year 1000Z. a.d. 1540. See Gardening. 
 
 CHESAPEAKE, BATTLE op the. At the mouth of the river of that name, between the 
 British admiral Greaves and the French admiral de Grasse, in the interest of the 
 revolted states of America; the former was obliged to retire, 1781. — The Chesapeake 
 and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet in the American war of 1S12, and the 
 bay was the scene of great hostilities at that period, of various result. — The 
 Chesapeake American ft-igate struck to the Shannon British frigate, commanded by 
 captain Broke, after a severe action of eleven minutes, June 2, 1813. 
 
 CHESS, GAME of. Invented, according to some authorities, by Palamedes, 6S0 B.C. ; 
 and according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and sir 
 William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject), that the origin 
 of chess is to be traced to India. The celebrated automaton chess-player (a figure of 
 wonderful machinery) was exhibited in England in 1769. 
 
 CHESTER. Founded by the Romans, and one of the last places in England that was 
 quitted by that people. It was the station of the twentieth Roman legion, called the 
 Valeria Victrix. The city wall was first built by Edelfleda, a.d. 90S ; and William I. 
 rebuilt the Saxon castle in 1084. Chester was incorporated by Henry III. and made 
 a distinct county. It was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire in 1471. The fatal 
 gunpowder explosion occurred Nov. 5, 1772. 
 
 CHESTER, BISHOPRIC of. This see was anciently part of the diocese of Lichfield, 
 one of whose bishops, removing the seat hither in 1075, occasioned his successors to 
 be styled bishops of Chester ; but it was not erected into a distinct bishopric until 
 
 i,2 
 
CHE 148 CHI 
 
 the general dissolution of monasteries. Henry VIII. in 1541 raised it to this dignity, 
 and allotted the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh for the cathedral. This see is 
 valued in the king's books at i20l. Is. 8d. per year. 
 
 CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in a diplo- 
 matic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a minister plenipo- 
 tentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial had in the King's Bench, in 
 an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be a woman, July 1, 1777. He subse- 
 quently wore female attire for many years; yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it 
 was manifest, by the dissection of his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he 
 was of the male sex. — Biog. Diet. 
 
 CHICHESTER. Built by Cissa, about a.d. 540. The cathedral was erected in 1115, and 
 having been burnt with the city in 1186, was rebuilt by bishop SefTric in 1187. The 
 bishopric of Chichester originated in this way : Wilfrida, third archbishop of York, 
 having been obliged to flee his country by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, came 
 and preached the gospel in this country, and built a church in the Isle of Selsey, 
 about a.d. 673, In 681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so continued until Stigand, 
 the twenty-third bishop, had it removed to Chichester, then called Cissan-Caester, 
 from its builder, Cissa, a.d. 1071. This see has yielded to the church two saints, 
 and to the nation three lord chancellors. It is valued in the king's books at 
 677/. Is. 3d. per annum. 
 
 CHICORY. The wild endive, or Cichorum, Intybus of Linnseus, found growing wild in 
 calcareous soils in Britain and most countries of Europe. It was formerly raised to 
 some extent in England as an herbage plant, its excellence in this respect having been 
 much insisted upon by Arthur Young. Chicory had been for many years so largely 
 mixed with coffee in England, that it became a matter of serious complaint against 
 dealers in the latter article ; * and an excise order was at length issued, dated 
 August 3, 1852 (pursuant to a treasury minute of July 29 previous), interdicting the 
 mixture of chicory with coffee by vendors after the expiry of three months, namely, 
 the 3rd of November, same year. The admixture, however, has since been per- 
 mitted, provided the word " chicory " be plainly printed on each parcel sold. 
 
 CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of exposing their 
 infants, the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on highways, when 
 they could not support or educate them; in such cases they were taken care of, and 
 humanely protected by the state. The custom, which long previously existed, of 
 English parents selling their children to the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the 
 reign of Canute, about 1017. — Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a 
 widow died, to bury with her in the same grave, such of her children as were unable 
 from their tender years, to take care of themselves. In some parts of China, infants 
 are offered to the spirit of an adjoining river, a gourd being tied to their necks to 
 prevent their immediately drowning. Great efforts made by the British government 
 in India to repress infanticide. 
 
 CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a.d. 1535. 
 Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Spaniards on their 
 first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected for them gold and silver, amounting to 
 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the 
 invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. The Chilisians declared 
 their independence Sept. 18, 1810, and fought for liberty with various success 
 until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by San Martin, over the royal forces, 
 Feb. 12 in that year, the province was declared independent. The independence of 
 Chili was recognised by Great Britain, whose first envoy extraordinary to this country 
 was the hon. John Walpole, accredited May 24, 1841. The present president 
 (1857), Don Manuel Montt, was elected Sept. 18, 1851. 
 
 CHILLIANW ALLAH, BATTLE of, in India. Great and sanguinary battle between 
 the Sikh forces in considerable strength, and the British, commanded by general lord 
 (afterwards viscount) Gougb, fought Jan. 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely 
 routed, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 
 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 
 killed, and 4000 wounded. This battle was followed by lord Gough's attack on the 
 
 * Latterly, chicory has been largely substituted for coffee here as well as on the continent, occa- 
 sioning a loss to the British revenue of lOO.OOOi. yearly, besides its mischievous influence in adulterating 
 and debasing a popular beverage. Chicory should be subject to the same duty as coffee. — M'Culloch. 
 
CHI 
 
 149 
 
 CHI 
 
 Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in it3 position at Goojerat, on the right bank of the 
 Chenaub, with complete success; the whole of the enemy's camp fell, in this last 
 desperate engagement, into the hands of the British, Feb. 21, 1849. See Goojerat. 
 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown on the chain of chalk hills that pass 
 from east to west through the middle of Buckinghamshire, the stewardship whereof 
 is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate 
 their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, 
 unless he be again returned by his constituents : this custom is ancient. 
 
 CHIMNEY TAX. See Hearth. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which 
 were first introduced into these countries in a.d. 1200, when they were confined to 
 the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round a stove, the funnel of which passed 
 through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 
 1310. The ancients made use of stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that 
 chimneys were in use among them ; but this is disputed. Act to regulate the trade 
 of chimney sweeping, 28 Geo. III. 1789. Statute repealing this act, and regulating 
 the trade, the apprenticeship of children, the construction of flues, preventing calling 
 "sweep" in the streets, &c, 4 Will. IV. July, 1834. By the act 5 Vict. Aug. 1840, it 
 is not lawful for master sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years of age ; and 
 since July 1, 1842, no individual under twenty -one may ascend a chimney. 
 
 CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thou- 
 sands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some authorities to have 
 commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By others it is said to have 
 been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are told 
 that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were acute 
 astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2357 B.C. But dates cannot be 
 relied upon until towards the close of the seventh century B.C., when the history of 
 China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 
 129 B.C., the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the 
 coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance iu history. — Lenglet. 
 
 The Chinese state their first cycle to have 
 commenced B.C. 2700 
 
 The first of the 22 Chinese dynasties 
 commenced . . . . . . 2207 
 
 ***** 
 
 In the history of China, the first dates 
 which are fixed to his narrative, by 
 Se-ma-tsien, begin .... 651 
 Confucius, the father of the Chinese 
 
 philosophers born 551 
 
 Stupendous wall of China completed . 211 
 
 The dynasty of Han 206 
 
 Literature and the art of printing encou- 
 raged (?) 202 
 
 Religion of Tao-tse commenced . . . 15 
 Religion of the followers of Fo, com- 
 menced about . . . . a.d. 60 
 
 Embassy from Rome 166 
 
 Nankin becomes the capital . . . 420 
 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, 
 
 flourishes 449 
 
 The Nestorian Christians permitted to 
 
 preach their doctrines .... 635 
 They are proscribed and extirpated . . 845 
 The seat of the imperial government is 
 
 transferred to Pekin .... 1260 
 Wonderful Canal, called the Tu Ho, 
 
 completed about 1400 
 
 Europeans first arrive at Canton . . 1517 
 Macao is granted as a settlement to the 
 
 Portuguese 1536 
 
 Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope 
 
 from Rome 1575 
 
 The country is conquered by the eastern 
 Tartars, who establish the present 
 
 reigning house 1644 
 
 An earthquake throughout China buries 
 
 300,000 persons at Pekin alone . . 1662 
 Jesuit mis»ionaries endeavour to esta- 
 bliah Christianity 1692 
 
 The Jesuits are expelled through their 
 own misconduct .... a.d. 1724 
 
 Another general earthquake destroys 
 100,000 persons at Pekin, and 80,000 in 
 a suburb 1731 
 
 In a salute by one of our India ships in 
 China, a loaded gun was inadvertently 
 fired, which killed a native ; the go- 
 vernment demanded the gunner to be 
 given up; he was soon strangled. — 
 Sir George Staunton . . July 2, 17S5 
 
 Earl Macartney's embassy ; he leaves 
 England 1792 
 
 He arrives at Pekin ; his reception by 
 the emperor .... Sept. 14, 1793 
 
 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 
 
 Oct. 7, 1793 
 
 And arrives in England . Sept. 6, 1794 
 
 The affair of the Company's ship Keptune, 
 when a Chinese was killed . . . 1S07 
 
 Edict against Christianity . . . . 1812 
 
 Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves 
 England .... Feb 8, 1816 
 
 [His lordship failed in the objects of his 
 mission, having refused to make the 
 prostration of the kou-tou, lest he 
 should thereby compromise the ma- 
 jesty of England.] 
 
 The exclusive rights of the East India 
 Company cease . . April 22, 1S34 
 
 First free-trade ships, with tea, set sail 
 for England .... April 25, 1834 
 
 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
 intend British commerce July 15, 1S34 
 
 Affair between the natives and two 
 British ships of war ; several Chinese 
 killed .... Sept. 5, 1S34 
 
 Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by 
 Mr. Davis .... Oct. 11, 1S34 
 
CHT 
 
 150 
 
 CHI 
 
 CHINA, continued. 
 
 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese 
 
 Nov. 7, 1834 
 
 Seizure of the Argyle and her crew by 
 the natives . . . Jan. 31, 1835 
 
 A quantity of opium burnt at Canton by 
 the Chinese .... Feb. 23, 1835 
 
 Capt. Elliot becomes chief British com- 
 missioner .... Dec. 14, 183C 
 
 Admiral sir Frederick Maitland arrives 
 at Macao .... July 12, 1S38 
 
 [The events connected with this empire, 
 relatively to Great Britain, now in- 
 crease in importance.] 
 
 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for the 
 seizure of opium . . March IS, 1839 
 
 British and other residents forbidden to 
 leave Canton . . March 19, 1S39 
 
 The factories surrounded, and outrages 
 committed . . . March 24, 1839 
 
 Captain Elliot requires of British subjects 
 their surrender to him of all opium, 
 promising them, on the part of govern- 
 ment, the full value of it March 27, 1839 
 
 Half of the opium is given up, as a con- 
 traband article, to the Chinese autho- 
 rities . . . . . April 20, 1S39 
 
 The remainder of the opium (20.2S3 
 chests) is surrendered . . May 21, 1S39 
 
 Capt. Elliot and the British merchants 
 leave Canton . . . May 24, 1S39 
 
 The opium destroyed during several days 
 by the Chinese . ... June 3, 1839 
 
 Affair between the British and American 
 seamen and the Chinese ; a native 
 killed . . . . July 7, 1839 
 
 Capt. Elliot leaves Macao for Hong- 
 Kong Aug. 23, 1839 
 
 The British boat Black Joke attacked by 
 the natives, and the crew, consisting 
 of Lascars, murdered . Aug. 24, 1S39 
 
 The whole of the British merchants re- 
 tire from Macao . . . Aug. 26, 1839 
 
 Affair at Kow-lung between British boats 
 and Chinese junks . . Sept. 4, 1839 
 
 Attack by 28 armed junks on the British 
 frigates Vola'je and Hyacinth : several 
 junks blown up . . . Nov. 3, 1839 
 
 The British trade with China ceases, by 
 an edict of the emperor, and the last 
 servant of the company leaves the 
 country this day . . . Dec. 6, 1839 
 
 Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
 trade and intercourse with England 
 forever Jan. 5, 1840 
 
 The Jit lias ship attacked by a number of 
 armed junks . . . May 22, 1S40 
 
 Fire-rafts floated in order to destroy the 
 British fleet .... June 9, 1840 
 
 Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
 1 5 sail and several war steamers, having 
 4000 troops on board, by orders from 
 sir Gordon Bremer . . June 28, 1S40 
 
 The Blonde, bearing a flag of truce, is 
 fired on at Amoy . . . July 2, 1840 
 
 Ting-hai, in the island of Chusan, sur- 
 renders to the British . . July 5, 1840 
 
 An extensive blockade is established 
 along the Chinese coast . July 10, 1S40 
 
 Seizure of Mr. Stanton, who is carried 
 off to Canton . . . Aug. 6, 1840 
 
 Capt. Elliot, on board a British steam- 
 ship, enters the Pei-ho river, near 
 Pekin Aug. 11, 1840 
 
 The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and 
 the captain's wife and part of the crew 
 are captured by the natives, and con- 
 fined in cages . . . Sept. 15, 1840 
 
 Seizure of capt. Anstruther . Sept. 16, 1840 
 
 Lin deprived of his authority, and finally 
 
 degraded; Keshiu appointed imperial 
 commissioner . . . Sept. 16, 1840 
 Capt. Elliot declares a truce with the 
 
 Chinese Nov. 6, 1840 
 
 British plenipotentiaries sail from Chu- 
 san, and arrive off Macao Nov. 20, 1840 
 
 Admiral Elliot's resignation is an- 
 nounced .... Nov. 29, 1840 
 
 Mr. Stanton released . . Dec. 12, 1840 
 
 Negotiations cease, owing to breaches 
 of faith on the part of the Chinese 
 emperor .... Jan. 6, 1S41 
 
 Chuen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns 
 (some sent to England), captured by 
 the British .... Jan. 7, 1841 
 
 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great 
 Britain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed 
 to be paid within ten days to the 
 British authorities . . Jan. 20, 1841 
 
 Formal possession of Hong-Kong taken 
 by the British . . Jan. 26, 1S41 
 
 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the 
 conditions of the treaty made by 
 Keshin Feb. 11, 1841 
 
 Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
 against the Chinese . . Feb. 23, 1S41 
 
 Chusan evacuated . . . Feb. 24, 1841 
 
 Kewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
 bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- 
 leaders and chiefs . Feb. 25, 1S41 
 
 Bogue forts taken by sir Gordon Bremer ; 
 admiral Kwan killed, and 459 guns 
 captured .... Feb. 26, 1841 
 
 The British squadron proceeds up the 
 river to Canton . . March 1, 1S41 
 
 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 
 the army .... March 2, 1841 
 
 Hostilities again suspended March 3, 1841 
 
 And again resumed . . . March 6, 1S41 
 
 Keshiu degraded by the emperor, and 
 arrested .... March 12, 1S41 
 
 Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton 
 threatened, the foreign factories 
 seized, and 461 guns taken by the 
 British forces . . March 18, 1S41 
 
 New commissioners from Pekin arrive 
 at Canton .... April 14, 1S41 
 
 The first number of the Song-Kong 
 Gazette published . . . May 1, 1841 
 
 Capt. Elliot again prepares to attack 
 Canton .... May 17, 1S41 
 
 Chinese attack the British ships with 
 fire-rafts .... May 21, 1S41 
 
 Operations against Canton . May 24, 1841 
 
 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
 guns captured . . . May 25, 1S41 
 
 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
 of which 5,000,000 are paid down, and 
 hostilities cease . . May 31, 1SJ1 
 
 British forces withdrawn . June 1, 1S41 
 
 British trade re-opened . July 16, 1S41 
 
 Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, 
 who, as plenipotentiary, proclaims the 
 objects of bis mission ; capt. Elliot 
 superseded .... Aug. 10, 1S41 
 
 Amoy taken and 296 guns found and 
 destroyed .... Aug. 27, 1841 
 
 The Bogue forts destroyed . Sept. 14, 1841 
 
 The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 guns 
 captured, and the island of Chusan re- 
 occupied by the British . . Oct. 1, 1841 
 
 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns ; many 
 of them brass . . . Oct. 10, 1841 
 
 Ning-po taken . . . Oct. 13, 1841 
 
 Yu-yaou, Tsze-kee, and Foong-hua car- 
 ried by the British . . Dec. 28, 1841 
 
 Chinese force of 12,000 men attack 
 Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
 pulsed with great loss . March 10, 1S42 
 
CHI 
 
 151 
 
 cnr 
 
 CIIINA, continued. 
 
 8,000 Chinese are routed with consider- 
 able loss near Tsze-kee March 15, 1S42 
 
 Cha-pou attacked, and its defences de- 
 stroyed, 45 guns taken . May IS, 1842 
 
 The British squadron enter the great 
 river Kiang .... June 13, 1S42 
 
 Capture of Woosung, and of 230 guns 
 and stores . . . June 16, 1S42 
 
 The town of Shang-hae taken June 19, 1S42 
 
 The British fleet advance farther up the 
 river July 6, 1842 
 
 The whole British arnoameDt anchor 
 near the " Golden Isle " . July 20, 1842 
 
 City of Chin-Keang taken ; the Tartar 
 general and many of the garrison 
 commit suicide . . July 21, 1S42 
 
 The advanced British ships reach the 
 city of Nankin . . . Aug. 4, 1842 
 
 The whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
 barkation commences . . Aug. 9, 1S42 
 
 Keying arrives at Nankin, with full 
 powers from the emperor, with the 
 sincere object of treating with the 
 British for peace . . . Aug. 12, 1842 
 
 First interview of the respective pleni- 
 potentiaries on board H.M.S. Corn- 
 wallis, held . . . Aug. 20, 1S42 
 
 Sir Henry Pottinger, sir Hugh Gough, 
 and sir William Parker visit the 
 Chinese authorities on shore Aug. 24, 1S42 
 
 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin 
 on board the Cornwallis by sir Henry 
 Pottinger for England, and Keying 
 Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of 
 the Chinese emperor . Aug. 29, 1S42 
 
 CONDITIONS OF THE TEEATT. 
 
 Lasting peace and friendship between 
 the two empires 
 
 China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part 
 forthwith and the remainder within 
 three years 
 
 The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo- 
 foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
 thrown open to the British 
 
 Consuls to reside at these cities 
 
 Tariffs of import and export to be estab- 
 lished 
 
 Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
 her Britannic Majesty, and her heirs 
 and successors 
 
 Subjects of England, whether native or 
 Indian, to be unconditionally released 
 in China 
 
 Act of full amnesty, under the emperor's 
 own seal and sign-manual, to all 
 Chinese, to be published 
 
 Correspondence between the two go- 
 vernments to be conducted on terms 
 of perfect equality. 
 
 The British forces to withdraw from 
 Nankin, the Grand Canal, and Chin- 
 hae, on the treaty receiving the em- 
 peror's signature ; but 
 
 The islands of Chusan and Ku-lang-su to 
 be held by the British until the money 
 payments have been completed, and 
 other provisions fulfilled. 
 
 The emperor signifies his assent to the 
 conditions .... Sept S, 1842 
 
 Grand seal of England affixed to the 
 treaty .... Dec. 31, 1S42 
 
 The ratifications signed by queen Vic- 
 toria and the emperor respectively, are 
 formally exchanged . . July 22, 1S43 
 
 The commercial treaty between the two 
 empires is announced as finally ad- 
 justed ; and Canton opened by an im- 
 perial edict to the British July 27, 1S43 
 
 [The other ports, according to the stipu- 
 lations, to be opened as soon as edicts 
 from the emperor are received.] 
 
 The queen congratulates parliament on 
 the termination of the war, and its 
 auspicious consequences . Feb. 1, 1S14 
 
 Appointment of Mr. Davis is gazetted 
 in England, in the room of sir Henry 
 Pottinger, who has signified his wish 
 to resign . . . Feb. 16, 1844 
 
 Bogue forts captured by the British to 
 obtain redress for insults . April 5, 1S47 
 
 Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood 
 visited by a typhoon of unusual vio- 
 lence ; immense damage done to the 
 shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat- 
 dwellers on the Canton river drowned 
 
 Oct. 1S48 
 
 H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate 
 junks in the Chinese seas March 4, 1850 
 
 Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si, spread- 
 ing rapidly .... Aug. 1850 
 
 Appearance of the pretender Tien-teh 
 
 March, 1851 
 
 Defeat of Seu, the imperial commis- 
 sioner, and destruction of half the 
 army .... June 19, 1852 
 
 Successful progress of the rebels to- 
 wards Shang-hae and Nankin ; the 
 emperor applies to the Europeans for 
 help without success March and April, 1S53 
 
 The rebels take 
 
 Nankin .... March 19, 20, 1853 
 Amoy .... May 19, 1853 
 Shang-hae .... Sept. 7, 1S53 
 
 And besiege Canton without success, 
 
 Aug.— Nov. 1854 
 
 The latest very scanty accounts are un- 
 favourable to the rebels, the imperial- 
 ists having re-taken Shang-hae, Amoy, 
 and many important pkxces June, 1855 
 
 Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in 
 Canton river (see Canton) . Oct. 8, 1S56 
 
 After vain negociations with commis- 
 sioner Teh, Canton forts attacked and 
 taken Oct. 24, 1S56 
 
 A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton 
 bombarded, by sir M. Seymour 
 
 Nov. 3, 4, 1S56 
 
 The Americans revenge an attack on 
 them by capturing three forts 
 
 Nov. 21—23, 1856 
 
 Other forts taken by the British . Dec. 1S56 
 
 The Chinese burn European factories, 
 
 Dec. 14, 1856 
 
 And murder crew of the Thistle Dec. 30, 1S56 
 
 A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of 
 charge of poisoning the bread Feb. 2, 1S57 
 
 Troops arrive from Madras . March, 1857 
 
 Troops sent from England, and lord 
 Elgin appointed Envoy . . March, 1S57 
 
 No change on either side : Teh said to 
 be straitened for money: the impe- 
 rialists seem to be gaining ground 
 upon the rebels . . . May, 1S57 
 
 Total destruction of the Chinese fleet, 
 (127 junks) .... June 8, 1S57 
 
 CHINESE EMPERORS. 
 
 The following is a list of those who have 
 reigned for the last two centuries : — 
 
 Chwang-lei 1627 
 
 Shun-che 1644 
 
 Kang-he 1669 
 
 Tung-ching . 1693 
 
 Keen-lung 1736 
 
 Kea-ding 1790 
 
 Taou-Kwang 1821 
 
 Sze-hing, or Tih-Chu. The present (1 887) 
 
 emperor of China . . Feb. 25, 1S50 
 
CHI 152 CHI 
 
 The embassy of lord Macartney threw some light on the political circumstances 
 of this empire ; it appeared that it was. in his time, divided into 15 provinces, 
 containing 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole country was given at 
 333,000,000 : its annual revenues were 66,000,000^. ; and the army, including the 
 Tartars, was 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800.000 cavalry ; the religion Pagan, and the 
 government absolute. Learning, and the arts and sciences in general, were encou- 
 raged, and ethics were studied profoundly, and influenced the manners of the people. 
 Future intercourse with China will correct our information and improve our know- 
 ledge in relation to it, and acquaint us with its moral economy and power, details 
 highly essential to our commerce. 
 CHINA, REBELLION in. Taou-Kwang the last emperor of China (who died Feb. 1850) 
 during the latter part of his reign became somewhat liberal in his views, and favoured 
 the introduction of European arts among his people ; but his son, the present em- 
 peror, a rash and narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his father's wise 
 policy and adopted re-actionary measures, particularly against English influence. An 
 insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug. 1850, in the province of Quang-si, which 
 quickly became of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to 
 expel the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was announced among them, 
 first by the name of Tien-teh (Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
 He is stated to be a native of Quang-si, of obscure origin, but to have obtained some 
 literary knowledge at Canton about 1835, and also to have become acquainted with 
 the principles of Christianity from a Chinese Christian, named Leang afa, at that time 
 and also from the missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as the restorer 
 of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, but has derived many of his dogmas from 
 the Old and New Testament. He declares himself to be the monarch of all beneath 
 the sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jesus, 
 and the second son of God, and demands universal submission. He does not manifest 
 any appearance of having been under the peculiar influence of either Romanists or 
 Protestants. For the events of the rebellion see preceding article. 
 
 CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in his story in 1531 ; it was 
 introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made 
 at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, in 1752 ; at Bow in 1758 ; in 
 various other parts of England about 1760 ; and by the ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, 
 •who much improved the British manufacture, in Staffordshire, 1762 et seq. 
 
 CHINA ROSE, and CHINESE APPLE. The rose, a delicate and beautiful flower 
 called the Rosa Indica, was brought to these countries from China, and after various 
 failures, planted in England, with success, in 1786.' The Chinese apple-tree, or 
 Pyrut spectabilis, was brought to England about 1780. Some few other plants were 
 introduced from the same empire in successive years from this time. See Flowers, 
 Fruits, Gardening, &c. 
 
 CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. Like the 
 Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands 
 of years ; and their annals and histories record events said to have occurred, and 
 name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, more than 27,000 years ago. By 
 their calculation of time, which must of course differ essentially from ours, they date 
 the commencement of their empire 41,000 years B.C. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 CHIPPAWA, BATTLES of. In the late American war, the British under general 
 Riall were defeated by the Americans under general Browne, July 5, 1814. The 
 Americans were defeated by the British, commanded by generals Drummond 
 and Riall, but the latter was wounded and taken prisoner, July 25 following. 
 
 CHIVALRY. Began in Europe, about a.d. 900. From the twelfth to the fifteenth 
 century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of most of the nations 
 of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the 
 champion of God and the ladies. He devoted himself to speak the truth, to maintain 
 the right, to protect the distressed, to practice courtesy, to ful61 obligations, and 
 to vindicate in every perilous adventure his honour and character. Chivalry, which 
 owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 
 
 CHIVALRY, COURT of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, that 
 combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of James I. the earl- 
 marshal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the courts of chivalry, when the 
 office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly 
 
CHL 153 CHR 
 
 exercise," 1623. The following entries are found in the pipe-roll of 31 Hen. I. 1131, 
 the date of which has been fixed by the labours of the record commission : — 
 " Robert Fitz-Seward renders account of fifteen marks of silver for the office and wife 
 of Hugh Chivill. Paid into the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds ; " 
 p. 53. " William de Hoctou renders account of ten.marks of gold that he m.ay have 
 the wife of Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in 
 custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer ten marks 
 of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 
 
 CHLOROFORM in SURGICAL OPERATIONS. See article Ether. 
 
 CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey, about twenty miles from London. A camp was 
 formed for military exercise at this place, and occupied on June 14, 1853, by a force 
 between 8000 and 10,000 strong. The last field-day (when there was a mock fight) 
 took place Aug. 17. Only one serious case of misconduct was reported during all 
 the time of occupation. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. Introduced into Europe, principally from Mexico and the Brazils, about 
 a.d. 1520. It is the flour or paste of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, 
 much used in Spain. It also forms a delicate confection. Chocolate was sold in the 
 London coffee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650. — Tatler. See Cocoa. 
 
 CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constan- 
 tine. The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, a.d. 677. This 
 service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. See Ghaunting. The Choragus 
 was the superintendent of the ancient chorus. — Warburton. 
 
 CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form as the 
 Indian cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries of the north, east, 
 and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where alone it had carried off 
 more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two years, made its first appearance 
 in England, at Suuderland, Oct. 26, 1831. Cholera first appeared in Edinburgh, 
 Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, Feb. 13; and 
 in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was very great, but more so on the 
 Continent; the deaths by cholera in Paris were 18,000 between March and August, 
 1832. Cholera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c, in July and 
 August, 1837. In 1848 and 1849, we had another visitation of the Cholera in this 
 kingdom; the number of deaths in London, for the week ending Sept. 15, 1849, was 
 3183, the ordinary average being 1008; and the number of deaths by cholera from 
 June 17 to Oct. 2, same year, was, in London alone, 13,161. From this time the 
 mortality lessened every day, and the distemper finally disappeared Oct. 13, 1849. 
 In Sept. 1853, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and other northern towns 
 suffered much from cholera, and in the autumn of 1854 it made great ravages in 
 Italy and Sicily : and above 10,000 are said to have died at Naples : it was also very 
 fatal to the allied troops at Varna. It broke out at London in August and September, 
 and was very severe for a short time in the southern and western parts. 
 
 CHORAGUS. An important public officer among the Greeks, who paid and regulated 
 the chorus in the public feasts, worship, &c. 
 
 CHORUSES. Singing in this manner was invented at Athens. Stesichorus, whose real 
 name was Tysias, received this appellative from his having been the first who taught 
 the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. — Quintil. Inst. Orat. Hypodicus, of Chalcides, 
 carried off the prize for the best voice, 508 B.C. — Parian Marbles. 
 
 CHRISM. Consecrated oil was used early in the ceremonies of the Roman and Greek 
 churches. Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense are mentioned as used 
 with the oil, in a.d. 1541. But it was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
 balsam only ; the one representing the human nature of Christ, and the other his 
 divine nature, 1596. 
 
 CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer of the 
 world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Messiah in the Hebrew, 
 which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom they expected, and who was 
 promised to them by all the prophets. This appellation is commonly put to our 
 Jesus (signifying Saviour), the name of the great object of our faith, and Divine 
 author of our religion. St. Clement, the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, 
 fixes the birth of Christ on the 18th November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. 
 two yeai-s before the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Ceriuthus was 
 
CHR 
 
 154 
 
 CHR 
 
 the first Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a.d. 67. The divinity 
 of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a.d. 325, by two hundred and 
 ninety -nine bishops against eighteen. See Arians. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL. A noble institution which is indebted for its establishment to 
 the piety of Edward VI. 1552. A mathematical ward was founded by Charles II., 
 and the city of Loudon and community of England have contributed to render it a 
 great, extensive, and richly endowed charity. Large portions of the edifice having 
 fallen into decay, have been lately rebuilt ; in 1822 a new infirmary was completed, 
 and in 1825 (April 28) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent new 
 hall. — On Sept. 24, 1854, the present master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon, in the church 
 of the hospital, censured the system of education and the general administration of 
 the establishment. The agitation consequent upon this discourse will doubtless 
 result in many alterations, Dr. Jacob's views having received the approval of the 
 majority of the governors. 
 
 CHRIST'S-THORN. This shrub came hither from the south of Europe, before 1596 
 Supposed to be the plant from which Our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed. 
 
 CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of Christ's 
 doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts, xi. 26, in the year 38, according to Butler ; in the 
 year 40, according to Tacitus ; and according to other authorities, in the year 60. 
 The first Christians were divided into episcopoi (overseers), presbyteroi (elders), 
 diaconoi (ministers or deacons) and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards catechumens, or 
 learners, and energumens, who were to be exorcised, were added. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it dates 
 from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, in the 
 753rd of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian period. It was first introduced 
 in the sixth century, but was not very generally employed for some centuries after. 
 See Anno Domini. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KING ; Most Christian King; Christianissimus Hex. This title was given 
 by pope Paul II. to Louis XL of France in 1469 : and never was a distinction more 
 unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions obliged his subjects to enter 
 into a league against him ; and 4000 persons were executed publicly or privately in 
 his merciless reign. — Henault ; Fleury. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of the 
 Christians commenced a.d. 64. See Persecutions. Christianity was first taught in 
 Britain about this time ; and propagated with some success in 156. — Bede. Lucius is 
 said to have been the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world : he reigned in 
 about 179. There was a large Christian population prior to the irruption of the 
 Saxon pagans, whose conversion began with Augustin the monk in 597.* Introduced 
 into Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of 
 St. Patrick in 432. Received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 212, when 
 it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 
 
 Constantine the Great made his solemn 
 declaration of the Christian religion 
 
 a.d. 312 
 Christianity was established in France 
 
 under Clovis the Great . . . 496 
 
 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries . . 043 
 In Flanders in the seventh century. 
 
 In Denmark, under Harold . . . 827 
 
 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi . . . 894 
 
 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf . . . 940 
 
 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. . . . 992 
 
 In Hungary, under Geisa . . . 994 
 In Norway and Iceland, under Olof I. . 1000 
 
 In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. 
 
 In Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, 
 when they were returning from the 
 holy wars .... a.d. 1227 
 
 In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
 lished about 13S6 
 
 In China, where it made some progress 
 (but was afterwards extirpated, and 
 thousands of Chinese Christians were 
 put to death) 1575 
 
 In Greece, where it was once more re- 
 established 1628 
 
 Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea, Angola, and Congo, 
 in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some progress in the 
 sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the world. 
 
 * It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day 
 to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who were 
 set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Pagans, he is said to 
 have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli stil Angeli fortnt, si esstnt Christ i/mi," that is, "they 
 would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he was struck with an 
 ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, 
 and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain in the year b§Q.—Goldimith. 
 
CHR 
 
 155 
 
 CHU 
 
 CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the Church, universally observed in commemoration 
 of the nativity of Our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ-mas*, from the 
 appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to express that he was the 
 Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a festival a.d. 98. Ordered to be 
 held as a solemn feast, and divine service to be performed on the 25th of December, 
 by pope Telesphorus, about a.d. 137.* In the eastern church, Christmas and the 
 Epiphany [which see) were deemed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the 
 Church universally keeps a continued feast within those limits. The holly and 
 mistletoe used at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids. 
 
 CHRISTMAS-ISLAND. An island in the Pacific Ocean, so named by Captain Cook, 
 who landed here on Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas-day at Christmas 
 Sound, 1774. On the shore of Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, one of his 
 men found a piece of parchment with this inscription: " Ludovico XV. Galliarum 
 rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other 
 side of it captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et Discovery de rege Magnce Britannia?, 
 Decembris, 1776," and fixed the bottle in a safe and proper place. 
 
 CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in Colours. 
 
 CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Jews, Chinese, Hindoos, and 
 perhaps of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all well informed nations appear 
 to have kept chroniclers, who were generally priests or astrologers, and who mingled 
 popular legends with their records. — Phillips. In Scripture there are two " Books 
 of Chronicles." 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no certain 
 authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the Jewish ; but 
 they have created abundance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty 
 can be arrived at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest 
 epoch is the creation of the world, 4004 B.C.. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, 
 was the first Christian chronologist, about a.d. 169. See the different eras through 
 the volume. 
 
 CHIEF EPOCHS OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Creation of Adam . . . .B.C. 4004 
 
 Deluge 2348 
 
 Death of Abraham 1821 
 
 Drowning of Pharaoh . . . . 1491 
 
 Death of Joshua . . . . . 1443 
 
 Death of David 1015 
 
 Division of the kingdom between the Ten 
 
 Tribes and Two . . . .B.C. 975 
 Dispersion of the Ten Tribes . . . 721 
 Captivity of the Two . . . .606 
 Return of the Two from Babylon . . 536 
 Death of Judas Maccabeus . . .161 
 United to the Roman Empire . . . 63 
 
 CHUNAR, TREATY of, concluded between the nabob of Oude, and governor Hastings, 
 by which the nabob was relieved of all his debts to the East India Company, on 
 condition of his seizing the property of the Begums, his mother and grandmother, 
 and delivering it up to the English : this treaty also enabled the nabob to take 
 possession of the lands of Fyzoolla Khan, a Rohilla chief, who had escaped from a 
 recent massacre, and had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English. On 
 this occasion the nabob made a present to Mr. Hastings of 100,000?., Sept. 19, 1781. 
 See Hastings, Warren, Trial of. 
 
 CHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first century, 
 and some will have it that one was built in England, a.d. 60. See Glastonbury. In 
 the small island of Whitehorne, in Scotland, are the remains of an ancient church, 
 which was the first place of Christian worship, it is believed in that country, and 
 supposed to have been built before the cathedral at Whitehorne, in Wigtonshire, 
 where Ninian was bishop in the fourth century. The Christians originally preached 
 in woods and caves, by candle-light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. 
 Most of the early churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in 
 London, in 608 ; and a church of stone was built at Bangor in Ireland, by St. Malachy, 
 who was prelate in 1134. — Gordon's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial 
 fortresses. Churchyards were permitted in cities in 742. 
 
 CHURCH of ENGLAND. Commenced with the Reformation, and was formally 
 established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. The church consists of two arch- 
 
 * Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the 
 Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered tlie 
 doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in the burning pile. This 
 was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a.d. 303. 
 
CHU 156 CIN 
 
 bishops and twenty five bishops, exclusively of that of Sodor and Man. The other 
 dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, 
 prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest vicars ; these and the incumbents of 
 rectories, vicarages, and chapelries, make the number of preferments of the Established 
 Church, according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for 
 Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818, and 14.077 in 1851. The act for 
 building and enlarging churches was passed 9 Geo. IV. 1828. The Church-building 
 Amendment act passed 2 Vict. August, 1838. — 200 new churches were erected in the 
 diocese of London in the episcopate of bishop C. J. Blomfield, 1828-1856. 
 
 CHURCH of IRELAND. Called, in conection with that of England, the United Church 
 of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Temporalities act of William IV. 
 in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which 
 ten have since ceased ; that act providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition 
 of certain sees, accordingly as the possessors of them died. There are 1659 places 
 of Protestant worship, 2109 Roman Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
 houses of jDrayer. See Bishops of Ireland. 
 
 CHURCH of SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distin- 
 guishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attributed 
 to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It was approved by the 
 parliament, and ratified in 1567; was finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate 
 in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. 
 Previously to the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two arch- 
 bishoprics and twelve bishoprics, which were then dissolved ; but there were after- 
 wards established several bishoprics, called Post-Revolution bishoprics, of which 
 there are now seven, severally described in their places. The Church of Scotland is 
 regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the Synod, the Presbytery, and 
 Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. A large body seceded from this church in 1843, 
 and took the name of the Free Church of Scotland, which see. 
 
 CHURCH MUSIC. Introduced into the Christian Church by Gregory the Great, in 
 ad. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England at Canterbury, in 677. 
 Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. Church music was first 
 performed in English in 1559. See Choir ; Chaunting. 
 
 CHURCH-WARDENS Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first canon of 
 the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the 
 same body, and they continue now nearly as then constituted. — Johnson's Canons. 
 There are commonly two church-wardens to every parish, who direct and control 
 its affairs, summon the parishoners to meet, &c. 
 
 CHURCHING of WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, a.d. 214. 
 Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any signal deliverance, and 
 particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley. It was a Jewish law that a 
 woman should keep within her house forty days after her lying in, if she had a son, 
 and eighty if she had a daughter ; at the expiration whereof she was to go to the 
 Temple, and offer a lamb with a young pigeon or turtle, and in case of poverty, two 
 pigeons or turtles. See Purification. 
 
 CIDER. Zider, German. Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was 
 called wine, about a.d. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, 
 he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that country for a 
 delicious wine. It was made subject to the excise regulation of sale in 1763 et seq, 
 A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — Many orchards were planted 
 in Herefordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. to France. John 
 Philips published his poem "Cider" in 1706. 
 
 CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 B.C. They defeat the consul Marcus Silanus, 
 109 B.C. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of the Rhine, where 
 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 B.C. The Teutones are defeated by Marius in two 
 battles at Aquse Sextise (Aix), in Gaul, 200,000 are killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 
 102 B.C. The Cimbri are defeated by Marius and Catullus, as they were again 
 endeavouring to enter Italy; 120,000 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 B.C. 
 Their name afterwards sunk in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 
 
 CINCINNATI SOCIETY. A society established in America soon after the peace of 
 1783 ; it arose among the army, and was advancing rapidly, but owing to the jealousy 
 
CIN 157 cm 
 
 which it produced ou the part of the people, who had just accomplished their freedom, 
 and who dreaded the influence of an army, the officers gave up the society. — -?~ — «^ 
 
 CINNAMON" TRADE. The cinnamon tree is a species of laurel, and a native of Ceylon. 
 The trade was commenced by the Dutch in 1506 : but cinnamon had been known in 
 the time of Augustus Caesar, and even long before. It is mentioned among the 
 perfumes of the sanctuary, Exodus, xxx. 23 ; but it is imagined that the cinnamon 
 spoken of in Scripture was of a kind different from that we Lave in use. Cinnamon 
 was found in the American forests, by Don Ulloa, in 1736. The true tree of Ceylon 
 was cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica by transplantation in 1788. 
 
 CINQUE PORTS. They were originally five— Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and X 
 
 Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Their jurisdiction was -^ 
 
 vested in barons, called wardens, for the better security of the English coast, these Af 
 ports being the nearest points to France, and considered the keys of the kingdom ; 
 
 instituted by William I. in 1078. — Rapin. They are governed by a particular policy, ^ 
 
 and are under a lord warden ; the duke of Wellington was lord warden when he died ' 
 
 in 1852. He was succeeded by the earl now marquess of Dalhousie, who then held ** T 
 the office of governor-general of India, which he resigned in 1855. 
 
 CINTRA, CONVENTION of. The memorable and disgraceful convention concluded 
 
 between the British army under sir Hew Dalrymple, and the French under marshal \> ~* 
 Juuot. By this compact the defeated French army and its' chiefs were allowed to ^ „ 
 evacuate Portugal in British ships, carrying with them all their ill-gotten spoil; 
 signed the day after the battle of Vimeira, Aug. 22, 1808. A court of inquiry was ^\ 
 held at Chelsea, Nov. 17 same year, and the result was a formal declaration by the ^ 
 king strongly condemning the terms of the convention. 
 
 CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They continued j 
 unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated Timour ; but in the sixteenth century X 
 the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. ■ 
 About a.d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that'., 
 power. One branch of their traffic is the sale of their daughters, famed throughout 
 the world for their beauty, and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey ^V 
 and Persia; the merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are 
 generally Jews. — Klaproth's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. The Circassians, 
 under a native chief, named Schamyl, have carried on a war of independence with > \ 
 various success against the whole power of Russia for above twenty years (1857). 
 
 CIRCENSIAN GAMES. These were combats in the Roman circus, in honour of Consus, 
 
 the god of councils, instituted by Evander, and established at Rome 732 B.C. by (**v t 
 Romulus, at the rape of the Sabines. They were in imitation of the Olympian games 
 among the Greeks, and, by way of eminence, were called the great games, but Tarquiir- ** 
 called them the Circensian ; their celebration continued five days, beginning on the 
 15th Sept. — Virgil. 
 
 CIRCUITS in ENGLAND. They were divided into three, and three justices were 
 appointed to each, 22 Hen. II. 1176. They were afterwards divided into four, with 
 five justices to each division, 1180. — Rapin. The number and arrangement of circuits 
 have been frequently altered. — Camden. They are held twice or thrice a year in 
 each county for the readier distribution of justice, the judges being commissioned 
 each time by the king; and this is called going the circuit. There are monthly 
 sessions for the city of London and county of Middlesex. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened by 
 Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had little 
 encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. More success, however, ^ 
 attended similar institutions at Bath and in London, and in a short time they spread 
 throughout the kingdom. — Ferguson's Biog. No books can be taken from the British 
 Museum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal Society and the [ 
 principal scientific societies are circulating. There was a circulating library at Crane 
 court, London, in 1748, of which a catalogue in 2 vols, was published. The London I 
 (circulating) Library was founded in 1841, under the highest auspices, and is of great 
 value to literary men. Of the subscription libraries belonging to individuals, that of 
 Mr. C. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is the most extensive, several hundreds of the 
 newest works being always in circulation. It was founded in 1848, when the first C^ 
 two volumes of Macaulay's England were published. 
 
CIR 158 CIT 
 
 CIRCULATION of the BLOOD. See Blood. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 B.C. It was the seal of the covenant made by 
 God with Abraham. — Josephus. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, and is 
 still by the Copts and many of the Turks and Persians. — Bell. The Festival of the 
 Circumcision was originally called the Octave of Christmas. The first mention found 
 of it is in a.d. 487. It was instituted by the Church to commemorate the ceremony 
 under the Jewish law to which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; 
 it was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human enterprises 
 was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was first attempted, 
 a.d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this illustrious class of men ; 
 their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed to their names. See Navigators. 
 
 Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who i Cooke, an Englishman . . a.d. 1708 
 entered the Pacific ocean . . a.d. 1519 i Clipperton, British 171!» 
 
 Groalva, a Spanish navigator 
 
 Avalradi, a Spaniard 
 
 Mcndana, a Spaniard . 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first English 
 
 Cavendish, his first voyage 
 
 Tje Maire, a Dutchman . 
 
 Quiros, a Spaniard 
 
 Tasinan. Dutch . ' 
 
 Cowley, British .... 
 
 Dampicr, an Englishman 
 
 1537 Roggeweiu, Dutch 1721 
 
 1537 Anson (afterwards lord) . . . . 1740 
 
 1567 Byron (grandfather to lord Byron) . . 1704 
 
 ] 577 Wallis, British 1766 
 
 1586 Carteret, an Englishman . . . . 17(16 
 
 1015 Cook, the illustrious captain . . . 1708 
 
 1025 On the death of captain Cook his last 
 
 1042 voyage was continued by King . . 1779 
 
 1683 Bougainville, French .... 1776 
 
 1689 Portlocke, British 1788 
 
 Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, by the Russians, 
 who are honourably distinguished for this species of enterprise. The early navigators, 
 equally illustrious, such as sir Hugh Willoughby, sir Martin Frobisher, captain Davis 
 &c, are named elsewhere. See North West Passage. 
 
 CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest 
 of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. 
 it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia and a half, or more than three 
 English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman feet. It was enlarged by Caesar so as to 
 seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius Caesar introduced in it 
 large canals of water, which on a sudden could be covered with an infinite number of 
 vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — Pliny. See Amphitheatres. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June, 1797. It was acknowledged 
 by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio (which 
 see), Oct. 17 following. Received a new constitution in Sept. 1798. It merged into 
 the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805; Napoleon was crowned king in May following, 
 and was represented by his viceroy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 
 
 CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Citeaux, in France. 
 (1092. — Henault. 1098. — Ashe.) From the founder it was called the order of Citeaux, 
 in the eleventh century. It became so powerful that it governed almost all Europe 
 in spiritual and temporal concerns. The monks observed silence, abstained from 
 flesh, lay on straw, and wore neither shoes nor shirts. — Be Vitri. 
 
 CITATE, BATTLE of. The Russian general Gortschakoff, intending to storm Kalafat, 
 threw up redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks 
 under Omar Pacha, Jan. 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, 
 when the Russians were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, 
 having lost 1500 killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks was estimated at 
 338 killed and 700 wounded. 
 
 CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at which 
 time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland is still called 
 Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the twelfth century. 
 Cities were first incorporated a.d. 1079. Towns corporate were called cities when 
 the seat of a bishop's see and having a cathedral church. — Camden. 
 
 CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Liry. In England a 
 
 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's 
 or Magelhaen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a Westerly course 
 he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was completed in three years 
 and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 1621. 
 — Butler. 
 
cm 
 
 159 
 
 CLA 
 
 citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth cany on a trade therein. 
 
 Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
 reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citizens of London (not being 
 aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear minever caps, 
 being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or four 
 inches beyond their foreheads; aldermen's wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
 — Stotve. Citizen was the only title allowed in France at the revolution, 1792. 
 
 CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortress of Spain, invested by the French, June 11, 1810 ; 
 and surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained in their possession until it 
 was gallantly stormed by the British, commanded by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. The 
 loss of the British and Portuguese amounted to about 1000 killed and wounded; that 
 of the garrison was the same, besides 1700 prisoners. — Napier. 
 
 CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body of Roman 
 laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first collected by Alfrenus 
 Varus, the civilian, who flourished about 66 B.C. ; and a digest of them was made by 
 Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, 53 B.C. The Gregorian laws were compiled a.d. 290 ; 
 the Theodosian in 435; and the Justinian, 529 — 534. Many of the former laws 
 having grown out of use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was 
 called the Justinian code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil 
 law. Civil law was restored in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. — Blair. Civil law was 
 introduced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only, and in 
 maritime affairs. See Doctors' Commons, and Laws. 
 
 CIVIL LIST. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England, partly 
 in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not 
 more than 600,000Z. and that of Charles I. was but 800,0002. After the Revolution a 
 civil list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,0002., the parliament 
 taking into his own hands the support of the forces both maritime and military. 
 The civil list of George II. was increased to 800,0002; and that of George III. in the 
 55th year of his reign, was 1,030,0002. By the act 1 Will. IV. 1831, the civil list of 
 that sovereign was fixed at 510,0002. By the act of 1 Vict. Dec. 1837, the civil list of 
 the queen was fixed at 385,0002 ; and prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from 
 parliament of 30,0002. per an., 4 Vict. c. 1 & 2, Feb. 7, 1840. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons are employed in this service under the 
 direction of the Treasury, and the Home, Foreign, Colonial, Post, and Revenue, 
 offices, &c. In 1855 a commission reported most unfavourably on the existing 
 system of appointments, and on May 21, commissioners were appointed to examine 
 into the qualifications of the candidates. 
 
 CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same name, and 
 originated in feudal times. See Feudal Laws. They are said to have arisen in 
 Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. Clanships and other remains of 
 heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotlaad (where clans were taken to be the 
 tenants of one lord), and the liberty of the English was granted to clansmen, 20 
 Geo. II. 1746. — Ruffhead. The following is a curious and rare list of all the known 
 clans of Scotland, with the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
 
 Name. 
 Buchanan 
 Cameron . 
 Campbell 
 Chisholm . 
 Colquhoun . 
 Cumming . 
 Brummoad . 
 Farquh arson 
 Ferguson 
 Forbes 
 Fraser . 
 Gordon 
 Graham 
 Grant 
 Gun 
 Lauiont 
 M'Allister 
 M 'Donald . 
 M'Donnell 
 M'JJougall 
 
 Badge. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Badge. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 M'Farlane 
 
 . Cloud-berry bush. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 M'Gregor . 
 
 . . Pine. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 M'Intosh 
 
 . Box-wood. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 M'Kay . 
 
 . Bull-rush. 
 
 Hazel. 
 
 M'Kenzie . 
 
 . . Deer-grass. 
 
 Common Sallow. 
 
 M'Kinnon 
 
 . St. John's wort. 
 
 Holly. 
 
 M'Lachlan 
 
 . . Mountain-ash. 
 
 Purple Foxglove. 
 
 M'Lean . 
 
 . Blackberry-heath. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 M'Leod 
 
 . . Red Whortle-berries. 
 
 Broom. 
 
 M'Nab . 
 
 . Rose Blackberries. 
 
 Tew. 
 
 M'Neil 
 
 . . Sea-ware. 
 
 Ivy. 
 
 M'Phei-son . 
 
 . Variegated Box-wood 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 M'Quarrie 
 
 . . Blackthorn. 
 
 Cranberry heath. 
 
 M'Rae . 
 
 . Fir-club Moss. 
 
 Bosewort. 
 
 Munro 
 
 . . Eagles' feathers. 
 
 Crab-apple tree. 
 
 Menzies . 
 
 . Ash. 
 
 Five-leaved heath. 
 
 Murray 
 
 . . Juniper. 
 
 Bell heath. 
 
 Ogilvie . 
 
 . Hawthorn. 
 
 Mountain heath. 
 
 Oliphant . 
 
 . . Great Maple. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Robertson 
 
 . Fern, or Brechaus. 
 
CLA 
 
 
 160 
 
 CLA 
 
 CLANSHIPS, continued. 
 
 Name. 
 Rose .... 
 Ross 
 Sinclair 
 
 Badge. 
 . Briar-rose. 
 . Bear-berries. 
 . Clover. 
 
 
 Name. 
 Stewart 
 Sutherland 
 
 Bud/jC. 
 
 . Thistle. 
 . . Cat's-tail-grass. 
 
 The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in 
 his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — Chambers. 
 
 CLARE, England. This town, in Suffolk, is famous for the great men who have borne 
 the title of earl and duke of it. Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have 
 seated here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this kind of 
 mendicants who came to England, 1248. — Tanner. Lionel, third son of Edward III. 
 becoming possessed of the honour of Clare, by marriage, was created duke of 
 Clarence. The title has ever since belonged to a branch of the royal family. 
 
 CLARE, Ireland. The first place in Ireland for 140 years that elected a Roman Catho- 
 lic member of parliament. This it did previously to the passing of the Roman 
 Catholic Relief bill, in 1829, and in despite of then existing laws of the realm. See 
 Roman Catholics. The memorable election was held at Ennis, the county town, and 
 terminated in the return of Mr. Daniel O'Connell, July 5, 1828. 
 
 CLARE, NUNS of ST. A sisterhood founded in Italy about a.d. 1212. This order 
 settled in England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, about 1293. Blanche 
 queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I. founded 
 the abbey for those nuns on the east side of the street leading from the Tower to 
 Aldgate ; they were called Minoresses (hence Minories) ; and the order continued till 
 the suppression, when the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, 
 31 Hen. VIII. 1539.— Tanner. 
 
 CLAREMONT. The residence of the late princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince 
 regent, afterwards George IV.), and the scene of her death, Nov. 6, 1817. The house 
 was originally built by sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat of, successively, the earl 
 of Clare, afterwards duke of Newcastle, of lord Clive, lord Galloway, and the earl 
 of Tyrconnel. It was purchased of Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000Z. for the prince 
 and princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, now king of Belgium, assigned it to 
 prince Albert in 1840. The exiled royal family of Fiance took up their residence at 
 Claremont, March 4, 1848 ; and the king, Louis-Philippe, died at Claremont, Aug. 29, 
 1850. See France. 
 
 CLARENCIEUX. The second king at arms here with us, so called because formerly 
 he belonged to the duke of Clai - ence ; his office was instituted to marshal and dispose 
 of the funerals of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, and gentlemen , 
 on the south side of Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy or south-roy. 
 
 CLARENDON, STATUTES of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament held at 
 Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the 
 clergy. Ihey are rendered memorable as being the ground of Becket's quarrel 
 with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up under the title of the 
 statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted without opposition, a.d. 1164. 
 — Warner's Eccl. Hist. The enactments were sixteen in number, viz : — 
 
 I. That all s\iits concerning advowsons 
 should be determined in civil courts. 
 
 II. That the clergy accused of any crime 
 should be tried by civil judges. 
 
 III. That no person of any rank whatever 
 should be permitted to leave the realm with- 
 out the royal licence. 
 
 IV. That laics should not be accused in 
 spiritual courts, except by legal and reputable 
 promoters and witnesses. 
 
 V. That no chief tenant of the crown should 
 be excommunicated, or his lands put under 
 interdict. 
 
 VI. That the revenues of vacant sees should 
 belong to the king. 
 
 VII. That goods forfeited to the crown 
 should not be protected in churches. 
 
 VIII. That the sons of villains should not 
 be ordained clerks without the consent of 
 their lord. 
 
 IX. That bishops should be regarded as 
 
 barons, and be subjected to the burthens 
 belonging to that rank. 
 
 X. That the churches belonging to the 
 king's see should not be granted in perpetuity 
 against his will. 
 
 XI. That excommunicated persons should 
 not be bound to give security for continuing 
 in their abode. 
 
 XII. That no inhabitant in demesne should 
 be excommunicated for non-appearance in a 
 spiritual court. 
 
 XIII. That if any tenant in capite should 
 refuse submission to spiritual courts, the case 
 should be referred to the king. 
 
 XIV. That the clergy should no longer pre- 
 tend to the right of enforcing debts contracted 
 by oath or promise. 
 
 XV. That causes between laymen and 
 ecclesiastics should be determined by a jury. 
 
 XVI. That appeals should be ultimutcly 
 carried to the king, and no further without 
 his consent. 
 
CLA 161 CLE 
 
 These stringent statutes were enacted to prevent the chief abuses which at that time 
 prevailed in ecclesiastical affairs, and put a stop to Church usurpations, which 
 gradually stealing on, threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. 
 
 CLARION". This instrument originated, it is said by Spanish writers, with the Moors 
 in Spain, about a.d. 800. The clarion was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to 
 trumpets sounding tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower and its tone shriller 
 than the common trumpet. — Pardon. 
 
 CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius Servius (the sixth king of ancient 
 Ronie), in making divisions of the Roman people. The first of the six classes were 
 called classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be 
 called classics, 573 B.C. — Mortimer. Tullius Servius, too, was the first who introduced 
 coin or stamped money into Rome. — Idem. 
 
 CLAVICHORD. A musical instrument in the form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ; 
 it had 49 stops, and 70 strings, which bore upon five bridges, the first being the 
 highest, and the others diminishing in proportion. The chords were covered with 
 cloth, which rendered the sound sweeter, and deadened it so, that it could be heard 
 only at a small distance. It was much in use in the nunneries of Spain. This 
 instrument is of much older date than the harpsichord. — Pardon. 
 
 CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to the primitive father 
 Clemens Roman us, a contemporary of St. Paul ; some say he succeeded Peter as bishop 
 of Rome. He died a.d. 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of pope Clement V. who 
 died 1314, published by his successor. — Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of 
 whom having been a superior nine years, then merged into a common monk. 
 
 CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted for 
 several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of Pope Urban VI., the others 
 those of Robert, son of the Count of Geneva, who took the title of Clement VII. 
 All the kingdoms of Christendom, according to their various, interests and inclina- 
 tions, were divided between these two pontiffs ; the court of France, Castile, Scotland, 
 &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and England declaring for Urban. This 
 contention was consequent upon the death of Gregory XL 1378. — Hume. 
 
 CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of presbyters 
 or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher functions, and the 
 presbyters represented the inferior priests or the Levites. This distinction was still 
 further promoted in the third century ; and, under Constantine, the clergy attained 
 the recognition and protection of the secular power. 
 
 CLERGY in ENGLAND. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh cen- 
 tury, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was forbidden 
 among the clergy by a law, so early as 747, a.d. The first-fruits of the then clergy 
 were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The clergy were excluded from 
 parliament in 1536. The conference between the Protestant and Dissenting clergy 
 was held in 1604. See Conference. Two thousand resigned their benefices in the 
 Church of England, rather than subscribe their assent to the book of Common 
 Prayer, including the Thirty-nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of 
 Uniformity, 1661-2. The Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, 
 from which they had been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under James 
 II., 1689. The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 
 
 CLERGY, BENEFIT op. Privilegium Clericale. The privilege arose in the pious 
 regard paid by Christian princes to the Church in its infant state, and consisted of — 
 1st, an exemption of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests, 
 which was the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the persons of clergymen 
 from criminal process before the secular judge, in particular cases, which was the 
 original meaning of the privilegium clericale. In the course of time, however, the 
 benefit of clergy extended to every one who could read, for such was the ignorance of 
 those periods, that to was thought a great proof of learning; and it was enacted, 
 that from the scarcity of clergy in the realm of England, there should be a pre- 
 rogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man who could read were to be con- 
 demned to death, the bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as a clerk, 
 and dispose of him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet; but if the 
 bishop would not demand him, or if the prisoner could not read, then he was to be 
 put to death, 3 Edw. I. 1274. — Benefit of clergy was abolished by stat. 8 Geo. IV. 1827. 
 
 M 
 
CLE 
 
 162 
 
 CLO 
 
 CLERGYMEN'S WIDOWS' and ORPHANS' CORPORATION. Established in England 
 1670, and incorporated 1678. William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was 
 the first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of deceased clergy. — Wattes 
 Life of A ssheton. The festival of the " Sons of the Clergy " is held annually at St. Paul's 
 cathedral : the charity called the " Sons of the Clergy " was incorporated in 1678. 
 
 CLERK. The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the 
 Norman custom from the sacred order; and the officers being clergy : this gave 
 them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Btackstone's Comm. " As the 
 Druids," says Pasquier, " kept the keys of their religion and of letters, so did the 
 priests keep both these to themselves ; they alone made profession of letters, and 
 a man of letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by the name of clerk- 
 ship." This is still the appellation of clergymen ; and the clergymen of our Church 
 distinguish themselves by adding "clerk" to their name. — Pardon. In 992, the 
 distinction obtained in France. — Henault. 
 
 CLERKENWELL, a parish near London, so called from a well (fons clericorum) in 
 Ray-street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted mystery-plays; once before 
 Richard II. in 1391. Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in Spa-fields, in 
 this parish. In St. John's parish are the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
 John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted 
 prison called the Cage, which was taken down in 1614; it was erected, the then 
 Bridewell having been found insufficient. The prison called the House of Detention, 
 erected in 1775, was rebuilt in 1818; again, 1844. At CI erken well-close formerly 
 stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles 
 I. was signed, Jan. 1649. 
 
 CLERMONT, COUNCIL of. The celebrated council in which the first crusade against 
 the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to command 
 it, in the pontificate of Urban II. 1095. In this council the name of pope was first 
 given to the head of the Roman Catholic Church, exclusively of the bishops, who 
 used until this time to assume that title. Philip I. of France was (a second time) 
 excommunicated by this assembly. — Henault. 
 
 CLIMACTERIC. The term applied by the ancient astrologers and physicians to certain 
 periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), in which they affirmed several 
 notable alterations in the health and constitution of a person happened, and exposed 
 him to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, " every 7th or 9th or 63rd year of a man's 
 life, all very dangerous, but the last most." Hippocrates is said to have first noticed 
 these alterations in human life, 383 B.C. Much misemployed erudition has been 
 expended on this subject. 
 
 CLIO. The initials, C. L. I. 0., forming the name of the muse of history, were rendered 
 famous from the most admired papers of Addison, in the Spectator, having been 
 marked by one or other of them, signed consecutively, in the beginning of the 18th 
 century. — Cibber. These initials were afterwards adopted by other eminent writers. 
 
 CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 B.C. by 
 Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. 
 Said to have been found by Cassar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock 
 supposed to be then in the world was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, 
 a.d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, invented one in the ninth century. 
 Originally the wheels were three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of 
 which there is any certain record, was made by a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. 
 
 The scapement ascribed to Gerbert a.d. 1000 
 A great clock put up at Canterbury 
 
 Cathedral, cost £30 . . . . 1292 
 
 A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of 
 
 St. Alban's, about .... 1326 
 A striking clock in Westminster . . 13CS 
 A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . 1370 
 The first portable one made . 
 In England no clock went accurately 
 
 before that set up at Hampton-court 
 
 (maker's initials, N. O.) . 
 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in 
 
 1530 
 
 1540 
 
 the church of St. Paul's, Covent-Gar- 
 den) and the younger Galileo con- 
 structed the pendulum . . a.d. 1641 
 
 Christian Huygens contested this disco- 
 very, and made his pendulum clock 
 some time previously to . . . . 1658 
 
 Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the 
 pendulum about 1659 
 
 Repeating clocks and watches invented 
 by Barlow, about 1676 
 
 The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 
 ments, by Graham, about . . . 1700 
 
 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and the 
 duplex Bcapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached 
 
CLO 163 CLU 
 
 scapernent, invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, Arnold, Earnshaw 
 and otbers. Clocks and watches were taxed, 1797 ; tbe tax was repealed, 1798. 
 
 CLOCK, the ELECTRIC, Strand, London. See Electric Clock and Ball. 
 
 CLOGHER, BISHOPRIC of. Founded by St. Macartiu, an early disciple of St. Patrick : 
 be fixed tbe see at Clogber, wbere he also built an abbey " in the street before tbe 
 royal seat of the kings of Ergal." Clogber takes its name from a golden stone, from 
 ■which, in times of paganism, the devil used to pronounce juggling answers, like the 
 oracles of Apollo Pythius, as is said in the register of Clogber. — Sir James Ware. 
 Eleven saints have held this see ; the first was St. Macartiu, who died in a.d. 506. 
 In 1041, the cathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its founder. Clogher 
 merged on the death of its late prelate (Dr. Tottenham) into the archiepiscopal see 
 of Armagh, by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 90, 1834. See Bishops of Ireland. 
 
 CLONFERT, SEE op. St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558 ; his life is 
 extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at Westminster. In his 
 time the cathedral, famous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected : and 
 Colgan makes St. Brendan tbe founder of it, and tbe first bishop; but in tbe 
 Ulster Annals, under the year 571, the death of the first prelate of this see is thus 
 remarked: " Moena, bishop of Clonfert-Brenain, went to r.est." Clonfert, in Irish, 
 signifies a wonderful den or retirement. Three saints have been bishops of Clonfert. 
 The see merged, in 1839, into that of Killaloe. See Bishops. 
 
 CLONTARF, BATTLE of. One of proud record in the annals of Ireland, fought 
 between the Irish and Danes, the former beaded by Bryan Boroimhe, monarch of 
 Ireland, who signally defeated the invaders after a long and bloody engagement. 
 The monarch was wounded (and soon afterwards died), and his son Murchard fell 
 with many of the nobility ; but 11,000 of the Danes perished in tbe battle ; fought on 
 Good Friday, 1039. — Bum's Annals. 
 
 CLOSTERSEVEN, CONVENTION of. Entered into between the duke of Cumberland, 
 third son of George II., and the duke of Richelieu, commander of the French armies. 
 By the stipulations of this humiliating treaty, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their 
 arms and were dispersed; signed Sept. 10, 1757. The duke immediately afterwards 
 resigned all his military commands. — Goldsmith. 
 
 CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
 woollens were introduced into England, a.d. 1191 ; and seventy families of cloth- 
 workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward III.'s invitation, and 
 tbe art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer's Feedera. Woollens were 
 first made at Kendal in 1390. Medleys were manufactured, 1614. Our fine broad 
 cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by 
 one Brewer, from the Low Countries, 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in 
 Ireland, and that of linen countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 
 1698. See Woollen Cloth. 
 
 CLOVIS, FAMILY of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French monarchy 
 was Clovis I. who commenced bis reign a.d. 481, and was a warlike prince. ' He 
 expelled the Romans, embraced tbe Christian religion, and published the Salique 
 law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, he exclaimed, " Oh, had 1 
 been there with my valiant Gauls, bow I would have avenged him ! " Clovis united 
 his conquests from the Romans, Germans, and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty 
 dominions of France ; removed the seat of government from Soissons to Paris, and 
 made this the capital of bis new kingdom ; he died in 511. — Henault. 
 
 CLOYNE, SEE of.* Founded in the sixth century by St. Coleman. In' 1431 this 
 bishopric was united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It is not 
 taxed in the king's books ; but in a manuscript in Marsh's library, Dublin, it is men- 
 tioned as having been valued, anno 33 Eliz. at 101. 10s. sterling; and in another 
 manuscript in the college library, at 161. sterling. It was united with that of Cork 
 and Ross by the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 90, Aug. 15, 1834. See Bishops of Ireland. 
 
 CLUNY, ABBEY of, in France, formerly one of the most magnificent and spacious 
 religious institutions in the world. It was founded by Benedictines, under the abbot 
 
 * The exemplary bishop Berkeley, to whom Pope ascribed "every virtue under heaven," was 
 bishop of this see, in 1734. He died in 1753, expiring without a groan or a sigh in the midst of his 
 family, just as he had concluded a commentary on that beautiful and consoling portion of Holy Writ, 
 the 15th chapter of the first of Corinthians. The amiable and enlightened Dr. Brinkxey, royal 
 astronomer of Ireland, was also bishop of Cloyne in 1S26 : died in September, 1835. 
 
 M 2 
 
CLY 
 
 164 
 
 COA 
 
 Bern, about a.d. 910, and was sustained afterwards by tbe munificence of William, duke 
 of Berry and Aquitaine ; but its greatness has now passed away. In England numerous 
 foundations for Clunaic monks were among the earliest monastic institutions. 
 
 CLYDE CANAL. The navigation of the Forth and Clyde canal was commenced by 
 Mr. Smeaton, July 10, 1768; and was opened July 28, 1790. It forms a communi- 
 cation between the eastern and western seas on the coasts of Scotland. 
 
 COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a contemporaiy 
 with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which belonged to the 
 queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but 
 three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. The 
 first courtier who set up this equipage was John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who 
 could not travel otherwise, on account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use 
 of coaches, the kings of France travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in 
 litters, and ladies rode behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in 
 the reign of Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. 
 —Andrews's Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz-Allen, earl of Arundel, 
 in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making them. — Anderson's 
 Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of 
 men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach-tax com- 
 menced in 1747. See Car, Carriages, Chariots, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 COAL. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned by 
 the Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. 
 Coal was first discovered at Newcnstle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, and 
 others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near London, as 
 being " prejudicial to human health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 
 1273. — Stoue. Coal was first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 
 4 Rich. II. 1381. — Rymer's Fender a. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints 
 against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in London in 
 1400 ; but it was not in common use in England until the reign of Charles I., 1625. 
 
 COAL CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS: — 
 
 1700 
 
 . 317,000 chald. 
 
 1 1S10 . 
 
 . 980,372 chald. 
 
 1 1835 . 
 
 . 2,299,816 tons. 
 
 1750 . 
 
 . . 510.000 ditto. 
 
 1820 
 
 . . 1,171,178 ditto. 
 
 1840 
 
 . 2,638,256 ditto. 
 
 1800 
 
 . 814,000 ditto. 
 
 | 1830 . 
 
 . 1,5S8,360 ditto. 
 
 | 1S50 . 
 
 . 3,638,883 ditto. 
 
 The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in extent ; 
 those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are also of vast 
 magnitude : and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. The coal in South 
 Wales alone would, at the present rate of consumption, supply all England for 
 2000 years. — Balcewell. It is supposed that there are now about 65 millions of tons 
 extracted, and about 25 millions consumed annually in Great Britain. Mr. Sopwith 
 computes the annual product of the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland at 
 14 million tons : — 6 millions for London, 2\ millions exported; 2^ millions for coke, 
 1 million for colliery engines, &c. ; and 2 millions for local consumption. Scotland 
 teems with mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries, there must be vast fields 
 unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kilkenny, Ireland. The first ship 
 laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from Newry in 1742. — Burns. The con- 
 sumption of coal in France, which in 1780 was only 400,000 tons, had risen in 1845 
 to 6,000,000 tons. In 1855 the United States produced between 8 and 9 millions of 
 tons ; Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 4,500,000. It has been estimated that about 
 1000 lives are lost annually in coal mines by accident. 
 
 COALITIONS against FRANCE. The great coalitions against France, since the period 
 of the French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out of 
 the subsidising by England of the great powers of the Continent. They were entered 
 into as follows : — 
 
 1st. The king of Prussia issued his ma- 
 nifesto .... June 26, 1792 
 2nd. By Gre-> t Britain, Germany, Russia, 
 Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, 
 signed . . . June 22, 1799 
 3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
 
 and Naples . . . Aug. 5, 1S05 
 
 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, 
 
 and Saxony . . Oct. 6, 1806 
 
 5th. By England and Austria April 6, 1809 
 6th. By Russia and Prussia ; the treaty 
 
 ratified at Kalisch March 17, 1813 
 See Treaties. 
 
 * In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever 
 since the Gunpowder plot, obtained his liberation. Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with 
 
COA 165 COC 
 
 " COALITION " MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated ministry of 
 Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an extraordinary 
 union in political life on account of the strong personal dislike which had always 
 been displayed by these personages, each towards the other. The ministry was 
 formed April 5, 1783; dissolved December 19, same year. It consisted of the duke 
 of Portland, first lord of the treasury ; viscount Stormont, president of the council ; 
 earl of Carlisle, privy seal ; Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home and 
 foreign secretaries ; lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer ; viscount 
 Keppel, admiralty ; viscount Townshend, ordnance ; lord Loughborough, chief com- 
 missioner of the great seal ; rt. hon. Charles Townshend, rt. hon. Edmund Burke, 
 rt. hon. Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. This name has been recently applied to the 
 Aberdeen administration, ivhich see. 
 
 COAST GUARD. In 1855 the raising and governing this body was transferred to the 
 admiralty. 
 
 COBALT, a marcasite fossil, was found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of 
 stone, at an early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it mundic. 
 — Hill. It was distinguished in its present character as a metal by Brandt, in 1733 ; 
 and subsequently by others. It is found in quantity in Saxony. 
 
 COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen ; they held, amongst other 
 singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general con- 
 version of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 1665. The followers 
 of Cocceius were at no time very considerable. 
 
 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its colour from feeding on 
 the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 
 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not known in Italy in 
 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. See Dyeing. The annual 
 import of this article into England was 260,000 lb. in 1830; 1,081,776 lb. in 1845; 
 2,360,000 lb. in 1850. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. It was 
 instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 B.C. ; and was introduced 
 by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II. 
 describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove-Tuesday. Cock-fighting 
 was prohibited, 39 Edw. III. 1365 ; and again by Henry VIII. and also by Cromwell, 
 1653. Part of the site of Drury-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; 
 and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected for this cruel sport by Charles II. Till 
 within these few years there was a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's Park ; but as the 
 ground belonged to Christ's Hospital, that body would not renew the lease for a 
 building devoted to cruelty.* But this practice is happily now discouraged by the law. 
 See article Animals. 
 
 COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition practised upon the credulous multitude 
 by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance was that of a female 
 ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she was a ghost : the deception, which 
 arose in a malignant conspiracy, was carried on for some time at the house No. 33, 
 Cock-lane, London : but it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned 
 to the pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 
 
 COCOA, or CACAO (Theobroma cacao, Linn.). The kernel or seed of this tree was 
 introduced into this country shortly after the discovery of America, where it forms 
 an important article of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate, extensively made in 
 these realms. The cocoa imported into the united kingdom, chiefly from the British 
 West Indies and Guiana, was, in the year ending Jan. 5, 1850, 1,989,477 lb. The 
 import increased to 4,349,051 lb. in the year ending Jan. 5, 1852. 
 
 COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.). The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with 
 almost whatever they stand in need of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, 
 
 six horses in his coach (being the first that was so), the earl put on eight to his, and in that manner 
 passed from the Tower through the city. — Rapin. 
 
 * Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great hospitality, and who was almost um-iyalled 
 in the splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon winch he had won many- profitable 
 matches. The last wager he laid upon this cock he lost; which so euraged him, that in a fit of 
 passion he thrust the bird into the fire. A delirious fever was the result of his rage and inebriety, 
 which in three days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, near London, April 4, 1789 
 — Butler. 
 
COD 166 COH 
 
 oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts 
 for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 
 CODES of LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 B.C.; those of Lycur- 
 gus, 884 B.C.; of Draco, 623 B.C.; of Solon, 587 B.C. Alfrenus "Varus, the civilian, 
 first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C.; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, 
 embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Herrnoginian codes were published 
 a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 435 ; the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, 
 in 529— a digest from this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is 
 the foundation of the common law of England, 887. See Laws. 
 
 CCEUR de LION or THE LION-HEARTED. The surname given to Richard Plauta- 
 genet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a.d. 1192. This 
 surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the 
 crusades and iu his wars against England, about 1223. This latter prince had also 
 the appellation of the Lion given him. 
 
 COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a beverage 
 is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia Felix about a.d. 
 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, in 1511, to Constantinople, 
 where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. Thevenot, the traveller, was the first 
 who brought it into France, to which country he returned after an absence of seven 
 years, in 1662.— Chambers. Coffee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
 Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol college, Oxford, in 
 1641. — Anderson. The quantity of coffee imported into these realms and entered for 
 home-consumption in the year ending 5 Jan. 1854, was 37,091,814 lb. 
 
 COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew named Jacobs, in Oxford, 
 1650. In that year Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought home with 
 him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first house for making coffee in 
 London, which he opened in George-yard, Lombard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards 
 went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country — Anderson. The Rainbow 
 coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighbourhood, 
 1657. Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Car. II. 1675. The pro- 
 clamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea and coffee. 
 
 COFFEE-TREE. The coffee-tree was conveyed from Mocha to Holland about the year 
 1616; and was carried to the West Indies iu the year 1726. First cultivated at 
 Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 
 1732, and the British and French colonies now grow the coffee-tree abundantly. Some 
 affirm this tree to have been originally a native of Arabia-Felix, and certain it is, that 
 the finest specimens are from the neighbourhood of Mocha. 
 
 COFFERER of the HOUSEHOLD. Formerly an officer of state, usually of political 
 rank, and always a member of the privy council : he had special charge of the other 
 officers of the household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. Some 
 of the highest statesmen filled the office up to 1782, when it was suppressed by act of 
 parliament, and the duties of it ordered to be discharged by the lord steward and the 
 paymaster of the household. — Beatson. 
 
 COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar-tree; owing to its 
 aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were 
 used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and 
 glass coffins have been found in England. — Oouqh. The earliest record of wooden 
 coffins amongst us is that of the burial of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire 
 trunk of oak, hollowed, a.d. 542. — Asser. Stone coffins are mentioned in almost 
 every age. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 
 
 COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 600 men. It was the sixth 
 part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fluctuation as 
 that of the legions, being sometimes more and sometimes less. The cohort was divided 
 into centuries. In the time of the empire, the cohort often amounted to a thousand 
 men. In the 4th century mention is made of an Italian cohort, probably so called 
 because most of the soldiers belonging to it were Italians : of this cohort was the 
 celebrated centurion Cornelius. 
 
 * Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being informed 
 by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then wake at 
 night, and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He accordingly tried 
 it on his monks to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he found that it checked their slumbers. 
 
COI 
 
 167 
 
 COI 
 
 COIF. The serjeaut's coif was originally an iron skull-cap, worn by knights under their 
 helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of 
 such renegado clergymen as chose to remain as advocates in the secular courts, 
 notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. — Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin 
 linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being 
 afterwards changed into white silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at 
 the top of the forensic wig, which is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
 serjeant-at-law. — Foss's Lives of the Judges. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is 
 ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money was of gold and 
 silver. Both were coined by Phidon, tyrant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at 
 Rome under Serviu3 Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known coins are Mace- 
 donian, of the fifth century B.C. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass 
 money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined 
 silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and 
 silver were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in 
 Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. — Dufrcsnoy. Julius Caesar was the first who 
 obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and 
 the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more simple days of Rome, the 
 likeness of no living personage appeared upon their money ; the heads were those of 
 their deities, or of those who had received divine honours. 
 
 COIN op ENGLAND. The first coinage in England was under the Romans at Camu- 
 lodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and 
 round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Groats were the 
 largest silver currency until after a.d. 1531. Coin was made sterling in 1216, before 
 which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was found only in the coffers 
 of the barons. — Stowe. 
 
 The first gold coins on certain record, 
 
 struck 42 Hen. III. . . . a.t>. 1257 
 Gold florin first struck, Edw.III.(Camdew) 1337 
 
 First struck (Ashe) 1344 
 
 Old sovereigns first minted . . . 1494 
 Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 
 Crowns and half crowns coined . . 1553 
 
 Irish shilling struck 1560 
 
 Milled shilling of Elizabeth . . . 1562 
 Fiist larare copper coinage, putting an 
 end to the circulation of private leaden 
 
 pieces, (fee 1620 
 
 Modem milling introduced . . . 1631 
 
 Halfpence and farthings coined . 
 By the government, 23 Car. II. 
 Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II. 
 Double guineas 
 
 Five guineas .... 
 Half guineas .... 
 Quarter guineas coined, 3 Geo. I. 
 Seven-shilling pieces coined . 
 Two-penny copper pieces . 
 Sovereigns, new coinage . . 
 Half farthings .... 
 Silver florin .... 
 
 1665 
 1672 
 1673 
 1673 
 1673 
 1673 
 1716 
 1797 
 1797 
 1816 
 1843 
 1849 
 
 Gold coin was introduced in six-shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles followed 
 at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee ; afterwards there were half 
 and quarter nobles. Edward IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and the dragon, 
 the original of George and the dragon. Henry VIII. coined sovereigns and half- 
 sovereigns of the modern value. Guineas were of the same size : but being made of 
 superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for more. See Guineas. English and 
 Irish money were assimilated, Jan. 1. 1826. See Gold. 
 
 MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 
 
 Elizabeth . . £5,S32,000 George I. . . £8,725,920 
 
 James I. . . . 2,500,000 George II. . .11,966,576 
 
 Charles I. . . 10,500,000 George III. and 
 
 Cromwell. . . 1,000,000 regency, gold .74,501,586 
 
 Charles II. . . 7,524,100 George IV. . .41,782,815 
 
 James II. . . . 3,740,000 William IV. . . 10,S27,603 
 
 William III. . . 10,511,900 Victoria,uptol848, 
 
 Aune . . . 2,691,626 | gold . . . 29,S86,457 
 
 Silver to same 
 
 year . . . £2,440,614 
 Copper, ditto . . 43,743 
 
 And in the five 
 
 years ending 
 
 1S52, gold, silver 
 
 and copper . 19,S3S,377 
 
 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was esti- 
 mated at sixteen millions in 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twenty millions 
 in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. — Phillips. The 
 gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen 
 millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin, 1830. — Duke of Wellington, 
 Prime Minister, in the House of Lords. In 1840 the metallic cui-rency was calculated 
 as reaching forty-five millions ; and in 1853 was estimated as approaching, in gold and 
 silver, sixty millions. The amount of gold and silver coin in the world is assumed 
 by the able writer of The Times money articles to be 400,000,000Z. sterling, of which 
 250,000,0002. are in silver and 150,000,000Z. are in gold.— Times, June 25, 1852. 
 
COI 168 COL 
 
 COINING. This operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between 
 two steel dies, struck by a hammer. In 1 553, a mill was invented by Antonie Brucher, 
 and introduced into England, 1562. An engine for coining was invented by Balancier, 
 in 1617. The great improvements of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at 
 Soho, 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the erection of the 
 present costly machinery at the Mint, London, commenced in 1811. 
 
 COLCHESTER, Camalodunum, supposed by some authors to be the birth-place of 
 Constantine the Great, and famous in history as a Roman station : it obtained its first 
 charter from Richai'd I. in 1189. Siege of Colchester in the civil war, when its six- 
 teen churches and all its buildings sustained great damage ; the siege continued for 
 ten weeks, 1648. The baize manufacture was established here, 1660. — Anderson. 
 
 COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same perceptions on 
 the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is 
 the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice was 
 built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportion of Augustan 
 architecture. — Qreig. Perhaps the coldest day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 
 1796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at 
 Moscow, Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. 
 
 COLDINGHAM, near BERWICK. The name of this town was rendered famous by the 
 heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of the Danes, in order to preserve themselves 
 inviolate, cut off their noses and lips, thereby becoming objects of horror to the 
 lustful invaders. The Danes, in revenge, burnt the whole sisterhood, with the abbess 
 Ebba, in their monastery, a.d. 886. — Stowe. 
 
 COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before marching from Scotland into England, 
 to restore Charles II., raised in the town of Coldstream that regiment of royal guards, 
 which is still distinguished by this honourable name, a.d. 1660. The town is situated 
 at the confluence of the Leet with the Tweed, which is crossed by a neat bridge which 
 unites the two kingdoms. 
 
 COLISEUM, or COLOSSEUM, at Rome. An amphitheatre of elliptical form, of which 
 the external diameter is 1641 Italian feet. It is supposed to have been able to con- 
 tain 80,000 spectators of the fights with wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. 
 It was erected between a.d. 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the emperors Vespasian and 
 Titus, at an expense sufficient to have built a metropolis. 
 
 COLLAR. Generally a gold enamelled chain with ciphers and other devices, having the 
 badge of some order suspended at the bottom. The collar of the order of the Garter 
 consistsof S. S., with roses enamelled red, within a garter enamelled blue, a.d. 1349-50. 
 The fashion of wearing the collar of S. S. in honour of St. Simplicius began about 1407. 
 One was given to the mayor of Dublin, Robert Deey, by Charles II., 1660. A second 
 was presented as a royal donation to the chief magistrate of Dublin, the former one 
 having been lost, 1697. — Annals of Dublin. 
 
 COLLATION. A light repast of fruits on fast-days, in lieu of more substantial food : 
 anciently even bread was not allowed in the collations in Lent, nor anything except 
 a few comfits and dried herbs and fruits, until a.d. 1513. — Lobineau. 
 
 COLLECTS. These are prayers in the Roman Mass, and also in the English Liturgy. 
 The first was appointed by pope Gelasius, a.d. 493. The king of England, coming into 
 Normandy, appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166. — Rapin. The 
 collects in our book of Common Prayer were introduced into it in 1548. 
 
 COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were muni- 
 ficent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of living at lodging-houses 
 and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at 
 the University of Paris, a.d. 1140; but some authorities say not before 1215. In 
 England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede 
 obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that 
 they were the first doctors of those universities. See Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 
 
 Birmingham, Queen'sCollege,foundedA.D.lS53 
 
 Cheshunt College 1702 
 
 Doctors' Commons, civil law . . . 1670 
 
 Dulwieh College 1619 
 
 Durham University 1S37 
 
 Edinburgh University . . . . 1580 
 
 Glasg-ow University . . . a.d. 1451 
 
 Gresham College 1581 
 
 Harrow 15S5 
 
 Haylevbury, or East India College . 18"0 
 
 U ighbury College 1826 
 
 Highgate 1564 
 
 Eton College 1441 ' King's College, Aberdeen .... 1494 
 
COL 
 
 169 
 
 COL 
 
 COLLEGES, continued. 
 
 King's College, London . 
 Maresohal College, Aberdeen 
 Maynooth College . 
 Military College, Sandhurst 
 Naval College, Portsmouth 
 Physicians, London . 
 Physicians, Dublin . 
 Physicians, Edinburgh 
 St. Andrew's, Scotland . 
 
 
 a.d. 1S29 
 
 
 . . 1593 
 
 
 . 1795 
 
 
 . . 1799 
 
 
 . 1722 
 
 
 . . 1523 
 
 
 . 1667 
 
 
 . . 1681 
 
 
 . 1410 
 
 Sion College, incorporated . . a.d. 1630 
 
 Surgeons, London 1745 
 
 Ditto re-incorporated ..... 1S00 
 
 Surgeons, Dublin 1786 
 
 Surgeons, Edinburgh (new) . . . 1803 
 Trinity College, Dublin .... 1591 
 
 University, London 1826 
 
 Winchester College 1387 
 
 See these Colleges severally. 
 
 COLLEGES in IRELAND. The new colleges in Ireland endowed by government " for 
 the advancement of learning in that kingdom," have been variously called the Govern- 
 ment Colleges, the Queen's Colleges, and, by a section of the Roman Catholics, the 
 " Godless Colleges." They were instituted by act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed July 31, 
 1845, and were designed to afford collegiate education of the highest order to the 
 youth of all religious denominations, and wholly irrespective of religious distinctions. 
 The seats of these colleges (three) were subsequently fixed at Belfast, Cork, and 
 Galway, where they have since been opened, the last on Oct. 30, 1849. The colleges, 
 whose liberal and beneficent purpose is to diffuse intellectual light among the people, 
 were "condemned" by the propaganda and the pope, and by a majority (a small one) 
 of the Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 1850. 
 
 COLOGNE. Became a member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
 from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into decay. 
 Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are 
 shown the heads of the three Magi; and in the Church of St. Ursula is the tomb of 
 that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 virgins said to have been put to death 
 along with her. Cologne was made over to Prussia in 1814. 
 
 COLOMBIA. A new republic of the western world, formed of states which declared 
 their independence of the crown of Spain, Dec. 1819, but its several chiefs afterwards 
 contending one against another, each state became a prey to civil war, and the stability 
 of the union is not, even now, assured. 
 
 New Grenada, founded by Columbus, 
 
 a.d. 1497 
 
 Venezuela discovered 1498 
 
 The Caraccas formed into a kingdom, 
 
 under a captain-general . . . 1547 
 The history of these provinces, under 
 
 the tyranny and oppression of the 
 
 Spaniards, presents but one continuous 
 
 scene of rapine and blood. 
 
 * * * 
 
 Confederation of Venezuela . . . 1810 
 Independence formally declared . . 1811 
 Defeat of General Miranda . . . . 1812 
 Bolivar defeated by Boves . . . 1816 
 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of 
 
 Sombrero Feb. 1S18 
 
 Union of the States of Grenada and 
 
 Venezuela .... Dec. 17, 1819 
 
 Battle of Carabobo, the royalists wholly 
 
 overthrown . . . June 24, 1S21 
 Bolivar is named dictator by the Con- 
 gress of Peru . . . Feb. 10, 1824 
 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 
 
 formed .... June 30, 1S24 
 Alliance with Guatemala . March, 1S25 
 Congress at Lima names Bolivar presi- 
 dent of the republic . . . Aug. 1826 
 Bolivar's return to Bogota . Nov. 1826 
 
 He assumes the dictatorship Nov. 23, 1 826 
 Padilla's insurrection . . A pi il 9, 1S28 
 Conspiracy of Santander against the life 
 
 of Bolivar. . . . Sept. 25, 1828 
 Bolivar resigns his office of president of 
 
 the republic .... April 11, 1S29 
 He dies .... Dec. 17, 1S30 
 Santander dies .... May 26, 1840 
 
 Great Britain has accredited envoys exti-aordinary and ministers plenipotentiary to 
 Colombia, Venezuela, New Grenada and Bolivia, since Feb. 28, 1826, when Mr. Cock- 
 burn was accredited to the first-named state. Sir Robert Ker Porter to Venezuela, 
 July 2, 1835; Mr. Turner to New Grenada, June 26, 1837; and Mr. Winton Wilson 
 to Bolivia, as charge d'affaires, Nov. 18, same year. See Bolivia, &c. 
 
 COLOMBO. Built a.d. 1638, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch, in 
 1666 ; and the latter surrendered it to the British, Feb. 15, 1796. The British troops 
 were murdered here in cold blood by the adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803. See Ceylon. 
 
 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern 
 times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 
 373 B.C. — Suidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have 
 been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first 
 used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. 
 
 COLONIES of GREAT BRITAIN. In the following table will be found enumerated 
 the several colonies belonging to the British empire, together with the date at which 
 each colony was captured, or ceded, or settled. The population of the British colonies 
 in all parts of the world was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672 (of which 176,028,672 
 
COL 
 
 170 
 
 COM 
 
 belong to the East Indies). The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British 
 colonies and, for compensation to the owners of slaves (20,000,000/. sterling), was 
 passed 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves through- 
 out the British colonies were emancipated on Aug. 1, 1831. 
 
 Colony, or Possession, 
 African Forts 
 Anguilla 
 Autigua 
 
 Australia, South 
 Australia, West. 
 Bahama Island 
 Barbadoes . 
 Bengal . 
 Berbice 
 Bermudas 
 Bombay 
 Canada, Lower 
 Canada, Upper 
 Cape Breton . 
 Cape Coast Castle 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Ceylon 
 
 Bate of Settlement, <Lx. 
 
 Settlement 
 Settlement 
 Settlement 
 Settlement 
 
 1666 
 1632 
 1834 
 
 1S29 
 
 Settlements 1629, et seq. 
 Settlement . . 1605 
 See India. 
 
 Capitulation,Sept. 1803 
 Settlements 1609, et seq. 
 See India. 
 
 Capitulation, Sept. 1759 
 Capitulation, Sept. 1760 
 Settlement in . . 1584 
 By cession . . 1672 
 Capitulation, Jan. 1806 
 Capitulation, Sept. 1795 
 
 Demerara &, Essequibo Capitulation, Sept. 1803 
 Dominica . . . Ceded by France. 1763 
 Falkland Islands. See Falkland Islands 1833 
 Gambia . . . Settlement in . 1631 
 Gibraltar . . . Capitulation, Aug. 1704 
 Gold Coast . . . Settlement . . * * 
 Goza . . . . Capitulation, Sept. 1800 
 Grenada . . . Ceded by France. 1763 
 Guiana, British . . Capitulation . . 1S03 
 Heligoland . . Capitulation . 1807 
 Honduras . . . By treaty, in . . 1670 
 Hong Kong(Victoria) Ceded in . . 1S42 
 
 Ionian Isles* 1815 
 
 Jamaica . . . Capitulation . 1665 
 
 Colony, or Possession : Bate of Settle;nent, <bc. 
 Labuan . . . . See Borneo . . 1846 
 Madras . . . See India. 
 Malacca (under Bengal). 
 
 Malta . 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 Montserrat 
 
 Natal 
 
 Nevis . 
 
 New Brunswick . 
 
 Newfoundland . 
 
 New South Wales . 
 
 Nova Scotia 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 Port Phillip 
 
 Capitulation, Sept. 1800 
 . Capitulation, Dec. 1810 
 . Settlement, in . 1632 
 . Settlemeat . . * * 
 . Settlement, in . 1628 
 . Settlement, in . 1622 
 . Settlement, about 1500 
 . Settlement, in . 17S7 
 . Settlement, in . 1622 
 . Settlement . . 1840 
 
 See Victoria. 
 
 Prince Edwd's. Island Capitulated, in 
 Prince of Wales' Island Settlement, in 
 
 1745 
 1786 
 17.S7 
 1819 
 1623 
 1600 
 
 Sierra Leone . 
 
 Singapore . 
 
 St. Christopher's 
 
 St. Helena . 
 
 St. Lucia 
 
 St. Vincent 
 
 Swan River . 
 
 Tobago 
 
 Tor tola . 
 
 Trinidad . 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 Vancouver's Island 
 
 Victoria (Port Phillip) Settlement, in 
 
 Victoria . . . See Hong Kong. 
 
 Virgin Isles 1666 
 
 . Settlement, in 
 . Purchased in 
 . Settlement, in 
 . Capitulated, in 
 . Capitulation, June 1803 
 . Ceded by France. 1763 
 . See West Australia. 
 . Ceded by France. 1763 
 . Settlement, in . 1666 
 Capitulation, Feb. 1797 
 Settlement, in . 1803 
 Settlement, in . 1848 
 1850 
 
 COLOSSEUM, REGENT'S PARK, LONDON". This building was planned by Mr. 
 Hornor, a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto and Grissell from designs 
 by Decimus Burton. The chief portion is a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in diameter 
 externally ; the walls are 3 feet thick at the ground : the height to the glazed dome 
 112 feet. On the canvas walls of the dome is painted the Panoramic view of 
 London, completed in 1829 from sketches by Mr. Hornor in 1821-2, taken from the 
 summit of St. Paul's Cathedral. The picture covers above 46,000 square feet, more 
 than an acre of canvas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. T. Parris, 
 who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 1848 a panorama of Paris was exhibited; suc- 
 ceeded, in 1850, by the Lake of Thorn in Switzerland; in 1851 the Panorama of 
 London was reproduced. In 1848 the theatre with the Panorama of Lisbon was 
 added. — In 1831 Mr. Hornor failed, when the establishment was sold for 40,000/. to 
 Messrs. Braham and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Montague for 23,000 
 guineas. — Timbs. After having been closed for some time, the building was opened 
 to the public at Christmas, 1856, all the several charges being merged in one shilling. 
 
 COLOSSUS of RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the 
 port of Rhodes in honour of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. 
 Built by Chares of Lindus, disciple of Lysippus, 290 B.C. It was thrown down by an 
 earthquake 224 B.C.; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens on their taking 
 Rhodes in a.d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg beiug extended on each 
 side of the harbour, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding 
 staircase ran to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the 
 ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. This statue had lain in ruins for nearly 
 nine centuries, and had never been repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to 
 pieces, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 lb. to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 
 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 COMBAT, SINGLE in ENGLAND. It commenced with the Lombards, a.d. 659.— 
 Baronim. This method of trial was introduced into Eugland and was allowed 
 in accusations of treason, if neither the accuser nor the accused could produce evidence 
 of the charge, or of innocence, 9 Will. II. 1096. The first battle by single combat 
 was that fought before the king and the peers between Geoffrey Baynard and William 
 
 * Only under the protection of the British government. 
 
COM 171 COM 
 
 earl of Eu, who was accused by Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
 quered, Eu was deemed convicted. The last combat proposed was between lord 
 Reay and David Ramsay, in 1631, but the king prevented it. See article Hiyh Constable. 
 
 COMBAT, SINGLE, in IRELAND. The same method of trial had also existence in 
 Ireland. A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmaiuham and the earl of 
 Orniond, the former having impeached the latter of high treason ; but the quarrel 
 having been taken up by the king, was decided without fighting, 1446. Remarkable 
 combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices and council, between Connor Mae 
 Cormack O'Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, in which the former had his 
 head cut off, and presented to the lords justices, 1553. 
 
 COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon were 
 the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.C. They performed the first comedy at 
 Athens, on a waggon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded 
 with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. — Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was 
 called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 B.C., and Menander that of new, 320 B.C. Of 
 Plautus, 20 comedies are extant; he flourished 220 B.C. Statius Csecilius wrote 
 upwards of 30 comedies; he flourished at Rome 180 B.C. The comedies of Ltelius 
 and Terence were first acted 154 B.C. The first regular comedy was performed in 
 England about a.d. 1551. It was said of Sheridan that he wrote the. best comedy 
 (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), and the best afterpiece (the 
 Critic), in the English language. See Drama. 
 
 COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately was by Nicephorus. 
 At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which were seen for 
 seventy-two days together, whose splendour eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and 
 which occupied forty -five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 B.C. — Justin. 
 A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edw. III. June 1337. — Stowe. These 
 phenomena were first rationally explained by Tycho Brahe, about 1577. A comet 
 which terrified the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses by 
 Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two 
 millions of miles of the earth.* One still more brilliant appeared in Sept. Oct. and 
 Nov. 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet 
 appeared in 1823. See the three next articles. Mr. Hind, in his little work on 
 Comets, gives a chrouological list. One of the grandest comets mentioned in history 
 was that of 1264. Its tail is said to have extended 100°. It is considered to have 
 re-appeared in 1556, with diminished splendour; and is expected to appear again 
 about Aug. 1858 or Aug. I860.— Mnd.f 
 
 COMET, BIELA'S, has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with 
 which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path : it was first 
 discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three 
 comets whose re-appearance was predicted, its revolution being performed in six 
 years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of 
 its perihelion passage was Nov. 27; its third was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845; 
 Its fifth in 1852. 
 
 COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by 
 astronomers after professor Encke, for his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and 
 perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared 
 according to prediction, and its revolutions are made in three years and fifteen weeks. 
 
 COMET, HALLEY'S. Named after one of the greatest astronomers of England. He 
 first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns 
 of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with 
 the comet of 1456, of 1531 and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
 the first-mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the 
 comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the 
 
 * This beautiful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen in London ; its tail stretched 
 across the heavens, like a prodigious luminous arch, thirty-six millions of miles in length. The 
 brilliant phenomenon that accompanies a comet, and which we call the tail, is a vast stream of light. 
 The computed length of that which appeared in 1811, and which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, 
 on October 15, according to the late Dr. Herschet, upwards of one hundred millions of miles, and its 
 apparent greatest breadth, at the same time, fifteen millions of miles. — Philos. Trans. Royal Soe. for 
 1812. 
 
 t M. Babinet, on May 4, 1857, considered that comets had so little density that the earth might 
 pass through the tail of one without our being aware of it. 
 
COM 
 
 172 
 
 COM 
 
 identity of comets, and predicted their periodical returns. — Vince's Astronomy. The 
 revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years ; it appeared in 
 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13; its last appearance was 1835. 
 
 COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. This rank in the British army ha3 been very frequently 
 vacant, and sometimes for several years consecutively. When the duke of Wellington 
 resigned the office, on becoming minister, in 1828, his grace's successor, lord Hill, 
 assumed the rank of commander of the forces, or general commanding in chief. 
 
 CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 
 
 Duke of Albemarle 1660 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1C78 
 
 Duke of Marlborough .... 1702 
 
 Duke of Ormoud 1711 
 
 Duke of Marlborough, agaiu . . . 1714 
 
 Duke of Cumberland 1744 
 
 Duke of York 1799 
 
 COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF. 
 
 Duke of Monmouth 1674 
 
 Duke of Marlborough .... 1690 
 
 Duke of Schomberg 1691 
 
 Duke of Ormoud 1711 
 
 Earl of Stair 1744 
 
 Field-Marshal Wade 1745 
 
 Lord Ligonier 1757 
 
 Marquess of Granby .... 1766 
 
 Lord Amherst, general on the staff . . 177S 
 
 Hon. general Seymour Conway . . 1782 
 
 Lord Amherst, again 1793 
 
 Frederick, duke of York .... 1795 
 
 Sir David Dundas . . March 25, 1809 
 
 Frederick, duke of York, again May 29, 1811 
 
 Duke of Wellington . . Jan. 22, 1S27 
 Lord Hill, general commanding in chief, 
 
 or general on the staff . . Feb. 25, 1828 
 Duke of Wellington, commander-in- 
 chief, again . . . Dec. 2S, 1842 
 Viscount Hardinge (died Sept. 24, 1856), 
 
 general commanding in chief, Sept. 28, 1852 
 Duke of Cambridge, commander-in- 
 chief July 15, 1856 
 
 COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest 
 ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities, 
 a.d. 1241. See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of Columbus, and the enterprises of 
 the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the sphere of commerce, and led other nations, 
 particularly England, to engage extensively in its pursuit. See the vaiious articles 
 connected with this subject through the volume. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by England with any 
 foreign nation was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was 
 with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. — Anderson. See Treaties. 
 
 COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. The 
 charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appellation, and which 
 may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the people. The general place of 
 meeting of the folk-mote was in the open air at St. Paul's Cross, in St. Paul's church- 
 yard. It was not discontinued till after Henry III.'s reign ; when certain representa- 
 tives were chosen out of each ward, who, being added to the lord mayor and alder- 
 men, constituted the court of Common Council. At first only two were returned for 
 each ward ; but it being afterwards considered that the number was insufficient, it 
 was enlai'ged in 1347, and since. This council soon became the parent of other similar 
 institutions throughout the realm. It is elected annually on Dec. 21, St. Thomas's day. 
 
 COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. An ancient collection of unwritten maxims and 
 customs, which had subsisted immemorially in this kingdom ; and although somewhat 
 impaired by the rude shock of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence of 
 the times. This had endeared it to the people in general, as well because its decisions 
 were universally known, as because it was found to be excellently adapted to the 
 genius of the English nation. And accordingly, at the famous parliament of Merton, 
 " all the earls and barons," says the parliament roll, " with one voice answered, that 
 they would not change the laws of England, which have hitherto been used and 
 approved : " eminently, the law of the land. 
 
 COMMON LAW COURTS. The process, practice, and mode of pleading in the superior 
 courts of common law, were amended by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 76 (June 30, 1852), and 
 17 & 18 Vict. c. 125 (Aug. 12, 1854). 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, COURT of, in ENGLAND. This court in ancient times followed 
 the king's person, and is distinct from that of the King's Bench; but on the confirma- 
 tion of Magna Charta by king John, in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster, where it 
 still continues. In it are debated all controversies, in matters civil, between subject 
 and subject, according to law. Here real actions are pleadable ; and this court may 
 grant prohibitions, as the court of King's Bench doth. In personal and mixed actions 
 it has a concurrent jurisdiction with that court ; but no cognisance of pleas of the 
 crown. — Blackstone. By 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 39 (1833), the mode of procedure in all 
 the superior courts was made uniform. 
 
COM 
 
 173 
 
 COM 
 
 COMMON" PLEAS, COURT of, in ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE COMMON PLEAS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 155S. 
 1559. 
 15S2. 
 1605. 
 1606. 
 
 1613. 
 
 1626. 
 
 1631. 
 1634. 
 1639. 
 1640. 
 164S. 
 1660. 
 
 1668, 
 1675. 
 
 1686. 
 1687. 
 
 1689. 
 1692. 
 1701. 
 
 1714. 
 
 1725. 
 
 1736. 
 1737. 
 
 From the reign of 
 
 Sir Anthony Browne, knt. 
 
 Sir James Dyer, knt. 
 
 Sir Edmund AndersoD, knt. 
 
 Sir Francis Gawdy, knt. 
 
 Sir Edward Coke, knt. afterwards to 
 K.B. 
 
 Sir Henry Hobart, knt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Richardson, knt. after- 
 wards to K.B. 
 
 Sir Robert Heath, knt. 
 
 Sir John Finch, knt. 
 
 Sir Edward Lyttleton, knt. 
 
 Sir John Bankes, knt. 
 
 Oliver St. John, esq. 
 
 Sir Orlando Bridgman, bart. afterwards 
 lord keeper. 
 
 Sir John Vaughan, knt. 
 
 Sir Francis North, knt. afterwards lord 
 Guilford, and lord keeper. 
 
 Sir Francis Pemberton, knt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Jones, knt. 
 
 Sir Henry Bedingfield, knt. 
 
 Sir Bobert Wright, knt. 
 
 Sir Edward Herbert, knt. 
 
 Sir Henry Pollexfen, knt. 
 
 Sir George Treby, knt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Trevor, knt. afterwards 
 lord Trevor. 
 
 Sir Peter King, afterwards lord King, 
 and lord chancellor. 
 
 Sir Robert Eyre, knt. 
 
 Sir Thomas Reeve, knt. 
 
 Sir John Willes, knt. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 1761. Sir Charles Pratt, knt. afterwards lord 
 Camden, and lord chancellor. 
 
 1766. Sir John Eardley "Wilmot, knt. 
 
 1771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord 
 Walsingkam. 
 
 1780. Alexander Wedderburne, created lord 
 Loughborough, afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor, and earl of Rosslyn. 
 
 1793. Sir James Eyre, knt. 
 
 1799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chan- 
 cellor ; created lord Eld on, and, sub- 
 sequently, earl of Eldon. 
 
 1801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden, created lord 
 Alvanley, May 22. 
 
 1S04. Sir James Mansfield, knt. April 21. 
 
 1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, knt. Feb. 24. 
 
 ISIS. Sir Robert Dallas, knt. Nov. 5. 
 
 1S24. Sir Bobert Gifford, Jan. 9 ; created lord 
 Gifford ; master of the rolls, April, 
 same year. 
 — Sir William Draper Best, afterwards 
 lord Wynford, April 15. 
 
 1829. Sir Nicolas Conyngham Tindal, June 9 ; 
 died, July, 1846. 
 
 1S46. Sir Thomas Wilde, July 11 ; created lord 
 Truro, and made lord chancellor, 
 July, 1850. 
 
 1S50. Sir John Jervis, July 16 ; died Nov. 1, 
 1856. 
 
 1S56. Sir Alexander Cockburn, Nov. 15. The 
 present Chief Justice of the Common 
 Pleas of England (1857). 
 
 In England, no barrister under the degree of a Serjeant could plead in the court of 
 common pleas; the serjeants-at-law enjoying the exclusive right. The act 9 & 10 
 "Vict. c. 54, passed August 18, 1846, extended the privilege to barristers of any degree 
 practising in the superior courts at Westminster. All barristers, however, were pre- 
 viously at liberty to move or show cause against a rule for a new trial. 
 
 COMMON PLEAS, COURT of, in IRELAND. The Court of Common Pleas in Ireland 
 is similarly constituted with the court in England; but in Ireland it always was, as 
 it still is, open to the profession at large. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE COMMON PLEAS IN IRELAND. 
 From the Period of the Revolution. 
 
 1691. Richard Pyne, Jan. 5. 
 1695. Sir John Hely, May 10. 
 1701. Sir Richard Cox, May 4. 
 1703. Bobert Doyne, Dec. 27 
 1714. John Forster, Sept. 30. 
 1720. Sir Bichard Levinge, Oct. 13. 
 1724. Thomas Wyndham, Oct. 27. 
 
 1726. William Whitshed, Jan. 23. 
 
 1727. James Beynolds, Nov. 8. 
 1740. Henrv Singleton, May 11. 
 1754. Sir William. Yorke, Sept. 4. 
 1761. William Aston, May 5. 
 
 1765. Richard Clayton, Feb. 21. 
 
 1770. Marcus Patterson, June 18. 
 
 1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards viscount 
 
 Carleton, April 30. 
 1800. John Toler, afterwards lord Norbury, 
 
 Oct 22. 
 1827. Lord Plunket, June IS. 
 1830. John Doherty, Dec. 23. 
 1850. James Henry Monahan, Sept. 23. The 
 
 present (1S57) Chief Justice of the 
 
 Common Pleas in Ireland. 
 
 COMMON PRAYER. The Book of Common Prayer was ordered to be published in the 
 English language by the authority of parliament in 1548. In the time of the civil 
 war, the Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by parliament, and the Directory 
 (which see) set up in its room in 1644. A proclamation was issued against it, 1647. 
 Other books of worship experienced the same fate. — Salmon. 
 
 First book of Edward VI. printed . 
 Second book of Edward VI. 
 First book of Elizabeth . 
 King James's book 
 
 1549 
 1552 
 1559 
 1604 
 
 Scotch book of Charles I. 1637 
 
 Charles II. 's book 1662 
 
 (The one, with alterations, now in use.) 
 
 COMMONS, HOUSE of. The great representative assembly of the people of Great 
 Britain. It originated with Simon de Montfort, eail of Leicester, who ordered re- 
 turns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs 
 
COM 
 
 174 
 
 COM 
 
 to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
 his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was the first 
 confirmed outline of a house of commons, and the first commons were summoned to 
 meet the king in parliament, 42 & 43 Hen. III., 1258. — Stowe. According to other 
 authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Hen. III., 
 Jan. 23, 1265 ; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians 
 date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22nd of Edward I., 1294. 
 The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, -was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was 
 killed at the battle of Evesham in 1265. The city of London first sent members to 
 parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was not represented in that 
 assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII.'s life, or rather in the first House of 
 Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons 
 since the passing of the Reform Bills {which see) in 1832 : — 
 
 English. — County members . . 144 
 
 Universities . . . . 4 
 
 Cities and boroughs . . . 321— 4G9 
 
 Welsh. — County members . . . 15 
 
 Cities and boroughs . . .14 — 29 
 
 English and Welsh ... 498 
 
 English and Welsh ... 498 
 Scotch. — County members . . 30 
 
 Cities and boroughs . . '. 23 — 53 
 iRisn. — County members . . . 64 
 University . . . . . 2 
 Cities and boroughs . . . 39 — 105 
 
 Total (see Parliament) 
 
 C56 
 
 CONSTITUENCY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1851. 
 
 England. — County 
 
 Borough . 
 Wales. — County . 
 
 Borough . 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 Electors. 
 461,463 
 378,384—839,847 
 
 36.9S4 
 
 11,035— 48,019 
 
 SS7.S66 
 
 [Population, 27,452,252.] 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland.— County 
 
 Borough . 
 Ireland. — County 
 
 Borough . 
 
 Constituency 
 
 Electors. 
 . 887,866 
 48,456 
 
 41,849— 90,305 
 31,832 
 40,234— 72,066 
 
 1,050,237 
 
 The number of English and Welsh members in 1852 was 500. In that year (June 17) 
 an act was passed, disenfranchising the borough of St. Alban's, on the ground of bribery 
 and corruption, and that borough having previously returned two members, the 
 aggregate number of English members was consequently reduced, from 471 to 469; 
 and the aggregate number of the house of commons, from 658 members to 656. 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the death 
 of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was 
 changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I., Jan. 30, 1649. Instead of the 
 oaths of allegiance and supremacy, a new oath called the " Engagement" was framed, 
 which the people were obliged to take.* — Salmon. Oliver Cromwell was made 
 Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Cromwell was made Protector, Sept. 4, 1658. 
 Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II., May 29, 1660. See England. 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. 
 
 COMMUNION, one of the names given to the ordinance of the Lord's Supper, in the 
 primitive Church. Communicating under the form of bread alone, is said to have had 
 its rise in the West, under Pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateran council, 1215, 
 decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter. The cup 
 was first denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1453. The communion 
 service, as now performed in the Church of England, was instituted by the authority 
 of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548.— Hume. 
 
 COMPANIES. — Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named 
 the Steel-yard Society, established a.d. 1232. The second company was the merchants 
 of St. Thomas a Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, 
 incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The following are the city companies of London, 
 in the order of precedence, with the dates of their institution or incorporation by 
 charter or by act of parliament. Of these there are ninety-one ; the first twelve are 
 the chief, and are styled "the Honourable : " — 
 
 * By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to the commonwealth, without king or house of 
 lords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Eoyal Exchange, and 
 one at the west end of St. Paul's, and in their room the following inscription was conspicuously set up : 
 — " Exit Tyrannus Regum ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglice Restitute Primo, Anno Bom. 1648, Jan. 30." 
 

 COM 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 CON 
 
 
 COMPAQ 
 
 r IES, continued. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LONDON CITY COMPANIES. 
 
 31. 
 
 numbers. . a.d. 
 
 1011 
 
 62. 
 
 Glovers . a.d. 
 
 1556 
 
 1. 
 
 Mercers . . a.d. 
 
 1393 
 
 32. 
 
 Inn-holders . . . 
 
 1515 
 
 63. 
 
 Comb-makers . 
 
 1050 
 
 2. 
 
 Grocers . . . 
 
 1345 
 
 38. 
 
 Founders . 
 
 1614 
 
 04. 
 
 Felt-makers . . 
 
 1004 
 
 3. 
 
 Drapers . 
 
 1439 
 
 34. 
 
 Poxilterers . . . 
 
 1503 
 
 65. 
 
 Framework-knitters 1604 
 
 4. 
 
 Fishmongers . . 
 
 13S4 
 
 35. 
 
 Cooks 
 
 14S1 
 
 66. 
 
 Silk throwsters . . 
 
 1029 
 
 5. 
 
 Goldsmiths 
 
 1327 
 
 36. 
 
 Coopers 
 
 1501 
 
 67. 
 
 Silk-men . 
 
 # * 
 
 C. 
 
 Skinners 
 
 1327 
 
 37. 
 
 Tilers and Brick 
 
 
 68. 
 
 Pin-makers . . . 
 
 1636 
 
 7. 
 
 Merchant Tailors 
 
 1466 
 
 
 layers . 
 
 156S 
 
 69. 
 
 Needle-makers 
 
 1656 
 
 8. 
 
 Haberdashers 
 
 1447 
 
 38. 
 
 Bowyers 
 
 1620 
 
 70. 
 
 Gardeners . . . 
 
 1616 
 
 9. 
 
 Salters 
 
 1558 
 
 39. 
 
 Fletchers . 
 
 1536 
 
 71. 
 
 Soap-makers . 
 
 1638 
 
 10. 
 
 Ironmongers 
 
 1464 
 
 40. 
 
 Blacksmiths . . 
 
 1577 
 
 7-2. 
 
 Tinplate-workers . 
 
 1670 
 
 11. 
 
 Vintners . 
 
 1437 
 
 41. 
 
 Joiners 
 
 1564 
 
 73. 
 
 Wheelwrights . 
 
 1670 
 
 12. 
 
 Clothworkers 
 
 1482 
 
 42. 
 
 Weavers . . 
 
 1164 
 
 74. 
 
 Distillers 
 
 * * 
 
 13. 
 
 Dyers 
 
 1469 
 
 43. 
 
 Woolmen . 
 
 * * 
 
 75. 
 
 Hatband-makers . 
 
 1638 
 
 14. 
 
 Brewers 
 
 1438 
 
 44. 
 
 Scriveners . 
 
 1616 
 
 70. 
 
 Patten- makers . . 
 
 1670 
 
 15. 
 
 Leather-sellers. 
 
 1442 
 
 45. 
 
 Fruiterers 
 
 1604 
 
 77. 
 
 Glass-sellers 
 
 1664 
 
 16. 
 
 Pewterers . 
 
 1474 
 
 46. 
 
 Plasterers . 
 
 1500 
 
 78. 
 
 Tobacco-pipe makers 1663 
 
 17. 
 
 Barber Surgeons 
 
 1308 
 
 47. 
 
 Stationers 
 
 1556 
 
 79. 
 
 Coach and Harness 
 
 
 IS. 
 
 Cutlers 
 
 1417 
 
 48. 
 
 Embroiderers 
 
 1591 
 
 
 makers . . 
 
 1677 
 
 19. 
 
 Bakers 
 
 1307 
 
 49. 
 
 Upholders 
 
 1627 
 
 SO. 
 
 Gunmakers . 
 
 1638 
 
 20. 
 
 Wax-chandlers . 
 
 1484 
 
 50. 
 
 Musicians . 
 
 1604 
 
 81. 
 
 Gold and silver wire 
 
 
 21. 
 
 Tallow-chandlers 
 
 1463 
 
 51. 
 
 Turners . 
 
 1604 
 
 
 drawers 
 
 1623 
 
 22. 
 
 Armourers and Bra 
 
 
 52. 
 
 Basket-makers . 
 
 * * 
 
 82. 
 
 Bowstring-makers 
 
 * * 
 
 
 ziers 
 
 1463 
 
 53. 
 
 Glaziers . 
 
 1637 
 
 83. 
 
 Card-makers . 
 
 1629 
 
 23 
 
 Girdlers . 
 
 . 144S 
 
 54. 
 
 Homers 
 
 1638 
 
 84. 
 
 Fan-makers 
 
 1709 
 
 24 
 
 Butchers 
 
 1604 
 
 55. 
 
 Farriers . 
 
 1673 
 
 85. 
 
 Wood-mongers . 
 
 * * 
 
 25 
 
 Sadlers 
 
 . 12S0 
 
 56. 
 
 Paviors 
 
 . * * 
 
 86. 
 
 Starch-makers . 
 
 1632 
 
 26 
 
 Carpenters . 
 
 . 1344 
 
 57. 
 
 Lorimers . 
 
 . 14S8 
 
 87. 
 
 Fishermen 
 
 16S7 
 
 27 
 
 Cordwainers . 
 
 . 1410 
 
 58 
 
 Apothecaries 
 
 1617 
 
 88. 
 
 Parish clerks 
 
 1232 
 
 28 
 
 Paper-stainers . 
 
 . 1580 
 
 59 
 
 Shipwrights 
 
 1610 
 
 89. 
 
 Carmen . 
 
 * * 
 
 29 
 
 Curriers . 
 
 . 1605 
 
 60 
 
 Spectacle-makers 
 
 1630 
 
 90 
 
 Porters 
 
 * * 
 
 30 
 
 Masons 
 
 . 1677 
 
 I 61 
 
 Clock-makers . 
 
 1632 
 
 91. 
 
 Watermen 
 
 1550 
 
 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under tbis name have been 
 formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the 
 most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea bubble, in the same year, was 
 scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were 
 established in these countries in 1824 and 1825, and most of them turned out to be 
 bubbles; owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, 
 immense losses were incurred by individuals, and tbe families of thousands of specu- 
 lators were totally ruined. Many of our late railway enterprises may also be classed 
 under this head. See Law's Bubble. Railways. 
 
 COMPASS, the MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C. ; 
 they ascribe it to the emperor Hong-Ti, a grandson of Noah. They had a machine 
 ■which was self-moving, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by 
 land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, 
 the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a.d. 1260 ; 
 while others with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a 
 navigator of Naples, about 1300.* Until his time the needle was laid upon a couple 
 of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja introduced the 
 suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation was discovered first 
 by Columbus, in 1492; afterwards by Sebastian Cabot, 1540. The compass-box and 
 hanging compass used by navigators were invented by "William Barlowe, an English 
 divine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Diet. The measuring compass was 
 invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. See Magnetism. 
 
 COMPOSITE ORDER in ARCHITECTURE. It is not easy to fix the date of this 
 order ; it is the fifth in architecture, and so called because made up of the other four, 
 from which new features were" added from time to time, until at length the compound 
 acquired a permanence and consistence, and became a distinct order. It is principally 
 a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic, and is also called the Roman order. 
 
 CONCEPTION, IMMACULATE. A festival is observed with great devotion in the 
 Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and 
 born immaculate, or without original sin. It was appointed to be held on the 8th of 
 December by that Church, in 1389. — The Concepttonists were an order of nuns in 
 Italy, established in 1488. Paul V., pope, forbade any one to stand up against the 
 opinion of the immaculate conception, in 1617; this order was confirmed by 
 
 * The fleur-de-lis is said to have been made the ornament of the northern point of the compass, in 
 compliment to Charles the king of Naples at the time of the discovery. 
 
CON 176 CON 
 
 Gregory XV. and by Alexander VII. — Henault. On the 8th of December, 1854, the 
 pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this dogma to be an 
 article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt or speak against it. 
 
 CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 1665, 
 when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every 
 part of England. The first concert of a like kind performed in London was in 1678. 
 Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent, and they continue to be among 
 the most popular musical entertainments of the present day. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny ; 
 and was a favourite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It was first 
 reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published his classification of 
 the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685; and that of Largius in 
 1722. Johnston's Introduction (1850), and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), 
 are useful works. 
 
 CONCLAVE for the ELECTION of POPES. This term is derived from the conclave, 
 a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where 
 the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, and is also used for the assembly of the 
 cardinals shut tip for the purpose. The conclave had its rise in a.d. 1271. Clement 
 IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to 
 agree in the choice of a successor, and were on the point of breaking up, when the 
 magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo, shut the gates of their 
 city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they agreed. Hence the 
 custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. 
 
 CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words 
 in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transactions of that sacred 
 volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made under the direction of Hugo 
 de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, a.d. 1247. — Abbe Levglet. 
 Cruden's well-known and esteemed Concordance was published in London in 1737. 
 
 CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and 
 the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon 
 Bonaparte and Pius VII. whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the 
 head of the Gallican Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from 
 him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and 
 the same pontiff was signed at Fontainebleau, Jan. 25, 1813. A very important con- 
 cordat was signed Aug. 18, 1855, between Austria and Rome, by which a great deal 
 of the liberty of the Austrian church is given up to the Papacy. 
 
 CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a.d. 1132. 
 Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity, 
 and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very different from that of 
 mistress among us. Concubinage was a term for a lawful marriage between a noble- 
 man and a woman of mean condition, whose children were incapable by law of 
 inheriting their father's estate, the dignity of the father not being conferred upon the 
 mother. The kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the 
 right, and called half-marriage, is still in use in some parts of Germany. See 
 Marriage, Half, and Morganatic Marriage. 
 
 CONDUITS. Those of the Romans were of stone. Two remarkable conduits, among a 
 number of others in London, existed early in Cheapside. That called the Great 
 Conduit was the first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was built a.d. 1285. At 
 the procession of Anna Boleyn, on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white and 
 claret wine all the afternoon, June 1, 1533. — Stowe. 
 
 CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600.000 citizens formed this memorable 
 confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking and destruction of the Bastile, 
 at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, 
 solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 14, 1790. See Champs de 
 Mars, Bastile. 
 
 CONFEDERATION of the RHINE. The League of the Germanic States, formed 
 under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 'the minor 
 German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, 
 and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. This league terminated with 
 the career of Bonaparte. See Germanic Confederation. 
 
CON 
 
 177 
 
 CON 
 
 CONFERENCE The GREAT. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton 
 Court Palace, between the prelates of the Church of England and the dissenting 
 ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, James I. Jan. 
 14-16, 1604. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which was 
 executed in 1607-11, aud is that now in general use in England and the United States ; 
 and during the meeting some alterations in the Church liturgy were agreed upon, but 
 this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. A conference of the 
 bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in the Savoy, April 
 
 25 to July 25, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed, but some 
 alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book. 
 
 CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish Church was first instituted about 
 a.d. 1204, and was regularly enjoined by Innocent III. at the fourth Lateran council 
 in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults 
 acknowledged by the penitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and 
 if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to.be absolved 
 in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent by the 
 council ; but it was afterwards abolished in the Church of England. 
 
 CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian Church ; it was used by 
 Peter and Paul, and was general, according to some Church authorities, in a.d. 190. 
 It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who has been 
 baptised in infancy. It is still retained in the Church of England; but to make it the 
 more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacrament by the Church of Rome. 
 
 CONFL ANS, TREATY of. The celebrated compact between Louis XL of France, and 
 the dukes of Bourbon, Britanny, and Burgundy. By one of the provisions of this 
 treaty, Normandy was ceded to the duke de Berri, 1465. The treaty, which put an 
 end to the "war of the Public Good," was confirmed by that of Peronne, with other 
 stipulations, in 1468. 
 
 CONGELATION. Ice was produced in summer by means of chemical mixtures, by Mr. 
 Walker, in 1783. The congelation of quicksilver was effected without snow or ice, in 
 1787. A mixture of four ounces of nitrate of ammonia, four ounces of sub-carbonate 
 of soda, and four ounces of water, in a tin pail, has been found to produce ice in three 
 hours. See Cold, Ice, &c. 
 
 CONGE D'ELIRE. The licence of the king, as head of the Church, to chapters, and 
 other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the 
 pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with 
 the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's conge d'elire, 
 
 26 Hen. VIII. 1535. 
 
 CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settlement of 
 the affairs of nations or of a people. Several congresses were held during the late 
 continental wars; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — 
 
 Congress of Soissons 
 Congress of Antwerp . 
 Congress of Radstadt 
 Congress of Chatillon . 
 Congress of Vienna 
 
 June 14, 
 
 1728 
 
 April S, 
 
 1793 
 
 Dec. 9, 
 
 1797 
 
 Feb. 5, 
 
 1814 
 
 Nov. 3, 
 
 1814 
 
 Congress of Carlsbad . . Aug. 1, 1S19 
 Congress of Troppau . . Oct. 20, 1S20 
 Congress of Laybaoh . . May 6, 1821 
 
 Congress of Verona . . Aug. 25, 1822 
 See Alliances, Conventions, &c. 
 
 The first general congress of the United States of America, preparatory to their 
 declaration of independence, was held Sept. 5, 1774, when strong resolutions were 
 passed, also a petition to the king, and an address to the people of England. The 
 first federal American congress, under the constitution, was held at New York, 
 George Washington president, in March 1789. 
 
 CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They 
 were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when they set 
 a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days ; they were employed in various 
 operations in the French war with much success, by a corps called rocket-men. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known to the 
 Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was culti- 
 vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest treatise was written by Aristaeus, 
 about 330 B.C. Apollonius's eight books were written about 240 B.C. The parabola 
 was applied to projectiles by Galileo ; the eclipse to the orbit of planets, by Kepler. 
 
 CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by various 
 
CON 178 CON 
 
 statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in these 
 countries in former times. See article Witchcraft. Conjuration was felony by 
 statute 1 James I. 1603. This law was repealed 9 Geo. II. 1736; but pretensions 
 to such skill were then made punishable as a misdemeanour. — Statutes. 
 
 CONNOR, BISHOPEIC of, iu Ireland. The see was united to that of Down, ad. 1442. 
 The first prelate was iEngus Macnisius who died a.d. 507. The united see of Down 
 and Connor was united with that of Dromore on the death of the late bishop of the 
 latter, in accordance with the provisions of the Irish Church Temporalities' act, 3 & 4 
 Will. IV. c. 37, passed Aug. 14, 1833. 
 
 CONQUEST, the. The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Nor- 
 mandy overcame Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which 
 had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edgar was 
 the rightful heir), Oct. 15, 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, 
 for he succeeded to the crown of England by compact. He killed Harold, who was 
 himself an usurper, and defeated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom after- 
 wards held out against him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
 laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. 
 Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who 
 said casually William the Conqueror, instead of William I. — Selden. Maclise exhibited 
 forty-two drawings on the events of the Nornian Conquest, in May, 1857. 
 
 CONSCIENCE, COURTS of, ok REQUESTS. First constituted by a statute of 
 Henry VII. in 1493, and re-organised by statute 9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts 
 have been improved and amended by various acts; their jurisdiction in London 
 reaches to 51. and reached (until superseded by county-courts) to 40*. in other towns. 
 The practice is by summons, aud if the party do not appear, the commissioners have 
 power to apprehend and commit. See County Courts. 
 
 CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patrcs conscripti was the designation (one of high honour) 
 given to the Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
 and the Ceesars : because their names were written in the registers of the senate. 
 Conscript father was a popular name among the people. — Pardon. 
 
 CONSECRATION. That of churches was instituted in the second century, the temple 
 of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Anciently 
 the consecration of popes was deferred until the emperor had given his assent to the 
 election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election confirmed by the emperor Louis, 
 in 828. — Renault. The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, is admitted in 
 the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the Church of 
 England in 1549. — Stowe. 
 
 CONSERVATIVES. This name is of modern date, and is given to, and accepted by, a 
 political party, whose leading principle is the conservation of our great and ancient 
 national institutions. It sprung up in England at the time when the Orauge societies 
 and lodges were discouraged, and was substituted for Orangemen, as a less obnoxious 
 term, and as indicative of milder, but equally constitutional opinions. Conservative, 
 has, however, in some measure changed its signification, and in popular parlance is now 
 opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert Peel acknowledged bimself a conservative when re- 
 proached by the Irish party in parliament with being an Orangeman; but the party that 
 afterwards separated from him called their principles conservative, in contradistinction 
 to his, — his policy and measures being changed. — Political Notes. See Protectionists. 
 
 CONSERVATORS of the PUBLIC LIBERTIES. Officers chosen in England to inspect 
 the treasury, and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. — Rapin. The 
 conservators of the peace were officers appointed to see the king's peace kept. — 
 Pardon. Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea-port to take cognisance 
 of all offences committed upon the main sea, out of the liberty of the Cinque Ports, 
 against the peace. — Bailey. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURT. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Hundred court ; 
 and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I., quoted by lord 
 Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Consistory court of the kingdom belongs to 
 the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches, which see. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded 
 conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remarkable. They are 
 extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authorities of note : — 
 
CON 
 
 179 
 
 CON 
 
 CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 Of the Norman Barons, against William 
 the Conqueror . . . . a.d. 1074 
 
 Against William II. 1088, and . . . 1093 
 
 Against Henry II. by his queen and 
 children 1173 
 
 Insurrection of Foulk de Brent against 
 king Henry III 1224 
 
 Against the same king for cancelling 
 Magna Charta 1258 
 
 Of Edward II. 's queen, when the king 
 fell a sacrifice 1327 
 
 Of the duke of Exeter against the life of 
 Henry IV., discovered by the dropping 
 of a paper accidentally . . . 14.00 
 
 Of the earl of Cambridge and others 
 against Henry V 1415 
 
 Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, against 
 his nephews, Edward and York, whom 
 he caused to be murdered . . . 1483 
 
 Of the earl of Suffolk and others against 
 Henry VII 1506 
 
 Insurrection of the London apprentices, 
 7 Henry VIII 1515 
 
 Of Doctor Story and others against queen 
 Elizabeth 1571 
 
 Of Anthony Babington and others against 
 Elizabeth. (See Babington) . . 1586 
 
 Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . . 1593 
 
 Of Patrick Yoi-k, an Irish fencing-master, 
 hired by the Spaniards to kill the queen 1594 
 
 Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Squire . . 1598 
 
 Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . 159S 
 
 Against James I. by the marchioness 
 Verneuil, his mistress, and other per- 
 sons 1604 
 
 The Gunpowder Plot (which see) . . 1605 
 
 Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle 
 of Dublin 1607 
 
 Of Sindercomb and others, to assassi- 
 nate Oliver Cromwell . ... 1656 
 
 1671 
 
 1678 
 1679 
 
 Insurrection of the Puritans . . . 1657 
 
 Insurrection of the Pifth-monarchy-men 
 against Charles II 1660 
 
 Of Blood and his associates, who seized 
 the duke of Ormond, wounded him, 
 and would have hanged him ; and 
 who afterwards stole the crown . 
 
 The pretended conspiracy of the French, 
 Spanish, and English Jesuits to assas- 
 sinate Charles II., revealed by the 
 infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, and 
 others 
 
 The Meal-tub plot (which see) . 
 
 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the 
 king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
 Rye-house Plot) ... . . 1683 
 
 Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and 
 others to restore James II. . . . 1691 
 
 Of Granville, a French chevalier, to 
 murder king William in Flanders . . 1692 
 
 Of the earl of Aylesbury, called the As- 
 sassination plot (which see) . . . 1696 
 
 Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against 
 queen Anne. (See Rebellions.) . . 1703 
 
 Of the marquess Guiscard . . . 1710 
 
 Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to 
 assassinate George 1 1718 
 
 Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring 
 in the Pretender 1722 
 
 Of the Corresponding Society against 
 the state .... 1797 and 1798 
 
 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- 
 turn the government .... 1802 
 
 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when lord 
 Kilwarden was killed . July 23, 1803 
 
 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges,against 
 Bonaparte . . ., . Feb. 15, 1804 
 
 Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate 
 the king's ministers. . (See Cato-street.) 1820 
 See Rebellions, Chartists. 
 
 CONSTABLE, LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. See Lord High Constable. 
 
 CONSTABLE, LORD HIGH, of SCOTLAND. See Lord Constable of Scotland. 
 
 CONSTABLES of HUNDREDS and FRANCHISES. Instituted in the reign of 
 Edward L, 1285. These officers are now called high constables throughout the 
 realm. There are three kinds of constables, high, petty, and special : the high 
 constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred; the petty constable's to the 
 parish or liberty for which he is chosen ; and the special constable is appointed for 
 particular occasions and emergencies. 
 
 CONSTABULARY FORCE. That of London has been regulated at various periods. 
 See article Police. Mr. Peel's act, organising a new and more efficient force, 10 Geo. IV. 
 1829. The Constabulary of Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
 embodied throughout the country. Several subsequent acts were consolidated by the 
 statute of 6 Will. IV. 1836. The London Police Improvement act passed 3 Vict. 1839. 
 The Counties and District Constabulary act for England passed 3 Vict. Aug. 1839. 
 
 CONSTANCE, COUNCIL of. The celebrated council of divines which condemned 
 the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague to be burnt alive, a sentence 
 executed upon the first, on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30 following. 
 Huss had complied with a summons from the council of Constance to defend his 
 opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigis- 
 mund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague 
 hastened to Constance to defend him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the 
 end shared the fate of his Mend. By this council the bones of Wickliffe (at Lutter- 
 worth) were ordered to be disinterred. 
 
 CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans 
 but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. 
 Here was fought a great battle between the French and Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when 
 the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Damremont, was 
 killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 
 
 N 2 
 
CON 180 CON 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of 
 the Eastern Empire here, a.d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders, who put the 
 emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1 204. Retaken by Michael 
 Paloeologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., 
 who slew Constantine Palrcologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his 
 people, 1453. The city, taken by assault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The 
 unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into 
 the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house 
 were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
 conqueror. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Europe. See 
 Eastern Empire, and Turkey. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, ERA of. This era has the creation placed 5503 years B.C. It 
 was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the 
 Greek Church. The civil year begins Sept. 1, and the ecclesiastical year towards the 
 end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era subtract 
 5508 yeai's from January to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arclurus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mem- 
 tioned by Job, about 1520 B c. Homer and Hesiod notice constellations; but though 
 some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct 
 knowledge was derived from Claud. Ptolemacus, about a.d. 140. 
 
 CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which 
 the British people are governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every 
 individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished 
 from the term government in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which 
 the sovereign ought to govern at all times ; and government is that by which he does 
 govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolingbrohe. The king of England is not seated 
 on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing 
 branches of the legislature, and he recognises his superior in the law.* — Sheridan. 
 
 CONSTITUTION, an American Ship, carrying 54 heavy guns, engaged the British frigate 
 Ouerriere, of 46 guns of smaller calibre, and iu 30 minutes the latter Was reduced to 
 a sinking state : and having lost 100 men in killed and wounded, surrendered to the 
 enemy, who lost but 7 men killed, and 7 wounded; August 20, 1812. 
 
 CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 B.C. They possessed regal 
 authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius 
 Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A 
 consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, 
 Cambaceres, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and subsequently Bonaparte was 
 made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Commercial agents were first distinguished 
 by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. A British consul was first appointed in 
 Portugal iu 1633. 
 
 CONTRACTORS with GOVERNMENT disqualified from sitting in parliament, 17S2. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, VOLUNTARY. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a 
 vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of the government. 
 The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support 
 the war against France, the contributions amounted to two millions and a half ster- 
 ling. Several men of wealth, among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, 
 subscribed each 10,000Z. ; and 200,000^. were transmitted from India in 1799. 
 
 CONTROUL, BOARD of. See Board of Controul, and East Lndia Bill. 
 
 CONVENTICLES. Private assemblies for religious worship ; the name was particularly 
 applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the Established Church ; 
 
 * Montesquieu, speaking of the " Beautiful Pile of the British Constitution," says : " It lies not within 
 the competency of any skill. It is the work of ages ; the production of a happy concurrence and suc- 
 cession of circumstances, growing by degrees, and accommodating itself, in accordance with its growth, 
 to the temper and manners, the customs and character of the British people. Its excellence is proved 
 by its operation, rather than by a minute examination into its several parts. Other nations have 
 endeavoured, but vainly, to adopt it. France tried, among the rest, to accommodate its principles to 
 her own state, but could not The French people had not grown with it, and were not prepared for 
 the real liberty which it diffused, and had not the temper for it, in which it could alone endure. The 
 British Constitution, in any other country than that to which it is so aptly fitted, would seem a pile of 
 anomalies and contradictions, the very contrary of what it is." 
 
CON 
 
 181 
 
 CON 
 
 but it was first applied in England to the schools of Wickliff. Conventicles, which 
 were numerous at the time, were prohibited by a statute passed 12 Car. II. 1661. 
 
 CONVENTION PARLIAMENT. Two memorable parliaments were especially distin- 
 guished by this term; being parliaments which assembled without the king's writ 
 upon extraordinary occasions. The first of these was held in March, 1660, voting 
 the restoration of Charles II., and afterwards enacting many salutary statutes. The 
 second was held in 1688, and by a majority of two voices declared for a new sovereign 
 William III. (and Mary), in preference to a regent which had been proposed. 
 
 CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. The following are the principal treaties 
 entered into between Great Britain and foreign powers, under the title of Conventions, 
 and by foreign powers with each other. They are more fully described in their 
 respective places through the volume : — 
 
 Of Closterseven . . . Sept. 10, 1757 
 Of Armed Neutrality . . . July 9, 17S0 
 OfPilnitz .... July 20, 1791 
 
 Of Paris (French national) instituted 
 
 Sept. 17, 1792 
 Of Ciutra (iclt ich see) . . Aug. 30, 1S08 
 
 Of Berlin Nov. 5, 180S 
 
 Of Peterswalden „ . . July 8, 1813 
 Of Paris .... April 23, 1814 
 Of the Dutch with England . Aug. 13, 1814 
 Of Vienna ; Saxony placed under the 
 
 control of Prussia . . Sept. 28, 1S14 
 Of Zurich, signed . . . May 20, 1815 
 Of Capua, with Murat . May 20, 1815 
 
 Of St. Cloud, between Davoust, and Wel- 
 lington and Blucher . . July 5, 1S15 
 Of Paris, with the allies . April 25, 1818 
 Of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . Oct. 9, 1818 
 Of Austria with England ; the latter 
 agrees to accept 2,500,000!. as a compo- 
 
 sition forclaims on Austria, amounting 
 to 30, 000, 000t. sterling . . . .1824 
 Of England with Russia . Feb. 28, 1825 
 
 Of England and United States Nov. 26, 1S2G 
 Of Spain, for satisfying the claims of 
 
 British merchants . . June 2(3, 1828 
 Of the Viceroy of Egypt and Sir Edward 
 Codrington, for restoring the Greek 
 captives, &c. ... Aug. 6, 1S2S 
 Of France with Brazil . Aug. 14, 1S28 
 
 Convention between Holland and Bel- 
 gium, signed in London . April 19,. 1839 
 Of England with Austria, Russia,' 
 Prussia, and Turkey, for the settle- 
 ment of the eastern question July 15, 1S10 
 Of France and England, respecting the 
 
 Slave Trade .... May 29, 1845 
 Of England with the Argentine republic, 
 
 Oct. 24, 1849 
 See Treaties. 
 
 CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a.d. 270. The 
 first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — Camden. The first 
 in Scotland was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were 
 founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England 
 in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now 
 exist in Great Britain.* More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within 
 the last few years. The emperor of Bussia abolished 187 convents of monks, 
 by an ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and 
 secularised all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 
 convents in Portugal in 1834, and Spain has abolished 1800 convents. 
 
 CONVICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts at Botany Bay was in 1788. On 
 the 20th of January in that year, governor Phillip, the first governor, with about 800 
 convicts under sentence of transportation, took possession of this settlement, but he 
 subsequently removed to Sydney, denominated from lord Sydney, Sydney Cove. 
 Convicts were sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk island, &c. ; and many thousands 
 of them are transferred to penitentiaries, and set to labour in the hulks in several 
 ports of the realm. See New South Wales, and Transportation. 
 
 CONVOCATION of the CLERGY. A general assembly of all the clergy in the nation 
 convened by the sovereign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the Church, and directed 
 to the archbishop of each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, deacons, 
 archdeacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two houses, called the upper, con- 
 sisting of the bishops; and lower, consisting of the deans, prebendaries, arch-deacons, 
 and clergy. The first summoned to meet by writ of the king was 23 Edw. I. 1295. 
 The power of the convocation was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign 
 the convocation was re-organised. The two houses of convocation were deprived of 
 various privileges in 1716. Formal meetings of the clergy in convocation are held 
 annually, and attempts were made since 1853 to introduce discussion on ecclesiastical 
 affairs, but without much effect. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus {Convolvulus Canariensis) came to England 
 
 : In 1597, lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, which flourished there till 1794, when 
 the nuns were compelled to remove to England. They were received by bishop Miluer, and placed at 
 Winchester, at which place they remained till their removal to East Bergholt, in Suffolk, June, 1867. 
 This was the first English conventual establishment founded on the continent after the Reformation, . 
 
COO 182 COP 
 
 from the Canary Isles, 1690. The mauy-flowered convolvulus, in 1779. There are 
 various beautiful specimens of this flower, which are justly esteemed, and although 
 at first rare, now grow in profusion in our gardens. 
 COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavour 
 on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ; * and returned home after having circumnavigated 
 the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the 
 illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook in this voyage. 
 Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July, 1772, and 
 returned in July, 1775. In his third expedition, this great navigator was killed by 
 the savages of O-why-hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of Feb. 14, 1779. His ships, 
 the Resolution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 
 
 COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have 
 been early known in every country. It must have been suggested for preserving 
 wine in the earliest ages, as many household utensils are known to have been gf 
 wood as well as pottery. The earliest writers speak of coopers. The coopers of 
 London were incorporated in 1501. 
 
 COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a.d. 1443. In 1728, more than 
 seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt Its famous palace, valued at four 
 millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In 
 a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and fifty streets were 
 destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord Nelson and 
 admiral Parker ; and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of twenty-three ships 
 of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, 
 after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral 
 Gambier and lord Cathcart, Sept 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of 
 the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval 
 stores. See Denmark. 
 
 COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is supposed to 
 be in the centre and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the planets to move 
 round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, 
 and the diurnal motion which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the 
 earth's motion from west to east. The system was published at Thorn, a.d. 1530 ; 
 and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. 
 
 COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals. Its discovery is said to have preceded 
 that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as 
 gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of 
 it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c, will give a sensible colour to more than 
 500,000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least 
 drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. 
 The mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
 world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms 
 an immense branch of trade : there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where 
 mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. — The Burra Burra copper- 
 mines in S. Australia were discovered in 1842. They have brought great prosperity to 
 that colony. 
 
 COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces 
 of copper for money. See Coin. In England, copper money is of extensive coinage. 
 That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. It was extensively 
 coined in 1665, and again by the Crown, 23 Car. II. 1672. Private traders had done 
 so previously to this act. In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scotland 
 in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage hi Ireland (which see) commenced in 
 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 1797. The half-farthing 
 was coined in 1843; but seems disused. See Farthing. 
 
 * A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advantages 
 which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus 
 over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavour was, in consequence, prepared for that 
 purpose, and the command of her given to lieutenant James Cook. He sailed in July, 1768, touched 
 at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voj-age reached Otaheite, 
 the place of destination, in April, 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit 
 (June 3, 1769) from the various parts of the globe on which it was viewed by men of science, the 
 system of the universe has, in some particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the sun from 
 the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761. is now settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of 
 the commonly received computation of 95,000,000. — Butler. 
 
COP 
 
 183 
 
 COR 
 
 COPPER-PLATE PRINTING was first invented in Germany, about a.d. 1450. Rolling- 
 presses for working the plates were invented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins, of Phila- 
 delphia, invented in 1 SI 9 a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, 
 will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. See Engraving. 
 
 COPPERAS. A vitriolic kind of mineral, found in copper mines, commonly of a green 
 or blue colour; first produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 
 
 COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with 
 Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity, derived from the 
 Eutychians, a sect of the 5th century, ivhich see. 
 
 COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, a.d. 1556. Every book and 
 publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. Ordinance forbidding the printing of any 
 work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a 
 statute enacted 8 Anne, 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 
 17 Geo. Ill .1777. Copyright protection act, 54 Geo. III. 1814. Dramatic authors' 
 protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15, June 1833. The act for preventing the publication 
 of lectures without consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65, Sept. 9, 1835. The act of the 17th 
 Geo. III. extended to Ireland, 7 Will. IV. c. 59, Aug. 13, 1836. International copy- 
 right bill, 1 Vict. 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manufacture protected, 
 2 Vict. c. 13, June 4, 1839. Act to carry into effect a convention with France 
 relating to copyright, 15 Vict, c. 12, passed May 28, 1852. For the important act of 
 1842 regarding literary property, see Literary Property. The important question of 
 a foreigner possessing a copyright in this country was finally decided in the negative 
 by the House of Lords, in August, 1854, which reversed the decision of the Court of 
 Exchequer, on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1831 
 Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of Bellini's opera La Sonnambula, from which 
 Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges were for protecting foreign copy- 
 rights and seven of a contrary opinion.) 
 
 COPYRIGHT, INTERNATIONAL. In 1 838 an act was passed to secure the authors in 
 certain cases the benefits of international copyright (1 & 2 Vict. c. 59), and conven- 
 tions have in consequence been entered into with France, Prussia, &c. In Feb. 1854, 
 a treaty for the same purpose was signed by the representatives of this country and 
 the United States; but in consequence of opposition in the latter country it has not 
 yet been ratified. 
 
 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, merely thongs of leather ; 
 and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third century, and 
 by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed and of horse-hair was also 
 used anciently before that made of hemp. See Hemp. Chain-cables (which also see) 
 are now in use in the British navy and merchant service. 
 
 CORDELIERS, Friars of the order of St. Francis and the same with the Minorites. 
 They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, with a small cowl and cloak of the same 
 material, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, 
 which was first given to them by St. Louis of France, about a.d. 1227. They once 
 had the degree of doctor in the university of Paris, and in that city were all Scotists. 
 
 CORFU, formerly Corcyra (See Corinth) ; capital of the island of the same name. 
 The island of Corfu was placed under British administration, by the treaty of Paris, 
 Nov. 20, 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, over which a British governor 
 presides. The other islands are Cephalonia, Zante, St. Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and 
 Paxo. Sir Thomas Maitland was first high commissioner, May 7, 1816. 
 
 CORINTH. This city was built in 1520, and the kingdom founded by Sisyphus in 1376 
 B.C. In 146 B.C. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was rebuilt by Julius 
 Caesar; and was among the first cities of Greece that embraced the Christian religion. 
 It was defended by a fortress called Acrocorinth, on a summit of a high mountain, 
 surrounded with strong walls. The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, 
 that Cicero named it the Lye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to 
 the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of beiDg the seat of a great empire. 
 
 Corinth built on the ruins of Ephyra 
 (Abbe' lenglet) .... b.c. 1520 
 
 Rebuilt by the king of Sieyon, and first 
 called by its name 1410 
 
 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 
 the city (idem) . . . . . 1376 
 
 The Pythian games instituted, it is said 
 by Sisyphus 1375 
 
 The reign of Bacchis, whose successors 
 are called Bacchidse, in remembrance 
 of the equity of his reign . . . 035 
 
 The Corinthians invent ships called 
 
COR 184 COR 
 
 CORINTH, continued. 
 
 trirenus; vessels consisting' of three i Death of Periander . . . a.d. 585 
 
 benches of oars . . . .a.d. 786 l The Corinthians form a republic . . 688 
 
 Thelestcs deposed, and the government i War witli the Ooreyreans . . . . 439 
 
 of the Piytanes instituted : Automenes The Corinthian war (which see) . . 395 
 
 is the first on whom this dignity is 
 
 conferred 757 
 
 A colony goes to Sicily and they build 
 
 Syracuse 732 
 
 Sea-fight between the Corinthians and 
 
 Corcyreaus 664 
 
 Periander rules, and encourages genius 
 
 and learning 629 
 
 Acrocorinth (citadul) taken by Aratus . 242 
 The Roman ambassadors first appear at 
 
 Corinth 228 
 
 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius, 
 who sends to Italy the first fine paint- 
 ings there seen, they being part of the 
 spoil (Livy) 146 
 
 The history of Corinth may be divided into five periods. The first, as already 
 observed, includes nearly 250 years, under Sisyphus, and his successors called 
 Sisi/phidce ; most of this epoch, particularly the early part of it, is obscure ; of the 
 kings, little is known beyond their names. The second period includes about 320 
 years, under the Heraclidse, called also Bacchidce, from Bacchis, the fourth king of 
 this race. The third epoch comprehends 202 years, under the Prytanes and tyrants. 
 The fourth period exhibits the Corinthians in their most flourishing state as a free 
 republic, aud includes the history of 430 years. In the fifth epoch the Corinthians 
 are seen under the dominion of Rome. 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, aptly 
 called, by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the delicacy, tenderness, 
 and beauty of the whole composition. This order is designed for palaces and other 
 buildings of show and magnificence. Its invention is attributed to Callimachus, 540 
 B.C. See Abacus. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles were 
 mostly fought in the neighbourhood of Corinth, was begun B.C. 395, by a confederacy 
 of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedaemonians. 
 The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra, which see. 
 
 CORK. Built in the sixth century. The principality of the M'Cartys was converted 
 into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. A chapter was granted to the city by 
 Henry III. in 1242 ; its great charter was granted by Charles I. A large part of the 
 town was consumed by an awful fire in 1621. The earl of Marlborough besieged 
 and took Cork from king James's army, in 1690, when the duke of Grafton, a natural 
 son of Charles II., was slain. The cathedral was built by the produce of a coal 
 duty, between the years 1725 and 1735. Explosion of gunpowder here, Nov. 10, 
 1810. One of three colleges, endowed by government pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. 
 c. 66, passed July 31, 1845, was inaugurated in this city, Nov. 7, 1849. See 
 Colleges in Ireland. Cork Industrial Exhibition was opened, June 10, and closed 
 Sept. 11, 1852. 
 
 CORK, SEE of. Its foundation is ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the seventh 
 century. About 1431, this see and that of Cloyne were canonically united ; but on 
 the death of bishop Synge, in 1678, they were separated, the see of Ross having been 
 added to Cork about a century before, a.d. 15S2. No valuation is returned of this 
 see in the king's book; but in a manuscript in Marsh's library, it is taxed 31 Eliz. at 
 40Z. sterling ; and in a MS. in the college library, at 25/. The sees of Cork and 
 Cloyne have been again united by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 CORK-TREE. Called the Quercus suber, and resembling the holm ; it is a species of the 
 oak ; its fruit is an acorn, and its bark, when burned, makes the cork used for 
 stopping bottles, cisks, and other articles. Cork was in vise amongst the ancients. 
 The Egyptians made coffins of cork, which, being lined with a resinous composition, 
 preserved dead bodies uncorrupted. The tree grows in great abundance on the 
 Pyrenean mountains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and in the north of New 
 England. The cork-tree was brought to England before 1690. 
 
 CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught, the art 
 to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. — Arundelian Marbles. The art of 
 husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is 
 attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second 
 monarch of China, 1998 bc — Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of 
 food from the earliest ages of the world, and bakiug bread was known in the 
 patriarchal ages. See Exodus, xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 
 
COR 
 
 185 
 
 COR 
 
 sixth century by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts's Hist. Anc. Britons. The first 
 importation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted 
 on its importation into England in 16S6. Its importation from Ireland into 
 England has long formed a vast brauch of trade. The new London Corn Exchange, 
 Mark-lane, London, was opened June 24, 1828, and was erected at an expense 
 of 90,000Z. 
 CORN-BILLS. Among the many enactments regulating the importation of corn, the 
 most important recent acts have been : A bill to permit the exportation of corn 
 passed in 1814. Act to permit its importation when wheat shall be at eighty shillings 
 per quarter, was passed in 1815. During the discussions on this latter bill, mobs 
 assembled in London, and many of the houses of its supporters were damaged, Jan. 
 28, 1815; and a riot in Westminster continued several days, and occasioned much 
 mischief, March 21, et. seq. same year. The memorable Corn Bill, after passing in the 
 commons, was defeated in the house of lords by a clause, proposed by the duke of 
 Wellington, being carried by a majority of four, June 1, 1827. The act whereby 
 wheat was allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 11. 5s. 8d. per quarter, 
 whenever the average price of all England was under 62s.; from 62s. to 63s. 11. 4s. &d. ; 
 and so gradually reduced to Is., when the average price was 73s. and upwards, was 
 passed July 15, 1828 ; this act was designated as the " Sliding-scale." The act 5th 
 Vict. c. 14, passed 29th April, 1842, also called the "Sliding-scale act," regulated the 
 duty on wheat as follows ; with sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn. We 
 preserve this scale as an historical record : 
 
 Average per quarter. 
 Shillings. Shillings. 
 
 under 51 
 
 51 and under 5'2 
 
 52 aud under 55 
 
 55 and under 56 
 
 56 and under 57 
 
 57 and under 5S 
 5S aud under 59 
 
 Duty. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Jvernae per quarter. 
 Shillings. Shillings. 
 
 59 and under 60 
 
 60 and under 61 
 
 61 and under 62 
 
 62 and under 63 
 
 63 and under 6-1 
 
 64 and under 65 
 
 65 and under 66 
 
 
 Duty. 
 
 * 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Aver ige per quarter. 
 Shillings. Shillings. 
 
 66 and under 69 
 
 69 and under 70 
 
 70 and under 71 
 
 71 and under 72 
 
 72 and under 73 
 
 73 and upwards. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 £ 
 
 s 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 The Corn Importation bill (the great popular measure of sir Robert Peel), granting 
 a free trade in corn, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22, passed 26th June, 1846. By this act the duty 
 on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported at or above 53s. until 1st Feb. 1849 ; 
 after which day the duty became Is. per quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported 
 into the United Kingdom, at any prices. 
 
 CORN-LAWS. ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE. From metropolitan and provincial anti- 
 corn-law associations sprang the league, headed by Mr. Cobden and others. Meetings 
 were held in various places in March aud April, 1841. A meeting of a disturbed 
 character was held at Manchester, May 18, same year. A bazaar held at Manchester, 
 at which the league realised 10,000£. Feb. 2, 1842. About 600 deputies connected 
 with provincial associations assembled in Loudon, and held meetings from Feb. until 
 Aug 1842. The League at Manchester proposed to raise 50,000^., to depute lecturers 
 throughout the country, and to print pamphlets, Oct. 20, same year. Meetings 
 commenced at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843. Series of Monthly meetings at 
 Coveut-garden commenced Sept. 28 ; and great free-trade meeting at Manchester, 
 Nov. 14, same year. Again, Jan. 22, 1845. Bazaar at Covent-garden opened, May 5, 
 1845. Great Manchester meeting, at which the League proposed to raise a quarter of 
 a million sterling, Dec. 23, same year. The Corn Importation bill having passed, the 
 League was formally dissolved, July 2, 1346 ; and Mr. Cobden was rewarded by a 
 national subscription, amounting to nearly 80,000Z.* 
 
 CORNWALL. Originally called Kernou, a term connected with the Latin Comu, a 
 horn, in allusion to its numerous promontories or projecting points. On the retreat 
 of the ancient Britons, Cornwall was formed into a kiugdom, which existed for many 
 years under different princes, among whom were Ambrosius Aurelius, and the cele- 
 brated Arthur. It was erected into a dukedom by Edward III. in 1336, and the heir 
 to the crown of England, if a prince, is born duke of Cornwall, but is immediately 
 afterwards created prince of Wales. 
 
 CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop was that of Majocianus, at Constan- 
 tinople, in a.d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introduced into 
 
 * On the appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival of the anti-corn-law league was proposed 
 at a meeting held at Manchester, March 2, 1852, and a subscription for the purpose was opened, which 
 produced within half an hour 27,520!. But subsequently, the reconstruction of the league was deemed 
 to be unnecessary. 
 
COR 186 COR 
 
 England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, 
 in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, Oct. 28, 1216. A plain circle 
 ■was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, which had been lost with the other 
 jewels and baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near 
 Wisbeach. At the coronation of William and Mary, the bishop of London put the 
 crown on the king's head, as Dr. Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, would not take 
 the oaths to their majesties. George IV. was crowned July 19, 1821. William IV. 
 crowned, with his queen, Sept. 8, 1831 ; and Victoria, June 28, 1838. 
 
 CORONATION CHAIR. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly the metropolis of the 
 kings of Munster, was deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Sione, on which they were 
 crowned. In a.d. 513, Fergus, a prince of the royal line, having obtained the 
 Scottish throne, procured the use of this stone for his coronation at Dunstaffnage, 
 where it continued until the time of Kenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 
 1296, it was removed by Edward I. from Scone to Westminster. Edward wishing to 
 annex Scotland to his own dominions, dethroned John Baliol, ravaged the country, 
 and seized this stone, among other monuments of Scottish history. 
 
 CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the kings of 
 England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards canonised), to 
 Ethel red II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was 
 administered in 1377; it was altered in 16S9. The fetes given at coronations com- 
 menced with Edward I. king in 1272. That at the coronation of George IV. rivalled 
 the extravagancies and sumptuousness of former times. 
 
 CORONEA, BATTLE of. Fought in the first year of the Corinthian war. The 
 Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive 
 and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms, from 
 his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town of 
 Bceotia, and achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C. — Corn. Nepos. 
 
 CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a.d. 925. Coroners for every county 
 in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I. 1276. — Stove. 
 Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II. about 1004. By an 
 act passed in the 6 & 7 Vict, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, 
 but only in case of illness, Aug. 22, 1843. 
 
 CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of 
 the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III. ; for viscounts 
 by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. But authorities conflict. 
 Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a 
 coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses 
 were settled. — Idem. 
 
 CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among 
 the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from Italy. These political 
 bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival 
 factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting separate societies of every manual 
 trade and profession. — Plutarch. 
 
 CORPORATIONS, MUNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorised by the 
 king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who 
 are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive in law, any matter within the 
 compass of their charter. — Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights 
 granted by the kings of England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. 
 Henry I. granted charters, a.d. 1100: and succeeding monarchs gave corporate 
 powers, and extended them to numerous large communities throughout the realm, 
 subject to tests, oaths and conditions. — Blackstone. The Corporation and Test Act 
 Repeal bill passed 9 Geo. IV. c. 17, May, 1828. The Corporation Reform bill, for the 
 regulation of municipal corporations in England and Wales, passed 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 
 76, Sept. 9, 1835. The Irish Municipal Corporation bill, altering the entire structure 
 of corporations in Ireland, passed 4 Vict. c. 108, Aug. 10, 1840. 
 
 CORPULENCY. The most extraordinary instances of corpulency occur in England, 
 where many persons are loaded with flesh or fat. — Cornaro. In Germany some fat 
 monks have weighed eighteen stone. — Render. Of modern instances known in this 
 country, was Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, of Maiden, in Essex, who died 
 in the 29th year of his age. Seven persons of the common size were with ease 
 enclosed in his waistcoat. He was buried at All Saints, Maiden, Nov. 12, 1750. 
 
COR 187 COS 
 
 Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, died in his 
 40th year, at Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing ten stone more than Mr. Bright, 
 June 21, 1809. He is said to have weighed 52 stone, 11 pounds, James Mansfield 
 died at Debden, Nov. 9, 1856, aged 82, weighing 33 stone, 14 pounds. 
 
 CORREGIDOR. An officer of justice in Spain, and in the countries subject to the 
 Spanish government, acting as the chief judicial minister in a town or province ; the 
 office existed before the name, which is referred to the fifteenth century. A similar 
 functionary heads the police magistracy in Portugal. 
 
 CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. A preparation of quicksilver which, when impregnated 
 with acids and sublimed to the top, is called corrosive sublimate, from its deadly 
 eating and corroding nature. — Hist. Physic. A compound, in chemistry, which is 
 200 of mercury and 72 of chlorine ; this preparation is said to have been known to 
 the Arabians so early as the tenth century. — Ashe. 
 
 CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this island were 
 savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca 
 when he lived among them. It was held by the Carthaginians, and was conquered 
 by the Romans, 231 B.C. In modern times, Corsica was dependent upon the republic 
 of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom 
 under Theodore, its first and only king, in 1736.* The celebrated Pascal Paoli was 
 chosen for their general by the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count 
 de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. The people acknowledged Geo. III. of England 
 for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and he 
 opened a parliament in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June, 1796 ; and the 
 island was relinquished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, when the people declared 
 for the French. 
 
 CORTES of SPAIN". A deliberative assembly under the old constitution of Spain; 
 several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a long interval of 
 years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and they settled the new constitution, March 16, 1812. This 
 constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII. who banished many members of the 
 assembly in May, 1814. The cortes or states-general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 
 1820, and have since been regularly convened. — See Spain. 
 
 CORUNNA, BATTLE of. The British army, under the command of sir John Moore, 
 amounting to about 15,000 men, had just accomplished a safe retreat when they were 
 attacked by the French, whose force exceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely 
 repulsed, but the loss of the British in the battle was immense. The illustrious and 
 honoured hero in command was struck by a cannon-ball, which carried away his left 
 shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hanging by the flesh ; he died 
 in the arms of victory, universally lamented. In the evening of the day of battle, 
 the remains of the army hastily embarked at Corunna, Jan. 16, 1809. 
 
 CORYBANTICA, FESTIVALS of. Held at Gnossus, in Crete, in commemoration of 
 the Coiybantes, priests of Cybele : they first inhabited Mount Ida, and from thence 
 passed into Crete, where they are said to have secretly educated Jupiter. — Horace. 
 In the celebration of these festivals they beat their cymbals in the dance, and acted 
 as if delirious, 1546 B.C. — Thucydides. 
 
 CORYPHAEUS. The name given to the principal of those who compose the chorus in 
 the ancient tragedy ; and now a general name for a chief or principal of any company. 
 — South. This appellative occurs in describing the choruses taught by Tysias, after- 
 wards named Stesichorus, on account of his having been the first who instructed the 
 chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. 
 
 COSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, and some 
 authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Grecian stage. The 
 Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in heightening their charms arti- 
 
 * He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for 
 many years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insol- 
 vency in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, and died 
 the same year at his lodgings in Soho. The Earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet 
 near his grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street : — 
 
 " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
 
 Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
 
 But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
 
 Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
 
 Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
 
COS 188 COT 
 
 ficially, by juices and colours, and by perfumes. Rouge has always been in disrepute 
 among virtuous women of England, though some simple cosmetics are regarded as 
 innocent and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint 
 more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on cosmetics, 
 perfumery, and such medicines as really or supposititiously beautify the skin, or per- 
 fume the person, and the venders were obliged to take out licences, 25th Geo. III. 1786. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, and 
 relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a plane. — 
 Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography: the earliest accounts of 
 the former occur 2234 B.C. — Blair, The first record of the latter is from Homer, who 
 describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on 
 Astronomy and Geography respectively. 
 
 COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and 
 Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of 
 Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Stephen Batori, in 1576, to defend 
 the frontiers of Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. In the late great war of 
 Europe against France, a vast body of Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian 
 armies, and fought almost invincibly. 
 
 COSTA RICA. A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been much 
 disturbed by the American Filibusters. See Nicaragua, and Central America. 
 
 COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote antiquity. 
 The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and gi-aceful. The women 
 of Cos, whose country was famous for the silkworm, wore a manufacture of cotton 
 and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, and their garments, which were always 
 white, were so clear and thin, that their bodies could be seen through them. — Ovid. 
 As relates to costume worn on the stage, iEschylus the Athenian was, it is said, the 
 first who erected a regular stage for his actors, and ordered their dresses to be suited 
 to their characters, about 436 B.C. — Parian Marbles. 
 
 COTTAGER'S STOVE. This useful invention was designed by captain John Grant,* 
 registered Dec. 1849, and presented by him to the Metropolitan Association for 
 improving the dwellings of the industrious classes. It requires no fixing, is extremely 
 simple in its construction, and all the operations of cooking may be carried on with 
 any description of fuel. 100 lbs. of meat and 115 lbs. of vegetables have been cooked 
 in one of these stoves, with less than 20 lbs. of coal. 
 
 COTTAGES in ENGLAND. The English cottage is, perhaps, the happiest dwelling on 
 the earth, and its cleanly hearth and general aspect and economy indicate the social 
 order of its inmates ; even though homely it is full of comforts and the abode of con- 
 tentment. — Richardson. The home of the husbandman has considerably improved in 
 England in the last century. — Ball. The term cottage originally applied to a small 
 house without land, 4 Edward I. 1275. " No man may build a cottage, except in 
 towns, unless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c. 31 Eliz. 1589. This statute was 
 repealed, 15 Geo. III. 1774. By returns to the Tax office, in 1786, the number of 
 cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was 428,214 ; the number in 1840 was 
 about 770,000. There are no data to show the amount since. 
 
 COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of a shrub growing naturally in tropical 
 climates, whence it has been transplanted to the United States of America, which 
 produced in 1824-5, 560,000 bales, and in 1S47-8, 2,347,634 bales. The method of 
 spinning cotton formerly was by the hand; but about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of 
 Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny with eight spindles ; he also erected the 
 first carding-machine with cylinders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a 
 new invention of machinery in 1769; and another patent for an engine in 1775. 
 Crompton invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manu- 
 facture of cotton, in 1779 ; and various other improvements have been since made. 
 The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in connection with this 
 vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that more than one thousand 
 millions sterling have been yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' 
 
 * Captain Grant devised a system of cooking for Aldershott, which has continued in successful 
 operation for the service of between 12,000 and 14,000 men, for these last twenty months (May, 1857;. 
 From April to August, in the last year, it was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 men, 
 who marched in and out of the encampment during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite 
 for this system of cooking is one half-pound of coal per man per day, and the official report states the 
 cost to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three daily meals. 
 
COT 
 
 cou 
 
 utensils were prohibited from being exported in 1774. There have passed of late 
 years many important acts regulating cotton factories, and particularly relating to 
 the employment of children; among these are the acts of 6 Geo. IV. 1825; 2 Will. 
 IV. 1831 ; 4 Will. IV. Aug. 1833, and 7 Vict. June, 1844. 
 
 COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed with great labour, and judgment by sir Robert 
 Cotton, a.d. 1600 et seq. After having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of 
 the republicans during the protectorate, it was secured to the public by a statute, 
 13 Will. III. 1701. It was removed to Essex-house in 1712 ; and in 1730 to Dean's- 
 yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by 
 fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 
 
 COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to whom we 
 are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the business of the nation, 
 that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to 
 which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all 
 affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and 
 nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those 
 whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly 
 of the nation, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a 
 right to sit, independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of 
 the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the term 
 Cabinet Council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clarendon. See 
 Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privy Council, &c. 
 
 COUNCILS of the CHURCH. The following are among the most memorable Christian 
 councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which 
 would make a volume) either respected national churches or ecclesiastical govern- 
 ment. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. 
 
 Of the Apostles at Jerusalem . .a.d. 50 
 Of the western bishops at Aries, iu 
 
 France, to suppress the Danatists; 
 
 three f.ithers of the English church 
 
 attendei 314 
 
 The first (Ecumenical or General Niceue, 
 
 held at Nice (Constantino the Great 
 
 presided), on the con-substantiality of 
 
 the Son of God; Arianism condemned. 
 
 This council composed the Niceue 
 
 creed 325 
 
 At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- 
 
 sius was canvassed .... 335 
 The first held at Constantinople, when 
 
 the Arian heresy gained ground . . 337 
 At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 
 
 lasted eighteen months . . . 312 
 At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended, Allans 
 
 coudemned 34V 
 
 Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 
 
 Constantine obliged them to sign a 
 
 new confession of faith . . . 359 
 
 The second General at Constantinople : 
 
 350 bishops attended, and pope Dama- 
 
 sius presided 3S1 
 
 The third at Ephesus, when pope Celes- 
 
 tine presided 431 
 
 Fourth at Chalcedon : the emperor Mar- 
 
 ciau and his empress attended . . 451 
 The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 
 
 Vigilius presided 553 
 
 The sixth at Constantinople, when pope 
 
 Agatho presided 6S0 
 
 Authority of the six general councils 
 
 re-established by Theodosius . .715 
 The second Niceue council, seventh 
 
 General : 350 bishops attended . . 7S7 
 Of Constantinople, eighth General : the 
 
 emperor Basil attended . . . S69 
 Of Clermont, in France, convened by 
 
 Urban II. to authorise the crusades; 
 
 310 bishops attended .... 1094 
 The first Lateran, the ninth General ; 
 
 the right ot investiture settled by 
 treaty between pope Calixtus II. aud 
 the emperor Henry V. . . a.d. 1122 
 
 The second Lateran, tenth General ; In- 
 nocent II. presided : the preservation 
 of Qie temporalities of ecclesiastics, 
 the principal subject, which occasion- 
 ed the attendance of 1000 fathers of 
 the church 1139 
 
 The third Lateran, eleventh General : 
 • held against schismatics . . . 1179 
 
 Fourth Latei-an, twelfth General : 400 
 bishops and 1000 aboots attended: In- 
 nocent III. presided .... 1215 
 
 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
 pope Innocent IV 1245 
 
 Of Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
 Gregory X 1274 
 
 Of Vienne in Dauphine", the fifteenth 
 General : Clement V presided, and the 
 kiugs of France and Aragon attended. 
 The order of the Knight-Templars 
 suppressed 1311 
 
 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General : Gregory 
 XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and 
 Alexander elected .... 1409 
 
 Of Constance, the seventeenth General : 
 Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
 Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
 demned to be burnt . ... 
 
 Of Basil, the eighteenth General . 
 
 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
 ral : begun by Julius II. ... 
 
 Continued under Leo X. for the sup- 
 pression of the pragmatic sanction of 
 France, against the council of Pisa, 
 <fec , till 
 
 Of Trent, the twentieth and last General 
 council, styled Oecumenical, as regard- 
 ing the affairs of all the Christian 
 world ; it was held to condemn the 
 doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
 Zuiuglius, aud Calvin. — Abbi Lenglet . 1545 
 
 1414 
 1431 
 
 1512 
 
 1517 
 
 COUNCILS, FRENCH REPUBLICAN. The council of Ancients was an assembly of 
 revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, 
 
COU 190 COU 
 
 together with the council of Five Hundred : the executive was a Directory of Five. 
 Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, declaring 
 himself, Roger Ducos, and Sidyes, consuls provisoires. See France. 
 
 COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel are supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. 
 Advocates are referred to the time of Edward I. but earlier mention is made of 
 them. Counsel were certainly employed in the previous reign. Counsel who were 
 guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. 
 I. 1284. Counsel were allowed to persons charged with treason by act 8 Will. III. 
 1696. Act to enable persons indicted for felony to make their defence by counsel, 
 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 114, passed Aug. 1836. 
 
 COUNTIES. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king 
 Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division 
 of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the 
 reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to parliament, before which period 
 knights met in their own counties, 1285. See Commons, and Parliament. 
 
 COUNTY DEBT-COURTS.* These are courts first instituted for the recovery of debts 
 under 201., superseding courts of requests. The counties of England and Wales are 
 divided into sixty districts, each district having a county court, and a barrister as 
 judge, and juries sworn when necessary. Established under act 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95, 
 Aug. 1846. These courts having been found to work well, their jurisdiction was 
 extended by 13 & 16 Vict. c. 61, Aug. 1850, to sums not exceeding 501. and their 
 proceedings facilitated by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 54, June 30, 1852, and 17 & 18 Vict. c. 16, 
 June 2, 1854. In 1850, the number of plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
 circuits, was 306,793, for 1, 265,1 151. ; the number of causes tried was 217,173, and of 
 these 4297 were for sums between 201. and 501. — Official Returns. 
 
 COURIERS, or Posts. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Hero- 
 dotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does not appear 
 that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they 
 travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in 
 France by Charlemagne, about a.d. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were 
 established in the early part off the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this 
 monarch's extraoi'dinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the 
 kind in Europe, a.d. 1463. — Renault. 
 
 COURT PARTY— COUNTRY PARTY. The latter was usually directly opposed in 
 sentiment and opinions to the former, and was a class of politicians of very fluctuating 
 numbers and varying power, in the parliamen,ts of England. The country party took 
 its rise as early as 1620, and became considerable during the disputes of the king and 
 commons. At the end of the 17th century it embodied the high toryism and 
 high church principles of the day, with a strenuous maintenance of the assumed 
 rights of "the land," as opposed to the innovations of Whiggism and the corruptions 
 of the trading or moneyed interests. The most distinguished statesman of the 
 Country Party was sir Thomas Hanmer (the Montalto of Pope's Satires), who died 
 in 1746.— Ashe. 
 
 COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. See Areopagitce. There 
 were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 B.C. — Blair. They 
 existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. For courts of 
 justice in these realms, see CJianccry, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, &c. 
 The citizens of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
 judicature, without employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. 
 III. 1257. — Stowes Chron. The rights of the courts of law of Ireland were esta- 
 blished by a British act of parliament, in April, 1783, 23 Geo. III. c. 28. 
 
 COURT BARON. An ancient court which every lord of a manor may hold by prescrip- 
 tion, and which he may keep in some part of the manor. The court baron is supposed 
 to have originated with the distinction of nobility. In this court, duties, heriots, 
 and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. 
 
 COURT of HONOUR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
 
 * County-courts, or schyremotes. are of such remote antiquity that, their origin is lost. In the 
 time of the Sarins they were the most important tribunals in this country. Alfred is said to have 
 divided England into counties, and counties into hundreds ; but the county-courts, the creation of 
 which is generally attributed to him, would seem to have existed at a period long anterior to his 
 reign, and to have been an essential part of the Saxon judicial system. 
 
COU 191 COV 
 
 chancellor was a judge, was called Curia Militaris, iti the time of Henry IV. and 
 subsequently the Court of Honour. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent 
 duelling, a court of honour was instituted in April, 1819. In these countries, Mr. 
 Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently laboured to establish similar institutions. 
 
 COURT LEET. A court of record, belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
 encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also offences 
 against the crown. The steward is the judge, and all persons residing _ within the 
 hundred (peers, clergymen, &c. excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 
 
 COURT of REQUESTS. This court, which is also called a Court of Conscience, was 
 first instituted in the reign of Henry VII. 1493, and was remodelled by a statute of 
 Henry VIII. in 1517. — Stowe. Established for the summary recovery of small debts 
 under forty shillings, but in the city of London, the jurisdiction extends to debts of 
 five pounds. — Ashe. There were courts of requests in the principal corporate towns 
 throughout the kingdom, until 1847, when they were superseded (those of the city 
 of London only excepted) by the County Debt-Courts, whose jurisdiction, extending 
 at first to 201. was enlarged in 1850 to 501. See County Courts. 
 
 COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons who in 
 the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually 
 engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was 
 entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland was 
 formed in 1643 ; and was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Chas. II., 1662. 
 
 COVENT GARDEN. So called from having been formerly the garden of St. Peter's 
 convent. The square was built about 1633, and its noble piazza on the north side 
 was designed by Inigo Jones. The shops, stalls, and stores of the fruit and vegetable 
 markets were rebuilt in 1829-30 from the designs of Mr. Fowler. They occupy about 
 three acres of ground belonging to the duke of Bedford. 
 
 COVENT GARDEN THEATRE. This theatre sprang out of the celebrated one in 
 Lincoln's-inn-fields, and is indebted for its origin to a patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, 
 to sir Wdliam Davenant, whose company was denominated the duke's servants, as a 
 compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II. The theatre which preceded 
 the last was first opened by the celebrated Rich, about 1732, but after under- 
 going several alterations, was destroyed by fire, Sept. 20, 1808. The last theatre 
 was erected during the ensuing year, the first stone having been laid by the prince of 
 Wales, Dec. 31, 1808, and it opened Sept. 18, 1809, with Macbeth. The memorable 
 O. P. riot, on account of the increased prices of admission, commenced on the first 
 night, and did not terminate until Dec. 10 following. The Covent Garden Theatrical 
 Fund was instituted in 1765. This theatre was opened as an Italian opera-house, April 
 6, 1847. — It was totally destroyed by fire, which broke out about five o'clock in 
 the morning of March 5, 1856, at the close of a bal-masque", conducted by Mr. Anderson, 
 the Wizard of the North, which had lasted two days. A new theatre is about to be 
 erected. See Drama, Theatres, Sec. 
 
 COVENTRY. Leofrie, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, about a.d. 1040, is said to have 
 relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of 
 her riding naked through the streets, about 1057. A parliament was held here in 
 the reign of Henry IV. called parliamentum indoctum, or the unlearned parliament, 
 because lawyers were excluded ; and in the reign of Henry VI. another senatorial 
 congress took place at Coventry, which was afterwards called parliamentum diabolicum 
 from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others. The town is 
 well built, and was surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and 
 twenty-six towers, which were demolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. 
 
 COVENTRY ACT. Sir John Coventry, K. B. and a member of parliament, was 
 attacked, wounded, and maimed in the streets of London, and his nose slit, by sir 
 Thomas Sandys and others, his adherents, on Christmas-day, Dec. 25, 1670. This 
 outrage caused a bill, named the Coventry act, to be passed on March 6 following, to 
 prevent malicious maiming and wounding, 22 Charles II. 1671. — Salmon. 
 
 COVENTRY, BISHOPRIC of. Founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, ad. 656. This see 
 had the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by the later 
 bishops. It was so extremely wealthy, that king OfFa, by the favour of pope Adrian, 
 made it archiepiscopal ; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 
 1075 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102, to Coventry; and afterwards to its 
 original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. 
 
COW 192 CRA 
 
 The dispute was finally settled in a manner nearly similar to that mentioned between 
 Bath and Wells, and afterwards the see was called that of Lichfield and Coventry. 
 But Coventiy has lately altogether merged into the bishopric of Lichfield. See 
 Lichfield. Coventry has given three saints to the Church of Rome. — Lteatson. 
 
 COW-POCK INOCULATION. See Inoculation, Small Pox, Vaccination. 
 
 CRACOW. The Poles elected Cracus for their duke, and he built Cracow with the spoils 
 taken from the Franks, a.d. 700 et seq. Cracow taken by Charles XII. in 1702. 
 Taken and retaken several times by the Eussians and confederates on the one side, 
 and the patriotic people on the other. The sovereign was cronwed at Cracow until 
 1764. Kosciusko expelled the Russians from the city, March 24, 1794 ; but it 
 surrendered to the Prussians, June 15 same year. Cracow was formed into a 
 republic in 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, wbo followed here the defeated 
 Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, 
 and incorporated (as before 1809) with the Austrian empire, Nov. 16, 1846.* A 
 dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, July 18, 1850. 
 
 CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. 
 The crane is used for lifting goods out of or into a sbip, or a warehouse, when the 
 latter is above the level of the ground. To Archimedes also belong the theory of the 
 inclined plane, and the invention of the pulley, &c. 220 B.C. — Liry. 
 
 CRANIOLOGY (afterwards Phrenology). Names given to the study of the external form 
 of the human skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the 
 first propounder of this branch of knowledge, was a German physician, born March, 1 758. 
 His first observations were among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads 
 of criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the 
 skull like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna in 1796. In 1802 the Austrian 
 government prohibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim; and 
 in 1810-12 they published at Paris their great work on the " Anatomy and Physiology 
 of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." Whatever opinion may be 
 entertained of phrenology, there is no doubt that the reseai'ches of Gall and 
 Spurzheim have contributed greatly to physiological science, animal and mental. 
 Combe's "Phrenology " is the popular English work on this subject. A Phreno- 
 logical Society was formed in London. 
 
 CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of English martyrs 
 of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
 Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555 ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, March 21, 1556. His love of life bad induced Cranmer, some time previously, 
 in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; 
 and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched 
 forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be 
 consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy 
 hand ! " Raising bis eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
 martyr of the Christian Church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit ! " See Martyrs. 
 
 CRANON, BATTLES of. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus were 
 victorious over the confederated Greeks, whom they defeated twice by sea, and once 
 by land, near Cranon. The Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their 
 orators to death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the 
 secrets of his country when under torture, cut out his tongue, 322, B.C. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 CRAPE. A light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the 
 mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by 
 St. Badour, when queen of France, about a.d. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and 
 in modern times has been principally used for mourning. 
 
 CRAVANT. John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, was besieging this place 
 in 1423, when it was relieved by the earl of Salisbury with an army of English and 
 Burgundians ; after a severe contest, the French were totally defeated. 
 
 CRAYONS. Substances of all colours, made into paste, and dried into pencils, to draw 
 upon paper. — Pardon. They were known in France about a.d. l-isi; and were 
 improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 
 
 * This annexation was subsequently protested against by England, France, Sweden, and Turkey ; 
 but soon afterwards the kingdom of Poland was incorporated with the Russian empire, and made 
 thenceforth a Russian province. 
 
CUE 193 CRE 
 
 CREATION" of the WORLD. It is placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 4004 B.C. 
 Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees with the common 
 Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are 
 about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation ; some place it 3616 years before 
 the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dialogue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated 
 Atalantis to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which 
 he wrote. The Chinese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of 
 thousands of years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient 
 Chaldeans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. 
 
 CREATION, ERA of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found con- 
 venient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after 
 any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period ; but unfor- 
 tunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. The epoch is 
 fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B.C. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The 
 authors of the Talmud make it 5344 ; and different chronologers, to the number of 
 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixes it at 5411 ; but 
 the Roman Catholic Church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, 
 a correction as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now generally 
 considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER. A society with this name was established at Paris, Nov. 18, 
 1852, by Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others. It is a joint-stock company, and takes 
 up or originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle of 
 commandite, or limited liabilities; and is authorised to supersede or buy in any other 
 companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the. 
 ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-ujj capital of 
 2§ million sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and 
 the receipt of money on deposit or current account. The society has apparently 
 prospered up to the present time (1857) ,' but is, nevertheless, considered by 
 experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716, and likely to end 
 disastrously. 
 
 CREED. See ApostleJ, Nicene, and other creeds. 
 
 CRESCENT. A symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device 
 of the city Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it after 
 capturing the city. The title has been taken by three orders of knighthood; founded 
 1st, by Charles I. of Naples ; 2nd, by Rene" of Anjou, in 1448 ; 3rd, by the Sultan 
 Selim in 1801 ; the last is still in existence, and to it none but Christians are admissible. 
 
 CRESSY, or CRECY, BATTLE of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Edward 
 the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, 
 Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English 
 arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
 (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, 
 wei"e slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of 
 Bohemia, three ostrich feathers, with the motto " Ich Dien," in English, " I serve," 
 has, in memory of this victory, since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of 
 England. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. 
 
 CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the 
 sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to 
 the Carians. In English heraldry are several representations of Richard I. 1189, 
 with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers ; and after his reign most 
 of the English kings have crowns above their helmets; that of Richard II., 1377, was 
 surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity. In later reigns the crest was regularly 
 borne as well on the helmets of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 
 See Cressy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a plume of feathers, by way of 
 crest; and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of 
 James I. by a lion, 1424. From this period crests appear to have been very generally 
 borne both in England and Scotland. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the 
 palmy days of heraldry, the crest was described to be, as it still is, a figure placed 
 upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance.— 6r«;iZK»t. 
 
 CRETE. Now Candia, which see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, 
 and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 B.C. Some 
 authors reckoned the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 
CRI 194 CRI 
 
 Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 B.C. It was conquered by the Sara- 
 cens, a.d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 
 1194 ; and was taken from them by the Turks in 1669.— Priestley. 
 
 CRIME. It has been computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the United 
 Kingdom live by crime. The increase in education and manufactures is gradually 
 reducing this proportion. 
 
 CONVICTIONS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 Ill 1847 
 
 . 21,542 persons 
 
 In 1852 . 
 
 . . 21,304 persons 
 
 ,, 1S48 . 
 
 . . 22,900 
 
 ,, 1853 
 
 . 20,756 
 
 „ 1849 
 
 . 21,001 
 
 ,, 1854 . 
 
 . . 23,047 „ 
 
 „ 1850 . 
 
 . . 20,537 ,, 
 
 „ 1855 
 
 . 19,971 
 
 „ 1851 
 
 . 21,579 
 
 „ 1856 . 
 
 . . 14,734 
 
 In 1850, there were committed for trial in England, 26,183; in Ireland, 31,326; in Scotland, 
 4,468. 
 
 In 1856 the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 194,9122. 4s. 8<l. Sixteen persons 
 were executed for murder in 1856, of whom four were foreigners. 2,666 persons were 
 liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. On Feb. 17, 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated 58 were 
 believed to be living honestly. 
 
 An act for improving the criminal law of England passed 8 Geo. IV. 1827. An act 
 for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Peel's 
 digest, passed 9 Geo. IV. 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 
 4 Will. IV. 1834. Various statutes have since passed or been amended in relation to 
 the criminal laws of the United Kingdom. 
 
 CRIMEA, or CRIM TARTARY, a peninsula in the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient 
 Taurica Chersonesus. Colonised by the Greeks about B.C. 550. The Milesians founded 
 the kingdom of Bosporos, now Kertch, which eventually formed part of the dominions 
 of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under 
 Roman protection till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c. About a.d. 1237, it fell 
 into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians esta- 
 blished commercial stations, with a lucrative trade ; but were supplanted by the 
 Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and fortify KafFa. In 1475 Mahomet II. 
 expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting 
 the government to remain in the hands of the native Khans, but closing the Black 
 Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., 
 the Crimea recovered its independence : but on the abdication of the Khan in 1 783, 
 the Russians, with a large army, took possession of the country, which was secured 
 to them, after a war with Turkey, by a treaty of peace in 1791. The Crimea, now 
 Taurida, was divided into eight governments, in 1802. — War having been declared by 
 England and France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent 
 to the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c, sailed for Varna, 
 where they disembarked May 29th. The expedition against the Crimea having been 
 determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 
 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed 
 from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at 
 Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked 
 the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong (under Prince Menschikoff), entrenched 
 on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians 
 were totally routed. See Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 
 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea in July following. 
 
 CRIMPING-HOUSES. These were houses in London and other towns, used for the 
 purpose of entrapping persons into the army ; and hence the name of " crimp 
 serjeant." In a riot in London, some of these receptacles were destroyed by the 
 populace, in consequence of the death of a young man who had been enticed into one 
 of them, and who was killed in his endeavours to escape from it, Sept. 16, 1794. 
 They were again attacked in London by large mobs the next year ; but they were 
 saved by the military. 
 
 CRIPPLEGATE, LONDON. This well-known locality was so called, from the lame 
 beggars who sat there, so early as the year 1010. The gate was new-built by the 
 brewers of London, in 1244 ; and was pulled down and sold for ninety-one pounds in 
 July, 1760. See article London GaUs. 
 
 CRISPIN. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from 
 whence, it is said, they travelled to Soissons, in France, about a.d. 303, to propagate 
 
CRI 195 CRO 
 
 the Christian religion ; and because they would not bo chargeable to others for their 
 maintenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town 
 discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded. On this account, 
 the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them for their tutelar saints. 
 
 CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 B.C. — Blair. Of this class were 
 Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the 
 Journal des Scavans was the earliest work of the system of periodical criticism, as it 
 is now known. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the 
 parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30, 1655, and continued 
 for nearly a century. The first work of this kind, in England, was called the Review 
 of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The 
 Waies of Literature was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. See 
 Reviews.- — The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb. 
 1794, when an action, that excited great attention, brought by an author against 
 a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was determined in favour of the 
 defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just, and not malicious, 
 is allowable. 
 
 CROCKERY- WARE. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and 
 Greeks, so early as 1390 B.C. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of 
 their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in 
 various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, about a.d. 1310 ; and it is 
 still called fayence in French. See Earthenware. 
 
 CROPREDY-BRIDGE, BATTLE of, Fought in the civil war between the forces of 
 Charles and those of the parliament, June 6, 1644. We believe that this engagement 
 led to no decisive success on either side; for we find the victory claimed by some 
 accounts for the royal army, and by others for the parliamentarians. 
 
 CROSIER. A staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop. The pastoral 
 staff, or bishop's staff, with which it is often confounded, was in the form of a 
 shepherd's crook, intended to admonish the prelate to be a true spiritual shepherd. 
 The custom of bearing a pastoral staff or crosier before ecclesiastical dignitaries is 
 very ancient, as appears from the life of St. Csesarea of Aries, who lived about a.d. 
 500. A religious order is so called, because they carry a staff with a cross at the 
 end. — Pardon. 
 
 CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been 
 found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, by St. Helena, May 3, a.d. 328. Three 
 crosses were found; and certain writers affirm that that of Our Saviour was distinguished 
 from those of the thieves by a sick woman being immediately cured upon touching 
 it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jeru- 
 salem ; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle), 
 Sept. 14, 615, and that day has been since commemorated as a festival. It is asserted 
 by Church writers that a shining cross, two miles in length, was seen in the heavens 
 by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his standards, with the inscription, 
 "In hoc signo vinces;" "In this sign thoushalt conquer." It is added that in a 
 dream Christ commanded him to do this. *With these standards he advanced under 
 the walls of Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, driving his army into the Tiber, 
 Oct. 27, 312.— Lenglet. 
 
 CROSS, SIGN of the, &c. First practised by the Christians, thereby to distinguish 
 themselves from the Pagans, about a.d. 110. The Exaltation of the Holy Cross 
 (Exaltatio Cruris), a feast held on the 14th Sept. was instituted on the restoration of 
 the cross to Mount Calvary, in 642. — Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
 women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, instituted in 1265. 
 The Order of the Cross was instituted by the empress Eleonora de Gonzaga, queen 
 of Leopold I. being an order of the higher rank, founded in 1668. 
 
 CROSSED CHEQUES. See Drafts. 
 
 CROSSES. Painted crosses in churches and chambers were introduced about the year 
 431. Crosses were first set up on steeples in 568. They were erected in England in 
 honour of queen Eleanor, in the places where her hearse rested : she died in 1296, 
 and these monuments were set up between that date and 1307. Crosses and 
 idolatrous pictures were removed from churches, and crosses in the streets demolished 
 by order of parliament, 17 Charles I. 1641. 
 
 02 
 
CRO 196 CRU 
 
 CROW, The. The well-known ravenous bird, the can-ion crow, was anciently thought 
 to be a bird of bad omen. "Its croaking forebodes rain." — Virgil. An act was 
 passed for the destruction of crows in England (which breeds more of them, it is 
 said, than any other country in Europe), 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently 
 employed as letter-bearers, as carrier pigeons are now. 
 
 CROWN. The most ancient mention of a royal crown i3 in the holy story of the 
 Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David. — Selden. The first Roman who wore a 
 crown was Tarquin, 616 B.C. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head; 
 afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with 
 jewels. The royal crown was first worn in England by Alfred, in a.d. 872. The 
 first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasus II. in 1053; John XIX. first 
 encompassed it with a crown, 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295; 
 and Benedict XII. formed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously 
 wore a crown with two circles. — Rainaldi. 
 
 CROWN of ENGLAND. That of Alfred had two little bells attached ; it is said to 
 have been long preserved at Westminster, and may have been that described in the 
 parliamentary inventory taken in 1649. The crown worn by Athelstan resembled a 
 modern earl's coronet, 929. William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with 
 points, 1066. Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. Henry VII. introduced 
 the arches, 1485. The crown of Charles II. made in 1660, is the oldest existing in 
 our day. The crown and other royal valuables were stolen from the Tower by Blood, 
 in 1673. See Blood's Conspiracy. The crown and regalia of England were pledged 
 to the city of London by Richard II. for 2000J. in 1386. See the king's receipt on 
 redeeming them. — Rymer. 
 
 CROWNS and HALF-CROWNS. These were coined in England very near to the 
 present standard in the last year of Edward VI. by whom the coinage (which had 
 been very much alloyed and debased by Henry VIII.) was in some degree restored 
 and purified, 1553. Crowns and half-crowns have, since that time, been coined in 
 almost every reign. — Fleetwood's Citron. Pretios. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, 
 Carthaginians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on accouut 
 of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among 
 early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariai'athes of Cappadocia, when vanquished 
 by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prisoners ; and by the conqueror's orders, 
 the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal 
 officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 B.C. Crucifixion was ordered to be 
 discontinued by Constautine, a.d. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. 
 
 CRUELTY to ANIMALS. See Animals. 
 
 CRUELTY to ANIMALS, SOCIETY for the PREVENTION of. "Every beast of 
 the forest is mine, and the cattle upon a thousand hills." — Psalm 1. 10. This society, 
 which has lately received the distinction of Royal, is held at Exeter-hall, and was 
 instituted in 1824. Through its most praiseworthy exertions several hundreds of 
 cases of cruelty are annually prosecuted to conviction. — Report of the Society. 
 
 CRUSADES or HOLY WARS. (In French Croisades.) Undertaken by the Christian 
 powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the adjacent countries, called the 
 Holy Land.* They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an 
 enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and 
 turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Laud, he deplored, on his return, to 
 pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the 
 
 * The crusaders took Jerusalem by assault, July 15, 1000, after a siege of five weeks. Impelled by 
 rage, they put the numerous garrison and inhabitants to the sword without distinction. Neither arms 
 defended the valiant nor submission the timid ; no age or sex was spr.red ; infants on the breast were 
 pierced by the same blow with their mothers, who implored for mercy ; even a multitude, to the 
 number of 10,000, who had surrendered themselves prisoners, and were promised quarter, were 
 butchered in cold blood by these ferocious conquerors. The streets of Jerusalem were covered with 
 dead bodies ; and the triumphant warriors, after every enemy was subdued and slaughtered, imme- 
 diately turned themselves with sentiments of humiliation towards the holy sepulchre! They threw 
 away their arms still streaming with blood : they advanced with reclined bodies, and naked feet and 
 hands, to that sacred monument ; they suntc anthems to their Saviour, who had there purchased 
 salvation by his death and agony ; and their devotion so overcame their fury, that they dissolved in 
 tears, and bore the appearance of every soft and tender sentiment. So inconsistent is human nature 
 with itself! and so easily does superstition ally, both with the most heroic courage and with the 
 fiercest barbarity ! — Abbe Vertot; Hume. It is reckoned that 2,000,000 perished in the crusades. 
 
CRY 
 
 197 
 
 CRY 
 
 author of Christianity first promulgated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a council 
 of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian 
 potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
 general war, a.d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,000 men was 
 raised, and Peter had the direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 
 1095. — Voltaire. The warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, with the 
 name of Croise"s, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonle de Dieu, "God's will." 
 
 The first crusade ended in establishing Godfrey 
 de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem, 1099. 
 
 The second, preached by St. Bernard in 1146, 
 was headed by the emperor Conrad II., 
 and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders 
 defeated, and Jerusalem lost in 11 S7. 
 
 The third, by emperor Frederick Barbarossa, 
 <fec, in 11SS, was joined by Philip II. 
 of France and Richard I. of England. 
 Glorious, but fruitless. 
 
 The fourth, in 1195, by emperor Henry VI., 
 successful till his death in 1197. 
 
 The fifth, proclaimed by pope Innocent HI. 
 in 1198. Baldwin, count of Flanders, 
 attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
 nople in 1202. His companions returned. 
 
 The sixth, in 1228, by the emperor Frederick 
 II., who obtained possession of Jerusalem 
 on a truce for ten years. In 1240, Richard, 
 earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, but 
 soon departed. 
 
 The seventh by Louis IX. (St. Louis), who was 
 defeated and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 
 April 5, 1250; released by ransom ; truce 
 of ten years. 
 
 The eighth and last, in 1270, by the same 
 prince, who died on his way of a con- 
 tagious disease at Carthage in Africa. 
 Other princes followed him, among others 
 prince Edward, afterwards our Edward I. 
 In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
 Christians were driven out of Syria. 
 
 CRYOPHORUS, The. This is an instrument wherewith is demonstrated the relation 
 between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. It was invented 
 and so named by Dr. Wollaston, about the year 1778. The invention of the 
 cryophorus has led to much scientific research. See article Cold. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the great Exhibition of 1851. Its 
 length was 1851 feet, corresponding with the year; the width 408 feet, with an 
 additional projection on the north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central 
 portion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, and the great avenues ran east and west 
 through the building : the transept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
 high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about nineteen acres. Four 
 galleries ran lengthways, and others round the transept. The ground-floor and 
 galleries contained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were altogether 4000 tons 
 of iron in the structure, and seventeen acres of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 
 vertical glazed sashes. The palace, with the exception of the flooring and joists, was 
 entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by Mr. (since sir Joseph) Paxton, and the 
 contractors were Messrs. Fox & Henderson, to whom it was agreed to pay 79,800^., or 
 150,000Z. if the building were permanently retained. The first column was fixed 
 Sept. 26, 1850; the exhibition was opened May 1, 1851; and was closed to the public, 
 Oct. 11, same year. See Exhibition of 1851. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The building described in the preceding article 
 having been surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson on Dec. 1, 1851, the materials 
 were sold for 70,000Z. to a company (formed by Mr. Leech), who soon after com- 
 menced erecting the Crystal Palace, with vast alterations and improvements, on its 
 present site, near Sydenham in Kent (300 acres having been purchased for the 
 purpose), under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen Jones, Digby Wyatt, 
 and other gentlemen engaged in the erection of the preceding structure. The proposed 
 capital of 500,000L (in 100,000 shares of 51. each) was increased in Jan. 1853 to a 
 million pounds. During the progress of the works as many as 6400 men were engaged 
 at one time. By the falling of scaffolding, Aug. 15, 1853, twelve men were unfor- 
 tunately killed. On Dec. 31, 1853, a dinner was given to professor Owen and a party 
 of savans in the interior of the model of the iguanodon, constructed by Mr. Water- 
 house Hawkins. — The first column was raised by S. Laing, Esq., M.P., Aug. 5, 1852. 
 In addition to the permanent exhibition, there are extensive promenades, gardeus, 
 with magnificent fountains, &c, combining illustrations of zoology, geology, botany, 
 ethnology, &c. The Crystal Palace was opened by the queen, June 10, 1854. At the 
 half-yearly meeting, July 20, 1854, Mr. Laing stated that 300,000?. would be required to 
 complete the works in contemplation. On Oct. 28, 1854, a grand musical fete took place 
 on behalf of the Patriotic fund; and on April 20, 1855, the palace was visited by the 
 emperor and empress of the French, &c. The first grand display of the great foun- 
 tains took place on July 18, 1856, in presence of the queen and 20,000 spectators.* 
 
 * On Nov. 1, 1806, W. Robson, a clerk of the company, was sentenced to 20 years' transportation, 
 for forging and selling thtir bonds. 
 
CUB 198 CUL 
 
 The Handel festival (preliminary to a great commemoration in 1859) was held here 
 June 15, 17, 19, 1857. See Handd. — In the year ending April 30, 1857, the receipts 
 were 115,627^; the expenditure 87,S72£. ; not including payments for preference 
 shares, &c. 
 
 CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered by 
 Velasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The buccaneer, Morgan, took the 
 Havannah in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, 
 in 1741. The Havannah was taken by admiral Pococke and lord Albemarle, in 1762, 
 but was restored at the peace in 1763. A marauding expedition, undertaken by 
 general Lopez and a large body of Americans with the view of wresting this island 
 from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba, May 17, 1850 ; but it ended in defeat 
 and disaster. The president of the United States had previously (Aug. 11, 1849) 
 published a strong proclamation denouncing the object of the invaders. Cuba was 
 again invaded by general Lopez and his followers, Aug. 13, 1851, despite a second 
 proclamation of the American president. They were defeated and taken, and, in the 
 end, fifty of the latter were shot, and their leader, Lopez, was garrotted at Havannah, 
 Sept. 1, following. See Lone Star. On May 31, 1854, the president of the United 
 States again issued a proclamation against an intended expedition agaiust Cuba.* 
 
 CUBIT. A measure of the ancients, and the first measure we read of; the ark of Noah 
 was made and measured by cubits. — Holden. The Hebrew sacred cubit was two 
 English feet, and the great cubit eleven English feet. Originally it was the distance 
 from the elbow, bending inwards, to the extremity of the middle finger. — Calmet. 
 
 CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, 
 it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This 
 plant is noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from 
 the Netherlands about 1538. English culture has much improved the cucumber, of 
 which the frame grown is most prized for its flavour. 
 
 CUDDALORE, INDIA. On the coast of the Carnatic. This place was possessed by the 
 English in 1681. It was reduced by the French in 1758, but was recaptured two 
 years afterwards by sir Eyre Coote. Again taken in 1781. It underwent a destructive 
 siege by the British under general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until news 
 arrived of peace having been signed. Cuddalore also suffered in the subsequent wars 
 with Hyder Ali. See India. 
 
 CUIRASS. This part of armour was that most in use by the Greeks and Romans. — 
 Tacitus. First, from the skins of beasts, and afterwards from tanned leather, was 
 formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo-Saxon era. In process of time it 
 was made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from neck to waist before and 
 behind, as a protection against the spear and arrow. The cuirass was worn by the 
 heavy cavalry in the reign of Henry III. 1216 et seq.^f 
 
 CULDEES. Monks in Scotland and Ireland in the early ages of Christianity, of simple 
 and peaceful lives. — Bishop Lloyd. They had their principal seat at St. Andrew's ; 
 and in Tipperary was a Culdean abbey, whose monks were " attached to simple truth 
 and pure Christian worship, and had not yet conformed to the reigning superstition," 
 in a.d. 1185. — Ledwich. 
 
 CULLEN'S-WOOD, MASSACRE at, in Ireland. This was a horrible slaughter of the 
 English by the Irish at a village near Dublin, on Easter or Black Monday, so called 
 from this massacre, a.d. 1209. The English were a colony from Bristol, inhabiting 
 Dublin, whence they went to divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the O'Byrnes 
 and O'Tooles, mountain enemies, fell upon them, and destroyed 500 men, besides 
 women and children — one of the most unprovoked massacres on record. 
 
 CULLODEN, BATTLE of. The English, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
 the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near 
 Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the 
 slaughter which occurred in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far 
 
 * Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule", United States' envoys, in Oct. 1854, met at Ostend and Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, and reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba. The Spanish minister in Cortes, 
 Dec. 19 following, declared that the sale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish honour itself." 
 
 t The use of cuirasses and helmets, as well as the use of bows and arrows, which had been hardly 
 known under the first race of our kings (of France) became a military law under the second race. 
 (Capit. of Charlem.) Chivalry at this time began to be introduced ; the knight, who was called Mites, 
 held a rank in the army, independently of his military rank. Reign of Louis V., year 987. — Henav.lt. 
 
CUL 199 CUS 
 
 exceed 200. The duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well 
 as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. 
 Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and con- 
 tinued wandering among the wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,000£. were 
 offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. 
 He at length escaped from the isle at Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome, in 1788. 
 
 CULVERINS. Ordnance so called from the French coulevrine, introduced into England 
 from a French model in 1534. It was originally five inches and a-quarter diameter 
 in the bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds.— Bailey. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, MERCHANT SHIR Memorable and valorous achievement of captain 
 Barrett of this ship, who, with twenty-six men, defeated four privateers, taking 170 
 men who had boarded the Cumberland, Jan, 16, 1811. This gallant action of British 
 seamen in the merchant service is eminently deserving of record in our naval annals. 
 
 CUNNERSDORF, BATTLE of. The king of Prussia, with 50,000 men, attacked the 
 Austrian and Russian army of 90,000 in their camp, and at first gained considerable 
 advantages; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and gained 
 a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in killed 
 and wounded, Aug. 12, 1759. 
 
 CURACOA, ISLAND op. In the Caribbean sea, seized by Holland in 1634. In 1800, 
 the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the 
 Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to a single British frigate. It was restored 
 to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron in 
 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 
 
 CURATES. They were of" early appointment as coadjutors in the Romish Church, and 
 are mentioned in England in the seventh century, though perhaps there were 
 then but few. Several acts have passed in the latter reigns for the relief and 
 protection of this laborious class of the clergy, among which are the 12th Anne, 
 1713, and 36th and 58th Geo. III. Among the more recent laws for their better 
 maintenance were the 53rd Geo. III. 1813, and the beneficent act 2 Will. IV. Oct. 1831. 
 It appears by the parliamentary reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there are 
 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose stipends amount to 424,695Z. ; but the 
 numbers in some benefices have not been returned to the commissioners. The 
 greatest number of curates in one diocese is in that of Lincoln, 629; and the 
 smallest is in that of St. Asaph, 43. — Pari. Hep. 
 
 CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This was a Norman institution, intro- 
 duced into England in the reign of Will. I. a.d. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew 
 at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles were to be extinguished under a 
 severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I. a.d. 1100. 
 
 CURRANTS. From Corinthus, whence, probably, this fruit was first brought to us. — 
 Dr. Johnson. A small and smart pleasant fruit, of the grape kind, brought from the 
 Levant and Zante about 1533. The hawthorn currant tree (Ribes oxyacanthoides) 
 came from Canada in 1705. 
 
 CUSHEE PIECES. The invention of the bold and heroic Richard Leake, the master- 
 gunner of the Royal Prince man-of-war, whose signal bravery on board that ship in 
 the engagement with the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, has given him an imperishable 
 renown. The cushee piece was invented in 1673. 
 
 CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and consent. By 
 lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to lex scripta, 
 or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from a d. 1189 down- 
 wards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 
 
 CUSTOM-HOUSE. That of London is of early institution (see Billingsgate), as customs 
 were collected in a regular manner in the tenth century. A custom-house was 
 erected on a large scale a.d. 1304 ; and another on a yet larger scale was erected in 
 1559. This last was burnt down in 1666, and a new one was built by Charles II. 
 Again burnt down in 1718, and again rebuilt. The custom-house once more becam 
 a prey to fire, Feb. 12, 1814, when it was totally burnt down, and immense property 
 and valuable records were destroyed. The present edifice was opened May 12, 1817. 
 The Dublin custom-house was commenced in 1781, and was opened in 1791. The 
 eastern wing of its warehouse was destroyed by fire, with property to the amount of 
 400,000Z. Aug. 9, 1832. 
 
cus 
 
 200 
 
 CYR 
 
 CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II. in 
 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was established 3 Edw. 1. 1 274. 
 The customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 14.000J. 
 to 50,000£. in the reign of Elizabeth. — Slowe. They were farmed by Charles II. for 
 390,000/. in the year 16C6. — Davenant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. 
 Between 1820 and 1830 so many reductions and consolidations have been made in 
 the customs department, that above a quarter of a million is saved in salaries, 
 although the work has enormously increased. — Commissioners' Report. 
 
 In 15S0 the customs amou 
 
 ited to . £14,000 
 
 In 1830 United Kingdom 
 
 
 . £17,540,323 
 
 In 1592 
 
 ditto 
 
 . . 50,000 
 
 In 1835 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 . 18,612,906 
 
 In 1GU 
 
 ditto . 
 
 148,000 
 
 In 1S40 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 . 19,915,296 
 
 In 1622 
 
 ditto 
 
 . . 168,000 
 
 In 1845 
 
 ditto . 
 
 
 . 20,196,856 
 
 In 1642 
 
 ditto . 
 
 500,000 
 
 In 1850 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5. 
 
 . 20,995,138 
 
 In 16S4 
 
 ditto 
 
 . . 530,000 
 
 In 1851 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5 
 
 . 20,442,170 
 
 In 1720 
 
 ditto . 
 
 . 1,555,600 
 
 In 1852 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5. 
 
 . 20,615,337 
 
 In 174S 
 
 ditto 
 
 . . 2,000,000 
 
 In 1853 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5 . 
 
 . 20,551,541 
 
 In 1S0S 
 
 ditto . 
 
 . 9,073,240 
 
 In 1854 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5. 
 
 . 20,902,134 
 
 In 1823 
 
 ditto 
 
 . . 11.49S, 762 
 
 In 1856 
 
 ditto to Jan. 
 
 5 . 
 
 . 24,206,S44 
 
 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool 3d. ; on 
 every last of hides, 6d. ; and 2d. on every barrel of wine. — Annals of Dublin. Custom- 
 house officers and officers of excise were disqualified from voting for the election of 
 members of parliament by statute 22 Geo. III. 1782. The customs business of 
 Ireland was transferred to the London board, Jan. 6, 1830. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 106, 
 was passed to consolidate the Customs Duties acts, Aug. 20, 1853 ; it contains a new 
 tariff. This was modified by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 28, 29 (July 1854), and c. 122 (Aug. 
 1854). See Revenue. 
 
 CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return 
 to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven 
 intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or 
 sexagenary. The Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first calculated 
 for the period of 532 years by Victorius, a.d. 463. — Blair. 
 
 CYCLOPAEDIA. See Encyclopaedia. 
 
 CYMBAL. The oldest musical instrument of which we have certain record. It was 
 made of brass, like a kettle-drum, and some think in the same form, but smaller. 
 Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instrument, whose invention is 
 attributed to Cybele, by whom, we are told, it was used in her feasts, called the 
 mysteries of Cybele, about 1580 B.C. The festivals of Cybele were introduced by 
 Scamander, with the dances of Corybantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 B.C. 
 
 CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 B.C. — Dior/. Laert. He 
 lived iuthe ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Fardon. These philosophers valued themselves 
 for contemning all worldly things, and even all sciences, except morality ; they were 
 very free in reprehending vice, and did all their actions publicly, and practised the 
 greatest obscenities without blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They 
 generally slept on the ground. — Diog. Laert. 
 
 CYPRESS. Cupressus .sempervirens. A tree whose wood is of an agreeable smell, and 
 that scarcely ever decays, or takes the worm ; it was originally found in the Isle of 
 Cyprus. It was used by the ancients as a token of sorrow. Some are of opinion that 
 the wood gophir, of which Noah's ark wa3 made, was cypress ; and the Athenians 
 buried their heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which many of the Egyptian 
 mummy-chests were also fabricated. The cypress was brought to England about 
 a.d. 1441. The deciduous cypress, or Cupressus disticha, came from North America 
 before the year 1640. 
 
 CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love and plea- 
 sure. — Pliny. It was divided among several petty kings till the time of Cyrus, who 
 subdued them ; it ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. 
 Conquered by the Saracens, a d. 648 ; but recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus 
 was reduced by Richard I. of England, in 1191. It fell into the hands of the 
 Venetians, 14S0, and was taken from them by the Turks, 1570. — Priestley. 
 
 CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of the Cyrenaici, 
 392 B.C. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme good of man in this life is 
 pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual kind ; and said that virtue ought to 
 
CYR 201 DAM 
 
 be commended because it gave pleasure, and only so far as it conducted thereto. 
 The sect flourished for several ages. 
 
 CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b.o. Aristtcus, who was the chief of the colonists 
 here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on account of 
 its five towns ; namely, Gyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene 
 was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 B.C. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 
 
 CYZICUM, BATTLE of. In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the 
 command of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was encountered by the 
 Athenians, and defeated with great slaughter. In this celebrated battle Mindarus was 
 slain, 410 B.C. — Plutarch. 408 B.C. — Lenglet. 
 
 CZAR. From Caesar, a title of honour assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. Ivan 
 Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and made many 
 conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and returning in 
 triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). The courts of 
 Europe consented to address the Russian Czar by the title of emperor in 1722. — Aspin. 
 
 DAGUERREOTYPE. See Photography. 
 
 DAHLIA. This beautiful flower was imported from China, of which it is a native, early 
 in the present century, and amateurs in flowers have annually laid out hundreds of 
 pounds in England, and thousands of francs in France, in the purchase of it. The 
 Swedish botanist, professor Dahl, first cultivated and made it known. It soon became 
 a favourite in England. In 1815, about two months after the battle of Waterloo, 
 it was introduced into France, and the celebrated florist Andre Thouine suggested 
 various practical improvements in its management. The botanist Georgi had, shortly 
 before this, introduced it at St. Petersburg ; and hence it is, that to this day the 
 dahlia is known throughout Germany under the name of Georgina. 
 
 DAMASCUS. This city was in being in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xiv. It is, con- 
 sequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, Damascus 
 passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alexander ; and after- 
 wards to the Romans, abo\it 70 B.C. It was taken by the Saracens, a.b. 633 ; by the 
 Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlane, in 1400. It was in a journey to 
 this place that the apostle Paul was miraculously converted to the Christian faith, 
 and here he began to preach the gospel, about a.d. 52. Damascus is now the capital 
 of a Turkish pachalic. The disappearance of a Greek priest, named Father Tommaso, 
 from here, Feb. 1, 1840, led to the torture of a number of Jews, suspected of his 
 murder, and in the end, to a cruel persecution of that people, which caused remon- 
 strances from many states of Europe. 
 
 DAMASK LINENS and SILKS — They were first manufactured at Damascus, and 
 hence the name. Their large fine figures represent flowers, and are raised above 
 the ground-work. They were beautifully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish 
 weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England by artisans who fled from the 
 persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderson. 
 
 DAMASK ROSE. The damask rose was transplanted from the gardens of Damascus, 
 and brought to these countries from the south of Europe and Marseilles, by Dr. 
 Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about a.d. 1540. See article Hose. 
 
 DAMIEN'S ATTEMPT on the LIFE of LOUIS XV. Louis, who was styled the 
 Well-beloved, was stabbed with a knife in the right side by Damiens, a native of Arras, 
 Jan. 5, 1757. For this crime the wretched culprit suffered a dreadful death ; he 
 was first made to endure the most excruciating tortures, nearly similar to those which 
 had been inflicted on the regicide Ravaillac, and was then broken on the wheel, 
 March 28 following. See Jtavaillao's Murder of Henry IV. 
 
 DAMON and PYTHIAS, Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was condemned 
 to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to go and settle some 
 domestic affairs, on the promise of returning at the appointed time of execution, and 
 Pythias became surety for the performance of his engagement. When the fatal hour 
 approached, Damon had not appeared, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led 
 away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. 
 
DAN 
 
 202 
 
 DAN 
 
 Dionysius was so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the 
 sentence, and entreated thern to permit him to share their friendship, 387 B.C. 
 
 DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B.C.— 
 Eusebius. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tragedies and 
 comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. — 
 Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into England from Italy, a.d. 1541. 
 In modern times, the French were the first who introduced ballets analogues in their 
 musical dramas. The country dance (contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is 
 not precisely known. — Spelman. See Morice Dance. 
 
 DANE-GELD, or DANEGELT. A tribute formerly paid to the Danes, arising out of 
 their exactions, and to stop their ravages in this kingdom. It was first raised by 
 Ethelred II. in 991, and was again collected in 1003 ; and continued to be levied after 
 the expulsion of the Danes, to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The tax 
 was suppressed by Edward the Confessor in 1051 ; but it was revived by William the 
 Conqueror, and formed part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished by king 
 Stephen. — The Danegelt was thus raised : every hide of land, i. e. as much as one 
 plough could plough, or as Bede says, maintain a family, was taxed one shilling. — Slowe. 
 
 DANES, INVASIONS of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to England 
 for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland, 
 they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents 
 under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far 
 as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of 
 France to Eollo and his Normans (North-men), hence Normandy, in 911. The 
 invasions of England and Ireland were as follows : — 
 
 FIRST SERIES OF INVASIONS. 
 
 First hostile appearance of the Danes 
 
 upon the coast . . . .a.d. 783 
 They land near Purbeck, Dorset . . 787 
 Descend in Northumberland; are re- 
 pelled, and perish by shipwreck . 794 
 They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 796 
 They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, 
 and possess themselves of Dublin, Fin- 
 gal, and other places .... 798 
 They take the Isle of Sheppey . . . 832 
 Defeated in Cornwall, by Egbert . . 836 
 They defeat Ethelwolf at Charmouth . 836 
 They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and 
 
 take Canterbury and London . . 851 
 Their signal defeat by Ethelwolf . . 853 
 [This defeat closes the first periodof their 
 ravages.] 
 f 
 
 SECOND SERIES OF INVASIONS. 
 
 They return to England, make a descent 
 
 on Northumberland, and take York . 867 
 
 They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . 871 
 
 They take Wareham and Exeter . . 876 
 They take Chippenham; but 120 of their 
 
 ships are wrecked .... 877 
 
 Defeated by the earl of Devon . . . 878 
 
 Alfred enters into a treaty with them . 882 
 Their fleet totally destroyed by Alfred 
 
 at Appledore 894 
 
 They invade and waste Anglesey . . 900 
 
 They submit to the Saxons . . . 921 
 
 They defeat the people of Leinster, whose 
 king is killed . . . .a.d. 956 
 
 Their new invasion of Dorsetshire . . 982 
 
 They ravage Essex 991 
 
 Their fleet defeated after a breach of 
 treaty, purchased by money . . 992 
 
 They land in Essex, and in the west, and 
 are paid a sum of money (16,000/.) to 
 quit the kingdom 995 
 
 A general massacre of the Danes, by order 
 of Ethelred II. . . Nov. 1002 
 
 Swein revenges the death of his country- 
 men, and receives 36,000?. (which he 
 afterwards demands as an annual tri- 
 bute) to depart 1003 
 
 They make fresh inroads, and defeat the 
 Saxons in Suffolk .... 1010 
 
 They again sack Canterbury, and put the 
 inhabitants to death . . . . 1011 
 
 Their conquest of England completed . 1017 
 
 THIRD SERIES OF RAVAGES, 
 
 They settle in Scotland . 
 
 Vanquished at Clontarf in Ireland, in a 
 
 bloody battle (see Clontarf) . . . 
 They are driven out of England 
 They land again at Sandwich, carrying 
 
 oil much plunder to Flanders 
 They burn York, and put 3000 Normans 
 
 to the sword 1069 
 
 Once more invade England but are 
 
 bribed by William to depart . . . 1074 
 
 . 1020 
 
 1039 
 1041 
 
 1047 
 
 DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS' (IRELAND) BILL. The statute for the suppression 
 of dangerous associations in Ireland, particularly with reference to the then Roman 
 Catholic Association, passed March 5, 1829. This law was enacted when the Roman 
 Catholic Relief Bill was passed. See Roman Catholic Association. 
 
 DANTZIC. A commercial city in a.d. 997.— Busching. Built, according to other 
 authorities, by Waldemar I., in 1165. Poland obtained the sovereignty of it in 1454. 
 Seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered 
 to the French after a siege of four months, May 5, 1 S07 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit, 
 was restored to its former independence, under the protection of Prussia and Saxony. 
 Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and, after a gallant i-esistance, surrendered 
 to them Jan. 1, 1814. By the treaty of Paris, it again reverted to the king of Prussia. 
 
DAN 203 DAT 
 
 Awful inundation here, owing to the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 
 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives 
 lost, April 9, 1829. 
 
 DANUBE. (German, Donau ; anciently Ister, in its lower part.) Except the Wolga, 
 the largest river in Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falling into the Black Sea. 
 Its navigation has been considered an object of great importance, from the time of 
 Trajan to the present time. Part of Trajan's bridge at Gladova still remains. It was 
 destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians entering Dacia. Steam navigation 
 was projected on this river by count Szenechyi, in 1830, and in that year the first 
 steamboat was launched at Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed shortly 
 after. The Bavarian company was formed in 1836. Charlemagne, in the eighth 
 century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal, and actually begau 
 a work which is now in progress under the auspices of the Bavarian government. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES ; Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest and 
 Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, which was conquered by 
 Trajan about a.d. 103, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. For some time after, 
 they were alternately in the possession of the barbarians and the Greek emperors ; and 
 afterwards of the Hungarians. In the thirteenth century they were subdued by the 
 Turks, but permitted to retain their religious customs, &c. In 1812, part of Moldavia 
 was ceded to Russia. The provinces having participated in the Greek insurrection in 
 1821, were afterwards severely treated by the Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople 
 in 1829, they were placed under the protection of Russia. In June, 1849, the Porte 
 appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 
 who retired from their governments when the Russians crossed the Pruth, and entered 
 Moldavia in July 2, 1853. See Russo-Turkish war. The Russians quitted these pro- 
 vinces in Sept. 1854, and an Austrian army entered (by virtue of a convention between 
 the sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857. The union of the 
 principalities in one government is said to have been agreed to by the allied powers 
 and Russia, after much opposition on the part of England and Austria (Aug. 1857). 
 
 DARDANELLES, PASSAGE of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
 Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding the 
 entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They were built by the emperor Mahomet IV., 
 in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous town, Dardanus. The 
 gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the Dardanelles was achieved by the British 
 squadron under admiral sir John Duckworth, February 19, 1807; but the admiral 
 was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss and immense damage to the 
 fleet, March 2, following, the castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of 
 stone, each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. The allied 
 English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853. 
 
 DARIC. This gold coin was issued by Darius the Mede, and hence its name, about 
 338 B.C. It is seldom mentioned, if at all, by Roman historians. — Ashe. Its value 
 was two shillings. — Bailey. About 556 cents. — Knowles. It weighed two grains more 
 than the English guinea. — Dr. Bernard. 
 
 DARTFORD. At this town commenced the memorable insurrection of Wat Tyler, 
 a.d. 1381. Here was a celebrated convent of nuns of the order of St. Augustin, en- 
 dowed by Edward III., 1355, which was converted by Henry VIIL, at the time of the 
 Reformation, into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at 
 Dartford by sir John Speilman, a German, in 1590. — Stowe. And about the same 
 period was erected here the first mill for slitting iron bars. The powder-mills here 
 were blown up four times between 1730 and 1738. Various explosions have since 
 occurred, in some cases with loss of life to many persons. A great explosion took 
 place Oct. 12, 1790; again Jan. 1, 1795; and others more recently. 
 
 DARTMOUTH. Burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a 
 third attempt the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 
 the women. The French commander, M. Castel, three lords, and thirty-two knights 
 were made prisoners, 1404. In the war of the parliament, Dartmouth was taken 
 (1643) after a siege of four weeks, by prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for 
 the king; but it was retaken by general Fairfax by storm in 1646. 
 
 DATES. Dates were first affixed to grants and assignments 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before 
 this time it was usual at least to pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. — 
 
DAU 204 DEA 
 
 Lewis. Numerous instruments of assignment enrolled among our early records 
 establish this fact. The date is determined by the names of the parties, particularly 
 that of the grantor : the possession of laud was proof of the title to it. — Hardie. 
 
 DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from the province 
 of Dauphine", which was ceded by its last prince Humbert II. to Philip of Valois, on 
 the condition that the heirs to the French throne should bear the arms and name of 
 the province, a.D. 1343. — Priestley. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty 
 of 1343, which gave the full sovereignty of Dauphine to the kings of France, it was 
 stipulated that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far 
 from it, the first dauphin named in that treaty was Philip, second son of Philip of 
 Valois. — Henault. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis-Philippe, was not 
 called the dauphin. 
 
 DAVIS'S STRAIT. Discovered by the renowned English navigator, John Davis, whose 
 name it bears, on his voyage to find a north-west passage, in 1585. Davis made two 
 more voyages for the same purpose, and afterwards performed five voyages to the 
 East Indies. In the last he was killed by Japanese pirates, in the Indian seas, on the 
 coast of Malacca, Dec. 27, 1605. 
 
 DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among 
 the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced at midnight, as it now 
 does among us. The Italians in most places, at the present time, reckon the day from 
 sunset to sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of 
 dividing the day, as is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. 
 This mede is but partially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in 
 Florence, Rome, and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English 
 clocks. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
 day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is the mode 
 of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanack. At Rome, day and night were first 
 divided in time by means of water clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 158 B.C. 
 
 DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood which took its rise from the institution 
 of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long period in many 
 churches, about a.d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The original deacons were Philip, 
 Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmeuos, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a 
 deacon are mentioned by St. Paul, 1st Timothy, iii. 8 — 13. 
 
 DEAF and DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was 
 made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a.d. 1570. Bonet, also 
 a monk, published a system at Madrid in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in 
 England on the subject in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb 
 in these countries was opened in Edinburgh in 1773. In modern times the abbe" de 
 l'Epe'e and the abbe Sicard, of Paris; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 
 London ; Mr. Braidwood, of Edinburgh ; and surgeon Orpen, of Dublin, have 
 laboured with much success in promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. 
 An asylum for teaching the deaf and dumb poor was opened in London through 
 the exertions of Mr. Townsend, in 1792. Several deaf and dumb institutions exist 
 in that city. The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. See Dumb. 
 
 DEAN, FOREST of. Anciently it was shaded with woods quite through, and was of 
 immense extent; and in the last century, though much curtailed, it was twenty miles 
 in length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its oaks, of which most of our 
 former ships of war were made. The memorable riots in this district, when more 
 than 3000 persons assembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of fifty mUes of 
 wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 acres of plantation, took place on June 8, 1831. 
 
 DEATH, PUNISHMENT of. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punishment 
 among the Britons before 450 B.C. — Stowe. The most eulogised heroes of antiquity 
 inflicted death by crucifixion, aud even women suffered on the cross, the victims 
 sometimes living in the most excruciating torture many days. A most horrifying 
 instance of death by torture occurs in the fate of Mithridates, a eunuch, an assassin 
 of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia ; see also Ravaillac ; Boiling to death ; 
 Burning to death, &c. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and 
 quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 25 Hen. III. 
 1241. The punishment of death was abolished in a great number of cases by sir 
 R. Peel's acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV. 1824-9. Act abolishing the punishment of death in 
 
DEA ' 205 DEC 
 
 certain other cases, 2 & 3 Will. IV. cap. 62, July 11, 1S32. Act of same session to 
 discontinue the punishment of death in cases of forgery, except in the forging of 
 wills and powers-of-attorney to transfer stock cap. 123, Aug. 16, 1832. Act abolishing 
 the punishment of death in all cases of forgery, 1 Vict. cap. 91, July 17, 1837. 
 
 DEATHS, PARISH REGISTERS of. Cromwell, earl of Esses, who was one of the 
 chief instruments of Henry VIII. in the suppression of monasteries and abbeys, was 
 the institutor of parish registers of deaths, births, and marriages, a.d. 1536 ; but they 
 were more formally compiled in 1593, after the great plague of that year. A tax was 
 levied on deaths and births in England, 23 Geo. III. 1783. 
 
 DEBT. See National Debt. 
 
 DEBTORS. See Banlcnqits and Insolvents. Debtors have been subjected to imprison- 
 ment in almost all countries and times ; and until the passing of the later bankrupt 
 laws and insolvent acts, the prisons of these countries were crowded with debtors to 
 an extent that is now scarcely credible. It appeared by parliamentary returns that 
 in the eighteen months subsequent to the panic of December, 1825, as many as 
 101,000 writs for debt were issued from the courts in England. In the year ending 
 5th Jan. 1830, there were 7114 persons sent to the several prisons of London ; and 
 on that day, 1547 of the number were yet confined. On the first Jan. 1840, the 
 number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales was 1732 ; in Ireland the number 
 was under 1000 ; and in Scotland under 100. The operation of statutes of relief, and 
 other causes, have since considerably reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. 
 Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. cap. 52, 1852. See Arrest. 
 
 DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the year, called so 
 from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in March. Numa introduced 
 January and February before this latter month, in 713 B.C., and from thenceforward 
 December became the twelfth of the year. In the reign of Conimodus, December 
 was called, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan whom that prince 
 passionately loved, and had got painted like an Amazon; but it only kept the name 
 during that emperor's life, between a.d. 181 and 192. The English commenced their 
 year on the 25th December, until the reign of William the Conqueror. See Year. 
 
 DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, who were appointed to draw up a code of laws, and to whom 
 for a time the whole government of the state was committed, in 449 B.C. The laws 
 they drew up were approved by the senate and general assembly of the people, 
 written on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where the people met (comi- 
 tium). The decemviri at first ruled well, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards 
 Virginia occasioning an insurrection, they were forced to resign, and consuls were 
 again appointed, and tranquillity restored. 
 
 DECENNALIA. Festivals celebrated by the Roman emperors every tenth year of their 
 reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses, instituted by Augustus, 17 B.C. — Livy. 
 They do not appear to have been continued after the reigns of the Caesars. No 
 mention is made of them from that time. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM of COINAGE, WEIGHTS, &c, was established in France in 1790 
 and shortly after in other countries. Sir John Wrottesley brought it before par- 
 liament, Feb. 25, 1824, but it was not till May, 1838, that a commission of inquiry was 
 appointed at the instance of the then chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring Rice, 
 since lord Monteagle ; and in June 20, 1843, another commission was appointed : they 
 both consisted of eminent scientific men, and both reported strongly in favour of the 
 change. A committee of the House of Commons reported to the same effect, August 
 1, 1853. Mr. Gladstone, however, while admitting the advantages of the system, 
 thought its introduction premature. In June, 1854, an association was formed for 
 the purpose of obtaining the adoption of the system. In Nov. 1855, a commission 
 for inquiry was appointed, consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone and Mr. J. 
 G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary report (with evidence), but expressed no 
 opinion on the subject. — The decimal currency is to be adopted in Canada Jan. 1, 
 1858. — An international decimal association was formed in 1855. 
 
 DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE. The privilege of standing covered before the king, 
 granted by king John to John de Courcy, baron of Kinsale, and his successors, in 
 1203. Sir John de Courcy was the first nobleman created by an English sovereign, 
 27 Hen. II. 1181 ; and was entrusted with the government of Ireland, in 11S5. The 
 privilege accorded to this family has been exercised in most reigns, and was allowed 
 
DKC 206 DEL 
 
 to the baron Kinsale by Will. III., Geo. III., and by Geo. IV. at his court held in 
 Dublin, in Aug. 1821. 
 DECRETALS. The decretals formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of 
 the pope's edicts and decrees. The first of these that is acknowledged to be genuine 
 by the learned, is a letter of Syricius to Himerus, the bishop of Spain, written in the 
 first year of his pontificate, a.d. 385. — Howel. The decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine 
 (a collection of canons), were compiled in 1150. — Henault, 
 
 DEDICATIONS. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maecenas, 
 17 B.C., and the custom has been practised ever since by authors to solicit patronage, 
 or testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and privy counsellor of Augustus Caesar, 
 and was so famous a patron of men of genius and learning, that it has been customary 
 to style every minister of a sovereign prince, imitating his example, the Maecenas of 
 the age or country in which he lives. — Valerius Patercidus Hist. Rom. 
 
 DEDICATION of CHURCHES. We meet in the Scriptures, under the Jewish dispen- 
 sation, with the dedication of the tabernacle and of the temple. The Christians, 
 finding themselves at liberty under Constantine, built new churches, and dedicated 
 them with great solemnity, in a.d. 331 et seq. 
 
 DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the earliest 
 known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds is that of the 
 indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby and Robert, the son of John 
 Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English tongue was ordered to be used 
 in all law pleadings in 1364.* Ordered to be used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 
 
 DEFAMATION. The jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
 abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). 
 
 DEFENDER of the FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. on 
 Henry VIII. of England. The king wrote a tract in behalf of the Church of Rome, 
 then accounted Domicilium fidei Catholicce, and against Luther, who had just begun 
 the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave him the title of Defender of 
 the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs of Great Britain ; the bull conferring 
 it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 
 
 DEFENDERS. A faction in Ireland, which arose out of a private quarrel between two 
 residents of Market-hill, July 4, 1784. Each was soon aided by a large body of friends, 
 and many battles ensued. On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of one of 
 the parties (700 men), called the Nappayh Fleet, prepared to encounter the Baion 
 Fleet, but the engagement was prevented. They subsequently became religious 
 parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, distinguished as Defenders and Peep-o' -day-boys : 
 the latter were so named because they usually visited the dwellings of the Defenders 
 at daybreak in search of arms. — Sir Richard Musgrave. 
 
 DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded as having 
 been made by Eratosthenes, about 250 B.C. — Snellius. The first degree of longitude 
 was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude was determined also), at Ferro, 
 one of the Canary islands, whose most western point was made the first general 
 meridian, 162 B.C. Several nations have fixed their meridian from places connected 
 with their own territories ; and thus the English compute their longitude from the 
 meridian of Greenwich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 
 
 DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the sixteenth century 
 by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to disguise their opposition to 
 Christianity by a more honourable appellation than that of Atheism. — Virofs Instruc- 
 tion Chretienne, 1563. Deism is a rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers 
 go merely by the light of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice 'and 
 virtue, and an after-state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free- 
 thinking. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron of 
 Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord 
 Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin. 
 
 DELEGATES, COURT of. Once the highest of all the ecclesiastical courts in England. 
 Appeals to the pope in ecclesiastical causes having been forbidden (see Appeals), those 
 
 * Edward III. ordered that all pleadings and judgments in the courts at Westminster should for 
 the future be in English, whereas they were previously in the French language. As for other public 
 acts, such as statutes and the like, it does not appear that they were written in the French until 
 about the time of Edward I. — Tindal, note 6, on Rapin, vol. 1, page'iS. 
 
DEL 207 DEL 
 
 causes were for the future to be heard in this court, by stat. 24 Henry VHI. 1532 ; 
 and soon afterwards the pope's authority was superseded altogether in England. — 
 Stowe. This court was abolished, and in lieu of it appeals now lie to the Judicial 
 Committee of the Privy Council, as fixed by stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. cap. 41 Aug. 14, 
 1833. See Arches' Court, &c. 
 
 DELFT. This town was founded by Godfrey le Bossu, and is famous for the earthenware 
 or counterfeit porcelain which is known by its name, and which was first manufactured 
 here in a.d. 1310. But the sale of Dutch delft greatly declined after the introduction 
 of potteries on a large scale into Germany and England. Delft was the scene of many 
 of the councils and preparations of the Dutch patriots in their struggles against Spain. 
 It was the birth-place of the renowned Grotius. 
 
 DELHI. The once great capital of the Mogul empire; it is now in decay, but contained 
 a million of inhabitants in 1700. In 1738, when Nadir Shah invaded Hindoostan, he 
 entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine followed : 100,000 of the inhabitants 
 perished by the sword ; and plunder to the amount of 62,000,000/.. sterling was said 
 to have been collected. The same calamities were endured in 1761, on the invasion 
 of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by the French, got 
 possession of this place ; but they were afterwards defeated by general Lake, and the 
 aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindoostan, was restored to his throne. See India. 
 On May 10, 1857, a mutiny arose in the sepoy regiments at Meerufc. It was soon 
 checked ; but the fugitives fled to Delhi, and, combined with other troops there, 
 seized on the city, and proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, committing most 
 frightful atrocities. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the British. See India, 1857. 
 
 " DELICATE INVESTIGATION," The. The memorable investigation into the conduct 
 of the princess of Wales, afterwards queen of England, as consort of Geo. IV. was 
 commenced by a committee of the privy council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated 
 May 29, 1806. The members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl Spencer, and 
 lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of which the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady 
 Douglas, and other persons of rank were the prompters, and in which they con- 
 spicuously figured, lasted until the following year, and led to the publication called 
 " The Book," which was afterwards suppressed. See Queen. 
 
 DELPHIC ORACLES. Delphi is celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the 
 temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyons, 
 1263 B.C. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to consult 
 the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The temple was burnt by the 
 Pisistratidse, 548 B.C. A new temple was raised by the Alcmseonida3 and was so rich 
 in donations that at one time it was plundered by the people of Phocis of 20,000 
 talents of gold and silver; and Nero carried from it 500 costly statues. The first 
 Delphic, or sacred war, concerning the temple, was 449 B.C. The second sacred war 
 was commenced on Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 356 B.C. — Dw Fresnoy. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors originally made for the use 
 of the dauphin (in mum Delphini), son of Louis XIV. Their publication commenced 
 with the due de Montausier, the young pi-ince's governor, who proposed the plan to 
 Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor; and he, with other learned 
 persons, including madame Dacier,* edited this edition of all the Latin classics with 
 the exception of Lucan. Each author is illustrated by valuable notes, critical and 
 explanatory, with an index containing every word in the work, in the same manner 
 as the concordance of the Scriptures. The number of volumes published was sixty, 
 all printed between 1674 and 1691, except Ausonius, in 1750. A new edition of the 
 Delphin Classics, with additional notes, &c, was published by Mr. Valpy of London, 
 early in the present century. — Butler. 
 
 DELUGE, the GENERAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; 
 and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, 
 May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18 following. The year corresponds with 
 that of 2348 B.C. — Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge according to 
 the table of Dr. Hales : — 
 
 * This beautiful and gifted woman, for Madame Dacier was equally celebrated for her beauty and 
 learning, translated Callimabhvs at the age of twenty-three. She also translated Jnacreon, Sappho, 
 I'lautun, Terence, and Homer. Madame Dacier, as mentioned above, was one of the editors of the 
 Delphin Classics; and, it is believed, the translator of Ausonius, although this last work was not 
 published until many years after her death in YI1Q. 
 
DEL 
 
 208 
 
 DEN 
 
 DELUGE, the GENERAL, continued. 
 
 Septuagint. 
 
 B.C. 3216 
 
 Persian 
 
 B.C. 3103 
 
 Playfair . b.c 
 
 2352 
 
 Petavius . B.C. 2329 
 
 Jackson . 
 
 . . 3170 
 
 Hindoo 
 
 . . 3102 
 
 Usher 
 
 234X 
 
 Strauchius . . 2293 
 
 Hales . 
 
 . 3155 
 
 Samaritan 
 
 . 2998 
 
 English Bible . 
 
 2348 
 
 Hebrew . . 2288 
 
 Josepkus 
 
 . . 3146 
 
 Howard 
 
 . . 2698 
 
 Marshani . . 
 
 2344 
 
 Vulgar Jewish . 2104 
 
 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction that 
 another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built to guard against 
 the calamity; but the season happened to be a fine and dry one, a.d. 1524. 
 
 DELUGE op DEUCALION. The fabulous one is placed 1503 B.C. according to 
 Eusebius. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the general 
 flood ; but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was mei*ely a local inunda- 
 tion occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose course was stopped by 
 an earthquake between the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned 
 in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, saved themselves by 
 climbing up mount Parnassus. 
 
 DELUGE of OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges was a deluge which so inundated the 
 territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it occurred before the 
 deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b.c. — Blair. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew and 
 Grecian deluges were the same, and arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting 
 into the valley of the Mediterranean. 
 
 DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were taken by 
 the British, under major-general Whyte, April 22, 1796, but were restored at the peace 
 of 1802. Demerara and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general 
 Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1103. They are now fixed English colonies. 
 
 DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves (demos, people, and 
 Tcratein, to govern) : a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed 
 their opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats has 
 been adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America (the southern states). The 
 northern states are now called Republicans. Into these two great parties a number 
 of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential election in 1856. 
 
 DENARIUS. The chief silver coin among the Romans (from denos aris), weighing the 
 seventh part of a Roman ounce, and value sevenpence-three-farthings sterling:, first 
 coined about 209 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see article As). In 216 B.C. it 
 exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound weight of silver was coined into 100 denarii. 
 — Digby. A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty denarii aurei, in 206 B.C. ; 
 and in Nero's time into forty-five denarii aurei. — Lempriere. 
 
 DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri and the 
 Teutones, who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in 
 Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians invaded Italy, where they were defeated by 
 Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the name of 
 Denmark is supposed to be derived from Ban, the founder of the Danish monarchy, 
 and mark, a German word signifying country, i. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. 
 
 Eoign of Sciold, first king . . b.c. 60 
 The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings 
 
 to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog a.d. 750 
 [Ragnor is killed in an attempt to invade 
 England, and for more than 200 years 
 from this time the Danes were a terror 
 to the northern nations of Europe, often 
 landing on our own shores,andat length 
 conquering all England. See Danes.] 
 
 Reign of Canute the Great . . . 1014 
 Reign of Waklemar the Great . . . 1157 
 Waldemar II. with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
 makes immense conquests . . . 1223 
 
 Gothland conquered 1347 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
 united into one kingdom . . . 1397 
 
 Revolt of the Swedes 1414 
 
 The nations re-united .... M:i9 
 Copenhagen made the capital . . . 1440 
 Accession of Christian I. from whom the 
 
 present royal family springs . . 144S 
 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- 
 pendence of Sweden acknowledged . 1523 
 
 Luthcranism established by Christian 
 
 1536 
 
 1612 
 1629 
 
 III A.D. 
 
 Danish East India Company established 
 by Christian IV. 
 
 Christian IV. chosen head of the Protes- 
 tant league 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
 Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
 makes large conquests . . . . 1658 
 
 The crown made hereditary and absolute UiliO 
 
 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, 
 (Schleswig-)Tonningen, and Btralsund ; 
 reduces Weisniar, and drives the 
 Swedes out of Norway . . 1716 et seq. 
 
 Copenhagen destroyed by afire which 
 consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the 
 university, and 4 colleges . . 172$ 
 
 The peaceful reign of Christian VI. who 
 promotes the happiness of bis subjects 1730 
 
 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy, sud- 
 denly confines his quten, Caroline- 
 Matilda, sister of George III. who is 
 afterwards banished. See Zcll. Jan. 18, 1772 
 
 The counts Stiucnsee and Brandt are 
 
DEN 
 
 209 
 
 DEN 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 seized at the same time, on the charge 
 of a criminal intercourse with the 
 queen ; and the former confessing to 
 avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
 for high treason . . . April 28, 1772 
 
 The queen, Caroline-Matilda, dies at 
 Zell May 10, 1775 
 
 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and 
 prince Frederick is appointed regent, 1784 
 
 One-fourth of Copenhagen is destroyed 
 by fire June 9, 1795 
 
 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombai'd 
 Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
 fleet, taking or destroying IS ships of 
 the line, of whose crews 1800 are killed. 
 The Confederacy of the North (see 
 Armed Neutrality) is thus dissolved 
 
 April 2, 1801 
 
 Admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart 
 bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
 Danish fleet of IS ships of the line, 15 
 frigates, and 37 brigs, &c. Sept. 7, 1807 
 
 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
 Denmark, in exchange for Norway . 1814 
 
 Commercial treaty with England . . 1824 
 
 Frederick bestows a new constitution 
 on his kingdom 1831 
 
 Declaration of the king in relation to 
 the succession, and to the right of the 
 crown (it having been questioned) to 
 the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, 
 &c. . . July 11, 1846 
 
 Death of Christian VIII. and accession 
 of Frederick VII. . . . Jan. 20, 1848 
 
 The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein 
 revolt from the crown . March 25, 1849 
 
 Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners 
 and Germans . . April 10, 1S19 
 
 The Prussians drive the Danes from their 
 entrenched position in Eckerford, and 
 take Schleswig, &c. . . April 22, 1849 
 
 Blockade of Schleswig and Holstein by 
 the Danes .... April 29, 1S49 
 
 Defeat of the Germans by the Danes at 
 Duppehi . ... . . May 28, 1S49 
 
 Attack by the Prussian and Hanoverian 
 forces, under general Wrangel, on the 
 Danes at Duppeln . . June 5, 1849 
 
 Armistice between the Danes and Prus- 
 sians signed at Malmo . Aug. 26, 1849 
 
 Peace with Prussia (which had assisted 
 the duchies) .... July 2, 1850 
 
 Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by 
 England, France, Prussia, and Sweden, 
 signed July 4, 1S50 
 
 Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Hol- 
 steiners by the Danes . . July 25, 1850 
 
 Protocol signed in London by the minis- 
 ters of all the great powers, Aug. 23, 1850 
 
 Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the 
 Holsteiners, and the town almost de- 
 stroyed from Sept. 29, to . Oct. 6, 1850 
 
 The Holsteiners were, however, defeated 
 in their attempt to take the town by 
 storm Oct. 6, 1850 
 
 Proclamation of the stadtholders of 
 Schleswig-Holstein placing the rights 
 of the country under protection of the 
 Germanic confederation . Jan. 11, 1851 
 
 The integrity of the Danish monarchy 
 secured, and the independence of 
 Schleswig and its old union with Hol- 
 stein guaranteed by treaty Feb. 18, 1S52 
 
 Austrians evacuate Holstein and Ham- 
 burgh March 2, 1852 
 
 Treaty of the great European powers for 
 the settlement of the succession of the 
 Danish crown .... May 8, 1852 
 
 [By thjs treaty the line of Augustenberg 
 is put aside, the succession in the line 
 of Sonderburg-Glucksburg settled, and 
 the integrity of the Danish crown 
 guaranteed.] 
 
 The king promulgates a new constitu- 
 tion July 29, 1854 
 
 Adopted Oct. 1. 1855 
 
 The Sound dues abolished for a com- 
 pensation 1S57 
 
 KINGS OF DENMARK. 
 
 [The Banish chronicles mention 25 kings 
 to the reign of Harald ; but the ac- 
 counts differ much from the modern 
 histories of Denmark by the best 
 authors ] 
 813. Harald, or Harold. 
 850. Eric I. 
 
 854. Eric II. or the Child. 
 883. Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 
 935. Harald II. surnamed Blue-tooth. 
 985. Suenon, or Sweyn, surnamed the 
 
 Forked-beard. 
 1014. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark 
 
 and England. 
 1036. Canute III. his son, the Hardicanute of 
 
 England. 
 1042. Magnus, surnamed theGood, of Norway. 
 1047. Suenon, or Sweyn II. 
 1073. [Interregnum.] 
 1077. Harald, called the Simple. 
 10S0. Canute IV. 
 1086. Olaus IV. the Hungry. 
 1095. Eric III. styled the Good. 
 1103. [Interregnum.] 
 1105. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
 1135. Eric IV. surnamed Harefoot. 
 1137. Eric V. the Lamb. 
 
 1147. ( Suenon, or Sweyn III. ; beheaded. 
 1147. | Canute V. until 1154. 
 1157. Waldemnr, styled the Great. 
 1182. Canute VI. surnamed the Pious. 
 1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
 
 1241. Eric VI. 
 
 1250. Abel ; assassinated his elder brother 
 
 Eric ; killed in an expedition against 
 
 the Frisons. 
 1252. Christopher I. : poisoned. 
 1259. Eric VII. 
 1286. Eric VIII. 
 1320. Christopher II. 
 1334. [Interregnum of 7 years.] 
 1340. Waldemar III. 
 
 1375. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1376. Olaus V. 
 
 1387. Margaret, styled the " Semiramis of the 
 North," queen of Sweden, Norway, 
 and Denmark. 
 
 1397. Margaret and Eric IX. (Eric XIII. of 
 Sweden) jointly. 
 
 1412. Eric IX. reigns alone ; obliged to resign 
 both crowns. 
 
 143S. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1440. Christopher III. king of Sweden. 
 
 1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg, elected 
 king of Scandinavia, which compre- 
 hended Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
 way ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 1481. John ; also succeeded by his son, 
 
 1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the 
 " Nero of the North ; " among other 
 enormous crimes he caused all the 
 Swedish nobility to be massacred : 
 dethroned for his tyranny in 1523 ; 
 died in a dungeon in 1559. 
 
 P 
 
DEN 
 
 210 
 
 DER 
 
 1730. Christian VI. hia son. 
 
 1746. Frederick V. his son ; married the 
 princess Louisa of England, daughter 
 of George II. 
 
 1766. Christian VII. son of the preceding ; 
 married Caroline-Matilda, sister of 
 George III. In a fit of jealousy he 
 banished his queen to Zell (where 
 she died in 1775), and put to death 
 his ministers Brandt aud Struensee. 
 
 1784. Regency. The crown prince Frederick 
 declared regent, in consequence of the 
 mental derangement of his father. 
 
 1803. Frederick VI. previously regent, now 
 king. 
 
 1839. Christian VIII. son of the preceding. 
 
 1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII, ; 
 born Oct. 6, 1808. The present (1857) 
 king of Denmark. 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 In this reign, Sweden succeeded in 
 separating itself from the erown of 
 Denmark.] 
 
 1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstcin, uncle to 
 Christian II. ; a liberal ruler. 
 
 1534. Christian III. son of Frederick ; esta- 
 blished the Lutheran religion ; es- 
 teemed the " Father of his People." 
 
 1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
 
 1588. Christian IV. son of the last king ; 
 chosen head of the Protestant league 
 against the emperor. 
 
 1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitu- 
 tion from an elective to an hereditary 
 monarchy vested in his own family. 
 
 1670. Christian V. son of Frederick III. ; 
 succeeded by his son, 
 
 1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued, with the czar 
 Peter and the king of Poland against 
 Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
 Danish literature, although very partially known out of the country, is not unde- 
 serving of attention in England. Several writers have cultivated with Success the 
 department of Scandinavian antiquities, while others have studied history, morals, 
 and natural philosophy. There are two universities ; that of Copenhagen, on a large 
 scale, and that of Kiel, comparatively small, but on a very judicious plan. 
 
 DENNEWITZ, BATTLE op. In this battle a remarkable victory was obtained by 
 marshal Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo (afterwards Charles XIV. king of Sweden), 
 over marshal Ney, prince of Moscow, Sept. 6, 1813. The loss on the French side 
 exceeded 16,000 men, and several eagles : and the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
 the 18th of October following, closed the series of reverses experienced by his arms 
 in the memorable and disastrous campaign of this year. 
 
 DEPTFORD. The hospital here was incorporated by Henry VIII. and called the 
 Trinity -house of Deptford Stroud ; the brethren of Triuity-house hold their corporate 
 rights by this hospital. Queen Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Pelican, 
 the ship in which the illustrious Drake, the first British circumnavigator, had made 
 his voyago round the globe, April 4, 1581. The Deptford victualling-office was burnt 
 Jan. 16, 1748-9; the store-house, Sept. 2, 1758; the red-house, Feb. 26, 1761; and 
 the king's-mill, Dec. 1, 1755. 
 
 DERBY, EARL of, his ADMINISTRATION, consequent on the resignation of lord 
 John Russell's ministry. Earl of Derby, first lord of the treasury ; lord St. Leonards 
 (previously sir Edward Sugden), lord chancellor; earl of Lonsdale, president of the 
 council ; marquess of Salisbury, lord privy seal ; rt. hon. Benjamin Disraeli, chancellor 
 of the exchequer; rt. hon. Spencer Horatio Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John 
 Pakington, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries; rt. hon. John Charles Herries, 
 board of control; rt. hon. Joseph Waraer Henley, board of trade; earl of Hardwicke, 
 postmaster-general; rt. hon. William Beresford, secretary -at-war; lord John Manners, 
 first commissioner of works and public buildings ; rt. hon. Robert Adam Christopher, 
 lord Colchester, &c. They were sworn into office Feb. 27, 1852; and resigned, 
 Dec. 17 in the same year. 
 
 DERBY TRIALS. Brandretl), Turner, Ludlam senior, Ludlam junior, Weightman, and 
 others, convicted at this memorable commision of high treason, Oct. 15, 1817; and 
 Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam executed, Nov. 6 following. Twenty-three 
 were tried, and twelve not tried. — Phillips. Twenty-one prisoners were indicted at 
 Derby for the murder of several miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on 
 the ground that the mischief was not wilful, March 23, 1834. 
 
 DERRY, BISHOPRIC of. The bishopric of Deny was first planted at Ardfrath ; from 
 thence it was translated to Maghera; and in 1158, was transferred to Derry. The 
 cathedral, built in 1164, becoming ruinous, was rebuilt by a colony of Londoners 
 who settled here in the reign of James I. The see is valued in the king's books, by 
 an extent returned 15th James I. at 250?. sterling; but it has been one of the richest 
 sees in Ireland. — Beatson. The see of Raphoe has, under the Church Temporalities 
 act (3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, passed Aug. 14, 1833), been added to the diocese of 
 Derry. See Bishops. See Londondci~ry. 
 
DES 211 DIA 
 
 DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Marcus Despard, a native of the Queen's 
 county in Ireland, and six others (Broughton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood 
 and Wrattan), were executed in London on a charge of high treason. Their plan was 
 to lay restraint upon the king's person on the day of his meeting parliament, Jan 16 
 1803, to destroy him, and overturn the government, A special commission was 
 issued on Feb. 7, and they suffered death on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol, in 
 the Borough, Feb. 21, 1803.* 
 
 DETTINGEN, BATTLE of. Between the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian army, 
 commanded by king George II. of England, in person, and the earl of Stair, on one 
 side, and the French army, under marshal Noailles and the duke de Grammont, on 
 the other ; the first 52,000, and the later 60,000 strong. The French passed a defile 
 which they should have been contented to guard ; and the duke de Grammont, heading 
 the French cavalry, charged the British foot with great fury, but was received with 
 such intrepidity, that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the Mayne, and was 
 defeated, losing 5000 men, June 16, 1743. 
 
 DEVONPORT. See Plymouth. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE'S, DUKE of, and MR. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. William, duke 
 of Devonshire, first lord of the treasury ; hon. Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the 
 exchequer ; earl Granville, lord president ; earl Gower, privy seal ; earl of Holder- 
 nesse and Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham), secretaries of state ; rt. hon. George 
 Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount 
 Barrington, &c. The great seal in commission, Nov. 1756. The ministry was 
 dissolved June following, when the duke of Newcastle came into power. This 
 administration has been usually called lord Chatham's first administration. 
 
 DIADEM. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and which was 
 
 consecrated to the gods. At first, this fillet was made of silk or wool, and set with 
 
 precious stones, and was tied round the temples and forehead, the two ends being 
 
 knotted behind, and let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who 
 
 . wore a diadem, a.d. 272. — Tilkmont. 
 
 DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. — Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
 Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was 
 divided into hours, 293 B.C. — Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every 
 palace and public building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in a.d. 
 613. — Lenglet. 
 
 DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of 
 Sumbulpoor was the first known ; and where the mines of Golconda were discovered 
 in 1534. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil 
 were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or 
 fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was valued by M. Romeo 
 de l'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 millions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six 
 millions ; its value was next stated to be three millions and a-half; but its true value 
 (it not being brilliant) is 400,000?. The great diamond of the emperor of Russia 
 weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offered for 
 it 104,166?. 135. id., besides an annuity for life to the owner of 1041?. 13s. 4c?., which 
 was refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catherine's favourite, count Orloff, for the 
 first-mentioned sum, without the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress 
 on her birth-day, 1772; it is now in the sceptre of Russia. The Pitt diamond 
 weighed 136 carats, and after cutting, 106 carats; it was sold to the king of France 
 for 125,000?. in 1720. The Pigott diamond was sold for 9500 guineas, May 10, 1802. 
 Diamonds were found in the Ural mountains in 1829. The diamond called the 
 Mountain of Light, or Koh-i-noor. This marvellous and matchless treasure was 
 found in* the mines of Golconda, in 1550, and was brought to England in 1850, 
 precisely three centuries after : it is the forfeit of oriental faithlessness, and the 
 prize of British valour. It was secured among the valuables of the Lahore treasury, 
 at the commencement of the late insurrection, and came in the steam-sloop, Medea, 
 which reached Portsmouth in July. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats, but it 
 was reduced by the unskilfulness of the artist, Hortensio Borgese, a Venetian, to its 
 present weight, 279. A general idea may be formed of its shape and size, by con- 
 
 * Despard, and between thirty and forty persons of inferior order, some of them soldiers in the foot 
 guards, were taken into custody for this conspiracy, on November 16, 1802, when their treason was 
 discovered, which caused the greatest consternation at the time. 
 
 p 2 
 
DIA 212 DIE 
 
 ceiving it as the pointed half (rose-cut) of a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely 
 computable, though two millions sterling have been mentioned as a justifiable price, 
 if calculated by the scale employed in the trade. This diamond was re-cut in London 
 in 1852. A diamond, termed the Star op the South, was brought from Brazil, 
 in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, half of which it lost by cutting. 
 
 DIAMONDS, INFLAMMABILITY of. Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond 
 was inflammable, 1609. — Hist, of Gems. It was discovered that when exposed to a 
 high temperature it gave out an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dissipated, 
 1673. — Boyle. Sir Isaac Newton concluded, from its great refracting power, that it 
 must be combustible, 1675. — Newton's Optics. The celebrated Averani demon- 
 strated, by concentrating the rays of the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled 
 in vapour, and entirely disappeared, while other precious stones merely grew softer, 
 1695. It has been ascertained by Guy ton, Davy, and others, that although diamonds 
 are the hardest of all known bodies, they yet contain nothing more than pure 
 charcoal, or carbon. In 1848 diamonds were charred by the intense heat of the 
 voltaic battery, by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by Professor Faraday, in London. 
 
 DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, built at 
 the common charge of all the Asiatic states. The chief architect was Ctesiphon ; and 
 Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this temple, whose riches 
 were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported by 127 columns 
 (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons, of Parian marble), furnished by so many kings. 
 It was set on fire, on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual 
 named Eratostratus, who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had 
 prompted him to destroy so magnificent an edifice was the desire of transmitting his 
 name to future ages, 356 B.C. The temple was rebuilt, and again burnt by the Goths, 
 in their naval invasion, a.d. 256. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244 B.C. The 
 game of Tali and Tessera among the Romans was played with dice. The use of dice 
 is of very early date in this country. Stowe mentions two entertainments given by 
 the city of London, at which dice were played.* Act to regulate the licenses of 
 makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 
 
 DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, instituted 498 
 B.C., when Titus Lartius Flavus, the first dictator, was appointed. This office, 
 respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the republic, became odious by the 
 perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the 
 Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for ever 
 forbade a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.o. 
 
 DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 
 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations, somewhat like 
 our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C. — 
 Moi-rison. The oldest Greek dictionary is the Onomastikon of Julius Pollux, written 
 about B.C. 120 ; a Latin one was compiled by Varro, born B.C. 116. Cyclopaedias were 
 compiled in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, 
 perhaps the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one in 
 eight languages, about a.d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published 
 by Edmund Castell, in 1659.' Bayle's Dictionary was published in 1696, "the first 
 work of the kind in which a man may learn to think." — Voltaire. Chambers' 
 Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle of the arts, sciences, &c, was published 
 in 1728. The great dictionary of the English language, by Samuel Johnson, who 
 was truly called the " Leviathan of Literature," appeared in 1755. Francis Grose's 
 Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue was compiled in 1768; and from this period 
 numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature. See fincyclopcedia. 
 
 DIEPPE, France. This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under admiral 
 
 * The kings of Scotland, France, and Cyprus being in England, on a visit to Edward III. a great 
 tournament was held in Smithfield, and afterwards the mayor kept his hall for all comers who were 
 willing to play at dice and hazard. The lady Margaret, his wife, kept her chamber to the same effect. 
 Shortly afterwards they entertained the princess of Wales, her son, prince Richard, and their 
 attendants, with a grand masquerade on horseback, the procession beginning at Newgate aud ending 
 at Kennington. Being arrived at the palace, one of the masques produced a pair of dice, and proposed 
 to play with the prince. The dice were so artfully contrived that when the prince threw he was sure 
 to win, and having thrown three times his royal highness won a bowl, a cup, aud a ring, all of gold ; 
 and having given the princess and each of the nobility attending the like opportunity to win each a 
 gold ring, they were highly pleased. — Stowe. 
 
DIE 213 DIG 
 
 Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. It has not been so considerable since that time. 
 In 1794 it experienced a similar calamity. It was again bombarded, together with 
 the town of Granville, by the British, Sep. 14, 1803. 
 
 DIET op the GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of this empire may be said 
 to have existed in the assemblage of princes under this name. The diet, as composed 
 of three colleges, viz. — the college of electors, the college of princes, and the college 
 of imperial towns, commenced with the famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. See 
 Golden Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important 
 occasions. The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 
 1179. The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was held 
 in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529; and the 
 famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German princes, called the 
 Confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806, Ger- 
 many is now governed by a diet of 38 members having votes varying from four to one 
 each. But from the unsettled state of Germany much change may be produced in 
 the constitution of this assembly. 
 
 " DIEU-DONNE." The name given in his infancy, to Louis le Grand, king of France, 
 because the French considered him as the gift of Heaven, the queen, his mother, 
 having been barren for twenty -three years previously, a.d. 1638. — Voltaire. One of 
 the popes of Rome, who obtained the tiara in 672, was named Adeodatus, or God's 
 gift ; he had the character of a pious and charitable pontiff. 
 
 DIEU ET MON DROIT. " God, and my right." This was the parole of the day, given 
 by Richard I. of England to his army at the battle of Gisors, in France. " It was used 
 by Richard to show that he held his kingdom of no mortal, but God only." — 
 Pardon. In the battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated; and in 
 remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et mon droit " the motto of the 
 royal arms of England, and. it has ever since been retained, a.d. 1198. — Rymer's 
 Fadera. 
 
 DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE. See Calculating Machine. 
 
 DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus 
 Varus, the civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. — Quintil. Other digests of Roman laws 
 followed. The Digest, so called by way of eminence, was the collection of laws made 
 by order of the emperor Justinian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and 
 the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. 
 
 DIGITS. Arithmetical figures were known to the Arabian Moors about a.d. 900. They 
 were introduced from thence into Spain in 1050, and into England about 1253. The 
 digit is any whole number under 10 — as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, which are called the 
 nine digits ; also a measure containing three quarters of an inch. In astronomy, the 
 digit is also a measure used in the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of 
 the luminary eclipsed. See article Figures. 
 
 DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were at that 
 period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantine, a.d. 323 ; but Strabo remarks 
 that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. 
 In England these circuits of the bishop's jurisdiction are coeval with Christianity ; 
 there are twenty -four dioceses, of which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbury, and 
 three to York. See the Bishoprics severally. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian writers until 
 the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and is still employed by the 
 Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed 
 emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. It is called the era of Martyrs, on account 
 of the persecution of the Christians in the reign of Diocletian. 
 
 DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an object of 
 wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London by MM. Bouton and Daguerre, 
 Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead 
 of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in 
 perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama and the cosmorama in 
 the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and in the completeness of the 
 illusion. It was not successful commercially, and was sold in 1848. The building in 
 Regent's Park was purchased by sir S. M. Peto in 1855 to be used as a Baptist chapel. 
 It is the handsomest dissenters' chapel in London. 
 
DIR 214 DIV 
 
 DIRECTORY, the CHURC H. The book so called was published in England at the period 
 of the civil war. It was drawn up, at the instance of the parliament, by an assembly 
 of divines at Westminster, with the object that the ministers might not be wholly at 
 a loss in their devotions after the suppression of the Book of Common Prayer. There 
 were some general hints given which were to be managed with discretion ; for the 
 Directory prescribed no form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined 
 the people to make any responses except Amen. The Directory was established by 
 an ordinance of the parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor, 
 
 DIRECTORY, the FRENCH, was installed at the Little Luxembourg at Paris, under a 
 new constitution of the government, Nov. 1, 1795, and held the executive power four 
 years. It was composed of five members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, 
 the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by 
 Bonaparte, who, with CambaceVes and Si dyes, became the ruling power of France, the 
 three governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. See Bonaparte. 
 
 DISCIPLINE, the BOOK of. Drawn up by an assembly of ministers in Scotland, in a.d. 
 1650. In this book the government of the Church by prelates was set aside. The 
 followers of the Presbyterian sect were called Disciplinarians from their clamour 
 about discipline. — Sanderson. 
 
 DISPENSATIONS. Ecclesiastical dispensations were first granted by pope Innocent III. 
 in 1200. These exemptions from the law and discipline of the Church led eventually, 
 with indulgences, absolutions, and the remission of sins, to the Reformation in 
 Germany in 1517, and subsequently to that in England, in 1534 et seq. 
 
 DISPENSING POWER op the CROWN. The power of dispensing with statutes was 
 unconstitutionally asserted by James II. in 1686. Most of the judges were dismissed 
 by that infatuated monarch for refusing to allow the legality of this power, 1687. 
 Since this period the same power has been on certain occasions exercised, as in the 
 case of embargoes upon ships, the restraint upon corn leaving the kingdom, &c, 
 without the previous concurrence of parliament. See Indemnity. 
 
 DISSECTION. See Anatomy. 
 
 DISSENTERS. They arose early in the Reformation, contending for a more complete 
 departure from the Romish models of Church government and discipline. They were 
 reproached with the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in 
 religious worship and conduct ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under 
 Elizabeth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate in those reigns. The first, 
 place of worship for Dissenters in England was established at Wandsworth, a village 
 near London, Nov. 20, 1572. In 1851, in London alone, the number of chapels, 
 meeting-houses, &c, for all classes of Dissenters, amounted to more than 554. 
 (The Church of England 458 ; Roman Catholics 35). The great act for the relief of 
 Dissenters from civil and religious disabilities was the statute passed 9 Geo. IV. c. 17. 
 By this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal act, so much of the several acts 
 of preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrement of the Lord's 
 Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c, was repealed, May 9, 1828. Several 
 other acts of ameliorating effect have been since passed. See Worship. 
 
 DISTAFF. The staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or other substances to be spun is 
 fastened. The art of spinning with it, at the small wheel, first taught to English 
 women by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian, 20 Hen. VII. 1505. — Stowe. The distaff i3 
 used as an emblem of the female sex, and formerly occupied the place in the drawing- 
 room of English ladies that the harp or piano does now. 
 
 DISTILLATION, and the various chemical processes dependent on the art, are generally 
 believed to have been introduced into Europe by the Moors about a.d. 1150; their 
 brethren of Africa had them from the Egyptians. The distillation of spirituous 
 liquors was in practice in these countries in the sixteenth century. — Burns. 
 
 DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of divina- 
 tion ; and by most of the ancient authors. It was retained in the hands of the 
 priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, augurs, and other like professors, till 
 the coming of Christ, when the doctrines of Christianity and the spirit of philosophy 
 banished such visionary opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 B.C. Augurs 
 were instituted by Numa at Rome, 710 b.o. See Augury, Magi, Witchcraft, &c. 
 
 DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle 325 B.C. The diving- 
 bell was first used in Europe, a.d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of 
 
DIV 215 DOC 
 
 Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before ad. 1662. 
 Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of 
 a diving-bell, set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied 
 the condensing-pump, to force down air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going 
 down in a diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, June 1, 1783. The Royal George 
 man-of-war, which was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a 
 diving-bell in May, 1817. Latterly, it has been employed in all submarine surveys. 
 The first diving-6cZZe was the wife of Captain Morris, at Plymouth, who descended in 
 one a few years ago. 
 
 DIVORCES fob ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiastical and 
 civil law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Carvilius at Rome, 
 231 B.C. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, that 3000 prosecutions for 
 adultery were enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds; one, a vinculo matrimonii; the 
 other, a mensd et ihoro. Divorces were attempted to be made of more easy obtainment 
 in England, in a.d. 1539. The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was 
 brought into Parliament in 1801. In April, 1853, the commissioners on the law of 
 divorce issued their first report. A bill materially altering the law on this subject 
 is now before parliament (July, 1857).* 
 
 DIZIER, ST., in CHAMPAGNE. One of the most memorable sieges in modern history 
 was sustained by this town for six weeks against the army of Charles V. emperor of 
 Germany, a.d. 1544. A battle was fought here between the army of the allies on one 
 side, and the French commanded by Napoleon in person on the other, in which the 
 latter army was defeated with considerable loss, Jan. 27, 1814. 
 
 DOCKS of LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest in the world. 
 The following are the principal : — The West India docks, the act for whose formation 
 passed in July, 1799; they were commenced Feb. 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 
 1802, when the Henry Addington, West Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with 
 the colours of the different nations of Europe. The London Docks were commenced 
 June 26, 1802, and were opened Jan. 31, 1805. The East India Docks were commenced 
 under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened Aug. 4, 1806. The first stone of 
 the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2500 men were daily employed 
 upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 
 
 DOCK-YARDS, ROYAL. There are seven chief dock-yards in England and Wales, and 
 nine others in various of our colonies. That of Woolwich was already an extensive 
 one in 1509. Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth, and is one of the 
 principal stations of the royal navy; it contains immense magazines of warlike 
 stores, rendering it one of the finest arsenals in Europe. The dock-yard at Ports- 
 mouth was established by Henry VIII. Plymouth dock, now Devonport, is a 
 matchless naval magazine and rendezvous. After the insult of the Dutch, who burnt 
 our men-of-war at Chatham in 1667, Charles II. strengthened Sheerness, where there 
 is a fine dock-yard. Great fire in the dock-yard at Devonport, by which the Talavera, 
 of 74 guns, the Imogene frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, were destroyed ; the 
 relics and figure heads of the favourite ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other 
 naval heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, were also burnt, Sept. 27, 
 1840 ; the loss was estimated at 200,000Z. A fire occurred at Sheerness dock-yard on 
 board the Camperdown, Oct. 9, 1840. See Liverpool. 
 
 DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the Church was a 
 title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom, in the 
 Greek Church : and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish 
 Church, a.d. 373 et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honour among the Jews. 
 The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give 
 it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bed e and John de Beverley, 
 the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, 
 about a.d. 725. See Collegiate Degrees. 
 
 DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law, residing 
 in the city of London; the name of Commons is given to this college from the 
 civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded 
 by Dr. Henry Hervie, in 1568 ; but the original college was destroyed in the great fire 
 
 * There have been in England, since the Keformation, 317 divorces by act of parliament: in Scot- 
 land, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. 
 
DOG 216 DOM 
 
 of 1666, and after some years (in 1672), it was rebuilt on the old site.* After the 
 great fire, and until 1672, the society held its courts at Exeter-house, in the Strand. 
 It was incorporated by charter in June, 1768. — Coote. The causes taken cognisance 
 of here are, or have been, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, 
 mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. 
 
 DOG. Buffon considers the shepherd's dog as " the root of the ti'ee," assigning as his 
 reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf- 
 dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. 
 Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to 
 Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman 
 to Mentz, returned to Vienna. Statute against dog-stealing, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Dog- 
 tax imposed, 1796, and again in 1808. The employment of dogs in drawing carts 
 and burthens through the streets was abolished Jan. 1, 1840. See Greyhound. 
 
 DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days commence on the 3rd of July, and end on the 
 11th of August. The rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog star,+ with the sun, has 
 been regarded as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of 
 its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only 
 varies in its rising in every year as the latitude varies, but is always later and 
 later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may by the same rule, come 
 to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Mutton. 
 
 DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a prince so 
 named, Anafesto Paululio, a.d. 697. See Adriatic. The Genoese revolted against 
 their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic 
 republic, 1030-4. 
 
 DOGGET'S COAT and BADGE. The annual rowing match upon the Thames, thus 
 called, originated in this way : Mr. Thomas Dogget, an eminent actor, of Drury-lane, 
 on the first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I. gave a watermau's 
 coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six young watermen in honour of the day. 
 And, to commemorate that event, he bequeathed at his death a sum of money, the 
 interest whereof was to be appropriated annually, for ever, to the same purpose. 
 The candidates start, at a signal given, at that time of the tide when the current is 
 strongest against them, and row from the Old Swan, London-bridge, to the White 
 Swan at Chelsea ; first match, Aug. 1, 1715. 
 
 DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Some 
 of those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets of the curious. A Dutch 
 piece of this name was also coined. 
 
 DOME'S-DAY BOOK. See Doom's-day Booh. 
 
 DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage in 1493. This island was 
 taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The 
 French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It 
 suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane in 1806 ; and several devastating 
 hurricanes have more recently occurred. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the 
 week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated by the first 
 seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these which denotes 
 Sunday is the dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical 
 letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. 
 Generally to find the Dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go 
 on thus until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the 
 Dominical letter ; in leap years count two letters. 
 
 DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost universal. 
 
 * In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the arches and master of Trinity Hall (a seminary 
 founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the civil and canon laws) procured from the dean and 
 chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy House and other buildings in the parish of 
 St. Bene't, Paul's Wnarf, for the accommodation of the society. The courts over which lie presided, 
 the prerogative court of Canterbury, that of the bishop of London, and also the court of admiralty 
 (except for criminal cases) were thenceforward holden in the buildings thus assigned, and the whole 
 place, for an obvious reason, received the appellation of " Doctors" Commons. "—Coole's English Civilians. 
 
 t Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars ; and 
 they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound 
 would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years ; and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual 
 velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our globe. 
 
DON 217 DOV 
 
 They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Black friars, and were founded 
 by St. Doininick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215; and the order was confirmed by 
 a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular 
 constitution. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by 
 the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, whence that part 
 is still called Blaokfriars. 
 
 DONATISTS. An ancient sect of schismatics founded by Donatus, bishop of Carthage, 
 about a.d. 331. The geueral profession of this sect was an exclusive pretended 
 Puritanism.— Hooker. The Donatists held that the Father was above the Son, and 
 the Son above the Holy Ghost ; and that there was no virtue in the Church, for which 
 reason those who joined their sect were re-baptised. 
 
 DONNINGTON, BATTLE of, in Lincoln. This place was the scene of a severe action 
 between the royalists, under the command of colonel Cavendish, and the parliamentary 
 forces, in which the latter were defeated, 1643. — Battle of Donnington, in Gloucester- 
 shire, in which the royalists, under lord Ashton, were defeated by colonel Morgan, 1615 : 
 this latter victory led to the surrender of the king's garrison at Oxford. 
 
 DOOM'S-DAY ob DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis Anglice. A 
 book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. a.d. 
 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right 
 in the tenure of estates ; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient 
 demesne or not is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the 
 Chapter-house, Westminster-abbey, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a 
 greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of England, except Northumberland and 
 Durham, are surveyed. It was finished in a.d. 1086, having been completed by five 
 justices. " This Dome's-day book was the tax-book of kinge William." — Camden. The 
 taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Hen. VIII. 1522, when a more accurate 
 survey was taken, and was called by the people the New Doom's-Day Book. 
 
 DORCHESTER, BISHOPRIC of. Founded in a.d. 625. The first bishop was Birinus, 
 or St. Birinus, called the apostle of the West Saxons. The see continued for upwards 
 of 460 years. In a.d. 1094, Remigius, its last prelate, who was canonised, transferred 
 it to Lincoln, into which bishopric it merged. See Lincoln. 
 
 DORIC ORDER of ARCHITECTURE. The most ancient of the five, the invention of 
 the Dorians, a people of Greece. It is somewhat lighter than the Tuscan, and is used 
 indifferently in many sorts of buildings, It is called the second order. The Dorians 
 also gave the name to the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Pelo- 
 ponnesus took place 1104 b.c. They sent, in their spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
 into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native country. 
 
 DORT. Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, A.D. 1446. It arose in the 
 breaking down of the dykes; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons were 
 overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dullart, in Friesland, and 
 in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and 
 the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the 
 water. Dort is famous for the Protestant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to 
 which deputies were sent from England, and from all the reformed churches in 
 Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and 
 Arminius, principally upon points of j ustification and grace. This synod condemned 
 the tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. 
 
 DOUAY, in France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who founded 
 here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a.d. 1569. Douay was taken from 
 the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person in 1667. It was taken by the duke of 
 Marlborough, in 1710 ; and retaken by the French next year, This town gives its 
 name to the Roman Catholic edition of the Bible, which continues in use, by the con- 
 sent of the popes, as the only authorised English version; its text is explained by the 
 notes of Roman Catholic divines. The Old Testament was first published by the 
 English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims in 1582. 
 
 DOVE. This bird has been always in great favour with the Eastern nations, and was 
 held sacred in the early ages by mauy of them. The dove was sent from the ark, and 
 returned 2347 B.C. Fuller, in his history of the Holy War, tells us that at the siege 
 of Jerusalem the Christians intercepted a letter tied to the feet of a dove, in which the 
 Persian emperor promised assistance to the besieged. — Fuller, book i. cap. xxiv. 
 
DOV 218 DRA 
 
 DOVER. Here Julius Caesar made his first landing in England, Aug. 26, 55 B.C. Its 
 original castle is said to have been built by him soon after ; but this is disputed. The 
 •works were strengthened by Alfred and the succeeding Saxon kings. The earliest 
 named constable is Leopaldus de Bertie, in the reign of Ethelred II., followed by earl 
 Godwin, Odo the brother of William L, &c. In modern times this office and that of 
 warden of the Cinque Ports has been frequently conferred on the prime minister 
 for the time being, e. g. lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of 
 Wellington ; the earl of Dalhousie, late governor-general of India, was appointed 
 in Jan. 1853, and is the present constable (1857). — The castle was rebuilt and 
 strengthened by Hemy II., and rendered impregnable by the towers and works 
 erected in succeeding reigns. The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, or 
 Corbois, about a.d. 1130. At Dovei", king John ingloriously resigned his kingdom to 
 Pandolf, the pope's legate, May 13, 1213. The pier was projected by Henry VIII. in 
 1533. Charles II. landed here from his exile, May 25, 1660. The foot-barracks were 
 burnt down by an accidental fire, July 30, 1800. A large part of the cliff fell, Nov. 27, 
 1810. The quantity of land lost by two falls was estimated at six acres. A vast 
 portion of the cliff fell, Jan. 13, 1853. 
 
 DOWER. The gifts of a husband for a wife. — Genesis, xxxiv. 12. The custom is said to 
 be derived from the Germans ; and it was a usage among the Saxons, as appears from 
 the laws of king Edmund, by which a widow was entitled to a moiety of her husband's 
 property for her life, a.». 941. The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are 
 debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1550. — Statutes. 
 
 DOWN, BISHOPRIC of. An ancient see, whose first bishop was St. Cailan, in 499. At 
 the instance of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathedral, although 
 previously consecrated to the Trinity, was dedicated to St. Patrick, about 1183. 
 Christopher Pembridge states, in his Annals, that many believed Courcy by this 
 act had drawn on himself that vast train of misfortunes which afterwards befel him. 
 The sepulchre of St. Patrick (who was buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, 
 founded by himself) brought this place into great repute. The see was united with 
 that of Connor in 1441 (see Connor); and the see of Dromore was united to both 
 by the provisions of the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 37, 
 Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord 
 deputy of Ireland, for which, and other crimes, he was impeached, and beheaded, in 
 1541. — Beatson. 
 
 DRACO, LAWS of. Draco when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, 
 which, on account of their severity, were said to be written in letters of blood ; by 
 them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder ; the smallest transgres- 
 sion, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous 
 for more atrocious crimes, 623 B.C. — Sigonius de Repub. Athen. 
 
 DRAFTS. By 19 and 20 Vict. c. 25 (1856), drafts crossed with a banker's name are 
 payable only to or through the same banker. This act was passed in consequence of 
 the decision (to the contrary) in the case of Carlon v. Ireland, Dec. 12, 1855. 
 
 DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, "because 
 mounted on horseback with lighted match he seemeth like a fiery dragon." — MeyruVs 
 Pref. to Anc. Armour. The Draconarii were horse soldiers who bore dragons for 
 ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is believed, a.d. 
 1681. "King Charles II. at the Restoration established a regiment of Life Guards, 
 to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards and two regiments of Foot Guards ; 
 and a third regiment of Foot Guards was raised at Coldstream, on the borders of 
 Scotland." — Captain Curling. 
 
 DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth Nov. 13, 
 1577, and sailing round the globe returned to England after many perilous adventures 
 Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vice-admiral under lord Howard, high 
 admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 
 1588. His expeditions and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern 
 admirals, but not his generosity; for he divided the booty he took in proportional 
 shares with the common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his 
 presents to Indian chiefs. — Stotce. Rapin. 
 
 DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The 
 first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 
 562 B.c. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 B.C. See Chorus. Tragedy 
 
DRA 219 DUE 
 
 was first represented at Athens by Thespis, on a waggon, '536 B.C. — Arund. Marb. 
 Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tragedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, and was 
 rewarded with a goat, 536 B.o. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet 
 who introduced intrigues upon the stage. He composed about a hundred plays, of 
 which ten obtained the prize; he died 340 B.C. 
 
 DRAMA in ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague 
 which raged during the consulate of G. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stolo. The 
 magistrates to appease the incensed deities instituted the games called the Scenici, 
 which were amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan 
 manner, to the flute, 364 B.C. ; subsequently came satires accompanied with music set 
 to the flute ; and afterwards plays were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, 
 abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 B.C. — Livij. 
 Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two different 
 performers; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger exhibitor. — Lwy. 
 
 DRAMA, EARLY ENGLISH, &c. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts 
 of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. Stories 
 from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. 
 — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the Church, is said to have constructed 
 a drama about a.d. 364, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the 
 heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; 
 but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Bechet, asserts 
 that "London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representation of 
 miracles, wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed 
 about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and 
 miracles were represented in the fields. Allegorical characters were introduced in 
 the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. 
 The first regular drama acted in Europe was the "Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, 
 in the presence of pope Leo X. 1515. — Voltaire, 
 
 DRAMA, MODERN ENGLISH. The English drama became perfect in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. The first royal licence for the drama in England was to master Burbage, 
 and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 
 1574. A licence was granted to Shakspeare and his associates in 1603. Plays were 
 opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration 
 in 1660. Two companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killigrew's 
 and Davenant's, in 1662. Killigrew's patent bears date April 25, in that year; 
 and sir William Davenant's was regulated same time. The first was at the Bull, 
 Vere-street, Clare-market, which was immediately afterwards removed to Drury-lane ; 
 the other in Dorset-gardens. Till this time boys performed women's parts; but 
 Mrs. Coleman (the first female on the stage) had performed Ianilie in Davenant's Siege 
 of Rhodes, in 1656. Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and both companies 
 united, 1684, and continued together till 1694, when a schism under Betterton led to 
 the opening of a theatre in Lincoln' s-Inn-fields, 1695, which was the parent of 
 Covent-garden. Act for the revision of plays, and for licensing them previously 
 to being performed, 1737. Authors' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 Will. IV. 
 June, 1833. See Covent-garden, Drury-lane, and article Theatres. 
 
 DREAMS. The first who attempted to give an interpretation to dreams, and to draw 
 prognostics from omens, was Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. Laodice, the mother 
 of Seleucus, nine months before his birth, dreamed that Apollo presented her with a 
 precious stone, on which was engraved the figure of an anchor, and commanded her 
 to deliver it to her son as soon as born. It is said that in the morning she found a 
 ring, answering in description the jewel she had dreamed of; and that not only the 
 son of whom she was then pregnant, but all his successors of the house of the 
 Seleucidae, had the mark of an anchor on the thigh, 353 B.C. There is scriptural 
 authority for a reliance upon dreams ; particularly may be mentioned the dream of 
 Joseph, see Matthew, i. 20. In Westminster-abbey are singular records of the dreams 
 of Edward the Confessor ; and instances of faith in visions would fill a volume. A 
 remarkable modern instance is attested in the Life of Thomas, lord Lyttelton ; that 
 nobleman expired three days after a singular dream, in which he was warned of his 
 approaching dissolution, 1779.* 
 
 * Lord Lyttelton dreamt, or had a vision, that a young female, dressed in white, solemnly warned 
 him of his dissolution in three days from that time. On the third day, his lordship had a party to 
 spend the evening with him, and about the time predicted, he observed to the company present, that 
 
DRE 220 DRO 
 
 LiRESDEN. Peace of Dresden, between Saxony, Prussia, and the queen of Hungary, 
 confirming the treaties of Berlin and Breslau, Dec. 25, 1745. Siege of Dresden by the 
 king of Prussia ; during which memorable investment he bombarded the town, but 
 was obliged to retire after nine days, 1759. This city has been taken and retaken 
 several times. Battle of Dresden, see next article. Here marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 
 French troops, surrendered to the allies.. Nov. 6, 181 3. Political commotion ; the king 
 of Saxony resigns the royal authority, and prince Frederick, his nephew, is declared 
 regent, Sept. 9 et seq., 1830. See Saxony. 
 
 DRESDEN, BATTLE of. Between the allied army under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 
 and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, 
 who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event 
 had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. 
 They were defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia; 
 but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and 
 all his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound, 
 while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 
 
 DRESDEN CHINA. The fine porcelain ware known as Dresden China was discovered 
 by M. Boeticher, who was at the time an apothecary's boy, 1700. Services of this 
 ware have cost many thousands of pounds each. A costly service, each piece 
 exquisitely painted, with battles, &c, was presented to the duke of Wellington by the 
 king of Prussia, in 1816, and was the finest in England. 
 
 DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV. 
 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are 
 told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a 
 brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his 
 hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His 
 breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
 buff shoes, which on great court days were so gorgeously covered with precious 
 stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600?. ; and he had a suit of armour of solid 
 silver, with sword and belt blaziDg with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's 
 favourite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so 
 loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the 
 fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour* 
 
 DROGHEDA, anciently called Tredagh, and a place of great importance, having the 
 privilege of coining money. In the reign of Edward VI. an act, yet unrepealed, was 
 passed for the foundation of a university here. It was besieged several times in the 
 contests between 1641 and 1691. Cromwell took the town by storm, and put the 
 governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison, to the sword, Aug. 14, 1649. 
 More than 3000 men, most of them English, perished. See Boyne. 
 
 DROMORE, BISHOPRIC of. Its founder was St. Coleman, descended from a sept of 
 the Arads; he was first bishop, about 556; the cathedral is dedicated to the Redeemer. 
 By an extent returned 15 James I. this see was valued in the king's books at 50/. 
 The learned and pious doctor Jeremy Taylor was bishop of Down and Connor in 
 1660, and bishop of this see in 1661. The see of Dromore has been united to that of 
 Down (on its last avoidance) under the operation of the Irish Church Temporalities 
 act, 3 & 4 Will. IV., passed Aug. 14, 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 DROWNING, PUNISHMENT of. The punishment of death by drowning is very 
 ancient, and was practised by many countries, even by our own. The Britons inflicted 
 death by drowning in a quagmire, before 450 B.C. — Stowe. It was inflicted on eighty 
 intractable bishops near Nicomedia, a.d. 370. It was practised in France under 
 Louis XL, and on the French clergy in 1792, when they were termed Noyades. 
 
 DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first 
 instituted in Holland, a.d. 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at 
 
 "he believed he should jockey the ghost;" but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized with a 
 sudden faintuess, carried to bed, and rose no more. He died in 1779, aged 35. 
 
 * We may here mention a novel and vutrd dress, the Bloomer CosTUME.introduced into America 
 by a lady of that name, and worn there by many of the women. It resembles male attire, being an 
 open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter wide, like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the 
 ankles. The Bloomer dress was first adopted (partially, of course) by females in the western parts 
 of London, in August, 1851 ; but though it was recommended by some American ladies in popular 
 lectures, it was soon afterwards totally discontinued. 
 
DRU 
 
 221 
 
 DUB 
 
 Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the fourth at Paris, in 1772; and 
 the fifth in Loudon, in 1774. Similar societies have been instituted in other conntrie3. 
 The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : — Lateat 
 scintillula forsan — "a small spark may perhaps lie hid." 
 
 DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who 
 from their veneration for the oak (Brit, dcrw) were so called. They acted as priests and 
 magistrates; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority. la 
 England they were chosen out of the best families, that the dignity of their station, 
 added to that of their birth, might procure them the greater respect. They were 
 versed in sciences, had the administration of all sacred things, were the interpreters 
 of the gods, and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who 
 opposed Caesar's first lauding, 55 B.C. They were cruelly put to death, when defending 
 the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, who 
 totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, A.D. 59. — Rowland's Mona Antiqwa. 
 
 DRUM. A martial instrument whose invention is ascribed to Bacchus, who, according 
 to Polysenus, "gave his signals of battle with cymbals and drums." The drum was 
 an oriental invention, brought by the Moors into Spain, a.d. 713. — Le Glerc. The 
 braces on the sides, whereby the sound may be rendered louder or slacker, are of 
 later date. — Ashe. In navigation, the drum, or drum-capstan, for weighing anchors, 
 was invented by sir S. Moreland, in 1685. — Anderson. 
 
 DRUNKARDS. The phrase "Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, 
 "Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of 
 drunkenness prevailing at the time among the great. Drunkenness was punished 
 in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. Drunkards were to be excom- 
 municated in the early Church (1 Cor. vi.). In England, a canon law restrained it in 
 tlie clergy so early as a.d. 747. Constantine, king of Scots, puuished this offence 
 against society with death. He used to say that a drunkard was but the mimic of a 
 man, and differed from the beast only in shape, a d. 870. Drunkenue3s was restrained 
 in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and many later laws have been enacted 
 against it. 
 
 DRURY-LA.NE THEATRE. It derives its origin from a cock-pit, which was converted 
 into a theatre in the reign of Jame3 I. It was pulled down and rebuilt, and called 
 the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, April 
 25, 1662. The actors were called the king's servants, and ten of them, who were 
 called gentlemen of the great chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of 
 scarlet cloth, with a suitable quantity of lace. The theatre, with sixty adjoining 
 houses, was burnt down in 1671 ; and a new edifice was built in its room by sir 
 Christopher Wren, in 1674. The interior was rebuilt by Mr. Adams, and was 
 re-opened Sept. 23, 1775. The Drury-lane Theatrical Fund was originated by 
 David Garrick in 1777. In 1791, the theatre was pulled down ; it was rebuilt and 
 opened March 12, 1794. It was totally destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1809 ; and was 
 rebuilt and opened Oct. 16, 1812. See Theatres and Drama. 
 
 DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a.d. 140. It obtained its present 
 name from Alpinus, a lord or chief among the Irish, whose daughter, Auliana having 
 been drowned at the ford where now "Whit worth-bridge is built, he changed the name 
 to Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblana (afterwards corrupted into Dublana), that she 
 might be had in remembrance. Alpinus is the first chief mentioned in history as 
 having made this place his residence, which he did about a.d. 155, when he brought 
 " the then rude hill into the form of a town." See Ireland. 
 
 Christianity established here on the ar- 
 rival of St. Patrick . . .a.d. 488 
 [St. Patrick's cathedral founded about 
 
 this time.] 
 Dublin environed with walls by the 
 
 Danes, or Ostmen (see Danes) . . . 798 
 Named by king Edgar in the preface to 
 
 his charter, " Nobilissima Civitas" . 964 
 Battle of Clontarf (which see) . . . 1039 
 Dublin taken by Raymond le Gros, for 
 
 Henry II. who soon after arrives . 1171 
 Charter granted by this king . . .1173 
 Christ Church built, 103S ; rebuilt . . 1190 
 Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citi- 
 zens near Dublin (see CvMen's wood) . 1209 
 
 Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear 
 allegance to king John . .a.d. 1210 
 
 Foundation of Dublin castle laid by 
 Henry de Loundres, 1205 ; finished . 1213 
 
 John le Decer first provost ; Richard do 
 St. Olave and John Stakebold, first 
 bailiffs (see Mayor) .... 1308 
 
 Thomas Cusack, first mayor (idem) . . 1409 
 
 Besieged by the son of the earl of Kil- 
 dare, lord deputy 1500 
 
 Christ Church made a deanery and chap- 
 ter by Henry VIII. See Christ Church 1541 
 
 Name of bailiff changed ; John Ryan and 
 Thomas Comyn, first sheriffs . . 1548 
 
 University founded 1591 
 
DUB 
 
 222 
 
 DUE 
 
 DUBLIN, continued. 
 
 Charter granted by James I. . . a.b. 1609 
 Convocation which established the 
 
 Thirty -nine articles of religion . . 1614 
 Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, and 
 
 battle of Rathmines (which see) . . 1649 
 Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 
 
 foot and 400 horse . . . Aug. 1649 
 Chief magistrate honoured with the title 
 
 of lord while holding office . . . 1665 
 Blue-coat hospital incorporated . . . 1670 
 Essex-biidge built by sir H. Jervis . 1676 
 Royal Hospital, Kilmainham, founded . 1683 
 James II. arrives in Dublin . . . 1688 
 Great gunpowder explosion . . . 1693 
 Lamps first erected in the city . . 1698 
 Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded . . 1728 
 Parliament-house began .... 1729 
 Foundling Hospital incorporated . . 1739 
 St. Patrick'.-, spire erected. See Patrick's 
 
 Cathedral 1749 
 
 Boyal Dublin Society, originated 1731 ; 
 
 incorporated 1749 
 
 Lock Hospital opened .... 175S 
 
 Hibernian Society 1765 
 
 Marine Society 1766 
 
 Queen 's-bridge first erected, 1684 ; de- 
 stroyed by a flood, 1763 ; rebuilt . . 1768 
 Act for a general pavement of the streets 
 
 of the city 1773 
 
 Royal Exchange began, 1769 ; opened . 1779 
 Order of St. Patrick instituted . .1783 
 Bank of Ireland instituted (sec Bank) . 1783 
 Police established by statute . . . 1786 
 Royal Academy incorporated . . . 1786 
 Duke of Rutland's funeral . . . 1787 
 Custom-house begun, 1781 ; opened . . 1791 
 Dublin library instituted . . . 1791 
 Fire at the Parliament-house . . . 1792 
 Carlisle-bridge erected .... 1794 
 City armed association . . . . 1796 
 New law courts opened .... 1796 
 The Rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward 
 
 Fitzgerald, in Thomas-street, May 19, 1798 
 Union with England (see Union) Jan. 1, 1801 
 Emmett's insurrection . July 23, 1803 
 Hibernian Bible Society .... 1806 
 
 Bank transferred to College-green a.d. 1808 
 
 1811 
 Dec. 16, 1814 
 Aug. 12, 1821 
 
 Dec. 14, 1822 
 Aug. 16, 1823 
 . Oct. 5, 1825 
 
 Aug. 9, 1833 
 Aug. 17, 1834 
 
 Aug. 6, 1835 
 . July 4, 1836 
 
 April 25, 1837 
 July 31, 1838 
 . Jan. 6, 1839 
 Oct. 14, 1843 
 Feb. 12, 1844 
 May 15, 1847 
 
 Dublin Institution founded 
 
 Riot at the theatre 
 
 Visit of George IV. . 
 
 The " Bottle Conspiracy " . 
 
 Hibernian Academy 
 
 Dublin lighted with gas 
 
 Great Custom-house fire . 
 
 Railroad to Kingstown 
 
 British Association meet here 
 
 Dublin New Police Act 
 
 Cemetery, Mount Jerome, consecrated 
 
 Sept. 19, 1836 
 
 Royal Arcade burnt . 
 
 Poor Law Bill passed 
 
 Awful storm raged 
 
 O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) 
 
 He is found guilty 
 
 His death at Genoa . 
 
 Arrest of Mitchell, of the UniUd Irish 
 man newspaper . . May 13, 1848 
 
 State trial of fm. Smith O Brien and 
 Meagher in Dublin . . May 15, 1848 
 
 [These persons were afterwards tried at 
 Clonmel, and found guilty.'] 
 
 Trial of Mitchell ; guilty . May 26, 1848 
 
 Irish Felon newspaper first published 
 
 Julyl, 1848 
 
 Nation and Irish Felon newspapers sup- 
 pressed .... July 29, 1848 
 
 Conviction of O'Doherty . . Nov. 1, 1848 
 
 The Queen visits Dublin . . Aug. 3, 1849 
 
 Death of Richard Lalor Shiel at 
 Florence 
 
 Proposed exhibition of Irish manufac- 
 tures, to encourage which Mr. Dargan 
 presents to the Royal Dublin Society 
 26,000? June 24, 1852 
 
 Royal Exchange opened by the corpora- 
 tion as a City hall (see Ireland) Sept. 30, 1852 
 
 Industrial Exhibition opened May 12, 
 1853 ; closed (see next article) Nov. 1, 1853 
 
 Acts passed to establish a national gal- 
 lery, museum, &c. . . Aug. 10. 1854, 
 and July 2, 1855 
 (See Ireland). 
 
 May 25, 1S51 
 
 DUBLIN INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. The building for this exhibition, which owed 
 its existence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 80,000?. for the purpose, was erected by 
 Mr. (now sir) John Benson, in the Dublin Society's grounds near Merrion-square. It 
 consisted of one large and two smaller halls lighted from above. It was opened by 
 earl St. Germains the lord -lieutenant, May 12, 1853, and visited by the queen and 
 prince Albert, Aug. 30, and closed on Nov. 1. It was eminently successful. 
 
 DUBLIN, ARCHBISHOPRIC of. United to the see of Glendelagh, or Glendalagh, in 
 a.d. 1214. It is supposed that the bishopric of Dublin was founded by St. Patrick, 
 in 448. Gregory, who succeeded in the prelacy in 1121, afterwards (in 1152) became 
 archbishop ; and George Browne, an Augustine friar of London (deprived by queen 
 Mary in 1554), was the the first Protestant archprelate of this see. Dublin has two 
 cathedrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick's, both in the city, a most rare thing. The 
 revenue was valued, in the king's books, 30 Hen. VIII. at 534Z. 15s. 2d. Irish. 
 Kildare, on its last avoidance, was annexed to this see under the provisions of the 
 Church Temporalities act, passed in 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the 
 duchy of Apulia. — Du Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in a.d. 1240. The 
 ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — Johnson. It is of silver and gold, the 
 value of the first being 4s. 6d. and that of the gold 9s. 6d. The ducatoon, an Italian 
 silver coin of the value of 4s. 8d. — Pardon. 
 
 DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY took their rise from the judicial combats of 
 the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place 
 a.d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present 
 practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V. 
 ]527. The fight with small swords was introduced into England, 29 Eliz. 1587. 
 
DUE 
 
 223 
 
 DUE 
 
 Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 
 30 Charles II. 1679. Duelling was checked in the army, 1792 ; and has been almost 
 abolished in England by the influence of the prince-consort (1857). See Battel, 
 Wager of, and Combat. 
 
 LATE MEMORABLE DUELS. 
 
 Between the duke of Hamilton, and lord 
 
 Mohun, fought . . . . a.d. 1712 
 [This duel was fought with small swords 
 
 in Hyde-park. Lord Mohuu was killed 
 
 upon the spot, and the duke expired. 
 
 of his wounds as he was being carried 
 
 to his coach.*] 
 Captain Peppard and Mr. Hayes; the 
 
 latter killed 172S 
 
 Mr. Hamilton and Mr. Morgan ; the 
 
 former killed IMS 
 
 Mr. S. Martin and Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . . 1763 
 Lord Townshend and lord Bellamont ; 
 
 lord Bellamont wounded . Feb. 1, 1773 
 The count d'Artois and the duke of 
 
 Bourbon .... March 21, 1778 
 Charles James Fox and Mr. Adam ; Mr. 
 
 Fox wounded . . . Nov. 30, 1779 
 Mr. Donovan and captain Hanson ; the 
 
 latter killed . . . Nov. 13, 1779 
 Colonel Fullerton and lord Shelburne ; 
 
 the latter wounded . March 22, 17S0 
 
 Rev. Mr. Allen and Lloyd Dulany ; the 
 
 latter killed . . . June IS, 17S2 
 Colonel Thomas of the Guards and col. 
 
 Gordon; col. Thomas killed Sept. 4, 17S3 
 Lord Macartney and major-gen. Stuart ; 
 
 the former wounded . . June 8, 1786 
 Mr. Barrington and Mr. M'Kenzie ; (the 
 
 former killed on the ground by general 
 
 Gillespie, the second of the latter) . 1788 
 Mr. M'Keon and George Nugent Rey- 
 nolds ; the latter murdered by the 
 
 former .... Jan. 31,.17S8 
 Mr. Purefoy and colonel Roper ; the' 
 
 latter killed .... Dec. 17, 17SS 
 Duke of York and colonel Lenox, after- 
 wards duke of Richmond May 27, 17S9 
 Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea ; 
 
 sir George killed 1790 
 
 Mr. Curran and major Hobart April 1, 1790 
 Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; the latter 
 
 killed June 4, 1790 
 
 Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; 
 
 the former severely wounded June 25, 1790 
 Mr. Stevens and Mr. Anderson ; the 
 
 former killed . . . Sept. 20, 1790 
 Mr. Graham and Mr. Julius ; the former 
 
 killed .... July 19, 1791 
 Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no 
 
 fatality March 1, 1792 
 
 Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; 
 
 no fatality .... June 9, 1792 
 M. de Chauvigny and Mr. Lameth ; the 
 
 latter wounded . . . Nov. 8, 1792 
 Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pride ; the former 
 
 killed .... Aug. 20, 1796 
 Lord Norbury and Mr. Napper Tandy 
 
 (an affair; no meeting) . Aug. 21, 1796 
 Lord Valentia and Mr. Gawler; the 
 
 former wounded . . June 28, 1796 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt and Mr. George 
 
 Tieraey May 27, 179S 
 
 Rt. hon. Isaac Corry and rt. hon. Henry 
 
 Grattan .... Jan. 15, 1S0O 
 
 Lieut. Willis and major Impey; the 
 
 major killed .... Aug. 26, 1801 
 Rt. hon. George Ogle and Bernard Coyle 
 
 (eiyht shots ; no fatality) . . . . 1802 
 
 Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd 
 
 Jones ; sir Richard wounded June 8, 1S02- 
 Colonel Montgomery and captain Mac 
 
 Namara ; the former killed April 6, 1S03 
 Gen. Hamilton and col. Burr ; the gen. 
 
 killed, greatly lamented . . . ]S04 
 Lord Camelford and captain Best ; lord 
 
 Camelford killed . . March 10, 1804 
 Surgeon Fisher and lieut. Torrens ; the 
 
 latter killed . . . March 22, 1806 
 Baron Hompesch and Mr. Richardson ; 
 
 the latter severely wounded Sept. 21, 1806 
 Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull ; the 
 
 former wounded . . . May 5, 1807 
 Mr. Alcockand Mr. Colclough ; the latter 
 
 killed (the survivor soon after lost his 
 
 reason) June 8, 1807 
 
 M. de Granpree and M. Le Pique, in 
 
 balloons, near Paris, and the latter 
 
 killed May 3, 180S 
 
 Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; the 
 
 latter murdered . . June 23, 1808 
 Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; 
 
 neither wounded . . . May 30, 1S09 
 Lord Castlereagh and Mr. George Can- 
 ning ; the latter wounded Sept. 22, 1809 
 Mr. George Payne and Mr. Clarke ; the 
 
 former killed . . . Sept. 6, 1S10 
 Captain Boardman and ensign de Bal- 
 
 ton ; the former killed . March 4, 1811 
 Lieut. Stewart and lieut. Bagnal ; the 
 
 latter mortally wounded . Oct. 7, 1812 
 Mr. Edward Maguire and lieut. Blun- 
 
 dell ; the latter killed . . July 9, 1813 
 Mr. Hatchell and Mr. Morley Feb. 12, 1814 
 Capt. Stackpole (Statira) and lieut. 
 
 Cecil ; the captain killed . April, 1814 
 Mr. O'Connell and Mr. D'Esterre ; Mr. 
 
 D'Esterre killed . . . Feb. 1, 1S15 
 Col. Quentin and col. Palmer . Feb. 7, 1815 
 Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel (an affair; 
 
 no meeting) . . . Aug. 31, 1815 
 Major Greene and Mr. Price in America ; 
 
 the latter killed, greatly lamented . 1816 
 Captain Fottrell and colonel Ross ; five 
 
 shots each, but no fatality Dec. — , 1817 
 Lieut. Hindes and lieut. Gilbert Conroy; 
 
 the former killed . . . March 6, 1S17 
 Mr. John Sutton and Major Lockyer; 
 
 the former killed . . Dec. 10, 1817 
 Mr. O'Callaghan and lieut. Bayley ; the 
 
 latter killed .... Jan. 12, 181S 
 Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare June 7, 1820 
 Mr. Heushaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both 
 
 desperately wounded . . Sept. IS, 1820 
 Mr. Scott and Mr. Christie; the former 
 
 killed .... Feb. 16, 1S21 
 M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont April 9, 1S21 
 Sir Alexander Boswell and Mr. James 
 
 Stuart ; the former killed March 26, 1S22 
 The duke of Buckingham and the duke 
 
 of Bedford ; no fatality . May 2, 1822 
 General Pepe and general Carascosa ; 
 
 the latter wounded . . Feb. 28, 1823 
 Mr. Westall and captain Gourlay; the 
 
 latter killed 1824 
 
 Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton 
 
 Julyl, 1S26 
 Mr. Brie, barrister, and Mr. Hayes ; the 
 
 former killed . \ . Dec. 26, 1S26 
 
 The duke was attended by colonel Hamilton, and lord Mohun by lieutenant-general Macartney. 
 Colonel Hamilton was wounded in the foot, and surrendered himself on the 22nd of November, one 
 week after the duel, which took place on the 15th. Macartney made his escape, and, upon the 
 relation of colonel Hamilton, it was generally believed that the duke of Hamilton was unfairly killed 
 by M acartney.— Kcarsley's Annals of England. 
 
DUE 
 
 224 
 
 DUN 
 
 DUELLING and KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, continued. 
 
 Rev. Mr. Hodson and Mr. Grady ; the 
 
 latter wounded . . . Aug. 1827 
 Major Edgeworth and Mr. Henry Grat- 
 
 tan (an affair ; no meeting) Sept. — , 1827 
 Mr. Long Wellesley and Mr. Crespigny ; 
 
 neither wounded . . . . . 1828 
 Duke of Wellington and the earl of 
 
 Winchilsea . . . March 21, 1829 
 
 Lieut. Crowther and captain Helsham ; 
 
 the former killed . . April 1, 1829 
 
 Mr. Wm. Lambrecht and Mr. Oliver 
 
 Clayton ; the latter killed . Jan. 8, 1830 
 Captain Smith and Mr. O'Grady ; the 
 
 latter killed . . . March IS, 1830 
 Mr. Storey and Mr. Mathias ; the latter 
 
 wounded .... Jan. 22, 1833 
 Mr. Maher and Mr. Colles . Jan. 22, 1833 
 Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; 
 
 the latter mortally wounded, and died 
 
 on the 18th . . . May 10, 1S33 
 
 Captain Wellesley Ashe and sir Charles 
 
 Hampton . . . Sept. 11, 1834 
 
 Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Con- 
 
 nell ; two shots each . . May 4, 1835 
 Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; 
 
 no fatality .... May 29, 1835 
 Mr. Roebuck, M. P., and Mr. Black, editor 
 
 Mom. Cliron. ; two shots each Nov. 19, 1835 
 Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. 
 
 Ruthven and Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's 
 
 second), the latter wounded May 23, 1836 
 The earl of Cardigan and capt. Tuckett, 
 
 11th Regt. ; two shots each ; the latter 
 
 wounded .... Sept. 12, 1840 
 Capt. Bolderoaudhon. Craven Berkeley ; 
 
 no fatality .... July 15, 1842 
 Colonel Fawcett and capt. Munroe ; col. 
 
 Fawcett kiUed .... July 1, 1843 
 Lieut. Seton and lieut. Hawkey ; the 
 
 former killed. . . May 21, 1845 
 
 " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand climac- 
 teric." — Sir J. Barringtnn. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
 viduals were killed and 96 wounded ; in three of these cases both the combatants 
 were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of the law. — Hamilton. 
 
 DUKE. Originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England 
 during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. 
 In Genesis, chap, xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed dukes. The title lay 
 dormant from the Conquest to the reign of Edward III. who conferred it on his 
 eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a.d. 1336. 
 Robert de Vere was created marquess of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. 
 The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III. who created David, prince 
 of Scotland, duke of Rothesay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest 
 son, a.d. 1398, and is now borne by the prince of Wales. 
 
 DUKE, GRAND. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense 
 wealth. Of this family, Alexander de' Medici was acknowledged the chief of the 
 republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night, and his son, Cosmo, was 
 created grand-duke, the first of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. Duke-duke was 
 a title given in Spain to the house of Sylvia, on account of its possessing such a 
 number of duchies. 
 
 DULWICH COLLEGE. Founded by Edward Alleyne, an eminent comedian, and called 
 God's-Gift College, was completed in 1617 ; he was the first master of his own 
 college, and died in 1626. A fine gallery, to contain the Bourgeois collection of 
 pictures, bequeathed by six- Francis Bourgeois, was annexed in 1813. The manor of 
 Dulwich belongs to the corporation of this college ; and the estate being much 
 increased by enclosures, donations, and the advanced value of land, while the original 
 number of persons relieved has not been enlarged, a situation in God's-Gift College 
 approaches to opulence. — Leigh. Alterations are in contemplation (1857). 
 
 DUMB. At the end of the sixteenth century, Pedro de Ponce educated two children of 
 the constable of Castile, who were born deaf and dumb, so as not only to read and 
 write and know arithmetic, but to understand several languages, and the principles of 
 religion, philosophy, and astronomy. Perreira, a Spaniard, exhibited at Paris children 
 instructed by him, whose acquirements astonished the Academy of Sciences there, 
 1748. The Abbe - l'Epe'e has been most successful in France; and in these countries 
 are many asylums for teaching the deaf and dumb. See Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 DUMBLANE or DUNBLANE, BATTLE of. Called also the battle of Sheriffmuir. 
 Between the royalist army and the Scots rebels, the former commanded by the duke 
 of Argyle and the latter by the earl of Mar, who was defeated, Nov. 12, 1715. The 
 duke had in his army 4000 veteran troops ; the earl had 8000 men, but all newly 
 raised ; the loss was equal on both sides, and each claimed the victory. The Highland 
 foot behaved most gallantly. 
 
 DUNBAR, BATTLE of. Between the Scottish and English army, in which John 
 Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued by Edward I. 
 Fought April 27, 1226. Battle between the Scots and the English under Cromwell, 
 who obtained a signal victory, Sept. 3, 1650. 
 
DUN 225 DWA 
 
 DUNDALK. After the defeat of the unfortunate Edward Bruce who had invaded 
 Ireland in 1315, and had been crowned king, he was beheaded here in 1318, and with 
 him 6200 Scots invaders lost their lives. The walls and fortifications of Dundalk 
 were destroyed in 1641. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland was established 
 in this town by artisans from France in 1727. 
 
 DUNGAN-HILL, BATTLE of, in Ireland. Between the English and Irish armies, 
 the former commanded by colonel Jones, who signally defeated the Irish, of whom 
 6000 are said to have been slain, while the loss on the side of the English was 
 inconsiderable, July 10, 1647. 
 
 DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and French, and 
 put into the hands of the English, June 24, 1658, the last year of Cromwell's adminis- 
 tration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,0002. to Louis XIV. in 1662. The French 
 king made Dunkirk one of the best fortified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works 
 were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrecht in 
 1713. The French afterwards resumed the works, but they were ordered to be 
 demolished at the peace of 1763. They continued thus till the peace of 1783, when 
 they were again resumed. The English attempted to besiege this place ; but the 
 duke of York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and forced to retire with 
 loss, Sept. 7, 1793. Made a free port in 1816. 
 
 DUNMOW, in Essex. This town is famous for the tenure of the manor, " that what- 
 ever married couple will go to the priory, and, kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones, 
 will swear that they had not quarrelled nor repented of their marriage within a year 
 and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." This custom was 
 instituted by Robert de Fitzwalter, in the reign of Henry III. 1244. The earliest 
 recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, since which period it has only been 
 demanded five times. The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shakeshanks 
 and his wife, who established their right to it, June 20> 1751 : they made a large 
 sum by selling slices of the flitch to those who were witnesses of the ceremony, 
 there being 5000 persons present. This custom was revived on July 19, 1855, when 
 flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chipping-Ongar, and the Chevalier 
 Chatelaine and his lady. The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. 
 Harrison Ainsworth and some friends defrayed the expense, and superintended the 
 ceremonials. Endeavours have been made to perpetuate the custom. 
 
 DUNSINANE, BATTLE op. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. 
 On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth the 
 thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland. Edward the Confessor had 
 sent Seaward on behalf of Malcolm III. whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper 
 had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, 
 to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is 
 the subject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 
 
 DURHAM, BATTLE of. Between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's- 
 cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord 
 Piercy, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished. 
 Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself with many of 
 his nobles and knights, and many thousand men were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 DURHAM, BISHOPRIC of. First fixed at Holy Island, on the coast of Northumber- 
 land, in 635, but forced from it by the merciless invasion of the Danes. It was next 
 fixed at Chester-le-street for 200 years, and then finally at Durham. The bones of 
 St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishop, were taken to Durham, and interred in the cathedral 
 founded there. This see, deemed the richest in England, was valued in the king's 
 books at 28212. The Palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was separated from the 
 diocese, and vested in the crown, June 21, 1836. 
 
 DUUMVIRI. Two noble patricians at Rome, who were first appointed by Tarquin the 
 Proud to take care of the books of the Sibyls, which were supposed to contain the 
 fate of the Roman empire. The Sibylline books were placed in the Capitol, and 
 secured as a sacred deposit in a chest under the ground. The Duumviri were insti- 
 tuted 520 B.C.; their number was increased to ten, called the Decemviri, 365 B.C., 
 afterwards to fifteen ; the added five were called quinque viri. 
 
 DWARFS, ANCIENT. The dwarf most celebrated in ancient history, for shortness of 
 stature, was Philetus of Cos, who was, at the same time, most distinguished in his 
 age as a poet, and for learning ; he was so diminutive that he always carried leaden 
 
 Q 
 
DWA 226 EAR 
 
 weights in his pockets, to prevent bis being blown away by the wind. Philetus was 
 preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. — JElian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dwarf 
 called Coropas, but two feet and a hand's breadth high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid 
 of Julia's, was of the same height. — Pliny. Aug. Caesar exhibited in his plays a 
 man not two feet in stature. — Sucton. Alypius of Alexandria, a logician and phi- 
 losopher, was but one foot five inches and a half high ; " he seemed to be consumed 
 into a kind of divine nature." — Voss. Instit. 
 
 DWARFS, MODERN. John de Estrix, of Mechlin, was brought to the duke of Parma, 
 in 1592, when he was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled in lan- 
 guages, and not more than three feet high. Jeffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, was 
 served up to table in a cold pie, before the king and queen, at a feast given to them 
 by the duchess of Buckingham, in 1626; he was then a youth of 18 inches high. In 
 later years, Jeffrey having challenged a Mr. Crofts, who had offended him, to fight a 
 duel, the latter came to the ground armed only with a squirt : this new indignity led 
 in the end to an actual meeting, and the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. Count 
 Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accomplishments and elegant manners, well 
 known in England, where he resided many years, was born in Nov. 1739. His 
 growth was, at one year of age, 14 inches; at six, 17 inches; at twenty, 33 inghes ; 
 and at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Auastasia, seven years younger than 
 himself, and so much shorter that she could stand under his arm. He visited many 
 of the courts of Europe, and died in England at the great age of 98, in 1837. The 
 celebrated " Tom Thumb," exhibited as a dwai-f in England, 1846 et seq., was after- 
 wards acknowledged to be younger than originally stated. 
 
 DYEING, ART of. The discovery of it is attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and 
 dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures 
 were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of 
 dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. " Two dyers of 
 Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north " (of England), 1628. A statute 
 against abuses in dyeing passed in 1783. The art is greatly improved by chemical 
 discoveries in the present century. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE. An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and current in the first 
 years of Edward I. about a.d. 1272; it was so named from the figure impressed 
 upon it. The American gold coinage of eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles, 
 began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about two guineas. 
 
 EAGLE, the. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
 Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes 
 represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they adopted 
 the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 B.C. When Charlemagne became master of 
 the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, 
 to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a.d. 802. The 
 eagle was the imperial standard of Napoleon I. and is that of Napoleon III. ; as well 
 as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. — White Eagle, an order of knighthood instituted 
 in 1325, by Uladislaus, king of Poland, on the mamage of his son Casimir with a 
 daughter of the great duke of Lithuania ; the knights of this order wore a gold chain 
 on the breast, to which hung a silver eagle crowned. See Knighthood. — Black 
 Eagle was an order of the same kind, instituted in 1701, by the elector of Branden- 
 burg, Frederick I., on his being crowned king of Prussia. 
 
 EARL, TITLE of. An honour which came from the Saxons, and continued for many 
 ages the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. 
 created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had anciently 
 for the support of their state, the third penny out of the sheriff's court, issuing out 
 of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no 
 counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of 
 earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of 
 earl as a substitute for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by 
 William the Conqueror, a.d. 1066. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, 
 by king Malcolm III. in 1037. Sir John de Courcy created baron of Kinsale and 
 earl of Ulster in Ireland, by Henry II. 1181. 
 
EAR 
 
 227 
 
 EAR 
 
 EARL MARISCHAL of SCOTLAND. The Earl Marischal of Scotland was an officer 
 who commanded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded the whole army ; but 
 they seemed to have had a joint command, as all orders were addressed to "our con- 
 stable and marischal." The office of earl marischal has never been out of the noble 
 family of Keith. It was reserved at the Union ; and when the heritable jurisdictions 
 were bought, it was in the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George Keith, 
 earl marischal, in 1715. 
 
 EARL MARSHAL of ENGLAND. The eighth great officer of state. This office, until 
 it was made hereditary, always passed by grant from the king. The rank was lord 
 marshal only, until Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to the earl of Notting- 
 ham, by the style of earl marshal. In 1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord 
 Howard, the dignity of earl marshal, with power to execute the same by deputy. 
 Gilbert de Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last lord 
 marshal was John Fitz- Allan, lord Mai tra vers. — Camden ; Ashmole's Instit. 
 
 E&RTH. See Globe. 
 
 EARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. 
 Various domestic articles were made by the Romans, 715 B.C. The art was revived 
 and improved in Italy, a.d. 1310. Wedgwood's patent ware was first made in 1762. 
 His pottery in Staffordshire was extended to a variety of purposes and thereby 
 rendered a very important branch of commerce. See China. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed with any degree 
 of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were produced by subterraneous 
 clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, B.C. 
 435. — Dioff. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many 
 vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of 
 which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable sub- 
 stances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported 
 till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. 
 Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed them to electricity. In many cases, how- 
 ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by 
 subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earth- 
 quakes. Among those recorded as having been the most destructive, are the following, 
 which are quoted from the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this 
 volume all that have occurred : * — 
 
 One which made the peninsula of Euboea 
 an island B.C. 
 
 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus 
 swallowed up 
 
 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an 
 oracle, M. Ciutius armed and mounted 
 on a stately horse, leaped into the 
 dreadful chasm it occasioned (Livy)~B. c. 
 
 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its 
 inhabitants ; and twelve cities in Cam- 
 pania also buried 
 
 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its 
 inhabitants 
 
 Awful one in Asia, which overturned 
 twelve cities . . . . a.d. 
 
 One accompanied by the eruption of 
 Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum buried . . . . 
 
 Pour cities in Asia, two in Greece, and 
 two in Galatia overturned . 
 
 Antioch destroyed 
 
 Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea in Bithy- 
 nia, overturned . . 
 
 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 
 cities and towns damaged . . . 
 
 Nicomedia again demolished, and its in- 
 habitants buried in its ruins 
 
 One felt by nearly the whole world . . 
 
 At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, 
 
 and thousands perished . . . 558 
 In Africa ; many cities overturned . . 560 
 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; 
 more than 500 towns were destroyed, 
 and the loss of life surpassed all calcu- 
 lation 742 
 
 In France, Germany, and Italy . . . 801 
 Constantinople overturned, and all 
 
 Greece shaken 936 
 
 One felt throughout England . . . 10S9 
 One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed : 
 
 amongthem, MariseumandMamisti-ia 1114 
 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 
 
 persons buried in the ruins . . 1137 
 
 One severely felt at Lincoln . . . 1142 
 At Calabria, when one of its cities and 
 all its inhabitants were overwhelmed 
 in the Adriatic Sea .... 1186 
 One again felt throughout England . . 1274 
 In England, the greatest ever known 
 
 there .... Nov. 14, 1328 
 
 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabitants 
 
 perished 1456 
 
 At Lisbon, 1500 houses.and 30, 000 persons 
 buried in the ruins ; several neighbour- 
 ing towns engulfed with their inhabi- 
 tants Feb 1531 
 
 " Shocks of earthquakes are recorded as occurring at various times in these realms ; but they have 
 never been fatal in their consequences, although in some cases (but the instances are rare) a few 
 buildings have fallen, or sustained partia Idamage. To avoid the fatal effects of a more terrible shock 
 predicted by a madman, for the 8th of April following, thousands of persons, particularly those of rank 
 and fortune, passed the night of the 7th April, 1750, in their carriages and in tents in Hyde-park. 
 
 <}2 
 
EAR 
 
 228 
 
 EAR 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, continued. 
 
 One felt in Loudon : part of St. Paul's 
 aud the Temple churches fell . . . 15S0 
 
 In Japan, several cities made ruins, and 
 thousands perished .... 1596 
 
 Awful one at Calabria . . . . 1638 
 
 One in China, when 300,000 persons were 
 buried in Pekin alone .... 1662 
 
 One severely felt in Ireland . . . 1690 
 
 One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed 
 Tort Riy.U, whose houses were engulfed 
 forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons 
 perished 1692 
 
 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities 
 and towns, and 300 villages Of Catania 
 aud its 18,000 inhabitants, not a trace 
 remained; more than 100, 000 lives were 
 lost Sept. 1693 
 
 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 per- 
 s ins perished 1726 
 
 Again in China; and 100,000 people 
 swallowed up at Pekin . . . 1731 
 
 One in Huugary, which turned a moun- 
 tain round 1736 
 
 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a 
 convent ; but the monks escaped . 1740 
 
 Lima and Callao demolished; 18,000 per- 
 sons buried in the ruins . Oct. 28, 1746 
 
 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a 
 slight shock .... Feb. 8, 1750 
 
 Another, but severer shock . March 8, 1750 
 
 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . 1752 
 
 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses and 
 40,000 persons swallowed up . . 1754 
 
 Quito destroyed . . . April, 1755 
 
 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about 
 eight minutes most of the houses, and 
 upwards of 50,000 inhabitants were 
 swallowed up, and wholestieets buried. 
 The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
 Braga, suffered dreadfully, audSt.Ubes 
 was wholly overturned. In Spain, a 
 large part of Malaga became ruins. 
 One half of Fez, in Morocco, was de- 
 stroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs 
 perished there. Above half of the 
 island of Madeira became waste ; and 
 2000 houses in the island of Meteline, 
 in the Archipelago, were overthrown : 
 this awful earthquake extended 5000 
 miles, even to Scotland . Nov. 1, 1755 
 
 One in Syria, extended over 10, 000 square 
 miles ; Balbec destroyed . . . . 1759 
 
 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost 
 their lives .... Aug. 1767 
 
 At Guatemala, which, with 8000 inhabi- 
 tants, was swallowed up. . July 6, 1774 
 
 A destructive one at Smyrna . . . 177S 
 
 At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
 and'multitudes buried . . . . 1780 
 
 One which overthrew Messina and a 
 number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
 40,000 persons perished . Feb. 6, 1783 
 
 Archindschau wholly destroyed, and 
 12,000 persons buried in its ruins . . 1781 
 
 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of 
 the earth swallowed up many houses 
 and 1000 persons . . . Sept. 30, 1789 
 
 Another fatal one in Sicily . . . . 1791 
 
 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
 forth its flames, overwhelmed the city 
 of Torre del Greco .... 1704 
 
 In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 
 persons lost their lives . . . . 1794 
 
 The whole country between Santa Fe" 
 and Panama destroyed, including the 
 cities of Cuseo and Quito, 40,000 of 
 whose people were, in one second, 
 hurled into eternity . Feb. 4 to 20, 1707 
 
 One at Constantinople, which destroyed 
 the royal palace and an immensity of 
 
 buildings, and extended into Romania 
 and WaUachia 1800 
 
 A violent one felt in Holland . . Jan. 1804 
 
 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
 persons lost their lives . July 26, 1805 
 
 At the Azores : a village of St. Michael's 
 sunk, and a lake of boiling water ap- 
 peared in its place . . Aug. 11, 1810 
 
 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) . . 1812 
 
 Several felt throughout India. The dis- 
 trict of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were 
 buried with it June, 1819 
 
 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
 other towns ; great damage sustained, 
 and thousands perished . . . . 1819 
 
 One fatal at Messina . . . Oct. 1826 
 
 One in Spain, which devastated Murcia, 
 and numerous villages; 6000 persons 
 perished .... March 21, 1829 
 
 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 
 shocks were expevieuced at Borgo- 
 taro ; and at Pontremoli many houses 
 were thrown down, and not a chimney 
 was left standing . . . Feb. 14, 1834 
 
 In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
 which hundreds of houses were 
 thrown down, and thousands of the 
 inhabitants perished . Jan. 22, 1837 
 
 At Martinique, by which nearly half of 
 Port Royal was destroyed, nearly 700 
 persons killed, and the whole island 
 damaged .... Jan. 11, 1839 
 
 At Ternate : the island made a waste, 
 almost every house destroyed, and 
 thousands of the inhabitants lost their 
 lives Feb. 14, 1840 
 
 Awful and destructive earthquake at 
 Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
 of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
 thrown, and several hundred persons 
 perished .... July 2, 1840 
 
 Great earthquake at Zante, where many 
 persons perished . . Oct. 30, 1840 
 
 At Cape Havtien, St. Domingo, which 
 destroyed nearly two-thirds of the 
 town ; between 4000 and 5000 lives 
 were lost .... May 7, 1842 
 
 At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which 
 was entirely destroyed . . Feb. 8, 1843 
 
 At Rhodes and Macri, when a mountain 
 fell in at the latter place, crushing a 
 village, and destroying 600 persons, 
 
 March, 1851 
 
 At Valparaiso, where more than 400 
 houses were destroyed . April 2, 1851 
 
 In South Italy : the towns of Melfl and 
 Venosa almost laid in ruins Aug. 14, 1851 
 
 At Philippine Isles : Manilla nearly 
 destroyed . . . Sept. and Oct. 1852 
 
 In N. W. of England, slight . Nov. 9, 1852 
 
 At Thebes in Greece, the town nearly 
 destroyed Sept. 1853 
 
 St. Salvador, in South America, de- 
 stroyed April 10. 1S54 
 
 Onasaca in Japan, and Simoda in 
 Niphon, destroyed ; Jeddo much in- 
 jured Dec. 23, 1854 
 
 Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed 
 
 Feb. 28, 1855 
 
 Several villages in Central Europe de- 
 stroyed .... July 25, 26, 1855 
 
 Jeddo nearly destroyed . . Nov. 11, 1855 
 
 At the island of Great Sanger, one of the 
 Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earth- 
 quake, nearly 3000 lives lost March 12, 1856 
 
 In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 
 lives lost ; Rhodes, 100 ; and other 
 islands 150 . . . . Oct. 12, 1856 
 
EAS 
 
 229 
 
 EAS 
 
 At the time of the great earthquake at Lisbon, above-mentioned, in Nov. 1755, a 
 singular phenomenon happened to the hot-well at Bristol : the water suddenly 
 became as red as blood, and so very turbid that it could not be drunk. The water 
 also, of a common well, which had been remarkably clear, at once turned as black as 
 ink, and continued unfit for use nearly a fortnight. The tide, likewise, in the river 
 Avon flowed back, contrary to its natural course; and various other effects of some 
 unknown convulsion in the bowels of the earth, were perceived in different places. 
 But all conjecture as to the cause of these extraordinary circumstances was vain, till 
 the news arrived of the earthquake at Lisbon having happened on the same day, 
 which gave a satisfactory solution to the several phenomena. Mrs. Somerville states 
 that about 255 earthquakes have occurred in the British Islands, all slight. 
 
 EAST ANGLES. The kingdom of the East Angles (tbe sixth of the Heptarchy) was 
 commenced by Uffa, a.d. 575, and ended with Ethelbert in 792. See Britain. Of 
 this name was an ancient see founded by St. Felix, who converted the East Angles in 
 630. In 669, it was divided into two bishoprics, viz. Elmham and Dunwich, which 
 were united in 955. The bishopric was removed to Norwich, in 1088. See Norwich, 
 Bishopric of. 
 
 EAST INDIA BILL. This bill originated in a pai'liamentary committee on East India 
 affairs, which exposed a scene of disgraceful intrigues and crimes : a governor-general 
 was appointed to reside in Bengal, to which the other presidencies were now made 
 subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was instituted at Calcutta : the salary of 
 the governor was fixed at 25,000Z. per year; that of the council at 10,000/. each; and 
 of the chief judge at 8000/. : the affairs of the company were controlled; all the 
 departments were reorganised, and all the territorial correspondence was henceforth to 
 be laid before the British ministry, June 16, 1773. Mr. Pitt's bill appointing a Board 
 of Control, passed May 18, 1784. See Board of Control, India. 
 
 EAST INDIES, or INDIA. A country of vast extent, power, and wealth, under the 
 management in its political as well as its commercial concerns, of a great company of 
 merchants. This is a phenomenon, astonishing in itself, and without parallel in the 
 history of the world. For all particulars relating to the East Indies, see India. — The 
 East India house, Lead enh all-street, was built in 1726, and considerably enlarged in 
 1799. — The East India Docks were opened Aug. 4, 1806. 
 
 EAST SAXONS, KINGDOM of the. The kingdom of the East Saxons began with 
 Erchenwin, a.d. 527, and consisted of Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts; and ended 
 with Sigered, the last monarch previous to the union of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy 
 under Egbert, in 828. See article Britain. 
 
 EASTER. The festival observed by the Church in commemoration of Our Saviour's 
 resurrection. So called in England from the Saxon goddess Eostre. The festival of 
 Easter was instituted about a.d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it was fixed in 
 England by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council of Nice to be observed 
 on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday 
 after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March. 
 
 EASTER ISLAND. This island, which lies in the Pacific Ocean, was discovered by 
 Davis, in 1686 : it was visited by Roggewin, in 1722, and from him it obtained the name 
 it now bears; it was visited by Captain Cook, in 1774. At the south-east extremity is 
 the crater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a.d. 364, and ended in the defeat and 
 death of Constantine XIII. the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved 
 to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constantinople ; he laid siege to that city 
 both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. 
 The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into 
 the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house 
 were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved. Thus terminated the 
 dynasty of tlie Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 
 1453. See Turkey. 
 
 Reign of Valens .... a.d. 364 
 Maximus, the tyrant, defeated and put 
 
 to death 388 
 
 Theodosius defeats Eugenius . . . 392 
 Public schools instituted, and Theodo- 
 sius II. endeavours to restore learning 425 
 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, 
 
 whose fleet is burned with a brazen 
 speculum by Proclus . . .a.d. 
 
 Turkish empire begins in Asia . . . 
 
 Phocas, a simple centurion, elected em- 
 peror, after a revolt of the soldiery, 
 and murder of Maurice and his chil- 
 dren 
 
 514 
 545 
 
EAS 
 
 230 
 
 EAS 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 Power of the popes begins, by the con- 
 cessions of Phocas . . ..ad. 606 
 
 The Persians besiege Constantinople . 626 
 
 The Arabs besiege it 668 
 
 It is besieged by the Saracens, whose 
 fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire. 
 See Greek Fire 673 
 
 Second siege of Constantinople by the 
 Arabs 716 
 
 Zoe' prostitutes herself, and poisons her 
 husband; her favourite, Michael, a 
 Papblagonian money-lender, ascends 
 the throne 1034 
 
 Zoe' adopts for her sou Michael V. sur- 
 named Calaphates 1041 
 
 Isaac Comnenus chosen emperor by the 
 soldiery 1057 
 
 Isaac Comnenus abdicates . . . . 1059 
 
 Romauus taken prisoner by the Turks . 1078 
 
 Alexius Angelus, brother of Isaac II. 
 revolts, puts out the emperor's eyes, 
 and ascends the throne . . a.d. 
 
 Constantinople is taken by the Latins, 
 who restore Isaac with his son . 
 
 The father and son murdered by Mour- 
 zoufle 
 
 The French and Venetians take Constan- 
 tinople by storm ; Mourzoufle put to 
 death, his eyes being first torn from 
 his head 
 
 Constantinople recovered from the 
 Latins by the Greek emperors . . 
 
 Andronicus abdicates .... 
 
 Turks first enter Europe . . . . 
 
 Fall of the Eastern Empire, and extinc- 
 tion of the imperial families of the 
 Comneni and Palajologi 
 
 See Turkey. 
 
 1195 
 1203 
 1204 
 
 1261 
 1320 
 1352 
 
 1453 
 
 EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 364. 
 379. 
 395. 
 408. 
 450. 
 457. 
 468. 
 474. 
 474. 
 491. 
 518. 
 527. 
 565. 
 578. 
 582. 
 
 610. 
 641. 
 
 641. 
 668. 
 685. 
 
 698. 
 705. 
 
 711. 
 713. 
 
 716. 
 718. 
 
 741. 
 
 775. 
 780. 
 790. 
 
 Valens. 
 
 Theodosius the Great. 
 
 Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 
 
 Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 
 
 Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 
 
 Leo I. the Thracian. 
 
 Ardaburius. 
 
 Leo the younger, died the same year. 
 
 Zeno, called the haurian. 
 
 Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 
 
 Justiu I. originally a private soldier. 
 
 Justinian, founder of the Digest. 
 
 Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 
 
 Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 
 
 Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered 
 with all his children, by his successor. 
 
 Phocas the Usurper, whose crimes and 
 cruelties led to his own assassination, 
 in 610. 
 
 Heraclius, by whom Phocas was de- 
 throned. 
 
 Constantine III. (Heraclius-Constan- 
 tine) reigned a few months ; poisoned 
 by his step-mother Martina. 
 
 Constans II. : assassinated in a bath. 
 
 Constantine IV. Pogonatus. 
 
 Justinian II. son of the preceding : ab- 
 horred for his exactions, debauch- 
 eries, and cruelties : dethroned and 
 mutilated by his successor. 
 
 Leontius ; dethroned and mutilated by 
 Tiberius Aspimar. 
 
 Tiberius III. Aspimar. 
 
 Justinian II. restored. Leontius and 
 Tiberius degraded in the Hippo- 
 drome, and put to death. Justinian 
 slain in 711. 
 
 Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 
 
 Anastasius II. : fled on the election of 
 Theodosius in 716 ; afterwards deliv- 
 ered up to Leo III. and put to death. 
 
 Theodosius III. 
 
 Leo III. the Isaurian. 
 
 [In this reign (726) commences the great 
 Iconoclastic controversy; the alternate 
 prohibition and restoration of images 
 involves the peace of several reigns.] 
 
 Constantine V. Copronymus, son of the 
 preceding ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 Leo IV. 
 
 Constantine VI. and his mother Irene. 
 
 Constantine, alone, by the desire of the 
 people, Irene having become un- 
 popular. 
 
 Irene, again, jointly with her son, and 
 afterwards alone : deposed for her 
 cruelties and murders, and exiled. 
 
 Nicephorus I. surnamed Logothetes : 
 slain. 
 
 811. Staurachius : reigns a few days only. 
 
 811. Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates 
 the throne, and retires to a monastery. 
 
 813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the 
 temple at Constantinople on Christ- 
 mas-day, 820, by conspirators in the 
 interest of his successor. 
 
 820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 
 
 829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 
 
 842. Michael III. surnamed Porphyrogen- 
 netes, and the Sot, son of the pie- 
 ceding : murdered by his successor. 
 
 867. Basilius I. the Macedonian. 
 
 886. Leo VI. styled the Philosopher. 
 
 911. Alexander, and Constantino VII. 
 brother and son of Leo, the latter 
 only six years of age : the former 
 dying in 912, Zoe, mother of Con- 
 stantine, assumes the regency. 
 
 919. Romanus Lecapenus usurps the impe- 
 
 rial power. 
 
 920. Constantine VIII. his son. 
 928. Stephen and Christopher. 
 
 [Five emperors now reign : of these, 
 Christopher dies in 931 ; Romanus is 
 exiled by his sons, Constantiue and 
 Stephen, who are themselves banished 
 the next year. 
 
 945. Constantine VII. now reigns alone : 
 poisoned by his daughter-in-law, 
 Theophania. 
 
 959. Romanus II. son of the preceding : this 
 _ monster, who had contrived his 
 * father's death, banishes his mother 
 Helena. 
 
 963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : marries Theo- 
 phania, his predecessor's consort, 
 who has him assassinated. 
 
 969. John I. Zemisces, celebrated general ; 
 takes Basilius II. and Constantine IX. 
 sons of Romanus II. as colleagues : 
 John dies, supposed by poison, and 
 
 975. Basilius II. and Constantino IX. reign 
 alone : the former dies in 1025 ; the 
 latter in 1028. 
 1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus : poisoned 
 
 by his consort Zoe, who raises 
 1034. Michael IV. the Paphlagoniau, to the 
 throne : on his death Zoe places 
 
 1041. Michael V. surnamed Calaphates, as 
 
 his successor : him she dethrones, 
 has his eyes put out, and marries 
 
 1042. Constantine X. Monomachus, who, and 
 
 Zoe, reign jointly : Zoe' dies in 1050. 
 1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 
 
 1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : do- 
 
 posed. 
 
 1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
 1059. Constantine XI. surnamed DuCAS. 
 
EAS 
 
 231 
 
 ECC 
 
 1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and 
 
 John de Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent 
 
 and associate emperor. 
 1201. [Constantinople recovered, .and the 
 
 empire of the Franks or Latins 
 
 terminates.] 
 
 GREEK EMPIRE AT NICE. 
 
 1204. Theodore Lascaris. 
 1222. John Ducas, Vataces. 
 1255. Theodore Lascaris II. his son. 
 1259. John Lascaris, and 
 
 1200. Michael VIII. Palseologus. 
 
 EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 1201. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople : 
 
 he puts out the eyes of John, and 
 reigns alone. 
 
 1282. Andronicus II. Palseologus the Elder, 
 son of the preceding : deposed by his 
 grandson Andronicus the Younger. 
 
 1332. Andronicus III. the Younger. 
 
 1341. John Palseologus, under the guardian- 
 ship of John Cantacuzenus : the latter 
 proclaimed emperor at Adrianople. 
 
 1347. John Cantacuzenus. 
 
 1355 John Palfeologus, restored. 
 
 1391. Manuel Palaologus, his son ; succeeded 
 by his son and colleague, 
 
 1425. John Palfeologus II. 
 
 144S. Constantine XIII. Palfeologus, his son. 
 
 1453. [Constantinople taken on May 29, 1453, 
 by the Ottomans under their sultan, 
 Mahomet II. ; Constantine is slain, 
 and with him ends the Eastern 
 Empire, which had subsisted for 
 1125 years.] 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and 
 
 Romanus IV. surnamed Diogenes, 
 
 whom she marries : reign to the pre- 
 judice of Michael, Constantine's son. 
 1071. Michael VII. Parapinacos, recovers his 
 
 throne, and reigns jointly with 
 Constantine XII. 
 1078. Nicephorus III. : dethroned by 
 1081. Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 
 1118. John Comnenus, his son, surnamed 
 
 Kalos : died of a wound from a 
 
 poisoned arrow. 
 1143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 
 1180. Alexius II. Comnenus, son of the pre- 
 ceding, under the regency of the 
 
 empress Maria, his mother. 
 1183. Andronicusl. Comnenus, causesAlexius 
 
 to be strangled and seizes the throne : 
 
 put to death by 
 1185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is 
 
 deposed, imprisoned, and deprived of 
 
 his eyes by his brother 
 1195. Alexius III. Angelus, called the Tyrant : 
 
 this last deposed in his turn, and his 
 
 eyes put out ; died in a monastery. 
 
 1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son, 
 
 Alexius IV. : deprived. 
 
 > LATIN EMPERORS. 
 
 1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the cap- 
 
 ture of Constantinople by the Latins, 
 
 elected emperor : made a prisoner by 
 
 the king of Bulgaria, and never heard 
 
 of afterwards. 
 1206. Henry I. his brother : dies in 1217. 
 1217. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 
 1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 
 
 EBIONITES. Ancient heretics who arose in the very first age of the Church, and who, 
 denying the divinity of Christ, formed themselves into a sect in the second century. 
 The Ebionites seem to have been a branch of the Nazarenes. — Eusebius. The 
 Ebionites were of two descriptions: one, who believed that Our Saviour was born of 
 a virgin, and observed all the parts of the Christian religion, but adding the ceremonies 
 of the Jewish people ; the other, who believed that Christ was born after the manner 
 of all mankind, and denied his divinity. — Pardon. 
 
 EBRO, the River, in Spain. The scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the 
 French, near Tudela, Nov. 23, 1808 ; and also the scene of several important move- 
 ments of the allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war, between 
 the years 1809 and 1814 el seq. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and eccle- 
 siastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a.d. 1066. See Arches, 
 Consistory and the other Ecclesiastical Courts. The following are the causes cognisable 
 in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordi- 
 nations, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, forni- 
 cation, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. Great alterations 
 are in contemplation (1857). 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or STATES of the CHURCH. With pope Stephen II. 
 a.d. 752, commenced the temporal power of the Church of Rome. In 1798, this 
 State was taken possession of by the French, who erected it into the " Roman 
 Republic.'' They obliged the pope Pius VI. to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards 
 into France, where he died, in 1799. In 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected 
 pope, under the title of Pius VII. resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. 
 This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal 
 sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope 
 was restored. In 1849, Nov. 24, Pius IX. was forced to flee in disguise from Rome to 
 Gaeta, and the Roman chambers appointed a provisional government. They declared 
 the pope divested of all claims to temporal power, Feb. 9, 1850. He appealed to the 
 Roman Catholic powers of Europe for assistance, and a French army, after attacking 
 Rome, in the end restored him to his sovereignty. For subsequent events, see Rome. 
 
ECC 
 
 232 
 
 EDD 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. A bull of pope Pius IX. establishing a Roman 
 Catholic hierarchy in England, was issued Sept. 30, 1850, by which, among other 
 assumptions of spiritual and temporal authority, Dr. Wiseman, vicar apostolic of 
 London, was created a cardinal, and made lord archbishop of Westminster, and other 
 Roman -Catholic priests were raised to prelacies. See Papal Aggression. In con- 
 sequence of the popular ferment thus excited, and to vindicate the authority of the 
 queen in her own realms, thus infringed, this bill was framed and passed 14 & 15 
 Vict. c. 60, (1851). 
 
 ECHOES. The time which elapses between the utterance of a sound and its return 
 must be more than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. Echo is supposed to 
 have been a nymph who pined into a sound. — Sydney. The whispering gallery of 
 St. Paul's is a well-known example. The echo of Westminster-bridge once obtained 
 a dramatic fame. 
 
 ECKMUHL, BATTLE of. Between the main armies of France and Austria; the one 
 commanded by the emperor Napoleon in person, and the other by the archduke 
 Charles. Napoleon adopted his usual plan of breaking through the enemy's line to 
 which the Austrian position afforded too great facility : and the conflict terminated 
 in the disastrous defeat of the Imperialists, whose loss of this battle led to other and 
 immediate reverses, April 22, 1809. 
 
 ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers also called Analogetici, and Philaleihes, or the lovers 
 of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they chose what they judged 
 good from each : founded by Polemon of Alexandria, about a.d. 1. — Dryden. Also 
 a sect, so called in the Christian Church, who considered the doctrine of Plato 
 conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. 
 
 ECLIPSES. The theory of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 B.C. — QavMl. 
 An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic ; 
 hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse 
 recorded, happened March 19, 721 B c. at 8' 40" p.m. according to Ptolemy; it was 
 lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. See Astronomy. The following 
 were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon : — 
 
 188 
 33 
 
 291 
 
 OF THE SUN. 
 
 That predicted by Thales ; observed at 
 Savdis* (Pliny, lib. ii.) . '. .B.C. 
 
 One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) . . 
 
 Total one ; three days' supplication de- 
 creed at Rome (Livy) .... 
 
 One general at the death of Jesus Christ 
 (Josephiis) a.d. 
 
 One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
 at noon-day (Livy) .... 
 
 One observed at Constantinople . . 
 
 In France, when it was dark at noon- 
 day (2)i4 Fremoy) . . . June 29, 1033 
 
 In England, where it occasioned a total 
 darkness ( Wm. Malmsb.). . . .1140 
 
 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
 morning (Camden) . . June 23, 1191 
 
 The true sun, and the appearance of ano- 
 ther, so that astronomers alone could 
 distinguish the difference by their 
 glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) . . . 1191 
 
 Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) a.d. 1331 
 
 A total one ; the darkness so great that 
 the stars shone, and the birds went to 
 roost at noon (Oldmixon's Annals of 
 Geo. I.) . . . . April 22, 1715 
 
 Remarkable one, central and annular in 
 the interior of Europe . . Sept. 7, 1802 
 
 Remarkable ones in 1842 and . . . 1861 
 
 OP THE MOON. 
 
 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at 
 Babylon (Ptomely, lib. iv.) . . B.C. 
 
 A total one observed at Sardis (Thucy- 
 dides, lib. vii.) 
 
 Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) 
 
 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius 
 Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) . . . . 
 
 One terrified the Roman troops and 
 quelled their revolt (Tacitus) .a.d. 
 
 721 
 
 413 
 219 
 
 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. 
 The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of 
 the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth. Erected by the Trinity- 
 house to enable ships to avoid the Eddystone rock. It was commenced under 
 Mr. Winstanley, in 1696; was finished in 1699; and was destroyed by the dreadful 
 tempest of Nov. 27, 1703, and by which Mr. Winstanley and those with him perished. 
 It was rebuilt by act of parliament, 4 Anne, 1706, and all ships were obliged to pay 
 one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards supporting it. This light-house 
 was. burnt in 1755; and one on a better plan was erected by Mr. Smeaton, and 
 finished Oct. 9, 1759. Of this last, the woodwork was burnt, in 1770, but it was 
 afterwards renewed with stone, and has continued uninjured since 1744. 
 
 * Considered by Mr. Airy to be the one recorded by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 
 the Medes and Lydiaus. 
 
EDE 
 
 233 
 
 EDI 
 
 EDEN", GARDEN op. The question about the site of Eden, Gen. ii., 8, 9, has greatly 
 agitated theologians; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in 
 Caucasus, others at Hillah near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. 
 The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon ; and a learned Swede asserts that it was in 
 Sudermauia ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the 
 main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, 
 which emptied themselves into it, about 27° N. lat. now swallowed up by the Persian 
 Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 B.C. The 
 country of Eden extended into Armenia. — Calmet. 
 
 EDGEHILL, BATTLE of, also called EDGEHILL FIGHT. Between the royalists 
 and the parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war; 
 Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the 
 royalists, and the Earl of Essex the parliamentarians. The earl of Lindsay, one of 
 Charles's generals, who headed the foot forces, was mortally wounded, and taken 
 prisoner. The king's army lost 5000 dead on the field of battle, with vast numbers 
 of wounded and prisoners ; but, owing to the great loss on the other side also, the 
 action produced no decisive consequence to either party, and neither could fairly 
 claim the victory, though the parliament army did. Oct. 23, 1642. 
 
 EDICTS. Public ordinances and decrees, usually sent forth by sovereigns : the name 
 originated with the Romans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius Julianus, of Milan, a 
 civilian at Rome (the author of several treatises on public right), was employed by 
 the emperor Adrian to draw up this edict or body of laws for the Praetors, a.d. 132. 
 
 EDICT OP NANTES. By which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his 
 Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was revoked by Louis XIV. Oct. 24, 1685. This 
 bad and unjust policy lost to France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part 
 of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the 
 art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain ; 
 others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making 
 crystal glasses and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewellery, 
 then little understood in England. 
 
 EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name — in ancient records Dun 
 Edin, signifying "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt, by Edwin, 
 king of Northumbria, who having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the 
 protection of his newly acquired tei-ritories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 
 a.d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 
 330 B.C. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the west end of the town, 
 on a rock 300 feet high, and before the use of great guns, was a fortification of 
 considerable strength. 
 
 Christianity introduced, the reign ol 
 
 Donald I a.d. 201 
 
 Edinburgh taken by the Anglo-Saxons . 482 
 Retaken by the Picts .... 695 
 City fortified, and castle rebuilt . . 1074 
 Besieged by Donald Bane . . . 1093 
 Abbey founded by David I. ... 1128 
 Ediu burgh constituted a burgh . . * * 
 Castle surrendered to Henry II. . . 1174 
 A parliament is held here under Alex- 
 ander II. in 1215 
 
 City taken by the English .... 1296 
 Grant of the town of Leith . . . 1329 
 James II. first king crowned here . 1437 
 
 Execution here of the earl of Athol and 
 
 his grandson 1437 
 
 Annual fair granted by James II. . . 1447 
 City strengthened by a wall . . . 1450 
 
 Charter of James III 1477 
 
 Edinburgh made the metropolis of Scot- 
 land by king James III. . . . 1482 
 Royal College of Surgeons incorporated 
 
 by charter 1505 
 
 Charter of James IV 1508 
 
 [The Palace of Holyrood is built in 
 the reign of James IV.] 
 
 High school founded 1518 
 
 A British force, landing from a fleet of 
 
 200 ships, takes Edinburgh and Leith, 
 and burns both towns . . .a.d. 1544 
 Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is 
 
 spared 1547 
 
 Marriage of Queen Mary and lord Darn- 
 ley at Holyrood-house .... 1565 
 David Rizzio murdered . . . . 1566 
 Lord Darnley (the husband of Mary) is 
 blown up in a private house by gun- 
 powder : he is supposed to have been 
 first murdered . . . Feb. 10, 1567 
 Mary's marriage with James Hepburn, 
 
 earl of Bothwell . . May 15, 1567 
 Era of the civil war on account of Mary's 
 forced resignation .... 1570 
 
 Death of John Knox 1572 
 
 University founded by James VI. See 
 
 Edinburgh University . . April 24, 15S2 
 Earl of Both well's attempt on Holyrood- 
 house .... Dec. 27, 1591 
 Riot in the city, in which the mob 
 
 attacks the king 1596 
 
 James VI. leaves Edinburgh, as king of 
 
 England .... April 5, 1603 
 He visits Edinburgh . . May 16, 1617 
 Heriot's Hospital founded . . . . 1624 
 Charles I. visits Edinburgh . . . 1633 
 Edinburgh erected into a bishopric by 
 Charles I. while here . ... 1633 
 
EDI 
 
 234 
 
 EDU 
 
 EDINBURGH, continued. 
 
 Parliament house finished . . a.d. 1640 
 Charles again visits the city . . . 1641 
 The Castle is surrendered to Cromwell 
 
 by Duudas 1650 
 
 Coffee-houses first opened . . . . 1677 
 Merchants' Company incorporated . 1681 
 College of Physicians incorporated . . 1681 
 Earl of Argyll beheaded . . June 30, 1685 
 African and East India Company incor- 
 porated 1695 
 
 Bauk of Scotland founded . . . 1695 
 Union of the kingdoms . . . . 1707 
 Boyal bank founded .... 1727 
 Board of Trustees of trade and manu- 
 factures appointed 1727 
 
 Boyal Infirmary incorporated . . 1736 
 Adair of Captain Porteous : he is hanged 
 by the populace in the Grassmarket. 
 
 (See Potteous) 1736 
 
 Medical Society instituted . . . 1737 
 The young Pretender's army occupies 
 
 the city 1745 
 
 He takes possession of Holyrood . . 1745 
 Modern improvements commenced . . 1753 
 Magistrates assigned gold chains . . 1751 
 Boyal Exchange completed . . . 1761 
 Foundation stone of the North Bridge 
 
 laid Oct. 21, 1763 
 
 Theatre Boyal erected . . . . 1769 
 Great fire in the Lawn-market . . 1771 
 Begister-office, Princes-street, com- 
 menced 1774 
 
 Great commotion and tumult against 
 
 popery in the city .... 1779 
 Society of Antiquaries . . . . 1780 
 Boyal Society instituted. . . . 1783 
 South Bridge commenced . . . . 1785 
 Boyal College of Surgeons incorporated 
 
 by charter 1788 
 
 First stone of the present university 
 
 laid Nov. 16, 1789 
 
 Bobertson, the historian, died at Edin- 
 burgh June 11, 1793 
 
 Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected . . . 1796 
 Holyrood affords an asylum to Louis 
 XVIII. and his brother, afterwards 
 Charles X. from 1795 to 1799 
 
 [Charles X. subsequent to the revolu- 
 tion of 1830, resided here.] 
 New Bank commenced . June 3, 1801 
 
 Edinburgh Review published . . . 1802 
 
 New system of police established 
 
 Dec. 31, 
 
 July 20, 
 
 Aug. 14, 
 Aug. 17, 
 Aug. 29, 
 
 Alarming riots here 
 
 Nelson's monument completed 
 
 Gas Company incorporated . 
 
 Water company incorporated 
 
 Professor PI ay fair dies . 
 
 Society of Arts instituted . 
 
 Union Canal completed . 
 
 George IV. 's visit 
 
 He holds his leve'e . 
 
 And haves for England 
 
 Foundation of the great national monu- 
 ment of Scotland laid .... 
 
 Boyal Institution erected . . . . 
 
 Destructive fires . June and Nov. 
 
 Scottish Academy founded . . . . 
 
 Lord Melville's monument erected 
 
 The Edinburgh and Dalkeith Bailway 
 opened July. 
 
 Statue of George IV. erected . 
 
 Death of sir Walter Scott . Sept. 21, 
 
 Association of the Fine Arts . 
 
 Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton Bailway 
 commenced 
 
 Art-union of Scotland .... 
 
 Monument to sir Walter Scott com- 
 menced (since finished) . . . . 
 
 Society of Arts, founded in 1821, and in- 
 corporated in 
 
 Bailway between Edinburgh and Glas- 
 gow opened . . . Feb. 21, 
 
 Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh Aug. 31, 
 
 Her public entry . . . Sept. 3, 
 
 Her Majesty holds her court at Dalkeith 
 Palace .... Sept. 5, 
 
 And leaves for England . . Sept. 15, 
 
 New College instituted . . . . 
 
 North British Bailway commenced 
 
 The monument to the political martyrs 
 of 1793-4, laid by Mr. Hume Aug. 21, 
 
 The British Association holds its meet- 
 ing in this city . . . July 31, 
 
 The queen again visits Edinburgh (one 
 of her many visits to Scotland) and 
 holds her court at the ancient Holy- 
 rood-house . . . Aug. 30, 
 
 Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone 
 of the Scotch national gallery Sept. 1, 
 
 Meeting for vindication of Scottish 
 rights, &c. .... Nov. 2, 
 
 See Scotland. 
 
 1805 
 1811 
 1815 
 1818 
 1819 
 1819 
 1821 
 1822 
 1822 
 1822 
 1822 
 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1826 
 1828 
 
 1831 
 1832 
 1832 
 1833 
 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 1842 
 1842 
 1842 
 
 1842 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 1844 
 
 1S50 
 1850 
 1853 
 
 EDINBURGH, BISHOPRIC of. This see was created by Charles I. when that monarch 
 was in Scotland in 1633; and "William Forbes, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, 
 was made first bishop. The king allotted the parishes of the shires of Edinburgh, 
 Linlithgow, HaddiDgton, and a part of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the 
 see. The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who was ejected on the abolition 
 of episcopacy, at the period of the revolution, in 1688. Edinburgh became a post- 
 revolution bishopric in 1720. See Bishops. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college was commenced by the town-council of 
 Edinburgh, for which Queen Mary had given the site of ancient religious houses, and 
 Robert Reid, bishop of Orkney, the funds, 1581. The university was founded by 
 James VI. afterwards James I. of England, in 1582. The first principal was appointed 
 in 1585. The foundation stone of the new buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, 
 grand-master of the masons of Scotland, Nov. 16, 1789. In 1845, the library contained 
 upwards of 80,000 volumes, besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and documents. 
 
 EDUCATION. The art of developing the physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of 
 mau, has occupied the greatest minds in all ages, such as Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, 
 Quintilian, Bacon, Milton, Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest schools for the 
 lower classes were those attached to the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and 
 colleges were gradually founded (see Oxford and Cambridge).— In 1373, William of 
 Wykeham planted the school at Winchester, whence arose his colleges at that place and 
 Oxford. Eton College was founded by Henry VI. in 1440.— In the thirty years following 
 
EGA 
 
 235 
 
 EGY 
 
 the reformation education was greatly promoted, and many grammar schools were 
 erected and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Westminster school was founded 
 by the latter in 1560. Queen Anne was the zealous friend of education ; she founded 
 the Grey-coat school, Westminster, in 1698, and cordially supported the setting up 
 parochial charity schools (one of which had been established in 1688 at St. Margaret's, 
 Westminster). In 1741 nearly 2000 of these schools were established in Great Britain 
 and Ireland, principally by the instrumentality of the Society for the Promotion 
 of Christian Knowledge. About 1784 Mr. Robert Raikes originated Sunday schools, 
 of which there were in England in 1833 16,828, with 1,548,890 scholare. The Sunday 
 School Union was formed in 1803. In 1796, Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began 
 to instruct the children of the poor. He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, 
 and 1000 pupils in 1798. To provide teachers he invented the monitorial system. By 
 his exertions the present British and Foreign School Society was founded in 1808, with 
 the name of the "Royal Lancasterian Institution," &c. This being unsectarian was 
 followed by the institution of the Church of England "National Society for educating 
 the Poor" in 1811. — Between 1819 and 1840 the Charity Commission, appointed at 
 the instance of Mr. (now lord) Brougham, published their reports on Education in 37 
 volumes folio. — In 1834 the government began the annual grant of 20,000?. which 
 was continued till 1839, when the committee of the Privy Council on Education was 
 constituted for the distribution of the money. The grant in 1852 was 150,000?. In 
 1836 the Home and Colonial School Society was instituted, and about 1843 were 
 formed the Voluntary School Society and the Congregational Board of Education. 
 In 1851 out of a population of 17,927,609 there were 2,466,481 day scholars.— A 
 great educational conference took place June 22-24, 1857, at Willis's Rooms, the 
 prince consort in the chair. 
 
 EGALITE, Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous 
 duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of 
 monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. his 
 relative ; but this did not save him from a like doom. He was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 
 Louis-Philippe, the late king of the French, was the son of Egalite. See France. 
 
 EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs, or kings, commenced with Mizraim, the son of 
 Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 B.C. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was 
 conquered by Cambyses, 525 B.C. In a.d. 639, this country was wrested from the 
 eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, caliph of the Saracens. The famous Saladin 
 established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim I. emperor of the Turks, 
 took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by beys till 1799, when a great part of the 
 country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801 the invaders 
 were dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. 
 See Turkey, for modern events. 
 
 Menes .... B.C. 3893 or 3643 
 Mizraim builds Memphis (Blair) . . 2188 
 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Upper 
 Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Mem- 
 phis (Abbe Lenglet, Blair) . . . 2126 
 Athotes invents hieroglyphics . . . 2212 
 Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) . . . 2111 
 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
 passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, and 
 causes his exploits to be represented in 
 sculpture and painting (Uslier, Lenglet) 2100 
 The Phoenicians -invade Lower Egypt, 
 
 and hold it 260 years (Usher) . .2080 
 The Lake of Mceris constructed . . . 1938 
 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to 
 
 avoid the famine in Canaan . . 1921 
 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- 
 mon letters (Usher) 1891 
 
 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 
 
 (Blair, lenglet) 1822 
 
 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king 
 
 of all Egypt (Lenglet) .... 1821 
 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 
 
 as a slave (Lenglet) .... 1728 
 He interprets the king's dreams . . 1715 
 His father and brethren settle here . 1706 
 
 Sesostris, son of Mceris, reigns : he ex- 
 tends his dominion by conquest over 
 Arabia, Persia, India, and Asia Minor 
 (Lenglet)* B.C. 1618 
 
 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) . 1615 
 
 Rampses, who imposed on his subjects 
 the building of walls and pyramids, 
 and other labours, dies (Lenglet) . . 1492 
 
 Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the 
 Bed Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, 
 Blair) 1492 
 
 Reign of iEgyptus, from whom the 
 country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
 now called Egypt (Blair) . . . 14S5 
 
 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the 
 Greeks) who had the faculty of assum- 
 ing whatever form he pleased, as of a 
 lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire . 1189 
 
 [These fictions were probably intended 
 to mark the profound policy of this 
 king, who was eminent for his wis- 
 dom, by which his dominion flou- 
 rished. — Blair. ] 
 
 Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
 Judea, and carries off the sacred ves- 
 sels of the temple 971 
 
 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As 
 to the achievements of this monarch they are supposed to have been the labours of several kings 
 attributed by the Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 
 
EGY 
 
 236 
 
 ELB 
 
 EGYPT, continued. 
 
 The dynasty of kings called Tanites be- 
 gins with Petubastes (Blair) . B.C. 825 
 
 The dynasty of Suites (Blair) . . . 781 
 
 Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the 
 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be 
 roasted alive (Usher) .... 737 
 
 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns . . 600 
 
 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
 19 years, the longest siege in the 
 annals of antiquity (Usher) . . . 647 
 
 Necho begins the famous canal between 
 the Arabic gulf and the Mediterranean 
 sea (Blair) 610 
 
 This canal abandoned after costing the 
 lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) . . 609 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 
 AprioB (Uahcr) 581 
 
 Apries taken prisoner and strangled in 
 his palace (Diod. Siculus) . . . 571 
 
 The philosopher Pythagoras comes from 
 Samos into Egypt, and is instructed in 
 the mysteries of Egyptian theology 
 (Usher) 535 
 
 The line of the Pharaohs ends in the 
 murder of Psammenitus by Cambyses 
 (Blair) 526 
 
 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts 
 the children of the grandees, male and 
 female, to death, and makes the coun- 
 try a waste (Herodotus) . . . . 524 
 
 He sends an army of 50,000 men across 
 the desert to destroy the temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish 
 in the burning sands (Justin) . . 524 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again 
 subdued by Xerxes (Blair) . . . 487 
 
 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) . . . 463 
 
 Successful revolt under Auiyrtaeus, who 
 is proclaimed king (Lengkt) . . . 414 
 
 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its 
 temples pillaged (Usher) . . . 350 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests 
 it from the Persians, and builds Alex- 
 andria (Blair) 332 
 
 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of 
 Alexandria (Blair) . . . .283 
 
 The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- 
 tament made about this time . . . 283 
 
 The famous library of Alexandria also 
 dates about this period (Blair) . . 283 
 
 Ambassadors first sent to Rome . . 269 
 
 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, and 
 returns laden with rich spoils and 2500 
 statues and vessels of gold and silver, 
 which Cambyses had taken from the 
 Egyptian temples (Blair) . .B.C. 246 
 
 Reign of Philometer and Physcon . . 151 
 
 At the death of Philometer, his brother 
 Physcon marries his queen, and on 
 the day of his nuptials murders the 
 infant son of Philometer in its mo- 
 ther's arms 145 
 
 He repudiates his wife, and marries her 
 daughter by his brother (Blair) . . 130 
 
 His subjects, wearied with his cruelties 
 and crimes, demolish his statues, set 
 fire to his palace, and he flies from 
 their fury (Blair) 129 
 
 He murders his son by his new queen ; 
 also his son by her mother, sending 
 the head and limbs of the latter as a 
 present to the parents on a feast-day . 129 
 
 Tet, defeating the Egyptian army, he 
 recovers his throne ; and dies . . 128 
 
 Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast 
 swarms of locusts ; 800,000 persons 
 perish in Egy^t 128 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt ; the famous city 
 of Thebes destroyed after a siege of 
 three years (Diod. Siculus) . . .82 
 
 Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
 his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
 mous Cleopatra (Blair) . . . . 51 
 
 During a civil war between Ptolemy and 
 Cleopatra, Alexandria is besieged by 
 Cajsar, and the famous library nearly 
 destroyed by fire (Blair) ... 47 
 
 Csesar defeats the king, who, in crossing 
 the Nile, is drowned ; and the younger 
 Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign . . . 46 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 
 years of age) and reigns alone . . 43 
 
 She appears before Marc Antony, to 
 answer for this crime. Fascinated by 
 her beauty, he follows her into Egypt 40 
 
 Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at 
 the battle of Actium (Blair) . . . 31 
 
 Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and 
 Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
 kingdom becomes a Roman province 30 
 
 For subsequent and modern annals, see Syria. 
 
 The history of Egypt may be divided into three epochs : 1st, From the foundation of 
 the empire to its conquest by Cambyses : the kings who reigned in thi3 period are 
 designated by the title of Pharaoh, signifying, in the ancient Egyptian language, 
 "Great King." 2ndly. From the Persian Conquest to the death of Alexander the 
 Great. 3rdly. The reign of the Ptolemies, ending with the death of Cleopatra, and 
 the subjugation of the country by the Romans. The incidents relating to Egypt, of 
 modern date, will be found interwoven with those of Syria. See Syria &c.* 
 
 EGYPTIAN ERA. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nabonasser, 
 beginning Feb. 26, 747 B.C. and consisted of 365 days only. It was reformed, 30 B.C. 
 at which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding, 
 to the 29th August, which was determined to be in future the first day of the 
 year. To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years, 125 days. 
 
 ELBA, ISLE of. Taken possession of by the British, July 6, 1796; but abandoned the 
 next year. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor continued) 
 as the place of his retreat upon relinquishing the throne of France, April 5, 1814. He 
 secretly embarked from this island with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, on the 
 night of Feb. 25, 1815, and landed in Provence, March 1, to recover the Imperial 
 crown. See Bonaparte and France. After having been quitted by Bonaparte, Elba 
 was taken possession of by the Grand duke of Florence, July, 1815. 
 
 • Three most magnificent works have been published on Egypt ; in France, Description de VEgypte, 
 1809-22 ; in Italy, RoseUini's Monumenta dell' Egitto, 1832-44 : and in Prussia, Lepsius' DenkmUkr aus 
 JEgypten, 1848-66. 
 
ELE 237 ELE 
 
 ELEATIG SECT. Founded by Xenophanes, the philosopher of Colophon : he had 
 been banished to Sicily on account of his wild theory of God and Nature, and hia 
 sect originated there. This theorist supposed that the stars were extinguished every 
 morning and rekindled at night ; that eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction 
 of the sun ; that there were several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
 different climates of the earth, &c, about 535 B.o. — Strabo. 
 
 ELECTIONS, BRIBERY at. Various statutes have been enacted against it from time 
 to time. The principal acts relating to elections commenced with 7 Henry IV. 1409. 
 Elections were made void by bribery, in 1696 et seq. The later acts are 16 & 17 Vict. 
 c. 68 (1853); and 17 & 18 Vict. c. 102 (1851); by the last, treating electors, cockades, 
 flags, bands of music, &c, are strictly forbidden. 
 
 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty 
 shillings a-year in land, 39 Hen. VI. 1460. — Ruffhead's Statutes. Among the acts 
 relating to electors are the following : — Act depriving excise and custom-house officers, 
 and contractors with government, of their votes, 1782. Act to regulate polling, 9 
 Geo. IV. cap. 59, 1828. Reform in parliament bill (see Reform, Bill), 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
 1832. County Elections' act, 7 Will. IV. cap. 102, 20 Aug. 1836. 
 
 ELECTORS op GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic body made 
 choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which prevailed for several 
 centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed the greatest power assumed the 
 exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was 
 made in 1648 ; and a ninth, in favour of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number 
 was reduced to eight in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 
 1801. The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when 
 the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806. See Germany. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, — from tfXeKrpov, electrum, amber, the electrical properties of which are 
 said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. The phenomena of electricity were 
 produced from various substances and recorded by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600, 
 and by Otto von Guericke, to whom is attributed the origin of the electric machine, 
 in 1647. In 1730, Stephen Grey divided all material substances into conductors and 
 non-conductors, and shortly after, Dufay discovered the phenomena of attraction and 
 repulsion. In 1746, the experiments of Kleist, Cunaeus, and Muschenbroek, led to 
 the discovery of the Leyden phial or jar, about 1755. Franklin's researches extended 
 from 1747 to 1760. To him we owe the theory of induction and the proofs of the 
 identity of lightning and electricity. He first drew lightning from the clouds, and 
 suggested lightning conductors (see Lightning Conductors). While repeating some of 
 Franklin's experiments, Richman, of St. Petersburg, was killed in 1753. The 
 following were eminent electricians, Canton, Beccaria, ^Epinus, Symmer (1753-6). 
 The electricity developed by fishes was investigated by Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and 
 others, about 1773. Cavendish constructed an artificial torpedo; to him also is 
 mainly due the foundation of chemical electricity. He decomposed atmospheric air 
 and water by the agency of electricity, about 1787. Coulomb is regarded as the father 
 of Electro-statics, and to him we owe the torsion balance, about 1785. A new epoch 
 was created by the discoveries of Galvani, in 1790, and Volta, in 1800, about which time 
 Wilkes discovered the Electrophorus and Henley the Electrometer (see Galvanism and 
 Voltaic Electricity). The successive researches of Lavoisier, Priestley, Davy, Cavallo, 
 Poisson, Saussure, &c. are very important. In 1820, Oersted announced the discovery 
 of Electro-magnetism, and in 1831, Faraday that of Magneto-electricity. The electrical 
 researches of the latter are published in three octavo volumes (1833-55). Sir W. Snow 
 Harris received 5000£. for his invention of a permanent system of lightning conductors 
 for ships, which is stated to be so perfect, that no instance of serious damage by 
 lightning has occurred in the British navy in the last twenty-five years. In 1840, the 
 electricity of steam was discovered, on which Mr. Armstrong of Newcastle, made many 
 experiments, and finally constructed the powerful hydro-electric machine. A large 
 and powerful electric machine and Leyden battery wa3 put into perfect action at the 
 Panopticon in Leicester-square, London, in the spring of 1855, by Dr. H. M. Noad. 
 The most eminent philosophers of the present day are still devoting their attention 
 to electricity, among whom may be mentioned Faraday, Harris, De la Rive, Grove, 
 Wheatstone, Riess, Matteucci, Du Bois-Reymond, Tyndall, &c* 
 
 * An Electric Lam.}) has besn constructed by M. Duboscq, of Paris. It was used by Dr. Tyndall 
 with very great effect, in 1856, to illustrate bis lectures on Light and Colours, at the Royal Institution, 
 London. 
 
ELE 238 ELE 
 
 ELECTRIC CLOCK and BALL. Mr. Alexander Bain is said to have first conceived tbe 
 idea of working clocks by electricity, in 1837; his clocks, as well as those of Mr. 
 Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric clock, with four dials, 
 illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of the Electric Telegraph com- 
 pany, in the Strand, London, July 1852. It indicates Greenwich time at all hours; 
 and the various railway stations receive their time from the Strand-office, which is the 
 medium of communication from tbe Greenwich Observatory. This is one purpose of 
 the new time-ball on the top of the office in the Strand ; the Electric Telegraph 
 company, the South-Eastern Railway company, and the Astronomer-Royal having 
 acted in conjunction in laying down a subterranean wire from the Observatory in 
 Greenwich park. At one o'clock precisely to a second, the ball suddenly slides down 
 upon a kind of piston in an air cylinder, so as to break the force of the concussion. 
 As this time-ball is 1 30 feet above the level of the Thames, and as it is six feet in 
 diameter, exhibits blight colours, and falls through a considerable space, its descent 
 can be seen for a great distance on all sides. A time ball was set up by Mr. French in 
 Cornhill in 1856. 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.* Between 1787 and 1820, ten applications of electricity to 
 telegraphic purposes are recorded. In 1819, Oersted discovered that an electric 
 current, transmitted through a wire placed parallel to a magnetic needle, either above 
 or below it, causes the needle to deviate either to the light or the left according to the 
 direction of the current ; and the celebrated Ampere proposed a telegraph on this 
 principle in 1820, suggesting, however, that as many magnetic needles and as many 
 circuits should be employed as there were characters to be indicated. Baron 
 Schelling and Fechner proposed to limit this number by employing fewer needles. 
 In 1833, Gauss and Weber proposed a telegraph by means of magneto-electricity. The 
 first electric telegraph in England, founded on Oersted's discovery, was invented by 
 professor Wheatstone in 1837, the application being adapted to railways. Morse in 
 America, Steinheil in Germany, and other parties elsewhere, constructed or proposed 
 electric telegraphs about the same time. The electric telegraph on the London and 
 Blackwall railway was the first efficient example of the application of these telegraphs 
 to general and commercial purposes. Electric telegraphs have since been con- 
 structed on every railway, and form most important adjuncts. For the submarine 
 telegraph connecting France and England (first attempted on August 28, 1850) see 
 Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism discovered 
 by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807, were established by him in 1819 et seq. and 
 were confirmed by numerous subsequent experiments made by philosophers in Eng- 
 gland, France, Germany, America, and other countries most eminently by Ampere. 
 The electro-magnetic force is now applied by M. Breguet of Paris in the manufacture 
 of theodolites and the finer kinds of mathematical instruments (1855). 
 
 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. This branch of science has not been much cultivated since 
 the discoveries of Galvani in 1790; all the phenomena of Electro-physiology or animal 
 electricity being considered by Volta as due to an ordinary electric current. The 
 correctness of Volta' s views are now doubted by many, in consequence of the researches 
 of Nobili (1827), Matteucci, and others at the present time, who consider that there 
 is in the living body a nervous and muscular electric current. M. Du Bois-Reymond 
 lectured on this subject at the Royal Institution, May and June, 1855. 
 
 ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, London, has patented an invention by 
 which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved plates, but the 
 
 * Experiments have been tried with a view to determine the rate at which electricity travels, 
 by Professor Wheatstone, who has invented an instrument for the purpose. It is stated that 
 electricity travels round the globe in the tenth part of a second. Lord Palmerston on one occasion, at 
 a public dinner in Southampton, pleasantly alluded to a prospective period when, if a minister 
 were asked in the house of commons "whether it were true that a war had broken out in India? " 
 he might, perhaps, be able to answer, ' ' Wait an instant, until I telegraph the governor-general, 
 and I will tell you." Yet the Submarine Telegraph had not then been thought of. 
 
 But cne of the most astonishing results of the Electric Telegraph occurred in America, where 
 the telegraph may be said to have run a race with Time, and beaten him. New Orleans is west- 
 ward of New York, and the clocks are thus later in the former city than in the latter, in proportion 
 to the difference of longitude. When the Atlantic made her first return voyage from Liverpool, a brief 
 abstract of her news was telegraphed to New Orleans at a few minutes after noon (New York time): it 
 reached its destination at a few minutes before noon (New Orleans time), and was published in the New 
 Orleans papers on the evening of the very day when the ship arrived at New York : the evening papers 
 of New York and New Orleans gave the same news at the samo hour ! 
 
ELE 239 ELY 
 
 engraving itself actually produced, by electrical agency. There are several processes 
 by which this is accomplished, one of which, also protected by a patent, Mr. Palmer 
 calls Glyphography. See Photo-galvanography. 
 
 ELECTRO-TYPE. Mr. Spencer in Eugland and professor Jacobi in Russia, made the 
 first experiments in this art in 1837 and 1838. Since then, Mr. Smee and others have 
 perfected the processes. In 1840 Mr. Ruolz and Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding 
 and silver plating. The warehouses of the latter in London and Birmingham are 
 well known. Within the last few years printing types and woodcuts and casts from 
 them, have been electrotyped with copper. 
 
 ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The history of the 
 Maccabees informs us, that " to every elephant they appointed 1000 men armed with 
 coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," 
 &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them 
 the " blood of grapes and mulberries." The first elephant said to have been seen in 
 England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry 
 III., in 1238.*— Baker's Chron. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the 
 Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebrated of all the 
 religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted by Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. They 
 were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that 
 he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries 
 were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at 
 last abolished by Theodosius the Great, a.d. 389. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, 
 a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of the 
 frieze and pediment, built by Phidias about 500 B.C. Lord Elgin began the collection 
 of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were 
 purchased of him by the British government for 36,O00Z. and placed in the British 
 Museum, in 1816. 
 
 ELL. An English measure containing a yard and a quarter. It was so named from 
 ulna, the arm, and was fixed to this precise length by king Henry I. in 1101. This 
 sovereign fixed, at the same time, the measure of the yard to the length of his arm. — 
 Stowe. 
 
 ELOPEMENT. A married woman who departs from her husband, loses her dower by 
 the statute of Westm. 2, c. 14 — except that her husband, without coercion of the 
 Church, shall become reconciled to her, 13 Edw. 1. 1234. — Viner's Statutes. Earlier 
 laws punished elopement with great severity, and in cases wherein adultery followed 
 it, it was punished with death. See Adultery. 
 
 ELPHIN, BISHOPRIC of. St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, "by a river 
 issuing from two fountains." in the fifth century, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom 
 he created bishop, and who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, 
 and a little before the arrival of the English, this see was enriched with large estates, 
 upon the translation of Roscommon to it. Ardearn, Drumclive, and others of less 
 note, where also annexed to Elphin ; and by these unions it became at length one of 
 the richest in all Ireland. It is valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 
 28 Eliz. at 103£. 18s. sterling. The see is now united to Kilmore, under the pro- 
 visions of the Church Temporalities' act, passed Aug. 1833. 
 
 ELY, BISHOPRIC of. A church was built here by Etheldra, queen of Egfrida, king of 
 Northumberland, who founded also a religious house, and planted it with virgins, 
 and became first abbess herself. The Danes ruined the latter ; but the monastery 
 was rebuilt and filled with monks, on whom king Edgar and many succeeding 
 monarchs bestowed great privileges, and made grants of land ; so that, in process of 
 time, the abbey of Ely became the richest in England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, 
 wishing to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made great interest with Heniy I. 
 to get Ely erected into a bishopric. His successor was the first prelate, a.d. 1109. 
 It is valued in the king's books at 21341. 18s. 5d. 
 
 * When Alexander had conquered Porus, king of India, he took a great elephant, which had fought 
 valiantly for the king, and naming him Ajax, dedicated him to the sun, and let him go with this 
 inscription : — "Alexander, the son of Jupiter, hath dedicated Ajax to the sun." This elephant was 
 found, it is said, with the inscription, 350 years after. 
 
EMA 240 EMI 
 
 EMANCIPATION of the ROMAN CATHOLICS. See Roman Catholics. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many thousand 
 years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved 
 entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner 
 of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They 
 rendered the body not only incorruptible, but it retained its full proportion of size, 
 Bymmetry of features, and personal likeness. The embalmed bodies are called 
 mummies, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of 
 such embalming is now lost. When Nicodemus came, with Joseph of Arimathea, 
 to pay the last duties to Our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of 
 myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38. 
 
 EMBARGO. This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised except in extreme 
 cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo 
 were those for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the 
 detention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the king- 
 dom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 
 
 EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian Church in the third century, to implore 
 the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. Ember 
 Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes 
 (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed 
 for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons. 
 
 EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from 
 Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this 
 decorative species of needlework. Of this art very early mention is made in the 
 Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of 
 beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapestry, worked by Matilda, the queen of 
 William I. of England. See Bayeux Tapestry. 
 
 EMERALD. The precious stone, of a green colour, is found in the East and in Peru ; 
 inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds 
 in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a genuine emerald in the Paris 
 Museum, taken from the mitre of Pope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was 
 not conquered till 1545; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from 
 Africa, or the East. 
 
 EMIGRATION. Of late years, emigrations from Britain have been considerable. In 
 the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to our North American Colonies, West 
 Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, Van Dieman's Land, 
 &c, were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the decennial period to 1840, 
 emigration had increased to 277,695, exclusively of the vast numbers that preferred 
 settling in the United States of America. 
 
 In 1846, From England 87,611. From Ireland 38,813. From Scotland 3,427. Total, 129,851. 
 
 In 1847, Ditto . . 153,898. Ditto . . 95,756. Ditto . . 8,616. Total, 268,270. 
 
 In 1848, Ditto . . . 176,883. Ditto . . 59,701. Ditto . . . 11,505. Total, 248,089. 
 
 In 1849, Ditto . . 212,124. Ditto . . 70,247. Ditto . . 17,127. Total, 299,498. 
 
 In 1850, Ditto . . . 214,612. Ditto . . 51.083. Ditto . . . 16,154. Total, 280,849. 
 
 In 1851, Ditto . . 254,970. Ditto . . 62,350. Ditto . . 18,646. Total, 335,966. 
 
 From the United Kingdom. 
 
 In 1852 368,764 I In 1855 176,807 
 
 In 1S53 329,937 In 1856 176,554 
 
 In 1854 323,429 
 
 To North American Colonies, in 1842, 64,1£3 ; 
 
 in 1847, 109,680; in 1856, 16,378. 
 To United States, in 1842, 63,S52 ; in 1847, 
 
 142,154 ; in 1856, 111,837. 
 
 To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; 
 in 1845, i-30; in 1850, 16,037; in 1852 (gold 
 discovery), 87,881; in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 
 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 ; in 1856, 44,584. 
 
 EMINENCE. A spiritual dignity in the Roman States, conferred upon cardinals by a 
 decree of Pope Urban VIII. dated Jan 10, 1630, as being more honourable than the 
 title of Excellency. Previously to that time, cardinals had the title of lllustrissimi. 
 — Ashe. The grand-master of Malta also obtained this title. — Pardon. 
 
 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. This 
 rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet, by his daughter Fatima, about 
 a.d. 650. — Ricaut. To such only (who were held in great esteem) was originally 
 given the privilege of wearing the green turban. .The title is also given to high 
 officers, another title being joined. 
 
EML 
 
 241 
 
 ENG 
 
 EMLY, BISHOPRIC of. An ancient Irish see, supposed to have been founded by 
 St. Patrick, and formerly endowed with large possessions. Emly was called Iinelaca- 
 Ibair : and St. Ailbe was the first bishop in a.d. 448. Emly is now an inconsiderable 
 village. In 1568, the see was united to the then archiepiscopal see of Cashel. 
 See Cashel. 
 
 EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often 
 inflicted in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers 
 were sometimes staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — 
 Williams (who committed suicide), the murderer of the Marr family, in Ratcliffe 
 Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, wa3 staked in his ignominious grave. This practice 
 has been since abolished with us. See Burying Alive. 
 
 EMPEROR. Originally a title of honour at Rome, conferred on victorious generals, 
 who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus Caesar was the first 
 Roman emperor, 27 b.o. Valens was the first emperor of the eastern empire, a.d. 
 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany, crowned by Leo III. a.d. 800. 
 Othman I., founder of the Turkish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. 
 The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Napoleon Bona- 
 parte was the first emperor of France, in 1804. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal was the 
 first emperor (of Brazil) in the New World, 1825. 
 
 EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hypothetical 
 reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that 
 experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The 
 sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 B.C. 
 
 ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by 
 the Egyptians and other early nations, and was known in England in the time of the 
 Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel which belonged to Alfred, and which, as 
 appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about a.d. 887. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. The art of enamelling or painting by fire.— Bailey. Painting 
 with burnt wax, which was known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after 
 having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a.d. 1749. 
 
 ENCENIA. Festivals anciently kept on the days on which cities were built and churches 
 consecrated ; and, in later times, ceremonies which were renewed at certain periods, 
 as at Oxford, at the celebrations of founders and benefactors. — Oldisworth. They 
 were feasts celebrated by the Jews on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration 
 of the cleansing or purifying the temple by the Maccabees, which had been polluted 
 bj r Antiochus Epiphanes, 131 B.C. 
 
 ENCUMBERED ESTATES (IRELAND) BILL. See Incumbered Estates. 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA, or CYCLOPEDIA, a general dictionary of art, science, and litera- 
 ture. This name has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the 13th century. 
 Hofmann's Lexicon Universale appeared in 1697. The earliest English encyclopaedia 
 appears to be the Lexicon Technicum of John Harris, 1725-44. 
 
 Chambers' Cyclopaedia . . .a.d. 1728 
 Encyclope'die (by Diderot and D'Alem- 
 
 bert) 1751-80 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, first edition, 
 
 (the eighth now publishing,) . . 1778 
 Encyclope'die M<§thodique (by Pan- 
 
 couck) ...... 1781-1S30 
 
 Chambers' Cyclopaedia (by Rees) . . 1786 
 Eees' Cyclopaedia .... 1802-20 
 
 Conversations-Lexicon (first edition, 
 
 new one now publishing) . .a.d. 1818 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana . . 1829-45 
 Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of 
 
 treatises) 1830-41 
 
 Penny Cyclopaedia .... lS33-4(> 
 Knight's English Cyclopaedia (now 
 publishing) 1854 
 
 ENGHIEN, BATTLE of. Fought by the British under William III. and the French 
 under Marshal Luxemburg, who were victorious, Aug. 3, 1692. William had put 
 himself at the head of the confederated army in the Netherlands, and leagued himself 
 with the Protestant powers upon the continent against the ambition of Louis XIV., 
 and in the end he triumphed. A victory obtained here by the great Conde", first gave 
 the ducal title to a prince of the house of Bourbon Conde". The duke D'Enghien 
 was shot by torch-light, immediately after condemnation by a military court, at 
 Vincennes, March 20, 1804. The body was exhumed, March 20, 1816. 
 
 ENGINEERS. This name i3 of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench- 
 masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as Trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer 
 was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief 
 
 R 
 
ENG 
 
 242 
 
 ENG 
 
 engineer to the king, about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, 
 
 but was made a military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. 
 
 It has a colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
 colonels. — The first society of Civil Engineers was formed by Smeaton and others in 
 1793, and was afterwards termed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. It pub- 
 lished 3 vols, of Transactions, and still exists. — The Institution of Civil Engineers 
 
 was established in 1818, and obtained a charter in 1828. 
 
 ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of England, in a 
 general council held at Winchester, a.d. 829. This appellative had been used as far 
 back as a.d. 688, but had never been, until then, ratified by any assembly of the 
 nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, and lond, the Saxon for country.* 
 
 First hostile appearance of the Danes 
 upon the coast. (See Danes) .a.d. 783 
 
 They enter the Thames with a fleet of 
 350 sail, and destroy Canterbury and 
 London by fire 851 
 
 Second series of invasions . . . 867 
 
 Reign of Alfred, who defeats the in- 
 vaders in 56 pitched battles . . . 
 
 [The University of Oxford is said to 
 have been founded about this time. ] 
 
 Alfred's body of laws framed . 
 
 His general survey made, and the rolls 
 deposited at Winchester . . . . 
 
 He divides England into counties . 
 
 University of Cambridge founded. (See 
 Cambridge) 
 
 General massacre of the Danes 
 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark, arrives in 
 England, and avenges the death of his 
 countrymen. Ethelred II. flies to 
 Normandy for protection . . . 
 
 Ethelred recalled from exile . . 
 
 The Danes again ravage England and 
 complete its conquest . . . . 
 
 The Saxon line restored .... 
 
 Era of the conquest. The Norman line 
 begins in William I. .... 
 
 Justices of peace first appointed . 
 
 New survey of England ; Domesday- 
 book, commenced 1080 — completed, 
 (See Domesday Book) . . . . 
 
 The empress Maud, daughter of Henry 
 I. claims the succession on the death 
 of her father 1135 
 
 She lands in England . . . Sept. 1139 
 
 Is crowned at Winchester . March 3, 1141 
 
 Is defeated ; retires to France . . . 1147 
 
 Returns, and concludes a peace, through 
 her son, with Stephen . . . . 1153 
 
 The Saxon line restored . . . . 1154 
 
 Murder of Becket at the altar. (See 
 Becket's Murder) 1171 
 
 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II. . . 1172 
 
 England divided into circuits for the 
 administration of justice . . . 1176 
 
 English laws digested by Glanville . . 1181 
 
 Richard I. joins the crusaders. (See 
 Crusades) 1191 
 
 He is made prisoner by Henry VI. of 
 Germany Dec. 1192 
 
 Is ransomed by his subjects for the sum 
 of400,000J 1194 
 
 Dieu et mon droit made the motto of 
 England by Richard I. (See Dieu et 
 mon droit) 1198 
 
 Normandy is lost to England in the 
 reign of John 1204 
 
 England put under an interdict by the 
 pope, and king John excommunicated 1208 
 
 Magna Charta, or the great Charter of 
 English Liberty, obtained by the ba- 
 rons. (See Magna C/iarta) . . . 1215 
 
 S71 
 
 900 
 
 915 
 1002 
 
 1003 
 1014 
 
 1017 
 1041 
 
 1066 
 1076 
 
 10S6 
 
 Gold first coined in England. (See Coin, 
 
 and Gold) a.d. 1257 
 
 The Commons of England summoned to 
 
 parliament. (See Parliament) . . 1265 
 The principality of Wales united to 
 
 England by Edward 1 1283 
 
 Death of Roger Bacon .... 1294 
 Murder of Edward II. at Berkeley castle 
 
 (which see) 1327 
 
 Art of weaving brought to England. 
 
 (See Weaving) 1331 
 
 Edward III. takes Calais, after a year's 
 
 siege. (See Calais) 1347 
 
 Order of the Garter instituted. (See 
 
 Garter, Order of) 1350 
 
 Edward the Black Prince takes the 
 
 French king prisoner, at the battle of 
 
 Poictiers (which see) 1356 
 
 Law pleadings in English . . . 1362 
 
 Death of Wickliffe 1385 
 
 Murder of Richard II. at Pomfret castie 
 
 (which see) 1399 
 
 The line of Lancaster 1399 
 
 Order of the Bath instituted by Henry 
 
 IV. (See Bath) 1399 
 
 Henry IV. marries Joan of Navarre . . 1403 
 France conquered by Henry V., who is 
 
 made regent of the kingdom . . 1417 
 Marries Catherine of France . . .1420 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . Dec. 1430 
 He marries Margaret of Anjou . . . 1445 
 Henry is deposed by Edward. Line of 
 
 York. (See Towton) .... 1461 
 Margaret and her son made prisoners at 
 
 Tewkesbury .... May 4, 1471 
 The prince killed in cold blood May 21, 1471 
 Henry murdered . . June 20, 1471 
 
 The civil wars between the houses of 
 
 York and Lancaster terminate by the 
 
 death of Richard III. at Bosworth 
 
 (which see, and Roses) .... 1485 
 Henry VII. marries Elizabeth, daughter 
 
 of Edward IV 14S6 
 
 Court of Star-chamber instituted. (See 
 
 Star-chamber) 1487 
 
 Yeoman of the Guard, being the first 
 
 appearance of a standing army in 
 
 England, instituted by Henry VII. . 1488 
 Henry sells the sovereignty over France 
 
 to Louis 1492 
 
 Gardening introduced into England 
 
 generally, from the Netherlands . . 1500' 
 Death of prince Arthur .... 1502 
 Shillings first coined. (See Shillings) . 1503 
 Henry VIII. marries Catherine of Spain, 
 
 widow of his brother Arthur . . 1509 
 Interview with Francis I. at Ardres, Pas 
 
 de Calais. (See Field of the Cloth of 
 
 Gold) May 31, 1520 
 
 First geographical map of England 
 
 drawn. (See article Maps) , . . 1520 
 Henry VIII. receives the title of " De- 
 fender of the Faith," (which see) . . 1521 
 
 * The various occurrences of a remarkable character relating to England, not noticed in this 
 place, will be found under their respective heads through the volume. 
 
ENG 
 
 243 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 Is styled " Head of the Church " a.d. 1532 
 He divorces Catherine . . . . 1532 
 The pope's authority in England is 
 
 abolished 1533 
 
 Era of the Reformation . . . . 1534 
 Sir Thomas More beheaded . . . 1535 
 Anna Boleyn beheaded . . . . 1536 
 Queen Jane Seymour dies . . . 1537 
 The first authorised edition of the Sacred 
 
 Volume printed 1539 
 
 Cromwell, lord Essex,- beheaded . . 1540 
 Anne of Cleves divorced . . . . 1540 
 Queen Catherine Howard and lady Roch- 
 
 ford beheaded 1542 
 
 The title of ' ' King of Ireland " confirmed 
 
 to the English sovereigns by act of 
 
 parliament 1543 
 
 Henry marries Catherine Parr, widow 
 
 of lord Latimer 1543 
 
 Protectorate of Edward Seymour, duke 
 
 of Somerset 1547 
 
 Edward VI. promotes the Reformation 
 
 during his short reign .... 1547 
 Interest fixed at 10 per cent. . . . 1547 
 Somerset deprived of power . . . 1549 
 
 And is beheaded 1552 
 
 Book of Common-prayer and the church 
 
 service established .... 1552 
 
 Mary restores Papacy 1553 
 
 Execution of lady Jane Grey, and of her 
 
 husband, father, and friends . . 1554 
 Mary marries Philip of Spain . . . 1554 
 Bishops Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer 
 
 burnt. (See Cranmer) . . 1555 and 1556 
 Calais retaken by the French . . . 155S 
 Reign of Elizabeth ; Papacy abolished, 
 
 and the Church of England established 
 
 nearly as it now exists . . . 1558 
 Execution of Mary, queen of Scots . . 1587 
 The Spanish Armada. (See Armada) . 1588 
 Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 1601 
 Union of the two Crowns . . . . 1603 
 James I. is styled the first "King of 
 
 Great Britain " 1604 
 
 The Gunpowder plot {which see) . . . 1605 
 The present translation of the Bible . 1611 
 Baronets first created. (See Baronets) . 1611 
 
 Shakspeare dies 1616 
 
 Raleigh beheaded 1618 
 
 Anne of Denmark, queen of James, dies 1619 
 Camden, the historian, dies . . . 1623 
 Charles I. marries Henrietta of France . 1625 
 Death of Lord Bacon .... 1626 
 Buckingham assassinated . . . . 1628 
 
 Hampden's trial 1637 
 
 Lord Strafford beheaded .... 1641 
 The civil war against Charles breaks out 1642 
 Archbishop Laud beheaded . . 1644-5 
 
 Death of Hampden 1644 
 
 Execution of Charles I. ; the form of 
 
 government changed . Jan. 30, 1649 
 Oliver Cromwell made Protector of the 
 
 Commonwealth 1653 
 
 Death of Cromwell 1658 
 
 Richard Cromwell Protector Sept. 4, 1658 
 He resigns .... April 22, 1659 
 Monarchy re-established in the "Resto- 
 ration of Charles II." .... 1060 
 He marries Catherine, the Infanta of 
 
 Portugal .... May 21, 1662 
 A great plague ravages London, carrying 
 
 off 68, 000 persons. (See Plague) . . 1665 
 Great fire of London. (See fires) . . 1666 
 
 Death of Milton 1S74 
 
 The Habeas Corpus Act, for protecting 
 
 English subjects against false arrest 
 
 and imprisonment, passed . . . 1678 
 Lord Russell and Algernon Sydney put 
 
 to death 1683 
 
 Duke of Monmouth's rebellion . . . 16S5 
 
 Abdication of James II. . . .a.d. 1688 
 Era of the Revolution, styled by Voltaire 
 the era of English liberty ; William III. 
 
 proclaimed 16S8 
 
 Bank of England incorporated. (See 
 
 Bank of England) 1694 
 
 Death of the queen regnant, Mary, con- 
 sort of William . . . Dec. 28, 1694 
 
 Peace of Ryswick 1697 
 
 Death of James II. in exile . Aug. 6, 1701 
 Union of the two kingdoms, by act, under 
 
 the title of Great Britain . . . 1707 
 Accession of the House of Hanover . . 1714 
 
 Interest at 5 per cent 1714 
 
 The Scots' rebellion 1715 
 
 Death of Marlborough .... 1722 
 Order of the Bath (which see) . . . 1725 
 
 Death of Newton 1727 
 
 Death of Wilhelmina Caroline, queen of 
 
 George II 1737 
 
 Second Scots' rebellion . . . . 1745 
 Lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock 
 
 beheaded 1746 
 
 Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of 
 
 George II., and father of George III. . 1751 
 New style introduced into England. (See 
 
 New Style) .... Sept. 3, 1752 
 
 Conquest of India under colonel, after- 
 wards Lord Clive. (See India) . . 1757 
 Death of Gen. Wolfe. (See Quebec) .1759 
 Accession of George 111. . Oct. 25, 1760 
 
 His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia of 
 
 Mecklenburgh Strelitz . Sept. 8, 1761 
 
 They are crowned . . . Sept. 22, 1761 
 George, prince of Wales, born Aug. 12, 1762 
 
 War with France 1763 
 
 Isle of Man (which see) annexed to the 
 
 sovereignty of Great Britain . . 1765 
 Death of the Old Pretender, the "Cheva- 
 lier de St. George " . . Dec. 30, 1765 
 Commencement of the war with Ame- 
 rica. (See America) .... 1775 
 Death of Chatham . . April 8, 1778 
 Separation of America from Great Bri- 
 tain Nov. 30, 1782 
 
 Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life 
 
 of George III. . . . Aug. 3, 1786 
 
 Death of Charles Edward, the Young 
 
 Pretender, at Rome . . . . 1788 
 
 George III. becomes deranged, Oct. 12, 1788 
 He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to 
 
 make thanksgiving . . Apr. 23, 1789 
 First coalition against France. (See 
 
 Coalitions) .... June 26, 1792 
 Habeas Corpus suspended by the king. 
 
 (See Habeas Corpus) .... 1794 
 Marriage of the prince of Wales with the 
 
 princess Caroline of Brunswick, Apr. 8, 1795 
 Cash payments suspended . Feb. 25, 1797 
 Death of Edmund Burke . .July 8, 1797 
 Habeas Corpus again suspended, Aug. 28, 1798 
 Hatfield's attempt on the life of Geo. III. 
 
 (See Hatfield) . . . . May 11, 1800 
 The legislative union with Ireland. (See 
 Union) Jan. 1, 1801 
 
 [The English sovereigns relinquish the 
 title of " King of France " on the 
 union of the two countries : the em- 
 pire now called the " United King- 
 dom of Great Britain and Ireland."] 
 
 The Habeas Corpus act is again sus- 
 pended April 19, 1801 
 
 Peace of Amiens (which see) March 27, 1801 
 Despard's treason. (See Bespard) Jan. 16, 1803 
 War against Bonaparte . April 29, 1803 
 Death of Nelson . . . Oct. 21, 1805 
 Death of Mr. Pitt . . Jan. 23, 1806 
 Lord Melville impeached (see Trials), 
 April 29; acquitted. . June 12, 1806 
 
 K 2 
 
ENG 
 
 244 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 Death of Charles James Fox . Sept. 13, 1806 
 Death of General Moore. (See Corunna, 
 
 Battle of) ... Jan. 16, 1809 
 
 Duke of York imoeached by colonel 
 
 Wardle ..'... Jan. 26, 1809 
 The jubilee (which see) . . Oct. 25, 1809 
 Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and subse- 
 quent riots . . . April 6, 1810 
 King's malady returns . . Nov. 2, 1810 
 The prince of Wales is sworn as prince 
 
 regent Feb. 5, 1811 
 
 Assassination of Mr. Perceval, prime 
 
 minister .... May 11, 1812 
 War with America is commenced. (See 
 
 United States) . . . June 18, 1812 
 Peace with France . . April 14, 1814 
 Visit of the emperor of Russia and king 
 
 of Prussia to England . . June 7, 1814 
 Centenary of the house of Hanover cele- 
 brated .... Aug. 1, 1814 
 Peace with America . . Dec. 24, 1814 
 Battle of Waterloo, which finally closes 
 
 the French war . . . June 18, 1815 
 Death of Sheridan . . July 9, 1816 
 
 Spa-fields meeting (which see) Dec. 2, 1816 
 Green-bag inquiry (which see) Feb. 2, 1817 
 Habeas Corpus suspended . Feb. 21, 1817 
 Cash payments resumed . Sept. 22, 1817 
 Princess Charlotte of Wales, who had 
 
 married prince Leopold, May 2, 1S16, 
 
 dies in childbirth . . . Nov. 6, 1817 
 Duke of Clarence's (afterwards William 
 
 IV.) marriage . . . July 11, 1818 
 Queen Charlotte, consort of George III., 
 
 dies at Kew . . . Nov. 17, 1818 
 
 Manchester reform meeting (which see) ; 
 
 its disastrous termination . Aug. 16, 1819 
 Duke of Kent dies . . Jan. 23, 1820 
 Death of George III. . . Jan. 29, 1820 
 Trial of Queen Caroline. (See Queen 
 
 Caroline's Trial) . . . Aug. 19, 1820 
 Coronation of George IV. . July 19, 1821 
 Queen Caroline expires atHammersmith, 
 
 near London . . . Aug. 7, 1821 
 
 Lord Byron dies . . . April 19, 1824 
 Duke of York dies . . Jan. 22, 1827 
 Mr. Canning, first lord of the treasury. 
 
 (8ee Administrations) . . April 10, 1827 
 His death .... Aug. 8, 1827 
 
 The portals of the constitution thrown 
 
 open to the Roman Catholics. (See 
 
 Roman Catholics) . . . April 13, 1829 
 Death of George IV. . . June 26, 1830 
 Mr. Huskisson killed on the Liverpool 
 
 railway (which see) . . Sept. 15, 1830 
 The cholera morbus makes great ravages 
 
 in England. (See Cholera) Oct. 26, 1831 
 Parliamentary reform ; act passed. (See 
 
 Reform in Parliament) . . June 7, 1832 
 Sir Walter Scott dies . . Sept. 21, 1832 
 Assault on William IV. by a discharged 
 
 pensioner at Ascot . . June 19, 1832 
 Coleridge dies .... July 25, 1834 
 Slavery abolished. (See Slaves) Aug. 1, 1834 
 Corporation reform ; act passed. (See 
 
 Corporatwns) . . . Sept. 9, 1835 
 
 William IV. dies . . . June 20, 1837 
 
 [The crown of Hanover is now sepa- 
 rated from that of Great Britain. ] 
 
 Coronation of Victoria . June 28, 1838 
 Beginning of war with China . . . 1839 
 Marriage of the queen with prince Albert 
 
 of Saxe-Coburg . . Feb. 10, 1840 
 Oxford's assault on the queen. (See 
 
 Oxford, Edward) . . . June 10, 1840 
 Prince of Wales born . . Nov. 9, 1841 
 
 King of Prussia visits England, Jan. 24, 1842 
 John Francis fires a pistol at the queen. 
 
 (See Francis) . . . . May 30, 1842 
 
 Bean, a deformed youth, presents a pis- 
 tol at her .... July3, 1842 
 Peace of Nankin (with China) . . • 1842 
 Queen embarks for Scotland on her first 
 
 visit there . . . Aug. 29, 1842 
 Southey dies . . . March 21, 1843 
 Queen's visit to the Orleans family at 
 
 Chateau d'Eu . . . Sept. 2, 1843 
 King of Saxony visits England May 28, 1844 
 Emperor of Russia's visit . June 1, 1844 
 Louis Philippe's visit . . . Oct. 7, 1844 
 Queen's visit to Germany . Aug. 9, 1845 
 The exiled French royal family take up 
 
 their residence at Claremont, March 4, 1848 
 Great Chartist demonstration in Lon- 
 don April 10, 1848 
 
 Cholera re-appears in England in 1848 and 1849 
 Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland, 
 
 Aug. 1, 1849 
 Adelaide, dowager queen, dies Dec. 2, 1849 
 The "Exhibition of 1851" ofl&cially an- 
 nounced .... Jan. 3, 1850 
 Death of Wordsworth . . April 23, 1850 
 Pate's assault on the queen . June 27, 1850 
 Death of sir Robert Peel . July 2, 1850 
 
 Duke of Cambridge dies . . July 8, 1850 
 Queen's visit to Belgium . Aug. 21, 1850 
 Great excitement occasioned by the 
 pope's establishment of a Roman 
 Catholic hierarchy in England Nov. 1850 
 Death of the poet Thomas Moore, Feb. 26, 1852 
 Death of Wellington . . Sept. 14, 1852 
 His public funeral at St. Paul's. (See 
 
 Wellington's Funeral) . . Nov. 18, 1852 
 Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &o. 
 
 Nov. 9, 1852 
 Prince Leopold born . . April 7, 1853 
 Mrs. Stowe visits England, <fcc. April, 1853 
 Camp at Chobham formed on June 14 ; 
 
 breaks up ... . Aug. 19, 1853 
 Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror 
 
 of Scinde .... Aug. 29, 1853 
 English and French fleets enter Bos- 
 
 phorus Oct. 22, 1853 
 
 Protocol signed between England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia, for re- 
 establishment of peace between Rus- 
 sia and Turkey . . . Dec. 5, 1853 
 Many meetings on Eastern question, 
 
 favourable to Turkey . Sept. to Dec, 1853 
 Exportation of military stores prohibited 
 
 Feb. 18, 1S54 
 Great strike at Preston, 14,972 hands 
 unemployed at one time, Oct. 15, 1853, 
 
 to May 1, 1854 
 Queen reviews Baltic fleet March 11, 1854 
 Treaty of alliance between England, 
 
 France, and Turkey, signed March 12, 1854 
 War declared against Russia. (See Russo- 
 
 Turkish War) . . March 28, 1854 
 
 Fast day on account of the war April 26, 1854 
 Marquis of Anglesey dies . May 28, 1854 
 Important commercial treaty concluded 
 with United States by Lord Elgin on 
 behalf of Canada . . June 7, 1854 
 
 King of Portugal visits England June, 1854 
 Crystal Palace opened by the queen, 
 
 June 10, 1854 
 Cholera prevails in south and west of 
 
 London . . Aug. and Sept., 1854 
 
 Death of Lord Denman . Sept. 22, 1854 
 Thanksgiving for abundant harvest, 
 
 Oct. 1, 1854 
 Great explosion and fire at Gateshead 
 
 and Newcastle .... Oct. 6, 1854 
 Meeting of Parliament . Dec. 12, 1854 
 
 Resignation of Lord Aberdeen's ministry, 
 
 and ministerial crisis . Jan. 29, 1855 
 Formation of Lord Palmerston's ministry 
 
 Feb. 1855 
 
ENG 
 
 245 
 
 ENG 
 
 ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) Feb. 20, 1855 
 Sebastopol Inquiry Committee nomi- 
 nated Feb. 23, 1855 
 
 Visit of Emperor and Empress of French 
 
 April 16 to 21, 1855 
 Loan of 16 millions agreed to . April, 1855 
 Distribution of Crimean medals May 18, 1855 
 New Metropolitan cattle market opened, 
 
 June 13, 1855 
 Death of Lord Raglan . June 28, 1855 
 
 Agitation and rioting concerning Sun- 
 day trading bill, which is withdrawn, 
 
 July 2, 1855 
 
 The queen and prince visit Paris, Aug. 18, 1855 
 Peace with Russia proclaimed, April 19 ; 
 Thanksgiving day, May 4; Illumina- 
 tions, &c May 29, 1856 
 
 War with China (which see) . . Oct., 1856 
 War with Persia (which see) . Nov., 1856 
 Dissolution of parliament, March 21 ; 
 
 new parliament meet . . April 30, 1857 
 Birth of Princess Beatrice . April 15, 1857 
 Death of Duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), 
 
 April 30, 1857 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 827. 
 837. 
 857. 
 
 860. 
 S66. 
 872. 
 901. 
 924. 
 940 
 
 947. 
 955. 
 
 974. 
 
 979. 
 1013. 
 1014. 
 1015. 
 1016. 
 
 1016. 
 1036. 
 1039. 
 1041 
 
 1066 
 
 BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 Egbert, first sole monarch, so reigned 
 ten years ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 Ethel wolf; reigned twenty years ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son. 
 
 Ethelbald, called the Second ; died 20th 
 Dec. 860; succeeded by his next 
 brother. 
 
 Ethelbert ; died in 866, and was suc- 
 ceeded by 
 
 Ethelred, third son of Ethelwolf ; died 
 April 27th, 872 ; succeeded by 
 
 Alfred, surnamed the Great, fourth son 
 of Ethelwolf, died 2Sth Oct. 901. 
 
 Edward the Elder ; succeeded his father 
 Alfred ; died in 924. 
 
 Athelstau, eldest son of the last king ; 
 died Oct. 17, 940. 
 
 Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the 
 Elder ; bled to death from a wound 
 received in an affray, May 26th, 947. 
 
 Edred, brother of Edmund, died in 955, 
 and was succeeded by 
 
 Edwy, eldest son of Edmund, died of 
 grief in 959. In this reign, Dunstan, 
 a turbulent and ambitious priest, 
 ruled the king, who afterwards ban- 
 ished him. 
 
 Edgar, styled the Peaceable, brother of 
 Edwy ; died July 1st, 974. 
 
 Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at 
 Corfe Castle, at the instance of his 
 mother-in-law, Elfrida, Mar.l8th, 979. 
 
 Ethelred II. ; succeeded his half-brother 
 Edward; retired. 
 
 Sweine, proclaimed king ; died Feb. 3rd, 
 1014; succeeded by his son. 
 
 Canute the Great ; while absent in 
 Denmark the exiled king returned. 
 
 Ethelred restored; died April 24th, 1016, 
 succeeded by his son. 
 
 Edmund Ironside ; divided the king- 
 dom with Canute ; murdered at Ox- 
 ford, Nov. 30th, 1016; reigned seven 
 months. 
 
 Canute again: married Emma, widow 
 of Ethelred; died in 1036. 
 
 Harold I., his natural son; a cruel 
 prince ; died April 14th, 1039. 
 
 Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; 
 died of repletion at a marriage feast. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred 
 and Emma : died Jan. 5, 1066, naming 
 William of Normandy his successor. 
 
 Harold II., son of Earl Godwin; reigned 
 nine months : killed in battle. 
 [William of Normandy invaded Eng- 
 land in Sept. 1066, with a powerful 
 fleet and army, and gave battle to 
 Harold, at Hastings, on the 14th 
 October following, over whom he 
 obtained a complete victory, and 
 Harold being slain, he was pro- 
 claimed king by his triumphant 
 army on the spot.] 
 
 AFTER THE CONQUEST. 
 
 1066. William the Conqueror; died at Rouen, 
 Sept. 9, 1087. 
 
 1087. William II. Rufus; killed by an arrow, 
 Aug. 2, 1100. 
 
 1100. Henry I. Beauclerk.'his brother ; died 
 of a surfeit, Dec. 1st, 1135. 
 
 1135. Stephen earl of Blois, nephew of Henry : 
 the empress Maud, daughter of 
 Henry, contended with him for the 
 crown ; died Oct. 25th, 1154. 
 
 1154. Henry II. Plantagenet, grandson of 
 Henry and son of Maud ; married 
 Eleanor of France; died July 6th, 
 1189. 
 
 1189. Richard I. Cceur de Lion, his son ; died 
 of a wound, April 6, 1199. 
 
 1199. John, the brother of Richard ; married 
 Isabella d'Angoulgme ; died Oct. ISth, 
 1216. 
 
 1216. Henry III. son of John; married Elea- 
 nor of Provence; died Nov. 16th, 1272. 
 
 1272. Edward I. son of Henry : surnamed 
 Longshariks; married Eleanor of Cas- 
 tile ; 2ndly, Margaret of France ; died 
 July 7th, 1307i 
 
 1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; married 
 Isabella of France ; dethroned, Jan. 
 25th, 1327; murdered at Berkeley 
 Castle, Sept. 21, following. 
 
 1327. Edward III. his son ; married Philippa, 
 of Hainault ; died June 21, 1377. 
 
 1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black 
 Prince, and grandson of Edward III. ; 
 married Anne of Austria ; 2ndly, 
 Isabella of France ; dethroned Sept. 
 28th, 1399; murdered at Pomfret 
 Castle, 10th Feb. following. 
 
 HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 
 
 1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; mar- 
 ried Joan of Navarre; died Mar. 20th, 
 1413 ; succeeded by 
 
 1413. Henry V. his son ; married Catherine 
 of France ; died Aug. 31st, 1422. 
 
 1422. Henry VI. his son ; married Margaret 
 of Anjou; deposed Mar. 4th, 1461; 
 murdered by Richard, duke of Glou- 
 cester, in the Tower, June 20th, 1471. 
 
 HOUSE OF YORK. 
 
 1461. Edward IV. ; married lady Elizabeth 
 Grey; died April 9th, 1483. 
 
 1483. Edward V. his sou ; deposed June 22nd, 
 1483, and murdered in the Tower by 
 Gloucester ; reigned two months and 
 13 days. 
 
 1483. Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; 
 slain at Bosworth, Aug. 22nd, 14S5. 
 
 HOUSE OF TUDOR. 
 
 1485. Henry VII. ; married Elizabeth of York ; 
 
 died April 22nd, 1509. 
 1509. Henry VIII. his son. See preceding 
 
 annals ; died Jan. 28th, 1547, 
 
ENG 
 
 246 
 
 ENG 
 
 EN GLAND, continued. 
 
 1517. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by the 
 
 lady Jane Seymour), died July Ctb, 
 
 1553. 
 1553. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine 
 
 of Arragon), married Philip of Spain ; 
 
 died Nov. 11 th, 1558. 
 1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anna 
 
 Boleyn), died Mar. 24th, 1603. 
 
 HOUSE OF STUART. 
 
 1603. James I. of England, and VI. of Scot- 
 land, son of Mary, queen of Scots : 
 married Anne, princess of Denmark ; 
 died Mar. 27th, 1625. 
 
 1625. Charles I. his son ; married Henrietta 
 of France; beheaded at Whitehall, 
 Jan. 30th, 1649. 
 
 1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made 
 protector, Dec. 12th, 1653 ; died Sept. 
 3rd, 1658. Richard Cromwell, his 
 son, made protector Sept. 4th, 1658; 
 resigned April 22nd, 1659. 
 
 1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; married 
 the Infanta Catherine of Portugal ; 
 died Feb. 6th, 1685. 
 
 1685. James II. his brother ; married 1st, 
 Anne Hyde; 2ndly, the princess of 
 Modena ; abdicated by flight, Dec. 
 12th, 1688; died in exile, Aug. 6th, 
 1701. 
 
 1689. 
 
 1702. 
 
 1727. 
 
 1760. 
 
 1820. 
 1S30. 
 
 ("William III. prince of Orange, and 
 ( Mary, his queen, daughter of James ; 
 began their reign, Feb. 13th, 1689; 
 Mary died Dec. 28th, 1694 ; and Wil- 
 liam of a fall from his horse, Mar. 8th, 
 1702. 
 Anne, second daughter of James ; mar- 
 ried George, princejof Denmark ; died 
 without issue, Aug. 1st, 1714. 
 
 HOUSE OF HANOVER. 
 
 George I. elector of Hanover and duke 
 of Brunswick-Lunenburg ; son of 
 Sophia, who was daughter of Eliza- 
 beth, the daughter of James I. ; mar- 
 ried the princess Sophia ; died June 
 11th, 1727. 
 
 George II. his son ; married to Wilhel- 
 mina-Caroline of Brandenburg-An- 
 spach ; died Oct. 25th, 1760. 
 
 George III. grandson of George II. ; 
 married Charlotte of Mecklenburg- 
 Strelitz ; died Jan. 29th, 1820. 
 
 George IV. his son ; married Caroline 
 of Brunswick; died June 26th, 1830. 
 
 William IV. brother of George IV. ; mar- 
 ried Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen ; 
 died June 20th, 1837. 
 
 Victoria, the reigning queen, whom 
 God preserve. 
 
 THE PRESENT (1857) ROYAL FAMILY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The Queen. Alexandrina-ViCTORiA, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent ; born May 24, 1819 ; 
 succeeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William IV. June 20, 1837. Crowned at West- 
 minster, June 28, 1838. Married (Feb. 10, 1840) to her cousin, Francis- ALBERT-Augustus-Charles- 
 Emmanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (ordered, June 20, 1857, to be styled 
 Prince-Consort), and has issue : 
 
 Victoria- Adelaide- Mary-Louisa, princess 
 royal, bom Nov. 21, 1840. Betrothed to 
 prince Frederick- William of Prussia in 
 May, 1857 (dowry 40,0001., and annuity 
 of 80002.) 
 
 Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of 
 Saxony, duke of Cornwall and Rothesay, 
 earl of Chester and Carrick, baron of 
 Renfrew, and lord of the Isles, born 
 Nov. 9, 1841. 
 
 Alice-Maud-Mary, born April 25, 1843. 
 
 4. Alfred-Ernest, born Aug. 6, 1844. 
 
 5. Helena-Augusta-Victoria, born May 25, 
 
 1846. 
 
 6. Louisa-Carolina-Alberta, born March 18, 
 
 1848. 
 
 7. Arthur-Patrick-Albert, born May 1, 1850. 
 
 8. Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert, born April 
 
 7, 1853. 
 
 9. Beatrice-Mary- Victoria-Feodore, born April 
 
 17, 1857. 
 
 The Queen's Mother. Victoria-Maria-Louisa, duchess of Kent, aunt to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and 
 Gotha, born Aug. 17, 1786; married, 1st (Dec. 21, 1803) Emich-Charles, prince of Leiningen, who 
 died July 4, 1814, leaving issue, Charles, prince of Leiningen, born Sept. 12, 1804, and the princess 
 Feodore, born Dec. 7, 1807. Married, 2nd (May 28, 1818) to Edward duke of Kent, who died Jan. 
 23, 1820. Issue, The Queen. 
 
 The Queen's Aunt and Cousins. Augusta, duchess (widow of the'late duke) of Cambridge ; born July 
 25, 1797. Hereon, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief, born March 26, 1819: and her 
 daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, born July 19, 1822 ; and the princess 
 Mary of Cambridge, born Nov. 27, 1833. 
 
 England and Wales were united a.d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
 and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these 
 countries by the act of Legislative Union, Jan. 1, 1801, and the whole called the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 ENGLAND, NEW, North America. First settled by the Puritans who were driven 
 from Europe at the beginning of the 17th century by religious persecution. The 
 first attempt to form a settlement was made in 1607. Named New England by 
 captain Smith, in 1614. Settlement of the Plymouth company in 1620. The inhabi- 
 tants are mostly descendants from the natives of England. 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic 
 sprung (among others) the English language, now one of the most copious and 
 beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in English by order of Edward III. 
 instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the 
 Conqueror, a.d. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be 
 
ENG 247 ENV 
 
 used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all 
 lawsuits, and the Latin disused, May, 1731. 
 
 ENGRAVING. The eDgraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest antiquity. The 
 earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal riDgs, and there still exist 
 many antique engravings equal to later productions of similar artists. Engraving 
 from plates and wood is chiefly of modern invention, having its origin about the 
 middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by 
 Boudier, of Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several 
 statutes; among the principal are the acts 16 and 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777; and 
 the acts 7 & 8 Vict. Aug. 6, 1844, and 15 Vict. May 28, 1852. 
 
 ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance 
 about a.d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Finiguerra, 
 was the first Italian artist in this way, 1460. The earliest date known of a copper- 
 plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 
 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by 
 means of aquafortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed inventor, about 
 a.d. 1532.— De Piles. 
 
 ENGRAVING, LITHOGRAPHIC. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Senne- 
 felder may be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the continent 
 in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced 
 into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann, of London, in 1817, since which time 
 it has come into very general use. 
 
 ENGRAVING, MEZZOTINTO. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was improved 
 by Prince Rupert in 1648 ; sir Christopher Wren further improved it in 1662. 
 Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, was invented by the 
 celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention to Le 
 Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of 
 engraving, 1763. Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, and was 
 first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zincography, &c. 
 
 ENGRAVING on STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, after it has 
 been hardened, will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions indefinitely, was 
 introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. 
 Steel engraving produces the most delicate and beautiful impressions, and is more 
 esteemed than engraving on copper. 
 
 ENGRAVING on WOOD. Took its rise from the brief mahlers, or manufacturers of 
 playing-cards, about a.d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first 
 attempted by means of wooden types, not moveable. See Printing. The art is 
 referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly 
 improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden, in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection 
 in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c, 1789 et sea. 
 The earliest wood engraving which has reached our times is one representing St. 
 Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea; it bears date a.d. 1423. 
 
 ENLISTMENT of SOLDIERS and SEAMEN. It is declared by statute that no 
 persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magistrate in less 
 than twenty-four hours, and then they are at liberty to withdraw upon their 
 returning the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. Enlistment, formerly 
 most arbitrary, and forcibly made, is now entirely voluntary. 
 
 ENNISKILLEN, Ireland. The people of this town occupy a remarkable place in the 
 history of the civil wars of Ireland. They made an obstinate defence against the 
 army of Elizabeth, 1595. Their memorable defence against James II., 1689. 
 1500 Enniskilliners met general M'Carty with a force of 6000 men, of whom 3000 
 were slain, and nearly all the rest were made prisoners, they losing but 20 men, July 
 20, 1689. The dragoon regiment called the " Inniskillingers," is recruited here. 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as ranking as a 
 science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, 1739. The London Entomological 
 Society was instituted in 1806; it is devoted chiefly to the study of insects found in 
 Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, 
 and making known such as are useful. 
 
 ENVOYS at COURTS. Ministers in dignity below ambassadors.— Sir T. Herbert. 
 Envoys enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys 
 
EPH 
 
 248 
 
 EPI 
 
 Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them 
 the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, a.d. 1639. Many of 
 the ministers of England at foreign courts are called Envoys Extraordinary. 
 
 EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was one 
 of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long, and 200 broad, and cost 
 220 years of labour. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed 
 to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Eratostratus, solely to perpetuate his 
 memory, 356 B.C. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid 
 than before ; but it was again burnt a.d. 260. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 EPHORI. These were powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to 
 control the royal power, 760 B.C. They were five in number, and acting as censors 
 in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even 
 imprison them, if they were guilty of irregularities. 
 
 EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey were the first epic poems. See Homer. 
 
 EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder 
 of it, about 300 B.C., and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, 
 springing from virtue alone ; but the name has since been given to those who derive 
 happiness from sensual pleasure. 
 
 EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on 
 their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who 
 flourished about a.d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern, in 
 the tasteful and pointed epigram. — The following Latin epigram, on the miracle of 
 Our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana {John iii.) is a beautiful example : — 
 " Vidit et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." (The modest water saw the God, and blushed.) 
 
 EPIPHANY. The feast of the Epiphany celebrates the arrival of the wise men of the 
 East, and the manifestation to the world of the Saviour, by the appearance of a 
 miraculous blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
 found; instituted a.d. 813. — Wheatley. The primitive Christians celebrated the feast 
 of the Nativity for twelve days, observing the first and last with great solemnity ; 
 and thi3 being twelve days after Christmas, it is vulgarly called Twelfth-day. Pardon 
 says, " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance of their gods upon the 
 earth, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it.'' 
 
 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhus, Its early history is 
 very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this sovereign, who was the last, that 
 it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, after the 
 Trojan war, 1170 B.C. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 B.C. 
 
 Reign of the great Pyrrhus . . b.o. 
 
 He enters into a league against Deme- 
 trius ; the battle of Beraa . . . 
 
 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 
 battle against the Romans . 
 
 He gains another great battle . . . 
 
 His conquest of Sicily .... 
 
 His last battle with the Romans . . 
 
 He takes Macedon from Antigonus 
 
 Expedition against Sparta . . b.o. 272 
 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, 
 thrown at him from a house-top by a 
 
 woman 272 
 
 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon . . 220 
 
 Its conquest by the Romans . . . 167 
 
 ***** 
 
 Annexed to the Ottoman empire a.d. 1466 
 
 The Epirots were a numerous, brave, and hardy race of mountaineers, living almost in a 
 state of nature, inured from their infancy to the use of arms, and the love of glory. 
 
 EPISCOPACY. The government of the Christian Church by bishops ; said to have been 
 instituted a.d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy 
 commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and 
 in Scotland in the fourth century ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this 
 point. See Bishops. In Scotland, episcopacy was abolished at the period of the 
 revolution, 1688-9 ; but there have been post-revolution bishoprics established in that 
 kingdom. See Bishops of Scotland. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared 
 about the year 500. — Burnet. 
 
 EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and others 
 — Mr. T. J. Pettigrew has just published a collection called Chronicles of the Tombs. 
 (1857). 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM. The nuptial song or composition made on the marriage of two 
 persons of distinction. Tysias or Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been the first 
 
EPO 
 
 249 
 
 ESP 
 
 ■writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of 
 Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 B.C. — Bossuet. 
 Verses in praise of the bride now belong to all countries. — Ashe. 
 
 EPOCHAS. These are periods in history which are agreed upon and acknowledged by 
 the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of 
 events. The following are the epochs thus particularly adopted. See Eras. 
 
 Creation B.C. 4004 
 
 Deluge 2348 
 
 Calling of Abraham 1921 
 
 Argonautic expedition . . . . 1225 
 
 Destruction of Troy 1184 
 
 1st Olympiad 776 
 
 Building of Rome . . . . b c. 753 
 
 Nabonasser 747 
 
 The Seleueidse 312 
 
 The battle of Actium 38 
 
 The Christian era . . . .a.d. 1 
 
 Diocletian 284 
 
 EQUATOR, a South American republic founded in 1831, when the Columbian republic 
 was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela and New Grenada. 
 
 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances 
 of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy, a.d. 130. When the sun in his progress through 
 the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the 
 globe : this occurs twice in the year ; once in the first point of Aries, which is called 
 the vernal equinox ; next in the first point of Libra, the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 
 
 ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order; a few only 
 need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which the astronomical 
 observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 26, 747. The era of the 
 Seleucidae (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 B.C. The Olympiads belong to 
 the Grecians, and date from the year 776 B.C. ; but they subsequently reckoned by 
 Indictions, the first beginning a.d. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. 
 See Indictions. The Romans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 B.C. ; and 
 afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
 among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The Mahometans 
 began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, a.d. 622. See 
 Calendar, Creation, Anno Domini. 
 
 ERASTIANISM, a term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (latinised Eraslus), 
 a German physician (1523-84), who taught that the church had no right to exclude 
 any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict excommunication, &c. 
 
 ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, master of the rolls, in 1855, no document 
 corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the court of 
 chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. 
 
 ERFURTH. Founded in a.d. 476; and its famous university established in 1390. 
 Erfurth was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian 
 troops surrendered, Oct. 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and 
 offered peace to England, Sept. 27, 1808. The French retreated to Erfurth from 
 Leipsic, 18th Oct., 1813. 
 
 ERICSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. See Caloric. 
 
 ESCHEATS. Land or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture 
 or death. The escheator observes the rights of the king in the county whereof he is 
 escheator. — Cowel. In London a court of escheats was held before the lord mayor, to 
 recover the property of a bastard who died intestate, for the king; such a court had 
 not been held in the city for 150 years before, July 16, 1771. — Phillips. 
 
 ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in 
 the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; and the first expen- 
 diture of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished 
 stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur 
 of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los 
 Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apart- 
 ments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is 
 above 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colmenar also asserts that there are 14,000 
 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. 
 
 ESPIERRES, BATTLE op. Between the allied English and Austrians on the one side, 
 the former commanded by the duke of York, and the French on the other. The 
 French attacked the allies concentrated here, with an army of 100,000 men, and were 
 
ESQ 
 
 250 
 
 ETO 
 
 repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing 12,000 killed and wounded, 
 500 prisoners, and seven pieces of cannon, May 22, 1794. 
 
 ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armour-bearers to, or 
 attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting 
 about their necks the collar of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. 
 A British queen is recorded as having married the armiger, or esquire, of her deceased 
 husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not 
 attendant upon knights, a.d. 1345. — Stowe; Meyricifs Ancient Armour. 
 
 ESSLING, BATTLE of. Between the armies of France and Austria, commanded by 
 Napoleon and the archduke Charles; a dreadful conflict which commenced on May 21, 
 and was renewed with increased vigour on the next day, May 22, 1809. Napoleon 
 was defeated with the loss of 30,000 men ; but the loss of the Austrians, also most 
 severe, exceeded 20,000. This was the severest check that the French emperor had 
 yet experienced, and his army was greatly endangered in its retreat. 
 
 ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, 
 in 1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic 
 ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first 
 prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. 
 
 ETHER and CHLOROFORM in SURGICAL OPERATIONS. The employment, in 
 1846, of ether and chloroform (the latter the more powerful of the two) as anaesthetic 
 agents, promises to be of vast benefit to mankind. The discovery that by inhaling 
 ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, 
 of Boston, U.S. Mr. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into 
 surgical practice under Dr. Jackson's directions. Chloroform was first applied for 
 the same purpose by Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, and was first administered in 
 England by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist ; and these discoveries immediately 
 drew the attention to them of the whole medical world. Some few failures have 
 occurred, and a few deaths ensued, but the application of these agents has been 
 generally successful. See Amylene. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants 
 of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but is now considered to apply 
 properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and northern Abyssinia. Many pyramids 
 exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 
 
 Zerah, the Ethiopian defeated by Asa 
 
 B.C. 
 
 A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned 
 
 over Egypt from 765 to 
 Terhakah, king of Ethiopia, inarches 
 
 against Sennacherib . . . . 
 
 Ethiopia invaded by Cambyses, without 
 success, between . . .B.C. 325 — 322 
 
 Candace, queen of Meroe', advancing 
 against the Roman settlements at 
 Elephantine, defeated and subdued 
 by Petronius . . . a.d. 22 — 23 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each 
 other. It is of recent origin. The great work on this subject is Dr. Prichard's 
 Researches on the Physical History of Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, 
 established in 1843, publishes its Transactions. Dr. R. G. Latham is the great living 
 writer on this subject in this country. 
 
 ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by 
 Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as 
 happening 1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 734, 
 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.C. — Livy. Eruptions 
 a.d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012. — Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which 
 overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. 
 Eruptions equally awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 
 1669, when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled 
 over the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in 
 May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of larva reached near to 
 Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 
 Another and violent eruption occurred in August and September, 1852. 
 
 ETON COLLEGE. Founded by Henry VI. in 1441, and designed as a nursery to King's 
 College, Cambridge. John Stanberry, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor in 
 1448,) was the first provost. Besides about three hundred noblemen's and gentle- 
 men's sons, there are seventy king's scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
 
ETO 251 EVI 
 
 qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's College, Cambridge, 
 and are removed when there are vacancies, according to seniority. See Cambridge. 
 
 ETON MONTEM The establishment of the Montem is nearly coeval with the college, 
 and consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill, 
 once in three years, to collect donations on the road. The money so collected has 
 amounted to 8002. and was given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, 
 going off to Cambridge, for his support while studying at that university. — Lysons's 
 Magna Britannia. The montem was discontinued in Jan. 1847. The regatta is 
 taking its place. 
 
 ETRURIA, an ancient province of Italy, whence the Romans in a great measure derived 
 their laws, customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was 
 conquered by a colony of Lydians. The subjugation of this country forms an 
 important part of early Roman history. The vases and other works of the Etruscans 
 still remaining show the degree of civilisation to which they had attained. 
 
 EUCLID, ELEMENTS of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there 
 about 300 B.C. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invaluable truths 
 and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, 
 Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, 
 and who probably interwove many theorems of his own, to render the whole a com- 
 plete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil by 
 Simon Grynseus, in a.d. 1533. 
 
 EUDIOMETER. To ascertain the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of oxygenou 
 gas or vital air contained in it, was invented (among other instruments) by Dr. Priestley, 
 in 1772. Some improvements upon this instrument have been since made. 
 
 EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and 
 Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The 
 first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her chamber, was Semiramis, queen 
 of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 B.C. — Lenglet. 
 
 EUPATORIA (Kosleff). A sea-port on the west coast of the Crimea. After the allied 
 French, English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, Sept. 14, 1854, a detach- 
 ment under captain Brock occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced by 
 the Turks. It was attacked Feb. 17, 1855 by 40,000 Russians under Liprandi, who, 
 were repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, whose loss was only 50, among 
 which, however, was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian contingent. 
 
 EURYMEDON, BATTLE of. One of the most celebrated battles in Grecian history, 
 when Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the Persian fleet at Cyprus, and defeated the 
 land forces of the Persians near the river Eurymedon, in Pamphilia, hence the name 
 of this battle, fought 470 B.C. — Lenglet. 
 
 EUTYCHIAN HERESY, so called from Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople who 
 asserted in 448 a.d. that there was but one nature in Christ, the human having been 
 absorbed in the divine. It wa3 condemned by councils at Constantinople in the same 
 year, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also called Monophysite (of one nature), 
 and Jacobite, from Jacobus Baradseus its zealous defender in the 6th century. It is 
 the form of Christianity now existing among the Copts and Armenians. 
 
 EUXINE. See Black Sea. 
 
 EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their gospels in a.d. 44 ; Luke in 55; and 
 John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, 
 being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of Patmos, and there, in the year 
 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, 
 there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. 
 
 EVESHAM, BATTLE of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. and Simon 
 de Montfort, earl of Leicester, Aug. 4, 1265, in which the barons were defeated, and 
 the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one period of the 
 battle was on the point of being cut down by a soldier who did not know his rank, 
 but was saved by his timely exclamation, "Do not kill me, soldier; I am Henry of 
 Winchester, thy king ! " This victory broke up the combination of the barons. 
 
 EVIL MAY-DAY, thus called on account of the dreadful excesses of the apprentices 
 and populace, directed against foreigners, particularly the French. " The rioters 
 
EXC 252 EXC 
 
 were headed by one Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged; and 400 more in their 
 shirts, and bound with ropes, and halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
 minster, but they crying 'mercy, mercy ! ' were all pardoned by the king (Henry VIII.) 
 which clemency gained him much love." May 1, 1517. — Delaune. 
 
 EXCHANGE. One, called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 B.C. The 
 Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. 
 Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnificent. The Exchange 
 of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and was called Royal 
 by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Jan. 1571. This edifice was built on the site 
 of the ancient Tun-prison. It was totally destroyed in the memorable fire of 1666; 
 and was rebuilt by Nicholas Hawksmoor, 1668; and repaired and beautified in 1769. 
 Again burnt, and made a pile of ruins, with a number of public offices and adjoining 
 houses, Jan. 10, 1838. Its rebuilding was commenced under Mr. Tite, in 1840, and 
 it was opened Oct. 28, 1844. See Bills of Exchange, and Royal Exchange. 
 
 EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose functions 
 are financial and judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he 
 formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was 
 Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of Henry III. about 1221. 
 The exchequer stopped payment from Jan. to May 24th, Charles II. 1673. — Stowe. 
 The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS. The government securities so called were first issued in 1697, 
 and first circulated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which more than twenty 
 millions sterling are often in circulation, are in effect accommodation notes of govern- 
 ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily interest; and, being received for 
 taxes, and paid by the bank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, they 
 usually bear a premium. Robert Aslett, a cashier of the Bank of England, was tried 
 at the Old Bailey for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty on account of 
 the invalidity of the bills, though the actual loss to the bank amounted to 320.000Z. 
 Mr. Beaumont Smith was tried for forging exchequer bills, pleaded guilty, and was 
 sentenced to transportation, Dec. 4, 1841. 
 
 EXCHEQUER CHAMBER, COURT of. Erected by Edward III. in 1357. It was 
 remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584, and then made to comprise the judges of all the 
 courts. This court is for error from the judgments of the courts of Queen's Bench, 
 Common Pleas, and Exchequer, of pleas in actions commenced therein. Remodelled 
 by act 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70, July 23, 1830. The Exchequer office, 
 Westminster, was instituted by Henry IV. in 1399. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, COURT of. Instituted by William I. on the model of the Transmarine 
 Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according to some authorities, by Henry I. It 
 included the Common Pleas until tbey were separated, 16 John, 1215. — Coke's Reports. 
 The exchequer is so named from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the table 
 where the judges and chief officers sat. Here are tried all causes relating to the king's 
 revenue; such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, customs, and fines imposed, 
 as well as all matters at common-law between subject and subject. The judges are 
 styled barons. — Beatson. There are a chief and four puisne barons; the fifth judge 
 having been added July 23, 1830. The office of Cursitor Baron was abolished in 
 1856, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 86. 
 
 CHIEF BARONS OP THE EXCHEQUER. 
 
 1787. Sir James Eyre. Jan. 26 : afterwards 
 C. J. common pleas. 
 
 1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. Feb 12. 
 
 1S13. Sir Vicary Gibbs. Nov. 8 : afterwards 
 C. J. common pleas. 
 
 1814. Sir Alexander Thompson. Feb. 24. 
 
 1817. Sir Richard Richards. April 22. 
 
 1S24. Sir William Alexander. Jan. 9. 
 
 1831. John Lord Lyndhurst. Jan. 18. Pre- 
 viously lord chancellor ; and again 
 lord chancellor in 1834. 
 
 1834. Sir James Scarlet. Dec. 24. Created 
 lord Abinger, Jan. 1835. 
 
 1844. Sir Frederick Pollock. April 15. The 
 present (1857) Chief Baron of the 
 Exchequer in England. 
 
 1689. Sir Robert Atkins. April 10. 
 1695. Sir Edward Ward. June 10. 
 1714. Sir Samuel Dodd. Nov. 22. 
 1716. Sir Thomas Bury. June 11. 
 
 1722. Sir James Montagu. May 9. 
 
 1723. Sir Robert Eyre. Dec. 5 : afterwards 
 
 C. J. common pleas. 
 
 1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. June 1. 
 
 1726. Sir Thomas Pangelly. Oct. 29. 
 1730. Sir James Reynolds. April 30. 
 1738. Sir John Comyn. July 7. 
 1740. Sir Edmund Probyn. Nov. 24. 
 1742. Sir Thomas Parker. Nov. 29. 
 1772. Sir Sydney Stafford Smythe. Oct. 29. 
 1777. Sir John Skynner. Dec. 17. 
 
EXC 
 
 253 
 
 EXC 
 
 EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 
 
 1777. James Dennis (afterwards Baron Trac- 
 ton). July 3. 
 
 1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. July 2. 
 
 1783. Barry Yelverton (afterwards viscount 
 Avontnore). Nov. 29. 
 
 1805. Standish O'Grady (afterwards viscount 
 
 Guillaniore). Oct. 5. 
 1831. Henry Joy. Jan. 6. 
 18:38. Stephen Woulfe. July 20. 
 1840. Maziere Brady. Feb. 11. 
 1816. David Richard Pigot. Sept. 1. The 
 
 present (1857) Chief Baron of the 
 
 Exchequer in Ireland. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, COURT of, continued. 
 
 CHIEF BARONS OF THE 
 
 1090. John Hely. Dec. 5. 
 
 1695. Robert Doyne. May 10. 
 
 1703. Nehetniah Donnellan. Dec. 27. 
 
 1706. Richard Freeniau. June 25. 
 
 1707. Robert Rochfort. June 12. 
 
 1714. Joseph Deane. Oct. 14. 
 
 1715. Jeffrey Gilbert. June 16. 
 1722. Bernard Hale. June 9. 
 1725. Thomas Dalton. Sept. 2. 
 1730. Thomas Marlay. Sept. 29. 
 1741. John Bowes. Dee. 21. 
 1757. Edward Willis. March 11. 
 1766. Anthony Foster. Sept. 5. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, EQUITY. In process of time the court of exchequer (the preceding 
 court) became gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it was not 
 merely a revenue court and one at common law between subject and subject, but 
 one in which suits in equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5th Vict. 
 c. 5, 1841, the court of exchequer possessed a triple jurisdiction; but by this statute, 
 its equity business was transferred to the court of chancery. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, TELLERS OF the. Besides chamberlains of the exchequer, clerks of 
 the pells, and auditor of the exchequer, offices which have all been discontinued 
 since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender or abolition, in Oct. 1834, 
 there were the four lucrative offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10th 
 Oct. 1834. John Jeffreys Pratt, earl and marquess Camden, was appointed one of 
 the four tellers of the exchequer, when a commoner, in 1780, and held the appoint- 
 ment until his death, in 1840, almost sixty years. Duriug nearly half of this long 
 term, he relinquished the vast income arising from the office, amounting in the whole 
 to upwards of a quarter of a million sterling, and placed it at the service of the state, 
 as it annually accrued ; an act of patriotism that sheds a lustre on his name. 
 
 EXCHEQUER, COMPTROLLER-GENERAL of the. This office was created on the 
 abolition of the offices of the auditor and the four tellers of the exchequer, and the 
 clerk of the pells, mentioned in the preceding article. The first comptroller-general 
 was sir John Newport, appointed Oct. 11, 1834. 34,438?. per annum have been saved 
 to the state by the retrenchments in this department of the government. 
 
 EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parliament. It 
 was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organised as at present by 
 the Walpole administration. Excise was first collected and an office opened in 1643, 
 and the duty was arbiti'arily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parlia- 
 ment forces against Charles I. The old excise office was built on the site of Gresham 
 College in 1774 ; the present is at Somerset-house. The officers of excise and customs 
 were deprived of their votes for returning members of parliament in 1782. See Revenue. 
 
 AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS : — 
 
 1744. Great Britain 
 1786. Ditto . 
 1808. Ditto 
 1820. Ditto . 
 1827. United Kingdom 
 
 £3,754,072 
 5,540,114 
 19,S67,914 
 26,364,702 
 20,995,324 
 
 1848. 
 1850. 
 1851. 
 1S52. 
 1853. 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 1857. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 . 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 . 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 . 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 
 Ditto. Jan. 5 . 
 
 £13,919,652 
 , 13,985,363 
 , 14,316,083 
 , 14,442,081 
 13,356,981 
 , 15,337,724 
 . 16,129,843 
 . 16,3S9,486 
 , 17,357,459 
 
 1830. Ditto 18,644,385 
 
 1834. Ditto .... 16,877,292 
 
 1837. Ditto . - . . . . 14,518,142 
 
 1840. Ditto .... 12,607,766 
 
 1845. Ditto 13,585,583 
 
 Notwithstanding the abolition of excise duty upon numerous articles, and the reduc • 
 tion of duty upon various others, of late years, the total excise revenue, so far from 
 having decreased, has progressively advanced (1853 excepted) in its aggregate annual 
 amount. Additional excise duties were charged by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 27. July 3, 1854. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Christian com- 
 munion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the Church ; but 
 ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an engine for promoting their 
 own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah 
 caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews '(who had three degrees of it), and from 
 these latter by the Christian Churches. The Greek and Roman priests, and even the 
 Druids, had similar punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. 
 
EXC 
 
 254 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic Church excommunicates by 
 bell, book, and candle. See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes have carried their 
 authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. 
 was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry 
 IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, absolving his subjects from their allegiance ; and 
 on the emperor's death, " his excommunicated body " was five years above ground, no 
 one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II.'s 
 reign ; and king John was excommunicated by pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
 England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were excom- 
 municated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth 
 accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indulgences were offered to all who 
 should assist in deposing her. See article Interdict. 
 
 EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (thirty-eight years) it is 
 shown that no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. — Stowe. In the 
 ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in England alone 797 crimi- 
 nals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number of executions proportionally 
 decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales 
 amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; in the 
 three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62. 
 
 1820 
 1825 
 1830 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 
 43 I 1837 2 
 
 17 1838 
 6 1839 
 1840 
 I 1842 
 
 1843 
 1844 
 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 
 IN ENGLAND, MIDDLESEX, AND SURREY. 
 
 1S47 
 1848 
 1849 
 1850 
 1851 
 1852 
 
 Carry forward 60 
 
 England. Middlesex. Surrey. 
 
 . 8 
 
 .1 
 
 
 
 . 15 
 
 .0 
 
 . 6 . 
 
 . . . 
 
 . 10 
 
 .0 
 
 . . 9 . 
 
 
 England. 
 Brought forward 60 
 
 1853 . . . 8 . 
 
 1854 . 5 
 
 1855 . . . 7 . 
 
 1856 . .15 
 
 Total . . . 95 . 
 
 Middlesex. 
 
 . 4 
 . . 1 . 
 
 . 
 . . 2 . 
 
 . 2 
 
 Surrey 
 . 5 
 
 . . 
 . 
 
 . . 
 . 
 
 EXECUTIONS OE REMARKABLE CRIMINALS. 
 
 Name. 
 Jack Sheppard 
 Lord Balmerino and others 
 Lord Lovat 
 Eugene Aram . 
 Theodore Gardelle . 
 Earl Ferrers 
 John Perrott . 
 John M'Naughten, esq. . 
 Elizabeth Brownrigg . 
 
 Daniel Perreau 
 
 Robert Perreau j 
 Rev. Dr. Dodd 
 John Donellan, esq. 
 Mr. Hackman 
 Mrs. Phepoe 
 Sir Edward Crosbie 
 Messrs. Sheares. 
 Galloping Dick 
 Governor Wall . 
 Mr. Crawley . 
 George Foster . 
 Colonel Despard . 
 ♦John Hatfield . 
 Robert Emmett 
 Richard Patch . 
 t John Holloway 
 Owen Haggerty. 
 T. Simmons, the man 
 Major Campbell 
 Capt. Sutherland 
 Richard Armitage 
 
 y brothers 
 
 .} 
 
 of blood 
 
 Crime. 
 
 Celebrated robber . 
 
 Rebellion 
 
 Rebellion . 
 
 Murder 
 
 Murder . . . . . 
 Murder of his steward . . 
 Fraudulent bankrupt . 
 Murder of Miss Knox . . 
 Murder of her apprentice 
 
 See Forgery . , . . 
 
 Forgery (see Forgery) 
 
 Murder 
 
 Murder of Miss Reay 
 Celebrated murderess . . 
 High treason . . . . 
 High treason . . . . 
 Highway robbery . 
 Murder of serj. Armstrong . 
 Murder of two females . 
 Murder of his wife and child . 
 High treason . 
 
 Forgery 
 
 High treason .... 
 Murder of Mr. Bligh . . . 
 
 Murder of Mr. Steele . 
 
 Murder 
 
 Murd. of Capt. Boyd in a duel 
 
 Murder 
 
 Forgery 
 
 Executed. 
 Tyburn . 
 Tower-hill . 
 Tower-hill 
 York . 
 Haymarket 
 Tyburn 
 Smithfield 
 Strabane . 
 Tyburn . 
 
 Tyburn 
 
 Tyburn . 
 Warwick . 
 Tyburn . 
 Old Bailey . 
 Ireland . 
 Dublin 
 Aylesbury 
 Old Bailey . 
 Dublin . 
 Old Bailey . 
 
 Date. 
 . Nov. 16, 
 
 Aug. 18, 
 March 30, 
 
 . Aug 6, 
 . April 4, 
 
 . May 5, 
 . Nov. 11, 
 
 Dec. 13, 
 . Sept. 14, 
 
 Jan. 17, 
 
 . June 27, 
 April 2, 
 
 . April 18, 
 Dec. 11, 
 June 2, 
 July 12, 
 
 . April 4, 
 
 Jan. 28, 
 
 March 16, 
 
 Jan. 18, 
 
 Horsemonger-la. Feb. 18, 
 Carlisle . Sept. 3, 
 
 Dublin . . Sept. 20, 
 Horsemonger-la. Ap. 8, 
 
 1724 
 1746 
 1747 
 1757 
 1760 
 1760 
 1761 
 1761 
 1767 
 
 1776 
 
 1777 
 1778 
 1779 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 1802 
 1802 
 1803 
 1803 
 1803 
 1803 
 1806 
 
 Feb. 22, 1807 
 
 Old Bailey 
 
 Hertford . March 7, 
 Armagh . . Oct. 2, 
 Execution-dock, June29, 
 Old Bailey . June 24, 
 
 1808 
 1808 
 1809 
 1811 
 
 * He was a rank impostor, and married, by means of the most odious deceit and fraud, the 
 celebrated " Beauty of Buttermere." 
 
 t Thirty of the spectators of this execution were trodden to death, and numbers were pressed, 
 maimed, and wounded. 
 
EXE 
 
 255 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXECUTIONS, continued. 
 
 Name. 
 John Bellingharn . 
 
 Philip Nicholson . . . 
 
 Francis Tuite .... 
 
 Charles Callaghan . . . 
 
 William Sawyer 
 
 Capt. Grant . . . . 
 
 John Cashman 
 
 Murderers of the Lynch family 
 
 *Eliza Fenning 
 
 The 3 Ashci-ofts, father & sons 
 
 Brandreth and others . 
 
 Charles Hussey . . . . 
 
 John Scanlan, esq. 
 
 Arthur Thistlewood . . \ 
 
 John Brunt [ 
 
 James Ings . . . j- 
 
 John Davidson 
 
 Richard Tidd . . . ) 
 
 John Chennell . . ( 
 
 Thomas Calcraft . . I 
 
 Murderers of Miss Thompson 
 
 David Haggart . . . . 
 
 Josiah Cadman 
 
 Murderers of Mrs. Torrance . 
 
 Murderers of Mr. Hoskins 
 
 John Smith . . . . 
 
 Samuel Greenwood 
 
 John Thurtell . 
 
 John Wayte .... 
 
 Hen. Fauntleroy, esq. banker 
 
 Edward Harris 
 
 ■(Probert, Thurtell's associate 
 
 Spitalfields gang . 
 
 Charles Thomas White . . 
 
 J Edward Lowe 
 
 Catherine Walsh . . . 
 
 || Wilham Bea 
 
 William Corder . . . . 
 
 Joseph Hunton, quaker 
 
 Burke, the murderer . . 
 
 Anne Chapman 
 
 Stewart and wife . . . 
 
 Mr. Comyn .... 
 
 John Bishop . . . ] 
 
 Thomas Williams . . ) 
 
 Elizabeth Cooke 
 
 John Smith . . . ) 
 
 James Pratt f 
 
 Maryaune Burdock . . . 
 
 John Pegsworth . 
 
 James Greenacre . . . 
 
 William Lees .... 
 
 Francois Benj. Courvoisier . 
 
 Josiah Misters . . . . 
 
 Robert Blakesley . 
 
 John Delahunt . . . . 
 
 Daniel Good .... 
 
 William Crouch . ... 
 
 James Tapping 
 
 John Tawell . ~ . . . 
 
 Thomas Henry Hocker . 
 
 Joseph Connor . . . . 
 
 John Platts .... 
 
 Catherine Foster . . . 
 
 James Bloomfield Rush 
 
 Fred. George Manning, and ) 
 his wife, Maria Manning J 
 
 Crime. 
 Murder of Mr. Perceval . . 
 
 Murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar 
 
 Murder of Mr. Goulding . . 
 Murder of Mr. Merry 
 Murder of Jack Hacket 
 Famous Irish robber 
 Spa-fields riots . 
 Wild-goose-lodge affair 
 Administering poison 
 Murder . 
 High treason 
 
 ( Murder of Mr. Bird and i 
 
 ( his housekeeper 
 Murder of Ellen Hanley . . 
 
 Cato-street gang ; murder "J 
 and treason (see Cato- > 
 street Conspiracy) . . ) 
 
 Murder and parricide of} 
 Mr. Chennell, sen. 
 
 Famous robber 
 Forgery . 
 
 Murder 
 
 Highway robbery . 
 
 Murder of Mr. Weare 
 
 Forgery . 
 
 Forgery 
 
 Robbery . 
 
 Highway robbery . 
 Arson . 
 Coining . 
 Murder of her child 
 Highway robbery . 
 Murder of Maria Marten 
 Forgery . 
 (See JBurking) 
 Murder of her child 
 Noted murderers 
 Burning his own house 
 Murder of a poor Italian ) 
 boy (see Burking) . . ) 
 Burking of Cath. Walsh 
 
 Unnatural crime . . . 
 
 Remarkable ca. of poisoning . 
 
 Murder 
 
 Murder of Hannah Brown . 
 Murder of his wife . . . 
 Murder of lord W. Russell . 
 Wounding Mr. Mackreth . . 
 Murder of Mr. Burdon . 
 Murder of Thomas Maguire . 
 Murder of Jane Jones . 
 Murder of his wife . . . 
 Murder of Emma Whiter 
 Murder of Sarah Hart . . 
 Murder of Mr. Delarue . 
 Murder of Mary Brothers 
 Murder of Collis 
 Murder of her husband 
 
 {Murder of Messrs. Jermy, 1 
 sen. and jun. . . j 
 
 Murder of O'Connor 
 
 Executed. Date. 
 
 Old Bailey . May 18, 1812 
 
 ( Pennenden-heath, 
 
 I Aug. 23, 1813 
 
 Dublin . . Oct. 9, 1813 
 Horsemonger-la. Apr. 2, 1814 
 Old Bailey . May 15, 1814 
 Maryborough, Aug. 16, 1816 
 Skinner-street March 12, 1817 
 Ireland . July 19, 1817 
 Old Bailey . July 26, 1817 
 Lancaster . Sept. 8, 1817 
 
 Derby . . Nov. 6, 1817 
 
 Pennenden-heath, Aug. 3, 1818 
 
 Limerick March 16, 1820 
 
 Old Bailey . . May 1, 1820 
 
 Godalming . Aug. 17, 1820 
 
 Dublin . . May 3, 1821 
 
 Edinburgh . June 11, 1821 
 
 Old Bailey . Nov. 21, 1821 
 
 Ireland . . Dec. 19, 1821 
 
 Ireland . . Aug. 3, 1822 
 
 Maidstone . Dec. 23, 1S22 
 
 Old Bailey . Dec. 27, 1822 
 
 Hertford . Jan. 9, 1824 
 
 Old Bailey . Feb. 24, 1824 
 
 Old Bailey . Nov. 30, 1824 
 
 Old Bailey . Feb. 22, 1825 
 
 Old Bailey . June 20, 1825 
 
 Old Bailey . Nov. 29, 1826 
 
 Old Bailey . Jan. 2, 1827 
 
 Old Bailey. Nov. 52, 1827 
 
 Old Bailey . April 14, 1828 
 
 Old Bailey . . July 4, 1858 
 BurySt. Edmunds, Aug. 8, 1828 
 
 Old Bailey . . Dec. 8, 1828 
 
 Edinburgh . Feb. 16, 1829 
 
 Old Bailey . June 30, 1829 
 
 Glasgow . . July 24, 1S29 
 
 Ennis. . March 18, 1830 
 
 Old Bailey . Dec. 5, 1831 
 
 Old Bailey . Jan. 9, 1832 
 
 Old Bailey . April 8, 1835 
 
 Bristol . April 15, 1835 
 
 Old Bailey . March 7, 1837 
 
 Old Bailey . May 2, 1837 
 
 Old Bailey . Dec. 16, 1839 
 
 Old Bailey . July 6, 1S40 
 
 Shrewsbury . April 2, 1841 
 
 Old Bailey . Nov. 15, 1S41 
 
 Dublin . . Feb. 5, 1842 
 
 Old Bailey . May 23, 1842 
 
 Old Bailey . May 27, 1844 
 
 Old Bailey March 24, 1845 
 
 Aylesbury . March 28, 1845 
 
 Old Bailey April 28, 1845 
 
 Old Bailey . June 2, 1845 
 
 Derby . . April 1, 1847 
 BurySt.Edmunds,Ap.l7, 1847 
 
 Norwich . April 21, 1849 
 Horsemonger-la. Nov.13, 18J9 
 
 * Immediately after her execution a great and painful sensation was caused by its being universally 
 believed that this young creature suffered innocently. 
 
 t This criminal was an accomplice of ThurteU's in the memorable murder of Mr. Weare, and he 
 became approver ; but was afterwards hanged for horse-stealing. 
 
 X He was the last coiner drawn on a sledge to the scaffold. 
 
 || Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for execution this day, for forgery ; but he took a dose 
 (an ounce and an half) of prussic acid, to save himself from the ignominy of the gallows, and he was 
 found dead in his cell by the officers of justice. 
 
EXE 
 
 256 
 
 EXE 
 
 EXECUTIONS, continued. 
 
 Name. 
 James Barbour 
 Henry Horler . . . . 
 Grant, Quin, and Coomey 
 
 Emanuel Barthelemy . . 
 
 William Bousfield . 
 
 William Palmer (of Kugeley) . 
 
 William Dove . . . . 
 
 Joseph Jenkins (alias Robt. \ 
 Marley) . . . ( 
 
 Lagava, Bartelano, and Pet- 
 trick 
 
 Dedea Redanies 
 
 Thomas Mansell (after seven \ 
 months' respite) . . j 
 
 it-\ 
 
 Crime. 
 Murder of Robinson . . . 
 Murder of his wife . . 
 Murder of Thos. Bateson . . 
 
 ! Murder of Mr. Moore and 1 
 C. Collard . . . f 
 Murder of his wife and 3 > 
 children j 
 
 Murder of J. P. Cook by poison. 
 Murder of his wife by poison . 
 Murder of Cope, a shopman ) 
 in Westminster . . j 
 Murder of two officers, and j 
 piracy ... J 
 
 Murder of two girls at Dover . 
 
 Murder of a soldier 
 
 Executed. 
 York . 
 Old Bailey 
 Monaghan 
 
 Pate. 
 
 Jan 15, 
 
 Jan. 15, 
 
 . April 10, 
 
 1853 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 Old Bailey 
 
 . Jan. 22, 
 
 1855 
 
 Old Bailey 
 
 . March 30, 
 
 1856 
 
 Stafford . 
 York . 
 
 . June 14, 
 Aug. 
 
 1856 
 1856 
 
 Old Bailey 
 
 . Dec. 15, 
 
 1856 
 
 Winchester 
 
 . Dec. 23, 
 
 1856 
 
 Maidstone 
 
 Jan. 1, 
 
 1857 
 
 Maidstone 
 
 July 6, 
 
 1857 
 
 The executions in the preceding list are only those of criminals remarkable for the atrocity of their 
 offences. 
 
 EXETER. This city is said to have heen early honoured with the name of Augusta 
 from having been occupied by the second Augustan legion, commanded by Ves- 
 pasian : its present name is derived from Excestre, " the castellated city of the Exe." 
 It was for a considerable time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. When held 
 by the Danes, Alfred invested the city and compelled them to capitulate. Again 
 relieved by Alfred in a.d. 894. Sweyn laid siege to Exeter, 1003, when a dreadful 
 massacre of the inhabitants, and the destruction of the town, ensued. Besieged by 
 William the Conqueror, 1067. The castle surrendered to king Stephen, 1136. 
 Edward I. held a parliament here, 1286. Besieged by sir William Courtenay, 1469. 
 The city sustained a violent assault from Perkin Warbeck, 1497. Welsh, the vicar 
 of St. Thomas's, hanged here on the tower of his own church, as a chief leader in 
 the great western and Cornish rebellion, July 2, 1549. Exeter was constituted a 
 county of itself by Henry VIII. rendering it thereby independent of Devon. 
 
 The see of Devon is removed to Exeter . 1049 
 The city first governed by a mayor . 1200 
 The celebrated nunnery founded . . 1236 
 The ancient bridge built . . . 1250 
 
 The Black Prince visits Exeter . . . 1371 
 The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in 
 
 the city 1469 
 
 Annual festival consecrated . . . 1549 
 
 The guildhall built 1593 
 
 Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king 
 
 Charles I Sept. 4, 1643 
 
 The city surrenders to the forces of the 
 
 Parliament .... April, 1646 
 The canal to Topsham cut . . . . 1675 
 A mint established by James I. . . 1688 
 
 Water-works erected 1694 
 
 The sessions house built . . . 1773 
 The new bridge built 1778 
 
 The theatre erected .... 
 
 Lunatic asylum founded . ... 
 
 County gaol built 
 
 Subscription library founded . . . 
 
 Devon and Exeter institution for the 
 promotion of science, established 
 
 New city prison built 
 
 The last of the ancient walls removed . 
 
 The subscription rooms opened . . . 
 
 The public baths erected 
 
 Mechanics' institution opened . . . 
 
 New cemetery commenced 
 
 Great fire, 20 houses burnt . Aug. 2, 
 
 Another great fire . . . April 26, 
 
 The case of the rev. Mr. Gorhaui v. the 
 bishop of Exeter. See a note to Trials, 
 Aug. 2 
 
 1783 
 1795 
 1796 
 1807 
 
 1813 
 1818 
 1818 
 1820 
 1821 
 1825 
 1837 
 1844 
 1847 
 
 1849 
 
 EXETER, BISHOPRIC op. This bishopric anciently constituted two sees, Devonshire 
 and Cornwall. The church of the former was at Crediton, and of the latter at Bod- 
 min. In a.d. 1032 the sea was united, and soon after the seat was removed to 
 Exeter. St. Patroe was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 900 ; CEdulphus, the 
 first bishop of Devonshire, 905; and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. The 
 cathedral belonged to a monastery founded by Athelstan : Edward the Confessor 
 removed the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, and gave their church for a 
 cathedral to the united see : valued in the king's books at 500£. per annum. 
 
 EXETER CHANGE, London. Built by Walter Stapelton, bishop of Exeter, and lord 
 treasurer in 1316. It was entirely demolished at the period of the Strand improve- 
 ments in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by the marquis of Exeter near its 
 site, and running from Wellington-street to Catherine-street, with a passage, on each 
 side of which are shops for fancy articles, was opened in 1845. This place, sometimes 
 called the " Wellington Arcade," forms a communication between the two. streets 
 mentioned, and is 12 feet wide, 20 feet in height, and 60 in length. 
 
 EXETER COLLEGE, Oxford. Owes its foundation to Walter Stapelton, bishop of 
 Exeter, in 1314. This prelate was lord treasurer of England in 1319, and again in 
 
EXE 
 
 257 
 
 EYR 
 
 1324; and was beheaded by order of the queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. The 
 college buildings consist of a handsome quadrangle in the later Gothic style. 
 
 EXETER HALL, Strand, London. For the meetings of religious, scientific, and 
 other institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical societies, a large and magnificent 
 apartment, with a splendid orchestra amd organ, and having attached rooms for 
 committees, &c, was erected in 1830. Religious services were commenced here in 
 1856 by Mr. Spurgeon, and in 1857 by the Ministers of the church of England. 
 
 EXHIBITION of 1851. See Crystal Palace. This wonderful emporium of the " Works 
 of Industry of all Nations " was projected by prince Albert, and was opened by a 
 royal ceremonial, May 1, 1851. The building (chiefly of iron and glass,) was designed 
 by Mr. now sir Joseph Paxton. The length was 1851 feet; the general width 408 
 feet; the area about 19 acres. It cost 176,0302. 13s. 8d. The number of exhibitors 
 exceeded 15,000, but the articles exhibited, in arts, manufactures, and the various pro- 
 duce of countries, even the most remote, defy all numerical calculation. The palace 
 continued open twenty-three weeks, and the fragments of two other weeks, altogether 
 144 days, within which time it was visited by 6,170,000 persons, averaging 43,536 per 
 diem, whose admission at the respective prices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one 
 shilling, amounted to 505,1072. including season tickets, leaving a surplus, after 
 payment of expenses, of about 150,0002. The greatest number of visitors in one day 
 was 109,760 (Oct. 8) ; and at one time (2 o'clock, Oct. 7) were 93,000.* The exhibi- 
 tion wa3 closed to the public, Oct. 11, 1851. 
 
 EXPEDITIONS, or DESCENTS of the BRITISH. These will be found described 
 under their respective heads through the volume. The following are the most 
 remarkable of our later expeditions, and are those most commonly referred to : — 
 
 France, near Port l'Orient . . Oct. 1, 1746 
 Cherbourg .... Aug. 7, 175S 
 St. Malo ; 4000 men lost . . Sept. 1758 
 Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) . . 1796 
 Ostend (all made prisoners) . . May, 1798 
 Helder Point and Zuyder Zee Sept. 1799 
 
 Ferrol, in Spain 
 Egypt (Abercrombie) . 
 Copenhagen (which see) 
 Walcheren (unfortunate) 
 Bergen-op-Zoom 
 Crimea 
 
 Aug. 1800 
 . March, 1801 
 
 Sept. 1807 
 . July, 1809 
 March S, 1814 
 . Sept. 1854 
 
 EXPORTS. See Revenue. The exports of British manufactures are increasing annually. 
 Edward III. by his encouragement of trade turned the scale so much in favour of 
 English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, the exported 
 commodities amounted to 294,0002. and the imported to only 38,0002. 
 
 OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. : — 
 
 In 1700 . 
 
 . . £6,097,120 
 
 In 1810 
 
 . £45,869, S39 
 
 In 1840 . 
 
 . . £97,402,726 
 
 In 1750 . 
 
 . 10,130,991 
 
 In 1820 . 
 
 . 51.733,113 
 
 In 1845 
 
 . 131,564,503 
 
 In 1775 . 
 
 . . 16,326,363 
 
 In 1830 
 
 . . 66,735,445 
 
 In 1850 . 
 
 . . 175,126,706 
 
 InlSOO . 
 
 . 38,120,120 
 
 InlS35 . 
 
 . 78,376,732 
 
 In 1851 
 
 . 190,397,810 
 
 The declared value is of infinitely less amount than the official. 
 
 TOTAL DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE EXPORTED. 
 
 In 1S51 
 In 1852 
 
 £74,448,722 I In 1S53 
 . 78,076,854 | In 1854 
 
 £98,933,781 I In 1855 
 . 97,184,726 J In 1856 
 
 £95,6S8,085 
 . 115,S90,857 
 
 EYLAU, BATTLE of. Between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of 
 the French war : it terminated in favour of Napoleon, who commanded in person ; but 
 both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French 
 retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel ; the loss to the victor was 
 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. 
 
 EYRE, JUSTICES in. The term signifies the itinerant court of Justices. This court 
 was instituted by Henry I. ; and when the forest laws were in force, the office of 
 Chief Justice in Eyre was one of great trust and dignity. By an ancient custom these 
 justices should go their circuit every third year, and punish all abuses committed in 
 the king's forests. The last instance of a court being held in any of the forests is 
 believed to have been during the reign of Charles II. a.d. 1671. — Bcatson. 
 
 * These 93,000 persons were assembled at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman amphitheatre, 
 but (it should be recollected) within a windowed and floored and rooted building. There is no like vast 
 assemblage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, as having been gathered together, it may be 
 said, in one room. 
 
FAB 258 FAL 
 
 F. 
 
 FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba, a 
 bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse; they were said to be 
 descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that 
 they took upon themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general 
 engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were 
 slain, B.C. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, 
 and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. 
 
 FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees (Judges ix. about B.C. 1209) is the oldest extant, 
 and as beautiful as any made since." — A ddison. Nathan's fable of the poor man 
 (2 Sam. xii. about B.C. 1034) is next in antiquity. The earliest collection of fables 
 extant is of eastern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo 
 Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient in the world. — 
 Sir William Jones. The well known ^Esop's fables (which see), were written about 
 540 years B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on chariots in the 
 circus, and who were distinguished by their different colours, as green, blue, red, and 
 white, to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a 
 second wearing scarlet, about a.d. 90. Both the emperors and people had generally 
 greater inclination for some particular colour than the rest; but upon a quarrel 
 happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40,000 were killed 
 on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. 
 
 FATRLOP OAK. A celebrated tree in the forest of Hainault, Essex, blown down in 
 February, 1820. Its extended branches covered a space of more than 300 feet in 
 circumference : and beneath them a fair was annually held on the first Friday in 
 July. This fair originated with the eccentric Mi-. Day, a pump and block maker of 
 Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, annually repaired here with a 
 party of friends, to dine on beans and bacon. Every year added to the number ; 
 and in a short time a fair was begun, which is still continued. 
 
 FAIRS and WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England 
 by Alfred, a.d. 886. — Spelman. They were established by order of Gregory VII. in 
 1078, and termed Ferioz, at which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron 
 saint : the vast resort of people occasioned a great demand for goods, wares, &c. 
 They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil or eve. 
 Fairs were established in France and England by Charlemagne and William the 
 Conqueror, about a.d. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of 
 Beaucaire, Falaise, and Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. 
 
 FALCONRY. The certainty of falconry in Englaud cannot be traced until the reign of 
 king Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, a.d. 850. — Pennant. There are thirty-two species 
 of the falco genus. The falcon is a bird of prey of the hawk kind, but superior to all 
 others for courage, docility, gentleness, and nobleness of nature ; and it is no credit 
 to our country to state that these noble birds used formerly to be tamed, and kept 
 for the genteel pastime of falconry. — Phillips. It is said that the grand seignior at 
 one time kept six thousand falconers in his service. — Pardon. 
 
 FALCZI, PEACE of. This celebrated peace was concluded between Russia and Turkey, 
 July 2, 1711, the Russians giving up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black Sea 
 to the Turks ; in the following year the war was renewed, and terminated by the 
 peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712. 
 
 FALERNIAN WINE. This wine, so celebrated by the Roman poets, especially Virgil 
 and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, a3 called by Martial, Mons Massicus, 
 a mountain and plain of Campania. In Rome the age of wine was a criterion of its 
 goodness ; and Horace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falerniau wine that had 
 been, as it were, born with him, or which reckoned its age from the same consuls, 
 14 B.C. The Opimian wine is said to have been kept for 200 years. 
 
 FALKIRK, BATTLE op. Between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, 
 commanded by Wallace, in which it i3 said from 20,000 to 40,000 of the latter 
 were slain ; the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field 
 with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. The English archers, who began about this 
 
FAL 
 
 259 
 
 FAS 
 
 time to surpass those of other nations, first chased the Scottish bowmen from the 
 ground, and then pouring in their arrows among the pikemen who were cooped up 
 within their entrenchments, threw them into disorder, and rendered the assault of 
 the English pikemen and cavalry more easy and successful. — Hume. Battle of 
 Falkirk between the king's forces and prince Charles Stuart, in which the former 
 were defeated, Jan. 18, 1746. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great 
 Britain. Seen by Americus Vesputius ; and visited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession 
 of by France, 1763. The French were expelled by the Spaniards; and in 1771, Spain 
 gave up the sovereignty to England. Not having been colonised by us, the republic 
 of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these islands, and a colony from that country 
 settled at port Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, the settlement was 
 destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 1833 the British Hag was hoisted at Port Louis, 
 and a British officer has since resided there. — McCulloch. 
 
 FAMILY of LOVE. A society, called also Philadelphians, from the love they professed 
 to bear all men, even the most wicked. They assembled at Brew-house yard, 
 Nottingham. Their founder was a fanatic named David George, an Anabaptist, of 
 Holland, who propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, where he died in 1556. After 
 this event, the tenets of the society were declared to be impious, and George's body 
 and books were ordered to be burned by the hangman. — See Agapemonians. 
 
 FAMINES, and SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famine of the seven 
 years in Egypt began 1708 B.C. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine that raged at Rome 
 thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 B.C. — Livy. 
 
 Awful famine in Egypt . . . a.d. 42 
 At Rome, attended by plague . . . 262 
 In Britain, so grievous that people ate 
 
 the bark of trees 272 
 
 In Scotland, and thousands die . . . 306 
 In England, where 40,000 perish . . 310 
 
 Awful one in Phrygia 370 
 
 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate 
 
 their children (Dufresnoy) . . . 450 
 In England, Wales, and Scotland . . 739 
 Again, when thousands starve . . 823 
 Again, which lasts four years . . . 954 
 Awful one throughout Europe . . 1016 
 
 In England, 21 William 1 1087 
 
 In England and France ; this famine 
 leads to a pestilential fever, which 
 
 lasts from 1193 to 1195 
 
 Another famine in England . . . 1251 
 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- 
 voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 
 and vermin ...... 1315 
 
 One occasioned by long rains . . . 1335 
 
 One in England and Prance (Rapin) a.d. 1353 
 Again, one so great, that bread was 
 
 made from fern-roots (Stow) . . . 143S 
 One throughout these islands . . 1565 
 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) . . . 1693 
 One general in these realms . . . 174S 
 One which devastates Bengal . . . 1771 
 At the Cape de Verde, where 16,000 per- 
 sons perish 1775 
 
 One grievously felt in Prance . . . 1789 
 One severely felt in England . . . 1795 
 Again, throughout the kingdom . . 1801 
 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden inter- 
 cepting the supplies .... 1813 
 Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish 
 poor, 1814, 1816, 1S22, 1831, 1846, in 
 consequence of the failure of the potato 
 crop. Grants by parliament, to relieve 
 the suffering of the people, were made 
 in the session of 1847, the whole 
 amounting to ten millions sterling. 
 
 FAN. The use of the fan was known to the ancients ; Cape hoc flalellum et ventulum, 
 huic sic facito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from 
 the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hah-, were first devised by the 
 harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — Slow. The fan was 
 used by females to hide their faces at Church. — Pardon. In the British Museum are 
 fan-handles and other articles of Egyptian manufacture, used anciently by women. 
 
 FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which 
 were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These were 
 introduced into our theatres in a less ludicrous and more refined form ; and they are 
 now shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. 
 
 FARTHING. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver were coined 
 by king John; the Irish farthing of his l-eign is of the date of 1210, and is valuable 
 and rare. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined 
 in copper by Charles II. 1665; and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
 copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. See 
 Queen Anne's Farthings. 
 
 FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. 
 Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, 
 to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian Church, in the second century, 
 
 s 2 
 
FEA 260 FER 
 
 a.d. 138. Fast days are appointed by the reformed Churches in times of war and 
 pestilence (as March 21, 1855 for the Russian war). See Abstinence. 
 
 FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The feast of the tabernacles was instituted by Moses in 
 the wilderness, 1490 B.C. but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for four- 
 teen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1005 B.C. — Josephus. In the 
 Christian Church those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost, or Whit- 
 suntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, a.d. 68. Rogation days 
 were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boniface 
 VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, 
 as settled at the Reformation, et seq. see Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a feast which was 
 held therein in behalf of the manes of deceased persons, when sacrifices were per- 
 formed, and the last offices were paid to the shades of the dead. This month, with 
 January, was added to the year, which had previously but ten months, by Numa, 
 713 b.c. See Calendar and Year. 
 
 FECIALES. Heralds of ancient Rome to denounce war or proclaim peace. When the 
 Romans thought themselves injured, one of this sacerdotal body was empowered to 
 demand redress ; and after thirty-three days, if submission were not made, war was 
 declared, and the Feciales hurled a bloody spear into the territories of the enemy, in 
 proof of intended hostilities. They were instituted by Numa, about 712 B.C. — Limy. 
 
 FENCING. This science, as it is called, was introduced into England from France, 
 where it had long before been tolerated, and is still much in use, as instruction in self- 
 defence, duels being fought chiefly by small swords there. Fencing schools having 
 led to duelling in England, they were prohibited in London, by statute 13 Edw. I. 
 1284. — Nortkouck's Hist, of London. 
 
 FERE-CHAMPENOISE, BATTLE of. Between the French army under Marmont, 
 Mortier, and Arrighi, and the Austrians under the prince of Schwartzenberg, by 
 whom the French were surprised and defeated, March 25, 1814. Paris surrendered 
 to the allied armies six days after this battle. See France. 
 
 FERLE LATIN^E. These were festivals at Rome, instituted by Tarquin the Proud. 
 The principal magistrates of forty-seven towns of Latium assembled on a mount near 
 Rome, where they and the Roman authorities offered a bull to Jupiter Latialis. 
 During these festivals it was not lawful for any person to work, 534 B.C. — Livy. 
 
 FERNS, BISHOPRIC or, in Ireland. Anciently this see was for a time archiepis- 
 copal ; for in the early ages of Christianity in Ireland, the title of archbishop, except 
 that of Armagh, was not fixed to any particular see, but sometimes belonged to one, 
 and sometimes to another city, according to the sanctity and merits of the presiding 
 bishop. He was not denominated from his see, but from the province in which his 
 prelacy was situated. St. Edan was seated here in a.d. 598. Leighlin and Ferns 
 were united in 1600 ; and by the Church Temporalities' act, passed Aug. 1833, both 
 have lately been united to the bishopric of Ossory. See Ossory. 
 
 FEROZESHAH, BATTLE of, India. Between the Sikhs and British. The British 
 attacked the entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried by storm their first line of 
 works, Dec. 21 ; but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak 
 next day, when their second line was carried, and their guns captured ; the Sikhs 
 advanced to retake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated 
 towards the Sutlej, Dec. 22 ; and recrossed that river unmolested, Dec. 27, 1845. 
 
 FERRARS' ARREST. Mr. George Ferrars, a member of parliament, being in attendance 
 on the house, was taken in execution by a sheriffs officer for debt, and committed 
 to the Compter. The house despatched their Serjeant to require his release, which 
 was resisted, and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. The house in a body 
 repaired to the Lords to complain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very great, 
 and the punishment of the offenders was referred to the lower house. On another 
 messenger being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they delivered up the senator, 
 and the civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior 
 officers to Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the 
 debt. The king, Henry VIII. highly approved of all these proceedings, and the 
 transaction became the basis of that rule of parliament which exempts members to 
 this day from arrest, a.d. 1542. — Hollingshed. 
 
 FERRO. The most western of the Canary Isles, from whose west point some geo- 
 
FER 261 FIE 
 
 graphers have taken their first meridian. This island was known to the ancients, and 
 was re-discovered in 1402. See Canary Islands. In the middle of the Island of 
 Ferro is the fountain tree, from whose leaves great quantities of water are distilled. 
 
 FERROL, BRITISH EXPEDITION to. Upwards of 10,000 British landed near Ferrol 
 under the command of Sir James Pulteney, iu August, 1800. They gained possession 
 of the heights, notwithstanding which the British general, despairing of success, on 
 account of the strength of the works, desisted from the enterprise, and re-embarked 
 the troops. His conduct on this occasion, which was in opposition to the opinion and 
 advice of the officers of his army, was very much condemned in England. The 
 French took seven sail of the line here, Jan, 27, 1809. 
 
 FfiTE de DIEU. Berengarius, archbishop of Angers, was opposed to the doctrine of 
 transubstantiation when it was first propagated, and to atone for this crime a yearly 
 procession was made at Angers, which was called la fete de Dieu, a.d. 1019. 
 
 FETE de VERTU. An assemblage, chiefly of young persons, annually brought together 
 by lady Harcourt, to whom were to be adjudged rewards for industry and virtue, 
 held at Nuneharn in Oxfordshire. These fetes were commenced in 1789, and con- 
 tinued till lady Harcourt's death. 
 
 FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit and service to the lord or owner of it, 
 was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a.d. 600. The slavery of this 
 tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was done by dividing the 
 kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish 
 the king with money, and a stated number of soldiers. These laws were discoun- 
 tenanced in France by Louis XI. in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited 
 by Henry VII. 1495. Abolished by statute 12 Chas. II. 1663. The feudal system was 
 introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008. The hereditary jurisdictions were 
 finally abolished iu that kingdom, 20 Geo. II. 1746. — Lyttelton : Ruffhead; Blackstone. 
 
 FEUILLANS. The order of Feuillans, which had been founded in France the preceding 
 year, settled in Paris in 1587. — Henaidt. Members of a society formed in Paris to 
 counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan 
 convent, where their meetings were held, early in the Revolution. A body of 
 Jacobins invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, 
 Dec. 25, 1791. — Hist. French Revolution. 
 
 FEZ (the ancient Mauritania), founded by Edrus, a descendant of Mahomet, a.d. 793. 
 It soon after became the capital of all the western Morocco States. Leo Africanus 
 describes Mauritania as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and 
 other public edifices in the twelfth century. 
 
 FICTIONS in LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of 
 carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each 
 other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of lord Mansfield, in the court of King's 
 Bench, emphatically littered, that " no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail 
 
 AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. 
 
 This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. 
 
 FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I. a.d. 511. 
 They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards. Into Spain, before the invasion 
 of the Moors, a.d. 710. Into England, by the Saxons (see Feudal Laws). Into 
 Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II. 1008. Towards the end of the 
 second race of kings, France was held as a feudal tenure, and was governed as a great 
 fief rather than as a monarchy. — Mtzeray. 
 
 FIELD of the CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. 
 of France at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 1520. The nobility 
 of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse 
 expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The Field 
 of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debts 
 on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of their whole lives, to repair the 
 vain splendour of a few days. A painting of the embarcation, and another of the 
 interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 
 
 FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on LOUIS-PHILIPPE of FRANCE. This assassin fired an 
 infernal machine at the French king, as he rode along the lines of the National Guard, 
 on the Boulevard du Temple, accompanied by his three sons and suite. The machine 
 consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged with various species of missiles, and lighted 
 
FIF 262 FIR 
 
 simultaneously by a train of gunpowder. The king and his sons escaped ; but Marshal 
 Mortier (duke of Treviso) was shot dead, many officers were dangerously wounded, 
 and an indiscriminate slaughter was made among the spectators, there being upwards 
 of forty persons killed or injured, July 28, 1835. 
 
 FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN. These were fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
 Oliver Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, 
 when Jesus should descend from Heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
 They actually proceeded in their fanaticism so far as to elect Jesus Christ king at 
 London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. — Kearsley. 
 
 FIG TREE, Ficus Carica. Brought from the south of Europe, before A.D. 1548.— The 
 Botany-Bay Fig, Ficus Australis, brought from N. S. Wales, in 1789. See Fruits. 
 
 FIGURES. The numerical characters, or arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and 
 the method of computing by them, said to be of Egyptian origin, were brought into 
 Europe from Arabia, about a.d. 900. They are said to have been first known in 
 England about the year 1253 (reign of Henry III.), previously to which time the 
 numbering by Roman letters was in use in these countries. See Arithmetic. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the Spanish Freebooters who plundered the coasts 
 of America in the 17th century. It has been applied to Walker and other adventurers 
 from the United States, who within the last few years endeavoured to obtain 
 possession of Central America. — See Nicaragua. 
 
 FINES and RECOVERIES. Conferring the power of breaking ancient entails and 
 alienating estates. The practice of breaking entails by means of a fine and recovery 
 was introduced in the reign of Edward IV. but it was not, properly speaking, law, 
 till the statute of Henry VII. which, by correcting some abuses that attended the 
 practice, gave indirectly a sanction to it; 4 Henry VII. 1489. — Hume. Fines and 
 recoveries are now abolished. 
 
 FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets 
 suppose that fire was stolen from Heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, 
 was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or Worshippers of Fire, since known by the 
 appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the countries of the East, 2115 B.C. — Justin ; 
 Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed 
 it to be a god omnipotent, and taught this theory about 596 B.C. — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a.d. 1378 ; they were brought 
 to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ireland in 14S9, when 
 six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildarc, who wa? 
 then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at -the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The 
 Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — 
 JJlloa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engage- 
 ment at sea against the Genoese, 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had 
 guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346; and at the siege of Calais, in 1347. See Artillery. 
 
 FIRE-BARS, DEATH by the. An ancient punishment of China, the invention of the 
 emperor Sheoo, who reigned in the 12th century B.C. The sufferer was compelled to 
 walk on bars of red-hot iron, from which, if he fell, his almost certain fate, he was 
 received in a burning furnace beneath, and was consumed in the flames. The 
 Carthaginians are said to have had a punishment similar to this. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although the forcing-pump, of 
 which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force 
 water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663 ; it was im- 
 proved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or 
 fire-guard of London, was instituted Nov. 1791. The fire-brigade was established in 
 London in 1833. 
 
 FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most for- 
 midable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a 
 bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the 
 English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, afterwards earl of Notting- 
 ham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement of the Spanish Armada, 
 July, 1588. — Rapin. 
 
 FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese, in remote ages: they 
 were invented in Europe, at Florence, about a.d. 1360; and were first exhibited as a 
 
FIR 
 
 263 
 
 FIR 
 
 spectacle in 15S8. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, in honour of the marriage 
 of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. the passages being stopped up, occasioned 
 such a crowd, that the people, seized with panic, trampled upon one another till they 
 lay in heaps; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were 
 drowned; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. 
 Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night in a balloon sur- 
 rounded by fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, 
 and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 
 
 FIRE-WORKS in ENGLAND. Macaulay states that the fire-works at the peace of 
 Ryswick in 1697 cost 12,0002. Very grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent 
 building erected in the Green-park, London, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed 
 April 30, 1748. The grand display of fire-works, Aug. 1, 1814, under the direction of 
 sir Wm, Congreve on the celebration of the general peace, ancl to commemorate the 
 centenary accession of the family of Brunswick to the British throne, surpassed all 
 previous exhibitions. The latest display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000Z.) was on May 
 29, 1856, to celebrate the peace with Russia. 
 
 FIRES in LONDON. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant 
 distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can offer to human 
 eyes. — Br. Johnson. In London have been many fires of awful magnitude. Among 
 the early fires, was one which destroyed the greater part of the city, a.d. 982. A fire 
 happened in the 20th of William I. 1086; it consumed all the houses and churches 
 from the west to the east gate. — Baker's Citron. For the Great Fires in London see 
 next article. The following are among the memorable fires of more recent occurrence 
 in the metropolis : — 
 
 In Southwark, 60 houses burnt . a.d. 1676 
 In Wapping, 150 houses burnt . . . 1716 
 At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt . . 1736 
 In Cornhill -ward, 200 houses burnt ; 
 this fire began in Cbange-alley, and 
 •was the most terrible since the great 
 fire of 1666 . . . March 25, 1748 
 At Covent-garden, 50 houses . . . 1759 
 In Smithfield, 28 houses burnt . . . 1761 
 At Shadwell, 30 houses burnt . . 1761 
 In Ihrogmorton-street, 20 houses . . 1774 
 At Wapping, 20 houses .... 1775 
 At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses . . . 1779 
 At Horsley-down, 30 houses, besides 
 
 many warehouses and ships . . 1780 
 In the Strand, 40 houses . . . . 1781 
 In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses ; the loss 
 
 exceeding 100,000?. . . Nov. 5, 1783 
 At Eotherhithe, 20 houses . Oct. 12, 1790 
 Again, when many ships and 60 houses 
 
 were consumed . . . Sept. 14, 1791 
 At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East 
 India warehouse, in which 35,000 bags 
 of saltpetre were stored ; the loss 
 1,000,000?. . . . July 21, 1794 
 
 Astley's Amphitheatre . . Sept. 17, 1794 
 At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt . Nov. 1, 1796 
 In the Minories, 30 houses March 23, 1797 
 In the King's Bench, 50 residences, 
 
 July 14, 1799 
 Near the Customs, 3 West India ware- 
 houses ; loss 300,000?. . . Feb. 11, 1800 
 At Wapping, 30 houses . . Oct. 6, 1800 
 In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, 
 
 immense property destroyed, Sept. 27, 1S02 
 The great tower over the choir of West- 
 minster Abbey burnt . . July 9, 1803 
 Astley's again, and 40 houses . Sept. 1, 1S03 
 Covent-garden theatre . Sept. 20, 1808 
 Drury-lane theatre . . . Feb. 24, 1809 
 In Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in 
 aiding to save Mr. North's library, 
 received an injury which caused his 
 
 death July 9, 1809 
 
 In Bury-strcet, St. Mary-axe, half the 
 
 street made ruins. . . June 12, 1811 
 Custom-house burned down, with many 
 adjoining warehouses, and the public 
 records .... Feb. 12, 1S14 
 
 At Rotherhithe ; loss 80,000?. March 16, 1820 
 
 At Mile-end ; loss 200,000?. Jan. 22, 1821 
 
 In Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. . Aug. 14, 1S22 
 
 In Ked-lion-street, 15 houses June 6, 1823 
 
 English Opera-house, and several houses 
 in its rear, burnt . . . Feb. 16, 1830 
 
 The two Houses of Parliament entirely 
 consumed. . . . Oct. 16, 1834 
 
 The Boyal-exchange and many houses 
 burnt to the ground . . Jan. 10, 1838 
 
 At Wapping, 12 houses . June 16, 1840 
 
 Astley's theatre again . . June 8, 1841 
 
 At the Tower; the armoury and 280,000 
 stand of arms, &c. destroyed Oct. 30, 1841 
 
 At Dover-street, Piccadilly (Raggett's 
 hotel) several persons of high respect- 
 ability perished in the flames May 27, 1845 
 
 A destructive fire, burning several houses 
 in Lincoln's-inn, New-square Jan 14, 1849 
 
 One in St. Martin's-lane (at the house of 
 a publican named Ben Caunt), three 
 lives lost .... Jan. 15, 1851 
 
 Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; 
 property estimated at 60,000?. dam- 
 aged Feb. 19, 1851 
 
 At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, 
 four lives lost . . . May 18, 1851 
 
 A great fire at the foot of London-bridge, 
 four large hop warehouses burnt, loss 
 
 • 150,000? June 23, 1851 
 
 The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. 
 Paul's Churchyard burnt . Feb. 24, 1S53 
 
 Works of Gutta Percha Company, near 
 City-road; loss 100,000?. . .June 5, 1853 
 
 Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, 
 Millwall ; loss 100,000?. . Sept. 10, 1853 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Saville and Edwards, 
 printers, Chandos-street, destroyed, 
 
 Sept. 30, 1853 
 
 Premises of Messrs. Townend, &c. 
 Bread-street, destroyed; loss 80,000?. 
 
 Dec. 31, 1S53 
 
 Messrs. Routledge's premises, near 
 Blackfriars'-road ; loss, one life and 
 150,000? Feb. 16, 1855 
 
 Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott 
 Russell's works . . . May 3, 1855 
 
 Pavilion theatre . . . Feb. 13, 1S56 
 
 Covent-garden theatre . . March 5, 1856 
 
FIR 264 FLA 
 
 FIRES IN LONDON, continued. 
 
 Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-street, 
 
 April 1, 1856 
 Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, 
 
 Westminster. . . . Aug. 12, 1856 
 Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army ac- 
 
 coutrement makers, and others, in St. 
 Martin's-lane ; estimated loss 20,0001. 
 
 Nov. 9, 1S56 
 Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk- 
 farm station .... June 9, 1857 
 
 These are but a few fires out of many hundreds. The insurance-offices calculate that 
 300 fires occur annually in London on the average. There were 953 in 1854. 
 
 FIRES of LONDON, the GREAT. Awful one. at London-bridge, which began on the 
 Southwark side, but by some accident (not accounted for) it took fire at the other 
 end also, and hemmed in the numerous crowd which had assembled to help the 
 distressed. The sufferers, to avoid the flames, threw themselves over the bridge into 
 boats and barges ? but many of these sank by persons crowding into them, and 
 3000 were drowned in the Thames. The fire, likewise, for want of hands to extin- 
 guish it, burnt great part of the city north and south from the bridge, 14 John, 1212. 
 The fire, called the Great Fire, whose ruins covered 436 acres, extended from the 
 Tower to the Temple-church, and from the north-east gate to Holborn-bridge. It 
 began at a baker's house in Pudding-lane behind Monument-yard, and destroyed in 
 the space of four days, eighty -nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the 
 Royal Exchange, the Custom House, Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public 
 buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration 
 happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
 days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses. 
 
 FIRST FRUITS, were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew 
 priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V. in a.d. 1306 ; and were 
 collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every Church benefice in 
 England was given to the popes till the 27th of Hen. VIII. 1535, when the first fruits 
 were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his successors. — Carte. Granted 
 together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, 
 Feb. 1704. The offices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anue's Bounty, were 
 consolidated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838. See Augmentation of Poor Livings. 
 
 FISHERIES. The Fishmonger's' company of London was incorporated in 1536. Fishing 
 towns were regulated by an act passed in 1542. Fishing on our coasts was forbidden 
 by statute to strangers in 1609. The Dutch paid 30,000/. for permission to fish on 
 the coasts of Britain, 1636. The corporation of the Free British Fisheries was 
 instituted in 1750. Fish-machines for conveying fish by land to London were set up 
 in 1761 ; and supported by parliament, 1764. The British Society of Fisheries was 
 established in London in 1786. The Irish Fishery Company was formed in Dec. 
 1818. See Herring, Whale, and Newfoundland Fisheries. 
 
 FIVE-MILE ACT, an oppressive statute passed in the 16th year of Charles II. Oct. 
 1665. It obliged non-conformist teachers, who refused to take the non-resistance 
 oath, not to come within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since 
 the act of oblivion (unless they were travelling), under the penalty of fifty pounds. 
 
 FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth century, in Spain ; it was pre- 
 viously small and square. — Ashe. The flag is said to have been introduced there by 
 the Saracens, before which time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
 wood. — Pardon. The term flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what 
 country a ship belongs, and the quality of its commander. The honour-of-the-flag 
 salute at. sea was exacted by Englaud from very early times; but it was formally 
 yielded by the Dutch in a.d. 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many 
 actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
 Henault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish 
 admiral Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, 
 June 2, 1688. — Idem. See Salute at Sea. 
 
 FLAGELLANTS, SECT of. A general plague, which swept away a vast multitude of 
 people, gave rise to this fanatic sect. — Henault. They established themselves at 
 Perouse, a.d. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without 
 flagellation and publicly lashed themselves, until the blood flowed from their naked 
 backs. Their leader, Conrad Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. 
 
 FLAMBEAUX, FEAST of. This was a feast instituted in Greece, to commemorate the 
 fidelity of Hypermnestra, who saved her husband Lynceus (son of ^Egyptus) while 
 
FLA. 265 FLI 
 
 hei' forty-nine sisters, on the night of their nuptials, sacrificed theirs, at the command 
 of their jealous and cruel father, Danaus, 1425 B.C. See Argos. 
 
 FLANDERS. The country of the ancient BelgEe; conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 B.C. 
 It passed into the hands of France, a.d. 412. It was governed by its earls subject to 
 that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage; 
 but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; 
 and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German empire. — 
 Priestley. Flanders was overrun by the Fi-ench in 1792 and 1794, and was declared 
 part of their Republic. It was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, 
 and was erected into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. See Belgium. 
 
 FLAT-BUSH, BATTLE of, Long Island, fought between the British and the revolted 
 Americans, when the latter, after a desperate engagement, were defeated, with 
 the loss of 2000 men killed, and 1000 prisoners, Aug. 27, 1776. The Americans, in 
 their retreat to New York, were saved by the interposition of a thick fog. 
 
 FLATTERY CAPE. Situate on the western coast of North America. It was so named 
 by the illustrious English navigator, Captain Cook, because it had promised to him a 
 harbour at a distance, which it did not yield him upon his nearer approach in 1778. 
 This disappointment was severely felt by his crew, who at the time were in want of 
 provisions and refreshments. — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a.d. 1533. For many ages the 
 core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was 
 next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a 
 water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hemp. — In 1851, 
 Chevalier Claussen patented a method of " cottoning " flax. 
 
 FLEET MARKET, PRISON, &c. Built on the small river Fleta, now arched over, and 
 used as a common sewer. In the reign of Hen. VII. this river was navigable to 
 Holborn-bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet-street denotes the extent of it in 1775. The 
 prison, for debtors, was founded as early as the first year of Richard I. It was the 
 place of confinement for those who had incurred the displeasure of that arbitrary 
 court, the Star Chamber ; and persons were committed here for contempts of the 
 court of Chancery. The Fleet prison was burnt down by the prisoners, June 7, 
 1780.* Fleet market was originally formed in 1737; and was removed from 
 Farringdon-street, Nov. 20, 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to the memory 
 of Alderman Waithman, erected June 25, 1833, and completed in one day. Fleet 
 Prison demolished (the debtors having been removed to the Queen's Bench), 1845. 
 
 FLEUR-DE-LIS. The emblem of France, and of which it is gravely recorded that 
 it was sent to the French people from heaven by an angel, whose commission was 
 addressed to Clovis, their first Christian king, who it is related, made a vow that 
 if he proved victorious in a pending battle with the Alemans near Cologne, a.d. 496, 
 he would embrace Christianity. Having been successful he adopted this emblem, 
 and it was the national emblem till the revolution. 
 
 FLEURUS, BATTLE of. Between the allies under the prince of Coburg, and the 
 French revolutionary army commanded by Jourdan. The allies, with an army 
 of 100,000 men, had for their object the relief of Chaiieroi, when they were met 
 on the plains of Fleurus, and signally defeated. Between eight and ten thousand 
 were killed, wounded, and taken prisoners ; and Jourdan was enabled to form a 
 junction with the French armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and the north. In 
 this memorable battle the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the 
 enemy's army, an experiment which, it is said, contributed to the success of the day, 
 June 17, 1794. 
 
 FLIES. There happened an extraordinary and memorable fall of these insects in London, 
 covering the clothes of passengers in the streets, in which they lay so thick, that the 
 impressions of the people's feet were visible on the pavements, as they are in a thick 
 
 * An extraordinary and formidable evil once prevailed in this prison. Illicit marriages were cele- 
 brated in it to an amazing extent. Between the 19th October, 1704, and February 12, 1705, there were 
 celebrated 2954 marriages in the Fleet, without license or certificate of banns. Twenty or thirty couple 
 were sometimes joined in one day, and their names concealed by private marks, if they chose to pay an 
 extra fee. Pennant, at a later period, describes the daring manner in which this nefarious traffic was 
 carried on. He says, that in walking by the prison in his youth, he has been often accosted with "Sir, 
 will you please to walk in and be married ? " And he states, that painted signs, of a male and female 
 hand conjoined, with the inscription, "Marriages performed within," were common along the building. 
 This glaring abuse was put an end to by the Marriage Act in 1753. 
 
FLO 266 FLO 
 
 fall of snow, a.d. 1707. — Chamberlain's History of London. In the United States of 
 America is an insect, commonly called the Hessian fly, from tbe notion of its having 
 been brought tbere by the Hessian troops in the service of England in the American 
 war of independence; its ravages were very extensive on the wheat in 1777 ; but the 
 injury to the crops was much less after. — Before and during tbe severe attack of 
 cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, the air was infested with small flies. 
 
 FLOATING BATTERIES. See article Batteries, and Gibraltar, Siege of, 1781. 
 
 FLODDEN-FIELD, BATTLE of. Between the English and Scots; in consequence of 
 James IV. of Scotland having taken part with Louis XII. of France against Henry VIII. 
 of England, James, the most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army 
 were slain, while the Englisb, who were commanded by the earl of Surrey, lost only 
 persons of small note. Fought Sept. 9, 1513. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging 
 Terouenne, near St. Omer. 
 
 FLORALIA. Games in honour of Flora at Rome, instituted about the age of Romulus, 
 but they were not celebrated with regularity and proper attention till the year u.c. 
 580. They were observed yearly, and exhibited a scene of the most unbounded 
 licentiousness. 
 
 FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and enlarged by 
 the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was rebuilt by Charlemagne. 
 Florence, at the time a republic, had its constitution destroyed, and Alexander de 
 Medicis was appointed duke under the title of grand duke of Tuscany, by the emperor 
 Charles V. in 1530. On the death of Gaston de Medicis in 1737, Florence fell with 
 the rest of the duchy, to the duke of Lorraine, afterwards emperor. This city is truly 
 the seat of the arts. In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libraries, are 
 to be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine 
 academy, and the Accademia della Crusca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
 and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so named because it rejects 
 like bran all words not purely Tuscan : both are now united under the former 
 name. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796, and agaiu in March 1799; 
 and was restored in 1814. See Tuscany. 
 
 FLORES, OR ISLE of FLOWERS. Discovered by Vanderberg, in 1439 ; and settled 
 by the Portuguese in 1448. The whole surface of this island presented originally the 
 appearance of a garden of flowers, rich in perfume, the summer breeze wafting the 
 odour round the coast. This is one of the Azores; so called by Martin Behem, on 
 account of their abounding in hawks. 
 
 FLORIDA. First discovered by Sebastian Cabot in a.d. 1497. It was visited by Ponce 
 de Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 2, 1512, in a voyage he had absurdly under- 
 taken to discover a fountain whose waters had the property of restoring youth to 
 the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered by the Spaniards under Ferdi- 
 nand de Soto, in 1539 ; but the settlement was not fully established until 1565. It 
 was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 1585; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. 
 It was invaded by the British in. 1702. Again by general Oglethorpe, in 1740. 
 Ceded to the British crown in 1763. Taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaranteed 
 to them in 1783. Revolution, in 1810 when the American government took means 
 for occupying the country : and after a tedious negotiation, it was finally ceded * by 
 Spain to the United States in 1820-21. 
 
 FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A floren was issued by Edward III. 
 which was current in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. — Camden. This English 
 coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best 
 gold. — Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 2s. Ad. ; that of Spain 4s. 4 J rf. ; that 
 of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland 2s. — Ayliffe. A silver coinage of florins, 
 value 2s. was issued by proclamation of queen Victoria, August, 1849. 
 
 FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are 
 of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is said, from Persia to 
 Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time in the sixteenth 
 century; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that 
 channel. From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common 
 
 * In 1801, the American government purchased Louisiana from the French, of which they contended 
 West Florida formed a part. On the revolution, and in consequence of this purchase, Spain, unable to 
 defend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to which it was finally annexed 
 after the negotiation above mentioned. 
 
FLU 
 
 267 
 
 FLU 
 
 flowers were, for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving 
 flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
 of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, 
 by George Morris, iu 1792. Among the flowers, the period of whose introduction to 
 our gardens have been traced, are the following : — 
 
 FLOWERS, PLANTS, &0. 
 
 Acacia, N. America, before . . a.d. 1640 
 Allspice shrub, Carolina . . . . 1726 
 Armiseed tree, Florida, about . . 1766 
 Arbor Vitas, Canada, before . . . 1596 
 Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope . . 1774 
 Auricula, Switzerland . . . . 1567 
 Azarole, S. Europe, before . . . 1640 
 
 Bay, royal, Madeira 1665 
 
 Bay, sweet, Italy, before . . . 1548 
 
 Camellia, China 1S11 
 
 Chaste tree, Sicily, before . . . 1570 
 Christ's thorn, Africa, before . . . 1596 
 Canary bell-flower, Canaries . . . 1696 
 
 Carnation, Flanders 1567 
 
 Ceanothus, blue. New Spain . . . 181S 
 Canary convolvulus, Canaries . . . 1690 
 Convolvulus, many-flowered . . . 1779 
 
 Coral tree, Cape 1S16 
 
 Coral tree, bell-flowered, Cape . . 1791 
 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape . . . 17S9 
 Creeper, Virginian, N. America . . 1603 
 
 Dahlia, China 1S03 
 
 Dryandra, New Holland .... 1803 
 Evergreen thorn, Italy . . . . 1629 
 Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape . . 1781 
 Everlasting, giant, Cape . . . . 1793 
 Fernbush, sweet, N. America . . 1714 
 
 Fox-glove, Canaries 1698 
 
 Geranium, Flanders .... 1534 
 
 Gillyflower, Flanders 1567 
 
 Gold-plant, Japan 1 783 
 
 Golden bell-flower, Madeira . . . 1777 
 Hawthorn, American, from N. America, 
 
 before 16S3 
 
 Heath, ardent, Cape 1800 
 
 Heath, beautiful, Cape .... 1795 
 Heath, fragrant, Cape . . . . 1S03 
 Heath, garland, Cape .... 1774 
 Heath, perfumed, Cape . . . . 1S03 
 Honeyfiower, great, Cape . . . 1688 
 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China . . . 1806 
 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape .... 1752 
 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America . . 1656 
 Hyssop, south of Europe, before . . 1548 
 Jasmine, Circassia, before . . . . 1548 
 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies . . 1629 
 Judas tree, south of Europe, before . . 1596 
 Laburnum, Hungary .... 1576 
 Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before . 1713 
 Laurestine, south of Europe, before . 1596 
 Lavender, south of Europe, before . . 1568 
 
 Lily, Italy, before 1460 
 
 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales . . . 1S00 
 Lily, red-coloured, South America. . 1623 
 
 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before A d. 1739 
 Lupine tree, Cape, about . . . 1793 
 Magnolia (see Magnolia), North America 16SS 
 Magnolia, dwarf, China .... 1786 
 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America . . 1734 
 
 Maiden-hair, Japan 1714 
 
 Mignonette, Italy 152S 
 
 Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape . . 1713 
 Milk-wort, showy, Cape . . . . 1814 
 Mountain tea, N. America, before . . 1758 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before . 1596 
 Myrtle, candleberry, N. America . . 1699 
 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China . . . 1776 
 Nettle tree, south of Europe, before . 1596 
 
 Olive, Cape, Cape 1730 
 
 Olive, sweet-scented, China . . . 1771 
 Oleander, red, south of Europe . . . 1596 
 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before . . 1724 
 Passion-flower, Brazil . . . . 1692 
 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina . . 1792 
 Pigeon-berry, N. America . . . . 1736 
 
 Pink, from Italy 1567 
 
 Ranunculus, Alps 1528 
 
 Roses, Netherlands 1522 
 
 Rose, the China, China . . . . 17S9 
 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and south 
 
 of Europe, about 1543 
 
 Rose, the Japan, China . . . . 1793 
 Rose, the moss, before .... 1724 
 Rose, the musk, Italy . . . . 1522 
 Rose, the Provence, Flanders . . 1567 
 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 1S21 
 Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon . . 1629 
 Rose without thorns, N. America, before 1726 
 Rosemary, south of Europe . . . 1548 
 St Peter's wort, North America . . 1730 
 
 Sage, African, Cape 1731 
 
 Sage, Mexican, Mexico . . . . 1724 
 Sassafras tree, N. America, before . . 1663 
 Savin, south of Europe, before . . . 1584 
 Snowdrop, Carolina .... 1756 
 
 Son-el-tree, N. America, before . . . 1752 
 Sweet-bay, south of Europe, before . 1548 
 Tamarisk plant, Germany . . . . 1560 
 Tea tree, China, about .... 1768 
 Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, before . 1739 
 Trumpet-flower, N. America . . . 1640 
 Trumpet-flower, Cape . . . . 1823 
 
 Tulip, Vienna 157S 
 
 Virginia creeper, N. America, before . 1629 
 Virgin's bower, Japan .... 1776 
 Weeping willow, Levant, before . . 1692 
 
 Wax-tree, China 1794 
 
 Winter berry, Virginia . . . . 1736 
 Toulan, China 17S9 
 
 FLUSHING, SIEGE of. A British armament under the command of the earl of 
 Chatham, landed at Walcheren, July 30, 1809, with a view to the destruction of the 
 ships and arsenal at Antwerp. On August 16th, Flushing was taken ; 5800 prisoners 
 and 200 pieces of cannon were captured ; but the want of ability and energy of the 
 commander and a number of untoward circumstances first rendered the principal 
 object of the expedition abortive, and then the pestilential nature of the island, at 
 that particular season of the year, obliged the British to relinquish every advantage 
 they had gained, and the place was evacuated, with great loss, (7000 dead and many 
 incapacitated) in December following. See Walcheren Expedition. 
 
 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch. The 
 flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans; and the flute 
 was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay claim to its invention. It 
 was in far more general use as a concert instrument than the violin, until early in the 
 last century, when the works of Corelli came over. See Music. 
 
FLU 268 FOR 
 
 FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leibnitz, 1684- 
 The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
 The first elementary work on fluxions in England is a tract of twenty-two pages in 
 A New Short Treatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm 
 of Fluxions, by John Harris, M.A. London, octavo, 1702. 
 
 FLYING, ARTIFICIAL. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon maintained 
 the possibility of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a general practice, a.d. 
 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his wings 
 when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots, 1651. 
 
 FONTHILL-ABBEY, in Wiltshire. The celebrated mansion of a remarkable character, 
 Mr. Beckford. Within this vast and sumptuous edifice (the building of which alone, 
 cost Mr. Beckford 273,000?.), were collected the most costly articles of vertu, the 
 rarest works of the old masters, and the finest specimens of the arts. The auction of 
 its treasures, and the sale of the abbey to Mr. Farquhar, took place in 1819; 7200 
 catalogues, at a guinea each, were sold in a few days. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, PEACE of, concluded between France and Denmark in 1679. 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and Holland, Nov. 8, 
 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain, 
 Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 
 Jan. 25, 1813. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. Here 
 Napoleon resigned his dignity, and bade farewell to his army, April 5, 1814. 
 
 FONTENOY, BATTLE of, near Tournay. Between the French, commanded by count 
 Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke 
 of Cumberland.* The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the carnage on 
 both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and the French nearly an 
 equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end defeated. Count Saxe, who 
 was at the time ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died, was carried about to 
 all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own ; fought 
 April 30, (May 11,) 1745. 
 
 FONTS. Formerly the baptistery was a small room, or place partitioned off in a church 
 where the persons to be baptised (many of whom in the early ages were adults) were 
 submerged. Previously to these artificial reservoirs, lakes and rivers were resorted 
 to for immersion. Fonts were instituted in a.d. 167. 
 
 FOOLS, FESTIVALS of, at Paris. These were held on the first of January, and were 
 continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of absurdities 
 and indecencies were committed, a.d. 1198. Fools or licensed jesters were kept at 
 court in England (as they were at other courts in Europe), and were tolerated up to 
 the time of Charles I. 1625. 
 
 FOREIGNERS. See Aliens. Foreigners were banished by proclamation, in consequence 
 of England being overrun with Flemings, Normans, and the people of other nations, 
 2 Hen. I. 1155. Foreigners were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices, by 
 the statute of provisors, 18 Edw. III. 1343. — Viner. The later alien acts operate 
 much in relieving foreigners from coercion and restraint. 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the 
 pay of the British government. (See Hessians.) An act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 2), for the 
 formation of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855) was passed 
 Dec. 23, 1854.+ The Queen and Prince Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally 
 Swiss and Germans, at Shorncliffe, Aug. 9, 1855. On the peace in 1856 many were 
 sent to the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is permitted to accept a foreign order from 
 the sovereign of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, without her 
 Majesty's consent; see Regulations published in London Gazette, May 10, 1855. 
 
 FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 
 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by 
 
 * The king, Louis XV. and the dauphin were present at this great battle. The success of the 
 British at the commencement of it is still quoted by military men as the best illustration of the extra- 
 ordinary power of a column. The advance of the Austrians during several hours at the battle of 
 Marengo (fought June 14, 1S00) was compared to it by Bonaparte. 
 
 t The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great offence to the 
 American government. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed May 28, 1856, in spite of all the 
 judicious pacific efforts of lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our representative in 1S57. 
 
FOR 269 FOR 
 
 William I. who for that pur.poae destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and 
 dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, a.d. 1079-85.— Stow. The commissioners 
 appoiuted to inquire into the state of the woods and forests, between a.d. 1787 and 
 1793, reported the following as belonging to the Crown, viz: — in Berkshire, Windsor 
 Forest and Windsor Great and Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, 
 Waltham or Epping Forest. In Gloucestershire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the 
 New Forest, Alice Holt, and Woolmer Forest, Bere Forest. In Kent, Greenwich 
 Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, Bushy, and Hampton-court Parks. In 
 Northamptonshire, the Forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. In Notting- 
 ham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Whichwood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond 
 Park. Some of these have since been enclosed. 
 
 FORESTS, CHARTER of the. Charta de Foresta. Granted by king John, as well 
 as the grand charter of liberties, Magna Charta, a.d. 1215. This king having 
 meanly resigned his crown and dominions to the pope Innocent III. to obtain 
 absolution for the murder of his nephew Arthur ; and having, in a full assembly of 
 clergy and laity, submitted to the humiliation of receiving them again from the pope's 
 legate, to whom he paid homage for them, and took an oath to hold them as his 
 vassal, under the yearly tribute of 1000 marks, the bishops and barons, incensed 
 at the indignity, and roused by his exactions, entered into a confederacy against 
 him, rose in arms, and compelled him to sign the great national charters. See 
 Magna Charta. There have been several Forest charters. A charter of Henry II. 
 was found by the Record Commission, when inspecting the ancient records, Oct. 1, 1813. 
 
 FORFARSHIRE STEAMER. This vessel, on its passage from Hull to Dundee, was 
 wrecked in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons perished. Owing to the noble and 
 courageous conduct of the Outer-Fern Lighthouse keeper (J. Darling), and his heroic 
 daughter (Grace Darling), who ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, several 
 of the passengers were rescued. There were fifty-three persons in the vessel before 
 she struck, Sept. 5, 1838. 
 
 FORGERY. The forging of deeds, &c, or giving them in evidence was made punishable 
 by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the nostrils slit up and 
 seared, the forfeiture of land and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Forgery 
 was first punished by death in 1634. Since the establishment of paper credit, a 
 multitude of statutes have been enacted. Forging letters of attorney, for the transfer 
 of stock, was made a capital felony in 1722. Mr. Ward, M.P. a man of prodigious 
 wealth, was expelled the house of Commons for forgery, May 16, 1726 ; and was con- 
 signed to the pillory, March 17, the following year. The value of forged notes which 
 were presented at the bank during ten years, from January 1, 1801, was nominally 
 101,661/. — Bank Returns. In one year (1817) the bank prosecuted 142 persons for 
 forgery or the uttering of forged notes.* — Parliamentary Returns. Statutes reducing 
 into one act all such forgeries as shall henceforth be punished with death, 1 Will. IV. 
 1830. The punishment of forgery with death ceased by stat. 2 & 3 Will IV. 
 Aug. 1832, except in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of attorney to transfer 
 stock ; but these cases also are no longer punishable by death, having been reduced 
 to transportable offences, by act 1 Vict. c. 84, July 17, 1837. 
 
 FORGERY, REMARKABLE EXECUTIONS FOR. The unfortunate David and Robert 
 Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan. 17, 1776. The 
 rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in the name of Lord Chesterfield, 
 for 4200?. : the greatest interest was made, and the highest influence was exerted to 
 save him, but when the case came before the council, the minister of the day said to 
 George III. "If your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the 
 Perreaus;" and he was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. John Hatfield, a heartless 
 impostor, who had inveigled " Mary of Buttermere," the celebrated beauty, into a 
 marriage with him, was hanged for forgery at Carlisle, Sept. 3, 1803. Mr. Henry 
 
 * The official returns of cases of forgery are, many of them, very curious. From these it appears 
 that the first forger on the bank of England was Richard William Vaughan, a linen-draper of Stafford, 
 in the year 1758, before which time, from the establishment of the bank, a period of sixty-six years, no 
 attempt at this species of forgery had been made. Vaughan had employed a number of artists on 
 different parts of the notes fabricated, which had all the appearance of being genuine. The criminal 
 had filled up twenty of the notes, and had deposited them in the hands of a young lady of high 
 respectability to whom he was attached, and on the point of being married, as a proof of his being a 
 man of substance ; and bank-notes having been in circulation so long previously, and none having been 
 before counterfeited, no suspicion of these notes being spurious was entertained. One of the artists 
 was the informer aiid accuser. 
 
FOR 270 FOU 
 
 Fauntleroy, a London banker, was hanged, Nov. 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker 
 merchant, suffered death, Dec. 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for forgery at the 
 Old Bailey was Thomas Maynard, Dec. 31, 1829. 
 FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — Voltaire. 
 This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign 
 of Elizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and 
 spoon) with a fork to hold the meat, while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill 
 manners that one should touch it with his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with 
 much solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and adds, " I myself have thought 
 it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to England." a.d. 1608. 
 
 FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so 
 poor that he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an attorney and counsel 
 assigned him on his swearing he is not worth bl. by stat. Hen. VII. 1495. This 
 act, subsequently, was remodelled ; and, at the present day, persons may plead in 
 forma pauperis iu the courts of law. — Law Diet. 
 
 FORT ERIE, Upper Canada. This fortress was taken by the American general 
 Browne, July 3, 1814. It was attacked unsuccessfully by the British, with the loss 
 of 962 men, Aug. 15, following. A sortie from the fort was repulsed by the British, 
 but with great loss, Sept. 17, 1814. Evacuated by the Americans, Nov. 5, 1814. 
 This place is now considerably strengthened, and is connected by a chain of field 
 works, with a contiguous strong battery. See Lake Erie. 
 
 FORTH and CLYDE CANAL. This great undertaking was commenced July 10,1768, 
 under the direction of the ingenious Mr. Smeaton ; and the navigation was opened 
 July 23, 1790. By uniting the Forth and Clyde, it forms a communication between 
 the eastern and western seas on the coast of Scotland; and thereby saves the long 
 and dangerous navigation round the Land's End, or the more hazardous course 
 through the Pentland Frith. 
 
 FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified cities. 
 Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenre, where statues were afterwards 
 erected to him. The modern system was introduced about a.d. 1500. Albert Durer 
 first wrote on the science of fortification in 1527 ; and improvements were made by 
 Vauban and others, towards 1700. The fortification of Paris, the most recent work 
 claiming notice, was completed in 1846. See Paris. 
 
 FORTUNE-TELLERS. Fortune-telling is traced to the early astrologers, by whom the 
 planets Jupiter and Venu3 were the supposed betokeners of happiness and success. 
 The Sibyllse were women who flourished in different parts of the world, and who 
 were said to have been inspired by heaven. See Sibyls. The Gypsy tribe (see Gypsies) 
 has been celebrated for ages, and in all countries, as fortune-tellers, notwithstanding 
 the severe penalties to which the exercise of the art subjected its professors. Our 
 modem fortune-telling may be traced to the divination of the ancients. — Becker. 
 Augury and divination led to palmistry, professed by modern fortune-tellers. — Ashe. 
 In England the laws against this species of imposition upon the credulity of the weak 
 and ignorant, were, at one time, very severe. A declaration was published in France, 
 Jan. 11, 1680, of exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and poisoners, under which 
 several persons suffered death. — Hcnault. 
 
 FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a.d. 1408. Here Richard III. 
 of England was born, in 1443 : and Mary queen of Scots, was beheaded in this castle, 
 in which she had been long previously confined, Feb. 8, 1587, after a captivity of 
 almost nineteen years in England. It was ordered to be demolished by her son, 
 James I. of England. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. "A charity practised by most nations about us for those 
 children exposed by unnatural parents." — Addison. Foundling hospitals are, com- 
 paratively, of recent institution in England, where, it would appear, none existed 
 when Addison wrote in 1713. The Foundling hospital at Moscow, built by Catherine II. 
 was an immense and costly edifice, in which 8000 infant children were succoured. 
 The London Foundling Hospital was projected by Thomas Coram, a benevolent sea- 
 captain, the master of a vessel trading to the colonies; it was incorporated by a 
 charter from George II. in October, 1739, and succours about 500 infant children. 
 Corani's statue was put up in 1856. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITAL, DUBLIN. The Foundling Hospital in Dublin was instituted 
 
FOX 
 
 271 
 
 Fit A. 
 
 in 1704; ia this charity there had been received, according to parliamentary returns, 
 in the thirty years preceding Jan. 1825, as many as 52,150 infants: of these 14,613 
 had died infants — 25,859 were returned as dead from the country, where they were 
 out nursing — 730 died in the infirmary after returning — 322 died grown children — 
 total deaths, 41,524 ; so that 10,626 only escaped this fate. Owing to this mortality, 
 and from certain moral considerations, the intern department was closed by order of 
 government, March 31, 1835. 
 
 FOX and GRENTILLE ADMINISTRATION. See "All the Talents' Administration. 7 
 
 FOX-GLOVE. A plant of which we have various specimens. — Miller. The canary fox- 
 glove (Digitalis Canariensis), brought from the Canary islands to these countries, a.d. 
 1698. The Madeira fox-glove brought from that island in 1777. The fox-grape shrub 
 (Vitis Vidpina), brought from Virginia before a.d. 1656. 
 
 FRA.NCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul. In the 
 decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then 
 inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave the name to the 
 kingdom; but the Gauls being by far the most numerous, are the real ancestors of 
 the modern French. There is no nation in Europe where the art of war is better 
 understood than in France : the government has always been military, and every man 
 bred to the use of arms, The ladies are more celebrated for their wit and vivacity, 
 than for their beauty ; and the peasantry, who are destitute of the embellishments of 
 apparel, are remarkably ordinary. The gentry excel their neighbours in the arts of 
 dancing, fencing, and dres3, and are the leaders of fashions in Europe. Previous to 
 the revolution in 1789, France was divided into 32 provinces; and after that era it 
 was divided, first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica, 
 Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. See Bonaparte's Empire. 
 
 The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
 rnond, settle in that part of Gaul, till 
 late called Flanders . . . a.d. 420 
 Reign of Clovis the Great . . . . 481 
 He defeats the Romans at Soissons . 486 
 He defeats the Alemanni at Cologne . . 496 
 Clovis embraces Christianity . . . 496 
 He kills Alaric the Goth, in battle, near 
 Poictiers, and conquers all the country 
 from the Loire to the Pyrenees ; makes 
 Paris the capital ; and founds the 
 
 monarchy 507 
 
 He proclaims the Salique law. . .511 
 Clovis dies, leaving four sons . . . 511 
 [Thierry reigns at Metz ; Clodomir at 
 Orleans ; Childebert at Paris ; and 
 Clothaire at Soissons.] 
 Clothaire reigns alone .... 560 
 The mayors of the palace now assume 
 
 almost sovereign authority . . . 584 
 Charles Martel becomes mayor of the 
 palace, i. e. governor of France, and 
 rules with despotic sway . . . 714 
 Invasion of the Saracens . . . . 720 
 Reign of Pepin the Short . . . 751 
 Reign of Charlemagne . . . . 768 
 He is crowned emperor of the West . 800 
 Rollo obtains Normandy. (See Danes) . 905 
 Reign of Hugh Capet . . . .987 
 Paris made capital of all France . . 996 
 Letters of franchise granted to cities and 
 
 towns by Louis VI 1135 
 
 Louis VII. joins in the crusades . . 1146 
 Louis VIII., Cceur-de-Lion, gives freedom 
 
 to the peasantry 1226 
 
 Louis IX., called St. Louis, defeats John 
 of England; conducts an army into 
 Palestine ; takes Damietta ; and dies 
 
 before Tunis 1270 
 
 Philip the Fair excommunicated by the 
 
 pope 1301 
 
 Knights Templars suppressed . . . 1308 
 Union of France and Navarre . . . 1314 
 Philip VI. defeated at Cressy . . . 1346 
 Calais taken by Edward III. . . . 1347 
 Dauphiny annexed to France . . . 1349 
 Battle of Poictiers (which see), John, king 
 
 of France, taken, and brought pri- 
 soner to England .... a.d. 1356 
 France laid under an interdict by the 
 
 pope . . . . ■ . . . . 1407 
 Battle of Agincourt (which see) . . 1415 
 Entire conquest of France by Henry V. 
 of England, who is acknowledged heir 
 
 to the kingdom 1420 
 
 Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; the duke 
 
 of Bedford's regency .... 1422 
 Siege of Orleans ; battle of Patay ; the 
 
 English defeated by Joan of Arc . . 1429 
 England lost all her possessions (but 
 
 Calais) in France, between 1434 and 1450 
 Study of the Greek introduced into 
 
 France 1473 
 
 The splendid interview of the Cloth of 
 Gold, between Francis I. and Henry 
 
 VIII. of England 1529 
 
 League of England with the empei'or 
 Charles V. against France . . . 1544 
 
 Death of Rabelais 1553 
 
 Calais is lost to England in the reign of 
 
 Mary. (See Calais) 1553 
 
 Religious wars ; massacre at Vassy . 1561 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew Aug. 24, 1572 
 Duke of Guise assassinated by command 
 of the king, and his brother, the cardi- 
 nal, next day . . . Dec. 23, 15S8 
 Henry III. murdered by Jacques Cle- 
 ment, a friar .... Aug. 1, 1589 
 [In the death of this prince ends the 
 house of Valois.] 
 Celebrated edict of Nantz by Henry IV. 
 
 (See Edict of Nantz) .... 159S 
 Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac. (See 
 
 article Ravaillac) 1610 
 
 [Mary de Medicis, widow of Henry, 
 governs the kingdom during the 
 minority of Louis XIII.] 
 Navarre re-united to France . . . 1620 
 Death of Cardinal Richelieu . . . 1642 
 Splendid reign of Louis XIV, surnamcd 
 
 the Great ■ 1643 
 
 Death of Moliere 1673 
 
 Death of Corneille 1684 
 
 Edict of Nantz revoked . ... 16S5 
 
FRA 
 
 272 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Peace of Ryswick . . . . a.d. 1697 
 
 Death of Raciuo 16" 
 
 Peace of Utrecht (which see) . . • 1713 
 
 Death of Fenelon 1715 
 
 Law's bubble in France. (See Laic) . 1716 
 
 Death of cardinal Fleury . . • 1743 
 
 Death of Montesquieu . ... 1755 
 
 Damien's attempt on the lifeof Louis XV. 
 (See Damien) 1757 
 
 The Jesuits banished from France, and 
 their effects confiscated . . . . 1762 
 
 Peace of Paris (with England) . . 1763 
 
 Louis XVI. assists America to throw off 
 its dependence on England, at first 
 secretly 1778 
 
 Torture is abolished in courts of French 
 judicature 1780 
 
 The memorable French revolution com- 
 mences with the destruction of the 
 Bastile (which see) . . July 14, 1789 
 
 France divided into 80 departments, Oct. 1789 
 
 The National Assembly (which see) de- 
 crees that the title of the " king of 
 France" shall be changed to that of 
 the "king of the French" . Oct. 16, 1789 
 
 The plate and other property of the 
 clergy is confiscated . . Nov. 6, 
 
 Confederation of the Cliamp de Mars, 
 France is declared a limited monarchy, 
 (See Cham}') de Mars) . . . . 
 
 The silver plate used in the churches 
 decreed to be transferred to the mint, 
 and coined .... March 3, 1791 
 
 Death of Mirabeau . . April 2, 1791 
 
 The king (Louis XVI.), queen and royal 
 family arrested at Varennes, in their 
 flight from Paris . . June 22, 
 
 Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the 
 National Constitution . Sept. 15, 
 
 Condorcet's manifesto . . Dec. 30, 
 
 The Jacobin club declare their sittings 
 permanent . . . June 18_ 
 
 The multitude march to the Tuileries to 
 make demands on the king, bearing 
 the red bonnet of Liberty . June 20 
 
 Six hundred volumes, the monuments of 
 the privileged orders, are seized and 
 publicly burnt . . . June 25, 1792 
 
 The regiment of royal Swiss guards cut 
 to pieces .... Aug. 10, 1792 
 
 The statues of the kings and those of 
 La Fayette, M. Necker, and Mirabeau, 
 demolished .... Aug. 11, 1792 
 
 Decree of the National Assembly against 
 the priesthood ; of whom 40,000 are 
 subjected to exile . . Aug. 23, 1792 
 
 Dreadful massacre in Paris ; the prisons 
 broken open : 1200 persons, including 
 100 priests, slain . . . Sept. 2, 1792 
 
 *Horrible murder of the princess de 
 Lamballe .... Sept. 3, 1792 
 
 The National Convention (which see) 
 opened . ... Sept. 17, 1792 
 
 Royalty abolished by a decree of the 
 Convention . . Sept. 21, 1792 
 
 The French people dec'are their frater- 
 nity with all nations who desire to be 
 free Nov. 19, 1792 
 
 The National Convention determines on 
 the trial of the king . . Dec. 2, 1792 
 
 Decree for the perpetual banishment of 
 the Bourbon Family, those confined 
 in the Temple excepted . Dec. 20, 1792 
 
 1789 
 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 
 1791 
 1791 
 
 1792 
 
 1792 
 
 Louis is imprisoned in the Temple dis- 
 tinct from the Queen ; and is brought 
 to trial .... Jan. 19, 1793 
 [Of 745 members composing the National 
 Convention, 693 vote the king guilt)/, 
 26 make different declarations, but 
 do not vote negatively, and 26 are ab- 
 sent.] 
 Louis is condemned to death . Jan. 20, 1793 
 And is beheaded in the Place de Louis 
 
 Qainze .... Jan. 21, 1793 
 Six thousand emigrants are arrested in 
 
 Paris Jan. 22, 1793 
 
 Marat stabbed to the heart by Charlotte 
 
 Corday .... July 13, 1793 
 The queen beheaded . . Oct. 16, 1793 
 The infamous Philip Egalite", the duke 
 of Orleans, who had voted for the 
 king's death, is himself guillotined at 
 
 Paris Nov. 6, 1793 
 
 Princess Elizabeth beheaded . May 12, 1794 
 Robespierre guillotined . July 27, 1 794 
 Louis XVII. dies in prison . June 8, 1795 
 French Directory . . Nov. 1, 1795 
 
 Council of Five Hundred (which see) 
 deposed by Bonaparte, who is declared 
 First Consul . . . Nov. 9, 1799 
 [For the Career of Napoleon, see Bona- 
 parte's Empire of France.] 
 Legion of Honour instituted . May 18, 1802 
 Duke d'Enghien shot . March 20, 1804 
 France formed into an Empire under 
 
 Napoleon, emperor . . May 20, 1804 
 He is crowned king of Italy . May 26, 1805 
 New nobility of France created . . 1808 
 Holland united to France . July 9, 1810 
 The war with Russia, in the end so fatal 
 to the fortunes of Napoleon, declared 
 by France . . . June 22, 1812 
 
 Triple alliance of Austria, Russia, and 
 
 Prussia, against France . Sept. 9, 1813 
 The British pass the Bidassoa, and enter 
 
 France .... Oct. 47, 1813 
 Surrender of Paris (see Battles) to the 
 
 allied armies . . . March 31, 1814 
 Abdication of Napoleon . . April 5, 1814 
 Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis 
 
 XVIII. arrives'at Paris . May 3, 1814 
 
 Napoleon returns to France . March 1, 1815 
 His defeat at Waterloo . June 18, 1815 
 Paris again surrenders . . July 3, 1815 
 Louis re-enters the capital . July 8, 1815 
 
 Execution of Marshal Ney . Aug. 16, 1815 
 Duke de Berry murdered . Feb. 13, 1820 
 Louis XVIII. dies . . . Sept. 16, 1824 
 National Guard disbanded . April 30, 1827 
 Seventy-six new peers created Nov. 5, 1827 
 Polignac administration . . Aug. 4, 1829 
 Chamber of Deputies dissolved . May, 1830 
 The obnoxious ordinances regarding the 
 press, and re-construction of the 
 Chamber of Deputies . July 26, 1830 
 Revolution commenced . . July 27, 1830 
 Conflicts in Paris between the populace 
 (ultimately aided by the national 
 guard) and the army ; they continue 
 three days, till . . . July 30, 1830 
 Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight 
 
 of the ministry . . . July 30, 1830 
 The duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe I.) 
 
 accepts the crown . . Aug. 9, 1830 
 Charles X. retires to England . Aug. 17, 1830 
 Polignac and other late ministers are 
 
 * The multitude hurried to the Temple, bearing the mutilated body of Madame de Lamballe, in 
 order to exhibit the " impious head " of their relative to the royal family : the queen and the princess 
 Elizabeth manifested the deepest emotion and sensibility ; but the king said with assumed apathy 
 (while shrinking at the sight) to the person by whom it was shown to him, " Vo-uz avez raison, 
 Monsuur." "You are right, Sir!" These assassins were termed the Septembrisers (which tee).— 
 Hist. Fr. Revol. 
 
FltA 
 
 273 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 found guilty, and sentenced to perpe- 
 tual imprisonment . . Dee. 21, 
 
 The abolition of the hereditary peerage 
 
 decreed by both chambers ; that of 
 
 the peers (36 new peers being created) 
 
 concurring bv a majority of 103 to 70, 
 
 Dec. 27, 
 
 Napoleon's son, the duke of Reich stadt, 
 formerly the king of Rome, dies at 
 Schoenbrunn, in Austria . July 22, 
 
 Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for 
 the Continent . . . Sept. 18, 
 
 Ministry of Marshal Soult, duke of Dal- 
 matia Oct. 11, 
 
 Bergeron and Benoit tried for an at- 
 tempt on the life of Louis-Philippe ; 
 acquitted by the jury . March IS, 
 
 The duchess de Berri, who has been de- 
 livered of a female child, and asserts 
 her secret marriage with an Italian 
 nobleman, is sent off to Palermo, 
 
 June 9, 
 
 M. Bourrienne, author of "Memoirs of 
 Napoleon," dies mad at Caen, Feb. 7, 
 
 Death of La Fayette . . May 20, 
 
 Marshal Gerard takes office in the 
 ministry .... July 15, 
 
 M. Dupuytren dies . . Feb. 8, 
 
 Due de Broglie, minister . March 14, 
 
 Fieschi's attempt on the life of the king, 
 by firing the infernal machine. (See 
 Fieschi) .... July 28, 
 
 Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his 
 way from the Tuileries . June 25, 
 
 He is guillotined . . . July 11, 
 
 Ministry of count Mole", who displaces 
 M. Thiers .... Sept. 7, 
 
 Prince Polignac set at liberty from the 
 prison of Ham, and sent out of France 
 with other exiles . . Nov. 23, 
 
 Meunier fires at the king on his way to 
 open the French Chambers . Dec. 27, 
 
 Talleyrand dies . . . May 17, 
 
 Marshal Soult appears at the coronation 
 of the queen of England, as special 
 ambassador from France . June 28, 
 
 Death of the duchess of Wurtemburg, 
 daughter of Louis-Philippe, and who 
 excelled in sculpture . . Jan. 2, 
 
 M. Thiers takes the presidency of foreign 
 affairs March 1, 
 
 The French chambers decree the re- 
 moval of the ashes of Napoleon from 
 St. Helena to France . May 10, 
 
 Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, gen. 
 Montholon, and 50 followers, at Vime- 
 roux, near Boulogne (aftei wards tried, 
 and the prince imprisoned) . Aug. 6, 
 
 Darmes fires at the king . Oct. 15, 
 
 M. Guizot becomes minister of foreign 
 affairs Oct. 29, 
 
 *The ashes of Napoleon are deposited in 
 the Hotel des Invalides . Dec. 15, 
 
 Project of law for an extraordinary cre- 
 dit of 140,000,000 of francs, for erecting 
 the fortifications of Paris . Dec. 15, 
 
 The chamber of deputies fix the dura- 
 tion of copyright to 30 years after the 
 author's death . . March 30, 
 
 Statue of Napoleon, of bronze, placed 
 
 1S31 
 
 1S32 
 1832 
 1S32 
 
 1S33 
 
 1833 
 
 1834 
 1S34 
 
 1834 
 1835 
 1S35 
 
 1S36 
 1836 
 
 1S36 
 1836 
 
 1839 
 1S40 
 
 1840 
 1S40 
 
 1S40 
 
 1840 
 
 1840 
 
 1S41 
 
 on the column of the Grande Armee, 
 Boulogne .... Aug. 15, 1841 
 
 Attempt to assassinate the duke of 
 Aumale, son of Louis-Philippe, on his 
 return from Africa . . Sept. 13, 1841 
 
 The duke of Orleans, heir to the French 
 throne, killed by a fall from his car- 
 riage July 13, 1842 
 
 Visit of the queen of England to the 
 French royal family at the Chateau 
 d'Eu . . . from Sept. 2 to 7, 1843 
 
 Attempt made by Lecompte to assassi- 
 nate the king in the park of Fontaine- 
 bleau April 16, 1S46 
 
 Prince Louis-Napoleon makes his escape 
 from Ham .... May 26, 1846 
 
 Another attempt (the seventh) made on 
 the life of the king, Louis-Philippe, 
 by Joseph Henri . . . July 29, 1846 
 
 Marriage of the due de Montpensier with 
 the infanta of Spain . . Oct. 10, 1S46 
 
 Disastrous inundation in France, Oct. 20, 1846 
 
 The Praslin rmirder. (See Praslin) 
 
 Aug. 17, 1847 
 
 Death of Marshal Oudinot (duke of Reg- 
 gio) at Paris, in his 91st year, Sept. 13, 1847 
 
 Soult made marshal-general of France, 
 in his room . . . Sept. 26, 1847 
 
 Prince Jerome Bonaparte returns to 
 France after an exile of 32 years 
 
 Oct. 10, 1847 
 
 Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 
 of Austria .... Dec. 17, 1847 
 
 And of madame Adelaide . Dec. 30, 1847 
 
 The proposed grand reform banquet at 
 Paris, suppressed . . Feb. 21, 1848 
 
 Violent revolutionary tumult in conse- 
 quence ; barricades thrown up, the 
 Tuileries ransacked, the prisons opened, 
 and frightful disorders committed by 
 the populace . Feb. 22, 23, 24, 1S48 
 
 The king, Louis-Philippe, abdicates the 
 throne, in favour of his infant grand- 
 son, the duke of Orleans (but it is 
 not accepted) . . . Feb. 24, 1S48 
 
 The royal family and ministers effect 
 their escape .... Feb. 24, 1848 
 
 A republic proclaimed from the steps of 
 the H&tel de Ville . . Feb. 26, 1S48 
 
 The ex-king and his queen arrive at 
 Newhaven in England . March 3, 1848 
 
 Grand funeral procession in honour of 
 the victims of the revolution, killed 
 during the preceding excesses 
 
 March 4, 1848 
 
 The provisional government which had 
 been formed in the great public com- 
 motion, resigns to an executive commis- 
 sion, elected by the National Assembly 
 of the French Republic . May 6, 1S48 
 
 [The members of this new government 
 were : MM. Arago, Gamier-Pages, 
 Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin.] 
 
 Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe 
 and his family decreed . May 30, 1848 
 
 Election of Prince Louis Napoleon for 
 the department of the Seine, and three 
 other departments, to the National 
 Assembly . •. . June 12, 1848 
 
 Awful struggle and great loss of life in 
 
 * The remains of the emperor Napoleon were, with the permission of the British Government, 
 token from the tomb at St. Helena, and embarked on the 16th of October, 1840, on board of the Belle 
 Povle French frigate, under the command of the prince de Joinville ; the vessel reached Cherbourg 
 on November 30th ; and on December 15th the body was re-interred in the H6tel des Invalides. The 
 funeral ceremony was one of the most grand, solemn, and imposing spectacles that have ever been 
 presented in France. It was witnessed by one million of persons; 150,000 soldiers assisted in the 
 obsequies ; and the royal family and all the high personages of the realm were present ; but it was 
 remarkable that all the relatives of the emperor were absent, being proscribed, and in exile or in 
 prison. 
 
 T 
 
FRA 
 
 274 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Paris ; the people engaged against the 
 troops and National Guard. More 
 than 300 barricades thrown up, and 
 firing continues in all parts of Paris 
 during the night . . June 23, 1848 
 
 The troops under generals Cavaiguac and 
 Lamoriciere succeed, with immense 
 loss, in driving the insurgents from 
 the left bank of the Seine . June 24, 184S 
 
 Paris declared in a state of siege, June 25, 1S4S 
 
 The faubourg du Temple carried with 
 cannon and howitzers, and the insur- 
 gents surrender . . . June 26, 1848 
 
 [The national losses caused by this 
 dreadful outbreak were estimated at 
 30,000,000 francs; 16,000 killed and 
 wounded, and 8000 prisoners were 
 taken. The Archbishop of Paris was 
 among the killed.] 
 
 Prince Louis-Napoleon takes his seat in 
 the National Assembly . Sept. 26, 1S4S 
 
 Paris relieved from the state of siege, 
 which had continued 4 months, Oct. 20, 1848 
 
 Solemn promulgation of the constitution 
 in front of the Tuileries . Oct. 20, 1848 
 
 Prince Louis-Napoleon declared presi- 
 dent of the French republic by a major- 
 ity of 4,600,770 votes . Dec. 11, 1848 
 
 [He had 6,048,872 votes, leaving him the 
 above majority] 
 
 Death of the ex-king, Louis-Philippe, 
 in exile, at Claremont, in England, 
 
 Aug. 26, 1S50 
 
 Gen. Changarnier, deprived of the com- 
 mand in chief of the national guard, 
 
 Jan. 10, 1851 
 
 Death of the duchess of Angouleme, 
 daughter of Louis XVI., at Frohudorf 
 
 Oct 19, 1S51 
 
 Death of marshal Soult . Oct. 26, 1851 
 
 The legislative assembly dissolved ; uni- 
 versal suffrage established, and Paris 
 declared in a state of siege. The 
 election of a president for ten years 
 proposed, and a second chamber or 
 senate Dec. 2, 1851 
 
 MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, 
 Bedeau, Lamoriciere, and Charras 
 arrested, and sent to the castle of 
 Viucennes Dec. 2, 1851 
 
 About 180 members of the assembly, 
 withM. Berryer at their head,attempt- 
 ing to meet, are arrested, and Paris 
 occupied by troops . . . Dec. 2, 1S51 
 
 Consultative commissioufounded.Dec. 12, 1851 
 
 Voting throughout France for the elec- 
 tion of a president of the republic for 
 ten years ; affirmative votes 7,439,216, 
 negative votes 640,737 . Dec. 21, 22, 1851 
 
 Installation of the prince-president in the 
 cathedral of Notre-Dame ; the day ob- 
 served as a national holiday at Paris, 
 and Louis-Napoleon takes up his resi- 
 dence at the Tuileries . . Jan. 1, 1852 
 
 Gens. Chaugarnier, Lamoriciere, and 
 others, conducted to the Belgian 
 frontier .... Jan. 9, 1852 
 
 And 83 members of the late legislative 
 assembly banished, and 575 persons 
 arrested for resistance to the coup-d'- 
 ttat of Dec. 2, and conveyed to Havre 
 for transportation to Cayenne, * Jan. 10, 1852 
 
 The national guard disbanded, and re- 
 organised anew, and placed under the 
 
 control of the executive, the president 
 appointing the officers . . Jan, 10, 
 
 A new constitution published by the 
 prince-president . . . Jan. 15, 
 
 Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell 
 all their real and personal property in 
 France within a year . . Jan. 23, 
 
 Second decree, annulling the settlement 
 madebyLouis-Philippe upon his family 
 previous to his accession in 1830, and 
 annexing the property to the domain 
 of the state. . . . Jau. 23, 
 
 The birth-day of Napoleon, first emperor 
 (Aug. 15), to be the only national 
 holiday Feb. 17, 
 
 The departments of France released from 
 a state of siege . . . March 28, 
 
 Installation of the legislative chambers, 
 March 29, 
 
 A permanent Crystal palace authorised 
 to be erected in the Champs Elysees at 
 Paris .... March 30, 
 
 Plot to assassinate the prince-president 
 discovered at Paris . . July 1, 
 
 President's visit to Strasburg . July 19, 
 
 M. Thiers and other esiles permitted to 
 return to France . . Aug. 8, 
 
 The French senate prays "the re-estab- 
 lishment of the hereditary sovereign 
 power in the Bonaparte family," 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 Enthusiastic reception of the prince- 
 president at Lyons . . Sept. 19, 
 
 Infernal machiue intended to destroy the 
 
 prince-president, seized at Marseilles, 
 
 Sept. 23, 
 
 Prince-president visits Toulon, Sept. 27, 
 
 He visits Bourdeaux, where he says "the 
 empire is peace. " . . Oct. 7, 
 
 He releases Abd-el-Kader. (See article 
 Algiers) Oct. 16, 
 
 He convokes the senate for November, to 
 deliberate on a change of government, 
 when a senatus consultum will be pro- 
 posed for the ratification of the French 
 people Oct. 19, 
 
 Protest of the comte de Chambord, 
 Oct. 25, 
 
 In his message to the senate, the prince- 
 president announces the contemplated 
 restoration of the empire, and orders 
 the people to be consulted upon this 
 change of government . . Nov. 4, 
 
 Votes for the empire, 7,864,189 ; noes, 
 253,145; null, 63,326 . . Dec. 1, 
 
 The prince-president is declared emperor, 
 and assumes the title of Napoleon III. 
 (See the succeeding List of Sovereigns of 
 France.) .... Dec. 2, 
 
 Marriage of the emperor with Eugehie, 
 countess Te"ba,a Spanish lady, daughter 
 of the countess of Montejo,at the cathe- 
 dral of Notre-Dame : the ceremony per- 
 formed by the archbp. of Paris, Jan. 30, 
 
 4312 political offenders pardoned Feb. 2, 
 
 Bread riots .... Sept. 
 
 Military camp at Satory, near Paris, Sept. 
 
 Emperor and empress visit the pro- 
 vinces (many political prisoners dis- 
 charged) Oct. 
 
 Arago died .... Oct. 2, 
 
 Attempted assassination of the emperor; 
 ten persons condemned to transporta- 
 tion for life .... Nov. 
 
 1852 
 1S52 
 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1S52 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1S52 
 1S52 
 
 1853 
 1853 
 1853 
 1853 
 
 1853 
 1S53 
 
 1S53 
 
 * "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," are ordered by the minister of the interior to be forthwith erased, 
 wherever the words are inscribed, throughout France, and the old names of streets, public buildings, 
 and places of resort to be restored. The trees of liberty, once so dear to the French people, are every- 
 where hewn down, and their trunks and branches borne away by the versatile populace, or burnt on 
 the spot where they stood. 
 
FRA 
 
 275 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Reconciliation of the two branches of 
 the Bourbons at Frohsdorf . Nov. 20, 1853 
 
 Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated ex- 
 actly thirty-eight years after his death 
 on the spot where it occurred, Dec. 7, 1S53 
 
 War declared against Russia. (See Musso- 
 TurkUh war) . . . March 27, 1854 
 
 Visit of Prince Albert at Boulogne, 
 
 Sept. 5, 1854 
 
 Death of Marshal St. Arnaud. Sept. 29, 1854 
 
 The Emperor and Empress visit London, 
 
 April 16—21, 1855 
 
 Attempted assassination of the Emperor 
 by Pianori . . . April 28, 1855 
 
 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit 
 Paris Aug. 18, 1S55 
 
 Attempted assassination of the Emperor 
 by Belleniarre, a lunatic, . Sept. 8, 1S55 
 
 Death of Count Mole" . . Nov. 24, 1855 
 Birth of the imperial Prince (amnesty 
 granted to 1000 political prisoners) 
 
 March 16, 1856 
 Peace with Russia signed March 30, 1S56 
 Awful inundation in the south of 
 
 France,* .... June, 1856 
 Distress in money market . . Oct. 6, 1856 
 Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated 
 
 by Verger, a priest . . Jan. 3, 1857 
 Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 
 deputies). Gen. Cavaignac elected, but 
 declines to take the oath, June 21, 22, 1857 
 Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor 
 
 in Paris detected . . . July 11, 1857 
 The conspirators, Grilli, Bartolotti, and 
 Tibaldi, tried and convicted, and sen- 
 tenced to transportation, &c, Aug. 6, 7, 1857 
 
 KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 MEROVINGIAN RACE. 
 
 41 S. Pharamond. 
 
 427. Clodion, or Clodius, the Hairy ; supposed 
 
 son of Pharamond. 
 448. Merovseus, or Merovee, son-in-law of 
 
 Clodion : this race of kings called from 
 
 him Merovingians. 
 458. Childeric, son of Merovee. 
 4S1. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real 
 
 founder of the monarchy. — Henav.lt. 
 
 He left four sons, who divided the 
 
 empire between them : 
 511. Childebert; Paris. 
 
 — Clodomir ; Orleans. 
 
 — Thierry ; Metz ; and 
 
 — Clotaire, or Clotharius ; Soissons. 
 634. Theodebert; Metz. 
 
 54S. Theodebald, succeeded in Metz. 
 
 558. Clotaire ; now sole ruler of France. Upon 
 his death the kingdom was again 
 divided between his four sons : viz. 
 
 561. Charebert, ruled at Paris. 
 
 — Gontran in Orleans and Burgundy. 
 
 — Siegebert at Metz, and \ both assassi- 
 
 — Chilperic at Soissons. J nated. 
 
 [France continued at times afterwards 
 to be ruled in various divisions by 
 separate kings.] 
 
 575. Childebert II. 
 
 5S4. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
 
 596. Thierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
 
 — Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
 
 613. Clotaire II. : became sole king. 
 
 628. Dagobert the Great, son of Clotaire II. : 
 
 he divided the kingdom, of which he 
 
 had become sole monarch, between his 
 
 two sons: — 
 638. Clovis II., who had Burgundy and Neu- 
 
 stria; and 
 
 — Sigebert II. who had Austrasia. 
 656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 
 
 670. Childeric II. : he became king of the 
 whole realm of France : assassinated 
 with his queen, and his son Dagobei't, 
 in the forest of Livri. — Henault. 
 [At this time Thierry HI. rules in Bur- 
 gundy and Neustria, and Dagobert II. 
 son of Sigebert, in Austrasia. Dago- 
 
 bert is assassinated, and Thierry reigns 
 
 alone.— Henault.'] 
 691. Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, 
 
 rules the kingdom, in the name of this 
 
 sovereign, who is succeeded by his 
 
 brother, 
 695. Childebert III., surnamed the Just : in 
 
 this reign Pepin also exercises the royal 
 
 power. 
 711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 
 716. Chilperic II. (Daniel) : he is governed, 
 
 and at length deposed, by Charles 
 
 Martel, mayor of the palace, whose sway 
 
 is now unbounded. 
 
 719. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by 
 
 Charles Martel to the throne ; dies soon 
 after, and Chilperic is recalled from 
 Aquitaine, whither he had fled for 
 refuge. — Henault. 
 
 720. Chilperic II. , restored : he shortly after- 
 
 wards dies at Noyon.andis succeeded by 
 — Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., sur- 
 named cle Chelles : died in 737. Charles 
 Martel now rules under the new title 
 of "duke of the French." — Henault. 
 
 737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles 
 Martel, in 741 ; and until 
 
 742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., sur- 
 named the Stupid. Carlomanand Pepin, 
 the sons of Charles Martel, share the 
 government of the kingdom, in this 
 reign. 
 
 THE CARLOVINGIANS. 
 
 752. Pepin the short, son of Charles Martel : 
 he is succeeded by his two sons, 
 
 768. fCharlemagne and Carloman : the for- 
 mer, surnamed the Great, crowned em- 
 peror of the West, by Leo III., in 800. 
 Carloman reigned but three years. 
 
 S14. Louis le Ddbonnaire, emperor : dethroned 
 but restored to his dominions. 
 
 840. Charles, surnamed the Bald ; emperor in 
 875 : poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish 
 physician. — Henault. 
 
 877 Louis the Stammerer, son of Charles the 
 Bald. 
 
 879. Louis III. and Carloman II. : the former 
 
 * The subscriptions at London to relieve the sufferers amounted to 43.000J. Sir Jamsetjee 
 Jejeebhoy, of Bombay, gave 500Z. for the same purpose. 
 
 t This great prince wore only a plain doublet in winter, made of an otter's skin, a icoollen tunic, frinped 
 with, silk, and a blue coat or cassock; his 7wse consisted of tranverse bands or fillets of different colours. He 
 would march with the greatest rapidity from the Pyrenean mountains into Germany, and from 
 Germany into Italy. The whole world echoed his name. He was the tallest and the strongest man of 
 his time. In this respect he resembled the heroes of fabulous story : but he differed from them, as he 
 thought that force was of use alone to conquer, and that laws were necessary to govern. Accordingly, 
 he enacted several laws after the form observed in those days, that is, in mixed assemblies, composed 
 of a number of bishops and the principal lords of the nation. — Eginhard. 
 
 T 2 
 
FRA 
 
 276 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 died in 882 ; and Carloman reigned j 
 alone. . 
 
 884. Charles h Gros; a usurper, in prejudice 
 to Charles the Simple. 
 
 887. Eudes or Hugh, count of Paris. 
 
 893 Charles III., the Simple : deposed, and 
 died in prison in 929 : he had married 
 Edgina, daughter of Edward the Elder, 
 of England, by whom he had a son, 
 ■who was afterwards king. 
 
 922. Robert, brother of Eudes : crowned at 
 
 Rheims ; but Charles marched an army 
 against him, and killed him in battle. 
 
 923. Rodolf.dukeof Burgundy: electedking; 
 
 but he was never acknowledged by the 
 southern provinces. — HenavU. 
 
 936. Louis IV. d'Ouiremer, or Transmarine 
 (from having been conveyed by his 
 mother into England), son of Charles 
 III. and Edgina : died by a fall from 
 his horse. , , 
 
 954. Lothaire, his son : he had reigned jointly 
 with his father from 952, and succeeds 
 him, at 15 years of age, under the pro- 
 tection of Hugh the Great : poisoned. 
 
 986. Louis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire : 
 also poisoned, it is supposed by his 
 queen, Blanche. In this prince ended 
 the race of Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987 Hugh Capet, eldest son of Hugh the 
 Abbot, and the Great, count of Paris, 
 &c. : he seizes the crown, in prejudice 
 to Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis 
 Transmarine. From him this race of 
 kings is called Capevingians, and 
 Capetians 
 996. Robert II., surnamed the Sage, son of 
 
 Hugh : died lamented. 
 1031. Henry I. son of Robert. 
 1060. Philip I. the Fair, and I'Amoureux ; suc- 
 ceeded at eight years of age, and ruled 
 at fourteen. 
 1108. Louis VI., surnamed the Lusty, or le 
 
 Gros : succeeded by his son, 
 1137. Louis VII., surnamed the Young, to dis- 
 tinguish him from his father, with 
 whom he was for some years associated 
 on the throne. 
 1180. Philip II. (Augustus); succeeds to the 
 crown at fifteen ; crowned at Rheims 
 in his father's lifetime. 
 1223. Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion, son of Philip : 
 
 SllCCC6(i6cL DV 
 
 1226. Louis IX. , called St. Louis ; ascended the 
 throne at fifteen under the guardian- 
 ship of his mother, who was also 
 regent ; died in his camp before Tunis, 
 and was canonized. 
 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy, son of Louis IX. : 
 died at Perpignan. 
 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair: ascended the 
 throne in his 17th year. 
 
 1314. LouisX., surnamed HiUin, an old French 
 word signifying headstrong, or muti- 
 nous. — Henault. 
 
 1316. John, a posthumous son of Louis X. : 
 lived a few days only. 
 
 1316. Philip V., the Long (on account of his 
 stature) ; brother of Louis X. 
 
 1322 Charles IV., the Handsome : this king 
 and Louis X., John, and Philip V., 
 were kings of Navarre. 
 
 HOUSE OF VALOIS. 
 
 1328. Philip VI., de Valois, grandson of Philip 
 the Hardy. He was called the For- 
 tunate ; but this must have been be- 
 fore the battle of Cressy. 
 
 1350. John II., the Good : died suddenly m 
 the Savoy in London. 
 
 1364. Charles V., surnamed the Wise: the 
 first prince who had the title ot 
 Dauphin. — Freret. 
 
 13S0. Charles VI., the Beloved. 
 
 1422 Charles VII., the Victorious. 
 
 1461. Louis XI. : detested for his atrocious 
 
 1483. Charles VIII. , the Affable. 
 
 1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, surnamed 
 the Father of his People. 
 
 1515. Francis I. of Angouleme : called the 
 Father of Letters. 
 
 1547. Henrv II. : died of a wound received at 
 a tournament, when celebrating the 
 nuptials of his .sister with the duke 
 of Savoy, accidentally inflicted by the 
 count de Montmorency. 
 Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, after- 
 wards Queen of Scots : died the year 
 after his accession. 
 Charles IX. : Catherine of Medicis, his 
 mother, obtained the regency, which 
 trust she abused. 
 Hemy III., elected king of Poland: 
 murdered, Aug. 1, 15S9, by Jacques 
 Clement, a Dominican Friar. In this 
 prince was extinguished the house of 
 Valois. 
 
 1559 
 1560 
 
 1574. 
 
 1589. 
 
 1610. 
 1643. 
 
 1715. 
 
 1774. 
 
 170:1. 
 
 HOUSE OF BOURBOX. 
 
 Henry IV. the Great, of Bourbon, king 
 of Navarre; murdered by Francis 
 
 Ravaillac. 
 
 Louis XIII. the Just, son of the pre- 
 ceding king. 
 
 Louis XIV. the Great, also styled Dieu- 
 
 donni'. This was a long and splendid 
 
 reign. . 
 
 Louis XV. the Well-beloved ; but which 
 surname he lost. 
 
 Louis XVI., his grandson ; ascended the 
 throne in his 20th year ; married the 
 archduchess Marie -Antoinette, of 
 Austria, in May, 1770. Dethroned in 
 the great revolution, which com- 
 menced with the destruction of the 
 Bastile, July 14, 1789; the king was 
 guillotined, Jan. 21, 1793 ; * and his 
 queen, Oct. 16 following. 
 
 Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. Though 
 numbered with the kings, this prince 
 never reigned : he died in prison, sup- 
 posed by poison, June 8, 1795, aged 
 ten years and two months. 
 
 FRENCH EMriRE. 
 
 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte, born Aug. 15, 1769. 
 
 ♦ On Mondav the 21st of January, 1793, at eight o'clock in the morning, this unfortunate monarch 
 
 SS fined up Tin- <!'»<* "">»' "» d • « ro "s i!"" 1 ™ p 1 "" 1 " >lm<i m "' 1 " * houM 
 
 consumed. — Hi*t- French Xtvohttion. 
 
FRA 
 
 277 
 
 FRA. 
 
 FRANCE, continued. 
 
 Elected by the republic consul for ten 
 years, May 8, 1S02 ; made first consul 
 lor life, Aug. 2, s.ime year; and de- 
 clared emperor, May IS, 1S04. Divorced 
 his first wife, the empress Josephine ; 
 and married Maria- Louisa of Austria, 
 April 7, 1S10. The reverses of Napo- 
 leon compelled him to renounce the 
 thrones of France and Italy, and 
 accept the isle of Elba for his retreat, 
 April 5, 1S14. 
 1815. Napoleon again appears in France, 
 March 1. He is defeated at Waterloo; 
 and finally abdicates in favour of his 
 infant son, June 22. Banished to St. 
 Helena, where he dies, May 5, 1821. 
 
 BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), next 
 brother of Louis XVI. ; born Nov. 17, 
 1755; married Marie - Josephine- 
 Louise, of Savoy. Entered Paris, and 
 took possession of the throne, May 3, 
 1S14; obliged to flee, March 20, 1S15; 
 returned July 8, same year ; died 
 Sept. 1(5, 1824, leaving no issue. 
 
 1824. Charles X. {comte d'Artois), his brother : 
 bom Oct. 9, 1757 ; married Marie-The- 
 rtse, of Savoy. Conflicts in Paris be- 
 tween the populace (ultimately aided 
 by the national guard) and the army 
 commence July 27, and the king is de- 
 posed July SO, 1S30. He subsequently 
 takes refuge in England ; and dies at 
 Gratz, in Hungary, Nov. 6, 1836. 
 
 HOUSE OF ORLEANS. 
 
 1830. Louis-Philippe, son of the celebrated 
 duke of Orleans, called EgaXiti ; born 
 Oct. 6, 1773 ; married, Nov. 25, 1809, 
 Maria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdi- 
 nand I. (IV.) king of the Two Sicilies. 
 Raised to the throne as king of the 
 French, Aug. 9, 1830; deposed Feb. 
 24, 1848. Died in exile, in England, 
 Aug. 26, 1850. 
 
 NEW REPUBLIC. 
 
 1848. The revolution commenced in a popular 
 insurrection at Paris, Feb. 22, 1848. 
 
 The royal family escaped by flight to 
 England, a provisional government 
 was established, monarchy abolished, 
 and France declared a republic. 
 
 Louis - Napoleon - Charles Bonaparte 
 (born April 20, 1808), son of Louis 
 Bonaparte, sometime king of Hol- 
 land, and nephew of the late emperor 
 Napoleon : elected president of the 
 republic, by 6,048,872 votes, out of 
 8,040,604; having a majority of 
 4,600,770 votes over his great rival, 
 general Cavaignac, Dec. 11, 1848. 
 
 Louis-Napoleon declared by the Nation- 
 al Assembly (Dec. 19) president of 
 the republic of France; and pro- 
 claimed next day, Dec. 20, 
 
 TRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. 
 
 1821. Napoleon II. (?) Napoleon-Joseph, son of 
 Bonaparte and Maria-Louisa, arch- 
 Duchess of Austria; born March 20, 
 1811 ; created king of Borne. On the 
 abdication of his father, he was made 
 duke of Reichstadt, in Austria ; and 
 died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
 July 22, 1S32, aged 21. 
 [This prince, having neither reigned nor 
 been acknowledged, the assumption 
 of Louis-Napoleon (the present em- 
 peror) to designate him as Napoleon 
 II. in order to continue the Bona- 
 partean dynasty, is purely prepos- 
 terous ; for when Bonaparte abdicated 
 in his infant son's favour, he had not 
 the right to nominate a successor to 
 the throne of France, having been 
 deposed, and France being, at the 
 time, a conquered country.] 
 
 1852. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., Dec. 2. 
 The present (1857) emperor of the 
 French.— On Dec. IS, 1852, the suc- 
 cession, in default of issue from the 
 emperor, was determined in favour of 
 prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs 
 male. (See preceding annals.) 
 Empress. Eugenie Marie, born May 5, 
 
 1826; married Jan. 29, 1853. 
 Heir. Napoleon - Eugene - Louis - Jean- 
 Joseph, born March 16, 1856. 
 
 FRANCHISE. A privelege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and anciently an 
 asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monas- 
 teries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England. 
 See Sanctuaries. The elective fbanchise was conferred for counties on persons 
 having 40s. a-year in land, 39 Hen. VI. 1460. — Ruffhead's Statutes. See Electors. 
 
 FRANCIS' ASSAULT on the QUEEN. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen 
 Victoria as she was returning to Buckingham Palace down Constitution-hill, in an open 
 barouche, accompanied by Prince Albert, May 30, 1842. The queen was uninjured. 
 Previous intimation having reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, her 
 majesty had commanded that none of the ladies of her court should attend her in 
 her drive. Francis was tried and condemned to death, June 17 following j but was 
 afterwards transported for life. 
 
 FRANCISCANS, ORDER op. An order of friars, called also Grey friars, in the Church 
 of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a.d. 1209, or, according to some authorities, 
 about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere l-egimen. 
 In 1224 they are said to have appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolu- 
 tion of monasteries by Henry VIII. they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a.d. 
 1536-38. Most of their communities lived on alms, begging from door to door. 
 
 FRANKFORT. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken several times during 
 the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the iron rule of Bonaparte from 
 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns. The 
 diet of the princes of Germany was established here by the Rhenish Confederation in 
 
FRA 
 
 278 
 
 FRA 
 
 1806. The Frankfort diet published a federative constitution, March 30, 1848. The 
 restricted diet of the German Confederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 
 1850. The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, 
 Mecklenburg, &c. assembled here and constituted themselves the council of the 
 Germanic diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognise it. See Germany. 
 
 FRANKING of LETTERS. The privilege of letters passing free of postage was claimed 
 by parliament (almost from the regular institution of the post-office), a.d. 1660. 
 Various statutes were enacted to regulate franking. The privilege was abolished by 
 the introduction of the uniform penny postage, which came into operation January 
 10, 1840. The queen was among the first to relinquish her privilege. 
 
 FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, his ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir John Franklin, with cap- 
 tains Crozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
 persons), sailed on an arctic expedition of discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 
 May 24, 1845. Their last despatches were from the Whalefish islands, dated July 12, 
 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense anxiety throughout Europe, and 
 numerous expeditions were sent from England and elsewhere in search of them to 
 various parts of the polar regions. Quantities of coals, provisions, clothing, and 
 other comforts, were deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as the crews of the 
 Erebus and Terror discovery ships might visit, so as to afford them immediate relief, 
 by our own and by the American government, by lady Franklin, and numerous 
 private persons. The Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, Oct. 4, 1849, from 
 Davis's Straits, brought intelligence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives had seen 
 sir John Franklin's ships as late as the previous March, beset or frozen up by the ice in 
 Prince Regent's inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her majesty's govern- 
 ment, on March 7, 1850, offered a reward of 20,000Z. to any party, of any country, that 
 should render efficient assistance to the crews of the missing ships. Sir John's first 
 winter quarters were found at Beechey Island by captains Ommanney and Penny. 
 
 SEARCH FOR SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. 
 
 1. H.M.S. Plover, capt. Moore (after- 
 wards under capt. Maguire), sailed 
 from Sheerness, to Behring's Straits, 
 
 in search .... Jan. 1, 1S48 
 
 2. Land expedition under sir John Rich- 
 ardson and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's 
 Bay Company, left England March 25, 1S43 
 
 [Sir John Richardson returned to 
 England in 1849, and Dr. Rae con- 
 tinued his search till 1851.] 
 
 3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise 
 and Investigator (June 12, 1848), hav- 
 ing also sailed in search, to Barrow's 
 Straits, returned to England (Scar- 
 borough) .... Nov. 3, 1849 
 
 4. The Enterprise, capt. Collinson, and 
 Investigator, commander M'Clure, 
 sailed from Plymouth, for Behring's 
 Straits .... Jan. 20, 1S50 
 
 [Both of these ships proceeded 
 through to the eastward.] 
 
 5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : 
 
 Resolute, capt. Austin, C.B., 
 Assistance, capt. Ommanney, 
 Intrepid, lieut. (now commander) 
 
 Bertie Cator, and 
 Pioneer, lieut. (now commander) 
 Sherard Osborn, 
 sailed from England, for Barrow's 
 
 Straits April 25, 1850 
 
 [Returned Sept. 1851.] 
 
 6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny, and 
 Sophia, capt. Stewart, sailed from 
 Aberdeen for Barrow's Straits April 13, 1850 
 
 [Returned home Sept. 1851.] 
 
 7. The American expedition in the Ad- 
 vance and Rescue, under lieut. De 
 Haven and Dr. Kane (son of the 
 judge), towards which Mr. Grinnell 
 subscribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for 
 Lancaster Sound and Barrow's Straits ; 
 after drifting in the pack down Baffin's 
 
 Bay, the ships were released in 1851 
 uninjured .... May 25, 
 
 8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out 
 chiefly by the Hudson Bay Company, 
 sailed to the same locality May 22, 
 
 [Returned in 1851.] 
 
 9. H.M.S. North Star, commander Saun- 
 ders, which had sailed from England in 
 1849, wintered in Wolstenholme Sound, 
 and returned to Spithead . Sept. 28, 
 
 10. H.M.S. Herald, capt. Kellett, C.B., 
 which had sailed in 1848, made three 
 voyages to Behring's Straits, and re- 
 turned in 
 
 Lieut. Pirn went to St. Petersburg with 
 the intention of travelling through 
 Siberia to the mouth of the river 
 Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from 
 proceeding by the Russian govern- 
 ment Nov. 18, 
 
 [The Enterprise and Investigator (nee 
 4. above) not having been heard of 
 for two years] 
 
 11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, 
 consisting of — 
 
 Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B., 
 Resolute, capt. Kellett, C.B., 
 North Star, capt. Pullcu, 
 Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock, and 
 Pioneer, capt. Sherard Osborn, 
 sailed from Woolwich . April 15, 
 [This expedition had arrived at 
 Beechey Island, Aug. 14, 1852. 
 The Assistance and Pioneer pro- 
 ceeded through Wellington Chan- 
 nel, and the Resolute and Intrepid 
 to Melville Islaud ; the North Star 
 remaining at Beechey Island.] 
 
 LADV FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 
 
 Lady Franklin, from her own resources, 
 aided by a few friends (and by the 
 
 1850 
 1850 
 
 1850 
 
FRA 
 
 279 
 
 FRA 
 
 FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, his ARCTIC EXPEDITION, continued. 
 
 " Tasmanian Tribute " of 1500Z.), 
 equipped four separate private expe- 
 ditions : 
 
 12. The Prince Albert, eapt. Forsyth., 
 sailed from Aberdeen to Barrow's 
 Straits June 5, 1850 
 
 [Returned Oct. 1, 1850.] 
 
 13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, 
 accompanied by lieut. Bellot of the 
 French navy, and John Hepburn, sailed 
 from Stromness to Prince Regent's 
 inlet June 4, 1851 
 
 [Returned Oct. 1S52.J 
 
 14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, 
 sailed for the head of Baffin's Bay, 
 Jones's Sound, and the Wellington 
 Channel, July 6, and returned, Nov. 1S52 
 
 15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the 
 Isabel, on a renewed search to Beh- 
 ring's Straits 1853 
 
 16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trol- 
 lope, despatched to assist the Plover, 
 capt. Maguire (who succeeded capt. 
 Moore), at Point Barrow in April, met 
 with it Aug. 1S53 
 
 17. The second American expedition, the 
 Advance, under Dr. Kane, earlyin June, 1853 
 
 18. The Phoenix (with the Breadalbane 
 
 transport), commander Inglefield, ac- 
 companied by lieut. Bellot, sailed in 
 May, and returned in . . Oct. 1853 
 
 19. The Phcenix, North Star, and Talbot, 
 under the command of capt. Inglefield, 
 sailed in May, and returned in Oct. 1854 
 
 20. The third American expedition, in 
 search of Dr. Kane in the Advance, 
 consisted of the Release and the steamer 
 Arctic, the barque Eringo, and another 
 vessel under the command of lieut. 
 H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a 
 brother ofDr. Kane as surgeon May 31, 1855 
 
 [On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane and his 
 party quitted the Advance, and 
 journeyed over the ice, 1300 miles, 
 to the Danish settlement : on their 
 way home in a Danish vessel they 
 fell in with lieut. Hartstene, Sept. 
 18 : and arrived with him at New 
 York Oct. 11, 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
 England in 1856. He died in 1857.] 
 
 21. The eighteenth British expedition, 
 (equipped by Lady Franklin and her 
 friends, the government having de- 
 clined) — the Fox, screw steamer, capt. 
 M'Clintock, R.N. (see No. 11), sailed 
 from Aberdeen . . , July 1, 1857 
 
 In 1853, eight years had elapsed since the receipt of any authentic intelligence of 
 Franklin and his companions, and anxiety was beginning to be felt respecting the state 
 of the expeditions under captain Collinson and sir E. Belcher (see Nos. 4 and 11, above). 
 In October, captain Inglefield returned in the Phcenix, bringing despatches from sir 
 E. Belcher, &c. The Investigator, and sir E. Belcher's squadron, were safe ; but no 
 traces of Franklin's party had been met with. Lieutenant Bellot* was unfortunately 
 drowned in August while voluntarily conveying despatches to sir E. Belcher. — Captain 
 M'Clure had left the Htrald (10) at Cape Lisburne, July 31, 1850. On Oct. 8, the 
 ship was frozen in, and so continued for nine months. On Oct. 26, 1850, while on an 
 excursion party, the captain discovered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and thus 
 established the existence of a N.E. — N.W. passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again 
 fixed in ice, and so remained till lieutenant Pinf and a party from captain Kellett's 
 ship, the Resolute (11), fell in with them in April, 1853. The position of the Enterprise 
 (4) was still unknown. — In the spring of 1853, Dr. Rae again proceeded towards the 
 magnetic pole, and in July, 1854, he reported to the Admiralty that he had purchased 
 from a party of Esquimaux a number of articles, which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
 and his party, namely, sir John's star or order, part of a watch, silver spoons, and 
 forks with crests, &c. He also reported the statement of the natives, that they had 
 met with a party of white men about four winters previous and had sold them a seal, 
 and that four months later, in the same season, they had found the bodies of thirty 
 men (some buried) who had evidently perished by starvation ; the place appears, from 
 the description, to have been in the neighbourhood of the Great Fish River of Back. 
 Dr. Rae arrived in England in Oct. 22, 1854, with the melancholy relics, which have 
 since been deposited in Greenwich Hospital. f — After mature deliberation, in April 
 1854, sir E. Belcher determined to abandon his ships, and gave orders to that effect 
 to all the captains under his command ; and captain Kellett gave similar orders to 
 captain M'Clure of the Investigator. The vessels had been abandoned in June % when 
 the crews of the Phcenix and Talbot (under captain Inglefield) arrived (19). On their 
 return to England the captains were all tried by court-martial and honourably 
 acquitted, Oct. 17-19, 1854. — The fate of capt. Collinson in the Enterprise (4) was still 
 uncertain, and another expedition was in contemplation, when intelligence came, in 
 Feb. 1855, that he had met the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence, in August 21, 1854, 
 
 * A monument has been erected to his memory on the quay at Greenwich. His journal was pub- 
 lished in 1854. 
 
 t Dr. Rae and his companions received the reward of 10,0002. for discovering these remains, as the 
 first clue. 
 
 X Captain Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 1000 miles distant from where she was left, 
 by a Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, who brought her to New York. The British 
 government having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was bought by order of the American 
 congress, thoroughly repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J . Hartstene, to be presented to 
 queen Victoria. It arrived at Southampton, Dec. 12, 1856, and was visited by her Majesty on the 16th. 
 
FRE 280 FRE 
 
 and had sailed immediately in hopes of getting up with captain Maguire in the Plover 
 (1) which had sailed two days previously. Captain Collinson having failed in getting 
 through the ice in 1850 with captain M'Clure, returned to Hong Kong to winter. In 
 1851 he passed through Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic regions 
 without obtaining any intelligence of Franklin till July 1854, when, being once more 
 released from the ice, he sailed for Port Clarence, where he arrived as above men- 
 tioned. Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England in May, 1 855. — All appear 
 to have nobly and ably performed their allotted work in the above expeditions ; and 
 the loss of life has been exceedingly small. The Hudson's-Bay Company, under advice 
 of Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition June 1855, which returned 
 Sept. following. Some more remains of Franklin's party were found. (See 21 above.) 
 
 FREDERICKSHALL, SIEGE of. Rendered memorable by the death of Charles XII. 
 of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, and while in the 
 trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. He was found in that 
 position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 
 1718. It is now generally supposed- that a pistol fired by some traitorous hand closed 
 the career of this monarch, aptly styled the " Madman of the North." 
 
 FREE CHURCH op SCOTLAND, was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the 
 body from the national church of Scotland, May 18, 1843. The difference arose on 
 the question of the right of patrons, who claim the right of intruding their own 
 nominees into the livings. The Free church claims for the parishioners the right of 
 a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers of the new church, 
 although 366,719/. 14s. 3d. had been received by subscription. In 1853 there were 
 850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustenation fund 
 amounted to 108,638/. from which was paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 
 
 FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty pounds sterling per annum were not qualified to 
 vote for members of parliament, a.d. 1429. Those for members for counties were 
 obliged to have forty shillings a-year in land, 39 Henry VI. 1460. — Ruffhead's Statutes. 
 Various acts have been passed for the regulation of the franchise at different periods. 
 Among the more important recent acts were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV. 
 1828. Bill for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived those of 
 forty shillings of this privilege, passed April 13, 1829 ; Reform Bill, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
 1832. County elections act, 7 Will. IV. 1836. 
 
 FREEMASONRY. Of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm 
 that it has had a being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her 
 charms." Masonry is traced by some to the building of Solomon's temple ; and it is 
 said the architects from the African coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about 
 the sixth century, as a protection against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into 
 these realms has been fixed at the year a.d. 674 ; by others it is assigned an earlier 
 date. The grand lodge at York was founded a.d. 926. Freemasonry was interdicted 
 in England, a.d. 1424; but it afterwards rose into great repute. In 1717, the grand 
 lodge of England was established; that of Ireland was established in 1730; and that 
 of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1738. The 
 Freemasons' hall, London, was built 1775 ; the charity was instituted 1788. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French laws and 
 customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. The language and 
 fashions in dress and diet of France were then very general in England from this 
 time. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of Edward 
 III. 1362. — Stowe. It does not appear that our statutes and other public acts had 
 been written in French until about the time of Edward I. — Tindal. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. In the year 1792, the French nation, in 
 their excessive desire to change all the existing institutions, adopted a new calendar 
 founded on philosophical principles ; but as they were unable to produce any plan 
 more accurate and convenient than that previously in use, they were contented to 
 follow the old plan under a different name, merely changing some of the minor details 
 and subdivisions, and commencing the year at a different period of time. The first 
 year of the era of the republic began on the 22nd of September, 1792. 
 
 Autumn.— Vende"miaire Vintage month . from Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. 
 
 Brumaire Fog month . . from Oct 22 to Nov. 20. 
 
 Krimaire Sleet month . from Nov. 21 to Dec. 20. 
 
FRE 281 FRO 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, continued. 
 
 Winter. — Nivose Snow month . . from Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. 
 
 Pluviose Rain month . from Jan. 20. to Feb. 18. 
 
 Ventose Wind month . . from Feb. 10 to March 20. 
 
 Spring.— Germinal Sprouts' mouth . from March 21 to April 19. 
 
 Floreal Flowers' month . from April 20 to May 19. 
 
 Prairial Pasture month . from May 20 to June 18. 
 
 Summer. — Messidor Harvest month . from June 19 to July IS. 
 
 Fervidor Hot month . . from July 19 to Aug. 17. 
 
 Fructidor Fruit month . . from Aug. 18 to Sept. 16. 
 
 SANSCULOTTIDES, OB FEASTS DEDICATED TO 
 
 Les Vertus . 
 
 . The Virtues 
 
 Sept. IT. 
 
 L'Opinion 
 
 . Opinion . 
 
 . Sept. 20 
 
 Le Genie 
 
 . . Genius 
 
 Sept. 18. 
 
 Les Recompenses 
 
 . Rewards 
 
 . Sept. 21 
 
 Le Travail . 
 
 . Labour . 
 
 Sept. 19. 
 
 
 
 
 As all the public acts of tlie French nation were dated according to this altered style 
 for a period of more than twelve years, its record here may be useful. Though thi3 
 era commenced on the 22nd of Sept. 1792, its establishment was not decreed until 
 the 4th Frimaire of the year II. (24th Nov. 1793.) The revolutionary calendar existed 
 until the 10th Nivose, year of the republic XIV., being the 31st Dec. 1805, when the 
 Gregorian mode of calculation was restored at the instance of Napoleon. 
 
 FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the American 
 general Winchester, Jan. 22, 1813, the period of the late (the second) war with the 
 United States of America. It was retaken by the British forces under General 
 Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the American commander and the whole of his 
 troops were made prisoners. 
 
 FRIDAY. The sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, a goddess worshipped by 
 our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same with Venus. Friga 
 was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches. This goddess, with 
 Thor and Odin, composed the court or supreme council of the gods, and the three 
 were objects of worship among the Scandinavians. Good Friday is a fast in the 
 Church of England in memory of our Saviour's crucifixion. See Good Friday. 
 
 FRIEDLAND, BATTLE of. Between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on the 
 one side, and the French commanded by Napoleon in person, who completely van- 
 quished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and about 18,000 men, on 
 June 14, 1807. The French lost about 10,000 men. This victory led to the peace of 
 Tilsit, by which Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly 
 half her dominions. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLES. They lie in the Southern Pacific, and consist of a group of more 
 than 150 islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands 
 were discovered by Tasman, a.d. 1642. Visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel 
 Isles, 1767 ; and by Captain Cook, who called them by their present name on account 
 of the friendly disposition of the natives, 1773. But subsequent voyagers have dis- 
 pelled this illusion, and describe them as capable of the most ferocious conduct. 
 
 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. These useful institutions originated in the clubs of the 
 industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into importance they have been 
 regulated and protected by various legislative enactments. They have now, with 
 other similar institutions, more than twenty millions sterling in the public funds. 
 The laws regarding Friendly Socities were consolidated June, 1829. Other acts were 
 passed in 1834, 1840, 1846, 1850, 1855, and 1857. 
 
 FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince Charles 
 Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover disputed its 
 possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, 
 and afterwards to the French empire; but Prussia regained the country in 1814. 
 The term Chcvaux de Frise (sometimes, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a 
 Fricsland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. 
 
 FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Englishman 
 who tried to find a north-west passage to China, in 1576. After exploring the coast 
 of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which has ever since been called by his name. 
 Frobisher returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was 
 supposed to contain gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
 voyage, and lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to 
 a third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 
 
FRO 
 
 282 
 
 FRU 
 
 FROGMORE. This charming estate near Windsor, held on lease from the Crown by the 
 hon. Mrs. Egerton, was purchased in 1792 by queen Charlotte, consort of George III. 
 Her majesty had a private printing-press here. 
 
 FRONDE, CIVIL WARS of the. In France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53) 
 between the followers of the court (Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarine) : and the 
 nobility, the parliament, and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingeis), 
 it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on Aug. 27, 1648, barricades 
 were erected in Paris. 
 
 FROSTS. The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a.d. 401. — Univ. Hist. A frost 
 at Constantinople which commenced in Oct. 763, and continued until February of the 
 next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred miles from the shore. — Univ. 
 Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day was so violent that it is said to have 
 destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035. — Speed. 
 
 Thames frozen for 14 weeks . . a.d. 1063 
 
 Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to 
 April (Mat. Paris) 1076 
 
 The Categat entirely frozen . . . 1294 
 
 The Baltic passable to foot travellers and 
 horsemen, for six weeks . ... 1323 
 
 The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to 
 Denmark, for some weeks . . . 1402 
 
 In England, when all the small birds 
 perished, 9 Henry IV 1407 
 
 The ice bore riding upon it from Lubeck 
 to Prussia 1426 
 
 Awfully severe frost, when even the large 
 fowl of the air sought shelter in the 
 towns of Germany ... . . 1433 
 
 The i-iver frozen below bridge to Graves- 
 end, from Nov. 24 to Feb. 10 . . 1434 
 
 The Baltic frczen, and horse passengers 
 crossed from Denmark to Sweden ; 
 the vineyards destroyed . . . . 1460 
 
 The winter so severe in Flanders, that 
 the wine distributed to the soldiers 
 was cut by hatchets .... 1468 
 
 One so intense, that carnages passed 
 over from Lambeth to Westminster . 1515 
 
 The wine in Flanders again frozen into 
 solid lumps 1544 
 
 Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the 
 sea from Rostock to Denmark . . 1548 
 
 The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain 
 loaded waggous 1565 
 
 The Rhine, the Scheldt, and even the 
 sea at Venice, frozen 
 
 Fires and diversions on the Thames 
 
 The rivers of Europe frozen, and even 
 the Zuyder Zee ; a sheet of ice covered 
 the Hellespont 
 
 Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little- 
 Belt over the ice from Holstein to 
 Denmark, with his whole army, horse 
 
 1594 
 1607 
 
 1622 
 
 and foot, with large trains of artillery 
 and baggage ad. 1658 
 
 The forest trees, and even the oaks in 
 England, split by the frost; most of 
 the hollies were killed ; the Thames 
 was covered with ice eleven inches 
 thick ; and nearly all the birds 
 perished* 10S4 
 
 The wolves driven by the cold, entered 
 Vienna, and attacked the cattle, and 
 even men 1691 
 
 Three months' frost with heavy snow, 
 from December to March, 8 Anne . . 1709 
 
 A fair held on the Thames, and oxen 
 roasted ; this frost continued from 
 Nov. 24 to Feb. 9 171G 
 
 One which lasted 9 weeks, when coaches 
 plied upon the Thames, and festivities 
 and diversions of all kinds were en- 
 joyed upon the ice. This season was 
 called the " hard winter " . . . 1740 
 
 From Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. 
 18 to 22 ; most terrible in its effects 
 
 One, general throughout Europe. The 
 Thames was passable opposite the 
 Custom House, from Nov to Jan. 
 
 One from Dec. 24, 1794, to Feb. 14, 1795, 
 with the intermission of one day's 
 sudden thaw. . . . Jan. 23, 1795 
 
 Intense frost in all December . . . 1796 
 
 Booths erected on the Thames ; the win- 
 ter very severe in Ireland . . Jan. 1814 
 
 The frost so intense in parts of Norway, 
 that quicksilver freezes, and persons 
 exposed to the atmosphere lose their 
 breath Jan 2, 1S49 
 
 Very severe frost in London, Jan. 14 to 
 Feb. 24 ; and very cold weather up to 
 June 26 1S551 
 
 17C6 
 
 1789 
 
 The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country 
 for many preceding years, and was very destructive to the French army in its 
 retreat from Moscow, at the close of that memorable year. Napoleon commenced his 
 retreat on the 9th November, when the frost covered the ground, and the men 
 perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her 
 loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the 
 campaign of this year more than 400,000 men, 
 
 FRUITS of FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned as 
 having been introduced into Italy, 70 B.C. et seq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various 
 kinds, previously unknown in England, were broxight thither in the reigns of Henry 
 VII. and VI II., and of Mary and Elizabeth, between the years 1500 and 1578. See 
 Gardening and Flowers. Among others of less note, were musk lemons, pliim trees, 
 
 * " The frost this year was terrible. It began in the beginning of December, 16S3. The people 
 kept trades on the Thames as in a fair, till February 4, 16S4. About forty coaches daily plied on the 
 Thames as on drye land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames." — 
 Entry in the memoranda of a Citizen. 
 
 t On February 22, fires were made on the Serpentine. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, was 
 established in Lincolnshire. 
 
FUE 
 
 283 
 
 FUN 
 
 and currant plants of sundry sorts, the musk and damask, roses, tulips, &c.; also 
 saffron, woad, and other drugs for dyeing, but these la3t were attempted to be 
 cultivated without success. — Hakluyt ; Lord Karnes. The following are among the 
 fruits whose introduction into England has been traced :— 
 
 FRUITS, &C. 
 
 Almond-tree, Barbary . . . a.d. 154S 
 
 Apples, Syria 1522 
 
 Apple, the custard, North America . 1736 
 Apple, the osage, ditto . . . . 1818 
 
 Apricots, Epirus 1540 
 
 Cherry-trees, Pontus 100 
 
 Cherries, finest kinds, Flanders . . 1510 
 Cornelian cherry, Austria . ... 1596 
 Currants, Zante ..... 1533 
 Currant, the hawthorn, Canada. . . 1705 
 Fig-tree, south of Europe, before . . 1543 
 Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales . 1789 
 Gooseberries, Flanders, before . . 1540 
 
 Grapes, Portugal 1528 
 
 Lemons, Spain 1554 
 
 Limes, Portugal 1554 
 
 Lime, the American, before . . . 1752 
 
 Melons, before 1540 
 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before . 1596 
 Mulberry, Italy . . . . . . 1520 
 
 Mulberry, white, China, about . a.d. 1596 
 Mulberry, the red, from N. America, bef. 1629 
 Mulberry, the paper, from Japan, before 1754 
 
 Nectarine, Persia 1562 
 
 Olive, the Cape, Cape .... 1730 
 Olive, the sweet-scented, China . . 1771 
 
 Oranges 1595 
 
 Peaches, Persia 1562 
 
 Pears, from various climes . . . * * 
 
 Pineapple, Brazils 1568 
 
 Pippins, Netherlands .... 1525 
 
 Plums, Italy 1522 
 
 Plum, the date, Barbary .... 1596 
 Pomegranate, Spain, befure . . . 1548 
 Quince, Austria ..... 1573 
 
 Quince, the Japan 1796 
 
 Raspberry, the flowering, North America 1700 
 Raspberry, the Virginian, ditto, before. 1696 
 Strawberry, Flanders .... 1530 
 Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant . . 1724 
 Walnut, the black, N. America, before . 1629 
 
 FUENTES DE ONORE, BATTLE of. On May 2, Massena crossed the Agueda, with 
 * 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He 
 expected every day to be superseded in his command, and he wished to make a last 
 effort for his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 
 men, of which only 1200 were cavalry. He, however, determined to fight rather than 
 give up the blockade of Almeida. After much fighting, night came on, and put an 
 end to the battle. Next day, Massena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the 
 Imperial guard; and on the 5th, the enemy made his grand attack. The battle raged 
 throughout a vast plain, and in all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for 
 England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was 
 abandoned by both parties — the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the 
 French retiring a cannon-shot from the stream. May 5, 1811. — Napier. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL. Was passed by the American legislature in 1850. _ It imposes 
 a fine of 1000 dollars and 6 months imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive 
 slaves or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be unconstitutional by the 
 Judges of the Superior Court on Feb. 3, 1855. It is carried into effect with great 
 difficulty. 
 
 FUMIGATION. The purifying the air by burning sweet woods, flowers, gums, &c. 
 Acron, a physician at Agrigentum, is said to have been the first who caused great 
 fires to be lighted, and aromatics to be thrown into them to purify the air; and 
 by this process he put a stop to the plague at Athens and other places in Greece 
 about 473 B.C. — Univ. Diet. 
 
 FUNDS. To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in a.d. 1171. 
 Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 1340. Our funding 
 system, or the method of raising the supplies for the public service in England, by 
 anticipations of the public revenues (the origin of the national debt), was introduced 
 at the Revolution, 1689. — Mortimer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the 
 commencement of the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities 
 were created in 1726. The three 'per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three 
 per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea-house, 
 1751. Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annuities, 1761. Four 
 per cent, consols, 1762. Five per cent, annuities, 1797, and 1802. Five per cents. 
 reduced to four, 1822. Old Four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824. 
 Further reductions were made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 1841, and 1844 : the maximum 
 being now three-and-a-half per cent. 
 
 FUNERAL GAMES. Are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks they 
 were chiefly horse races; and among the Romans, processions, and the mortal 
 combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were abolished by the 
 emperor Claudius, a.d. 47. Funeral orations have a heathen origin. Solon was the 
 first who spoke oue, 5S0 B.C. They were indispensable among the Romans, and still 
 
FUN 284 GAL 
 
 common abroad; the custom of led horses took place a.d. 1268. A tax was laid on 
 funerals in England, 1793. 
 
 FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, when 
 people of quality, or eminent for great deeds and virtues. Theopompus obtained a 
 prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first 
 Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her 
 son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did the like for his aunt 
 Julia and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral 
 oration, according to Herodotus, 580 B.C. 
 
 FUNERALS, PUBLIC. Among the late instances of public funeral honours being paid 
 to illustrious men of Great Britain, and voted by parliament as national demonstrations 
 of respect, are the following: Duke of Rutland's funeral in Ireland, Nov. 17, 1787; 
 lord Nelson's funeral, Jan. 9, 1806; Mr. Pitt's funeral, Jan. 22, 1806; Mr. Fox's 
 funeral, Oct. 10, 1806 ; that of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, July 13, 1816 ; of the right 
 hon. George Canning, Aug. 16, 1827; and of the duke of Wellington, Nov. 18, 1852. 
 
 FUR. They were worn by our first Henry, about a.d. 1125. Edward III. enacted that 
 all such persons as could not spend 100/. a year, should be prohibited this species 
 of finery, 1337. 
 
 G. 
 
 * 
 
 GABELLE. The old duty upon the consumption of salt. First imposed on the subjects 
 of France in 1435. — Dufresnoy. The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in 
 some provinces and light in others ; owing to privileges and exemptions purchased 
 from the sovereigns in early periods. — Neckar on the Finances of France. 
 
 GAGGING BILL. A bill properly so called, but meant to protect the king and govern- 
 ment from the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted in 1795; at which time 
 the popular mind was much excited. In Nov. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, 
 a bill for restraining public meetings and cheap periodical publications, was popularly 
 called a "gagging bill." More recently, statutes coercing popular assemblies, par- 
 ticularly in Ireland, have been so designated. 
 
 GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-remes, were invented by 
 the Corinthians, 786 B.C. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 786 B.C. Galleys were 
 mentioned by most of the Roman authors. They are chiefly used, in modern times, 
 by the states bordering on the Mediterranean. The terms "galley slave," and 
 "condemned to the galleys," arose from these "sea-vessels" having from 25 to 30 
 benches on each side, mauned by four or five slaves to each bench, sentenced to 
 this slavery as a punishment for crime. In France they had a general of galleys, of 
 whom the baron de la Garde was the first, 1544. — Henault. 
 
 GALLIPAGOS. Islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, of Quito, Nov. 3, 1854, 
 the British, French, and other powers protesting against it. 
 
 GALLIPOLI. A seaport in Turkey in Europe, 12S miles west of Constantinople. It 
 was taken by the Turks in 1357; and afterwards fortified by Bajazet I. — The first 
 division of the French army engaged in the Russo-Turkish war, under General 
 Canrobert, arrived here March 31, 1854, and established a camp. They were 
 immediately afterwards followed by the English army, who encampted at Scutari. 
 The allied armies left for Varna in May following. 
 
 GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by Saltzer; but 
 it was not till about 1789 that Madame Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani, of Bologna, acci- 
 dentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and from the name of the 
 discoverer it was called Galvanism. This lady having observed the convulsions 
 produced in the muscles of frogs by the contact of metals, directed her husband's 
 attention to the phenomenon ; and in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his 
 observations on this subject. Since that period a great many experiments have been 
 made, and many curious facts observed, which have excited much attention among 
 philosophers. In 1808, Napoleon presented Volta, on account of his discoveries in 
 galvanic electricity, with a gold medal and 3000 livres. 
 
 GALWAY, Ireland. The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a 
 distinction not forgotten to this day. In 1690 Galway declared for king James, but 
 
GAM 
 
 285 
 
 GAR 
 
 it was invested aud taken by general Ginckel immediately after the decisive 
 battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691. — Here is one of the new colleges endowed by 
 government for the advancement of learning iu Ireland, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. 
 c. 66, July 31, 1S45. The college was inaugurated Oct. 30, 1849. See Colleges. 
 
 GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the north of 
 Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by William tbe 
 Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable 
 a wild beast ; and loss of eyes, for a stag, buck, or boar. Of these laws the 
 clergy were zealous promoters; and they protested against ameliorations under 
 Henry III. The first game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted 
 with a duty in 1784-5. Numerous statutes have been passed on this subject from 
 time to time. An act to prevent tbe destruction of game passed July 19, 1828. The 
 game act amending all previous laws is 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32, 1831. 
 
 GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found under their respective heads. The 
 candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted on new cheese, dried figs, 
 and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The games were leaping, foot-races, 
 darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See the Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, 
 Secular, and other Games. 
 
 GAMING. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was often made a slave to 
 the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — Camden ; Stow. Act 
 prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c, 
 to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 33 Hen. VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses 
 were licensed in London in 1620. Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
 when all private lotteries, and the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 
 13 Geo. II. 1739. — The profits of a well-known gaming house in London for one season 
 have been estimated at 150,000Z. In one night a million of money is said to have 
 changed hands at this place. — Leigh. The Lord Chancellor refused a bankrupt his 
 certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. — 
 Phillips. Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 501. each for playing at 
 Faro, March 11, 1797. — Idem. Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris, until 1836. 
 
 GAMING, STATUTES against. Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 
 100Z. at any one time, is not compellable to pay the same, 16 Charles II. 1663. Bonds 
 or other securities given for money wou at play, not recoverable; and any person 
 losing more than 101. may sue the winner to recover it back, 9 Anne 1710. Several 
 other laws have been made from time to time, but ineffectually, to restrain this vice. 
 The act to amend the laws against games and wagers, 8 & 9 Vict. c. 109, passed 
 Aug. 1845. 
 
 GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country between the Ganges and Jumna. Tbe 
 main line (525 miles long) was opened in 1854. When completed it will be 900 
 miles in length and will irrigate not less than 1,470,000 acres. It is the greatest 
 work of the kind in the world. Its estimated cost is 1,555,548^. The immense 
 difficulties in its execution have been overcome by the skill and perseverance of its 
 engineer, sir Proby Cautley. 
 
 GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was planted by God. See Eden. Gardening 
 was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of building houses. — Walpole. Noah 
 planted a vineyard and drank of the wine. Of fruit, flower, and kitchen-gardens, 
 the Garden of Eden was no doubt the prototype. — Idem. There wants nothing but 
 the embroidery of a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a 
 description of one in that of our William III. — Idem. The art of gardening became 
 better understood in England about a.d. 1500, before which time many of our 
 vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign of Elizabeth; 
 but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 1700. The following came 
 from the countries respectively named : — 
 
 ROOTS AND 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Shallots 
 
 . Siberia. 
 
 Anise . 
 
 . Egypt. 
 
 Rice, from 
 
 . Ethiopia. 
 
 Horse-radish 
 
 . China. 
 
 Parsley 
 
 ■ Egypt). 
 
 Buck-wheat . 
 
 . Asia. 
 
 Kidney Beans 
 
 . East Indies. 
 
 Carrots . 
 
 . Flanders 
 
 Borage 
 
 . Syria. 
 
 Gourds 
 
 Astracan. 
 
 Brocoli 
 
 . Cyprus. 
 
 Cresses 
 
 . Crete. 
 
 Lentils . 
 
 France. 
 
 Beans . 
 
 . Greece. 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 . Cyprus. 
 
 Chervil 
 
 . Italy. 
 
 Peas . 
 
 . Spain. 
 
 Asparagus . 
 
 . Asia. 
 
 Celery . 
 
 . Flanders. 
 
 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 . Brabant. 
 
 Potatoes . 
 
 . Brazil. 
 
 FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 
 
 Artichokes . 
 
 . Holland. 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 . America. 
 
 Jasmine 
 
 . Circassia. 
 
 Garlic 
 
 . The East. 
 
 Cabbage . 
 
 . Holland. 
 
 Elder-tree. 
 
 . Persia. 
 
GAR 
 
 286 
 
 GAS 
 
 GARDENING, continued. 
 
 Tulip . 
 
 . Cappadocia 
 
 Daffodil . 
 
 . Italy. 
 
 Lily . 
 
 . Syria. 
 
 Tuberose . 
 
 . Java, &c. 
 
 Carnation . 
 
 . Italy, &c. 
 
 Ranunculus 
 
 . Alps. 
 
 Apples . 
 
 . Syria. 
 
 Apricots . 
 
 . Epinis. 
 
 Currants 
 
 . Zante. 
 
 Damask-rose 
 
 . Damascus. 
 
 Hops . 
 
 . Artois. 
 
 Gooseberries 
 
 . Flanders. 
 
 Gilly-fiowers 
 
 . Toulouse. 
 
 Musk-rose. 
 
 . Damascus. 
 
 Nectarine . . 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Plums . 
 
 . Damascus. 
 
 Passion-flower . 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Oranges . 
 
 . Spain. 
 
 Pomegranate . 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Lemons 
 
 . Spain. 
 
 Rosemaiy . 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Pink . 
 
 . Italy. 
 
 Laburnum . . 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Provence-rose 
 
 . Marseilles. 
 
 Laurel 
 
 Levant. 
 
 Convolvulus 
 
 . Canaries. 
 
 Lavender . . 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Arctopus 
 
 . Cape. 
 
 Peaches . 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Bell-flower 
 
 . Canaries. 
 
 Quince . r . 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Cherries 
 
 . Pontus. 
 
 Weeping Willow 
 
 Levant. 
 
 Figs . 
 
 . Italy. 
 
 Fennel . . . 
 
 Canaries. 
 
 Date-plum . 
 
 . Barbarv. 
 
 
 
 Mulberry . 
 
 . Italy. 
 
 
 
 Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and the pale 
 gooseberry, together with salads, garden roots, cabbages, &c, were brought from 
 Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask-rose was brought hither by 
 Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. about 1540. Pippins were brought to England 
 by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes 
 were first planted in England in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The Musk- 
 rose and several sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots 
 came from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by arch- 
 bishop Grindal, about 1570; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted flowers 
 unknown in England, as gilly-fiowers, carnations, the Provence- rose, &c. 1567. Woad 
 came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots from Vienna, 1578; also beans, 
 peas, and lettuce, now in common use, 1600. See Flowers ; Fruits. 
 
 GARTER, ORDER of the. It owes its origin to Edward III. who, with a view of 
 recovering France, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, 
 and thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a 
 solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. 
 The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the 
 safe coming and returning of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their 
 reputation at the jousts and tournaments about to be held. The place of the solemnity 
 was Windsor; it was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 
 feet diameter, in imitation of king Arthur's at Winchester, and the knights were 
 entertained at the king's own expense of 100/. a w r eek. In 1346, Edward gave his 
 garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be 
 Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a 
 prisoner: and Edward the Black Prince, his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, 
 and enthroned the lawful sovereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, 
 instituted this order, April 23, 1349-50. The following were the 
 
 ORIGINAL KNIGHTS, 1350. 
 
 Edward, prince of Wales, 
 
 (called the Black Prince). 
 Henry, duke of Lancaster. 
 Thomas, earl of Warwick 
 Piers, captal de Buch. 
 Ralph, earl of Stafford. 
 William, earl of Salisbury. 
 Roger, earl of Mortimer. 
 
 Sir John Lisle. 
 Barth, lord Burghersh. 
 John, lord Beauchamp. 
 John, lordMohun, of Dunstar 
 Hugh, lord Courtcnay. 
 Thomas, lord Holland. 
 Lord Grey, of Codnore. 
 Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 
 Sir Miles Stapleton. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wale. 
 Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
 Sir Nele Lorin. 
 John, lord Chandos. 
 Sir James Audlev. 
 Sir Otho Holland. 
 Sir Henry Earn. 
 Sir San. Daubrichcourt. 
 Sir Walter Paveley. 
 
 Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order; it is of blue 
 velvet bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French — " Honi soit qui mal y 
 pense," — Evil be to him who evil tbinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor ; 
 and were styled Equites aurece Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 
 The honour was conferred on the Sultan of Turkey in 1856. 
 
 GARTER KING at ARMS. This office was instituted by king Henry V. in 1420, 
 and is one of considerable honour; he carries the rod and sceptre at every feast of 
 St. George. — Spelman. The order of the garter in Ireland, to which a similar func- 
 tionary was attached, was instituted in imitation of that of England, by Edward IV. in 
 1466; but it was abolished by an act of parliament, 10 Hen. VII. 1494.— AshmoUs Instit. 
 
 GAS-LIGHTS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton, 
 in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumination was first tried 
 by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first display of gas-lights was made at 
 Boulton & Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace, 
 in 1802. Gas was permanently used, to the exclusion of lamps and candles, at the 
 
GAT 287 GEN 
 
 cottou-mills of Phillips & Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. 
 Gas-lights were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, Aug. 16, 1807._ They 
 were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London in 1814. 
 They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there generally lighted in 
 Oct. 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards of 1100 miles, and 
 are daily increasing. 
 
 GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the south bank of the Tyne, opposite New- 
 castle. At Gateshead-fell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068. It was made 
 a parliamentary borough by the reform bill in 1832. — Between twelve and one o'clock, 
 Oct. 6, 1854, a fire broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which shortly after 
 ignited a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of nitre, sulphur, &c, causing 
 a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' distance, totally destroying many 
 buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins. At the moment of explosion 
 large masses of blazing material flew over the Tyne and set fire to many warehouses 
 in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons were seriously 
 wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 
 
 GAUGING. To measure the contents of any vessel of capacity. The gauging of wine 
 and other liquids was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. 
 
 GAUNTLET. An iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. 
 It was a part of the full suit of armour, being the armour for the baud. The gauntlet 
 was of thin iron, with several plates jointed for the fingers ; it was afterwards made 
 of strong and thick leather. It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
 adversary, like the glove. 
 
 GAUZE. This fabric was much prized among the Roman people, about the beginning of 
 the first century. " Brocadoes and damasks, and tabbies and gauzes, have been lately 
 brought over" (to Ireland). — Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture of gauze and 
 articles of a like fabric, at Paisley, in Scotland, where they maintain great repute, was 
 commenced about 1759. 
 
 GAVEL-KIND. The custom of dividing paternal estates in land equally among male 
 children, without any distinction, is derived from the Saxons, about a.d. 550. This 
 usage is almost universal in Kent, where it was first practised. — By the Irish law of 
 gavel-kind even bastards inherited. — Davies. Not only the lands of the father were 
 equally divided among all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his 
 brethren, if Be had no issue of his own. — Law Diet. 
 
 GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first printed 
 at Venice, about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because una gazelta, a small 
 piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. Others derive the name from 
 gazza, Italian for magpie, i.e. chatterer. — Truster. A gazette was printed in France in 
 1631; and one in Germany in 1715. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 GAZETTE, the LONDON. See Neiospapers. The first English gazette was published 
 at Oxford, the court being there then on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665. On 
 the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed to the London Gazette, 
 Feb. 5, 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are used for the publication of extraor- 
 dinary official news. One of these latter was forged with a view of affecting the funds, 
 May 22, 1787. The fraud succeeded, and the planners of it were never discovered. — 
 Phillips. The Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 
 
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the CHURCH of SCOTLAND. The first General 
 Assembly of the Church was held Dec. 20, 1560. The General Assembly con- 
 ■ stitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in 
 Edinburgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, 
 appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and 
 universities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior eccle- 
 siastical courts lie, and its decision is final. See Church of Scotland. 
 
 GENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote times. 
 Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honoured with the title of general of 
 the French armies, a.d. 1203. — Renault. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal 
 Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command 
 of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. See Commanders-in-Chief. 
 
 GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a.d. 800. The Republic was 
 founded in 1512. After a variety of changes it became subject to Savoy, but threw 
 
GEN 288 GEO 
 
 off that yoke in 1526. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. Memorable 
 'insurrection here, Feb. 1781 : about 1000 Genevese, in consequence of it, applied, in 
 1782, to earl Temple, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle in that 
 country : the Irish parliament voted 50,000Z. to defray the expense of their journey, 
 and to purchase them lands near Waterford. Many of the fugitives came to Ireland 
 in July, 1783, but they soon after abandoned it; at this period many Genevan 
 families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Incorporated with 
 France in 1798. Geneva was admitted into the Swiss Confederation, Dec. 30, 1813. 
 
 GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans, 115 
 B.C. It underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till a.d. 950. The Genoese 
 revolted against their count, chose a doge, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030 
 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated Andrew 
 Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. Bombarded by the 
 French in 1684, and by the British in 1688 and 1745. Genoa was taken by the 
 Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of the people was such, that the latter 
 suddenly rose, and expelled their conquerors, who again besieged the city the next 
 year, Aug. 17, without effect. The celebrated bank failed, 1750. The city sustained 
 a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally starved, and was evacuated 
 by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surrendered to the French soon after their 
 victory at Marengo. The Ligurian republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, 
 and the doge solemnly invested, Aug. 10, 1802. Genoa was annexed to the French 
 empire, May 25, 1805. It surrendered to the combined English and Sicilian army, 
 Api'il 18, 1814; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. The city was 
 seized by insurgents, who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison and 
 proclaimed a re'public, April 1850 : in the end the insurgents surrendered to general 
 Marmora in the same month and year. 
 
 GENS-DARMES, or GENDARMES. These were anciently the French king's horse- 
 guards only, but afterwards the companies of the king's gardes-du-corps K the musque- 
 teers, and light-horse, were reckoned among them. There was also a company of 
 gentlemen (whose number was about 250), bearing this name. Scots guards were 
 about the person of the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, who reigned in 
 1226. They were organised as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441. The 
 younger sons of Scottish nobles were usually the captains of this guard. The 
 gendarmerie took precedence of all other French cavalry. 
 
 GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, the Scutarii 
 and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to them the tei-ms 
 ecuyers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gentlemen was much in use in England, 
 and was given to the well descended, about a.d. 1430. — Sidney. A gentleman is a 
 man raised above the vulgar by his character or post. — Shakspeare. 
 
 GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS, CORPS of. This corps (formerly styled the Band of Gentle- 
 men Pensioners) is the oldest corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen of 
 the Guard. It was instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed 
 entirely of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. 
 William IV. commanded that this corps should be called his Majesty's Honour- 
 able Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, March 17, 1834. — Captain Curling. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge is from 
 Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing the earth, surrounded 
 by the sea. He accurately describes the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- 
 pelago, and site of Troy. — Iliad. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at 
 Delphos was the centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor 
 of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to 
 a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
 Barbary and Spain, about a.d. 1201. — Lenglet. The invention of the mariner's com- 
 pass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern geography. The 
 modern maps and charts were introduced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 
 illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, a.d. 1489. — The royal 
 Geographical Society was established in 1830. 
 
 GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical speculations 
 from the time of Homer ; and is said to have been cultivated in China many ages 
 before the Christian era. It occupied the attention of Pliny, Avicenna, and the 
 Arabian writers. In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope's museum. 
 
GEO 
 
 289 
 
 GEO 
 
 Cesalpino, Majoli, and others (1597); Steno (1669), Scilla (1670), Qairini (1676), 
 Plot aud Lister (1678), Leibnitz (1680), recorded observations, and put forth, theories 
 on the various changes in the crust of the earth. Hooke (1668), in his work on 
 Earthquakes, said that fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more certain 
 tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and, though difficult, it would not be 
 impossible to raise a chronology out of them," Burnet's " Theory of the Earth " 
 appeared in 1690, Winston's in 1696, and Buffon's in 1749. Buffon's views were 
 censured by the Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The principle he 
 renounced was that the present condition of the earth is due to secondary causes, and 
 that these same causes will produce further changes. His more eminent fellow- 
 labourers and successors were Gesner (175S), Michell (1760), Baspe (1762-73), Pallas 
 and Saussure (1793-1800). — Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
 and even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive geological times ; and had 
 many followers, Kirwan, De Luc, &c. — Hutton (1788), supported by Playfair (1801), 
 warmly opposed Werner's views, and asserted that the principal changes in the earth's 
 crust are due to the agency of fire. The rival parties were hence termed Neptunists 
 and Vulcanists. — In 1790 William Smith, the father of British geology, published his 
 "Tabular View of British Strata."— In 1807 the Geological Society of London was 
 established, which by collecting a great mass of new data greatly tended to check the 
 disposition to theorise, and led to the introduction of views midway between those 
 of Werner and Hutton. To its Transactions and Journal we must refer for the 
 future history of Geology. — In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geolo- 
 gical collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. Hatchett, and others; and 
 sir John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right hon. C. F. Greville proposed 
 to establish a school of mines there, but failed. — In 1835, Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) 
 De la Eeche suggested the establishment of the present museum of Geology in 
 Jermyn-street. The building was erected by Mr. Pennethorne, and opened in 1851. 
 Attached to the museum are the Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, 
 &c. Sir H. De la Beche, the first director, died April 13, 1855, and was succeeded 
 by Sir R. I. Murchison. A similar institution was established at Calcutta, in 1840, by 
 the E. I. Company. — The English standard works on geology at the present time 
 are those of Lyell, Phillips, De la Beche, Murchison, Mantell, and Ansted. — The 
 strata composing the earth's crust may be divided into two great classes : 1st, those 
 due to the agency of water; 2ndly, to the action of fire ; which may be subdivided as 
 follows : — ■ 
 
 Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crys- [Sedimentary or Fossiliferous recks. 
 
 talline (Metamorphic or Unfossiliferous. 
 
 T „ ,. j.i-e.3 l iv ( Volcanic, as Basalt, &c. 
 
 Igneous formations, unstratified, crystalline . ^ Plutonic ; as Granite, &c. 
 
 Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three great series, — 
 
 The Pakeozoic (most ancient forms of life), or I The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms 
 
 Primary. of life), or Tertiary. 
 
 The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. | 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OP FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA. 
 
 Ill 
 
 NEOZOIC : 
 
 I. Post-Tertiary : 
 
 A. Post-Pliocene : 
 
 1. Recent: Peat with human remain 
 
 &c. — Deltas of rivers. 
 
 2. Post-Pliocene : Ancient beach of Brigh- &• 
 
 ton ; Bluffs of Mississippi. 
 
 II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series: 
 
 B. Pliocene: 
 
 3. Newer Pliocene, or Pleistocene : Mam- 
 
 malian Beds, Drift Deposits, Norwich 
 Crag, Australian Breccias. [Ele- 
 phants, Sears, &c] 
 
 4. Older Pliocene : Red and Coralline Crag 
 
 (Suffolk, Antwerp, Normandy). 
 
 C. 5. Miocene : no British ; part of Bour- 
 
 deauxbeds; Virginia sands [Masto- 
 don, Gigantic Elk, Salamander, 
 <fec] 
 
 D. 6, 7, 8. Eocene Group : Lower and Middle : 
 
 Freshwater and Marine Beds ; Barton 
 
 Clays ; Bracklesham Sands ; London, 
 Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
 Birds, <&c] 
 
 Secondary or Mesozoic Series : 
 
 9-14. Cretaceous Group : Maestricht beds. 
 — Chalk with Flints, Chalk without 
 Flints, Chalk Marl, Upper Green 
 Sand, Gault, Lower Green Sand. 
 [Fish, Mollusks, &c] 
 
 15. Wealden Group : Weald Clay, Hastings 
 Sand. [Iguanodon, Hyleeosaurus, 
 &c] 
 [16-23. Jurassic] 
 
 Oolitic Group : 16-1S. Upper : Purbeck 
 Beds, Portland Stone and Sand, Kim- 
 meridge Clay. 
 
 19, 20. Middle: Calcareous Grit. Coral 
 Bag, Oxford Clay, Kelloway Rock. 
 
 21, 22. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Mar- 
 ble, Bradford Clav, Great Oolite, 
 Stonesfield Slate, Fuller's Earth, In- 
 U 
 
GEO 
 
 290 
 
 GER 
 
 28, 29. Carboniferous Group, Upper and 
 Lower : Coal Measures, Millstone 
 Grit, Mountain Limestone. [Ferns, 
 Catamites, Coal.~\ 
 
 30, 31. Devonian Group, Upper and Lower : 
 Tilestones, Comstones and Marls, 
 Quartzose Conglomerates. 
 
 32, 33. Silurian Group, Upper and Lower: 
 Ludlow Shales, Ay mestry Limestone, 
 Wenlock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, 
 Caradoc Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags. 
 
 34, 35. Cambrian Group, Upper and 
 Lower : Bala Limestone, Festiniog 
 Slates, Bangor Slates and Grits, Wick- 
 low Rock. [Ferns, Sigillaria, 
 Stiginaria, Catamites, and 
 
 Cryptogamia.] 
 
 GEOLOGY, continued. 
 
 ferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
 
 Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 
 G. 23. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. 
 
 [Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
 
 rinthodon.] 
 H. Triassic Group : 24. Upper : Variegated 
 
 Marl. 25. Middle or Muschelkalk 
 
 (wanting in England). [Ammonites, 
 
 Corals, Nothosaurus, Nautilus] 
 26. Lower : Variegated Sandstone of 
 
 Lancashire and Cheshire. 
 
 IV. Primary or Paleozoic Series : 
 I. 27. Permian Group, or Magnesian Lime- 
 stone, Marl Slates, Red Sandstone 
 and Shale. [Firs, Fishes, Am- 
 phibia.] 
 
 GEOMETRY, Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the 
 Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the boundaries of 
 farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 B.C. Euclid's Elements 
 were compiled about 280 B.C. The doctrine of curves originally attracted the 
 attention of geometricians from the conic sections, which were introduced by Plato 
 about 390 B.C. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 B.C. The science 
 of geometry was taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on geometry 
 and astronomy were destroyed in England, as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI. 
 1552. — Slow. 
 
 GEORGE. A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Hen. VIII. — Leake. 
 
 GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. The memorable conspiracy in France : general 
 Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name 
 of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of 
 Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIIL, Feb. 23, 1804. The conspirators 
 were tried, June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to ■ death, and many to imprison- 
 ment. Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the Temple to 
 embark for America, June 22, In 1813 he was killed before Dresden, which see. 
 
 GEORGIA,' in North America, was settled by gen. Oglethorpe in 1732. Separating 
 from the Congress of America, it surrendered to the British, December 1778 ; and its 
 possession was of vast impoi'tance to the royalists in the then war. Count d'Estaing 
 joined the American general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on Georgia, 
 which failed, and the French fleet returned home : the colony was given up by the 
 British in 1783. See America. — Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited by captain Cook, 
 in 1775. — Georgia, in Asia, so celebrated for the beauty of its women, was ceded to 
 Russia by its last reigning prince in 1800. 
 
 GEORGIUM SIDUS, The Planet. Discovered by Herschel, and so named by him in 
 honour of George III. March 13, 1781. This planet is sometimes called from its 
 discoverer, " The Herschel," and by foreign astronomers it is called Uranus. Its 
 distance from us is ascertained to be i800 millions of miles. Pursuing his discoveries 
 respecting this planet, Herschel ascertained it to be surrounded, like Saturn, with 
 rings, and to have six satellites. 
 
 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, or Holy 
 Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that, instead thereof, a 
 confederation of states should be formed ; and this arrangement was adopted in 1815 
 by the allied sovereigns. Germany to be thenceforth governed by a diet, consisting 
 of seventeen voices, and in case any alteration were requisite in the constitution, they 
 were then to take a new division, and the general assembly then to be formed to 
 contain sixty-five votes, divided according to the relative consequence of the states. 
 
 GERMANY. Germania and Alemania. Anciently divided into several independent 
 states. The Germans withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them ; and 
 although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before 
 the close of the 3rd century. In the 5th century the might of the Huns and other 
 nations prevailed over the greater portion of Germany ; it was not, however, totally 
 reduced until Charlemagne made himself master of the whole. This great prince 
 took the title of emperor, entailing the dignity upon his family ; but after his race 
 became extinct, in 911, the empire went to the Germans, and the rank was afterwards 
 
GER 
 
 291 
 
 GER 
 
 made elective. The house of Austria enjoyed the distinction almost uninterruptedly 
 from 143S (when one of its princes was raised to the imperial throne) until 1804. In 
 that year Francis II. resigned the honour and office of emperor of Germany, and 
 became emperor of Austria only; the latter title being hereditary. See Austria. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the 
 West at Rome .... a.d. 800 
 
 He adds a second head to the eagle, to 
 denote that the empires of Rome and 
 Germany are united in him . . . 802 
 
 Louis (le Vebonnaire) separates Germany 
 from France S14 
 
 Charles III. was the first sovereign who 
 added " in the year oi our Lord " to 
 his reign 879 
 
 The German princes assert their inde- 
 pendence, and Conrad reigns . . 912 
 
 [The electoral character .assumed about 
 this time. See Electors.] 
 
 Reign of Henry I. [king], surnamed the 
 Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
 Lanes, Vandals, and Bohemians . . 919 
 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is 
 
 crowned emperor by the pope . . 962 
 Henry III. conquers Bohemia, wasting it 
 
 with fire and sword . . . . 1042 
 Peter the Hermit leads the Crusaders 
 through Germany, where they mas- 
 sacre the Jews 1095 
 
 Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
 
 Pascal II. about 1106 
 
 Lisputes relating to ecclesiastical inves- 
 titures with the pope . . . .1122 
 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin . 1140 
 Conrad III. leads a large army to the 
 holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
 the treachery of the Greeks . . . 1147 
 Teutonic order of knighthood . . 1190 
 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, 
 
 chosen by the electors . . . . 1273 
 The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, 
 
 by Charles IV 1356 
 
 Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 
 emperor. He betrays John Huss and 
 Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
 
 alive ( see JBoJiemia) 1414 
 
 Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
 Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 
 [In his family the crown resides for 
 
 three centuries.] 1438 
 
 The Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . . 1439 
 The empire divided into circles . . 1512 
 Era of the Reformation (Luther) . . 1517 
 Abdication of Charles V. ... 1556 
 
 War of the two parties, the Evangelic 
 union under Frederick, elector pala- 
 tine, and the Catholic league under the 
 
 duke of Bavaria 1618 
 
 Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
 
 palatine the crown 1620 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia .... 1648 
 John Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
 the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
 them to raise the siege of Vienna . 1683 
 The peace of Carlowitz . . . . 1699 
 Order of St. Rupert instituted . . 1701 
 Order of the Noble Passion . . . 1704 
 
 Female order of Beath's Head . .1709 
 Order of the Chase instituted . . . 1719 
 The Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . 1722 
 Order of St. George, the defender of the 
 
 Immaculate Conception . . . 1729 
 The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
 pied with wars against the Turks, and 
 in establishing the Pragmatic Sanction 
 in favour of the succession of his 
 daughter Maria-Theresa, married to 
 the Luke of Lorraine . . 1711 to 1742 
 Francis I., duke of Lorraine, marries the 
 heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
 
 Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, and 
 
 is elected emperor . . .a.d. 1745 
 
 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the 
 dismemberment of Poland . . . 1772 
 
 Again, by the final partition of that de- 
 voted kingdom 1795 
 
 [In the ruinous wars between Germany 
 and France, the emperor loses the 
 Netherlands, all his territories west of 
 the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
 1793 etseq.] 
 
 Francis II. assumes the title of emperor 
 of Austria . . . August 11, 1804 
 
 Dissolution of the German empire; for- 
 mation of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine .... July 12, 1806 
 
 Congress of Vienna . . . 1814 and 1815 
 
 A new federation of the states to be 
 governed by a diet 1 815 
 
 [The members of the empire are now com- 
 monly reckoned at seventeen, each 
 having from four votes to one vote, and 
 are as follows : 
 
 Austria, 4 ; Prussia, 4 ; Bavaria, 4 ; Sax- 
 ony, 4 ; Hanover, 4 ; Wurtemberg, 4 ; 
 Baden, 3 ; Hesse-Cassel, 3 ; Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, 3 ; Holstein, 3 ; Luxem- 
 burg, 3 ; Brunswick, 3 ; Nassau, 2 ; 
 Mecklenburg, 1 ; Saxe-Weimar, 1 ; 
 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, 1.] 
 
 *#* For late events, See Austria, Prussia, 
 and the other states, severally. 
 
 Death of the ex-empress Maria-Louisa, 
 widow of Napoleon . . Dec. 17, 1847 
 
 The king of Prussia takes the lead as an 
 agitator, to promote the reconsolida- 
 tion of the German empire, by a pro- 
 clamation . . . March 27, 1848 
 
 Provisional government at Prague, May 29,1848 
 
 The Hungarian diet appoint a pro- 
 visional government under Kossuth 
 and Batthyani . . . Sept. 28, 1848 
 
 Field-marshal count Lamberg killed at 
 Buda-Pesth . . . Sept. 28, 1848 
 
 Insurrection in Vienna, the minister of 
 war, count Latour, assassinated, and 
 the capital, with the arsenal, falls into 
 the hands of the insurgents . Oct. 6, 1848 
 
 Kossuth appointed by the Hungarians 
 president of their revolutionary com- 
 mittee. (See Hungary) . . Oct. 10, 1848 
 
 Presburg entered by the Austrians. Dec. 18, 1848 
 
 The Austrians defeat the Hungarians at 
 Szikszo Dec. 28, 1848 
 
 And at Thursowka, . . . Jan. 2, 1849 
 
 Buda-Pesth tak en by the Austrians under 
 prince Windischgratz . . Jan. 5, 1849 
 
 New constitution . . March 4, 1849 
 
 The Austrian general Haynau bombards 
 Brescia, which is carried with great 
 slaughter, and the city almost wholly 
 destroyed .... March 30, 1849 
 
 Austria protests against the decisions of 
 the Frankfort assembly . April 8, 1S49 
 
 Defeat of the Imperialists before Gran, 
 by the insurgents . . April 17, 1849 
 
 Insurrection at Dresden . . May 3, 1849 
 
 Dresden bombarded . . . May 7, 1849 
 
 The king of Prussia recalls the Prussian 
 members of the Frankfort national 
 assembly .... May 14, 1S49 
 
 The Frankfort assembly transfers its 
 sittings to Stutgard . May 30, 1349 
 
 Battle beforeKomorn between theAustro- 
 TJ 2 
 
GER 
 
 292 
 
 GER 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 Russian army and the Hungarians, 
 fought ... . July 16, 1849 
 
 The Hungarians under Bern enter Mol- 
 davia .... July 23, 1849 
 
 The Austrians driven from Raab with 
 immense loss of store* . Aug. 3, 1849 
 
 The Hungarian army, 25,000 strong, sur- 
 render to the Russians . Aug. 13, 1849 
 
 Raab re-occupied by Austrians, Aug. 15, 1849 
 
 Peterwardein surrenders to the Austrian 
 army Sept. 6, 1849 
 
 Komora surrenders to Austria, Sept. 28, 1849 
 
 Treaty at Vienna between Austria and 
 Prussia for the formation of a new cen- 
 tral power for a limited time; appeal 
 to be made to the governments of 
 Germany .... Sept. 30, 1849 
 
 Protest of Austria against the alliance of 
 Prussia with some of the smaller Ger- 
 man states, and against the convoca- 
 tion of a Parliament of these estates at 
 Erfurt .... Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 Withdrawal of Hanover from the Prussian 
 Union Feb. 23, 1850 
 
 Treaty of Munich between Austria, Bava- 
 ria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg, for 
 effecting a German union . Feb. 27, 1850 
 
 The king of Wurtemberg denounces the 
 insidious ambition of Prussia March 15, 1850 
 
 Hesse-Cassel refuses to appoint a repre- 
 sentative to Erfurt . . June 7, 1850 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
 Prussian league . . . June 20, 1850 
 
 Austria calls an assembly of the German 
 confederation at Frankfort . July 19, 1860 
 
 The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg,Hessc- 
 Cassel. Darmstadt, Holstein Lauen- 
 burg, Luxemburg, Nassau, and Meck- 
 lenburg-Strelitz.assemble at Frankfort, 
 and constitute themselves as the council 
 of the German diet . . Sept. 1, 1S50 
 
 General Haynau assaulted at Barclay's 
 brewery in London . . Sept. 4, 1850 
 
 An Austrian and a Bavarian force enter 
 Hesse-Cassel, which is also the next day 
 entered by a large Prussian force. (See 
 Hesse-Catsel) . . . Nov. 1, 1850 
 
 French protest against the entrance of 
 Austria and all her states into the Ger- 
 manic confederation . Jan. 28, 1851 
 
 Similar protest of England . ■ Feb. 2, 1851 
 
 The emperor revokes the constitution of 
 March 4, 1849 . . . . Jau. 1, 1852 
 
 Trial by jury abolished throughout the 
 Austrian empire . . . Jan. 15, 1852 
 
 Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime 
 minister .... April 4, 1852 
 
 Attempt on the life of the emperor 
 by a Hungarian named Johann Libeny 
 
 Feb. 18, 1853 
 
 [The assassin executed on the 28th.] 
 
 [For the late war in Hungary and Italy, 
 with Austria, see Hungary and the 
 states in Italy respectively.] 
 
 KINGS AND EMPERORS OF GERMANY. 
 
 CARLOVINQIAN RACE. 
 
 800. Charlemagne. 
 
 814. Louis le Debonnaire, king of France. 
 
 840. Lothaire, or Lother, son of Louis : died 
 
 in a monastery at Treves. 
 855. Louis II., son of Lother. 
 875. Charles II., called the Bald, king of 
 
 France : poisoned by his physician, 
 
 Zedechias, a Jew. — Henault. 
 877. [Interregnum.] 
 880. Charles III. le Gros ; crowned king of 
 
 Italy ; deposed ; succeeded by 
 887. Arnulf, or Aruoul : crowned emperor 
 
 at Rome in 896. 
 899. Louis III. called IV. : the last of the 
 
 Carlovingian race in Germany. 
 
 SAXON DTK AST V. 
 
 911. Otho, duke of Saxony : refused the 
 
 dignity on account of his age. 
 911. Conrad I. duke of Franconia. 
 91S. Henry I. surnamed the Fowler, son of 
 
 Otho, duke of Saxony ; king. 
 936. Otho I. styled the Great, son of Henry. 
 Many writers withhold the imperial 
 title from him until crowned by pope 
 John XII. in 962. 
 973. Otho II. the Bloody ; so stigmatised for 
 his cruelties : massacred his chief 
 nobility at an entertainment to which 
 he had invited them : wounded by a 
 poisoned arrow. 
 983. Otho III. 6urnamed the Red, his son, 
 
 yet in his minority : poisoned. 
 1002. Henry II. duke of Bavaria, sumamed 
 
 the Holy, and the Lame. 
 1024. Conrad II. sumamed the Salique. 
 1039. Henry III. the Black, son of Conrad II. 
 1056. Henry IV. son of the preceding : a minor, 
 under the regency of his mother Agnes : 
 deposed by his son and successor. 
 1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, 
 
 daughter of Henry I. of England. 
 1125. Lothaire II. surnamed the Saxon. 
 
 113S. 
 1138. 
 1152. 
 
 119S. 
 
 1208. 
 
 1250 
 
 1250, 
 
 1256, 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Conrad III. duke of Franconia. 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa ; one of the most 
 splendid reigns in the German annals ; 
 drowned by his horse throwing him 
 into the river Salphet, or the Cydnus. 
 
 Henry VI. his son, surnamed Asper, or 
 the Sharp : it was this emperor that 
 detained Richard I. of England a 
 prisoner in his dominions. 
 
 Philip, brother to Henry : assassinated 
 at Bamberg by Otto, of Wittelsback. 
 
 Otho IV. surnamed the Superb, recog- 
 nised as king of Germany, and crowned 
 as emperor the next year : excom- 
 municated and deposed. 
 
 Frederick II. king of Sicily, the son of 
 Henry VI. : deposed by his subjects, 
 who elected Henry, landgrave of 
 Thuringia. Frederick died in 1250, 
 naming his son Conrad his successor, 
 but the pope gave the imperial title to 
 William, earl of Holland. 
 
 Conrad IV. son of Frederick. 
 
 William, earl of Holland : died in Dec. 
 1255. The electors could not agree 
 in the choice of a successor. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, AND 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 1273. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg ; the first 
 of the Austrian family. 
 
 1291. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the 
 
 exclusion of Albert, son of Rodolph : 
 deposed ; slain at the battle of Spires. 
 
 1298. Albert, duke of Austria, Rodolph's son : 
 killed by his nephew at Rheinfels. 
 
 1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 
 
 1313. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1314. Louis IV. ( 1 1 1.) of Bavaria, and Frederick 
 
 III. of Austria, son of Albert, rival' 
 emperors : Frederick died in 1330. 
 
GER 
 
 293 
 
 GIA 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 1330. Lewis reigns alone. 
 
 1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign 
 
 was given at Nuremberg, in 1356, the 
 
 famous Golden Bull, which became the 
 
 fundamental law of the German 
 
 empire. 
 1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son of 
 
 Charles : twice imprisoned ; and at 
 
 length forced to resign ; but continued 
 
 to reign in Bohemia. 
 1400. Frederick, duke of Brunswick: assas- 
 sinated immediately after his election, 
 
 and seldom placed in the list of 
 
 emperors. 
 1400. Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; 
 
 crowned at Cologne : died in 1410. 
 1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia; chosen 
 
 by a party of the electors : died the 
 
 next year. 
 1410. Sigismund, king of Hungary, elected by 
 
 another party. On the death of Jossus, 
 
 he is recognised by all parties ; king 
 
 of Bohemia in 1419. 
 
 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1438. Albert II. surnamed the Great, duke of 
 
 Austria, and king of Hungary and 
 Bohemia : died Oct. 27, 1439. 
 
 1439. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1440. Frederick IV. , surnamed the Pacific ; 
 
 elected emperor Feb. 2 ; but not 
 
 crowned until June in 1442. 
 1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick : died 
 
 in 1519. Francis I. of France and 
 
 Charles I. of Spain became competi- 
 tors for the empire. 
 1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain), son of Joan of 
 
 Castile and Philip of Austria, elected : 
 
 resigned both crowns, and retired to a 
 
 monastery, where he died soon after. 
 1558. Ferdinand I., brother to Charles, king 
 
 of Hungary ; succeeded by his son, 
 1564. Maximilian II., king of Hungary and 
 
 Bohemia ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 There are about twenty German principalities with territories equal to English 
 counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort-on-the-Maine (one of the 
 greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the head of the famous 
 Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. See Hansc Towns. 
 
 GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Edward III. of 
 England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. Pacification of Ghent, 
 Nov. 8, 1 576. Ghent was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in a.d. 1706, and several 
 times taken and retaken by the contending armies during the French wars. The Peace 
 of Ghent, between Great Britain and America, was signed Dec. 21, 1814. 
 
 GHIBELINES. See Guelphs. 
 
 GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE. The British under sir J. Keane, attacked the citadel of 
 Ghiznee, at two o'clock in the morning, July 23, 1839 ; it is one of the strongest 
 fortresses in Asia, and was commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabul. At three 
 o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a heavy fire 
 the infantry forced their way into the place, and succeeded at five o'clock in fixing 
 the British colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the Afghans, March 1, 1842. They 
 were defeated Sept. 6, 1842, and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee next day. 
 
 GIANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a-half in height; he was also of 
 great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, and his shoe was 
 longer by a foot than that of an ordinary man. — Zuinglius. " The tallest man that 
 hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara, who, in the days of Claudius the 
 late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. 
 John Middleton, of Hale in Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high.* 
 
 * In the chapelry of Hale, in Lancashire, was bom, in the year 157S, John Middleton, commonly 
 called the "Child of Hale," who was remarkable for his largeness of stature and extraordinary strength. 
 It is traditionally reported that one of the Irelands took him to London, and introduced him to tho 
 
 1576. Rodolph II. 
 
 1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II., hiscousin, sou of thearch- 
 duke Charles ; king of Hungary. 
 
 1637. Ferdinand III., son of the preceding 
 emperor ; succeeded by his son, 
 
 1658. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand III. 
 
 1705. Joseph I., son of the emperor Leopold. 
 
 1711. Charles VI., brother to Joseph; suc- 
 ceeded by his daughter, 
 
 1740. Maria-Theresa, queen of Hungary and 
 Bohemia, whose right to the empire 
 was sustained by England. 
 
 1742. Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, whose 
 claim was supported by France : rival 
 emperor, and contested succession. 
 
 [This competition for the throne of Ger- 
 many gave rise to an almost general 
 war. Charles died in Jan. 1745.J 
 
 1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand duke of 
 Tuscany, consort of Maria-Theresa. 
 
 1765. Joseph II. son of the emperor Francis 
 and of Maria-Theresa. 
 
 1790. Leopold II., brother to Joseph ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son, 
 
 1792. Francis II. In 1S04 this prince took the 
 style of emperor of Austria only. 
 
 EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1S04. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), 
 commenced his reign as emperor of 
 Austria only Aug. 11, 1S04 : died 
 March 2, 1835. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand his son : abdicated in favour 
 of his nephew, Dec". 2nd, 1S48. 
 
 1848. Francis- Joseph ; born Aug. 18, 1S30 ; 
 came to the throne on the abdication 
 of his uncle (and the relinquishment 
 of his right to the succession by his 
 father, Francis-Charles-Joseph, the 
 presumptive heir), Dec. 2, 1S48. The 
 present Emperor (1857) of Austria. 
 
GIB 
 
 294 
 
 GIS 
 
 Patrick Cotter, the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches 
 in height; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of the 
 middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inches long : he 
 died in September, 1806, in his 46th year. Big Sam, the porter of the Prince of 
 Wales, at Carl ton-pa lace, was near eight feet high, and performed as a giant in the 
 romance of Cymon, at the Opera-house, while the Drury-lane company had the use of 
 that theatre until their own was rebuilt in 1809. Giants' bones, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet 
 high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is now no doubt that they 
 were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 
 GIBRALTAR. A British fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admira- 
 tion, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with Abyla on the 
 opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules. The height of 
 the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English feet : it was taken by the Saracens 
 uuder Tarik, whence its present name {Gibel-Tarik, Mountain of Tarik), in a.d. 712. 
 In the year 1462 the king of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors; and the English, 
 under sir George Rooke, the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral 
 Byng, bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannonade, 
 to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since continued a 
 brilliant appendage to the British crown. 
 
 Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 
 21st July, and taken on the 24th a.d. 1701 
 
 Besieged by the Spanish and French ; 
 they lose 10,000 men, andthe victorious 
 English but 400 . . . Oct. 11, 1704 
 
 The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, 
 and are repulsed with great loss . 1720 
 
 They again attack it with a force of 
 20,000 men, and lose 5000, while the 
 loss of the English is only 300 . . 1727 
 
 Memorable siege by the Spaniards and 
 French, whose prodigious armaments* 
 (the greatest ever brought against a 
 fortress) were wholly overthi-own. The 
 siege continued from July 1779, to Feb. 1783 
 
 Royal battery destroyed by fire . Nov. 1800 
 
 Engagement between the French and 
 English fleets in the bay ; the Hannibal 
 of 74-guns lost . . . July 6, 1801 
 
 The Royal Carlos and St. Hermenigiklo 
 Spanish ships, each of 112 guns, blew 
 up, with their crews, at night-time, in 
 the Straits here, and all on board 
 perished .... July 12, 1S01 
 
 A malignant disease caused a great mor- 
 tality here, in 1S04 
 
 A dreadfid plague raged . ... 1805 
 
 A malignant fever raged . . Aug. 1814 
 
 Again, when a proclamation issued for 
 closing the courts of justice and places 
 of public worship . . . Sept. 5, 1828 
 
 The fatal epidemic ceased . Jan. 12, 1829 
 
 GILDING. First practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. The capitol was the first building 
 on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding, the Romans 
 made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. — Pliny. It conse- 
 quently was more like our plating. — Truster . A single grain of gold may now be 
 stretched out under the hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. — Dr. Bailey. 
 Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first introduced by Margaritone in 1273. 
 The art of gilding on wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. See Electrotype. 
 
 GIN. The act for laying an excise upon gin passed July 14, 1736. It had been found, 
 in the preceding year, thafr in London only 7044 houses sold gin by retail ; and it was 
 so cheap that the poor could intoxicate themselves, and be disabled from labour, for 
 one penny. The heavy excise of five shillings per gallon, and obliging all retailers to 
 take out a licence, in a great measure put a stop to this depopulating evil. — Salmon 
 About 1700 of these houses were suppressed in London in 1750. — Clarke. 
 
 GISORS, BATTLE of, in France, Oct. 10, 1198, between the armies of France and England, 
 in which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., who commanded in person the 
 English army, and whose parole for the day was " Dieu et mon droit" — " God and my 
 right ; " and from this time it has been the motto to the royal arms of England. 
 
 presence of king James the First, dressed up in a very fantastic style. On his return from London, 
 a portrait was taken of him, which is preserved in the library of Brazen-nose College, at Oxford : and 
 Dr. Plott gives the following account of him : — "John Middleton, commonly called the Child of Hale, 
 whose hand, from the carpus to the end of the middle finger, was seventeen inches ; his palm eight 
 inches and a-half ; and his height nine feet three inches, wanting but six inches of the size of Goliath. " 
 * The army amouuted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillou commanded 12,000 of the best troops of 
 France. 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the foi tress, besides which there were 
 47 sail of the line, all three deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns ; 
 innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats ; while small craft 
 for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 shells were daily thrown into 
 the town ; and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy. Yet in 
 one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
 annihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's 
 loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,000,000£. sterling. But 
 their grand defeat, by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred Sept. 13, 17S2. 
 
GLA 295 GLA 
 
 GLADIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, or captives 
 who fought for freedom. They exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 
 263 B.C., probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased 
 warriors the prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at 
 festivals, about 215 B.C. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought 
 at Rome in celebration of his triumph for 123 days, a.d. 103. Their combats on 
 public theatres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a.d. 325. 
 Finally suppressed by Theodoric in the year 500. — Lenglet. 
 
 GLANDELAGH, BISHOPRIC of, in Ireland, has been united to the archprelacy of 
 Dublin since the year a.d. 1214. St. Keiven seems to have been the founder of this 
 see; he resigned in 612. Glandelagh is now commonly known by the name of the 
 Seven Churches, from the remains of so many buildings contiguous to the cathedral. 
 
 GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a.d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
 James II. in 1451, at which period the University was founded. Its earliest com- 
 merce was in salmon, about 1420. Made a royal burgh by James VI. 1611. Town 
 wasted by a great fire, 1652. Charter of William and Mary, 1690. First vessel sailed 
 to America for its still great import, tobacco, 1718. Great Shawfield riot, 1725. 
 Theatre opened, April 1764. Power-loom introduced here, 1773. Theatre burnt, 
 1780. Chamber of Commerce formed, 1783. Trades' Hall built, 1791. New college 
 buildings erected, 1811. Great popular commotion, April 1811, and trials for treason 
 followed, July, same year. Theatre again burnt, Jan. 1829. The Royal Exchange, a 
 most sumptuous edifice, opened Sept. 3, 1829. Great fire, loss 150,000Z. Jan. 14, 
 1832. Wellington's statue erected, Oct. 8, 1844. False alarm of fire at the theatre, 
 when seventy persons are crushed to death, Feb. 17, 1849. 
 
 GLASGOW, BISHOPRIC op. With regard to the founder of this see, few historians are 
 agreed. Kennet, in his Antiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigern, alias 
 Mungo, in 560 ;. while others affirm that Mungo was a holy man who had a cell here, 
 and whose sanctity was held in such veneration that the church was dedicated to 
 him. Dr. Heylin, speaking of the see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was 
 founded by St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishop of Glasgow, in 583. This prelacy 
 became archiepiscopal in 1491, and ceased at the Revolution. Glasgow is now a 
 post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral was commenced in 1121, and has been 
 beautified and improved at various periods since. See Bishops. 
 
 GLASGOW LOTTERIES. These were the last lotteries drawn in Britain; they were 
 granted by licence of parliament to the commissioners for the improvement of the city of 
 Glasgow. The third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn in London, at Coopers' 
 Hall, Aug. 28, 1834. They were forbidden by 4 Will. IV. c. 37, 25 July, 1834. 
 
 GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by 
 Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass-houses were 
 erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple mamifacture for many ages. This article 
 is mentioned among the Romans in the time of Tiberius ; and we know, from the 
 ruins of Pompeii, that windows were formed of glass before a.d. 79. Italy had the 
 first glass windows, next France, whence they came to England. Used for windows 
 in private houses in the reign of Henry II. 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The 
 manufacture was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 
 1557. — Stow. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the 
 reign of William III. The duties on glass were entirely remitted, 1845. 
 
 GLASS-PLATE. For coach-windows, mirrors, &c, made at Lambeth by Venetian 
 artists, a.d. 1673. — Salmon. This branch of the manufacture was improved by the 
 French, who made very large plates ; and further improvements in it were made in 
 Lancashire, in 1773. There are now several large factories of plate-glass in England, 
 and most of the principal shops of London have plate-glass windows, some windows 
 being single panes of vast size. 
 
 GLASS, PAINTING on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles in 
 a beautiful style, about a.d. 1500. It is said we had the art in England towards the 
 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530. 
 
 GLASITES (in Scotland) and SANDEMANIANS (in England), names given to a small 
 body of Christians, whose tenets are set forth in the " Testimony of the King of 
 Martyrs " published by John Glas, a minister of the Church of Scotland in 1727, and 
 in a work by his son-in-law, Robert Sandeman, entitled " Letters on Theron and 
 Aspasio" (1755). Churches were formed by them on what were considered the 
 
GLA 296 GLO 
 
 primitive models, in Scotland about 1728, and in England about 1755 and later, some 
 of which still exist. They hold that justifying faith is the gift of God, and not to be 
 taught or acquired by man ; that it must and will always operate by love and good 
 works ; and also, that all Christ's commandments are to be obeyed, and none others 
 to be added. They observe the Lord's supper, hold love-feasts weekly (see Agapce), 
 and meetings for mutual exhortations. They avoid eating blood, &c. See Acts xv. 29. 
 
 GLASTONBURY. The first Christian church in Britain was, according to monkish 
 history, erected here, about a.d. 60 ; and, according to the like authority, this place 
 was the residence of Joseph of Ai-imathea about that time. A church was built here 
 by Ina, about 708. The town and abbey burnt, 1184. An earthquake did great 
 damage in 1276. Richard Withing, the last abbot, who had 100 monks and 400 
 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in his pontificals, for refusing to take the oath of 
 supremacy to Henry VIII. 1539. 
 
 GLENCOE, MASSACRE of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoffending and 
 unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering in time to 
 king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain ; and women and 
 children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked in a dark and freezing 
 night, and perished by cold and hunger. This black deed was perpetrated by the earl 
 of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. 
 
 GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of 
 the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, were taught, 
 and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pythagoras demon- 
 strated, from the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth 
 must be round ; that there might be antipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; 
 that Venus was the morning and evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve 
 spheres — the sphere of the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the 
 sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, 
 Saturn, and the sphere of the stars, about 506 B.C. Aristarchus, of Samo3, main- 
 tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun ; which 
 doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher had 
 nearly lost his life by his theory, 280 B.C. To determine the figure of the earth, a 
 degree of latitude has been measured in different parts of the world by eminent 
 philosophers. For this purpose Bouguer and La Condamine were sent to Peru and 
 Maupertuis, and others to Lapland in 1735. France and Spain were measured by 
 Mechain, Delambre, Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. Measurements have 
 been also made in India by col. Everest, and published in 1830. Experiments have 
 been made by pendulums to demonstrate the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 
 1851 ; and to determine its density, in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. Airy, now 
 Astronomer Royal. See Circumnavigators. 
 
 GLOBES, ARTIFICIAL. The most remarkable ones were those of Gottorp and of 
 Pembroke-hall, Cambridge. The first is a concave sphere, eleven feet in diameter, 
 containing a table and seats for twelve persons, and the inside representing the 
 visible surface of the heavens, the stars and constellations all distinguished according 
 to their respective magnitudes, and being turned by means of curious mechanism, 
 their true position, rising and setting, is shown. The outside is a terrestrial globe. 
 This machine is called the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that name, 
 which, at the expense of Frederick III. duke of Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, 
 under the direction of Adam Olearius, and was plauted after a design found among 
 the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it 
 to Peter the Great in 1713; it was nearly destroyed by fire in 1757; but it was 
 afterwards reconstructed. — Coxe. The globe at Pembroke-hall was erected by Dr. 
 Long ; it far surpasses the other, being eighteen feet in diameter, and thirty persons 
 can sit conveniently within it while it is in motion. — In 1851, Mr. Abrahams erected 
 in Leicester-square, for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit from the 
 centre by day, and by gas at night. 
 
 GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside, London. See Shakspeare's Theatre. 
 
 GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, 
 and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from the Caesars and 
 their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first century. The doxology of the 
 prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the Church of Rome, and was called doxology 
 because it began with 5ii|a, doxa, glory, a.d. 382. 
 
GLO 297 GOD 
 
 GLOUCESTER. Once a Roman colony, built by Arviragus, a.d. 47, in honour of 
 Claudius Caesar, whose daughter he had married. The abbey, which was founded 
 in 700, was burnt in 1102, and again in 1122.' In the cathedral are the tombs of 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, and Edward II. This city was incorporated by 
 Henry III. ; it was fortified by a strong wall, which was demolished, after the 
 Restoration in 1660, by order of Charles II., as a punishment for the obstinate 
 resistance of the city to Charles I. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal was completed 
 in April 1827. 
 
 GLOUCESTER, SEE of. One of the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and 
 formerly part of the diocese of Worcester. The cathedral church which belonged to 
 the abbey was dissolved by that king, and its revenues were appropriated to the main- 
 tenance of the see. In the king's books, this bishopric is valued at 315?. 17s. 2d. per 
 annum. It was united to that of Bristol in 1836. 
 
 GLOVES were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving of a glove 
 was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities; and two bishops 
 were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, a.d. 1002. In England, 
 in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a ceremony of degradation. 
 The Glovers' company of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves 
 were introduced into England in 1580, and are still presented to judges at maiden 
 assizes. 
 
 GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. The 
 tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the Priscillianists ; 
 but the name, which was once glorious, at length became infamous. The Gnostics 
 were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a complication of many sects ; and 
 were so called because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, 
 one main branch of which consisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of 
 the Deity, in which they differed among themselves. 
 
 GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the suburb 
 of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the chief, called Giles 
 Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
 scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river 
 that runs by it also took the same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 
 for a manufactory of all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under 
 the direction of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by 
 the celebrated Le Brun, by appointment of the king, a.d. 1666. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 "GOD BLESS YOU!" We are told that in the time of pope Pelagius II. a plague 
 raged at Rome, of so fatal a nature, that persons seized with it died sneezing and 
 gaping; whence came the custom of saying " Qod bless you I" when a person sneezes, 
 and of Roman Catholics making the sign of the cross upon the mouth when any one 
 gapes, a.d. 582. — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 GODERICH, VISCOUNT, his ADMINISTRATION. Viscount Goderich (afterwards 
 earl of Ripon) became first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827. The 
 principal members of his ministry were : Duke of Portland, president of the council ; 
 lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor ; earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal ; viscount Dudley, 
 Mr. Huskisson, and the marquess of Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secreta- 
 ries; lord Palmerston, secretary -at- war ; Mr. Wynn, president of the India board; 
 Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), board of trade ; Mr. Herries, chancellor 
 of the exchequer; Mr. Tierney, master of the mint, &c. Aug. 1827. Terminated 
 Jan. 1828. 
 
 GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the circumcision of 
 their sons. In the Christian Church sponsion in baptism arose in the desire of 
 assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. It was first ordained to 
 be used, according to some, by pope Alexander ; according to others, by Sixtus ; and 
 others refer it to Telesphorus, about a.d. 130. In Roman Catholic countries they 
 have godfathers and godmothers in the baptism of their bells. 
 
 GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATION. The earl of Godolphin became prime minister to 
 queen Anne, May 8, 1702. He received the treasurer's staff two days afterwards. 
 His administration was as follows : Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury ; 
 Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord president ; John Sheffield, marquess 
 of Normanby, afterwards duke of Normanby and Buckingham, privy seal ; hon. Henry 
 Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer; sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham 
 
GOD 298 GOL 
 
 (the latter succeeded by the rt. hon. Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford, in 1704), 
 secretaries of state, &c. His lordship continued lord high treasurer until Aug. 8, 1710, 
 when he resigned the treasurer's staff. 
 
 GODWIN'S OATH. " Take care you are not swearing Godwin's oath." This caution 
 to a person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, 
 had its rise in the following circumstance related by the monks : Godwin, earl of Kent, 
 was tried for the murder of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and 
 pardoned, but died at the king's table while protesting, with oaths, his innocence of 
 the murder ; supposed by the historians of those times to have been choked with a 
 piece of bread, as a judgment from Heaven, having prayed it might stick in his throat 
 if he were guilty of the murder, A.D. 1053. — Guth. Hist. Eng. 
 
 GODWIN SANDS. These are sand-banks off the east coast of Kent, and occupy a space 
 that was formerly a large tract of ground belonging to Godwin, earl of Kent, the 
 father of king Harold II. This ground was afterwards given to the monastery of St. 
 Augustin at Canterbury ; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair the wall that 
 defended it from the sea, the whole tract was drowned in the year 1100, leaving these 
 sands, upon which many ships have been wrecked. — Salmon. 
 
 GOLD. The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from the 
 earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too 
 soft to be used pure, and to harden it, it is alloyed with copper or silver : that used 
 in our coin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, and two of copper. In the 
 early ages no metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
 smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to observations 
 on volcanoes and to the burning of forests. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
 wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower standard than formerly (wedding 
 rings excepted), by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60, 1855. 
 
 GOLD COIN. The first certain record we have of gold beiDg coined in England, is 
 a d. 1257. The first regular gold pieces were struck in the reign of Edward III. 
 1344. The English florin was struck in 1354; in which year, also, the method of 
 assaying gold was established. The standard was altered in 1527. All the gold 
 money was called in, and re-coined, and the first window-tax imposed to defray the 
 expense and deficiency in the re-coinage, 7 Will. III. 1695. Guineas were first coined 
 in 1673 ; they were reduced in currency from twenty-two shillings to twenty-one in 
 1717. Broad-pieces were called in, and re-coined into guineas in 1732. The gold 
 coin which was brought into the Mint by proclamation in 1773-6, amounted to about 
 15,563,593?.; the expense of collecting, melting, and re-coining it, was 754,019?. Act 
 for weighing gold coin passed June 13, 1774. See articles Coin and Guineas. "The 
 quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, since the accession of queen Elizabeth 
 to the throne, in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 
 Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of George III. — namely, 1,593,078 
 pounds weight, troy. The value of the gold coined in the reign of that sovereign was 
 74,501,586?. The total value of the gold coin issued from the Mint, since 1558, is 
 154,702,385?" — Professor Faraday. The weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, 
 from June 1837 to Jan. 1848, was 746,452 lb.; the value of this amount coined was 
 29,886,457?.— Gold coined in 1853 (Australian gold), 12,664,125?.; in 1854, 4,354,201?.; 
 in 1855, 9,245,264?.; in 1856, 6,476,060?. 
 GOLD FISH. Long called Chinese Gudgeons, from the country whence they were 
 imported. Brought to England in 1691 ; but not generally seen here until 1723. 
 
 GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most abundant in 
 Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last gold was discovered by the 
 Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
 of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. 
 In 1730, a piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark 
 being eight ounces), was found near La Paz. a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in 
 Malacca in 1731; in New Andalusia in 1785; in Ceylon in 1800; and it has been 
 found in Cornwall, and in the county of Wicklow in Ireland. The Ural or Oural 
 mountains of Russia have produced gold in large quantity; and since 1847 gold has 
 been drawn in vast quantities annually from California, and since 1851 from Australia. 
 See California and Australia, severally. 
 
 GOLD ROBBERY. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, containing gold in bars and coin 
 to the value of between 18,000?. and 20,000?. were sent from London, May 15, 1855. 
 
GOL 299 GOO 
 
 Oil their arrival in Paris, it was found that ingots to the value of 12,00(M. had been 
 abstracted, and shot substituted, although the boxes boi'e no marks "of violence. 
 Many persons were apprehended on suspicion ; but the police obtained no trace till 
 Nov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and Tester, were tried and convicted 
 Jan. 13-15, 1S57, on the evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had been 
 preparing for the robbery for eighteen months previous to its perpetration. 
 
 GOLD WIRE, LEAF, &c. Gold wire was first made in Italy about a.d. 1350. An 
 ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 1300 miles in length ; and such 
 is its tenacity that a wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch thick will bear the weight 
 of 500 lb. without breaking. — Fourcroy. A single grain of gold may be extended 
 into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can be reduced to the 300,000th 
 part of an inch, and gilding to the ten-millionth part. — Kelly's Cambist. 
 
 GOLDEN BULL. A decree or letter of the pope, or emperor, of which the bull is, 
 properly speaking, the seal, which has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. 
 Among the incidents which mark the reign of Charles IV. emperor of the West, is 
 his institution of the celebrated Golden Bull, made at the diet of Nuremberg, a.d. 
 1356, and which became the fundamental law of the German empire. — Robertson. 
 
 GOLDEN CHAIN. A favourite plant in England. It is perhaps more generally known 
 as the Laburnum, Cytisus laburnum. It was brought to these countries from Austria 
 and Hungary before a.d. 1576. The Gold Plant, or Aucuba japonica, was brought to 
 England from Japan and China about 1783. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from Iolchos to 
 Colchis, to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxtis, and to recover his treasures, 
 which the perfidious iEetes, king of Colchis, had seized, after murdering their owner. 
 The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis was adorned with the figure of a 
 ram on the poop, which gave occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of 
 Jason was for the recovery of the golden fleece, 1263 B.C. Some suppose that the 
 poetic account represented a true history tinder allegorical figures. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE, ORDER of the. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy in a.d. 1429, 
 instituted a military order by this name ; the king of Spain became grand master of 
 the order, as duke of Burgundy ; the number of knights was thirty-one. It was said 
 to have been instituted on account of the immense profit the duke made by wool. 
 The first solemnities were performed at Burgos, at this duke's marriage with Isabel of 
 Portugal. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar opened, 
 and the duke's cipher, in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints 
 striking fire, with the motto " Ante ferit, quam flamma micat." At the end of the 
 collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, " Pretium non vile laborum." The order 
 afterwards became common to all the princes of the house of Austria, as being 
 descended from Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy. 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which shows the years 
 of the moon's cycle; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 B.C. — 
 Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date 
 and divide by nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and 
 the remainder is the golden number. 
 
 GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY of LONDON. Incorporated 16 Rich. II. 1392. The mark 
 or date of the Goldsmiths' company wherewith to stamp standard silver and gold 
 wares is made by letters from A to U, and commenced in 1796 ; so that the year 
 1850 is M ; the year 1851 is N ; the year 1852 is O ; the year 1853 is P ; and so od, 
 changing the letter every year. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the present 
 magnificent edifice was opened in 1835. See Assay. 
 
 GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been held as 
 a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of Our Saviour on Friday, April 3, 
 a.d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to the Church of England : 
 our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Friday, on account of the great length of 
 the offices observed and fastings enjoined on this day. 
 
 GOOJERAT, BATTLE of, in India. Lord, afterwards visct. Gough, with 25,000 men 
 and 100 guns, attacked the enemy, numbering 60,000 men with 59 guns. The Sikh 
 chief was strongly posted between two river courses, which protected his flanks, and 
 yet allowed him good manoeuvring space to retire either on the east or west side of 
 the town of Goojerat, which afforded shelter and protection to his rear. The fight 
 
GOO 300 GOS 
 
 began at seven in the morning. The result of great gallantry on the part of the 
 British army was, that by four o'clock the enemy had been driven from every post, 
 and was in general retreat, which the field artillery and cavalry converted into a total 
 rout and flight. They were pursued with great slaughter for about fifteen miles, and 
 next morning an adequate force took up the direct pursuit. Some of the enemy's 
 guns, and the whole of their ammunition and camp equipage, fell into the hands of 
 the British. Shere-Singh escaped with only 8000 men. Goojerat was taken, and also 
 Jailum and Rhotas. The loss on the British side was 100 killed and 900 wounded. 
 Feb. 21, 1849. 
 
 GOOSE at MICHAELMAS. This custom has been thus accounted for, and though the 
 fact has been contradicted, it is yet pertinaciously, but erroneously, maintained. 
 Queen Elizabeth, on her way to Tilbury Fort on the 29th September, 1588, dined at 
 the ancient seat of sir Neville Umfreyville, near that place ; and among the dishes 
 which the knight had provided for her entertainment were two geese. The queen 
 ate heartily, and asking for a bumper of burgundy, drank " Destruction to the 
 Spanish Armada ! '' At the moment that she returned the tankard to the knight, 
 news arrived that the Spanish fleet had been destroyed by a storm. She immediately 
 took another buinper, and was so much pleased with the event, that every year after 
 on that day she had a goose served up. The court made it a custom, and the people 
 the fashion ever since. — " The custom is of much older date, and is equally observed 
 on the contiuent as in England." — Clavis Calendaria. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to the waggon 
 of Gordius, a husbandman, who- was afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed 
 this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be 
 emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he 
 found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, this " conqueror of the 
 world " interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 
 
 GORDON'S " NO POPERY " MOB. Occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon. It 
 consisted of 40,000 persons, who assembled in St. George's Fields, under the name of 
 the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the 
 act which granted certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised 
 could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, 
 and pulling down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics first, but afterwards 
 of several other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free ; even 
 attempting the Bank of England ; and in a word totally overcoming the civil power 
 for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of the citizens, tho 
 horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched 
 to London, the riot was quelled. It commenced June 2 ; on the 3rd, the Roman 
 Catholic chapels and numerous mansions were destroyed, the Bank attempted, and 
 gaols opened, — among these were the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell 
 prisons; on the 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 
 of the rioters were killed, and 248 wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the 
 hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried the 
 year after for high treason, but acquitted. June 2 to 7, 1780. — Annual Register. 
 
 GOREE. Near Cape Verd, on the coast of Africa. Planted by the Dutch, a.d. 1617. It 
 was taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; and was ceded to France by the 
 treaty of Nimeguen in 1678. Goree was again taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 
 1800, and 1804. Governor Wall, formerly governor of this island, was hanged in 
 London, Jan. 28, 1802, for the murder of sergeant Armstrong, committed by him 
 while in command at Goree in 1782. 
 
 GOREY, BATTLE of. Between the king's troops and the Irish rebels, in which the 
 former, after a desperate engagement, were defeated with considerable loss. The 
 king's forces losing several pieces of artillery, retreated to Gorey, and afterwards to 
 Arklow, abandoning both towns, the insurgents being nearly 20,000 strong, while the 
 troops opposed to them were comparatively of small amount : fought June 4, 1798. 
 
 GORGET. The ancient breast-plate, or gorget, was very large, and extended to the body 
 and limbs of the warrior or knight as armour ; but its size and weight varied at 
 different periods. The present modern diminutive breast-plate was in use at the 
 period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after. See Armour. 
 
 GOSPELS, The. St Mark wrote his gospel a.d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; St. 
 Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96 -7 .—Butler, John wrote his gospel at Ephesus, two 
 
GOS 301 QJSA 
 
 years after he was thrown into a cauldron of burning oil, from which he was taken 
 out unhurt, and banished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. Dr. Robert Bray was one of 
 the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
 incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; its object 
 being to assist in forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. 
 
 GOSPELLERS. The name of Gospellers was given to the followers of Wickliffe, who 
 first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of Popery. It was 
 affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of their professing to 
 follow and preach only the Gospel, a.d. 1377.— Bishop Burnet. Wickliffe opposed 
 the authority of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of the 
 Church, and is called the father of the Reformation. — Watkins. 
 
 GOTHS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, Poutus, 
 Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire, a.d. 251. They were 
 defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a.d. 269. After the destruction of the Roman 
 empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the 
 greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till a.d. 553, when they were 
 finally conquered by Narse3, Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 
 founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 GRACE at MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the altar of 
 friendship, and held sacred upon that account. They would not partake of any meat 
 until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. The short 
 prayer said before, and by some after, meat, in all Christian countries from the earliest 
 times, is in conformity with Christ's example, John vi. 11, &c. — Lenylct. 
 
 GRACE, the TITLE of. It was first assumed by Henry IV. of England, on his acces- 
 sion, in 1399. The title of Excellent Grace was assumed by Heury VI. about 1425. 
 Until the time of James I. 1603, the king was addressed by that title, and afterwards 
 by the title of Majesty only. " Your Grace " is the manner of addressing an arch- 
 bishop and a duke in this realm, and means the same as " Your Goodness," " Your 
 Clemency," &c. — Bacon. 
 
 GRAFTON'S, DUKE of, ADMINISTRATION. Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, 
 first lord of the treasury; Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer; 
 earl Gower, lord president; earl of Chatham, lord privy seal ; earl of Shelburne and 
 viscount Weymouth, secretaries of state; sir Edward Hawke, first lord of the 
 admiralty ; marquess of Granby, master-general of the ordnance; lords Sandwich and 
 Le Despencer, joint postmasters-general ; lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas 
 Townshend, &c. Lord Camden, lord chancellor. Dec. 1767. Terminated by lord 
 North becoming prime minister. See Lord North's Administration. 
 
 GRAHAM'S DIKE, in Scotland. A wall built in a.d. 209 by Severus Septimus, the 
 Roman emperor, or, as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Frith of 
 Forth to the Clyde. The eminent historian Buchanan relates that there were con- 
 siderable remains of this wall in his time ; and some vestiges of it are to be seen even 
 to this day.— Mortimer. 
 
 GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were 
 denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early 
 as 276 B.C. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Csesar, 
 Nicias, iElius Donatus, Remmius, Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenseus, and other 
 distinguished men, were of this class. — Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to have been 
 the only purely grammatical orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech 
 of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
 discover one error." 
 
 GRAMPIAN HILLS, BATTLE of. This is a celebrated engagement between the 
 Scots and Picts, the former under Galgacus, and the latter under Agricola, fought 
 a.d. 79. These hills take their name from a single hill, the Mons Grampius of 
 Tacitus, where Galgacus waited the approach of Agricola, and where the battle was 
 fought so fatal to the brave Caledonians. 
 
 GRAMPOUND, BRIBERY at. Memorable case of bribery and other corrupt practices 
 in this borough, when several persons were convicted, and among them was sir 
 Manasseh Lopez, who was sentenced by the court of king's bench to a fine of 10,000/. 
 and two years' imprisonment. The borough was disfranchised by the house of 
 commons, Nov. 15, 1819. — Ann. Reg. 
 
GRA 302 GRE 
 
 GRANARIES. Tbe Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure -food for 
 the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn from, these, 
 reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public treasury. There were .three 
 hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome.- — Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries , 
 were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two storehouses for sea- 
 coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by 
 the great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. — Stow. 
 
 GRAND ALLIANCE. Signed at Vienna between England, the emperor, and the States- 
 General ; to which Spain and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded, May 12, 1689. 
 
 GRAND JUNCTION CANAL. This canal joins several others in the centre of the 
 country, which thence form a communication between the rivers Thames, Severn, 
 Mersey, and Trent, and, consequently, an inland navigation to the four principal sea- 
 ports, London, Liverpool, Bristol, and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on 
 the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters the Thames near London, 1790. 
 
 GRAND PENSIONARY. A title held by chief state functionaries in Holland, in 
 the sixteenth century. In the constitution given by France to the Batavian republic, 
 previously to the erection of that state into a kingdom, the title of Grand Pensionary 
 was revived, and given to the head of the government, April 29, 1805. The eminent 
 statesman, Rutger Jan Schimmelpennick, previously Batavian ambassador to London, 
 was made the Grand Pensionary. The republic became a kingdom under Louis, the 
 brother of Napoleon, the next year. The office of Grand Pensionary was subsequently 
 restored. See Holland. 
 
 GRANICUS, BATTLE of. In which Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. 
 The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, although 
 the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, while the Persian army 
 amounted to 600,000 foot and 20,000 horse. — Justin. Yet the victors lost in this 
 great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus 
 and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted 
 to the conqueror, 334 B.C. — Bossuet. 
 
 GRAPES. The fruit of the vine. Previously to the reign of Edward VI. grapes were 
 brought to England in large quantities from Flanders where they were first cultivated, 
 about 1276. The vine was introduced into England in 1552; and was first planted 
 at Bloxhall, in Suffolk, in that year, and in other places in the neighbourhood of 
 London soon after. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a celebrated vine, 
 allowed to surpass any in Europe; it is 72 feet by 20, and has in one season produced 
 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in girth; it was 
 planted in 1769. — Leigh. 
 
 GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their halls. The 
 fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large stone depressed below the 
 level of the ground to receive the ashes. There were arched hearths among the 
 Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were most in use until the general introduction of 
 chimneys about a.d. 1200. See Chimneys. 
 
 GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and 
 also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about a.d. 38. Kepler 
 enlarged upon it, about a.d. 1615 ; and Hook published Gravitation as a system. The 
 principles of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence about 1633; but the 
 great law on this subject was laid down by Newton about 1687. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN, or BRITISH EMPIRE. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 See Britain, England, &c. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN Steam Ship. This stupendous iron steam vessel, commanded by 
 captain Hosken, formerly a naval officer, sailed from the Mersey river, Liverpool, 
 bound for New York, in the forenoon of Sept. 22, 1846. She carried a large cargo of 
 goods and 185 passengers, the greatest number that had ever sailed to America by 
 steam. The same evening, having had the wind quite in her favour all day, and 
 having made rapid progress, the passengers were suddenly alarmed by a concussion, 
 as if the vessel had struck upon a rock, and soon discovered that she was aground in 
 Dundrum bay, in Ireland. They were landed at that place in safety, but all attempts 
 to get the Great Britain off at the time were ineffectual. She lay stranded in Dundrum 
 bay until Aug. 27, 1847, when Messrs. I. Brunei, jun., and Bremner, the engineers, 
 succeeded in getting her off, she having sustained little damage from the shock, or 
 the waves rolling over her for nearly a year. 
 
GRE 
 
 303 
 
 GRE 
 
 GREAT EASTERN and WESTERN. See Steam Navigation. 
 
 GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor, was 
 called the broad seal, and affixed to grants of the crown, a.d. 1048.— Baker's Chron. 
 The most ancient seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. The great seal of England 
 was stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, in great Ormond-street, into 
 which some thieves broke, and carried it, with other property, away, March 24, 1784, 
 a day before the dissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered. A new seal was 
 brought into use on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801. A new seal for Ireland was 
 brought into use, and the old one defaced, Jan. 21, 1832. 
 
 GR^ECIA, MAGNA. That part of Italy in which the Greeks planted colonies ; but the 
 boundaries of Magna Grsecia are very uncertain. Some say that it comprehended all 
 the southern parts of Italy : and others suppose that Magna Graecia comprehended 
 only Campania and Lucauia. To these was added Sicily, which country was likewise 
 peopled by Greek colonists. — Lempriere. Mitford. 
 
 GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly-celebrated country of the ancient world 
 were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very 
 ancient king named Graecus ; and another king named Hellen gave his subjects the 
 appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidons, 
 Hellenists, and Achaians. Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, Thessaly, and the islands. The limits of 
 modern Greece are much more confined. Greece became subject to the Turkish 
 empire in the 15th century, and has but recently again become a separate state. The 
 treaty of London, on behalf of Greece, between England, France, and Russia, was 
 signed in Oct. 1827; count Capo d'Istria* was declared president in Jan. 1828; and 
 the Porte acknowledged the independence of Greece in April 1830. It was afterwards 
 erected into a kingdom, of which Otho I. of Bavaria was made king. 
 
 Sicyon founded (Eusebius) 
 
 Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) 
 
 Kevolt of the Titans . . . . * " 
 
 War of the Giauts * * 
 
 Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius) . 1S56 
 Beign of Ogyges in Bceotia (idem) . . 1796 
 Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in 
 
 Greece by Phoroneus . 
 According to some authors, Sicyon was 
 
 now begun (Lenglet) 
 
 Deluge of Oayges (which see) . 
 
 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 
 
 under CEnotrus : the country first 
 
 called (Enotria, afterwards Magna 
 
 Gratia (Eusebius) 
 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 commences (Eusebius) .... 
 Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) . . 
 The Areopagus instituted 
 Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) . . . 
 Reign of Hellen (idem) .... 
 Panathenaean games instituted . . . 
 Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, 
 
 settles in Bceotia 1493 
 
 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards 
 
 called Sparta 1490 
 
 Arrival of Danaus with the first ship 
 
 ever seen in Greece .... 
 He introduces the use of pumps . . 
 He gets possession of Argos. His fifty 
 
 daughters (see Flambeaux) . 
 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 
 
 by the Idcti Dactyli (Eusebius) . . . 
 Iron discovered by the Idad Dactyli 
 Corinth rebuilt, and so named . . . 
 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches the 
 
 art of making bread .... 
 The Isthmian games instituted . . . 
 Mycense created out of Argos . 
 Argonautic expedition (tohich see) 
 
 2089 
 2042 
 
 1773 
 
 1773 
 1764 
 
 1710 
 
 15S2 
 1556 
 1506 
 1503 
 1459 
 1495 
 
 The Pythian games by Adrastus 
 
 14S5 
 1485 
 
 1475 
 
 1453 
 1406 
 1384 
 
 1383 
 . 1326 
 . 1313 
 . 1263 
 . 1263 
 
 War of the seven Greek captains B.C. 1225 
 The Amazonian war ; these martial 
 
 females penetrate into Greece . . 1213 
 Rape of Helen by Theseus . ... 1213 
 Rape of Helen by Paris . . . .1198 
 Commencement of the Trojan war . . 1193 
 Troy taken and destroyed on the night 
 of the 7th of the month Thargelion 
 (27 May, or 11th June) . . . 1184 
 iEneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 
 
 arrives in Italy 1181 
 
 Migration of the iEolian colonies, who 
 
 build Smyrna, <fcc 1124 
 
 Settlement of the Ionians from Greece 
 
 in Asia Minor 1044 
 
 The first laws of navigation originate 
 
 with the Rhodians .... 916 
 Homer flourishes about this time (Arun- 
 delian Marbles) 907 
 
 Olympic games revived at Elis . . 884 
 The first Messenian war . . . . 743 
 
 The Messenian war 685 
 
 The capture of Ira . . . . . 670 
 
 The Messenians emigrate to Sicily, and 
 
 give their own name Messene to Zancle 
 
 (now called Messina) .... 668 
 
 Sea-fight, the first on record, between 
 
 the Corinthians and the inhabitants 
 
 ofCorcyra 664 
 
 Byzantium built by the Archives . . 658 
 Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed : 
 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 
 
 300,000 Sybarians 508 
 
 Sardis taken and burnt, which occasions 
 
 the Persian invasion .... 504 
 Thrace and Macedonia conquered . . 496 
 Battle of Marathon (which see) . . 490 
 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 
 
 at Thermopylae by Leonidas . . . 480 
 Battle of Salamis (which see) . . . 480 
 Mardonius defeated at Plataja . . . 479 
 
 * This distinguished statesman was shortly afterwards murdered by the brother and son of Mavro- 
 michaelis, a Mainote chief, whom he had imprisoned. The wretched assassins were sentenced to be 
 immured within close brick walls, built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in 
 this lingering torture until they died. 
 
GRE 
 
 304 
 
 G1IE 
 
 GliEECE, continued. 
 
 Battle of Eurymedon . . . B.C. 470 
 The third Messenian war . . . . 465 
 Athens begins to tyrannise over the 
 
 other states of Greece .... 459 
 Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles . . 455 
 The first Sacred war .... 448 
 Herodotus reads his history in the Coun- 
 cil at Athens 445 
 
 The sea-fight at Cnidus . . . .394 
 
 Battle of Man tinea 303 
 
 Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 
 
 all the cities of the Phoceans . . 348 
 Battle of Charonea (which see) . . . 338 
 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 
 Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and 
 destroys the city of Thebes . . . 335 
 Commencement of the Macedonian or 
 
 Grecian Monarchy 331 
 
 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 
 
 throne of Darius 330 
 
 ******* 
 
 Alaric invades Greece. . . a.d. 395 
 The empire under Nicephorus com- 
 menced 811 
 
 Greece mastered by the Latins . . . 1204 
 
 lie-conquered 1261 
 
 Invaded by the Turks . . . . 1350 
 Its final overthrow. See Eastern Empire 1453 
 
 [This country, so long illustrious for the 
 military exploits, the learning, and 
 arts of its people, became of late years 
 the scene of desperate conflicts with 
 the Turks, in order to regain its inde- 
 pendence, and the councils of the great 
 powers of Europe were friendly to the 
 design.] 
 
 Great struggle for independence . . 1770 
 
 The first decided movement, in these 
 latter times, by the Servians . . 1800 
 
 The Servians defeat the Turks at 
 Nyssa .... April 2, 1S07 
 
 100,000 Turks, under Chourschid Pasha, 
 overrun the country, committing the 
 most dreadful excesses . . . 1813 
 
 M urder of Czerni George . . . . 1817 
 
 Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 in which the Gi-eeks join . . . 1821 
 
 Proclamation of Prince Alexander to 
 shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 
 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople . . . April 23, 1S21 
 
 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
 though not engaged in the revolt . . 1821 
 
 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucharest; 
 even women and children not spared. 1821 
 
 Independence of Greece formally pro- 
 claimed .... Jan. 27, 1822 
 
 Siege of Corinth .... Feb. 1822 
 
 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
 most horrible massacre recorded in 
 modern history * . . April 23, 1822 
 
 Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, 
 Thermopyte, and Salonica . July 8, 1822 
 
 National Congress at Argos April 10, 1823 
 
 Victories of Marco Botzaris . June, 1823 
 
 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devoto 
 himself to its cause . . August, 1823 
 
 Lamented death of lord Byron, at Mis- 
 solonghi .... April 19, 1824 
 
 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
 Sam os .... August 16, 1821 
 
 The Provisional Government of Greece 
 instituted .... Oct. 12, 1824 
 
 Landing of Ibrahim Pacha between 
 Coron and Modon . . Feb. 26, 1825 
 
 The Greek fleet defeats that of the 
 Capitan Pacha . . . June 2, 1825 
 
 The Provisional Government of Greece 
 determines to invite the protection of 
 England .... July 24, 1825 
 
 Siege of Missolonghi ; the besieging 
 Turks are defeated in a formidable 
 attack upon it . . August 1, 1S26 
 
 The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet, 
 
 Jan. 28, 1826 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by 
 assault April 23, IS 26 
 
 The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle 
 with Omer Pacha . . . June 1, 1S26 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the 
 Mainotes . . August 8 and 9, 1826 
 
 Reschid Pacha takes Athens . Aug. 15, 1826 
 
 Treaty of London between Great Britain, 
 Russia, and France, on behalf of 
 Greece, signed . . . July 6, 1S27 
 
 Battle of Navarino (inhich see) ; the 
 Turkish fleet destroyed . Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as president 
 of Greece .... Jan. 18, 1S28 
 
 Attack on Carabusa, by sir Thomas 
 Staines, in the Isis frigate, to check 
 the piracies . . . Jau. 31, 1828 
 
 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of 
 State established . . . Feb. 2, 1828 
 
 National bank founded . Feb. 14, 1828 
 
 Greece divided into departments, viz. 
 Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messeuia, 
 Lower Messenia, Lacouia, and Arcadia; 
 and the islands formed also into de- 
 partments .... April 26, 1828 
 
 The Greeks are defeated in an attack on 
 Anatolia .... May 23, 1S2S 
 
 Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with 
 sir Edward Codringt.on, for the evacua- 
 tion of the Morea, and delivery of the 
 Greek captives . . . Aug. 6, 1828 
 
 Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender 
 to the French .... Oct. 6, 1S28 
 
 Final evacuation of the Morea by the 
 Turks Oct. 30, 1828 
 
 Missolonghi surrenders . .May 17, 1829 
 
 Greek National Assembly commences 
 its sittings at Argos . . July 23, 1829 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the indepen- 
 dence of Greece . . April 25, 1830 
 
 Prince Leopold finally declines the sove- 
 reignty May 21, 1830 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, 
 assassinated by the brother and son 
 of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote chief, 
 whom he had imprisoned . Oct. 9, 1831 
 
 The assassins put to death (see article 
 Buryiiig Alive) . . . Oct. 29, 1831 
 
 Otho I. elected king of Greece Jan. 25, 1833 
 
 Colocotroui's conspiracy . Oct. 27, 1833 
 
 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
 force ministerial responsibility and 
 
 * The slaughter lasted 10 days: 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire, 
 which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guaranteed 
 by the consuls of England, France, and Austria; yet even they were, every man of them, butchered ! 
 The only exception made dm-ing the massacre was in favour of the young and more beautiful women 
 and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. When Scio, until now so great an object of 
 admiration to travellers, was entirely consumed, the Turks fired the villages, hemming in on all sides 
 the innocent inhabitants, mostly women and children, to perish amid the flames of their dwellings, or 
 to fall beneath the swords and daggers of the soldiers, as they attempted to escape. 
 
GRE 
 
 305 
 
 GRE 
 
 GREECE, continued. 
 
 national representation, is consum- 
 mated .... Sept. 14, 1S43 
 
 The king accepts tlie new constitution, 
 
 March 16, 1S44 
 
 Admiral Parker, in command of the 
 British Mediterranean fleet, anchors 
 in Basika Bay . . Oct. 28, 1849 
 
 He blockades the harbour of the Piraeus, 
 the Greek government having refused 
 his demand for the payment of moneys 
 due to British subjects, and refused 
 to surrender the islands of Sapienza 
 and Cabrera .... Jan. 18, 1S50 
 
 France interposes her good offices, and 
 the blockade is discontinued, March 1, 1850 
 
 Negotiations between baron Gros and 
 Mr. Wyse, the British minister, ter- 
 minate, and the blockade of Athens is 
 renewed .... April 25, 1850 
 
 A settlement of the Greek question con- 
 cluded in Loudon . . April 19, 1S50 
 
 An arrangement made at Athens gives 
 
 umbrage to France, whose minister is 
 recalled from London ; but the dispute 
 between France and England is ac- 
 commodated by England consenting 
 to substitute for the convention at 
 Athens, that signed in London June 21, 1850 
 
 [See Athens, Macedon, Sparta, Thrace, 
 and other states of Greece.] 
 
 Insurrections against the Porte in Thes- 
 saly and Epirus, favoured by the Greek 
 court . . Jan., Feb., and Mar. 1854 
 
 Rupture between Greece and Turkey, 
 
 March 28, 1854 
 After many remonstrances, the English 
 and French governments send troops, 
 which arrive at the Pirseus ; change 
 of ministry ensues, and the king pro- 
 mises to observe a strict neutrality, 
 
 May 25, 26, 1854 
 See Turkey. 
 
 KING OF GREECE. 
 
 1S32. Otho I., prince of Bavaria, born June 1, 
 1S15 ; under a regency two years ; 
 
 the present king (IS57). 
 
 GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the eastern and 
 western Churches, which in the course of two centuries and a half terminated in a 
 separation. This church is called Greek in contradistinction from the latter, or Roman 
 Church. The Greek Church claims priority as using the language in which the Gospel 
 was first promulgated : many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of 
 the Roman Catholics; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established 
 religion of Russia. 
 
 GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Callinicus, an 
 ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, in order to destroy 
 the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, 
 and 30,000 men were killed. The property of this fire was to burn briskest in water, 
 to diffuse itself on all sides, according to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or 
 a mixture of vinegar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes 
 of copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The invention 
 was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; but is now lost. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. It was first studied in Europe about a.d. 1450— in France, 1473. 
 William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled 
 to acquire its true pronunciation, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the 
 honour to teach Erasmus, 1490. — Wood's Allien. Oxon. England has produced many 
 eminent Greek scholars, of whom mav be mentioned professor Porson, who died in 
 1808; Dr. Parr, who died in 1825; and Dr. C. Burney, who died 1817. 
 
 GREEN-BAG INQUIRY. This inquiry arose out of the famous Green Bag, full of 
 documents of alleged seditions, laid before Parliament by lord Sidmouth, Feb. 2, 1817. 
 Secret committees presented their reports, Feb. 19; and bills were brought in on the 
 21st of the same month, to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prevent .seditious 
 meetings, at the time very general throughout the kingdom. 
 
 GREEN CLOTH, BOARD of. In the department of the lord-steward of the household. 
 The state of the household of the sovereign is entirely committed to the discretion of 
 the lord-steward. Attached to this board was a court, one of the most ancient in 
 England, which had jurisdiction of all offences committed in the king's palaces, and 
 verge of the court. It is called the Green Cloth, from the table whereat they sat 
 being covered with a green cloth ; and without a warrant from this court, none of the 
 king's servants can be arrested for debt. 
 
 GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland about a.d. 980, and thus 
 named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was 
 visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for 
 the whale-fishery by the Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed 
 in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till 
 the following year, when the company's bhips brought them home. — Tindal. The 
 Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. 
 
 x 
 
GRE 306 GRE 
 
 GREENOCK, Scotland. The origin of this town is well authenticated. Prior to 1697, 
 it was an inconsiderable fishing station, but during that year the Scottish Indian and 
 Afriaan Company resolved to erect salt-works in the Frith, and hence arose the 
 attention of sir John Shaw, its superior, to the maritime advantages of its situation. 
 It was erected into a burgh of barony in 17.57. The fisheries here are important. 
 
 GREEN PARK. Forms a part of the ground inclosed by Henry VIII. ; and is united 
 to St. James' and Hyde parks by the road named Constitution-hill. On the north 
 side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, which was filled up in 1856. 
 
 GREENWICH HOSPITAL. One of the noblest structures of the kind in the world. 
 It stands upon the spot where formerly stood the royal palace of several of our 
 monarchs. The palace was erected by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester ; was enlarged 
 by Henry VII., and completed by Henry VITI.; and in its chambers queen Mary 
 and queen Elizabeth were born, and Edward VI. died. Charles II. intended to 
 build a new palace here on a very grand scale, and accordingly erected one wing of 
 this grand edifice, but died before any other part of the design was finished. In this 
 state it remained till Mary and William III. formed the plan of making the palace 
 useful to the kingdom, and the hospital was instituted in 1694. The forfeited estate 
 of the attainted earl of Derwentwater was bestowed upon it, in 1716. Sixpence per 
 month was first contributed by every seaman, and the payment was advanced to one 
 shilling, from June 1797. This hospital lodges about 3000 old and disabled seamen 
 (2710 in 1853), and possesses a revenue exceeding 70,000^. per annum. A charter was 
 granted to it in Dec. 1775. The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion of 
 the buildings appropriated to the pensioners, were destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779. 
 The chapel was rebuilt in 1789. — Greenwich fair was discontinued April 1857. 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir 
 Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, so called from 
 the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astronomer-royal here. The 
 English began to compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some 
 make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a 
 transit instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and 
 Bradley's zenith sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a 
 six-feet reflector; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
 obscura. In 1852, the electric telegraph signal ball and illuminated clock in the 
 Strand were completed and put in connection with those at Greenwich observatory. 
 
 ASTRONOMERS ROYAL. 
 
 John Flamstead 1675 
 
 Dr. Bradley 1742 
 
 Dr. N. Bliss 1762 
 
 Dr. Nevil Maskelvne 1765 
 
 John Pond 1S11 
 
 George Biddell Airy Is35 
 
 (The present Astronomer Royal, 1S57.) 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR. The calendar, so called, was ordained to be adopted by 
 pope Gregory XIII., from whom it derives its name, having been reformed under 
 him, a.d. 1582. It was introduced into the Roman Catholic states of Europe in that 
 year; into most other states, 1699 to 1710. England, Denmark, and Sweden had 
 rejected this calendar: but England adopted it (by act of parliament) Sept. 14 (3rd), 
 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Jublan calendar had amounted to 
 ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calendar. 
 
 GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a.d. 715 ; it was the last kingdom possessed 
 by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491. See Abencerrages. 
 — New Grenada was first visited by Columbus, who was followed by various Spanish 
 adventurers, who conquered it in 1536. — Grenada, in the West Indies, was discovered 
 by Columbus in 1498, and was settled by the French, 1650. It was taken from them 
 by the English in 1762, and was ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed 
 themselves of it again in 1779; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 
 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this 
 island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 
 
 GRENADES. A powerful missile of war, so named, from Qranado, Spanish, or from 
 Pomum granatum. It is a small hollow globe, or ball of iron, about two inches in 
 diameter, which being filled with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touch- 
 hole, the case flies into shatters, to the damage of all who stand near. This shell was 
 invented in 1594. — Harris. 
 
GRE 307 GRO 
 
 GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps" was a company armed with a pouch of hand- 
 grenades, established in France in 1667; and in England in 1685. — Brown. 
 
 GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION. Rt. hon. George Grenville, first lord of the 
 treasury and chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of 
 Bedford), lord president ; duke of Marlborough, privy seal ; earls of Halifax and 
 Sandwich, secretaries of state; earl Gower, lord chamberlain; lord Egmont, admiralty; 
 marquess of Granby, ordnance ; lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), paymaster ; rt. hon. 
 Welbore Ellis, secretary-at-war ; viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy; lord 
 Hillsborough, first lord of trade ; duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c. 
 Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northington), lord chancellor. May et seq., 1763. 
 Terminated by the Rockingham Administration, which see. 
 
 GRENVILLE'S, LORD, ADMINISTRATION. See "All the Talents." 
 
 GRESHAM COLLEGE. Founded and endowed by sir Thomas Gresham, in 1 575. He was 
 the founder of the Royal Exchange, and left a portion of his property in trust to the 
 city and the Mercers' Company to endow this college for, among other uses, lectures 
 in divinity, astronomy, music, and geometry, and readers in civil law, physic, and 
 rhetoric, and to promote general instruction ; he died 1 579. The lectures commenced 
 in Gresham's house near Broad-street, June 1597 ; where the Royal Society first met 
 in 1645, and continued till 1710. The buildings were pulled down in 1768, and the 
 Excise Office erected on the site. The lectures were then read in a room over the 
 Royal Exchange for many years ; on the rebuilding of the present Exchange, the 
 Gresham Committee erected the present building in Basinghall-street, which was 
 designed by G. Smith, and opened for lectures, Nov. 2, 1843. It cost above 70001. 
 
 GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGES. The famous parish of Graitney is the nearest and 
 most easily accessible point in Scotland from the sister kingdom ; and in its neigh- 
 bourhood fugitive marriages were contracted. The trade was founded by a tobacconist, 
 named John Paisley, who lived to a great age, and died so late as the year 1814. The 
 common phrase, Gretna-Green, arose from his first residence, which was at Megg"s 
 Hill, on the common or green betwixt Graitney and Springfield, to the last of which 
 villages he removed in 1782. A man named Elliott was lately the principal officiating 
 priest. The ceremony was brief and simple. The parson (a tobacconist or blacksmith) 
 asked the anxious lovers whence they came, and what parish they belonged to, in 
 order to register their answers ; they were next asked if they were willing to receive 
 each other for better, for worse, &c. This being ascertained, and a wedding-ring 
 passed between them, they were declared to be married persons. The fees paid to 
 the parson are said to have been sometimes very handsome — so much as a hundred 
 pounds having been occasionally paid him for his five minutes' work. The General 
 Assembly, in 1826, attempted to suppress this system ; but without effect. — A Bill 
 was passed in 1856 to make these marriages illegal after that year. 
 
 GREY'S, EARL, ADMINISTRATION. Earl Grey, first lord of the treasury; viscount 
 Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer; marquess of Lansdowne, president of the 
 council ; earl of Durham, privy seal ; viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, 
 home, foreign, and colonial secretaries; sir James Graham, admiralty ; lord' Auckland 
 and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord. Glenelg), boards of trade and control ; lord 
 Holland, duchy of Lancaster; lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces; duke of 
 Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
 Nov. 1830. This ministry, which carried the Reform bill, terminated July 1834. 
 
 GRIST MILLS. TLey were invented in Ireland, and their origin is thus related ; 
 Ciemond, the fairest woman of her time, and concubine of Cormock M'Kart, monarch 
 of Ireland, was compelled by the queen, her rival, to grind nine measures of corn in 
 a hand-mill. But the monarch, in commiseration of that hard treatment of her, 
 invented the grist-mill, a.d. 214. — Hist, of Ireland. 
 
 GROATS. This name has been proverbial for a small coin. — Shakspeare. It is from the 
 Dutch groat, and is a coin of the value of fourpence. — Ray. Groats were the largest 
 silver currency in England until after 1351, and were coined in almost all reigns. 
 The modern fourpence is the diminutive groat. Of these there were coined, in 1836, 
 to the value of 70,884Z; in 1837, 16,038Z. ; and large amounts since. 
 
 GROCERS. The business of grocer is one of the oldest trades in England. The word 
 anciently meant "ingrossers or monopolisers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edw. III. 
 1374. The Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of 
 London, and was incorporated in 1429. 
 
 x2 
 
GRO 308 GUI 
 
 GROCHOW, BATTLE of. Near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw, between the Poles and 
 Russians. After an obstinate contest, continuing the whole of one day, and great 
 part of the next, the Poles remained masters of the field of battle. The Russians 
 shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw. They 
 are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000, Feb. 20, 1831. 
 
 GROG. The sea term for rum and water, arose from admiral Vernon, who was called 
 Old Orog, having first introduced it on board ship, about a.d. 1743. This brave 
 admiral did great service in the West Indies, by taking Porto Bello, Chagre, &c., but 
 by his disagreement with the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
 Carthagena failed. He commanded in the Downs in 1745, and next year was dismissed 
 the service by his majesty's command, for writing two pamphlets, by which letters 
 of the secretary of state &c. were made known. He died in 1757. 
 
 GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a.d. 1493. It was colonised by the French 
 in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the 
 English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the 
 late coalition against France, gave them this island. It was however by the consent 
 of Sweden, restored to France, at the peace in 1814. 
 
 GUANO, or HUANO. The Peruvian term for manure. The excrement of sea-birds 
 that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This substance is found 
 chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying off the coasts of Peru and 
 Bolivia. Humboldt was the first, or one of the first, by whom it was brought to 
 Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture, and it has recently been introduced 
 into England. — M'Culloch. The importations into the United Kingdom appear to 
 have commenced in 1842. As many as 283,000 tons of guano were imported in 1845, 
 of which 207,679 tons were from the western coast of Africa. In the subsequent 
 years, the importations have been equally large. They amounted to 243,016 tons in 
 1851 ; of these latter, 6522 tons came from Western Australia. 
 
 GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 
 B.C.— -Eusebius. Guards about the persons of European kings is an early institution. 
 Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of England, 2 Hen. VII. 1485. 
 Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. The three regiments, the 1st, 2nd, and 
 3rd Foot Guards, were raised a.d. 1660, and the command of them given to colonel 
 Russell, general Monk, and lord Linlithgow. The second regiment, or Coldstream, 
 was the first raised. See Coldstream. The Horse Grenadier Guards, first troop, 
 raised in 1693, was commanded by general Cholmondeley ; the second troop was 
 raised in 1702, and was commanded by lord Forbes : this corps was reduced in 1783, 
 the officers retiring on full pay. See Horse Guards and Yeomen of the Guard. 
 
 GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America declared independent March 21, 1847. 
 President (1857) General Carrera, elected 1851. Population 970,450. 
 
 GUELPHS and QHIBELINS. These were party names, and are said to have been 
 derived from Hiewelf and Hiegibelin, the names of towns. The designations began 
 in Italy, a.d. 1139, and distinguished the contending parties during the civil wars in 
 Italy and Germany ; the Guelphs were for the pope ; the Ghibelins for the emperor. 
 Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England. See Brunswick. The 
 Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the 
 prince regent, afterwards Geo. IV. in 1816. 
 
 GUILDHALL, London. This edifice was built a.d. 1411. It was so damaged by the 
 great fire of 1666, that its re-erection became necessary, an undertaking which was 
 completed in 1669, no part of the ancient building remaining, except the interior of 
 the porch and the walls of the hall. The front was not erected until 1789. Beneath 
 the west window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to represent a Saxon 
 and an ancient Briton. The hall has contained 7000 persons, and is used for city feasts. 
 
 GUILLOTINE. The inventor of the guillotine (about 1785) was Joseph Ignatius Guil- 
 lotin, an eminent physician, distinguished as a senator, and esteemed for his humanity; 
 his design was to render capital punishment less painful by decapitation; and he felt 
 greatly annoyed at this instrument of death being called by his name. He was 
 imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some hazard of being subjected 
 to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived 
 to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris, and died in 1814, 
 greatly respected. — An instrument somewhat similar may be seen in an engraving 
 accompanying the Symbolical Qucesliones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels 
 
GUI 309 GUY 
 
 of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there called the Mannaia. At Halifax, England 
 (see Halifax and Maiden), and in Scotland, it was likewise in use, and served to 
 behead its introducei*, the regent Morton. 
 
 GUINEA SLAVE TRADE. Sir John Hawkins is, unhappily for his memory, branded 
 on the page of history as the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who 
 made a merchandise of the human species. — Bell. He was assisted in his enterprise 
 by a number of English gentlemen, who subscribed money for the purpose. He 
 sailed from England with three ships; purchased negroes, sold them at Hispaniola, 
 and returned home richly laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, 
 5 Eliz., 1563. This voyage led to other similar enterprises. — Hahluyt. The slave 
 trade was abolished by act of parliament, March 25, 1807. See Slave Trade. 
 
 GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold 
 brought from the coast of Guinea, a.d. 1 673. They were then valued at 30s. and 
 were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 22s. to 21s. by 
 parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into guineas in 1732. The first 
 guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of 
 this African gold. Since the first issue of sovereigns, in 1816, guineas have not been 
 coined. 
 
 GUN-COTTON. Among the discoveries made in the year 1846, that of gun-cotton, a 
 new explosive power, attracted the greatest interest throughout Europe, as having 
 much greater projectile force than gun-powder. This discovery was made by professor 
 Schoenbein, and being protected by a patent, was consequently for a time secret. The 
 professor attended the meeting of the British Association in September, 1846; but 
 the fame of his explosive was known some time before his visit to this country. Gun- 
 cotton is, to all appearance, common cotton wool, both as seen by the naked eye and 
 under a strong lens, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture composed of equal 
 parts of nitric and sulphuric acid, and afterwards dried. Mr. Grove and numerous 
 other persons made experiments on it in England. Dr. Boettinger and others also lay 
 claim to the discovery.* 
 
 GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or 
 Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, 
 about A.D. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in 
 various parts of the world. Some say that the Chinese possessed the art a number 
 of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own 
 famous Roger Bacon, in his treatise De Nullitate Magics, which was published at 
 Oxford, in 1216. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing a 
 mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm — 
 king, lords, and commons, there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This 
 diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby, and many high persons were 
 leagued in the enterprise. Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of 
 Lords preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the 
 family of Northumberland) were killed; sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, 
 Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux, 
 Jan. 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged 
 the barrels of gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when 
 it was converted into offices. 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London Hospital is indebted for its origin to 
 Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who, after having bestowed 
 immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another 
 hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the 
 present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It cost him 18,793?. in 
 addition to which he left, to endow it, the immense sum of 219,499Z. A splendid 
 bequest, amounting to 200,000Z., was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide 
 additional accommodation for 100 patients; his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 
 
 _* The diet of Frankfort voted, October 3, 1846, a recompense of 100,000 florins to professor Schoen- 
 bein and Dr. Boettinger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, provided the authorities of Mayence, 
 after seeing it tried, pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive ; but its use, as a substitute 
 for gunpowder, in gunnery, is still a matter of uncertainty, as the ignition of the cotton is not under 
 the same control. Of its utility, however, in blasting and mining operations, not the slightest doubt 
 can exist. Though cheaper and more powerful than gunpowder, it is still inferior to it in many 
 respects. 
 
GYM 
 
 310 
 
 HAC 
 
 GYMNASIUM. A place among the Greeks where all the public exercises were per- 
 formed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also philosophers, 
 poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing, the 
 athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymnasium — yvfivos, nudus. They 
 anointed themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies 
 slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. The first modern treatise on the subject 
 of Gymnastics was published in Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. 
 
 GYMNOSOPHIST.<E. A sect of philosophers in India. The Gymnosophistae lived 
 naked, as their name implies : for thirty-seven years they exposed themselves in 
 the open air, to the heat of the sun, the inclemency of the seasons, and the coldness 
 of the night. They were often seen in the fields, fixing their eyes full upon the 
 disc of the sun from the time of its rising till the hour of its setting. Sometimes 
 they stood whole days upon one foot in burning sand. Alexander was astonished 
 at the sight of men who seemed to despise bodily pain, and who inured themselves 
 to the greatest tortures without uttering a groan, or expressing any fear. The 
 Brahmins were a branch of the sect of the Gymnosophistse, 334 B.C. — Pliny. 
 
 GYPSIES, or EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and peculiar race 
 of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a.d. 1517, having 
 quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the descendants of a great 
 body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed 
 in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave 
 them a universal reception in that age of credulity and superstition. Although 
 expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, they are yet 
 found in every part of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered 
 their footing, they have contrived to maintain it to this day. In England an act 
 was made against their itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen 
 persons were executed at one assizes for having associated with gipsies for about a 
 month, contrary to the statute. The gipsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, 
 and they were treated as vagrants, May, 1797. There were in Spain alone, pre- 
 viously to 1800, more than 120,000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist 
 in England. Notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like 
 the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 
 
 H. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed for the security and liberty 
 of individuals, 31 Charles II. c. 2, May 27, 1679.* This act is next in importance to 
 Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of England can 
 be detained in prison except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified 
 by the law. The Habeas Corpus act can alone be suspended by the authority of 
 parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. In 
 such a case, the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent 
 welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being 
 assigned. — Blackstone. 
 
 Act suspended for six mouths during the 
 
 Scots' rebellion .... a.d. 1715 
 Suspended for six months owing to the 
 
 same cause 1716 
 
 Suspended for twelve months . . 1722 
 Suspended for six months . . . . 1744 
 Suspended for one year .... 1745 
 Suspended for six months . . . . 1779 
 Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to a message 
 
 from the king 1794 
 
 Suspended in Ireland, on account of the 
 
 great rebellion 1798 
 
 Again, and in England . . Aug. 28, 1799 
 
 Suspended on a division, 189 against 42, 
 majority 147 . . . April 19, 1801 
 
 Again, on account of Irish insurrection. 1803 
 
 Again, owing to alleged secret meetings 
 (see Green Bag) . . . Feb. 21, 1817 
 
 Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought 
 into parliament . . . Jan. 28, 1818 
 
 Suspended in Ireland, owing to the in- 
 surrection in that kingdom July 25, 1S48 
 
 Restored there, the rebellion having 
 been suppressed . . . March 1, 1849 
 
 HACKNEY COACHES. They are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob-horse 
 (haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly harnessed (to 
 accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-a-haquene'e ; 
 hence the name. The legend that traces their origin to Hackney, near London, is a 
 
 * By this act, if any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or of the queen herself, he may 
 have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of queen's bench or common pleas, who 
 shall determine whether his committal be just. 
 
HAG 311 HAL 
 
 vulgar error. They were first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 Will. 
 & Mary, 1694. — Survey of London. The number plying in London, fixed at 1000, and 
 their fares raised, 1771. The number increased in 1799, and frequently since. Office 
 removed to Somerset-house, 1782. Coach-makers made subject to a licence, 1785. 
 Hackney chariots licensed in 1814. Lost and Found office for the recovery of property 
 left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 Geo. III. 1815. This office, formerly 
 held at Somerset-house, was removed to the Excise-office, Broad-street. The number 
 of hackney coaches ceased being limited after 5th Jan. 1833, by statute 2 Will. IV. 
 1831. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin, and were licensed 1823. All public 
 vehicles are now regulated by the Acts 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 33, 127 (June and Aug. 1853), 
 by which they are placed under the control of the Commissioners of Police. See 
 Cabriolets and Omnibuses. 
 
 HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the States 
 General, and residence of the former earls of Holland, the princes of Holland, &c. 
 Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip II. of Spain, and held 
 a conference in 1610, upon the five articles of the remonstrants, which occasioned 
 the synod of Dort. Treaty of the Hague entered into with a view to preserve the 
 equilibrium of the North, signed by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. 
 De Witt was torn in pieces here, Aug. 20, 1762. The French took possession of the 
 Hague in January, 1795 ; favoured by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where 
 the inhabitants and troops declared in their favour, a general revolution ensued, and 
 the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and escape to 
 England. The Hague was evacuated in Nov. 1813, shortly after the battle of Leipsic, 
 and the stadtholder returned to his dominions and arrived here in Dec. that year. 
 
 HAILEYBURY COLLEGE. An institution of the East India Company, wherein 
 students are prepared for the company's service in India. It was founded in 1800. 
 By statute 1 Vict. July, 1837, it is enacted " that no person is to be admitted to the 
 college as a student whose age shall exceed twenty-one years, nor any person appointed 
 or sent out to India as a writer in the Company's service whose age shall exceed 
 23 years."— By 18 & 19 Vict. c. 53, the college will be closed Dec. 31, 1857. 
 
 HAINAULT FOREST, Essex. One of the celebrated forests of England. In this 
 forest stood the ancient Fairlop oak {which see), blown down in February, 1820. It is 
 said to have been 1800 years old. An act of parliament was passed, 14 & 15 Vict. 
 c. 43, for disafforesting Hainault ; the deer to be removed, and all persons having 
 forestal or other rights to have compensation. It is then to be inclosed, and roads 
 made, Aug. 1, 1851. 
 
 HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the 
 appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment 
 among them. The royal family of France had it as a particular mark and privilege 
 of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear long hair artfully dressed and curled. 
 The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution. — Isiclorus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus 
 forbade the clergy to wear long hair, a.d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during 
 the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Bound-heads. It was again out of 
 fashion in 1795; and very short hair was in mode in 1801. Hair-powder came into 
 use in 1590 ; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it, which yielded at one 
 time 20,000£. per annum. 
 
 HALIDON-HILL, BATTLE of. Fought near Berwick, between the English and Scots, 
 in which the latter were defeated with the loss of upwards of 13,000 slain, while a 
 comparatively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III. July 19, 
 1333. After this great and decisive victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the 
 throne of Scotland. — Robertson. 
 
 HALIFAX, Yoekshire. The woollen manufacture being very great, and prodigious 
 quantities of cloths, kerseys, shalloons, &c. being continually on the tenters and liable 
 to be stolen, the town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally 
 any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
 by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment. King James I. in 
 1620, took this power away. — See Maiden. 
 
 HALIFAX, EARL of, His ADMINISTRATION". The earl of Halifax became minister 
 in the first year of the reign of George I. His ministry was composed of the following 
 members : Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury (succeeded on his death 
 by the earl of Carlisle) ; William, lord Cowper, afterwards earl Cowper, lord Chan- 
 
HAL 312 HAN 
 
 cellor ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president; Thomas, marquess of Wharton, 
 privy seal; Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty; James Stanhope, afterwards earl 
 Stanhope, and Charles, viscount Townshend, secretaries of state ; sir Richard Onslow, 
 chancellor of the exchequer; dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 
 rt. hon. Robert Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 1714. Lord Halifax died the next year, 
 1715. He was soon after succeeded by the rt. hon. Robert Walpole, whose first 
 administration commenced in this latter year. 
 
 HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the Jewish 
 hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian Church. The meaning of the 
 first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were first introduced by 
 Haggai, the prophet, about 584 B.C.; and their introduction from the Jewish into the 
 Christian Church is ascribed to St. Jerome, one of the primitive Latin fathers, about 
 a.d. 390. — Care's Hist. Lit. 
 
 HALYS, BATTLE of. The great battle fought upon the river Halys between the 
 Lydians and Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, on 
 the 28th of May, which occasioned a conclusion of the war between the two king- 
 doms. — Blair. [This eclipse had been predicted many years before by Thales of 
 Miletus, 585 B.C.] 
 
 HAMBURG. The company of " Hambro' Merchants " was incorporated in 1296. France 
 declared war upon Hamburg for its treachery in giving up Napper Tandy (see Tandy) , 
 Oct. 1799. British property sequestrated, March 1801. Hamburg taken by the 
 French after the battle of Jena in 1806. Incorporated with France Jan. 1810. 
 Evacuated by the French on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813; and 
 restored to its independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, 
 which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses; it 
 continued for three days, May 4, 1842. On Jan. 1, 1855, more than half the city was 
 inundated by the Elbe. 
 
 HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the Manor- 
 house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1525, the cardinal presented it to his royal 
 master, Henry VIII.; it being, perhaps, the most splendid offering ever made by a 
 subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, 
 died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of 
 the old apartments were pulled down, and the grand inner court built by William III. 
 in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the 
 Presbyterians and the members of the Established Church, which led to a new trans- 
 lation of the Bible. See Conference. 
 
 HANAPER OFFICE. An office of the court of Chancery, where writs relating to the 
 business of the subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in hanaperio (in a 
 hamper) ; and those relating to the crown were kept in •pane a baga (a little bag). 
 Hence arose the names Hanaper and Petty Bag Office. The hanaper was originally a 
 wicker basket, with a cover and a lock, and made for easy removal from place to place. 
 
 HANAU, BATTLE of. Between a division of the combined armies of Austria and 
 Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, and the French, 70,000 strong, under 
 Napoleon. The French were on their retreat from Leipsic when encountered by the 
 allies at Hanau. The French suffered very severely, though the allies, who displayed 
 great military skill and bravery, were compelled to retire, Oct. 29, 1813. 
 
 HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. The first musical festival in commemoration of this 
 illustrious composer was held in Westminster Abbey, May 26, 1784. It was the 
 grandest display of the kind ever attempted in any nation, King George III. and 
 Queen Charlotte, and above 3000 persons being present. The musical band con- 
 tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers, and the receipts of three suc- 
 cessive days were 12,746?. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791, 
 when they ceased till the second great commemoration on June 24, 26, and 28, 1834, 
 in the presence of king William IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644 
 performers. In consequence of this commemoration the Sacred Harmonic Society 
 was formed, which meets at Exeter hall. This society, in conjunction with the 
 Crystal Palace company, projected a grand performance of Handel's music in 1859, 
 the centenary of his death. The performances on June 15, 17, 19, 1857, at the 
 Crystal Palace, Sydenham, were rehearsals. On June 17, there were 2000 vocal and 
 400 instrumental performers in the presence of the queen, prince, and .11,000 
 persons. 
 
HAN 
 
 313 
 
 HAP 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, used to be worn in England by 
 gentlemen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, the value of them being from 
 five to twelve pence for each, in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. — Stoiu's Chron. Hand- 
 kerchiefs were of early manufacture, and are mentioned in our oldest works. Those 
 of the celebrated Paisley manufacture were first made in that town in 1713. 
 
 HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbarous 
 punishment took place upon a pirate named William Marise, a nobleman's son, 
 25 Hen. III. 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were 
 arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut 
 down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and 
 then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI. 1447. — Stow. The punishment of death by hanging has 
 been abolished in numerous cases by various statutes. See Death, Punishment of. 
 Hanging in chains was abolished 4 Will. IV. 1834. 
 
 HANGO BAY. On June 5, 1855, a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste, left the British 
 steamer, Cossack, with a flag of truce, to land some Russian prisoners. They were 
 fired on by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several wounded, and the rest 
 made prisoners. The Russian account, asserting the irregularity to have been on the 
 side of the English, has not been substantiated. 
 
 HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got 
 possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen, Verden, and other duchies and principalities. 
 Hanover became the ninth electorate, a.d. 1692. It was seized by Prussia, April 3, 
 1801; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803; and annexed to Westphalia, 
 March 1, 1810. Regained for England by the crown prince of Sweden, Nov. 6, 1813, 
 and erected into a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed 
 lieutenant-governor, in Nov. 1816. Visited by George IV. in Oct. 1821. Ernest, duke 
 of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837. In 1848, he granted a con- 
 stitution to his subjects with electoral rights, which has just been annulled in obedience 
 to the decree of the Federal diet of April 12, 1855. 
 
 DUKES, ELECTORS, AND KINGS OP HANOVER. 
 
 1665. John, second son of prince Chi-istian 
 Lewis, duke of Brunswick-Zell, be- 
 came duke of Hanover ; succeeded 
 by bis son. 
 
 1679. Ernest-Augustus ; created elector of 
 Hanover in 1692. 
 [He married the princess Sophia, 
 daughter of Frederick, elector pala- 
 tine, and of Elizabeth, the daughter 
 of James I. of England.] 
 
 169S. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; 
 married his cousin, the heiress of the 
 duke of Brunswick-Zell. Became 
 king of Great Britain, Aug. 1714, as 
 George I. 
 
 1727. George-Augustus, his son ; George II. 
 of England. 
 
 1760. George-William-Frederick, his grand- 
 son, George III. of England. 
 
 KINGS OF HANOVER. 
 
 IS! 4. George-William-Frederick (the preced- 
 ing sovereign), first king of Hanover, 
 Oct. 2. 
 
 1S20. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son ; 
 George IV. of England. 
 
 1830. William-Henry, his brother; "William 
 IV. of England. 
 
 [Hanover separated from the crown of 
 
 Great Britain.] 
 1S37. Ernest-Augustus, brother to William 
 
 IV. of England, on whose demise he 
 
 succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) 
 
 to the throne of Hanover. 
 1S51. George V. (Frederick) son of Ernest : 
 
 ascended the throne on the death of 
 
 his father, Nov. IS. The present 
 
 (1857) king of Hanover. 
 
 HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION. See Accession. 
 
 HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a 
 number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of 
 the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 
 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but 
 its strength and reputation increasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe 
 but desired to be admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six 
 cities. They grew so formidable as to proclaim war against Waldemar, king of 
 Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12,000 
 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered 
 the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke 
 up the strength of the association. In 1630, the only towns of note of this once 
 powerful league retaining the name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
 
 HAPSBURG, HOUSE op. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburg 
 was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence near Schintznach. This 
 castle was the cradle cf the house of Austria, whose ancestors may be traced back to 
 
HAR 314 HAR 
 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, when Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, wh 
 elevated to the empire of Germany, and archduchy of Austria, a.d. 1273. See Germany. 
 
 HARDY, HORNE TOOKE, and THELWALL, TRIAL of. See Home Tooke. 
 
 HARLAW, BATTLE of. Fought between the earl of Mar, who commanded the royal 
 army, and Donald, the lord of the Isles. It was very fatal to many of the nobility and 
 gentiy, and the bravest soldiers in the kingdom, and Buchanan asserts there perished 
 in this conflict more illustrious men than had fallen in foreign wars during many 
 previous years. The battle was continued with great desperation on both sides, but 
 neither army was victorious, 1 July 24, 1411. 
 
 HARLEIAN LIBRARY. Containing 7000 manuscripts, was bought by the rt. hon. 
 Mr. secretary Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and Mortimer, and is now in the 
 British Museum. A large portion of this nobleman's life was spent in adding to his 
 literary stores, in the collection of which he expended a great part of the wealth his 
 public employments had enabled him to accumulate. He died May 21, 1724. 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, in 
 consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in harmony, whose 
 weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty- 
 six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and fourty-four. — The harmonica, or 
 musical glasses ; airs from the tones of them were first formed by an Irish gentleman 
 named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The instrument was improved by Dr. Franklin in 
 1760. See Musical Glasses. 
 
 HARMONISTS. A sect of enthusiasts founded in Wm-temberg by Rapp, about 1780. 
 Not much is known of their tenets, but they held their property in common, and 
 considered marriage only a civil contract. They emigrated to America, not finding 
 toleration in Germany, and built New Harmony in Indiana in 1815. The well-known 
 visionary and enthusiast, Robert Owen, purchased this town ; but he ultimately failed 
 in his scheme of a " social " community, and returned to England to propagate 
 his doctrines, with, however, little success. See Socialists. The Harmonists re- 
 moved to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania in 1822. 
 
 HARNESS. The leathern dressings used for horses to draw chariots, and also chariots, 
 are said to have been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who was made a con- 
 stellation after his death, under the name of Bootes, about 1487 B.C. Harness was 
 first made of ropes, then of sea-weed, and afterwards of leather, as at present, for 
 coaches and waggons. — Pardon ; Ashe. 
 
 HARO, the CRY of. The Clameur de Haro is derived from Raoul, the French name 
 for Rollo, ancestor of our Norman princes of England, whose equity was not inferior 
 to his valour, and whose very name had an effect upon his subjects, even after his 
 death. This cry was set up, because Rollo had administered justice with such exact- 
 ness, that those who had injury done them used to call out A Raovl! By virtue 
 of this cry, the person who met an adverse party in the streets, obliged him to go 
 before the judge, who decided their differences, at least provisionally. — Henav.lt. 
 
 HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played the harp before Saul. — 
 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the moderns. The Romans 
 had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very few strings. The Cimbri or 
 English Saxons had this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp was strung with 
 gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. One of the most 
 ancient harps existing is that of Bryan Boiroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was given 
 by his son Donagh to pope John XVIII. together with the crown and other regalia 
 of his father, in order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. 
 Adrian IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to the kingdom of Ireland 
 in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to Henry 
 VIII., who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarde : it then came into possession 
 of the family of De Burgh ; next'into that of Mac Mahon of Clenagh, county of Clare ; 
 afterwards into that of Mac Namara of Limerick : and was at length deposited by the 
 right hon. Wilham Conyngham in the College Museum, Dublin, in 1782. 
 
 HARRISON'S TIMEPIECE. Mr. John Harrison, an ingenious mechanic of Foulby, 
 near Pontefract, was the inventor of this celebrated instrument. His first timepiece 
 was produced in 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749; and his fourth, which 
 procured him the reward of 20,000^. promised (12th Anne) by the Board of Longi- 
 
HAR 315 HAT 
 
 tude, was produced a few years after. He obtained 10,000L of his reward iu 1764. 
 His time-piece was perfected in 1772. See articles Clocks and Watches. 
 
 HARROGATE. The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 
 Slingsby in 1620 : a dome was erected over the well at the expense of lord Rosslyn 
 in 1786. There are two other chalybeate springs, called the Alum well and the 
 Turwhet well. The most noted of the mineral springs is the sulphureous well, which 
 is of more recent discovery. The theatre was erected in 1788; and there are 
 an assembly-room and a library. 
 
 HARROW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL. Founded and endowned by John Lyons (who died 
 in 1592), and distinguished as one of the first classical seminaries in England. To 
 encourage archery, the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
 annually on the 4th of August; but the custom has been abolished. The church 
 may be seen for many miles round, and thus gave rise to the well-known Ion-mot 
 of Charles II., who cut short some theological discussion that took place in his 
 presence relative to the claims of religious sects to the title of the visible church, by 
 declaring " that the visible church was the parish church of Harrow, which could be 
 seen everywhere." 
 
 HARTWELL, Buckinghamshire. The retreat of Louis XVIIL, king of France. He 
 had an asylum in Russia, and had resided also at Warsaw. He landed in England 
 at Yarmouth, Oct. 6, 1807, and took up his residence at Gosfield Hall, in Essex, and 
 afterwards came to Hartwell, living in retirement, as the count de Lille. His consort 
 died here in 1810. On his restoration to the throne, Louis, on April 20, 1814, 
 entered London in much state from his retreat at Hartwell, attended by the life- 
 guards, and many of the kiDg's carriages, and accompanied by the prince regent. 
 He stopped at Grillon's hotel, where he kept his court for some days, receiving the 
 congratulations of the lord mayor, citizens and nobility ; and embarked at Dover, for 
 France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
 
 HASTINGS, BATTLE or. One of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 
 more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of England, and 
 William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and kingdom. William, 
 hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned king of England, and introduced 
 a memorable epoch, known as the Conquest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 
 1066. The day of this battle was, also, the anniversary of Harold's birth. He with 
 his two brothers, also slain, was interred at Waltham Abbey, Essex. 
 
 HASTINGS, WARREN, TRIAL of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, tried by 
 the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but acquitted, although 
 he had committed many acts during his government which, it was thought, ought to 
 have led to a different result. Among other charges against him, was his acceptance 
 of a present of 100,000^. from the nabob of Oude (see Chunar, Treaty of); and this 
 was not a solitary instance of this irregular means of accumulating wealth. The trial 
 lasted seven years and three months; it commenced Feb. 13, 1788, and terminated 
 April 25, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. 
 Hastings, attracted universal and merited admiration. 
 
 HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT on the LIFE of GEORGE III. May 11, 1800, was afield- 
 day in Hyde-park ; and during a review of the troops a shot from an undiscovered 
 hand was fired, which wounded a young gentleman who stood near the king. On the 
 evening of the «ame day, his majesty was at Drury-lane theatre, when a man from 
 the pit fired a pistol at him ; his name was Hatfield ; but he was found upon his 
 trial to be deranged, and was sentenced to be confined as a lunatic during the re- 
 mainder of his life. Hatfield died Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69 years. 
 
 HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a.d. 1404. They are men- 
 tioned in history at the period when Charles "VII. made his triumphal entry into 
 Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with arich 
 plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the general use of hats and caps is to 
 be dated, at least in France, which henceforward began to take place of the chape- 
 rons and hoods that had been worn before in France. — Henault. Hats were first 
 manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time both men and 
 women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stow. Very high-crowned hats were worn by 
 queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
 stamp-duty was laid upon hats in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 
 
HAV 316 HEA 
 
 HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 
 1562. It was successfully attacked for three days from July 6 to 9, 1759. Again 
 bombarded in 1794 and 1795, and by sir Richard Strachan, May 25, 1798. Declared to 
 be in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts of the British to burn the 
 shipping here failed, Aug. 7, 1804. 
 
 HAWKERS and PEDLARS. First licensed to sell their commodities in 1697. They 
 were anciently esteemed fraudulent persons who went from place to place to sell or 
 buy any commodity in a clandestine or unfair and unlicensed manner; but now they 
 are those who sell about the streets by virtue of a license from commissioners who 
 are appointed for that purpose. 
 
 HAYMARKET, London. The hay-market in this street was opened 1664, in the 
 reign of Charles II. — Stow. The Haymarket-theatre was originally opened in 1702. 
 The bottle-coDJuror's dupery of the public occurred at this theatre, Jan. 16, 1748. 
 See Bottle Conjuror. Mr. Foote's patent, 1747. The theatre purchased by the late 
 Mr. Column of Mr. Foote, for a life annuity, Jan. 1, 1777. — Rebuilt 1767; again by 
 Mr. Nash, the present structure, in 1821. — A fatal accident occurred in endeavouring 
 to gain admission, Feb. 3, 1794 ; sixteen persons were trodden to death, and numbers 
 bruised and wounded, many of whom afterwards died. See Theatres. The late 
 market here for hay was removed to Cumberland-market, Jan. 1, 1831. 
 
 HAYTI, or Haiti. The Indian name of St. Domingo. Discovered by Columbus in 
 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have desti'oyed in 
 battle or cold blood 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including women and children. 
 It remained in the hands of the Spaniards till 1630, when the Filibusters and French 
 Buccaneers seized and held great part of it till 1697, when the French government 
 took possession of the whole colony. The negroes revolted against France, Aug. 23, 
 1791, and massacred nearly all the whites in 1793. The French directory recognised 
 Toussaint l'Ouverture as general-in-chief in 1794. Toussaint established an inde- 
 pendent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, 
 May 7, 1802, and was conducted to France, where he died in 1803. A new insurrec- 
 tion having broke out under the command of Dessalines, the French quitted the 
 island in Nov. 1803. Dessalines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the 
 whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned emperor by the 
 title of Jacques I. Oct. 8, 1S04. He was assassinated Oct. 17, 1806, when the isle was 
 divided. Henry Christophe, a man of colour, became president in Feb. 1807, and was 
 crowned emperor by the title of Henry I. in March, 1811; while Pethion ruled as 
 president at Port-au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same 
 year. Pethion died, and Boyer was elected in his room, in May, 1818. — Christophe 
 committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo in Dec. 
 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Hayti was proclaimed 
 an empire under its late president Solouque, who took the title of Faustin I. Aug. 
 26, 1849; crowned April 18, 1852. His son came to England for education in Dec. 
 1853, and assumed the name of Dalval. The peace of the island has since been 
 frequently disturbed. Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo was repulsed 
 Feb. 1, 1856. His own subjects threaten revolt. 
 
 HEAD ACT. The most iniquitous and merciless statute ever passed by a parliament. — 
 Scully. It was enacted in Ireland by the Junto of the Pale, at the town of Trim, 
 the earl of Desmond being lord deputy, 5 Edw. IV. 1465 ; and under it indis- 
 criminate murder of the native Irish was committed, and the murderers pardoned. 
 For the nature aiad objects of this act, see note to article Ireland, a.d. 1465. 
 
 HEALTH, GENERAL BOARD of. The Public Health act, for the promotion of the 
 public health, was passed 11 & 12 Vict. (c. 63), Aug. 31, 1848. It directs the appoint- 
 ment of local boards throughout England for the purposes of the act. This statute, 
 which is minute in its provisions, and already salutary in its operation, has been 
 followed by other acts of equally sanitary regulation, whereof one is the Lodging 
 Houses acts, passed in July, 1851. This board was reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and 
 sir B. Hall was placed at its head with a salary of 20002. ; succeeded by the rt. hon. 
 W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855. The expenses for the year 1856-7 were 12,325?. 
 
 HEARTH, or CHIMNEY TAX. An oppressive and unpopular tax upon every fire- 
 place or hearth in England imposed by Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 
 200,OOOZ. a year. It was abolished by William and Mary at the Revolution. It was 
 afterwards imposed again, and again abolished. This tax was levied in Ireland, but 
 
HEB 317 HEL 
 
 it has been abolished, with a number of other imposts, since tho termination of the 
 late war. 
 HEBRIDES, NEW. Discovered by the navigator Quiros, who, under the impression 
 that they were a part of a southern continent, called them Tierra Australia del 
 Espiritu Santo, a.d. 1606. Bougainville visited them in 1768, and found that the. 
 land was not connected, but composed of islands, which he called the great Cyclades. 
 Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave 
 them the name they now bear. 
 
 HECATOMB, a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen, more particularly 
 observed by the Laced aamonians when they possessed a hundred capital cities. 
 In the course of time this sacrifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen ; and in the 
 end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. 
 
 HECLA, MOUNT. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a.d. 1004. About 
 twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most 
 dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1766, 
 since when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with great difficulty. For 
 particulars of this eruption, see Iceland. The mount was in a violent eruption in 
 April 1846. Three new craters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the 
 height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several hills, and pieces of pumice 
 stone and scoriae of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half; the ice 
 and snow which had covered the mountain for centuries were wholly melted into 
 prodigious floods. 
 
 HEGIRA, ERA of the. Dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
 which event took place in the night of Thursday, the 15th July, a.d. 622. The era 
 commences on the following day, viz. the 16th July. Many chronologists have 
 computed this era from the 15th July. But Cantemir has given examples proving 
 that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the first day of the era; and there is now 
 no doubt it is so. See Mahometanism and Medina. 
 
 HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, was formerly 
 the capital of the Palatinate ; the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, 
 a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, aud the elector removed 
 his residence to Maunheim. Here was the celebrated Heidelberg Tun, constructed 
 in 1343, when it contained twenty-one pipes of wine. Another was made in 1664, 
 which held 600 hogsheads. This was emptied and knocked to pieces by the French 
 in 1688 ; but a new and a larger one was afterwards fabricated, which held 800 hogs- 
 heads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine ; and the electors have 
 given many entertainments on its platform ; but this convivial monument of ancient 
 hospitality is now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty. 
 
 HEIGHTS of ROMAINVILLE, BATTLE of. On the heights of Romainville and 
 Belleville, the French army out of Paris, under Joseph Bonaparte, Marmont, and 
 Mortier, was defeated by the allied army, which entered Paris the next day, and thus 
 was completed the memorable and glorious campaign of this year, and the overthrow 
 of Bonaparte's power in Europe and rule in France, March 30, 1814. 
 
 HELDER POINT, in Holland. The fort and the whole of the Dutch fleet lying in the 
 Texel, surrendered to the British forces under the duke of York, and sir Ralph 
 Abercromby, for the service of the prince of Orange. In the action, 540 British were 
 killed, Aug. 30, 1799. The place was, however, relinquished, after a short possession, 
 in October following. See Bergen. 
 
 HELEN, RAPE of, the cause of the Trojan war, which lasted 1204—1184 B.C. 
 
 HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken 
 by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a depot for British merchandise intended for 
 the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 
 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, 
 it is an important possession of the British crown. 
 
 HELIOMETER, &c. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, invented by 
 M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for 
 observing the sun so as not to affect the eye) was invented by Christopher Scheiner 
 in 1625. There are now various improved instruments for these purposes. 
 
 HELLESPONT. A narrow arm of the sea, betwixt Europe on the west, Asia on the east, 
 the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, northward, and the ^Egean Sea, now the Archi- 
 
HEL 318 HER 
 
 pelago, southward. The present name is the Strait of the Dardanelles. The 
 Hellespont took its original name from Helle, daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, 
 who was drowned here. It is celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander : Leander 
 was drowned in a tempestuous night as he attempted to swim across the Hellespont, 
 and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, 627 B.C. — Strabo; Herodotus. 
 See Xerxes. 
 HELL-FIRE CLUBS. These were impious associations in London, which existed for 
 some time, but were ultimately suppressed by an order in council. There were three, 
 to which upwards of forty persons of quality of both sexes belonged. They met at 
 Somerset-house, at a house in Westminster, and at another in Conduit-street, Hanover- 
 square. They assumed the names of the patriarchs, prophets, and martyrs, in derision ; 
 and ridiculed, at their meetings, the doctrine of the Trinity and the mysteries of the 
 Christian religion, 7 Geo. I. 1721. — Salmon. 
 
 HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans 
 the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the eyes, and a 
 bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks was round, and that of the 
 Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; and after this 
 monarch's reign most of the English kings had crowns above their helmet. Alex- 
 ander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the 
 helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillim. 
 
 HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate resentment 
 for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B.C. The Spartans, not satisfied with the ruin of their 
 city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery ; and to complete their infamy, 
 they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading 
 name of Helotce, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 
 669 B.C. But in the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, 
 and were rewarded with their liberty, 431 B.C. Yet this act of justice did not last 
 long ; and the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
 the Lacedaemonians. — Herodotus. 
 
 HEMP and FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be 
 sown for fishing-nets, a.d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation 
 in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government and legislature 
 to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, 
 in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John Sinclair. The annual 
 importation of these articles now amounts to about 100,000 tons. More than 
 180,000 lb. of rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, 
 including rigging and Rails. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually 
 formed from a.d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, and that kingdom was 
 erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a.d. 828, when Egbert reduced the other 
 kingdoms, and became sole monarch of England. For the several kingdoms of the 
 Heptarchy, see Britain, and Octarchy. 
 
 HERACLID^E, the. The return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnesus is a famous 
 epoch in chronology considered to constitute the beginning of profane history, all 
 the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This return happened 
 100 years after the Heraclidae were expelled, eighty years after the destruction of 
 Troy, and 328 years before the first Olympiad, 1104 B.C. — Herodotus. 
 
 HERALDRY, Signs and marks of honour were made use of in the first ages of the 
 world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an 
 eagle ; the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the 
 ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which see. Heraldry, as digested 
 into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed, in the first instance, to Charle- 
 magne, about the year 800 ; and in the next to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 
 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie. The great 
 English works on heraldry are those of Barcham, or Barkham, published by Gwillim 
 (1610), and Edmondson (1780). 
 
 HERALDS' COLLEGE. We trace its institution to Edward III. 1340. Richard III. 
 endowed the college in 1484 ; and Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- 
 firmed them by letters patent. Formerly in many ceremonies the herald represented 
 the king's person, and therefore wore a crown, and was always a knight. This college 
 has an earl marshal, 3 kings at arms (Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
 
HER 319 HER 
 
 (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somerset, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 
 extra heralds. See Earl Marshal. 
 
 HERARA, BATTLE op, in Arragon. In this battle Don Carlos, of Spain, in his 
 struggle for his hereditary right to the throne of that kingdom, at the head of 12,000 
 men, encountered and defeated general Buerens, who had not much above half that 
 number of the queen of Spain's troops. Buerens lost about 1000 in killed and 
 wounded, Aug 24, 1837. 
 
 HERAT, a strong city, called the key of Afghanistan, capital of a state formed by Shah 
 Mahmoud in ISIS. Population in 1830, 100,000. The Persians were baffled in an 
 attempt to take it iu 1838; but occupied it without molestation in 1856, in 
 violation of a treaty made March 26, 1855. In consequence, war ensued between 
 Great Britain and Persia. On the peace in April, 1857 (see Persia), Herat was to be 
 restored : but it still remains in the hands of the Persians (July, 1857). 
 
 HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, 
 by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a.d. 79. Herculaneum was buried under streams 
 of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper under the surface. All traces of 
 them were lost until a.d. 1711, from which year to the present time many curiosities, 
 works of art, and monuments and memorials of civilised life, have been discovered. 
 150 volumes of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were 
 purchased by sir William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British 
 Museum, where they are deposited; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the 
 museum of Portici. 
 
 HEREFORD, BISHOPRIC OF. Formerly suffragan to St. David's ; but when the country 
 was conquered by the Saxons it came to the province of Canterbury. The cathedral 
 was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in honour of Ethelbert, king of the East 
 Saxons, who was treacherously made away with by his intended mother-in-law, the 
 queen of Mercia. The see is valued in the king's books at 7681. per annum. 
 
 HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect : now heretics are those 
 who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church — 
 Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by torture in Roman Catholic 
 countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon Magus was the first heretic ; he came to 
 Rome a.d. 41. Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to propagate their 
 opinions, and were branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
 streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring to relieve them, they died of hunger 
 and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII., at one period, to be in possession 
 of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. Certain laws against heretics were repealed, 25 
 Henry VIII. 1534-5. — The last person executed for heresy in Britain was Thomas 
 Aikenhead, at Edinburgh, 1696. 
 
 HERITABLE RIGHTS and MOVABLE RIGHTS. In the Scottish law denoting what 
 in England is meant by real and personal property ; real property in England answer- 
 ing nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and 'personal property to the movable 
 rights. Scotch heritable jurisdictions (i.e. feudal rights) valued at 164,2322. were 
 bought up in 1747, (20 Geo. II. c. 43) and restored to the crown. 
 
 HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to avoid perse- 
 cution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and meditation. They 
 were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in dark caves, where their food 
 was such roots as nature bestowed freely without culture. From these came the 
 monks, and almost all the sorts of religious assemblies that live in monasteries. In 
 the seventh persecution of the Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, 
 retired into Thebais, and became the first example of a monastic life, about a.d. 250. 
 
 HERO, BRITISH MAN-OF-WAR. The Hero, of 74 guns, lost in a tremendous storm 
 (with several other ships) off the Texel, when the whole of her crew, amounting to 
 nearly 600 men, perished, Dec. 24, 1811. The English were this year very successful 
 in their various expeditions by sea; but the fleet, by staying too late in the Baltic, in 
 its return suffered severely. The St. George, of 98 guns, and the Defence, another ship 
 of the line, and a frigate, with 2000 men on board, perished in the storm. 
 
 HERRING-FISHERY. This fishery was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as the 
 ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving 
 herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to the herring-fishery 
 as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British Herring-Fishery company was 
 instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 
 
HER 320 HIE 
 
 HERRINGS, BATTLE of the. This battle, fought when the English were besieging 
 Orleans, obtained its ludicrous, yet lasting name, from an incident occurring at the 
 time : the due de Bourbon, in attempting to intercept a convoy on the road to the 
 English camp before Orleans, was severely beaten ; it was a convoy of salt fish, and 
 the action by which this supply of provisions to the besieging army was prevented 
 from falling into the hands of the French, was called the battle of the herrings, a 
 name it has borne ever since, 1429. — Vertot. 
 
 HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, the. Sir W. Herschel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- 
 flectors were made about 1779. He discovered the Georgium Sidus (which see) 
 March 21, 1781, and a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783; and about this time 
 laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1789, when he 
 discovered two other volcanic mountains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, 
 he, by means of his telescopes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a 
 catalogue of 5000 new nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars 
 which he had discovered. The great telescope was taken down in 1822, and one of 
 20 feet focal length erected by sir J. Herschel, who afterwards took it to the Cape of 
 Good Hope and with it made his valuable observations. 
 
 HESSE, HOUSE of. The house is very illustrious : its various branches derive their 
 origin from Gerberge, daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, 
 who was descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II., earl 
 of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel (by Henry V. first of 
 the family who bore the title of landgrave) are descended. Henry, surnamed the 
 Infant of Brabant, was succeeded by Otho, in 1308. There is no family in Germany 
 more noble by then- alliances than this ; and it gives place to none for the heroes and 
 statesmen it has produced. — Bealson. 
 
 HESSE-CASSEL. The sovereign bore the title of landgrave until 1803, when that of 
 elector was conferred. The country was seized by the French in 1806, and the elector 
 continued in exile at Prague until 1813, when he was acknowledged by the allied 
 sovereigns, and again received with enthusiasm by his subjects. Hesse-Cassel fell 
 lately into a state of dangerous inquietude, for which see note.* 
 
 HESSIAN TROOPS. Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence 
 of an invasion being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,0002. three per cent, stock, 
 was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the American 
 war, at Z01. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again brought to this 
 realm at the close of the last century, and served in Ireland during, the memorable 
 rebellion there in 1798. 
 
 HEXHAM, BISHOPRIC of. The see of Hexham was founded in the infancy of the 
 Saxon Church ; it had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the spoil and rapine 
 of the Danes, it was discontinued ; the last prelate was appointed in a.d. 810. The 
 Battle of Hexham, in which the Yorkists (army of Edward IV.) obtained a complete 
 victory over the Lancastrians, the army of Henry VI., was fought May 15, 1463. 
 
 HIBERNIA, The SHIP. The Hibcrnia, captain Brenn, bound from Liverpool to New 
 South Wales, with 232 persons on board, of whom 208 were passengers going out as 
 settlers, destroyed at sea by fire, kindled through the negligence of the second mate, 
 in W. long. 22° and S. lat. 4°. 150 lives were lost through the insufficiency of the 
 boats to contain more than a third of the people on board, Feb. 5, 1833. 
 
 HIEROGLYPHICS, (Sacred engravings). Picture writing, the expression of ideas by 
 representation of visible objects, used chiefly by the Egyptians. Young, Champollion, 
 and others have laboured to elucidate hieroglyphics with great effect, in the present 
 century. Hieroglyphic characters were invented by Athotes, 2112 B.C. — Usher. 
 
 * The elector of Hesse had, in 1850, remodelled the constitution given to his people in 1831, (by 
 ■which the chamber had the exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the chamber 
 until the usual time for closing the session had arrived, when his demand for money for the ensuing 
 year, 1851, was laid before it. The chamber called, unanimously, for a regular budget, that it might 
 examine into, and discuss, its items. The elector, upon this, dissolved the chamber, and declared the 
 whole of liis dominions in a state of siege and subject to martial law, Sept. 7, 1850. In the end, he 
 was obliged to flee to Hanover, and subsequently to Frankfort ; and on Oct. 14, he formally applied to 
 the Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his authority in Hesse. On Nov. 6, following, an 
 Austro-Bavarian force of 10,000 men with 20 pieces of artillery, entered the territories of Hesse-Cassel, 
 under the command of Prince Thurnund-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; and on the 
 next day a Prussian force entered Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, Dec. 27, 1850, the taxes 
 having been previously collected under pain of imprisonment. The Austro -Bavarian and Prussian 
 troops afterwards evacuated the electorate. 
 
HIG 321 HOL 
 
 HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by the pro- 
 secution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, for two seditious 
 sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions of the people for the 
 safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. His friends were 
 called High Church, and his opponents Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. 
 The queen, who favoured Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. 
 Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 
 
 HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials 
 for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favourable to British liberty, the 
 25th of Edward III. 1552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases 
 of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of 
 death against the duke of Somerset : it is that which regulates indictments for treason 
 at the present day. By the 40th Geo. III. 1800, it was enacted that where there 
 was a ti'ial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
 of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as in the case of 
 an indictment for murder.* 
 
 HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes 
 Your Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the 
 reign of the latter-mentioned king, the title of " Highness " and " Your Grace " were 
 absorbed in that of " Majesty." Louis XIII. of France gave the title of Highness to the 
 prince of Orange, in 1644 ; this prince had previously only the distinction of Excel- 
 lency. — Henault. Louis XIV. gave the princes of Orange the title High and Mighty 
 Lords, 1644. — Idem. 
 
 HINDOO ERA, or ERA of the CALIYUG. Began 3101 B.C., or 756 before the Deluge, 
 in 2348. The Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the 
 zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 B.C. ; and the Saca era, a.d. 77. They are all used 
 by the Hindoo nations. See Caliyug Era. 
 
 HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, 
 traditionary and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the 
 histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of 
 early ancient history. Later ancient history is considered as ending with the 
 destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476; and modern history dates from 
 the age of Charlemagne, about a.d. 800. There was not a professorship of modern 
 . history in either of our universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius 
 professorships were established by George I. and George II. 
 
 HOBART TOWN or HOBARTON. A sea-port, and the capital of Van Diemen's Land. 
 It stands on the west bank of the Derwent, at the foot of the Table Mountain, and 
 was established in 1804, by Colonel Collins, the first lieutenant-governor of the 
 island, who died here in 1810. See Van Diemen's Land. 
 
 HOCHKIRCHEN, BATTLE of. Between the Prussian army commanded by Frederick II., 
 and the Austrians commanded by count Daun. The king was surprised in his camp, 
 and defeated by the Imperial general. In this battle an illustrious Scotsman, field- 
 marshal Keith, in the service of Prussia, was killed ; and such was the respect which 
 his name inspired, that count Da\m and Lacy, the Austrian generals, shed tears on 
 beholding his corpse, and ordered its interment with military honours, Oct. 14, 1758. 
 
 HOHENLINDEN, BATTLE of. Between the Austrian and French armies, the latter 
 commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss in 
 this hard-fought battle, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their 
 loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, Nov. 3, 1800. The forces opposed were nearly 
 equal in numbers. 
 
 HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of Holland were the Batavi, a branch of the Catti, 
 a people of Germany, who, being expelled their own country on account of sedition, 
 established themselves in this territory. — Tacitus. Gallia Belgica (the Roman name 
 for the provinces now known as the Netherlands) was attached to the Roman empire 
 
 * The last persons executed for high treason were William Cundell, alias Connell, and John Smith. 
 They were tried on a special commission, Feb. 6, 1812, being two of fourteen British subjects taken in 
 the enemy's service at the isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbott, afterwards lord Tenterden and 
 chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney -general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. Brougham, 
 now lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defence was, that they (the prisoners) had assumed 
 the French uniform for the purpose of aiding their escape to England. The two above-mentioned were 
 hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane gaol on March 16, 1812. All the other convicts 
 were pardoned upon condition of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 
 
 T 
 
HOL 
 
 322 
 
 HOL 
 
 until its fall ; and for several ages afterwards it formed part of the kingdom of 
 Austrasia. About the 10th century, Holland and other provinces were governed by 
 their own counts or dukes. The Netherlands subsequently fell to Burgundy, next to 
 Austria; and the emperor Charles V. annexed them to Spain. The tyranny of 
 Philip II., and the barbarities of the duke of Alva, greatly exasperated the people, and 
 under the conduct of William, prince of Orange, was formed the famous League of 
 Utrecht, which proved the foundation of the republic of the Seven United Provinces. 
 The other ten provinces (there being seventeen) returned under the then dominion 
 of Spain. The Netherlands became a kingdom in 1815; the southern part, Belgium, 
 separated from it, and became a kingdom in 1831. See Belgium. 
 
 Sovereignty founded by Thierry, first 
 count of Holland . . . . a.d. 8GS 
 
 The county of Holland devolves to the 
 counts of Hainanlt 1299 
 
 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, 
 duke of Burgundy .... 1436 
 
 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea 
 breaking in at Dort 1416 
 
 Burgundy and its dependencies become 
 a circle of the empire .... 1521 
 
 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and 
 religious persecution causes a revolt in 
 Batavia 1566 
 
 The revolted states, with William prince 
 of Orange at their head, enter into a 
 treaty at Utrecht 1579 
 
 They elect William as Stadtholder . . 1579 
 
 The Stadtholder William is assassinated 1584 
 
 The Dutch East-India company founded 1602 
 
 After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
 of Spain is obliged to declare the Bata- 
 vians free 1609 
 
 The republic wars against Spain in the 
 East, and in America ; the Dutch admi- 
 ral, Peter Hen, takes several Spanish 
 galleons, value 20,000,0002. sterling . 1635 
 
 Cromwell declares war against Holland, 
 and many naval battles are fought; 
 Blake signally defeats Van Tromp . 1653 
 
 William prince of Orange having married 
 Mary, daughter of James II., is called 
 to the British throne .... 1688 
 
 The office of Stadtholder is made here- 
 ditary in the Orange family . . 1747 
 
 Era of the Civil war 1787 
 
 The French republican army march into 
 Holland; the people declare in their 
 favour 1793 
 
 The Stadtholder expelled . Jan. 15, 1795 
 
 He arrives in England . . Jan. 21, 1795 
 
 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally 
 defeats the Dutch . . Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
 line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- 
 ders to the British admiral Duncan, 
 without firing a gun . . Aug. 28, 1799 
 
 A new constitution is given to the Bata- 
 vian republic ; the chief officer (R. J. 
 Schimmelpennick) takes the title of 
 Grand Pensionary . . April 26, 1805 
 
 Holland erected into a kingdom; and 
 Louis Bonaparte declared king June 5, 1806 
 
 Louis abdicates .... July 1, 1810 
 
 Holland united to France . July 9, 1810 
 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and 
 Belgium annexed to its dominions, 
 
 Nov. 18, 1813 
 
 The prince of Orange is proclaimed 
 sovereign prince of the United Nether- 
 lauds Dec. 6, 1813 
 
 He receives the oath of allegiance from 
 his subjects . . . March 30, 1814 
 
 And takes the title of king as William I. 
 
 March 16. 1815 
 
 The revolution in Belgium (which see) 
 commenced . . . Aug. 25, 1830 
 
 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp 
 (which see) .... Oct. 27, 1830 
 
 Belgium is separated from Holland, and 
 Leopold of Coburg is elected king 
 
 July 12, 1S31 
 
 Holland renews the war against Bel- 
 gium Aug. 3, 1831 
 
 Conference in London on the affairs of 
 Holland and the Netherlands ter- 
 minates, see Belgium. . Nov. 15, 1831 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
 signed in London . . . April 19, 1839 
 
 Abdication of William I. in favour of his 
 son Oct. 8, 1840 
 
 Death of the ex -king William I. Dec. 12, 1844 
 
 Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex- 
 king of Holland, dies of apoplexy at 
 Leghorn .... July 25, 1846 
 
 DUTCH STADTHOLDERS. 
 
 1579. William of Nassau ; first stadtholder. 
 
 See article " Princes of Orange," below. 
 15S7. Prince Maurice, of Nassau. 
 1625. Frederick Henry, of Orange. 
 1647. William II. of Orange. 
 1650. The stadtholderat suppressed, and the 
 
 office administered by the states. 
 
 1672. William III., prince of Orange. In 
 
 1689 he became king of England. 
 1702. The stadtholderat again resumed by 
 
 the states on the death of William. 
 1747. William IV. The stadtholderat revived 
 
 in William IV., and mado hereditary 
 
 hi the house of Orange. 
 
 PRINCES OF ORANGE. 
 
 1502. 
 1530. 
 1544. 
 
 15S4, 
 
 [The years of the stadtholderat are not 
 always in unison with those of the 
 princes of Orange.] 
 
 Philibert de Chalons. 
 
 Re'ne' de Nassau. 
 
 William of Nassau, styled the Great, 
 cousin to Re'ne'. To this illustrious 
 prince the Republic of the Seven 
 United Provinces owed its founda- 
 tion. Elected stadtholder in 1579; 
 killed by an assassin hired by Philip 
 II. of Spain, June 30, 1584. 
 
 Philip- William, his son : stolen away 
 from the University of Louvain; the 
 
 Dutch would never suffer him to re- 
 side in their provinces : died in 1618. 
 
 1618. Maurice, the renowned general ; stadt- 
 holder in 15S7 ; he was a younger 
 son of William by a second marriage. 
 
 1625. Frederick Henry. 
 
 1647. William II. : married Maiy, daughter of 
 Charles I. of England, by whom he had 
 a posthumous son, who succeeded as 
 
 1660. William III. : stadtholder in 1672. This 
 prince married Mary, eldest daughter 
 of James II. of England, and both 
 afterwards ascended the English 
 throne. 
 
HOL 
 
 323 
 
 HOL 
 
 HOLLAND, continued. 
 
 1702. 
 1711. 
 1751. 
 
 William IV. 
 William V. 
 
 William VI. ; retired on the invasion of 
 the French in 1795 : died in 1806. 
 1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the 
 
 French republic] 
 1S06. William-Frederick succeeded his father, 
 the last king, as the rightful heir to 
 the usurped throne. 
 1806. Louis Bonaparte, made king of Hol- 
 
 land by his brother Napoleon, June 5, 
 1806; abdicated, July 1, 1810. 
 1810. [Holland again united to France.] 
 1S13. House of Orange restored. William- 
 Frederick, prince of Orange, pro- 
 claimed Dec 6, 1813 : took the oath 
 of fidelity as sovereign prince, March 
 30, 1814, and assumed the style of 
 King of the Netherlands, March 16, 
 1815. 
 
 KINGS OF THE NETHEBLANDS. 
 
 1815. William (late the prince of Orange) first 
 king : formally abdicated in favour of 
 his son, Oct. 7, 1840 ; died Dec. 12, 
 1813. 
 
 1840. William II. ; born Dec. 6, 1792 ; suc- 
 
 ceeded on his father's abdication : 
 died March 17, 1849. 
 1849. Williarn III., son of the preceding ; 
 born Feb. 19, 1817. The present 
 (1857) king. 
 
 HOLLAND, NEW. See Australia and Australasia. 
 
 HOLMFIETH FLOOD. The Bilbury reservoir above the village of Holmfirth, a few 
 miles from Huddersfield, in Yorkshire, suddenly burst its banks, and levelled to the 
 ground four mills, many ranges of houses and other buildings, destroying the lives of 
 more than ninety persons, and devastating property estimated at from half a million 
 to 800,000^., throwing upwards of seven thousand individuals out of work, Feb. 5, 1852. 
 
 HOLY ALLIANCE. The famous league, so called, between the emperors of Russia and 
 Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound themselves, among 
 other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions 
 and future conduct, with a view to perpetuating the peace they had achieved, and 
 then enjoyed. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815. 
 
 HOLY MAID of Kent. Elizabeth Barton, so styled, was spirited up by the Roman 
 Catholic party to hinder the Reformation, by pretending to inspirations from Heaven; 
 foretelling that the king Henry VIII. would die a speedy and violent death if he 
 divorced Catherine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn ; and predicting many direful 
 calamities to the nation. Barton and her confederates were hanged at Tyburn, 
 24 Hen. VIII, April 20, 15M.—Rapin. 
 
 HOLY PLACES in PALESTINE. The possession of these places has been a source of 
 contention between the Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In the reign 
 of Francis I. they were placed in the hands of the Latin monks, under the protection 
 of the French government, by a treaty with the then sultan ; but the Greeks from 
 time to time obtained firmans from the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, 
 who were at last, in 1757, expelled from some of the sacred buildings, which were 
 committed to the care of the Greeks by a hatti-scheriff, or imperial ordinance. In 
 1808 the holy sepulchre was partially destroyed by fire, and rebuilt by the Greeks, 
 who thereon claimed additional privileges, and thus caused fresh dissensions. In 1819 
 the Russian and French governments interfered and sent envoys (M. Dashkoff and 
 M. Marcellus) to adjust the dispute; but an arrangement was prevented by the Greek 
 revolution in 1821. In 1850 the subject was again agitated, and the Porte proposed 
 that a mixed commission should adjudicate on the rival claims. M. Titoff, the 
 Russian envoy, acting on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, the French envoy, 
 on that of the Latins, took up the question very warmly. The result of the commission 
 was, that a firman was issued by the Porte, March 9, 1852, confirming and consoli- 
 dating the rights previously granted to the Greek Christians, and declaring that the 
 Latins had no right to claim exclusive possession of certain holy places specified, but 
 permitting them to possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, &c, as in former times. 
 The French government acquiesced in this decision, though with much dissatisfaction; 
 but the Russian envoy still desired the key to be withheld from the Latin monks. 
 Shortly after, M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declaration of the right of Russia to protect 
 the orthodox in virtue of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, and demanded that the 
 firman of March 9, 1852, should be read at Jerusalem, although it militated against 
 his pretensions, which was accordingly done. The dispute still continued, the 
 Porte being exposed to the charges of both the Russian and French governments, 
 March, 1853. On Feb. 28, Prince Menschikoff arrived at Constantinople as envoy 
 extraordinary, and in addition to the claims respecting the holy places, made those 
 demands respecting the protection of the Greek Christians in Turkey which led to the 
 war of 1854-6. See Russo-Turkisk War. 
 
 T2 
 
HOL 324 HOM 
 
 HOLY ROOD. The festival of the Holy Cross. This feast is called also Holycross day. 
 It was instituted on account of the recovery of a large piece of the Cross, by the 
 emperor Heraclius, after it had been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, 
 about the year of Christ 615, on the 14th Sept. — Brande. At Boxley abbey, in Essex, 
 was a crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the dissolution it was broken in pieces as 
 an imposture by Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's Cross, London. 
 
 HOLYROOD HOUSE or PALACE, Edinburgh. The palace or abbey of Holyrood 
 was for several centuries the resilience of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of 
 which some vestiges remain, was founded by David I., in the year 1128, and in the 
 burial-place within its walls are intei'red several of his successors. The palace is a 
 large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with a court within surrounded by piazzas. 
 In the north-west tower is the bed-chamber which was occupied by queen Mary, and 
 from an adjoining cabinet to which David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged forth 
 and murdered. The palace as it now stands is not of high antiquity. Its north-wesfc 
 towers were built by James V., but the remaining part of the palace was added during 
 the reign of Charles II. See Edinburgh. Great improvements are now being made (1857). 
 
 HOLY WARS. The wars of the Christians against the Infidels. Peter the Hermit, a 
 priest of the diocese of Amiens, in France, was the author of these cruel, bloody, and 
 unjust religious wars. He himself led the way through Hungary, at the head of an 
 undisciplined multitude of more than 300,000 men, a comparatively small number of 
 whom survived to reach the holy city. He roused up Europe to the first crusade, 
 a.d. 1094-5. See Crusades. 
 
 HOLY WATER. Said to have been used in churches as early as a.d. 120. — Ashe. 
 
 HOMELDEN, BATTLE of. Between the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, and the 
 Percies, in which the Scots were defeated. In this fierce battle Douglas was taken 
 prisoner, as were the earls of Angus, Murray, and Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of 
 the duke of Albany, and nephew of the Scottish king, with many of the nobility and 
 gentry : fought in 1 403. — Hume. 
 
 HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish the two most 
 perfect Epic * poems in the world, written by the greatest poet that has ever lived ; 
 about 915 B.C. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles; the second recounts 
 the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after the destruction of Troy. Among the 
 thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, a.d. 477, were the works of Homer, 
 said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. 
 
 HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 e.c. He that 
 killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue 
 to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed 
 a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he that killed a 
 man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a 
 homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the 
 offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of 
 the high-priest. In the primitive Church, before the Christians had the civil power, 
 wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws distinguish 
 between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circum- 
 stances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 
 
 HOMILIES. A homily signified a sermon or discourse upon some head or point of 
 religion, commonly done in a homely manner, for its being more easily understood 
 by the common people. At the time of the Reformation in England there were 
 several made and printed, and ordered to be read in those churches that were not 
 furnished with a sufficiently learned minister to compose proper discourses them- 
 selves, and also as a prevention of unsound doctrine being taught in the more remote 
 and less frequented country places. But in the primitive Church it rather meant a 
 plain conference by way of question and answer, which was commonly done by 
 the bishop, till the fifth century, when the learned priests were allowed to preach, 
 catechise, &c, in the same manner as the bishops used to do. A book of homilies 
 was drawn up by archbishop Cranmer, 1 Edw. VI. 1547; and another was prepared 
 by an order of Convocation, 5 Eliz. 1563. — Stow. 
 
 * The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, the Paradise Lost of Milton, 
 and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and Milton's is considered to rank next to 
 Homer's. " Paradise Lost is not the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr. Jchnson, " only because it 
 is not the first." — Butler. 
 
HOM 325 HOR 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY. A medical hypothesis promulgated at the commencement of the 
 present century by the late Dr. Hahnemann, of Leipsic, according to which every 
 medicine has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased state of the system; and 
 if such medicine be given to a person suffering under the disease which it has a ten- 
 dency to induce, such disease disappears, because two similar diseased actions cannot 
 simultaneously subsist in the same organ. — Brande. The Hahnemann hospital was 
 opened in Bloomsbury-square, Sept. 16, 1850. 
 
 HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients a beverage prepared with honey, such as that 
 known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a 
 custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days, or a moon's age, after a wedding- 
 feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devas- 
 tating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Europe, drank, it is said, so freely of hydromel 
 on his marriage-day, that he died in the night of suffocation, 453 a.d. His death is, 
 however, ascribed to another cause. See Attila. 
 
 HONG-KONG. An island off the coast of China, ceded to Great Britain in 1842. Its 
 chief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John 
 
 ■ Bowring is the present governor, appointed in 1854. 
 
 " HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salisbury, at a 
 ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king Edward III. took it up, and 
 presented it to her with these words : "Honi soit qui mal y pense," "Evil be to him 
 who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the garter ; but this state- 
 ment of the origin of the motto is unsupported by sufficient authority. — The order 
 was instituted April 23, 1349. 
 
 HONOUR. Honour was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among 
 the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honour by that people as a 
 divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about B.C. 197; and others 
 were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 B.C. These temples were so 
 constructed that it was impossible to enter that to Honour without going through 
 the temple of Virtue; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much 
 elevated, or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the 
 true way to honour. 
 
 HOOD. The ancient garment or dress for the head, worn by women uppermost, and 
 made of stuffs, velvet, muslin, or silk. It was worn by men before the invention of 
 hats, and was made of cloth, to button under the chin, somewhat like a monk's cowl ; 
 and is still retained among some of the monastic orders, particularly abroad. It 
 dwindled to the coif, by which our serjeants-at-law have been distinguished; and 
 the ancient hood of black silk, is still worn at funerals by women, when following 
 the hearse of a relative. 
 
 HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a.d. 1524, and used in brewing; 
 but the physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, parliament was 
 petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, and their use was prohibited in 
 1528. — Anderson. At present there are between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on 
 an average, under the culture of hops in England. They are grown chiefly in Here- 
 fordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, there were 
 46,157| acres under hops in England and Wales, which paid 447,1442. duty ; the 
 quantity yielded was 51,102,494 lbs. whereof 955,855 lbs. were exported. 
 
 HORATII and CURIATII, the Combat of the, 669 B.C. The Romans and the Albans 
 contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each side to deter- 
 mine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three 
 Curiatii, Albans, being elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated 
 combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 
 
 HORN ; HORNPIPE. The horn is thought to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind 
 instrument, and it has been found among all savage nations on the first intercourse 
 with them of civilised man. The horn was first made of that substance, and hence 
 the name; afterwards of brass, with keys, improved at various times. The dance 
 called the hornpipe is supposed to be so named from its having been performed to 
 the Welsh pib-com, that is, hornpipe, about a.d. 1300. — Spencer. 
 
 HORNE TOOKE, HARDY, THELWALL, &c. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, Tooke, 
 Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a charge of high treason, caused a great sensation in 
 England. They were taken into custody on the 20th May, 1794; Mr. Hardy was the 
 
HOR 
 
 326 
 
 HOS 
 
 first who was put to the bar, Oct. 29, same year; and after a trial which lasted eight 
 days, he was honourably acquitted. John Home Tooke was next tried, and was 
 acquitted, Nov. 20 ; and Mr. Th el wall, also, was acquitted, Dec. 5 ; when all the 
 other accused parties were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. Thelwall's 
 political lectures in 1795. — See Gagging Bills, and Thelwall. 
 
 HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the 
 first among the Greeks, at least, who rode upon horses, and broke them in for service 
 in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was originally inhabited by centaurs. 
 "Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen." — 
 1 Kings iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five or six men. — Smeaton. 
 The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. 
 In the ninth century horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of 
 shoeing was introduced into England by William I. 1066. In England there are two 
 millions of draught and pleasure horses, aud one hundred thousand agricultural horses, 
 which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse-tax was imposed 
 in 1784, and was then levied On all saddle and coach horse3 in England. Its operation 
 was extended, and its amount increased in 1796; and again in 1808. The existing 
 duty upon "horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to about 350,000/. per year. 
 See Race Hirses. 
 
 HORSE GUARDS. They were instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 1550.— Salmon. 
 The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, and was com- 
 manded by general Cholmondeley; and the second troop commanded by lord Forbes, 
 was raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse and Grenadier Guards ; and 
 Life Guards, as now established, were raised in their room, May 26, 1788. — Phillips. 
 The present edifice called the Horse Guards was erected by Wai'e about 1730. In 
 the front are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full uniform, daily mount 
 guard. In a part of the building is the office of the commander-in-chief. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Horticulture, the art of cultivating gardens, is a late 
 word in our dictionaries, from hortus and cultura, and was first used by Evelyn. The 
 Horticultural society in London was founded in 1804, and was incorporated April 
 17, 1808; the Edinburgh society in 1809; and that of Dublin in Jan. 1817. The 
 transactions of the London society have attracted great attention, on account of the 
 many valuable discoveries it has made. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were 
 under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgi-ims 
 at Jerusalem, in a.d. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092; and a military 
 order in 1118. See Malta. It was on the occasion of the Holy Wars that the orders 
 of Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic Knights were instituted. — Henault. 
 
 HOSPITALS of LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful institutions 
 are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most munificent erections by a 
 single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, South wark, a London bookseller of that 
 name having built it at the cost of 18,793/. and endowed it in 1724, by a bequest of 
 219,499/. See Infirmaries. The Royal Dispensary in Aldersgate-street was the first 
 established, 1770. The following are the principal Hospitals. — 
 
 Bethlehem founded . . . . A.d. 1546 
 Charing-C'ross founded 1818 ; new hos- 
 pital built 1831 
 
 City of Loudon Lying-in . ' . . . 1750 
 Consumption and diseases of chest . . 1841 
 
 Dreadnought ship 1821 
 
 Fever 1803 
 
 Free 1828 
 
 General Lying-in 
 Guy's 
 
 Hahuemann 
 Hopital Francais 
 Hospital of Surgery 
 Idiots' 
 
 . 1765 
 
 . 1721 
 . 1850 
 . 1716 
 . 1827 
 . 1847 
 
 Jews' 1797 
 
 King's College a.d. 1839 
 
 Lock 1746 
 
 London ....... 1759 
 
 Lying-in, British 1749 
 
 Lying-in, City-road 1750 
 
 Middlesex 1747 
 
 Queen Charlotte's Lying-in . . . 1752 
 
 Small Pox 1746 
 
 St. Bartholomew's ; see Bartholomew, 
 
 St 1546 
 
 St. George's • . . 1785 
 
 St. Luke's 1732 
 
 St. Thomas's 1553 
 
 University College 1834 
 
 Westminster 1719 
 
 HOST, ELEVATION op the. Introduced into Roman Catholic worship, and prostration 
 enjoined, in a.d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to 
 be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, 
 1228, which is done to this day. — Rees. The supposed miracle of the consecrated 
 host being visibly changed into the body of our Lord, is referred by Henault to 1290. 
 
HOU 
 
 327 
 
 HUN 
 
 HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B.C. when 
 L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously 
 to the invention of water-clocks (which see), 158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by 
 public criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The 
 Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours 
 each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was, in early days, alike 
 uncertain and difficult : one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an 
 hour, and six wax candles burning twenty- four hours : these candles were invented by 
 Alfred, clocks and hour-glasses not being then known in England, a.d. 886. 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a north- 
 west passage to the Pacific Ocean, a.d. 1610 ; but, in fact, this part of North America 
 may more properly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter 
 in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a 
 boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions 
 here, in 1670. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 
 
 HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pursuing "with horn and with 
 voice,'' from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. 
 Formerly, the hundred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies 
 therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made 
 answerable only for damage committed by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon 
 was aided by a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a gazette established for adver- 
 tising felons in 1710. — Ashe. 
 
 HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. Dr. Johnson derives it from 
 Eignots, confederates. It was used as a term of reproach, by the French Catholics, 
 to nickname their countrymen of the reformed Churches, or Protestants of France, 
 and had its rise in 1560. The memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on 
 the festival of St. Bartholomew, took place on August 24, 1572. See Bartholomew, St. 
 
 HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the Church of Rome, which was formed 
 by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick 1. 1162. The order 
 of Humiliati had more than ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury and 
 cruelty by pope Pius V. and their houses were given to the Dominicans, Cordeliers, 
 and other communities of religious, in 1570. 
 
 HUNDREDS. A Danish institution ; a hundred being a part or division of a shire, so 
 called, as is supposed, from its having been composed of a hundred families, at the 
 time the counties were originally divided by king Alfred, about a.d. 897. The 
 hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the inhabitants of a hundred instead of a 
 manor. — Law Dictionary. 
 
 HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 B.C. and 
 kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Christian era, the 
 Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years afterwards, the Vandals migrated 
 towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in 
 the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of 
 Scythians, headed by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of 
 " The Scourge of God."— In more recent times the Hungarians have been much 
 intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; 
 besides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, Saxons, 
 &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany uuder Charlemagne, but it 
 became an independent kingdom in 920. 
 
 Stephen receives the title of Apostolic 
 
 King from the pope . . .a.d. 997 
 The Poles overrun Hungary . . . 1061 
 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
 the sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout 
 Hungary, Bohemia, and Russia, 1226 it seq. 
 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, 
 
 Servia, aud Dalmatia . . . . 1342 
 Louis carries his arms into Italy . . 1342 
 He dies, and the history of Hungary 
 
 now presents a frightful catalogue of 
 crimes a.d. 13S2 
 
 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, 
 queen of Louis, is drowned ; and King* 
 Mary, the daughter, marries Sigis- 
 mund, marquess of Brandenburg, and 
 causes the rivers of Hungary to flow 
 with blood 1382 
 
 The unhappy Hungarians call the Turks 
 to their assistance 1382 
 
 * The Hungarian people have or had an irreconcileable aversion to the name of queen; and conse- 
 quently whenever a female succeeded to the throne of Hungary, she reigned with the title of king. 
 Thus in 1382, when Mary, the daughter of Charles Duras, came to the crown, she was styled King Mary. 
 
HUN 
 
 328 
 
 HUN 
 
 HUNGARY, continued. 
 
 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismund in 
 battle a.d. 1389 
 
 Sigismund recovers from this blow, and 
 makes Wallachia and Moldavia tribu- 
 tary to him 1390 
 
 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
 is elected emperor of Germany . . 1410 
 
 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
 of Hungary, thus laying the foundation 
 of the subsequent power and greatness 
 of the house of Austria . . . 1437 
 
 It passes to the king of Poland . . . 1439 
 
 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
 vades Hungary, and takes Buda; battle 
 of Mohatz (which see) .... 1526 
 
 Buda sacked a second time by the Turks, 
 and all the inhabitants put to the sword 1540 
 
 Sclavonia taken by the Turks . . 1540 
 
 Temeswar taken by them . . . . 1552 
 
 Transylvania seized by Solyman . . 1556 
 
 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men in 
 a fruitless attempt to take Buda from 
 the Turks 1684 
 
 He at length carries Buda by storm, and 
 delivers up the Mahometans to the 
 fury of the soldiers .... 1686 
 
 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by 
 prince Eugene 1716 
 
 Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at 
 the peace of Belgrade .... 1739 
 
 Temeswar incorporated with the king- 
 dom of Hungary 1778 
 
 The Protestants permitted to have 
 churches in Hungary .... 1784 
 
 [The people, some time discontented with 
 their Austrian rulers, at length break 
 out into a formidable rebellion.] 
 
 Murder of the military governor, count 
 Lamberg, by a mob . . Sept. 28, 184S 
 
 The Hungarian diet appoint a provisional 
 government under M. Kossuth, Sept. 28, 1848 
 
 Battle between the Hungarians and the 
 Ban of Croatia, the latter defeated, 
 
 Sept. 29, 1848 
 
 Count Latour, minister of war, assas- 
 sinated in an insurrection at Vienna, 
 
 Oct. 6, 1818 
 
 The Hungarian diet denounce as traitors 
 all persons who acknowledge the 
 emperor of Austria as king of Hun- 
 gary Dec. 8, 1848 
 
 The insurgents defeated by the Austrians 
 at Szikszo .... Dec. 28, 1S48 
 
 They are defeated at Mohr by the ban 
 Jellachich. . . . Dec. 29, 1848 
 
 Driven across the Waag . . Jan. 2, 1849 
 
 Buda-Pesth taken . . . Jan. 5, 1S49 
 
 Kossuth retires with his forces to 
 Debreczin .... Jan. 5, 1849 
 
 The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists 
 before Gran . . . April 17, 1S49 
 
 The Austrians are obliged to evacuate 
 Pesth April 18, 1849 
 
 March of the Russian army through Gal- 
 licia to assist the Austrian3 May 1, 1849 
 
 The emperors of Russia and Austria have 
 an interview at Warsaw . May 22, 1849 
 
 Battle between the Austro-Russian 
 troops and the Hungarians ; the latter 
 retreat across the Waag . June 21, 1849 
 
 Battle of Acs between the Hungarians 
 and Austrians . . . July 2, 1849 
 
 The Hungarians defeat the ban Jella- 
 chich .... July 14, 1819 
 
 The Hungarians are defeated by the 
 Russians, and Gorgey retreats after a 
 three days' battle . . . July 15, 1849 
 
 Battle before Komorn between the 
 insurgents and the Austro-Russian 
 army July 16, 184'J 
 
 The insurgents under Bern enter Mol- 
 davia July 23, 1849 
 
 They are again defeated by the Russians, 
 
 July 31, 1849 
 
 Utter defeat of the Hungarian army 
 before Temeswar by general Haynau, 
 
 Aug. 9, 1849 
 
 [Kossuth and Bern escape to the Turkish 
 frontiers.] 
 
 They are placed under the protection of 
 Turkey at New Orsova . Aug. 22, 1849 
 
 The fortress of Komorn surrenders to 
 the Austrians . . . Sept. 28, 1849 
 
 [This, and the surrender of various other 
 places, closes the war.] 
 
 Batthyani tried at Pesth, and shot ; and 
 many other chiefs of the insurgents 
 put to death .... Oct. 6, 1849 
 
 Amnesty of the Austrian emperor to the 
 Hungarian insurgents, who return 
 home Oct. 30, 1849 
 
 Bern dies at Aleppo . . Dec. 10, 1850 
 
 The country in an unsettled state ; many 
 
 executions 1853-5 
 
 See Turkey. 
 
 KINGS OF HUNGARY. 
 
 997. 
 
 1038. 
 1041. 
 1044. 
 
 1047. 
 1061. 
 
 1064. 
 1075. 
 1077. 
 1095. 
 1114. 
 1131. 
 1141. 
 1161. 
 1174. 
 1196. 
 
 Stephen, duke of Hungary ; he esta- 
 blishes the Roman Catholic religion, 
 and receives from the pope the title 
 of Apostolic King, still borne by the 
 emperor of Austria, as king of 
 Hungary. 
 
 Peter, the German : deposed. 
 
 Aba or Owen. 
 
 Peter, again : again deposed, and his 
 eyes put out. 
 
 Andrew I. : deposed. 
 
 Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous 
 tower. 
 
 Salamon, son of Andrew. 
 
 Geisa I. son of Bela. 
 
 Ladislas I. surnamed the Pious. 
 
 Coloman, son of Geisa. 
 
 Stephen, surnamed Thunder. 
 
 Bela II. : had his eyes put out. 
 
 Geisa II. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 Stephen III. : succeeded by his brother, 
 
 Bela III. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 Emeric : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1204. Ladislas II. : reigned sis months only : 
 
 succeeded by 
 
 1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. 
 1235. Bela IV. 
 
 1270. Stephen IV. his son. 
 
 1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 
 
 1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, 
 son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor 
 of Germany. 
 
 1309. Charobert, or Charles-Robert. 
 
 1342. Louis the Great ; elected king of Poland 
 in 1370. 
 
 1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of 
 Louis the Great. 
 
 1392. Mary and her consort Sigismund : the 
 latter became king of Bohemia, and 
 was elected emperor in 1410. 
 
 1437. Albert, duke of Austria ; married the 
 daughter of Sigismund, and suc- 
 ceeded to the throne of Hungary, 
 Bohemia, and Germany. 
 
 1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which 
 kingdom he was Ladislas VI. 
 
HUN 
 
 329 
 
 HUS 
 
 HUNGARY, continued. 
 
 1444. [Interregnum ] 
 
 1453. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert, 
 under the guardianship of the great 
 Huniades : poisoned. 
 
 1458. Matthias-Corviuus, son of Huniades, 
 the late regent. 
 
 1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia : the em- 
 peror Maximilian laid claim to both 
 kingdoms. 
 
 1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia) : 
 loses his life at the battle of Mohatz, 
 fighting against the Turkish emperor 
 Solyman the Magnificent. 
 
 [In this battle 12,000 Hungarians were 
 slain, 200,000 were carried away cap- 
 tive, and the king, falling from his 
 horse into a muddy rivulet, was 
 drowned.] 
 
 ' John Zapolski, elected by the Hunga- 
 rians, and supported by the sultan 
 
 1526. 4 Solyman, and 
 
 Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother 
 to the emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 
 
 1541. Ferdinand alone ; elected emperor of 
 Germany in 1558. 
 
 1561. Maximilian, son of Ferdinand; emperor 
 in 1654. 
 
 1573. Bodolphus, son of Maximilian; emperor 
 in 1576. 
 
 1609. Matthias II. his brother ; emperor in 
 1612. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, emperor. 
 
 1625. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding : 
 emperor in 1637. 
 
 1647.' Ferdinand IV. : died in 1654, three years 
 before his father. 
 
 1655. Leopold I. son of Ferdinand III. ; 
 emperor in 1658. 
 
 16S7. Joseph I. his son ; emperor in 1705. 
 
 1711. Charles (Charles VI. of Germany), bro- 
 ther of Joseph, and nominal king of 
 Spain : succeeded by his daughter, 
 
 1740. Maria-Theresa, empress ; survived her 
 consort, Francis I. emperor, from 
 1765 until 1780. See Germany. 
 
 1780. Joseph II. her son, emperor in 1765 : 
 succeeded to Hungary on the death 
 of his mother. 
 
 1790. Leopold II. brother of Joseph II., em- 
 peror : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as emperor of 
 Germany) : in 18)4 he became empe- 
 ror of Austria only. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand V. son of Francis: Ferdi- 
 nand I. as emperor of Austria. 
 
 [This emperor would have been Ferdi- 
 nand IV. of Germany, but for the 
 change of style in 1804.] 
 
 1848. Francis- Joseph, nephew of the preced- 
 ing ; succeeded on the abdication of 
 his uncle, Dec. 2, 1848. The present 
 (1857) King of Hungary and Emperor 
 of Austria. 
 
 *** For the last three centuries the succes- 
 sion of the kings of Hungary varies 
 little from the succession of the em- 
 perors, the crown having continued 
 in the house of Austria. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI. in 1740, his daughter Maria Theresa, who had married 
 into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father's hereditary 
 dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length overcoming all difficulties, 
 her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia are at this 
 time governed by their descendants. See Germany. The crown of St. Stephen and 
 the royal insignia were found Sept. 8, 1853, and conveyed to Vienna. 
 
 HUNGERFORD SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. Opened May 1, 1845. This is a foot-bridge 
 over the Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere-road, Lambeth. It is 14 feet 
 wide, and 1342 feet long; the length of the centoal span, between the two piers, is 
 676 feet ; and the height of the two towers is 55 feet above the foootway, and 84 above 
 high water; the piers are in the Italian style, with the chains passing through the attic 
 of each. The cost of the masonry was 60,000?.; that of the ironwork exceeding 700 
 tons in weight, 17,000£. ; and the cost of the approaches, 13,000£, ; the total amounting 
 to 102,245/. ; architect, I. K. Brunei. This bridge is also called Charing-cross bridge. 
 
 HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying Eastern Tartary nearly 1200 years ; they 
 were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese in a.d. 93, and the remnants settled 
 on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube in 376 ; but having been 
 subsidised under Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. This latter 
 country and Scythia were conquered by them, about a.d. 433. 100,000 of them 
 were slain on the plains of Champagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the 
 Great in several battles during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon 
 ceased to appear as a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they 
 gave it the name of Hungary, which see ; see also Attila. 
 
 HUSS, JOHN; his MARTYRDOM. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a 
 bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealou3 to promote a reformation, was 
 cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his 
 doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigismund sent him a safe 
 conduct and engaged for hi3 security. On the strength of this pledge he presented 
 himself accordingly, but was soon thrown into prison, and after some months' 
 confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death 
 with magnanimity and resignation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was 
 borne with the same pious fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome op Prague, 
 the intimate companion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design 
 
HU3 330 HYM 
 
 of supporting and seconding bis persecuted friend; he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. 
 See Cranmer, and Martyrs. 
 
 HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary; and as they were 
 more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken 
 their name from the huzzas or shout they made at their first onset. They were 
 generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins 
 of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore 
 fur caps, with a cock's feather." — Pardon. Hussars became a British force in the last 
 century, but were very differently attired. 
 
 HUSTINGS, COURT of. A very ancient court of the city of London. It is the supreme 
 court of judicature, as the court of common council is of legislature, of that metropolis. 
 — Allen. The court of Huslyngs was granted to the city of London, to be holden and 
 kept weekly, by Edward the Confessor, ad. 1052. — Bohun's Privilegia Londini. 
 Winchester, Lincoln, York, &c, were also granted Hustings courts. 
 
 HUTCHINSON IANS. The followers of the opinions of Mr. John Hutchinson, of York- 
 shire ; whose notion was that a plenum and the air are the principles of the Scripture 
 philosophy, and whose scheme of reformation related to the original language of the 
 Old Testament and the true sense of the Bible. — Heathcote. Mr. Hutchinson invented 
 in 1712 a time-piece for finding the longitude. He died in 1737. 
 
 HYDE PARK, London. Stretches from the western extremity of the metropolis to 
 Kensington gardens, which were formerly a part of it, and comprises about 400 acres, 
 surrounded by drives, with a large winding sheet of water, called the Serpentine. 
 There are seven entrances, of which that at Hyde Park corner was completed in 1828 ; 
 it consists of a screen of fluted Ionic columns, with three archways for carriages and 
 two for foot passengers, united by an open colonnade ; all the entrances have been 
 greatly improved within the last few years. The marble arch from Buckingham palace, 
 was set up at Cumberland gate, March 29, 1851. The colossal statue of Achilles, cast 
 from camion taken in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, and Waterloo, and 
 inscribed to "Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and his brave companions in arms, by 
 their countrywomen," was ei'ected on June 18, 1822. In this park was erected the 
 Crystal Palace for the Exhibition of 1851. See Crystal Palace and Exhibition of 1851. 
 Disturbances occurred here on Sundays, June 25, and July 1 and 8, 1855, in conse- 
 quence of a Sunday bill having been brought before parliament, by lord Robert 
 Grosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn. Riotous meetings were also held here on 
 Sundays, Oct. 14, 21, and 28, in the same year, on account of the high price of bread. 
 
 HYDROMETER. The instrument by which is measured the gravity, density, and other 
 properties of liquids. The oldest mention of the hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, 
 and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that 
 Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. — Beclcmann. 
 Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a.d., and Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C. 
 
 HY"DROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases commonly called the cold 
 water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vincenz Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, 
 in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered as its founder, the doctrine was 
 previously understood and maintained by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. 
 Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. — Brande. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 b c. 
 The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B.C. The forcing 
 pump and air fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 B.C. Water-mills were 
 known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was revived by Galileo, 
 about a.d. 1600. The theory of rivers was scientifically understood in 1697. The 
 correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves, explained by Newton, iu 1714. A 
 scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernouilli, 1738. 
 
 HY T MEN, FESTIVALS of. Hymenrcus, an Athenian youth of extraordinary beauty, but 
 low origin, became enamoured of the daughter of one of the noblest of his country- 
 men; but as the rank of his mistress removed him from her presence, he followed 
 her wherever she went, disguised as a woman. In a procession of matrons to Eleusis, 
 his mistress, among others, was seized by a band of pirates, and he, after sharing in 
 her captivity, succeeded in her rescue. His marriage with the object of his passion 
 followed ; and Hymenals experienced so much felicity in his marriage state, that the 
 people of Athens instituted festivals in his honour, and solemnly invoked him at their 
 
HYM 331 ICO 
 
 nuptials, believing that without the aid of Hymen no union of love could be happy or 
 fortunate, about 1350 B.C. 
 
 HYMNS. Religious songs or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise of their 
 
 false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and Christian Churches. 
 
 St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed 
 
 hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews 
 
 • were usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 
 
 I. 
 
 IAMBIC VERSE. Iambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when 
 trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her 
 daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions; and 
 from her free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic 
 vei'ses were first written, about 700 B.C. by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, 
 the daughter of Lycanibes; but after a promise of marriage the father preferred 
 another suitor, richer than the poet ; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire 
 on the old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. — Herodotus. 
 
 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than the water which com- 
 posed it, and hence ice floats : about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means 
 of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker, and others, in 1782. Leslie froze 
 water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a vessel full of oil 
 of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common salt, with five of snow, 
 produced a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Five 
 parts of muiiate of lime and four of snow freeze mercury; and mercury can be 
 solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. 
 — See Cold< In 1841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U.S., engaged in 
 exporting ice, brought from Wenham, Fresh and Spy Ponds, about 18 miles from 
 that city. The trade was begun by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent 
 from Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up, of 
 which 20,000 were for exportation. 
 
 ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their 
 native country, a.d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had been previously visited 
 by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians in 874. In 1783, there 
 occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record ; it was accompanied 
 by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens; and it was feared that the 
 island would fall to pieces. Three fire-spouts broke out on Mount Skapta, which, after 
 rising to a considerable heighth in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed 
 for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 
 12 miles ; 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or water; 
 and 34 others were materially injured. 
 
 " ICH DIEN," I serve. The motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the 
 helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Cressy, at which he 
 served as a volunteer in the French army. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration of 
 his father, Edward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won the battle, 
 adopted this motto, which has ever since been borne with the feathers, by the heirs to 
 the crown of England ; but not as princes of Wales, which many have erroneously 
 maintained : Aug. 26, 1346. 
 
 ICONOCLASTIC SCHISM. The great controversy respecting images was begun by the 
 Iconoclastics (image-breakers) about a.d. 726, and occasioned many insurrections in 
 the Eastern Empire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing images in 
 churches in that year. These edicts the emperor put in force with great rigour in 
 736, when all the images within the empire were destroyed, and the monks persecuted. 
 The defenders of images were again persecuted with dreadful severity in 752 and in 
 761 ; and in the latter year Constantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
 worship of images was restored in 780. This schism was the occasion of the second 
 council of Nice, 782. Theophilus banished all the painters and statuaries from the 
 Eastern Empire on account of his hatred of images, 832. The contests between those 
 who detested and abhorred images and their opponents led to the most frightful 
 scenes, in which thousands perished. 
 
IDE 332 IMP 
 
 IDES. In the Roman Calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month, except 
 in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day, because 
 in these four it was six days before the nones, and in the other months four days. 
 The Ides of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate 
 house by Casca and other conspirators, 44 B.C. 
 
 IDIOTS. It is shown by late returns, that exclusively of lunatics, there are in England, 
 pauper idiots, or idiots protected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 : 
 total, 7265. In England there is one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals; in 
 Wales there is one in every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 
 For laws relating to idiots, see Lunacy. 
 
 IDOLS and IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of 
 Assyria, 2059 B.C. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have originated in the pillar set 
 up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 B.C. —Dufresnoy. Constantine, emperor of Rome, 
 ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a.d. 
 — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and 
 barbarous superstitions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and 
 they soon overspread the country with them ; they had a god for every day in the 
 week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming 
 of St. Augustin. See Christianity. 
 
 ILIUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 B.C. Troy 
 (which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 B.C. ; and Ilus, his 
 successor, called the countiy Ilium. This kingdom existed 296 years from the reign 
 of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The Trojan war was undertaken 
 by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, son of Priam, had 
 borne away from her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, 1204 B.C. More than 
 100,000 warriors engaged in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many 
 defenceless towns and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 B.C. Troy was taken 
 after ten years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
 inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 B.C. 
 
 ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, 
 and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity ; 
 and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. Varro wrote the lives 
 of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with their likenesses, about 70 B.C. — 
 Plin. Hist. Nat. Some beautiful missals and other works were printed in the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries, et seq. ; and fine specimens in imitation have lately appeared 
 from the houses of eminent booksellers in London. 
 
 ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were called 
 Alumbrados, about a.d. 1575; and after their suppression in Spain, they appeared in 
 France. One of their leaders was friar Anthony Buchet. The chief doctrine of this 
 sect was, that they obtained grace, and attained perfection, by their own sublime 
 manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam 
 Weishaupt, in May, 1776. 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See Conception. 
 
 IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parliament, 
 and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. & 
 Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to an 
 impeachment by the commons in parliament, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeach- 
 ment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 
 1795, in an acquittal. Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, 
 June 12, 1806. Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the 
 duke of York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal. Trial 
 of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, before the house of 
 lords, commenced Aug. 16; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; 
 and the last debate on the bill took place Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen of George IV. 
 
 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of Great Britain 
 became Imperial ; and the first Imperial parliament, admitting 100 Irish members 
 into the commons, and 28 temporal, and 4 spiritual peers, into the house of lords, 
 was held at Westminster, Jan. 22, 1801. The Imperial parliament is now constituted 
 thus: in the Commons, since the passing of the Reform Bill (which see), in 1832, 
 
IMP 
 
 333 
 
 IMP 
 
 there are 469 English ; 29 Welsh; 105 Irish; and 53 Scotch members — in all 656. 
 In the Lords, 455 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative 
 peers of Ireland; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, 
 Parliament, and Reform. 
 
 IMPORTS of MERCHANDISE. The following is a statement of the amount of imports 
 into Great Britain, at different periods in the last and present century. It shows, with 
 the statement of the value of British exports (see Exports), the progressive and vast 
 improvement of our commercial intercourse with other countries : — 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 £41,136,135 
 . . 36,514,564 
 
 . 46,245,241 
 . . 62,004,000 
 
 IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other impostors 
 would fill a volume ; they have been of every country, of every age. The following 
 are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 
 
 In 1710 . 
 
 .£4,753,777 
 
 In 1810 . 
 
 1750 . 
 
 . . 7,289,582 
 
 1820 
 
 1775 . 
 
 . 14,815,855 
 
 1S30 . 
 
 1S00 . 
 
 . . 30,570,605 
 
 1840 
 
 In 1845 
 
 .£85,281,958 
 
 1S50 . 
 
 . . 95,252,084 
 
 1S51 
 
 . 103,579,582 
 
 1836 . 
 
 . . 172,654,823 
 
 Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
 tended he had a letter from the Redeemer, 
 which fell from heaven at Jerusalem; he 
 seduced multitudes to follow him into 
 woods and foi-ests, and to live in imitation 
 of John the Baptist. 
 
 Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be 
 the angel Michael ; he was burnt by the 
 inquisition in Spain, in 1360. 
 
 George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, 
 styled himself the nephew of God, sent into 
 the world to adopt children worthy of 
 heaven : he denied the resurrection, 
 preached against marriage, in favour of a 
 community of women, and taught that the 
 body only could be defiled by sin ; he had 
 many followers ; died at Basle, 1556. 
 
 Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
 tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
 Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had put 
 to death ; but he maintained that another 
 child had been substituted in his place ; he 
 was supported by the arms of Poland ; his 
 success astonished the Russians, who in- 
 vited him to the throne, and delivered into 
 his hands Fedor, the reigning czar, and all 
 his family, whom he cruelly put to death : 
 his imposition being discovered, he was as- 
 sassinated in his palace, 1606. — D'Alembert's 
 Revolutions of Russia. 
 
 Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the 
 Turks and Jews a long time at Constanti- 
 nople and other places, by personating Our 
 Saviour, 1666. 
 
 IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Two men executed, both pretending to be the 
 Messiah ; and two women executed for as- 
 suming to be the Virgin Mary and Mary 
 Magdalen, 5 Hen. III. 1221 ; and 1225. 
 
 Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of 
 Kent, spirited up to hinderthe Reformation, 
 by pretending to inspirations from heaven, 
 foretelling that the king would have an 
 early and violent death if he divorced Ca- 
 therine of Spain, and married Anne Boleyn. 
 She and her confederates were hanged at 
 Tyburn, 24 Hen. VIII. 1534.— Rapin. 
 
 In the first year of Mary's reign, after her 
 marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
 Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was secreted 
 in a wall, and with a whistle, made for the 
 purpose, uttered many seditious speeches 
 against the queen and the prince, and also 
 against the mass and confession, for which 
 she was sentenced to stand upon a scaffold 
 at St. Paul's Cross, during Sermon-time, and 
 make public confession of her imposture, 
 1553 : she was called the Spirit of the Wall. 
 — Baker's Chronicle. 
 
 "William Hacket, a fanatic, personated Our 
 Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
 34Eliz., 1591. 
 
 Valentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, who 
 pretended to cure all diseases by stroking 
 the patient ; his imposture deceived the cre- 
 dulous, and occasioned very warm disputes 
 in Ireland in 1665, and in England, where 
 it fell into disrepute, in 1666, upon his 
 examination before the Royal Society, after 
 which we hear no more of him. — Birch's 
 Memoirs of the Royal Society. 
 
 Dr. Titus Oates. See Conspiracies. 
 
 Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forges the 
 hands of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, 
 and other nobility, to a pretended associ- 
 ation for restoring king James : the lords 
 were imprisoned, but the imposture being 
 detected, Young was afterwards fined lOOOi. 
 and put in the pillory, 1692. 
 
 Three French refugees pretend to be pro- 
 phets, and raise tumults, 6 Anne, 1707. — 
 Mortimer's Annals. 
 
 Mary Tofts of Godalming, by pretending she 
 bred rabbits within her, so imposed upon 
 many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, 
 surgeon to the king,) that they espoused 
 her cause, 1726. 
 
 The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William 
 Parsons, his wife and daughter, 1762. See 
 Cock-lane Ghost. 
 
 Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her con- 
 ception of the Messiah, and had a multitude 
 of followers ; she died in Dec, 1814. 
 
 W. Thorn. See Thomites. 
 
 Joseph Smith. See Mormonites. 
 
 IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. 
 The statute 2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The 
 first commission for it was issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the sea or 
 land service, declared to be illegal by the British parliament, Dec. 1641. None 
 can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentices 
 nor landsmen who have not served at sea for three or two years. No masters of 
 merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. 
 
IMP 334 I NX' 
 
 No men employed by the public boards, and none except by an officer with a 
 press warrant. Impressment was not resorted to in the Russian war 1854-5. 
 
 IMPRISONMENT for DEBT. See articles, Arrest, Debtors, and Ferrari Arrest. 
 
 IMPROPRIATIONS. Before the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII. at the 
 period of the Reformation, the abbots and superiors of them had many rich liviugs in 
 their possession. The great tithes they kept to themselves, allowing the small ones 
 to the vicar or substitute who served in the church. On the suppression of abbeys, 
 their incomes from the great tithes were distributed among his courtiers by 
 Henry VIII.; and their successors, by inheritance or purchase, constitute the 7597 
 lay impropriators who have made, and still make, a traffic of these benefices. 
 
 INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic 
 constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This 
 crime was made high treason by statute 8 Hen. VI. 1429 : and it was denied benefit 
 of clergy, 21 Hen. VIII. 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced in and about 
 Kent, in August, 1830; and in Suffolk and other counties since. The punishment of 
 death remitted, except in special cases (see Arson), 7 & 9 Geo. IV. 1827-9. These 
 acts amended, 1 Vict. 1837; and again, in relation to farming property, 1844. 
 
 INCENSE. An aromatic and odorous gum that issues out of a tree, called by the 
 ancients thurifera, and the leaves whereof are like those of a pear-tree. In the dog- 
 days they make incisions in this tree, and so extract the gum. Both the heathens 
 and the Jews offered incense in their sacrifices : the Jewish priests, morning and 
 evening, burnt incense, and upon the great day of expiation the high-priest took 
 incense pounded, and ready to be put into the censer, with a spoon, and threw it 
 upon the fire the moment he entered the sanctuary. Sometimes the fat of the victims 
 offered was called by this name, as 1 Chron. v. 46. The Roman Catholic Church, 
 following the example of the Jews, burnt incense, made of rosin and sweet substances. 
 
 INCOME TAX. This is not, as some suppose, a new impost. In 1512, parliament 
 granted a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and two-tenths from the 
 clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. — Rapin. This tax was 
 attempted in 1793 and 1799; and again in 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it 
 was revived at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150Z. and lower rates on 
 smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806, was raised 
 to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 
 
 In 1S04, at Is. in the pound . £1,650,000 I In 1806, at Is. in the pound . £11,500,000 
 In 1805, at 1*. 3d. ditto . . 5,937,500 | And subsequently .... 10,54S,985 
 
 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c. 8,657,937/.; from funded and stock 
 properties, 2,885,505/.; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/.; and salaries and 
 pensions, 1,174,456/.; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. 
 Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax at a rate of 21. 18s. id. per cent, per 
 ann. to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842 ; it produced about 5,350,000/. 
 a-year, and enabled sir Robert Peel to repeal about 12,000,000/. of indirect taxes. 
 This tax was renewed for three years more, in March 1845. It was again renewed in 
 March, 1848,* for another three years. Continued for one year by the 14th Vict. c. 
 12, passed June 5, 1851 ; and again for another year, in 1852. By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 34, 
 June 28, 1853, the original tax was limited to seven years, to be gradually reduced 
 in amount; but all incomes from 100/. to 150/. were made liable to 5d. in the pound 
 for all that period. The tax was also extended to Ireland. In consequence of the 
 breaking out of the war, the rate was doubled (16 & 17 Vict. c. 24, June 16, 1854), 
 and by the budget of 1855, 2d. more added to the tax on incomes above 150/. and l^d. 
 on those between 100/. and 150/. May 3, 1855 : the former being Is. id., the latter 
 ll^c/. in the pound. On April i, 1857, the tax was reduced to 5d. and 7c/. in the pound. 
 
 PRODUCE OP THE INCOME TAX. 
 
 184-2 
 
 . £571,055 1 1848 . 
 
 . . £5,347,365 
 
 1S54 
 
 . £7,456,025 
 
 1844 . 
 
 . . 5,191,597 1850 
 
 . 5,383.037 
 
 1S55 . 
 
 . . 13,718,185 
 
 1846 
 
 . 5,395,391 | 1852 . 
 
 . . 5,509,637 
 
 1S56 
 
 . 15,717,155 
 
 INCUMBERED ESTATES, Ireland. A most important act was enacted 12 & 13 
 Vict. c. 77, July 28, 1849, to enable any owner of land, or of a lease of land, for not 
 
 * Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London, March 6, 7, 1S48 (for the ostensible 
 purpose of opposing the Income Tax), followed by rioting, which was soou quelled. 
 
IND 
 
 33J 
 
 IND 
 
 less than sixty years unexpired, subject to incumbrance, to apply, within three 
 years from the passing of the act, to commissioners appointed under it to direct 
 a sale of such property ; or the incumbrancer may apply, within the same term, for 
 a like sale ; but where the interest and annual payments in respect of charges payable 
 out of the annual income do not exceed half the net annual income, the commis- 
 sioners are not to make an order for the sale of the property on the application of the 
 incumbrancer. The number of estates sold up to August 9, 1852, was 777, producing 
 7,353,736?. The commissioners held their first court in Dublin, Oct. 24, 1849 ; and 
 property to an immense amount has already changed hands under the act. In 1854, 
 a similar act was passed for the West Indies, 17 & 18 Vict. c. 117. 
 
 INDEMNITY BILL. A bill by which the minister of the crown, or the government 
 generally, is relieved from the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and 
 urgent cases without the previous sanction of Parliament. A memorable bill of this 
 kind was passed, April 19, 1801. A memorable bill to indemnify ministers against 
 their abuses of power, during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, was carried 
 in the Commons (principal divisions, 190 to 64) ; and in the Lords (93 to 27) ; 
 March 10, 1818. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS, or CONGREGATIONALISTS. They are such as hold the inde- 
 pendency of the Church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious 
 matters. They say there is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, whose reso- 
 lutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be perempt- 
 orily obeyed ; they affirm that one Church may advise or reprove another, but has no 
 authority to excommunicate or censure. Robert Brown preached these views in 
 1585, but after 32 imprisonments conformed to the Established Church. A church 
 was formed in London in 1593, when there were 20,000 Independents. They were 
 driven, by persecution, to Holland, where they formed several churches ; that at 
 Leyden, under Mr. Robinson, often regarded as the author of Independency. In 
 1616 Henry Jacobs returned to England and founded a meeting-house. Cromwell, 
 who was himself of their views, obtained them toleration, in opposition to the Pres- 
 byterians. The Independents published an epitome of their faith, drawn up at a con- 
 ference at the Savoy, in 1658 ; and the Congregational Union of England and Wales, 
 formed in 1831, published their "Declaration of Faith, Order, and Discipline," in 
 1833. In 185l'they had 3244 chapels in England and Wales. See Worship. The 
 first Independents in Scotland were the Glasites, which see, 
 
 INDEX EXPURGATORIUS. A catalogue of books prohibited by the Church of Rome, 
 first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. The index of 
 heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain 
 exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It 
 enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, 
 which are still prohibited. — Ashe. 
 
 INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly 
 the Tyrians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered 
 by Darius Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapy in 512 B.C., and by Alexander, 
 327 B.C. and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was 
 very great. The authentic history of Hindostan is reckoned to commence with the 
 conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a.d. 1000. — Rennell. 
 
 Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
 Mahmud Gazni . . . a.d. 1000 
 
 Patna, or Afghan empire founded . . 1205 
 
 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
 bloody conquerors of the world ; 
 14,000,000 of the human race perish by 
 his sword, under the pretence of esta- 
 blishing the worship of one god; he 
 died 1237 
 
 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of 
 the celebrated Timour, or Tamerlane, 
 invade Hindostan 139S 
 
 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; defeats 
 the Indian army, makes a conquest of 
 Hindostan, and butchers 100,000 of its 
 people 1390 
 
 The passage to India discovered by Vasco 
 de Gama 1497 
 
 Conquest of the country completed by 
 the sultan Baber, founder of the Mogul 
 empire a.d. 1525 
 
 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the great- 
 est prince of Hindostan . ... 1555 
 
 Reign of Aurungzebe; his dominions 
 extending from 10 to 35 degrees in 
 latitude, and nearly as much in longi- 
 tude, and his revenue amounting to 
 32,000,OOOZ. sterling . . ... 1660 
 
 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
 Kouli Khan 173S 
 
 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
 and 150,000 persons perish . . . 1738 
 
 He carries away treasure amounting to 
 125,000,000?. sterling .... 1739 
 
 Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
 Rohillas 1749 
 
IND 
 
 336 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 [The Mogul empire now became merely- 
 nominal, distinct and independent so- 
 vereignties being formed by numerous 
 petty princes. The emperors were of no 
 political consequence from this period.] 
 
 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 
 
 Attempt made to reach India by the 
 
 north-east and north-west passages . 1528 
 Sir Francis Drake's expedition . . 1579 
 
 Levant company make a land expedition 
 
 to India 1589 
 
 First adventure from England . . . 1591 
 First charter to the London company of 
 
 merchants 1600 
 
 Second charter to the E. India Company 1609 
 Factories established at Surat . . . 1612 
 Sir Thomas Roe, first English ambassa- 
 dor, arrives 1615 
 
 Bengal made a distinct agency . . . 1680 
 English factory at Calcutta . . . 1690 
 New company established . . . . 1698 
 Calcutta purchased .... 1698 
 The companies united . . . . 1702 
 English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of 
 the French government, without suc- 
 cess 174S 
 
 Geriah and other strongholds of the 
 
 pirate Angria taken. See Angria . 1756 
 Capture of Calcutta by Sarajah Dowla. 
 
 See Calcutta 1756 
 
 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of 
 whom 123 perish in one night. See 
 Blackhole .... May 19, 1756 
 Calcutta retaken by Colonel, afterwards 
 lord Clive. He defeats the soubah, at 
 Plassey June 20, 1757 
 
 [Colonel Clive's force was but 3000 men, 
 and the soubah's 50,000. By this vic- 
 tory he acquired all Bengal, and nu- 
 merous conquests followed.] 
 
 Fort William, the strongest fort in India, 
 
 built 1757 
 
 Conquest of Patna . . . Nov. 6, 1763 
 Great battle of Buxard ; the English 
 defeat 50,000 Indians, kill 6000, and 
 take 130 pieces of cannon ; their own 
 loss being trifling . . Oct. 22, 1764 
 
 Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an 
 imperial grant, which constitutes the 
 company the receivers of the revenue 
 of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and gives 
 the British the virtual sovereignty of 
 these countries . . Aug. 12, 1765 
 Treaty with Nizam Ali . . Nov. 12, 1766 
 Frightful famine in Bengal . . . 1770 
 Warren Hastings becomes governor of 
 
 Bengal April 13, 1772 
 
 India Bill. See India Bill . June 16, 1773 
 Supreme court established . . . 1773 
 Accusations commence against Warren 
 Hastings ; he is accused of taking a 
 bribe from a concubine of Mir Jaffier, 
 see Hastings . . . May 30, 1775 
 Lord Pigot, governor of Madras, Dec. ] 1, 1775 
 Warren Hastings accused of receiving 
 
 more bribes and presents, March 11, 1776 
 Lord Pigot is arrested ; he is taken to 
 
 prison, where he dies . . April 17, 1777 
 Pondicherry taken . . Oct. 11, 1778 
 
 The Btror.g fortress of Gwalior taken by 
 
 major Popham . . . Aug. 4, 1778 
 Hyder Ali overruns the Camatic, and 
 
 defeats the British . . Sept. 10, 1780 
 He takes Arcot . . . Oct. 31, 1780 
 
 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
 
 Madras .... June 22, 1781 
 Hyder Ali signally defeated by sir Eyre 
 Coote July 1, 1781 
 
 Again signally defeated . . Aug. 27, 1781 
 Warren Hastings accused of taking more 
 
 bribes. See Chunar . Sept. 19, 1781 
 Hyder Ali is at length decisively over- 
 thrown June 2, 1782 
 
 Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, 
 
 TippooSaib . . . Dec. 11, 1782 
 Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now 
 takes Bednore . . . April 30, 1783 
 
 Mr. Fox's Bill 1783 
 
 Mr. Pitt's Bill. See Board of Control, 
 
 and Eaxl India Bill . . Aug. 13, 1784 
 Warren Hastings resigns . . Feb. 8, 1785 
 Lord Cornwallis's government Sept. 1786 
 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hastings, 
 
 Trial of ... Feb. 13, 17SS 
 
 Bangalore taken. See Bangalore, Mar. 21, 1791 
 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
 
 sons hostages . . . March 19, 1792 
 Criminal courts erected .... 1793 
 Civil courts erected, and circuits ap- 
 pointed 1793 
 
 Government of sir John Shore, after- 
 wards lord Teigumouth . Aug. 6, 1793 
 Tippoo's sons restored . March 29, 1794 
 First dispute with the Burmese ; ad- 
 justed by general Erskine . . . 1795 
 Government of lord MorniDgton, after 
 
 wards marquess Wellesley May 17, 1798 
 Seringapatain stormed, and Tippoo Saib 
 
 killed May 4, 1799 
 
 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
 
 conquered 1800 
 
 Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley . . 18(>3 
 Victories of general Lake . . . . 1S03 
 Capture of Bhurtpore, and complete de- 
 feat of Holkar . . . April 2, 1805 
 Marquess Coruwallis resumes the go- 
 vernment. . . . July 30, 1805 
 The marquess dies . . . Oct. 5, 1805 
 The Mahratta chief, Scir.diah, defeated 
 
 by the British 1805 
 
 Treaty of peace with Scindiah, Nov. 23, 18i5 
 Treaty with Holkar . . Dec. 24, 1805 
 Lord Minto, governor-general, July 31, 1807 
 Cumoona surrendeis . . Nov. 21, 1S07 
 Act by which the trade to India was 
 thrown open ; that to China remaining 
 with the company . . July 31, 1813 
 Marquess of Hastings takes possession 
 
 of the government . . . Oct. 4, 1813 
 War declared against Nepaul . Nov. 1, 1814 
 Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop, Dec. 21, 1817 
 Peace with Holkar . . . Jan. 6, 1818 
 Marquess of Hastings resigns Jan. 9, 1823 
 Lord Amherst's government . Aug. 1, 1823 
 The British take Rangoon . . May 5, 1824 
 Lord Combermere commands in India . l^L'i 
 General Campbell defeats the Burmese 
 
 near Proome . . . Dec. 25, 1825 
 Bhurtpore stormed by lord Combermere, 
 
 and taken .... Jan. 3, 1826 
 Peace with the Burmese . Feb. 24, 1826 
 
 [They pay 1,000,000?. sterling, and cede 
 a great extent of territory. J 
 
 Lord William Bentinck arrives as gover- 
 nor-general .... July 4, 1828 
 
 Earl of Dalhousie appointed commander- 
 in-chief .... Feb 25, 1829 
 
 Abolition of suttees, or the burning of 
 widows. See Suttees . . Dec. 7, 1829 
 
 Act to regulate the trade to China and 
 intercourse with India . Aug. 28, 1833 
 
 Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
 trade, <fec, to China, forming a new 
 era in British commerce . Aug. 28, 1833 
 
 Rajah of Coorg deposed . . April 10, 1834 
 
 The natives first admitted to the magis- 
 tracy. . ... May 1, 1834 
 
IND 
 
 337 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Lord William Bentinck returns to Eng- 
 land from India . . . July 14, 1835 
 
 Lord Auckland, governor-general; he 
 leaves England . . . Sept. 1S35 
 
 The Newab Shunsoodden put to death 
 for the murder of Mr. Frazer, British 
 resident .... Oct. 8, 1835 
 
 The British occupy Candahar, April 21, 1S39 
 
 Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John, 
 now lord Keane. (See Ghiznee) July 23, 1839 
 
 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
 and he and the British array enter 
 Cabul Aug. 7, 1839 
 
 English defeat Dost Mahomed, Oct. 18, 1S40 
 
 Kurrock Singh, king of Lahoi'e, dies : 
 at his funeral his successor is killed 
 by accident, and Dost Mahomed, next 
 heir, surrenders to England, Nov. 5, 1840 
 
 General rising against the British at 
 Cabul ; sir Alexander Burnes and 
 other officers murdered . Nov. 2, 1841 
 
 Lord Ellenborough appointed governor- 
 general . . . . Oct. 13, 1S41 
 
 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously 
 assassinated .... Dec. 25, 1841 
 
 The British, under a convention, vea- 
 cuate Cabul, placing lady Sale, &c, 
 as hostages in the hands of Akhbar 
 Khan ; a dreadful massacre ensues, 
 
 Jan. 6, 1842 
 Ghiznee evacuated . . . March 6, 1842 
 Sortie from Jellalabad . April 5, 1842 
 General England joins general Nott at 
 
 Candahar .... May 9, 1842 
 Ghiznee retaken by general Nott, Sept. 6, 1842 
 General Pollock re-enters Cabul, Sept. 1 6, 1 S42 
 Lady Sale, &c. , are released, and arrive 
 
 at general Pollock's camp Sept. 21, 1S12 
 Lord Ellenborough's proclamation from 
 
 Simla Oct. 1, 1812 
 
 Cabul evacuated after destroying the 
 
 fortifications . . . Oct. 12, 1842 
 Ameers of Scinde defeated by sir Charles 
 Napier ; Scinde is afterwards annexed 
 to the British empire . . Feb. 17, 18 13 
 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; the 
 strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar 
 of the East," taken . . Dec. 29, 1S43 
 Sir Henry Hardinge appointed governor- 
 general May 2, 1844 
 
 THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 
 
 [This treacherous and unprovoked war 
 was commenced by a sudden move- 
 ment of the Sikh nation.] 
 
 The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, 
 and attack the British post at Feroze- 
 pore, which was held by sir John 
 Littler Dec. 14, 1845 
 
 The governor-general, with a large force, 
 after a long and rapid march, reaches 
 Moodkee .... Dec. 18, 1845 
 
 The Sikhs, 20,000 strong, make au 
 attack; after a hard contest they 
 retire, abandoning their guns, Dec. 18, 1S45 
 
 [In this battle sir Kobert Sale is mortally 
 wounded, and gen. McCaskill killed. 
 See Moodkee.] 
 
 Battle of Ferozeshah ; the British com- 
 manded by the governor-general, sir 
 Hugh Gough, sir Harry Smith, sir 
 John Littler, and major-general Gil- 
 bert ; the enemy repulsed, losing 15 
 pieces of cannon . . . Dec. 21, 1845 
 
 The battle is renewed the next day; 
 general Gilbert storms the enemy's 
 positions. See Ferozeshah Dec. 22, 1845 
 
 The enemy recross the Sutlej unmo- 
 lested, after their late discomfiture, 
 
 Dec. 27, 1S45 
 
 Sir Harry Smith, advancing up the 
 Sutlej, receives a severe check, Jan. 21, 1846 
 
 Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated. 
 See Aliical and Sutlej . . Jan. 28, 1846 
 
 Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy de- 
 feated with immense loss in killed and 
 drowned. See Sobraon . Feb. 10, 1S46 
 
 [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 
 2338 in killed and wounded.] 
 
 The citadel of Lahore is occupied by the 
 British under sir Hugh Gough ; and 
 the war terminates . . Feb. 20, 1S46 
 
 Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received 
 at Moodkee . . . Feb. 23, 1S46 
 
 Treaty of Lahore signed by the Mahara- 
 jah and the British . . -March 9, 1846 
 
 The governor-general and sir Hugh 
 Gough are raised to the peerage, as 
 viscount Hardinge and baron Gough, 
 and receive the thanks of parliament 
 and of the East India Company, 
 
 March 2, 6, 1S46 
 
 Treaty of Lahore signed . . March 9, 1S46 
 
 Vizier Llall Singh deposed . Jan. 13, 1847 
 
 Earl (afterwards marquess of) Dalhousie 
 appointed governor-general Aug. 4, 1847 
 
 Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson 
 killed in a quarrel with the troops of 
 the dewan Moolraj . . April IS, 1818 
 
 Lieut. Edwardes most gallantly engages 
 the array of Moolraj, which he defeats 
 after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, 
 
 June 18, 1S48 
 
 Gen. Whish obliged to raise the siege of 
 Mooltan .... Sept. 22, 184S 
 
 Shere Singh being entrenched on the 
 right bank of the Chenab, with 40,000 
 men ana 28 pieces, of artillery, major- 
 general Thackwell crosses the river 
 with thirteen infantry regiments, with 
 cavalry and cannon, and operates on 
 his left flank . . . Nov. 20, 184S 
 
 Lord Gough meantime attacks the 
 enemy's advanced position ; the 
 British suffered great slaughter, but 
 finally defeated Shere Singh, who is 
 driven out of Bamnugger . Nov. 22, 1848 
 
 [Various actions and successes follow on 
 the movements of the enemy.] 
 
 Battle of Chillianwallah (which see), 
 
 Jan. 13, 1849 
 
 Unconditional surrender of the citadel 
 of Mooltan, with its whole garrison, 
 by the dewan Moolraj. See Mooltan, 
 
 Jan. 22, 1S49 
 
 Battle of Goojerat, which gee . Feb. 21, 1849 
 
 Sir Charles Napier's appointment as 
 commander-in-chief . . March 7, 1849 
 
 The whole Sikh army lay down their 
 arms, and surrender to the British 
 unconditionally . . March 14, 1849 
 
 Proclamation of the governor-general 
 announcing the formal annexation of 
 the Punjaub to the British dominions, 
 
 March 29, 1849 
 
 Moolraj found guilty of the murder of 
 Mr. Agnew and lieut. Anderson, after 
 a trial of fifteen days' duration, and 
 sentenced to death . . Aug. 1849 
 
 Moolraj 's sentence commuted to trans- 
 portation for life . . . Sept. 1849 
 
 Arrival of the gallant lord Gough at 
 Southampton from India . Feb. 24. 1850 
 
IND 
 
 338 
 
 IND 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his 
 attendants, murdered by the Affredis, 
 
 March 20, 1850 
 
 Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the 
 queen of Great Britain arrives in Eng- 
 laud. See Nepaul . . May 25, 1850 
 
 Besignation by sir Charles Napier of his 
 command in India . . . July 2, 1S50 
 
 The Nepaulese ambassador and suite 
 leave London for Paris . Aug. 20, 1850 
 
 Sir Charles Napier's farewell address to 
 the Indian army . . . Dec. 15, 1850 
 
 He arrives in London . March 19, 18il 
 
 A British naval force arrives before Ban- 
 goon, in the Birman empire, and com- 
 modore Lambert allows the viceroy 
 thirty-five days to obtain from Ava 
 compliauce with certain demands, 
 
 Oct. 29, 1S51 
 
 The viceroy of Bangoon interdicts com- 
 munication between the shore and the 
 British ships of war ; and erects bat- 
 teries and stockades to prevent their 
 departure .... Jan. 4, 1852 
 
 [The British commodore, in consequence, 
 proclaims a blockade of the Irawaddy ; 
 the Fox, Hermes, <fec, are attacked 
 by the batteries, they reply to the fire, 
 destroy the fortifications, and kill 
 nearly 300 of the enemy.] 
 
 Martaban stormed by the British Indian 
 
 army .... April 5, 1852 
 
 Bangoon stormed by the British, April 14, 1852 
 Storming of Bassein by the British 
 
 Indian troops . . . May 19, 1852 
 Capture of Pegu (afterwards abandoned) 
 
 June 4, 1852 
 Capture of Prome by capt. Tarleton, 
 
 July 9, 1852 
 Pegu re-captured by gen. Godwin, 
 
 Nov. 21, 1852 
 Pegu annexed to our Iudian empire by 
 
 proclamation of the gov. -gen. , Dec. 20, 1852 
 Bevolution at Ava ; the king of Ava 
 
 deposed by his younger brother, Jan. 1853 
 Bangoon devastated by fire Feb. 14, 1853 
 Capt. Loch and many officers and men 
 
 killed in an attack on the stronghold 
 
 of a robber-chief, Feb. 3, which was 
 
 taken by sir J. Cheape March 19, 1853 
 
 First Indian railway opened from Bom- 
 bay to Tannah . . . April 16, 1853 
 Termination of the war . . June 30, 1853 
 New India bill passed . . Aug. 20, 1853 
 Death of gen. Godwin . . Oct. 2(5, 1853 
 Assassination of capt. Latter Dec. 8, 1853 
 Bajah of Nagpoor dies and his territories 
 
 fall to the E. I. Company, Dec. 11, 1853 
 Opening of Ganges canal . . . . 1854 
 Opening of the Calcutta railway, Feb. 3, 1855 
 Treaty with Dost Mahommed of Cabul, 
 
 March 31, 1855 
 Insurrection of the Sonthals (which see) 
 
 July, 1855 
 
 * Owing to the introduction of the improved muskets, greased cartridges had been brought from 
 England. These were objected to by the native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately dis- 
 continued by orders in Jan. 1857. A. mutinous spirit however gradually arose in the Bengal native 
 army. In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by othei s, till in June the army had lost, 
 by disbaudment and desertion, about 30,000 men. In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at 
 Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On May 9 they were committed to gaol. On the 10th a mutiny 
 in the Native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, killing col. Finnis and others. They then 
 released their comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired the public buildings. The European 
 troops rallied and drove them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled to Delhi, which see. 
 
 t Several of these appointments are those of governors-general provisionally, having been first in 
 rank in the Council, and holding office on the resignation of the governors-general, or pending their 
 arrival and assumption of the government ; as, for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro 
 Barlow, hon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce Bird, &c. The apimntments of 
 governors-general are, of course, of earlier date than their assumption of office. 
 
 Which is only finally suppressed May, 1856 
 
 Mutinies in the Bengal army : several 
 regiments disbanded . . March, 1857 
 
 "India is quiet throughout." — Bombay 
 Gazette May 1, 1857 
 
 Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi). The 
 mutineers seize Delhi, where they 
 commit dreadful outrages, and pro- 
 claim a king. . . May 10, &c, 1857 
 
 Martial law proclaimed by the British 
 lieut. -governor J. B. Colvin . . . 1857 
 
 British troops under gen. Anson advance 
 on Delhi 1 857 
 
 Death of gen. Anson . . May 27, 1857 
 
 The mutineers defeated in two attacks 
 on brigadier Wil&on . May 30, 31, 1857 
 
 Again defeated, with severe loss 
 
 June 8, 12, 17, 19, 23, 1857 
 
 Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : 
 fearful atrocities committed, 
 
 June and July, 1857 
 
 Ex-king of Oude arrested . June 14, 1857 
 
 Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at 
 Lucknow .... July 4, 1S57 
 
 Sir H. Barnard, commanding before 
 Delhi dies of cholera, succeeded by 
 gen. Beed July 5, 1S57 
 
 Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who 
 kills the garrison, &c, June 28 ; he is 
 defeated by gen. Havelock, July 13 ; 
 who re-captures Cawnpore July 17, 1^57 
 
 COVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, &C.f 
 
 Warren Hastings assumed the govern- 
 ment in India . . . April 13, 1772 
 Sir John Macpherson . . . Feb. 1, 1785 
 Lord Cornwallis . . . Sept 12, 1786 
 Sir John Shore, afterwards lord Teign- 
 
 mouth .... Oct. 28, 1793 
 
 Lord (afterwards marquess) Cornwallis 
 again : herelinquishedtheappointment 
 Sir Alured Clarke . . April 6, 1798 
 
 Lord.Momingtou, afterwards marquess 
 
 Wellesley .... May 17, 1798 
 Marquess Cornwallis again July 30, 1805 
 
 Sir George Hilaro Barlow . Oct. 10, 1805 
 Lord Minto .... July 31, 1807 
 Earl of Moira, afterwards marquess of 
 
 Hastings .... Oct. 4, 1813 
 Hon. John Adam . . Jan. 13, 1823 
 Bt. hon. George Canning, relinquished 
 
 the appointment. 
 William, lord, afterwards earl, Amherst, 
 
 Aug. 1, 1823 
 Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley, March 13, 1828 
 Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck, July 4, 1828 
 [This nobltman became the first gover- 
 nor-general of India, under the act 3 
 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 ; Aug. 28, 1833. J 
 Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe, after- 
 wards lord Metcalfe . March 20, 1835 
 William, lord Heytesbury. Did not 
 
 proceed. 
 George, lord Auckland, afterwards earl 
 of Auckland .... March 4, 1836 
 
IND 339 INF 
 
 INDIA, continued. 
 
 Edward, lord Ellenborough, afterwards 
 
 earl of Ellenborough . Feb. 28, 1842 
 William Wilberforce Bird . June 15, 1844 
 Sir Henry Hardinge, afterwards vis- ■ 
 count Hardinge . . July 23, 1844 
 
 James-Andrew, earl, afterwards mar- 
 quess of Dalhousie . . Jan. 12, 1848 
 
 Charles John, -viscount Canning, ap- 
 pointed July, 1855 
 
 The present governor (1857).* 
 
 INDIA COMPANY, the EAST. The first commercial intercourse of the English with 
 the East Indies, was a private adventure of three ships fitted out in 1591. Only one 
 of them reached India, and after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain 
 Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; 
 but his information gave rise to a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first 
 charter, in Dec. 1600. Their stock then consisted of 72,000?. and they fitted out four 
 ships, and meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
 at 500?. for a share of 1001. in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698 ; and both 
 were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and enlarged in 1799. The 
 Board of Control, or India Board, was instituted 1784. See Board <.f Control. 
 
 INDIA BILL. See East India Bill; Board of Control. 
 
 INDIA, NEW EOUTE to. See Waghorn's Overland Route to India. 
 
 INDIA EUBBER. See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INDICTION. A cycle of tributes orderly disposed for fifteen years, not known before 
 the time of Constantine. The first examples in the Theodosian Code are of the reign 
 of Constantius, who died 361. — In memory of the great victory obtained by Con- 
 stantine over Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, the Council of Nice ordained that the 
 accounts of years should be no longer kept by the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, 
 which has its epocha a.d. 313, Jan. 1. — Gregory. They were first used by the Latin 
 Church in 342. 
 
 INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used in Europe 
 came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage round the Cape of 
 Good Hope, it was conveyed, like other Indian products, partly through the Persian 
 Gulf, and partly by land to Babylon, or through Arabia, and up the Red Sea to 
 Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known in Europe, that it was classed 
 among minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from 
 mines in the principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705; yet what Vitruvius 
 and Pliny call indicum is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckmann. The first 
 mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe 
 was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, in 1747. The 
 quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 lbs. ; in 1845, it was 
 10,127,488 lbs. ; and in 1850, the import amounted to 70,482 cwt. 
 
 INDULGENCES in the ROMISH CHURCH. They were commenced by Leo III. 
 about a.d. 800 ; were much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently con- 
 ferred by the Roman pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. 
 Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
 Leo X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the practice led to 
 the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and in England, in 1534. Indulgences were for 
 the pardon of sins, sometimes for the past, present, and future. They were written 
 upon parchment, and sealed or signed by the pope and his delegates.— Ashe. 
 
 INFANTICIDE, Female. This crime very prevalent in barbarous countries is now 
 gradually decreasing in India. On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan 
 chiefs to agree to certain resolutions against it, and a great meeting in the Punjaub 
 was held for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 
 
 INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased 
 persons, however, were carried to the temple of iEsculapius for a cure, as Christian 
 believers were taken to churches which contained wonder-working images. Bene- 
 volent institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick, were 
 first introduced with Christianity, and the first infirmaries or hospitals were built 
 close to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries 
 
 * British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat., and from 70° to 90° E long, (exclusive of the Burmese 
 additions). The population is about 50 millions, that of the whole peninsula about 176 millions 
 Cotton was planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electric telegraph are being 
 rapidly constructed, and canals for irrigation. See Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 
 1854-5 was 20,371,4502. The expenditure, 22,915,160i. The debt is about 2i millions. (1856). 
 
 z2 
 
ING 340 INQ 
 
 situated on mountains to be visited, a.d. 855. Iu Jerusalem the kuights aud brothers 
 attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th 
 century. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infirmaries, 
 occurs in 1437. — Bechnann. See Hospitals. 
 
 INGOUR, a river rising in the Caucasus and falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, 
 marching to the relief of Kara, crossed this river on Nov. 6, 1855, with 10,000 men, 
 and attacked the Russians 12,000 strong, encamped on the left bank, who after a 
 struggle retreated with the loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 
 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 
 
 " IN HOC SIGNO VINCES." See Cross. 
 
 INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and 
 Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise various colours, as red, gold, silver, 
 and purple. Red ink was made by them of vermilion aud various kinds of gum. 
 Indian ink is brought from China, and must have been in use by the people of the 
 east from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very 
 great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is 
 composed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beclmann. 
 
 INK, INVISIBLE or SYMPATHETIC. The name given to fluids, which, when 
 written with, will remain invisible until after a certain operation. Various kinds 
 were known at very early periods. Ovid teaches young women to deceive their 
 guardians by writing to their lovers with new milk, and afterwards making the 
 writing legible with ashes or soot. A receipt for preparing invisible ink was given 
 by Peter Borel, in 1653. Receipts for making it were given by Le Mort, in 1669, and 
 by others. — Beckmann. 
 
 INKERMANN, BATTLE of. The Russian army (about 40,000) having received 
 reinforcements, and encouraged by the presence of the granddukes Michael and 
 Nicholas, attacked the British (8000), near the old fort of Iukermann, before daybreak, 
 Nov. 5, 1854. The latter kept their opponents at bay till the arrival of 6000 French. 
 The Russians were then driven back, leaving behind 9000 killed and wounded. The 
 loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, and 191 missing. Sir George Cath- 
 cart, and generals Strangways, Goldie and Torrens were among the slain. On Nov. 
 15, 1855, an explosion of about 100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inkermann 
 and caused great loss of life. 
 
 INNS of COURT. London. Inns of court were established at different periods, in 
 some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of which there were 
 three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle, and the Outer) was originally founded, 
 and the Temple church built, by the Kuights Templars, 32 Hen. II. 1185. The 
 Inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the reign of Edward III. about 
 1340; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stow's Survey. The 
 following inns were founded, viz : — 
 
 Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery a.d. 1445 Lyon's Inn, 12 Hen. VIII. . . a.d. 1520 
 
 Clement's Inn, IS Edw. IV. . . . 1478 New Inn, 1 Hen. VII 1485 
 
 Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. III. . . . 1345 I Serjeants' Inn, Fleet-street . . .14 20 
 Furnival's Inn, 5 Eliz. . . . . 1503 , Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane . . . 1005 
 
 Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. III. . . . 1357 Staples' Iun, 4 Hen. V 1415 
 
 Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 | Thavies Inn, 10 Hen. VIII. . . . 1510 
 
 INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation from small-pox 
 to England from Turkey. Iu 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrianople, 
 with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in 
 England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 Geo. I. 1721. The practice was preached 
 against by many of the bishops and other clergy from that period until 1760. Dr. 
 Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, aud Dr. Dimsdale of 
 Loudon inoculated Catharine II. empress of Russia, in 1768. See Small Pox. It is 
 now prohibited by law. Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, Jan. 21, 
 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during 
 the intermediate three years. See Small Pox and Vaccination. 
 
 INQUISITION or HOLY OFFICE. Previous to Constantiue (a.d. 306) heresy and 
 spiritual offences were punished by excommunication only ; but shortly after his 
 death capital punishments were added, and inquisitors were appointed by Theodosius, 
 a.d. 382. Priscillian was put to death about 385. Justinian decreed the doctrines of 
 the four holy synods as the holy scriptures and their canons to be observed as laws, 
 
INS 
 
 341 
 
 INT 
 
 529 ; hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 the power of the western 
 bishops was enlarged, and courts were established fOr trying and punishing spiritual 
 offenders, even with death. In the 12th century many heresies arose, and during 
 the crusade against the Albigenses, Gregory IX. in 1233 established by rules the 
 inquisitorial missions, sent out by Innocent III. some years previously, and committed 
 them into the hands of the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona, the first Inquisitor who 
 burnt heretics, was assassinated by an accused gonfalionere, April 6, 1252, and was 
 afterwards canonised. Having fallen into disuse in Spain in the 15th century, 
 the holy office was reinstituted by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1480. In 1481 nearly 
 3000 persons were burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 suffered other penalties. The 
 " Instructions '' of the new tribunal were promulgated, Nov. 29, 1484. New articles 
 were added in 1488 and 1498, and finally a new series of ordinances in 81 articles 
 were compiled by the inquisitor-general Valdez, in 1561. The establishment of the 
 Inquisition was resisted in Naples (1546-7), and only introduced into other parts of 
 Italy with jealous limitations by the temporal power. Carnesecchi was executed at 
 Rome, 1567, and Galileo was compelled to abjure his opinions in 1634. The tribunal 
 was abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy in 1787- It was never firmly established 
 and organised in France, and was totally abolished by Henry IV. by the edict of 
 Nantes, 1598. When Louis XIV. revoked that edict (1685) he refused to introduce 
 the Inquisition ; but advised his grandson Philip V. to retain it in Spain. It was 
 suppressed in that country, Dec. 4, 1808, by Napoleon, and again by the Cortes, 
 Feb. 12, 1813; but was restored by Ferdinand VII. after his restoration by an 
 ordinance dated July 21, 1814, to be again finally abolished by the Cortes at the 
 revolution in 1820. Llorente states that in 236 years the total amount in Spain of 
 persons put to death by the Inquisition has been about 32,000; 291,000 have been 
 subjected to other punishments. The last person burnt was at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, 
 being a woman accused of making a contract with the devil. 
 
 INSANITY. See Lunatics. 
 
 OF ONE THOUSAND MALE PATIENTS, INSANITY WAS SUPPOSED BY AN EMINENT AUTHORITY 
 TO BE TRACEABLE TO THE FOLLOWING CAUSES RELATIVELY : 
 
 Drunkenness . . . 110 
 Consequences of disease . 100 
 
 Epilepsy . . . .78 
 
 Ambition . . . . 73 
 
 Excessive labour . . 7-3 
 
 Born idiots . . . . 71 
 
 Misfortunes . . .69 
 
 Old age 69 
 
 Chagrin . . . .54 
 
 Love 47 
 
 Accidents . . . .39 
 Religious enthusiasm . . 29 
 Unnatural practices . . 27 
 Political events . . . 26 
 
 Poisonous effluvia . .17 
 111 usage . '. . . 12 
 Crimes, remorse and despair 9 
 Pretended insanity . . 5 
 Malconformation of the 
 
 skull .... 4 
 Other and unknown causes SS 
 
 INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, but it was of limited 
 operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various 
 periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act, known 
 as the Great Insolvent act, was taken in England by 50,733 insolvents, from the 
 time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then 
 the acts relating to insolvency have been several times amended. Persons not 
 traders, or being traders, whose debts are less than 3001. may petition the court of 
 Bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro tern, protection from all process 
 against their persons and property, 6 Vict. c. 116, 12 Aug. 1842. Act amended, 
 8 Vict. c. 96, 9 Aug. 1844. See Bankrupts, Debtors. 
 
 INSTITUTE of FRANCE. In 1793 the Academies of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, 
 and of the Sciences, were combined in one body under the above title. 
 
 INSURANCE on SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius 
 was the first contriver of it, a.d. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy in 1194, 
 and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523. The 
 first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601. Insurance of houses and goods 
 in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the Great Fire of 
 London. An office was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally 
 contrived by Dr. Barton, one of the first and most considerable builders of the city 
 of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Hand-in-Eand, in 1696. 
 A duty was first laid on insurances of Is. 6d. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782; 
 this duty was increased in 1797, and has been variously altered since. 
 
 INSURRECTIONS. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTENDMENT of CRIMES. In cases of treason, wounding, burglary, &c. where the 
 intention is proved by circumstances, the offence was made punishable as if put into 
 
INT 
 
 342 
 
 INU 
 
 execution, and the designed crime completed, by statute 7 Geo. II. 1734. The 
 rigour of this act was modified by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's revision of the 
 statutes, 4—10 Geo. IV. 1823—29. 
 
 INTERDICT, or ECCLESIASTICAL CENSURE. This was little practised till the 
 time of Gregory VII. 1073. Interdicts were often executed in Italy, France, and 
 Germany. When a prince was excommunicated, all his subjects retaining their 
 allegiance were excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden to perform any 
 part of divine seiwice, or any clerical duties save the baptism of infants, and the 
 taking the confessions of dying penitents. In 1170, pope Alexander put all England 
 under an interdict; and when king John was excommunicated, in 1208, the kingdom 
 lay under a papal interdict for six years. England was put under an interdict on 
 Henry VIII. shaking off the pope's supremacy, 1535. Pope Sixtus V. published a 
 crusade, or holy war, against the heretic queen of England (Elizabeth), and offered 
 plenary indulgence to all who should assist in deposing her, in 1588, the year of the 
 Spanish Armada. See Excommunication. 
 
 INTEREST of MONEY. The word "interest" was first used in an act of Parliament of 
 the 21st James I. 1623, wherein it was made to signify a lawful increase by way of 
 compensation for the use of money lent. The rate fixed by the A ct was &L for the 
 use of 100?. for a year; in place of usury at 101. before taken. The Commonwealth 
 lowered the rate to 61., in 1650, and by an Act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1714, it 
 was reduced to 51. but the restraint being found prejudicial to commerce the acts 
 were repealed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90, 1854. 
 
 INUNDATIONS. It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
 catastrophes which class under this head : the following are among the most 
 remarkable in our own and other countries : — 
 
 An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid 
 under water many thousand acres, which 
 have not been recovered to this time, a.d. 
 245. — Camden. 
 
 Another in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons, 
 and an innumerable quantity of cattle, 
 perished, 353. 
 
 An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
 more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. 
 
 The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid 
 waste the country for 30 miles round, 836. 
 
 A prodigious inundation of the sea on the 
 English coasts, which demolished a number 
 of seaport towns, and their inhabitants, 
 1015.— Speed. 
 
 Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, 
 overflowed by the sea, and an immense 
 sand-bank formed on the coast of Kent, 
 now known by the name of the Godwin 
 Sands, 1100.— Camden. 
 
 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
 and harbour of Ostend totally immersed, 
 1108. The present city was built above a 
 league from the channel where the old one 
 lies submerged. — Histoire de Flandre. 
 
 More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Win- 
 chelsea by an inundation of the sea, 1280. 
 
 At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
 merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 
 
 The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
 villages, and 100,000 people (see Port), 
 April 17, 1446. 
 
 The Severn overflowed during ten days, and 
 carried away men, women, and children, in 
 their beds, and covered the tops of many 
 mountains ; the waters settled upon the 
 lands, and were called The Great Waters 
 for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— 
 Ho'linshed. Again, 4 James I. 1607, the 
 waters rose above the tops of the houses, 
 and above 100 persons perished in Somer- 
 setshire and Gloucestershire. — Burns. 
 
 A general inundation by the failure of the 
 dikes in Holland, 1530 : the number of 
 drowned said to have been 400,000. 
 
 At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 
 1617. 
 
 An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock 
 
 opened, and poured out water to the height 
 of a church steeple, 16S6.— Vide Phil. Trans. 
 
 Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants 
 were drowned, and incredible damage was 
 done at Hamburg, 1717. 
 
 At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility 
 and other persons of distinction perished, 
 1723. — Vu Fremoy. 
 
 In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called 
 Ripon Flood, a.d. 1771. 
 
 In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their 
 lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
 Sept. 1787. 
 
 An inundation of the Liffey, which did im- 
 mense damage in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787. 
 
 Again in Dublin, and parts adjacent, Dec. 2 
 and 3, 1802. 
 
 Lorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed 
 by the bursting of a reservoir, which inun- 
 dated more than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 
 persons, besides cattle, April 14, 1802. 
 
 At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
 Danube, by which 24 villages and their in- 
 habitants were swept away, April, 1S11. 
 
 In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a 
 cloud during a storm, by which many per- 
 sons and much stock perished, May, 1811. 
 
 Dreadful iuuudation in Hungary, Austria, 
 and Poland, in the summer of 1813. 
 
 By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish 
 corps of 2000 men, on a small island near 
 Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
 death, Sept. 14, 1813. 
 
 In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
 ruin of the French army under Macdonald 
 was accelerated by the floods ; also in 
 Poland 4000 lives were supposed to have 
 been lost, same year. 
 
 At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the 
 snow on the surrounding mountains, most 
 destructive floods were occasioned, Jan. 2, 
 1816. 
 
 In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
 water, and great loss of life and property 
 was sustained, in March, 1816. 
 
 In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the 
 Fen countries, in June, 1819. 
 
 Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by 
 
INU 
 
 343 
 
 ION 
 
 INUNDATIONS, continued. 
 
 the Vistula breaking through some of its 
 
 dikes, by -which 10,000 head of cattle and 
 
 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 
 
 lives lost, April 9, 1829. 
 At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inha- 
 bitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 
 10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 
 
 persons perished, at Canton in China, in 
 
 consequence of an inundation, occasioned 
 
 by incessant rains. Equal or greater cala- 
 mity was produced by the same cause in 
 
 other parts of China, Oct. 1833. 
 Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
 
 poured its waters into the Rhone, broke 
 
 through its banks, and covered 60, 000 acres ; 
 
 Lyons was inundated ; in Avignon 100 
 
 houses were swept away ; 218 houses were 
 
 carried away at La Guillotiere; and up- 
 wards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
 
 Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such a 
 
 height for 238 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840. 
 Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the 
 
 surrounding country ; several lives lost, and 
 
 immense property destroyed, Jan. 16, 1841. 
 
 INVASIONS op the BRITISH ISLANDS. The Romans, under Julius Caesar, invaded 
 Britain, Aug. 26, 55 B.C. It was again invaded by Plautius, a.d. 43 ; by the Saxons in 
 447; and by the Danes in 787, 832, 851, 866, 979, and 1012. From the death of 
 Edward the Confessor, the following invasions have been effected : — 
 
 Disastrous inundation in the centre, west, and 
 south-west of France ; numerous bridges, 
 with the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, 
 swept away ; the latter had cost 6,000,000 
 of francs. The damage done exceeded 
 4,000,000?. sterling. The Loire rose twenty 
 feet in one night, Oct. 22, 1846. 
 
 Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth, in 
 Yorkshire, by the bursting of the Bilberry 
 Dam Beservoir ; a great number of lives 
 lost, and vast property destroyed. See 
 Holmfirth Flood, Feb. 4, 1S52. 
 
 Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and 
 Teme after a violent thunderstorm, Sept. 5, 
 1852. 
 
 Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and 
 the Bhone, overflowing the country to a 
 great extent, Sept. 19, 1852. 
 
 City of Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe, 
 Jan. 1, 1855. 
 
 Inundations in South of France, with im- 
 mense damage (see France), May and June, 
 1856. 
 
 Successful, by 'William the Conqueror, of 
 
 Normandy . . . Sept. 29, a.d. 1066 
 Unsuccessful, by the Irish . . . . 1069 
 Unsuccessful, by the Scots . . . 1071 
 Unsuccessful, by the Scots ; their king, 
 
 Malcolm, killed 1093 
 
 Unsuccessful, Robert of Normandy . 1101 
 Unsuccessful, by the Scots . . . 1136 
 
 Unsuccessful, Maud . . . .1139 
 Successful, Ireland, Fitz-Stephen . . 1169 
 Unsuccessful, Ireland, Edward Bruce . 1315 
 Successful, Isabel, queen of Edward II. 1326 
 Successful, duke of Lancaster . . 1399 
 Unsuccessful, by the French . . . 1416 
 Unsuccessful, queen of Henry VI. . . 1462 
 Successful, earl of Warwick . . . 1470 
 
 Successful, Edward IV 1471 
 
 Unsuccessful, queen of Henry VI. . . 1471 
 
 Successful, earl of Richmond . 
 Unsuccessful, Lambert Simnel . 
 Unsuccessful, Perkin Warbeck 
 Unsuccessful, Italians, Ireland . 
 Unsuccessful, Spanish Armada 
 Unsuccessful, Ireland, Spaniards 
 Unsuccessful, duke of Monmouth . 
 Successful, William of Orange . 
 Unsuccessful, James II. . 
 Unsuccessful, old Pretender 
 Unsuccessful, Pretender again 
 Unsuccessful, young Pretender . 
 Unsuccessful, Ireland, Invasion 
 
 Thurot. See Thurot . 
 Unsuccessful, Wales, the French 
 
 Unsuccessful, Ireland ; 
 at Killala, which see 
 
 the French land 
 
 1485 
 1487 
 1495 
 1580 
 1588 
 1601 
 1685 
 1688 
 1689 
 1708 
 1715 
 1745 
 
 1760 
 1797 
 
 1798 
 
 INVINCIBLE, the. A British ship of the line, of 74 guns, lost near Winterton, on the 
 coast of Norfolk, when the captain (John Rennie), with the greater part of his officers, 
 and nearly the whole of his crew, which amounted to upwards of four hundred men, 
 perished, March 20, 1801. Several smaller ships and a large number of mei'chant 
 vessels were wrecked in the same storm. 
 
 INVINCIBLE ARMADA, or SPANISH ARMADA. See Armada. 
 
 INVOCATION op the VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish Church 
 of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, 
 has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about a.d. 593. — Ashe. The 
 Eastern Church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding 
 their suffrage as present in the divine offices ; but the Western Church carried it so 
 far as frequently to canonise those they had any regard for, though the wickedness 
 of their lives gave them no title to any such honour. 
 
 IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manu- 
 facturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 : the discovery was pursued with great advan- 
 tage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a violet hue, easily 
 evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a 
 seventh-thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow colour, and starch into a 
 purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. Now called the Republic of the Seven Islands. They were sub- 
 ject to Venice until ceded by the treaty of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a 
 treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the 
 
ION 
 
 314 
 
 IRE 
 
 latter, Nov. 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for 
 the government of these islands in 1818. They are now among the free states of 
 Europe ; Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. See Corfu. 
 
 IONIC ORDER of ARCHITECTURE. This order, which is an improvement on the 
 Doric, was founded by the Ionians, about 1350 B.C. — Vitruvius by Perraidt. The 
 order is ranked by moderns as the third. Its distinguishing characters are, the 
 slenderness aud flutings of its column, and the volutes of rams' horns that adorn the 
 capital. The Ionic is airier than the Doric, and at the same time sufficiently grave. 
 
 IONIC SECT or PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 B.C. This sect 
 distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and 
 pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and 
 Archelaus, the master of Socrates. Its favourite tenet was, that water was the origin 
 of all things. — Blackwall. 
 
 IPSUS, BATTLE of. By which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the defeat and 
 death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigonus and his son ; on 
 the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. The former led into the 
 field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter 's 
 forces consisted of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed 
 chariots. Autigouus and his son were defeated, 301 B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was originally 
 peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were 
 Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 B.C. The descent of the 
 Damnonii was made about 1463 B.C. This was followed by the descent of Heber and 
 Heremou, Milesian princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave 
 to its throne a race of 171 kings. 
 
 Arrival of Heremon . . . B.C. 1070 
 
 Reign of the renowned Olarn Fodla . . 768 
 A colony from Spain bring with them 
 the Phoenician letters, about . . 500 
 
 [Pew of the kings of Ireland, during a 
 thousand years, did more than involve 
 the country in scenes of blood.] 
 
 Arrival of St. Patrick . . a.d. 488 
 
 Logary II. establishes Christianity . 448 
 The Danes and Normans, known by the 
 
 name of Easterlings, invade Ireland . 70S 
 They erect solid edifices in the country, 
 
 the common habitations of the natives 
 
 being made of hurdles, covered with 
 
 straw and rushes, about 
 
 soo 
 
 [The Easterlings build Dublin solidly, 
 and other cities, about this time.] 
 
 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is 
 crowned at Tara 1002 
 
 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates the 
 power of the Danes .... 1039 
 
 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divided 
 into five kingdoms, viz : Ulster, Leiu- 
 ster, Meath, (Jonnaught, and Muuster, 
 besides a number of petty principali- 
 ties, whose sovereigns continually war 
 with each other.] 
 
 Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to in- 
 vade Ireland, on condition that he 
 compelled every Irish family to pay a 
 carolua to the holy see, aud held it as 
 a fief of the Church 1157 
 
 Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, 
 is driven from his throne for his op- 
 
 1169 
 1170 
 
 1172 
 
 mo 
 
 pression, and takes refuge in England, 
 where he takes an oath of fidelity to 
 Henry II. who promises to restore him 1168 
 
 Invasion of the English under Fitz- 
 Stephen ... ... 
 
 Landing of Strongbow at Waterford 
 
 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
 ceives the submission of the kings 
 and princes of the country, settles the 
 government upon a footing similar to 
 that of England, and makes his son 
 John lord of Ireland . . . . 
 
 Ireland wholly subdued .... 
 
 English laws and customs introduced 
 by king John 1210 
 
 Charter of liberties granted to the Irish 
 by John 1210 
 
 And by Henry III 1216 
 
 Invasion of Edward Bruce, who is 
 crowned king ..... 1315 
 
 He is defeated at Armagh, and is be- 
 headed at Dundalk, and with him 6200 
 Scots lose their lives. See Armagh 
 
 Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of 
 Edward III. marries Elizabeth de 
 Burgh, heiress of Ulster, which had 
 not hitherto submitted to the English 
 authority 1301 
 
 Richard II. lands at Waterford with a 
 train of nobles, 4000 men at arms, and 
 30,000 archers, aud gains the affection 
 of the people by his munificence, and 
 confers the honour of knighthood on 
 their chiefs .... 
 
 Richard again lands in Ireland 
 
 The infamous and sanguinary Head Act 
 passed at Trim* 
 
 1318 
 
 1394 
 1399 
 
 14G5 
 
 * This act ordained, " That it be lawful to all manner of men who find any thieves robbing by day 
 or night, or goiag or coming to rob or steal, or any persons going or coming, having no faithful man of 
 good name and fame in their company in English apparell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill thoso, 
 and to cut off their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head 
 so cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there to him, cause the said head so 
 cut off to be brought to the portrefie to put it upon a stake or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that 
 the said portrefie shall testily the bringing of the same to him. And that it shall be lawful for the said 
 bringer of the said head to distrain and levy by his own hand (as his reward) of every man having one 
 ploughland in the barony, two-pence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, one peny ; aud of 
 
IRE 
 
 345 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 Apparel and surname act, compelling 
 the Irish to dress like the English, 
 ■and to adopt surnames . . a.d. 1478 
 Henry VIII. assumes the title of Vang, 
 
 instead of lord of Ireland . . . 1542 
 The reformed religion embraced by the 
 English settlers in the reign of Ed- 
 ward VI 1547 
 
 Ireland divided into shires . . . 1562 
 
 Printing in Irish characters introduced 
 
 by N.Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's 1571 
 700 Italians, headed by Pitzmaurice, land 
 in Kerry ; they are treacherously but- 
 chered by the earl of Ormond . . 1580 
 The insurrection of Tyrone, who invites 
 over the Spaniards, and settles them 
 in Kinsale ; but they are defeated by 
 the lord deputy Mountjoy . . . 1601 
 This rebellion entirely suppressed in . 1602 
 In consequence of repeated rebellions 
 and forfeitures of estates, 511,465 acres 
 of land in the province of Ulster be- 
 come vested in the crown, and James I. 
 after removing the Irish from their 
 hills and fastnesses, divides the land 
 among such of his English and Scottish 
 protestant subjects as choose to settle 
 
 there, 1609 to 1612 
 
 Maguire's rebellion 1641 
 
 The catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
 expel the English, and cruelly mas- 
 sacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, 
 to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
 menced on St. Ignatius' day, Oct. 23, 1641 
 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole 
 island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 
 
 Landing of James II 1688 
 
 3000 protestants attainted . . . . 1689 
 Landing of the duke of Schomberg near 
 
 Carrickfergus ..... 16S9 
 Landing of king 'William III. at Carrick- 
 fergus .... June 14, 1690 
 Battle of the Boyne ; the duke of Schom- 
 berg killed . . . July 1, 1690 
 Celebrated treaty of Limerick. See 
 
 limerick . . . . . Oct. 3, 1691 
 Linen manufacture encouraged . . 1696 
 Thurot's invasion. See Thurot . . . 1760 
 Indulgences granted to the catholics by 
 
 parliament 1778 
 
 Ireland admitted to a free trade . . 1779 
 Released from submission to an English 
 
 council 1782 
 
 The Genevese refugees are received in 
 
 Ireland, and have an asylum given 
 
 them in the county of Waterford . . 1783 
 
 Order of St. Patrick .... 17S3 
 
 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced, 
 
 May 4, 1798, and not finally suppressed 
 
 until the next year 1799 
 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
 
 Ireland Jan. 1, 1801 
 
 Emmet's insurrection . . July 23, 1803 
 The English and Irish exchequers con- 
 solidated .... Jan. 5, 1S17 
 Visit to Ireland of George IV. Aug. 12, 1821 
 The currency assimilated . Jan. 1, 1S26 
 Roman catholic emancipation. (See 
 
 Roman Catholics) . . April 13, 1829 
 
 Customs consolidated , . Jan. 6, 1S30 
 
 Poor-laws introduced . . July 31, 1838 
 
 Great Repeal movement ; meeting at 
 
 Trim. (See Re-peal) . March 19, 1S43 
 
 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 
 
 Trial of O'Connell and others for politi- 
 cal conspiracy ; found auilly. (See 
 Trials) . - . . . . Feb. 12, 1844 
 
 Appointment of new commissioners of 
 charitable bequests * . Dec. 18, 1844 
 
 Irish National Education Society incor- 
 porated Sept. 23, 1845 
 
 Failure of the potato crop throughout 
 the 32 counties of Ireland . . . 1846 
 
 Committal of William Smith O'Brien to 
 the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, 
 for contempt in not obeying an order 
 of the house of commons to attend a 
 committee .... April 30, 1846 
 
 William Smith O'Brien and the " Young 
 Ireland" or physical force party, secede 
 from the Repeal Association July 29, 1846 
 
 O'Connell makes his last speech in the 
 house of commons . . Feb. S, 1847 
 
 [Frightful ravages from pestilence and 
 famine occur in Ireland about this 
 time ; and grants from parliament, 
 amounting in the whole to 10,000,000^. 
 sterling, are made to relieve the people, 
 in the session of 1847. The potato- 
 blight spreads over two more years.] 
 
 Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way 
 to Rome, in his 73rd year : he had be- 
 queathed his heart to Rome May 15, 1847 
 
 Funeral of O'Connell, whose remains are 
 interred at Glasnevin, near Dublin, 
 
 Aug. 5, 1847 
 
 Deputation from the Irish people (?) to 
 the French republic ; consisting of 
 Smith O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, 
 <fec. who present addresses to Lamar- 
 tine and others, members of the provi- 
 sional government at Paris April 3, 1S4S 
 
 Great meeting of the confederated 
 " Young Irelanders" held in Dublin, 
 
 April 4, 1848 
 
 Great soiree at Limerick to the confede- 
 rates April 29, 1848 
 
 Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United 
 Irishman .... May 13, 1848 
 
 State trials commence in the Irish 
 queen's bench . . . May 15, 1848 
 
 Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to 
 transportation for 14 years . May 26, 1848 
 
 Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Meagher, 
 Doheny, and other confederates, for 
 felonious writings, speeches, &c. 
 
 JulyS, 184S 
 
 Proclamation against the Confederate 
 clubs, which are declared illegal, 
 
 July 26, 1S48 
 
 The Habeas Corpus act suspended 
 throughout Ireland . . July 26, 1848 
 
 Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he 
 is conveyed to Kilmainham gaol, 
 Dublin Aug. 5, 1S48 
 
 Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, and 
 other confederates . . Aug. 12, 1848 
 
 Martin found guilty and sentenced to 10 
 years' transportation . . Aug. 14, 1S4S 
 
 Smith O'Brien tried at Clonmel, and 
 sentenced to death . . . Oct. 9, 1848 
 
 Meagher and the other confederates 
 
 tried and sentenced to death Oct. 9, 1848 
 The Irish court of queen's bench gives 
 judgment on writs of error sued out 
 
 every man having one house and goods, value forty shillings, one peny ; and of every other cottier 
 having house and smoak, one half-peny," rfce. 
 
 * The Dublin Gazette, containing the appointment of the Commissioners of Charitable Bequests and 
 Donations, described and gave, for the first time in an official document, the several titles of the Roman 
 catholic bishops : the state thus acknowledging those titles. In this document the Protestant and the 
 Roman catholic prelates were placed in their order, .according to their rank, without religious distinction. 
 
IRE 
 
 346 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 by the prisoners convicted of high 
 treason at Clonmel, and confirms the 
 judgment of the court below Jan. 16, 1849 
 
 O'Brien,* Meagher, McManus, and 
 O'Donoghue, are embarked on board 
 the Swift, in which vessel they are 
 transported beyond the seas, July 9, 1849 
 
 The fatal Orange and Roman Catholic 
 affray at Dolly's Brae ; several lives 
 lost July 12, 1849 
 
 The queen embarks at Cowes on her 
 visit to Ireland . . . Aug. 1, 1849 
 
 Her Majesty holds her court at Dublin 
 castle Aug. 5, 1S49 
 
 First court under the Irish incumbered 
 estates act, held in Dublin (see In- 
 cumbered £states) . . . Oct. 24, 1849 
 
 A Roman catholic university originated, 
 and large sums subscribed . May 5, 1851 
 
 Death of Richard Lalor Sheil, at Flo- 
 rence May 25, 1851 
 
 Terence McManus escapes from trans- 
 portation and arrives at San Fran- 
 cisco, in California . . June 5, 1851 
 
 The Irish Tenant League hold a meet- 
 ing on the site of the battle of the 
 Boyne June 14, 1851 
 
 First meeting of the "Catholic Defence 
 Association " . . . Oct 17, 1851 
 
 Thomas Francis Meagher, another po- 
 
 litical convict, escapes from Van Die- 
 men's Land ; the account reaches 
 
 Dublin April 23, 
 
 His arrival at New York . May 24, 
 Cork National Exhibition . June 10, 
 Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot ; 
 Mr. Dargan, a railway contractor, con- 
 tributes towards it 26,00(M. June 24, 
 " Tenant Right " demonstration at 
 Warrington dispersed by the magis- 
 trates July 3, 
 
 Fierce religious riots at Belfast, July 14, 
 Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge. 
 See Six-mile Bridge . . July 22, 
 Meeting of the Irish members of Par- 
 liament to found a " Religious Equality 
 Association " . . . Sept. 10, 
 Cork Industrial Exhibition closed. See 
 
 Cork Sept. 2, 
 
 Dublin Exhibition opens . May 1, 
 
 Queen visits Ireland . . Aug. 29, 
 
 Tenant Right league conference Oct. 4, 
 
 Dreadful railway accident near Dublin, 
 
 Oct. 5, 
 
 Exhibition closed . . . Nov. 1, 
 
 Train wilfully upset after an Orange 
 
 demonstration at Londonderry, one 
 
 killed and many hurt. Sept. 15, 
 
 See Dublin \ 
 
 1S52 
 1S52 
 1852 
 
 1S52 
 
 1852 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 
 1852 
 1853 
 1853 
 1853 
 
 1853 
 1853 
 
 KINGS OF IRELAND, t 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 [So much fable is mixed up with the early 
 history of this country, and the dates 
 and the orthography of names so vary 
 in every account, that it is impossible 
 to do more than compile from ac- 
 cepted authorities.] 
 
 FROM THE MILESIAN CONQUEST. 
 
 1300. Heber and Heremon. 
 
 1291. Heremon, alone. 
 
 1285. Muirmhne. Luighne, and Laighne, suc- 
 ceeded their father, Heremon ; reign- 
 ing jointly; the first died, and the 
 other two were slain in battle by the 
 sons of Heber. 
 
 1282. Er, Orbha, Fearon, and Feargna, sons of 
 Heber, succeeded the sons of Here- 
 lii' m : all slain in battle by their 
 successor. 
 
 1281. Irial, or Irial-Faidh ; slew and succeeded 
 the four sons of Heber. 
 
 1271. Eithrial ; slain in battle by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 1251. Conmaol, or Convcal, "first absolute 
 monarch of the Hibernian race;" 
 slain in battle. 
 
 1221. Tigermas; introduced idolatry into 
 Ireland. 
 
 1171. Eochaidh-Eadgothac. 
 
 1147. Cearnma and Sobhair, brothers ; parti- 
 tioned Ireland into south and north. 
 
 1107. Fiachade-Labhruin : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 1083. Eochaidh-Mumho : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 1061. Aongus-Olmuchac : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 1043. Eadna-Airgtheach, and 
 1016. Rotheachta : both slain by their suc- 
 cessors. 
 
 991. Seadhna : slain by his own son 
 
 986. Fiachadh-Fiousgothach : slain by his 
 successor. 
 
 966. Muinheamhoin, or Muinimone : died of 
 the plague. 
 
 961. Aildergoidh ; succeeded his father : slain 
 by his successor. 
 
 934. Odlamh-Fodhla, " the wisest and most 
 virtuous prince that ever mounted 
 the Irish throne." 
 
 924. Fionachta, his son. 
 
 909 Slauoll, succeeded his brother : died at 
 Tara. 
 
 894. Geide-Olgothach, also a son of Odlamh- 
 Fodhla : slain by his nephew. 
 
 877. Fiachadh : slain by his successor. 
 
 S53. Bearngall : slain by his successor. 
 
 841. Oilliol : slain by his successor. 
 
 825. Siorna-Saoghalach : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 S04. Rotheachta : burnt. 
 
 [Six succeeding kings, among whom 
 was Nuadha-Fionn-Fail, died violent 
 deaths.] 
 
 735. Fion-Fin, of the line of Er, or Ir. . 
 715. Seadhna : " invented banners to distin- 
 
 * An amnesty was granted to O'Brien, May 3, 1856, and he shortly after returned to Ireland, 
 t Paupers in Irish workhouses in 1849, 620,000. In 1857, 65,000. 
 
 Notes in circulation ,, £3,850,450. „ £7,150,000. 
 
 Bullion in Irish banks ,, £1,625,000. „ £2,492,000. 
 
 J The Irish writers carry their succession of kings very high, as high as even before the Flood. The 
 learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed his wonder that " the learned 
 men of the Irish nation have not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable remains of 
 their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order to separate what is fabulous and 
 only grounded on the traditions of their poets and bards, from what is certain history." " O'Flaherty, 
 Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain by deducing 
 their history from the Deluge, with as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of Ireland from 
 St. Patrick's time." — Anderson. 
 
IRE 
 
 347 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 guish his troops ; " tortured and cut 
 into quarters by his successor. • 
 
 695. Simeon Breac :• suffered the same fate. 
 
 689. Duach-Fionn or Finn ; slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 684. Muireadach, and two succeeding kings 
 died violently. 
 
 659. Siorlamh: "he had such long hands 
 and arms, that when he stood up- 
 right his fingers touched the ground :" 
 slain by his successor. 
 
 [Eleven princes succeeded, who all died 
 in civil wars or broils, or by assassi- 
 nation.] 
 
 510. Aodh-Ruadh : drowned. 
 
 519. Diothorba : died of a malignant dis- 
 temper. 
 
 498. Coimbaoth : died of the plague. 
 
 478. Machadh-Mongruadh, queen, surnamed 
 the Bed-haired Princess ; succeeded 
 her cousin, and "reigned magni- 
 ficently ; " slain by her successor. 
 
 471. Reachta-Righdhearg : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 451. Ugaine Mor, or the Great : ' 'had twenty- 
 two sons and three daughters, among 
 whom he partitioned his kingdom : " 
 slain by his brother. 
 
 421. Laoghaire-Lorck : slain by his brother. 
 
 419. Cabhthaick ; slew his brother and ne- 
 phew : himself slain by his grand- 
 nephew. 
 
 [Ten kings succeeded, of whom three 
 only died natural deaths.] 
 
 275. Feargus-Forthamhuil : killed in battle. 
 263. Aongus-Tuirimheach : slain at Tara. 
 
 [Of fifteen succeeding princes, eleven 
 died in battle, or were murdered.] 
 
 66. Conaire Mor, or the Great : deprived of 
 his crown and life by his successor. 
 
 36. Lughaidh-Biebdearg : killed himself by 
 falling on his sword. 
 
 [Two kirigs succeeded, of whom the 
 latter died a d. 4.] 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 4. Fearaidhach-Fionfachtna, "a most just 
 and good prince : " slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 24. Fiachadh-Fion : slain by his successor. 
 27. Fiachadh-Fionohudh, the prince with 
 the white cows: "murdered by the 
 Irish plebeians of Connaught." 
 54. Cairbre-Cinncait : murdered in a con- 
 spiracy. 
 59. Elim : slain in battle. 
 79. Tuathal-Teachtniar : slain by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 109. Mai or Mail : slain by his successor. 
 113. Feidhlimhidh ; " an excellent j usticiar. " 
 
 died a natural death. 
 122. Cathoire Mor, or the Great: "had 
 
 thirty sons." 
 125. Conn Ceadchadhach, called the hero of 
 
 the hundred battles : slain. 
 145. Conaire : killed. 
 152. Art-Aonf hir, the Melancholy ; slain in 
 
 battle. 
 182. Lughaidh, surnamed MacConn : thrust 
 through the eye with a spear, in a 
 conspiracy. 
 
 212. Fergus, surnamed Black-teeth ; mur- 
 
 dered at the instigation of his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 213. Cormac-Ulfhada, "a prince of most 
 
 excellent wisdom, and kept the most 
 
 splendid court that ever was in Ire- 
 land : " choked by the bone of a fish 
 at supper. 
 
 253. Eochaidh-Gunait : killed. 
 
 254. Cairbre-Liffeachair : slain in battle. 
 282. Fiachadh ; succeeded his father : slain 
 
 in battle by his three nephews. 
 315. Cairioll or Colla-Uais : dethroned, and 
 
 retired to Scotland. 
 319. Muirreadhach-Tireach : slain by his 
 
 successor. 
 
 352. Caolbhach, slain by his successor. 
 
 353. Eochaidh-Moidhmeodhain : died a na- 
 
 tural death. 
 360. Criomthan : poisoned by his own sister, 
 
 to obtain the crown for her son. 
 375. Niall, surnamed of the nine hostages : 
 
 killed in France, on the banks of the 
 
 Loire. 
 398. Dathy : killed by a thunderbolt at the 
 
 foot of the Alps. 
 421. Laoghaire : killed by a thunderbolt. 
 453. Oilioll-Molt : slain in battle. 
 473. Lughaidh : killed also by a thunder- 
 bolt. 
 493. Murtough : died naturally. 
 515. Tuathal-Maolgarbh : assassinated 
 528. Diarmuid : fell by the sword of Hugh 
 
 Dubb. 
 
 550. Feargus, in conjunction with his brother 
 
 Daniel : the manner of their deaths 
 uncertain. 
 
 551. Eochaidh, jointly with his uncle, 
 
 Baodan : both slain. 
 
 554. Ainmereach : deprived of his crown and 
 
 life. 
 557. Baodan : slain by the two Cuimins. 
 
 555. Aodh or Hugh : killed in battle. 
 587. Hugh Slaine : assassinated. 
 
 591. Aodh-Uaireodhnach : killed in battle. 
 618. Maolcobha : defeated in a dreadful 
 
 battle, in which he was slain. 
 622. Suibhne-Meain : killed. 
 635. Daniel : died a natural death. 
 648. Conall Claon, jointly with his brother 
 
 Ceallach : the first was murdered, the 
 
 other drowned in a bog. 
 661. Diarmuid and Blathmac : both died of 
 
 the plague. 
 668. Seachnasch : assassinated. 
 
 674. Cionfaola ; succeeded his brother : mur- 
 
 dered. 
 
 675. Fionachta-Fleadha : murdered. 
 685. Loingseach : killed in battle. 
 
 693. Congal Cionmaghair, "a cruel perse- 
 cutor of the Irish church, without 
 mercy or distinction : " sudden death. 
 
 702 Feargal : routed and slain in battle. 
 
 719. Forgatach : slain in battle. 
 
 720. Cionaoth : defeated, and found dead on 
 
 the battle-field. 
 
 724. Flaithbheartagh : became a monk. 
 
 731. Aodh, or Hugh Alain : killed in battle. 
 
 740. Daniel : died on a pilgrimage at Joppa, 
 in Palestine. 
 
 782. Niall-Freasach : became a monk. 
 
 7S6. Donagh, or Donchad : "died in his bed." 
 
 815. Aodh, or Hugh : slain in battle. 
 
 837. Connor, or Conchabhar : " died of grief, 
 being unable to redress the misfor- 
 tunes of his country." 
 
 851. Niall-Caillie : drowned in the river 
 Caillie. 
 
 866 Turgesius, the Norwegian chief; pos- 
 sessed himself of the sovereign power ; 
 "expelled the Irish historians, and 
 burnt their books : " made prisoner 
 and thrown into a lough, and 
 drowned. 
 
 879. Maol Ceachlin, or Malachy I. 
 
IRE 
 
 348 
 
 IRE 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 897. Hugh Fiomiliatk. 
 
 913. Flann Sionna, 
 
 951. Niall-Glundubh : "died on the field of 
 
 honour." 
 954. Donnagh, or Donough. 
 'J74. CongaU: slain 1 >y the Danes at Armagh. 
 984. Daniel : became a monk. 
 1004. Maol Ceachlin II. : resigned on the 
 election of Brian Boroimhe as king 
 of Ireland. 
 1027. Brian Barotny, or Boiroimhe ; a valiant 
 and renowned prince : defeated the 
 Danes in the memorable battle of 
 Clontarf, on Good Friday, 1039 ; as- 
 sassinated in his tent the same night, 
 while in the attitude of prayer. 
 [Brian Boiroimhe was 30 years king of 
 Munster, and 12 king oflreland.J 
 1039. Maol Ceachlin II. restored. 
 1048. Donough, or Denis O'Brian, third son 
 
 of the preceding. 
 1098. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew of Do- 
 nough. 
 1110. Muriertagh, or Murtough : resigned 
 
 and became a monk. 
 1130. Turlough (O'Connor) II. the great. 
 1150. Murtough Mac Neil Mac Lachlin: slain 
 
 in battle. 
 1168. Roderic, or Roger O'Connor. 
 
 1172. Henry II. king of England ; conquered 
 
 the country, and became lord of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 [The English monarchs were styled 
 "Lords of Ireland " until the reign 
 of Henry VIII., who styled himself 
 king j and this title has continued 
 ever since. ] 
 
 GOVERNORS OF IRELAND. 
 
 1173. Hugh de Lacy, lord of Meath, as lord 
 
 justice. 
 
 1173. Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, as 
 lord warden. 
 
 1177. Raymond le Gros, elected by the coun- 
 cil, procurator. 
 
 1177. John, earl of Moreton (afterwards king 
 John), appointed lord of Ireland soon 
 afterwards. 
 
 1177. William Fitzadelm de Burgo, under the 
 title of seneschal. 
 
 1185. The earl of Moreton, appointed go- 
 vernor. 
 
 1191. Peter Pipard, appointed lord deputy by 
 Richard I. 
 
 1215. Geoffrey de Mariscis, appointed go- 
 vernor under the title of custos, 16 
 king John. 
 
 1308. Piers de Gavestou, earl of Cornwall, 
 was appointed, by the title of lord 
 lieutenant, 2 Edw. II. 
 
 LORD LIEUTENANTS. 
 
 1308. Piers de Gavestou, earl of Cornwall. 
 
 1329. James, earl of Orinond. 
 
 1331. Sir Anthony Lucy. 
 
 1361. Lionel, duke of Clarence. 
 
 1369. Sir William de Windsor. 
 
 1380. Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. 
 
 1382. Philip Courtney, lord Birmingham, Genl. 
 
 1384. Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford. 
 
 1394. King Richard II. in person. 
 
 1395. Roger Mortimer, earl of March. 
 1399. King Richard II. in person, again. 
 1401. Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 
 
 1410. John, duke of Bedford. 
 
 1413. Edward, earl of March. 
 
 1414. Sir John Talbot. 
 
 1416. Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 
 1427. Sir John do Grey. 
 
 142S. Sir J. Sutton, lord Dudley. 
 
 1432. Sir Thomas Stanley. 
 
 1488. Lion, lord Wells. 
 
 1440. James, earl of Ormond. 
 
 1441''. John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
 
 1449. Richard, duke of York. 
 
 1461. George, duke of Clarence, for life. 
 
 1479. Richard, duke of York. 
 
 1483. Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1496. 
 
 1485. John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 
 
 1490. Jasper, duke of Bedford. 
 
 1496. Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1504. 
 
 1501. Henry, duke of York, alt. Henry VIII. 
 
 1504. Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
 
 1520. Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 
 
 1530. Henry, duke of Richmond. 
 
 1558. Thomas, earl of Sussex. 
 
 1598. Robert, earl of Essex. 
 
 1599. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy. 
 1639. Thomas, lord viscount Wentworth, earl 
 
 of Strafford. 
 1043. James, marquess of Omiond. 
 1649. Oliver Cromwell. 
 1660. James Butler, duke, marquess, and earl 
 
 of Ormond. 
 
 1669. John Roberts, lord Roberts. 
 
 1670. J. Berkeley, lord Berkeley. 
 167'2. Arthur C'apel, earl of Essex. 
 1677. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 
 1685. Henry Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 
 16S6. Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. 
 1690. Henry Sydney, lord Syduey. 
 1695. Henry Capel, lord C'apel. 
 
 1701. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 
 
 1703. James Butler, duke of Ormond. 
 
 1707. Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 
 
 1709. Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
 
 1711. James, duke of Ormond, again. 
 
 1713. Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 
 
 1717. Charles, duke of Bolton. 
 
 1721. Charles, duke of Grafton. 
 
 1724. John, lord Carteret. 
 
 1731. Lionel, duke of Dorset. 
 
 1737. William, duke of Devonshire. 
 
 1745. Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 
 
 1747. William, earl of Harrington. 
 
 1751. Lionel, duke of Dorset, again. 
 
 1755. William, marquess of Hartington. 
 
 1757. John, duke of Bedford. 
 
 1761. George, earl of Halifax. 
 
 1763. Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
 
 1765. Francis, earl of Hertford. 
 
 1767. George, viscount Townshend, Oct. 14. 
 
 1772. Simon, earl of Harcourt, Nov. 30. 
 
 1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, Jan. 25. 
 
 1780. Fred, earl of Carlisle, Dec. 23. 
 
 1782. Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, April 14. 
 
 1782. George, earl Temple, Sept. 15. 
 
 1783. Robert, earl of Northiugton, June 3. 
 
 1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, Feb. 24. 
 
 [The duke died in the government, 
 Oct. 24, 1787.] 
 
 1787. George, marquess of Buckingham (late 
 
 earl Temple), again, Dec. 16. 
 1790. John, earl of Westmorland, Jan 5. 
 1795. William, earl Fitzwilliam, Jan. 4. 
 1795. John, earl Camden, March 31. 
 1798. Charles, marquess Cornwallis, June 20. 
 1801. Philip, earl of Hardwieke, May 25. 
 1806. John, duke of Bedford, March 18. 
 lso7. Charles, duke of Richmond, April 19. 
 LS13. Charles, earl Whit worth, Aug. 26. 
 1S17. Charles, earl Talbot, Oct. 9. 
 1821. Richard, marquess Wellesley, Dec. 29. 
 is-js. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, March 1. 
 
 1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 
 
 March 6. 
 
 1830. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, again, 
 
 Dec. 23. 
 
IRE 
 
 349 
 
 IRU 
 
 George "William Frederick, earl of Cla- 
 rendon, May 26. 
 
 Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, 
 Dec. 
 
 George "William Frederick, earl of 
 Carlisle, March. The present lord 
 lieutenant. (1857.) 
 
 IRELAND, continued. 
 
 1833. Marquess Wellesley, again, Sept. 26. I 1S47. 
 
 1534. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Dec. 29. 
 
 1535. Henry Constantine, marquess of Nor- 1852. 
 
 manby, April 23. 
 1839. Hugh, earl Fortescue, April 3. I 1S52. 
 
 1841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Sept. 15. J 
 1844. "William, lord Heytesbury, July 12. 1855. 
 
 1846. JohnWilliam,earlofBesborough,July9. 
 [The earl died in the government, May i 
 16, 1847.] I 
 
 IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forest of the mount 
 having been burnt by lightning, 1432 B.C. — Arundelian Marbles. The Greeks 
 ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phceniciaus ; 
 but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the 
 Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate 
 in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and 
 Dannemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page 
 and Peter Baude, in Sussex, in 1543. — Rymer's Fcedera. Iron-mills were first used 
 for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron 
 was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. Till 1740, iron ores were smelted entirely 
 with wood charcoal, which did not entirely give way to coke till 1788. The operation 
 termed puddling, and other very great improvements in the manufacture, were invented 
 by Mr. Henry Cort, between 1781 and 1826. From most unfortunate circumstances 
 he did not reap the due reward of his ingenuity. In 1856, Mr. Henry Bessemer 
 made known his method of manufacturing iron and steel without fuel, the success of 
 which is considered doubtful. 
 
 IRON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1740 . 
 
 . 59 furnaces 
 
 1788 
 
 • 77 
 
 1796 . 
 
 • 121 
 
 1802 
 
 . 168 „ 
 
 1806 . 
 
 • 227 „ 
 
 17,350 tons. 
 
 61,900 „ 
 124.7S9 „ 
 227,000 „ 
 250,000 „ 
 
 1820 
 1825 
 1840 
 1848 
 1852 
 
 260 furnaces 
 
 374 
 
 402 „ 
 
 623 „ 
 
 655 ,, 
 
 400,000 tons. 
 
 581,367 „ 
 1,396,400 „ 
 1,998,558 „ 
 2,701,000 ,, 
 
 In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig-iron were produced. 
 
 1S34 . . Bar £6 18 6 
 1836 . „ 10 12 
 
 PRICE OE IRON PER TON. 
 
 . Pig £4 5 1 1843 . . Bar £5 
 . „ 6 13 1853 . ., 9 
 
 . Pig £2 
 • „ 3 
 
 5 
 1 6 
 
 IRON-MASK, the MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask, 
 and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and after- 
 wards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; 
 but his keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
 always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture 
 him to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, but 
 he died ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son 
 of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have pei'ished in the camp before Dixmude. 
 More believe him to have been the celebrated duke, of Beaufort, whose head is recorded 
 to have been taken off before Candia ; while still more assert that he was the unfor- 
 tunate James, duke of Monmouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners at least, 
 was executed on Tower-hill. But there were two better conjectures : he was said to 
 have been a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the cardinal 
 Mazarine (to whom that dowager queen was privately married) or the duke of 
 Buckingham. Or to have been the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was 
 concealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have caused.* 
 This person died, after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 
 
 IRUN, BATTLE op. Between the British auxiliary legion, under general Evans, and 
 the Carlist forces. On the 16th May, the legion marched from St. Sebastian to attack 
 Irun, which, after a desperate resistance, they earned by assault, May 17, 1837. 
 Great exertions were made by the British officers to save the lives of the prisoners 
 from the fury of the soldiers of the legion, their minds having been exasperated by 
 
 * It has been more recently conjectured that Fouquet, an eminent statesman in the time of Louis 
 XIV. was the Masque de Fer ; and a count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles IIL._du.ke. .of Mantua, 
 is supposed by M. Delort, in a later publication, to have been the victim. The right hon. Agar Ellis, 
 afterwards lord Dover, in an interesting narrative, endeavours to prove Matthioli to have been the 
 mask. The mask, it seems, was not made of iron ; it was made of black velvet, strengthened with 
 whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 
 
IRV 
 
 350 
 
 ITA 
 
 the frequent massacre of such of their comrades as had from time to time fallen into 
 the hands of the Carlists. The town was pillaged. 
 
 IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Rev. Edward Irving.* They call themselves the 
 " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
 1853), and have church officers named apostles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights 
 on the magnificent altar and burning of incense during prayers were prescribed. Their 
 Gothic church or cathedral in Gordon-square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It 
 is said that all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and 
 extension. By the census they had 30 chapels in England in 1851. 
 
 ISLAMISM. See Mahometanism, &c. 
 
 ISLE of FRANCE. See Mauritius. 
 
 ISLES, BISHOPRIC of the. This see contained not only the iEbudse or Western 
 Isles, but the Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate bishopric. 
 The first bishop of the Isles was Amphibalus, a.d. 360. The Isle of Ily was in former 
 ages a place famous for sanctity and learning, and early the seat of a bishop ; it was 
 denominated Icolumkill, from St. Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a 
 monastery here in the sixth century, which was the parent of above 100 other 
 monasteries in England and Ireland. Since the revolution (when this bishopric was 
 discontinued) the Isles have been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone. In 
 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles were made to form a seventh post-revolution and 
 distinct bishopric. See Bishops. 
 
 ISMAIL, SIEGE of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 
 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, Dec. 22, 1790 ; when 
 the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless warrior of modern times, put the 
 brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the sword. Not satisfied with 
 this vengeance, he delivered up Ismail to the pillage of his ferocious soldiery, and 
 ordered the massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of Paris in 1856 Ismail was 
 restored to Turkey. 
 
 ISRAEL, KINGDOM of. See Jews. 
 
 ISSUS, BATTLE of. Alexander's second great battle with Darius, who lost 100,000 
 men, and his queen and family were captured, 333 B.C. — Plutarch. The Persians lost 
 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 
 150 horse. — Diodorus Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 
 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, 
 were left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. 
 
 ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received their name 
 from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed : instituted in honour of 
 Melicerta, 1326 B.C. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honour of Neptune by 
 Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred and inviolable, that even a public 
 calamity could not prevent it, 1259 B.C. — Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It received its 
 name from Italus, a king of the country, or from 'IraXbs, a Greek word, signifying an 
 ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. 
 In process of time, the Gomerites, or Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, 
 sent several colonies into Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the 
 country was divided into three grand parts, viz. : — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of 
 the Celts; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna Grsecia, 
 the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy may be derived 
 from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely to the overthrow of the 
 Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the kingdoms of Italy and Lornbardy. 
 
 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- 
 goths under Alaric. See Rome .a.d. 410 
 
 The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
 under Attila, "the Scourge of God " . 447 
 
 The Western Roman empire is destroyed 
 by the Heruli, whose leader, Odoacer, 
 erects the kingdom of Italy .a.d. 476 
 
 The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
 
 * Edward Irving was born Aug 15, 1792, and was engaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, 
 in 1819. In 1822 he attracted immense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch 
 church, Hatton-gardcn. A new church was built for him in Regent's square in 1827. Soon after he 
 propounded new doctrines on the human nature of Christ ; and in 1830 the "Utterances of Unknown 
 Tongues " in his congregation were countenanced by him. He was expelled from the Scotch church 
 March 15, 1833. His church, "reconstituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry," was 
 removed to Newman-street. He died Dec. S, 1834. 
 
ITA 
 
 351 
 
 JAC 
 
 ITALY, contimoed. 
 
 Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
 such distress, that the ladies and 
 people of quality are obliged to beg for 
 bread at the doors of the Goths, a.d. 541-552 
 The power of tbe Goths destroyed, and 
 their kingdom overthrown by the 
 generals of the Eastern empire . . 553 
 Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
 Lombards from Germany into this 
 
 country 568 
 
 The Lombards overrun Italy . . . 596 
 Venice first governed by a doge . . 697 
 
 Charlemagne invades Italy . . . 774 
 He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
 emperor of the West . . . . 800 
 
 [During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
 pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
 merely a spiritual minister, finds 
 means to assume a temporal power, 
 not only independent of, but superior 
 to all others.] 
 
 Pope Damasius II. is the first who causes 
 himself to be crowned with a tiara . 1053 
 
 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- 
 brand, pretends to universal sove- 
 reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
 countess Matilda, mistress of the 
 greater part of Italy, who makes a do- 
 nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 
 
 Disputes between the popes and empe- 
 rors, relative to the appointment of 
 bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
 Italy and Germany during several 
 centuries. 
 
 The Venetians obtain many victories 
 over the Eastern emperors . . . 1125 
 
 Tuscany becomes independent . . . 1208 
 
 The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and 
 Reggio, are created .... 1228 
 
 Milan erected into a duchy . . . 1277 
 
 The papal seat removed for seventy years 
 to Avignon, in France .... 1308 
 
 The cardinals not agreeing in the election 
 
 of a pope, they set fire to the conclave, 
 and separate, and the papal chair is 
 left vacant for two years . a.d. 1314 
 
 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of 
 Mantua, with the title of imperial vicar 1328 
 
 Lucca becomes an independent republic 1370 
 
 Naples conquered by Charles VIII. . 1492 
 
 The republic of Venice loses all its Italian 
 provinces in a single campaign, as- 
 sailed by the pope, the emperor, and 
 the kings of Spain and France . . 1509 
 
 Leo X. having exhausted all his finances, 
 opens the sale of indulgences and ab- 
 solutions, which soon replenishes his 
 treasury 1517 
 
 Parma and Placentia made a duchy . 1545 
 
 Cosmo de Medicis made grand "duke of 
 Tuscany by Pius V 1569 
 
 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar. 
 See Calendar 1582 
 
 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
 See Jeddo 1619 
 
 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, 
 and choose Theodore for their king. 
 See Corsica 1736 
 
 Milan vested in the house of Austria by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 1748 
 
 Division of the Venetian states by France 
 and Austria 1797 
 
 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
 Bonaparte 1798 
 
 The Italian republic .... 1802 
 
 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
 leon crowned 1S05 
 
 Eugene Beauharnois made viceroy of 
 Italy 1805 
 
 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
 of Napoleon 1814 
 
 [The various other events relating to 
 Italy will be found under the respec- 
 tive heads of Genoa, Lombardy, Milan, 
 Naples, Rome, Sicily, Tuscany, Venice, 
 &c] 
 
 On the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte, the power and influence of France ceased in Italy, 
 and the several states became subject, by the determination of the congress of Vienna, 
 to their legitimate sovereigns. Modern and late particulars of Italy will be found 
 under the names of its numerous divisions. 
 
 J. 
 
 J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. — Dto Fresnoy. 
 
 JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French revolution. 
 The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about forty 
 gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminate political and other 
 opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their meeting in the hall of the 
 Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became numerous and popular, and fraternal 
 societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. — Burke. From 
 its institution, one principal object was, to discuss such political questions as seemed 
 likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act 
 in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, 
 aristocracy, and the Christian religion, and maybe regarded as the first grand spring of 
 the revolution. They were suppressed, Oct. 18, 1794. — The religious sect called Jacobins 
 are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominic. See Dominicans. 
 
 JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Baradseus, a 
 Syrian. See Eutycliians. In England the partisans of James II. and his descendants 
 were so named after his expulsion in 1688. 
 
 JACOBUS. A gold coin of the former value of twenty-five shillings, so called from king 
 James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck. — L' Estrange. 
 
JAF 352 JAP 
 
 JAFFA. Celebrated iii scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, and the 
 place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place 
 whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bonaparte, in Feb. 1799 ; 
 and the French were driven out by the British in June, same year. Here, according 
 to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte ; but this is 
 reasonably doubted. 
 
 JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the 
 Spaniards by Admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables in 1655 ; 
 the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An 
 awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was desolated by a furious 
 hurricane in 1722; and again in 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or 
 original natives, whe inhabit the mountains, rose against the English, aud were not 
 quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was 
 deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons 
 drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, 
 in which numerous plantations were burnt, and property of immense value destroyed. 
 Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared martial law 
 Dec. 22, 1831. An awful fire raged here, Aug. 26, 1S43. The cholera in 1850. In May 
 1853 the dissension between the Colonial Legislature and sir Charles Grey, the governor, 
 occasioned his recall; his successor, sir H. Barkly, arrived Oct. 1853. 
 
 JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to 
 be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361 ; 
 and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops 
 on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed upon the spot, the Ottoman 
 army was re-organised, and a firman was issued two days afterwards, declaring the 
 abolition of the Janissaries. 
 
 JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, about 1625. 
 Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his " Atigustinus," a book in which he 
 maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true 
 orthodox belief, kindled a fierce controversy on its publication in 1640, and was 
 condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. 
 
 JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity 
 among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman 
 calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made it the 
 first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all 
 business. This god was painted with two faces, because, as some persons have it, on 
 the one side the first of January looked towards the new year, and on the other 
 towards the old oue. On the first day, it was customary for friends and acquaintance 
 to make each other presents, whence the custom of new-year's gifts, still retained 
 among us, was originally taken. 
 
 JANUS, TEMPLE of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in time of 
 war, and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice during above 700 years, 
 viz. under Numa, 714 B.C. and under Augustus, 5 B.C. ; and during that long period 
 of time, the Romans were continually employed in war. According to the ancient 
 mythology, Janus was the god of gates and avenues, and in that character held a key 
 in his right hand, and a rod in his left, to symbolise his opening and ruling the year ; 
 sometimes he bore the number 300 in one hand, and 65 in the other, the number of 
 its days. At other times he was represented with four heads, and placed in a temple 
 with four equal sides, with a door aud three windows on each side, as emblems of 
 the four seasons, and the twelve months over which he presided. 
 
 JANVILLIERS, BATTLE of. Between the French and Prussians, in which, after an 
 obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to 
 Chalons with considerable loss, Feb. 14, 1814. About this period there wei'e many 
 battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and Prince Schwartzen- 
 berg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. 
 
 JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paolo ; and was visited 
 by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as the Chinese in the 
 antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins with the hereditary succession 
 of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B.C. The English visited Japan in 
 1612. There was was once a great number of Christians in different parts of the 
 empire; but in 1622, they underwent great persecutions, insomuch that they were 
 
JAR 353 JER 
 
 all extirpated. An American expedition under commodore Perry reached Jeddo, 
 July 8, 1853, and were favourably received ; but remained only a few days. On 
 returning in March 1854, a treaty of commercial alliance was concluded between the 
 two countries. In the following October a similar treaty was entered into with the 
 British. In 1856 two ports, Nagasaki and Hakodadi, were opened to European 
 commerce. On Dec. 23, 1854, a severe earthquake occurred at Niphon, and on 
 Nov. 11, 1855, another at Jeddo, which see. 
 
 JARNAC, BATTLE of. The duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, defeated 
 the Huguenots under Louis, prince of Conde, who was killed in cold blood by 
 Montesquieu. The victor was but seventeen years of age, and on account of this 
 success, and his triumph at Moncontour, the Poles chose him for their king ; he had 
 his arm in a sling, and a moment before the battle his leg was broken by a kick from 
 a horse : fought March 13, 1569. 
 
 JASMINE. Jasminum officinale. Called also Jessamine. This much-esteemed flower 
 and shrub spreads somewhat like a vine, and grows in profusion in Persia and other 
 countries of the East. — Ashe. It was brought hither from Circassia, before A.D. 1548. 
 The Catalonian jasmine came to England from the East Indies, in 1629. The yellow 
 Indian jasmine was brought to these countries in 1656. 
 
 JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the unai-med natives by the Dutch, sparing 
 neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its 
 cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but on man. 
 The island capitulated to the British, Sept. 18, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by 
 the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June 1813. Java was 
 restored to Holland in 1814. 
 
 JEDDO. The capital of Japan contains about 1,800,000 inhabitants, a number equal to 
 London in 1840. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of pope 
 Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, which their master 
 had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit missionaries ; but the misconduct 
 of the Jesuits, who were endeavouring to overturn the Japanese government, caused 
 them to be expelled in 1622, and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. 
 The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is sup- 
 ported by many pillars of massive gold, and plates of gold cover its three towers, each 
 nine stories high. On Nov. 11, 1855, an earthquake here destroyed 57 temples, 
 100,000 houses, and about 30,000 persons. 
 
 "JE MAINTIENDRAI "— "I will maintain." The motto of the house of Nassau. 
 When William III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but adding 
 " the liberties of England and the protestant religion," at the same time ordering 
 that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon Droit," should be retained on the 
 great seal, 1689. 
 
 JEMAPPES, BATTLE of, the first pitched battle gained by the French republicans, 
 in which 40,000 French troops forced 19,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
 woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts and an immense number of 
 cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle. Accord- 
 ing to the most authentic accounts, the number of killed on each side was about 
 5000. Nov. 6, 1792. 
 
 JENA, BATTLE of. Fought the same day as the battle of Auerstadt, Oct. 14, 1806; 
 both between the French and Prussians. The French were commanded at Jena by 
 Napoleon, at Auerstadt by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at the 
 former place, and the king of Prussia at the latter. In th ese battles the Prussians 
 lost nearly 20,000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 field- 
 pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin. 
 
 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Nor- 
 mandy, were united to the crown of England by William the Conqueror, in 1066. 
 Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops 
 surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation; 
 but major Pierson, the commander of the English troops, refusing to abide by this 
 forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners 
 of war ; he^was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. 
 
 JERUSALEM. Built 1800 B.C. The first and most famed Temple was founded by 
 Solomon, 1015 B.C. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, Oct. 30, 1004 B.C. being 
 one thousand years before the birth of Christ. — Blair ; Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was 
 
 A A 
 
JES 354 JE3 
 
 taken by the Israelites, 1048 B.C.; aud by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 B.C. Razed to the 
 ground by Titus, a.d. 70, after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More 
 than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins 
 of the former by Julius Severusinthe time of the emperor Adrian, a.d. 136. The 
 walls were rebuilt by the empress Eudoxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the 
 Persians in 614; by the Saracens in 636; and by the Crusaders, when 70,000 infidels 
 were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. 
 Taken from the Christians by Saladiu, in 1187 ; and by the Turks, who drove away 
 the Saracens, in 1217 and 1239. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte 
 in Feb. 1799. See articles Crusades and Jews. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KINGS OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillon. . . . a.d. 1099 
 
 Baldwin 1 1100 
 
 Baldwin II 1118 
 
 Fulkof Anjou 1131 
 
 Baldwin III. 1144 
 
 Amauri 1162 
 
 Baldwin IV 1171 
 
 Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V. . a.d. 1185 
 
 Guy de Lusignan 11S6 
 
 Henry of Champagne 1192 
 
 Amaiu'i de Lusignan .... 1197 
 
 Jeanne de Biienue 1209 
 
 Emperor Frederic II. 1229-39 
 
 JESTER. In some ancient works a jester is described as " a witty and jocose person, 
 kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the 
 disguise of a waggish story." Several of our ancient kings kept jesters, and parti- 
 cularly the Tudors. Rayhere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's monastery, Austin- 
 Friars, was a court jester. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I. but 
 we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 
 
 JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonised), a page to 
 Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer iu his army. Loyola having been 
 wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a.d. 1521, devoted himself to 
 theology while under cure, and renounced the military for the ecclesiastical pro- 
 fession. His first devout exercise was to dedicate his life to the Blessed Virgin as 
 her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Laud, and on his return laid the 
 foundation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it, in 1539, to 
 pope Paul III. who made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three 
 vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy 
 see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, Sept. 27, 1540, by which their number 
 was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken off by another bull, March 14, 
 1543; and popes Julius III. Pius V. and Gregory XIII. granted them such great 
 privileges as rendered them powerful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, 
 and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of 
 the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Paris. 
 The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as 
 being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. Even in 
 Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order have occasioned 
 it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled England by proclamation, 
 2 Jas. I. 1604 ; and Venice, 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from 
 the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764; and were banished Spain, 1767. 
 Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. iu 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and 
 since tolerated in other states ; and even where not tolerated, the body possess a 
 secret and extensive existence. 
 
 JESUITS' BARK. Cortex Peruvianus. Called by the Spaniards Fever-wood ; discovered, 
 it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535. Its virtues were not generally known till 1633, 
 when it cured of fever the lady of the viceroy at Peru. The Jesuits gave it to the 
 sick, and hence its name. It was sold at one period for its weight in silver. It was 
 introduced into France in 1649 ; and is said to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when 
 he was dauphin. It came into general use in 1680. Sir Hans Sloane introduced it 
 here about 1 700. See Quinine. 
 
 JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the "World. Born on Monday, Dec. 25, a.m. 4004, in 
 the year of Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the com- 
 mencement of the common era. See Nativity. The following dates are given by 
 ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, a.d. 30. He 
 celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, 
 April 2. He was crucified on Friday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He 
 arose April 5 ; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14 
 
JEW 
 
 355 
 
 JEW 
 
 following ; and the Holy Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of 
 Pentecost, May 24, a.d. 33. 
 
 JEWELLERY. Worn by most of the early nations, particularly by the Roman ladies. 
 So prodigious was the extravagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, 
 he saw Lollia Paulina (the most beautiful woman of her time, and wife of Caius Caesar 
 and afterwards of Caligula) wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916^. 
 sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture 
 was extensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article JDress. 
 
 JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the fifteenth 
 century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. Some insist strongly 
 on the antiquity of their present era, but it is generally believed not to be more 
 ancient than the century above-named. They date from the creation, which they 
 consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our 
 era. To reduce Jewish times to ours, subtract 3761 years. 
 
 JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive 
 their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testament and the 
 Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 B.C. — Blair ; Lenglet ; Usher. 
 
 Call of Abram . 
 Isaac born to Abraham 
 Birth of Esau and Jacob . 
 Death of Abraham 
 Joseph sold into Egypt 
 
 B.C. 1921 
 
 . . 1896 
 
 . 1836 
 
 . . 1822 
 
 1729 
 
 The male children of the Israelites 
 
 thrown into the Nile ; Moses . . . 1571 
 The Passover instituted. The Israelites 
 
 go out of Egypt, and cross the Red 
 
 Sea 1491 
 
 The law promulgated from Mount Sinai 1491 
 
 The tabernacle set up 1490 
 
 Joshua leads the Israelites through the 
 
 river Jordan 1451 
 
 The first bondage (Othniel, 1405) . . 1413 
 The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . 1343 
 The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 
 
 1285) 1305 
 
 The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245). . 1252 
 
 The fifth bondage 1206 
 
 The sixth bondage 1157 
 
 Samson slays the Philistines . . . 1136 
 He pulls down the temple of Dagon . 1117 
 Samuel governs . . . . . . 1120 
 
 Saul made king 1095 
 
 David slays Goliath 1094 
 
 Death of Saul 1055 
 
 David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and 
 
 makes it his capital . . . . 1048 
 
 Solomon lays the foundation of the temple 1015 
 
 It is dedicated 1004 
 
 Death of Solomon, the kingdom divided 
 
 into Judah and Israel . . . . 975 
 
 KINGDOM OF ISRAEL 
 
 Jeroboam rules the ten tribes 
 
 Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 
 Israelites slain .... 
 
 Israel afflicted with the famine predicted 
 by Elijah 
 
 The Syrians besiege Samaria 
 
 Elijah translated to heaven . 
 
 The Assyrian invasion under Phul 
 
 Pekah besieges Jerusalem ; he 
 120,000 men, taking 200,000 
 
 Samaria taken by the king of Assyria 
 the ten tribes are carried into cap^ 
 tivity, and a period is put to the king 
 dom of Israel .... 
 
 KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 
 
 Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jeru- 
 salem, and pillages the temple . 
 
 Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 
 men are slain in battle . . . . 
 
 Hazael desolates Judah .... 
 
 Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jeru- 
 
 975 
 
 957 
 
 906 
 901 
 896 
 770 
 
 721 
 
 971 
 
 salem; 120,000 of the men of Judah 
 are slain in one day . . . bo. 741 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, but the de- 
 stroying angel enters the camp of the 
 Assyrians, and in one night destroys 
 185,000 of them 710 
 
 [It is conjectured by commentators thaC 
 this messenger of death was the fatal 
 blast known in Eastern countries by 
 the name of Samiel.~\ 
 
 Holofernes is killed at the siege of Bo- 
 thulia by Judith . . . , . 676 
 
 In repairing the temple, Hilkiah disco- 
 vers the book of the law, and Josiah 
 keeps a solemn Passover . . . 623 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar invades Judea. . . 605 
 
 He besieges Jerusalem .... 597 
 
 Nebuzaradan carries away many Jews 
 captive 588 
 
 He again invades Judea, and takes Jeru- 
 salem after a long siege . . . 587 
 
 Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the 
 walls razed to the ground, and the 
 city reduced to ashes . . . . 587 
 
 KINGS AND PROPHETS. 
 
 Saul began to reign . B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
 David „ „ ... 1055 Nathan. 
 
 Solomon,, „ . . . 1015 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Kings of Judah, 
 
 Kings of Israel. 
 
 Prophets. 
 
 975. 
 
 Rehoboam 
 
 Jeroboam I. 
 
 Ahijah. 
 
 958. 
 
 Abijah 
 
 
 
 965. 
 
 Asa . 
 
 Nadab (954) 
 
 Azaziah. 
 
 953. 
 
 ,, 
 
 Baasha „ 
 
 Hanani. 
 
 930. 
 
 
 Elah 
 
 Jehu. 
 
 929. 
 
 
 Zimri 
 
 
 928. 
 
 , 
 
 Omri 
 
 
 91S. 
 
 „ 
 
 Ahab 
 
 Elijah. 
 
 914. 
 
 Jehoshaphat 
 
 ,, 
 
 ,, 
 
 897. 
 
 
 Ahaziah . 
 
 Elisha. 
 
 896. 
 
 
 ( Jehoram or 
 ( Joram . 
 
 Jahaziel. 
 
 889. 
 
 Jehoram . 
 
 
 
 8S5. 
 
 Ahaziah 
 
 
 
 884. 
 
 Athaliah . 
 
 Jehu. 
 
 
 878. 
 
 ( Joash or Je 
 ( hoahaz 
 
 ! - 
 
 
 857. 
 
 
 Jehoahaz. 
 
 
 839. 
 
 Amaziah 
 
 Jehoash. 
 
 
 825. 
 
 ,, , . 
 
 Jeroboam II 
 
 Jonah. 
 
 810. 
 
 ( Uzziah oi 
 ( Azaziah 
 
 i » 
 
 ( Hosea, 
 ( Amos 
 
 784. 
 
 „ . 
 
 Anarchy. 
 
 
 773. 
 
 
 Zechariah 
 
 Joel. 
 
 772. 
 
 
 ( Shallum anc 
 
 
 " • 
 
 I Menahem 
 
 
 761. 
 
 ,, 
 
 Pekahiah. 
 
 
 A A 2 
 
JEW 
 
 356 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 Kings of Judak. Kings of Israel. 
 
 ^•! UZ Atriah 0r ) Pekah - 
 758. Jotham. . „ 
 
 742. Ahaz. 
 730. „ . . 
 727. Hezekiah 
 
 Prophets. 
 
 . Hoshea. 
 
 J [Captivity, 
 •1 721] . 
 
 641. 
 610. 
 
 C Isaiah and 
 • \ Micah. 
 
 . Obadiah. 
 !• Nahum. 
 
 . Jeremiah. ' 
 . Zephaniah. 
 
 . Habakkuk 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 Manasseh. 
 Anion 
 Josiah . 
 / Jehoahaz 
 1 (Shallum) 
 | andJehoi- 
 ' akim . . 
 / Jehoiachin 
 \ (Couiah) 
 J and Zede- 
 [ kiah . 
 
 BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Daniel prophesies at Babylon . B.C. 
 
 Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-Nego, re- 
 fusing to worship the golden image, are 
 cast into a fiery furnace, but are de- 
 livered by the angel .... 
 
 Daniel declares the meaning of the hand- 
 writing against Belshazzar . . . 
 
 He is cast into the lions' den ; he pro- 
 phesies the coming of the Messiah . „ 
 
 Ezekiel prophesies 538 
 
 003 
 
 :,3S 
 
 RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 
 
 Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes 
 an edict for the return of the Jews, 
 and rebuilding of the temple . . 536 
 Haggai and Zechariah prophets . . 520 
 
 The temple finished . March 10, 515 
 
 Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to 
 reform abuses . . . . . . 458 
 
 Here begin the seventy weeks of years 
 predicted by Daniel, being 490 years 
 before the crucifixion of the Redeemer 457 
 The walls of Jerusalem built . . . 445 
 Malachi the prophet .... 415 
 
 fThe Scripture history of the Jews ends, 
 according to Eusebius, in 442 ; and from 
 this time, Josephus and the Roman 
 historians give the best account of the 
 Jews.] 
 
 THE GRECIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander the Great passes out of 
 Europe into Asia . .... 
 
 He marches against Jerusalem to besiege 
 it. but on seeing Jaddus, the high- 
 priest, clad in his robes, he declares he 
 had seen such a figure in a vision in 
 Macedonia, inviting him to Asia, and 
 promising to deliver the Persian em- 
 pire into his hands ; he now goes to 
 the temple, and offers sacrifices to the 
 God of the Jews 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 
 Jews to translate the Scriptures . 
 
 Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the 
 temple, and slays 40,000 of the inhabi- 
 tants 
 
 Government of the Maccabees begins . 
 
 Treaty with the Romans ; the first on 
 record with the Jews . . . . 
 
 The Jews take Joppa .... 150 
 
 Samaria besieged and taken . . . 109 
 
 Judas Hyrcanus assumes the title of 
 " King of the Jews " .... 107 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions 
 under Pompey 63 
 
 33f, 
 
 332 
 310 
 
 384 
 
 161 
 
 JEW 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Antipater made intendant of Judea by 
 
 Julius Cajsar B.C. 49 
 
 Herod, son of Antipater, marries Ma- 
 
 rianme, daughter of the king . . . 42 
 Invasion of the Parthians . . .40 
 Herod implores the aid of the senate ; 
 
 they decree him to be king . . . 40 
 Jerusalem taken by Herod, and by the 
 Roman general Socius. ... 37 
 
 Herod rebuilds the temple. . . . 18 
 
 Jesus, the long-expected Messiah, is 
 born on Monday, Dec. 25, four years 
 before the common era ... 5 
 Jesus is circumcised . . . Jan. 1, 4 
 The flight into Egypt . . . a.d. 3 
 Joseph and Mary return to Nazareth 
 with Christ ...... 3 
 
 Pontius Pilate is made procurator of 
 
 Judea 26 
 
 John the Baptist begins to preach in the 
 
 desert of Judea 26 
 
 John the Baptist is imprisoned . . 30 
 
 And is beheaded 31 
 
 The crucifixion and resurrection of the 
 
 Redeemer ... 33 
 
 Claudius banishes Jews from Rome . . 50 
 Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and 
 temple are sacked and burnt, and 
 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
 tudes destroying themselves . . 70 
 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
 dered by the Jews about Cyrene . . 115 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a 
 
 temple to Jupiter .... 130 
 
 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
 by the Romans, in . . 135 and 136 
 
 [They are now banished from Judea by 
 an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
 bidden to return, or even to look back 
 upon their once flourishing and be- 
 loved city, on pain of death. From 
 this period, the Jews have been scat- 
 tered among all other nations.] 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jews first arrive in England . . . 1078 
 
 The Rabbi Maimonides lives about . 1078 
 
 Thinking to invoke the Divine niercy, at 
 a solemnisation of the Passover, they 
 sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich 
 tradesman at Paris, for which the cri- 
 minals are executed, and all Jews ban- 
 ished France 1080 
 
 The Jews massacred in London, on the 
 coronation day of Richard I. at the in- 
 stigation of the priests . . . . 1089 
 
 500 being besieged in York castle by the 
 mob, they cut each other's throats to 
 avoid their fury 1190 
 
 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their 
 eyes or teeth plucked ovit, and num- 
 bers inhumanly butchered, by king 
 John 1204 
 
 They circumcise and attempt to crucify 
 a child at Norwich ; the offenders are 
 condemned in a fine of 20,000 marks . 1235 
 
 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which 
 eighteen are hanged .... 1255 
 
 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew 
 having forced a Christian to pay him 
 more than 2s. per week as interest 
 upon a loan of 20s. — Stow. . . . 1262 
 
 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- 
 hold, passed 1269 
 
 Every Jew lending money on interest 
 compelled to wear a plate on his breast 
 signifying that he was a usurer, or to 
 quit the realm 1274 
 
JO A 
 
 357 
 
 JOH 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clip- 
 ping coin a.d. 1277 
 
 They crucify a child at Northampton, for 
 which fifty are drawn at horses' tails 
 and hanged 1282 
 
 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one day, 
 and are all banished England. — Rapin 1£87 
 
 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
 peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in a 
 castle, where, for want of weapons, 
 they throw their children at their ene- 
 mies, and then destroy one another . 1317 
 
 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they 
 are suspected of having poisoned the 
 springs, and numbers are massacred. 
 —lenglet , 1348 
 
 Jews are banished from Spain and Por- 
 tugal 1492 
 
 They are banished France . . . 1494 
 
 After having been banished England 365 
 years, they are re-admitted by Crom- 
 well, in virtue of a treaty withManas- 
 seh Ben Israel 1652 
 
 Statute to compel them to maintain their 
 protestant children, enacted 2 Anne . 1703 
 
 Bill to naturalise the professors of the 
 Jewish religion in Ireland (where 200 
 Jews then resided) refused the royal 
 assent 1746 
 
 Statute to naturalise them, passed . . 1753 
 • This act repealed on the petition of all 
 
 the cities in England .... 1754 
 
 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avig- 
 non are declared to be citizens of 
 Prance 1790 
 
 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris, 
 convened by the emperor Napoleon, 
 
 Jan. 20, 1807 
 
 London Society for promoting Christi- 
 anity among the Jews .... 1808 
 
 Alexander of Russia grants land on the 
 Sea of A zoph to converted Jews, Sept. 1, 1820 
 
 Bill for Jewish emancipation in England, 
 
 lost on the second reading by a majo- 
 rity in the commons, 228 against 165, 
 
 May 17, 1836 
 
 Moses Montefiore, esq. elected sheriff of 
 Loudon ; and knighted by the queen, 
 being the first Jew on whom that 
 honour has been conferred . Nov. 9, 1837 
 
 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permit- 
 ting the title of citizen of the first class 
 to be held by any Jew who renders 
 himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 
 
 Owing to the disappearance of a Greek 
 priest, a persecution of the Jews began 
 at Damascus. See Damascus Feb. 1, 1840 
 
 Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal 
 offices from taking oaths, <fec. 9 Vict. 1845 
 
 Baron Rothschild returned toparliament 
 for the city of London by a majority of 
 6619 votes, his opponent, lord John 
 Manners, polling only 3104 . July 3, 1849 
 
 [The hon. member was not, however, 
 permitted by the house of commons to 
 take his seat.] 
 
 Alderman Salomons elected member for 
 Greenwich .... June 2S, 1851 
 
 [Neither was the alderman (notwith- 
 standing various attempts) allowed his 
 seat. J 
 
 The Jews' Oath of Abjuration bill passed 
 the house of commons . . July 3, 1851 
 
 Baron Rothscliild again returned for the 
 city of London at t he general elections, 
 July, 1S52 ; March, 1S57; and ak'ain 
 in July, 1S57 
 
 Violent outbreak against the Jews hi 
 Stockholm .... Sept. 3, 1852 
 
 The Jewish Oath bill passed in com- 
 mons, April 15 ; thrown out in the 
 lords .... April 29, 1S53 
 
 Several times passed in the commons 
 and thrown out in the lords : the last, 
 
 July 10, 1857 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, or MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of 
 France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended 
 she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the 
 command of the French troops. She raised the siege and entered Orleans with 
 supplies, April 29, 1429; and the English, who were before the place from October 12 
 preceding, abandoned the enterprise, May 8 following. She captured several towns 
 in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 
 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. 
 She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood 
 with her own hand. She was takeu at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1431 ; and, 
 to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at 
 Rouen, in the 22nd (some say 29th) year of her age. A statue of Joan of Arc, 
 chiselled by the late princess Marie of France, was inaugurated at Orleans, Sept. 13, 
 1851. See Patay, Battle of. 
 
 JOHN DOE and RICHARD ROE. Names well known in the law, as standing pledges 
 for the prosecution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were 
 required to pledge themselves to answer to the crown for an amercement or fine set 
 upon the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he brought an action without cause, 
 or failed in it. And in 1285, 13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, before they made 
 deliverance of the distress, to receive pledges for the pursuing the suit, and for the 
 return of the beasts, if return were awarded. But the whole coming to be a matter 
 of form; the fictitious names of Doe and Roe were used until, by the Common 
 Law Procedure Act, compliance with the form was declared to be no longer necessary : 
 15 & 16 Vict. c. 76, 1852. 
 
 JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE. An ancient house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay 
 Head, remarkable for being the most northerly point in Great Britain. John of Groat 
 and his brothers, originally from Holland, settled here about 1489. This house was 
 
JOH 358 JUD 
 
 of an octagon shape, being one room, with eight windows and eight doors, to admit 
 eight members of the family, the heads of different branches of it, to prevent their 
 quarrels for precedence at table, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. 
 Each came in, by this contrivance, at his own door, and sat at an octagon table, at 
 which, of course, there was no chief place or head. 
 
 JOHNSON'S CLUB. A small society of distinguished men, who in 1764 formed 
 themselves into a friendly club : Goldsmith, Reynolds, Burke, Gibbon, Jones, Garrick, 
 Bennet Langton, and Topham Beauclerk, with Johnson for president. The opinion 
 formed by the club of a new work, was speedily known all over London ; and was 
 sufficient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the sheets to the trunk- 
 maker and pastrycook. 
 
 JOURNALS of the HOUSE op COMMONS. First ordered to be printed, and 5000Z. 
 allowed to Mr. Hardinge for the execution of the work, by which means the journals 
 can now be searched for precedents in parliamentary transactions. Strangers as well 
 as members may refer to them and have extracts made from them, on paying the 
 fees, 1752. The journals of, the House of Peers are also printed with the same 
 object. The printing of acts of parliament commenced with the reigu of Henry VII.; 
 and they have been printed consecutively from a.d. 1509. 
 
 JUAN FERNANDEZ, ISLAND of. Alexander Selkirk, a native of Scotland, was left 
 on shore here by his captain for mutiny, in 1705. In this solitary place he lived 
 more than four years, till he was discovered by captain Rogers in 1709. From the 
 narrative of his proceedings in the island, Daniel De Foe is said to have derived the 
 hints which produced the celebrated Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. 
 
 JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrated a Jubilee every fifty years. Among 
 the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. in the 
 year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI. ; 
 and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. 
 to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed. 
 
 JUBILEES. A memorable festival, called Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by the inimi- 
 table Garrick, was celebrated in honour of our great national poet and dramatist in 
 his native town, Stratford-on-Avon, Sept. 6, 7, 8, 1769. A project was originated in the 
 year 1820 for the erection of an edifice to the memory of Shakspeare, in the nature 
 of a museum, cenotaph, or temple, but failed. The next attempt to honour Shak- 
 speare was made with better success in 1835, and a Shakspeare festival was held at 
 Stratford, April 23, 1836. In July 1847, a public subscription was opened for the 
 purchase of the house in which he was born, which was sold by auction to the United 
 Stratford and London Committee for the large sum of 3000Z.— Britton. The memo- 
 rable Jubilee in England on account of George III. entering into the fiftieth year of his 
 reign, was celebrated October 25, 1809. The Jubilee in celebration of the general 
 peace and also of the centenary commemoration of the accession of the family of 
 Brunswick to the throne of these kingdoms, August 1, 1814. 
 
 JUDGES. At the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius Anglice : 
 these judges continued until the erection of the courts of King's Bench and Common 
 Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglice was Philip Basset, in 1261. 
 See the several Courts. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edw. I. 1288, when Thomas 
 de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, William de Thorp was hanged. 
 See Bribery. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kentish rebels, 1382. 
 Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favouring despotism, and other judges 
 were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of Wales committed by judge 
 Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench, 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, 
 beheaded, July 6, 1535. Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken 
 off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most 
 of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown, 
 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to 
 the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the judges established by 
 making their appointments patents for life, 1761. Three additional judges, one to 
 each law court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 
 May 5, 1813. In 1830, by act 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (July 23 in that year), an additional 
 judge. was again appointed to each court of law. By act 5 Vict, c.5 (5 Oct. 1841), 
 two new vice-chancellors were appointed. A third vice-chancellor appointed by act 
 14 Vict. c. 4, April 2, 1851. Two new chancery judges, styled lords justices, 
 constituted by 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83 (1851). See Lords justices and Vice-Cliancdlors. 
 
JUD 359 JUR 
 
 JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the privy council. See Privy Council. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the World." The first object of Hindoo veneration is a 
 celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to 
 represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion, and the visage is frightful. 
 The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated at 1,200,000 annually; of these a 
 great many never return, and to the distance of fifty miles, the way is strewed with 
 human bones; the temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state 
 allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June 1851. 
 
 JUGURTHA, the WAR with. A memorable war against the Numidian to reduce his 
 kingdom, commenced 111 B.C. and continued five years. Csecilius Metellus was first 
 sent against him, and defeated him in two battles ; and afterwards Sylla and Marius ; 
 the latter of whom dragged him in chains to Rome to adorn his triumph. The name 
 and wars of Jugurtha have been immortalised by the pen of Sallust. 
 
 JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the lunar 
 cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and 
 began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in computing time to avoid 
 the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
 advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras used at different times. 
 By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our year is found ; if before Christ, sub- 
 tract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. 
 
 JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julius, the surname of C. 
 Caesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month in the 
 Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the year, 713 B.C. Marc 
 Antony first gave to this month the name of July. See article Year. 
 
 JUNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. It had 
 its name Junius, which some derive a Junone, and others, a Junioribus, this being for 
 the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces 
 Juno as claiming this month. When Numa added two months before March, this 
 month became, as it is now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 B.C. See Year. 
 
 JUNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political writer, 
 who published his Letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1789. They were written in 
 a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a powerful impression, and the 
 volume is now one of the most admired in British literature. These letters have 
 been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single- 
 speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. 
 serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq. Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. 
 Samel Dyer, general Lee, the duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, esq. and sir Philip 
 Francis, but the matter is still hidden in obscurity. " I am the depositary of my 
 own secret, and it shall perish with me." — Junius. 
 
 JUNO, The Planet. Discovered by M. Harding, of Lilienthal, near Bremen, Sept. 1, 
 1804. Its distance from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accomplishes its 
 revolution in four years and 128 days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. 
 Its diameter is estimated by German astronomers at 1424 English miles. 
 
 JUNONIA. Festivals in honour of Juno celebrated at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 
 At these festivals the young maids ran races, and petitioned^ Juno to give them 
 husbands ; at Rome an altar was erected to her as the goddess of marriage, where 
 the new-married couple offered either a white cow, geese, or ravens, from which they 
 took the gall before they sacrificed, and threw it behind the altar, to intimate that in 
 that state of life no bitterness of spirit should remain. 
 
 JUPITER. Known as a planet to the Chaldeans, it is said 3000 B.C. See Planets. 
 
 JUPITER AMMON'S celebrated temple in Libya was visited by Alexander B.C. 332. 
 Cambyses' army sent against this temple perished miserably, B.C. 525. 
 
 JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon heptarchy, 
 mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try 
 causes between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, with 
 their whole estates real and personal, for false verdicts. — Lambard. But by most 
 authorities their institution is ascribed to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are 
 insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's liberty. When either party is 
 an alien born, the jury shall be one half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 
 
JUR 360 KAF 
 
 28 Edw. III. 1353. By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal might 
 challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries; but a lord of parliament, 
 and a peer of the realm, who is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his 
 peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in Scotland was passed in 1815. 
 An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland was passed 
 4 Will. IV. 1833. An imperial decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Austrian 
 empire, Jan. 15, 1852. 
 
 JURIES, COERCION of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed 
 the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying 
 sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A jury may be detained 
 during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree upon a verdict; and may be 
 confined without meat, drink, or candle, till they are unanimous. Some jurors ha?e 
 been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider 
 of their verdict, though they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury 
 not being able to agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke 
 from the court where they were locked up, and went home, Oct. 9, 1791. — Phillips. 
 In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority; in France, 
 since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is required. 
 
 JUSTICES of the PEACE. These are local magistrates, invested with extensive 
 powers in minor cases, but subject to supersession and punishment by the King's 
 Bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of the peace in every county first 
 nominated by Wiiliam the Conqueror, in 1076. — Stow. Called guardians of the 
 peace till 36 Edw. III. 1361. The form of a commission of the peace settled by the 
 judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. — Hawkins. 
 
 JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings of England used to hear and determine 
 causes ; but it is declared by law that if the king cannot determine every controversy, 
 he, to ease himself, may divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom and 
 fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. The Saxon kings of England 
 appointed a judge after this manner, who was, in fact, the king's deputy. After the 
 Norman Conquest, the person invested with that power had the style of Capitalis 
 Justicice, or Jusliciavius Anglice. These judges continued until the erection of the 
 Courts of King's Bench and the Common Pleas. The first justiciars of England 
 were Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz-Osborn, in 1067; and the last was 
 Philip Basset, in 1261. 
 
 JUSTINIAN CODE, wherein was written what may be termed the statute law, scat- 
 tered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a.d. 529. To this code of 
 laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations 
 have since been called, collectively, the body of civil law (corpus juris civilis). A digest 
 was made in 533.— Blair. 
 
 JUVENILE OFFENDERS. On Aug. 10, 1838, 2 Vict, an act was passed for institu- 
 ting a prison for instructing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the military hospi- 
 tal at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight was appropriated for this salutary purpose. 
 Another act was passed Aug. 10, 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. c. 86,) for the same object. 
 
 K. 
 
 KAFFRARIA, and KAFFIR WAR, Socth Africa. An invasion of the Kaffirs or 
 Caffres, in the vicinity of Grahamstown, Cape of Good Hope, took place in Oct. 1831 ; 
 the invaders fell upon the settlers, murdered them, burnt their houses, destroyed 
 their crops, and carried away their cattle ; this irruption was eventually suppressed 
 by the colonial authorities. Various slighter annoyances to the colonists occurred up 
 to Dec. 31. 1850, when Sir Harry Smith, the then governor, proclaimed martial law, 
 and ordered the inhabitants to rise en masse for the defence of the frontier : the 
 Kaffirs had previously defeated our troops in several encounters, and had committed 
 many murderous forays upon the villages. Disastrous operations as^ainst the Kaffirs 
 in the Waterkloeff followed, and col. Fordyce and several officers and men of the 74th 
 regiment were killed, Nov. 6, 1851. Capt. Oldham and others had just before been 
 murdered in ambuscade or killed in sundry encounters. — Wreck of the Birkenhead 
 with reinforcements from England (see Birkenhead), Feb. 26. 1852. — The hostilities 
 of the Kaffirs having assumed all the features of regular warfare, the late governor 
 
KAL 361 KEN 
 
 general Cathcart, after much forbearance, attacked them with 2000 British troops at 
 Berea, where they numbered 6000 mounted horsemen, Dec. 20, 1852. In this action 
 capt. Faunce and 38 men were killed, aud two other officers and 15 men wounded. 
 The Kaffir loss was so severe as to compel them to sue for peace. The conditions 
 offered by general Cathcart were accepted, and peace was restored, March 9, 1853. 
 
 KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the fortress of Widdin. This place was fortified by 
 the Turks under Oiner Pacha when they crossed the river, Oct. 28, 1853. In Decem- 
 ber, Prince Gortschakoff, with the Russian army, determined to storm their intrench- 
 ments. The conflict lasted from Dec. 31 to Jan. 9, 1854, when the Russians were 
 compelled to retire. Among these conflicts one occurred at Citate, JaD. 6. See 
 Citate. Kalafat was invested Jan. 28, and General Schilders attacked it vigorously 
 on April 19, without success, and the blockade was raised April 21. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and produces a 
 symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. (now sir David) 
 Brewster, of Edinburgh; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument perfected 
 in 1817, when it became popular. It was intended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, 
 and other ornamental artists, in the formation of patterns. 
 
 KALITSCH, BATTLE of. Between the Saxons, under the French general Regnier, and 
 the Russians under Winzingerode ; an obstinate engagement, in which the former 
 were defeated with much loss, 2000 being slain on the field, and some thousands 
 wounded, February 13, 1813. 
 
 KALUNGA FORT. A fort in the East Indies, unsuccessfully attacked by the East India 
 Company's forces, and general Gillespie killed, Oct. 31, 1814. It was again unsuccess- 
 fully attacked on the 25th of November following; and was evacuated by the 
 Nepaulese, on the 30th November, same year. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern coast of Asia. It was discovered by 
 Morosco, a Cossack chief, a.d. 1690; and was taken possession of by Russia in 1697; 
 it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by Behring, in 1728. Four 
 months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the spring, summer, 
 aud autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. The amiable capt. Clarke, 
 a companion of Cook's, died in sight of Kamtsehatka, Aug. 22, 1779, and was buiied at 
 the town of St. Peter and Paul, in the peninsula. 
 
 KANSAS. A new state in the American Union, by an act of congress May 30, 1854, 
 left open to slavery, in opposition to the Missouri Compromise (see Slavery in 
 America). In Jan. 1855, the population was 8501. During the greater part of 1855 
 this state was a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through the violence of the slavery 
 party in their efforts to make Kansas a slave state. The question is not yet settled (1857). 
 
 KARS. A town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its defence by Gen. (now sir Win. 
 Fenwick) Williams with 15,000 men and with three months' provisions and three days' 
 ammunition against the Russian general Mouravieff with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
 10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from June 18 to Nov. 25, 1855. The sufferings of 
 the garrison were very great from cholera and want of food. The Russians made a 
 grand assault on Sept. 29, but were repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men. The 
 garrison were overcome by famine alone.* — Sandwllh. 
 
 KEEPER of the KING'S CONSCIENCE. The origin of this office, which attaches 
 to the lord chancellor, is unknown. The early chancellors were priests, and their 
 jurisdiction extended over the king's conscience; and out of this moral control of the 
 king's mind grew up the idea of an equity court in contradistinction to the law 
 courts. A bill in chancery is a petition through the lord chancellor to the king's 
 conscience for remedy in matters for which the king's common law courts afford no 
 redress. The keeper of the king's conscience therefore, at the present day, is the 
 officer who presides in the Court of Chancery. See Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, by Geoffrey de ClintoD, whose grandson sold 
 it to Henry III. It was greatly enlarged and strongly fortified by Simon de Montfort, 
 to whom Henry gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor ; but much of 
 the pile was erected subsequently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one 
 
 * On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrendering, general Mouravieff said : " General 
 Williams, you have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity will stand amazed at the endur- 
 ance, the courage, and the discipline which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let 
 us arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, without outraging humanity." 
 
KEN 362 KEY 
 
 of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
 on her favourite, Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards 
 entertained within its walls for seventeen days. His entertainment of the queen 
 commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000£. then a vast expenditure. 
 
 KENIL WORTH, DICTUM of. After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of Simon 
 de Montfort, by prince Edward (afterwards Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, 
 Simon, shut himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sustained a siege for six months 
 against the royal forces of Henry III. to whom it at length surrendered. Upon this 
 occasion was issued the "Dictum de Kenilworth," enacting that all who took up arms 
 against the king should pay him the value of their lands for five years. 
 
 KENNINGTON COMMON was directed to be enclosed and laid out as a public pleasure- 
 ground by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 29, June 17, 1852. 
 
 KENSINGTON PALACE. Originally the residence of lord chancellor Finch, from whom 
 it was purchased by William III. who made the road through its parks. The gardens 
 were improved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who died within the walls of the 
 palace. George II. and George prince of Denmark likewise expired here. — Leigh.* 
 
 KENT. The kingdom of Kent, one of the kingdoms (the first) of the Heptarchy, and 
 co-extensive with the shire of Kent, began under Hengist, a.d. 455 ; it existed 370 
 years, and ended with Baldred, who lost both his life and dominions to Egbert, king 
 of the West Saxons, 823. See Britain. 
 
 KENT EAST INDIAMAN. She was of 1850 tons burthen, and left the Downs Feb. 19, 
 1825, bound for Bombay, experiencing bad weather to the Bay of Biscay. Here she 
 encountered a dreadful storm, by which she was very much shattered, Feb. 28. On 
 the next clay she accidentally took fire, and having to contend against the twofold 
 calamity, every soul on board was in expectation of perishing either by the tempest 
 or the flames. In this awful exigency, the Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, 
 providentially hove in sight, and through the heroism of her commander nearly all 
 on board were saved, viz., 301 officers and men of the 31st regt., 66 women, 45 
 children, and 139 seamen. The Kent shortly afterwards blew up, March 1, 1825. 
 
 KENT, HOLY MAID of. A country girl who was used as an instrument by the 
 Catholics and the adherents of queen Catherine to excite the nation against the 
 divorce then proposed of Henry VIII. from his first wife, and the apprehended 
 separation of the English Church from that of Rome. In her delirium during a 
 nervous illness, she was persuaded to believe herself a prophetess, when she 
 denounced the king and the prevailing heresies, and excited such a ferment among 
 the people that she and her accomplices were seized, and convicted of high treason 
 and a conspiracy against the king, and executed, April 30, 1534. 
 
 KERTCH, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing town on the 
 straits of Yenikale, Sea of Azoff. It was entered by the allies March 24, 1855; the 
 Russians retired after destroying stores. &c. The place was totally dismantled by 
 the allies, and the inhabitants removed. 
 
 KET'S REBELLION. A revolt instigated by William Ket, -a tanner, of Norfolk. The 
 insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but they were quickly encountered and defeated 
 by the earl of Warwick. More than 2000 fell in the action or the pursuit, and Ket 
 was taken and hanged, in August 1549. — Stow's Cliron. 
 
 KEW ROYAL PALACE. It was successively occupied by the Capel family, Mi\ Molyneux, 
 Frederick prince of Wales, Thomson the poet, and George III. Queen Charlotte died 
 here, 1818. The gardens contain the finest collection of plants in the world, and are 
 decorated with ornamental buildings, most of them erected by sir William Chambers, 
 about 1760. Here are a temple of the Sun, a temple of Eolus, of Bellona, of Solitude, 
 of Arethusa, and of Victory ; the last in commemoration of the victory of Minden, 
 Aug. 1, 1759. A new palace was erected at Kew by George III. under the direction 
 of Mr. Wyatt, but it was pulled down in 1827. 
 
 KliYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 
 B.C.; but this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of Troy, 1193 b.c. Keys 
 were originally made of wood, and the earliest form was a simple crook similar to the 
 common picklock now in use. The ancient keys now to be found in the cabinets of 
 
 * In Aug. 1S5. 1 ), by permission of the government, a military band played in Kensington Gardens 
 on Sundays, in presence of about 60.00U persons. The practice was discontinued in 1S56, being objected 
 to by many persons ; but bands were ordered to play in other parks during the week. 
 
KHE 363 KIL 
 
 the curious are mostly of bronze. The late Francis Douce, esq., had some of remark- 
 able shapes, the shaft terminating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. 
 Keys of this description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned 
 again upon divorce or separation. 
 KHERSON", an ancient Dorian colony (deriving its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), 
 came (about B.C. 120) under the sway of the great Mithridates and his successors, 
 and afterwards of that of Rome, a.d. 30. It continued an important place, and its 
 possession was long a constant som'ce of dispute between the Russians and Greeks. 
 It was besieged and taken by Vladimir, grand-duke of Russia, in 988, when he and 
 his army received Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's sister Anne, who 
 obtained the Kherson as her dowry. The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; 
 and the Turks fcrand it deserted when they took possession of the Crimea in 1475. 
 What ancient remains the Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians conveyed 
 away for the construction of Sebastopol. Since the foundation of Odessa in 1792, 
 Kherson has declined. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, who died at Jassy in 
 1791, is buried here;' John Howard, the English philanthropist, died here Jan. 20, 
 1790, and is buried about three miles from the town, where an obelisk has been 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 KIDNEY-BEANS, or FRENCH BEANS. They were introduced into England about 
 a.d. 1633. The kidney-bean tree, Glycine frutescens, was brought to these countries 
 from South Carolina, about the year 1724, though some authorities say earlier. 
 
 KIEL, TREATY op. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan. 14, 
 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously the Norwegians had 
 been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to 
 interest that country in their favour. On the contrary, the English blockaded the 
 ports of Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some 
 brave actions, but they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and 
 the diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. 
 
 KILCULLEN, BATTLE of. Between a large body of the insurgent Irish and the British 
 forces commanded by general Dundas; the latter defeated, May 23, 1798. General 
 Dundas in a subsequent engagement with the rebels overthrew them near Kilcullen- 
 bridge, when 300 were slain, and several hundreds wounded and taken prisoners. 
 
 KILDARE. The celebrated Curragh here was once a forest of oaks; and here was the 
 famous nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in a.d. 584. The insurrection in 
 Kildare, which swelled into the great and memorable rebellion, commenced in Kildare, 
 May 23, 1798. On the night of that day, lieut. Gifford of Dublin, and a number of 
 other gentlemen of respectability, were murdered by the insurgents. This rebellion 
 was not finally quelled until the following year. 
 
 KILDARE, BISHOPRIC of. One of the earliest episcopal foundations in Ireland, of 
 which St. Conlseth, who died a.d. 519, was the first prelate. The first Protestant 
 bishop was Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. In this diocese was an old small building 
 called the fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns of St. Bridget kept the in- 
 extinguishable fire. The see is valued in the king's books, by an extent returned, 
 30 Hen. VIII., at 69?-. lis. id. Irish, per year. Kildare was united to Dublin on the 
 decease of Dr. Lindsay, the last prelate (conformably with the Church Temporalities 
 act), in 1846. See Dublin. 
 
 KILFENORA, BISHOPRIC of. It is supposed that St. Fachnan was its founder. In 
 the ancient distribution of the bishoprics of Ireland, made by cardinal Paparo, in 1152, 
 it was rendered a suffragan see to Cashel, but on the restoration of Charles II. it was 
 annexed to Tuam, and was afterwards united to Killaloe. See Killaloe. 
 
 KILKENNY, STATUTES of. These famous statutes enacted, among other things, 
 "that the alliaunce of the English by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of infantes, 
 and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high treason." And again, "if anie man of 
 English race use an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or fashion of the 
 Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his body imprisoned, till he shall conform to 
 English modes and customs." 40 Edw. III. 1364. See Penal Laws. 
 
 KILLALA. Its invasion by a French force .landing from three frigates, under general 
 Humbert, Aug. 22, 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents, and the 
 battles of Castlebar, Colooney, and Ballynamuck, followed, but the French were 
 ultimately subdued, Sept. 8, same year. At the battle of Killala the insurgents were 
 defeated with great slaughter by the royalist forces, Sept. 23, 1798. 
 
KIL 364 KIN 
 
 KILLALA, SEE of. An early episcopal foundation, of which St. Muredach was the 
 first bishop, and was consecrated by St. Patrick. The author of the tripartite life of 
 St. Patrick, in giving an account of that saint's progress through Connaught, in 434, 
 says, " that he came to a pleasant place where the river Muadas (Moy) empties itself 
 into the ocean; and on the south banks of said river he built a noble church, called 
 Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The 
 see of Achoury was united to Killala in the seventeenth century ; and both became 
 united to Tuam in 1839. See Tuam and Bishops. 
 
 KILLALOE, SEE of. Supposed to have been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, 
 St. Flannan, son to king Theodoric (and who was consecrated at Rome by pope 
 John IV. in 639), was also bisbop. The church was esteemed of great sanctity, and 
 was anciently resorted to in pilgrimage, of which there are many instances ; among 
 others, Conor Mac Dermod O'Brien, king of Thomond and Desmond, died here in 
 pilgrimage, in 1142. At the close of the twelfth century the see of Roscrea was 
 annexed to Killaloe, and that of Kilfenora has been held in commendam with it. By 
 the operation of the Church Tempoi-alities act, Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united 
 to this joint see, in 1836. See Bishops. 
 
 KILLIECRANKIE, BATTLE of, in Scotland. Between the forces of William III. of 
 England, and the adherents of James II. ; the former commanded by general Mackay, 
 and the latter by Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, a distinguished partisan 
 officer who signally defeated Mackay, but fell in the moment of victory : fought at 
 the defile or pass of Killiecrankie, July 17, 1689. 
 
 KILMACDUACH, BISHOPRIC of. This see was held in commendam with Clonfert, 
 from 1602. St. Coleman, its first bishop, flourished early in the seventh century, and 
 being fond of an ascetic life, lived in a wilderness in the south part of Connaught, 
 seven years previous to his being made bishop of this see. The see wa3 valued, 29 
 Eliz. 1586, at IBl. 6s. 8d. per annum. It is now united to Killaloe, which see. 
 
 KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL, Dublin. The asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in 
 Ireland, and one of the noblest institutions of the kind in Great Britain. It owes its 
 foundation to Arthur, earl of Granard, then marshal-general of the army in Ireland, 
 1675; and the duke of Ormoud perfected the plan, in 1679. Kilmainham is «n 
 ancient town, and was the seat of government before the castle of Dublin was 
 appropriated to that purpose. 
 
 KILMALLOCK. An abbey was founded here by St. Mochoallog, about the year 645, 
 and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the thirteenth century. — Sir James TT'u?v. 
 A charter was granted to Kilmallock by Edward VI. and another by Elizabeth, in 
 1584. Tbe town was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by 
 the duke of Orniond. There was much contest here in 1641 and 1642. 
 
 KILMORE, BISHOPRIC of. The name signifies a great church. Kilmore is an 
 ancient town, whose bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses from Brefney, and 
 sometimes Triburnenses, bishops of Triburna, from a village of that name ; but in 
 1454, the bishop of Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected the parish 
 church of St. Fedlemid, as a more commodious situation, into a cathedral. Florence 
 O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100/. 
 per annum. The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to it in 1841. See Bishops. 
 
 KINBTJRN. A fort, on a tongue of land at the confluence of the rivers Bug and 
 Dnieper, was taken by the English and French, Oct. 17th, 1855. It contained a 
 garrison of 1500 men and 21 cannon. Three floating French batteries, said to be the 
 invention of the emperor, were very effective. On the 18th the Russians blew up 
 Oczakoff, a fort opposite Kinburn. 
 
 KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common Prayer, was set forth in 1563. 
 
 KING. The Latin Bex, the Scythian Reis, the Spanish Bey, and French Boi, all come 
 from the Hebrew Bosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first founder of a kingdom 
 2245 B.C. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who assumed 
 the title of king in that division of the earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 
 1095 B.C. Most of the Grecian states were governed by kings; and kings were the 
 first rulers in Rome. 
 
 KING of ENGLAND. The style "King of England "was first used by Egbert, a.d. 828; 
 but the title Bex f/entis Anc/hrum, king of the English nation, existed during the 
 Heptarchy. See Britain. The plural phraseology, we, us, our, was first adopted 
 
KIN" 
 
 365 
 
 KIN 
 
 among our English kings by king John, in 1207. The title of "king of Ireland," was 
 not assumed by British sovereigns until 1542, when Henry VIII. changed lord of 
 Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union of England 
 and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland" at the union of these countries, Jan. 1, 1801, when the royal style and title 
 was appointed to run thus : — " Oeorgius Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Rex, Fidei 
 Defensor," „ George the Third, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 
 KING of FRANCE. This title was first given to Pharamond, a.d. 420 ; it was first 
 assumed by the sovereigns of England, and the French arms quartered, February 
 1340, when Edward III. took the title in right of his mother, the sister of Charles, 
 the last king, who died without issue; and the right to this title was vindicated 
 subsequently by conquest. Neither the style nor the arms were formally relinquished 
 until January 1, 1801, when the alteration mentioned in the preceding article took 
 place, up to which time the English monarchs had the style of "king of Great 
 Britain, France, and Ireland." 
 
 KING of the FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of "king 
 of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that of "king of the 
 French," Oct. 16, 1789. The royal title was abolished in 1792; but restored in the 
 Bourbon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe L, the late sovereign, was invited to the 
 monarchy under the style of the "king of the French," Aug. 9, 1830. See France. 
 
 KING of HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the term queen has 
 led to the custom among them, that, whenever a female succeeds to the throne, she 
 shall be called Icing. Thus it will be seen in the annals of Hungary, that the daughter 
 of Louis I. reigned as Icing Mary, in 1383. See Hungary. 
 
 KING of the ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest sons 
 might be chosen their successors, in their own life-time politically obtained them the 
 title of " king of the Romans," this people being comprehended in that sovereignty. 
 The first emperor so elected was Henry IV. in 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. 
 of England, was induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast sums under the 
 promise of being elected next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the 
 Romans," but failed in succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style "king of 
 Rome" was revived by Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in 
 April 1811 ; but the title ceased at his fall, April 5, 1814. See Bonaparte. 
 
 KING- AT- ARMS. There are three for England, — Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy; 
 and Lyon king-at-arms for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices are very 
 ancient : Clarencieux is so named from Lionel, third son of Edward III., the 
 sovereign who founded the order of the Garter. See Garter. Lionel having by his 
 wife the honour of Clare, was made duke of Clarence; which dukedom afterwards 
 escheating to Edward IV., he made this earl king-at-arms. Ulster was substituted, 
 it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-at-arms, by Edward VI., 1552; but the monarch 
 himself named it as a new institution. 
 
 KING'S BENCH, COURT of. Obtained its name from the king sometimes sitting 
 here on a high bench, and the judges to whom the judicature belongs in his absence, 
 on a low bench at his feet. This court in ancient times was called Curia Domini 
 Regis; and in the reign of king Edward I. a statute passed by which it was enacted 
 that the judges should attend the king, and follow him, so that he might have at all 
 times near him, men learned in the laws, to dispense justice. " The judges used to ride 
 to Westminster Hall on mules ; sir John Whyddon, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
 first introduced horses ; but of late years they go in coaches." — Beatson. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING'S BENCH IN ENGLAND. 
 
 From the reign of 
 
 1526. John Fitz James. 
 
 1539. Sir Edward Montagu, knt. 
 
 1546. Sir Richard Lyster, knt. 
 
 1552. Sir Roger Cholmely, knt. 
 
 1553. Sir Thomas Bromley, sen., knt. 
 
 1554. Sir William Portrnan, knt. 
 1556. Sir Edward Saunders, knt. 
 1559. Robert Cafclyn. 
 
 1573. Sir Christoper Wray, knt. 
 1591. Sir John Popham, knt. 
 1607. Sir Thomas Fleming, knt. 
 
 King Henry VIII. 
 1613. Sir Edward Coke, knt. 
 1616. Sir Henry Montague, knt. 
 1620. Sir James Ley, knt. 
 1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe, knt. 
 1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde, knt. 
 1631. Sir Thomas Richardson, knt. 
 1635. Sir John Bramstone, knt. 
 1643. Sir Robert Heath, knt. 
 1648. Henry Rolle. 
 1655. John Glyn. 
 1659. Sir Richard Newdigate, knt- 
 
KIN 
 
 366 
 
 KIN 
 
 KING'S BENCH, COURT of, continued. 
 
 1659 Robert Nicholas. 
 
 1660. Sir Robert Foster, knt. 
 
 1663. Sir Robert Hyde, knt. 
 
 1665. Sir John Kelyng, knt. 
 
 1671. Sir Matthew Hale, knt. 
 
 1676. Sir Richard Raynsford, knt. 
 
 1678. Sir William Scroggs, knt. 
 
 1681. Sir Francis Pemberton, knt. 
 
 1683. Sir Edmund Saunders, knt. 
 
 Sir George Jefferies, bart., afterwards 
 
 lord Jefferies and lord chancellor. 
 16S5. Sir Edward Herbert, kut. 
 1687. Sir Robert Wright, knt. 
 1089. Sir John Holt, knt. 
 1709. Sir Thomas Parker, afterwards lord 
 
 Parker and earl of Macclesfield and 
 
 lord chancellor. 
 1718. Sir John Pratt, knt. 
 
 1725. Sir Robert Raymond, afterwards lord 
 
 Raymond. 
 1733. Sir Philip Yorke, afterwards lord Hard- 
 
 wicke and lord chancellor. 
 1737. Sir William Lee, knt. and bart. 
 1754. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 
 1756. William Murray, lord Mansfield, after- 
 wards earl of Mansfield. 
 17S8. Lloyd, lord Kenyon. June 9. 
 1802. Sir Edward Law. April 12 : created 
 
 lord Elleuborough. 
 1818. Sir Charles Abbot. Nov. 4 : afterwards 
 
 lord Tenterden. 
 1832. Sir Thomas Denman. Nov. 7 : created 
 
 lord Denman : resigned. 
 1850. John, lord Campbell. March 5. The 
 
 present (1857) Lord Chief Justice of 
 
 England. 
 
 The name of this court has been altered to that of Queen's Bench, since the accession 
 of Victoria, in June 1837, as is the case with all institutions in immediate connexion 
 with, or dependent upon, the sovereign, when a queen-reguant is on the throne. 
 
 CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING'S BENCH IN IRELAND. 
 
 From the Revolution. 
 
 1690. 
 1695. 
 1709. 
 1711. 
 1714. 
 1727. 
 1741. 
 1751. 
 1760. 
 1764. 
 
 Sir Richard Reynell. Dec. 6. 
 Sir Richard Pyne. June 7. 
 Alan Brodrick. Dec. 24. 
 Sir Richard Cox. July 5. 
 William Whitshed. Oct. 14. 
 John Rogerson. April 3. 
 Thomas Marlay. Dee. 29. 
 St. George Caulfield. Aug. 27. 
 Warden Flood. July 31. 
 
 1784. John Scott ; April 29 : afterwards earl 
 
 of Clonmel. 
 1798. Arthur Wolfe ; June 13 : afterwards 
 
 lord Kilwarden. 
 1S03. William Downes ; Sept. 12 : afterwards 
 
 lord Downes. 
 1822. Charles Kendal Bushe. Feb. 14. 
 1841. Edward Pennefather. Nov. 10. 
 1846. Francis Blackburne. Jan. 23. 
 
 John Gore ; Aug. 24 : afterwards earl 1852. Thomas Lefroy. March. The present 
 Annaly. (1857) Chief Justice of the King's 
 
 (Queen's) Bench in Ireland. 
 
 KING'S BENCH PRISON. One of the chief prisons of London for the confinement of 
 debtors; the present edifice was built in 1781, and contains about 230 rooms; and 
 besides this accommodation, the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, to 
 enable them to have houses or lodgings without the walls, or to purchase day-rules, 
 to go out of the prison under certain regulations. The rules included the whole of 
 St. George's Fields, one side of Blackman-street, and part of High-Street. This privilege, 
 however, has been discontinued. The prison, which was built in 1751, was burnt 
 down by the London rioters, June 3, 1780. See Gordon's No-popery Mob. 
 
 KING'S COLLEGES. That of Aberdeen, founded in 1500. King's College, Cambridge, 
 the pride of that university, was founded by Henry VI. in 1441. King's College, 
 Halifax, chartered in May 1802. King's College, London, incorporated Aug. 14, 1829, 
 and opened Oct. 8, 1831, with an address from the bishop of London. Its object is 
 to secure to the rising generation in the metropolis and its vicinity the benefits of an 
 economical, scientific, and religious course of instruction, according to the doctrines 
 of the Church of England. See Cambridge and Oxford. 
 
 KING'S COUNSEL. The first king's counsel under the degree of Serjeant, was sir 
 Francis Bacon, made so honoris causd, without patent or fee, in 1604, when James I. 
 bestowed upon him knighthood and a pension. The first kiDg's counsel of the modern 
 order was sir Francis North, afterwards lord-keeper to Charles II. in 1663. 
 
 KING'S COUNTY, Ireland. This county was so named from Philip, king of Spain, 
 the husband of queen Mai-y of England, in 1555. — Bum's Annals. 
 
 KING'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England. The first 
 who touched for it was Edward the Confessor in 1058. This vulgar credulity had in 
 the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that, in fourteen years, 92,107 persons 
 were touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all 
 cured ! Queen Anne officially announced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her 
 royal intention to touch publicly for the cure of the evil : the custom was discouraged, 
 and dropped by George I. 1714. 
 
 KING'S SPEECH. The first royal speech from the throne was delivered by Henry I. 
 in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarking with his accustomed harshness 
 
KIN 367 KNI 
 
 upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April, 1827) become chief of a new adminis- 
 tration, said — " Canning being now minister, of one thing, and one thing only, we are 
 certain ; we sball have no more grammatical blunders in king's speeches ; these things 
 will still be written in the same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we 
 shall have them in a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett. 
 
 KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to have been 
 the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian monarchy, 2245 e.c. 
 — Usher. Menes, or Misraim, makes his son Atholas, surnamed the first Mercury, king 
 of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Tosothrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 B.C. — 
 Blair. Ninus founds the Assyrian monarchy, 2059 B.C. — Lenglet. 
 
 KINGSTON, DUCHESS of, TRIAL of the. The most celebrated trial of a peeress 
 upon record : she was arraigned before the Lords in Westminster-hall, on a charge of 
 bigamy, having mamed Captain Hervey, afterwards earl of Bristol, and during his 
 lifetime, Evelyn Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston; she was found guilty, but, on her 
 pleading the privilege of peerage, the usual punishment of burning in the hand was 
 remitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees of office, April 15, 1776. 
 
 KINGSTON, Jamaica. Founded in 1698, after the great earthquake, which destroyed 
 Port Royal, since when it has continued to increase in size and opulence ; constituted 
 a city, 1802. An awful fire here ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
 500,000£. of property, Feb. 8, 1782. For various occurrences see Jamaica. 
 
 KINGSTON, Surrey. A national council was held here a.d. 838, at which Egbert, the 
 first king of all England, and his son Athelwolf, were present ; and several of the Saxon 
 monarchs were crowned here. This town sent members to parliament in the reign of 
 Edward II. A new town, called New Kingston, contiguously situated, has been in 
 course of erection, and many buildings completed, since 1839. 
 
 KINGSTOWN, Dublin. The fine harbour here was commenced in June 1817. The 
 place was originally called Dunleary, but the name was changed in compliment to 
 George IV. Here George IV. embarked for England at the close of his visit to 
 Ireland, Sept. 3, 1821. The opposite harbour of Howth was commenced in Sept. 1807. 
 The Kingstown railway from Dublin was opened Dec. 17, 1834. 
 
 KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode 
 of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas approaching his Master 
 with a kiss; it was also customary in Rome. The kiss of charity is commanded in 
 the Scriptures, and was observed by the early Christians. Kissing the pope's foot 
 took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, and began with Adrian I. 
 or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. From kneeling to sovereigns came 
 also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord in homage, first practised a.d. 709. 
 
 KIT-CAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen 
 of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, to promote the protestant succession in 
 the house of Hanover, which they effected by spirited publications as well as other 
 measures. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams 
 upon the toasts of the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a 
 pastry-cook, who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, 
 and who served them with pastry. — Bowyer^s Lift of Queen Anne. 
 
 KNEELING. See Kissing. The knee was ordered to be bent at the name of Jesus, 
 about the year 1275, either by the order of pope Gregory X. or Innocent V. This 
 custom is observed not only in divine worship, but on all occasions, in Roman Catholic 
 countries, where the host, in passing througn the streets, in the hands of the clergy 
 to the chambers of the sick, has adoration paid to it in a kneeling posture by the 
 people. They also kneel at the vesper bell. — Ashe. 
 
 KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honour is said to be derived from the 
 siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in Homer. With 
 certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who after their union with the 
 Sabines created three centuries of knights, about 750 b.c Livy. 
 
 KNIGHT ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, particularly 
 the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and Germany. Tilts and 
 tournaments commenced with the return of the crusaders from the Holy wars, and for 
 about 300 years they were the chief amusements of courts, and the successful combatants 
 acquired knighthood, and the favour of the ladies. The novel of Don Quixote was 
 written and published by Cervantes, to satirise knight errantry, in 1605. 
 
KNI 
 
 368 
 
 KNI 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after confession 
 and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarchy. The first knight made 
 by the sovereign with the sword of state was Athelstan, on whom Alfred bestowed 
 this new dignity, a.D. 900. — Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the 
 honour of knighthood was suppressed in a syuod held at Westminster in 1100. — 
 Ash mole's Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be 
 knighted, or pay a fine, 38 Hen. III. 1254. — Salmon. 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chivalry, 
 knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the decline of the empire 
 of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every 
 manor became a petty sovereign ; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by 
 a guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, 
 and the women and treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners 
 of rich fiefs associated to repress these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
 to protect the ladies; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the 
 sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of the highest rank 
 and largest possessions, admission into the order was deemed a great honour. 
 
 MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 Alcantara, instituted . . . a.d. 
 
 Alexander Nevskoi, Russia . . . 
 
 Amaranta, Sweden . 
 
 Angelic Knights, Greece . . . . 
 
 Annuuciada, Mantua . 
 
 Annunciation, Savoy . . . . . 
 
 Avis, Portugal ...... 
 
 Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. 
 See Bannerets ...... 
 
 Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See 
 Bath 
 
 Bear, Switzerland 
 
 Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by Fre- 
 derick I 
 
 Blood of Christ, Mantua . . . . 
 
 Brotherly Love, instituted 
 
 Burgundian Cross ..... 
 
 Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho 
 III 
 
 Catherine. Russia . . . . 
 
 Chase, instituted by the duke of Wur- 
 temburg 
 
 Christ, Livonia . . . . . . 
 
 Christ, Portugal 
 
 Christian Charity, France . . . . 
 
 Cincinnatus, America .... 
 
 Conception of the Virgin . . . . 
 
 Concord, Prussia, instituted by Christian 
 Ernest, elector of Brandenburg . 
 
 Crescent, Naples 
 
 Crown Royal France .... 
 
 Danebuvgh, Denmark, instituted by 
 Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by Chris- 
 tian V. . . .... 
 
 Death's Head, Female Order, by the 
 widow Louisa Elizabeth of Saxe Mers- 
 burgh 
 
 Dove of Castile 
 
 Dragon, Hungary 
 
 Elephant, Denmark, by Christian I. 
 
 Garter (which see), England 
 
 Generosity, Brandenburg . . . . 
 
 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 
 Philip, surnamed the Good . 
 
 Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel . . . . 
 
 Golden Shield and Thistle 
 
 Golden Spur, by Pius IV 
 
 Guelphic, Hanover 
 
 Holy Ghost, France, 1468. Revived 
 
 Holy Ghost, Rome 
 
 Holy Trinity 
 
 Hospitallers (uhich see) .... 
 
 Jauuarius, Naples 
 
 Jerusalem. See Malta .... 
 
 Jesus, France 
 
 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 
 XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. . 
 
 1160 
 1700 
 1645 
 456 
 1618 
 1355 
 1147 
 
 1485 
 
 1725 
 1213 
 
 1701 
 1608 
 1708 
 1535 
 
 11.56 
 1698 
 
 1719 
 1203 
 1319 
 1590 
 1783 
 1619 
 
 1660 
 1448 
 .802 
 
 1709 
 1379 
 1439 
 14 7S 
 1350 
 1685 
 
 1429 
 1785 
 1370 
 1559 
 1S16 
 1559 
 1198 
 1211 
 1092 
 1738 
 1048 
 1206 
 
 1610 
 
 La Calza, Venice .... a.d. 1400 
 Legion of Honour, France, instituted by 
 Napoleon Bonaparte .... 1S02 
 
 Lily of Arragou 1403 
 
 Lily of Navarre . ... . 1048 
 
 Loretto, Lady of 1587 
 
 Malta. See Malta 1531 
 
 Martyrs, Palestine 1319 
 
 Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain . 1792 
 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 
 
 Hesse-Cassel 1785 
 
 Merit. Prussia 1740 
 
 Oak of Navarre, Spain . . . . 722 
 Passion of Jesus Christ, France . . 1382 
 
 Pius, founded by Pius IV 1559 
 
 Red Eagle, Prussia . . . .-* . 1792 
 Redemption, instituted . . . . 1212 
 
 Rosary, Spain 1172 
 
 Round Table, England. See Knights of 
 
 the Round Table 528 
 
 St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 
 to this saint the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity into Muscovy) .... 1598 
 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; renewed 
 
 1452 ; and again by James VI. . . 1605 
 St Anthony, Haiuault .... 1382 
 St. Catherine, Palestine . . . . 1163 
 St. Catherine, Russia .... 16nS 
 
 St. Denis, Fiance 1207 
 
 St. George, Austria 1470 
 
 St. George, Defender of the Immaculate 
 
 Conception, Bavaria . . . . 1729 
 St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- 
 ward III. See Garter .... 1349 
 St. George ; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 
 
 duke of 
 
 Frederick III. 
 St. George, Rome . 
 St. George, Russia 
 St. George, Spain 
 St. George, Venice 
 St. Hubert, Germany, by the 
 
 Juliers and Cleves 
 St. James, Holland . 
 St. James, Portugal 
 St. James, Spain , 
 St. Jerome, Germany 
 St. John of Aeon . 
 St. John of Jerusalem 
 St. John of Malta 
 St. John of Rhodes . 
 St. Julieu of Alcantara 
 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Emanuel 
 
 Phiiibert, duke of Savoy 
 St. Louis, France 
 St. Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed 
 St. Mary the Glorious . 
 St. Mary de Merced, Spain 
 
 1460 
 1496 
 1782 
 131S 
 1200 
 
 1447 
 1290 
 1310 
 1030 
 1154 
 1370 
 1048 
 1522 
 1300 
 1176 
 
 1572 
 1693 
 1562 
 1233 
 
 1218 
 
KNI 
 
 369 
 
 KNO 
 
 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived a.d. 1772 
 
 Templars. See Templars . . . . 1118 
 Teste Morte, Wurtemburg . . . 1652 
 Teutonic, 1190 ; renewed in Prussia . . 1522 
 Thistle of Bourbon ... . 1370 
 
 Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived (see 
 
 Thistle) 1540 
 
 Trinitarians, Spain 1594 
 
 Truxillo, Spain 1227 
 
 United Ladies for the honour of the 
 
 Cross, in Germany .... 1666 
 
 Virgin Mary 1233 
 
 Virgin of Mount Carmel, Prance . . 1607 
 Warfare of Christ, Poland .... 1705 
 Warfare of Christ, Russia . . . 1325 
 Wing of St. Michael, Portugal . . . 1165 
 Wladimir, Russia 1682 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE, continued. 
 
 St. Michael, Prance . . . a.d. 1469 
 St. Michael, Germany .... 1618 
 
 St. Patrick, Ireland 17S3 
 
 St. Paul, Rome 1540 
 
 St. Peter, Rome 1520 
 
 St. Rupert, Germany, by the archbishop 
 
 of Saltzburg 1701 
 
 St. Sepulchre, Palestine .... 1092 
 St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, 
 
 grand-duke of Tuscany . . . 1561 
 
 St. Thomas of Aeon 1370 
 
 Saviour, Greece . . . June 1, 1833 
 
 Seraphims, Sweden 1334 
 
 Ship and Crescent, France . . . 1269 
 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of 
 
 Saxony . . . ' . . . . 1690 
 Slaves of Virtue, Germany . . . 1662 
 Sword, Cyprus 1195 
 
 KNIGHTS, FEMALE. The title of knight, which was given to men of superior worth, 
 ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to women also. As an 
 instance (the first we read of), it was conferred on the women who preserved the city 
 of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout resistance 
 to the vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the Moors were forced to raise 
 the siege. Large immunities and favours were granted to them and their descendants 
 for their heroism on this occasion. 
 
 KNIGHTS of GLYN and KERRY, in Ireland. The heads of two ancient families 
 in Ireland, named Fitzgerald, to whom are still permitted the distinctions bestowed 
 on their ancestors by the ancient sovereigns of their country ; these titles are of 
 remote date. The late knight of Kerry, the rt. hon. Maurice Fitzgerald, was a lord 
 of the treasury in 1827. 
 
 KNIGHTS of the ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur about a.d. 528 — 
 Asser's Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward III. at Windsor, 
 upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the recovery of France, which 
 descended to him in right of his mother, became anxious to draw the best soldiers 
 of Europe into his interest, and thereupon projecting and setting up king Arthur's 
 Round Table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and 
 courage to the exercise. He published his royal letters of protection for the safe 
 coming and return of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation 
 at those jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. 
 
 KNIGHTS of the SHIRE, or Knights of Parliament; chosen on the king's writ by 
 the freeholders of every county. They are said to have been first summoned by 
 Simon de Montfort. There are writs extant as far back as 11 Edward I. 1283. The 
 knights are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ prescribes. 
 
 KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. _ A religious and military order, instituted a.d. 1118. They 
 came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple in London ; and 
 at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights were arrested in France in 
 one day, being charged with great crimes, and possessing great riches; and several of 
 them were burnt alive at Paris in October, 1307. Those in England were all seized 
 the same year. Their order was abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the 
 council of Vienne in 1312 ; and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their 
 wealth being given to the knights of Malta. See Malta. 
 
 KNIVES. Knives were first made in England in 1563, and were the earliest branch of 
 domestic cutlery. They were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-bridge, 
 London, 5th Eliz. 1563. — Chamberlain's Present State of England, edit. 1683. See 
 article Forks. 
 
 KNOW-NOTHINGS. A political society which arose in 1853, in the United States of 
 North America. Their principles were embodied in the following propositions (at 
 New York, 1855) :— 
 
 1. The Americans shall rule America. 
 
 2. The Union of these States. 
 
 3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 
 
 4. The United States of America — as they are 
 
 — one and inseparable. 
 
 5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation 
 
 or the administration of American law. 
 
 6. Hostility to the assumptions of the Pope, 
 
 through the bishops, &c, in a republic 
 sanctified by protestant blood. 
 
 B B 
 
KOH 370 KUN 
 
 KXOW-NOTH1MGS, continue d. 
 
 7. Thorough reform in tbe naturalisation 
 
 laws. 
 
 8. Free and liberal educational institutions 
 
 for all sects and classes, with the Bible, 
 God's holy word, as a universal text- 
 book. 
 
 They then possessed several newspapers and had much political influence over the elec- 
 tions. They held secret meetings. A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to 
 the above, called Know-Somethings. Both these bodies are said to have been absorbed 
 into the two great parties of Democrats and Republicans at the presidential election 
 in Nov. 1856. 
 
 KOH-I-NOOR. The East-India Diamond, called, also, the " Mountain of Light." See 
 Diamonds. 
 
 KOLIN or KOLLIN, BATTLE of. In this battle, the renowned Austrian general 
 Daun gained a signal and memorable victory over Frederick the Great of Prussia, 
 June 18, 1757. Tue military order of Maria Theresa was instituted by the empress- 
 queen in commemoration of this great victory. Marshal Daun, the next year, obliged 
 the king of Prussia to raise the siege of Olmutz, and to retreat from Moravia. — Aspin. 
 
 KONIAH, BATTLE of. Fought on the plains of Koniah, formerly Iconium, between 
 the army of the sultan and that of the pacha of Egypt, in which, after a dreadful and 
 sanguiuai-y fight that continued all the day, the Turkish army was defeated, and the 
 grand-vizier liimself wounded and taken prisoner, Dec. 21, 1S33. 
 
 KONIGSTE1N TUN. This tun, one of the most capacious in the world, was built by 
 Frederick Augustus, king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 233,667 gallons 
 of wine ; and on the top. which was railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons 
 to regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard's holds eight hundred tuns. 
 See Heidelberg Tun. 
 
 KORAN, ok ALCORAN (AL KURAN) of MAHOMET. Written about a.d. 610. Its 
 general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry and the Jews and Christians in 
 the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under certain 
 laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the prophet. It was written 
 in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which certainly possesses every fine cpaality, 
 was said to be that of paradise. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to 
 him during a period of twenty-three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this 
 volume is beautiful, fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God 
 are described, it is sublime and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mission 
 both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading article of faith which this 
 impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, 
 namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. 
 The Koran was translated into Latin in 1143 ; and into English and other European 
 languages about 1763 et seq. It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sec- 
 tions. See Mecca ; Mahomctanism, die. 
 
 KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, when in the United States in 
 1850, declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, and went through the 
 preliminary forms. In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on June 21, he was seized by a 
 boat's crew from the Austrian brig Huzzar. Captain Ingraham, of the American 
 sloop St. Louis, demanded his release by direction of the American Minister at Con- 
 stantinople ; but having heard that the prisoner was to be clandestinely transferred 
 to Trieste, on July 2 he demanded his surrender by a certain time and prepared to 
 attack the Austrian. On August 1, the Austrian Government protested against these 
 proceedings in a circular addressed to the European courts, but eventually a compro- 
 mise was effected, and Koszta returned to the United States. 
 
 KOWNO, BATTLE of. Between the French and Russian armie?, in which the former 
 was defeated by the latter, with great slaughter, and the loss of upwards of 6000 
 prisoners and 21 pieces of cannon ; many thousands on both sides being slain ; fought 
 Dec. 14, 1812. 
 
 KRASNOI, BATTLE of. Between the French army under marshal Davoust, prince of 
 Eckmuhl, and the Russian army commanded by the celebrated warrior and priuce, 
 Kutusoff (who died in 1813). Davoust was entirely overthrown, and his army 
 wholly dispersed, leaving many thousands slain upon the field, Nov. 16, 1812. 
 
 KUNNERSDORF, ok CUNNERSDORF, BATTLE of. One of the most bloody on 
 record, fought between the Prussian and Russian armies; the king of Prussia, after a 
 
LAB 371 LAG 
 
 great slaughter of the enemy for upwards of six hours, had gained many advantages, 
 and had nearly accomplished victory, but too eager in pursuing the retreating 
 Russians, the latter rallied, and in the end the Prussians were defeated with the loss 
 of 20,000 men, and 200 pieces of cannon, Aug. 12, 1759. 
 
 L. 
 
 LABUAN. See Borneo. 
 
 LABUBNUM. This shrub, called also the Gold Chain and Cytisus Laburnum, was 
 brought to these countries from Hungary, Austria, &c. about a.d. 1576. — Ashe. 
 
 LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by Dsedalus, 
 in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B.C. ; the second in Egypt 
 in the isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, 683 B.C. ; the third at 
 Lernnos, and remarkable for its sumptuous pillars ; and the fourth in Italy, erected 
 by Porsenua, king of the Hetrurise, about 520 B.C. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the 
 labyrinth of Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, 
 with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. 
 The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of Fair 
 Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; see Rosamond. There is a curious Maze at 
 Hampton Court that is much visited. 
 
 LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in France and Flanders 
 in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills for the men, and head- 
 dresses for the women in the fifteenth century. Lace was general in the court 
 costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have 
 long been famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been 
 frequently sold for four pounds in London, and its value when manufactured has 
 been increased to forty pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 
 
 LACED^EMON. See Sparta. 
 
 LACTEAL VEIN'S. These were discovered by chance by Jasper Asellius of Cremona, 
 in opening a dog, 1627. They were discovered in birds, fish, and other animals, by 
 Mr. Hewson of London, about 1770, and subsequently by other eminent professional 
 men. In the human form the lacteal vessels convey the chyle. 
 
 LADIES. The masters and mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to 
 the poor weekly, with their own hands, certain quantities of bread, and were there- 
 fore called Lafords and Lef-days — signifying bread-givers, (from hlaf, a loaf) and the 
 words were at length shortened to Lords and Ladies. Tooke considers Lord to 
 siguify high-born. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of Louis XII. 
 of France in 1499. As a title of honour, the title of lady properly belongs only to 
 the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank. 
 
 L VDRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan in 1520 ; they are eleven in number. He 
 first touched at the island of Guam. Here, some of the natives having stolen some 
 of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, he named the islands the 
 Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are called to this day. 
 
 LADY-DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a.d. 350, according to 
 some authorities, and not before the seventh century according to others. On this 
 day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought to the Virgin Mary the message 
 concerning her son Jesus : hence it is called the Annunciation, and is celebrated in 
 the Roman Catholic Church as one of its feasts ; and in the Reformed Church also, 
 on account of the connection between the circumstance commemorated and the 
 Incarnation. In England, before the alteration of the style, our new year began on 
 the 25th of March ; and in some ecclesiastical computations, that order is still pre- 
 served ; particularly in reckoning the number of years from the incarnation of Our 
 Saviour. In Scotland, the 1st of January was ordered by proclamation (Nov. 27, 
 1599) to be the beginning of the year there, instead of the 25th of March. 
 
 LAGOS-BAY, Portugal. Off this bay was fought the battle between admiral Boscawen 
 and the French admiral De la Clue, who lost both legs in the engagement, and died 
 next day. The Centaur and Modeste, two capital ships, were taken, and two others 
 the Redoubtable and Ocean, run on shore and burnt : the scattered remains of the 
 French fleet got into Cadiz ; August 18, 1759. See Naval Batiks. 
 
 b b 2 
 
LAG 372 LAN- 
 
 LAGOS, in the Bight of Benin. This place was gallantly assaulted and taken by 
 tbe boats of a British squadron, under commodore Bruce, Dec. 26 and 27, 1851 ; the 
 Penelope, Bloodhound, Sampson, and Teazer were engaged ; the Teazer grounded on a 
 sand-bank within range of a heavy battery. Of 400 British, 16 were killed and 71 
 wounded ; the force of the enemy was estimated at between ten and twenty thousand. 
 This affair arose out of breaches of a treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. 
 
 LA HOGUE, BATTLE of. Between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
 admirals Russell and Rooke, and the Freuch fleet commanded by Admiral Tourville. 
 The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid victory, burniug 
 thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus 
 preventing a threatened descent upon England, May 19, 1692. 
 
 LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, and ONTARIO. These lakes were the scenes of many 
 actions between the British and Americans in the War of Independence, and in the war 
 of 1813-14. The latter were defeated by the British in several engagements; among 
 others, the provincial squadron was defeated by lord Howe, and the American geueral 
 Arnold was defeated by geueral Carletou, Oct. 11 and 13, 1776, and July 5, 1777. 
 The English fleet was all captured or destroyed by the Americans after a severe action, 
 Sept. 11, 1813; but on Lake Ontario the British at this period fought with success. 
 
 LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion of this palace was built in the 12th 
 and 13th centuries, by Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury. The chapel was 
 erected in 1196. — Northouch. The tower of the church was erected about 1375 ; 
 and other parts of the edifice in the 15th century. Dr. Sudbury, archbishop of 
 Canterbury, was barbarously put to death here by the followers of Wat Tyler, who 
 attacked the palace, burnt all the furniture and books, and destroyed all the registers 
 and public papers, June 14, 1381. Through the munificence and taste of the late 
 Dr. Howley, the domestic portion of the palace was greatly enlarged ; a new Gothic 
 wing of considerable beauty having been constructed from designs by Mr. Blore, at 
 an expense of 52,000£. — Leigh. 
 
 L AMMAS-DA Y. The first of August, one of our four cross quarter-days of the year, as 
 they are now denominated. Whitsuntide was formerly the first of these quarters, 
 Lammas the second, Martinmas the third, and Candlemas the last ; and such parti- 
 tion of the year was once equally common with the present divisions of Lady-day, 
 Midsummer, Michaelmas, and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each of 
 these quarterly daj's in England, and very generally in Scotland. Lammas is so named 
 because formerly upon that day our ancestors offered bread made of new wheat ; 
 and anciently those tenants that held lands of the cathedral church of York, were by 
 tenure to bring a lamb alive into the church at high mass. 
 
 LAMPS. See Lanttrns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages; they were in use 
 in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epictetus the philosopher 
 had in his study, sold after his death, for 3000 drachmas, a.d. 161. Lamps with 
 horn sides were the invention of Alfred. Lamps were in general use through the 
 streets of London up to the close of the 18th century, as were flambeaux, which were 
 carried by link-boys. Loudon streets were first lighted by oil lamps in 1681 ; and 
 with gas lamps in 1814. The domestic lamp is now of elegant niaimfacture ; of this 
 kind is the Argand-lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, and the Carcel 
 or Moderator lamp, within the last few years. Sir Humphrey Davy's wire-gauze 
 safety-lamp was perfected in 1817, after various previous experiments. The invention 
 of it was for giving light in explosive atmospheres : in the working models sent bv 
 him to the mines are 748 apertures to the square inch. See Safety Lamp. 
 
 LANCASTER. The castle was built by Agricola, a.d. 124. Lancaster was granted by 
 William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hill. Lancaster 
 was created a county palatine by Edward III. in favour of his son John of Gaunt, 
 who had married the daughter of Henry duke of Lancaster, in 1356. The court of 
 the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1356, and grew out of the grant 
 of Edward III. — Owyn. 
 
 L ANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual instruction 
 propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not much patronised till 
 about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general attention, notwithstanding 
 the prejudices that existed against the founder, who had been labouring to introduce 
 schools upon his economic plan from 1798. They became general in 1818, and there 
 
LAN 373 LAN 
 
 are now some hundreds of them in England, and in London more than forty. They 
 were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. 
 
 LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The 
 whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,0002. in 1600. It was about 14,000,0002. 
 in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on an estimate of 
 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, 
 and the profits of trade at 40 millions ; but in this estimate were exempted much land, 
 and the inferior class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom 
 has been recently estimated in parliament at 127 millions, but authorities vary.* 
 
 LAND-TAX. A species of land-tax was exacted in England in the tenth century, which 
 produced 82,0002. in 1018. See Davegelt. A land-tax was levied, in one shape or 
 another, at varicms periods. The tax under this name was imposed, 2 Will. & Mary, 
 1689-90. There was a tax of 4s. in the pound in 1692. From the Eevolution to the 
 year 1800, the land-tax had yielded 227,000,0002. Ministers were left in a minority 
 in the House of Commons on the land-tax bill of 1767 ; it being the first instance of 
 the kind on a money bill since the Revolution. Mr. Pitt introduced his plan for the 
 redemption of the land-tax, April 2, 1798. The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,3372.; 
 it produced in 1820 the sum of 1,338,4002. ; in 1830, it produced 1,423,61 82.; in 1840, 
 1,298,6222. ; and in 1850, l,c. 60,2642. 
 
 LANDEN, BATTLE op. Between the allies and French, in which William III. of 
 England commanded. Owing chiefly to the cowardice of the Dutch horse, this 
 bloody battle ended in favour of the French, who were commanded by marshal 
 Luxembourg, July 19, 1693. The duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James II. 
 who was fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner. 
 
 LANDGRAVE. This title is from land, and grave a count, a German title of dominion, 
 which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it became the title of the 
 house of Hesse-Cassel about the year 1300 ; and the rank was subsequently assumed 
 by the branches of Hesse-Homburg, Hesse-Philipstal, Hesse-Darmstadt, and by other 
 princes of the empire. See Hesse. 
 
 LANGSIDE, BATTLE of. Between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of 
 Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter suffered a complete 
 defeat, May 13, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal battle, the unfortunate Mary 
 fled to England. She crossed the Solway Firth from the abbey of Dundradon, and 
 landed at Workington, in Cumberland, on May 16. Soon afterwards she was 
 imprisoned by Elizabeth. 
 
 LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from heaven, or it 
 is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, 
 Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former opinion by the great 
 majority of the Jews and Christians, and the profoundest philosophers of France and 
 England. It has been affirmed that Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam ; but 
 others deny this, and say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only dialects of 
 the original, long lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring to know 
 the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two children to be kept 
 from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they were two years old ; they were 
 then brought into his presence, and they both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoe- 
 nician term for bread. He therefore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of 
 antiquity, to all other nations, 647 B.C. — Herodotus, 
 
 LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. The original 
 
 * The experiment tried by a patriotic and benevolent nobleman, lord Braybrooke, in Essex, of 
 allotting small portions of land to poor families, with, a view to assist their industry and relieve parishes 
 of the burden of poor rates, was very successfully adopted in 1819 ; when the parish officers took a 
 piece of land consisting of twelve acres, which they divided into twenty equal parts, and sub-let to as 
 many poor villagers receiving parochial relief, at a rent of 2s. a week each. The selection was made of 
 paupers of good character, with the largest families ; and fifteen or sixteen of them were enabled in a 
 few years to build cottages by their own exertions, aided by benevolent persons who had marked their 
 orderly conduct and efforts to become independent. By the culture of fruit and vegetables for the 
 market, many of them realised 20i. a year ; most became owners of cows and pigs, and, in the end, all 
 of them had comfortable homes ; while their children, instead of being abandoned to ignorance, and 
 perhaps crime, were morally benefited by the improved condition of their parents. This little colony, 
 whose locality was first called Pauper Gardens, but afterwards New Village, lest the former name should 
 hurt the feelings of the tenants, or check their spirit of independence, was planted on the road near the 
 entrance of the town, and it is calculated that 200J. per annum were saved to the parish by a system 
 which, from such happy and prosperous results in this instance, invites a more extensive and general 
 adoption. 
 
LAN 374 LAT 
 
 European cues were thirteen, viz. : Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, spoken in the 
 east ; Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, A lbanian, in the mountains of Epii us ; 
 Tartarian, the old lllyrian, the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the Chauciu, in 
 the north of Hungary; and the Finnic in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother 
 tongue of Africa. From the Latin sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish; and from 
 the Spanish the Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 
 From the High Dutch, or Teutonic, sprang the present German, the Danish, Swedish, 
 Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. There are 3661 known languages in the world. Of 
 these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages 
 and dialects. — Professor Addling. 
 LANGUAGES, PROFESSORS of. Regius professors of modern languages and of 
 history were appointed to each of the universities of England (a department which 
 had been previously most strangely and imprudently overlooked, although such 
 professors had been long before appointed in all other universities of Europe) by 
 George I. in 1724 ; and George II. in 1736. The professorships of modern languages 
 are now general in all our collegiate institutions. 
 
 LANTERNS. Iu general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn were 
 invt-nted in England, it is said, by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn was used for 
 window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, a.d. 872-901. — Stow's 
 Chron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, with glass sides, a.d. 1415. The 
 pellucid laminae of the ox horn has served for ages for the side3 of lanterns instead 
 of glass, and for many uses are preferred. See article Lamps. 
 
 LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, one of the triumphs of 
 Grecian sculpture, was modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of 
 Rhodes, and of great eminence as statuaries ; it represents the death of the Trojan 
 hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, and his two sons, as described by Virgil, iEneis, 
 book II. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette Sale near Rome, and purchased by 
 pope Julius II. It is now in the Vatican. 
 
 LAON, BATTLE of, in France. Between the allies, chiefly the Prussian army, and 
 the French. This battle, or rather succession of actions, was fought under the walls 
 of the town, and ended, after a sanguinary and obstinate contest, iu the defeat of the 
 latter with great loss, March 9, 1814. 
 
 LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed from 
 France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command. The last 
 direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, in March, 1788. Several 
 expeditions were subsequently despatched in search of Perouse, but no certain infor- 
 mation was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, ascertained that 
 the French ships had been cast away on two different islands of the Neve Hebrides — 
 a fate authenticated by various articles of the wreck of the vessels, which captain 
 Dillon brought with him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 
 
 LA ROTHIERE, BATTLE of. Between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and 
 the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated after a desperate engagement, 
 with the loss of some thousands slain, 3000 prisoners, and 30 pieces of caunon, Feb.. 1, 
 1814. This was one of the last victories which Napoleon achieved. 
 
 LATERAN, COUNCILS of the. They were held in the Basilica of the Lateran at 
 Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right of investitures was 
 settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V. 1122; by the second 
 council was secured the temporalities of ecclesiastics, 1139; the third was to denounce 
 schismatics, 1179; the fourth, on church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and 1000 
 abbots; and the fifth was the famous council of Julius II. 1512. 
 
 LATHE. An instrument or engine for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, 
 so as to shape them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
 construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny 
 ascribes the invention to Theodore of Samos. Modern lathe engines frequently cost 
 many thousands of pounds. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and from 
 which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the Latini, and the 
 Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most beautiful and expressive 
 words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken in Italy about a.d. 581 ; 
 and was first taught in England by Adelnius, brother of Ina, in the seventh century. 
 
LAT 375 LAV 
 
 During six or seven hundred years the Latin tongue prevailed in all public proceedings 
 from the Tweed to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has 
 been more or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be dis- 
 continued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 
 
 L A.TITAT. The writ by which persons are usually called to the King's Bench court ; 
 and it has this name from its being supposed that the defendant is lurking, or lying 
 hid, and cannot be found in the county to be taken by bill, and the writ is directed 
 to the sheriff to apprehend him. This process of law is of old and undefined date. — 
 Cowel, The writ was abolished in England, in all actions where it is not intended to 
 hold the defendant to special bail, by the Uniformity of Process act, 2 Will. IV. 
 cap. 39, passed May 23, 1832. 
 
 LATITUDE. First determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 B.C. It is the extent 
 of the earth, or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to either pole. Maupertuis, 
 in latitude 66 - 20, measured a degree of latitude, and made it 69'493; he measured it 
 in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 69 - 292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers 
 made it 68"732 ; and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 6L743. Mudge, in England, 
 made it 69i48. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69-12; andBiot, 68-769; 
 while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68 - 63 — less than at the equator, and con- 
 tradicts all others, proving the earth to be a prolate spheroid, which was the opinion 
 of Cassini, Bernoulli, Euler, and others, while it has more generally been regarded a3 
 an oblate spheroid. 
 
 LATIUM. Now the city of Romania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, who gave his 
 name to the country, calling his subjects Latins, 904 B.C. Laurentum was the capital 
 of the country in the reign of Latinus, Laviniuni under iEneas, and Alba under 
 Ascanius. The Latins, though originally known only among their neighbours, soon 
 rose in rank when Romulus had founded the city of Rome in their country. 
 
 LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormonites. 
 
 LAUREATE. The precise date of this office cannot be traced. — Selden. There existed 
 the king's versifier in the reign of Henry III. 1251, when we have the first record of 
 him, with the annual stipend of 100 shillings. — Warton. In Edward the IVth's time, 
 the king's poet was first so called, and the laureate still continues to be the title of 
 his successors. — Pope. It is said that the office of laureate exists in England alone. 
 The abolition of it was strenuously recommended by Gibbon. See Poet Laureate. 
 
 LAUREL. It was saci-ed to Apollo, and from the earliest times the poets and generals 
 of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. Apollo being the god of poetry, 
 led to its use among the poets ; and the Roman victors sent home their accounts of 
 successful enterprises to the senate, wrapped up in the leaves of this tree. Petrarch 
 was crowned with laurel, April 8, 1341. The laurel called Primus laurocerasus was 
 brought to Britain from the Levant, before a.d. 1529. The Portugal laurel was 
 brought from that country, and is known as the Primus lusitanica, before 1648. The 
 royal bay, Laurus indica, was brought from Madeira, in 1665. The Alexandrian 
 laurel, Ruscus racemosus, was brought from Spain before 1713. The glaucous laurel, 
 Lav.rus aggregata, was brought hither from China, in 1806. 
 
 L AURENTALIA. These were festivals celebrated at Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia. 
 They commenced about 621 B.C., and were held on the last day of April and the 
 23rd of December. They in process of time extended to other places, and ultimately 
 they formed part of the Saturnalia. — Ovid. 
 
 LAURESTINE, Viburnum Tinus. The evergreen shrub which blooms about Michaelmas, 
 and holds its flowers and foliage through the winter. It was brought to England from 
 the south of Europe, before 1596. There are other varieties of this shrub, which is 
 now a favourite culture in these countries. 
 
 LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lavalette's escape from prison in France affords a 
 striking instance and memorable record of British humanity and courage. He was 
 condemned at Paris for high treason, but escaped from prison in the clothes of his 
 wife : their dresses being changed on the eve of the execution, during an interview 
 afforded them for a last farewell, Dec. 20, 1815. In this generous enterprise three 
 Britons assisted, sir Robert Wilson, Michael Bruce, esq., and captain J. H. Hutchinson, 
 who were convicted of aiding the escape, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment 
 in the French capital, April 24, 1816. These gentlemen procured for Lavalette the 
 uniform of a general officer in the British service ; he then got into a cabriolet with 
 
LAV 376 LAY 
 
 sir Robert Wilson, passed the barriers without being recognised, and arrived at Mons, 
 where his generous guide took have of him. He then took the road to Munich, 
 where he found an asylum among powerful friends. 
 LA VENDEE, WAR op. The French Royalists of La Vendee took to arms, and wore 
 successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the Republican armies, between 
 July 12, 1793, and Jan. 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Numerous 
 other engagements were fought, with various success, until this war terminated, 
 Jan. 10, 1800. 
 
 LAVENDER, Lavandula spica. Brought from the south of Europe, before 1563. 
 
 LAW AMENDMENT SOCIETY, was founded in 1843. It holds meetings during the 
 session of Parliament, and publishes a journal and reports. Its present chairman is 
 Lord Brougham, 1857. 
 
 LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The projector, 
 John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller-general of the 
 finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, and an East 
 India and a Mississippi company, by the profits of which the national debt of Fiance 
 was to be paid off. He first offered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, 
 who told him ho was not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry 
 accepted it in 1710; and in 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the 
 protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of France ; and most of the people of 
 property of every rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, 
 subscribed for shares both in the bank and the companies. In 1718, Law's was 
 declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original 
 value, so that, in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all 
 the current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false credit 
 fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, ruining tens of 
 thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same desperate game was played by 
 the South Sea Directors in England, in the same fatal year, 1720. 
 
 LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 B.C., were 
 the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athenians, 623 B.C., but 
 the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of Solon, 578 B.C. The Spartan 
 laws of Lycurgus were made 844 B.C.; they remained in full force for 700 years, and 
 are calculated to raise our admiration, as well by their singularity, as by the effect 
 they had in forming a race of men totally different from all others living in civilised 
 society. The Roman laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The Gregorian and 
 Hermoginian codes were published in a.d. 290. The Theodosian code, in 435. The 
 Justinian code, in 529, and the Digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Law. 
 
 LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earlie.-t date were translated into the Saxon, in 
 a.d. 590. The Saxon Laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's code of laws, 
 which is the foundation of the common law of England, was compiled in 887, but in use 
 previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter 
 of general liberties, 1136; Henry II's confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The mari- 
 time laws of Richard I. 1194. See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. 
 Its confirmation by Henry III. 1216 et scq. See Magna Charta, and Forests, Charter' 
 of the. Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the king's bench, 
 " That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the fact, as 
 to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. 
 
 LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been first 
 appointed by Edward I., or in his reign, 1291. Serjeants, the highest members of 
 the bar, were alone permitted to plead in the court of Common Pleas. The first king's 
 counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, in 1604. There are about 
 1200 barristers in England; and the number of lawyers in Eugland and Wales, 
 counting London and country attorneys, solicitors, &c, is about 14,000. The Law 
 Association charity was founded in 1817. The Law Institution was formed in 1825 ; 
 and obtained a charter, Feb. 16, 1827; the building, from the designs of Vulliamy, 
 was commenced in 1829. See Barristers, Counsel, and the several Courts of Law. 
 
 LAYBACH, CONGRESS of. This congress was attended for some time by the sove- 
 reigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and finally broke up after having issued two 
 circulars, stating it to be their resolution to occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and 
 proscribing popular insurrections, May 6, 1821. 
 
LAY 377 LEG 
 
 LAYER'S CONSPIRACY". Mr. Layer, a barrister, conspired with a number of other 
 persons to seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, and most of the prin- 
 cipal officers of state, to take the Tower by surprise, to plunder the Bank, and finally 
 to bring in the Pretender. He was hanged, March 17, 1722! 
 
 LEAD. Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in 
 some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydesdale mines were dis- 
 covered in 1513. The lead-mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 
 tons^jer annum. The finest sort of black-lead, that most fit for pencils, is produced 
 only at Borrowdale, but there in great quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance 
 of water were brought into use in 1236. 
 
 LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good was one 
 between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other princes, against 
 Louis XI. of France, in 1464; The League of Cambray was entered, into in 1508. 
 The Holy League against Louis XII., 1610. The League of Smalcald, 1529. The 
 League of the Beggars (the Protestants so called, though Roman Catholics joined the 
 league) to oppose the institution of the Inquisition in Fianders, 1560. The League, 
 so denominated by way of eminence, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of 
 France, who was then of the reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League 
 of Wurtzburg, 1610. League against the Emperor, 1626. Solemn League and 
 Covenant in Scotland, against the episcopal government of the Church, and the regal 
 authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 16S6. 
 
 LEAP-YEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astronomers of 
 Julius Csesar, 45 B.C. They fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, comprising, as 
 they thought, the period from one vernal equinox to another; the six hours were 
 set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the fourth year was. made to 
 consist of 366 days. The day thus added was called intercalary, and was placed a day 
 before the 24th of February, the sixth of the calends, which was reckoned twice, hence 
 called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day with us is Feb. 29th. See Calendar. 
 The difference between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 
 seconds, and 6 decimals, which last is the true'length of the astronomical year, in the 
 course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 be a leap- 
 year (vide act 24 Geo. II. c. 23, passed 1751) ; but the year 2000 will be one. See 
 Julian Tear, Gregorian Calendar, &c. 
 
 LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the Greeks 
 during the fourth century B.C. ; and with the Romans at the commencement of the 
 Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined, until the refugees from 
 Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about A.D. 1250. Learning had been found so 
 to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, that mathematicians and philosophers were 
 by several decrees banished from Rome, A.D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark nges, 
 came Brunetto, Latini, and numerous enlightened men; and Leo X., about 1513, 
 gave vast encouragement to literature and the arts. The illustrious Medici family (see 
 Medici Family) greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. — Fontana. And about 
 this time literature began to flourish in France, Germany, and England. The reign 
 of Anne has been called by some our "golden,'' by others our "Augustan age" of 
 literature ; it produced many of our greatest and most learned men. 
 
 LEASE. This kind of conveyance was invented by serjeant Moore, soon after the 
 Statute of Uses, which law was enacted 27 Hen. VIII., 1535. A question at law, 
 which had been held doubtful by the lawyers for 200 years, was determined by the 
 Court of King's Bench, who agreed that the words in a lease, of and from, the date, 
 and from the date, had the same meaning, Nov. 21, 1777. — Phillips. 
 
 LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manu- 
 factured hides wei'e used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient nations. The Gordian 
 knot was made of leather thongs, 330 B.C. The ancients understood the art of 
 tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, and great improvements made 
 in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into many uses : a leathern cannon was 
 proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1778. — Phillips. 
 The duty on leather produced annually in England, 450,000?., and in Ireland, about 
 50,000?. It was abolished in both countries, May 29, 1830. 
 
 LECTURES. Those on physic were instituted by Dr. Thomas Linacre, the projector of 
 the College of Physicians (founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. — Freind's Hist, of 
 Physic. Medical and other lectures became general in private theatres, in different 
 
LEE 378 LEI 
 
 parts of the realm shortly after, and are now held in the theatres of most of the 
 hospitals and medical schools. Clinical lectures or discourses made by the bedside 
 of the patient, combining practice with the theory of physic, were commenced about 
 the same period, and have materially advanced this branch of human knowledge. 
 Moral, divinity, and other lectures have since become general in colleges, churches, 
 and public halls. See Gresham College, Boyle's Lectures, Royal and London Institutions, 
 &c. Among the most remarkable political lectures were those of the celebrated 
 Thelwall, which were commenced in January, 1795. See Thelwall. The lectures of 
 Mr. Thelwall continued to draw prodigious audiences, till they were interdicted by 
 an act of parliament, passed avowedly for the purpose. — Phillips. 
 
 LEEKS. The Welsh emblem of the leek is in consequence of a command from Dewi, or 
 David, afterwards canonised archbishop of St. David's, in the year 519. This prelate 
 on the day that king Arthur won a great victory over the Saxons, ordered every one 
 of his soldiers to place a leek in his cap, for the sake of distinction; in memory of 
 which the Welsh wear the leek on the 1st of March. 
 
 LEGACIES. The bequests or gifts made by a last will and testament, were taxed by 
 parliament iu 1780. The impost was increased several times subsequently, parti- 
 cularly in 1796, 1805, and 1808. The revenue derived from it varies considerably in 
 amount in consecutive years ; but it may be said to average about one and a half to 
 two millions annually. See Succession Duty Act. 
 
 LEGATE, COURT of the. This was an ecclesiastical court in England. It was erected 
 by cardinal Wolsey, to prove wills and other testamentary documents, and for the 
 trial of offences against the spiritual laws, founded 8 Hen. VIII. 1516. — Law Diet. 
 It was discontinued in the same reign. 
 
 LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. It was 
 entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 27, 1796, but the immense 
 amouut of British property then there had been previously removed. Leghorn was 
 evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retakeu the following year. It was unsuc- 
 cessfully attacked by the British and Italian allied forces in Dec. 1813. The Austrians 
 attacked and took this city iu the late war, May 12 and 13, 1819. A slight insurrection 
 here was quelled July, 1857. 
 
 LEGION. The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first formed 
 by Romulus, under whom it consisted of 3000 foot, and 300 horse, about 750 B.C. 
 When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion consisted of 5000 soldiers; and 
 under Marius, in 88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers, besides 700 horses. There were ten, 
 and sometimes as many as eighteen, legions kept at Rome. Augustus maintained 
 a standing army of twenty-five legions, about 5 B.C. ; and the peace establishment of 
 Adrian was thirty of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected 
 by three legions. A legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 
 6 centuries, with a vexillum, or standard, guarded by 10 men. 
 
 LEGION of HONOUR. An order in France, embracing all distinctions in the army, and 
 including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such individuals as have eminently 
 distinguished themselves for services to the state, military deeds, and for pubic 
 virtue; instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when First Consul, May 18, 1802. On 
 the restoration of the Bourbon family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, in April, 
 1814. The honour was conferred on many British subjects connected with the Paris 
 Exhibition in 1855, and on others who distinguished themselves in the Russian 
 war, 1854-6. 
 
 LEIGHLIN, SEE of. Founded by St. Laserian, about a.d. 628. Burchard, the Nor- 
 wegian, the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory of St. Stephen of Leighlin. 
 Bishop Doran, a worthy prelate, appointed in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, 
 Maurice Cavenagh, who was hanged for the crime on the spot where he had committed 
 the murder.— Beutson. In 1600 Leighlin was united to Ferns; the combined see 
 united to Ossory, in 1835. See Ferns, and Bishops. 
 
 LEINSTER. One of the four provinces of Ireland, ecclesiastically divided by pope 
 Eugenius III., at a national synod, held at Kells, March 9, 1151-2, and in which his 
 holiness was represented by cardinal Paparo. This cardinal at the same time con- 
 stituted the four archbishoprics. The province of Leinster gave the title of duke to 
 Schomberg's sou, in 1690 ; the title became extinct in 1719 ; and it was conferred on 
 the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 
 
 LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Custavus Adolphus, king of 
 
LEI 379 LEV 
 
 Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept. 7, 1631. The siege of Leipsic was sustained 
 in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In the same year, the 
 Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it two years afterwards, though 
 they did not retain it long. In the late wars it has frequently fallen into adverse 
 hands. See next article. 
 LEIPSIC, BATTLE of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of modern 
 times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the one side, and the 
 Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other; the former 160,000, aud the 
 latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost by the French, chiefly owing to 
 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, turning upon them in the heat of the 
 engagement. 80,000 men perished in the field, of whom more than 40,000 were 
 French, who also lost 65 pieces of artillery, and many standards. The victory of 
 the allies was followed by the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of 
 the French army. The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; 
 and the emperors of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of 
 Sweden, entered Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 
 LE MURES. The manes of the dead. The ancients supposed that the soul, after death, 
 wandered all over the world, and disturbed the peace of the living. The good spirits 
 were called Lares familiares, and the evil spirits, Lemures ; they terrified the good, 
 and haunted the wicked, and the Romans celebrated festivals in their honour, called 
 Lemuralia, in the month of May; instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C. — Hoi-ace. 
 LENT. The quadragesimal fast observed in the Roman Catholic Church, from Ash- 
 Wednesday to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institution. The primitive 
 Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday which is now called the first 
 Sunday of Lent ; and the four days beginning with Ash- Wednesday were added by 
 pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting days should 
 amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercombert, 
 king of Kent, in 640 or 641. — Baker's Chron. Flesh was prohibited early during 
 Lent ; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of white meats by proclamation in 1543, and 
 it continued in force until, by proclamations of James I. in 1619 and 1625, and by 
 Charles I. in 1627 and 1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden. See Quadragesima. 
 LEPANTO, BATTLE of. The great naval engagement between the combined fleets of 
 Spain, Venice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the Turks. Don John 
 of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted of 206 galleys, and 30,000 
 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys, of which, after a dreadful conflict, they saved 
 but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed and prisoners; and thus was prostrated for a 
 time the naval power of Turkey, Oct. 7, 1571. — Voltaire. 
 LETTERS. See Alphabet, and Bdles Leltres. 
 
 LETTERS of MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued in England 
 by Edward I., for the seizure of the enemy's vessels, and for reprisal and retaliation 
 upon the enemy on the sea. — Bymer's Fceclera. They were first granted in 1295. — 
 Baker's Chron. They were usually granted in time of war to private armed ships, and 
 did great mischief to the commerce of belligerent nations. They are now dis- 
 continued. — See Privateering. 
 LETTRES de CACHET, were sealed letters from the king of France by virtue of which 
 those persons against whom they were directed, were arbitrarily thrown into prison, 
 or sent into exile. They were a grievous abuse in the reign of Louis XV. One of 
 the earliest acts of the National Assembly was to decree their abolition, Nov. 1, 1789. 
 LETTUCE. Introduced into England from Flanders, in 1520. A salad was a rare treat 
 in Henry the VIHth's reign ; in the earlier part of which, when queen Catherine, this 
 king's first consort, wished for a salad, she despatched a messenger for lettuce to 
 Holland or Flanders. See article Gardening. 
 LEUCTRA, BATTLE of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought at the 
 village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, under Epami- 
 nondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, the victory being with 
 the former. In this battle, 4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain, and not more 
 than 300 Thebans; July 8, 371 B.C. From this day, the Spartans lost their pre- 
 ponderance in Greece, which they had maintained for about 5130 years, and it passed 
 to the Thebans. — Plutarch. 
 LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all things to a 
 level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of this kind. The most 
 
LEV 380 LIB 
 
 extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck were the chiefs. These two 
 began by pulling down all the images in the churches which Luther had left standing ; 
 and then, finding an army in their followers, they became levellers, and Muncer 
 openly taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. 
 At the head of 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes of Germany, and to the 
 magistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce these 
 principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the country. The land- 
 grave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in battle, and the 
 rest, with their leader, fled; he was taken, and beheaded at Mulhausen, in 1525. — 
 Nouv. Diet. Hint. At the period of the French Revolution some knots of persons, 
 styled levellers, appeared in England. An association was formed against them and 
 republicans, by Mr. John Reeves, Nov. 6, 1792 ; and similar conservative associations 
 spread for a similar purpose, with much benefit through the kingdom. — Phillijs. 
 
 LEVERIAN MUSEUM. The magnificent collection of sir Ashton Lever, exhibited 
 to the public at Leicester-house, London. It was offered to the public by the chance 
 of a guinea lottery, in 1785; but only 8000 tickets out of 36,000 were sold; and 
 this almost unparalleled collection came into the possession of the holder of two 
 tickets, Mr. Parkinson, by whom it was in the end sold by auction, in lots, Sept. 20, 
 et scq. 1806. 
 
 LEVITES. Of the tribe of Levi. One born to the priestly office among the Jews. — 
 Ayliffe. The third book of the Old Testameut is called Leviticus, because it contains 
 the laws relating to the priests, the Levites, and sacrifices : it is supposed to be 
 written by Moses, about the year of the world 2514, or before Our Saviour 1490. 
 
 LEWES, BATTLE of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, earl of 
 Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this battle the royal 
 army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard, king of the Romans, his 
 son and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division 
 of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince 
 Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. Montfort 
 used his power so despotically as to be the cause of his own destruction. See Evesham. 
 
 LEXINGTON, BATTLE of. This battle claims distinction, as being the first fought 
 between Great Britain and the United States of America, in the war of independence. 
 The British obtained the advantage, and destroyed the stores of the revolted colonists, 
 but they lost in the battle 273 men, killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. The hostilities 
 thus commenced continued to 1783. See United States. 
 
 LEYDEN, SIEGE of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, and 
 during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a.D. 1574. In 
 commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, celebrated for its 
 colleges and medicinal garden and valuable library, 1575. In 1699 two-thirds of the 
 population perished by a fever, which, it is said, was aggravated by the improper 
 treatment of professor De la Boe. The university was almost destroyed by a vessel 
 laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large part 
 of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 
 
 LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XII. Tables), libels which affected the repu- 
 tation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders 
 a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed 
 a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxim of 
 a high authority, is now disputed. Among the most remarkable cases of libel were 
 viz. : lord George Gordon's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced 
 to imprisonment for five years, and fined 500/., Jan. 28, 1788. Dr. Wither's libel on 
 Mrs. Fitzherbert, July 14, 1789. The Times' libel on the prince of Wales, afterwards 
 George IV., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post's libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 
 4000/., July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Ambiyu, of which 
 he was found guilty, Feb. 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, 
 punishing the offender by banishment for the second offence, 60 Geo. III. 1820.* 
 
 * An action for libel was brought in the Court of King's Bench by a bookseller, named Stockdale, 
 against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the House of Commons. This action related to an opinion 
 expressed in a parliamentary Report of a book published by Stockdale. Lord Denman, in giving 
 judgment, said he was not aware that the authority of the House of Commons could justify the publi- 
 cation of a libel, — an opinion which led to some proceedings on the part of the House, and to other 
 actions by Stockdale ; and in the session of 1840 (April 14) a law was passed giving summary protection 
 to persons employed by parliament in the publication of its reports and papers. 
 
LIB 381 LIB 
 
 Lord Campbell's act, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), greatly softened the stringency of the 
 law of libel respecting newspapers. 
 
 LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads were persons 
 named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever was done by men was 
 done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no sin but to those who thought so ; 
 that to live without any doubt or scruple was to return to the state of innocency ; 
 that the soul died with the body ; that heaven was a dream and hell a phantom ; 
 religion a mere state trick ; with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in 
 a.d. 1525; and the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 
 
 LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in history 
 was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 B.C. The second of any note was founded 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially destroyed when Julius Caesar set 
 fire to Alexandria, 47 B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost 
 by this catastrophe. — Blair. According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
 tained 200,000. It came into the possession of the Romans at the death of Attalus III. 
 (B.C. 133), who bequeathed his kingdom and wealth to the Roman people. It was 
 added to that of Alexandria by Marc Antony. The first private library was the 
 property of Aristotle, 334 B.C. — Strabo. The first library at Rome was instituted 
 167 B.C.; it was brought from Macedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to 
 Rome by Sylla, from Athens, 86 B.C. This library was enriched by the original 
 manuscripts of Aristotle's works. A library was founded at Constantinople by 
 Constantine the Great, about a.d. 335; it was destroyed in 477. A second library 
 was formed from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, 
 consisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens, who heated 
 the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead of wood, by 
 command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642.* Pope Gregory I. ordered that 
 the library of the Palatine Apollo should be committed to the flames, under the 
 notion of confining the clergy to the attention of the Scriptures. The early Chinese 
 literature is said to have suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in the 
 destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Che-whang-tee, ordered all 
 writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as from his reign ; and books 
 and records were afterwards recovered by succeeding emperors with great difficulty. 
 
 LIBRARIES of EUROPE. The first public library in Italy was founded at Florence 
 by Nicholas Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning. At his death, he left 
 his library to the public, a.d. 1436. Cosmo de' Medici enriched it, after the death of 
 Niccoli, with the invaluable Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian MSS. 
 Among the great libraries of Europe are the following : — That of the Vatican, at 
 Rome, founded by pope Nicholas V. in 1446, and improved by Sixtus V., 1588; it 
 contains 150,000 volumes and 40,000 manuscripts. The Imperial Library of Vienna 
 founded by Frederick III. in 1440, and by Maximilian I., 1500. The Royal (now 
 Imperial) Library of Paris, by John (1350-1363), and by Francis I. about 1520; it 
 contains 815,000 volumes and 84,000 manuscripts. The Escurial at Madrid, com- 
 menced with the foundation of that sumptuous palace, by Philip II. in 1557. The 
 Library of Florence, by Cosmo de' Medici, 1560, of great value in illustrated and 
 illuminated works. The Library of the University of Munich is said to contain 
 400,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts; and that of Gottingen, 300,000 volumes 
 and 6000 manuscripts. The Imperial Library at St. Petersburg was founded in 1714, 
 but consists principally of the spoils of Poland. 
 
 LIBRARIES in GREAT BRITAIN. Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer 
 of England, so early as 1341, raised the first private library in Europe. He purchased 
 thirty or forty volumes of the abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of silver. 
 Our national libraries are of great number and extent ; the following are among the 
 principal: — The Bodleian, at Oxford, founded 40 Eliz. 1598; opened in 1602: this 
 library contains nearly 400,000 volumes, and upwards of 30,000 manuscripts. The 
 Cottonian Library, founded by sir Robert Cotton, about 1600; appropriated to the 
 public, 13 Will. III. 1701; partly destroyed by fire, 1731; removed to the British 
 Museum, 1753. The Royal Society in 1667. The Radcliffeian, at Oxford, founded 
 by the will of Dr. Radcliffe, who left 40.000Z. to the university, 1714; opened, 1749. 
 The Library at Cambridge, 1720, when George I. gave 5000/. to purchase Dr. Moore's 
 collection. The fine library of George III. presented to the nation by George IV. 
 
 * This statement has been disputed. Theophilus, Abp. of Alexandria, is said to have destroyed 
 many books when he demolished the temple of Serapis, 250 years previously. 
 
LIB 382 LIF 
 
 in 1823. The Library of the Royal Institution, in 1803: anew classified catalogue 
 (the third) was published in 1857. That of the London Institution (1805), of Sion 
 College, &c, and the great library of the British Museum, containing above 500,000 
 volumes and 100,000 manuscripts, including the Cottoniau, the Harleian, and other 
 collections, which see. The Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
 Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are among the most extensive and valuable 
 in these countries.* 
 LIBRARIES, FREE, have been successfully established during the last few years at 
 Manchester, Liverpool, Salford, &c. Many others are being formed under 8 & 9 Vict, 
 c. 43 (1845), and 13 & 14 Vict. c. 65 (1850), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 20 (1856)t. 
 
 LICENCES. This mode of levying money on the subject was introduced in the reign 
 of our first Richard, about the year 1190; but it was then confined to such of the 
 nobility as desired to enter the lists at tilts and tournaments, who were many at this 
 time. — Sinclair's Hut. of the Brit. Revenue. Licences for public-houses were first 
 grauted in 1551. Games and gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Tlie 
 licence system for various exciseable articles wa? enforced iu various reigu3, from the 
 12th Charles II. 1660, and has been productive of much good. A remarkable 
 restraining effect of licences was this : that the act which obliged lottery office- 
 keepers to take out licences, and pay 50Z. for each, at once reduced the number of 
 these offices from 400 to 51, Aug. 1778. — Phillips. 
 
 LICHFIELD, BISHOPRIC of. This bishopric has now, instead of its former double 
 name of Lichfield and Coventry, the name of Lichfield only. The see was founded 
 in a.d. 656. In the time of pope Adrian, it had become so extremely wealthy, that 
 it was constituted archiepiscopal. In 1075 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102 
 it was removed to Coventry ; and afterwards back to Lichfield, but with much oppo- 
 sition from the monks of Coventry (see Coventry). Dr. Samuel Butler, in 1840, was 
 the first bishop of Lichfield only. This see has given three saints to the Romish 
 Church; and to the British nation one lord chancellor and three lord treasurers. 
 It is valued in the king's books at 559J. ISs. 2cZ. Lichfield cathedral was first built 
 in 656 a.d. The present structure was built by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bishop, 
 in 1148.J In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his sumptuous Christmas 
 festival, 1397, when were consumed 200 tuns of wine, and 2000 oxen. A charter 
 was granted to Lichfield, constituting it a city, by Edward VI. 1549. 
 
 LICINIA LEX. Forbade any person to possess more than 500 acres of land, or more 
 than 100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, iu the Roman states; aud another law 
 of this name imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or societies assembled for 
 election purposes. A third law, limiting the expenses of the table, and the quantity 
 of animal food, but not forbidding fruits, was enacted 110 B.C. 
 
 LIEGE. " The paradise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of women." Formerly 
 so called on account of the number of its churches and convents. Taken by the 
 English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702; and by the French and other 
 powers, at various times, up to 1796. when it was annexed to France. Liege was 
 incorporated with the Netherlands, in 1814. 
 
 LIEUTENANTS, see Lord Lieutenant. 
 
 LIFE-BOAT. A patent was granted to Mr. Lukin for a life-boat in 1785; and in 1788 a 
 reward was offered by a committee of gentlemen in South Shields for a more perfect 
 model, which was obtained by Mr. Henry Greathead of that town, in 1789. It was 
 first put to sea, January 30, 1790 ; and Mr. Greathead received 1200/. from parliament, 
 for this great means of saving life iu cases of shipwreck. Thirty-one boats were built, 
 and 300 lives saved up to 1 804. Several contrivances have been since brought forward, 
 and in 1850 the duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 105Z. for a life-boat 
 fulfilling certain conditions. The prize was obtained by Mr. James Beeching, of 
 
 * In 1600 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a copy of every book published to the Bodleian 
 Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II., c. 33(1662), three copies were required to bo given to certain 
 public libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 10 (1700), the number was increased to nine; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, to 
 eleven ; which was reduced to five by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 110 (1S30). 
 
 t On Nov. 5, 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Library in the city of London was negatived, and 
 iu 1*57 that in Marylebone was closed for want of support 
 
 { Walter de Langton (bishop in 1296) built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the choir, and 
 under bishop Hey worth (14i0) the cathedral was perfected. The building was despoiled at the Reform- 
 ation, and was scandalously injured in the parliamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculptures, 
 and beautifully painted windows were demolished); but it was repaired at the restoration, and again 
 thoroughly in 17S8. 
 
LIF 383 LIG 
 
 Yarmouth, in 1851 ; but his boats have not been found completely efficacious. The 
 tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson was patented Jan. 1852, in which year a cruise 
 was made by him from Liverpool to London, in his life-boat, The Challenger. A model 
 by Mr. R. Peake is now employed. The National Life-boat Institution was founded 
 in 1824, it has published a journal called "The Life-boat" since 1852. In 1856 its 
 funds were enlarged by a bequest of 10,000/. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, Esq. Since 
 its establishment its boats are said to have saved above 10,000 lives. 
 
 LIFE-GUARDS. The first regular force employed by the kings of England was their 
 own personal guard. King Charles at the restoration established a regiment of life- 
 guards, to which he added a regiment of horse and two regiments of foot-guards, and 
 a third regiment of foot-guards was raised at Coldstream (which see). These corps 
 constitute the British household troops. Their formation was the commencement 
 of the present regular army ; and such additions have from time to time been made 
 as the occasions of the nation required. — Copt. Curling. 
 
 LIFE-PRESERVER. The apparatus of captain Manby, to mitigate the horrors of sLip- 
 wreck, is of a construction equally simple and admirable. It effects a communication 
 with the distressed vessel by a rope, by which it is afterwards easy to send on board, 
 or from the ship, anything else. The rope is thrown by a shot from a mortar, with 
 a line attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is provided with a hollow case of 
 thick pasteboard, and a fuze and quick match, and charged with fifty balls, and a 
 sufficiency of powder to inflame them. The faze is so graduated that the shell shall 
 explode at the height of 300 yards. The balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a 
 minute, and give a clear view of every surrounding object. This apparatus was 
 brought into use in February, 1808; and in the first twenty years it had been the 
 means of saving fifty-eight vessels, and 410 of their crews and passengers. Captain 
 Manby died Nov. 18, 1854, aged 89. 
 
 LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about a.d. 1624. The motion 
 and velocity of light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by Cassini, and calculated 
 by Roemer and Bradley. Its velocity ascertained to be about 190,000,000 of miles 
 in sixteen minutes, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of times 
 swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball; about 1667. The light of the sun is eight 
 minutes and eight seconds in its transmission through the space from that orb to the 
 earth. The undulatory theory of light, its polarisation, and its chemical action have 
 all been made known in the present century by the labours of Drs. Thos. Young, 
 Fresnel, Malus, Arago, Biot, Brewster, Wheatstone, Ritter, Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, &c. 
 
 LIGHT-HOUSES. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, and called 
 Tors, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar; that of Pharos at Alexandria, 
 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles; the Pharos of Messina; the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the coasts of England, fifteen on the east 
 coast, thirteen in the English chaunel, and fourteen in the Irish channel; also seven- 
 teen on the Scottish, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. See Bell-Rode, Eddystone, &c. 
 
 LIGHTS. Were introduced into churches about the middle of the first century, and 
 were continued afterwards in the Romish churches at noon-day. Lamps were in use 
 previously to candles. See Candlemas. 
 
 LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first set up for the protection of buildings by 
 Franklin shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity from a thunder-cloud. 
 The first in England was set up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one was 
 placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, which has since escaped injury, although 
 frequently consumed by lightning previously. A powder magazine at Glogau, in 
 Silesia, was saved by a conductor in 1782; and from the want of one a quantity of 
 gunpowder was ignited at Brescia in 1767, and above 3000 persons perished. In 
 1762, Dr. Watson recommended conductors to be used in the navy, and they were 
 employed for a short time, but soon fell into disuse from want of skill and attention. 
 Mr. (now sir William) Snow Harris devoted his attention to the subject from 1820 to 
 the present time, a,nd published his work in 1843, detailing his experiments. In 
 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his conductors, which were found 
 perfectly efficacious; and in 1842 his plans were adopted, and his conductors are 
 now manufactured in all the royal dockyards. In 1854, parliament granted 5000/. to 
 sir W. S. Harris, as a small reward for his invaluable exertions. 
 
 LIGNY, BATTLE of. Fought just previously to the memorable battle of Waterloo, 
 between the Prussian army under Blucher, and the French army commandtd by 
 
LIG 384 LIM 
 
 Napoleon, in which the former was defeated, June 16, 181 5. The result of this battle 
 did not, however, prevent Blucher arriving on the field of Waterloo, in the evening of 
 that great engagement, at the most critical and decisive moment of it. 
 
 LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in Juue 1802, upon the ruin of the republic of 
 Genoa. The doge of tbis new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa, Aug. 10, 1802. 
 The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it having demanded a union 
 with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged into the kingdom of Italy, 
 and was thus terminated. 
 
 LILAC TREE. Syringa. The Persian lilac tree, a native of Persia, was cultivated in 
 Britain, about a.d. 1638. The common lilac tree was cultivated in England by Mr. 
 John Gerard, about 1597. Several varieties of the lilac tree are now grown in England. 
 See Flowers and Gardening. 
 
 LILY. The lily of the Scriptures is of Persian origin ; it also is a native of Syria and 
 Italy, and some varieties of it were brought to England before 1460. The Guernsey 
 lily came from Japan; the Red-coloured from South America; the Gigantic lily, 
 Doryanthes excelsa, was brought from N.S. Wales, in 1800. 
 
 LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1534, Pizarro, marching through Peru, was 
 struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a city, and gave 
 it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. This Spanish name it retains 
 in all its legal deeds, but it is better known as Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred 
 here, since solemnly commemorated by annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, and 
 Oct. 28, 1746. In the last it was almost totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see. 
 
 LIME or LINDEN TREE, a tall upright tree with fragrant flowers, at one time much 
 cultivated in this country. It is uncertain when it was introduced, but one is 
 mentioned in 1562. The lime trees in St. James's park are said to have been planted 
 at the suggestion of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odoriferous trees, in 
 his work, "Fumifugium" (1661). One of these trees was planted in Switzerland in 
 1410, and existed in 1720, the trunk of which was thirty-six feet in circumference. 
 
 LIMERICK, Anciently Luuneach. About the year 550, St. Munchin is said to have 
 founded a bishopric and built a church here, which latter was destroyed by the 
 Danes, in 853. Limerick obtained its charter in 1195, when John Stafford was made 
 first provost; and its first mayor was Adam Servant, in 1198. In August, 1691, 
 Limerick was invested by the English and Dutch, and surrendered on most honour- 
 able terms, Oct. 3, same year. See Treaty of Limerick. An awful explosion of 218 
 barrels of gunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing 100 persons, Feb. 1, 1694. 
 Another explosion of gunpowder here killed many persons, Jan. 2, 1837. Awful and 
 destructive tempest, Jan. 6 — 7, 1839. 
 
 LIMERICK, BISHOP of. Said to have been originally founded by St. Munchin 
 about a.d. 550. See Limerick. Donald O'Brien, king of Lirnerick, founded the 
 cathedral about the time of the arrival of the English. The see of Inis-Scattery 
 was united to Limerick, about the beginning of the thirteenth century, or close of 
 the twelfth ; but according to Usher, its possessions were divided among the sees of 
 Limerick, Killaloe, and Ardfert. By an extent returned, 5 Charles I., this prelacy 
 was valued at 40Z. sterling; and Ardfert (united to it), 26 Eliz., at 121. 13s. 4d. 
 Ardfert and Aghadoe united to Limerick in 1667. 
 
 LIMERICK, TREATY of. The celebrated civil and military articles of Limerick 
 (including the other forts and places then in possession of the Irish) were agreed 
 upon by the following persons : sir Charles Porter, and Thomas Coningsby, esq., 
 lords justices of Ireland, and baron Ginckel, commander cf the English army, on the 
 one part ; and Patrick, earl of Lucan, Piercy, viscount Galmoy, colonels Purcell and 
 Cusack, fir Toby Butler, colonel Garret Dillon, colonel Brown, and lieutenant- 
 generals D'Usson and De Tesse, commanders-in-chief of the Irish army, on the other 
 part, Oct. 3, 1691. It was agreed that all amis, property, and estates should be 
 restored ; all attainders anuulled, and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but 
 that of allegiance should be required of high or low: the freedom of the Catholic 
 religion was secured ; relief from pecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was 
 guaranteed; permission to leave the kiugdom was extended to all who desired it; and 
 a general pardon proclaimed to all then in arms. — Bums. 
 
 LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limiting the liability of joint stock companies, 
 IS and 19 Vict. c. 133, was passed Aug. 14, 1855. 
 
LIN 385 LIN 
 
 LINCELLES, BATTLE of. Between the allied English and Dutch armies and the 
 French, in which the latter were defeated, August 18, 1793. In this engagement 
 general Lake commanded the three battalions of Foot Guards, who so much 
 distinguished themselves. Colonel Bosville, of the Coldstreams, was killed. The 
 French lost eleven pieces of cannon. 
 
 LINCOLN. Once a Roman colony, and at the period of the Conquest one of the 
 richest and most populous cities in England. Louis, dauphin of France, having 
 been invited over by the discontented barons in the last year of king John's reign, 
 was acknowledged by them as king of England here ; but the nobility in general' 
 were summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Henry III., and they 
 afterwards marched against the dauphin's and barons' army. See next article. New- 
 port-gate is the richest remnant of Roman architecture left in Britain ; the castle 
 is a venerable ruin ; and the ruins of religious houses were so numerous, that the 
 very barns, stables, &c, were formed with arched doors and windows. 
 
 LINCOLN, BATTLES of. Without Newport-gate was fought upon Lincoln plain the 
 memorable battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the 
 earl of Gloucester, and the army of Stephen, commanded by himself, in which the 
 king was overthrown and taken prisoner, Feb. 2, 1141. Battle between the adherents 
 of the dauphin of France (see previous article), and the army of Henry III. of 
 England ; a most sanguinary fight, which ended in the defeat of Louis, who withdrew 
 his pretensions to the English crown, and Henry was established on the throne, 
 May 19, 1217. This latter battle was called the Fair of Lincoln. 
 
 LINCOLN, BISHOPRIC and CATHEDRAL of. Anciently Sidnacester and Dorchester 
 were two distinct sees ; they were united, and about a.d. 1075, were removed to 
 Lincoln, by bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who built a cathedral afterwards destroyed 
 by fire, but rebuilt by Alexander, the twenty-third bishop, and made the beautiful 
 pile it now appears by Hugh of Burgundy, the twenty-fifth bishop. It was dedicated 
 to the Virgin Mary and All Saint3. The immediate successor of Feschamp (1092) 
 was the lord chancellor Bloet or Bluet (Robert), whose family from this time was so 
 distinguished in English annals. The diocese is the largest in the kingdom, not- 
 withstanding that the dioceses of Ely, Oxford, and Peterborough, which were for- 
 merly parts of it, are now distinct sees. Lincoln was valued at the dissolution of 
 monasteries at 2065Z. per annum ; and after many of its manors had been seized 
 upon, it was rated in the king's books at 894Z. 10s. Id It has given three saints to 
 the Church of Rome, and to the civil state of England six lord chancellors. St. 
 Birinus was the first bishop, in 625. The great bell of the cathedral, called Oreat 
 Tom of Lincoln, weighs 9894 lb. 
 
 LINCOLN'S-INN, London. Derives its name from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, 
 who erected a mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I. Converted from the 
 bishop of Chichester's palace to an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of Lincoln's-inn 
 Fields were laid out by Inigo Jones, about 1620, and occupied the same space as the 
 largest pyramid of Egypt. Lord W. Russell was beheaded in Lincoln' s-Inn Fields, 
 July 21, 1683. The square was inclosed with iron railings, in 1737. The theatre in 
 Lincoln's-inn Fields was built in 1695 ; and from it sprung the Theatre Royal, Covent 
 Garden. The New Buildings were opened, 30th Oct. 1845 ; and the square planted. 
 
 LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of 
 fine linen.— Gen. xli. 42. It was first manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 
 under the protection of Henry III. 1253. Before this period woollen shirts were 
 generally worn. A company of linen-weavers established itself in London in 1368 ; 
 and the art of staining linen became known in 1579. A colony of Scots in the reign 
 of James I., and other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that countiy in 
 succeeding reigns, planted themselves in the north-east part of Ireland, and there 
 established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy 
 Wentworth in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn from Ireland, were per- 
 mitted to be exported duty free, 1696. This law gave rise to the subsequently 
 improved state of the manufacture there. The Irish linen board was established in 
 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dublin, was opened, 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. 
 Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnsley in Yorkshire, are, in 
 Great Britain, chief seats of our linen manufacture. 
 
 LINL1THGOW-BRIDGE, BATTLE of. Between the forces of the earl of Angus, 
 whose party during the minority of James V. held that prince in their power, and 
 the forces of the earl of Lennox, who fought to obtain possession of his person and 
 
 o 
 
LIN 386 LIT 
 
 deliver him from their arbitrary control. The earl of Lennox, after receiving promise 
 of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamilton, 1525. Mary, queen of Scots, was 
 born in the palace of Linlithgow, James V., her father, dying of a broken heart, the 
 same year, 1542. 
 LINN J3AN SYSTEM. The system of botany of the eminent Linne", a Swede, or, as his 
 name is Latinised, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and his first great work 
 was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, orders, and genera ; he classed the 
 plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
 and fruit the test of his various genera. The Linnaean Society in London was 
 instituted in 1738, and was incorporated March 26, 1802. 
 
 LIPSTADT, BATTLE of. On of the most bloody to be found in history, fought 
 between the Swedish and Austrian armies, in which the king of Sweden and the 
 Austrian general were both killed, the former foully, and in the moment of victory, 
 Nov. 6, 1632. The king Gustavus Adolphus II. had previously distinguished himself 
 in several battles against the Germans. Called, also, Lutzen. 
 
 LISBON. The Moor3 are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city when they 
 conquered it, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon 
 was almost destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became 
 a point of the late war, and the court fled to the Brazils, Nov. 1807, in which month 
 (the 30th) the French army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it 
 until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under sir 
 Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, Aug. 21, 1831. Massacre 
 at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 
 
 LISLE, SIEGE of. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the allies ; and 
 though its immense fortifications were deemed impregnable, it was taken after a three 
 months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, in con- 
 sideration of the demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk; this siege is reckoned 
 one of the most famous in modern history. In the revolutionary war Lisle sustained 
 a severe bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, 
 Oct. 7, 1792. 
 
 LISMORE. Of the ancient fame of this once great town, an olden writer of the life of 
 St. Carthage says : " Lismore is a famous and holy city, of which nearly one-half is an 
 asylum where no woman dare enter ; it is full of cells and holy monasteries, and 
 religious men in great number abide here : hither holy men flock from every part of 
 Ireland, and from England, and Britain, being desirous to live in Christ." The 
 celebrated castle of Lismore was burnt in the Irish war, 1645 ; but was rebuilt with 
 great magnificence by the duke of Devonshire. 
 
 LISMORE, BISHOPRIC of, in Ireland. St. Carthage, promoted in a.d. 636, was its 
 first prelate, as well as founder, and the first cathedral was then built. It was 
 repaired by Cormac, son of Muretus, king of Munster, about 1130; and the bishopric 
 was united to that of Waterford, about 1363. No valuation is made of Lismore in the 
 king's books. United to Waterford in 1363 ; and both to Cashel in 1839. See Bishops. 
 
 LISSA, BATTLE of, in Silesia. Closing a memorable campaign, and in which the 
 king of Prussia vanquished prince Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 Austrians were slain in 
 this battle, Dec. 5, 1757. Lissa, in Poland, was laid in ruins by the Russian army in 
 the campaign of 1707. 
 
 LITANIES. They were first used in processions and other devotions, about a.d. 400. 
 Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gregory I. in or about 
 595. — Newton on the Prophecies. The first English litany was commanded to be used 
 in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in 1543. — Collier's Ecc. Hidory. 
 
 LITERARY PROPERTY. See Copyright. The statute of queen Anne, 1709-10, securing 
 literary property, was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the House of 
 Lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute 
 declared the author to have an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that 
 term he were living, the right to again return to him for the same term of years. 
 Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that 
 time, then to the remainder of his life. Ey the 5th & 6th Vict., c. 45, passed 
 July 1, 1842, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven 
 years after his death ; but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
 still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's 
 
LIT 387 LIV 
 
 death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript : this act, entitled 
 "An act to amend the Law of Copyright," was passed July 1, 1842. The Dramatic 
 Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The International Copyright bill, 
 passed July 31, 1838. The Designs' Copyright act, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 65, passed Aug. 
 22, 1843. The Colonies' Copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 95, passed July 22, 1847. 
 And the act to amend the acts relating to the Copyright Designs, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 
 104, Aug. 14, 1850. Act to extend the International Copyright act, 15 Vict. c. 12, 
 passed May 28, 1852. 
 
 LITERARY SOCIETIES, &c. See Societies. 
 
 LITERARY FUND, ROYAL. This benevolent institution was founded in 1790, to 
 relieve authors and literary men of all nations, who have published works of merit, 
 and who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty. The founder of this fund, of 
 which thousands have been recipients, was David Williams,* the friend of the 
 illustrious Benjamin Franklin. It had its origin in this way : Floyer Sydenham, 
 an eminent Greek scholar, of Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of some of the 
 works of Plato, having no patronage, was involved in embarrassment, and arrested 
 and thrown into prison for a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
 1788, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when nearly eighty years of 
 age. The sympathy excited by his melancholy fate was so great and general, 
 that it gave rise to this excellent institution, which has since been bountifully 
 supported; and it has as bountifully aided men of genius and learning, or their 
 widows and orphans, in distress. The society was incorporated in 1818. In 1855- 
 6-7, various alterations were proposed, and negatived. 
 
 LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance known, obtained from an alkaline substance 
 termed lithia, discovered by M. Arfwedson in 1818. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose first 
 essays were executed about 1796; and shortly afterwards the art was announced in 
 Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became partially known in England 
 in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of 
 London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 1841. See Printing in Colours. 
 
 LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of cutting for the stone was performed by the 
 ancients. The small apparatus, so called from the few instruments used in the 
 operation, was practised by Celsus, about a.d. 17. The operation called the high 
 apparatus, is said to have been invented by De Franco, and it is thought to be the 
 most ancient. The great apparatus was invented by John de Romanis, about 1520. 
 
 LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman Churches the word liturgy was restrained 
 to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first composed, and was 
 approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The offices for morning and 
 evening prayer were then put into nearly the same form in which we now have them, 
 but other parts were different. Upon the solicitation of Calvin and others, the 
 liturgy was reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first 
 read in Ireland, in the English language, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned 
 a tumult, in 1637. Again altered in 1661. The Liturgy was revised by Whitehead, 
 formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox and 
 Pilkington, dean May, and secretary Smith. — See Common Prayer. 
 
 LIVERY of LONDON. See Companies of London. The term "Livery" is derived 
 from the custom of the retainers and followers of the lord mayor and sheriffs bearing 
 habiliments of the form and colour displayed by those functionaries. It was usual 
 for the wardens of companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. to the lord mayor on 
 the 1st of Dec. to obtain for individuals, so desiring, sufficient cloth to make a suit, 
 and the privilege of wearing the livery. This circumstance added to the splendour of 
 the mayor's train when the civic court went forth. — Ashe. 
 
 LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive increase 
 in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained the first rank after the 
 metropolis, is supposed to be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esmedune, 
 
 * Mr. Williams was in early life a dissenting minister ; he produced, among other fruits of a com- 
 prehensive mind, several treatises on education: and was so profound a jurist, and versed in polity, 
 as to have been consulted by the early revolutionary party in France, as to the form of a constitution 
 for that country. He, Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and other distinguished Englishmen, had 
 previously been declared French citizens by the Legislative Assembly. Mr. Williams is mentioned in 
 all the accounts of the National Convention in 1792, et seq. 
 
 C C 2 
 
LIV 
 
 388 
 
 LIV 
 
 or, Smedune. In other ancient records its various appellations are, Litherpid, and 
 Lyrpul, signifying probably, in the ancient dialect of the county, the lower pool ; 
 though some have deduced its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, 
 called the "Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name; and others, from its having 
 belonged to a family of the name of Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently esta- 
 blished to justify that conclusion. Soon after the Conquest, William granted that 
 part of the county situated between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, 
 who, according to Camden, built a castle here, about the year 1089. To this circum- 
 stance is attributed the origin of the town. It was, however, but a small fishing 
 place, until, in 1172, its favourable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted 
 the notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation of his 
 troops for the conquest of Ireland : — 
 
 Liverpool made a free burgh by king 
 
 Henry III A.D. 1229 
 
 Made an independent port . . . . 1335 
 Henry, duke of Lancaster, made it his 
 
 residence 1358 
 
 Liverpool paved (Leland) . . . . 1558 
 "The people of Her Majesty's decayed 
 town of Liverpool " petition Elizabeth 
 to be relieved from a subsidy . . 1571 
 Town rated for ship-money in only 261. 
 
 by Charles 1 1630 
 
 Besieged by prince Rupert, and surren- 
 dered June 26, 1644 
 
 Made a separate parish . . . . 1698 
 The Old dock, the first in England, con- 
 structed, and opened .... 1699 
 Blue-coat hospital founded . . . 1709 
 The town opposes the Young Pretender, 
 
 and raises several regiments . . 1745 
 Town-hall commenced . . . . 1749 
 Iufirmary established .... 1749 
 Seamen's Hospital founded . . . 1752 
 A most destructive fire .... 1762 
 House of Industry founded . . . 1770 
 Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened . . 1772 
 Liverpool equips, at the commencement 
 of the war against Prance, 120 priva- 
 teers, carrying 19S6 guns, and 8754 
 
 seamen 1778 
 
 King's dock constructed .... 1785 
 [The Queen's dock was also constructed 
 
 about the same time.] 
 Memorable storm raged . . . . 1789 
 The Exchange burnt .... 1795 
 The To wn-hall (since restored) destroyed 
 
 by fire 1795 
 
 The Athenamm opened . . Jan. 1, 1799 
 Union Newsroom erected . . . . 1800 
 The Lyceum erected .... 1802 
 Awful fire, whose ravages exceeded 
 
 1,000,000?. sterling . . Sept. 14, 1802 
 Corn Exchange opened . . Aug. 4 ; 1808 
 Royal Exchange completed . . '. 1809 
 StatueofGeorge III. commenced, Oct. 25, 1809 
 Pall of St. Nicholas' Tower, which killed 
 
 20 persons . . . Feb. 11, 1810 
 Royal Institution founded . . . 1814 
 Wellington-rooms built . . . . 1S15 
 Royal Institution opened by a speech 
 
 from Mr. Roscoe . . . Nov. 2, 1818 
 American Seamen's Hospital . . . 1S20 
 
 Prince's dock opened . . July 19, 1821 
 St. John's Market-place . . Feb. 1822 
 Royal Institution incorporated . . 1822 
 Marine Humane Society formed . . 1823 
 New House of Industry erected . . 1824 
 
 Liver Theatre opened 1825 
 
 Old dock closed 1826 
 
 Foundation of the new Custom-house 
 
 laid Aug. 12, 1828 
 
 Blackrock lighthouse built, and light 
 
 first shown .... March 1, 1830 
 Lunatic Asylum founded, 1792 ; new 
 
 buildings erected 1830 
 
 Clarence dock completed . Sept. 1830 
 Liverpool and Manchester Railway 
 
 (which see) opened . . Sept. 15, 1830 
 Zoological Gardens opened . . . 1833 
 Great fire ; property valued at 300,0002. 
 
 destroyed Jan. 1, 1833 
 
 Lock Hospital opened .... 1834 
 Waterloo dock opened . . . . 1834 
 Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened 
 
 same time .... Sept. 8, 1S36 
 Mechanics' Institute opened . . . 1837 
 New Fishmarket opened . Feb. 8, 1837 
 Apothecaries' Company formed . . . 1837 
 
 The Hall erected 1838 
 
 Statistical Society founded . . . 1838 
 
 The Liverpool steamer of 461-horse power 
 
 sails for New York . . Oct. 28, 1838 
 Awful storm raged . . . Jan. 6, 1839 
 Foundation of the Collegiate Institution 
 
 laid by lord Scauley .... 1840 
 Foundation of St. George's Hall and 
 
 Courts laid 1S41 
 
 Immense fire, which destroyed property 
 
 amounting to more than half a million 
 
 sterling Sept. 25, 1842 
 
 Mr. Huskisson's statue erected . Oct. 1S47 
 Procession of Orangemen at Liverpool, 
 
 and fatal riot . . . July 14, 1851 
 The queen visits Liverpool . . Oct. 9, 1851 
 St. George's Hall opened. . Sept. 1854 
 Bread riots (150,000 persons out of em- 
 ploy through the frost) . Feb. 19, 1855 
 Free Library and Museum founded by 
 
 W. Brown, M.P. for S. Lancashire, 
 
 April 15, 1857 
 The dock space in 1810 was 26 acres for 
 
 ships to the amount of 704,000 tons ; 
 
 in 1S57, 209 acres, tonnage 4,320,000. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, EARL op, his ADMINISTRATION. Shortly succeeding the assassination 
 of Mr. Perceval (May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first minister of the crown : 
 the members of bis cabinet, &c. were, lord Eldon, lord chancellorj earl of Harrowby, 
 lord president of the council; earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal; Mr. Vansittart, 
 chancellor of the exchequer ; earl of Mulgrave, master-general of the ordnance ; lord 
 Melville, first lord of the admiralty; viscount Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, and 
 earl Bathurst, borne, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; lord Palmerston, marquess 
 of Camden, earl of Clancarty, earl of Buckinghamshire, &c. This administration 
 •terminated in April, 1827, when lord Liverpool was attacked by a fit of apoplexy, 
 and Mr. Canning succeeded as prime minister. Of course, in a long period of fifteen 
 years, there had been many changes. 
 
LIV 389 LOC 
 
 LIVERPOOL RAILWAY. TLe first grand work of this kind was the Liverpool and 
 Manchester Eailway, about thirty-one miles long, connecting these, two of the most 
 important towns in the empire. The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1826, and the 
 excavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 1827; and the tunnel 
 was completed in Sept. 1828, and was opened July 30, 1829. At the opening of the 
 railroad, the duke of Wellington and a number of other illustrious persons were 
 present ; and Mr. Huskisson, who alighted during a stoppage of the engines, was 
 knocked down by one of them, which went over his thigh and caused his death, 
 Sept. 15, 1830. The Liverpool and Birmingham railway was opened its entire length, 
 as the Grand Junction, July 4, 1837; and the railway to London was opened its 
 entire length, Sept. 17, 1838. 
 
 LLANDAFF, BISHOPRIC of. This is an ancient bishopric, whose first known prelate 
 was St. Dubritius, in 522. The church takes its name from its situation, Lan, in 
 Welsh, signifying a church, and it having been erected close to the river Taff, or 
 Taffe, in Glamorganshire. — Dugdale. The see is valued in the king's books at 
 154:1. 14s. Id. per annum, 
 
 LLOYD'S, London. The coffee-house in connection with the Royal Exchange, and held 
 previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side of that building. 
 Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of eminent merchants, under- 
 writers, insurance brokers, &c. ; and here are effected insurances for all the world on 
 ships and merchandise. The books kept here contain an account of the arrival and 
 sailing of vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 
 In 1803, the subscribers instituted the Patriotic Fund, which see. 
 
 LOADSTONE. See Compass. 
 
 LOANS. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally borrowed at 
 Antwerp until after the reign of Elizabeth. In 1559, that queen borrowed 200,000?. 
 of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin, and Sir Thomas Gresham 
 and the city of London joined in the security. — Rapin. The amount of the English 
 loans, during four late memorable periods, was, viz. : 
 
 [years' war from 1755 to 1763 . .£52,100,000 
 
 American war Irom 1776 to 1784 . . . .75,500,000 
 
 French revolutionary war . . . from 1793 to 1802 . . 168,500,000 
 
 War against Bonaparte . . . . from 1803 to 1814 . . . 206,300,000 
 
 Besides the property-tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one millions and 
 twenty-two millions ; and it deserves to be recorded that a subscription loan to carry 
 on the war against France was filled up in London in fifteen hours and twenty 
 minutes, to the amount of eighteen millions, Dec. 5, 1796. See Loyalty Loans. To 
 meet the expenses of the Russian war, sir G. C. Lewis, the chancellor of the 
 exchequer, in his budget of April 20, 1855, proposed a loan of sixteen millions, which 
 was agreed to and taken up by Rothschilds alone.* 
 
 LOCHLEVEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake of Loch 
 Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander III. and his queen were 
 forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and again 
 in 1335. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died 
 within its walls, 1447. The earl of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It 
 is, however, chiefly remarkable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's impri- 
 sonment, in 1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. 
 
 LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans were clumsy contrivances. 
 Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and 
 padlocks as early as a.tj. 1381. The French are accounted the worst locksmiths in 
 Europe, and the English the best. Bramah's celebrated patent locks were registered 
 in 1784. Locks have been made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of 
 exquisite workmanship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any 
 but its own lock, yet a master key will open all. Mr. Hobbs the American, exhibited 
 
 * French Loan, on July 9, 1855, on account of the war with Russia. The French legislature passed a 
 bill for raising by loan 750 million francs (30,000,0002. sterling). On the 30th the total subscribed 
 amounted to 3,652,591,985 francs (about 146, 103, 679J.), nearly five times the amount required. About 
 600 millions came from foreign countries; 2,533,888,450 from Paris; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. 
 The number of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,155 francs was made up by subscription 
 of 50 francs and under. The English subscription of 150,000,000 francs was returned, as double the 
 amount required had been proffered. A Turkish loan of 5, 000, 000/. , on the security of Engl and and France, 
 was taken up by Rothschild in August, 1855. It was well received, and the stock rose to a small premium. 
 
LOC 390 LOM 
 
 his own locks in the Crystal Palace in 1851, and astonished the public, by his skill in 
 picking others. See Keys. 
 
 LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently super- 
 induced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of these consequences. 
 Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt and Libya, upwards of 800,000 
 persons perished, 128 B.C. The country of Palestine was infested with such swarms 
 that they darkened the air, and after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and 
 their intolerable stench caused a pestilential fever, a.d. 406. A similar catastrophe 
 occurred in France in 837. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
 about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the streets, and 
 were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasshoppers, but were three times the 
 size, and their colours more variegated, Aug. 4, 1748. They infested Germany in 1749, 
 Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 1816. 
 
 LODI, BATTLE of the BRIDGE of. One of the great early achievements in Italy of 
 Bonaparte. He commanded the French army, which was opposed to the Austrians 
 commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant and decisive victory after 
 a bloody engagement in which several thousands of the Imperialists perished on the 
 field, and many thousands were made prisoners, May 10, 1796. The conqueror 
 pursued his advantage with wonderful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay 
 open to his army, and the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 
 
 LOG-LINE, used in navigation, a.d. 1570; and first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. The 
 log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which the ship makes is 
 measured by a half-minute sand-glass, which bears nearly the same proportion to an 
 hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of numbers one 
 to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent Scotchman (sir 
 John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means of marked pieces of 
 ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence called Napier's bones. The 
 invention was afterwards completed by Mr. Briggs, at Oxford. 
 
 LOGIERIAN SYSTEM. A system of musical education commenced by J. B. Logier in 
 January, 1815, and by him introduced into the chief towns of the United Kingdom, 
 the Prussian states, &c. First taught in Dublin with eminent success by Mr. Logier 
 and Mr. E. C. Allen, aud in London by most of the musical professors. 
 
 LOGWOOD. A species of wood of a dense and firm texture, and deep strong red colour ; 
 it is the heart only of the tree that produces it ; it was fii'st cut by the English in the 
 bays of Honduras and Campeachy, in 1662. Its use in dyeing shortly afterwards 
 became general, and was encouraged by a law. — Burns' Annals. 
 
 LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic religion in 
 England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wyklifle. — Chaucer. The 
 original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; he was burned for heresy at 
 Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples of Wyklifle were called Lollards. 
 The first martyr in England on account of religious opinions was William Sawtree, 
 the parish priest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV. The 
 Lollards were proscribed by the English parliament in 1416; and about 1414, numbers 
 of them, or persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive.* — Moreri; Carte. 
 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be composed of 
 natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. — 
 Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England by pope Gregory IX. 
 to lend money to convents, communities, and private persons, who were not able to 
 pay down the tenths which were collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
 that year, 13 Hen. III. 1229. They had offices in Lombard-street, which great 
 banking-street is called after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused 
 their expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the marches of 
 
 * Among others, sir John Oldcastle, baron Cobharn, was cruelly put to death in St. Giles'-in-the 
 Fields. His crime was his adoption of the tenets of the great reformer Wykliffe. He was misrepre- 
 sented to our heroic prince Henry V. by the bigoted clergy, as a heretic and traitor, who was actually 
 at the head of 30,000 Lollards in these fields. About 100 inoffensive people were found there. Cobham 
 escaped ; but was taken some time after in Wales. He suffered deatli on this spot ; being hung on a 
 gallows, by a chain fastened round his body, and, thus suspended, burnt alive, in 1417. — Butler; 
 Pennant's London. 
 
LON 
 
 391 
 
 LON 
 
 Brandenburg, famous for their bravery. They were invited into Italy by Justinian 
 to serve against the Goths. To reward their services, the emperor gave them part 
 of Upper Pannonia, a.d. 548. They passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed 
 king by his army at Milan, in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and 
 made considerable conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last 
 king, and annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan. 
 
 LONDON.* The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that a city 
 existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the 
 foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.C., and long pre- 
 viously the royal seat of their kings. In a.d. 61, it was known to the Romans as 
 Lundinium. Lundinium, or Colonia Augusta, was the chief residence of merchants 
 at that period, and the great mart of trade and commerce, though not dignified with 
 the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It is said, but not truly, to have derived its name 
 from Lud, an old British king, who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; 
 but its name is from Llyn-D'm, the "town on the lake." The present population 
 
 (1857) is estimated at 2,600,000. 
 
 London enlarged by the Romans .a.d. 
 
 Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reducesLon- 
 don to ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans 
 and strangers to the sword . 
 
 She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 
 Britons are massacred, and she takes 
 
 61 
 
 306 
 
 359 
 
 poison 
 
 London is walled in, and a palace built . 
 800 vessels are employed in the port of 
 London for the export of corn alone . 
 London made a bishop's see, and Resti- 
 tutes first bishop 514 
 
 Theonius, second bishop . . . . 553 
 St. Melitus (afterwards translated to 
 
 Canterbury), third bishop . . . 604 
 Westminster Abbey built by Sebert. See 
 
 Westminster Abbey 604 
 
 St. Paul's built by Sebert. See St. Paul's 604 
 A plague ravages London . . . . 664 
 Great lire, which nearly consumed the 
 
 city 
 
 London destroyed by the Danes . . 
 Alfred repairs and strengthens London . 
 
 Another great fire 
 
 Tower built by William I. 
 First charter granted to the city by the 
 same king. See London Citizens . . 
 Another devastating fire 
 600 houses thrown down by a tempest . 
 Charter granted by Henry I. . 
 Henry Fitz-Alwbyn, the first mayor, 
 serving twenty-four years . . . 
 Charter relating to weirs 
 Charter of king John ; mayor and com- 
 mon council elected annually, t — Stow. 1209 
 Charter of Henry III. . . . . 1233 
 Aldermen appointed in the city, with 
 
 important privileges . . . . 1242 
 Watch in London, 38 Hen. III. . . 1253 
 
 798 
 839 
 884 
 982 
 107S 
 
 1079 
 1086 
 1090 
 1100 
 
 1189 
 1196 
 
 Tax called murage, to keep the walls and 
 
 ditches in repair . . . a.d. 1279 
 City divided into wards .... 12S5 
 Cheapside stood outside the city : the 
 
 houses built of wood . . . . 1300 
 Charter granted by Edward III. . . 1328 
 Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 citi- 
 zens perish J: 1348 
 
 William of Walworth, lord mayor . . 1380 
 Wat Tyler's rebellion. See Tyler . . 1381 
 Aldermen elected for life . . . 1394 
 City first lighted at night by lanterns . 1415 
 Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . 1416 
 Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz. 1397, 
 
 1406, and 1419 
 
 He entertains Henry V. at Guildhall, and 
 throws into a fire of spices, bonds of 
 that monarch for moneys lent him to 
 
 the value of 60, OO0J 1419 
 
 Jack Cade's rebellion. See Cade . . 1450 
 First civic procession on the water ; sir 
 
 John Norman lord mayor . . . 1453 
 Falconbridge attempts the city . . . 1471 
 Sweating sickness rages .... 1485 
 The fatal sweat, Sudor Anglicus . . . 1517 
 Memorable Evil May-day. See Evil May- 
 day 1517 
 
 Streets first paved ( Yiner's Stat.) . . 1533 
 Forty taverns and public houses allowed 
 in the city, and three in Westminster, 
 act 7 Edw. VI. (there are now 7000) . 1553 
 Royal Exchange built. See Exchange . 1566 
 Thames water conveyed into the city by 
 
 leaden pipes 1580 
 
 New buildings in London forbidden in 
 any places where none had previously 
 been erected, to prevent the increasing 
 
 size of the city § 1580 
 
 Nearly all London yet built of wood . 1600 
 
 * The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth, with regard to the origin of London, are unworthy of the 
 attention of the antiquary. That London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the Trojan iEneas, 
 and called New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it 
 the name of Caer Lud, or Lud's Town, &c. may be considered as mere romance. — Leigh. 
 
 t Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been given in 1209, but it bears date May 19th in the 
 16th year of king John's reign. John began his reign in 1199. This charter was acted on at that period 
 in various instances, as many of the mayors were afterwards continued in their offices for several years 
 together ; and the same right was exerted in the case of Mr. Alderman Wood, who filled the office of 
 lord mayor during two succeeding years, those of 1816 and 1817.— Leigh. 
 
 % This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and spreading itself westward through every country on 
 the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were so great, that the common cemeteries were not 
 sufficient for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of ground without the walls were assigned 
 for burial-places. Amongst these was the waste land now forming the precincts of the Charter-house, 
 where upwards of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not subside till 1357. — Idem. 
 
 § This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7th July, 1580, and it was forbidden to 
 erect new buildings where none had before existed in the memory of man. This extension of the 
 metropolis was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; created a trouble in 
 governing such multitudes ; a dearth of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to relieve 
 them ; an increase of artisans more than could live together ; impoverishing of other cities for lack 
 of inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of room to walk and shoot, &o. arose out of too 
 crowded a city. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued by James I. 
 
LON 
 
 392 
 
 LON 
 
 LONDON, continued. 
 
 30,578 persons perish by the plague ad. 1602 
 Gunpowder plot (which see) . . . 1005 
 New River water brought to London . 1613 
 Hackney coaches first plied. See Hackney 
 
 Cliches 1G25 
 
 68, 596 persons perish by the great plague. 
 
 See Plagues 1665 
 
 Great fire of London. See article Fires . 1666 
 Act for a ' new model of building ' of the 
 
 city 1666 
 
 Monument erected, begun 1671 ; finished 
 
 1677. See Monument .... 1677 
 London streets first lighted by lamps . 1681 
 Charter declared forfeited, 1682; taken 
 
 away, 1688 ; but restored . . . 1689 
 Awful and devastating storm, called 
 
 " the high wind " 1703 
 
 Act for the erection of fifty new churches 
 
 in and near London .... 1711 
 South Sea bubble commenced 1710, ex- 
 ploded 1720. See South Sea Company . 1720 
 Chelsea water-works formed . . . 1722 
 "Great Frost," Dec. 25, 1739. to Feb. S, 1740 
 Now Mansion House completed . . 1753 
 The lord mayor committed to the Tower 
 
 by the House of Commons for a breach 
 
 of privilege . . . . . . 1771 
 
 Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob. 
 
 See Gordon's Mob 1780 
 
 Memorable storm of rain and thunder 
 
 over London . . . June 26, 1788 
 Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's 
 
 cathedral .... April 23, 17S9 
 London Missionary Society . . . 1794 
 Horse patrol iu London . . . . 1S05 
 Lord Nelson's funeral . . Jan. 9, 1806 
 Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett 
 
 to the Tower . . . April 6, 1S10 
 Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at 
 
 Guildhall .... June IS, 1814 
 Gas-lights used in London, Aug. ISO" ; 
 
 Pall Mall lighted in 1809 ; and the city 
 
 generally lighted 1814 
 
 Queen Caroline's funeral . . Aug. 14, 1821 
 Londou University chartered. See Lon- 
 don University . . . Feb. 11, 1826 
 New Metropolitan police. . Sept. 29, 1829 
 Memorable political panic, Nov. 5 ; and 
 
 no lord mayor's show . . Nov. 9, 1830 
 General Fast on account of the cholera 
 
 iu England .... Feb. 6, 1S32 
 
 The cholera officially announced to exist 
 
 in London . . . Feb. 14, 1S32 
 Hunsrerford market opened . July 3, 1833 
 Queen's feast at Guildhall . . Nov. 9, 1837 
 Oxford fires at the queen. See Oxford's 
 
 Attempt, <fec June 10, 1840 
 
 Francis's attempt. See Francis, May 30, 1842 
 Bean's attempt . . . July 3, 1842 
 Thames Tunnel opened . March 25, 1843 
 Royal Exchange opened . Oct. 28, 1844 
 
 Great Chartist demonstration in London. 
 
 See Chartists . . . April 10, 1848 
 Re-appearance of the Asiatic cholera in 
 
 the city Oct. 3, 1848 
 
 A pistol fired at the queen on her return 
 
 from a drive . . . May 19, 1849 
 
 Lord Mayor's great civic banquet. See 
 
 Lord Mayor's. . . March 21, 1850 
 Pate's assault on the queen June 27, 1850 
 Death of sir Robert Peel . . July 2, 1850 
 Attack upon general Haynau Sept. 4, 1850 
 Duke of Wellington dies Sept. 14 ; his 
 
 funeral at St. Paul's (which see) Nov. 18, 1852 
 Cab strike .... July 27-29, 1853 
 Visit of king of Portugal . . May 19, 1S54 
 Attack of cholera . Aug. and Sept. 1854 
 Meeting for Patriotic fund . Nov. 2, 1S54 
 Visit of Emperor and Empress of the 
 
 French .... April 19, 1855 
 The queen distributes Crimean medals. 
 
 May IS, 1855 
 Failure of Paul, Strahan, <fe Co. (See 
 
 Trials, 1855) . . . June 5, 1855 
 
 Metropolitan Local Management Act 
 
 passed Aug. 14, 1855 
 
 Visit of the king of Sardinia Nov. 30, 1855 
 Metropolitan Board of Works, first 
 
 meeting .... Dec. 22, 1855 
 Peace proclaimed . . April 29, 1856 
 Grand display of illuminations and fire- 
 works May 29, 1856 
 
 The Guards re-enter London July 6, 1856 
 Royal British Bank stops payment (see 
 
 British Bank) . . " Sept. 4, 1856 
 Meetings of unemployed operatives in 
 Smithfield .... Feb. 1857 
 
 [See England; and the occurrences not 
 noticed here, under their respective 
 heads.] 
 
 LONDON, BISHOPRIC of. A most ancient see, archiepiscopal in the time of the 
 Britons, founded about a.d. 514, when Restitutus was first bishop. Pope Gregory 
 intended London to continue archiepiscopal ; but St. Augustin, whom his holiness had 
 sent over to convert the Saxons, was so pleased with his reception from Ethelbert, 
 king of Kent, that he set up his staff at Canterbury, the capital of Ethelbert's 
 dominions, which continues the metropolitan see of England to this clay. London, 
 however, remained a bishopric, and has yielded to the church of Rome five saints, and 
 to the realm sixteen lord chancellors and lord treasurers; it was valued in the king's 
 books at 1119/. 8s. id. per annum. 
 
 LONDON BRIDGE, OLD. Some kind of structure is said to have existed a.d. 978. 
 A bridge was built of wood, 1014, which was partly burned in 1136, and afterwards 
 repaired. The late old bridge was commenced about 1176, and completed in 1209, 
 with houses on each side, connected together by large arches of timber, which crossed 
 the street. This bridge was the scene of an awful catastrophe in 1212. A fire hap- 
 pened at the South wark end, which brought immense crowds from London to see, 
 and to extinguish it : but the houses at the north end of the bridge caught fire like- 
 wise, which prevented their return, and the fire at the south end prevented their 
 advancing ; several vessels that approached to take them off were sunk by over- 
 crowding, and it is said that upwards of 3000 persons lost their lives, either by being 
 killed, burnt, or drowned. The bridge was restored in 1300, and again suffered by 
 fires in 1471, 1632, and Sept. 1725 : and in 1756 all the houses were pulled down. 
 
LON 393 LON 
 
 The waterworks were begun in 1582, and caught fire and were destroyed in 1774. 
 The toll was discontinued March 27, 1782. 
 LONDON BRIDGE, NEW. The first pile was driven 200 feet to the west of the old 
 bridge, March 15, 1824; and the first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alderman 
 Garratt, June 15, 1825. The bridge was opened by William IV. and his queen, going 
 by water, attended by a crowd of nobility, and amid great festivities, Aug. 1, 1831. 
 Its length is 928 feet, and within the abutments, 782 feet; the span of the centre 
 arch is 152 feet, and of the side arches (of which there are two on each side) 140 and 
 130 feet ; the width of the carriage-way is 33J feet, and of the abutments at the base, 
 73 feet. The cost of this great structure was 506,000Z. 
 
 LONDON CITIZENS. Have been granted many privileges and immunities from the 
 time of William the Conqueror, whose first charter, granted in a.d. 1079, is still 
 preserved in the city archives. This charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, 
 on a slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is in English as follows : — 
 " William the king greeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the portreve, and all 
 the burgesses within London, friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be 
 all there law-worthy, as ye were in king Edward's days. And I will that every child 
 be his father's heir, after his father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do 
 you any wrong. God preserve you." This is the first of nine charters granted to 
 London. The citizens have the privilege of pleading their own cause in the courts of 
 judicature, without employing lawyers or counsel, except in pleas of the crown, by 
 stat. 40 Hen. III. 1257.— Stow. 
 
 LONDON GATES. The original walls of London were the work of the Romans. 
 Theodosius, governor of Britain, is said to have raised them a.d. 379 ; but they are 
 supposed to have been built about 306. There were originally four principal gates ; 
 but in process of time, as new roads were made, the number increased ; and among 
 others were the Prsetorian-way, Newgate, Dowgate, Cripplegate (so called from lame 
 beggars that sat there), Aldgate, Aldersgate, Ludgate, Bridgegate, Moorgate, Bishops- 
 gate, the Postern on Tower-hill, and Temple-bar, rebuilt 1670-2, the only one of the 
 city boundaries now remaining. 
 
 LONDON STONE. A stone placed in Cannon-street by the Romans, the spot being then 
 the centre of the city, 15 B.C. Cheapside was at this period in the suburbs. — Burns. 
 London Stone is one of the greatest antiquities of the city, having been known before 
 the time of William I. It formerly stood on the opposite side of the way ; but the 
 time and purpose of its erection are alike unknown. Some have supposed it to be 
 the spot whence the Romans measured the distance of their several stations. It was 
 against this stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming, " Now is Mortimer 
 lord of this city," 1450.— Leigh. 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY. See University, London. 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. The building, originally called the London 
 University, was commenced April 30, 1827; and was opened by an inaugural lecture 
 from professor Bell, Oct. 1, 1828. Its plan of instruction includes a junior school, 
 to prepare pupils for the College ; and the College course comprehends arts, law, 
 medicine, mathematics, natural philosophy, and languages. In Gordon Square 
 adjacent, is University Hall, founded in 1847, where divinity and moral philosophy- 
 form distinct courses. On the application of the London University for a charter, 
 government resolved upon granting two charters — one for the establishment of a 
 University in London (see the article), and the other for this College, both charters 
 being granted on the same day, Nov. 28, 1836 ; the latter founded on a deed of 
 settlement, dated Feb. 11, 1826, of what was then called the London University, 
 which title was formally renounced. 
 
 LONDONDERRY, or DERRY. Mentioned in a.d. 546. An abbey here was burned 
 by the Danes, in 783. A charter was granted to the London companies in 1615. — 
 The town was surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison 
 were put to the sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged in 1641. A grant was 
 made of Derry, with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1689, 
 when it took its present name. Memorable siege of Derry, commenced April 20, 
 1689, was sustained against the army of James II., who for a time commanded in 
 person. The heroic ganison and inhabitants were, on this memorable occasion, 
 driven to the extremity of famine ; but under the direction of the rev. George 
 Walker, they defended the place against the enemy until the siege was raised by the 
 
LON 
 
 394 
 
 LON 
 
 forces of the duke of Schoinberg. James's army, under the French general Rosen, 
 retired with the loss of about 9000 men, after having practised almost unparalleled 
 cruelties upon the inhabitants of the villages around. 
 
 LONE STAR. A secret society called the order of the Lone Star, formed in Alabama 
 and other southern states of the North American union, whose object is declared to 
 be the " extension of the institutions, the power, the influence, and the commerce of 
 the United States over the whole of the western hemisphere, and the islands of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first acquisitions to be made by the order are 
 Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The knowledge of the existence of this society 
 reached England in August, 1852. 
 
 LONG ISLAND, BATTLE op, America. Between the British troops, under sir William 
 Howe, and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe defeat, after a well-fought 
 action, losing 2000 men in killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners. The Americans 
 were pursued by the victors in their retreat to New York, but were saved under cover 
 of a thick fog from further discomfiture, Aug. 27, 1776. 
 
 LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969, B.C. 2349 (Gen. v. 27). In these countries 
 the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, 
 one of the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died 
 in the reign of Chai-les I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic 
 record for upwards of 3000 years. — Oreig. Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shrop- 
 shire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the 
 wonder of his time, being then in his 153rd year, and in perfect health; but the 
 journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, the same year. Henry 
 Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried in Bolton-church-yard, Dec. 6, 
 in that year, aged 169 years. 
 
 OTHER EXTRAORDINARY INSTANCES. 
 
 1656. James Bowles, Killingworth, aged . 152 
 1691. Lady Eccleston, Ii-eland . . . 143 
 1749. A man named Collier, Dublin . 137 
 1757. An Englishman named Eccleson 
 
 (Phil. Trans.) 144 
 
 1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman . . 136 
 1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . 146 
 1766. John Mount, Scotland . . . 136 
 176S. Francis Conceist, Burythorpe . 150 
 
 1772. Mrs Clun, Lichfield . . . . 138 
 
 1774. William Beeby, Dungarvon . . 130 
 
 [He had been an ensign, and served 
 at the battles of the Boyne and 
 Aughrim. — Burns.] 
 
 1775. Peter Gordon, Auchterless . . 131 
 1775. Mary Paton, Lochwinnoch . . 138 
 1770. Mr. Movet, surgeon, Dumfries . . 139 
 1776 Sarah Brookman, Glastonbury . 166 
 177S. Thomas Cockey, Blechingley . . 132 
 
 1779. M Lawrence, Orkney . . . 140 
 
 1780. Robert Mac Bride, Herries . . 130 
 1780. Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool . . 130 
 1780. Louisa Truxo, a negiess, was yet 
 
 living in this year, at Tucuman, 
 South America . . . . 175 
 1782. Evan Williams, Carmarthen . . 145 
 
 1786. Cardinal de Solis 110 
 
 1787. Mary Brook, of Leek . . .148 
 1792. Mr. Johnson, of Birmingham . . 120 
 1792. Mrs. Judith Scott, Islington . . 162 
 1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow . . . 125 
 1806. Mr. J. Tucker, llching-ferry . . 131 
 
 1S06. Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . 134 
 1806. Sarah Anderson, a free black . . 140 
 
 1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore . . 130 
 
 1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye . . 137 
 1814. Mrs. Judith Crawford, Spanishtown 151 
 1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, 
 
 county of Kildare, Aug. 27 . . 133 
 1S53. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of the late 
 right hon. Rd. Lalor Shiel), Urau- 
 line Convent, Cork, March 20 . 116 
 [When James I. visited Hereford- 
 shire, a dance called the Morice 
 dance was performed in his pre- 
 sence by five men and five women, 
 whose united ages amounted to 
 upwards of a thousand years.] 
 
 EXAMPLES OF LONGEVITY FURNISHED BY 
 DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S. 
 
 Buried at Age. 
 
 Bengal . . 350 
 
 Died. 
 
 1566 Numas de Cugna 
 
 15S8. Jane Britten . 
 
 1588. Thomas Cam 
 
 1621. 
 
 1652. 
 
 J. Torathe 
 Dr. W. Meade 
 
 1688. Elizabeth Torathe Glamorganshire 177 
 1724. Peter Torten . j ^nga^. | "» 
 1741. J. Rovin . . . Ditto . . . 172 
 1741. Jane Rovin . . Ditto . . .164 
 
 1739. Margaret Patten [ ^fiS j 136 
 
 Evercreech, } 
 
 200 
 
 Somerset. 
 St. Leonard, 
 Shoreditch [ 
 Glamorganshire ISO 
 Ware, Herts. .14Sf 
 
 207 
 
 LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the 
 Canaries, 162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 1759, which in two voyages 
 was found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 
 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763 he applied for the reward of 20,000/. offered by that 
 act, which he received. The celebrated Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch 
 that keeps time better ; and the chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Bre"guet, 
 bring the longitude almost to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in 
 vain ; but Newton has said it will be discovered by a fool. Maps which reckon 
 the longitude from Ferro require 18° 6' to be added, and from Paris 2' 25" to be 
 
LOO 
 
 395 
 
 LOR 
 
 deducted, to reconcile them to British maps. Act repealing the act relating to the 
 discovery of the longitude at sea, 9 Geo. IV., July 1828. 
 
 LOOKING-GLASSES. See Mirrors. 
 
 LOOM-ENGINE. The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use 
 in London from Holland, in or about the year 1676, since when the general principle 
 of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical ingenuity. There were, in 1825, 
 about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal 
 to three hand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per day. We have no means of 
 knowing the precise number at present ; but the increase must be prodigious, and the 
 improvement in machinery must render their efficiency not less so ; the cotton manu- 
 factures alone, exported in 1850 (exclusively of cotton twist or yarn), amounting to 
 21,774,497^. sterling. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807. 
 
 LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for the supreme 
 majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be applied to any other being. 
 With us, it is a term of nobility. See Lords and Baron. The etymology of this word 
 is disputed. See Ladies. 
 
 LORD CHAMBERLAIN of the HOUSEHOLD. See Chamberlain, Lord. 
 
 LORD DANE. This was a distinction exacted by the Danes about the time of Ethelred II. 
 991. It was in the reigns immediately subsequent corrupted into Lordan, and given 
 as a name of ignominy to the lazy Danes, who lived on the sweat of the Englishmen's 
 brows ; though in the days of Canute and others, a private fellow quartered on your 
 house exacted the title of Lord Dane. — Burns. 
 
 LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN of ENGLAND. The sixth great officer of state, 
 whose duties, among others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. The rank 
 appertained for many centuries to the family of De Vere, earls of Oxford, granted to 
 it by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John de Vere, the 16th earl, Mary, his sole 
 daughter, marrying lord Willoughby de Eresby, the right was established by a judg- 
 ment of the house of peers in that nobleman's family, 2 Charles I. 1626. On the 
 death of his descendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of lords and twelve 
 judges concurred that the office devolved to lady Willoughby de Eresby, and her 
 sister the lady Georgina Charlotte Bertie, as heirs to their brother Robert, duke of 
 Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, 
 not under the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of him, might officiate 
 accordingly. — Beatson. 
 
 LORD HIGH ADMIRAL of ENGLAND. See article Admiral. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND. See Chancery. The Lord Chancellor 
 ranks after the princes of the blood royal as the first lay subject. Anciently, the 
 office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain 
 to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord chancellor in 
 1067. — Hardy. The first personage who was qualified by great legal education, and 
 who decided causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas More, in 1530, before 
 which time the office was more that of a high state functionary than the president of 
 a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed lord chancellor in 
 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master 
 in 1588. In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it 
 was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor was 
 permanently held. See Keeper, Lord ; and Vice-Chancelhrs. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OP ENGLAND. 
 
 1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and arch- 
 bishop of York. 
 1529. Sir Thomas More. 
 
 1532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 
 
 1533. Sir Thomas Audley, now chancellor, 
 
 created lord Audley. 
 1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 
 1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 
 — Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 
 
 1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 
 
 1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. 
 
 1553. Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 
 1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 
 155S. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 
 
 1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 
 15S7. Sir Christopher Hatton. 
 
 1591. The great seal in commission. 
 
 1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 
 1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 
 1603. Sir Thomas Egerton, now lord Elles- 
 
 mere, lord chancellor. 
 
 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 
 
 1618. Sir Francis Bacon, created lord Veru- 
 
 lam, lord chancellor. 
 1621. The great seal in commission. 
 1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
 — Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord 
 
 Coventry, lord keeper. 
 
LOR 
 
 396 
 
 LOR 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS of ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 
 
 1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord 
 
 Lyttelton, lord keeper. 
 1643. The great seal in the hands of parlia- 
 mentary commissioners, or keepers. 
 
 1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 
 
 1646. Again in the hands of parliamentary 
 
 commissioners. 
 1649. In commission for the commonwealth. 
 
 1653. Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 
 
 1654. In commission during the remainder of 
 
 the commonwealth. 
 
 1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, after- 
 wards created lord Hyde and earl of 
 Clarendon. 
 
 1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 
 
 1672. Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, 
 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 
 
 1675. Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chan- 
 cellor ; afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
 
 1682. Sir Francis North, created lord Guil- 
 ford, lord keeper. 
 
 1685. Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 
 
 — George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 
 
 1689. In commission. 
 
 1690. Sir John Trevor, knt. sir William Raw- 
 
 linson, kut. and sir George Hutchins, 
 knt. commissioners or keepers. 
 
 1693. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 
 
 1697. Sir John Somers, created lord Somers, 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, 
 chief justice C. P. and chief baron sir 
 Edward Ward, lord keepers. 
 
 — Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 
 
 1 705. Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, 
 
 afterwards lord Cowper. 
 1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 1710. In commission. 
 
 — Sir Simon Harcourt, lord keeper, created 
 
 lord Harcourt. 
 
 1713. Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 
 
 1714. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
 1718. In commission. 
 
 — Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor; 
 
 afterwards earl of Macclesfield. 
 1725. In commission. 
 
 — Sir Peter King, created lord King, lord 
 
 chancellor. 
 
 1733. Hon. Charles Talbot, created lord Tal- 
 bot, lord chancellor. 
 
 1737. Philip Torke, lord Hardwicke, lord 
 chancellor. 
 
 1756. In commission. 
 
 1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord 
 
 Henley, lord keeper. 
 
 1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, after- 
 wards earl of Northington. 
 1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
 
 1770. Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
 
 [Created lord Mordan ; died within three 
 days, and before the seals were put to 
 his patent of peerage.] 
 
 — In commission. 
 
 1771. Hon. Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, 
 
 lord chancellor ; succeeded as earl 
 
 Bathurst. 
 1778. Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow, 
 
 lord chancellor. 
 1783. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and 
 
 others, commissioners. 
 1783. Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 
 
 1792. In commission. 
 
 1793. Alexander, lord Loughborough, lord 
 
 chancellor. 
 1S01. John, lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
 
 1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord 
 
 Erskine, lord chancellor. 
 
 1807. John, lord Eldon, again. 
 
 1827. John Singleton Copley, created lord 
 Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
 
 1S30. Henry Brougham, created lord 
 Brougham, lord chancellor. 
 
 1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 
 
 1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master 
 
 of the rolls, vice chancellor Shadwell, 
 and Mr. Justice Bosanquet, C. P., 
 commissioners. 
 
 1 836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created 
 
 lord Cottenham, lord chancellor. 
 
 Jan. 16. 
 1841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time lord 
 
 chancellor. Sept. 3. 
 1846. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor. 
 
 July 6. 
 
 [His lordship, on signifying his inten- 
 tion to retire, June 19, 1850, was 
 created earl of Cottenham.] 
 
 1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir 
 Launcelot Shadwell, vice-chancellor 
 of England, and sir Robert Mousey 
 Rolfe, B. E., commissioners of the 
 great seal. June 19. 
 
 — Sir Thomas Wilde, created lord Truro, 
 
 lord chancellor. July 15. 
 1852. Sir Edward Sugden, created lord St. 
 Leonards, lord chancellor. Feb. 27. 
 
 — Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. Dec. 
 
 28. The present (1857) lord chan- 
 cellor of England. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR of IRELAND. The earliest nomination of a lord chan- 
 cellor in Ireland was by Richard I., a.d. 1189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to 
 this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct 
 appointment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being 
 so named, 1232. 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 
 From the Revolution. 
 
 1690, Dec. 29. Sir Charles Porter. 
 
 1697, Jan. 12. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas 
 Coote, and Nehemiah Donellan, lords 
 keepers. 
 
 1697, March 11. J. Methuen, ancestor oflord 
 Methuen. 
 
 1697, Dec. 21. Edward Earl of Meath, Francis 
 earl of Longford, and Murrough vis- 
 count Blessington, lords keepers. 
 
 1702, Aug. 26. Lord Methuen, lord chan- 
 cellor, a second time. 
 
 1703, Aug. 6. Sir Richard Cox, bart, ; re- 
 signed in 1707. 
 1707, June 11. Richard Freeman. 
 
 1710, Nov. 2S. Bobert, earl of Kildare, arch- 
 
 bishop (Hoadley) of Dublin, and 
 Thomas Keightley, lords keepers. 
 
 1711, Jan. 22. Sir Constantine Phipps ; re- 
 
 signed Sept. 1714. 
 
 1714, Oct. 1. Alan Brodrick, afterwards vis- 
 count Middleton ; resigned May, 1725. 
 
 1725, June 1. Richard West. 
 
LOR 
 
 397 
 
 LOR 
 
 LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS of IRELAND, continued. 
 
 1727, Dec. 21. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards 
 lord Wyndham of Fiuglas. 
 
 1739, Sept. 7. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards 
 lord Newport and viscount Jocelyn ; 
 the latter died Oct. 25, 1756. 
 
 1757, March 22. John Bowes, afterwards lord 
 Bowes, of Clonlyon ; died 1767. 
 
 1767, Nov. 24. James Hewitt, afterwards 
 viscount Lifford ; died Aprii 28, 1789. 
 
 1789, June 20. John, baron Fitzgibbon, 
 afterwards earl of Clare ; died Jan. 
 28, 1802. 
 
 1S02, Feb. 15. John, baron Redesdale ; re- 
 signed Feb. 1806. 
 
 1806, Feb. 14. Right hon. George Ponsonby ; 
 
 resigned April, 1807. 
 
 1807, April 23. Thomas, lord Manners, pre- 
 
 viously an English baron of the ex- 
 chequer ; resigned Nov. 1827. 
 1827, Nov. 5. Right hon. sir Anthony Hart, 
 
 previously vice-chancellor of England; 
 resigned Nov. 1S30 ; died 1831. 
 
 1830, Dec. 23. William, baron Plunket; re- 
 signed Nov. 1834. 
 
 1835, Jan. 13. Right hon. sir Edward Burten- 
 shawSugden; resigned April, 1835. 
 
 1835, April 30. William, baron Plunket, a 
 second time ; resigned June, 1841. 
 
 1841, June. John, baron Campbell, pre- 
 viously attorney-general of England; 
 resigned Sept. 1841. 
 
 1841, Oct. Right hon. sir Edward Burten- 
 shaw Sugden, a second time ; re- 
 signed July, 1846. 
 
 1846, July 16. Right hon. Maziere Brady. 
 
 1S52, March. Right hon. Francis Blackburn. 
 
 1853, Jan. Right hon. Maziere Brady, again. 
 The preseut (1S57) lord chancellor of 
 Ireland. 
 
 LORD CHANCELLOR of SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II., who reigned 
 a.d. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned : — "The Chancellar sal at al tymes assist the 
 king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chan- 
 cellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, 
 and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James 
 Balfour. Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, in 1057 ; and 
 James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, wa3 the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
 the office having been abolished at the union in 1708. — Scott. 
 
 LORD HIGH CONSTABLE of ENGLAND. The seventh great officer of the crown, 
 and, with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the 
 time of Henry IV., curia militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. It is the 
 fountain of the marshal law ; and the power of this officer was so great, and such 
 improper use was made of it, that in the 13th Richard II. a statute passed for abridg- 
 ing it, and also the power of the earl marshal, which see. The office existed before the 
 Conquest, after which it went by inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
 next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it became forfeited to the king in the person of 
 Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, that year attainted for high treason, and has 
 never been since granted to any person, otherwise than pro hac vice, and that to attend 
 at a coronation, or trial by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat being 
 ordered since this office fell into the hands of the crown, was that commanded between 
 lord Reay and sir David Ramsay in November, 1631 ; but the king afterwards pre- 
 vented the trial. See Constable of Scotland, and Combat. 
 
 LORD HIGH CONSTABLE of SCOTLAND. The office of lord high constable of 
 Scotland was instituted by king David I. about 1147. The nobleman holding it 
 obtained two grand prerogatives, viz. : the first the keeping of the king's sword, 
 which the king, at his promotion, delivers to him naked (and hence the badge of the 
 lord high constable is a naked sword) ; and secondly, the absolute command of the 
 king's armies while in the field, in the absence of the king. The jurisdiction of this 
 office came at last to be exercised only as to crimes during the time of parliament, 
 which some extended likewise to all general conventions. The office was conferred 
 heritably upon the noble family of Erroll, by king Robert Bruce, and with them it 
 still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of Union in 1707. — Beatson. 
 
 LORD HIGH STEWARD of ENGLAND. The first great officer of the crown. This 
 office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and was formerly 
 annexed to the lordship of Hinkley, belonging to the family of Montfort, earls of 
 Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de 
 Montfort, the last earl of this family, making a bad use of the great power this office 
 gave him, raised a rebellion against his sovereign, Henry III., and was attainted, and 
 his estate forfeited to the king. That prince wisely judging the power too vast, (as 
 in the hands of an ambitious subject it might be made subservient to the worst pur- 
 poses), in a great measure abolished the office a.d. 1265. It is therefore now revived 
 only pro hac vice, to officiate at a coronation, or the trial of a peer. The first after- 
 wards appointed was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a 
 peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 
 1400. See Lord Steivard. 
 
LOR 
 
 398 
 
 LOR 
 
 LORD KEEPER of ENGLAND. The lord keeper of the great seal differs only from 
 the lord chancellor in this point, that the latter hath letters patent, whereas the lord 
 keeper has none. Richard, a chaplain, was the first keeper under Ranulph, in 1116. 
 The lord keeper has the like jurisdiction, and all other advantages, in the same degree 
 as the lord high chancellor of England, 5 Eliz. 1562. — Cowell. See Lord Chancellors. 
 
 LORD LIEUTENANT. See Ireland. 
 
 LORD LIEUTENANTS of COUNTIES. The division of England into counties 
 (as well as into hundreds and tythings) is ascribed to Alfred ; but there is evidence 
 that some counties bore their names and had those divisions 150 years earlier. Lord 
 lieutenants for counties were instituted in England 3 Edw. VI., 1549. — R>jmcr' , 8 
 Fotdera. Act for the constitution of lord lieutenants of counties in Ireland, passed 
 2 Will. IV. c. 17, Aug. 23, 1831. 
 
 LORD MAYOR of LONDON. At the time of the defeat of Harold by William I. 
 (see Hastings), the chief officer of London was called port-reeve, from Saxon words 
 signifying chief governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called provost; but in 
 Henry II. 's reign, the Norman title of maire was brought into use, and soon rendered 
 English by spelling it " mayor." First presented to the barons of the exchequer, 
 37 Hen. III., 1251. The prefix of lord was granted by Edward III., with the style of 
 Right Honourable, in 1354. Sir John Norman was the first lord mayor who went by 
 water to be sworn at Westminster, 1453-4. Lord Mayor's show was instituted same 
 year ; but the more costly pageants and triumphs of the show were laid aside in 
 1685.* At first the mayor was chosen for life, but afterwards for periods of irregular 
 duration : now he is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He must be an 
 alderman, and must have previously filled the office of sheriff. The following are the 
 lord mayors of London from the year 1800 : — 
 
 1800-1 (Nov. 9) 
 
 1801-2 „ 
 
 1802-3 
 
 1803-4 ,, 
 
 1804-5 
 
 1805-6 
 
 1806-7 
 
 1S07-8 
 
 1808-9 
 
 1809-10 ,, 
 
 1S10-11 „ 
 
 1811-12 ,, 
 
 1812-13 
 
 1813-14 
 
 1814-15 
 
 1815-16 „ 
 
 1816-17 
 
 1817-18 
 
 1818-19 „ 
 
 1819-20 
 
 1820-1 
 
 1821-2 ,, 
 
 1822-3 
 
 1823-4 ,, 
 
 1824-5 „ 
 
 1825-6 
 
 1826-7 
 
 1S27-8 „ 
 
 1828-9 
 
 Sir William Staines. 
 
 1829-30 
 
 (Nov 
 
 Sir John Earner. 
 
 1830-1 
 
 
 Charles Price. 
 
 1831-2 
 
 ,, 
 
 John Perring. 
 
 1832-3 
 
 
 Peter Perchard. 
 
 1833 4 
 
 _ 
 
 Sir James Shaw. 
 
 1834-5 
 
 
 Sir William Leighton. 
 
 1S35-6 
 
 __ 
 
 John Ainsley. 
 
 1836-7 
 
 Jt 
 
 Sir Charles Flower. 
 
 1837-8 
 
 ._ 
 
 Thomas Smith. 
 
 1838-9 
 
 
 Joshua Jonathan Smith. 
 
 1839-40 
 
 
 Sir Claudius Stephen Hunter. 
 
 1840-1 
 
 
 George Scholey. 
 
 1841-2 
 
 „ 
 
 Sir William Domville, bart. 
 
 
 
 Samuel Birch. 
 
 1842-3 
 
 
 Matthew Wood. 
 
 1843-4 
 
 
 Matthew Wood, a second time. 
 
 1844-5 
 
 
 Christopher Smith. 
 
 1845-6 
 
 
 John Atkins. 
 
 1846-7 
 
 
 George Brydges. 
 
 1847-8 
 
 „ 
 
 John T. Thorpe. 
 
 1S48-9 
 
 ,. 
 
 Christopher Magnay. 
 
 1849-50 
 
 H 
 
 William Heygate. 
 
 1850-1 
 
 
 Robert Waithman. 
 
 1851-2 
 
 
 John Garratt. 
 
 1852-3 
 
 
 William Venables. 
 
 1853-4 
 
 
 Anthony Browne. 
 
 1854-5 
 
 
 Matthias Prime Lucas. 
 
 1855-6 
 
 
 William Thompson. 
 
 1856-7 
 
 ,, 
 
 ) John Crowder. 
 Sir John Key, bart. 
 Sir John Key, bart., again. 
 Sir Peter Laurie. 
 Charles Farebrother. 
 Henry Winchester. 
 Wm. Taylor Copeland. 
 Thomas Kelly. 
 Sir John Cowan, bart. 
 Samuel Wilson. 
 Sir Chapman Marshall. 
 Thomas Johnson. 
 John Pirie, created a baronet 
 
 April 15, 1842. 
 J. Humphery. 
 Sir W. Magnay, bart. 
 Michael Gibbs. 
 John Johnson. 
 Sir George Carroll. 
 John K. Hooper. 
 Sir James Duke, M.P. 
 Thomas Farncombe. 
 Sir John Musgrove. 
 William Hunter. 
 Thomas Challis, M.P. 
 Thomas Sidney. 
 Sir F. G. Moon. 
 David Salomons. 
 Thomas Quested Finnis. 
 
 LORD MAYOR of DUBLIN. John le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308. A 
 gilded sword granted to the chief magistrate to be borne before him, by Henry IV., 
 1407. Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor, 1409. The collar of SS. and a foot 
 company granted by Charles II. to the mayors, 1660. Sir Daniel Bellingham, the 
 first mayor honoured with the title of lord, by Charles II., who granted 5001. per 
 
 * Sir Henry Pickard, who, in 1357, had been lord mayor of London, most sumptuously entertained 
 in one day, in the year 1363, four monarchs : namely, Edward, king of England ; John, king of France ; 
 the king of Cyprus ; and David king of Scotland. The celebrated Black Prince, and many of the 
 nobility, were also present at the feast.— Slow. A superb entertainment was given at Guildhall, by 
 the lord mayor, at which the prince regent of England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, and 
 numerous foreigners of high rank, were present, June 18, 1814. And in 1850, a remarkable and very 
 grand banquet was given by the lord mayor (alderman Farncombe) to prince Albert and the mayors of 
 most of the boroughs of the United Kingdom, in furtherance of the project of the great International 
 Industrial Exhibition to be held in 1851. The numerous attendance of chief magistrates from all parts 
 of the empire made this civic entertainment one unique and memorable. On April 19, 1855, the lord 
 mayor entertained the emperor and empress of the French. 
 
LOR 399 LOR 
 
 annum in lieu of the company of foot, 1665. A new collar of SS. granted by William 
 III. to the mayor, value 1000J., the former having been lost in James IL's time, 1697. 
 
 LORD MAYOR of YORK. The title of lord to the first civic magistrate is one peculiar 
 to London, Dublin, and York. The prefix of lord was given to the mayor of York, 
 which city is a county in itself, by Richard II. York enjoys large privileges, confirmed 
 to it by a long succession of kings. 
 
 LORD STEWARD of the KING'S HOUSEHOLD. An offioer of great antiquity, 
 having the sole direction of the king's house below-stairs : he has no formal grant of 
 his office, but receives his charge from the sovereign in person, who, delivering to 
 him a white wand, the symbol of his office, says, " Seneschal tenez le bdton de notre 
 maison." This officer has been called lord steward since a.d. 1540 ; be was previously 
 to the 31st of Henry VIII. styled grand master of the household. The lord high 
 steward is an officer granted, for many centuries pa3t, pro hac vice only, for a coronation, 
 or the trial of a peer. See Lord High Steward of England. 
 
 LORDS. The now recognised nobility of England take their creation from the 1st of 
 William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn, the first peer, was made 
 earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northum- 
 berland ; Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl 
 of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of 
 England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. 
 Therefore a peer cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies 
 against his person ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the 
 same reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriff's turns ; or, in 
 case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. See Baron ; Earl ; &c. 
 
 LORDS, HOUSE of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to consult, 
 in early reigns, and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205. The commons did 
 not form a part of the great council of the nation until some ages after the Conquest. 
 — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs were returned to meet the barons and 
 clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265; but 
 several historians maintain, that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as 
 now constituted, was held 22 Edw. I. 1293-4. The house of lords includes the 
 spiritual as well as temporal peers of England. The bishops are supposed to hold 
 certain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. 
 The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : some sit by descent, as 
 do all ancient peers; some by creation, as all new-made peers ; and others by election, 
 since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland in 1801. — Scotland elects 16 
 representative peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 tem- 
 poral peers for life. The house of lords now (1857) consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 
 23 marquesses, 132 earls, 27 viscounts; and 214 barons, temporal peers; and 30 
 spiritual peers; in all, 449. 
 
 LORDS JUSTICES of the COURT of APPEAL in CHANCERY. Two judges of 
 recent appointment, to give more efficiency to the administration of justice in the 
 court of chancery ; and having rank next after the chief baron of the exchequer. By 
 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83 " From Oct. 1, 1851, the power exercised by the lord chancellor in 
 the court of chancery, to be exercised by the court of appeal ; one judge sitting with 
 the lord chancellor, or the two judges sitting together, to form a court of appeal; but 
 the lord chancellor sitting alone to have a co-ordinate jurisdiction." The rt. hon. J. 
 L. Knight Bruce and lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chancellor) were the first lords 
 justices; the latter succeeded by sir G. J. Turner 1853, — (the present justices, 1857). 
 
 LORRAINE. It took its name from Lotharius, son of the emperor Lotharius, and was 
 given to the prince as an independent duchy, a.d. 851. The kingdom was eventually 
 divided in the tenth century into two parts. Lower Lorraine was governed by its 
 dukes, afterwards dukes of Brabant, until Brabant became united with Burgundy in 
 1429. Lorraine was finally annexed to France in 1766. 
 
 LORETTO. Here is the Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended the 
 Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth. According to the legend, it was carried by angels 
 into Dalmatia from Galilee in 1291, and next brought here. The famous lady of 
 Loretto stands upon an altar, holding the infant Jesus in her arms, and is surrounded 
 with gold lamps, whose glare conceals her face. She is clothed with cloth of gold, set 
 off with jewels, with which the little Jesus, though in a shirt, is covered also. Loretto 
 was taken by the French in 1796, and the holy image carried to France; but it was 
 brought back with pious pomp, and welcomed with the discharge of cannon and the 
 
L'OR 400 LUN 
 
 ringing of bells, borne in procession to the holy house on a rich frame, resting on the 
 shoulders of eight bishops, Jan. 5, 1803. __ 
 
 L'ORIENT, BATTLE of. Lord Bridport achieved a memorable victory off this port 
 over the French fleet, June 23, 1795. The British squadron actually engaged con- 
 sisted of ten ships of the line ; the enemy's force, of twelve ships of the line, eleven 
 frigates, and some smaller vessels ; after an action of three hours (from 6 p.m. till 9) 
 the French got into the port, leaving three sail of the line, the Alexander, Le For- 
 midable, and Le Tigre, in the possession of the victors; the loss of the French was 
 severe ; that of the British inconsiderable. 
 
 LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the 
 western door of St. Paul's Cathedral, Jan. 11, 1569, and continued day and night 
 until May 6 following. It contained 40,000 "lots," at 10*. each lot. The profits were 
 for repairing the fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of 
 plate. The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotteries 
 were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large annual revenue 
 to the crown. The Irish state lottery was drawn in Dublin in 1780. All lotteries 
 were suppressed in France by a decree of the national convention, Nov. 15, 1793. 
 They were abolished in Oct. 1826; and an act was passed imposing a penalty of 50£. 
 for advertising foreign or any lotteries in the British newspapers, 6 & 7 Will. IV. 
 Aug. 1836. See next article. 
 
 LOTTERIES. That for the British Museum took place in 1753. Cox's valuable 
 museum, containing many rare specimens of art and articles of vertu, was disposed 
 of by lottery, under an act passed June 16, 1773. An act passed for the sale of the 
 buildings of the Adelphi by lottery, June 16, 1773. Lottery for the Leverian 
 Museum, 1784-5. For the Pigot diamond, permitted Jan. 2, 1801 ; it afterwards sold 
 at Christie's auction for 9500 guineas, May 10, 1802. For the collection of alderman 
 Boydell, a great eucourager of the arts, and who had been a popular lord mayor of 
 London, by act 1804-5. The last lotteries drawn in Great Britain were the Glasgow 
 lotteries in 1834. See Glasgow. An act passed 4 & 5 Will. IV., 1834 declared, that 
 the then pending Glasgow lottery should be the last permitted to be drawn. 
 
 LOUIS-D'OR. The Louis of gold, a French coin of 24 francs, was first struck by 
 Louis XIII. in 1640. The value of this coin was originally about twenty shillings. — 
 Spectator. Its value has fluctuated with the storms of revolution and the incidents 
 of time, between 15s. id. and 22s. 8rf. — Ashe. The Louis-d'or was superseded by the 
 Napoleon of Bonaparte, of about the same iutrinsic value. 
 
 LOUISIANA. Discovered by Ferdinand de Soto in 1541. It was traversed by M. de 
 Salle in 1682, and settled by Louis XIV. in 1718. Ceded to Spain at the peace of 
 1763, when all east of the Mississippi was given to England. Restored to France in 
 1802; and sold by France to the Americans in 1803. Louisiana became a member 
 of the United States, in 1812. 
 
 LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign of Dago- 
 bert, a.D. 628 : but Francis I. laid the foundation of what is now called the Old 
 Louvre, 1522. Here Napoleon deposited the finest collection of paintings, statues, 
 and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of them were brought from Italy: 
 the most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. The magnifi- 
 cent buildings of the New Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. and completed by Napoleon 
 III. were inaugurated by the latter, in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 
 
 LOYALTY LOANS. There were several of these raised during the revolutionary and 
 Bonapartean wars ; but one instance so peculiarly marked the spirit and devotion of 
 the British people, that it is referred to as the Loyalty loan ; a subscription loan was 
 opened in London on the 5th Dec. 1796, and in fifteen hours and twenty minutes the 
 sum of eighteen millions stei'liug was subscribed, thus demonstrating the wealth and 
 patriotism of England, and hearty concurrence of her people in the war. 
 
 LUDDITES. Large parties of men, under this designation, commenced their depredations 
 at Nottingham, breaking frames and machinery. Skirmish with the military there, 
 Jan. 29, 1812. Several serious riots occurred again in 1814 ; and numerous bodies of 
 these people, chiefly unemployed artisans, committed great excesses in 1816, et seq. 
 
 LUNATICS. See article Insanity. Statutes were enacted regarding the care and 
 property of lunatics, 17 Ed. II., cc. 9, 10, 1324, et seq. By 15 Geo. II. c. 30, 1742, the 
 marriages of lunatics were declared void. The numerous acts respecting lunatics were 
 consolidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 97, passed Aug. 15 & 20, 1853. 
 
LUN 401 LUX 
 
 LUNATICS, continued. 
 
 LUNATICS IN CHAKGE IN ENGLAND, JAN. 1, 1S55. 
 
 Private. Pauper. 
 
 Male. Female. Male. Female. Total. 
 
 County Asylums . . . . 132 123 6008 7316 13,579 
 
 Hospitals 895 723 91 94 1,803 
 
 Licensed houses .... 1448 1350 1034 1279 5,111 
 
 2475 2196 7133 8689 20,493 
 
 In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of all classes; in Scotland in 
 1851, 3362 in charge; in 1855, 7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protection 
 of the law. 
 
 LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South Yorkshire. One of the most destructive colliery 
 explosions on record occurred here, Feb. 19, 1857. While the miners were dining 
 in the pit the inflammable gas took fire and exploded. About 180 miners perished. 
 In April and May bodies were still being extricated. There was great laxity of 
 discipline in the pit. 
 
 LUNEVILLE, PEACE of. Concluded between the French republic and the emperor 
 of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Forniio, stipulating 
 that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and 
 recognising the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine 
 republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 
 
 LUPERCALIA. A yearly festival observed at Rome, on Feb. 15, in honour of Pan, first 
 instituted by the Romans, according to Plutarch ; but according to Livy, brought by 
 Evander into Italy. Naked youths ran through the streets with whips, lashing all 
 whom they encountered, even women, who received the stripes with inclination, 
 believing that they removed barrenness and eased the pains of childbirth. Augustus 
 forbade all persons above the age of fourteen to appear naked during this festival. 
 Cicero, in his Philippics, reproaches Anthony for having disgraced the dignity of the 
 consulship by appearing naked on one of these occasions. — Varro. These feasts were 
 continued till a.d. 496, when pope Gelasius abolished them, on account of the great 
 disorders and indecencies that were committed in their celebration. — Pardon. 
 
 LUSTRUM. An expiatory saci'ifice made for the whole body of the Roman people, at 
 the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 B.C. Every five 
 years were called a lustrum ; and ten, fifteen, or twenty years were commonly 
 expressed by two, three, or four lustra. 
 
 LUTHERANISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. published his 
 indulgences for money ; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, who was deputed with others 
 of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such a height as to declare his 
 commission unbounded ; that no crime could be committed too great to be pardoned, 
 and that, by purchasing indulgences, not only past sins, but those which were 
 intended, were to be forgiven. Against these practices Luther openly preached with 
 wonderful success, and thus began the Reformation in Germany. 
 
 LUTZEN, BATTLE of. Between the French army commanded by Napoleon on the 
 one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by general 
 Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened the campaign of 
 that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the victory, it was manifestly 
 on the side of France ; but in this engagement marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. 
 The battles of Bautzen and Wurtzen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in 
 favour of Napoleon, when the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice 
 was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged ; but unfortunately for the French emperor 
 it did not produce peace. 
 
 LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, BATTLE of. This is also called the battle of Lippstadt, 
 which see. 
 
 LUXEMBURG. Once considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken and 
 pillaged by the French in 1543 ; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French 
 in 1684 ; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken by the French in 1701 ; 
 and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at 
 the peace in 1713. These are among the chief occurrences. Luxemburg withstood 
 several sieges in the last century ; it surrendered to the French after a long and 
 memorable siege, June 7, 1795. The garrison, on their capitulation, took an oath 
 
 D D 
 
LUX 
 
 402 
 
 LYI 
 
 not to serve agaiust the republic of France until exchanged, and were conducted to 
 the right side of the Rhine immediately after. 
 
 LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the history of 
 almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been enforced to 
 repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, mussels and oysters 
 from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and black game from the Umbrian 
 forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was distinguished for the immoderate expenses 
 of his meals; his halls were named from the different gods; and when Cicero and 
 Pompey attempted to surprise him, they were amazed by the costliness of a supper 
 which had been prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his 
 attendants to serve it in the hall of Apollo ; this feast for three persons casually met, 
 would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, luxury 
 was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were confined to two courses 
 every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on great festivals. The 
 law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of 100Z. per annum from 
 wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk ; and the use of foreign cloth was confined to 
 the royal family alone ; to all others it was prohibited, a. D. 1337. An edict was 
 issued by Charles VI. of France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with 
 more than a soup and two dishes," 1340. 
 
 LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a temple of 
 Apollo Lyceus; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, son of Apollo. 
 The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilissus, in Attica, where 
 Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught his pupils while he walked, 
 they were hence called peripatetics, walkers-about, and his philosophy was called from 
 this place the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. — Stanley. 
 
 LYDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long dynasty of kings, the last of whom wa3 
 Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by Cyrus, 548 B.C. Tho 
 coinage of money of gold and silver (together with many other useful inventions, and 
 the encouragement of commerce) is ascribed to the Lydians. 
 
 Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns 
 in Lydia.— Herod B.C. 1223 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia, properly so called, 
 begins under Ardysus I. — Blair . . 797 
 
 A lyattes reigns 761 
 
 Meles commences his rule . . . . 747 
 
 Reign of Candaules 735 
 
 Gyges, first of the race called Mermnadoe, 
 puts Candaules to death, marries his 
 queen, usurps the throne, and makes 
 great conquests . .... 
 
 Ardysus II. reigns ; the Cimbri besiege 
 Sardis. the capital of Lydia . 
 
 The Slilesian war commenced under 
 Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, who 
 reigns ....... 
 
 Reign of Alyattes II 
 
 Battle upon the river Halys between the 
 Lydians and Medes, intercepted by an 
 almost total eclipse of the sun, which 
 superstitiously occasions a conclusion 
 of the war. — Blair . . May 28, 
 
 [This eclipse had been predicted many 
 years before by Thales of Miletus. — 
 Blair.] 
 
 718 
 680 
 
 5S5 
 
 Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
 throne, and becomes celebrated for his 
 victories and conquests . . B.C. 562 
 
 Ephesus falls into his hands ; the Ionian3, 
 iEulians, and other parts of Asia Minor 
 are subjected to his dominion . . 554 
 
 All the nations west of the Halys are 
 conquered, and that river becomes the 
 boundary of the kingdom. — Blair . 550 
 
 Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, 
 whose conquests had reached to the 
 borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys to 
 attack the Medes, with an army of 
 420,000 men, and 60,000 horse . . 548 
 
 He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
 sieged in his capital, and taken . . 54S 
 
 The conqueror orders Crccsus to be 
 burned alive, and the pile is already 
 on fire, when he calls on the name of 
 Solon in agony of mind, and Cyrus 
 hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
 life 548 
 
 Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of 
 mankind," is made a province of the 
 Persian empire 548 
 
 JEsop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first Greek poet who wrote in a style of 
 gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of Teos, Heraclitus 
 of Ephesus, &c, nourished in Lydia. The country remained subject to the Persian 
 empire until the latter was conquered by Alexander, about 330 B.C. It next became 
 part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, founded by Philceterus, the eunuch. Attalus 
 afterwards bequeathed it to the Romans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the 
 Eastern empire, a.d. 1326. — Priestley. 
 
 LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first of these valuable institutions, of a public and 
 general kind, was established in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, an eminent 
 physician, who, notwithstanding he had to contend against the strongest prejudices, 
 avowed opposition, and great public clamour, pushed his benevolent purpose to 
 success, and achieved a victory for humanity by building the fine hospital in Dublin, 
 
LYM 403 MAC 
 
 under this name. The first institution was opened March, 1745; and the present 
 hospital in December, 1757. The British Lying-in hospital was founded in 1749; 
 Queen Charlotte's Lying-in hospital in 1752 ; the General Lying-in hospital in 1765; 
 and besides these, are other similar charities in London. 
 
 LYMPHATIC VESSELS. The slender pellucid tubes carried into the glands of the 
 mesentery, receiving first a fine thin lymph from the lymphatic ducts, which dilute 
 the chylous fluid. — Cheyne. These vessels were found by Jaspar Asellius in 1622 ; 
 he published his dissertations on the subject in 1627. — Nouv. Diet. Discovered in 
 oviparous animals by Dr. Hewson, who disputed the honour of the discovery with 
 Dr. Munro, 1762. 
 
 LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals without the forms of law. 
 It derives its name from John Lynch, a farmer who exercised it upon the fugitive 
 slaves and criminals dwelling in the "dismal swamp," North Carolina, when they 
 committed outrages upon persons and property which the colonial law could not 
 promptly repress. This mode of administering justice began about the end of the 
 17th century and still exists in the outlying provinces of the United States. 
 
 LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city was reduced to ashes in a single 
 night by lightning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two general councils were 
 held here in the 13th and 14th centuries. The silk manufacture commenced in the 
 reign of Francis I., 1515. Lyons was besieged in 1793 by the Convention army of 
 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed . 
 The National Convention decreed the demolition of the city Oct. 12, same year. It 
 capitulated to the Austrians, March 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the 
 artisans, which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21, 1831. 
 Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, Nov. 4, 
 1840. See Inundations. 
 
 LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to Homer, gave 
 it to Apollo, the first that played upon it with method, and accompanied it with poetry, 
 The invention of the primitive lyre, with three strings is due to the first Egyptian 
 Hermes. Terpander added several strings to the lyre making the number seven, 673 B.C. 
 Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B.C. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACARONI. This name was given to a poem by Theop. Folengo, 1517, and it continues 
 to designate trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, "wit without wisdom, 
 and humour without sense." His poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same 
 name, pleasant to the taste, but without any alimentary virtue. These poems became 
 the reigning taste in Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni academies, 
 and reaching England, to Macaroni clubs, till, in the end, everything ridiculous in 
 dress and manners was called " Macaroni," about a.d. 1520. 
 
 MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the 
 persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 167, when Mattathias a priest resisted the 
 tyranny of the governor. His son Judas Maccabseus defeated the Syrians in three 
 battles, B.C. 166, 165; but fell in an ambush, B.C. 161. His brother Jonathan made 
 a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, and after an able administration, was 
 treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, B.C. 143. His brother and successor, 
 Simon, was also murdered, B.C. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His 
 son Judas, called also Aristobulus, took the title of king, B.C. 107. The history of 
 the Maccabees is contained in five books of that name, two of which are included in 
 our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church but 
 not by Protestant communions. 
 
 MACE. Anciently used by the cavalry of most nations. This weapon was originally a 
 club fixed in the saddle, and was usually blunt, and of metal. Maces were also early 
 ensigns of authority borne before officers of state, the top being made in the form of 
 an open crown, and«commonly of silver gilt. The lord chancellor and speaker of the 
 house of commons have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted, to London 
 the privilege of having gold or silver maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, 
 aldermen, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace usually carried before the 
 lord mayor on state occasions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, knocked the 
 
 DB 2 
 
MAC 
 
 404 
 
 MAG 
 
 rebel "Wat Tyler off his horse, a courtier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 
 for rudely approaching Richard II., 1381. Cromwell, entering the house of commons 
 to disperse its members and dissolve the parliament, ordered one of his soldiers 
 to " take away that fool's bauble, the mace," which was done, and the doors of the 
 house locked, April 20, 1653. 
 
 MACEDON", EMPIRE of. The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. 
 It was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under the protection of Athens, some- 
 times of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the father of 
 Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and exploits as a general, 
 made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to his son's greatness. Macedon had 
 twenty-one kings, from Caranus to Alexander inclusive. After the conqueror's death, 
 when his dominions were divided among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and 
 established a new kingdom. 
 
 Reign of Caranus . . . .B.C. 814 
 
 Reign of Perdiccas 1 729 
 
 Reign of Argfeus 1 678 
 
 Reign of Philip 1 640 
 
 Reign of iEropas ; lie conquers the Illy- 
 
 rians 602 
 
 Reign of Amyntas 547 
 
 Reign of Alexander I. .... 407 
 Reign of Perdiccas II. . . . . 454 
 
 Archelaus, natural sou of Perdiccas, 
 murders the legitimate heirs of his 
 father, and seizes the throne . . 413 
 He is murdered by a favourite, to whom 
 he promised his daughter in marriage, 
 yet gave her to another . . . . 399 
 Reign of Amyntas II. ... . 399 
 He is driven from the throne . . . 39S 
 Recovers his throne, and puts Pausanias 
 
 to death 397 
 
 The Illyrians enter Macedonia, expel 
 Amyntas, and put Argreus, brother of 
 Pausanias, on the throne . . . 392 
 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . 390 
 
 Reign of Alexander II 371 
 
 He is assassinated 370 
 
 Reign of Perdiccas III 366 
 
 He is killed in battle . . . .360 
 Reign of Philip II., and institution of 
 
 the Macedonian Phalanx . . . 360 
 Philip gains the battle of Methon over 
 
 the Athenians 360 
 
 He defeats the Illyrians . . . . 359 
 
 He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 
 
 arrow in his right eye. See Archery . 358 
 He conquers Thrace and Illyria . . . 356 
 Birth of Alexander the Great . . . 356 
 Philip adds to his conquests . . . 348 
 Close of the first Sacred war . . . 348 
 Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip 344 
 Thrace made tributary to Macedon . 343 
 Aristotle appointed tutor to the young 
 prince Alexander . . . . . 343 
 
 War against the Athenians . . . 341 
 Philip besieges Byzantium . . . 341 
 
 Battle of Chseronea ; Philip conquers. 
 See Clueronea ...... 338 
 
 Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at 
 Egsea, during the celebration of games 
 in honour of his daughter's nuptials . 336 
 Alexander III., surnamed the Great, 
 succeeds his father .... 336 
 
 He enters Greece 335 
 
 The Greeks appoint him general of their 
 
 armies against the Persians . . 335 
 The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to 
 the ground ; the house of Pindar is 
 
 alone left standing 335 
 
 The Almighty favours Alexauder with a 
 vision, in which the high priest of the 
 Jews appears to him, exhorting him 
 to pass into Asia. See Jews . . 334 
 He passes into Asia, and gains his first 
 battle over Darius. See Granicus . . 334 
 
 Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; Ha- 
 licarnassus is taken, and numerous 
 cities in Asia Minor . . B.C. 334 
 
 Memnou ravages the Cyclades ; Darius 
 takes the field with 460,000 infantry, 
 and 100,000 cavalry 333 
 
 Battle of Issus (which see) . . . 333 
 
 Alexander, on his way to Egypt, lays 
 siege to Tyre, which is destroyed after 
 seven months . . . . . . 332 
 
 Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
 sures of Darius come into the posses- 
 sion of the victor 332 
 
 Gaza surrenders ...... 332 
 
 Alexauder enters Jerusalem ; and Egypt 
 conquered 332 
 
 Alexandria founded . . ... 332 
 
 Great battle of Arbela, the third and last 
 between Alexander and Darius ; the 
 Persian army totally defeated. See 
 Arbela 331 
 
 Alexander proclaimed master of Asia ; 
 he enters Babylon in triumph . . 331 
 
 GRECIAN OR MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander sits on the throne of Darius, 
 
 at Susa 330 
 
 Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 
 
 Alexander 329 
 
 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits 
 
 him, attended by a retinue of 300 
 
 women. See Amazons . . . 329 
 
 He puts his friend Parmenio to death, 
 
 on a charge of conspiracy, supposed to 
 
 be false 329 
 
 Alexander makes more conquests . . 328 
 
 His expedition to India ; Porus, king of 
 
 India, is defeated and taken ; and the 
 
 country as far as the Ganges is overrun 327 
 
 Callisthenes is put to the torture for 
 
 refusing to render divine homage to 
 
 Alexander 326 
 
 Subjection of the Cosseans . . . . 326 
 Death of Alexander . . . .323 
 
 His conquests are divided among his 
 
 generals 323 
 
 His remains are transported to Alexan- 
 dria, and buried by Ptolemy . . 322 
 The Greeks defeated by sea and land 
 
 near Cranon (which see) . . . . 322 
 Thebes rebuilt by Cassander . . . 315 
 Seleucus recovers Babylon . . . . 312 
 Cassander puts Roxana and her son to 
 
 death, and usurps the throne . . 311 
 Battle of Ipsus (which see) . . . . 30 L 
 New division of the empire . . . 301 
 
 MAC.EDON II. 
 
 Death of Cassander 298 
 
 Reign of Alexauder and Autipater . 298 
 Demetrius murders Alexauder, and 
 
 seizes the crown of Macedon . . . 294 
 Irruption of the Gauls . . . .279 
 
MAG 
 
 405 
 
 MAD 
 
 MACEDON, EMPIRE or, continued. 
 
 Reign of Antigonus Gonatus . B.C. 277 
 Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Anti- 
 
 gonus, and is proclaimed king . . 274 
 
 Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . 272 
 
 Antigonus takes Athens .... 268 
 
 The Gauls again invade Macedon . . 268 
 Revolt of the Part hians . . . .250 
 
 Reign of Demetrius II. b c. 242 
 
 Reign of Philip, his son .... 232 
 
 His war against the Rhodians . . . 202 
 
 Philip is defeated by the Romans . . 198 
 
 He is totally subdued 196 
 
 The reign of Perseus .... 179 
 
 Perseus defeated by the Eomans . . 171 
 
 The consul ^Emilius Paulus entered Macedon, and pronounced it a Roman province. 
 Perseus and his sons were made prisoners, 168 B.C. and next year -walked in chains 
 before the chariot of iErnilius in his triumph for the conquest of Macedon. The 
 country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath II. in a.d. 1429. — Priestley. 
 
 MACHIAVELIAN PRINCIPLES. Those laid down by Nicholas Machiavel, of 
 Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By some they are stigmatised 
 as "the most pernicious maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy;" and 
 by others as " sound doctrines, notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 
 against them." The work appeared in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761. 
 
 MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lorenzo 
 Almeida, a.d. 1506. The French have often attempted to settle on this island, but 
 generally with little success. Their most permanent establishment was at Fort 
 Dauphin, but it fell along with Bourbon and Mauritius. The French were defeated 
 in an attack on this island Oct. 19, 1855. In the centre of the island is said to exist 
 a race of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsupported 
 statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved pigmy which he 
 had brought from Madagascar. A paper describing the pigmy was presented to the 
 Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1809. 
 
 MADEIRA, an island on the coast of Africa, so called on account of its woods : it was 
 discovered, it is said, by Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled 
 from England for an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, 
 a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to 
 Pedro, king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered 
 by a Portuguese, a.d. 1345. But it is maintained that the Portuguese did not visit 
 this island until 1419, nor did they colonise it until 1431. It was taken possession 
 of by the British in July, 1801 ; and again, by Admiral Hood and general (afterwards 
 viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in trust for the royal family of 
 Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the Brazils. It was subsequently restored 
 to the Portuguese crown. 
 
 MADRAS. Called by the natives Chennapatam. Colonised by the English, and Fort 
 George built by permission of the king of Golconda, 17 James I. 1620. Madras was 
 taken by the French in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace 
 of Aix-la-Chapelle. Madras is now one (the second) of the three presidencies of our 
 great Indian Empire. For occurrences not mentioned below, see article India. 
 
 Fort St. George made a presidency a.d. 1654 
 Bengal placed under Madras . . . 1658 
 Calcutta, which v. as hitherto subordinate 
 
 to Madras, is now made a presidency. 1701 
 Mayor's court founded . . . . 1726 
 Madras taken by the French . . . 1746 
 Restored to the English . . . . 1749 
 Besieged by the French . . Dec. 12; 1758 
 Hyder marches to Madras . . April, 1769 
 Sir John Lindsay arrives . July, 1770 
 He is succeeded by sir R. Hartland Sept. 1771 
 Sir Eyre Coote arrives . . Nov. 5, 1780 
 He defeats Hyder . . . July 1, 17S1 
 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
 
 Madras June 22, 1781 
 
 The Madras government arrests general 
 
 Stuart, who is forthwith sent toEngland 17S3 
 Lord Cornwallis visits here . Dec. 12, 1790 
 Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Mea- 
 dows as governor . . Aug. 1, 1792 
 Assizes ordered twice yearly . . . 1793 
 Lord Mornington (afterwards the Mar- 
 quess Wellesley) visits here . Dec. 1798 
 General Harris with, the Madras army 
 enters Mysore . . . March 5, 1799 
 
 He arrives with his forces at Seringa- 
 patam .... April 5, 1799 
 
 Seringapatam is stormed by the British 
 under major-general Baird, and Tippoo 
 Saib killed .... May 4, 1799 
 
 Appointment of sir Thomas Strange 
 firstjudge of Madras under the charter 
 of justice .... Dec. 26, 1800 
 
 A fire consumes upwards of 1000 houses 
 in Madras .... Feb. 1803 
 
 The Madras army under general Arthur 
 Wellesley (afterwards duke of Welling- 
 ton) marches for Poonah. .March, 1803 
 
 General Wellesley's victories follow. See 
 India, &c 1803 
 
 Mutiny among the British forces at 
 Vellore ; near 800 sepoys are exe- 
 cuted .... Jan. 31, 1807 
 
 Mutiny of the troops at Madras . . 1809 
 
 Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who 
 publishes a general amnesty, Sept. 29, 1809 
 
 Awful hurricane, by which the ships at 
 anchor were driven into the town, and 
 seventy sail sunk, many of them with 
 their crews .... May, 1811 
 
MAD 406 MAG 
 
 MADRAS, continued. 
 
 Madras attacked by the Pindarees . . 1817 I [For subsequent events in connection 
 Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first | with this presidency, see article 
 
 bishop of Madras, under act 3 & 4 I India.] 
 
 Will. IV. c. 85 Feb. 14, 1835 | 
 
 MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was sacked 
 a.d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. The Escurial was 
 built in 1557 et seg. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. The French took 
 possession of this city in March 1808, after the royal family had retired into France, 
 and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to expel them, when a dreadful conflict 
 and carnage took place. Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 
 1808; but soon retired. Retaken by the French, Dec. 2, same year; and retained 
 till Aug. 12, 1812, when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. 
 was restored, May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
 late civil war, for which see Spain. 
 
 M AESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of 
 Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a memorable siege, 
 and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Lewis XIV. took it in 1673; William 
 prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but in 1678 it was restored to the 
 Dutch. In 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were permitted to take posses- 
 sion of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At 
 the commencement of 1793, Maestricht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, 
 but they became masters of it towards the end of the following year. In 1814, it was 
 delivered up to the allied forces. 
 
 MAGAZINE, a miscellaneous periodical publication. There are now magazines devoted 
 to nearly every department of knowledge. The following are the dates of the first 
 publication of the principal magazines.— See Reviews and Newspapers. 
 
 Gentleman's Magazine .... 1731 
 
 London Magazine 1732 
 
 Scots Magazine 1739 
 
 Royal Magazine 1759 
 
 Court Magazine 1760 
 
 Gospel Magazine ...... 1768 
 
 Lady's Magazine 1772 
 
 European Magazine 1782 
 
 Methodist's Magazine .... 1784 
 
 Evangelical Magazine . 
 Monthly Magazine . 
 Philosophical Magazine 
 Blackwood's Magazine 
 New Monthly Magazine 
 Fraser's Magazine . 
 Metropolitan Magazine 
 Penny Magazine 
 Tait's Magazine . 
 
 . 1792 
 . 1796 
 . 1798 
 . 1817 
 . 1819 
 . 1830 
 . 1S31 
 . 1832 
 . 1833 
 
 MAGDALENS and MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nuns and women, the latter 
 class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of Naples was endowed 
 by queen Sancha, a.d. 1324. That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
 The Magdalen at Rome was endowed by pope Leo X., in 1515 ; and Clement VIII. 
 settled a revenue on the nuns, and further ordained that the effects of all public 
 prostitutes who died without will should fall to them, and that those who made wills 
 should not have their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part 
 of their effects to the Magdalen Institutions, which part was to be at least one fifth, 
 1594. The Magdalen Hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally under the 
 direction of Dr. Dodd. The Asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 
 
 MAGELLAN, STRAITS of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fernando de 
 Magelhae'ns), a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor 
 Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was undertaken by this illus- 
 trious navigator ; and his vessel performed the enterprise, although the commander 
 perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, since called Cape Famine, because the 
 garrison had all perished for want of food. 
 
 MAGI, or WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of the 
 Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not knowing, they 
 worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular homage to fire, as 
 the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars nor temples, as they 
 deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent God within walls; accord- 
 ingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and their offerings were made upon the 
 earth. The Magi were their priests, and their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets 
 of nature familiar to them, so that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned 
 men, till they were finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, 
 was the reformer of the sect of the Magi : he flourished 1080 B c. 
 
MAG 407 MAH 
 
 MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, England's 
 great philosopher, about a.d. 1260. Bacon first invented the convex magnify ing- 
 glasses in 1252; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, applied them to this 
 use. The improvements on Bacon's magic lantern, and the adaptation of it to various 
 scientific purposes, continue to be made to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have been 
 derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his successors, 
 Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the charter more particularly meant, was a body 
 of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John and signed at Runnymede, 
 near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took arms to enforce this sacred posses- 
 sion, which was many times confirmed, and as frequently violated, by Henry III. 
 This last king's grand charter was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was 
 assured by Edward I. It is remarked, that when Henry III. granted it, he swore on 
 the word and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight to observe it. For this grant 
 a fifteenth of all movable goods were given to the king, whether they were temporals 
 or spirituals ; yet sir Edward Coke says, that even in his days it had been confirmed 
 above thirty times. See Forests, Charter of the. 
 
 MAGNESIA. This white alkaline earth used in medicine, of gently purgative properties, 
 was in use in the beginning of the eighteenth century, when it was sold by a Roman 
 canon as Magnesia alba. The properties of this substance were fully developed by 
 Dr. Black, about 1755. 
 
 MAGNETISM. The attractive power of the loadstone or magnet was early known, and 
 is referred to by Homer, Aristotle., and Pliny ; it was also known to the Chinese and 
 Arabians. Roger Bacon is said to have been acquainted with its property of pointing 
 to the north (1294). The invention of the mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio 
 Gioia, a Neapolitan, about 1300 ; but it was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and 
 is mentioned much earlier in a French poem, 1150. Robert Norman, of London, dis- 
 covered the dip of the needle about 1576. Gilbert's treatise on the magnet was 
 published in 1600; and Halley's in 1683. The variation of the compass was 
 observed by Bond, in 1668; the diurnal variation by Graham, in 1722; on which latter 
 Canton made 4000 observations previous to 1756. Artificial magnets were made by 
 Dr. G. Knight, in 1756. In 1786 Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
 mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, which had been also investigated by 
 Michel, Euler, Lambert, Robison, and others (1750 — 1800). The magnetic effects of 
 the violet rays of light were exhibited by Morichini, in 1814. The influence of heat 
 on the magnet has been shown by the experiments of Barlow and Faraday. The 
 deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic current was discovered by Oersted, 
 in 1820; Schweigger constructed his galvanometer in 1821, and in 1825 Nobili con- 
 structed his astatic system of needles. In 1831 electricity was produced from a 
 magnet by professor Faraday, who has since published his researches, — on the action 
 of the magnet on light, on the magnetic properties of flame, air and gases, (1845) on 
 dia-magnetism (1845), on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism 
 (1850), and on the magnetic force, 1851-2. In the present century our knowledge of 
 the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased by the labours of Arago, 
 Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, Sabine, Larnont, Tyndall, &c. &c* 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY. In 1831 professor Faraday published his discovery of 
 magneto-electricity, and magneto-electric machines were constructed in Paris by 
 Pixii, in 1832; and by Saxton in London, in 1833. Magneto-electricity has been 
 recently applied to telegraphic purposes. 
 
 MAGNOLTA. The Magnolia glauca was brought to these countries from N. America in 
 a.d. 1688. The laurel-leaved Magnolia, Magnolia grandijlora, was brought from 
 N. America about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia purnila, was brought from 
 China in 1789. And the following varieties also from China, viz. the brown stalked, 
 1789; the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804. 
 
 MAHOMETANISM. See Koran. The creed of Mahomet was promulgated, a.d. 604, 
 by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned general and politician, and by 
 others as a successful impostor and tyrant. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was 
 
 * In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the 
 principles of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lbs. and can sustain 430 lbs. Haseker, of Nuremburg, con- 
 structed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was 
 exhibited in 1851 at the Royal Institution. 
 
MAI 408 MAL 
 
 revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twenty-three years. He is 
 said to have been helped by a Jew and two Christians. Mahomet died in 631, of the 
 effects, it is said, of a slow poison, given to him iu a piece of mutton three years 
 before, by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
 immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Prideaux. 
 
 MAID OF KENT (Elizabeth Barton.) See Holy Maid of Kent. 
 
 MAID OF ORLEANS (Joan of Arc.) See Joan of Arc. 
 
 MAIDA, BATTLE op. Between the French commanded by general Regnier, and the 
 British under major-general sir John Stuart. The French were nearly double the 
 number of the British, yet the latter gained a glorious victory on the ''Plains of 
 Maida," a village in Calabria, the loss of the enemy being most severe, July 4, 1806. 
 This victory deservedly placed sir John Stuart in the first rank of British heroes. He 
 is historically renowned as the " Hero of the Plains of Maida." 
 
 MAIDEN. An instrument for executing criminals, in some respects similar to a later 
 invention, the guillotine, first known at Halifax in the reigu of Elizabeth. See 
 Halifax. This instrument was introduced into Scotland by the regent Morton, for 
 the decapitation of his political opponents, but he himself suffered by it on a very 
 doubtful charge of high treason, in 1581. See Guillotine. 
 
 MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne of Britauny, daughter of Francis II. of that dukedom, and 
 queen of France, a very beautiful and extraoi'dinary woman, was queen of Charles 
 VIII. and Louis XII. successively. Anne, herself lovely, was the first to have young 
 ladies of quality, all of them beautiful, about her person, called maids of honour. 
 The highest in rank and fairest, were her maids of honour. — Phil, de Commines. She 
 too, when Charles died, put a cordelier (a black knotted lace) round her coat of 
 arms, as a token of mourning, which introduced a custom observed ever since. 
 
 MAIL-COACHES. They were first set up at Bristol in 1784; and were extended to 
 other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they became general in England. This 
 plan for the conveyance of letters was the invention of Mi*. Palmer of Bath : the mails 
 had been previously conveyed by carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 
 Mail-coaches were exempted from tolls in 1785. From the establishment of these 
 mails the prosperity of the' post-office commenced ; and the revenue, which at first 
 was not more than 5000Z. a year, and which after the revolution of two centuries, only 
 produced, in 1783, 146,000/. annually, yielded thirty years afterwards nearly 1,700,000?. 
 The later amount of the annual receipts of the post-office was about 2,400,000/. until 
 the late reduction of the postage. 
 
 MAIMING and WOUNDING. See Coventry Act. 
 
 MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were addressed by 
 this title, which was previously given to their great officers of state. Popes also had 
 the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany took the title, and endeavoured to 
 keep it and the enclosed crown to themselves. It was first given to Louis XI. of 
 France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 
 1519, the kings of Spain took the style of majesty. Francis I. of France, at the 
 interview with Henry VIII. of England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed 
 the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. See Field of the Cloth of Oohl. James I. coupled 
 this title with the term " Sacred," and " Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. 
 
 MAJORCA and MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see Minorca. 
 
 MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which the 
 Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French and 
 English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 hours were 
 repulsed with severe loss; that of the English being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; 
 that of the French 3338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked 
 the Malakhoff ; at S o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag 
 floated over the conquered redoubt. — See Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan 
 were found 3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 MALDON, Essex. This town was built 28 B.C. Some suppose it to have been the first 
 Roman colony in Britain. It was burnt by queen Boadieea, and was rebuilt by the 
 Romans in the first century. It was burnt by the Danes, and was rebuilt by the 
 Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and Mary. The singular custom of 
 Borough-Euglish is kept up here, by which the youngest son, and not the eldest 
 succeeds to the burgage tenure, on the death of his father. See Borough-English. 
 
MAL 
 
 409 
 
 MAN 
 
 MALPLAQUET, BATTLE of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
 Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by Marshal Villars. The armies 
 consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the victory was with the 
 allies. There was great slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which 
 loss was but ill repaid by the capture of Mons ; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 
 
 MALT. Barley prepared by malting for brewing and distillation. A duty was laid upon 
 this article in 1667, 1697, et seq. ; and the statutes relating to it, and to its prepa- 
 ration, are very numerous. Important acts for the regulation of malt duties were 
 passed 8 Geo. IV. 1827, and 11 Geo. IV. 1830. Act regulating the business of 
 maltsters passed 1 Vict. July 12, 1837. 
 
 BUSHELS OF MALT MADE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS, VIZ. : — 
 
 1825. England Bush. 29,572,742 
 
 Scotland . 
 Ireland 
 
 1830. England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 1835. England 
 Scotland 
 Iieland 
 
 3,925,847 
 2,706,862 
 
 23,428,074 
 3,712,964 
 2,012,639 
 
 36,078,S56 
 4,459,552 
 2,353,604 
 
 ■36,205,451 
 
 29,153,677 
 
 42,892,012 
 
 1840. England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 1845. England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 1850. England 
 Scotland 
 Ireland 
 
 Bush. 33,376,720 
 
 . 4,374,328 
 
 . . 1,915,584 
 
 30,50S,S40 
 3,932,364 
 1,497,736 
 
 33,107,376 
 4,255,480 
 1,542,088 
 
 39,666,632 
 
 ■ 35,938,940 
 
 ■38,904,944 
 
 MALTA, KNIGHTS of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John 
 of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of 
 Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
 house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received with 
 zeal and charity, a.d. 1048. They afterwards founded an hospital for the sick, from 
 whence they were called Hospitallers. This foundation was laid in a.d. 1104, in the 
 reign of Baldwin, and in 1118 they became a military order, into which many persons 
 of quality entered, and changed the name into knights. After the Christians had 
 lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired to 
 Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. Then they 
 followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his dominions, where 
 they stayed till 1310, in which year they took Rhodes, under their grand master 
 Foulques de Vallaret, and the next year defended it under the duke of Savoy, against 
 an army of Saracens. Since when, his successors have used F. E. R. T. for their 
 device, that is Forlitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valour. From 
 this they were called knights of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 
 1522, they retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them 
 the city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave them 
 the isle of Malta. The emperor Paul of Russia declared himself grand master of the 
 order in June, 1799. See next article. 
 
 MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- 
 prise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by general Bonaparte 
 in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He found in it 1200 pieces 
 of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 
 40,000 muskets : besides an immense treasure collected by superstition : and 4500 
 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from 
 the autumn of 1798, and was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800; but, at the 
 peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
 British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between the two 
 nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to Great Britain. 
 
 MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty which l-eigned a considerable time in Egypt. 
 They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were established by the 
 sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a.d. 1246. They advanced one of their own 
 corps to the throne, and continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province, 
 in 1517, when the beys took them into pay, and filled up their ranks with rene- 
 gades from various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they 
 retreated into Nubia. Assisted by the Arnauts, they once more wrested Egypt 
 from the Turkish government, but in 1811 they were decoyed into the power of the 
 Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo to the number of about 1600. 
 
 MAN, BISHOPRIC of. Erected by pope Gregory IV. It had, united to its diocese, 
 
MAN 
 
 410 
 
 .MAN 
 
 the Western Isles of Scotland, which, when Man became dependent upon England, 
 withdrew their obedience, aud had a bishop of their own. The patronage of the 
 diocese was given, together with the island, to the Stanleys (see next article), 
 and it ultimately came, by an heir-female, to the duke of Athol. The duke nominates 
 the bishop to the king, who sends him to the archbishop of York for consecration. 
 This prelate is not a lord of parliament, not holding from the king himself. The 
 bishopric is united to that of Sodor, a village of Icolmkill, one of the Hebrides of 
 Scotland ; the latter was formerly a bishop's see, which comprehended all the islands 
 together with the isle of Man ; and the bishop of Man is called bishop of Sodor 
 and Man. 
 
 MAN, ISLE of. Conquered from the Scots in 1314, by Montacute, earl of Sarum, 
 to whom Edward III. gave the title of king of Man. In 1341 it was subjected 
 to the earl of Northumberland, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in fee 
 to sir John Stanley, 1406 ; it was taken from this family by Elizabeth, and conferred 
 by the crown, in 1608, on the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by inheritance to 
 the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 70,000^. from parliament for the sovereignty 
 in 1765; and the nation was charged with the further sum of 132,944^. for the 
 purchase of his interest in the revenues of the island, in Jan. 1829. 
 
 MANCHESTER. The origin of Manchester is traced to a period of remote antiquity. 
 In the time of the Druids it was distinguished as one of the principal stations of their 
 priests, and celebrated for the privilege of sanctuary attached to its altar, which, in 
 the British language, was called Meyne, signifying a stone. Prior to the Christian era, it 
 was one of the principal seats of the Brigantes, who had a castle, or stronghold, called 
 Mancenian, or the place of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and 
 Irvvell, the site of which, still called the "Castle Field," was by the Romans, on 
 their conquest of this part of the island under Agricola, about the year 79, selected 
 as the station of the Cohors Prima Frisiorwm, and, with reference to its original 
 British name, called by them Mancunium ; hence its Saxon name Manceastre, from 
 which its modern appellation is derived. — Lewis' Topog. Diet. 
 
 The fort of Mancenion taken from the 
 Britons a.d. 4S8 
 
 Captured by Edward of Northumbria . 620 
 
 The inhabitants are converted to Chris- 
 tianity, about 627 
 
 The town wrested from the possession 
 of the Danes 920 
 
 [Manchester is made a borough soon 
 after this time.] 
 
 The charter called the Magna Cliarta of 
 
 Manchester .... May 14, 1301 
 The manufacture called "Manchester 
 
 cottons " introduced . . . 1352 
 
 Free Grammar- school founded . . 1516 
 The privilege of sanctuary, of which this 
 was nue of the eight places, removed 
 
 to Chester, about 1541 
 
 An aulnager stationed here . . . 1565 
 Sir Thomas Fairfax takes possession of 
 
 the town 1643 
 
 The walls and fortifications razed, and 
 
 the gates removed .... 1052 
 Chetham College, or Blue-coat hospital 
 
 founded 1653 
 
 Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," 
 
 who is afterwards hauged . . . 1715 
 Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pre- 
 tender, enters the town . . . . 1744 
 Makes it his quarters . . Nov. 28, 1745 
 Queen's Theatre first built . . . 1753 
 
 The Infirmary established, 1752, and the 
 
 buildings erected 1755 
 
 The inhabitants discharged from their 
 obligation to grind their corn at Irk 
 
 mill 1759 
 
 Cotton goods first exported . . . 17(30 
 Manchester navigation opened . . . 1761 
 Lunatic asylum founded . . . . 1765 
 Agricultural Society instituted . . . 1767 
 Christian, king of Denmark, visits Man- 
 chester, and puts up at the Bull Inn . 1768 
 The Queen's Theatre rebuilt . . . 1775 
 
 Subscription concerts established . . 1777 
 The manufacture of muslin first at- 
 tempted here, about . . . . 1780 
 The Literary and Philosophical Society 
 
 established 1781 
 
 New Bailey bridge completed . . . 1785 
 Sir Richard Arkwright's patent annulled 
 by the King's Bench, and bis invention 
 
 thrown open 1785 
 
 Queen's Theatre burnt down . . . 1789 
 
 And re- erected 1790 
 
 New Bailey built 17U0 
 
 Assembly rooins, Mosley-street, built . 1792 
 Philological Society instituted . . . 1803 
 The archdukes John and Lewis of Aus- 
 tria visit Manchester .... 1805 
 Fever Hospital erected . . . . 1805 
 Theatre Royal erected . . . .1806 
 
 The Portico erected 1806 
 
 Exchange, and Commercial-buildings, 
 
 erected, and opened . . . Jan. 1809 
 The Manchester and Salford water-works 
 
 established 1809 
 
 The grand duke Nicholas, afterwards 
 
 emperor of Russia, visits the town . 1817 
 Lock Hospital established . . . . 1819 
 Manchester Reform Meeting {which see), 
 
 its fatal termination . . Aug. 16, 1819 
 New Brunswick-bridge built . . . 1820 
 Chamber of Commerce established. . 1820 
 
 Law Library founded 1S20 
 
 Natural History Society projected . . 1821 
 New Quay Company founded . . . 1822 
 Deaf and Dumb School instituted . . 1823 
 Royal Institution formed . . . 1823 
 
 The Floral aud Horticultural Society 
 established ...... 1823 
 
 Mechanics' Institution founded . . . 1824 
 Musical festival first held . . . 1828 
 At the launch of a vessel which keeled 
 and upset, upwards of 200 persons, 
 then on deck, were precipitated into 
 the river, and 51 perished Feb. 29, 1828 
 
MAN 
 
 411 
 
 MAN 
 
 61,9842. were subscribed in four hours, 
 
 Dec. 23, 
 
 The Queen's park, Peel park, and Philips 
 
 park opened . . . Aug. 22, 
 Manchester made the seat of a bishopric ; 
 
 the order in council dated (see next 
 
 article) . . . . Sept. 1, 
 
 Dr. Prince Lee first bishop, confirmed so 
 
 Jan. 11, 
 
 Opening of Owen's Collegiate Institution, 
 
 to whose foundation the late Mr. John 
 
 Owen bequeathed 100,0002. March 10, 
 The Queen's visit to Manchester, Oct. 10, 
 Great meeting in the Free-trade hall to 
 
 greet M. Kossuth . . . Nov 11, 
 The Guild of Literature entertained at a 
 
 banquet by the citizens . Aug. 31, 
 
 Opening of the Manchester Free Library, 
 
 Sept. 2, 
 
 Great Free-trade banquet . . Nov. 2, 
 
 Manchester declared to be a city, and 
 
 formally so gazetted . . April 16, 
 Great strike of minders and piecers, 
 
 Nov. 7, 
 Exhibition of Art Treasures* determined 
 
 on May 20, 
 
 Opened by Prince Albert . . May 5, 
 Visited by the Queen . June 29, 30, 
 
 1S45 
 1846 
 
 1847 
 1848 
 
 1851 
 1851 
 
 1851 
 
 1S52 
 
 1852 
 1S52 
 
 1853 
 
 1855 
 
 1856 
 1857 
 
 1857 
 
 MANCHESTER, continued. 
 
 n a tumult here, a factory was burnt, 
 
 and an immense quantity of machinery 
 
 destroyed .... May 3, 1829 
 New Concert room established . . . 1829 
 The races established .... 1830 
 Manchester and Liverpool railway 
 
 opened (see Liverpool) . Sept. 15, 1830 
 
 [On this occasion the right hon. William 
 Huskisson lost his life.] 
 
 Manchester constituted a parliamentary 
 borough .... June 7, 1832 
 
 Choral Society established . . . 1833 
 
 The Statistical Society, the first formed 
 in England ; it commences its meet- 
 ings Sept. 2, 1833 
 
 Act for the Manchester and Leeds Kail- 
 way passed (see Railways) . . . 1836 
 
 Geological Society instituted . . . 1838 
 
 Charter of incorporation . Oct. 23, 1838 
 
 Manchester Police Act . . Aug. 26, 1839 
 
 Great disorders in the midland counties 
 among the artisan classes ; they ex- 
 tend to this town . . . Aug. 1842 
 
 Great free-trade meetings held here (et 
 seq.) (see Corn Laws) . . Nov. 14, 1843 
 
 Splendid meeting held at the Athenaeum 
 (see Athenaum). . . . Oct. 3, 1844 
 
 Great Anti-corn Law meeting, at which 
 
 MANCHESTER, BISHOPRIC of. An order iu council was published in the London 
 Gazette, in October, 1838, declaring that the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor should 
 be united on the next vacancy in either, and that upon the occurrence of that event 
 the bishopric of Manchester should be immediately created within the jurisdiction of 
 the archiepiscopal see of York ; and that the county of Lancaster should form the see 
 of the new bishop, being for that purpose detached from the diocese of Chester. By 
 act 10 Vict, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor are to exist undisturbed, and that of 
 Manchester is to be created notwithstanding (1846). Conformably with the latter 
 act, the rev. Dr. Prince Lee was made bishop of Manchester in 1847, and consecrated 
 in 1848 ; and he is, of course, the first bishop of this new see. 
 
 MANCHESTER REFORM MEETING. Called Peterloo. Memorable for its fatal 
 termination. ?The assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, 
 and children, all in holiday spirits. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken a few 
 words, when the meeting was suddenly assailed by a charge of the Manchester cavalry, 
 assisted by a Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, and a regiment of hussars, the outlets 
 being occupied by other military detachments. The unarmed multitude were in 
 consequence driven one upon another, by which many were killed, while others were 
 rode over by the horses, or cut down by their riders. The deaths were 11 men, 
 women, and children, and the wounded about 600; Aug. 16, 1819. — Phillips. 
 
 MANES. The name applied by the ancients to the soul when separated from the body. 
 The Manes were reckoned among the infernal deities, and were generally supposed 
 to preside over the burial-p^ces and monuments of the dead. They were worshipped 
 with great solemnity, particularly by the Romans; and the augurs always invoked 
 them when exercising their sacerdotal offices. Virgil introduces his hero as sacrificing 
 to the Manes. Some say that Manes comes from manis, an old Latin word which 
 signified good or propitious. The Romans always superscribed their epitaphs with 
 D. M. Diis Manibus, to remind the sacrilegious and profane not to molest the tene- 
 ments of the dead, which were guarded with such sanctity. 
 
 MANHEIM. First built in a.d. 1606 ; and became the court residence in 1719 ; but 
 the extinction of the palatinate family in 1777 caused the removal of the court to 
 Munich. Battle of Manheim, between the armies of the allies and the French, 
 fought May 30, 1793. Manheim surrendered to the French, under command of 
 general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1795. On the 25th of the same month, the Austrians 
 under general Wurmser, defeated the French near the city. Several battles were 
 fought with various success in the neighbourhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, 
 
 * The building consists of a hall upwards of 700 feet long and 100 feet wide, and including a 
 transept, covers an area of 80,000 square feet. It contains (1S57) the most extraordinary collection of 
 works of art ever brought together in this country. 
 
MAN 412 MAR 
 
 the popular dramatist, was assassinated at Manheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, 
 named Sandt, April 2, 1819. 
 
 MANICHEANS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest the East, 
 about a.D. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into 
 Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left him a store of wealth, 
 after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced 
 that he was the paraclete or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He main- 
 tained two principles, the one good and the other bad ; the first he called light, 
 which did nothing but good, and the second he called darkness, which did nothing 
 but evil. Several other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death 
 by Sapor, king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his having dis- 
 missed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the royal family 
 by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a great mart of Spanish commerce. 3000 
 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was taken by the English 
 in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The captors humanely suffered the arch- 
 bishop to ransom it for about a million sterling; but great part of the ransom never 
 was paid. Since the establishment of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took 
 place in 1783, the usual Acapulco ships and other government traders have been dis- 
 continued ; and the commerce to the Manillas and other parts is carried on in private 
 bottoms by free companies of merchants. — Butler, It was nearly destroyed by an 
 earthquake in Sept. 22, 1852. 
 
 MANSION-HOUSE, London. The residence of the first magistrate of the first city in 
 the world. This great pile of building is situate at the east end of the Poultry, on 
 the site of the ancient Stocks'-market. It was built by Dance the elder. Its erection 
 was commenced in 1739, but not completed till 1753; it is of an oblong form, and 
 constructed of Portland stone. 
 
 MAN TINEA, BATTLE of. Between Epaminondas and the Thebans, and the combined 
 forces of Lacedsemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. The Theban general was 
 killed in the engagement, and from that time Thebes lost its power and consequence 
 among the Grecian states, 363 B.C. — Strabo. The emperor Adrian built a temple at 
 Mantinea in honour of his favourite Alcinous. The town was also called Antigonia. 
 
 MANTUA. Virgil was born at a village near this city. Hence he is often styled the 
 Mantuan bard. In modern history, Mantua surrendered to the French, Jan. 7, 1797, 
 after a siege of eight months; and it was attacked by the Austrian and Russian 
 army, July 30, 1799, to which it surrendered after a short siege. In 1800, after the 
 battle of Marengo, the French again obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it 
 up to the A ust;r i an s in 1814. 
 
 MAPLE-TREE. This tree, Acer rubrum, or scarlet maple, was brought to these countries 
 from N. America, before a.d. 1656. The Acer Negundo, or the ash-leaved maple, was 
 brought to England before 1688. The maple wood is used for a variety of purposes, 
 particularly for ornament. — Pardon. 
 
 MAPS and CHARTS. See Charts and Mercator. 
 
 MARATHON, BATTLE op. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history. The 
 Greeks were only 10,000 strong, and the Persians amounted to 500,000. The former 
 were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, who defeated the Persians, 
 leaving 200,000 dead upon the fieid. Among the number of the slain was Hippias, 
 the instigator of the war ; the remainder of the Persian army were forced to re- 
 embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 B.C. 
 
 MARBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who sculpture d 
 marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their time being of wood, 
 568 B.C. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for the statues, and the columns 
 and ornaments of fine buildings, and the edifices and monuments of Rome were con- 
 structed of, or ornamented with, fine marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its 
 magnificent structures, which were chiefly of white marble, were far moi-e extensive 
 and splendid than those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some 
 English travellers from Aleppo, a.d. 1678. See Palmyra. 
 
 MARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 B.C. 
 Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave to this month the name of his 
 supposed father, Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month 
 
MAR 413 MAR 
 
 of March before the time of Romulus, but that they placed it very differentl y in the 
 calendar. The year formerly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 
 
 MARCHERS. Noblemen who lived on the marches of "Wales or Scotland, boundaries 
 formerly settled between England and Wales, and England and Scotland ; and who, 
 according to Camden, had their laws and potestas vita, &c. like petty princes. They 
 were abolished by statutes 27 Hen. VIII. 1535, and 1 Edw. VI. 1547. 
 
 MARCIONITES. These were heretics, whose founder was Marcion. They differed 
 very little from the Manichees, except that they worshipped a brazen serpent. The 
 Marcionites preceded the Manichees or Manicheans, and taught their doctrines about 
 140 a.d. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 
 
 MARENGO, BATTLE of. In this memorable engagement the French army was com- 
 manded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies of valour, his army 
 was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix (who was afterwards 
 mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes of the day. The slaughter on 
 both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost 6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 
 45 pieces of cannon; and though the French boasted that the loss on their side did 
 not much exceed 3000 men, it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, 1800. 
 By a treaty between the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed 
 on the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into possession 
 of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. 
 
 MARESCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France, marshals were the ancient esquires of the 
 king; and by their first institution they had the command of the vanguard to observe 
 the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encampment. Till the time of 
 Francis I., in a.d. 1515, there were but two French marshals, who had 500 livres 
 per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became of 
 the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command 
 supreme. During the empire of Napoleon, the marshals of France filled the world 
 with their renown. See Marshal, Field, 
 
 MARIGNAN, BATTLE of. Fought near Milan, in Italy, and one of the most furious 
 engagements of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened between 
 the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First, upwards of twenty thousand 
 men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest troops, were compelled to 
 retire, Sept. 13, 1515. 
 
 'MARINE FORCES. Marines were first established with the object of forming a nursery 
 to man the fleet. An order in council dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 soldiers 
 to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 1684, the 3rd regiment of the line 
 was called the Marine Regiment, but the system of having soldiers exclusively for sea- 
 service was not carried into effect until 1698, when two marine regiments were 
 formed. More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; and in 1741 the corps 
 consisted of ten regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered 18,000 men. 
 In the latter years of the French war ending in 1815, the establishment amouuted to 
 31,400, but there were frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, as 
 they are called, have distinguished themselves on many occasions. The vote for 1857 
 was for 16,000 marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. — P. H. Nicolas. 
 
 MARINER'S COMPASS. See Compass and Magnetism. 
 
 MARK. This coin originated among the northern nations, and the name mark-lubs is 
 still retained in Denmark, as money of account. The mark was a general continental 
 coin, of silver. — Ashe. In England, the mark means the sum of thirteen shillings and 
 fourpence; and here the name is also retained in particular cases of fines being 
 adjudged against infractors of the law in criminal courts. — Ashe. 
 
 MARLBOROUGH, STATUTES of. These were the celebrated laws that were enacted 
 in the castle of Marlborough, in Wiltshire, in the 51st year of Henry III. 1267. All 
 these laws still bear the title of the Statutes of Marlborough, and. some of them 
 continue to be referred to, to this day; most of them are, however, obsolete, and have 
 been so for several hundred years. — Laiu Diet. 
 
 MARONITES, or M ARONISTS, were Christians in the East, whose original founder was 
 one Maron in the 5th century ; they are said to have embraced the errors of the 
 Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites : in 1180 they numbered 40,000, living in the 
 neighbourhood of Mount Libanus, and, being a brave people, they were of great service 
 
MAR 414 MAR 
 
 to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the Church of Rome 
 about the 12th century. — Pardon. 
 MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island was 
 conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes abandoned by their former 
 masters fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight 
 years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain 
 their free settlements, about 1730. In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily 
 put down and transported to Nova Scotia. — Brande. 
 
 MARQUE, LETTERS of. Instruments authorising the subjects of one prince to make 
 reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another prince or 
 country. Some such instruments are said to have been first ust d by the Venetian 
 government. The first letters of marque granted in England were in the reign of 
 Edward I., against the Portuguese, a d. 1295. — Rymer's Fcedera. 
 
 MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the Germans 
 Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the language of the north- 
 ern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was to guard or govern the frontiers 
 of a province. It has the next place of honour to a duke, and was introduced several 
 years after that title had been established, in England. The first on whom it was 
 conferred was the great favourite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, 
 who was created marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the 
 dukes and earls, a.d. 1385. Alexander Stuart, second son of James III. of Scotland, 
 was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 
 
 MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for life, witli 
 certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to Cecropa, king of 
 Athens, 1554 B.C. — The ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home 
 his bride, after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
 sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil magistrate, 
 adopted by several civilised nations. The celebration of marriage in churches was 
 ordained by pope Innocent III. about a.d. 1199. Marriage was forbidden in Lent, 
 a.d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 1015 ; and these latter 
 were obliged to take the vow of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnised by 
 justices of the peace under an act of the commons in Oliver Cromwell's adminis- 
 tration, 1653. A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50/. of a 
 common person, 2s. 6d. the 8th of Will. III. 1695. Marriages were again taxed in 
 1784. There have been enacted various recent statutes relating to marriages ; and 
 more toleration is now given to marriages by Roman Catholic priests in Ireland. 
 A statute which passed 4 Will. IV. July, 1834, repeals all former acts which prohibited 
 marriages by Roman Catholic priests in Scotland, or other ministers not belonging to 
 the Church of Scotland. Act to render the children of certain marriages witlin 
 forbidden degrees of kindred valid, 6 Will. IV. 1835. New Marriage Act for Englaud 
 passed 7 Will. IV. 1836. Mai-riage Registration Act, 1 Vict. 1837. Amendment 
 Acts, 4 Vict. 1840, and 19 & 20 Vict. c. 119, 1856. 
 
 NUMBER OF MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 
 
 1750. Registered. . 40,300 I 1S25. Registered . . 9S.378 
 
 1800. Ditto . . . 73,228 1830. Ditto . . 102,437 
 
 1810. Ditto . . . 84,473 1S40. Ditto . . . 121.0S3 
 
 1815. Ditto . . . 91,946 1845. Ditto . . 143,743 
 
 1820. Ditto . . . 96,883 ] 1848. Ditto . . . 13S.230 
 
 1850. Registered . 152,738 
 
 1853. Ditto . . . 164,021 
 
 1S54. Ditto . . 159,849 
 
 1855. Ditto . . . 151,774 
 
 1S56. Ditto . . 159,183 
 
 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrar's returns, that 47,570 men 
 and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the marriage register with 
 their marks. In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820—243,674 in 1825— and 
 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of that city, which are very minute 
 and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7754 marriages : — 
 
 Bachelors and maids .... 6456 I Widowers and maids . . . .708 
 Bachelors and widows . . . 368 | Widowers and widows . . . . 222 
 
 It has frequently been attempted to legalise a marriage with a deceased wife's sister, 
 without success. A bill for this purpose was read a second time in the commons, 
 May 9, 1855; but afterwards adjourned to the next session. A bill to suppress 
 irregular marriages in Scotland, was passed in 1856. 
 MARRIAGE ACT, ROYAL. This statute is a bill of restriction with respect to the 
 marriages of the royal family of England ; and was'passed into a law 12 Geo. III. 1772. 
 
MAR 415 MAR 
 
 It became expedient because just previously the duke of Gloucester, the king's brother, 
 had married the widow of the earl Waldegrave, and the duke of Cumberland, the 
 widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irnham. In consequence of this bill, 
 none of the descendants of George II., unless of foreign birth, can enter into the 
 matrimonial state under the age of twenty-five, unless with the consent of the king, 
 and, at and after that age, the consent of parliament is necessary to render the 
 marriage valid. The marriage of the late duke of Sussex with the lady Augusta 
 Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced illegal, and the claims of sir Augustus 
 d'Este declared invalid, by the House of Lords, July 9, 1844. 
 
 MARRIAGE, HALF. Semi-Matrimonium. Some writers censure those laws that per- 
 mitted concubinage, and only forbade men not to have a wife and a concubine at the 
 same time. But we should consider that among the Romans concubinage was 
 a legitimate union, not alone tolerated, but authorised. The concubine had the 
 name of semi-conjux. They might have either a wife or a concubine, provided they 
 had not both together. Constantine the Great gave a check to concubinage, but did 
 not abolish it ; for it subsisted many years in the Church. Of this we have an 
 authentic proof in one of the councils of Toledo. This ancient custom of the Romans 
 was preserved, not only among the Lombards, but by the French when they held 
 dominion in that country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other people 
 bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not relinquished this custom in his time, 
 1590. The women bore the name of "wives of the second order." — Henault. See 
 Morganatic Marriages. 
 
 MARRIAGES, DOUBLE. There are some instances of a husband and two wives (but 
 they are very rare) in countries where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The 
 first Lacedeemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, the son of Leon, about 
 510 B.C. Dionysius of Syracuse married two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of 
 Xenetus, and Aristomache, sister of Dion, 398 B.C. These instances would be unne- 
 cessarily extended ; but the most remarkable case is that of the count Gleichen, a 
 German nobleman, who was permitted, under interesting and peculiar circumstances, 
 by Gregory IX. in a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The Mormonite3 
 practise and encourage polygamy. 
 
 MARRIAGES, FORCED. The statute 3 Hen. VII. 1487, made the principal and 
 abettors in marriages with heiresses, &c. contrary to their will, equally guilty 
 as felons. By 39 Eliz. 1596, such felons were denied the benefit of clergy. 
 This offence was made punishable by transportation, 1 Geo. IV. 1820. The remark- 
 able case of Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom captain Campbell 
 married by force, occurred in William III.'s reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged 
 for seizing the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by parliament, 1690. 
 Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious 
 abduction of Miss Turner, March 24, 1827 ; and his marriage with her was dissolved 
 by an immediate act of parliament, 8 Geo. IV. same year. 
 
 MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians, at a certain time every year, the 
 marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder, by the 
 public crier. This custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter of 
 Belochus, about 1433 B.C. 
 
 MARSEILLES is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 600 B.C. — 
 Univ. Hist. Cicero styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken by Julius Csesar after 
 a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the Saracens, a.d. 473. Marseilles 
 became a republic in 1214. It was subjected to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and 
 was again united to the crown of France in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with 
 great violence in Marseilles, and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 
 of the inhabitants. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN". The words and music of this hymn are ascribed to Rouget de 
 Lille, a French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of marshal Lucknow, 
 in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army then at Strasburg. The 
 hymn derived its name from the circumstance of some troops from Marseilles 
 marching into Paris to the tune at a time when it was little known there. — Brande. 
 
 MARSHALS. Two officers called marshals were appointed in the city of London, in 
 order to keep the streets clear of vagrants, and to send the sick, blind, and lame to 
 asylums and hospitals for relief, 9 Eliz. 1567. — Northouck. This kind of duty was 
 afterwards transferred to different officers under various denominations. 
 
 MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British Army. The rank is of modern date, and was 
 
MAR 416 MAR 
 
 preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in-chief. The duke 
 of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first military chiefs bearing the 
 rank of marshal were those of France. George II. first conferred the rank upon John, 
 duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Orkney, in 1736. See Mareschal. 
 
 MARSHALS of FRANCE. The following list of the marshals of France in the 
 eventful time of Bonaparte's wars, will assist the reader of French history : — 
 
 Arrighi, duke of Padua. I Lefebre, duke of Dantzic. 
 
 Augereau, duke of Castiglione. | JIacdonald, duke of^Tarento 
 
 Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo ; after- 
 wards kin? of Sweden. 
 
 Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram. 
 
 Bessieres, duke of Istria. 
 
 Davoust, prince of Eckmuhl and duke of 
 Auerstadt. 
 
 Jourdan, peer of France. 
 
 Junot, duke of Abrantes. 
 
 Kellermau. duke of Valmy. 
 
 Lannes, duke of Montebello. 
 
 Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 
 
 Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli. 
 
 Moncey, duke of Conegliauo. 
 
 Mortier, duke of Treviso. 
 
 Murat, king of Naples. 
 
 Ney, prince of Moskwa and duke of FJchingeu. 
 
 Oudinot, duke of Reggio. 
 
 Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 
 
 Suchet, duke of Albufera. 
 
 Victor, duke of Belluno. 
 
 Besides these, were the following officers of state : — 
 
 Cambaceres, duke of Parma. 
 Caulaincourt, duke of Vicenza. 
 Champagne, duke of Cadore. 
 Duroc, duke of Friuli. 
 Foucne', duke of Otranto. 
 
 lie Brun, duke of Piacenza. 
 Maret, duke of Bassano. 
 Savary, duke of Rovigo. 
 
 and 
 Talleyrand de Perigord, prince of Benevento. 
 
 MARSHALSEA COURT. The court of Marshalsea of the Queen's house was a very 
 ancient court, one of high dignity and coeval with the common law. Since the 
 decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see Lord Coke's 10 Rep. 68) no business had 
 been done in this court; but it was regularly opened and adjourned at the same time 
 with the Palace court, created in 1665 : the judges and other officers being the same 
 as in the Palace court. See Palace Court. The Marshalsea court was altogether 
 discontinued, December 31, 1849. 
 
 MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE op. This battle was the beginning of the misfortunes 
 and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and parliamentarian 
 army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Rupert, joined by the 
 marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up on 
 Marston Moor, to the number of fifty thousand, and the victory seemed long 
 undecided between them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of the royalists, 
 was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came into notice, at the head of a 
 body of troops whom he had taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was 
 victorious ; he drove his opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to 
 a second engagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artillery was 
 taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow ; fought July 3, 1644. 
 
 MARTELLO TOWERS, were circular buildings of masonry erected in the beginning of 
 the present century, on the coast of England, as defences against invasion. 
 
 MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the 
 Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February, 1762. They 
 were restored to France at the peace of the following year. They were again taken 
 March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802; and were again 
 captured, Feb. 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favour of Napoleon, 
 but it was finally suppressed by the British, June 1, 1815, and Martinique reverted to 
 its French masters at the late general peace. 
 
 MARTINMAS. This day is named, according to Dr. Johnson, from Martin and mass, 
 the feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in the. fourth century. The festival is 
 observed on the 11th of November ; and in many parts of the north of England, and 
 parts of Scotland, it continues to be one of the quarter-days for receiving rents. 
 
 MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in martyrs, 
 and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to their faith. The 
 festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient date, and took their rise 
 about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom a.d. 168. England has had 
 its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of tbose who suffered for their adherence to 
 the Protestant religion, would fill volumes. The following documents in connection 
 with the fate of Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are 
 taken from a " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Supper, and the charye thereof, for 
 
MAR 
 
 417 
 
 MAS 
 
 Crammer, Latimer, and Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the 
 custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 
 
 1ST OCTOBER, 1554. — DINNER. 
 
 Bread and ale £0 2 
 
 Oysters 1 
 
 Butter 2 
 
 Eggs 2 
 
 Lyng S 
 
 A piece of fresh salmon . . . 10 
 
 Wine 3 
 
 Cheese and pears 2 
 
 The three dinners 
 
 .£026 
 
 TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. 
 
 For 3 load of wood faggots to burn 
 
 Latimer and Ridley . . . £0 12 
 Item, 1 load of furze faggots ..034 
 Item, for the carnage of these 4 loads 2 6 
 
 Item, a post £0 14 
 
 Item, 2 chains 3 4 
 
 Item, 2 staples 6 
 
 Item, 4 labourers . . . .028 
 
 £15 8 
 [They were burnt on October the 16th, 1555.] 
 
 CHARGE FOR THE BURNING OF THE BODY OF 
 CRANMER. 
 
 For 100 of wood faggots for the fire .£060 
 For 100 and £ of furze . . ..034 
 For the carnage of them . . .008 
 For 2 labourers 2 8 
 
 £0 12 8 
 [He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] 
 
 MARTYRS, ERA of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used by the 
 writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced in the sixth 
 century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, particularly the Abys- 
 sinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon which Diocletian was pro- 
 claimed emperor, Aug. 29, a.d. 284 ; and the persecutions of the Christians in his 
 reign caused it to be so called. 
 
 MASKS. Poppaea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her 
 complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and 
 Romans. Horace attributes them to iEschylus; yet Aristotle says the real inventor 
 and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern masks, and muffs, fans, and 
 false hair for the women, were devised by the harlots of Italy, and brought to England 
 from France in 1572. — Stows Chron. 
 
 MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III. 1340; and in the 
 reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops 
 preached against them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 
 9 Geo. I. 1723. [No less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at 
 this time.] They were revived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of 
 the government, and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to 
 a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty -five 
 guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 
 
 MASS. In the Romish Church, mass is the office or prayers used at the celebration 
 of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of the passion of 
 Our Saviour. Hence every part of the service is supposed to allude to the particular 
 circumstances of his passion and death.. The general division of masses consists in 
 high and low : the first is that sung by the choristers, and celebrated with the 
 assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers 
 are barely rehearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin, about a.d. 
 394. Its celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. 
 Prostration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 
 
 MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class under this 
 head ; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities of the kind have 
 been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon another, in vindication of the 
 Christian religion ! The following are among the most remarkable massacres recorded 
 by various authoi-s : — 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, which took 
 place 397 B.C. 
 
 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the 
 sword for not surrendering Tyre to Alex- 
 ander, 331 b.c. 
 
 The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other 
 inhabitants and massacre 100,000 of them, 
 for refusing to surrender their arms to De- 
 metrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 B.C. 
 
 A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and 
 Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the Roman 
 general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 
 102 b c. 
 
 The Romans throughout Asia, women and 
 children not excepted, cruelly massacred 
 in one day, by order of Mithridates, king 
 of Pontus, 88 b.c 
 
 A great number of Roman senators massacred 
 by Cinua, Marius, and Sertorius. Many 
 patricians despatch themselves to avoid 
 their horrid butcheries, 86 B.C. 
 
 Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minister 
 of vengeance, 82 and 79 B.C. 
 
 At Prasneste, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 
 Roman senators and other persons of dis - 
 tinction to be sacrificed to the manes of 
 Julius Cwsar, 41 b.c. 
 
 E E 
 
MAS 
 
 418 
 
 MAS 
 
 MASSACRES, continued. 
 
 AFTER CHBIST. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of 
 Jews were put to the sword, a.d. 70. 
 
 The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to death 
 100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and near 
 Cyrene, a.d. 115. 
 
 Cassius, a Roman general under the emperor 
 M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of the in- 
 habitants of Seleucia, a.d. 167. 
 
 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
 are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
 a.d. 213. 
 
 The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 of 
 the inhabitants upon his reduction of Gaul, 
 a.d. 277. 
 
 Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
 emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia ; they were 
 put into a ship, which was set on fire, and 
 then driven out to sea, a.d. 370. 
 
 Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invited 
 into the circus, were put to the sword, by 
 order of Theodosius, a.d. 390. 
 
 Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens 
 of Constantinople for a revolt, to which 
 they were impelled by the tyranny and 
 exactions of two rapacious ministers set 
 over them, a.d. 552. 
 
 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by 
 order of Audronicus, a.d. 1184. 
 
 Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced 
 at Toulouse, a.d. 1209. Tens of thousands 
 perished by means of the sword and gibbet. 
 
 The Sicilians massacre the French throughout 
 the whole island of Sicily, without distinc- 
 tion of sex or age, on Easter-day, the first 
 bell for vespers being the signal. This 
 horrid affair is known in history by the 
 name of the Sicilian vespers, a.d. 1282. — 
 D>x Fresnoy. See Sicilian Vespers. 
 
 A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
 by the peasants, who, from a pretended 
 prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was to 
 be recovered from the infidels by them. 
 500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, 
 and defended themselves to the last ex- 
 tremity, when, for want of weapons, they 
 threw their children at the enemy, and. 
 then killed each other, a.d. 1317. 
 
 At Paris, of several thousand persons, at the 
 instance of John, duke of Burgundy, a.d. 
 1418. 
 
 Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order 
 of Christian II., a.d. 1520. 
 
 Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, 
 throughout the kingdom of France, at- 
 tended with circumstances of the most 
 horrid treachery and cruelty. It began at 
 Paris, in the night of the festival of St. 
 Bartholomew, August 24, 1572, by secret 
 orders from Charles IX. , king of France, at 
 the instigation of the queen dowager, Cathe- 
 rine de Medicis, his mother. It is styled in 
 history the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
 when 65,000 were slain, a.d. 1592. 
 
 Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to death under 
 a pretended legal sentence of the chancellor 
 of Poland, for being concerned in a tumult 
 occasioned by a Roman Catholic procession, 
 a.d. 1724. All the Protestant powers in 
 Europe interceded to have this unjust sen- 
 tence revoked, but unavailingly. 
 
 At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred 
 by the natives, October 1740, under the 
 pretext of an intended insurrection. 
 
 At the taking of Ismael by the Russians, 
 30,000 old and young were slain, December 
 1790. See Ismael. 
 
 In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made pro- 
 clamation for the massacre of all the whites, 
 Mar. 29, 1804, and many thousands perished. 
 
 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the 
 French, May 2, 1808. 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of 
 Cairo, March 1, 1811. 
 
 Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the Ca- 
 tholics, May 1815. 
 
 Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabitants 
 of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose ferocious 
 disorders continued for some days, March 
 6, 1820. 
 
 Destruction of the Janissaries at Constan- 
 tinople (some say 16,000, others 20,000 
 killed.), June 14, 1826. 
 
 MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, 
 May 1, a.d. 474. 
 
 Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 
 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria, 
 a.d. 580. 
 
 Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
 England, in the night of November 13, 1002, 
 and the 23rd Ethelred II. At London it 
 was most bloody, the churches being no 
 sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, 
 sister of Swein, king of Denmark, left in 
 hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
 newly concluded. — Baker's Chronicle. 
 
 Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing 
 into Westminster Hall at Richard I.'s coro- 
 nation, were put to death by the people : 
 and a false alarm being given that the king 
 had ordered a general massacre of them, 
 the people in many parts of England, from 
 an aversion to them, slew all they met. 
 In York, 500, who had taken shelter in the 
 castle, killed themselves, rather than fall 
 into the hands of the multitude, a.d 1189. 
 
 Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, 
 Ireland (see Cullen's Wood), a.d. 1209. 
 
 Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order 
 to dispossess its members of the Spice Is- 
 lands, a.d. 1623. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in 
 O'Neill's rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Upwards 
 of 30,000 British were killed in the com- 
 mencement of this rebellion — Sir William 
 Petti/. In the first two or three days of it, 
 forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants 
 were destroyed. — Lord Clarendon. Before 
 the rebellion was entirely suppressed, 
 154,000 Protestants were massacred. — Sir 
 W. Temple. 
 
 Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, 
 May 9, 1691. See Glencoe. 
 
 Of 1S4 men, women, and children, chiefly Pro- 
 testants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by 
 pikes : perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, 
 at the barn of Scullabogue, Ireland, in 179S. 
 — Sir Richard Musgrave. 
 
 Of Europeans, at Meerut and Delhi, by 
 mutineers of the native Indian army, May 
 10, 11, 12, 1857. 
 
 MASTER or the CEREMONIES. See Ceremonies. 
 
 MASTER in CHANCERY. Owing to the extreme ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, 
 lord chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made to a master, 
 a.d. 1588; and the masters have been since chosen from among the most learned equity 
 members of the bar. The oflice was abolished by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 80, June 30, 1852. 
 
MAS 
 
 419 
 
 MAY 
 
 MASTER of the GREAT WARDROBE. The master or keeper of the great wardrobe 
 was an officer of great antiquity and dignity. His privileges and immunities were 
 conferred upon him by Henry VI. and were confirmed to him by his successors ; and 
 king James I. not only enlarged them, but ordained that this office should be a 
 corporation or body politic for ever. He was usually a personage of high political 
 consideration, and subordinate to him were a comptroller and many other officers, 
 who were all sworn servants of the king. The most eminent statesmen filled the 
 post. The great wardrobe establishment was abolished by act of parliament in 1782, 
 and the duties were transferred to the lord chamberlain. — Bcatson. 
 
 MASTER op the ROLLS. An equity judge, so called from his having the custody of 
 all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognisances, which being made into 
 rolls of parchment, gave occasion for that name. The repository of public papers, 
 called the Rolls, is situated in Chancery Lane, and was formerly a chapel founded for 
 the converted Jews, but after their having been expelled the kingdom, it was annexed 
 for ever to the office of the mastership of the rolls. Here are kept all the records 
 since the beginning of the reign of king Richard III. 1483; all prior to that period 
 being kept in the Tower of London. The Master of the Rolls is always of the Privy 
 Council : he keeps a court at the Rolls, where he hears and determines causes, but 
 his decrees are appealable to the Court of Chancery. The first master of the rolls 
 was either John de Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, appointed 
 Oct, 1, 1299. 
 
 MASTERS OF THE EOLLS. 
 
 Sir Win. Grant, appointed . May 27, 1801 
 Sir Thos. Plumer. . . . Jan. 6, 1818 
 Robert lord Gifford . . . April 5, 1824 
 Sir J. S. Copley (afterwards lord Lynd- 
 
 hurst) .... Sept. 14, 1826 
 Sir John Leach . . . May 3, 1827 
 
 Sir C. C. Pepys (afterwards lord Cotten- 
 ham) Sept. 29, 1834 
 
 Rt. hon. Henry Bickersteth (afterwards 
 lord Langdale) .. . . Jan. 19, 1836 
 
 Sir John Romilly (the present Master, 
 1S57) March 28, 1S51 
 
 MATHEMATICS. With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and discipline; 
 but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics were restrained to 
 those arts that more immediately related to numbers and quantity. They were first 
 taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, so early as 1950 B.C. 
 
 MATINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the 
 day in the Roman Catholic Church. The French Matins imply the massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow, the massacre of prince 
 Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600. 
 
 MAUNDY-THURSDAY. Derived by Spelman from mande, a handbasket, in which 
 the king was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others from dies mandati, the 
 day on which Our Saviour gave his great mandate, that we should love one another. 
 The Thursday before Good Friday. — Wheatley. On this day it was the custom of our 
 kings, or their almoners, to give alms, and feed and clothe as many poor men as they 
 were years old. It was begun by Edward III. at a jubilee held by him when he was 
 fifty years of age, a.d. 1363. — Polyd. Virgil. 
 
 MAURITIUS. The Isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a.d. 1505 ; but 
 the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. They called it after prince Maurice, their 
 stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope they deserted it ; and 
 it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the 
 finest provinces in France, 1715. This island was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 
 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
 
 MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own brother, 
 famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that at his death 
 she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and erected to his 
 memory a monument, which, for its grandeur andmagniScence, was called one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. This monument she called Mausoleum, a name which 
 has been given to all monuments of unusual splendour. She invited all the literary 
 men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac 
 panegyric upon her husband. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B.C. 
 
 MAY, MONTH of. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, 
 received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in respect to 
 the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majores; though others 
 supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom they offered 
 
 E e 2 
 
MAY 420 MEC 
 
 sacrifices on the first day of it. Numa Pompilius, by adding January and February 
 to the year, made this month the fifth, which before was the third, 713 B.C. 
 
 MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of Egeria on 
 May-day. May-day has also been immemorially observed in England as a rural 
 festival; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in many places profusely 
 decorated with garlands wreathed in honour of the day. The late benevolent 
 Mrs. Montague gave for many years, on May-day, an entertainment at her house iu 
 Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with roast 
 beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest 
 received a shilling from the mistress of the feast.* 
 
 MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and endowed by 
 a yearly grant voted for its support, and the education of students who are designed 
 for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland, 35 Geo. III. c. 21, 1795. 
 An act for its government was passed in 1800. It contains 500 students. Permanent 
 endowment of this college, at the instance of government, to which 30,000Z. for the 
 enlargement of the buildings, and 26,000'. annually, were granted by parliament, 
 June 1845. This endowment has occasioned much excitement and controversy in 
 England, a motion being made for its abolition every session. 
 
 MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities by 
 the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor of the palace 
 was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel ruled with despotic sway, 
 a.d. 735 el seq. under the last kings of the Merovingian dynasty ; his father had pre- 
 viously held this office, and had it made hereditary in his family. Mayors are the 
 chief magistrates of corporate towns, before whose institution in England, towns were 
 generally governed by portreeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date 
 from the reign of Richard I. See Lord Mayor. 
 
 MEAL-TUB PLOT. A forged conspiracy against the duke of York, afterwards 
 James II. and so called from the place where some pretended correspondence lay 
 concealed. The plot was contrived by one Dangerfield, who secreted a bundle of 
 seditious letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then gave information to 
 the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods. After Dangerfield's appre- 
 hension on suspicion of forging these letters, papers were found concealed in a meal- 
 tub at the house of a woman with whom he cohabited, which contained the scheme 
 to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant interest, and 
 who were agaiust the duke of York's succession, of treason, — particularly the earls 
 of Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax, a.d. 1679. On Dangerfield being whipped 
 the last time, as part of his punishment, one of his eyes was struck out by a 
 barrister named Robert Francis, which caused his death, for which his assailant was 
 hanged, 1685. 
 
 MEASURES and WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidou of Argos, 869 B.C.— 
 Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon afterwards ; and were 
 very early known in England. Standards of weight and measures were provided for 
 the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London, 8 Rich. I. a.d. 1197. Standards were 
 again fixed in England, 1257. They were equalised for the United Kingdom in 1825. 
 Various acts have passed relating to weights and measures. The new act, passed in 
 Aug. 1834, took effect Jan. 1, 1835. 
 
 MEA.TH, BISHOPRIC of, Ireland. There were formerly many episcopal sees iu 
 Meatli, as Clonard, Duleek, Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Dunshaughlin, and Slaue, 
 besides others of less note ; all which, except Duleek and Kells, were consolidated, 
 and their common see was fixed at Clonard, before the year 1151-2, at which time 
 the divisions of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by John Paparo, then legate 
 from pope Eugene III. to the Irish. The two sees of Duleek and Kells afterwards 
 submitted to the same fate. Meath was valued 30 Henry VIII. at 373'. 12s. per annum. 
 
 MECCA. This city is famous for being the birth-place of Mahomet, a.d. 571. The 
 temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neigh- 
 bouring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually retired to perform his 
 devotions; and where the greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by the 
 
 * It is said, though the statement is much doubted, that this entertainment was instituted to 
 commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's having once found a boy of her own, or that of a 
 relation, among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this incident, perhaps a story resembling the adven- 
 tures of this lost child is pathetically related by Montgomery, in " The Chimuey-Swcencr's Boy." 
 
MEC 
 
 421 
 
 MED 
 
 angel Gabriel, a.d. 604. Two miles from the town is the hill where they say 
 Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 B.C. 
 
 MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first introduced is 
 bo uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been ascribed to the 
 Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for instance, the axe, wedge, 
 wimble, &c. are said to be the invention of Daedalus. We know nothing of the 
 machinery by which the immense masses of stone which are found in some of the 
 ancient edifices were moved and elevated. See Steam Engine. 
 
 320 
 
 205 
 
 The first writing on mechanics, was by- 
 Aristotle, about . . .. .B.C. 
 
 The Statera Romana invented . . . 
 
 The fundamental property of the lever 
 and other instruments was demon- 
 strated by Archimedes 
 
 The hand-mill, or quern, was very early 
 in use ; the Romans found one in 
 Yorkshire * 
 
 Cattle-mills, molce jumentarice, were also 
 in use by the Romans, and in parts of 
 Europe * 
 
 The water mill was probably invented 
 in Asia ; the first that was described 
 was near one of the dwellings of 
 Mithridates 
 
 A water-mill is said to have been erected 
 on the river Tiber, at Rome 
 
 Floating mills on the Tiber . a.d. 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in iise 
 in Venice, about 107S 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 536 
 
 Wind-mills were in very general use in 
 
 the twelfth century * * 
 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use 
 
 at Augsburg a.d. 1332 
 
 Theory of the inclined plane investigated 
 
 by Cardan, about 1540 
 
 Work on Statics, by Stevinus . . 15S6 
 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . . 1638 
 Theory of oscillation, Huygens . . 1647 
 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . . . 1662 
 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, 
 
 Roemer 1675 
 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, Bo- 
 
 relli ; he died 1679 
 
 Application of mechanics to astronomy, 
 parallelogism of forces, laws of motion, 
 
 &c, Newton 1679 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the analy- 
 sis, Dr. Gregory 1697 
 
 Spirit level (and many other inventions), 
 by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to . . 1702 
 
 MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
 another in Glasgow, in 1 823 ; and soon after others arose in different parts of the empire. 
 
 MEDALS. There is hardly any record of medals or decorations as rewards in the 
 army or navy before the time of the Commonwealth. The House of Commons 
 resolved to grant rewards and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monck, 
 Penn, and Lawson) and men gained the glorious victory over the Dutch fleet, off 
 the Texel, in 1653. In 1692 an act was passed for applying the tenth part of the 
 proceeds of prizes for medals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and marines. 
 Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, June 1, 1794, it was thought expedient to insti- 
 tute a naval medal. Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by his majesty William IV. 
 for 150 guineas. Medals were presented to persons distinguished in the war in the 
 Crimea, May 18, 1855. 
 
 MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It revolted 
 from Arbaces, 820 B.C. and afterwards became an independent kingdom, and con- 
 quered Persia ; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the Mede, 536 B.C. Media was 
 from that time united to the Persian empire, and shared its fate. — Blair; Priestley. 
 
 Revolt of the Medes. — Blair . .B.C. 
 
 The country was subjected to the Assy- 
 rians. — Idem 
 
 Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, 
 Armenia, and other couutries 
 
 Battle of Rages; the Assyrians defeat 
 the Medes. — Blair 
 
 War with the Lydians ; the hostile ar- 
 mies meet ; but an eclipse of the sun 
 so alarms them, they conclude peace 
 without striking a blow 
 
 The reign of Astyages. — Blair . . . 
 
 Cyrus made king of Persia . . b.c. 
 
 Astyages deposed by Cyrus . . . 
 
 Croesus king of Lydia defeated, and his 
 throne seized by Cyrus 
 
 Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
 to death ; and makes Astyages (or 
 Darius the Mede) viceroy . . . 
 
 By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- 
 comes master of all Persia ; and this 
 era is properly the commencement of 
 the Persian empire. — Lenglet 
 
 559 
 550 
 
 The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced luxury into 
 Persia. 
 
 MEDICI FAMILY. The great family of Medici, illustrious as the restorers of literature 
 and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, 
 in which year Cosmo de Medici, who had been banished from the republic, was 
 recalled, and made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Several of the family 
 were afterwards signori. Among these was Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the Magnifi- 
 cent," and the "Father of Letters." John de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
 Lorenzo. — Roscoe. See article Learning. 
 
 MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the East, 
 
MED 422 MEL 
 
 about a.d. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation was principally- 
 confined to ecclesiastics in Europe generally, until the close of the fifteenth century, 
 or the beginning of the sixteenth. See Physic, Hospitals, and Quackery. 
 
 MEDINA, in Arabia Deserta. Famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in a 
 large mosque, closed with rich curtains, and lighted by a vast number of rich lamps. 
 Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected 
 when he fled from Mecca, July 16, ad. 622. This flight gave rise to the remarkable 
 epoch in chronology, called the Hegira, a word that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee, or 
 quit, one's country or friends. 
 
 MEEANEE, BATTLE of, India. The Hyderabad Ameers, amounting to 30,000 
 infantry, with 15 guns, and 5000 cavalry, posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, 
 were attacked on 17 Feb. 1843, by Lieut-General Sir Charles Napier with 2600 men 
 of all arms. This insignificant force fell so impetuously upon the enemy, that the 
 gathering masses of these wild warriors continually advanced sword in hand, striving 
 in all the fierceness of their valour to break into the opposing ranks ; but they were 
 hurled down the slope by hundreds. At length the Ameers gave way, and retreated 
 in tolerable order, though harassed by a galling fire from the victors. Their loss was 
 enormous. By a careful computation, it amounted to 6000 men. The British had six 
 officers and 60 rank and file killed ; 14 officers and 200 men wounded. — P. H. Nicolas. 
 
 MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 
 
 MELBOURNE, in Australia, capital of Victoria or Port Phillip. See Victoria. It was 
 laid out as a town by orders of sir R. Bourke, in April 1837. The first land sale took 
 place in June, and speculation commenced and continued till it caused wide-spread 
 insolvency in 1841-2. Melbourne has since rapidly increased in prosperity. It became 
 a municipal corporation in 1842, a bishopric in 1847, and the first legislative assembly 
 of Victoria met there in 1852. Gold was found in great abundance about eighty 
 miles from Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense numbers of emigrants 
 flocked there in consequence, causing an immense rise in the prices of provisions and 
 clothing. The population, 23,000 in 1851, was about 100,000 at the end of 1852. In 
 1853, the city had very greatly improved, and abounded in public buildings, hand- 
 some shops, &c. On Nov. 30, 1854, a monster meeting was held at Ballarat respecting 
 the collection of the gold licences, which was followed by riots, during which* the 
 Southern Cross flag was raised. Peace was not restored without the intervention of 
 the military; twenty-six rioters and three soldiers were killed, and many wounded.* 
 
 MELBOURNE'S, VISCOUNT, ADMINISTRATION. On the retirement of earl Grey, 
 lord Melbourne became first minister of the crown ; marquess of Lansdowne, lord 
 president; earl of Mulgrave, privy seal; viscount Althorpe, chancellor of the exchequer; 
 viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and Mr. Spring Rice (afterwards lord 
 Monteagle), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; lord Auckland, admiralty ; 
 Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and Mr. C. P. Thomson (afterwards 
 lord Sydenham), boards of control and trade ; lord John Russell, paymaster of the 
 forces ; sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Ellice, marquess of Conyngham, Mr. Littleton, &c. 
 Lord Brougham, lord chancellor, July, 1834. On the accession of viscount Althorpe 
 to the earldom of Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same year, lord Melbourne 
 waited on the king to receive his majesty's commands as to the appointment of a new 
 chancellor of the exchequer, when his majesty said he considered the administration 
 at an end. Sir Robert Peel succeeded. — Second Administration. Lord Melbourne 
 again first lord of the treasury ; marquess of Lansdowne, lord president ; viscount 
 Duncannon, privy seal, with the woods and forests ; Mr. Rice, chancellor of the 
 exchequer ; lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston, and lord Glenelg, home, foreign, 
 and colonial secretaries ; earl of Minto, admiralty ; sir John Hobhouse and Mr. Poulett 
 Thomson, boards of control and trade ; lord Holland, duchy of Lancaster ; viscount 
 Howick, secretary-at-war; Mr. Labcuchere, sir Henry Parnell, lord Morpeth, &c. 
 The chancellorship in commission, April, 1835. Finally terminated, Aug. 30, 1841, 
 sir Robert Peel again coming into power. See Administrationt. 
 
 MELODRAMA. A species of dramatic entertainment, which, if it did not actually 
 originate with the late Mr. Holcroft, was at least introduced by him in a manner so 
 popular and interesting as to entitle him to the honour of its production in a refined 
 form ; Mr. Holcroft's melodramas were first represented in 1793. 
 
 * On Oct. 8, 1S54, the Victoria bank, Ballarat, was broken open, and 14.300J. in money, and 200 
 ounces in gold-dust were carried off. One of the robbers was taken in England, sent back to 
 Melbourne, and there tried and hanged. 
 
MEM 423 MER 
 
 MEMEL. An important commercial port in Prussia ; was almost totally destroyed by 
 fire Oct. 4, 1854. The loss is estimated at 1,100,0002. 
 
 MEMORY. See Mnemonics. 
 
 MENAI STRAIT. Suetonius Paulinus, when he invaded Anglesey, transported his 
 troops across this strait in flat-bottomed boats, while the cavalry swam over on 
 horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last retreat. Before the Romans had 
 well landed, the Druids called their votaries of both sexes around them ; and the 
 women were seen with dishevelled locks, running wildly about with torches in their 
 hands, echoing the imprecations of their priests, whose followers made but a vain 
 resistance. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he 
 met with, so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no quarter, 
 throwing all that escaped from the battle into fires which they had prepared for the 
 destruction of himself and his army, a.d. 59. — In crossing this strait a ferry-boat was 
 lost, and fifty persons, chiefly Irish, perished, Dec. 4, 1785. 
 
 MENAI CHAIN SUSPENSION-BRIDGE. See Tubular Bridge. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to several orders of religious who 
 commenced alms-begging in the thirteenth century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. 
 They were very numerous, spread over Europe, and embraced many communities ; 
 but at length were confined by a general council, held by Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, 
 to the following four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. 
 The Capuchins and other orders branched from them. See Franciscans, &c. 
 
 MENSURATION. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids is of very 
 early date, but it has been traced with some degree of certainty. The various pro- 
 perties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advance- 
 ment in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
 spheroids, &c. about 218 B.C. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a 
 Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Mercator published the 
 charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, however, now confidently ascribed 
 to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these charts the meridians and parallels of latitude 
 cut each other at right angles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging 
 the degrees of latitude as they recede from the equator. 
 
 MERCHANT. The name given to high commercial citizens who trade abroad. The 
 merchants of London and Amsterdam are accounted the most enterprising and 
 richest in the world. An attempt was made by Queen Anne's ministry to exclude 
 merchants from sitting in the House of Commons, in 1711 ; but it failed. The Mer- 
 chant Adventurers' society (see Adventurers, Merchant) was established by the duke 
 of Brabant, in 1296 ; it extended to England in Edward Ill's reign ; and was formed 
 into an English corporation in 1564. 
 
 MERCHANT-TAYLORS. A rich company of the city of London, of which seven kings 
 have been members, viz. Richard II. and III. Edward IV. Henry IV. V. VI. and VII. 
 They were called Merchant-Taylors from the admission of the last-named king into 
 their company, a.d. 1501 ; but they were incorporated in 1466. The Merchant- 
 Taylors' school was founded in 1561. — Stow. 
 
 MERCURY. See Quicksilver and Calomel. 
 
 MERCY, ORDER of, in France. This order was established with the object of accom- 
 plishing the redemption of Christian captives ; founded by John de Matha in 1198. — 
 Henault. The order was formed into a regular society by Pere Nolasque (who was 
 canonised), a.d. 1218. — Niceron. At the first institution, the number of members of 
 it was considerable, and included many potentates and princes. — Idem. 
 
 MERIDA, in Spain. This is a strong town in Estremadura, built by the Romans. It 
 was taken by the French in January, 1811. Near this town, at Arroyos Molinos, the 
 British army under general (afterwards lord) Hill defeated the French under general 
 Girard, after a severe engagement, Oct. 28, 1811. The British took Merida from the 
 French in January, 1812, after a severe encounter, general Hill leading the combined 
 force of English and Spanish troops. 
 
 MERRY-ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric physician, whose 
 name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry VIII. and who, on some 
 occasions, on account of his facetious manners and good humour, appeared at court, 
 
MER 424 MET 
 
 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, and harangue the people, by whom he 
 was called Merry Andrew. The name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack- 
 pudding. — L' Estrange. Johnson. 
 
 MERTHYR-TYDVIL. A town of Wales, in Glamorganshire, in which very alarming 
 riots commenced June 3, 1831, and continued for several days, in which a number of 
 persons, chiefly the rioters, were killed and wounded. They were suppressed by the 
 military and magistracy. 
 
 MERTON, PARLIAMENT of. In the village of Merton, in Surrey,.was a celebrated 
 abbey, wherein the barons under Henry III. in 1236, held a parliament, which enacted 
 the statutes called the Provisions of Merton, now the most ancient body of laws nest 
 after Magna Charta. 
 
 MESMERISM. So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, of 
 Mersburg. He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766 ; contending, by 
 a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused through the univei-se 
 a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting Vienna 
 for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous proselytes to his system in France, where he 
 received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government at length appointed a 
 committee of physicians and members of the academy of sciences to investigate his 
 pretensions. Among these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their 
 inquiries appeared in an admirable paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility 
 of animal magnetism and the quackery of Mesmer. Mesmerism excited attention 
 again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau announced her belief in it. 
 
 MESSALIANS. A sect whose principal religious error consisted in adhering to the 
 letter of the Gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
 pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities (and these abounded with this sect) 
 they refused to work, quoting this passage, "Labour not for the food thatperisheth;" 
 about a.d. 310. — Baronius, Annal. 
 
 MESSENIA, now Maura-Matra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom was 
 commenced by Policaon, 1499 b.c. It is celebrated for its long and sanguinary war3 
 against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred cities, most of whose 
 names even are now unknown. Messenia was at first governed by kings ; and after 
 their restoration to the Peloponnesus they formed a republic, under the protection, 
 first, of the Thebans, and afterwards of the Macedonians ; but they never rose to any 
 eminence. Messenia joined the Achrean league, 216 b c. 
 
 MESSENIAN WARS. The celebrated wars between Lacedsemon and Messenia. The 
 first began 743 B.C. and was occasioned by violence having been offered to some 
 Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion common to both nations ; 
 the king of Sparta being killed in his efforts to defend the females. This dreadful war 
 raged for nineteen years, and at one period made so great a carnage, that the Spartan 
 army sent orders home for all the unmarried women to prostitute themselves to 
 recruit the population. In the end Ithome was taken, and the Messeniaus became 
 slaves to the conquerors. The second war was commenced 685 B.C. to throw off the 
 galling Spartan yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending in the defeat of the Messenian?, 
 who fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 B.C.; it endured ten years, when the 
 whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. 
 
 MESSINA, in Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then called 
 Zancle, 671 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the 
 Saracens, a.d. 829. — Priestley. In the eleventh century Roger the Norman took it by 
 surprise, and delivered it from Mahometan oppression. Great Messinian conspiracy, 
 1282. The memorable revolt took place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake, 
 1693 ; and nearly depopulated by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much 
 by an earthquake ; and in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same 
 calamity, since which it has been handsomely rebuilt. Messina was the head-quarters 
 of the British forces in Sicily, prior to the peace of 1814. 
 
 METALLURGY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal-Cain is mentioned as "an 
 instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals are mentioned by 
 Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel in furnaces. The Phoenicians 
 had an extraordinary skill in working metals. See Iron, &c. 
 
 METAMORPHISTS. A name given to certain Sacramentarians, who in the fifteenth 
 century affirmed, that Christ's natural body with which he ascended into heaven, was 
 
MET 425 MIC 
 
 wholly deified, not considering that the Deity and circumscription and divisibility, 
 are incompatible. — Pardon. 
 
 METAPHYSICS. The science of abstract reasoning, or that which contemplates the 
 existence of things without relation to matter. The term, literally denoting "after 
 physics," originated with Aristotle. What may be denominated the modern meta- 
 physics, cannot be traced farther back than the fifteenth century, — the period when 
 an extraordinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
 called the " revival of learning." 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from one 
 body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who would eat 
 no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased 
 friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so long as the body of the deceased 
 was kept entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; which accounts for the extraordi- 
 nary pains they took in embalming the dead : a doctrine of Pythagoras, 528 B.C. 
 
 METHODISTS. See Wesleyans. 
 
 METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS. Established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120. It 
 held its first meeting, and elected Mr. John Thwaites as chairman, Dec. 22, 1855. 
 
 METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, inaugurated by the lord mayor and corpo- 
 ration on Wednesday, June 13, 1855, in presence of prince Albert. It is situated in 
 Copenhagen Fields, an elevated site north of London, occupying an area of about 15 
 acres, larger by 9 acres than Smithfield, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 
 6400 bullocks, 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre is a circular building, let to 
 bankers and others having business connected with graziers and cattle-agents. Within 
 and around the market are erected several large taverns. A place is set apart for 
 slaughtering animals, with approved appliances for purposes of health, by ventilation, 
 sewerage, &c. ; there is also a place for hay-stands. Sales commenced on Friday, 
 June 15th, 1855. See Smithfield. 
 
 METTRAY. See Reformatory Schools. 
 
 MEXICO. Discovered in a.d. 1518. Conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez, whose 
 name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, A.D. 1521. The mint 
 of Mexico was begun in 1535. This country asserted its independence, Aug. 1821. 
 Iturbide made emperor, May 1822. Mexican constitution proclaimed by the president 
 Vittoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot, July 19, 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great 
 Britain ratified, April 1825. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March 1829. 
 Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. Mexican revo- 
 lution ; the president Guerrero deposed, Dec. 23, same year. The independence of 
 Mexico, previously recognised by the great European powers, also recognised by the 
 empei'or of Brazil, June 1830. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. 
 This war terminated March 9, 1839. War with the United States, June 4, 1845. 
 The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, May 8, 1846; and subsequently at Matamoras. 
 Santa F6" captured, Aug. 23, and Monterey, Sept. 24, 1846. Battle of Bu'eno Vista, 
 the Mexicans defeated by general Taylor with great loss, after two days' fighting, 
 Feb 22, 1847. The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the Mexicans, making 
 6000 prisoners, April 18, 1847. Various actions followed. Treaty between Mexico 
 and the United States ratified, May 19, 1848. In consequence of political convulsions, 
 general Arista, the president, resigned his office, Jan. 6, 1853 ; and in Feb. following 
 general Santa Anna was invited to return to his country, and a revolution which 
 commenced in Sept. 1852 was terminated. On March 17, 1853, Santa Anna was 
 elected president. On the 12th December he assumed dictatorial power with the 
 consent of the Mexicans. In Jan. 1855 he abdicated, and general Carera was elected 
 president. He also abdicated, and was succeeded by general Alvarez, and afterwards 
 (Dec. 10) by general Comonfort. The confiscation of the property of the clergy was 
 decreed March 31, 1856. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving representing figures on copper, received 
 its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it is generally ascribed 
 to prince Rupert, a.d. 1648 ; but baron Heinecken states that colonel de Siegen 
 engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Elizabeth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 
 1643. — See Engraving. 
 
 MICHAELMAS. The'feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, under the title of " St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael is supposed by 
 
MIC 426 MIL 
 
 the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This feast is celebrated 
 on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, according to Butler, was a.d. 487. 
 The custom of having goose on Michaelmas-day is of much older date than the time 
 of Elizabeth in England, 1588 (see Qoose at Michaelmas), and is equally observed on 
 the continent as in England. — Brady's Claris Calendaria. 
 
 MICROMETER. An astronomical instrument used to discover and measure any small 
 distance, and minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent diameters of the 
 planets, &c. There are many curious improvements that render this instrument very 
 exact and useful; its invention is ascribed by some to M. Huygens, a.d. 1652; but 
 our countryman Gascoyne's instrument is prior to that time. 
 
 MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a.d. 1621. 
 Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of refraction was 
 discovered, about 1(324. The honour of this invention is awarded to Drebel and 
 Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In England, great 
 improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763. 
 The Microscopical Society of London was established in 1839. 
 
 MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and 
 Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B.C. is styled by some 
 the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It advanced under Celsus, who 
 flourished a.d. 37, and of Galen, who lived a.d. 131. In England midwifery became a 
 science about the period of the institution of the College of Physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 
 1518. The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 
 1603 ; and after his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. 
 Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no further 
 back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 1663. 
 She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great 
 secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the subsequent labours of 
 this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwives afterwards came into repute, 
 the name of accoucheur being given to them. 
 
 MILAN. The capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
 built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It submitted to the Romans 222 B.C. ; was formed 
 into a republic a.d. 1221 ; and lastly, was governed by dukes from a.d. 1395 until 
 1 505, when it was conquered by Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took 
 the title of duke of Milan, about 1390. The French were expelled from Milan, by 
 Charles V. of Germany, about 1525 ; and that emperor gave it to his son Philip II. 
 Milan was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. Seized 
 by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; but regained by the 
 French, May 31, the next year. This city was made the capital of the late kingdom 
 of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned with the iron crown at Milan, May 26, 
 1805. The celebrated Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental intercourse 
 with England, Dec. 17, 1807. Insurrection here against the Austrians; flight of the 
 viceroy and discomfiture of his troops, March 18, 1848. This movement, consequent 
 upon the revolution in France, led to a serious but fruitless popular struggle. 
 Another revolt occurred Feb. 6 et seq. 1853; this was promptly suppressed and 
 rigorously punished. Milan was visited by the emperor and empress of Austria 
 in Nov. 1856. 
 
 MILFORD HAVEN, Wales. Here the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. 
 landed on his enterprise against Richard III. whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. 
 The packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were established in 1787. 
 The whole royal navy of England, it is said, might ride in safety in this haven, it 
 being one of the most secure and capacious asylums for shipping in all Europe. 
 The dockyard was removed to Pembroke, or Pater, in 1814. 
 
 MILITARY on MARTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, but 
 entirely arbitrary, and, in truth, no law; but sometimes indulged, rather than allowed, 
 as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several times proclaimed in these king- 
 doms during rebellions. It was almost general throughout Ireland in 1798. The 
 last proclamation of martial law was in that country, July 26, 1803. 
 
 * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hiero- 
 pholus, her father, the art of midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. 
 This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employ- 
 ment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a 
 law was made to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. 
 
MIL 427 MIN 
 
 MILITARY KNIGHTS of WINDSOR. See Poor Knights of Windsor. 
 
 MILITIA. The standing national militia of these realms is traced by most historians to 
 king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his subjects soldiers, a.d. 872 to 
 901. The feudal military tenures became involved in this force. The first commission 
 of array to raise a militia was in 1422. The order in which the militia now stands 
 by law was principally built upon the statutes 13, 14, and 15 Charles II. 1661 to 1663. 
 Various other enactments followed these. The supplemental militia act was passed 
 in 1797- The Irish militia offered its services in England, March 28, 1804. General 
 act reducing into one all the laws relating to the militia, 42. Geo. III. for England and 
 Scotland, and 49 Geo. III. for Ireland. The acts for the interchange of the English 
 and Irish militia passed 51 and 54 Geo. III. et seq. Enactment authorising courts- 
 martial to inflict, if they think fit, the punishment of imprisonment, instead of flogging, 
 was passed in 1814. Acts to consolidate the laws relating to the militia in England, 
 15 & 16 Vict. cc. 50, 74, 75 (June 30, 1852*); 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 116,133 (Aug. 20, 
 1853). These acts were amended in consequence of the war with Russia, by 17 & 18 
 Vict. c. 13 (May 12, 1854), and cc. 105, 106, 107 (Aug. 11, 1854); the last two provide 
 for the raising a volunteer militia in Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as the road by 
 which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno accidentally gave suck 
 to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, who, while she slept, was laid 
 by her side ; but perceiving who he was, she threw him from her, and the heavens 
 were thus marked by the wasted milk. Democritus was the first who taught that the 
 via lactea was occasioned by a confused multitude of stars, about 428 B.C. 
 
 MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposes that the world would end at the expiration of 
 the seventh thousandth year from the creation ; and that during the last thousand 
 years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth ; see Rev. ch. xx. It was very 
 generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries, by Papias, Justin 
 Martyr, and others. — Burnet. 
 
 MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn was the mortar. Moses 
 forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be like taking a man's 
 life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
 quest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 
 The first cotton mills ever put in motion by water were erected by sir Richard Ark- 
 wright at Cromford, in the county of Derby. 
 
 MINDEN, BATTLE of. Between the English, Hessians, and Hanoverians, on one side, 
 and the French on the other. The first army was commanded by prince Ferdinand 
 and (under him) lord George Sackville, who gained a complete victory, pursuing the 
 enemy to the very ramparts of Minden, Aug. 1, 1759. Lord George Sackville 
 (afterwards lord George Germaine) commanded in this battle the British and 
 Hanoverian horse, and for some disobedience of orders he was tried by a court- 
 martial on his return to England, and found guilty, and dismissed the service. He 
 was, however, restored to court favour in lord Bute's administration some years 
 afterwards. 
 
 MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous and rich. Strabo and Tacitus 
 enumerate gold and silver as among the products of England. The earliest instance 
 of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to 
 mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire. And in Edward I.'s 
 reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced silver, were 
 supposed to be so rich, that the king directed a writ for working them to Robert de 
 Ufford, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardiganshire, from which silver has 
 ever since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in the reign of 
 James I. The British Mineralogical Society was established in 1800. 
 
 MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 1800). 
 From a common soldier he has raised himself to the rank of chef d'escadron. His 
 rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for accuracy of direction and 
 extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and with various modifications by the 
 British and other armies. 
 
 * This militia act was consequent upon tlie then prevailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening 
 our national defences against the possibility of French invasion. The act empowered her majesty to 
 raise a force not exceeding 80,009 men, of which number 50,000 were to be raised in 1S52, and 30,000 in 
 1853 ; the quotas for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in council. 
 
MIN 428 MIT 
 
 MINISTER op WAR. See War Minister. 
 
 MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who wrote to 
 cheer and entertain the knights and barons of the time. In the 14th century, the 
 Meistersingers devoted themselves to the enlivening the burgesses and citizens. 
 Their songs have been collected and published. 
 
 MINORCA. This island and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. Minorca 
 was captured by lieut.-gen. Stanhope and sir John Leake in Aug. 1708, and 
 was confirmed to the British by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was retaken by the 
 Spanish and French in June 1756. Admiral Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of 
 the public mind, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
 enemy. See Byng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1763. Besieged 
 by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5. 1782. It was again captured by the British, 
 without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of 1802. 
 
 MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to divert their 
 copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee-men or harpers of the 
 Saxons, and continued till about a.d. 1 560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels 
 at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without cere- 
 mony into all companies, even at the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they 
 had, however, sunk into neglect. 
 
 MINT. Athelstan 6rst enacted regulations for the government of the mint, about, a.d. 
 928. There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. 
 Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of the art of 
 coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were formed into a corporation by the charter 
 of king Edw. III., in which condition it consisted of the warden, master, comptroller, 
 assay-master, workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry of gold brought to 
 the mint for coinage, occurs IS Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 1684 ; 
 and gun-metal and pewter by his successor, James. Between 1806 and 1810, grants 
 amounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament for the erection of the present fine 
 structure. The new constitution of the mint, founded on the report of the hon. Mr. 
 Wellesley Pole, took effect in 1815. The master is now the chief officer, being Pro- 
 fessor Graham, the chemist, who succeeded sir John F. Herschel in 1855. 
 
 MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal ; and from a passage in the 
 Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women were made of 
 brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mirrors or looking- 
 glasses were made at Venice a.d. 1300; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 
 1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of very large size, has 
 cheapened looking-glasses very much. In 1851, M. Petitjean made known a mode of 
 silvering glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deleterious use of mercury. 
 
 MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. Francis, 
 St. Augustin, &c. had missions to the Levaut and to America. The Jesuits had 
 missions to China (which see), and to most other parts of the world. Among the 
 Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was a Danish mission, planned by 
 Frederick IV. in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren may be said to have led the way 
 to the new Christian missions about 1732. The Missionary Society held their first 
 meeting, Nov. 4, 1794.* 
 
 MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in England, in Nov. 1716. The cele- 
 brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced about the same 
 period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital is said to have amounted 
 to 100,000,000/. The ruin of tens of thousands of families, dupes of this inquitous 
 scheme, soon followed in both countries. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 MISSOURI COMPROMISE. See Slavery in America. 
 
 MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be 
 the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented by Mithri- 
 
 * Our missionaries abroad have not unfrequently suffered grievous hardships and privations. Com- 
 mander Allan Gardiner, R.N., who left England in the Ocean Queen in Sept. 18.00, on the Pataponian 
 mission, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, catechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, 
 at the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death, all 
 his companions having previously perished, Sept. 6, 1851. M. Schoffler, a missionary to Cochin-China, 
 was publicly executed at Son-Tay by order of the grand mandarin, for preaching the religion of Our 
 Saviour, such preaching being prohibited by the law of that country, May 4, 1851. 
 
MIT 429 MOH 
 
 dates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 B.C. It was formerly thought to be a great 
 antidote against poison, but it is now out of date. 
 
 M1THRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 B.C. and 
 remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human life it occa- 
 sioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
 Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he 
 rode, "lam Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately despatched him, by 
 ordering melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. 
 
 MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by the high- 
 priest among the Jews. Among the primitive Christians, young women who pro- 
 fessed a state of virginity, and were solemnly consecrated thereto, wore a purple or 
 golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which, according to the solemnity to be 
 performed or festival day it is worn on, is more or less magnificent. Anciently the 
 cardinals wore mitres; but at the council of Lyons, in 1215, they were appointed to 
 wear hats, which custom remains to this day. 
 
 MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. The art of 
 assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simonides the younger, 
 477 B.C. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately 
 treated; and the Memoria Technica, of Dr. Grey is an esteemed work on the subject, 
 first published in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in Germany, 
 in 1806-7. 
 
 MOCKERN, BATTLE op. Between the French army under Eugene Beauharnais, and 
 the allied Russian and Prussian army, which was signally defeated with great loss, 
 April 1813. Another and yet more desperate, and still more sanguinary, battle was 
 fought here, Oct. 14, 1813, between the French and the allies. In this latter bloody 
 conflict the place was taken and retaken five different times. 
 
 MODELS. The first models were figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the 
 Corinthian, was the inventor of those in clay. His daughter, known by the appel- 
 lation of the Corinthian Maid, being about to be separated from her lover, who 
 was going on a distant journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her 
 father filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced 
 a figure of the object of her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, 
 about 985 B.C.* 
 
 MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the French, 
 1796. By the treaty of Campo Forrnio, the Modenese possessions were incorporated 
 with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Francis of Este was restored in 
 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The archduke escaped; but the Austrian 
 troops soon afterwards entered and restored the deposed authorities. 
 
 MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, Turk, they 
 say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards known as Turks, Tartars, 
 and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian 
 prince, who died a.d. 1236. Timour Beg became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399. 
 Khouli Khan, the famous sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the 
 Moguls, carried away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event, many of 
 the nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 
 
 MOHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours' 
 cannonading, by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, March 26, 1857. 
 News of the peace arrived on the 4th of April, and of the further advance of our 
 victorious army. 
 
 MOH ATZ, BATTLES of, in Lower Hungary. In a great battle here, Louis, king of 
 Hungary, was defeated by the Turks under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, 
 and after the battle, suffocated by the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 1526. 
 Another battle was fought between the Christians commanded by prince Charles of 
 Lorraine, and the Turks, who were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, 1687. 
 
 MOHILOW, BATTLE of. Between the Russian army under the celebrated prince 
 
 * A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh was formed in wood before it was begun. A 
 model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncommon strength as well as elegance ; and the moun- 
 tains of Switzerland, modelled by general Pliffer, ranks as one of the most surprising undertakings 
 over achieved by human industry. This last was begun in 1766, and was completed August 17S5. 
 M. Choffm's model of Paris also merits notice for its labour and precision. 
 
MOH 430 MON 
 
 Bagration, and the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmuhl. This was 
 one of the most sanguinary and obstinate battles of the campaign of 1812, in the 
 great war with Bonaparte. The former experienced a signal defeat, and immense loss 
 in killed and wounded ; fought July 23, 1812. 
 
 MOHOCKS. A set of disorderly people who went about London streets at night, and 
 took pleasure in wouudiug and disfiguring the meu, and indecently exposing the 
 women. One hundred pounds offered by royal proclamation, for apprehending any 
 one of them, 10th Anne, 1711. — Northouck's History of London. 
 
 MOLDAVIA. See Danubiaii Principalities. 
 
 MOLWITZ, BATTLE of. Between the Prussians and the Imperialists, the former com- 
 manded by Frederick III. who obtained a great and memorable victory. The loss of 
 the Austrians in this battle was of immense amount in killed, wounded, and prisoners. 
 Fought April 10 (March 30), 1741. 
 
 MONACHISM (from fi6vos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Elijah, and the 
 Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
 appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, 
 practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine (a.d. 306-322) numbers of 
 these ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and anavho- 
 rets; of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the 
 founder of the Stylita? (or pillar saints), died a.d. 451. He is said to have lived on a 
 pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachism, published his Rules 
 and established his monastery at Monte Casino about a.d. 529. The Carthusians, 
 Cistercians, &c, are so many varieties of Benedictines. See Abbeys. 
 
 MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon after the 
 Deluge. See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand or almost universal monarchies, 
 — the Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, and Roman. 
 
 MONASTERIES. See Abbeys. 
 
 MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commerce in the 23rd chapter of Genesis, 
 when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year of the world 
 2139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. Moneta 
 was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been coined in the 
 temple of Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of different ores, and even of 
 leather and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste- 
 board by the Hollanders so late as 1574. Silver has increased more than thirty 
 times its value since the Norman conquest ; viz. a pound in that age was three times 
 the quantity that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any com- 
 modity. See articles Coin ; Gold; Silver; Copper; Mint, &c. 
 
 MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the deserts to 
 avoid the Decian persecution about a.d. 250. St. Anthony is supposed by other 
 authorities to have been the first example of a regular monastic life, a.d. 305, soon 
 after which time monks began to associate and form themselves into orders, as 
 Dominicans, Franciscans, &c. St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome 
 in 341. See Abbeys. 
 
 MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II. 
 was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded England, at Lyme, June 
 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on the 20th of the same month. 
 Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5; and was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. 
 The county of Monmouth, from which he was named, was made an English county 
 by Henry VIII. about 1535. 
 
 MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 
 
 MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, that 
 parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence mostly abolished 
 about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were further suppressed, as being 
 contrary to law, 19 James I. 1622; and were totally abolished, and it was decreed 
 that none should be in future created, as was previously the custom, by royal patent, 
 16 Charles I. 1640. — Anderson's History of Commerce. 
 
 MONSTER, The. This was a wretch named Renwick Williams, who prowled nightly 
 through the streets of London, secretly armed with a sharp instrument, a double- 
 edged knife, with which he shockingly wounded numbers of females whose more 
 
MON 431 MON 
 
 respectable appearance attracted his attention. He was tried and convicted on a 
 variety of these charges, July 8, 1790. See Mohocks. 
 
 MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extraordinary 
 enthusiast, about a.d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of prophecy, and pro- 
 claimed himself the comforter promised by Christ, condemned second marriages as 
 fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and 
 ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his 
 women-scholars, before the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist. Lit. 
 
 MONTEM. See Eton. 
 
 MONTENEGRO. A province of European Turkey. In 1852, a revolt broke out, and 
 the Montenegrins surprised the Turkish fortress Zsabljak, Nov. 22. The province 
 was put in a state of blockade, Dec. 14, 1852, which was raised April 10, 1853. After 
 several indecisive encounters, tranquillity was l-estored by the influence of the arms 
 and proposals of Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army, which evacuated the 
 province, Feb. 25, 1853. The country is much disturbed through the tyrannical 
 conduct of Daniel, the present prince (1857). 
 
 MONTE VIDEO, South America. Taken by storm by the British forces under sir 
 Samuel Auchmuty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our brave troops, Feb. 3, 
 1807. The killed and wounded of the British in this desperate engagement was very 
 considerable. It was evacuated July 7, the same year, in consequence of the severe 
 repulse the British met with at Buenos- Ay res. See Buenos-Ayres, Battles of. 
 
 MONTEREAU, BATTLE of. Between the allied army and the French, the latter com- 
 manded by Napoleon in person. In this obstinate battle the allies were defeated with 
 great loss in killed and wounded, but it was one of the last triumphs of the French 
 arms in the great struggle to free Europe from the thraldrom of Bonaparte, whose 
 overthrow soon followed, Feb. 18, 1814. 
 
 MONTIEL, Battle of, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and his brother Henry 
 of Transtamare aided by the French warrior Bertram du Guesclin, March 14, 1369. 
 Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards slain by his brother and others at a meeting 
 to which he had been drawn by Du Guesclin, whom he had endeavoured to bribe to 
 permit him to escape. 
 
 MONTREAL, Canada. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. Taken by 
 the provincials in the American war of Independence, Nov. 12, 1775, and retaken by 
 the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many buildings 
 burnt down, June 6, 1803. Great military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. The self-styled 
 "loyalists" of Montreal assault the governor-general, lord Elgin; enter the parlia- 
 ment-house, drive out the members, and set fire to the building, April 26, 1849. A 
 destructive fire raged here, Aug. 23, 1850. Another and more destructive fire raged, 
 July 12, 1852, destroying 1200 houses and other property, the loss estimated at a 
 million sterling. In consequence of an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, June 10, 
 1853, riots ensued and many lives were lost. See Victoria Bridge. The cathedral 
 was destroyed by fire, Dec. 10, 1856. 
 
 MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a.d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The pedestal is 
 forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base 
 from the spot where the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest 
 isolated column in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500£. The staircase is of 
 black marble, consisting of 345 steps, by which a balcony is reached. Of the four 
 original inscriptions, three were Latin, and the following in English : — 
 
 THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVALL REMEMBRANCE OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING 
 OF THIS PROTESTANT CITY, BEGUN AND OARRYED ON BY Y e TREACHERY AND MALICE OF 
 Y« POPISH FACTIO, IN Y e BEGINNING OF SEPTEM, IN Y e YEAR OF OUR LORD 1666, IN ORDER 
 TO Y e CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOTT FOR EXTIRPATING Y e PROTESTANT RELIGION 
 AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y e INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 
 
 The north inscription concluded with — 
 
 SED FUROR PAPISTICUS QVI TAM DIRA PATRAVIT NONDUM RESTINGVITVR. 
 
 These legends were added in 1681, obliterated by James II., and recut in the reigu 
 of William III. They produced Pope's indignant lines : — 
 
 " Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
 Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 
 
 These lines were finally erased by order of the common council, Jan. 26, 1831. 
 
MOO 432 MOR 
 
 Wm. Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, June 25, 1750. A man named Thomas 
 Craddock, a baker, precipitated himself from its summit, July 7, 1788. Mr. Lyon 
 Levy, a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable respectability, threw himself from 
 it, Jan. 18, 1810 ; as did more recently, three other persons, in consequence of which 
 a fence was placed round the railings of the gallery. 
 
 MOODKEE, BATTLE of, India. Between the Sikhs and the British, whose advanced 
 guard was attacked by the Sikh forces, but the latter were repulsed, and driven back 
 three miles, losing great numbers of men and 15 pieces of cannon, Dec. 18, 1845. Sir 
 Robert Sale was mortally wounded in this battle, being then in his 65th year. Lady 
 Sale signalised herself during the two memorable retreats from Affghanistan. The 
 battle of Moodkee immediately followed that of Ferozeshah, which see. 
 
 MOOLTAN, BATTLE of. Between the British and the Sikhs, in which the latter were 
 driven to the town of Mooltan with great loss, Nov. 7, 1848. The town was taken 
 after a protracted bombardment, Jan. 2, 1849. The citadel (which had held out, 
 notwithstanding the vigorous bombardment) now made an unconditional surrender, 
 together with its garrison, Jan. 22, 1849. See article India. 
 
 MOON. The' full moon was held favourable for any undertaking by the Spartans, and 
 the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of conjunction of the sun 
 or moon, as seasons most favourable to marriage. Opacity of the moon, and the 
 true causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. Posidonius accounted for 
 the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B.C. — Diog. Laert. A map of the moon 
 was first taken at Dantzic, a.d. 1647. Beer and Miidler's beautiful map was pub- 
 lished in 1834. 
 
 MOORS. The Saracens or Arabs first invaded Spain a.d. 711.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens 
 beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who seized the domi- 
 nions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, a.d. 1091. Alphonsus I. of 
 Navarre defeated them in many battles, 1118 et seq. The Moors began the kingdom 
 of Granada, being their last refuge from the power of the Christians, 1238. 
 Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile slew 200,000 Moors in one battle ; for three 
 leagues around the country was covered with the dead, 1327. The power of this people 
 was overthrown by Ferdinand V. who took Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished 
 them to the number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610.— Priesthy. 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of our duty and felicity, the science of 
 ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally regarded as the 
 father of moral philosophy, about 430 B.C., and Grotius in modern times, about 
 a.d. 1623. 
 
 MORAVIANS, United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, it is said, 
 the fifteenth century, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say that their sect is 
 derived from the Greek Church in the ninth century. In 1722 they formed a 
 settlement (called Herrnhutt, the Watch of the Lord), on the estate of Count Zinzen- 
 dorf. Their church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. They were introduced here 
 by Count Zinzendorf about 1737; he died at Chelsea in June 1760. In 1851 they 
 had 32 chapels in England. In order to the conversion of the heathen world, these 
 persevering brethren formed settlements in Greenland, America, the Cape, East and 
 West Indies, and other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions 
 now so general. 
 
 MORGANATIC MARRIAGES (from morgjan, to shorten or restrain) between a man of 
 superior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stipulated that the latter and 
 her children shall not enjoy the rank, or inherit the possessions of the former. 
 They are frequently contracted in Germany by royalty and the higher nobility. Our 
 George I. was thus married ; and later, the present King of Denmark to the Countess 
 of Danner, Aug. 7. 1S50. 
 
 MORGARTEN, BATTLE of. The most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
 glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, com- 
 manded by the duke Leopold, whom they completely defeated. They seized upon 
 the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through which the enemy was 
 to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 
 
 MORICE DANCE. An ancient dance peculiar to some of the country parts of England, 
 
 and, it is said, also to Scotland. See Longevity. 
 MORMONITES (calling themselves the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day saints). 
 
MOR 
 
 433 
 
 MOR 
 
 This sect derives its origin from Joseph. Smith, called the prophet, who announced in 
 1823, at Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 
 he said that he found the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian 
 characters, which was translated and published in America in 1830, in England in 
 1841. This book, there is good reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a 
 clergyman named Solomon Spaulding, as a religious romance in imitation of the 
 scripture style. It fell into the hands of Rigdon and Smith, who determined to 
 palm it off as a new revelation. In 1830 they organised a church at Kirtland, Ohio. 
 In 1831-2, they founded Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri. From 1833 to 1839, the 
 sect endured much persecution, and, driven from place to place, was compelled to 
 travel westwards ; till in 1840-1 the city Nauvoo was laid out on the Mississippi, where 
 a temple was built. In 1844, Joseph and his brother Hyrum, when in prison on a 
 charge of treason, were shot by an infuriated mob, and Brigham Young was chosen 
 seer. In 1845, being much harassed by their neighbours, departure from Nauvoo was 
 determined on, and the Great Salt Lake was chosen " for an everlasting abode," and 
 taken possession of, July 24, 1847. In 1849, the valley was surveyed by order of the 
 United States government, and in 1850, the colony had attained to great prosperity. 
 The provisional government was abolished the same year, and the Utah territory 
 recognised as one of the United States, Brigham Young being appointed the first 
 governor. The university of Deseret was also founded in 1850. The population 
 in 1851 was 11,354. The Mormonites command payment of tithes, honour and 
 encourage labour, permit polygamy, and believe in their leaders working miracles. 
 Missionaries are sent out to all parts of the globe, and the sect is said to be increasing 
 in Europe. In August 1855 it was stated that the crops at the Utah settlement were 
 almost utterly destroyed by locusts. In 1857, the United States judge at Utah 
 resigned from inability to discharge his functions, in consequence of the violent and 
 treasonable conduct of the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young. The latter 
 are organising their militia, &c, to meet a military force lately sent against them by 
 the United States government. A conference of Mormon elders, &c, was held in 
 London on Sept. 1, 1857, at which most offensive speeches were made and songs sung 
 advocating polygamy, &c. 
 
 MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Romans it under- 
 went various revolutions. About a.d. 1116, Abdallah, the leader of a sect of 
 Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last sovereign's defeat in Spain. 
 About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces shook off their dependence ; but 
 the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, subdued them, and formed the empire of 
 Morocco. Hostilities with France, provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indo- 
 mitable ameer of Algiers, commence May 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; 
 peace concluded, and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el- 
 Kader surrenders to the duke of Nemours, Dec. 22, 1847. See Algiers. 
 
 MORTALITY. See Bills of Mortality. For the institution of parish registers of deaths, 
 as well as of births and marriages, we are indebted to Cromwell, earl of Essex, a.d. 
 1536. The following list, compiled from late Bills of Mortality of London, shows 
 the average of diseases, &c. in 20,000 deaths in that city : — 
 
 DISEASES. 
 
 
 Fever. 
 
 694 
 
 Rheumatism . 
 
 33 
 
 Abscess .... 79 
 
 Fever (Typhus) 
 
 97 
 
 Scrofula 
 
 9 
 
 Age and debility 
 
 1614 
 
 Fever, intermittent, oi 
 
 
 Small-pox 
 
 591 
 
 Apoplexy 
 
 372 
 
 ague 
 
 16 
 
 Sore throat, or quinsej 
 
 r 16 
 
 Asthma 
 
 77S 
 
 Fistula . 
 
 12 
 
 Spasm . 
 
 51 
 
 Bedridden 
 
 2 
 
 Flux .... 
 
 9 
 
 Still-born . 
 
 872 
 
 Bile .... 
 
 8 
 
 Gout 
 
 37 
 
 Stone 
 
 21 
 
 Cancer . 
 
 92 
 
 Haemorrhage 
 
 47 
 
 Stoppage in stomach 
 
 18 
 
 Childbirth . 
 
 266 
 
 Hernia . 
 
 41 
 
 St. Vitus's dauce . 
 
 1 
 
 Consumption . 
 
 4S71 
 
 Hooping cough . 
 
 604 
 
 Suddenly . 
 
 102 
 
 Contraction of the hear 
 
 1 
 
 Hydrophobia . 
 
 1 
 
 Teething 
 
 437 
 
 Convulsions . 
 
 2377 
 
 Inflammation . 
 
 2062 
 
 Thrush 
 
 69 
 
 Cow-pox . 
 
 1 
 
 Inflam. of the liver 
 
 127 
 
 Tumour . 
 
 17 
 
 Croup 
 
 106 
 
 Insanity . 
 
 214 
 
 Venereal . 
 
 11 
 
 Diabetes 
 
 3 
 
 Jaundice 
 
 39 
 
 Worms . 
 
 6 
 
 Diarrhoea 
 
 28 
 
 Jaw, locked 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Dropsy 
 
 818 
 
 Measles . 
 
 466 
 
 Total of diseases 
 
 19,566 
 
 Dropsy on the brain 
 
 661 
 
 Miscarriage 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Dropsy on the chest . 
 
 51 
 
 Mortification . 
 
 308 
 
 CASUALTIES. 
 
 
 Dysentery 
 
 43 
 
 Ossification of the hean 
 
 t 9 
 
 Broken limbs. 
 
 12 
 
 Enlargement of the b ear 
 
 t 17 
 
 Palpitation of the hear 
 
 t 16 
 
 Burnt 
 
 44 
 
 Epilepsy . 
 
 23 
 
 
 31 
 
 Drowned 
 
 147 
 
 Eruptive diseases 
 
 24 
 
 Paralysis 
 
 187 
 
 Excessive drinking . 
 
 5 
 
 Erysipelas 
 
 IS 
 
 Pleurisy 
 
 21 
 
 Executed 
 
 I 
 
14 
 
 Killed by fighting . 
 
 2 1 
 
 Suffocated 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Murdered . 
 
 3 
 
 Suicides 
 
 . 51 
 
 1 
 
 Poisoned 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 L28 
 
 Scalded 
 Starved . 
 Strangled . 
 
 7 
 6 
 1 
 
 Total of casualties . 
 
 . 434 
 
 MOR 434 MOU 
 
 MORTALITY, continued. 
 
 Found dead . . . 
 Fractured 
 
 Frighted . . . . 
 
 Frozen .... 
 
 Killed by falls and other 
 
 accidents . . . 
 
 MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, used for 
 throwing bombs. The mortar was first made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
 mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August 1816, and still 
 remains there. 
 
 MORTMAIN ACT. Mort and main. When the survey of all the land in England 
 was made by William the Conqueror, the wbole was found to amount to 62,215 
 knights' fees, out of which the Church was then possessed of 28,015, to which addi- 
 tions were afterwards made, till the 7th of Edward I. when the statute of mortmain 
 was passed, from a fear that the estate of the Church might grow too bulky. By this 
 act it was made unlawful to give any estates to the Church without the king's leave ; 
 and this act, by a supplemental provision, was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or 
 corporations, in the 15th of Rich. I. Mortmain is such a state of possession as makes 
 it unalienable, whence it is said to be in a dead hand. Several statutes have been 
 passed on this subject; and a statute much referred to is the 10th Geo. II. 1736. 
 
 MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156 ; was taken by 
 Tamerlane, 1382 ; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the Tartars, whose last 
 attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This city was entered by the 
 French, Sept, 14, 1812, and the EussiaD governor, Rostopchin, ordered that it should 
 be set on fire in five hundred places at once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,840 
 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus 
 deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow, Oct. 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians 
 Oct. 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 
 
 MOSKWA, BATTLE of. Between the French and Russians. For the particulars of 
 this memorable battle, which is also called the Battle of Borodino, see Borodino. 
 
 MOSQUITO COAST, in CENTRAL AMERICA. The Indians inhabiting this coast 
 have been long under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group 
 of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States has long 
 existed on this subject. In April 1850 the two governments covenanted not " to 
 occupy, or fortify, or colonise, or assume, or exercise any dominion over any part of 
 Central America." In 1855 the United States charged the British government with 
 an infraction of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede the disputed terri- 
 tory to the republic of Honduras, with some reservation.* The American govern- 
 ment is not yet satisfied. (1857.) 
 
 MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, and lawless soldiers, 
 secreting themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland. They w^ere finally 
 extirpated, a.d. 1609. 
 
 MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XL by pope Paul II. 1469. It 
 has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of Christian given to a 
 prince more unworthily bestowed, or less deserved. Pope Stephen II. had conferred 
 this title on Pepin in 755, but it did not become the peculiar appellation of the kings 
 of France until Louis XL's reign. — Hcnault. 
 
 MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dim et mon Droit was first used by Richard I. a.d. 1193. The 
 Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, " I serve," was 
 adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia 
 being slaiu in the battle, 1346. Huni soit qui mtd y pense, was made the motto of the 
 Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiei drai, " I will maintain," was adopted by William III. to 
 which he added, in 1688, "The liberties of England and the Protestant religion." And 
 Semper eadem was ordered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. See them severally. 
 
 MOUNTS ^ETNA, HECLA, and VESUVIUS. See Etna, Hecla, and Vesuvius, severally. 
 
 MOUNT ST. BERNARD. See Bernard, Mount St. 
 
 * St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the 
 American adventurers, under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1S55. He joined Walker; and 
 on Feb. 10, 1S56, their associate Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito territory to 
 
 Nicaragua. 
 
MOU 435 MUR 
 
 MOUNT CALVARY. See Calvary, Mount. 
 MOUNT or OLIVES. See Olivet, Mount, 
 
 MOURNING fob the DEAD. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to wash nor 
 anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition of grief for a friend 
 lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasions it lasted a month. The 
 Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief for the dead by many public abstinences. 
 The ordinary colour for mourning in Europe is black ; in China, it is white ; in Turkey, 
 violet; in Ethiopia, brown; and it was white in Spain until a.d. 1498. — Herrera. 
 Anne of Britanuy, the queen of two successive kings of France, mourned in black, 
 instead of the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her first husband, 
 Charles VIII. April 7, \&§.—Henault. ' 
 
 MOUSQUETAIRES, or MUSQUETEERS. Horse-soldiers under the old French rigime, 
 raised by Louis XIII. 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French 
 nobility. The company was disbanded in 1646, but restored in 1657. A second 
 company was created in 1660, and formed cardinal Mazarine's guard. — Henault. 
 
 MUGGLETONIANS. A sect that sprang up about the time of the civil wars of 
 Charles I. and period of the Protectorate, so called from one Ludowic Muggleton, a 
 tailor. He and his associate Reeves set up for prophets. 'They affirmed that God the 
 Father, leaving the government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in 
 a human form. They pretended to an absolute power of saving souls, and asserted 
 they were the two last witnesses of God which should appear before the end of the 
 world: they made considerable noise about 1657, and their sect still exists. 
 
 MULBERRY-TREE. The first mulberry-trees planted in England are now standing 
 in the gardens attached to Sion-house. Shakspeare planted a mulberry-tree with his 
 own hands on his ground at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and Garrick, Macklin, and others 
 were entertained under this mulberry-tree in 1742. Shakspeare's house was afterwards 
 sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for fuel ; 
 but a silversmith purchased the whole of it, which he manufactured into memorials 
 of the poet. See article Fruits. 
 
 MUM. A wholesome kind of malt-liquor, brewed chiefly from malt made from wheat 
 instead of barley. It is not thought to be fit for use till it has been full two years 
 in the cask. Mum is much drunk in Germany ; and Brunswick is a place of note 
 for making it. It was first made there in 1489. 
 
 MUNSTER, TREATY- of. The celebrated treaty between France, the Emperor, and 
 Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the 
 principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised. This treaty is called 
 by many historians the treaty of Westphalia, but by others the treaty of Munster, as 
 having been signed at Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. See Westphalia. 
 
 MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetge was 
 established by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B.C. The Persians did not 
 punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchy, murder was 
 punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s time, the crime was compounded 
 for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, 
 or petit treason, may happen in three ways ; by a servant killipg his master ; a wife 
 her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 1350. The 
 enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful commission has 
 been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance. The act whereby 
 the murderer should be executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was 
 repealed 7 Will. IV. July, 1836. 
 
 MURDERS, HORRIBLE, in British History. Here may be mentioned one or two 
 cases of murder attended with circumstances of horrid barbarity and wickedness. 
 Alfred, eldest son of Ethelred II. and all his train, by earl Godwin, to remove the 
 fear3 of Harold, the prince having a better right to the throne, a.d. 1036. The 
 assassins ripped up Alfred's belly, fastened his bowels to a post, and then pricked 
 him with poniards to make him run round it till he died : but this was almost 
 instantaneously. — Speed's Chron. Tosti caused the domestics of his brother Harold to 
 be murdered, and cut in pieces, salted, and barrelled, and then sent as a present to 
 their master, 1058. — Saxon Chron.* 
 
 * Major Johnson, an officer on half-pay in Dublin, entered his parlour and gave his two sons (one a 
 lad of ten, the other of twelve years of age) each a loaded pistol, ordering them to fire at each other, or 
 
 F F 2 
 
MUS 436 MUS 
 
 MUSEUM. Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of 
 Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained by the public, 
 because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. The foundation of this 
 establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphia, who here placed his library, 
 about 284 B.C. See British Museum, &c. and article Geology. 
 
 MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. 
 Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal-Cain. Cameleon 
 Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And Zarlino to the sound of water. It 
 is, however, agreed that music was first reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B.C. The flute, 
 and harmony or concord in music, were invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles. 
 Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B.C. — Du Fresnoy. Pythagoras 
 maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds 
 inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres." St. Cecilia, a 
 Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed 
 from the celestial regions by the fascinating charms of her melody; and this hyper- 
 bolical tradition has been deemed sufficient authority to make her the patroness of 
 music and musicians. She died in the third century. 
 
 MUSIC in ENGLAND. Before the Reformation there was but one kiDd of music in 
 Europe worth notice, namely, the sacred chant, and the descant built upon it. This 
 music moreover was applied to one language only, the Latin. — Ashe. The original 
 English music, from the period of the Saxons to that era in which our countrymen 
 imbibed the art, and copied the manner of the Italians, was of a character which 
 neither pleased the soul nor charmed the ear. But as all the arts seem to have been 
 the companions of successful commerce, our music soon improved, our taste was 
 chastened, and sweet sounds formed an indispensable part of polite education. Prior 
 to 1600, the chief music was masses and madrigals, but dramatic music was much 
 cultivated from that time. About the end of James I.'s reign a music professorship 
 was founded in the University of Oxford by Dr. Wm. Hychin ; and the year 1710 was 
 distinguished by the arrival in England of George Frederick Handel. Mozart came to 
 England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria von Weber in 1825. 
 
 MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Gui Aretin, a 
 Benedictine monk of Arezzo, A.D. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present used were 
 perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1515. 
 Gaffurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composition in the sixteenth century, and 
 they effected great improvement in the science. The Italian style of composition was 
 introduced into these countries about 1616. 
 
 MUSICAL FESTIVALS in ENGLAND. Dr. Bysse, chancellor of Hereford, proposed 
 to the members of the choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after morning service, 
 when forty guineas were collected and appropriated to charitable purposes. It was 
 then agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation, 
 annually. Until the year 1753, the festival lasted only two days : it was then extended 
 at Hereford to three evenings; and at Gloucester, in 1757, to three mornings, for the 
 purpose of introducing Handel's " Messiah," which was warmly received, and has 
 been performed annually ever since. Musical festivals on a great scale are now 
 annually held in England. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS. The Ancient Academy of Music was instituted in 1710. 
 It originated with numerous eminent performers and gentlemen to promote the study 
 of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musical 
 societies followed. The Royal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility and 
 gentry uniting to promote the performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. 
 Royal Academy of Music established, 1822. 
 
 MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish historians 
 state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot-soldier with these weapons. 
 They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. Introduced generally into the 
 English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 12 Henry VIII. 1521. — Carte. It was 
 the duke of Alva who first brought the musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. 
 
 else he would run them through with his sword ; they fired, and shot each other dead upon the spot. 
 Their mother coming into the room, on the report of the pistols, the major stabbed her to the heart, 
 and then himself, 17i!0. — Salmon's Chron. A Milanese woman, named Elizabeth, enticed numerous 
 children to her house, and killed and salted, and afterwards ate them (see Anthropophagi), a.d. 1519. 
 At Lisbon, a woman was executed for the murder of tbirty-three infants committed to her care, July 
 1772.— Phillips. 
 
 
MUS 437 MYS 
 
 MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so called as 
 not being bare, but having a downy nap on its surface resembling moss, which the 
 French call mousse. According to others, it was first brought from Mousol, in India, 
 whence the name. Muslins were first worn in Eugland in 1670. — Anderson. They 
 were manufactured in great perfection in England iu 1778. 
 
 MUTE, STANDING-. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason 
 or felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, 
 a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, on his back, on 
 the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon his body ; in this situation 
 he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one day, and three draughts of stagnant 
 water the next, and so on alternately until he died. For a very memorable instance 
 of this punishment in a.d. 1605, see article Pressing to Death. By stat. 12 Geo. III. 
 judgment is awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted, or 
 confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the Old Bailey 
 on a charge of murder, 1778. Another on a charge of burglary, at Wells, 1792. At 
 Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, Aug. 21, 1801. — Phillips. 
 
 MUTINIES in the British Fleet and Army. The mutiny throughout the fleet 
 at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, April 15, 1797. It subsided on a promise 
 from the Admiralty, which, not being quickly fulfilled, occasioned a second mutiny 
 on board the London man-of-war, admiral Colpoys, who, with his captain, was put 
 into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby some lives were lost. 
 The mutiny subsided May 10, 1797, when the act passed to raise their wages, and the 
 king pardoned the mutineers. A more considerable one at the Nore, which blocked 
 up the trade of the Thames, subsided June 10, 1797, when the principal mutineers 
 were put in irons, and several executed. Mutiny of the Danae frigate ; the crew 
 carried the ship into Brest harbour, March 27, 1800. Mutiny on board admiral 
 Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, December 1801, and January following : see Pantry Pay. 
 Mutiny at Malta, began April 4, 1807, and ended on the 12th, when the mutineers 
 blew themselves up, by setting fire to a large magazine, consisting of between 400 
 and 500 barrels of gunpowder. See Madras and India, 1857. 
 
 MUTINY ACT, a statute for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the army, &o. 
 was passed 2 Will. III. 1689, and has been renewed annually ever since. 
 
 MUTINY op the BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. For particulars see Pounty. 
 
 MYCALE, BATTLE of. Fought Sept. 22, 479 B.C. between the Greeks and Persians ; 
 being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platsea. The 
 Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just returned from au unsuccessful 
 expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were completely defeated, some thousands of 
 them slaughtered, their camp burnt, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their 
 troops and sailed back to Samos with an immense booty. 
 
 MYCENiE. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty stadia from 
 Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidge. Perseus removed from 
 Argos to Mycense, and began to reign, 1313 B.C. Mycenae was destroyed by the 
 Argives, 568 B.C. 
 
 Reign of Electryon . . . .B.C. 1302 
 Sthenelus, his brother, succeeds . . 1296 
 Reign of Eurystheus .... 1289 
 [Towards the close of his reign, he im- 
 poses on Hercules several dangerous 
 enterprises, with a view to get rid of 
 him ; but the hero surmounts all diffi- 
 culties.] 
 jEgisthus assassinates Atreus . . . 1201 
 Agamemnon succeeds to the throne . 1201 
 He also becomes king of Sicyon, Corinth, 
 
 and perhaps of Argos . . . . 1201 
 Agamemnon chosen generalissimo of the 
 Grecian forces going to the Trojan war 1193 
 
 JEgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, 
 lives in adultery with the queen Cly- 
 temnestra. On the return of the king 
 they assassinate him ; and iEgisthus 
 mounts the throne . . . B.C. 1183 
 Orestes, sou of Agamemnon, puts his 
 
 mother and her paramour to death . 1176 
 Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . . 1106 
 The Achaians are expelled . . . 1106 
 Invasion of the Heraclidee, and the con- 
 querors divide the dominions. . . 1104 
 Mycenae destroyed by the Argives . . 568 
 *** The occurrences relating to Mycense 
 are few and uninteresting. 
 
 MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an institution 
 of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all maxims in morality, 
 tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt up in a veil of allegory and 
 mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus 
 and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens 
 by Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. The laws were — 1. To honour parents; 2. To honour the 
 gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes 
 
MYT 438 NAP 
 
 the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius a.d. 389. 
 MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the authentic 
 tradition concerning the Creation had been h>st or adulterated ; and persons who had 
 rendered themselves renowned as kings or leaders in this life, and whose achievements 
 had dazzled the benighted understanding of men living in a state of nature, were 
 supposed to be more than mortal, and therefore after death the multitude were easily 
 taught to reverence them with divine honours. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after 
 forgetting the invisible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and 
 moon ; and then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the 
 passions of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, 
 and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to have 
 introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 B.C. ; and Cadmus, the worship of 
 the Egyptian and Phoenician deities among the Greeks, 1493 B c. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAAS, BATTLE of, in Ireland. A desperate engagement between a body of the 
 king's forces, consisting of the ancient Britons, and the Armagh militia. The insur- 
 gent Irish, who had just commenced the memorable rebellion called the " Rebellion 
 of 1798," were 3000 strong, and were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and some 
 hundreds wounded, May 24, 1798. — Sir Richard Mu<grave. 
 
 NABONASSER, ERA of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince of 
 Babylon, under whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in Chaldrea. 
 The years are vague, containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day 
 of the era was Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in L 'Art de Verifier les 
 Dales) Feb. 26, 747 B.C. To find the Julian year on which the year of Nabonasser 
 begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; if after Christ, add to it 748. 
 
 NAHUM, FESTIVAL of. Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets ; the 
 festival is the 24th of December. The particular circumstances of his life, and the 
 time of his death, are altogether unknown. Opinions are also divided as to the period 
 in which he delivered his prophecy, about B.C. 713 
 
 NAMES. Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it to parents 
 to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans taught that the minds, 
 actions, and successes of men were according to their names, genius, and fate. The 
 popes change their names at their exaltation to the pontificate, "a custom intro- 
 duced by pope Sergius, whose name till then was Swine-snout, a.d. 687." — Platina. 
 Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 ; and gives as a reason, that it was done in 
 imitation of SS. Peter and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In France it 
 was usual to change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons 
 of Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules ; but at their 
 confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It is usual for the 
 religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new names, to show they are 
 about to lead a new life, and have renounced all things. See Surnames. 
 
 NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria by the peace of Utrecht. It was garrisoned by 
 the Dutch as a hairier town of the United Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by 
 the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, the emperor Joseph expelled 
 the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again taken by the French, who were compelled 
 to evacuate it the following year; but they regained possession of it in 1794. The 
 French, however, delivered it up to the allies in 1814. It was a scene of a severe 
 conflict, in June 1815, between the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when 
 retreating after the battle of Waterloo. 
 
 NANTES, EDICT of. This was a celebrated edict, permitting to the Protestants the 
 free exercise of their religion, published by Henry IV. of France in 1598. The 
 impolitic and unjust revocation of this edict by Louis XIV. was declared Oct. 24, 
 1685, and obliged the Protestants to shelter themselves in England, Holland, and 
 different parts of Germany, where they established various manufactures to the 
 prejudice of their own country. See Pacification. 
 
 NAPIER'S BONES. See Logarithms. 
 
NAP 
 
 439 
 
 NAT 
 
 NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples was a 
 part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth century it became a 
 prey to the Goths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and the Saracens, Normans, and 
 French also successively had possession of this country. See Sicilies. 
 
 The Goths having become masters of 
 Naples and of Sicily, are expelled by 
 Belisarius, general of the eastern em- 
 pire a.d. 537 
 
 The Lombards next get possession of 
 Naples, and are dispossessed by 
 Charlemagne SCO 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
 king of Prance, obtains the crown 
 from the pope to the exclusion of the 
 rightful heir, Conradin, who is be- 
 headed, aged sixteen years . . . 1266 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
 lians, a general massacre of the in- 
 vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
 only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers, 
 
 March 30, 1282 
 
 Peter of Arragon reigns .... 1282 
 
 The two crowns disjoined . . . . 1303 
 
 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of Hun- 
 gary, is murdered there by order of 
 the queen regent, in her presence . 1336 
 
 For this murder, she is taken out of her 
 carriage, and drowned in the river 
 Boseth 1386 
 
 Sicily again united to Naples, and the 
 kings ever since called kings of the 
 Two Sicilies 1442 
 
 Taken from the French, and annexed to 
 Spain 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to an 
 insurrection, excited by Masanielio, a 
 fisherman, who in fifteen days raises 
 200,000 men 1647 
 
 This insurrection subsides, and Masa- 
 nielio is murdered 1647 
 
 Attempt of the duke of Guise to possess 
 the crown 1*547 
 
 The kingdom completely conquered by 
 prince Eugene 1(07 
 
 Discovery of the ruins of Herculaneum. 
 See Herculaneum . ■ ■ ■ • 1711 
 
 Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
 treaty of Radstadt, 1714 ; Sicily in . 1720 
 
 Both kingdoms are recovered by the 
 crown of Spain 1734 
 
 And Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, 
 reigns . 1735 
 
 Reign of Ferdinand IV 1759 
 
 His flight on the approach of the French 
 republicans . . . Jan. 14, 1799 
 
 Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and 
 the king restored . . . July 13, 1799 
 
 It is again taken by the French, April 7, 1S01 
 
 Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 
 the kingdom, and thousands perish, 
 
 July 26, 1805 
 
 Treaty offensive and defensive between 
 France and Naples . . . Oct. S, 1S05 
 
 Ferdinand is again driven from Naples, 
 and Joseph Bonaparte is crowned 
 king Feb. 6, 1S06 
 
 Joseph abdicates for the crown of Spain, 
 
 June 1, 1S08 
 
 The crown is transferred to Joachim 
 Murat Julyl, 180S 
 
 A new constitution granted Sicily . . 1812 
 
 Naples is surrendered to a British fleet, 
 and Ferdinand re-enters . June 17, 1SI5 
 
 Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15, 1815 
 
 Revolutionary movement headed by 
 general Pe'pe' . . . July 15, 1S20 
 
 Suppression of the Carbonari Sept. 16, 1820 
 
 Death of Ferdinand IV. (reigned 66 
 years) and reign of Francis I. . . 1825 
 
 Reign of Ferdinand II. . Nov. 8, 1S30 
 
 Commencement of the dispute relative to 
 the sulphur monopoly (which is after- 
 wards amicably adjusted) March 15, 1840 
 
 Palermo and the great towns of Sicily in 
 open insurrection against the king of 
 Naples : the people proclaim a provi- 
 sional government, and insist on hav- 
 ing the constitution of 1S12 Jan. 12, 1S48 
 
 A constitution, modelled on the French 
 charter of 1830, proclaimed . Jan. 29, 1848 
 
 Bombardment of Messina . April 13, 1848 
 
 Great fighting at Naples between the 
 troops and national guard . May 15, 1S48 
 
 Messina bombarded for five days by the 
 Neapolitans, and taken . Sept. 7, 1S48 
 
 Blockade of Palermo . . April 30, 1849 
 
 It is entered by the Neapolitans after 
 much fighting . . . May 13, 1849 
 
 After remonstrances with the king on 
 his tyrannical government, the English 
 and French ambassadors are with- 
 drawn Oct 2S, 1856 
 
 Attempted assassination of the king by 
 Milans .... Nov. 28, 1S56 
 
 Slight insurrection in Sicily suppressed, 
 
 Dec. 1856 
 
 Italian refugees, under count Pisacane, 
 landing in Calabria, are defeated and 
 their leader killed . . . July 2, 1S57 
 
 NARVA, BATTLE op. The celebrated battle in which Peter the Great of Russia was 
 totally defeated by the renowned Charles XTI. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. 
 The army of Peter amounted to 70,000, some Swedish writers affirm, to 100,000 men, 
 •while the Swedes did not much exceed 20,000. Fought Nov. 30, 1700. In this 
 wonderful battle, Charles, " the Madman of the North," attacked the enemy in his 
 intrenchments, and slew 30,000 ; the remainder, exceeding that number, surrendered. 
 The victorious chief had several horses shot under him, and as he was mounting a 
 fresh one, he said, " These people seem disposed to give me exercise." 
 
 NASEBY, BATTLE or. Between Charles L and the parliament army under Fairfax and 
 Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by lord Astley ; prince 
 Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
 headed the body of reserve. The victory was with the parliament forces, and was 
 decisive of the fate of the king, who was obliged to flee, losing all his cannon and 
 baggage, and 5000 of his army as prisoners, June 14, 1645. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe Sie"yes, the 
 states of France constituted themselves into the National Assembly, June 16, 1789. 
 On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon 
 
lutionary war, it amount- 
 ed to. . . . £571,000,000 
 In 1814. Close of the war . . . S65,OOJ,000 
 In 1817. When the English and 
 Irish Exchequers were 
 consolidated . . . 848,282,477 
 In 1S30. Total amount of the funded 
 
 and unfunded debt . . 840,184,022 
 In 1840. Total amount of ditto . 789,578,720 
 In 1845. Funded debt . . .768,789,241 
 Id 1850. Funded debt . . . 774,022,638 
 In 1854. Funded debt . . .755,610,226 
 Unfunded . . . 16,542,000 
 
 In 1S56. Funded debt . . .799,931,088 
 
 NAT 440 NAT 
 
 which the deputies of the Tiers Etat repaired to the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, 
 and swore not to dissolve until they had digested a constitution for France. On the 
 22nd they met at the church at St. Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 
 1792. See next article. 
 
 NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the Tuileries, 
 Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the 
 National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its 
 functions. It was then decreed, " That the citizens named by the French people to 
 form the National Convention, being met to the number of 371 , after having verified 
 their powers, declare, that the National Convention is constituted." This convention 
 continued until a new constitution was organised, and the Executive Directory was 
 installed at the little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directoi~y. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the 
 nation occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in 
 the reign of Will. III. It had amounted, in the year 1697, to about five millions 
 sterling, and the debt was then thought to be of alarming magnitude. 
 
 In 1702. On the accession of queen 
 
 Anne, the debt amounted 
 
 to £14,000,000 
 
 In 1714. On the accession of Geo. I. 
 
 it amounted to . . . 54,000,000 
 In 1749. Geo. II. ; after the Spanish 
 
 war, it amounted to . 78,000,000 
 In 1763. George III. ; end of the 
 
 Seven Years' war, it 
 
 amounted to ... 139,000,000 
 In 1786. Three years after the Ame- 
 rican war, it amounted to 268,000,000 
 In 1798. The civil and foreign war, 
 
 it amounted to . . . 462,000,000 ~ 
 In 1802. Close of the French Revo- Unfunded . . . 28,050,200 
 
 The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257/.: and the total interest, including 
 annuities, amounted to 27,699,740/. On Jan. 1, 1851, the total unreedemed debt 
 of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562/. the charge on which for interest and 
 management was 27,620,449/. And on Jan. 1, 1852, it was 765,126,582/. : the charge 
 on which was 27,501,783/. 
 
 NATIONAL GALLERY, London. The foundation of this great institution was the 
 purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the Angersteiu col- 
 lection of pictures, whose number did not much exceed forty. They were purchased 
 of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the first exhibition of them took 
 place in Pall-mall, in May 1824. Sir G. Beaumont, Mr. Holwell Carr, and many other 
 gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, contributed many fine pictures ; and the 
 collection has been augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The 
 present edifice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
 and opened in 1837. In 1857 a commission appointed to consider the propriety of 
 removing the pictures, reported in favour of their remaining in their present locality. 
 (July, 1857.) 
 
 NATIVITY. There are two festivals, both in the Roman and Greek Churches, under 
 this name. The first is the Nativity of the Redeemer, which is also observed by the 
 Protestants, generally on the 25th day of December, and is of very long standing in 
 the Church ; the other of the Virgin Mary, not observed by the Protestants at all. 
 Pope Sergius I. about 690, is the first who placed the Nativity, kept in memory of the 
 Blessed Virgin, among the festivals ; but it was not generally received in France and 
 Germany till about 1000 ; and the Greeks and eastern Christians did not observe it 
 till some time in the twelfth century, but they now do it with great solemnity. 
 
 NATURALISATION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or 
 freeman of any kingdom or city, and bo becoming, as it were, both a subject and 
 a native .of a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to." The first act of 
 naturalisation passed in 1437; and various similar enactments were made in most of 
 the reigns from that time, several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act 
 for the naturalisation of the Jews passed in 1753, but it was repealed in the following 
 year, on the petition of all the cities in England. The act for the naturalisation of 
 prince Albert passed 3 Vict. Feb. 7, 1840. 
 
 NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, 
 mosses, feathers, &c. into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave 
 
NAV 
 
 441 
 
 NAV 
 
 themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. Kniphof, of 
 Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, produced his Herbarium vivum by pressing the 
 plants themselves (previously inked) on paper; the impressions being afterwards 
 coloured by hand. In 1833, Peter Kyhl made use of steel rollers and lead plates. In 
 1842, Mr. Taylor printed lace. In 1847, Mr. Twining priuted ferns, grasses, and 
 plants ; and in the same year Dr. Eranson suggested the application of electrotyping 
 to the impressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, obtained, by the able 
 assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, impressions of agates and fossils. The first 
 practical application of this process is in Von Heufler's work on the Mosses of 
 Arpasch, in Transylvania; the second (the first in this country) in "The Ferns of 
 Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley ; the illustrations to which were 
 prepared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in 1855-6. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES. The Argouautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon 
 record, 1263 B.C. — Du Fremoy. The first sea-fight on record is that between the 
 Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 B.C. — Blair. The following are among the most 
 celebrated naval engagements : 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 First sea -fight on record, in which the 
 Corinthians eonquer the Corcyreans . 664 
 
 The Athenian fleet under Themistocles, 
 with 380 sail, defeats the Persian, 
 consisting of 2000, at the straits of 
 Salaniis 4S0 
 
 Again, at the mouth of the river Eury- 
 medon ; Cimon, the Athenian admiral, 
 vanquishes the Persian fleet and army 
 in one day. — Herodotus . . . 470 
 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet taken by Alci- 
 biades, the Athenian . . . .410 
 
 The Spartan general, Lysander, totally 
 defeats the Athenian fleet under Conon ; 
 by this victory he puts an end to the 
 maritime power of Athens . . . 407 
 
 The Persians engage Conon to command 
 their fleet, with which he entirely van- 
 quishes the Lacedaemonian fleet, and 
 takes 50 sail out of 90 . . . . 400 
 
 The Persian fleet conquers the Spartan 
 at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 
 admiral, is killed ; and the maritime 
 power of the Lacedaemonians de- 
 stroyed. — Thucydides .... 394 
 
 The Roman fleet, employed in the siege 
 of Lilybasum, burnt by the Cartha- 
 ginians 249 
 
 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the 
 consul Lutatius 242 
 
 The Roman fleets vanquished by Han- 
 nibal, the Carthaginian general; &00 
 galleys taken, and 16,000 prisoners; 
 second Punic war .... 209 
 
 At Actium, between the fleets of Octa- 
 vianus Caesar and Marc Antony. This 
 battle decides the fate of the latter, 300 
 of his galleys going over to Caesar, by 
 which he is totally defeated . . 31 
 
 ANNO DOM INT. 
 
 The emperor Claudius II. defeats the 
 Goths, and sinks 2000 of their ships. — 
 Du Fresnoy . 269 
 
 The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
 and Pius V. defeat the Turkish fleet 
 in the Gulf of Lepanto. The Christian 
 fleet consisted of 206 galleys and 30,000 
 men. The Turks, out of 250 galleys, 
 saved only 100, and lost 30,000 men in 
 killed and prisoners. — Voltaire. See 
 Lepanto .... Oct. 7, 1571 
 
 Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards. 
 This was a bloody conflict and decisive 
 victory, and settled for a time the supe- 
 riority of the Dutch . April 25, 1607 
 
 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN^ BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail 
 
 of Danish pirates on the Dorset and 
 Hampshire coast. — Asser's Life of Alfred 897 
 
 Near Sluys ; Edward III. defeated the 
 French fleet of 250 sail, which were 
 all sunk. 30,000 French were killed 
 in this engagement .... 1340 
 
 Off Winchelsea ; Edward III. defeated 
 the Spanish fleet of 40 large ships, and 
 captured 26 Aug. 29, 1350 
 
 The English and Flemings ; the latter 
 signally defeated 1371 
 
 Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet 
 of 100 sail, and captures 80, March 24, 13*S7 
 
 Near Milford Haven ; the English take 
 14, and destroy 15 French ships . . 1405 
 
 Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedtord takes 
 or destroys nearly 500 French ships, 
 
 Aug. 15, 1416 
 
 In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese 
 fleet captured by the earl of Warwick . 1459 
 
 Bay of Biscay ; English and French, in- 
 decisive .... Aug. 10, 1512 
 
 Sir Edward Howard attacks the French 
 fleet under Prior John, is repulsed and 
 killed .... April 25, 1513 
 
 Sir Thomas Howard, with 60 ships, de- 
 feats 200 French off the Isle of Wight, 
 
 July 19, 1545 
 
 The Spanish Armada driven from the 
 English Channel to the road of Calais, 
 by a running fight, the Spaniards 
 losing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they 
 are again defeated, and obliged to bear 
 away for Scotland and Ireland, when 
 their fleet is dispersed in a storm, and 
 they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 more 
 men. See Armada . . July 19, 15S8 
 
 Dover straits ; between the Dutch ad- 
 miral, Van Tromp, and admiral Blake. 
 The Dutch surprise the English in the 
 Downs, 80 sail engaging 40 English, 
 six of which are taken or destroyed ; 
 and the Dutch admiral sails in tri- 
 umph through the channel, with a 
 broom at his mast-head, to denote 
 that he had swept the English from 
 the seas .... June 29, 1652 
 
 In the Downs ; same admirals, and 
 nearly same loss; Sept. 28, Oct. 2S, and 
 
 Nov. 29, 1652 
 
 The English gain a victory over the Dutch 
 fleetoff Portsmouth,taking and destroy- 
 ing 11 men-of-war and 30 merchant- 
 men. Van Tromp was the Dutch, and 
 Blake the English admiral . Feb. 10, 1653 
 
 Again, near Portland, between the 
 English and Dutch; the latter de- 
 feated .... Feb. 18, 1653 
 
 Again, off the North Foreland. The 
 Dutch and English fleets consisted 
 
NAV 
 
 44 2 
 
 NAV 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 of near 100 men-of-war each. Van 
 
 Tromp to amanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
 
 Monk, and Deaue, the English. Six 
 
 Dutch ships were taken; 11 were 
 
 sunk, and the rest ran into Calais 
 
 road June 2, 1653 
 
 Again, on the coast of Holland; the 
 
 Dutch lost 30 men-of-war, and admiral 
 
 Tromp was killed . . July 31, 1653 
 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
 
 2,000,000 pieces of eight, were taken 
 
 by the English . . . Sept. 1656 
 The Spanish fleet vanquished, and then 
 
 burnt in the harbour of Santa Cruz, 
 
 by Blake .... April, 1657 
 English and French ; 130 of the Bor- 
 deaux fleet destroyed by the du'ce of 
 
 York Dec. 4, 1661 
 
 The duke of York (afterwards James II.) 
 
 defeats the Dutch fleet off Harwich ; 
 
 the Dutch admiral blown up with all 
 
 his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 
 
 destroyed .... June 3, 1605 
 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of- war 
 
 and 2 India ships . . Sept. 4, 1065 
 A contest between the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish fleets for victory, maintained for 
 
 four days. The English lose 9, and 
 
 the Dutch 15 ships . June 1 to 4, 1606 
 Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
 
 the Thames, when the English gain a 
 
 glorious victory. The Dutch lose 24 
 
 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 
 
 4000 officers and seamen . July 26, 1666 
 The English fleet of 16 sail defeats the 
 
 French of 30, near Martinico . . 1 667 
 Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed 
 
 by Sir Edward Spragg . . . 1671 
 
 The fleets of England and Fi ance engage 
 
 the Dutch in South wold-bay ; an ob- 
 stinate and bloody action. The earl 
 
 of Sandwich was blown up ; several 
 
 ships and some thousands of men were 
 
 destroyed ; and though no decisive 
 
 victory was gained, the Dutch fled, 
 
 pursued by the duke of York (after- 
 wards James II.) to their own coasts. 
 
 See Southwold Bay . . Way 28, 1672 
 Coast of Holland ; by Prince Rupert, 
 
 May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11; d'Etrces 
 
 and Ituyter defeated .... 1673 
 Several actions to the disadvantage of 
 
 the Dutch. They agree to strike to the 
 
 English colours in the British seas, 25 
 
 Charles II 1673 
 
 Off Tangiers, battle between the English 
 
 and Moors, which lasted 11 days . 1679 
 Off Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch 
 
 are defeated by the French. See Beachy 
 
 Bead .... June 30, 1690 
 
 The English and Dutch combined fleets 
 
 gain a signal victory over the French 
 
 fleet, near cape La Hogue ; 21 of their 
 
 largest men-of-war were destroyed. 
 
 See la Hoijue . . . May 19, 169- 
 Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch 
 
 squadrons, under admiral Rooke, de- 
 feated by the French . June 16, 1693 
 
 * In the engagement, the other ships of admiral Benbow's squadron falling astern, left this brave 
 commander alone to maintain the unequal battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his leg, yet 
 he would not be removed from the quarterdeck, but continued lighting till the morning, when the 
 French sheered off. He died in October following, cf his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his 
 arrival, he received a letter from the French admiral, of which the following is a literal translation : — 
 
 " Carthayena, August 22, 1702. 
 
 " Sir, — I had little hopes, on Monday last, but to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God to 
 order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you, hang 
 them up, for by G — d they deserve it. Du Cassb." 
 
 Two of those unworthy cowards, captains Kirby and Wade, were shot on their arrival at Plymouth, 
 having been previously tried by a court martial. 
 
 Off Carthagena, between admiral Ben- 
 bow * and the French fleet, com- 
 manded by admiral Du Casse. Fought 
 
 Aug. 1!', 1702 
 
 The English and Dutch fleets, under sir 
 George Rooke. defeat the French fleet 
 (having the Spanish galleons in con- 
 voy) in the port of Vigo. They take 9 
 out of 13 galleons, laden chiefly with 
 silver, and 6 men-of-war ; the other 
 4 galleons, and 14 men of-war, de- 
 stroyed. See Vigo . . Oct. 12, 1702 
 
 Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between 
 the French and English, when the 
 former entirely relinquished the domi- 
 nion of the seas to England Aug. 24. 1704 
 
 At Gibraltar, when the French lose 5 
 men-of-war . . . Nov. 5, 1704 
 
 Oft the Lizard, when the English fleet 
 was defeated . . . Oct. 9, 1707 
 
 In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
 took 60 French vessels, laden with 
 provisions .... May 22, 1708 
 
 The Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally de- 
 feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
 of Messina . . . Aug. 11, 171^ 
 
 Bloody battle off Toulon; Matthews and 
 Lestock against the fleets of France 
 and Spain. Here the brave captain 
 Cornwall fell with 42 men, including 
 officers ; and the victory was lost by a 
 misunderstanding between the English 
 admirals. — Naval Hist. . . . 1744 
 
 Off Cape Finisterre, the French fleet of 
 3S sail taken by admiral Anson', May 3, 1747 
 
 In the East Indies ; the French retired 
 to Fondicherry 1747 
 
 Off Finisterre, when admiral Hawke took 
 7 men-of-war of the French Oct. 14, 1747 
 
 OS Newfoundland, when admiral Bos- 
 cawen took 2 men-of-war June 10, 1755 
 
 Off Cape Francois; 7 ships defeated by 
 3 English .... Oct. 21, 1757 
 
 Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet 
 in the East Indies, in two actions, 1 758 ; 
 and again 1759 
 
 Admiral Boscawen defeats the French 
 under De la Clue, off cape Lagos. See 
 Lagos. Fought . . Aug. 18, 1759 
 
 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, 
 commanded by Conflans, in Quiberou 
 Bay, and thus prevents' a projected in- 
 vasion of England. See Quiberon Bay. 
 Fought .... Nov. 20, 1759 
 
 Eeppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
 fleet of merchantmen . Oct. 9, 1762 
 
 On Lake Champlain, where the provin- 
 cial force was totally destroyed by 
 admiral Howe . . . Oct. 11, 1776 
 
 Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between 
 Keppel and d'Orvilliers . July 27, 1773 
 
 In New England; the American fleet 
 totally destroyed . . July 30, 1779 
 
 Near Cape St. Vincent; admiral Rod- 
 ney defeated a Spanish fleet under 
 admiral Don Langara. See Rodney, 
 
 Jan. 16, 1780 
 
NAV 
 
 443 
 
 NAV 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 At St. Jago; Moris. Suffrein defeated by 
 
 commodore Johnston . April 16, 1781 
 Dogger-bank, between adm. Parker and 
 the Dutch adm. Zoutman : 400 killed 
 on each side . . . Aug. 5, 1781 
 Admiral Rodney defeated the French 
 going to attack Jamaica ; took 5 ships 
 of the line, and sent the French ad- 
 miral, count de Grasse, prisoner to 
 England. See Rodney . April 12, 1782 
 The British totally defeated the fleets of 
 France and Spain, in the bay of Gib- 
 raltar. See Gibraltar . Sept. 13, 17S2 
 East Indies : a series of actions between 
 sir Edward Hughes and Suffrein, viz. : 
 Feb. 17, 17S2, the French had 11 ships 
 to 9 ; April 12, they had 18 ships to 11, 
 yet were completely beaten. Again, 
 July 6, off Trincomalee, they Had 15 to 
 12, and were again beaten with the 
 loss of 1000 killed, Sept. 3, 1782. Again, 
 
 June 20, 1783 
 Lord Howe signally defeated the French 
 fleet off Ushant, "took 6 ships of war, 
 and sunk one . . . June 1, 1794 
 Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail, and 
 burnt 7, out of a fleet of 35 sail of 
 transports . . . March 8, 1795 
 
 French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war 
 taken, by admiral Hotham. Fought 
 
 March 14, 1795 
 Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, 
 convoyed by 3 French men-of-war. 
 Fought .... June 7, 1795 
 
 Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by 
 the Sceptre, man-of-war, and some 
 armed British Indiamen in company, 
 
 June 19, 1795 
 L'Orient ; the French fleet defeated by 
 lord Bridport, and 3 ships of the line 
 taken. See L'Orient . . June 25, 1795 
 Dutch fleet under admiral Lucas in Sal- 
 danha bay, surrenders to sir George 
 Keith Elphinstone. See Saldanha Bav, 
 
 Aug. 17, 1796 
 Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet 
 defeated by sir J. Jervis, and 4 line- 
 of-battle ships taken. See St. Vincent, 
 
 Feb. 14, 1797 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz; 
 admiral Nelson loses his right arm. 
 See Santa Cruz . . . July 24, 1797 
 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
 feated by admiral Duncan, and 9 ships 
 of the line and 2 frigates, with the 
 admiral (De Winter), taken. See Cam- 
 perdown Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 Kile : Toulon fleet defeated by sir Hora- 
 tio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of the 
 line taken ; 2 burnt, 2 escaped. See 
 
 Nile Aug. 1, 1798 
 
 Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet 
 of 9 sail, full of troops, as succours to 
 the Irish, engaged by sir John Borlase 
 Warren, and 5 taken . Oct. 12, 179S 
 
 The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 India- 
 men surrenders to the British admiral, 
 Mitchell .... Aug. 28, 1799 
 Copenhagen bombarded ; when the Da- 
 nish fleet of 23 sail is taken or de- 
 stroyed by lord Nelson. 1S00 Danish 
 seamen killed. See Copenhagen. 
 
 April 2, 1801 
 Gibraltar Bay ; engagement between the 
 French and British fleets ; the Hanni- 
 bal of 74 guns lost . . July 6, 1801 
 Off Cadiz : sir James Saumarez obtains 
 a victory over the French and Spanish 
 fleets ; 1 ship captured. Fought 
 
 July 12, 1801 
 Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 
 
 ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of 
 the French and Spanish combined 
 fleets, off Ferrol . . .July 22, 1805 
 
 Off Trafalgar ; memorable battle, in 
 which lord Nelson defeated the fleets 
 of France and Spain, and in which the 
 gallant hero receivedhis mortal wound. 
 See Trafalgar . . . Oct. 21, 1805 
 
 Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, 
 captures 4 French ships of the line, off 
 Cape Ortegal . . . Nov. 4, 1805 
 
 In the West Indies : the French defeated 
 by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line 
 taken, 2 driven on shore . Feb. 6, 1806 
 
 Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 
 French ships . . . March 13, 1806 
 
 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
 of the Dardanelles. See article Dar- 
 danelles Feb. 19, 1807 
 
 Copenhagen fleet of IS ships of the line, 
 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
 renders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
 Gambier. See Copenhagen . Sept. 7, 1807 
 
 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
 Tagus, surrenders to the British, 
 
 Sept. 3, 1808 
 
 Basque roads : 4 sail of the line and 
 much shipping destroyed by lord 
 Gambier . . . April 12, 1809 
 
 Two Russian flotillas of numerous ves- 
 sels taken or destroyed by sir J. Sau- 
 marez July, 1809 
 
 French ships of the line driven on shore 
 by lord Collingwood (2 of them burnt 
 by the French next day) . Oct. 25, 1S09 
 
 Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour by 
 direction of captain Hallowell takes 
 or destroys 11 war and other vessels. 
 See Rosas Bay . . . Nov. 1, 1809 
 
 Basseterre : La Loire and La Seine, 
 French frigates, destroyed by sir A. 
 Cochrane .... Dec. 18, 1809 
 
 The Spartan British frigate gallantly 
 engages a large French force in the 
 bay of Naples . . . May 3, 1810 
 
 Action between the Tribune, captain 
 Reynolds, and 4 Danish brigs. Fought 
 
 May 12, 1810 
 
 Isle of Rhe'; 17 vessels taken or de- 
 stroyed by the Armide and Cadmus, 
 
 July 17, 1810 
 
 Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken 
 by the Cerfteru* and Active Feb. 22, 1811 
 
 Amazon French frigate des I royed off Cape 
 Barfleur ... . March 25, 1811 
 
 Sagone Bay : 2 French store-ships burnt 
 by captain Barrie's ships . May 1, 1811 
 
 The British sloop, Little Belt, and Ame- 
 rican ship, President : their rencontre, 
 
 May 16, 1811 
 
 Off Madagascar; 3 British frigates under 
 captain Schomberg engage 3 French 
 larger-sized, with troops on board, 
 and capture 2 . . . May 20, 1811 
 
 The Thames and Cephalus capture 36 
 French vessels . . . July, 1S11 
 
 The Naiad frigate attacked in presence 
 of Bonaparte by 7 armed praams; they 
 were gallantly repidsed . . Sept. 21, 1S11 
 
 French frigates Pauline and Pomone cap- 
 tured by the British frigates Alceste, 
 Active, and Unite' . . Nov. 29, 1S11 
 
 Rivoli of 84 guns, taken by the Victorious 
 of 74 .... Feb. 21, 1812 
 
 L'Orient; 2 French frigates, &c. de- 
 stroyed by the Northumberland, captain 
 Hotham .... May 22, 1812 
 
 Guerriere British frigate, small class, 
 captured by the American ship Consti- 
 tution (an unequal conquest). Fought 
 
 Aug. 19, 1812 
 
NAV 
 
 444 
 
 NAV 
 
 American frigate Essex captured by the 
 Pho.be and Cherub . . March 29, 1814 
 
 British sloop Avon sunk by the Ameri- 
 can sloop Wasp . . . Sept. 8, 1S14 
 
 Lake Champlain : the British squadron 
 captured by the American, after a 
 severe conflict . . . Sept. 11, 1814 
 
 American ship President captured by 
 the Endymion . , . Jan. 15, 1815 
 
 Algiers bombarded by Lord Exmouth. 
 See Algiers . . . Aug. 27, 1816 
 
 Navarino ; the British, French, and 
 Russian squadrons defeat and anni- 
 hilate the Turkish navy. See Ifava- 
 rino .... Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Action between the British ships Volage 
 and Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war- 
 junks, which were defeated Nov. 3, 1839 
 
 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
 British squadron under admiral Stop- 
 ford achieved this triumph with 
 trifling Iocs, while the Egyptians lost 
 2000 killed and wouuded, and 3000 
 prisoners. See Syria . Nov. 3, 1S40 
 
 Lagos attacked and taken by commodore 
 Bruce, with a squadron consisting of 
 the Penelope, Eloodhound, Sampson, and 
 Teozer, war steamers, and the Pinion.' I 
 brig of war . . . Dec. 20, 27, 1851 
 
 [For naval actions in China, but which 
 cannot be called regular battles, see 
 
 China.'] 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 British brig Frolic captured by the 
 
 American sloop Wasp . Oct. 18, 1S12 
 British frigate Macedonian taken by the 
 
 American ship United States, large 
 
 class .... Oct. 25, 1S12 
 
 British frigate Java taken by the Ame- 
 rican ship Constitution, large class, 
 
 Dec. 29, 1812 
 British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed 
 
 and 95 wounded, engaging a French 
 
 frigate Feb. 7, 1813 
 
 British sloop Peacock captured by the 
 
 American ship Hornet ; she was so 
 
 disabled that she sunk with part of 
 
 her crew .... Feb. 25, 1813 
 American frigate Chesapeake taken by 
 
 the Shannon, captain Broke. See 
 
 Chesapeake .... June 1, 1S13 
 American ships Growler and Eagle taken 
 
 by British gun-boats . . June 3, 1813 
 American sloop Argus taken by the 
 
 British sloop Pelican . . Aug. 14, 1S13 
 
 French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken 
 
 by the Andromache of 8S guns, Oct. 23, 1S13 
 French frigate Ceres taken by the British 
 
 ship Tagus .... Jan. 6, 1S14 
 French frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia 
 
 taken by the Vena-able . . Jan. 16, 1S14 
 French frigate Terpsichore taken by the 
 
 Majestic .... Feb. 3, 1814 
 French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad 
 
 and Ac/ceites, after an action with the 
 
 Eurotas .... Feb. 25, 1814 
 
 French frigate L'Eloile captured by the 
 
 Hebrus .... March 27, 1S14 
 
 NAVAL COAST VOLUNTEERS. The admiralty were empowered to raise a body of 
 seafaring men to bear this name, not to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the coast, 
 and for actual service if required, by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 73 (Aug. 15, 1853). 
 
 NAVAL REVIEWS. The Queen reviewed the fleet at Portsmouth in March 1854 
 before it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of the Russian war ; and agaiu at 
 Portsmouth, on the conclusion of Peace, in the presence of the parliament, &c, on 
 April 23. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, and consisted of 
 upwards of 300 men-of-war, with a tonnage of 150,000, carrying 3800 guns, and 
 manned by 40,000 seamen. 
 
 NAVAL SALUTE to the ERITISH FLAG. This mark of honour began in Alfred's 
 reign, and though sometimes disputed, it may be said to have been continued ever 
 since. The Dutch agreed to strike to the English colours in the British seas, in 1673. 
 The honour of the flag-salute at sea was also formally assented to by France in 1704, 
 although it had been long previously exacted by England. See Flag and Salutes at Sea. 
 
 NAVAL UNIFORMS. The first notice of the establishment of a uniform in the British 
 naval service which we have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's Journal of March 5, 
 1748, under the head of "Domestic News," in these terms : — "An order is said to be 
 issued, requiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admiral down to the midship- 
 man, to wear a uniformity of clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress suits 
 and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at the Navy-office, and at the several 
 dock-yards, for their inspection." This is corroborated by the Guzetle of July 13, 1757, 
 when the first alteration in the uniform took place, and in which a reference is made 
 to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above mentioned, and which, in fact, is 
 the year when a naval uniform was first established. James I. had indeed granted, by 
 warrant of 6th April, 1609, to six of his principal masters of the navy, " liverie coats 
 of fine red cloth." The warrant is stated to have been drawn verbatim from one 
 signed by queen Elizabeth, but which had not been acted upou by reason of her death. 
 This curious document is in the British Museum ; but king James's limited red livery 
 is supposed to have been soon discontinued. — Quarterly Review. 
 
 NAVARINO, BATTLE of. Between the combined fleets of England, France, and 
 Russia, under command of Admiral Codrington, and the Turkish navy, in which the 
 latter was almost wholly annihilated. Wore than thirty ships, many of them four- 
 deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, to prevent 
 
NAV 
 
 445 
 
 NAV 
 
 their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 1827. The policy which 
 led to this attack upon Turkey was that of Mr. Canning's administration. This 
 destruction of the Turkish naval power was characterised, by the duke of Wellington, 
 as being an '■' untoward event " — a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day. 
 
 NAVIGATION". It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 B.C. The first laws of 
 navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 B.C. The first account we have of any 
 considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.C. — Blair. 
 On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander the Great, 335 B.C. its commerce passed to 
 Alexandria, and subsequently the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It 
 passed successively from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hause Towns to the Portugiiese 
 and Spaniards; and from these to the English and Dutch. 
 
 Logarithmic tables applied to navigation 
 
 by Gunter . . . . a.d. 1620 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced . . 16J3 
 Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . 1631 
 
 Hadley's quadrant 1731 
 
 Harrison's time-keeper used . . .176-1 
 Nautical alruanac first published . . 1767 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation, of the 
 compass 1S20 
 
 See Compass, latitude, Longitude, &c. 
 
 Plane charts and mariner's compass 
 used about a.d. 1420 
 
 Variation of the compass discovered by 
 Columbus 1492 
 
 That the oblique rhomb lines are spirals, 
 discovered by Nonius .... 1537 
 
 First treatise on navigation . . . 1545 
 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne . 1577 
 
 Mercator's chart 1599 
 
 Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for mea- 
 suring angles, about .... 1600 
 
 NAVIGATION, INLAND. See Canals. 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Rich. 1. 1194. See Olcron. 
 The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more extensive act was 
 passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies passed in 1646; and several 
 acts followed relating to navigation. The act regulating the navigation of the river 
 Thames was passed in 1786. Navigation Act, for the encouragement of British ships 
 and seamen, passed 4 Will. IV. Aug. 1833; and in the reign of Victoria numerous 
 acts were passed, in the whole or in part repealed by the act " to Amend the laws in 
 force for the Encouragement of British Shipping and Navigation," passed 12 & 13 
 Vict. c. 29, June 26, 1849. This last act came into operation Jan. 1, 1850. The 
 Steam Navigation act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, Aug. 7, 1851, and came into 
 operation Jan. 1, 1852. 
 
 NAVY OP ENGLAND. The first fleet of galleys, like those of the Danes, was built by 
 Alfred a.d. 897. The number of galleys had increased under Edgar to 350, about 
 a.d. 965. A formidable fleet was equipped by the public contribution of every town 
 in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. 1007 etseq. when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, 
 to be ready to oppose the Danes. From this period fleets were occasionally furnished 
 by the maritime towns, and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the 
 king, or an admiral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais 
 in 1347; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regulations. 
 The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy may therefore be placed 
 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was appointed, with commissioners to 
 manage naval affairs, and a number of stout ships of war began to be permanently 
 kept on foot by the crown. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of one 
 ship of 1200 tons, two of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller; the largest was called 
 the Great Harry. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, con- 
 sisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 ships of 1400 
 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever built. — Camden. In the reign of Charles 
 II. the navy consisted of 9 first rates (equal to our third), 14 second rates, and 39 
 third rates. The cost was 200,0002. 
 
 ACCOUNT OP THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OP THE ROYAL NAVY OP ENGLAND, PROM 
 HENRY VIII.'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OP THE FRENCH WAR, 1814. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted. 
 
 Navy estimates. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted. 
 
 Wavy estimates. 
 
 1521 
 
 16 
 
 7,260 
 
 
 
 no account. 
 
 1760 
 
 412 
 
 321,134 
 
 70,000 
 
 £3,227,143 
 
 1578 
 
 24 
 
 10,506 
 
 6,700 
 
 no account. 
 
 1793 
 
 ■498 
 
 433,226 
 
 45,000 
 
 5,525,331 
 
 1603 
 
 42 
 
 17,055 
 
 8,346 
 
 no account. 
 
 1800 
 
 767 
 
 668,744 
 
 135,000 
 
 12,422,837 
 
 165S 
 
 157 
 
 57,000 
 
 21,910 
 
 no account. 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 143,800 
 
 17,496,047 
 
 168S 
 
 173 
 
 101,892 
 
 42,000 
 
 no account. 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,7S6,509 
 
 1702 
 
 272 
 
 159,020 
 
 40,000 
 
 £1,056,915 
 
 
 
 
 
 
NAV 
 
 446 
 
 NAV 
 
 In 1814, Great Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 1830, she 
 had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying vessels of two guns only. 
 Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the 
 total number of ships of all sizes in commission was 183. 
 
 SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN 
 IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR, ENDING 1802. 
 
 Force. 
 
 French. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Span sh 
 
 Other nations. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Of the line 
 
 Fifties .... 
 
 Frigates . 
 
 Sloops, &c. . . . 
 
 Grand Total . 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 133 
 
 161 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 
 20 
 55 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 S3 
 
 3 
 
 101 
 
 264 
 
 341 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 25 
 
 541 
 
 NUMBER OF SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED IN THE WAR AGAINST FRANCE, ENDING 1814. 
 
 Force. 
 
 French. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Russian. 
 
 American. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Of the line 
 Fifties . 
 Frigates . 
 
 Sloops, &c. . . . 
 
 Grand Total . 
 
 70 
 
 7 
 
 77 
 
 188 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 64 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 1-24 
 
 9 
 
 148 
 
 2SS 
 
 342 
 
 127 
 
 64 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 569 
 
 It thus appears that, in two wars, extending over a period of about twenty-one years, 
 our navy took or destroyed 1110 ships of the navies of our enemies. 
 
 NAVY, ROYAL, of ENGLAND, in 1850, consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam vessels; 
 in April 1854, of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 paddle steamers. In 
 addition to these, there were steam-vessels, employed as packets under contract, and 
 capable of being made available for warlike purposes in case of emergency. 
 
 ROYAL NAVY IN APRIL, 1855. 
 
 SAILING VESSELS. 
 
 Ra te. Guns. 
 
 1st 110—120 
 
 2nd SO— 104 
 
 3rd 70—78 
 
 4th 50 
 
 5th 30—44 
 
 6th 12—28 
 
 Sloops . . . . . 2—18 
 Brigs, cutters, schooners, <&c. 3 — 16 
 
 Troops 4—10 
 
 Battery ships . . . . 14 
 
 Mortar vessels 
 
 Tenders, yachts, &c. 
 
 Building, 50 — 120 guns 
 
 Ships. 
 . 9 
 . 29 
 . 17 
 . 29 
 . 38 
 . 33 
 . 53 
 . 27 
 
 . 4 
 . is 
 . 19 
 
 282 
 
 . in 
 
 STEAMERS. 
 
 -131 guns 19 
 
 50—80 
 
 2—46 ,, 
 Sloops, 5 — 17 guns 
 Gun vessels, 1 — 8 guns 
 Gun boats, 1 — 2 ,, 
 Store ships, 1 — 42 ,, 
 Tenders, packets, &c. . 
 
 12 
 45 
 40 
 51 
 25 
 23 
 39 
 
 254 
 Building, various 56 
 
 310 
 
 TOTAL. 
 
 Sailing vessels 292 
 
 Steam vessels 310 
 
 602 
 
 In July, 1856, the royal navy consisted of 271 sailing vessels carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
 steam vessels carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 vessel! carrying 16,176 guns : also 155 gun- 
 boats, and 111 vessels on harbour service. 
 
 NAVY of FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a.d. 728, when, like that of 
 England at an early period, it consisted of galleys : in this year the French defeated 
 the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of 
 his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was, perhaps, in its highest 
 splendour about 1781 ; but it became greatly reduced in the wars with England. 
 (See preceding article.) In 1854 it consisted of 290 ships (of which 53 bore from 120 
 to 82 guns, and 58 frigates, bearing from 60 to 40 guns) and 407 steamers of various 
 sizes : in all, 697 vessels. 
 
 NAVY-OFFICE. A Navy-office was constituted in 1512; and a board with twelve com- 
 missioners, subordinate to the Board of Admiralty, was established 1 Charles 1.1625. 
 
NEC 447 NEP 
 
 — Rymer's Fozdera. The Navy-office was organised in a manner somewhat similar to 
 the present in 1644. This office comprehends a variety of officers. Among others is 
 the treasurer of the navy, secretary, comptroller, &c. See Admiralty. 
 
 NECTARINES. The Amygdcdis Pers'ca is the nectarine tree. It originally came from 
 Persia. Previously to the introduction of the fruit here, in 1562, presents of 
 nectarines were frequently sent to the court of England, from the Netherlands; and 
 Catherine, queen of Henry VIII. distributed them as a rarity among her friends. 
 This queen gave great encouragement to the cultivation of fruits in this country. 
 
 NEEDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home trade, 
 in England. German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for needles. The first 
 that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, London, in the time of the 
 sanguinary Mary, by a negro from Spain ; but, as he would not impart the secret, it 
 was lost at his death, and not recovered again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth ; 
 when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English, who have since brought 
 it to the highest degree of perfection. — Stow. 
 
 NEGRO TRADE. See Slavery. This species of commerce in human beings was first 
 undertaken by the Spaniards a.d. 1508; and by the English in 1563; and to the 
 dishonour of our country, notwithstanding the progress of civilisation, education, and 
 religion, and their consequent blessings and enlightenment, this traffic continued up 
 to the commencement of the present century, 1807. By a judgment in our courts, in 
 1772, it was determined that negroes who were purchased abroad, and were brought 
 to England by their masters, were free — free the moment their feet touched the 
 British soil. This j udgment, to the honour of Mr. Granville Sharpe, was obtained by 
 his carrying on the suit on behalf of Somerset, the black. 
 
 NELSON'S FUNERAL. The illustrious Nelson was killed at the battle of Trafalgar, 
 Oct. 21, 1805, and the Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmouth with his remains 
 Dec. 4, same year. The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at Greenwich, Jan. 5; 
 on the 8th was removed to the Admiralty ; and on the next day the funeral took 
 place, the most grand and solemn that had then ever taken place in England. The 
 prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the duke of Clarence (afterwards William 
 IV.) and other royal dukes, and almost all the peers of England, and the lord mayor 
 and corporation of London, with thousands of military and naval officers and 
 distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. Paul's. The military assembled on 
 this occasion amounted to near 10,000 regulars, independent of volunteers. The 
 regulars consisted chiefly of the regiments that had fought and conquered in Egypt, 
 and participated with the deceased hero in delivering that country from the power of 
 France, Jan. 9. 1806. 
 
 NEMiEAN GAMES. So called from Nemsea, where they were celebrated. They were 
 originally instituted by the Argives in honour of Archemorus, who died by the bite 
 of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed them. They were one of the 
 four great and solemn games which were observed in Greece. The Argives, Corin- 
 thians, and the inhabitants of Cleonae, generally presided by turns at the celebration, 
 in which were exhibited foot and horse races, chariot races, boxing, wrestling, and 
 contests of every kind, both gymnastical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded 
 with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure of 
 Archemorus, whom his mirse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were cele- 
 brated every third, or, according to others, every fifth year, or more properly on the 
 first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 B.C. — Herodotus. 
 
 NEPAUL. The East India Company's war with the state of Nepaul commenced 
 Nov. 1, 1814, and terminated April 27, 1815. A treaty of peace was signed between 
 the parties, Dec. 2, 1815. War renewed by an infraction of the treaty by the 
 Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several contests unfavourable to the Nepaulese 
 the former treaty was ratified, March 15, 1816. An extraordinary embassy from the 
 king of Nepaul to the queen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing at South- 
 ampton, May 25, 1850 ; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung Bahadoor, and his 
 suite, to whom many honours were paid. It departed Aug. 20. 
 
 NEPHALIA. Feasts or sacrifices of sobriety, used among the Greeks, in which they 
 offered mead instead of wine : the Athenians offered these sacrifices to the sun and 
 moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and to Venus ; and burnt all sorts of wood but 
 those of the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, because they were esteemed symbols 
 of drunkenness, 613 b.c. 
 
NEP 448 NEW 
 
 NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed on Sept. 23rd, 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, 
 in consequence of the calculations of M. Le Verrier and Mr. Adams, who had dis- 
 covered from the anomalous movements of Uranus, that a distant planet must exist 
 nearly in the position where Neptune is situated. 
 
 NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time bishop of 
 Constantinople, who is represented as a heretic for maintaining that though the Virgin 
 Mary was the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of 
 God, for that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not 
 herself; and that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
 distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all. He 
 was opposed by Eutyches. See Ewtychians. Some Christians in the Levant go 
 \inder this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, and in both 
 kinds, permit their priests to many, and tise neither confirmation nor auricular 
 confession, &c. Nestorius died a.d. 439. — Du Pin. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name of 
 Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this country formed 
 part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was governed by its own 
 counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of Burgundy, and next to the 
 house of Austria. The seventeen provinces were united into one state in 1549. For 
 the late history of the Nethei-lands, see Belgium and Holland. 
 
 NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. 
 The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373, 
 after which by marriages it frequently changed governors. On the death of the last of 
 the Longuevilles, the Duchess de Nemours, there were many claimants ; among them, 
 our William III. He and the allies however gave it to Frederic I. of Prussia with 
 the title of Prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded to France, and Napoleon 
 ■ bestowed it on his general Berthier, who enjoyed till 1815, when it fell at the disposal 
 of the allies. They restored the king of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights 
 and privileges; but constituted it a part of the Swiss confederation. In 1848 the 
 inhabitants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and proclaimed Neufchatel a free 
 and independent member of the Swiss confederation. The king of Prussia protested 
 against this : and in 1852 a protocol was signed between England, Fiance, and Austria, 
 recognising his claims. In Sept. 1856, some of his adherents broke out into 
 insurrection against the republican authorities, who however quickly subdued and 
 imprisoned them with the intention of bringing them to trial. War was threatened 
 by the king of Prussia, and great energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
 On the intervention of the English and French governments, after many delays, a 
 treaty was signed on June 11, 1857, by which the king of Prussia virtually renounced 
 his claims on receiving a pecuniary compensation. He retains the title of Prince of 
 Neufchatel without any political rights. The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released 
 without trial. 
 
 NEVILL'S CROSS, BATTLE op. Between the Scots under king David Bruce, and the 
 English under Philippa, consort of Edward III. The English army was raised 
 by Philippa, and may more properly be said to have been commanded by lord 
 Percy. More than 15,000 (some accounts say 20,000) of the Scots were slain, and 
 their king taken prisoner, Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 NEVIS, ISLAND of. An English colony first planted by the English in 1628. This 
 island was taken by the French, Feb. 14, x782, but was restored to the English at the 
 general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the Caribbees) is 
 Charleston. See Colonies. 
 
 NEWARK, BATTLE of. In which the royal army under prince Rupert was defeated 
 by the army of the parliament, fought March 21, 1644. The church was erected by 
 Henry IV. Here, in the midst of troubles, died king John ; and here Charles I. after 
 his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the Scotch army, who afterwards 
 gave him up to his enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Edward VI. and after- 
 wards by Charles II. 
 
 NEWBURY, BATTLE of. Fought with desperate valour on both sides, between the 
 army of Charles I. and that of the parliament, under Essex, and in which, though the 
 success was dubious, it terminated with circumstances somewhat favourable to the 
 cause of the king. This battle lasted till midnight ; and among the slain was Lucius 
 Cary, viscount Falkland, a nobleman deeply regretted by every lover of ingenuity and 
 
NEW 449 NEW 
 
 virtue throughout the kingdom, Sept. 20, 1643. A second battle, of equally dubious 
 result, was fought between the royalists and parliamentarians, Oct. 27, 1644. 
 
 NEWCASTLE. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines were discovered here 
 about a.d. 1 234. The first charter which was granted to the townsmen for digging 
 coal was by Henry III. in 1239: but in 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited 
 in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, 
 great quantities of which were then growing about that city; but this interdiction 
 did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported 
 from this place for more than 500 years. Cholera broke out here Aug. 31, 1853, 
 between which time and Oct. 26, 1538 persons died. On Oct. 6, 1854, the town suffered 
 severely by fire communicated by an explosion at Gateshead, which see. 
 
 NEWCASTLE'S, DUKE of, ADMINISTRATION. Of this celebrated administration, 
 Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, was first lord of the treasury ; hon. Henry 
 Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinsou 
 (afterwards lord Grauthain); secretaries of state ; the latter succeeded by the right hon. 
 Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland; lord Anson, first lord of the admiralty; lord 
 Grenville, lord president ; lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough), lord 
 privy seal; duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, rt. hon. George Grenville, &c. Lord 
 Hardwicke, lord chancellor. April 1754. Terminated, Nov. 1756, when the duke of 
 Devonshire became first lord of the treasury. 
 
 NEWCASTLE'S, DUKE of, and MR. PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. Thomas Holies 
 Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of the treasury ; rt. hon. William Pitt (after- 
 wards lord Chatham), secretary of state for the northern department, and leader of 
 the house of commons ; lord Grenville, lord president ; earl Temple, privy seal ; 
 Mr. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer; earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for 
 the southern department; duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain; duke of Rutland, 
 lord steward ; lord Anson, admiralty ; duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord 
 Ligonier), ordnance; rt. hon. Henry Fox, rt. hon. George Grenville, viscount 
 Barrington, lord Halifax, James Grenville, &c. Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of 
 the great seal. June 1757. Terminated by lord Bute coming into power, May 1762. 
 
 NEW CHURCH. See Swedenboryians. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND, North America. See England, New. 
 
 NEW FOREST, Hampshire. This great and celebrated forest was made ("afforested") 
 by William the Conqueror, a.d. 1085. Many populous towns and villages, and indeed 
 the whole country, for above thirty miles in compass, were laid waste to make this 
 forest in Hampshire for the king's deer and other game. No less than thirty-six 
 churches were destroyed on this occasion. William Rttfus was killed in this forest by 
 au arrow, shot by Walter Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, the site of 
 which is now pointed out by a triangular stone, a.d. 1100. The New Forest Deer 
 Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, Aug. 7, 1851. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. Discovered by Sebastian Cabot, whe called it Prima Vista, June 24, 
 a.d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
 reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the English in the fishery. 
 There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and 
 only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 1577. — Hakluyt. But the English 
 fishery in some years afterwards had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire 
 alone employed 150 ships, and sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. 
 Nearly 1000 English families reside here all the year; and in the fishing season, 
 beginning in May and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to 
 Newfoundland, which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. 
 Newfoundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
 bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's, a great portion 
 of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at 1,000,000£ sterling, June 9, 1846. * 
 
 NEWGATE, London. This prison derives its name from the gate which once formed a 
 part of it, aud stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. The gate 
 was used as a prison for persons of rank, as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt about two 
 centuries afterwards by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with 
 a cat stood in the niche till the time of its demolition by the great fire of London, 
 
 * On Jan. 14. 1857, a convention was concluded between the English and French governments, 
 confirming certain French privileges of fishery in exchange for others. The English Colonists are at 
 present dissatisfied with this convention. 
 
 G Q 
 
NEW 450 NEW 
 
 in 1666. It was then reconstructed iu its late form ; but the old prison being an 
 accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 
 and 1780. During the riots, however, in the latter year, the whole of the interior was 
 destroyed by fire, but shortly afterwards repaired and completed. In 1857 the 
 interior was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted to the reformatory system. 
 
 NEW GRENADA. See Grenada. 
 
 NEW HOLLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a continent. 
 See Australia. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts 
 were traced by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, 
 was discovered by Tasman in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east and 
 north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New Guinea; and, in 
 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's discoveries with Cook's, completed 
 the circuit. But the supposed south extremity which Tasman distinguished by the 
 name of Van Diemen's Land, was found in 1798 to be an. island, separated from New 
 Holland by a channel forty leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass's Strait. 
 Different parts of the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. 
 The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of in his majesty '3 
 name by captain Cook. See New South Wales. 
 
 NEWMARKET, England. One of the most noted grounds for horse-racing in the 
 kingdom ; perhaps it may claim to be the most celebrated, as well as one of the oldest. 
 It is first mentioned in 1227 ; and probably derived its name from the market then 
 recently established. James I. erected a hunting-seat here, called the king's house, 
 in which Charles II. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when the parliament army was 
 quartered in the neighbouring village of Kenuet. This king, who was fond of racing, 
 built a stand-house here for the sake of the diversion, about 1667,* and from that 
 period races have been annual to the present time ; and many most extraordinary 
 races have been run. See Races and Race-Horses. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, Louisiana. See Orleans, New. 
 
 NEWPORT, CHARTISTS' ATTACK upon. The chartists, collected from the mine3 
 and collieries in the neighbourhood of Newport (Monmouthshire), to the number of 
 10,000, most of them armed with guns, arrived at Newport on Sunday night, Nov. 4, 
 1839. On Monday morning they divided themselves into two bodies, one of which, 
 under the command of Mr. John Frost, au ex-magistrate, proceeded down the principal 
 street of Newport ; whilst the other, headed by Mr. Frost's son, took the direction of 
 Stowe-hill. They met in front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates were 
 assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th regiment, and several special constables. 
 The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fired on the inmates, 
 by which the mayor, Mr. Phillips, and several other persons were wounded. The 
 soldiers now made a sortie, and succeeded in dispersing the mob, which with its 
 leaders fled from the town, leaving about twenty rioters dead, and many others 
 dangerously wounded. A detachment of the 10th royal hussars haviug arrived from 
 Bristol, the town became trauquil. Frost was apprehended on the following day, 
 together with bis printer, and other influential persons among the chartists. Frost 
 and several others were tried and convicted in January following, and sentenced to 
 death; but this judgment was afterwards commuted to transportation. An amnesty 
 was granted them in May 3, 1856, and they returned to England in Sept. following. 
 
 NEW RIVER, London. An artificial river for the supply of London with water, com- 
 menced in 1609, and finished in 1613, when the projector, Hugh Middleton, was 
 knighted by James I. — Strype. This river, which rises in Hertfordshire, and which, 
 with its windings, is forty-two miles long, was brought to London in 1614. Sir Hugh 
 Middleton, who was a citizen of London, died very poor, haviug been ruined by this 
 immense undertaking. So little was the benefit of it understood, that for above 
 thirty years the seventy-two shares into which it was divided, netted only 51. a-piece. 
 Each of these shares was sold originally for lOOi. Within the last few years they 
 were sold at 9000J. a share, and some lately at 10,000^. 
 
 NEWRY, Ireland. Several castles were, it is said, erected here before the Conquest. 
 
 * During the races, on March 22, 1683, Newmarket was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which 
 occasioned the hasty departure of the company then assembled, including the king, the queen, the 
 duke of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this disaster historians have 
 ascribed the failure of the Rye-House plot, the object of which was said to be the assassination of the 
 king and his brother on the road from Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had not 
 been thus anticipated. See Rye-House Plot. 
 
NEW 
 
 451 
 
 NEW 
 
 In the Rebellion of 1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it was surprised 
 by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by lord Conway. After the Restoration the 
 town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick when flying from Schomberg 
 and the English army, and the castle and a few houses only escaped, 1689. 
 
 NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously denned. News is a fresh account 
 of anything. — Sidney. It is something not heard before. — IS Estrange. News is an 
 account of the transactions of the present times. — A ddison. The word " news " many 
 derive from the adjective new (German, neues). In former times (between the years 
 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent practice to put over the periodical publications of 
 the day the initial letters of the cardinal points of the compass, thus : — 
 
 N 
 
 E— — W 
 
 S 
 importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters of the 
 globe ; from this practice some consider the term Newspaper to be derived. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. See Australia. The eastern coast of New Holland was 
 explored and taken possession of by captain Cook in 1770. At his recommendation 
 a convict colony was first formed here. Capt. A. Phillip, the first governor, arrived 
 at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, Jan. 20, 1788 : but he subsequently preferred 
 Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible 
 situation for the capital. Sir Wm. T. Denison is now (1857) governor-general of 
 Australia, New South Wales being the principal colony. A new constitution was 
 granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 54). See Sydney. 
 
 NEWS-LETTERS. The news-writers in the reign of Charles II. collected from the 
 coffee-houses information which was printed weekly and sent into the country. The 
 London Gazette, then the only authorised newspaper, contained little more than 
 proclamations and advertisements. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, ENGLISH. The first published in England, which might truly be 
 considered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roger 
 L'Estrange, in 1663; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly 
 three years, when it ceased on the appearance of the Gazette. Some copies of a pub- 
 lication are in existence called the English Mercury* professing to come out under 
 the authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the Spanish Armada. The 
 researches of Mr. T. Watts, of the British Museum, have proved these to be forgeries, 
 executed about 1766. In the reign of James I. 1622, appeared the London Weekly 
 Oourant; and in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of 
 publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which the 
 following were the titles : — 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents. 
 
 The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
 
 The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
 
 The Mercurius Aulicics. 
 
 The Scotch Intelligencer. 
 
 The Parliament's Scout. 
 
 The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or Certain 
 
 Information. 
 The Mercurius Cimcus, or London's Intelligencer. 
 The Country's Complaint, &c. 
 The Weekly Account. 
 Mercurius Brito.nnicus. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette was published Aug. 22, 1642. The London Gazette 
 of the existing series, was published first at Oxford, the court being there on account 
 of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. 
 The printing of newspapers and pamphlets was prohibited, 31 Charles I. 1680. — 
 Salmon's Chron. On the abolition of the censorship of the press in 1695, the regular 
 newspapers commenced. Newspapers were first stamped in 1713. 
 
 STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS, VIZ. : — 
 
 In 1753 . 
 
 . 7,411,757 
 
 In 1760 . 
 
 . . 9,404,790 
 
 In 1774 . 
 
 . 12,300,000 
 
 In 1790 . 
 
 . . 14,035,639 
 
 In 1800 . 
 
 . 16,084,905 
 
 In 1810 . 
 
 . . 20,172,837 
 
 In 1820 . 
 In 1825 
 In 1830 . 
 In 1835 
 In 1840 . 
 
 . 24,862,1S6 
 . 26,950,693 
 . 30,158,741 
 . 32,S74,652 
 . 49,033,3S4 
 
 In 1843 
 In 1850 
 
 . 56,433,977 
 . 65,741,271 
 
 [In this last year there 
 were also issued supplement 
 stamps at id. 11,684,423.] 
 
 * The full title is, No. 50, " The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the prevention of false 
 reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the armament 
 called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this month, between 
 her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, to the Lordes of 
 council." 
 
 G G 2 
 
NEW 452 NEW 
 
 In the year ending Jan. 5, 1851, there were 159 London newspapers, in which 
 appeared 891,650 advertisements; 222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 
 advertisements. In Scotland, same year, 110 newspapers, having 249.141 advertise- 
 ments. In Ireland, 102 newspapers, haviug 236,128 advertisements. The number of 
 stamps issued was. in England, 65,741,271 at one penny, and 11,684,423, supplement 
 stamps, at one half-penny; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at one penny, and 241,264 
 at one halfpenny; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at one penny, and 43.358 at one 
 halfpenny. The reduction of newspaper duty took effect on Sept. 15, 1836, when it 
 was reduced from fourpence to one penny. On 1st Jan. 1837, the distinctive die 
 came into use. 
 
 NUMBER OF REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1850, VIZ. ! — 
 
 London newspapers, daily . . 12 I Irish newspapers 102 
 
 Loudon newspapers, weekly . . . 58 Scotch newspapers 110 
 
 English provincial newspapers . . 222 | British Isles 14 
 
 There were, in the same year, as many as 160 London publications, newspaper and 
 other, that contained advertisements. See Advertisements. By the act passed in 
 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, 
 and will be employed henceforth only for postal purposes. Many new papers were 
 then started, which were but of short duration. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Public Ledger . . .1759 
 
 Morning Chronicle . . 1770 
 
 Morning Post . . . 1772 
 
 Morning Herald . . . 17S1 
 
 Observer . . . . 1792 
 
 Bell's Messenger . . 1796 
 
 Weekly Dispatch. . . 1801 
 
 Examiner . . . 1808 
 
 Literary Gazette . . .1817 
 
 John Bull . . . 1820 
 
 DAILY. 
 
 Times . . . .1788 
 
 Sun 1792 
 
 Morning Advertiser . 1803 
 Globe 1803 
 
 Standard . . . . 1827 
 
 Daily News . . . 1846 
 
 Daily Telegraph. . . 1855 
 
 Morning itar . . . 1856 
 
 WEEKLY. 
 
 Bell's Life in London . . 1820 j Lloyd's Weekly Paper . . 1?42 
 
 Sunday Times. . . 1822 Ne>cs of the World . .1843 
 
 Atlas 1826 Economist . . • . . 1843 
 
 Athenatum . . . 182S I Era 1848 
 
 Spectator . . . . 1828 | Leader . . . . 1850 
 
 Illustrated London News . 1842 , Press .... 1853 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, IRISH. The first Irish newspaper was Pue's Occurrences, published in 
 1700 : Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, ''a man celebrated for 
 the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the 
 existing Dublin newspapers is the Freeman's Journal, founded by the patriot Dr. Lucas, 
 about the year 1755. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the provincial prints, was 
 established in 1768. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS of FOREIGN COUNTRIES. A French writer asserts that our news- 
 papers owe their origin to one of theirs, the Journal dcs Scavans ; but that paper 
 did not appear until 1665. M. Renaudot appears to have been the first author of 
 newspapers in France ; he had an exclusive privilege from Louis XIII. to publish 
 them in 1631. The first newspaper set up in Germany was in 1715. One was pub- 
 lished in America, at Philadelphia, in 1719; and the first appeared in Holland in 
 1732. "America, whose population is 23 millions and a half, supports 800 news- 
 papers (50 of these publishing daily), and their annual circulation is stated at 
 64,000,000. In Paris there exist 169 journals, literary, scientific, religious, and 
 political." — Westminster Revkw, 1830. 
 
 NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next year eleven days 
 were left out of the calendar — the 3rd of September, 1752, being reckoned as the 14th 
 — so as to make it agree with the Gregorian Calendar, which see; see also article 
 Calendar. In a.d. 200, there was no difference of styles : but there had arisen a 
 difference of eleven days between the old and the new style, the latter being so much 
 beforehand with the former: so that when a person using the old style dates the 1st 
 of May, those who employ the new reckon the 12th. From this variation in the 
 computation of time, we may easily account for the difference of many dates con- 
 cerning historical facts and biographical notices. 
 
 NEWTONBARRY RIOT, Ireland. On the occasion of a seizure of stock for tithes, 
 at this town in Ireland, a lamentable conflict ensued between the yeomanry and the 
 people, and thirty-five persons, men and women, were killed or wounded. The 
 coroner's inquest which sat on the bodies of the dead was discharged, it having been 
 unable to agree upon a verdict, June 18, 1831. 
 
NEW 453 NEW 
 
 NEW-YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the oldest upon 
 authentic record transmitted down to our times, and is still observed. The feast was 
 instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to Janus (who presided over the new year), 
 Jan. 1, 713 B c. On this day, the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new-sifted 
 meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all the mechanics began something of their 
 art of trade ; the men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, &c. ; and the 
 consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. 
 After the government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
 New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ci'owd, all in new clothes, when two 
 white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. The 1st of January 
 is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland and France than in England. 
 
 NEW-YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts among 
 the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, who having considered as a good 
 omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to Strenia, the goddess 
 of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorised the 
 custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Strense, 747 B.C. In the reign of 
 Augustus, the populace, gentry, and senators used to send him New-year's gifts, and 
 if he was not in town, they carried them to the capitol. 
 
 NEW YORK. Settled by the Dutch, a.d. 1614 ; but the English, under colonel Nichols, 
 dispossessed them and the Swedes, Aug. 27, 1664. New York was confirmed to 
 England by the peace of Breda, Aug. 24, 1667. The city of New York was one of the 
 principal points of the struggle for independence among the states of America. It 
 surrendered to the British forces, Sept. 15, 1776, from which time until the arrival 
 of sir Guy Carleton at New York, May 5, 1782, it suffered much from both the 
 provincial and British armies in turn. An independent constitution was established, 
 April 20, 1777. The city was evacuated by the British, Nov. 25, 1783, afterwards 
 called " Evacuation-day," and made one of rejoicing ever since on the anniversary. 
 New York is now one of the most prosperous and flourishing cities in the world, and 
 is acquiring more importance every year. Among numerous other public institutions, 
 an academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, were established in 1804. Awful 
 fire here, Dec. 16, 1835. See next article. The Park Theatre destroyed by fire, 
 Dec. 16, 1848. Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, originating in a dispute 
 between Mr. Macready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American) actors, May 10, 1849. 
 The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of goods from all nations, was opened 
 July 14, 1853, in the presence of the President of the United States and many other 
 dignitaries. For various annals, see United States. 
 
 NEW YORK, GREAT FIRE of. One of the most destructive fires that have raged in 
 any part of the world for the last hundred years. It occurred Dee. 16, 1835. The 
 number of buildings destroyed, as stated in an official report, was 674, among which 
 were several public edifices, and ranges of capacious and valuable stores and ware- 
 houses; about 1000 mercantile firms were dislodged. The property destroyed was 
 valued at nearly 20,000,000 of dollars. The fire burned over an area of 52 acres, 
 comprising a densely-built and exclusively mercantile portion of the city. Active 
 measures were adopted by congress, the banks, and the merchants, to alleviate the 
 effects of the calamity ; and during the spring and summer of 1836, the ground was 
 again nearly covered by new and handsome erections. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND, in the Pacific. Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He traversed the 
 eastern coast, and entered a strait, where, being attacked by the natives soon after he 
 came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time of Tasman, the whole country, 
 except that part of the coast which was seen by him, remained altogether unknown, 
 and was by many supposed to make part of a southern continent, till 1769-1770, when 
 it was circumnavigated by captain Cook. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted several 
 spots of ground on this island with European garden-seeds: and in 1777 he found 
 some fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. New Zealand now has become 
 an important colony. The right of Great Britain to New Zealand was recognised at 
 the general peace in 1814, but no constituted authority was placed over it until 1833, 
 when a resident subordinate to the government of New South Wales was sent out 
 with limited powers; but it was separated in April 1841. A charter, founded upon 
 an act passed in 1846, creating powers municipal, legislative, and administrative there, 
 Dec. 29, 1847. This charter was not acted on, and a legislative council was opened 
 by the governor, sir George Grey, Dec. 20, 1848. Banks and other public institutions 
 have also been established. See Australia, <fyc. A new constitution was granted to 
 
NEY 4. 54 NIC 
 
 New Zealand, June 30, 1852 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 72). New Zealand was made a bishop's 
 see in 1841, and in 1852 it was subdivided to form another called Christchurch. 
 There was an earthquake here on Jan. 23, 1855 : it did not cause much damage. 
 NEY, MARSHAL, his EXECUTION. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince of 
 the Moskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marshals of France. After 
 the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath of allegiance to the 
 king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched against 
 him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and 
 opened the invader's way to Paris, March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the 
 French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with 
 bullet-holes, and five horses having been shot under him, until night and defeat 
 obliged him to flee. But though he was included in the decree of July 24, 1815, 
 which guaranteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and 
 taken in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
 trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, 
 fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favour, yet he was sentenced to death, 
 and met his fate with the fortitude of a hero, Aug. 16, 1815. 
 
 NIAGARA, America. At the head of this river, on its western shore, is Fort Erie. 
 This fort was abandoned by the British in the war with the United States, May 27, 
 1813, but was retaken Dec. 19 following. Below Fort Erie, about eighteen miles, are 
 the remarkable falls, which are reckoned among the greatest natural curiosities in the 
 world. The river is here 740 yards wide. The half-mile immediately above the 
 cataracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with astonish- 
 ing graudeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 feet perpendicular, in three distinct 
 and collateral sheets ; and in a rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, 
 falls nearly as much more. The river then flows in a deep channel till it enters Lake 
 Ontario, at Fort Niagara. A suspension bridge of a single span of 800 feet over the 
 Niagara connects the railways of Canada and New York. The estimated weight is 
 1,669,722 lbs., which is suspended by cables of iron wire. The bridge is elevated 
 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 on the American side. 
 
 NICARAGUA, a state in Central America, which see. At the commencement of 1855 it 
 was greatly disturbed by two political parties : that of the president Chamorro, who 
 held Grenada, the capital, and that of the democratic chief L'astellon, who held Leon. 
 The latter invited Walker the filibuster to his assistance, who in a short time became 
 sole dictator of the state.* By the united efforts of the confederated states the 
 filibusters were all expelled in May 1857. 
 
 NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by the first 
 general council held there in the palace of Constantiue the Great. In this celebrated 
 council, which assembled a.d. 325, the Arians were condemned. It was attended by 
 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the Trinity and the 
 time for observing Easter. The creed was altered a.d. 381, and confirmed 431, when 
 it was decreed unlawful to make further additions, 
 
 NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung from 
 Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a vow of 
 continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to keep it, he gave 
 his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry any other man she 
 desired. Ovving to this rash zeal, his followers afterwards maintained the legality of 
 
 * William Walker was born at Tenessee, in the United States, where he became successively doctor, 
 lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua 
 by Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on condition of bringing with him a band of 
 adventurers to sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the terms, and on June 28 landed at 
 Realejo with lis men. He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked the town of Rivas, 
 where he was repulsed with loss. He then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and governed Grey 
 Town, Sept. 6. On Oct. 13, Walker captured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, shot 
 Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a rule of terror. By intervention of the American 
 consul he made peace with the geueral of the state army. Corral, but shot him on Nov. T, on finding 
 him corresponding with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only general-in chief, but on 
 Rivas, whom he had made president, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On May 14, 1S50, his 
 envoy Vijil was recognised by the President of the United States, whence also he obtained reinforce- 
 ments during his retention of power. Costa Rica declared war against him Feb. 28, 1850 ; the other 
 states of Central America soon followed the example, and a sanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till 
 May, 1857. In Dec. 1S56, Walker totally burnt Grenada, and removed the seat of government to 
 Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on May 1, 1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of 
 the St. Mary's, U.S. Himself, his staff, and 200 men, were conveyed in that vessel to New Orleans, 
 where they were received with great enthusiasm. 
 
NIC 455 NIN 
 
 a community of wives, as well as holding all other things in common, and are accused 
 of denying the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NICOPOLIS, BATTLE of. Between the allied Christian powers under Sigismund, 
 king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and the Turks, and celebrated as being the 
 first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter were defeated, losing 
 twenty thousand in slain, and as many wounded and prisoners : a.d. 1396. 
 
 NIGER, EXPEDITION of, 1841. Undertaken with a view to plant an English colony 
 in the centre of Africa, and supported by a government grant of 60,000?., started in 
 the summer of 1841, and commenced the ascent of the river, Aug. 20, in that year. 
 The expedition consisted of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan. Fever broke out 
 among the crews, Sept. 2, when these vessels had arrived at Iddah. The confluence 
 of the Niger and the Chadda (270 miles from the sea) was reached Sept. 11. The 
 Soudan then returned with the sick ; the Wilberforce ascended the Chadda, and the 
 Albert the Niger. But the Wilberforce was almost immediately compelled to return, 
 and follow the track of the Soudan. The Albert arrived at Egga, on the Niger (320 
 miles from the sea), Sept. 28; but so disastrous had been the progress of disease, that 
 orders were now given for the third vessel to return, which she did, after the neces- 
 sary delay for procuring firewood, on Oct. 4. This last vessel cast anchor in Clarence 
 cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, all same year. See Africa. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left England 
 with a staff of 37 nurses, and arrived at Scutari Nov. 5. Their services to the army 
 were invaluable. To recognise these merits a meeting was held at Willis's Rooms, 
 on Nov. 29, 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution for the training of nurses 
 and other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt sang at Exeter 
 Hall on March 11, 1856, and gave the proceeds (1872?.) to the fund. The sub- 
 scriptions closed April 24, 1857. Miss Nightingale returned to London Sept. 8, 
 1856. The Queen gave her a valuable jewel. 
 
 NILE, BATTLE of the. One of the most glorious in British naval history, between 
 the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord (then sir Horatio) 
 Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the Nile ; nine 
 of the French line-of-battle-ships were taken, two were burnt, and two escaped, 
 Aug. 1, 1798. The French ship L'Orient, with Admiral Brueys and 1000 men on 
 board, blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. This is sometimes called the battle of 
 Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of Baron Nelson of the 
 Nile. His exclamation upon commencing the battle was, " Victory or West- 
 minster-abbey ! " 
 
 NILE, SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in 
 about ten degrees of N. lat. and in a known course of 1 250 miles receives no tributary 
 streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile; 
 he set out from England in June, 1768; on the 14th of Nov. 1770 he obtained the 
 great object of his wishes, and returned home in 1773. This river overflows regularly 
 every year, from the 15th of June to the 17th of September, when it begins to 
 decrease, having given fertility to the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that 
 fertility. In 1829, the inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 
 30,000 people were drowned, and immense property lost. 
 
 NIMEGUEN, TREATY of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between France 
 and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in history for other 
 treaties of peace. The French were successful against the British under the duke of 
 York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 ; but were defeated by the British, with the 
 loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following. 
 
 NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Assyria), founded by Ashur, who 
 called it after himself, about 2245 B.C. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city 
 also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B.C. — Abbe Lenglet. The recent discoveries of 
 Mr. Layard and others in the neighbourhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this 
 ancient capital, have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which for centuries 
 had not only ceased to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long 
 been blotted out from the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, religion, 
 modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand before us distinct 
 as those of a living people ; and it is anticipated that, by help of the sculptures 
 and their cuneiform inscriptions, the reseai'ches of the learned may go far in filling up 
 the vast blank in Assyrian annals. Among the sculptures that enrich the British 
 
NIS 456 NOO 
 
 Museum may be mentioned the winged bull and lion, and numerous hunting and 
 battle-pieces ; but perhaps the most interesting as confirmatory of the truth of Holy 
 Scripture, is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a repre- 
 sentation of the Assyrian god Nisroch (from Ni»r, an eagle or hawk), whom Senna- 
 cherib was in the act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 
 710 B.dT 2 Kings, xix. 37. In 1853 Mr. Layard published on account of his second 
 visit in 1849-50. 
 
 NISBET, BATTLE of. Between the English and Scotch armies, the latter greatly dis- 
 proportioned in strength to the former, yet fought by them with surpassing bravery. 
 Several thousand of the Scots were slain upon the field (the number is stated at 
 10,000) and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402. 
 
 NITRIC ACID. Formerly called aqua fords, first obtained in a separate state by Ray- 
 mond Lully, an alchemist, about a.d. 1287; but we are indebted to Cavendish, 
 Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its pi - operties. Mr. Cavendish 
 demonstrated the nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid, nearly similar to nitric, 
 was discovered by Scheele in 1771. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. 
 Hales. Nitrous oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 
 
 NOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they had seized 
 a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honour, to distinguish them 
 from the common people. The right of peerage seems to have been at first terri- 
 torial. Patents to persons having no estate were first granted by Philip the Fair of 
 France, a.d. 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess of 
 Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on 
 account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were 
 restrained in June 1773. See Peerage and the various orders of nobility. 
 
 NOBILITY op FRANCE. The French nobility preceded that of England, and continued 
 through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period of the memorable 
 Revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist 
 iu a free^tate ; that the titles of dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, barons, excel- 
 lencies, annots, and others, be abolished; that all citizens take their family names; 
 liveries, and armorial bearings, shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records 
 of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV. 
 June 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The 
 hereditary peerage was abolished in that country, Dec. 27, 1831. See France. 
 
 NOBLE. An ancient English coin, which was first struck in the reign of Edward III. 
 about 1337. This coin was stamped with a rose, and it was thence called a rose 
 noble ; its value as money of account was 6*. Sd. — Camden. It is supposed to have 
 been worth 6s. 8d. of our now current money. — Pardon. 
 
 "NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLI^E MUTARI." An attempt was made to introduce the 
 canon law, and thus to legitimatise children born before wedlock, to the barons 
 assembled in the parliament at Meiton, by whom it was rejected, accompanying 
 their dissent by the memorable declaration — " N< Junius leges Ani/lice mulari," — 
 " The laws of England we will not to be changed," a.d. 1236. See Merlon. 
 
 NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conformists and 
 non-conformists; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen and dissenters. 
 The former are those who conform to that mode of worship and form of church- 
 government which are established and supported by the state ; the latter are those 
 -who meet for divine worship in places of their own. The first place of meeting of 
 the latter, in England, was established at Wandsworth, near Loudon, Nov. 20, 1572. 
 The name of non-conformists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformity 
 had passed Aug. 24, a.d. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion 
 resigned, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 NONES, in the Roman Calendar, were the fifth day of each month, excepting March, 
 May, July and October, when the nones fell on the seventh day. 
 
 NON-JURORS. Persons who supposed that our James II. was unjustly deposed, and 
 who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to the family which succeeded 
 him. Among this class of persons were several of the bishops, who were deprived in 
 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register 
 their estates, May 1723. 
 
 NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by the British 
 
NOR 457 NOR 
 
 in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a settlement to 
 supply the Chinese market with furs; but the Spaniards, in 1789, captured two 
 English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry made 
 their demand of reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, 
 and a free commerce was confirmed to England in 1790. 
 
 NORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, by 
 captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made 
 by a detachment from Port Jackson under governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
 on the south side of the island. This was at one time the severest penal colony of 
 Great Britain. The island was abandoned in 1809 ; but re-occupied as a penal 
 settlement in 1825. The descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty were removed 
 to it in June 1856. See Pitcairn's Island. 
 
 NORMANDY. Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth century this 
 country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called Northmen or Nor- 
 mans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded 
 the duchy to their leader Rollo, a.d. 905 to 912, and from its conquerors it received 
 its present name. Rollo was the first duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of 
 France, and several of his successors after him, until William, the seventh duke, 
 conquered England, in 1066 from which time it became a province of England, till it 
 was lost in the reign of king John, 1204, and re-united to the crown of France. The 
 English, however, still keep possession of the islands on the coast, of which Jersey 
 and Guernsey are the principal. 
 
 NORTH, LORD, his ADMINISTRATION. During this administration Great Britain 
 lost her American possessions. Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury and 
 chancellor of the exchequer; earl Gower, lord president ; earl of Halifax, privy seal ; 
 lord Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord Sandwich), and lord Hillsborough 
 (colonies), secretaries of state; sir Edward Hawke, admiralty ; marquess of Gran by, 
 ordnance ; sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, lord Carteret, &c. 
 Lord North came into power Jan. 1770, and his administration endured until March 
 30, 1782. After his dismission from office, lord North entered into a league with the 
 Whigs, which led to the famous Coalition ministry, which lasted only a few months, 
 after which he held no responsible station in the state. He succeeded to the earldom 
 of Guildford, two years before his death, which took place in 1792. See " Ccalition" 
 Administration. 
 
 NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER. The celebrated paper, Number 45 (Wilkes's number), 
 dated Saturday, April 23, 1763, was publicly burnt in London, by order of both 
 houses of parliament, and by the hands of the common hangman, Dec. 3, 1763. — 
 Annual Beyister. Wilkes by his newspaper, The North Briton, rendered an antipathy 
 to Scotland very prevalent in England. — Bellchambers. The copy of it bearing the 
 number 45 contained a commentary on the kiug's speech, couched in such caustic 
 terms, that a prosecution was commenced against him. Having been arrested on a 
 general warrant, he was brought, by a writ of habeas corpus, before chief-justice Pratt, 
 of the common pleas, who declared the judgment of that court, that general warrants 
 were illegal, and Wiikes was consequently discharged. But not content with this 
 escape, he reprinted the obnoxious number, which produced a regular prosecution to 
 conviction. See Warrants, General. 
 
 NORTHMEN or NORSEMEN. See Scandinavia. 
 
 NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a north-west passage was made by 
 a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a.d. 1500. It was attempted by the English, in 
 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen Elizabeth in 1585, in which 
 year a company was associated in London, and was called the "Fellowship for the 
 Discovery of the North- West Passage." From 1745 to 181 8 parliament offered 20,000/. 
 for this discovery. In 1818 the reward was modified by proposing that 5000Z. should 
 be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130° W. long, should be passed: one of which 
 payments was made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the voyages enumerated in 
 the list below, Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were knighted. The 
 honour of completing the north-west passage is due to capt. M'Clure, who sailed in 
 the Investigator in company with com. Colliuson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
 John Franklin, Jan. 20, 1850. On Sept. 6 he discovered high land which he named 
 Baring's land; on the 9th, other land which he named after Prince Albert; on the 
 30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong conviction that the waters in 
 
NOR 
 
 458 
 
 NOR 
 
 which the Investigator then lay communicated with Barrow's straits, he set out on 
 Oct. 21, with a few men in a sledge, to test his views. On Oct. 26 he reached Point 
 Russell (73° 31' N. lat. 114° 14' W. long.), where from an elevation of COO feet he saw 
 Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Pacific and Atlantic 
 Oceans he named after the Prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship 
 winch traversed the Polar sea from Behring's straits to Baring island. Intelligence 
 of this discovery was brought to England by com. Inglefield, and the admiralty chart 
 was published Oct. 14, 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to England, Sept. 1854. In 
 1855, 5000Z. were paid to captain (now sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000/. were distri- 
 buted among the officers and crew. See Franklin. 
 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to find 
 a north-east passage to China, sailed 
 from the Thames* . . May '20, 1553 
 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a 
 
 north-west passage to China . . . 1570 
 Captain Davis's expedition to find a 
 north-west passage .... 158fi 
 
 Barantz's expedition 1694 
 
 Weymouth and Knight's . . . 1602 
 
 Hudson's voyages; the last undertaken. 
 
 ' See Hudson's Bay 1610 
 
 Sir Thomas Button's .... 1612 
 Baffin's. See Baffin's Bay . . . . 1616 
 Foxe's expedition idol 
 
 [A number of enterprises, undertaken 
 by various countries, followed.] 
 
 Middleton's expedition . . . . 1742 
 Moore's and Smith's .... 1746 
 Hearne's land expedition . . . . 1769 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 
 
 grave, his expedition .... 1773 
 Captain Cook, in the Resolution and Dis- 
 covery July, 1776 
 
 Mackenzie's expedition .... 1789 
 Captain Duncan's voyage . . . . 1790 
 The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- 
 turned from a voyage of survey and 
 discovery on the north-west coast of 
 America .... Sept. 24, 1795 
 
 Lieutenant Kotzcbne's expedition. Oct. 1815 
 Captain Buchan's and lieutenant Frank- 
 lin's expedition in the Dorothea and 
 
 Trent ISIS 
 
 Captain Ross and lieutenant Parry, in 
 
 the Isabella and Alexander . . . ISIS 
 Lieutenants Parry and Liddon, in the 
 
 Hecla and Griper . . . May 4, 1S19 
 They return to Leith . . Nov. 3, 1S20 
 
 Captains Parry and Lyon, in the Fury 
 and Hecla . . . . May 8, 1821 
 
 Captain Parry's third expedition with 
 the Htcla May 8, 1824 
 
 Captains Franklin and Lyon, after hav- 
 ing attempted a laud expedition, again 
 sail from Liverpool . . Feb. 16, 1825 
 
 Captain Parry, t again in the Hecla, sails 
 from Deptford . . . March 25, 1827 
 
 And returns .... Oct. 6, 1827 
 
 Capt. Ross f arrived at Hull, on his re- 
 turn from his Arctic expedition, after 
 an absence of four years, and when all 
 hope of his return had been nearly 
 abandoned . . . Oct. IS, 1S33 
 
 Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
 at Liverpool from their perilous Arctic 
 land expedition, alter having visited 
 the Great Fish River, and examined 
 its course to the Polar Seas . Sept. S, 1S35 
 
 Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in com- 
 mand of his Majesty's ship Terror, on 
 an exploring adventure to Wager 
 River .... June 21, 1S36 
 
 [Capt. Back, Dec. 1835, had been awarded 
 by the Geographical Society, the king's 
 annual premium for his polar disco- 
 veries, and enteiprise.j 
 
 Sir John Franklin and captains Crazier 
 and Fitzjames, in the ships Erebus 
 and Terror, leave England . May 24, 1S45 
 
 Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in 
 the Enterprise and Investigator, sailed 
 eastward in search of sir John 
 Franklin .... Jau. 20, 1850 
 
 Nokth-webt passage discovered by 
 M'Clure Oct. 26, 1S50 
 
 [M 'dure returned to England in Oct. 
 1864, and Collinson in May. 1S55.] 
 
 [For the other expeditions in search of 
 Franklin, <fcc, see article Franklin.'] 
 
 NORTHALLERTON, BATTLE of, or THE STANDARD. Furious battle fought in 
 Yorkshire, between the English and Scotch armies. This engagement obtained the 
 latter name from a high crucifix, which was erected by the English on a waggon, and 
 was carried along with the troops; fought Aug. 22, 1137-8. — Ashe. " It was called the 
 battle of the Standard, from the archbishop of York having brought forth a conse- 
 crated standard on a carriage at the moment when the English, under the command 
 of the carls of Albemarle and Ferrers, were hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by 
 king David. This circumstance so animated the soldiers, that, coupled with a sup- 
 position on the part of the enemy that their king was slain, a retreat was attempted, 
 and the most sanguinary slaughter ensued." — Hume. 
 
 NORTHAMPTON, BATTLE of. Between the duke of York and Henry VI. of England, 
 in which the unfortunate monarch was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time), 
 after a sanguinary fight, which took place in the meadows below the town, July 19, 
 
 * The pallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from Ratcliffe. on his fatal voyage for dis- 
 covering the uortl -east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court 
 then resided. Mutual honours were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared at the 
 windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost the noble and 
 novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parade was dis- 
 appointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen to death on the 
 coast of Lapland. — Hakluyt. 
 
 t Sir E. Barry died July 8, 1855. aged 65 ; and sir John Ross died Aug. o0, 1856, aged SO. 
 
NOR 459 NOT 
 
 a d. 1460. Northampton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was seized and for- 
 tified by the parliamentary forces in 1642. The memorable fire, which almost totally 
 destroyed the town, occurred Sept. 3, 1675. 
 
 NORTHUMBRIA. One of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, began a.d. 547, under Ella, 
 and ended under Erdulf, in 828. Besides Northumberland, it contained the counties 
 of York, Lancaster, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmorland, and received its name 
 from being situate north of the Humber. See Britain. 
 
 NORWAY. Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principalities, and 
 was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical excursions of its natives. 
 It was converted to Christianity in a.d. 1000. The city of Bergen was founded in 
 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark in 1378; and the three kingdoms of 
 Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, were united in 1394. Pomerania and Rugen were 
 annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, 
 Charles XIII. was proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiania. 
 The two countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandina- 
 vian Peninsula, of which the French marshal Bernadotte was crowned king by the 
 title of Charles XIV. Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 
 
 NORWICH. First mentioned in history in the Saxon Chronicle at the period when 
 Sweyne, king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, a.d. 1004. Artisans from the Low 
 Countries established here the manufacture of baizes, arras, &c. A great plague in 
 1348 carried off many thousand persons; and in 1505 Norwich was nearly consumed 
 by fire. The cathedral was first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert Losinga; it was 
 completed by bishop Middleton, the 30th prelate, in 1278. St. Andrew's Hall was 
 erected in 1415. The public library was instituted in 1784. The Norwich new canal 
 and harbour were opened June 3, 1831. 
 
 NORWICH, BISHOPRIC op. This see was once two distinct bishoprics — Elmham, in 
 Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk. Felix, a Burgundian, who first converted the East 
 Angles, founded a see, A.D. 630. Bifus, the third bishop in succession from him, 
 finding himself, from his great age, unable to bear so great a burden, got his diocese 
 divided into two. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish invasions, insomuch 
 that after the death of St. Humbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. At last 
 the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich was united to it; but Herfast, the 
 22nd bishop, removed the seat to Thetford, where it continued till Herbert Losinga, 
 the 24th bishop, removed it to Norwich, 1088. This see has given to the Church 
 of Rome two saints; and to the nation five lord chancellors. It was valued in the 
 king's books at 8991. 18s. 7Jd. per annum. See Bishoprics. 
 
 NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by 
 Calonne, the minister of Louis XIV. in 1788. The deranged state of the king's 
 finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled Nov. 6, when Calonne 
 opened his plan, but any reform militated too much against private interest to be 
 adopted. Calonne, not being able to do any good, was dismissed, and soon after 
 retired to England : and Louis, having lost his confidential minister, Mons. de 
 Vergennes, by death, called Mons. de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the 
 end, the States General were called, and from this assembly sprang the National 
 Assembly, which see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. — The 
 Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
 him commanding their attendance), at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 
 
 NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
 Christian Church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, in the 
 first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a commercial 
 employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any 
 other country. An important statute to regulate notarial transactions was passed. 
 40 Geo. III. 1800, and some statutes on the same subject have been enacted since. 
 
 NOTTINGHAM. The celebrated castle here was defended by the Danes against king 
 Alfred, and his brother Ethelred. It was rebuilt by William I. in 1068 ; and 
 ultimately it became a fortress of prodigious strength. Nottingham was anciently of 
 great note, and has gone through various different scenes, as times happened, being 
 by the revengeful disposition of Robert, earl of Ferrers and Derby, burnt down, the 
 inhabitants killed, and their goods divided among his soldiers. The riots at Notting- 
 ham, in which the rioters broke frames, &c, commenced Nov. 14, 1811, and continued 
 to Jan. 1812. Great similar mischief was done in April, 1814. The Watch and 
 
NOV 460 OAK 
 
 Ward act was enforced Dec. 2, 1816. The castle, a possession of the duke of 
 Newcastle, was burnt by the populace, Oct. 1831. 
 NOVA SCOTT A. Called Acadia by the French. Settled in a.d. 1622, by the Scotch 
 under sir William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it 
 received the name of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once 
 changed rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till tlie peace of 
 Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken iu 1745 and 1758; but was again confirmed to 
 England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces in 1784; and was 
 erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 
 
 NOVEMBER. This was anciently the ninth month of the year (whence its name), but 
 when Numa added the months of January and February, in 713 B.C. the Romans had 
 it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators (for whose mean servilities 
 even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished to call this month, in which he was 
 born, by his name, in imitation of Julius Csesar, and Augustus ; but the emperor 
 refused, saying, " What will you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen Caesars? " 
 
 NOVI, BATTLE of. In which the French army commanded by Joubert was defeated 
 by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 10,000 
 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. 
 A second battle was fought here between the Austrian and French armies, when the 
 latter was signally defeated, Jan. 8, 1800. 
 
 NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Numantia with the Romans 
 was commenced Bolely on account of the latter having giveu refuge to the Sigidians, 
 their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 141 B C. — Livy. It continued 
 for 14 years ; and though Numantia was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely 
 withstood the siege. The inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman 
 forces, till Scipio Africanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruc- 
 tion of Numantia. He began the siege with an army of 60,000 men, and was bravely 
 opposed by the besieged, who were no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both 
 armies behaved with uncommon valour; but the courage of the Numantines was soon 
 changed into despair and fury. Their provisions began to fail, and they fed upon 
 the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on that of their dead companions, and at last 
 were obliged to draw lots to kill and devour one another ; and at length they set fire 
 to their houses, and all destroyed themselves, B.C. 133, so that not even one remained 
 to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. 
 
 NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In early times 
 they and legates ruled the courts of several of the sovereigns of Geimany, France, 
 and even England. The pope deputed a mincio to the Irish rebels in 1645. The 
 arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to an audience by James II. 1687, 
 is stated to have hastened the Revolution. 
 
 NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. 
 Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in France, near 
 Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a.d. 360. — Du Fresnoy. The first in 
 England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. — 
 I)ugdale's Monasticum Anglicanum. See articles Abbeys and Monasteries. The nuns 
 were expelled from their convents in Germany, in July 1785. They were driven 
 out of their convents in France, in Jan. 1790. For memorable instances of their 
 constancy and fortitude, see articles Acre and Coldivgkam. 
 
 0. 
 
 OAK. Styled the monarch of the woods ; and, among the ancients, an emblem of 
 strength, virtue, constancy, and long life. This tree grows in various parts of the 
 world, but that produced in England is found the best calculated for ship-building, 
 which makes it so highly valuable. The oak gives name to a constellation in the 
 heavens — Robur Caroli, the royal oak — named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
 the oak tree in which Charles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle of 
 Worcester. Some foreign oaks have been planted here. The evergreen oak, Qaercus 
 Ilex, was brought from the South of Europe before A.D. 1581. The scarlet oak, 
 Quercus Coccinea, was brought from North America before 1691. ' The chesnut-leaved 
 oak, Qaercus Prunus, from North America before 1730. The Turkey oak, Quercus 
 
OAT 
 
 461 
 
 OCE 
 
 Berris, from the south of Europe, 1735. The agaric of the oak, in pharmacy, was first 
 known as a styptic in 1750. 
 
 OATES, TITUS, his PLOT. Oates was at one time chaplain of a ship of war. Being 
 dismissed the service for immoral conduct, he became a lecturer in London ; and, in 
 conjunction with Dr. Tongue, invented a pretented plot to assassinate Charles II., of 
 which several Roman Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony convicted and 
 executed, a.D. 1578. Oate3 was afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James 
 II.), and being found guilty he was fined, put in the pillory, publicly whipped from 
 Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1685; but was pardoned, 
 and a pension granted him, 1689. 
 
 OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the 
 Saxons into England, a.d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a judge was settled 
 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British subjects, and ratified by parlia- 
 ment, 26 Hen. VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first framed and administered, 3 James I., 
 1605. — Stow's Chron. Of abjuration, being an obligation to maintain the government 
 of king, lords, and commons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant 
 dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III., 
 1701. Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a.d. 528 ; and the words " So 
 help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. The Test and Corpora- 
 tion oaths modified by stat. 9 Geo. IV. 1828. See Tests. Act abolishing oaths in 
 the customs and excise departments, and in certain other cases, and substituting 
 declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV, 1831. Affirmation, instead of oath, by 
 separatists, 3 & 4 Will. IV., cap. 82, 1833 ; and 1 Vict. cap. 5, 1837. See Affirmation. 
 
 OBELISKS. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 
 1485 B.C. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the 
 fingers of the sun; they differed very much as to their costliness, magnitude, and 
 magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one was erected by the emperor 
 Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the pavement of which was an horizontal dial 
 that marked the hour, about 14 B.C. In London are three obelisks : the first stands 
 in Fleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, and was erected to the famous John 
 Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 ; and immediately opposite to it, at the south 
 end of Farringdon-street, stands another, of granite, to the memory of Robert 
 Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, erected by his friends, and completed in one day, 
 June 25, 1833. The third obelisk stands at the south end of the Blackfriars-road, 
 and marks the distance of one mile from Fleet-stret. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the temple of 
 Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, was another, and it con- 
 tained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter : that at Benares was at least as ancient as 
 these. The first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C. The first in 
 modern times was at Cassel, 1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded 
 by Charles II., a.d. 1675; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers 
 make their calculations. 
 
 First modem meridional instrument by- 
 Copernicus . . . .a.d. 1540 
 First observatory at Cassel . . . 1565 
 
 Tyebo Brake's, at Uranibourg . . 1576 
 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . 1657 
 
 Royal ( French) 1667 
 
 Royal Observatory at Greenwich . . 1675 
 Observatory at Nuremberg . . . 1678 
 
 At Utrecht a.d. 16P0 
 
 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direction 1711 
 
 At Bologna 1714 
 
 At Petersburg 1725 
 
 Oxford, Br. Radcliffe .... 1772 
 Dublin, Br. Andrews . . * . 1783 
 Armagh, Primate Rokeby . . . . 1793 
 Cambridge 1824 
 
 The preceding are among the chief observatories in Europe : but there is now scarcely 
 any university or college where astronomy and the mathematics are taught or studied, 
 that is not furnished with an observatory. At Pekin is a sumptuous observatory, 
 erected more than a hundred years ago, though not contrived in the manner of the 
 European observatories. See Greenwich. 
 
 OCEAN MONARCH, Emigrant Ship. The Ocean Monarch American emigrant ship 
 left Liverpool bound for Boston, Aug. 24, 1848, having 396 passengers on board. She 
 had not advanced far into the Irish channel, being within six miles of Great Orms- 
 head, Lancashire, when she took fire, and in a few hours was burnt to the water's edge. 
 The Brazilian steam frigate, the Alfonso, happened to be out on a trial trip at the 
 time, with the prince and princess de Joinville and the duke and duchess d'Aumale 
 on board, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in rescuing and comforting the 
 sufferers with exceeding humanity. They, with the crews and passengers of the Alfonzo 
 
OCT 462 OLD 
 
 and the yacht Queen of the Ocean, so effectually rendered their heroic and unwearied 
 services as to save 156 persons from their dreadful situation, and 62 others escaped by 
 various means. But the rest, 178 in number, perished in the flames or the sea. 
 
 OCTARCHY. The octarch was the sovereign who was the chief or most powerful of 
 the monarchs of the heptarchy, giving laws to the others, and was called Rex yentis 
 Anglorum. Though there were seven kingdoms, yet the whole British nation was 
 for the most part subject to one king alone. Hengist was the first octarch, a.d. 455, 
 and Egbert the last, A.D. 800. See Britain. Some authors insist that the English hep- 
 tarchy should have been called the octarchy, and that heptarchy is not the correct term. 
 
 OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the 
 tenth in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. From this time October has still retained its first 
 name, in spite of all the different appellations which the senate and Roman emperors 
 would have given it. The senate ordered it to be called Faustinas, in honour of 
 Faustina, Avife of Antoninus the emperor ; Commodus would have had it called 
 Invictus; and Domitian Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 
 
 ODESSA, a port on the Black sea, founded by the empress Catherine of Russia in 1792, 
 after the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its prosperity 
 has rapidly increased. It was pai-tially bombarded by the British, April 21, 1854, in 
 consequence of the Russian batteries having fired on a flag of truce. On May 12, the 
 English frigate Tiger stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The 
 captain, Giffard, and many of his crew were killed, and the rest made prisoners. 
 
 ODES. Odes are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions, 
 accompanying this instrument, and sung in honour of the gods. Perhaps the most 
 beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are those of the royal 
 prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 757 B.C. The celebrated odes 
 of Anacreou were composed about 532 B.C. ; and from his time this species of writing 
 became usual. Anciently odes were divided into strophe, antistrophe, and epode. 
 This species of writing is that of our court poets. See Poets Laureate. 
 
 OFFA'S DYKE. The intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, made by Offa, a Saxon 
 king, to defend his country from the incursions of the Welsh, a.d. 774. — Anon. Offa, 
 king of Mercia, caused a great trench to be dug from Bristol to Basingwark, in Flint- 
 shire, as the boundary of the Britons who harboured in Wales; the Welsh endeavoured 
 to destroy it, but were repulsed with great loss. — Chron. Brit. 
 
 OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called (from which Attica lay waste for more 
 than two hundred years afterwards, and until the arrival of Cecrops), occurred 1764 
 B.C. Many authorities suppose this to be no other than the universal deluge ; but 
 according to some writers, if it occurred at all, it arose in the overflowing of one of 
 the great rivers of the country. See Deluge, Universal. 
 
 OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 
 B.C. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar-full was the prize at the 
 Panatkenasan games. It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons 
 appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 
 13. The anointing witb this liquid seems also to have been reckoned a necessary 
 ingredient in a festival dress, Ruth iii. 3. — The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot 
 iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and 
 after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and 
 Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 
 
 OLBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. See Planets. 
 
 OLD BAILEY SESSIONS-COURT. This court is held for the trial of criminals, and 
 its jurisdiction comprehends the county of Middlesex, as well as the city of London. 
 It is held eight times in the year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. The 
 judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen who have passed the chair, the recorder, 
 and the common-serjeant, who are attended by both the sheriffs, and one or more 
 of the national judges. The court-house was built in 1773, and was enlargfd in 1808. 
 During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, the 
 greater part of the jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol distemper, and 
 died, May 1750. Again, this disease was fatal to several in 1772. Twenty-eight persons 
 were killed at the execution of Mr. Steele's murderers, at the Old Bailey, Feb. 22, 
 1807. See Central Criminal Court. 
 
 OLD MAN of the MOUNTAIN. The Old Man or Ancient of the Mountain was king 
 
OLE 463 OMN 
 
 of the Assassiniaus, or Assassins (see Assassins), a people in the neighbourhood of 
 Tyre, in Phoenicia. He bore an absolute sway over his followers, who devoted their 
 lives to his service without hesitation, and esteemed themselves happy in suffering 
 what they deemed martyrdom in furtherance of his orders. — Aspin. 
 
 OLERON, LAWS of. An ancient and celebrated code of laws relating to sea affairs 
 was framed by Richard I. of England, when he was at the island of Oleron, in France, 
 a.d. 1194. These laws were afterwards received by all the nations of Europe, as the 
 basis of their marine constitutions, on account of their wisdom and justice and con- 
 currence in the general welfare. — Mortimer. 
 
 OLIVES. They are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens 
 their cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 b.c. He brought the olive from Sais, in 
 Upper Egypt, where it was for ages previously abundant. The olive was first planted 
 in Italy about 562 B.C. "When thou beatest thine olive-tree, thou shalt not go over 
 the boughs again : it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow." 
 Deut. xxiv. 20. 
 
 OLIVET, MOUNT, or MOUNT of OLIVES. It was situated to the east of the city 
 of Jerusalem, "a sabbath day's journey," or three-quarters of a mile; and parted 
 from it only by the brook Kedron, and by the valley of Jehoshaphab. It was upon 
 this mount that Solomon built certain temples, and that Our Saviour ascended into 
 heaven, in the presence of his disciples ; upon which account the Christians had, and 
 still have it, in great veneration. Some say that the print of the Redeemer's feet was 
 left so perfectly upon the mount, that though the devotees constantly carried away 
 the earth, the marks were as constantly repaired. — -Pardon. 
 
 OLTENITZA, BATTLE of. A large Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under 
 Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza in despite of the vigorous attacks of 
 the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, on Nov. 2 and 3, 1854. On the 4th a 
 more desperate attempt was made to dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg, with 
 9000 men. After a spirited engagement the Rvissians were defeated, with the loss of 
 1200 killed and wounded. The Turks lost only 106 men. 
 
 OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olympiads 
 which date from the year 776 B.C. being the year in which Coroebus was successful at 
 the Olympic games. This era differed from all others in being reckoned by periods 
 of four years instead of single years. Each period of four years was called an 
 Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year and Olympiad were both mentioned. The 
 second Olympiad began in 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764; the fifth, in 
 760 ; the 10th, in 740, &c. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were instituted in 
 honour of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every fifth year, on the 
 banks of the Alpheus,*near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise 
 their youth in five kinds of combats. Those who were conquerors in these games 
 were highly honoured by their countrymen. The prize contended for was a crown 
 made of a peculiar kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were 
 instituted by Pelops, 1307 B.C. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and 
 were revived by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 B.C. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn 
 prognostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great is said to have had 
 these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, celebrated for his wars with the 
 Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty-four nations, and his misfortunes. At 
 the birth of this latter, there were seen for seventy days together, two large comets, 
 whose splendour eclipsed that of the noon-day sun, occupying so vast a space as the 
 fourth part of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of 
 Mithridates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature to 
 render him great, 135 B.C. — Justin. 
 
 OMNIBUSES (from omnibus, for all) appeared for the first time in Paris in 1828. The 
 idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal about 1672, when similar ones were 
 started but soon discontinued. They were introduced by an enterprising coach 
 proprietor named Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset-house in July 1829. The 
 first omnibus started from Paddington to the bank of England on Saturday, July 4, 
 in that year. The omnibus is usually licensed to carry from eleven to thirteen 
 passengers inside, and from ten to eight outside; and is attended by a footman, 
 
0. P. 464 0P0 
 
 called a conductor. Regulations were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict, 
 c. 33, passed June 28, 1853. See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. The London 
 Omnibus Company was established in Jan. 1856. 
 
 0. P. RIOT at COVENT GARDEN THEATRE, London. The memorable riot, known 
 by this name, occurred on the opening of the new theatre, on account of the increased 
 prices of admission, Sept. 18, 1809. The play was Macbeth , and from the rising of the 
 curtain uutil its fall not one word from the stage was heard. The concurrence of all 
 parts of the house in the desire for reduction, (many of them persons known, and of 
 some consideration in the city,) gave a furious and determined party in the pit 
 courage to proceed, and great injury was done iu pit, boxes, and galleries. For many 
 successive nights the audience, too strong to be controlled, continued their demand, 
 and renewed their depredations, while the managers seemed, on their part, resolved 
 not to give way ; but in the end they yielded. This contest, which continued for 
 nearly three months, was terminated Dec. 10, same year. 
 
 OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of the custom 
 of giving musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other dramatic pieces. 
 Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honour with him, a.d. 1590. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Hut. Rinuccini's opera was a musical pastoral called Daphne, and his success induced 
 him to write the opera of Earydice, which was represented at the theatre of Florence, 
 1600, on the marriage of Marv de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. The music of 
 these pieces was composed by Jacobi Peri. An opera entitled L'Orfeo, Favola in, 
 Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have 
 been the first opera that was ever published. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
 chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant 
 from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, iu 1672, was acted Pomona. 
 
 OPERAS in ENGLAND. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
 London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York buildings, in 1692. 
 The first at Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, 
 and they became general in several of the theatres a few years after. Atnong the 
 favourite performances of this kind was Gay's Beggars' Opera, first performed in 1727. 
 It ran for sixty-three successive nights, but so offended the persons in power, that 
 the lord chamberlain refused a license for the performance of a second part of it, 
 entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its 
 publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200/. 
 whereas the Beggars' Opera had gained him only 400/. — Life of Gay. 
 
 OPERA-HOUSE, the ITALIAN, or QUEEN'S THEATRE. The original building 
 is generally supposed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbrugh, though 
 Mr. Pennaut attributes it to sir Christopher Wren. It was built, according to this 
 authority, in 1704, and opened April 9, 1705; and burnt down, June 17, 1788. The 
 foundation of the new theatre was laid April 3, 1790 ; and the house was opened 
 Sept. 22, 1791, on an improved plan, though the exterior was not erected iu its 
 present style till 1818, from designs by Mr. Nash. It is now a handsome edifice 
 cased with stucco, and adorned with an elegant colonnade supported by cast-iron 
 pillars of the Doric order. The front is decorated with a relievo, executed by 
 Mr. Bubb, in 1821, representing the Origin and Progress of Music. The interior is 
 magnificent, and is nearly as large as the theatre of La Scala, at Milan. Sue Covent 
 Garden, and Theatres. 
 
 OPERA, the ENGLISH. This theatre, under the name of the Lyceum, was opened 
 June 15, 1816, with an address spoken by Miss Kelly. It was entirely destroyed by 
 fire, Feb. 16, 1830. The exterior of the late Lyceum, in consequence of the situation 
 of the building, exhibited no architectural beauties, with the exception of a portico 
 of the Ionic order, added in 1823 ; but the interior was neat. It was about thirty-five 
 feet iu diameter, and the distance from the orchestra to the front boxes was only 
 thirty feet. The new English-Opera house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by 
 Mr. S. Beazley, and was opened in July 1834. See Theatres. 
 
 OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the great mart of 
 Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the regulation of the 
 Port-wine trade was established in a.d. 1756. See article Wines The French, under 
 marshal Souit, were surprised here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action 
 fought May 11, 1809. The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the 
 PedioiteB, with considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. It has since been the scene of 
 
OPT 
 
 465 
 
 ORA 
 
 civil war. See Portugal. The Oporto wine company was abolished in 1834, but re- 
 established by a royal decree, April 7, 1838. 
 
 OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of Alhazen, an 
 Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth century. It has advanced 
 rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of our most flourishing sciences. 
 
 4 24 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 1108 
 
 1280 
 
 Burning lenses known at Athens . B.C. 
 
 Two of the leading principles known to 
 the Platonists 
 
 First treatise on, hy Euclid, about . 
 
 "The magnifying power of convex glasses 
 and concave mirrors, and the prismatic 
 colours produced by angular glass, 
 mentioned by Seneca, about . a.d. 
 
 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy . . . 
 
 Greatly improved by Alhazen 
 
 Hints for spectacles and telescopes given 
 by Roger Bacon, about . 
 
 Spectacles (said to have been) invented 
 by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 
 
 Camera obscura said to have been in- 
 vented by Baptista Porta . . . 1560 
 
 Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, 
 about 1571 
 
 Telescope made by Jansen (said also to 
 have invented the microscope), about 1609 
 
 [The same instrument constructed by 
 Galileo, without using the production 
 of Jansen. ] 
 
 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
 vented by Drebbel, about , . . 1621 
 
 [Jansen and Galileo have also been stated 
 to be the inventors ] 
 
 Cassegrainian reflector . . ad. 1621 
 
 Law of refraction discovered by Snellius, 
 about 1624 
 
 Reflecting telescope, James Gregory . 
 Newton' 
 
 1663 
 1666 
 Motion and velocity of light discovered 
 
 by Roerner, and after him by Cassini 1667 
 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 mil- 
 lions of miles in sixteen minutes] 
 Double refraction explained by Bartho- 
 
 linus 1669 
 
 Newton's discoveries .... 1674 
 Telescopes with a single lens, by Tschirn- 
 
 hausen, about 1690 
 
 Polarisation of light, Huygens, about . 1692 
 Structure of the eye explained by Petit, 
 
 about 1700 
 
 Achromatic telescope constructed by 
 
 Mr. Hall (but not made public) in . . 1733 
 Constructed by Dollond, most likely 
 
 without any knowledge of Hall's . 1757 
 Herschel's great reflecting telescope, 
 
 erected at Slough .... 1789 
 
 Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory 
 
 theory, &c.) 1800-3 
 
 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaston) . . . 1807 
 Malus (polarisation of light by reflection) 1808 
 Fresnel (double refraction, <fec.) . . . 1817 
 Arago (colours of polarised light, &c.) 1811-53 
 Sir D Brewster, optical researches 
 
 (See Photography) . . . 1814-57 
 
 OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been N. Varole, 
 a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a.d. 1538 — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 ORACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona; but the most famous was the 
 oracle of Delphi, 1263 B.C. See Delphi. The heathen oracles were always delivered 
 in such dubious expressions or terms, that let what would happen to the inquirer, it 
 might be accommodated or explained to mean the event that came to pass. 
 
 ORANGE. The sweet, or China orange, was first brought into Europe from China by 
 the Portuguese, in 1547; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence all the 
 European orange-trees of this sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in the 
 gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England, and 
 planted, with little success, in 1595 ; they are said to have been planted at Beddington 
 park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
 
 ORANGE, HOUSE of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe; and 
 makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I. count of Nassau, received the 
 provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, and they continued several 
 hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of Nassau Dillembourg, who died in 
 1369, got a great accession of territories in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, 
 daughter and heiress of Godfrey, count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having 
 married Jane, daughter and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these 
 to his other domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the 
 Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau, in 
 1530. William, prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, landed at Torbay 
 with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his queen, the princess Mary 
 daughter of James II. April 11, 1689. See Holland. 
 
 ORANGE RIVER. Free state in South Africa. The British government transferred (by 
 sir George Clerk), March 29, 1854, their powers over this territory to a provisional 
 government. A Volksraad, or legislative council and governor (elected every four 
 years), have since been appointed. 
 
 ORANGEMEN. A battle, called the battle of the Diamond, was fought in the county 
 of Armagh, in Sept. 1795; and the treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
 occasion convinced them they would become an easy prey to the Roman Catholics, 
 from their small numbers, unless they associated for their defence. In commemo- 
 
 H H 
 
ORA 466 ORD 
 
 ration of that victory the first Orange lodge was formed in the county of Armagh, 
 Sept. 21, 1795 ; but the name of Orangeman existed some time before. They asso- 
 ciated to maintain the constitution in church and state, as established at the Revo- 
 lution by the prince of Orange. The first Orange lodge was formed in Dublin, the 
 members publishing a declaration of their principles, in Jan. 1798. 
 
 ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergyman of some talents, and great eccentricity, 
 obtained this name by opening what he called his "Oratory" in London, in 1726. 
 He had a kind of chapel in Newport-market, where he gave lectures on theological 
 topics on Sundays, and other subjects on Wednesdays, every week. Novelty pro- 
 cured him a multitude of hearers ; but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
 advantage from his project. After having served as a butt for the satirical wits, poets, 
 and painters of his time, he removed his oratory to Clare-market, and sunk into 
 comparative obscurity and contempt previously to his death, in 1756. 
 
 ORATORIANS. These were a regular order of priests established in 1564, and so called 
 from the oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, where they used to offer up their prayers. 
 They had a foundation in France, commenced by father de Berulle, afterwards 
 cardinal, in 1612. — Henault. The oratory, first a closet for private prayer alone, 
 became a place of public worship. — Sir T. Elyot. 
 
 ORATORIOS. An oratorio is a kind of sacred drama, the subject of it being generally 
 taken from the Scriptures, set to music. — Mason. In this respect it differs from our 
 modern concert. — Ashe. The origin of oratorios is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first 
 oratorio in London was performed in Lincoln's-iun theatre, in Portugal-street, in 1732. 
 Handel's oratorio of " Israel in Egypt " was produced in 1738; and the "Messiah" 
 in 1741; Haydn's "Creation" in 1798; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1837, and 
 "Elijah "in 1846. 
 
 ORCHARDS. Inclosed grounds planted with fruit-trees. — Bacon. Orchards do not 
 appear to have been adopted until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 although they had, doubtlessly, existed in Great Britain for many ages previously, 
 as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. 
 
 ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term signifying 
 the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences by fire and water. 
 It was introduced into England with other superstitions taken from the codes of the 
 Germans. That by fire was confined to the upper classes of the people ; that of water, 
 to bondsmen and rustics. Hence the expression of going through fire and water to 
 serve another. Women accused of incontinency formerly underwent the ordeal, to 
 prove their innocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he 
 would put himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, 
 or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of Ood, presuming he would 
 deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass barefooted and blindfold over nine 
 red-hot ploughshares, or were to cany burning irons in their hands ; and accordingly 
 as they escaped, they were judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* 
 The ordeal was used from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was 
 abolished by a royal proclamation, 45 Hen. III. 1261. — Law Diet. ; Rymer's Fcedera. 
 
 ORDNANCE-OFFICE. In ancient times, before the invention of guns, this office was 
 supplied by officers under the following names: the bowyer; the cross-bowyer ; the 
 galeater, or purveyor of helmets ; the armourer ; and the keeper of the tents. And 
 in this state it continued, till Henry VIII. placed it under the management of a 
 master, a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. See next article. 
 
 ORDNANCE, MASTER-GENERAL of the. An officer always chosen from among 
 the first generals in the service of the sovereign. We have records of master-generals 
 from the reign of Henry VIII. See preceding article. The appointment was formerly 
 for life, but since the Restoration the master-general held office durante bene placito, 
 and usually entered upon it with the party to which he was politically attached, and 
 retired with each change of the responsible advisers of the crown. He was colonel- 
 in-chief of the corps of artillery and the corps of engineers, and not unfrequently a 
 cabinet minister. — Beatson. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 
 1855, and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. 
 
 * The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspected were 
 adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course of nature ; in 
 hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water, which if they were brought 
 out without hurt, they were taken to be innocent of the crime. 
 
OED 467 ORL 
 
 ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by 
 Gen. Roy in 1784, continued by Col. Colby, and completed by Col. James in 1856. 
 The publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of Col. Mudge, 
 and is still going on ; the southern part on the scale of one inch to the mile, the 
 northern six inches to the mile. The survey of Ireland has been completed and 
 published ; that of Scotland is to be proceeded with. 
 
 ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; but 
 the fact does not rest on sufficient authority. It is also attributed to one Ctesibius, 
 a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought to Europe from the 
 Greek empire, and was first applied to religious devotions, in churches, in a.d. 657. — 
 Bellai'tnine. Organs were used in the "Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. 
 — Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of 
 Louis I. 815, when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jeronue mentions 
 an organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile off; and 
 another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount of Olives. The 
 organ at Haarlem is one of the largest in Europe; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. 
 At Seville is one with 1000 stops and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a 
 set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
 
 ORGANS in ENGLAND. That at York minster is the largest; and the organ in the 
 Music-hall, Birmingham, the next. In London, the largest is, perhaps, that of 
 Spitalfields church ; and that in Christ Church is nearly as extensive. The best is 
 the famous Temple organ, erected by competition of Schmidt and Harris, two eminent 
 builders; and after long-protracted disputes about their merits, the question was 
 referred to Mr. Jefferies, afterwards chief justice, who decided in favour of Schmidt. 
 A monster organ was erected in the Crystal Palace in June, 1857, which at times 
 overpowered the 2400 vocal and instrumental performers. 
 
 ORIEL COLLEGE, Oxford. Founded in 1337, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of 
 Stow, and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tene- 
 ment called I'Oriele, on the site of which the buildings stand. Oriel college, according 
 to Ashe, ranks as the fourth in point of antiquity in this university ; we believe, how- 
 ever, it is more generally, and more correctly, accounted the fifth. 
 
 ORIGENISTS. A sect that pretended to draw their opinions from the writings or 
 books of Origen, concerning principles. They maintained that Christ was the son 
 of God no other way than by adoption and grace ; that souls were created before the 
 bodies; that the sun, moon, stars, and the waters that are under the firmament, had 
 all souls ; that the torments of the damned shall have an end, and that the fallen 
 angels shall after a time be restored to their first condition. These and various 
 other errors infested the Church in the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries. They were con- 
 demned by councils, and the reading of Origen's works forbidden. An unbounded 
 love of allegory has been the principal distinction of this sect. — Bwke. 
 
 ORION Steam-Ship. This splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glasgow, struck on 
 a sunken rock northward of Portpatrick, and within a stone's throw of land, and 
 instantly filled in seven fathoms of water. By this lamentable catastrophe, of 
 two hundred passengers that were supposed to be on board at the time, more than 
 fifty were drowned. The weather was fine, the sky clear, and the sea quite calm. 
 June 18, 1850. The ship had been parted in two by the violence of the shock. 
 
 ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark to Scotland 
 in a.d. 830, and were confirmed to James III. for a sum of money, in 1468. The 
 Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and, united with Shetland, they now form one of 
 the Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in 
 the fifth century, some affirm by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy 
 in Scotland, about 1689. See Bishops of Scotland. 
 
 ORLEANS, SIEGE of. By the English, under John Talbot, afterwards earl of Shrews- 
 bury, Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so as its 
 fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI. king of France ; and it was relieved, 
 and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards sur- 
 named the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. See Joan of Arc. Siege of Orleans, when 
 the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 
 
 ORLEANS, HOUSE of. This branch of the royal family of France was called to the 
 throne in 1830. Louis-Philippe, son of the celebrated due d'Orleans (who had 
 
 HH 2 
 
ORL 468 OST 
 
 assumed the title of Erjalite, or Citizen Equality, aud had voted for the death of his 
 relative, Louis XVI. and who was himself afterwards beheaded by order of the revo- 
 lutionary tribunal), was chosen king under the modified title of King of the French, 
 on August 9, in that year. Louis-Philippe and his family were obliged to flee from 
 France, Feb. 24, 1848, in consequence of the revolution. See France. 
 
 ORLEANS, MAID of, the celebrated Joan of Arc. See Joan of A re. 
 
 ORLEANS, NEW. The capital of Louisiana, built in 1720, under the regency of the 
 duke of Orleans. The French language was formerly almost universal here, but the 
 English now predominates. In 1788, seven-eighths of the city were destroyed by 
 fire ; but it is now rebuilt. The British attacked New Orleans in December 
 1814, and were repulsed by the Americans under general Jackson, with great loss, 
 Jan. 7, 1815. 
 
 ORPHAN HOUSES. The emperor Trajan was the first who formed large establish- 
 ments for this purpose. Pliny relates in his panegyric that Trajan had caused five 
 thousand free-born children to be sought out and educated ; about a.d. 105. Orphan 
 houses, properly so called, are mentioned for the first time in the laws of the emperor 
 Justinian. At the court of Byzantium, the office of inspector of orphans, orphano- 
 trophos, was so honourable, that it was held by the brother of the emperor Michael IV. 
 in the 11th century. — Bechnann. See Foundling Hospital. 
 
 ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain the motions 
 of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with the construction of the 
 clepsydra? and other horological automata. Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles 
 that distinguish his system about a.d. 130. The planetary clock of Fine'e was begun 
 a.d. 1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so 
 called, was invented by Charles, earl of Orrery ; but perhaps with more justice it is 
 ascribed to Mr. Rowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronised, 1670. This 
 Orrery has been greatly improved of late years. 
 
 ORTHES, or ORTHEZ, BATTLE of. Between the British and Spanish armies on 
 one side, and the French on the other, the former commanded by the marquess 
 (afterwards duke) of Wellington, and the latter by marshal Soult. In this memorable 
 engagement the British gained a great and decisive victoiy, Feb. 27, 1814. The 
 victory was soon followed by the battle of Toulouse, which see. 
 
 OSSORY, BISHOPRIC of, in Ireland. This see was first planted at Saiger, about 
 a.d. 402 (thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick), from whence the bishops of 
 it were called Episcopi Saigerenses. From Saiger it was translated to Aghavoe, in 
 Upper Ossory, in 1052. Felix O'Dullany, bishop of Ossory, translated the see to 
 Kilkenny, about the end of the reign of Henry II. The cathedral church was 
 allowed to be the finest in Ireland. This bishopric was united to Ferns and Leighlin 
 in 1842, under the provisions of the Church Temporalities' act, passed in 1833. 
 
 OSTEND, in Belgium, is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, 
 from July 1601 to Sept. 1604, when it surrendered by an honourable capitulation. 
 On the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 1706, after 
 the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French 
 in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the French garrisoned this town for the 
 empress-queen Maria Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took Ostend, which 
 they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. The English landed troops here, 
 who destroyed the works of the Bruges canal; but the wind shifting before they 
 could re-embark, they were obliged to surrender to the French, May 19, 1798. 
 
 OSTRACISM. From the Greek word OvrpaKov, an oyster ; a mode of proscription at 
 Athens, by which those who were either too rich or had too much authority, were 
 condemned to ten years' banishment, (but without any confiscation of their goods or 
 estate,) for fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country. This custom 
 is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others, it is ascribed 
 to Cleisthenes, about 510 s.c. The people wrote the names of those whom they most 
 suspected upon small shells; these they put into an urn or box, aud presented it to 
 the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by 
 the council to be banished ab aris etfocis. 6000 votes were required. But this law 
 at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the commonwealth fell under the 
 popular resentment, as Aristides, noted for his justice, Miltiades, for his victories, &c. 
 It was abolished by ironically proscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person. 
 
OST 
 
 469 
 
 ouz 
 
 OSTROLENKA, BATTLE of. Between the Poles and Russians, one of the most 
 sanguinary and desperate battles fought by the Poles for the recovery of their inde- 
 pendence, May 26, 1831. On both sides the slaughter was immense, but the Poles 
 remained masters of the field ; they, however, shortly afterwards retreated to Praga. 
 The Russians, in their accounts of this battle, claimed the victory. 
 
 OTAHE1TE. Discovered in 1767, by captain Wallis, who called it George the Third 
 Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of Venus; sailed 
 round the whole island in a boat, and stayed three months : it was visited twice after- 
 wards by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was 
 brought over to England by captain Cook, and carried back by him, in his last 
 voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to some Euglish mission- 
 aries. Queen Pomare was compelled to place herself under the protection of France, 
 Sept. 9, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighbouring islands were taken 
 possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov, 1843. 
 Seizure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, March 5, 1844. 
 
 OTTERBURN, BATTLE op. Fought July 31, 1388, between the English under the 
 earl of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under the heroic sir William 
 Douglas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots obtained 
 the victory, and the two Percie3 were made prisoners. On this battle the well-known 
 ballad of Chevy Chase is founded.— Walsingham. 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE. See Turkey. 
 
 OUDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by the 
 vizier of the great mogul. On the dismemberment of his empire about 1760, it was 
 seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the present royal family. 
 
 Battle of Buxar, where Shuja and his 
 ally, Meer Cossim, are totally defeated, 
 and the British became virtually 
 masters of Oude . . May 22, 1764 
 
 Reign of Asoph-ood-Dowlah, who cedes 
 Benares, &c. to the East India Com- 
 pany, who place troops in Oude . 1775-81 
 
 [The annual subsidy to the company in 
 1787, 500,0001.; iu 1794, 760.000Z.; in 
 1801, 1,352,347^.] 
 
 More territories ceded to the Company . 1S01 
 
 Ghazee-ood-rieen becomes king, with the 
 consent of the British .... 1819 
 
 Dreadful misgovernment of Nusseer-ood- 
 deen 1S27-37 
 
 At his death the British resident, colonel 
 Lowe, suppresses promptly an insur- 
 rection. 
 
 Mahommed Ali governs well . . 1837-42 
 
 But his son Umjeed Ali Shah . . 1S42-7 
 
 And grandson, Wajid Ali Shah, exceed 
 all their predecessors in profligacy 1847-56 
 
 In consequence (by virtue of the treaty 
 of 1801) Oude is annexed to the British 
 territories . . . March 16, 1S56 
 
 The queen of Oude,&e. arrives in London 
 to appeal . . . Aug. 20, 1856 
 
 Indian mutiny : — ex-king of Oude im- 
 prisoned (on suspicion) . June 14, 1857 
 
 OUDENARDE, BATTLE of. Between the English and allies under the duke of Marl- 
 borough and prince Eugene, against the French, who were besieging Oudenarde. 
 The French were defeated and entirely routed, with great loss. Marlborough pushed 
 his victory so far that the French king entered into a negotiation for peace, which 
 was, however, of no effect, July 11, 1708. 
 
 OULART, BATTLE of. Between a body of 5000 Irish insurgents, and the king's 
 troops, in small number. In this fatal affair, the North Cork militia, after great feats 
 of bravery, were cut to pieces, the lieut. -colonel, a sergeant, and three privates alone 
 escaping, May 27, 1798. — Sir Richard Musgrave. 
 
 OUNCE. The sixteenth part of the pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
 The word is from nncia ; and its precise weight was fixed by Henry III. who decreed 
 that an English ounce should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces 
 should be a pound ; and that eight pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233. 
 
 OURIQUE, BATTLE of. Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, encounters five Saracen 
 kings and a prodigious army of Moors on the plains of Ourique, July 25, 1139. After 
 prodigies of valour he signally defeats his enemies, and is hailed by his soldiers king 
 upon the spot. Lisbon, the capital, is taken, and he enters it at the head of his 
 victorious army, and soon after is crowned as the first king. This was one of the 
 greatest fights recorded in the eventful history of Portugal ; it finally overthrew the 
 Moorish dominion in that kingdom. 
 
 OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. A popular and useful society in Dublin. In a.d. 1700 
 the case of a ship in the port of Dublin excited great legal perplexity ; and in order 
 to lessen the consequent delay and expense, it was referred to an arbitration of 
 merchants, whose decision was prompt and highly approved. This led to the foun. 
 
OVA 
 
 470 
 
 OXP 
 
 dation of the present society for terminating commercial disputes by arbitration. 
 The vessel was named the Ouzel Oalley, and the society adopted the name in 1705. 
 
 OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed those generals of their army 
 whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus rewarded, entered the city 
 with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being consecrated to Venus ; wherefore 
 when Marcus Crassus was decreed the honour of an ovation, he particularly desired 
 it as a favour of the senate to be allowed a laurel crown iustead of a myrtle one. 
 This triumph was called ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came 
 to the Capitol, whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumius 
 Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 503 B.C. 
 
 OVERLAND NEW ROUTE to INDIA See Waghom's New Route to India. 
 
 OWHYHEE. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell 
 a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of 
 the islanders, the captain weut on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
 till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to submit to this 
 insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his 
 companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 
 OXFORD. The chief seat of learning in England. Henry III. compelled by his barons, 
 summoned a parliament here, 1258. — Dugdale. The first clear account we have of 
 the representatives of the people forming the house of commons, is in the 42nd of 
 Henry III. when it was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve persons should 
 be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments which, by the sixth 
 statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. A parliament assembled here, 
 1 Charles I. 1625, in consequence of the plague then' raging in London ; and in 1644, 
 Charles summoned such members of both houses as were devoted to his interest to 
 meet him at Oxford ; these were seceders from the parliament at Westminster. 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is by some supposed to have been a seminary 
 for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its revival and consequence 
 to his liberal patronage. Others state, that though the university is ascribed to 
 Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving the name existed even at the period 
 of the Norman conquest. On Aug. 31, 1850, a commission was appointed to inquire 
 into its " state, studies, discipline, and revenues," which reported April 27, 1852 ; 
 and acts were passed in 1855 and 1856 making many alterations in the constitution 
 and government of the university. 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 University. Said to have been founded 
 by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- 
 liam, archdeacon of Durham, about 
 
 a.d. 1232 
 
 Baliol. John Baliol, knt. and Deborah 
 his wife ; he was father to Baliol, king 
 of the Scots 1263 
 
 Merton College. Walter de Merton, 
 bishop of Rochester . . . . 1264 
 
 Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and 
 a Hertford scholarship appointed) . 1312 
 
 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, bishop of 
 Exeter 1314 
 
 Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam 
 deBrome, archdeacon of Stowe . . 1326 
 
 Queen's College. Robert de Eglesfield, 
 clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, con- 
 sort of Edward III 1310 
 
 New College. William of Wykeham, 
 bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 
 Mary of Winchester .... 13S6 
 
 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427; 
 finished by Rotherham, bishop of Lin- 
 coln 1479 
 
 All Souls' College, founded by Henry 
 Chichely, archbishop of Canterbury, 1437 
 
 Magdalen. William of Waynfiete, bishop 
 of Winchester 1456 
 
 Brazenose. William Smyth, bishop of 
 Lincoln, and sir Richard Sutton a.d. 1509 
 
 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of 
 Winchester 1516 
 
 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; 
 and afterwards by Henry VIII. . . 1532 
 
 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope on the basis 
 of a previous institution called Dur- 
 ham College 1554 
 
 St. John's. Sir Thomas Whyte, lord 
 Mayor of London 1555 
 
 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 
 Elizabeth 1571 
 
 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Do- 
 rothy, his wife 1613 
 
 Pembroke, Thomas Teesdale, and Richard 
 Wightwick, clerk 1624 
 
 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bentley 
 in Worcestershire; it was originally 
 called Gloucester College . . . 1714 
 
 HALLS. 
 
 St. Edmund's 1269 
 
 St. Mary's 1333 
 
 New Inn Hall 1392 
 
 St. Mary Magdalen .... 1487 
 
 St. Alban's 1547 
 
 [Oxford University Calendar.] 
 
 OXFORD ASSIZES, The Fatal. When the high sheriff and 300 other persons died 
 suddenly, of an infection caught from the prisoners, 20 Eliz. 1577. — Stow. This 
 distemper was supposed to arise from the stench that came from the prisoners, who 
 were so much crowded within close and narrow walls. — Chron. Brit. 
 
OXF 
 
 471 
 
 PAC 
 
 OXFORD, BISHOPRIC of. This diocese constituted a part of the diocese of Lincoln 
 until 1541, when king Henry VIII. erected this into a bishopric, and endowed it out 
 of the lands of the dissolved monasteries of Abingdon and Osney : and the same 
 king assigned the church of the abbey of Osney, for a cathedral to this see ; but five 
 years afterwards he removed the seat of the see to Oxford. The present cathedral 
 of Oxford was anciently dedicated to St. Frideswide ; but when the see was trans- 
 lated thither, it was entitled Christ Church, and part of the lands appropriated by 
 cardinal Wolsey to the maintenance of his college was allotted to the dean and 
 chapter; but during the reign of queen Elizabeth, this see was almost stripped of 
 the ample endowments it received from her father. 
 
 OXFORD, EARL of, his ADMINISTRATION. Robert, earl of Oxford (previously rt. 
 hon. Robert Harley), treasury; sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper; 
 John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord president ; John, bishop of Bristol 
 (afterwards of Loudon), privy seal ; Henry St. John, afterwards viscount Bolingbroke, 
 and William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state; rt. hon. Robert Benson, after- 
 wards lord Bingley, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. June 1, 1711. The duke of 
 Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiving the lord treasurer's staff on July 30, 
 1714, three days before the death of queen Anne. From the reign of George I. the 
 office of lord treasurer has been executed by commissioners. 
 
 OXFORD, his ASSAULT on the QUEEN. A youth named Edward Oxford, who had 
 been a servant in a public- house, discharged two pistols at her majesty queen Victoria 
 and prince Albert, as they were proceeding up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton 
 from Buckingham-palace. He stood within a few yards of the carriage ; but for- 
 tunately neither her majesty nor the prince were injured, June 10, 1840. Oxford 
 was subsequently tried at the Old Bailey (July 10), and being adjudged to be insane, 
 was sent for confinement to Bethlehem-hospital. 
 
 OXYGEN, (a gas, so called from o|vs, sharp, as being a chief component of acids,) is the 
 most abundant of all substances, constituting about one-third of the solid earth, and 
 forming by weight nine-tenths of the water and one-fourth of the atmosphere. It 
 was first separated by Priestley in Aug. 1774, and by Scheele in 1775. It is the chief 
 supporter of animal life by respiration and of combustion. See Ozone. 
 
 OYER AND TERMINER. A commission directed to the judges and other personages 
 of the courts to which it is issued, by virtue whereof they have power to hear and 
 determine treasons, felonies, &c. 
 
 YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a public crier, 
 to enjoin silence and attention; very ancient, and the date not known. 
 
 OZONE, (from bfav, to yield an odour,) a name given in 1840 by M. Schonbein of Basel 
 to the odour in the atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. It is con- 
 sidered to be a modification of the oxygen, (which see,) and when occurring naturally, 
 to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on 
 phosphorus. 
 
 P. 
 
 PACIFICATION, EDICTS of. The name usually given by the French to the edicts of 
 their kings in favour of the Protestants, with the object of appeasing the commo- 
 tions occasioned by their previous persecutions. 
 
 First edict, published by Charles IX. 
 permitting the free exercise of the re- 
 formed religion near all the cities and 
 towns in the realm , . . Jan. 1562 
 
 Edict ; the reformed religion permitted 
 in the houses of lords justiciaries, and 
 certain other persons . . March, 1563 
 
 These edicts revoked, and all Protestant 
 ministers ordered to depart the king- 
 dom in 15 days 
 
 Edict, allowing lords and others to have 
 service in their houses, and granting 
 public service in certain towns . . 
 
 fin August, 1572, the same monarch au- 
 thorised the massacre of St. Bartho- 
 lomew. See Bartholomew.] 
 
 1568 
 
 1570 
 
 Edict of Pacification published by Henry 
 
 HI April, 1576 
 
 This edict was revoked . . Dec. 1576 
 And was renewed for six years Oct. 1577 
 [Several edicts were published against 
 the Protestants after the six years ex- 
 pired.] 
 Edict of Henry IV. renewing that of 
 
 Oct. 1577 . . . . * . . 1591 
 Edict of Nantes, by Henry IV. extend- 
 ing the toleration allowed to Protes- 
 tants. See Edict of Nantes . April, 1598 
 This last edict confirmed by Louis XIII. 1610 
 
 Again, by Louis XIV 1652 
 
 Eevocation of the Edict of Nantes by 
 Louis XIV Oct. 1685 
 
PAD 472 PAL 
 
 PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in a.d. 1540. 
 
 PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters, and gentiles, are 
 worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of belief, except in that 
 of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure us they concur, and their 
 having gods is a demonstrative proof of that belief. Constantine ordered the Pagan 
 temples to be destroyed throughout the Roman empire, a.d. 331 ; and Paganism was 
 finally overthrown in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about 390. — Tillemout. 
 
 PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. Osymandyas 
 (see Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting, 2100 B.C. — Usher. Pausias 
 of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning the colours into wood 
 or ivory, about 360-330 B.C. The ancients considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. 
 Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 B.C. 
 — Pliny. The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Quintus Fabius, who on 
 that account was styled Pictor, 291 B.C. — Livy.* The first excellent pictures were 
 brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 B.C. After the death of Augustus, not a 
 single painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very cele- 
 brated, is supposed to have been the last, about a.d. 14. Painting on canvas seems to 
 have been known at Rome in a.d. 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, who died in 735, 
 knew something of the art. It revived about the close of the 13th century, and 
 Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, is awarded the honour of its restoration. It was at 
 once encouraged and generously patronised in Italy. John Van Eyck of Bruges, and 
 his brother Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting 
 in oil, 1415. — Du, Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspective. 
 The earliest mention of the art in England is a.d. 1523, about which time Henry VIII. 
 patronised Holbein, and invited Titian to his com t. 
 
 PALACE COURT. The court of the queen's palace of Westminster, created by letters- 
 patent, 16 Charles II. 1664. It was held in Great Scotland Yard, and was a court of 
 record for the trial of all personal actions, whatever their amount might be, arising 
 within the limits of twelve miles round the sovereign's palace, with the exception of 
 the city of London. This court was abolished in December, 1849. 
 
 PALACE OF WESTMINSTER. The new houses of parliament now in course of com- 
 pletion are so called. The first contract for the embankment of the river was taken 
 in 1837, by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 886 feet in length, 
 and projects into the river in a line with the inner side of the third pier of West- 
 minster-bridge. Sir Charles Barry is the architect of the sumptuous pile of building 
 raising since 1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet thick : to the 
 east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and covers an area of nine statute acres. The 
 great Victoria tower at the south-west extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of 
 less magnitude crown other portions of the building. The peers took possession of 
 their house, it being made ready for the purpose, April 15, 1847; and the commons, 
 of their house, Nov. 4, 1852. See Parliament, and Bells. 
 
 PALATINE and PALATINATES. Palatine was a German dignity. William the Con- 
 queror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title 
 of earl, 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, 
 Duchy of. The bishoprics of Ely aud Durham were also made county palatines. 
 There is also mention made of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 of Henry VIII. 
 c. 10, which then belonged to the archbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
 it was dissolved, and made part of the county of Northumberland. The palatinate 
 jurisdiction of Durham was separated from the diocese, and vested in the crown, 
 6 Will. IV. c. 19, June 21, 1836. Lancaster has long been, and continues to be, a 
 county palatine. See Lancaster. 
 
 PALATINES and SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from the banks 
 of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived in England, and 
 were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common : a brief was granted to 
 collect alms for them. 500 families went under the protection of the government to 
 
 * Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were contemporary painters. These artists once contended for 
 pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birds came to 
 peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, 
 "Remove the curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the painting, and 
 Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, "Zeuxis has deceived the birds; but 
 Parrhasius has deceived Zeuxis ! " Parrhasius dressed ia a purple robe, and wore a crown of gold, 
 calling himself king of painters, 415 B.C. — PhUarch. 
 
PAL 
 
 473 
 
 PAL 
 
 Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000£. 
 for their support. 3000 were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having 
 been received kindly, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
 by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss Protestants, 
 who soon made this colony nourishing, 7 Anne, 1709. — Anderson. 
 
 PALL, or PALLIUM. In the Roman Church an ensign of dignity conferred by the 
 pope upon archbishops. An archbishop of Canterbury has paid 5000 florins for a pall. 
 By a decretal of pope Gregory XL no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
 chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, till he had received 
 his pall from the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an Irish archbishop in 
 1151-2, when it was conferred at Kells by a national synod, on March 9, by the 
 cardinal priest Paparo on the four archbishops of Ireland, Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, 
 and Tuam, and Gelasius was recognised as primate of all Ireland. — Bishop Mant. 
 
 PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disagree. Some 
 say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus, as he was building Ilium ; but on its 
 preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the oracle of Apollo declared 
 should never be taken so long as the Palladium was found within its walls. This 
 fatality being made known to the Greeks, they contrived to steal it away during the 
 Trojan war, 1184 B.C. though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size 
 and shape, and that the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 
 1183 B.C. and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secresy in the temple of 
 Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 
 
 PALLAS, The Planet. Pallas was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, March 29, 1802. 
 It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and completes its revolution 
 in four years seven months and one-third of a month. Schroeter, a German astro- 
 nomer, estimated its diameter to be 2099 miles, and consequently nearly the size of 
 our moon. It presents a ruddy aspect, and is surrounded with a nebulosity. It is 
 distinguished from all the other planets by the very great inclination of its orbit to 
 the plane of the ecliptic, which is no less than thirty-four degrees thirty-five minutes. 
 
 PALMER'S TRIAL. See Trials, 1856, note. 
 
 PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION". The resignation of the Aberdeen administration 
 was announced Feb. 1, 1855, but nearly all its members returned to office soon after 
 under Lord Palnierston, lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain 
 endeavoured to form an administration. On Feb. 22, Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, 
 and Mr. Sidney Herbert again resigned on account of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord 
 John Russell resigned July 13. Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of 
 India, July 4, 1855. The following is the original list with the subsequent alterations 
 (1857) : 
 
 First lord of the Treasury, viscount Pal- 
 inerston. 
 
 Lord Chancellor, lord Cranworth. 
 
 President of the Council, earl Granville. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal, duke of Argyll ; now, earl 
 of Harrowby. 
 
 Home Secretary, sir George Grey. 
 
 Foreign, earl of Clarendon. 
 
 Colonial, rt. hon. Sidney Herbert (resigned 
 Feb. 22); afterwards, lord John Russell 
 (resigned July 13) ; sir William Molesworth 
 (died Oct. 22, 1S55) ; now, rt. hon. Henry 
 Labouchere. 
 
 War, lord Panmure. 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer, rt. hon. W. 
 
 Gladstone (resigned Feb. 22) ; now, sir G. 
 
 Cornewall Lewis. 
 First Lord of Admiralty, sir James Graham 
 
 (resigned Feb. 22) ; now, sir Charles Wood. 
 Board of Control, sir Charles Wood ; now, rt. 
 
 hon. R. Vernon Smith. 
 Public Works, sir W. Molesworth ; now, sir 
 
 B. Hall (appointed July 22, 1855). 
 Postmaster-General, viscount Canning, (ap- 
 pointed governor-general of India, July 4j ; 
 
 now, duke of Argyll. 
 Board of Trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 Marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 
 Chancellor of Duchy of Lancaster, rt. hon. 
 
 M. T. Baines (appointed Nov. 24, 1S55). 
 
 PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, multitudes 
 of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm- 
 tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations and hosannas, a.d. 33. In 
 memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish countries, to carry palms on the 
 Sunday before Easter ; hence called Palm Sunday. Conquerors were not only accus- 
 tomed to carry palm-trees in their hands; but the Romans, moreover, in their 
 triumphs, sometimes wore toga palmata, in which the figures of palm trees were 
 interwoven. 
 
 PALMYRA, RUINS op, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English travellers 
 from Aleppo, A.r>. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly of white marble, 
 
PAM 474 PAN 
 
 prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than even Rome itself. It was 
 supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon.* Zenobia, 
 the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman power in the time of Aurelian, who, 
 having made himself master of the place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, 
 and gave the pillage of the city to the soldiers. The stupendous ruins of this city 
 were visited, in 1751, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. 
 Mr. Dawkins also visited Palmyra, and Mr. Bruce, who, on ascending a neighbouring 
 mount, was struck with the most magnificent sight which, he believes, ever mortal 
 saw ; the immense plains below were so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces 
 and temples), that they seemed to touch one another. 
 
 FAMPELUNA, in Spain. This city was taken by the French on their invasion of Spain. 
 It was invested by the British, between whom and the French very obstinate conflicts 
 took place, July 27 and 29, 1813. Pampeluna surrendered to the British Oct. 31, in 
 that year. The French had thrown into it a strong garrison immediately after the 
 battle of Vittoria, which did not submit until the day last mentioned. 
 
 PAMPHLET. The first appearance of pamphlets amongst us is generally thought to 
 have been in opposition to the errors and corruptions of the Church of Rome. Those 
 who were first convinced of the reasonableness of the " new learning," as it was then 
 called, propagated their opinions in small pieces, which were cheaply printed, and 
 (what was then of great importance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets began to 
 be written in Edw. VI.'s time. They were very numerous in the 17th century. 
 See Introd. to Harl. Miscell. xii. 1808. Large collections are in the libraries of the 
 British Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 
 
 TANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about ad. 504. 
 These Pandects (which condensed all the then known- laws) were accidentally dis- 
 covered in the ruins of Amalfi, a.d. 1137 ; they were removed from Pisa in 1415 ; and 
 are now preserved in the library of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce Florentine. 
 
 PANOPTICON of SCIENCE and ART, in Leicester-square, was erected in 1852-3 
 by a chartered company ; Mr. T. H. Lewis being the architect. It was opened in 
 1854 for lectures, demonstrations, musical performances, &c. Its electrical machine, 
 battery, &c. were almost the largest in Europe. It did not succeed, and was 
 sold in 1857. 
 
 PANORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention of Robert 
 Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper round the wall of a 
 circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. In 1788, Mr. Barker 
 exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the first picture of the kind. He 
 then commenced similar exhibitions in London, having adopted the name of 
 ' Panorama,' to attract notice, and was ultimately enabled to build commodious 
 premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died in April, 1806. 
 
 PANTHEON at ROME. A temple built by Augustus Caesar, some say by Agrippa, his 
 son-in-law, 25 B.C. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, where the 
 particular image or representation of a particular god was set up j the gates were of 
 brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope 
 Boniface III. dedicated it to the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of 
 St. Mai-y de la Rotunda. The Pantheon in London was erected by subscription, 
 and opened Jan. 25, 1772. It was formed into an Opera-house, and was burnt down 
 Jan. 10, 1792 : was rebuilt in 1795; and made a bazaar in 1834. 
 
 PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among the 
 ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 
 22 B.C. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of stage performances. 
 — Uslier. Pantomime dances were introduced about the same time. — Idem. Repre- 
 sentation by gesture and action only is contemporaneous with our stage. 
 
 * The remains of this sumptuous city being manifestly of Grecian origin, cannot be supposed to be 
 those of the city of Solomon. In what manner or at what period Palmyra rose to the distinguished 
 wealth and splendour which its ruins attest, has been nowhere distinctly recorded. The origin of this 
 prosperity may have been, as some late visitors surmise, its becoming the emporium of the trade for 
 India, the commodities of which were brought up the Persian gulf, and then carried across the Syrian 
 desert, by way of Palmyra. We know that the only brilliant part of the history of Palmyra was 
 uuder Odeuatus and his queen Zenobia. Odeuatus died, and Zenobia assumed the title of Queen of 
 the East, in a.d. i!67. Aurelian defeated her at Adessa and made her captive 273. From that time, 
 Palmyra ceased to make a figure in history, and under the Roman empire only casual notices testify 
 its existence. It is now inhabited by only a few Arab families. 
 
PAP 475 PAR 
 
 " PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory holden in Rome, Sept. 30, 1850, the pope 
 (Pius IX.) named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among 
 the ten foreigners raised to the dignity of cardinal, was Dr. Wiseman, Roman Catholic 
 vicar-apostolic of the London district, who was at the same time created lord arch- 
 bishop of Westminster. On Oct. 27, following, Dr. Ullathorne war enthroned as 
 Roman Catholic bishop of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral in that town. The same 
 day a pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Roman Catholic chapels 
 of his see; and on its becoming generally known to the British people that all 
 England had been parcelled out similarly into Romish dioceses, the strongest indig- 
 nation at this assumption of the pope was expressed throughout the empire.* The 
 answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) to a memorial from the Protestant 
 clergy of Westminster, against the pope's creation of a Romish hierarchy in this 
 country, was followed by the celebrated letter from lord John Russell, then chief 
 minister of the crown (dated Nov. 4), to the bishop of Durham : and immediately 
 from every quarter of England addresses poured in to her majesty, the queen, calling 
 upon her and the government to resist this monstrous usurpation. As many as 6700 
 addresses, it is said, had been voted from nearly as many influential meetings up to 
 Dec. 31, 1850. The great agitation on this subject produced the Ecclesiastical Titles 
 bill. See Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, and Home, Modem. 
 
 PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 170 B.C. It was 
 first made of cotton, about a.d. 1000 ; and of rags in 1319. White coarse paper was 
 made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1590 : and 
 here the first paper-mills were erected. — Stow. Paper for writing and printing 
 manufactured in England, and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690 ; before 
 this time we paid for these articles to France and Holland 100,000Z. annually. The 
 French refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost exclu- 
 sively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 1690. — 
 Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis Robert, who sold 
 his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The latter brought it to 
 England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the machinery. M. 
 Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length in 1807; 
 it had previously been made tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made 
 13,800 feet long, and four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. See 
 Parchment Paper. 
 
 PAPER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and 
 Holland, about a.d. 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 
 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country from 
 early in the eighteenth century ; and it has been brought to such perfection 
 latterly, that rich stained paper is made at twelve shillings for one yard, and the 
 common kinds 24 yards for one shilling. 
 
 PAPER-MONEY. See BanTcs. 
 
 PAPYRUS. The reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, 
 used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 B.C. Ptolemy prohi- 
 bited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a 
 library equal to that of Alexandria. A manuscript of the Antiquities of Josephus on 
 papyrus of inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, 
 and sent to the National Library at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 
 
 PARAFFINE (from parum affinis, having little affinity with anything), a solid sub- 
 stance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by distillation of coal, and first obtained 
 by Reichenbach in 1831. It was procured from mineral oil by Mr. James Young 
 about 1849, and is also obtained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526 ; and 
 conquered by Alvarez Nunez in 1535, and civilised by the Jesuits, who established 
 an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay 
 rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. Francia was elected dictator, 
 succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 1814 to 1844 the country was 
 rigidly closed against foreigners. The present (1857) president, C. A. Lopez, was 
 
 * Among other consecrations that followed, and continued the excitement, was that of Dr. Briggs, 
 created Roman Catholic bishop of Beverley, and enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, Feb. 13, 
 1851. Dr. Browne was created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury, both conse- 
 crated in St. George's cathedral, South wark, July 27, 1851 ; and other priests were similarly raised 
 to new Roman Catholic prelacies. 
 
PAR 
 
 476 
 
 PAR 
 
 elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognised as an independent state by the Argentine 
 Confederation in 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. 
 
 PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Per- 
 gamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of 
 the Alexandrian, about 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became those most 
 used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins 
 of goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians and others are said to have 
 written all their records on skins long before Eumenes' time. 
 
 PARCHMENT PAPER was invented and patented in 1857 by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., 
 who discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of two parts of concentrated 
 sulphuric acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw 
 it through the fluid, it is immediately converted into a strong tough skm-like 
 material. It must be instantly washed with water. Its great strength points out 
 many applications of this material, e. g., maps, school and account books, and 
 artistic purposes. 
 
 PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations : first by Edward III. in 
 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege suce dignitatis ; and 
 no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
 In democracies there is no power of pardoning; hence" Blackstone mentions this 
 prerogative to be one of the greatest advantages of monarchy above any other form 
 of government. But the king cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; 
 or pardon where private justice i3 concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow 
 an impeachment of the house of commons. 
 
 PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 264 B.C. 
 The Parian Marbles were discovered in the island of Paros, a.d. 1610. They were 
 brought to England, and were presented to the university of Oxford, by Thomas 
 Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the Arundelian Marbles, which see. 
 
 PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable township. It 
 began to be called the city of the Parish, a.d. 380. Clovis fixed upon it as the capital 
 of his states in 507. This city was several times ravaged by the Normans; and in 
 1420 was taken by the English, who held it fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons 
 died of famine and plague in 1438, when the hungry wolves entered the city and 
 committed, we are told, great devastation. The events in connection with this great 
 city will be found under their respective heads, or in article Fiance. 
 
 St. Denis founded . . . .a.d. 613 
 
 Kebuilt 1231 
 
 Church, of Notre Dame built . . . 1270 
 
 Pont Notre Dame 1499 
 
 The Louvre built (see Louvre) . . 1522 
 
 Hotel de Ville 1533 
 
 The Boulevards commenced . . . 1536 
 Fountain of the Innocents . . . 1551 
 
 The Tuileries built (see TuUeries) . . 1564 
 The Pont Neuf begun .... 1578 
 The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis . 1594 
 Hospital of Invalids .... 1595 
 
 Place Royale begun 1004 
 
 The Hdtel-Dieu founded . . . 1606 
 
 The Palais-Royal built . . . 1629 
 
 The Val-de-Grace . 
 The Observatory 
 Champs Elysees planted 
 Arch of St. Denis erected 
 Palais d'Etysee Bourbon 
 The Palace of the Deputies 
 The Military School 
 The Pantheon ; St. Genevieve 
 Pont de Louis XVI. finished . 
 Pont des InvaRdes 
 Fortifications of Paris (for 
 
 . a.d. 1645 
 . . 1067 
 
 . 1070 
 . . 1672 
 
 . 1718 
 . . 1722 
 
 . 1751 
 . . 1764 
 
 . 1790 
 . . 1806 
 which 
 
 140,000,000 of francs were voted) com- 
 menced .... Dec. 15, 1840 
 Much improved by Louis Napoleon, 1S53-5 
 
 See France. 
 
 LATE GREAT TREATIES OF PARIS. 
 
 Treaty of Paris, between England, 
 France, Spain, and Portugal ; cession 
 to Great Britain of Canada by France, 
 and Florida by Spain . Feb. 10, 1763 
 
 Treaty of Paris, between France and 
 Sardinia ; the latter ceding Savoy, <fec. 
 
 May 15, 1796 
 
 Peace of Paris, between France and 
 Sweden, whereby Swedish Pomerania 
 and the island of Rugeu were given 
 up to the Swedes, who agreed to 
 adopt the French prohibitory system 
 against Great Britain . . Jan. 6, 1S10 
 
 Capitulation of Paris ; Napoleon re- 
 nounces the sovereighty of France 
 
 April 11, 1814 
 
 Convention of Paris, between France 
 
 and the allied powers ; the boundaries 
 of France to be the same as on the 
 1st Jan. 1792 . . . April 23, 1814 
 
 Peace of Paris ratified by France and all 
 the Allies . . . May 14, 1814 
 
 Convention of St. Cloud, between mar- 
 shal Davoust and Wellington and 
 Blucher for the surrender of Paris, 
 
 July 3, 1815 
 [The Allies entered it on the 0th.] 
 
 Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, 
 Austria, Russia, and Prussia, styling 
 Napoleon the prisoner of those powers 
 and confiding his safeguard to England 
 
 Aug. 2, 181-5 
 
 Treaty of Paris, establishing the bound- 
 aries of France, and stipulating for 
 
PAR 477 PAR 
 
 PARIS, continued. 
 
 the occupation of certain fortresses by I Treaty of Paris to fulfil the articles of 
 
 foreign troops for three years Nov. 20, 1815 the Congress of Vienna . June 10, 1817 
 Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties I Treaty of Paris between Russia and Tur- 
 
 of Chaumont and Vienna, same day [ key, England, Prance, and Sardinia * 
 
 Nov. '20, 1815 | April, 1856 
 
 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, and 
 detached forts with an enceinte of 15^ leagues, were commenced in Dec. 1840, and 
 completed March 1846, at an expense exceeding 5,000,0002. sterling. For the events 
 of the late revolution, see France. 
 
 Paris Industrial Exhibitiont was opened on May 15, 185 5, by the Emperor and Empress; 
 and visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in August 24th following, being the 
 first visit of an English sovereign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VI. in 
 1422. The exhibition was closed on Nov. 15, 1855. 
 
 PARISHES in ENGLAND. The boundaries of parishes were first fixed by Honorius, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, a.d. 636. They were enlarged, and the number of parishes 
 was consequently reduced in the fifteenth century, when there were 10,000. The 
 parishes of England and Wales now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were com- 
 menced a.d. 1536. By 19 & 20 Vict. (1856) new parishes may be formed out of too 
 extensive ones. See Registers and Benefices. 
 
 PARK, MUNGO, his TRAVELS. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first voyage 
 to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river 
 Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great 
 dangers, without his journey through intertropical regions having enabled him to 
 achieve the great object of his ambition. He again sailed from Portsmouth on his 
 second voyage, Jan. 30,1804, appointed to a new expedition by government ; but 
 never returned. The accounts of his murder on the Niger were a long time discre- 
 dited; unhappily, however, they were at length too well authenticated by later 
 intelligence. It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at 
 Broussa, and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 
 
 PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and 
 Hortensius, among others, had large pai-ks. In England, the first great park of which 
 particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I. 1125. The 
 parks of London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense popula- 
 tion. St. James's park was drained by Henry VIII. 1537. It was improved, planted, 
 and made a thoroughfare for public use, 1668. The green park forms a part of the 
 ground inclosed by Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the 
 Serpentine river, although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 
 and 1733, by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once 
 inquired (it is said) of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of Chatham), how much it 
 would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, 
 your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards entertained. 
 See Green Park ; Hyde Park ; St. James's Park; Regent's Park ; Victoria Park ; and 
 Battersea Park. 
 
 PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. Parliament derives its origin 
 from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitution totally 
 differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken from parler la ment, 
 which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's mind. This at once denotes 
 the essence of British parliaments. The name was applied to the general assemblies of 
 the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the twelfth century, but it 
 is said not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I. 
 3 Edw. I. A.D. 1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same 
 effect, when speaker (a.d. 1592), that this name was used even in the time of Edward 
 the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was directed to the 
 bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account we have of the represen- 
 tatives of the people forming a house of commons, was in the 43rd Henry III. 1258, 
 when it was settled, by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve persons should be chosen 
 to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, were 
 
 * The congress met first on Peb. 25, and last on April 16, 1856. 
 
 t The building is a permanent one, constructed of white stone, and of classic architecture ; the 
 interior is completed with iron and glazed vaulting. The two annexes were for the fine arts and raw 
 materials. 
 
PAR 
 
 478 
 
 PAR 
 
 to be held yearly. — Burton's Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, 
 and burgesses, took place 49 Henry III. 1265. — Dugdalt's Summonses to Parliament, 
 edit. 1685. See Commons, House of; Lords, House of. 
 
 See Tri- 
 
 First summons of barons, by John a.d. 1205 
 
 Parliament of Merton . . . . 1236 
 
 The assembly of knights and burgesses. 
 — Burton 125S 
 
 First assembly of the commons as a con- 
 firmed representation. — Hugdale . . 1265 
 
 First regular parliament, according to 
 many historians, 22 Edw. I. . . 1294 
 
 The commons receive various distinctions 
 and privileges 1294 
 
 First a deliberative assembly, they be- 
 come a legislative power, whose 
 assent is essential to constitute a 
 law 1308 
 
 Parliament of but one session, of only 
 one day, Richard II. deposed . . 1399 
 
 Lawyers excluded from the house of 
 commons 1404 
 
 Members were obliged to reside at the 
 places they represented . . . . 1413 
 
 Freeholders only to elect knights . . 1429 
 
 The Journals commenced . . . 1509 
 
 Acts of parliament printed in 1501, and 
 consecutively from .... 1509 
 
 Members protected from arrest. See 
 article Fervors' Arrest . . . . 1542 
 
 Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bed- 
 ford, was the first peer's eldest son 
 who sat in the house of commons . 1549 
 
 The parliament remarkable for the epoch 
 in which were first formed the parties 
 of Court and Country . . June, 1620 
 
 The Long Parliament, which voted the 
 house of lords as useless, first assem- 
 bled Nov. 3, 1640 
 
 The Rump Parliament; it voted the trial 
 of Charles I. .... Jan. 1649 
 
 A peer elected, and sat as a member of 
 the house of commons . . . . 1649 
 
 A convention parliament. See Conven- 
 tion 1660 
 
 Roman Catholics excluded from Parlia- 
 ment, 30 Charles II 1678 
 
 The commons committed a secretary of 
 state to the Tower . . Nov. 1678 
 
 The speaker of the commons refused by 
 the king 1679 
 
 A convention parliament. See Convention 1688 
 
 James II. convenes the Irish parliament 
 at Dublin, which attaints 3000 Pro- 
 testants 16S9 
 
 Act for triennial parliaments. 
 
 ennial Parliament . . . a.d 1694 
 
 The first parliament of Great Britain met 
 
 Oct. 24, 1707 
 
 The Triennial Act repealed, and Septen- 
 nial Act voted. See Septennial Parlia- 
 ment May 1, 1715 
 
 The Journals ordered to be printed . 1752 
 
 Privilege as to freedom from arrest of 
 the servants of members relinquished 
 by the commons 1770 
 
 The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and 
 alderman Crosby committed to the 
 Tower by the commons, in Wilkes's 
 affair 1770 
 
 Assembly of the first parliament of the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
 Ireland Feb. 2, 1801 
 
 Committal of sir Francis Burdett to the 
 Tower April 6, 1810 
 
 Murder of rt. hon. Spencer Perceval, 
 by Bellingham, in the lobby of the 
 house of commons . . May 11, 1812 
 
 Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. 
 O'Connell, the first Roman Catholic 
 commoner elected since the Revolution 
 
 July 5, 182S 
 
 The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the 
 lords, the first Roman Catholic peer 
 under the Roman Catholic Relief Bill. 
 See Roman Catholics. . April 28, 1829 
 
 The reformed parliament. See Reform 
 in Parliament . . . Aug. 7. 1832 
 
 Both houses of parliament destroyed by 
 fire Oct. 16, 1834 
 
 New houses of parliament commenced. 
 See Palace of Westminster . . . 1840 
 
 The members of the commons' and lords' 
 houses relinquish the privilege of frank- 
 ing letters. See Franking Jan. 10, 1840 
 
 Committal of Smith O'Brien by the com- 
 mons for contempt. See Ireland. 
 
 July 20, 18-16 
 
 The peers took possession of their house, 
 that portion of the palace being made 
 ready for them . . April 15, 1847 
 
 The members of the commons' house of 
 parliament assembled in their new 
 house Nov. 4, 1852 
 
 The two houses began to communicate 
 by letter in 1855 
 
 NDMBEB AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 27 EDWARD I. 1299, TO 20 VICTORIA, 1857. 
 
 Edward I. . 
 Edward II. 
 Edward III. 
 Richard II. 
 Henry IV. 
 Henry V. 
 Henry VI 
 Edward IV. 
 Richard III. 
 Henry VII. 
 Heurv VIII. 
 Edward VI. 
 Mary 
 
 8 pari, in 8 yrs. reign 
 
 20 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 Elizabeth 
 James I. 
 Charles I. 
 Charles II. 
 James II. 
 William III. 
 Anne 
 George I. 
 George II. 
 George III. 
 George IV. 
 William IV. 
 Victoria 
 
 10 pari, in 45 yrs. reign 
 
 The following table exhibits the duration of the parliaments of England and Great 
 Britain since the reign of Henry VIII. when long parliaments were first introduced. 
 See Triennial Parliaments, Septennial Parliaments, &c. 
 
 Reign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Reign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 21 Jan. . 1510 
 
 4 Feb. . 1511 
 
 5 Feb. . 1514 
 
 23 Feb. . 1510 
 4 March 1513 
 22 Dec. . 1515 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 15 April . 1523 
 3 Nov. . 1530 
 8 June . 1536 
 
 13 Aug. . 1523 
 4 April . 1536 
 18 July . 1536 
 
PAR 
 
 479 
 
 PAR 
 
 PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 Keign. 
 
 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Reign. 1 Day of Meeting. 
 
 When Dissolved. 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 28 April . 1539 
 
 24 July . 
 
 1540 
 
 William III. 
 
 24 Aug. . 
 
 1698 
 
 19 Dec. . 
 
 1700 
 
 
 16 Jan. . 1541 
 
 29 March 
 
 1544 
 
 
 26 Feb. 
 
 1700 
 
 11 Nov. . 
 
 1701 
 
 
 23 Nov. . 1545 
 
 31 Jan. . 
 
 1547 
 
 
 20 Dec. . 
 
 1701 
 
 7 July 
 
 1702 
 
 Edward VI. 
 
 4 Nov. . 1547 
 
 15 April 
 
 1552 
 
 Anne . . . 
 
 20 Aug. . 
 
 1702 
 
 5 April 
 
 1705 
 
 
 1 March 1553 
 
 31 March 
 
 1553 
 
 
 14 June 
 
 1705 
 
 15 April 
 
 1708 
 
 Mary . . . 
 
 5 Oct. . 1553 
 
 6 Dec. . 
 
 1553 
 
 
 8 July . 
 
 170S 
 
 21 Dec. . 
 
 1710 
 
 
 2 April 1554 
 
 5 May . 
 
 1554 
 
 
 25 Nov. 
 
 1710 
 
 8 Aug. . 
 
 1713 
 
 
 12 Nov. . 1554 
 
 16 Jan. . 
 
 1555 
 
 
 12 Nov. . 
 
 1713 
 
 15 Jan. . 
 
 1715 
 
 
 21 Oct. . 1555 
 
 9 Dec. . 
 
 1555 
 
 George I. . 
 
 17 March 
 
 1715 
 
 10 March 
 
 1721 
 
 
 20 Jan. . 1557 
 
 17 Nov. . 
 
 1557 
 
 
 10 May . 
 
 1722 
 
 5 Aug. . 
 
 1727 
 
 Elizabeth . 
 
 23 Jan. . 1558 
 
 8 May 
 
 1558 
 
 George II. . 
 
 28 Nov. 
 
 1727 
 
 IS April 
 
 1734 
 
 
 11 Jan. . 1562 
 
 2 Jan. . 
 
 1567 
 
 
 13 June . 
 
 1734 
 
 28 April 
 
 1741 
 
 
 2 April 1571 
 
 29 May . 
 
 1571 
 
 
 25 June 
 
 1741 
 
 18 June 
 
 1747 
 
 
 8 May . 1572 
 
 rl8 March 
 
 1580 
 
 
 13 Aug. . 
 
 1747 
 
 8 April 
 
 1754 
 
 
 23 Nov. . 1585 
 
 14 Sept. . 
 
 1586 
 
 
 31 May 
 
 1754 
 
 20 March 
 
 1761 
 
 
 29 Oct. . 1586 
 
 23 March 
 
 1587 
 
 George III. 
 
 19 May . 
 
 1761 
 
 11 March 
 
 1768 
 
 
 4 Feb. . 1588 
 
 29 March 
 
 15S8 
 
 
 10 May 
 
 1768 
 
 30 Sept. 
 
 1774 
 
 
 19 Nov. . 1592 
 
 10 April . 
 
 1593 
 
 
 29 Nov. . 
 
 1774 
 
 1 Sept. 
 
 1780 
 
 
 24 Oct. . 1597 
 
 9 Feb. . 
 
 1598 
 
 
 31 Oct. 
 
 1780 
 
 25 March 
 
 1784 
 
 
 7 Oct. . 1601 
 
 29 Dec. 
 
 1601 
 
 
 18 May . 
 
 1784 
 
 11 June . 
 
 1790 
 
 James I. . . 
 
 19 March 1603 
 
 9 Feb. . 
 
 1611 
 
 
 10 Aug. 
 
 1790 
 
 20 May 
 
 1796 
 
 
 5 April . 1614 
 
 7 June 
 
 1614 
 
 
 11 July . 
 
 1796 
 
 29 Jan. . 
 
 1802 
 
 
 30 Jan. . 1620 
 
 8 Feb. . 
 
 1621 
 
 
 31 Aug. 
 
 1802 
 
 24 Oct. 
 
 1806 
 
 
 19 Feb. . 1623 
 
 24 March 
 
 1625 
 
 
 15 Dec. . 
 
 1806 
 
 29 April 
 
 1S07 
 
 Charles I. . 
 
 17 May . 1625 
 
 12 Aug. . 
 
 1625 
 
 
 22 June 
 
 1807 
 
 29 Sept. 
 
 1812 
 
 
 6 Feb. . 1626 
 
 15 June 
 
 1626 
 
 
 24 Nov. . 
 
 1812 
 
 10 June 
 
 1818 
 
 
 17 March 1627 
 
 10 March 
 
 1628 
 
 
 4 Aug. 
 
 1818 
 
 29 Feb. 
 
 1820 
 
 
 13 April . 1640 
 
 3 May . 
 
 1640 
 
 George IV. . 
 
 23 April 
 
 1820 
 
 2 June 
 
 1S26 
 
 
 3 Nov. . 1640 
 
 20 April 
 
 1653 
 
 
 14 Nov. 
 
 1826 
 
 24 July 
 
 1830 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 25 April . 1660 
 
 29 Dec. . 
 
 1660 
 
 
 26 Oct. . 
 
 1830 
 
 22 April 
 
 1831 
 
 
 8 May . 1661 
 
 24 Jan. . 
 
 1678 
 
 William IV. 
 
 14 June 
 
 1831 
 
 3 Dec. 
 
 1832 
 
 
 6 March 1679 
 
 12 July . 
 
 1679 
 
 
 29 Jan. . 
 
 1833 
 
 30 Dec. . 
 
 1834 
 
 
 17 Oct. . 1679 
 
 18 Jan. . 
 
 1681 
 
 
 19 Feb. 
 
 1835 
 
 17 July 
 
 1837 
 
 
 21 March 1681 
 
 28 March 
 
 1681 
 
 Victoria . . 
 
 15 Nov. . 
 
 1837 
 
 23 June . 
 
 1841 
 
 James II. 
 
 12 March 16S5 
 
 28 July 
 
 1687 
 
 
 19 Aug. 
 
 1841 
 
 23 July 
 
 1847 
 
 
 22 Jan. . 1688 
 
 26 Feb. . 
 
 16S9 
 
 
 21 Sept. . 
 
 1847 
 
 1 July . 
 
 1852 
 
 William III. 
 
 20 March 16S9 
 
 11 Oct. . 
 
 1695 
 
 
 4 Nov. 
 
 1852 
 
 21 March 
 
 1857 
 
 
 27 Nov. . 1695 
 
 7 July . 
 
 169S 
 
 
 30 April . 
 
 1857 
 
 
 
 The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, that it 
 cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. It hath sove- 
 reign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing laws. It can regulate or 
 new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
 William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the country, as was done in the 
 reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Cole* 
 
 PARLIAMENT, NEW HOUSES oe. See Palace of Westminster and Parliament. 
 
 PARMA. Founded by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Placentia) 
 a.d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, 1714. 
 The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, with the title of king of 
 Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards united to France (with Placentia and 
 Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon was conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress 
 by the treaty of Fontainebleau, April 5, 1814. Parma was alternately occupied by 
 the Austrians and Sardinians in the war of 1848. The latter retired from it after 
 the battle of Novara, March 23, 1849. On March 14 previously, the duke Charles II. 
 announced his abdication in favour of his son Charles III. The latter was stabbed 
 by an assassin, March 26, 1854, and died the next day, leaving his son, the present 
 duke, Robert I., a minor (born July 9, 1848), whose mother immediately became 
 regent. — Battle of Parma : the confederates, England, France, and Spain, against 
 the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, June 29, 1734. Great 
 battle of Parma, in which the French under Macdonald, were defeated by Suwarrow, 
 with the loss of 10,000 men and four generals, July 12, 1799. 
 
 PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not being 
 
 * When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the clerk says, " Le roi le veut." If the bill be a 
 private bill, he says, " Soit fait comma it est ddsird." If the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, 
 " Ze roi remereie ses loyaux sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et aussi le veut." If the king do not think 
 proper to assent to the bill, the clerk says, " Le roi s'avisera ;" which is a mild way of giving a refusal. 
 It is singular that the king of England should still make use of the French language to declare his 
 intentions to his parliament. 
 
PAR 480 PAT 
 
 supposed possible. About .TOO years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius having killed bis 
 fatber, the Romans first scourged tbe parricide; tben sewed him up in a leathern 
 Back made ah - -tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, .and an ape, and thus cast him 
 into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp reeds into every part of the bodies 
 of parricides; and having thus wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, 
 and set fire to them. Iu France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand is 
 cut off. Memorable execution of Miss Blandy, at Oxford, for the murder of her father, 
 April 1752. 
 
 PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as 
 their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the 
 foundation of an empire which ultimately extended all over Asia, 250 B.C.; and at one 
 time the Parthians disputed the empire of the world with the Romans, and could 
 never be wholly subdued by that nation, who had seen no other people upon earth 
 unconquered by their arms. The last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a.d. 
 229, his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 
 
 PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, for regulating 
 the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the second, (between France, 
 England and Holland, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the 
 Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty 
 for the partition of Poland : the first was a secret convention between Russia and 
 Prussia, Feb. 17, 1772; the second between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, 
 same year; the third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. There 
 were other similar treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. 
 
 PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in this 
 way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of idle persons 
 used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and to relate little anec- 
 dotes in their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of the passers-by. 
 After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth century the statue of a gladiator was found 
 near his stall, to which the people gave his name, and on which the wits of the time 
 affixed their lampoons upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbours 
 secretly at night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained 
 the name of Pasquinades, about a.d. 1533. 
 
 PASSAU, TREATY of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was established, 
 and which treaty was ratified between the emperor Charles V. and the Protestant 
 princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1552. By this pacification the Lutherans were made at 
 ease in regard to their religion. — Heiiault. In 1662 the cathedral and greatest part of 
 the town were consumed by fire. 
 
 PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 B.C. in commemoration of 
 their coming out of Egj T pt ; because, the night before their departure, the destroying 
 angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyptians, passed ovei- the houses of the 
 Hebrews without entering them ; they being marked with the blood of the lamb that 
 was killed the evening before, and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb. 
 It was celebrated in the new Temple, April 18, 515 B c. — Usher. 
 
 PATAY, BATTLE of. In which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the maid of 
 Orleans) was present, when the earl of Richemout signally defeated the English, 
 June 10, 1429. Talbot was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. 
 In consequence of this victory, Charles VII. of France entered Rheims in triumph, 
 and was crowned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full 
 armour, and holding the sword of state. She imagined herself inspired. She was 
 burnt for a sorceress in 1431.* See Joan of Arc. 
 
 PATENTS. Licences and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles of 
 nobility were first made a.d. 1344, by Edw. III. They were first granted for the 
 
 * Lo Clerc relates the events connected with this battle in such a manner as needs neither fraud 
 nor miracle to explain them : A young maid (la Pucelle, or the Slaid of Orleans,) waits upon the king : 
 she believes herself inspired, and informs his majesty that she has received a heavenly commission to 
 deliver his city of Orleans, then besieged by the English, and to see him crowned at Rheims ; these 
 were the only two points of her mission to Chiuon, where Charles VII. then was. Her enthusiasm 
 animates the troops, the generals take advantage of this impression, and, without engaging in any rash 
 measure, at the very time she acts under their direction, they appear to be led by her example ; she 
 has no command, and yet everything seems to be conducted by her order. The intrepidity of this 
 amazon or heroine being thus artfully encouraged, diffuses itself throiigh the whole army, and pro- 
 duces an entire change in the affairs of Charles, which begin to wear a better aspect. The English 
 raise the siege of Orleans on the 8th of May, 1429 ; the other events follow. 
 
PAT 481 PAW 
 
 exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about which time the property and 
 right of inventors in arts and manufactures were secured by letters-patent. The later 
 laws regulating patents are very numerous. Among them are 5 & 6 Will. TV. c. 83 
 1035, and 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (1852). 
 
 PATENTS, COMMISSIONERS of, were appointed by 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (July 1, 1852). 
 They are the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney-generals for England 
 and Ireland, the lord advocate, and the solicitor-generals for England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland. Since 1852, a journal has been published under their authority, and indexes 
 of patents, from March 1617 to the present time. They order to be printed such 
 specifications as they think proper, which may be consulted by the public at their 
 Free Library and Reading-Room, in Southampton-buildings, March 5, 1854. 
 
 PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity among 
 the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a.d. 97. In the Christian Church it was 
 first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, 
 and Jerusalem. The Latin Church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. The first 
 founders or heads of religious orders are called patriarchs. 
 
 PATRIOTIC FUNDS. One was established July 20, 1 803, by the subscribers to Lloyd's 
 "to animate the efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by providing a fund for the 
 relief of themselves when wounded and of their widows and orphans, and for granting 
 pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction for valour and merit. On Aug. 24, 
 1809, 424,832/. had been received, and 331,611/. expended. From 1803 to 1826 the 
 total sum received was 629,823/. 14s. Id. In Oct. 1854, a commission (Prince Albert 
 at the head) was appointed to raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for the 
 relief of the families of those who might fall in the Russo-Turkish war. Large sums 
 have been collected from this country and the colonies, amounting to 1,171,270/. in 
 July, 1855 ; to 1,296,282/. on Nov. 16, 1855 ; to 1,460,000/. in June, 1857. The over- 
 plus 200,000/. is appropriated to founding an asylum for orphan girls, on Wandsworth 
 common, the first stone of which was laid by the Queen, July 11, 1857. The royal 
 family and many of the aristocracy contributed drawings, some of which were sold for 
 high prices, in May 1 855. 
 
 PAUL JONES, Privateer. An American privateer commanded by Paul Jones, 
 memorable for his daring and depredations on British commerce during the war 
 with the revolted colonists. He landed and pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near 
 Kirkcudbright, and at Whitehaven he burnt shipping in the harbour, April 1778. 
 The Dutch permitted Paul Jones to enter their ports with two of the king's ships of 
 war which he had taken, and which the stadtholder peremptorily refused to deliver 
 up, 1779. He was born in 1736 and died at Paris in July 1792. 
 
 PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. See St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 
 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns 
 with stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had pavement in many of their 
 streets; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and was constructed 312 B.C. In 
 England there were few paved streets before Henry VII. 's reign. London was first 
 paved about the year 1533. It was paved with flagstones between 1815 and 1825. 
 Wood pavement commenced in 1839, and asphalte paving soon afterwards. Wood 
 paving has been disused since 1847. See Wood Pavement. 
 
 PAVIA. The ancient Ticinum, or Papia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, is 
 the oldest in Europe. Pavia was built by the Gauls, who were driven out by the 
 Romans, and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths. In 568, it was taken 
 by the Lombards and became the capital of their kingdom. In the twelfth century, 
 it was erected into a republic, but soon after came to the duke of Milan. In 1706 it 
 fell to Austria, with whom it remained till 1796, when it was taken by the French 
 and retained by them until 1814. It then returned to Austria. 
 
 PAVIA, BATTLE of. Between the French and Imperialists, when the former were 
 defeated, and their king, Francis L, after fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven 
 men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself prisoner. Francis 
 wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of the kingdom in his absence, the 
 melancholy news of his captivity, conceived in these dignified and expressive terms : 
 Tout est perdu, madame, fors I'honneur (all is lost, madam, except honour). Feb. 24, 1525. 
 
 PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with 
 lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about a.d. 1458; and soon 
 
 1 1 
 
PEA 482 PEE 
 
 afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers was regulated 30 Geo. II. 
 1756. Licences were issued 24 Geo. III. 1783. In London there were, in 1851, 334 
 pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusively of London, 1127 ; the number still increasing. 
 
 PEACE between GREAT BRITAIN and FOREIGN POWERS. See War and Treaties. 
 
 PEACE CELEBRATIONS. See Fire-works. 
 
 PEACE CONGRESS. A body so called, consisting of a number of political and other 
 enthusiasts of note, friends of universal peace, to which various countries of Europe 
 and the cities of America sent deputies, held meetings to promote their Utopian 
 object. This congress commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. It met in 
 London, at Exeter Hall, Oct. 30 following. It met at Frankfort, in St. Paul's Church 
 there, Aug. 22, 1850. Session at Birmingham took place Nov. 28, 1250. Commenced 
 its sittings at Exeter Hall, July 22, 1851. A meeting was held in Manchester, Jan. 
 27, 1853, and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1253. Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden are among the 
 most conspicuous members of this society. A deputation from the Peace Society 
 consisting of Messrs. J. Sturge, Pease, and another quaker friend, stated their views to 
 the emperor of Russia at St. Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854. 
 
 PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and modern 
 naturalists to explain. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed like 
 other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. 
 One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size of a pigeon's egg, was valued 
 at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996/. A pearl spoken of by Boetius, named the Incom- 
 parable, weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, and was about the size of 
 a muscadiue pear. The pearl mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession of the 
 emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal 
 to 110,400/. 
 
 PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of Plataea, went from thence to Delphi to bring 
 the sacred fire. This he obtained, and returned with it the same day before sunset, 
 having travelled 125 English miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow-citizens, 
 and delivered the fire, than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of Marathon, 
 a soldier was sent from the field to announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with 
 fatigue, and bleeding from his wounds, he had only time to cry out, "Rejoice, we are 
 conquerors ! " and immediately expired. Foster Powell, tho celebrated English 
 pedestrian, performed many astonishing journeys on foot. Among these, was his 
 expedition from London to York and back again, in 1788, which he completed in 140 
 hours. One of the most astonishing feats of pedestrianism performed in England 
 was that of captain Barclay, in 1809. See Barclay and Walking. 
 
 PEEL, SIR ROBERT, two ADMINISTRATIONS.* 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION. SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury \ Sir Robert, first minister ; duke of Wel- 
 and chancellor of the exchequer ; lord Lynd- ; liugton in the cabinet, without office : lord 
 hurst, lord chancellor ; earl of Rosslyn, lord ! Lyndhurst, lord chancellor ; lord Wharn- 
 presideut : lord Wharncliffe, privy seal ; rt. ' cliffe, lord president ; duke of Buckingham, 
 hon. Henry Goulburn, duke of Wellington, lord privy seal ; sir James Graham, earl of 
 and earl of Aberdeen, home, foreign, and Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, home, foreign, 
 colonial secretaries of state ; earl de Grey, and colonial secretaries ; Mr. Goulburn, chan- 
 first lord of the admiralty; lord Ellen- cellor of the exchequer ; earl of Haddington, 
 borough, and rt. hon. Alexander Baring, first lord of the admiralty ; earl of Ripon, 
 boards of control and trade ; sir Edward board of trade ; lord Ellenborough. India 
 Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces ; Mr. ! board ; sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward 
 Herries, secretary -at- war ; sir George Murray, Knatchbull, sir George Murray, <fec. Aug. 
 master- general of the ordnance, &c. Nov. and Sept. 1841. Terminated June, 1846, by 
 and Dec. 1S34. Terminated, April 1835. J sir Robert's resignation. 
 
 PEEP-O'D AY-BOYS. They were insurgents in Ireland, who obtained this name from 
 their morning visits to the houses of their antagonists at break of day, in search of 
 arms. They first appeared July 4, 1784, and for a long period were the terror of the 
 country, from their daring and numbers. — Sir R. Musgrave. See article Defenders. 
 
 PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz Osborn, 
 as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first peer who was 
 
 * Sir Robert Peel was born Feb. 5, 1788, entered parliament in 1809, became under-secretary of the 
 colonies in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812, M.P. for Oxford in ISIS (when he resigned his 
 office), secretary for home department in 1822, resigned office and re-appointed in 1827, resigned again 
 iu 1830, bocame premier in 1834 and 1811, see above. He was thrown from his horse June 2'J, and died 
 July 2, 1850. 
 
PEG 
 
 483 
 
 PEN 
 
 created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard II. in 1387. In 
 Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of ADgus by Malcolm III. 1037. In Ireland, sir 
 John de Courcy was created baron of Kinsale, &c. in 1181 ; the first peer after the 
 obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II.* The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 
 
 At the death of Charles II. . . 176 peers. 
 
 At the death of William III. . . 192 
 At the death of Anne . . .209 
 
 At the death of George I. . . 216 
 At the death of George II. . . 229 
 
 At the death of George III. . . 339 peers. 
 At the death of George IV. . . 396 
 
 At the death of William IV. . . 456 
 In 18th Victoria, 1855 . . .448 
 
 In 20th Victoria, 1857 . . . 449 
 
 PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire. Pegu, the capital, was taken by major Cotton, 
 with 300 men, in June 1852, without loss; and afterwards abandoned. It was again 
 occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. It was 
 re-captured by general Godwin with 1200 men and two guns, in two hours, with the 
 loss of six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province was annexed to our Indian 
 possessions by proclamation, Dec. 20, 1852. 
 
 PELAGIAN'S. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect maintained, 
 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had sinned or not would cer- 
 tainly have died. 2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own 
 person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same condition with Adam before the 
 fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded 
 upon equal promises with the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead 
 does not follow in virtue of Our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared at 
 Rome 400 a.d., and at Carthage about 412. 
 
 PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the Indo- 
 Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 B.C. and in Italy about 1600 B.C. 
 They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pelasgi 
 came the Dorians, ^Eolians, and Ionians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 
 
 PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. The 
 wreck here of the East India Company's packet, Antelope, captain "Wilson, 1783. 
 The king, Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Le Boo, his son, to 
 England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the small-pox; and the 
 East India Company erected a monument over his grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 
 
 PELHAM'S ADMINISTRATION. See Broad Bottom Administration. 
 
 PELOPONNE8IAN "WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty-seven years 
 between the Athenians and the people of Peloponnesus, with their respective allies. 
 It is the most famous and most interesting of all the wars which happened between 
 the inhabitants of Greece. It began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise Platsea, 
 431 B.C. on May 7, and ended 401 B.C. by the taking of Athens by the Lacedsemonians. 
 
 PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS, enacted against Roman Catholics 
 in these realms were very severe ; and even up to the period of passing the Eman- 
 cipation Bill many of them remained unrepealed. The following account of these laws 
 is perhaps as interesting a record as this volume presents. It comprises the chief 
 statutes set forth in Scully's History of the Penal Laws, edition 1812. All the laws 
 against Roman Catholics were repealed by the Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. 
 
 PRIESTS CELEBRATING MARRIAGES. 
 
 If anypopish priest shall celebrate matrimony 
 between any two persons, knowing that 
 both or either is of the Protestant religion, 
 (unless previously married by a Protestant 
 clergyman), he shall suffer the punishment 
 of a Popish regular, [that is, transportation; 
 and if he return, the punishment of high 
 treason.] First statute, 6 Anne, 1708. 
 Second statute, 8 Anne, 1710. 
 
 EXCLUSION FROM PARLIAMENT. 
 
 No peer of the realm shall sit in the house of 
 peers, nor person chosen as a member of 
 the house of commons shall sit as such, 
 unless he first take the oath of allegiance 
 and supremacy, and subscribe to the de- 
 
 claration against transubstantiation, the 
 sacrifice of the mass, idolatry of the Church 
 of Rome, invocation of the Virgin Mary or 
 of the saints. 
 Penalty : all the punishments of a popish re- 
 cusant convict, 3 Will. & Mary, 1691. 
 
 ELECTIVE FRANCHISE. 
 
 No Catholic shall vote at the election of any 
 member to serve in parliament, as a knight, 
 citizen, or burgess, 14 Geo. I. 1727. Con- 
 ditionally reinstated, 1793. 
 
 CORPORATE OFFICES. 
 
 No Catholic shall be mayor, sovereign, port- 
 reeve, burgomaster, bailiff, alderman, re- 
 corder, treasurer, sheriff, town-clerk, com- 
 
 * Peerage for life only, with the title of lord Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, 
 Jan. 10, 1856. This was successfully opposed by the house of lords as a breach of privilege, and on 
 July 25, 1856, lord Wensleydale was created a peer in the usual way. 
 
 II 2 
 
PEN 
 
 484 
 
 PEN 
 
 PENAL LAWS, affectotg ROMAN CATHOLICS, continued. 
 
 mon-councilman, master or warden of any 
 guild, corporation, or fraternity in any city, 
 walled town, or corporation in Ireland — 
 First statute, 17 & 18 Chas. II. 1667. 
 Irish statute, 21 & 22 Geo. III., confirming 
 the English Test and Corporation Acts. 
 
 THE ARMY AND NAVY. 
 
 Persons holding offices, civil and military, 
 and receiving pay, salary, fee, or wages, to 
 take the oaths of supremacy and abjuration 
 and to subscribe to the declaration against 
 transubstantiation, the mass, <fcc. English 
 statute, 25 Chas. II. 1675. A severer enact- 
 ment as regards penalties in Ireland 9 
 Anne, 1710. 
 
 All military offices, except master-general of 
 the ordnance, commander-in-chief, and 
 generals, opened to Catholics, 1793. 
 
 EXCLUDED PARISH VESTRIES, &C. 
 
 By act for preventing Papists having it in 
 their power to obstruct the building or re- 
 pairing of churches, by out-voting the Pro- 
 testant parishioners, 12 Geo. I. 1725. 
 
 ARMS FORBIDDEN. 
 
 By act for disarming the Papists, requiring 
 them to deliver up to the justices or civil 
 officers all their armour, arms, and ammuni- 
 tion, &c, and authorising search. &c. by 
 day or night. Makers of fire-arms for- 
 bidden Catholic apprentices, 7 Will. Ill 
 1695. No Catholic to be employed as fowler 
 for any Protestant, 10 Will. III. 1698. 
 
 Penalty : fine and one year's imprisonment 
 for first offence. For the second, all the 
 pains and penalties of persons attainted of 
 a pramunire. 
 
 These acts were confirmed, 13 Geo. II 1739 ■ 
 they were qualified, 33 Geo. III. 1793. 
 
 TRIAL BY JURY, &C. 
 
 Catholics not to serve as grand jurors, unless 
 a sufficient number of Protestants 'cannot 
 be found, 6 & 8 Anne. 
 
 Issues to determine questions arising upon 
 popery laws, to be tried by known Pro- 
 testants only, 6 &, S Anne, 1708-10. 
 
 No Catholic to serve on juries in actions be- 
 tween a Protestant and Catholic 29 Geo 
 II. 1755. 
 
 METICAL PROFESSIONS. 
 
 Catholics (in England) prohibited from prac- 
 tising physic, or exercising the trade of 
 apothecaries, 5 Jas. I. 1006. 
 
 PROPERTY. 
 
 The Catholics disabled from taking leases for 
 a, longer term than 31 years, or at rents 
 less than two-thirds of the improved yearly 
 value, 2, 8 Anne, 1703-9. 
 
 He cannot dispose of his estate by will, or 
 lend money upon the security of land 
 2 Anne, 1703. 
 
 Allowed to take leases for a term of 999 years 
 18 Geo. III. 1778. Permitted to take or to 
 transfer lands by devise, descent, purchase 
 or otherwise, the same as Protestants 21 
 and 22 Geo. III. 1781. 
 
 POSSESSION OF A HORSE 
 
 Catholics prohibited from the keeping any 
 7 wl e U.IlI. a i6 V 9 a 4 1Ue eXCeediU? 5L ' Stat " te 
 
 CHILDREN OF CATHOLICS. 
 
 A child conforming to the established religion 
 may force his parent to surrender his estate' 
 under a fair allowance, 2 Geo. I. 1716 ' 
 
 The eldest son may reduce his fee-simple 
 estate to a life estate, 1 Geo. II. 1727. A 
 younger brother may deprive the elder of 
 the legal right of primogeniture. — Idem. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Catholics prohibited from keeping schools, or 
 procuring the education of his child at 
 home, 2 George I. 1716. Prohibited from 
 sending him beyond seas for education. 
 6 Geo. I. 1719. 
 
 Catholics permitted to keep schools and teach 
 32 George II. 1758. Admissible to Trinity 
 College, 1793. 
 
 GUARDIANS. 
 
 No Catholics to be guardians, or to have the 
 custody or tuition of any orphan or child 
 under the age of 21 years, 2 Anne, 1703. 
 Permitted to be guardians, 1782. 
 
 A Catholic may dispose of the custody of his 
 child or children, by will, during minority, 
 to any person other than a Catholic eccle- 
 siastic, 30 Geo. III. 1790. 
 
 CATHOLIC HOLIDAYS. 
 
 Punishment for not working upon Catholic 
 holidays ; each offence 2.s. fine on labourers ; 
 or in default the punishment of whipping 
 6 Will. III. 1694. 
 
 BURYING THE DEAD. 
 
 Punishment for burying the dead except in 
 Protestant churchyards, or being present 
 at the burying any dead other than therein. 
 9 Will. III. 1697. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES, &C. 
 
 Who shall attend or be present at any pil- 
 grimage or meeting held at any holy well, 
 or reputed holy well : fine, 10s. or in de- 
 fault, whipping, 2 Anne, 1703. 
 
 CROSSES, PICTURES, &C. 
 
 Magistrates to demolish all crosses, pictures, 
 and inscriptions publicly set up to promote 
 the piety of Catholics, 2 Anne, 1703. 
 
 DIVINE WORSHIP. 
 
 All officers and soldiers shall diligently fre- 
 quent divine service and sermon, in the 
 places appointed for the assemblage of the 
 regiment, troop, or company, to which he 
 may belong.— Articles of War. 
 
 [No exceptions made in favour of Catholic 
 officers or soldiers.] 
 
 BENEFICES. 
 
 If a Catholic become possessed of any right of 
 presentation to a benefice, the same shall 
 be ipso facto vested in the crown, if he do 
 not abjure his religion, 2 Anne, 1704. 
 
 DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS. 
 
 Statutes (in England) interdicting donations 
 and bequests for superstitious uses ; such 
 as towards the maintenance of a priest or 
 chaplain to say mass, to pray for the souls 
 of the dead, or to maintain perpetual obits, 
 lamps, &c, to be used at prayers for dead 
 persons. Such to be vested in the king, 
 and applied to Protestant institutions' 
 1 Edw. VI. 1547. 
 
 THE PAPAL SKI:. 
 
 The obtaining from the bishop of Rome any 
 manner of bull, writing, or instrument, 
 written or printed, containing any thing 
 or matter; or publishing or putting in 
 use any such instrument; the procurers 
 
PEN 485 PER 
 
 PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS, continued. 
 
 abettors, and counsellors to the fact shall 
 be adjudged guilty of high treason, 13 Eliz. 
 1570. 
 
 MENDICANT POOR. 
 
 Any child who (with the consent of its pa- 
 rents) shall be found begging, the parson 
 and wardens of the parish shall detain, and 
 they shall bind such child to a Protestant 
 master until the age of 21, or to a Protestan t 
 
 tradesman until the age of 24 years, 2 Geo. 
 I. 1716. 
 
 CONCESSIONS. 
 
 Catholics qualified to be barristers, solicitors, 
 attorneys, &c. And the withdrawing of 
 certain prohibitions theretofore existing, 
 with respect to marriages with Protestants, 
 apprentices to the law, schoolmasters, &c. 
 22 Geo. III. 1782. 
 
 PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted in the love 
 of God attended with good works. They made a confession upon the day of expiation, 
 or some time before ; and had stated degrees of penance, in proportion to the crimes 
 committed. Penance was introduced into the Romish Church, a.d. 157. In our 
 canon law, penance is chiefly adjudged to the sin of fornication. 
 
 PENDULUMS fob CLOCKS. The pendulum is affirmed to have been adapted by 
 Galileo the younger, about A.D. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of 
 this discovery : the latter certainly brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 
 1656. — Dufresnoy. See Clocks. Experiments were made to determine the density of 
 the earth by pendulums by G. B. Airy (now astronomer royal) and others, in a mine 
 in Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Harton colliery in 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault 
 demonstrated the rotation of the earth by a pendulum. 
 
 PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, as Magdalens, Magdalenettes, &c. 
 The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Marseilles, about a.d. 1272. 
 The Penitents of the name of Jesus was a congregation of religious in Spain who had 
 led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed into 
 an order of nuns about 1662. There were numerous orders of penitents in various 
 parts of Italy, who afterwards changed the name. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first adventurer who planted a colony 
 on these shores, in the reign of Elizabeth. Pennsylvania was granted by Charles II. 
 to the duke of York, 1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, 1680-1 et seq. Penn- 
 sylvania was afterwards purchased from the Indians by the celebrated William Penn 
 (son of admiral Penn), who went out from England with a number of colonists ; from 
 which period the settlement gradually increased. Mr. Penn granted a charter 
 in May, 1701, but the emigrants from the Low Countries refused it, and separated 
 themselves from the province of Pennsylvania. They afterwards had their own 
 assembly, in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. This state adopted 
 an independent constitution in 1776, and established the present in 1790. See 
 United States of America. 
 
 PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the first silver coin struck in England, and the 
 only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny, until the reign of Edward I. 
 was struck with a cross, so deeply indented that it might be easily parted into two 
 for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and hence these names. Penny and two- 
 penny pieces of copper were coined by Boulton & Watt at Soho, Birmingham, in 1797, 
 and are to this day accounted the finest of our copper currency. See Coins, &c. 
 
 PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, upholsterer, 
 a.d. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
 Dockwra, a merchant, 1683; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar in the reign of 
 Charles II. it was adjudged to belong to the duke of York, as a branch of the general 
 post, and was thereupon annexed to the revenue of the crown. — Delaune, 1690. This 
 institution was considerably improved in and round London, July 1794 et seq. and 
 was made a twopenny -post. A penny-post was first set up in Dublin, 1774. The 
 uniform postage, which settled down to a penny rate, came into operation, Jan. 10, 
 1840. See Post-Office. 
 
 PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and is the 
 solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty days after the 
 feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15. It is called the feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, 
 because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. 
 
 PERCEVAL'S, Rt. hon. SPENCER, ADMINISTRATION. The administration of 
 Mr. Perceval commenced on the dissolution of that of the duke of Portland, which was 
 terminated by his grace's death, Oct. 30, 1809. Mr. Perceval owed his post of prime 
 
PER 486 PER 
 
 minister in a large degree to his previous connection with the affairs of the princess of 
 "Wales. See Delicate Investigation. The members of this ministry were : Mr. Perceval, 
 first lord of the treasury, chancellor of the exchequer, and chancellor of the duchy of 
 Lancaster ; earl Camden, lord president ; earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal ; right 
 hon. Richard Ryder, home, marquess Wellesley, foreign, and earl of Liverpool, colonial 
 secretaries; lord Mulgrave, admiralty; Mr. Dundas and earl Bathurst, boards of 
 control and trade ; earl of Chatham, ordnance ; viscount Palmerston, secretary-at- 
 war, &c; lord Eldon, lord chancellor. This ministry terminated with the death of 
 Mr. Perceval, who was assassinated in the lobby of the house of commons, by a man 
 named Bellingham, May 11, 1812. 
 
 PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to the ancients, 
 and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses and perfumes. No 
 such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. — Creech,. A stamp-tax was 
 laid on various articles of perfumery in England, and the vendor was obliged to take 
 out a license, in 1786. At the corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided 
 Lilly the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. — Leigh. 
 
 PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It 
 wa3 called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the isthmus," which the Russians 
 changed to its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress was 
 taken and destroyed by the Russian marshal, Munich, in 1736, by assault, although 
 it was defended by 1000 Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly 
 fortified by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians in 1771, who have ever 
 since retained it. 
 
 PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle, about 342 B.C. 
 Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aristotle chose a spot of a 
 similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same river, where there were trees and 
 shade ; this spot was denominated the Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he 
 instructed his pupils, his philosophy was called Peripatetic. Much of the philosophy 
 of Aristotle has been disproved and laid aside. — Pardon. 
 
 PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early Romans 
 at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; 
 but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would 
 vindicate their own honour by some remai'kable judgment upon the offender. The 
 Gi'eeks set a mark of infamy upon them. After the empire became Christian, and 
 any one swore falsely upon the Gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The 
 canons of the primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance; and in some states 
 the false swearer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
 Perhaps the greatest perjurer in modern times was Titus Oates. See Oates. A woman 
 named Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries in 1856. In England, perjury was 
 punished with the pillory, 1563. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons making a 
 false declaration are deemed guilty of a misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 60 & 
 61, 9 Sept. 1835. 
 
 PERONNE, TREATY of. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the power of 
 the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne, confirming those of 
 Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a restrictive and humiliating 
 character, a.d. 1468. Before this treaty Louis XL had promised Champagne and Bri£ 
 as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berri, at the same time that he never 
 intended to keep his word, apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, 
 would prove a fresh source of broils and disputes. — Henault. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS, GENERAL, of the CHRISTIANS. Historians usually reckon ten. 
 The 1st, under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw the odium of the act upon 
 the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, massacred. Some were 
 wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn and devoured by dogs; others 
 were crucified, and numbers burned alive, a.d. 64. The 2nd, under Domitian, 95. 
 The 3rd, in the reign of Trajan, 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, 
 under the emperor Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7th, under 
 Decius, more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
 habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 8th, 
 under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aurelian, 272. The 10th, under Diocletian. 
 In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with Christians were set on 
 fire, and droves of them were bound together with ropes and cast into the sea, 302. 
 See Massacres. 
 
PER 
 
 487 
 
 PER 
 
 PERSECUTIONS op the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS op THE PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude of 
 Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstenberg, 1525. — Dufresnoy. 
 In England, when Cranmer, archbishop of Canterbury, and Latimer, and Ridley, 
 prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great numbers perished in 
 prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Eccles. Hist. Of the Protestants in France, when 
 numbers perished ; their assemblies were prohibited, their places of worship pulled 
 down, and sentence to the galleys proclaimed against all who harboured them, 1723. 
 Executions of the Protestants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under 
 pretence of their having been concerned in a tumult occasioned by a procession, 1724. 
 See Massacres, and Bartholomew, St. 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire was 
 originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Perseus, the son 
 of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps established a petty sove- 
 reignty. But long before his time, it was subject to independent princes. Persia 
 was at length included in the first Assyrian monarchy; and when that empire was 
 dismembered by Arbaces, &c. it appertained to the' kingdom of Media. Persia was 
 partly conquered from the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 
 years, when Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became the founder of the second Persian 
 monarchy, a.d. 229. 
 
 Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
 the Magi. — Justin. . . . B.C. 2115 
 
 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, gene- 
 rally confounded with the king of 
 Bactria. — Zanthus 10S2 
 
 * * * * * * * 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia .... 560 
 Lydia conquered by the Persians . . 548 
 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia . . 536 
 Cambyses conquers Egypt (which see) . 525 
 Darius made king of Persia . . . 522 
 Revolt of the Babylonians . . . . 512 
 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . 498 
 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an 
 army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade the 
 
 Peloponnesus 490 
 
 The troops advance towards Athens, but 
 are met in the plains of Marathon, by 
 Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
 nians. See Marathon .. . . 490 
 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
 this year, at the head of an immense 
 force. The battle of Thermopylae . . 480 
 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
 200,000 of his troops, and is defeated 
 in a naval engagement off Salamis . 480 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 
 250 vessels, takes several cities from 
 the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
 consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
 
 of Cyprus 470 
 
 Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Mith- 
 
 ridates, the eunuch .... 465 
 The assassin is put to death in a horrible 
 
 manner* 465 
 
 Reign of Artaxerxes .... 464 
 Cyprus taken from the Persians . . 449 
 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See 
 
 article Retreat 401 
 
 The sea-fight near Cnidus . . . . 394 
 
 330 
 
 The Sidonians being besieged by the 
 Persians, set fire to their city and 
 perish in the flames . . .B.C. 351 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Asia ; first 
 battle in Phrygia, near the river Gra- 
 nicus 334 
 
 [For the exploits of Alexander in Persia, 
 see article Macedon.] 
 
 Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is torn 
 in pieces t 331 
 
 Alexander founds the third or Grecian 
 monarchy 331 
 
 Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
 at the instance of his mistress Thais, 
 sets fire to the palace of Persepolis . 
 
 [The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
 even as they exist at this day, are of 
 indescribable magnificence, were so 
 immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 
 horses were laden with the spoils.] 
 
 Persia was partly reconquered from the 
 Greeks, and remained tributary to 
 Parthia for near five hundred ye"ars, 
 till about a.d. 
 
 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
 common soldier, restores to Persia its 
 former title 229 
 
 Reign of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant . 238 
 
 He is assassinated 
 
 Hormisdas reigns 
 
 Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 
 and successful tyrant .... 
 
 Persia was conquered by the Saracens . 
 
 It fell under the dominion of Tamerlane, 
 by the defeat of Bajazet 
 
 Reign of Thamas-Kouli-Khan . . . 
 
 He carried the Persian arms into India, 
 which he ravaged. See India 
 
 250 
 
 273 
 27a 
 
 310 
 
 651 
 
 1402 
 1732 
 
 1738 
 
 * The criminal was enclosed in a box, except his head, hands, and feet, which being confined 
 through apertures left for the purpose, were smeared with honey; in this condition he was exposed 
 with his face towards the sun, which shone intensely hot. The honey on his extremities attracted 
 wasps and other insects, which by their stings inflicted excruciating pains, while the maggots produced 
 within the box, from his excrements, ate into his flesh, and even to his very entrails ; and lest this 
 complication of torture should put an end to his existence too quickly, he was daily fed with nourish- 
 ing food. Mithridates endured this punishment seventeen days, and when he died his flesh was nearly 
 all consumed from the bones. The sufferer very rarely refused to take the sustenance offered him, on 
 account of the insufferable drought induced by the heat of the climate, and the fever occasioned by the 
 torture ; but when he did, his eyes were pricked with small bodkins till he complied.— Plutarch. 
 
 t For this murder, Bessus was taken and bound naked hand and foot, and four trees having beeu 
 by main force bent down to the ground, and one of the criminal's limbs tied to each of them, the trees 
 as they were suffered to return to their natural position flew back with prodigious violence, each 
 carrying with it one of the limbs of his body.— Plutarch. 
 
PER 
 
 488 
 
 PET 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 Rupture with England in consequence of 
 the Persians besieging Herat (which 
 see): war declared . . .Nov. 1, 1S56 
 
 Persians defeated at Bushire . Dec. 10, 1856 
 
 At Kooshab Feb. 8, 1857 
 
 And at Mnhammerah . March 26, 1S57 
 Peace ratified at Teheran . April 14, is - ,? 
 Herat given up by the Persians, July, 186? 
 
 SHAHS OF PERSIA. 
 
 1502. 
 1523. 
 1576. 
 1577. 
 1582. 
 
 1627. 
 1641. 
 
 1666. 
 1694. 
 1722. 
 1725. 
 1729. 
 
 1732. 
 
 Ismail or Ishmael. 
 
 Tamaap or Thamae I. 
 
 Ismail Meerza. 
 
 Mahommed Meerza. 
 
 Abbas I. the Great : died in 1627 after 
 a reign of 45 years 
 
 Shah Soofe. 
 
 Abbas II. 
 
 Solyman. 
 
 Husseiu : deposed. 
 
 Mahmoud. 
 
 Ashraff, the Usurper : slain in battle. 
 
 Tarnasp, or Thamas II. : recovered the 
 throne of his aucestors from the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 [Thamas-Kouli-Khan obtained great 
 successes in this and the subsequent 
 reigns.] 
 
 Abbas II., infant son of Tamasp, under 
 theregeucy of Kouli-Khan, who after- 
 wards caused himself to be proclaimed 
 as Nadir Shah. 
 
 1736. 
 
 1747. 
 1748. 
 1750. 
 1753. 
 1779. 
 17S0. 
 1781. 
 1785. 
 17S8. 
 1789. 
 
 1794. 
 1798 
 1834. 
 
 1848. 
 
 Nadir Shah (the Victorious King) : as- 
 sassinated by his nephew at. Korassap. 
 
 Adil Shah. 
 
 Shah Rokh. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Kureem Khan. 
 
 Abool-Fatteh-Khan. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Ali-Moorad-Khan. 
 
 Jamer-Khan. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Looft-Ali-Khan : betrayed into the hands 
 of his successor, who ordered his eyes 
 to be plucked out, and afterwards put 
 him to death. 
 
 Aga-Mahomed-Khan : assassinated. 
 
 Feth Ali-Shah. 
 
 Mahommed-Shah, grandson of Feth ; 
 succeeded by his son. 
 
 Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nausser-ood-deen, 
 Sept. 4, the present (1857) Shah of 
 Persia. 
 
 In 1747, Ahmed Abdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, competitors 
 for the throne of Persia sprung up, and caused a period of slaughter and desolation 
 till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. The present monarch of 
 Persia, Nasr-ul-Deen, who ascended the throne in 1848, is said to be an able prince, and 
 friendly to England. A desperate attempt was made to assassinate him, Aug. 15, 
 1852. For the recent war, see above. 
 
 PERTH, Scotland. This town is said to have been founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. 
 It was besieged by the regent Robert in 1339. James I. was murdered here at the 
 Black Friars' monastery, by Robert Graham and the earl of Athol, for which their 
 bodies were torn with red-hot pincers, burning crowns of iron pressed down upon 
 their heads, and in the end their hearts taken out and thrown into a fire. Gowrie's 
 conspiracy occurred Aug. 5, 1600. Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; by the 
 earl of Mar, after the battle of Dumblane, in 1715. See Scotland. 
 
 PERU, South America. First visited in a.d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by 
 the Spaniards, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The easy conquest of 
 this country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with one 
 vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, which, however, 
 not succeeding, he again, in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 140 infantry, 
 and thirty-six horses; with these, and two reinforcements of thirty men each, he 
 conquered the empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast power which the 
 Spaniards enjoyed in the New World. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards 
 (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any attempt being made 
 to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782; but the independence of the country was 
 completely achieved in 1826. The new Peruvian constitution was signed by the 
 president of the Republic, March 21, 1828. 
 
 PERUKE, or Wig. The ancients used false hair, but the peruke in the present mode 
 has been little more than two centuries in use. It was first worn in France and Italy 
 about a.d. 1620 ; and was introduced into England about 1660. — Strype. It was at 
 one time worn almost universally by men wanting hair, whether rich or poor. — Ashe. 
 
 PESTH. This city was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, par- 
 ticularly in the long contests with the Turks. The last time that it changed masters, 
 was in 1684, after the raising of the famous siege of Vienna by Sobieski. Buda-Pesth, 
 in the war just closed, was taken by the Imperialists, Jan. 5, 1849. The Hungarians 
 afterwards defeated the Austriaus, who were obliged to evacuate it, April 18, same 
 year. For the result of the war, see Hungary. 
 
 PESTILENCE. See Plague. 
 
 PETALISM. This was a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of Syracuse, similar 
 
PET 489 PET 
 
 to the Athenian ostracism; but the name was written on a leaf instead of on a shell : it 
 is said to have been in use 460 B.C. The leaf was generally that of the olive tree, and 
 if the guilt of the accused were thus established, the sentence was usually banishment. 
 — Cotgrave. From Syracuse it went to other states. 
 
 PETARD. An instrument whose invention is ascribed to the Huguenots in 1579. 
 Petards are of metal, nearly in the shape of a hat. In the siege, when a design is to 
 blow up gates, or other barriers, these instruments are applied ; they are used also in 
 countermines to break through into the enemy's galleries, and so to disappoint their 
 mines. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by means of petards, and they were first 
 used there in 1580. — Mil. Diet. 
 
 PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina king of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for 
 the endowment of an English college there, a.d. 725. So called because agreed to be 
 paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty 
 pence yearly rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
 Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed by the popes, as a tribute from England, and 
 regularly collected, till suppressed by Henry VIII. — Camden. 
 
 PETER, the WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate 
 of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found walking on 
 his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, 
 Nov. 1725. At this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. The king 
 caused him to taste of all the dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, 
 leaves, and the bark of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No 
 efforts of the many philosophic persons about court could entirely vary his savage 
 habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb. 1785, at the age 
 of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hypothesis that "man 
 in a state of nature is a mere animal." 
 
 PETERBOROUGH, England. Founded a.d. 633. It was anciently called Medes- 
 hamstede ; but one of the kings of Mercia founding an abbey here, and dedicating it 
 to St. Peter, it obtained its present name. The original monastery here was founded 
 in 689. It was formerly subject to an abbot; but King Henry VIII. turned the 
 monastery into a cathedral, and made it a bishop's see. 
 
 PETERBOROUGH, BISHOPRIC of. One of the bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. 
 out of the lands of the dissolved monasteries, and wholly taken from the diocese of 
 Lincoln. The church was destroyed by the Danes; but it was rebuilt with great 
 beauty, and continued to flourish till the Reformation. The first bishop was John 
 Chamber, the last abbot of Peterborough. The see was valued in the king's books at 
 4191. 19s. lid 
 
 PETERLOO. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 
 
 PETERSBURG, ST. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began this city in 
 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, 
 the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, 
 with his own hand, laid the foundation of a house of the same material. From these 
 small beginnings rose the imperial city of Petersburg; and in less than nine years 
 after the wooden hovels had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from 
 Moscow to this place. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and in 1780, 
 another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. 
 Again, in June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. 
 The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. See Russia. 
 
 PETERSBURG, ST., PEACE of. Between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring all 
 her conquests to the latter, signed, May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburg, for the 
 partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772. Treaty of Peters- 
 burg, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805. Treaty of Alliance, signed at 
 St. Petersburg, between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and the emperor 
 Alexander; the former agreeing to join in the campaign against France, in return for 
 which Sweden was to receive Norway, March 24, 1812. 
 
 PETERSWALDEN, CONVENTION of. An important and fortunate convention 
 between Great Britain and Russia, by which a firm and decisive alliance between 
 those powers was made against France, and the course of action against Napoleon 
 Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This convention and the consequent 
 alliance led to the final overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. 
 
PET 490 PHA 
 
 PETERWARADEIN. See Salenkamen. 
 
 PETITION op RIGHTS. See Rights, Bill of. 
 
 PETRARCH and LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the fourteenth 
 century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the former for the latter, 
 and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject of Petrarch's enchanting 
 sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, 
 on Easter-day, April 8, 1341; and died at Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura 
 died April 6, 1348. 
 
 PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town, on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by 
 an English and French squadron, Aug. 30, 1854. They destroyed the batteries, but 
 failed in taking some Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship, taken by the 
 President, and a schooner taken by the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
 posed by the accidental discharge of his own pistol. A party of 700 sailors and 
 marines landed to assault the place, but fell into an ambuscade ; many were killed, 
 including capt. Parker and M. Bourasset, English and French officers. The objects 
 of the attack were not attained, it is thought from want of stores. After this the 
 Russians greatly strengthened their defences, but on May 30, 1855, the allied squadron 
 in the Pacific arriving here found the place deserted. The fortifications were destroyed, 
 but the town was spared. The Russian ships escaped. 
 
 PEVENSEY CASTLE. This deserves mention here, as a remarkable relic of antiquity. 
 From the abundance of Roman bricks, it is supposed that there was a Roman fortress 
 ou the spot. The duke of York, in the reign of Henry IV. was for some time 
 confined within the walls of this castle; as was also queen Joan, of Navarre, the last 
 wife of Henry IV. who with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a design to 
 destroy the king. James I. of Scotland, by order of Henry IV. suffered a captivity 
 in the castle for about eighteen years. In 1840, on removing some earth within the 
 castle, a great many brass coins, in a series extending over the reigns of six or seven 
 Roman emperors, were discovered. 
 
 PFAFFENDORF, BATTLE of. Between the Imperialists and Prussians. The Austrians 
 w r ere signally defeated with great slaughter by the king of Prussia, who by this 
 victory prevented the designed junction of the Russian and Austrian grand armies,. 
 Aug. 15, 1760. The plans of the allies were frustrated, and Frederick III. worked 
 out the consummate policy that was disclosed by the subsequent events of the war. 
 
 PHALANX. This old military word sometimes signified a battalion or squadron, and 
 sometimes the ranks or ranges into which whole armies were drawn when put in 
 posture for a general battle. — Pardon. A troop of men closely embodied. — Milton. 
 The Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
 and spears crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was 
 called the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 B.C. 
 
 PHARISEES. They were a famous sect among the Jews; so called from a Hebrew 
 word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended to a greater 
 degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. Luke xviii. 9. The Talmud 
 enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 
 
 PHARMACY : the knowledge of the chemical and medical properties of drugs and all 
 other things employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society of London was 
 founded in 1841, and obtained its chai-ter in 1843. It publishes a monthly journal. 
 — 15 & 16 Vict. c. 56 (1852), regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists. 
 
 PHAROS at ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and esteemed 
 as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, and could 
 be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, fires were constantly kept, to 
 direct sailors in the bay. The building cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to 
 above 165,100Z. English, if Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this 
 inscription upon it — '' King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of 
 sailors ; " but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his 
 own name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
 the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's name 
 disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible :— " Sostratus the 
 Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors." 
 About 280 B.C. 
 
 PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF. Between Julius Csesar and Pompey, in which the former 
 
PHI 
 
 491 
 
 PHI 
 
 obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its consequences. 
 Caesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others, 1200. Pompey's loss was 15,000, 
 or 25,000 according to others, and 24,000 of his army were made prisoners of war 
 by the conqueror, May 12, 48 B.C. After this defeat Pompey fled to Egypt, where 
 he was treacherously slain, by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his 
 body thrown naked on the strand, exposed to the view of all whose curiosity led 
 them that way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 
 
 PHILIPPI, BATTLE op. Between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side, 
 and the republican forces of Brutus and Cassius, in which the former obtained the 
 victory. Two battles were fought : in the first, Brutus, who commanded the right 
 wing, defeated the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care of the left, was overpowered, 
 and he ordered his freedman to run him through the body. In the second battle, 
 the wing which Brutus commanded obtained a victory; but the other was defeated, 
 and he found himself surrounded by the soldiers of Antony. He, however, made his 
 escape, and soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 B.C. 
 
 PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of Demosthenes 
 against Philip II. of Macedon. The term is also applied to the orations of Cicero 
 against Marc Antony, the second of which was called divine by Juvenal, which 
 cost Cicero his life, 43 B.C. Philippics, from these, now are understood to mean any 
 invective declamation. — Bishop Hurd. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a.d. 1519. In this archipelago the 
 illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like our still more illustrious Cook in the 
 Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1621. They were taken possession of in 
 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, which first stopped at the island of Zebu, and subdued 
 it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla 
 was, in the following year, constituted the capital of the Spanish possessions in the 
 Philippines. See Manilla. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to history, 
 which is only the knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the knowledge of 
 the quantity of things; — the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
 explained. — Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men 
 having been previously called sages), about 528 B.C. See Moral Philosophy. Philo- 
 sophers were expelled from Rome, and their schools suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. 
 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy is now divided into. — 1. Moral or Ethical ; 2. Intellec- 
 tual ; 3. Natural or Physical : The following are some of the important dates of the 
 last of the three. 
 
 Greek and Latin Philosophy : — Thales about 
 B.C. 600; Pythagoras, 590; Aristotle and 
 Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archimedes, 287 ; 
 Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100 ; 
 Julius Caesar, 50 ; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 
 
 Middle Ages : — Arabians : Ben Musa, 800 ; 
 Alhazen, &c, 1100 ; Gerbert, Decimals, 
 959 ; Roger Bacon, Opus Majus, 1266. . 
 
 Inductive Philosophy : — 
 Copernicus's system published . . 1543 
 Tycho Brahe .... 1546-1601 
 Kepler's Laws .... 1609-18 
 Bacon's Novum Organum. . . . 1620 
 Galileo's Dialogues .... 1632 
 Boyal Society begins (which see) . . 1645 
 
 Otto Guericke — Air-pump . . . 1654 
 
 Huyghens on Pendulums . . . 165S 
 Newton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of 
 Light, 1669 ; Theory of Gravitation, 
 1684 ; Principia published, 16S7 ; 
 
 death 1727 
 
 Bradley discovers aberration . . . 1727 
 
 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . 1748 
 
 Black on Heat 1762 
 
 Laplace on Tides 1775 
 
 Lagrange, Mdcanique Analytigue . . 1788 
 
 Galvani and Volta's researches . . 1791 
 
 Laplace, Micanique Celeste . . . 1799 
 
 See Astronomy, Optics, Cliemistry, Electricity, die. 
 
 PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which some 
 chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all imperfect metals into silver and 
 gold — all metals but these being so considered. Kircher observes, with truth, that 
 the quadrature of the circle, perpetual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and philo- 
 sopher's stone, have racked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a 
 long time, without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition 
 in relation to this subject, see Alchemy. 
 
 PHIPPS, CAPTAIN, his EXPEDITION. The hon. captain Phipps (afterwards lord 
 Mulgrave) sailed from England in command of the Sea-horse and Carcase ships, to 
 make discoveries, as near as possible, to the North Pole, 1773. In August of that 
 year, he was for nine days environed with impenetrable barriers of ice, in the 
 Frozen Ocean, north of Spitsbergen, 80° 48' North latitude. All further progress 
 was not only impossible, but retreat also, and in this dreadful situation all on board 
 
PHO 492 PHY 
 
 gave themselves up for lost; but they were providentially liberated from the vast 
 mountains of ice by a brisk wind, which in two or three days more accomplished 
 their deliverance. The ships returned to England without their intrepid commander 
 having made any discoveries, .Sept. 20, 1773. In this expedition, Nelson was 
 cockswain to the second in command. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brandt, who procured it from 
 urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from bones. The dis- 
 covery was prosecuted by John Kunckel a Saxon chemist, 1670, and by the hon. 
 Mr. Boyle, about the same time. — Nouv. Diet. Phosphoric acid is first mentioned in 
 1743, but is said to have been known earlier; the distinction was first pointed out 
 by Lavoisier in 1777. Canton's phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. 
 Photophosphurated hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphry Davy in 1812. 
 
 PHOTOGALVANOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action of light 
 and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce and 
 presented by him in 1827 to the great botanist Robert Brown. Great advances 
 have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor, (who published a 
 treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, 
 Paul Pretsch patented a process which he called " Photogalvanography," and a 
 company has been foi-med to apply it to the benefit of the public. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the 
 sixteenth century. The phenomena was studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), 
 Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these investigations, experiments 
 were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry Davy, which were published, 1802. 
 "Wedgwood may be regarded as the first photographer. His paper was entitled "An 
 account of a method of copying paintiugs upon glass, and of making profiles by the 
 agency of light upon nitrate of silver.''* Further discoveries were made by Niepce 
 in 1814, and sir J. Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824 ; 
 and in 1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833. 
 The production of the Daguerrotype plates was announced in Jan. 1839 ; and the 
 French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the 
 son). In 1839 also Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode of multiplying 
 photographic impressions, by producing a negative photograph (i.e. with the light 
 and shades reversed) from which any number of positive copies may be obtained. 
 His patent for producing the Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 
 From this time improvements have been made with great rapidity. The Photographic 
 Society of London was established in Jan. 1853. It publishes a journal. On Dec. 
 22, 1852, 774 specimens of photography were exhibited at the rooms of the Society 
 of Arts, Adelphi. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY. See Craniology. 
 
 PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of certain herbs. 
 The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed to relieve himself 
 from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood letting. — Pliny. In fabulous 
 history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen a serpent approach the wounded 
 body of another with an herb, with which he covered it, restored the inanimate body 
 
 of Glaucus in the same manner Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle 
 
 of the healing art ; "and the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province 
 of medicine, and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
 of the priests medicine fell into those of the philosophers, who freed it from its 
 superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavoured to explain the formation of 
 diseases, the order of their symptoms, and the action of medicine about 529 B.C. 
 Hippocrates, justly regarded- as the father of medicine and the founder of the science, 
 flourished about 422 B.C. Galen, born a.D. 131, was the oracle of medical science for 
 nearly 1500 years. The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, 
 furnished an entirely new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. 
 
 PHYSIC GARDEN. The first cultivated in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
 London in 1567. That at Oxford was endowed by the earl of Dauby in 1652. That 
 at Cambridge was commenced about the middle of the last century. That at Chelsea, 
 originated by sir Hans Sloane, was given to the Apothecaries' Company in 1721 ; this 
 last was very much admired by the illustrious Linnaeus. The fine Botanic Garden in 
 Dublin was commeuced in 1763. 
 
 * Journal of the Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. 
 
PHY 493 PIC 
 
 PHYSICIAN to the KING. The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a 
 physician at court is dated a.d. 1454, the 33 Henry VI., a reign fertile in the patronage 
 which was afforded to practitioners in medicine ; but in that reign no appointment 
 existed which can justly be called physician to the royal person. By this warrant 
 the king, with the consent of his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
 surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administration of such medicines and 
 remedies as might be sufficient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
 existence or permanency of the office, which they were authorised for a time to fill, 
 or to a remuneration for their services. — Life of Linacre. 
 
 PHYSICIANS, ROYAL COLLEGE of, London. Projected by Dr. Linacre, physician 
 to Henry VIII., who, through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, obtained letters- 
 patent, constituting a corporate body of regular physicians in London, with peculiar 
 privileges, Oct. 23, 1518. Linacre was elected the first president of the college. Dr. 
 Harvey, to whom we are indebted for the discovery of the circulation of the blood, 
 was another ornament and benefactor to this institution. He built a library and 
 public hall, which he granted for ever to the college, with his books and instruments. 
 The college was afterwards held in a building in Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. 
 Wren, where it continued till 1823, when the present elegant stone edifice was erected 
 from designs by sir R. Smirke. The College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by 
 charter of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Royal College of 
 Physicians, Edinburgh, Nov. 29, 1681. 
 
 PHYSICS. See Philosophy. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind are discovered, 
 chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is referred to Aristotle; 
 Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century ; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat, and Pernethy 
 led to the modern system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having 
 been struck with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window 
 at which he and Zimmerman were standing; published 1776. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of physics which 
 teaches the constitution of animals and plants, so far as it is in its healthy or natural 
 state, and to that purpose endeavours to account for the reason of the several functions 
 and operations of the several members. The works of Miiller and Carpenter are the 
 most celebrated at the present time. 
 
 PIANO-FORTE. Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717; he presented a 
 model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, G. Silverman, a 
 musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable 
 success. The invention has also been ascribed to an instrument-maker at Florence. 
 The square piano-forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, 
 about 1758. Piano-fortes were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and 
 have been since greatly improved by Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, and others. 
 
 PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable con- 
 spiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau arrested at 
 Paris, Feb. 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was confined in the Temple, where 
 he was found strangled on the morning of the 6th April following. For the particulars 
 relating to this conspiracy, see article Georges, &c. 
 
 PICQUET, the GAME of. Picquet was the first known game upon the cards. It was 
 invented by Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
 of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — Mezeray. "It is remarkable," 
 observes a French writer, Anon, "that the earliest game upon the cards should be 
 at once the most simple and intellectual." Cards are referred by some persons to the 
 Romans, and it is disputed whether they are, in modern times, of French or Spanish 
 origin. See article Cards. 
 
 PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time 
 that the Scots began to seize upon the Ebudse, or Western Isles. They afterwards 
 lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in 
 that part now called the lowlands. About A.D. 838 to 843, the Scots under Kenneth II. 
 totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom, and extended the limits as 
 far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 
 PICTS' WALL. See Roman Wall. 
 
 PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the Greeks, the use 
 
PIE 494 PIN 
 
 of many colours in one picture. One of his pictures was purchased by the king of 
 Lydia for its weight in gold; he flom-ished 740 B.C. Until about the close of the four- 
 teenth century of the Christian era; painting had not revived. The earliest mention 
 of the art in England may be referred to the reign of Henry VIII. See Painting. 
 
 PIEPOUDRE COURT. In English law the Court of Dusty Foot. A court whose 
 jurisdiction was established for cases arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to 
 the buyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By stat. 17 Edw. IV. it had 
 cognisance of all disputes in the precincts of the market to which it might belong, 
 a.d. 1476. By a court of Pie-Poudre at Bartholomew fair, a young gentleman paid 
 3Z. 16s. for taking away an actress when she was going to perform, and 51. to the 
 husband, the lady being married, Sept. 6, 1804. — Phillips. 
 
 PIGEON, the Carrier. Courier pigeons are of very ancient use. The ancients being 
 destitute of the post, were accustomed, when they took a long journey, and were 
 desirous of sending back any news with uncommon expedition, to take tame pigeons 
 with them. When they thought proper to write to their friends, they let one of 
 these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck : the bird once released, would 
 never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced 
 to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at iEgina a pigeon 
 stained with purple. — Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons 
 at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, 
 which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from 
 Antwerp were liberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same 
 day at noon, one of them arrived at Autwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a 
 second arrived; the remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the Church, but 
 they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Pilgrimages became 
 frequent in France at the close of the 10th century; king Robert II. made several 
 pilgrimages, among others, one to Rome about the year 1016, perhaps in 1020, when 
 he refused the imperial dignity and the kingdom of Italy. — Henault. Many licences 
 were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad. 7 Hen. VI. 1428. 
 
 PILGRIMAGE op GRACE. An insurrection, so called, headed by Aske and other 
 gentlemen of Yorkshire, joined by priests in the habits of their order, and 40,000 
 men of York, Dm*ham, Lancaster, and other counties, against Henry VIII. They 
 took Hull and York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk marched against 
 them, and great numbers of the insurgents were executed, 1536-7. 
 
 PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infamous, and 
 make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, that they might avoid 
 and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with them for the future. This punish- 
 ment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In 
 some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose 
 slit, the face branded with one or more letters, and one or both eai's were cut off. 
 There is a statute of the pillory 41 Hen. III. 1256. Many persons died in the pillory 
 by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and putrid 
 offal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 56 Geo. III. 
 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by Act 1 Vict. c. 23, 30th June, 1837. 
 
 PILNITZ, CONVENTION and TREATY of, against FRANCE. The famous con- 
 vention of Pilnitz took place between the emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia, 
 July 20, 1791. In the subsequent part of the month, the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as 
 some style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the courts in 
 concert. It was to the effect " that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
 had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these provinces to the 
 Netherlands, gave them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to be added to the 
 palatinate. Bavaria to be added to the Austrian possessions," &c. 
 
 PILOTAGE. The latest act relating to pilots is 16 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (Aug. 20, 1853). 
 
 PINE-TREES. The Stone pine (Pinus Pinca), brought to these countries before 1548. 
 The Cluster pine (Pinus Pinaster), brought from the South of Europe before 1596. 
 The Weymouth pine (Pinus Slrobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense pine 
 (Pinus Tceda), from North America, before 1713. There are, of course, other varieties 
 of the pine, now a common tree in England. 
 
PIN 
 
 495 
 
 PLA 
 
 PINKEY, BATTLE of. Between the English under the earl of Hertford, protector, 
 and the Scots, when the latter were totally defeated. Few victories have been more 
 decisive, or gained with smaller loss to the conquerors. There fell not 200 of the 
 English; and, according to the most moderate computation, there perished above 
 10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. Sept. 10, 1547. — Hume. 
 
 TINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the statutes a.d. 
 1483. Those made of brass- wire were brought from France in 1540, and were first 
 used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Hemy VIII. Before the 
 invention of pins, both sexes used ribands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, 
 clasps, hooks and eyes, and skewers of brass, silver and gold. They were made in 
 England in 1543. — Stow. 
 
 PISA, LEANING TOWER of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, on 
 account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, stands in a 
 square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of white marble, and is a 
 beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with a round of columns, rising one 
 above another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpendicular, that in dropping 
 a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from 
 the base. Much pains have been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done 
 purposely by the architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from 
 another cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that side. 
 
 PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the saddle- 
 bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. — Pardon. 
 The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England in 1544. 
 
 PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by Cook in 
 1773, and since noted for being colonised by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, 
 captain Bligh, in 1789. See Bounty. They remained unknown to England until 
 discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the island was hailed by a swarthy 
 youth in the English language, when it appeared the mutineers, soon after settling 
 there, had married some black women from a neighbouring island, and had become a 
 singularly well-conducted community under the fostering care of Adams the prin- 
 cipal mutineer. As their numbers increased, the island proved incapable of their 
 support. Their priest, the Rev. Mr. Nobbs, obtained for them the favour of the 
 English government, which removed them with all their property in the ship Moray- 
 shire, on May 3rd, and landed them after a boisterous passage on Norfolk Island, 
 prepared previously for their reception, June 8, 1856. The government stocked 
 Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and twenty horses, and gave 
 them stores to last twelve months ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 
 
 PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious statesman 
 was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (which see), Dec. 27, 1783. It 
 terminated by his resignation in 1801. His second administration was formed May 
 12, 1804; and was terminated by his death. See the following: — 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF 1783. 
 
 Rt. hon William Pitt, first lord of the trea- 
 sury and chancelloi of the exchequer; earl 
 Gower, lord president; duke of Rutland, privy 
 seal; marquess of Carmarthen, home secretary; 
 earl Temple, immediately succeeded by lord 
 Sydney ; foreign secretary ; lord Thuiiow, 
 lord chancellor ; viscount Howe, admiralty ; 
 duke of Richmond, ordnance, Williarn Wynd- 
 ham Granville, Henry Dundas, <fcc. 
 
 [Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. 
 Many changes in his ministry, of course, 
 occurred in the long periodof seventeen years]. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OP 1804. 
 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt, first minister ; lord 
 Eldon, lord chancellor ; duke of Portland 
 succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. Ad- 
 dington) lord president ; earl of Westmorland, 
 lord privy seal ; lord Hawkesbury, home, lord 
 Harrowby (succeeded by lord Mulgrave), 
 foreign, and earl Camden (succeeded by 
 viscount Castlereagh), colonial secretary ; 
 viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Bar- 
 ham), admiralty; duke of Montrose, lord 
 Mulgrave, Mr. Bundas, &c. 
 
 Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers and still loftier pretensions ; and died 
 possessed of the esteem and admiration of a great portion of his countrymen, Jan. 23, 
 1806. A public funertd was decreed to his honour by parliament, and a grant of 
 40,000£. made to pay his debts. 
 
 PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of putrefying locusts." — 
 Thomson. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 
 B.C. — Petavius. At Carthage a plague was so terrible that people sacrificed their 
 children to appease the gods, 534 B.C. — Baronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating 
 plague, carrying off a hundred thousand persons in and round the city, 461 B.C. At 
 
PLA 
 
 496 
 
 PLA 
 
 Athens, whence it spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 
 430 B.C. Another, which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
 2000 persons every day, 188 B.C. — Pliny. 
 
 At Rome, amost awful plague: 10,000 persons 
 perish daily, a.d. 78. 
 
 The same fatal disease again ravaged the Ro- 
 man empire, a.d. 167. 
 
 Another, dreadful in almost every family in 
 the Roman empire. For some time 5000 
 persons died daily at Rome, and many 
 towns were entirely depopulated, a.d. 250- 
 •265. 
 
 In Britain a plague raged so formidably, and 
 swept away such multitudes, that the 
 living were scai-cely sufficient to bury the 
 dead, a.d. 430, 
 
 A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- 
 tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
 said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
 Hist. 
 
 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inha- 
 bitants perished, a.d. 746. 
 
 [This plague raged for three years, and was 
 equally fatal in Calabria, Sicilyand Greece.] 
 
 At Chichester, in England, an epidemical 
 disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — 
 Will. .1/ 
 
 In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a pes- 
 tilence, a.d. 954. 
 
 In London, a great mortality, a.d. 1094 ; and 
 in Ireland, 1095. 
 
 Again, in London : it extended to cattle, 
 fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. — 
 Hoi ins. 
 
 In Ireland : after Christmas this year, 
 Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 
 1172. 
 
 Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
 perished, 1204. 
 
 A general plague raged throughout Europe, 
 causing a most extensive mortality. Britain 
 and Ireland suffered grievously. In London 
 alone, 200 persons were buried daily in the 
 Charterhouse-yard. 
 
 In Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
 prevailed in 1362 and 1367 ; and in Ireland 
 in 1370. 
 
 A great pestilence in Ireland, called the 
 Fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
 people, 1383. 
 
 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
 lence in London, 1407. 
 
 Again in Ireland, superinduced. by a famine: 
 great numbers died 1466 ; and Dublin was 
 wasted by a plague, 1470. 
 
 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and 
 throughout England a plague which de- 
 stroyed more people than the continual 
 wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. — 
 Rapin; Salmon 
 
 The awful Sudor Angtjkus, or sweating sick- 
 ness, very fatal at London, 14S5. — Dclaune. 
 
 The plague at London so dreadful that Henry 
 VII. and his court removed to Calais, 1500. 
 — Stow. 
 
 Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in three 
 hours). In most of the capital towns in 
 England half the inhabitants died, and 
 Oxford was depopulated, 9 Hen. VIII. 1517. 
 
 — atow. 
 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
 many thousands perished, 1522, 
 
 A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1">25; and 
 the English Sweat, 1528; and a pestilence 
 in Dublin, 1575. 
 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
 London alone, 1603-1604. It was also fatal 
 in Ireland. 
 
 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constanti- 
 nople, in 1611. 
 
 In London a great mortality prevailed, and 
 35.417 persons perished, 1625. 
 
 In France, a general mortality ; at Lyous, 
 60,000 persons died, 1632. 
 
 The plague, brought from Sardinia to Naples 
 (being introduced by a transport with sol- 
 diers on board), raged with such violence 
 as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabitants in 
 six months, 1656. 
 
 Memorable plague, which carried off 68,596 
 persons in London, 1665. See next article. 
 
 [Fires were kept up night and day to purify 
 the air for three days ; and it is thought 
 the infection was not totally destroyed till 
 the great conflagration of 1666.] 
 
 60,000 persons perished of the plague at Mar- 
 seilles and neighbourhood, brought in a 
 ship from the Levant, 1720. 
 
 One of the most awful plagues that ever 
 raged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbi 
 MariH. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried 
 off 80,000 of the inhabitants of Bassora, 
 1773. 
 
 In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died of 
 plague, 1792. 
 
 In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 
 247,000 perished, 1799. 
 
 In Spain and at Gibraltar, immense numbers 
 were carried off by a pestilent disease in 
 1804 and 1805. 
 
 Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much 
 resembling the plague, caused great mor- 
 tality, 1828. 
 
 The Asiatic Cholera (see Cliolera) made its 
 first appearance in England, at Sunderland, 
 Oct. 26, 1831 ; in Scotland, at Haddington, 
 Dec. 23, same year ; and in Ireland, at 
 Belfast, March 14, 1832. 
 
 The Cholera again visited England, &c. See 
 Cholera, 184S and 1849. 
 
 PLAGUE in LONDON, the GREAT. This most awful and memorable scourge com- 
 menced in December, 1664. In the months of May, June, and July, it had continued 
 with great severity ; but in August and September it quickened into dreadful activity, 
 sweeping away 8000 persons in a week. Then it was that the whole British nation 
 wept for the sufferings of the metropolis. In some houses carcases lay waiting for 
 burial ; and in others, persons were seen doubled up in their last agonies. In one room 
 were heard dying groans ; and in the next, the ravings of delirium, mingled with the 
 wailings of relatives and friends, and the apprehensive shrieks of children. Infants 
 passed at once from the womb to the grave. The yet healthy child hung upon the 
 putrid breast of a dead mother; and the nuptial bed was changed into a sepulchre. 
 Some of the affected ran about staggering like drunken men, and fell and expired in 
 the streets ; while others calmly laid themselves down, never to rise but at the call 
 of the last trumpet. At length, in the middle of September, more than 12,000 
 
PLA 
 
 497 
 
 PLA 
 
 perished in one week; in one night 4000 died; and in the whole, not 68,000, as ha3 
 been stated, but 100,000 perished of this plague.* — Defoe. 
 
 PLAGUES of EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although he had 
 performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display of wrath 
 upon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the plagues of Egypt, 
 1492 B.C. 
 
 PLAINS of ABRAHAM, BATTLE of the. The celebrated battle in which the French 
 of Canada were defeated by the British under the heroic general Wolfe, who fell 
 mortally wounded, just as the enemy had given way, and he had conquered ; a ball 
 having pierced his breast, Sept. 13, 1759. This glorious fight (too dearly won) is 
 also called the battle of Quebec. See Quebec. 
 
 PLANETS. The planet Jupiter was known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chal- 
 deans ; to the former, it is said, 3000 B.C. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the 
 heavens, made about 600 B.C. and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this 
 chart is said to be in the imperial library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter were dis- 
 covered by Galileo, a.d. 1610 ; but Janssen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance 
 with them about twenty years before. We have now eleven primary planets, viz. : 
 Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Georgium Sidus, Ceres, Pallas, 
 Juno, and Vesta ; and forty-three secondary planets, or small planets belonging to our 
 solar system. See Venus, &c. 
 
 Georgium Sidus, called also Serschel and 
 
 Uranus,- discovered by Herscliel, March 13, 
 
 1781. See Georgium Sidus. 
 Neptune, discovered (in consequence of the 
 
 calculations of Le Verrier and Adams) Sept. 
 
 23, 1846. See Neptune. 
 
 MINOR PLANETS. 
 
 1. Ceres (which see) discovered by Piazzi, Jan. 
 
 1, 1801. This planet is visible to the 
 naked eye. 
 
 2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen, by Olbers, 
 
 March 28, 1802. See Pallas. 
 
 3. Juno, discovered by Harding, Sept. 1, 
 
 1804. See Juno. 
 
 4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers (his second 
 
 discovery), March 29, 1S07. See Vesta. 
 
 5. Astrcea . . Dec. 8, 1815, by K. C. 
 
 Hencke. 
 
 6. Hebe . . . July 1, 1847, by the same. 
 
 7. Iris . . . Aug. 13, 1847, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 8. Flora . . . Oct. 18, 1847, by the same, 
 
 9. Metis . . April 26, 1848, by A. Gra- 
 
 ham. 
 10. Hygeia . . April 12, 1S49, by A. de 
 
 Gasparis. 
 May 11, 1850, by the same. 
 Sept. 13, 1850, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 Nov. 2, 1850, by A. de 
 
 Gasparis. 
 May 19, 1851, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 July 29, 1851, by A. de 
 
 Gasparis. 
 March 17, 1852, by the 
 
 same. 
 Thetis . . April 17, 1852, by R. 
 
 Luther. 
 Melpomene . June 24, 1852, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Parthenope 
 Victoria . 
 
 Irene 
 Eunomia 
 
 19. Fortuna . 
 
 20. Massilia 
 
 21. Lutetia 
 
 22. Calliope 
 
 23. Thalia . 
 
 24. Themis. 
 
 25. Phocia 
 
 26. Proserpine . 
 
 27. Euterpe . 
 
 28. Bellona 
 
 29. Amphiirite . 
 
 30. Urania . 
 
 31. Euphrosyne 
 
 32. Pomona 
 
 33. Polyhymnia 
 
 34. Circe 
 
 35. Leucothea 
 
 36. Fides 
 
 37. Atalanta 
 
 39. Lcetitia 
 
 40. Harmonia 
 
 41. Daphne . 
 
 42. Isis 
 
 43. Ariadne 
 
 August 22, 1852, by the 
 
 same. 
 Sept. 19, 1852, by A. de 
 
 Gasparis. 
 Nov. 15, 1852, by H. 
 
 Goldschmidt. 
 Nov. 16, 1852, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 Dec. 15, 1852,by the same. 
 , April 6, 1S53, by A. de 
 
 Gasparis. 
 April 6, 1853, by M. Cha- 
 
 cornac. 
 May 5, 1853, by R. Luther. 
 Nov. 8, 1853,by J. R. Hind. 
 March 1, 1854, by R. 
 
 Luther. 
 March 1, 1854, by Mr. 
 
 Marth. 
 July 22, 1854, by J. R. 
 
 Hind. 
 Sept. 1, 1854, by Mr. 
 
 Ferguson. 
 Oct. 26, 1854, by H. Gold- 
 schmidt. 
 Oct. 28, 1854, by M. Cha- 
 
 cornac. 
 April 6, 1855, by the same. 
 , April 19, 1855, by R. 
 
 Luther. 
 Oct. 5, 1855, by the same, 
 same day, by H. Gold- 
 schmidt. 
 Jan. 12, 1856, by M. Cha- 
 
 cornac. 
 Feb. 8, 1856, by'the same. 
 March 31, 1856, by H. 
 
 Goldschmidt. 
 May 22, 1856, by the same. 
 May 23, 1856, by Norman 
 
 April 15, 1857, by the same. 
 
 * The hearses were but dead carts which continually traversed the streets, while the appalling 
 cry, " Bring out your dead," thrilled through every soul. Then it was that parents, husbands, wives, and 
 children saw all those that were dear to them thrown with a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of the 
 slaughter-house, to be conveyed without the walls, and flung into one promiscuous heap, without the 
 rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and without a shroud ! Some graves were dug so large, as to hold 
 a thousand bodies each ; and into these huge holes, the living, wrapt in blankets and rags, threw them- 
 selves among the dead, in their agonies and delirium. They were often found in this state hugging the 
 flesh of their kindred that had not quite perished. People, in the intolerable torment of their swellings, 
 ran wild and mad, laying violent hands upon themselves ; and even mothers in their lunacy, murdered 
 their own children. When the carts were insufficient for their office, the houses and streets were 
 rendered tenfold more pestilential by the unburied dead. — Defoe. 
 
PLA 498 PLA 
 
 PLANTAGENET, HOUSE of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry II. 
 1154, to Richard III. killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485. Plantagenet seems 
 to have been at first no more than one of those soubriquets or nicknames at this time 
 so common. The first so-called was Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, in the tenth 
 century. That noble having contrived the death of his nephew, the earl of Britanny, 
 in order to succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atonement for the 
 murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two servants, one of whom was to lead him 
 by a halter to the Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, like a 
 common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in Latin genista, being the only tough 
 pliant shrub in Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with it, and from 
 this instrument of his chastisement, he was called Planta-genista, or Plantagenet. — 
 Skinner, Mezeray. 
 
 PLA.SSEY, BATTLE of. Fought between the British under Clive, and the Hindoos 
 under Surajah Dowlah, June 23, 1757. The nabob was vanquished, although at the 
 head of 70,000 men, by the British, whose force did not exceed much more than 3000. 
 The victory laid the foundation of our power and empire in India. See India. 
 
 PLASTER of PARIS. A fossil stone of a particular kind, somewhat of the nature of 
 lime, used by figure-masters for moulds, statuary, &c. The method of taking like- 
 nesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about a.d. 1466. This 
 gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. 
 
 PLATA, LA. See Argentine Republic. 
 
 PLATiEA, BATTLE of. Between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes, king of Persia, 
 and Pausanias, the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian army consisted 
 of 300,000 men, of whom scarce 3000 escaped with their lives by flight. The Grecian 
 army, which was about 110,000, lost but few men; and among these, ninety-one 
 Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in 
 the number of the slain. The plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian 
 camp was immense. A magnificent present of ten samples of everything that was 
 valuable among the spoils was awarded to Pausanias, on account of his uncommon, 
 valour during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
 respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22nd Sept. the same day as the battle 
 of Mycale, 479 B.C. ; aud by them Greece was totally delivered for ever from the conti- 
 nual alarms to which she was exposed on account of the Persian invasions, and from 
 that time none of the princes of Persia dared to appear with a hostile force beyond 
 the Hellespont. 
 
 PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of domestic luxury cannot be precisely 
 traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public- 
 houses by statute 8 Will. III. 1696. The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. 
 This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty upon plate passed in 1784. 
 See Goldsmiths' Company. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
 to be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later act excepted marriage-rings. 
 
 PLATINA, the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and gold. The name 
 originated with the Spaniards, from the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem 
 on account of its silvery colour. It was unknown in Europe until A.D. 1748, when 
 Don Antonio Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Pern. 
 — Greig. 
 
 PLATING. The art of covering baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for use 
 or for ornament, said to have been invented by a spur-maker. Till then the more 
 elegant spurs in common use were made of solid silver ; and from the flexibility of 
 that metal they were liable to be bent into inconvenient forms by the slightest 
 accident. To remedy this defect, a workman at Birmingham contrived to make the 
 branches of a pair of spurs hollow, and to fill that hollow with a slender rod of steel. 
 Finding this a great improvement, and desirous to add cheapness to utility, he con- 
 tinued to make the hollow larger, and of course the iron thicker, till at last he so 
 coated the iron spur with silver as to make it equally elegant with those made wholly 
 of that metal. The invention was quickly applied to other purposes. 
 
 PLATONIC YEAR. The period of time which the equinoxes take to finish their revo- 
 lution, at the end of which the stars and constellations have the same place with 
 regard to the equinoxes that they had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or 
 period requires 25,816 common years to complete it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; 
 
PLA 499 POE 
 
 and Cassini at 24,800 ; at the end of which time some imagined that there would be 
 a total and natural renovation of the whole creation. 
 
 PLATTSBURGH, EXPEDITION to. The British expedition against Plattsburgh, on 
 Lake Champlain, a town of New York, was designed under general sir George 
 Prevost ; but it was abandoned after the naval force of England had suffered a defeat 
 in an engagement with the Americans, Sept. 11, 1818, when the British squadron on 
 Lake Champlain was captured. See United States. 
 
 PLAYS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece and Rome. 
 Plays became a general and favourite pastime about 165 B.C., but were performed on 
 occasions of festivity some ages before. The Trojan plays consisted of horse-races 
 and exercises of the youth, under a proper head or captain, wherein the utmost 
 dexterity was practised. The plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who 
 from the 12th to the 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that 
 goddess, went with a torch in their hands, as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. 
 The plays of Flora were so offensive that they were forced to be put down, women 
 appearing publicly naked, and in the night-time running about with links in their 
 hands, dancing to the sound of musical instruments, and singing immodest songs. 
 The funereal plays were plays in honour of the dead, and to satisfy their ghosts. 
 There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays were first acted 
 in England at Clerkenwell, a.d. 1397. The first company of players that received 
 the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage and others, the servants of the 
 earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 1574. Plays were subjected to a censor- 
 ship in 1737. See Drama and Theatres. 
 
 PLEADINGS. Clotharius held a kind of moveable parliament called placita, whence 
 came the word pleas, a.d. 616. — Renault. In the early courts of judicature in England, 
 pleadings were made iu the Saxon language in a.d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
 French from the period of the Conquest in 1066 ; and they so continued until the 36th 
 of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to be taken in English in 
 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in our courts of law till 1731. 
 
 PLOUGH MONDAY. This day occurs in January. It is the first Monday after the 
 Epiphany ; and received the appellation Plough Monday from its having been fixed 
 upon by our forefathers, as the day upon which they returned to the duties of agri- 
 culture after enjoying the festivities of Christmas. — Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, 
 the ploughmen in the north country drew a plough from door to door, and used to 
 beg plough-money to drink. — Bailey. 
 
 PLUM. We have two native plums : our finer kinds came from Italy and Flanders 
 about 1522. The Diospyros Lotus, the date-plum, was brought from Barbary, before 
 a.d. 1596. The Pishamin plum, Diospyros Virginiana, from America, before 1629. 
 This fruit incloses a seed or kernel in a hard shell, vulgarly called a stone. Formerly 
 damsons, apricots, and peaches went by this name, as do raisins to this day. 
 
 PLURAL NUMBER. The plural number we was first assumed in the royal style by 
 the kings of England. The pronoun We was first used instead of the pronoun 7, by 
 John, king of England, in 1199. — Coke's Instit. According to other authorities the 
 plural was used at a later date of the same reign. It was soon adopted by the other 
 European potentates. — Ashe. 
 
 PLYMOUTH BREAKWATER and DOCK. See Breakwater and Dock-yards. 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians calling themselves " the Brethren," 
 which first appeared at Plymouth about 1830, In 1851, they had 132 places of 
 worship in England and Wales. They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
 narian, and to dissenters as too sectarian. They receive into communion all 
 who confess Christ and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree 
 with those of most evangelical Protestant churches, but they recognise no order 
 of ministers. 
 
 POET-LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. The first 
 record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35th Henry III. 1251. The 
 laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shillings were his annual 
 Btipend. — Warton;* Madox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on his return from abroad, 
 
 * Warton, in his History of English Poetry, gives an early date to the appointment. So early as the 
 reign of Henry III. there was, he affirms, a Versificator Regis, to whom an annual stipend was first paid 
 of one hundred shillings. The first mention of a Poet Laureat occurs, we believe, in the reign of 
 
 K K 2 
 
POE 
 
 500 
 
 POI 
 
 assumed the title of poet-laureat : and in the twelfth year of Richard II. 1389, he 
 obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I. in 1615, granted to his 
 laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by 
 letters-patent of Charles I. to 100^. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce 
 of Canary Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
 
 NAMES OP PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 
 
 who died a.d. 1598 
 
 Samuel Daniel, died 1619 
 
 Ben Jonson, died 1637 
 
 Sir William Davenant, died . . . 1668 
 John Drydeu : he was deposed at the 
 
 revolution 1688 
 
 Thomas Shadwell, died . . . . 1092 
 
 Nahum Tate, died 1715 
 
 Nicholas Rowe 1718 
 
 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died a.d. 1730 
 
 Colley Cibber, died 1757 
 
 William Whitehead, died . . .1785 
 
 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died . . . 1790 
 Henry James Pye, died .... 1813 
 Dr. Robert Southey, died . March 21, 1843 
 William Wordsworth, died . April 23, 1850 
 
 Alfred Tennyson 1850 
 
 The present Poet-Laureat. 
 
 " At the accession of George I. Rowe was made poet-laureat, I am afraid by the 
 ejection of poor Nahum Tate, who died in the Mint, where he was forced to seek 
 shelter from extreme poverty." — Dr. Johnson. Serious thoughts had been entertained 
 of abolishing the office of poet-laureat, since the death of the gifted Wordsworth : 
 but the office, it will be seen, has lately been filled up by the appointment of the 
 universally and justly admired poet, the present (1857) holder of the laureatship. 
 On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended by one of our great histo- 
 rians, whose elegant compliment on the occasion still more forcibly applied on Words- 
 worth's death : " This is the best time for not filling up the office, when the prince is 
 a man of virtue, and the poet just departed was a man of genius." — Gibbon's Decline 
 and Fall, &c. chap. lxx. 
 
 POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species 
 of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and the earliest per- 
 petuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in 
 description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the invention of poetry is uncertain. In 
 Scriptural history, the song of Moses on the signal deliverance of the Israelites, B.C. 
 1491, and their passage through the Red Sea, is said to be the most ancient piece of 
 poetry in the world, and is very sublime. — Exodus xv. Orpheus of Thrace is the 
 earliest authoi - , and is deemed the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of 
 the world), about 1249 B.C. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to 
 us, flourished about 907 B.C. Parian Marb. Iambic verse (which see) was introduced 
 by Archilochus, 700 B.C. — Da Fresnoy. For odes, see Odes. We are told that poetry 
 (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to England by Aldhelme, or 
 Adeltuus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close of the seventh century. 
 
 POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their 
 husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A female slave denounced 170 
 of them to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 331 B.C. It 
 was said that this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome. — 
 Poisoning was made petty treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death 
 (of which there were some remarkable instances), 23 Hen. VIII. 1532. See Boiling 
 to Death. The frequency of cases of poisoning by means of arsenic, in England, 
 caused the British legislature to pass a law, rendering the sale of arsenic (which, 
 until then, could be obtained without check by any person, from druggists' and 
 apothecaries' shops) a matter of difficulty. This act regulated the sale of arsenic, and 
 was passed 14 Vic. c. 13, June 6, 1851. Two recent remarkable cases of poisoning 
 are those for which W. Palmer was executed in 1 856, and Miss M. Smith tried in 
 1857 (see Trials). A committed of the Commons on the subject of poisons was 
 appointed in 1857. 
 
 POISONING by WATER-TOFANA, or WIVES' POISON. The deadly poison so 
 freely administered by Italians in the seventeenth century, called aqua tofuna, from 
 the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. She carried 
 on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on being taken, con- 
 Edward IV., when John Kay was laureat; Andrew Bernard was laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and John 
 Skelton, temp. Henry VIII. Edmund Spenser, as above, was poet-laureat in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 Whitehead was created on the refusal of Gray, Warton on the refusal of Mason, and Southey on the 
 refusal of Scott. Laurence Eusden commenced a series of birth-day and New Years' Odes, which 
 continued till the death of Pye, in 1813. We believe that on Southey's appointment the tierce of 
 Canary wine was commuted for 27J. 
 
POI 
 
 501 
 
 POL 
 
 fessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons were 
 implicated by her, and many of them were publicly executed. All Italy was thrown 
 into a ferment, and many fled, and some persons of distinction, on conviction, 
 were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by married women 
 who were tired of their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the 
 effect was not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, 
 but the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of 
 the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered 
 it as a solution of crystallised arsenic. Between 1666 and 1676 the marchioness 
 de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. She was 
 executed July 16, 1676. 
 
 POITIERS, BATTLE of, in Fkance. Between Edward the Black Prince and John 
 king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of France was 
 overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. The French king was 
 taken prisoner, and brought to London, through which he was led amidst an amazing 
 concourse of spectators. Two kings, prisoners in the same court, and at the same 
 time were considered as glorious achievements; but all that England gained by 
 them was only glory, Sept. 19, 1356. — Carte. 
 
 POLAND. Anciently the country of the Vandals, who emigrated from it to invade 
 the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a.d. 550 ; and a kingdom 
 under Boleslaus, a.d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the emperor of Germany, 
 the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seized the most valuable territories 
 in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its political existence annihilated by the 
 above powers, in 1795. The king formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and was 
 afterwards removed to St. Petersburg, where he remained a kind of state prisoner till 
 his death in 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 
 
 Piastus, a peasant is elected to the ducal 
 dignity a.d. 842 
 
 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
 reign was so prosperous that every 
 succeeding native sovereign was called 
 a Piast.] 
 Introduction of Christianity . . . 992 
 Red Russia added to Poland . . . 1059 
 Boleslaus II. murders the bishop of 
 Cracow with his own hands ; his king- 
 dom laid under an interdict by the 
 pope, and his subjects absolved of their 
 
 allegiance 1080 
 
 He flies to Hungary for shelter; but is 
 refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
 and he at length kills himself . . 1081 
 
 Uladislaus deposed 1102 
 
 Premislas assassinated .... 1295 
 Louis of Hungary elected king . . . 1370 
 War against the Teutonic knights . . 1447 
 The Wallachians treacherously carry off 
 100,000 Poles, and sell them to the 
 
 Turks as slaves 1498 
 
 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. . . 1548 
 Stephen forms a militia composed of 
 Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
 he bestows the Ukraine . . . 1575 
 Abdication of John Casimir . . . 1669 
 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn . 1724 
 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins . . 1763 
 He abolishes torture .... 1770 
 An awful pestilence sweeps away 250,000 
 
 of the* people . . . a.d. 1770 
 
 The evils of civil war so weaken the 
 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
 royal plunderers, the empress of Rus- 
 sia, emperor of Austria, and king of 
 
 Prussia 1772 
 
 The first partition treaty . Feb. 17, 1772 
 The public partition treaty . Aug. 5, 1772 
 A new constitution is formed by the 
 
 virtuous Stanislaus . . May 3, 1791 
 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
 various pretexts, pour their armies 
 into Poland, 1792 et seq.] 
 
 The brave Poles, under Poniatowski and 
 Kosciusko, several times contend suc- 
 cessfully against superior armies, but 
 in the end are defeated. Kosciusko, 
 wounded and taken, is carried pri- 
 soner to Russia . . . ' . . 1794 
 Suwarrow's victories and massacres . . 1794 
 Battle of Warsaw . . . Oct. 12, 1794 
 
 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butchers 
 30,000 Poles of all ages and conditions 
 in cold blood.] 
 
 Courlaud is annexed to Russia . . 1795 
 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
 tition of his kingdom . . Nov. 25, 1795 
 Kosciusko set at liberty . Dec. 25, 1796 
 He arrives in London . . May 30, 1797 
 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg Feb. 12, 1798 
 Treaty of Tilsit (which see) . July 7, 1807 
 [The central provinces form the duchy 
 
 of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1813.] 
 General Diet at Warsaw . . June, 1812 
 New constitution . . . Nov. 1815 
 Cracow declared to be a free repub- 
 lic Nov. 1S15 
 
 Polish Diet opened . . . Sept. 1820 
 A revolution at Warsaw; the army de- 
 clare in favour of the people Nov. 29, 1S30 
 The Diet declares the throne of Poland 
 
 vacant Jan. 25, 1831 
 
 Battle of Growchow, near Praga ; the 
 Russians lose 7000 men ; the Poles, 
 who keep the field, 2000 . Feb. 20, 1831 
 Battle of Wawz (which see) March 31, 1831 
 The insurrection spreads to Wilna and 
 
 Volhynia .... April 3, 1831 
 Battle of Zelicho (which see) April 6, 1831 
 
 Battle of Seidlez . . April 10, 1831 
 
 Battle of Ostrolenka (which see), signal 
 
 defeat of the Russians . . May 26, 1831 
 The Russian general, Diebitsch, dies 
 
 June 10, 1831 
 Battle of Wilna (seeWilna) June 19, 1831 
 
 Grand duke Constautine dies June 27, 1831 
 Battle of Winsk (see Winsk) . July 14, 1831 
 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1831 
 
POL 
 
 502 
 
 POL 
 
 POLAND, continued. 
 
 [This last fatal event terminated the 
 memorable and glorious, but unfortu- 
 nate struggle of the Poles.] 
 
 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
 decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
 shall henceforth form an integral part 
 of the Russian empire . . Feb. 26, 1832 
 
 General and serious attempt at revolu- 
 tion in Poland* . . Feb. 22, 1846 
 
 The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia 
 revoke the treaty of 1815, constituting 
 
 Cracow a free republic, and Cracow is 
 declared Austrian territory Nov. 16, 1846 
 
 [Soon afterwards the Austrians take pos- 
 session of Cracow. This annexation is 
 protested against by England, France, 
 Sweden, and Turkey.] 
 
 The kingdom of Poland is incorporated 
 with Russia, and finally made a Russian 
 province .... May, 1847 
 
 See Cracow and Warsaw ; see, also, Russia 
 and Turkey for late events. 
 
 DCKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 
 
 842. Piastus. 1501. 
 
 861. Ziemovitus, his son. 
 
 892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 1506. 
 
 913. Ziemomislas, son of Lesko. 
 964. Miecislasl. 1548. 
 
 992. Boleslas I. surnamed the Lion-hearted ; 
 obtained the title of king from the 
 emperor Otho III. 1573. 
 
 1025. Miecislas II. 1574. 
 
 1034. Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent; 
 driven from the government. 
 
 1037. [Interregnum.] 1575. 
 
 1041. Casimir I. her son, surnamed the Pa- 
 cific ; he had retired to a monasteiy, 
 but was invited to the throne. 1586. 
 
 1058. Boleslas II. styled the Intrepid. 1587. 
 
 1081. Ladislas, called the Careless. 
 
 1102. Boleslas III. surnamed Wry-mouth. 
 
 1138. Ladislas II. son of the preceding. 1632. 
 
 1146. Boleslas IV. the Curled. 
 
 1173. Miecislas III. the Old: deposed. 
 
 1177. Casimir II. surnamed the Just. 
 
 1194. Lesko V. the White : relinquished. 
 
 1200. Miecislas IV. : his tyranny restored 1668, 
 Lesko, but the lattsr was again forced 1669. 
 to resign. 
 
 1203. Ladislas III. : retired. 
 
 1206. Lesko V. a third time ; assassinated ; 
 succeeded by his son, an infant. 
 
 1227. Boleslas V. surnamed the Chaste. 
 
 1279. Lesko VI. surnamed the Black. 
 
 1289. [Interregnum.] 1697, 
 
 1295. Premislas ; assassinated. 1697. 
 
 1296. Ladislas IV. the Short : deposed. 
 1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia. 
 1304. Ladislas, the Short, again. 1704, 
 1333. Casimir HI. the Great, one of the best 
 
 princes of Poland; killed by a fall 1709. 
 
 from his horse. 1734, 
 
 1370. Louis, king of Hungary. 
 1332. [Interregnum.] 1763. 
 
 13S5. Hedwige, daughter of Louis, and her 1764, 
 
 consort, Ja^cllo, duke of Lithuania, 
 
 by the style of Ladislas V. 1772, 
 
 1399. Ladis.as V. alone : he united Lithuania 
 
 to Poland. 1793. 
 
 1434. Ladislas VI. his son; succeeded as king 
 
 of Hungary, 1440. 
 1445. [Interregnum.] 
 1^45. Casimir IV. 
 1492. John (Albert) I. his son. 
 
 Alexander, prince of Livonia, brother 
 of the preceding. 
 
 Sigismund I. brother of Alexander ; ob- 
 tained the surname of the Great. 
 
 Sigismund II. Augustus, son of the 
 last king ; a splendid reign ; added 
 Livonia to his kingdom. 
 
 [Interregnum] 
 
 Henry, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
 king of France : he afterwards suc- 
 ceeded to the French throne. 
 
 Stephen Batthori, prince of Transyl- 
 vania : established the Cossacks as a 
 militia. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Sigismund III. son of the king of Swe- 
 den, to the exclusion of Maximilian 
 of Austria, elected by the nobles. 
 
 Ladislas VII. Vasa. son of Sigismund 
 HI. ; succeeded by his brother. 
 
 John II. or Casimir V. ; abdicated, and 
 retired to France, where he died in 
 1672. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this 
 reign the Cossacks join the Turks, and 
 ravage Poland. 
 
 John III. Sobieski ; an illustrious war- 
 rior, whose victories over the Cossacks, 
 Turks, and Tartars, procure him the 
 crown. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Frederick- Augustus.son of John-George, 
 elector of Saxony, and elector in 1694, 
 deprived of his crown. 
 
 Stanislas I. (Lezinski) forced to retire 
 from his kingdom. 
 
 Frederick-Augustus, again. 
 
 Frederick- Augustus II. son of the pre- 
 ceding sovereign. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Stanislaus II. Augustus Poniatowski, 
 commences his unhappy reign. 
 
 The Austrians, Russians, and Prussians 
 make their first division of Poland. 
 
 Second great division of the kingdom by 
 the same powers. 
 
 Final partition of Poland, and deposition 
 of the king, who died at St. Peters- 
 burg, a state prisoner, in 179S. 
 
 * This revolution will be better described in the way of narrative. On February 22, 1S46, an Austrian 
 force under general Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of armed bands of peasantry, 
 was attacked and driven out of the town. A Provisional Government was then proclaimed by the 
 insurgents, and two days afterwards they crossed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the peasantry 
 of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and clergy to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The 
 Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the 
 motives of the nobles, and offered a reward for every noble delivered up, alive or dead: a general 
 massacre of the nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the insurgents from Cracow were 
 defeated at Gdow, whence they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow ; here they were attacked 
 by general Collin, and driven into Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three powers 
 then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people in the town opened negociations with the Austrians 
 about a surrender, and while these were going on, a Russian corps entered the town without resistance, 
 and soon afterwards the revolution was at an end. 
 
POL 503 POL 
 
 POLAR REGIONS. For Voyages of Discovery to the, see North-West Passage. 
 
 POLE STAR, or POLAR STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail 
 of the constellation called the Little Bear ; its nearness to the North Pole causes it 
 never to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
 seaman's guide. One of the stars in the constellation Ursa Major, or Great Bear, is 
 called the pointer to the Polar star. The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
 . Chinese to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and 
 flourished 1970 B.C. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various periods. Its 
 jurisdiction was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 1640 ; and the system 
 improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The London police grew out of the 
 London watch, instituted about 1253. Police statutes 5, 11, 32, and 54 Geo. III. 
 The magistracy at Bow-street has been long established. The jurisdiction of twenty- 
 one magistrates, three to preside in each of the seven divisional offices, commenced 
 Aug. 1, 1792. The Thames police was established in 1798. The London police was 
 remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by statute 10 Geo. IV. June 19, 1829, 
 and commenced duty Sept. 29 following. The London Police Improvement acts 
 passed 3 Vict. 1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 2, 1856. 
 Dublin police commenced Sept. 29, 1786 ; remodelled in 1807, and 1824. New act 
 passed July 4, 1836. See Constabulary. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. Its history in 
 this country may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth of 
 Nations, 1776. The works of Mill, and Mc Culloch are justly celebrated. 
 
 POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well 
 regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cunning man. — Pardon. 
 A man of artifice; one of deep contrivance. — South. One versed in public affairs. — 
 Shalcspeare. One versed in the arts of government, and skilled in politics. — Johnson. 
 The term was first used in France about a.d. 1569. — Menault. A new faction appeared, 
 known by the name of Politicians, headed by the due d'Alencon and the Montmoren- 
 cies, and strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots, in 1574. — Idem. The duke 
 was arrested, and the Montmorencies sent to the Bastile. — Idem. 
 
 POLL-ACT, Ireland. An iniquitous act passed in that country by the Junto of the 
 Pale, putting a price upon the heads of certain of the ancient Irish, the earl of Des- 
 mond being the deputy, 5 Edward IV. 1465. This act endured for a number of years. 
 For particulars of the nature and objects of the act, see note to article Ireland. 
 Numbers of the Irish suffered under this act. — Scully. 
 
 POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a.d. 1378. The rebellion of 
 Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tyler, Wat, his Rebellion), 1381. It was again 
 levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz. 
 ■ — a duke 100Z. a marquis 80?. a baronet 301. a knight 20Z. an esquire 10/. and every 
 single private person 12d.; 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. 
 at the period of the Revolution. 
 
 POLOTSK, BATTLE of. The French under marshal Oudinot were defeated by the 
 Russians under general Wittgenstein, July 30 and 31, 1812. The same armies con- 
 tending the next day, the Russians were defeated. After several actions of less note, 
 in which the advantage was sometimes on one, sometimes on the other side, Polotsk 
 was stormed by the Russians, and retaken, Oct. 20, 1812. 
 
 POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. It was 
 general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and Persians. In 
 Media, it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven wives. Among the 
 Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who took two wives ; and the practice 
 became frequent until forbidden by Arcadius, ad. 393. The emperor Charles V. 
 punished this offence with death. In England, by statute 1 Jas. I. 1603, it was made 
 felony, but with benefit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. 
 It is permitted by the Mormonites. See Marriages. 
 
 POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting "many languages," 
 and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible, termed the Com- 
 plutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, was printed at Alcala (Complutensis) in Spain, 
 a.d. 1514-17 ; the first edition at the expense of the celebrated Cardinal Ximenes, 
 costing 250,000 ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed; three on vellum. 
 
POL 504 PON 
 
 Count Mac Carthy, of Toulouse, paid 483?. for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 
 The second Polyglot was printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. 
 The third was printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in 
 London, printed by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Burnet. Copies of all four 
 are in the library of the British and Foreign Bible Society. 
 
 POLYPUS. An insect, named Hydi'a, on account of its property of reproducing itself 
 when cut in pieces, every part soon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by 
 Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philosophical Trans. 1703 ; but the 
 wonderful property in question was not thoroughly ascertained till March 1740, when 
 Mr. Trembly made it manifest. The polypi are of the order of Zoophytes ; they par- 
 take of the animal and vegetable nature, and therefore are justly placed as the link 
 which joins the animal to the vegetable world. 
 
 POMEGRANATE TREE. Punka Granatum. It was brought to England from Spain 
 before a.d. 1584. It originally came from Spanish America. In Peru, the fruit is said 
 to have been found as large as a barrel ; and the Spaniards, by way of curiosity, used 
 to cany it in the procession of the sacrament. The pomegranate is one of the most 
 favourite fruits of Spain and Portugal, where it grows abundantly. — Ashe. 
 
 POMFRET CASTLE. Built a d. 1069. Here Richard II. was confined and murdered. 
 Henry IV. by whom he was deposed, wishing for his death, one of the assassins of 
 the court, attended by eight followers, rushed into the apartment of the unfortunate 
 king. Richard, concluding that their design was to take away his life, resolved not to 
 fall unrevenged ; wherefore, wresting his pole-axe from one of the murderers, he soon 
 laid four of their number dead at his feet. But he was at length overpowered, and 
 struck dead by the blow of a pole-axe, Feb. 13, 1400. In this castle also, the earl 
 Rivers, lord Gray, sir Thomas Vaughan, and sir Richard Hawse were executed, or 
 rather murdered, by order of the duke of Gloucester, then protector of England 
 (afterwards Richard III.), June 13, 1483. 
 
 POMPEII, RUINS of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished by an 
 earthquake in a.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was swallowed up by an awful 
 eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of 
 August, a.d. 79. Many of the principal citizens happened at the time to be assembled 
 at a theatre where public spectacles were exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, 
 and covered the surrounding country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a country- 
 man, as he was turning up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this 
 discovery attracting the attention of the learned, further search brought numerous 
 productions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
 Different monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried city; the part 
 first cleared was supposed to be the main street, A.D. 1750. 
 
 POMPEY'S PILLAR. A remarkable vestige of antiquity, standing about three quarters 
 of a mile from Alexandria, between the city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is 
 fluted, and the capital ornamented with palm-leaves; the whole, which is highly 
 polished, composed of three pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column measures, 
 according to some, 94 feet; though other travellers state it to be 141, and even as 
 much as 160 feet; but of its origin, name, use, and age, nothing is certain. It is 
 generally believed, however, that the column has no reference to Pompey, to whom 
 a mark of honour was, nevertheless, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes 
 the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to Severus; and Mr. Clarke, from a 
 half-effaced inscription on the base, discovers that Adriau is the person honoured ; 
 while many assert, from the same inscription, that it is dedicated " to Diocletius 
 Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of Alexandria." 
 
 PONDICHERRY, India. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by the 
 French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was besieged by 
 the English in 1748. It was taken by our forces in Jan. 1761, and was restored in 
 1763. Again taken Oct. 1778, and restored in 1783. Pondicherry was once more 
 captured by the British, Aug. 23, 1793; and finally in 1803. 
 
 PONTIFF. A high priest so called from the Roman Pontifices, established by Numa. 
 The college first consisted of 4 patricians, to these 4 plebeians were afterwards added. 
 Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 tninores). The chief was called the 
 Pontifex maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian obtained this office B.C. 254. 
 
 PONTUS. The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a portion of 
 Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity to the Pontus Euxinus) is very 
 
POO 
 
 505 
 
 POO 
 
 obscure. Artabazus was made king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes. His successors 
 were little more tban satraps or lieutenants of tbe kings of Persia, and are scarcely 
 known even by name. 
 
 Artabazus made king of Pontus by Da- 
 rius Hystaspes . . . .B.C. 
 
 Beign of Mithridates I 
 
 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus . 
 
 Mithridates II. recovers it . . . . 
 
 Mithridates III. reigns .... 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. reigns . . . . 
 
 Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital 
 by the Gauls, &c 
 
 Mithridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
 tack upon the free city of Sinope, and 
 is obliged to raise the siege by the 
 Ehodians 219 
 
 Beign of Pharnaces; he takes Sinope, 
 and makes it the capital of his kingdom 183 
 
 Reign of Mithridates V 157 
 
 He is murdered in the midst of his court 123 
 
 Mithridates VI. surnamed the Great, or 
 Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 
 . years of age 123 
 
 Marries Laodice, his own sister . . 115 
 
 She attempts to poison him ; he puts her 
 and her accomplices to death . . . 
 
 Mithridates makes a glorious campaign; 
 conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 
 and other countries .... 
 
 He enters Cappadocia 97 
 
 His war with Borne 89 
 
 252 
 
 112 
 
 111 
 
 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia . B.C. 
 
 Mithridates enters Bithyoia, and makes 
 himself master of many Boman pro 
 vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to 
 death 
 
 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chsero 
 nea : 100,000 Cappadocians slain 
 
 Victories and conquests of Mithridates 
 up to this time .... 
 
 The fleet of Mithridates defeats that 
 under Lucullus, in two battles 
 
 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . 
 
 Mithridates defeats Fabius . 
 
 But is defeated by Pompey 
 
 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies 
 
 Beign of Pharnaces . 
 
 Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces de 
 feated by Ca;sar 
 
 Darius reigns 
 
 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 
 
 Polemon II. succeeds his father . a.d 
 
 Mithiidates VII. reigns 
 
 Pontus afterwards became a Boman pro 
 vince, under the emperors. 
 
 Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire 
 of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
 country, a.d. 1204, which continued till 
 the Turks destroyed it, in 1459. 
 
 74 
 
 How numerous tbe inhabitants of Pontus were, and what particular customs they had, 
 we at present .know not ; though it is probable that, in their general characteristics, 
 they were similar to the Cappadocians, with whom, indeed, they were frequently 
 confounded. Many of the sovereigns of Pontus not only encouraged men of science 
 and literature, but also applied themselves to study, particularly to that of botany. 
 The herb centaury derives its Greek name from Pharnaces I. ; and Mithridates the 
 Great composed an antidote to poisons, which is retained in the modern pharmacopoeia, 
 and bears his name. 
 
 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as the poor 
 of Ireland until 1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By an ancient statute 
 23 Edw. III. 1348, it was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. 
 By the common law, the poor were to be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, 
 and parishioners, so that none should die for default of sustenance;" and by statute 
 15 Rich II. impropriators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor. But 
 no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The origin of the 
 present system of poor laws is referred to the 43rd of Elizabeth, 1600. 
 
 In 1580 
 
 the Poor Bates were 
 
 . £188,S11 
 
 1680, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 665,562 
 
 1698, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 819,000 
 
 1760, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 . 1,556,S04 
 
 1785, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 . 2,184,950 
 
 1802, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 . 4,952,421 
 
 1815, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 . 5,418,845 
 
 1820, 
 
 they amounted to 
 
 . 7,329,594 
 
 In 1830, the Poor Bates were . £8,111,422 
 
 1835, they amounted to . . 6,356,345 
 
 1840, they amounted to . . 5,468,699 
 
 1845, they amounted to . . 5,543,650 
 
 1850, year ending March 25 . 3,816,909 
 
 1850, last half of this year . . 1,803,591 
 
 1851, half year to Michaelmas . 1,609,761 
 1853, the Poor Bates were . . 6,522,412 
 
 The Poor Law Amendment bill was passed 4 & 5 Will. IV. Aug. 1834. This statute 
 was followed by Amendment acts, 6 & 7 Will. IV. 1836, and act 1 Vict. 11th June, 
 
 1838. Several amendments followed ; acts relating to the removal of the poor, 
 9 & 10, and 10 & 11 Vict. Aug. 1846, and July 1847, respectively. The Poor Law 
 (Ireland) act was passed 2 Vict. July 31, 1838, and was amended 2 Vict. March 15, 
 
 1839. The Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in Aid act passed 12 Vict. cap. 24, May 1849. 
 In Scotland, in the year ending May 1851, the number relieved was 141,870, at an 
 average cost of 21. 2s. 5d. and the expenditure was 535,943Z. In Ireland, the poor's 
 rate for the year ending Sept. 1851, was 1,101,878Z. — Poor Law Returns. On Jan. 1, 
 1856, in England, 876,655 paupers were receiving relief. An agitation for the equali- 
 sation of poor's rates throughout the kingdom began in 1857. 
 
 POOR KNIGHTS of WINDSOR. Instituted by Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7. 
 Their original number was thirteen, but the knights were subsequently increased to 
 twenty-eight ; and the institution underwent modifications from time to time. King 
 
POP 
 
 306 
 
 POP 
 
 William IV. changed the name by which these knights had been till then known, and 
 they were designated " Military Knights of Windsor," in consequence of their having 
 all held commissions in the army, Sept. 1833. The "Naval Knights of Windsor" 
 are maintained on a distinct foundation, under the bequest of Samuel Travers. 
 
 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hyginus, 
 a.d. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phocaa, emperor of the East, to confine 
 it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Phocas also, the pope's 
 supremacy over the Christian Church was established. The custom of kissing the 
 pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign act of the popes of Rome 
 was by Adrian I. who caused money to be coined with his name, 780. Sergius II. 
 was the first pope who changed his name, on his election in 844. Some contend 
 that it was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIII. 
 a layman, was made pope, 1024. The first pope who kept an army was Leo. IX. 1054. 
 Gregory VII. obliged Henry IV. emperor of Germany, to stand three days, in the 
 depth of wiuter, barefooted at his castle-gate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The 
 pope's authority was firmly fixed in England, 1079. Appeals from English tribunals 
 to the pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of 
 England held the stirrup for pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161 ; and also 
 for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown off his head 
 while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmaking kings, 1191. The 
 pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of England, 1226. The papal seat 
 was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, for seventy years. The Holy See's 
 demands on England were refused by parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from 
 England were abolished, 1533. — Viner. The words "Lord Pope" were struck out of 
 all English books, 1541. The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the 
 pope's toe, and other ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope 
 became destitute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burned in 
 effigy at Paris, 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
 expelled from Rome, and deposed, Feb. 22, 1798, and died at Valence, Aug. 19, 1799. 
 Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was dethroned, May 13, 1809. 
 Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napoleon's overthrow ; and was restored 
 May 24, 1814. See Italy; Borne; Reformation; and Rome, Modern. 
 
 BTSHOPS AND POPES OP ROME. 
 
 42. St. Peter : crucified, his head down- 
 wards, in 66. 
 ** St. Clement (Clemens Romania); accord- 
 ing to 1'erlullian. 
 66. St. Linus : | martyred. 
 7S. St. Anacletus: martyred. 
 91. St. Clement: abdicated. 
 100. St. Evaristus : martyred. 
 109. St. Alexander : martyred. 
 119. St. Sixtus : martyred. 
 128. St. Telesphorus : martyred. 
 139. St. Hyginus : the first who called him- 
 self pope. 
 142. St. Pius : martyred. 
 157. St. Anicetus. 
 168. St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus 
 
 Antoninus. 
 176. St. Eleutherus : he opposed with great 
 zeal the doctrine of the Valentinians. 
 192. St. Victor : martyred under Severus. 
 202. St. Zephiriuus. 
 219. St. Calixtus : martyred. 
 
 222. [The chair vacant ] 
 
 223. St. Urban : beheaded in the persecution 
 
 of Alexander Severus. 
 
 230. St. Pontianus: banished by the emperor 
 Maximin. 
 
 235. St. Anterus : martyred. 
 
 236. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius. 
 
 250. [The chair vacant. ] 
 
 251. St. Cornelius : died the next year. 
 
 252. St Lucius: martyred the year following. 
 
 Novatianus ; antipope. 
 
 253. St. Stephen: martyred in the persecution 
 
 of Valeiian. 
 
 257. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) martyred three 
 
 days before his faithful disciple St. 
 Laurence, in the persecution of Vale- 
 rian, 258. 
 
 258. [The chair vacant] 
 
 259. Dionysius : opposed the heresy of Sabel- 
 
 lius. 
 
 269. Felix : martyred ; canonised. 
 
 275. Eutychianus : martyred. 
 
 283. Caius : a relative of the emperor Dio- 
 cletian. 
 
 296. Marcellinus : distinguished by his cou- 
 rage under a severe persecution ; 
 canonised. 
 
 304. [The chair vacant.] 
 
 * "When Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met Pope Alexander HI. at the castle 
 of Torci, on the Loire, they b> th dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reins 
 of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle. " 
 — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englishman that ever obtained the tiara. His arrogance was 
 such, that he obliged Fredeiick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and 
 lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brakespeai e, a native of Abbot's 
 Langley, a village near St. Alban's, Herts. He was elected to the popedom in 1154. 
 
 t St. Linus is set down in nearly all accounts of popes as the immediate successor of St. Peter ; but 
 Tertullian, who was, undoubtedly, well informed, maiutains that St. Clement succeeded the Apostle. 
 In the first century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession, nor the succession of popes, 
 are reconciled, even by the best authorities. 
 
POP 
 
 507 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 308. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the 
 emperor Maxentius ; canonised. 
 
 310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 
 
 311. St. Melchiades: coadjutor to Eusebius. 
 314. Silvester. 
 
 336. Marcus or Mark : died the next year. 
 
 337. Julius: of great piety and learning; main- 
 
 tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 
 
 352. Liberius : banished ; and in 
 
 356. Felix II. ; antipope : placed in the chair 
 by Constans, during the exile of Libe- 
 rius, on whose return he was driven 
 from it with ignominy. 
 
 [The emperor would have the two popes 
 reign together; but the people cried 
 out, " One God, one Christ, and one 
 bishop."] 
 
 358 Liberius, again : abdicated. 
 
 358. Felix became legal pope ; but he was 
 
 made away with by Liberius. 
 
 359. Liberius, again. 
 
 366. Damascus : opposed the Arians : St. 
 
 Jerome was his secretary. 
 384. Siricius : succeeded to the exclusion of 
 
 Ursicinus. 
 398. Anastasius : caused the works of Origen 
 
 to be proscribed. 
 402. Innocent I. 
 
 417. Zosimus: canonised. 
 
 418. Boniface I. : maintained in the pontifical 
 
 chair by the emperor Honorius, against 
 
 his rival, Eulalius : canonised. 
 422. Celestine I. : canonised. 
 432. Sixtus III. : suppressed the heresies of 
 
 Nestorius and Pelagius in the West. 
 440. Leo I. the Great : most zealous in his 
 
 endeavours to extend the papal see : 
 
 canonised. 
 461. St. Hilary. 
 468. St. Simplicius. 
 483. Felix III. : had a violent dispute with 
 
 the emperor Zeno respecting the 
 
 Western Church : canonised. 
 492. Gelasius : canonised. 
 496. Anastasius II. : endeavoured to bring 
 
 about a unity between the Eastern 
 
 and Western Churches : canonised. 
 498. Symmachus : canonised. 
 514. Laurentius : antipope. 
 514. Hormisdas : canonised. 
 523. John I. : thrown into prison, where be 
 
 died in 526. 
 526. Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as 
 
 a sacrament : canonised. 
 530. Boniface II. 
 533. John II. : opposed the Eutychians and 
 
 Nestorians. 
 
 535. Agapetus : died the same year. 
 
 536. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who 
 
 had married before entering into the 
 ecclesiastical state. The empress 
 Theodosia violently persecuted him, 
 and procured his banishment into 
 Lycia, making Vigilius his successor. 
 
 538. Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
 
 555. Pelagius I. : endeavoured to reform the 
 manners of the clergy. 
 
 560. John HI. : the great omamenter of 
 churches. 
 
 573. [The see vacant.] 
 
 574. Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
 
 578. Pelagius II. : died of the plague then 
 desolating Rome. 
 
 590. Gregory the Great, an illustrious patri- 
 cian : converted the English to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 604. Sabinianus. 
 
 606. Boniface III. : died in a few months. 
 
 607. Boniface IV. 
 
 614. Deusdedit. 
 617. Boniface V. 
 625. Honorius I. 
 
 639. [The see vacant.] 
 
 640. Severinus : died shortly after. 
 640. John IV. 
 
 642. Theodorus I. 
 
 649. Martin I. : starved to death, some say ; 
 
 died of his sufferings, others. 
 654. Eugenius I. : canonised. 
 657. Vitalianus : this pope sent missionaries 
 
 into England. 
 672. Adeodatus, the " Gift of God." 
 676. Domnus I. 
 678. Agathon. 
 682. Leo II. : instituted holy water. 
 
 653. [The see vacant.] 
 
 654. Benedict II. 
 
 655. John V. : ruled with wisdom. 
 
 656. Conon. 
 
 6S6. Theodore and Pascal ; antipopes. 
 
 687. Sergius : " governed wisely." 
 
 701. John VI. 
 
 705. John VII. 
 
 70S. Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 
 
 708. Constantine. 
 
 715. Gregory II. : canonised. 
 
 731. Gregory III. : the first pope who sent 
 nuncios to foreign powers. 
 
 741. Zacharias. 
 
 752. Stephen II. : with this pope commenced 
 the temporal power of the Church of 
 Rome. 
 
 757. Paul I. : moderate and pious. 
 
 768. Stephen III. 
 
 772. Adrian I. : sanctioned images, in which 
 he was opposed by the kings of Eng- 
 land and France. 
 
 795. Leo III. 
 
 816. Stephen IV. : died the next year. 
 
 817. Pascal I. 
 824. Eugenius II. 
 
 827. Valentinus. 
 
 828. Gregory IV. 
 844. Sergius II. 
 847. Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 
 
 [Between Leo IV. and the next pontiff, 
 Benedict III. an absurd story, not 
 worth refutation, places " pope Joan." 
 ~Henault.~\ 
 
 S55. Benedict III. : opposed by an antipope 
 called Anastasius. 
 
 858. Nicholas I. styled the Great. 
 
 867. Adrian II. 
 
 872. John VIII. : it is to this John that some 
 authors refer the scandalous fabrica- 
 tion of pope Joan ; but they err even 
 in point of time. See above. 
 
 882. Martin II. 
 
 884. Adrian III. : died the next year. 
 
 885. Stephen V. 
 
 891. Formosus: died detested ; his corpse was 
 thrown into the river Tiber. 
 
 896. Boniface VI. : deposed. 
 
 897. Romanus : antipope. 
 
 897. Stephen VI. : strangled in prison. 
 
 898. Theodorus II. : governed 22 days. 
 898. John IX. 
 
 900. Benedict IV. 
 
 903. Leo V. : driven from his seat a few 
 
 months after his election, and died 
 in prison. 
 
 904. Sergius III. : disgraced his dignity by 
 
 his vices. 
 911. Anastasius III. 
 
 913. Landonius, or Lando. 
 
 914. John X. : resigned, and was stifled by 
 
 Guy, duke of Tuscany. 
 
 pious and learned. 
 
POP 
 
 503 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 928. Leo VI. : considered an intruder by many 
 
 Roman Catholic historians. 
 
 929. Stephen VII. 
 
 931. John XI. : imprisoned in the castle of 
 St. Angelo, where he died. 
 
 936. Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 
 
 939. Stephen VIII.: "of ferocious character." 
 
 942. Martin III. 
 
 946. Agapetus II. : of holy life. 
 
 956. JohnXII., called the Infamous: deposed 
 for adultery and cruelty, and, in the 
 end, murdered. 
 
 [The preceding pope is said to have been 
 the first who changed his name on his 
 elevation to the papal chair.] 
 
 963. Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair, 
 
 though an intruder. — Baroniu*. 
 963. Benedict V. : chosen on the death of 
 John XII. but opposed by Leo VIII. 
 who was supported by the emperor 
 Otho : the Roman people were obliged 
 to abandon his cause. 
 965. John XIII. elected by the authority 
 of the emperor against the popular 
 will. 
 972. Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 
 974. Boniface VII. 
 
 974. Domnus II. 
 
 975. Benedict VII. 
 
 983. John XIV. 
 
 984. John XV. : died before consecration. 
 !»85. John XVI. 
 
 996. Gregory V. An antipope named John 
 XVII. was set up but expelled by the 
 emperor. 
 999. Silvester II. 
 
 1003. John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same 
 year. 
 
 1003. John XVIII. : abdicated. 
 
 1009. Sergius IV. ' 
 
 1012. Benedict VIII. 
 
 1024. John XIX. 
 
 1033. Benedict IX. : became pope, by pur- 
 chase, at 12 years of age : expelled. 
 
 1044. Gregory VI. : abdicated. 
 
 1046. Clement II. (the Romanists call Clemens 
 
 Romanus the first Clement): died next 
 year. 
 
 1047. Benedict again : again deposed. 
 
 1048. Damasus II. : died soon after. 
 
 1045. Leo IX. : canonised. 
 
 1054. [The throne vacant one year.] 
 
 1055. Victor II. 
 
 1057. Stephen IX. 
 
 1058. Benedict X. ; an antipope : expelled. 
 1058 Nicholas II. 
 
 1061. Alexander II. : he canned the papal 
 
 Eower to a height it had not reached 
 efore. 
 1073. Gregory VII. the celebrated Hilde- 
 brand ; remarkable for the unex- 
 ampled powers he usurped, and his 
 unprincipled career.* 
 10S5. [Throne vacant one year.] 
 1086. Victor III. 
 
 1088. 
 
 1099. 
 1118. 
 1119. 
 1124. 
 1130. 
 1143. 
 1144. 
 
 1145. 
 1153. 
 1154. 
 
 1159. 
 
 1181. 
 1185. 
 1187. 
 1187. 
 1191. 
 1198. 
 
 1216. 
 1227. 
 
 1241. 
 
 1241. 
 
 1243. 
 1254. 
 1261. 
 
 12G5. 
 
 1268. 
 1271. 
 
 1276. 
 1276. 
 
 1276. 
 1276. 
 1277. 
 1281. 
 1285. 
 1288. 
 
 1292. 
 1294. 
 1294. 
 
 1304. 
 1305. 
 
 1314. 
 1316. 
 
 Urban II. : in this pontificate com- 
 menced the great crusade. 
 
 Pascal II. 
 
 Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. 
 
 Calixtus II. 
 
 Honorius II. 
 
 Innocent II. 
 
 Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 
 
 Lucius II. : killed by accident in a 
 popular commotion. 
 
 Eugenius III. : canonised. 
 
 Auastasius IV. : ruled a short time only. 
 
 Adrian IV. or Nicholas Brakespeare, an 
 Englishman : born near St. Albans. 
 
 Alexander III. : aveoger of the murder 
 of Thomas a Becket. 
 
 Lucius III. 
 
 Urban III. 
 
 Gregory VIII. : ruled only two months. 
 
 Clement III. 
 
 Celestine III. 
 
 Innocent III. (Lothario Conti): excom- 
 municated king John of England. 
 
 Honorius III. : learned and pious. 
 
 Gregory IX. : caused a new crusade to 
 be undertaken. 
 
 Celestine IV. : died in 18 days after his 
 election. 
 
 [Throne vacant 1 year and 7 mouths.] 
 
 Innocent IV. : gave the red hat. 
 
 Alexander IV. 
 
 Urban IV. 
 
 Clement IV., an enlightened French- 
 man, previously cardinal and legate 
 to Euglaud: discouraged the crusades. 
 
 [Throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 
 
 Gregory X. : elected while he was with 
 Edward I. of England in the Holy 
 Land. 
 
 Innocent V. : died shortly after. 
 
 Adrian V. ; legate to England in 1254 : 
 died 36 days after election. 
 
 Vicedominus : died the next day. 
 
 John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 
 
 Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 
 
 Martin IV. 
 
 Honorius IV. : promoted the crusades. 
 
 Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up 
 the princes of Christendom to a new 
 crusade, but without success. 
 
 [Throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
 
 Celestine V. : resigned from fear. 
 
 Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that "God 
 had set him over kings and king- 
 doms : " imprisoned his predecessor, 
 and laid France and Denmark under 
 interdict. 
 
 Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pon- 
 tiff; poisoned by some ambitious 
 cardinals, a short time after his 
 election. 
 
 [Throne vacant 11 months.] 
 
 Clement V. Bertrand the Goth : removed 
 the papal seat from Rome to Avignon. 
 
 [Throne vacant 2 years and 4 mouths.] 
 
 John XXII. 
 
 * In the eleventh century the power of the pontiff of Rome seems to have reached its utmost 
 height. Gregory VII. the famous Hildebrand, assumed the exclusive title of Pope, which till then had 
 been common to other bishops ; and his successors carried their pretensions so far as to hold them- 
 selves out as lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate of empires, and supreme rulers of the kings 
 and princes of the earth. In this character they proceeded to dispose of kingdoms, and to loose 
 subjects from their allegiance, as is remarkably instanced in the history of John, king of England. At 
 length they affirmed the whole earth to be their property, as well where Christianity had been pro- 
 pagated, as where it had not ; and therefore, on the discovery of the East and West Indies and America, 
 Alexander VI. in 1493 granted to the Portuguese a right to all the countries lying to the eastward, and 
 to the Spaniards all those westward of Cape Non, in Africa, which they might respectively be able to 
 conquer. They finally pretended to be lords of the future world also, and by licenses, pardons, dis- 
 pensations, and indulgences, which they sold to the best bidders, to have a power of restraining, 
 and in some instances of subverting, even the Divine justice itself. — Aspin ; Lives of the Popes. 
 
 I 
 
POP 
 
 509 
 
 POP 
 
 POPE, continued. 
 
 1334. Benedict XII. [Nicholas V. ; antipope, 
 at Eome.] 
 
 1342. Clement VI. : a learned prelate, a 
 generous prince, and amiable man. 
 — Petrarch. 
 
 1352. Innocent VI. 
 
 1362. Urban V. : illustrious as a patron of 
 learning. 
 
 1370. Gregory XI. : also an eminent protector 
 of learning : he restored the papal 
 chair to Rome. 
 
 1378. Urban IV. : so severe and cruel that the 
 cardinals chose Robert of Geneva, 
 under the name of Clement VII., 
 which led to great violence. 
 
 1389. Boniface IX. 
 
 1394. Benedict (called XIII.) : antipope at 
 Avignon. 
 
 1404. Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 
 
 1406. Gregory XII. Angelo Corario : elected 
 during the schism in the Bast ; Bene- 
 dict XIII. being the other pope : both 
 popes were deposed. 
 
 1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 
 
 1410. John XXIII. : elected during the great 
 
 schism : deposed. 
 
 1417. Martin V. Otho Colonna. 
 
 1431. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : de- 
 posed by the council of Basil, and 
 Amadeus of Savoy chosen, as Felix V. 
 in 1439 ; antipope. 
 
 1447. Nicholas V. 
 
 1455. Calixtus III, 
 
 1458. Pius II. iEneas Silvius Piccolomini. 
 
 1464. Paul II., a noble Venetian. 
 
 1471. SixtusIV. 
 
 1484. Innocent VIII., a noble Genoese. 
 
 1492. Alexander VI. the infamous Roderic 
 Borgia : poisoned at a feast by drink- 
 ing of a bowl he had prepared for 
 another. 
 
 1503. Pius III. Francis Todeschini: died 21 
 days after election. 
 
 1503. Julius II. Julian de la Ruvere. 
 
 1513. Leo X. (John de Medici) : this pope's 
 grant of indulgences for crime led to 
 the Reformation. 
 
 1522. Adrian VI. 
 
 1523. Clement VII. Julius de Medici : refused 
 
 to divorce Catherine of Arragon, and 
 denounced the marriage of Henry 
 VIII. with Anna Boleyn. 
 
 1534. Paul III. Alexander Farnese. 
 
 1550. Julius III. 
 
 1555. Marcellus II. : died soon after election. 
 
 1555. Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. When 
 queen Elizabeth sent him an ambas- 
 sador to announce her accession, he 
 haughtily answered, "that to the 
 holy see, and not to her, belonged the 
 throne, to which she had no right as 
 being a bastard. " 
 
 1559. Pius IV. cardinal de Medici. 
 
 1566. Pius V. 
 
 1572. Gregory XIII. : the greatest civilian 
 and canonist of his time : under him 
 the calendar was reformed.', 
 
 1585. Sixtus V. : the most extraordinary man 
 of his time. — Tillemont. 
 
 1590. Urban VII. : died 12 davs after election. 
 
 1590. Gregory XIV. Nicolas Sfondrate. 
 
 1591. Innocent IX. : died in 2 months. 
 
 1592. Clement VIII. : learned and just. 
 1605. Leo XI. : died same month. 
 1605. Paul V. Camille Borghese. 
 
 1621. Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio. 
 1623. Urban VIII. : gave the title of Eminence 
 
 to cardinals. 
 1644. Innocent X. John Baptist Pamphilus. 
 1655. Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi. 
 1667. Clement IX. 
 
 1670. Clement X. JohnBaptiste Emile Altieri. 
 1676. Innocent XI. 
 1689. Alexander VIII. 
 1691. Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli. 
 1700 Clement XI. John Francis Albani. 
 1721. Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti ; 
 
 the eighth pontiff of his family. 
 1724. Benedict XIII. properly so called. 
 1730. Clement XII. 
 
 1740. Benedict XIV. : the amiable Lambertini. 
 1758. Clement XIII. Charles Rezzonico. 
 1769. Clement XIV. : (the illustrious Gan- 
 
 ganelli) suppressed the Jesuits. 
 1775. Pius VI. Angelo Braschi : dethroned by 
 
 Bonaparte. 
 1800. Pius VII. Cardinal Chiaramonte : de- 
 posed by Bonaparte in 1S09 ; restored 
 
 in 1814; died Aug. 29, 1799. (He 
 
 restored the Jesuits.) 
 1823. Leo XII. Annibaldella Ganga. Sept. 28. 
 1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni. 
 
 March 31. 
 1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari. Feb. 
 
 2, 1831 : died June 1, 1846. 
 1846. Pius IX. Mastai Ferretti : elected June 
 
 16. The present (1S57) Pope. 
 See Rome. 
 
 In consequence of an insurrection at Eome, the present pope (Pius IX.) fled, in disguise, 
 to Gaeta, Nov. 24, 1848 ; and a provisional government declared him divested of all 
 temporal power, Feb. 8, 1849. His holiness appealed to the Roman Catholic powers 
 for an armed intervention in his favour, and a French force took possession of the state 
 soon after. After some fighting, the rebellion was subdued, the national assembly 
 dissolved, and the pope's authority ultimately re-established, July 15, following, and 
 he returned to the seat of his pontificate in April 1850. See Rome, Modem. 
 
 POPE JOAN". It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, named Joan, 
 conceived a violent passion for a young monk, named Felda, and in order to be 
 admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover, she 
 entered on the duties of professor, and being very learned, was elected pope, when 
 Leo IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow; "yet until the Reforma- 
 tion the tale was repeated and believed without offence." — Gibbon. See note between 
 the years 847 and 855 in the preceding list of Popes. 
 
 POPISH PLOT. A plot, generally so called, said to have been contrived by the Roman 
 Catholics, to assassinate Charles II. ; and concerning which, even modern historians 
 have affirmed that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
 others much magnified. The Popish plot united in one conspiracy three particular 
 designs ; to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extirpate the Protestant 
 
POP 
 
 510 
 
 POP 
 
 religion. The unfortunate lord Stafford was tried and convicted of high treason as a 
 conspirator in this plot, and was beheaded, making on the scaffold the most earnest 
 and solemn protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — Rapin. See Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 POPLAR TREES. The Tacamahac poplar, Populus bahamifera, was brought hither 
 from North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar was brought from Italy 
 about the year 1758. — Hist, of Plants. There are other varieties of the poplar, but 
 the tree is now well known in the woods and shrubberies of these countries. 
 
 POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best and 
 latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almanack de Qotha, &c. be stated in round 
 numbers at 1075 millions. Of these Europe is supposed to contain 275 millions; 
 Asia, 570 millions; Africa, 120 millions; America, 80 millions; and Australasia, 30 
 millions. The population of England in a.d. 1377 was 2,092,978 souls. In a little 
 more than a hundred years, 1483, it had increased to 4,689,000. In 1696 it was 
 estimated at 5,250,000. The following tables of the population of the United 
 Kingdom are from official returns : — 
 
 POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED TEARS. 
 
 . . Population 6,467,000 
 
 ditto 6,736,000 
 
 . . ditto 7,428,000 
 
 ditto 7,953,000 
 
 . . ditto 8,675,000 
 
 POPULATION OP GREAT BRITAIN Jfl DECENNIAL PERIODS TO 1851. 
 
 Tear 1700 . 
 
 Population 5,475,000 
 
 Year 1750 
 
 1710 
 
 ditto 5,240,000 
 
 1760 
 
 1720 . 
 
 ditto 5,565,000 
 
 1770 
 
 1730 
 
 ditto 5,796,000 
 
 1780 
 
 1740 . 
 
 ditto 6,064,000 
 
 1790 
 
 Division. 
 
 1301. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 l c 31. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 England . 
 Wales . . . . 
 Scotland . 
 Army, Navy, <fcc. 
 
 Total . 
 
 8,331,434 
 541,546 
 
 1,599,068 
 470,598 
 
 9,551,888 
 611,788 
 
 1,805,688 
 640,500 
 
 11,261,437 
 
 717,438 
 
 2,093,456 
 
 319,300 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 805,236 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 277,017 
 
 14,995,138 
 
 916,619 
 
 2,620,184 
 
 312,493 
 
 16,854,142 
 
 1,060,626 
 
 2,870,784 
 
 142,916 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 12,609,864 
 
 14,391,631 
 
 16,537,398 
 
 18,844,434 
 
 20,936,468 
 
 POPULATION OF IRELAND, ROMAN CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT, IN THE TEAR 1731. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Roman Catholics 
 
 Protestants. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Connaught . 
 Leinster . . . 
 Munster 
 Ulster . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 221,780 
 447,916 
 482,044 
 158,028 
 
 21,604 
 203,087 
 115,130 
 360,632 
 
 243,384 
 651,003 
 597,174 
 518,660 
 
 1,309,768 
 
 700,453 
 
 2,010,221 
 
 POPULATION OF IRELAND, CATHOLIC AND PROTESTANT, IN 1831, ONE HUNDRED 
 TEARS AFTER I — ■ 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Roman Catholics. 
 
 Protestants, &c. 
 
 TotaL 
 
 Connaught . 
 Leinster . . . 
 Munster 
 
 Ulster . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 989,720 
 1,684,484 
 1,965,870 
 
 837,724 
 
 193,870 
 
 510,855 
 
 249,457 
 
 1,352,954 
 
 1,183,590 
 2,195,339 
 2,215,327 
 2,190,678 
 
 5,477,798 
 
 2,307,136 
 
 7,784,934 
 
 POPULATION OF IRELAND, IN PROVINCES, IN THE TEAR 1841. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Families. 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 Trade, &c. 
 
 Munster . . . . 
 Ulster .... 
 Connaught . . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 2,396,161 
 2,386,373 
 1,418,859 
 
 320,051 
 377,665 
 436,767 
 249,877 
 
 362,134 
 415,154 
 439,805 
 255,694 
 
 214,056 
 292,983 
 267, 799 
 199,360 
 
 138,098 
 112,171 
 172,006 
 56j 334 
 
 8,175,124 
 
 1,384,360 
 
 1,472,787 
 
 974,188 
 
 508,599 
 
POP 
 
 511 
 
 POP 
 
 POPULATION, continued. 
 
 POPULATION OP IRELAND IN 1851. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Proviuces. 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Total number 
 of persons. 
 
 Leinster . 
 Minister . . 
 
 259,252 
 266,936 
 
 1,667,771 
 1,831,817 
 
 Ulster . 
 Connaught 
 
 351,973 
 169,574 
 
 2,004,289 
 1,011,917 
 
 6,515,794 
 
 POPULATION OP THE WHOLE BRITISH EMPIRE IN 1851. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Houses inhabited. 
 
 Uninhabited. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Pemales. 
 
 Total Population. 
 
 England and Wales 
 Scotland . . . 
 Ireland . 
 Islands in Brit. Seas 
 
 Total 
 
 3,280,961 
 
 366,650 
 
 1,047,735 
 
 21,826 
 
 152,898 
 11,956 
 65,159 
 1,077 
 
 8,762,588 
 1,363,622 . 
 3,176,727 
 66,511 
 
 9,160,180 
 
 1,507,162 
 
 3,339,067 
 
 76,405 
 
 17,922,768 
 
 2,870,784 
 
 6,515,794 
 
 142,916 
 
 4,717,172 
 
 231,090 
 
 13,369,448 
 
 14,082,814 
 
 27,452,262 
 
 POPULATION RETURNS OP THE CITY OP LONDON AT PIVE DECENNIAL PERIODS. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1F21. 
 
 18?1. 
 
 1841. 
 
 Within the walls 
 Without the walls . . . 
 Southwark . 
 
 Westminster . . . . 
 Within the bills . 
 Adjacent . . . . 
 
 Total .... 
 
 75,171 
 
 81,688 
 
 67,448 
 
 158,210 
 
 364,526 
 
 117,802 
 
 . 55.4S4 
 65,425 
 72,119 
 162.0S5 
 498,719 
 155,714 
 
 56,174 
 69,260 
 85,905 
 182,085 
 616,628 
 215,642 
 
 57,695 
 67,878 
 91,501 
 202,080 
 761,343 
 293,567 
 
 54,626 
 
 70,382 
 
 98,098 
 
 222,721 
 
 907,160 
 
 520,689 
 
 864,845 
 
 1,009,546 
 
 1,225,694 
 
 1,474,069 
 
 1,873,676 
 
 In 1851, the population of London, according to abstracts of the census for that year, 
 amounted to 2,362,236; of which 1,106,558 were males, and 1,255,678 were females, 
 and included London, Westminster, Finsbury, Marylebone, Tower Hamlets, Lambeth, 
 Southwark, &c. These figures may be altered in some very slight degree upon 
 revision; but it is improbable that any material correction of them will be, if at 
 all, necessary. The population of London is now (1857) said to amount to 2,622,000 
 
 POPULATION OP SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OP GREAT BRITAIN AT DECENNIAL PERIODS. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1841. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Manchester, &c. 
 
 94,876 
 
 115,874 
 
 161,635 
 
 237,832 
 
 242,583* 
 
 404,465 
 
 Glasgow, <fec. . 
 
 
 77,385 
 
 100,749 
 
 147,043 
 
 202,426 
 
 274,533 
 
 340,653 
 
 Liverpool . 
 
 
 
 
 
 79,722 
 
 100,240 
 
 131,801 
 
 189,244 
 
 286.4S7 
 
 375,955 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 82,560 
 
 102,987 
 
 138,235 
 
 162,403 
 
 168,182 
 
 193,9291. 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 73,670 
 
 85,753 
 
 106,721 
 
 142,251 
 
 182,922 
 
 232, S41 
 
 Leeds, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * * * * 
 
 * * * * 
 
 83,796 
 
 123,393 
 
 152,054 
 
 172,270 
 
 Halifax Paris. 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ** * * 
 
 # # * # 
 
 112,628 
 
 109,899 
 
 130,743 
 
 140,943 
 
 Bristol, &c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63,645 
 
 76,433 
 
 87,779 
 
 103,SS6 
 
 122,296 
 
 137,328 
 
 Sheffield . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * * * * 
 
 * Si * * 
 
 69,479 
 
 91,692 
 
 111, 091 f 
 
 133,602 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43,194 
 
 56,060 
 
 61,212 
 
 75,534 
 
 80,059 
 
 102,380 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 43,461 
 
 52,769 
 
 56,620 
 
 63,026 
 
 63,032 
 
 85,433 
 
 Norwich 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36,832 
 
 37,256 
 
 50,2S8 
 
 61,116 
 
 72,344 
 
 6S,195 
 
 Aberdeen . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,608 
 
 35,370 
 
 44,796 
 
 58,019 
 
 63,288 
 
 71,945 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36,963 
 
 36,369 
 
 46,948 
 
 57,937 
 
 70,860 
 
 89,145 
 
 Paisley 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31,179 
 
 36,722 
 
 47,003 
 
 57,466 
 
 60.4S7 
 
 69,951 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28,861 
 
 34,253 
 
 40,415 
 
 50,6S0 
 
 71,844 
 
 58,418 
 
 Hull . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 34,964 
 
 32,467 
 
 41,S74 
 
 49,461 
 
 71,629 
 
 84,690 
 
 Dundee . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26,084 
 
 29,616 
 
 30,575 
 
 45,355 
 
 62,794 
 
 77,829 
 
 Brighton . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,339 
 
 12,012 
 
 24,429 
 
 40,634 
 
 46,661 
 
 65,573 
 
 Bath 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,113 
 
 32,214 
 
 36,811 
 
 38,063 
 
 38,304 
 
 54,240 
 
 York . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23,692 
 
 26,422 
 
 29,527 
 
 34,461 
 
 38,321 
 
 57,511 
 
 Preston . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,887 
 
 17,065 
 
 24,575 
 
 33,112 
 
 50,131 
 
 69,542 
 
 Cambridge . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13,360 
 
 13,802 
 
 14,142 
 
 20,917 
 
 24,453 
 
 27,815 
 
 Oxford 
 
 15,124 
 
 15,337 
 
 10,364 
 
 20,432 
 
 23,834 
 
 27,843 
 
 * Manchester and suburbs in 1841 contained 296,183 souls. 
 
 t Sheffield town contained 68,186 ; but with the suburban parts, 111,091 souls, 
 
 t The county of Edinburgh is 259,435. 
 
POH 
 
 512 
 
 POR 
 
 Besides many of the preceding, various other towns number a hundred thousand 
 
 inhabitants and upwards, as, for instance, Ashton-under 
 Huddersfield, Wolverhampton, &c. 
 
 PRESENT POPULATION OF THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND C 
 
 Chinese Empire * (Balbi) 
 
 British Empire {supposed) 
 
 Russia .... 
 
 Russian Empire . 
 
 France .... 
 
 Austrian empire 
 
 Japan {supposed) . 
 
 Spain .... 
 
 Spanish Empire . 
 
 United States of America, &c. 
 
 Turkey . 
 
 Turkish Empire 
 
 Prussian monarchy 
 
 Persia, <fec. 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
 
 Empire of Brazil 
 
 Sardinia 
 
 Holland . 
 
 Dutch monarchy {total) 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 Belgium . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Ecclesiastical States 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Hanover . 
 
 Wurtemberg . 
 
 Saxony . . 
 
 Tuscany 
 
 Baden 
 
 185,000,000 
 
 175,000,000 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 71,000,000 
 
 38,500,000 
 
 39,500,000 
 
 32,000,000 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 24,500,000 
 
 16,500,000 
 
 26,500,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 10,750,000 
 
 8,750,000 
 
 6,750,000 
 
 5,750,000 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 6,600,000 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 5,250,000 
 
 4,250,000 
 
 3,250,000 
 
 3,500,000 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 1,S50,000 
 
 1,850,000 
 
 1,750,000 
 
 Cities. Inhabitants. 
 
 London, supposed amount in 1853 . 2,51)0,000 
 Jeddo {reputed to contain) . . . 1,800,000 
 
 Pekin {reputed) 2,000,000 
 
 Paris, &c 1,650,000 
 
 Nankin 1,000,000 
 
 Constantinople 950,000 
 
 Calcutta 850,000 
 
 Cities. 
 
 Madras . 
 
 Naples 
 
 St. Petersburg 
 
 Vienna 
 
 Moscow 
 
 Grand Cairo 
 
 Madrid . 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 Aleppo . 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Bordeaux . 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 New York 
 
 Mexico . 
 
 Rome 
 
 Rio Janeiro 
 
 Milan 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Philadelphia 
 | Hamburg 
 i Lyons 
 I Palermo 
 ; Marseilles . 
 ' Copenhagen 
 I Turin 
 
 Seville . 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Tunis . 
 
 Prague 
 
 Smyrna 
 i Brussels . 
 
 Florence 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 Munich 
 
 Dresden 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Lyne, Blackburn, Bradford, 
 
 TIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 600,000 
 450,000 
 600,000 
 500,000 
 450,000 
 500,000 
 475,000 
 350,000 
 300,000 
 380,000 
 300,000 
 270,000 
 350,000 
 500,000 
 400,000 
 275.000 
 300,000 
 200,000 
 190,000 
 200,000 
 180,000 
 175.0Q0 
 160,000 
 155,000 
 160,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 165,000 
 150,000 
 150,000 
 155,000 
 175,000 
 140,000 
 
 The preceding numbers are from the latest returns, or are the present reputed 
 inhabitants, furnished by the Almanack de Gotha, 1853, and other equally received 
 authorities. They will enable the reader to estimate the probable or relative numbers 
 at the present time. 
 
 PORCELAIN. See China Porcelain and Dresden China. 
 
 PORT EGMONT. One of the finest harbours in the world, on the N.W. coast of Falk- 
 land Islands. Commodore Byron was despatched to found a colony here in 1765. 
 The whole navy of England might ride in the port in perfect security from all winds ; 
 everything for the refreshment of ships is to be obtained in abundance. — Brookes. 
 The Falkland Islands were pq&bably seen by Magellan, but Davis is supposed to have 
 been the first who discovered them, in 1592. They were visited by sir Richard 
 Hawkins in 1594. They are most inhospitable. 
 
 PORTEOUS, CAPTAIN, DEATH of. This officer, at Edinburgh, on April 14, 1736, 
 commanded the guard at the execution of a smuggler, who had, heedless of his own 
 fate, saved the life of a brother criminal, by springing upon the soldiers around them, 
 and by main force keeping them back, while his companion fled, who never afterwards 
 was heard of. The execution of this brave fellow excited great commiseration, and 
 the spectators pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, capt. Porteous ordered 
 his men to fire upon the mob, seventeen of whom were killed or wounded. For this 
 he was tried and found guilty of murder, June 22, 1736 ; but the queen granted him a 
 
 * The account of the population of the Chinese empire, on the authority of the statement furnished 
 to lord Macartney, makes it 333,000,000 ; while we read in the Biblioteca Italiana, that the last census 
 of that empire, taken in 1790, was, according to Martucci, 143,124,734. This latter account nearly 
 corresponds with the report of M. Thomas, who states the population of China at 146,270,163. Other 
 writers, however, affirm it to be five hundred millions, and some as even exceeding that amount. 
 In fact, the accounts of population of all countries differ so widely, and are so various, few statements 
 can be relied on as being accurate. — M. Adrien Balbi ; Balance Politique du Globe. 
 
POR 513 POR 
 
 reprieve (the king beingthen in Hanover) ; and the court, interested for him, determined 
 to save him. The people, on the other hand, resolved that he should not have the 
 benefit of the royal clemency ; and on the day which had been named for his execu- 
 tion, they arose in prodigious numbers, assembled round the prison, broke open its 
 doors, took out Porteous, and dragging him to the Grass-market, hanged him on a 
 dyer's sign-post, in defiance of the municipal and military power, Sept. 7, 1736. 
 Strange to say, not one actor in this scene was ever identified, notwithstanding the 
 offer of great rewards. 
 
 PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage obtained this appellation on account of its 
 having been drunk by porters in the city of London, about 1730. The malt liquors 
 previously in use were ale, beer, and twopenny, and it was customary to call for a pint 
 or tankard of half-and-half, i.e. half of ale and half of beer; — half of ale and half of 
 twopenny ; — or half of beer and half of twopenny. In the course of time it also 
 became the practice to ask for a pint or tankard of three thirds, meaning a third of 
 ale, beer, and twopenny ; and thus the publican was obliged to go to three casks for a 
 single pint of liquor. To avoid this trouble and waste, a brewer, of the name of 
 Harwood, conceived the idea of making a liquor which should partake of the united 
 flavours of ale, beer, and twopenny. He did so, and succeeded, calling it entire, or 
 entire butt beer, meaning that it was drawn entirely from one cask or butt; and being 
 a hearty nourishing liquor, it was very suitable for porters and other working people. 
 Hence it obtained its name of porter, and was first retailed at the Blue Last, Curtain- 
 road. — Leigh. 
 
 PORTER BREWED BT THE TEN PRINCIPAL LONDON BREWERIES IN 1760, VIZ. : — 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Calvert & Co 74,734 
 
 Whitbread ...... 63,408 
 
 Truman 60,140 
 
 Sir William Calvert .... 52,785 
 Gifford & Co 41,410 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Lady Parsons 34,098 
 
 Thrale 30,740 
 
 Huck&Co 29,615 
 
 Harman ...... 28,017 
 
 Meux & Co 10,012 
 
 PORTER BREWED BT THE SEVEN CHIEF LONDON HOUSES IN THE TEAR 1815, VIZ. : — 
 
 Barrels. 
 Barclay and Perkins .... 337,621 
 
 Meux, Reid, & Co 2S2.104 
 
 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. . . 272,162 
 Whitbread & Co 261,018 
 
 . Barrels. 
 
 Henry Meux <fc Co. .... 229,100 
 
 P. Calvert & Co : 219,333 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co. . . . 105,081 
 
 PORTER BREWED IN LONDON BY THE SEVEN PRINCIPAL HOUSES IN THE TEAR 1840, VIZ. : — 
 
 Barrels. 
 Barclay, Perkins, & Co. . . . 361,321 
 Truman, Hanbury, <fc Co. . . 263,235 
 
 Whitbread & Co 218,828 
 
 Reid & Co 196,442 
 
 JB<XTT&tSm 
 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co. . . . 177,542 
 Felix Calvert <fe Co. . . . . 136,387 
 Sir Henry Meux & Co. . . . 116,547 
 
 The porter brewed in the decennial year 1850 has not been published; but the 
 increase must be vast. The number of licensed brewers in 1850, in England, was 2257. 
 The number in Scotland, 154; and in Ireland, 96 — total 2507. London engrosses, it 
 is said, one third of the entire business of the whole of England, and it is remarkable 
 that this business has been drawn of late into the hands chiefly of eight or ten houses 
 of gigantic capitals. Messrs. Whitbread & Co. built a porter cask 65 feet in diameter, 
 25 feet high, with 56 hoops weighing from one to three tons each — the contents 
 20,000 barrels. It was four years in building. At Meux's brewhouse two large vats 
 suddenly burst, deluging and destroying many neighbouring houses. Several lives 
 were lost; and the total loss of porter was estimated at between 8000 and 9000 
 barrels, Oct. 17, 1814. 
 
 PORTERAGE ACT. Act for regulating the porterage of small parcels, July 1799. 
 
 PORT JACKSON". This bay and harbour are on the coast of New South Wales, 13 miles 
 north of Botany Bay. The capes that form its entrance are high, rugged, and perpen- 
 dicular cliffs ; and the harbour is one of the noblest in the world, extending 14 miles 
 in length, with numerous creeks or coves. The name of Port Jackson was given to it 
 by the illustrious circumnavigator Cook, who observed it in sailing along the coast in 
 1770. See Botany Bay ; New South Wales; Sydney. 
 
 PORT PHILLIP, in NEW SOUTH WALES. The original name of the colony of 
 Victoria, which see. 
 
POR 514 POR 
 
 PORT ROYAL, Jamaica. Once a considerable town, abounding in riches and trade. In 
 June 1692 it was destroyed by an earthquake ; in 1702 it was laid in ashes by a fire ; 
 in 1722 it was reduced to ruins by an inundation of the sea; and in 1744 was 
 destroyed by a hurricane. After these extraordinary calamities, the custom-house 
 and public offices were removed. Port Royal was again greatly damaged by fire in 
 1750; by another awful storm in 1784; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815. 
 This place suffered in the visitation of cholera that afflicted nearly the whole island 
 in 1850. 
 
 PORTLAND, DUKE of, his FIRST ADMINISTRATION. This was the celebrated 
 Coalition ministry (which see), of which William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland, 
 as first lord of the treasury, was the head. It was called the " Duke of Portland's 
 administration,'' but popularly it obtained the name of the " Coalition " ministry, from 
 the union of Lord North with Mr. Fox, "one of the most extraordinary and disgraceful 
 events that ever took place in political life." — Sir Richard Phillips. Formed April 5, 
 1783 ; dissolved by Mr. Pitt's coming into power, Dec. same year. 
 
 PORTLAND, DUKE of, his SECOND ADMINISTRATION. The same nobleman 
 became a second time first lord of the treasury, March 25, 1807. Of this administra- 
 tion the members were : earl Camden, lord president ; earl of Westmorland, lord 
 privy seal ; hon. Spencer Perceval ; lord Hawkesbury (afterwards earl of Liverpool), 
 Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereagh (afterwards marquess of Londonderry), home 
 foreign, and colonial secretaries; earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and 
 control ; lord Mulgrave, admiralty ; earl of Chatham, ordnance, &c. Lord Eldon, 
 lord chancellor. Terminated Dec. 1809, when the right hon. Spencer Perceval 
 became first minister of the crown. 
 
 PORTLAND ISLE. Fortiaed before a. d. 1142. Portland castle was built by 
 Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this peninsula a memorable naval engagement com- 
 menced between the English and Dutch, Feb. 18, 1653. The battle continued for 
 three days, and the English destroyed eleven Dutch men-of war and thirty merchant- 
 men. Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of the English. Here is the 
 noted freestone used for building our finest edifices. The Portland lights were 
 erected in 1716 — 1789. The pier, with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed 
 into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the first stone of the Portland break- 
 water, July 25, 1849. 
 
 PORTLAND or BARBERINI VASE. This beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of 
 a glass-like substance, with figures and devices, raised on it on white enamel : height 10 
 inches; diameter, in the broadest part, 7; with a handle on each side) was discovered 
 about the middle of the 16th century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at a 
 place called Monte del Grano, about 2| miles from Rome. The sepulchre was 
 supposed to have been that of the Roman Emperor, Alexander Severus (a.d. 222 — 
 235), and his mother Mammsea, and the jar is supposed to have been the cinerary 
 urn of one or other of these royal personages. It was placed in the palace of the 
 Barberini family, at Rome, where it remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
 William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed to that of the duchess of Portland, 
 and in 1810 it was deposited in the British Museum by the duke, who was one of the 
 trustees. There it remained till the 7th February, 1845, when it was smashed to 
 pieces with a stone by a man named William Lloyd. The pieces of the fractured 
 vase were, however, put together afterwards in a very complete manner, and then 
 repaired. It still exists in the Museum, but is not now shown to the public. Josiah 
 Wedgwood made a mould of this vase, and took from it a number of casts. 
 
 PORTO BELLO, South America. Discovered by Columbus, Nov. 2, 1502. It was 
 taken from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, Nov. 22, 1739. It 
 was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifications, in 1742. Before 
 the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, and the introduction of register 
 ships, this place was the great mart for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 
 
 PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of Florence, 
 in 1548. The fortifications were not finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed 
 them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by the old Romans in their public 
 undertakings. Here was the residence of Napoleon in 1814-15, and from this place, 
 in the latter year, he made his descent on France. See Bonaparte's Empire of 
 France ; and France ; see also Elba, 
 
 PORTREEVE. This title was anciently given to the principal magistrate of ports or other 
 
POR 
 
 515 
 
 POR 
 
 towns in England. Ifc was derived from Saxon words, signifying the governor of a 
 port or harbour. The chief magistrate of London was so styled ; but Richard I. 
 appointed two bailiffs, and afterwards London had mayors. — Camden. See Lord 
 Mayors. When the name of bailiff was laid aside is not precisely known, but Fitz- 
 Alwyn was mayor temp. Richard I. 1189. 
 
 PORT ROYALISTS. The name popularly given to the learned members of the cele- 
 brated convent of the Port Royal des Champs, who occupied their time there in 
 religious exercises, and in instructing youth, from about J 636 to 1656, when they 
 were expelled by Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished 
 names connected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole 
 de Sacy, and Tillemont. The school-books which were published for the use of that 
 institution were greatly esteemed. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most strongly 
 fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were established in 
 the reign of Henry VIII. The French under DAnnebaut attempted to destroy 
 Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, in the then finest war-ship in the 
 world the Great Harry, 1544. Here the celebrated George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
 ham, was assassinated by Felton, Aug. 23, 1628. The unfortunate admiral Byng 
 was, on a very dubious sentence, shot at Portsmouth, March 14, 1757. See Byng. 
 The dock-yard was fired, the loss estimated at 400,000Z. July 3, 1760. Another fire 
 occasioned loss to the amount of 100,0002. July 27, 1770 : French secret perfidy was 
 suspected both times, but there was no actual proof. Memorable grand naval mock 
 engagement and parade of the fleet, the king being present, June 22 to 25, 1773. 
 Another great fire occurred, Dec. 7. 1776. A great naval review was held near 
 Portsmouth on April 25, 1856. See Naval Reviews. 
 
 PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, the 
 original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman arms about 
 250 b.o. and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. 
 Conquered by the Moors, a.d. 713. They kept possession till they were conquered 
 by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant, of Castile, assisted by many other princes and 
 volunteers. Among those who shone most in this celebrated expedition was Henry 
 of Lorraine, grandson of Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him 
 Theresa, his natural daughter, and as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
 which he was to hold of him, a.d. 1093. 
 
 472 
 713 
 
 900 
 
 Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths 
 
 here . . . . . . a.d. 
 
 Invasion by the Saracens . . . . 
 
 The kings of Asturias subdue some 
 
 Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsus III. 
 
 establishes episcopal sees 
 Alphonsus Henriquez defeats five Moorish 
 
 kings, and is proclaimed king by his 
 
 army. See Ourique 1139 
 
 Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
 
 way to the Holy Land, he takes Lisbon 
 
 from the Moors 1147 
 
 The kingdom of Algarve taken from the 
 
 Moors by Saucho 1 1189 
 
 Eeign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of 
 
 his country, who builds 44 cities or 
 
 towns in Portugal .... 1279 
 University of Coimbra founded . . 1308 
 
 Military orders of Christ and St. James 
 
 instituted, 1279 to .... 1325 
 John I. surnamed the Great, carries his 
 
 arms into Africa . .... 1415 
 Madeira and the Canaries seized . . 1420 
 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
 
 of Good Hope, discovered . . . 1497 
 Discovery of the Brazils .... 1500 
 Camoens, author of the Lusiad, born 
 
 about 1520 
 
 The Inquisition established . . . 1526 
 University of Bvora founded . . . 1533 
 
 [Some accounts make the date of this 
 foundation, 1451.] 
 
 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain 1580 
 The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and 
 place John, Duke of Braganza, on the 
 
 throne. His posterity still possess the 
 
 crown a.d. 
 
 The great earthquake, which destroys 
 
 Lisbon. See Earthquake . . . 
 
 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and 
 
 narrowly escapes death 
 
 [This affair causes some of the first 
 families of the kingdom to be tor- 
 tured to death, their very names being 
 foi-bidden to be mentioned ; yet many 
 were unjustly condemned, and their 
 innocence was soon afterwards made 
 manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
 pelled on this occasion.] 
 
 Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispen- 
 sation from the pope to enable his 
 daughter and brother to intermarry. 
 
 See Incest 
 
 The Spaniards and French invade Por- 
 tugal, which is saved by the valour of 
 the English . . . 1762 and 
 Kegency of John, (afterwards king) 
 
 owing to the queen's lunacy 
 The Court, on the French invasion, emi- 
 grates to the Brazils . . Nov. 2, 
 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon . Nov. 29, 
 Convention of Cintra. (See article under 
 that name) . . . Aug. 30, 
 Battle of Busaco . . . Sept. 27, 
 The British parliament grants the suf- 
 ferers in Portugal 100,0001. . 
 Portugal cedes Gxiiana to France . . 
 Revolution in Portugal . . Aug. 29, 
 Constitutional Junta . . Oct. 1, 
 
 Return of the Court . . July 4, 
 LL2 
 
 1640 
 1755 
 
 1758 
 
 1760 
 
 1763 
 
 1792 
 
 1807 
 1807 
 
 1808 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 1814 
 1820 
 1820 
 1821 
 
POR 
 
 516 
 
 POR 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 Independence of Brazil, the prince regent 
 
 made emperor . . . Oct. 12, 1822 
 
 The king of Portugal suppresses the con- 
 stitution .... June 5, 1823 
 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Dom Miguel 
 
 departs, <fcc. . . May 1—9, 1824 
 
 Treaty with Brazil . . Aug. 29, 1825 
 Death of John VI. . . . Feb. 18, 1826 
 Dom Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
 firms the regency . . April 26, 1826 
 He relinquishes the throne of Portugal 
 in favour of his daughter, Donna 
 Maria da Gloria . . . May 2, 1826 
 Dom Miguel takes the oath of fealty at 
 
 Vienna Oct. 4, 1826 
 
 Marquess of Chave's insurrection at 
 
 Lisbon Oct. 6, 1826 
 
 Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed. 
 
 (See Incest) . . . Oct. 29, 1826 
 
 Portugal solicits the assistance of Great 
 
 Britain Dec. 3, 1826 
 
 Departure of the first British auxiliary 
 
 troops for Portugal . . Dec. 17, 18?6 
 Bank of Lisbon stops payment Dec. 7, 1827 
 Dom Miguel arrives in London, Dec. 30, 1827 
 He arrives in Lisbon . . Feb. 22, 1828 
 He takes the oaths as regent . . . 1828 
 Formal act of abdication by Dom Pedro, 
 
 March 3, 1828 
 The British armament finally quits Por- 
 tugal April 28, 1828 
 
 Foreign ministers withdraw . May 3, 1S28 
 Sir John Doyle arrested . . June 13, 1828 
 Dom Miguel formally assumes the title 
 
 of king July 4, 1828 
 
 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 
 Miguel s troops take Madeira Aug. 24, 1828 
 Release of Sir John Doyle . Sept. 7, 1828 
 The queen Donna Maria arrives at Fal- 
 mouth .... Sept. 24, 1828 
 She arrives in London. . . Oct. 6, 1828 
 Her reception at Windsor . Dec. 22, 1828 
 Dom Miguel's expedition against Terceira 
 
 defeated .... Aug. 11, 1829 
 Revolution at Brazil . . April 7, 1831 
 
 Dom Pedro arrives in England, June 16, 1831 
 Insurrection in Portugal, in favour of the 
 queen, in which more than 300 lives 
 
 are lost Aug. 21, 1831 
 
 Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle- 
 isle Feb. 9, 1832 
 
 At Terceira Dom Pedro proclaims him- 
 self regent of Portugal, on behalf of 
 his daughter . . . April 2, 1832 
 
 He takes Oporto .... July 8, 1832 
 The Miguelites attack Oporto, and are 
 defeated with considerable loss on both 
 
 sides Sept. 19, 1832 
 
 Mount Cavello taken . . April 9, 1833 
 
 Admiral Napier takes the whole of Dom 
 Miguel's squadron off Cape St. Vincent 
 
 July 2, 1833 
 Lishon is evacuated by the duke of 
 
 Cadaval's army . . . July 23, 1833 
 After various conflicts, Dom Miguel ca- 
 pitidates to the Pedroite forces, and 
 Sautarem surrenders . May 26, 1831 
 Dom Miguel is permitted to leave the 
 country unmolested, and he embarks 
 at Evora for Genoa . . May 31, 1834 
 Massacres at Lisbon . . June 9, 1834 
 
 The queen declared by the Cortes to be 
 
 of age Sept. 15, 1834 
 
 Dom Pedro dies . . . Sept. 21, 1834 
 Oporto wine company abolished . . 1834 
 
 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
 Leuchteuberg), just married to the 
 queen, dies . . . March 28, 1835 
 
 The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 
 Saxe Coburg .... Jan. 1, 1836 
 
 Revolution at Lisbon . . Aug. 9, 1836 
 
 Another outbreak there . . Nov. 8, 1836 
 
 The duke of Terceira attempts to restore 
 Dom Pedro's charter . Aug. 18, 1837 
 
 He and Marshal Saldanha fail in the 
 attempt, and embark for England, 
 
 Sept. 18, 1837 
 
 The Oporto wine company re-established, 
 
 April 7, 1838 
 
 The northern provinces in a state of in- 
 surrection about this time . April 20, 1846 
 
 The duke of Palmella resigns his mi- 
 nistry .... Oct. 31, 1846 
 
 Action at Evora, the queen'stroops defeat 
 the insurgent forces . . Oct. 31, 1846 
 
 British squadron under admiral Parker 
 arrives in the Tagus at the request of 
 the queen . . . Oct. 31, 1846 
 
 Palmella banished . . . Nov. 26, 1846 
 
 Marquess of Saldanha defeats count 
 Bomfin at Torres Vedras . Dec. 22, 1846 
 
 The insurgents enter Oporto . Jan. 7, 1847 
 
 London conference, by which England, 
 France, and Spain determine to assist 
 the queen of Portugal to terminate the 
 civil war .... May 21, 1847 
 
 Submission of Sa de Bandeira to the 
 queen June 11, 1847 
 
 A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the 
 Junto capitulates . . June 26, 1847 
 
 An American squadron arrives in the 
 Tagus to enforce claims against the 
 Portuguese government . June 22, 1850 
 
 Military insurrection, headed by the 
 duke of Saldanha, who being out- 
 stripped in his march on Santarem by 
 the king of Portugal, flees northwards 
 
 April 10, 1851 
 
 Oporto declares for the duke, who had 
 left the city for Vigo to embark for 
 England ; but is called back by the 
 insurgents .... April 24, 1851 
 
 The duke of Saldanha makes a trium- 
 phal entry into Oporto . April 29, 1851 
 
 The conde de Thomar, prime minister, 
 resigns, and embarks on board a 
 British ship for England, where he 
 arrives .... May 16, 1851 
 
 Dom Miguel, the Portuguese pretender, 
 marries the princess of Lowenstein- 
 Rosenberg .... Sept. 21, 1851 
 
 The queen lays the foundation-stone of a 
 monument to Dom Pedro at Lisbon, 
 
 July 17, 1852 
 
 An addition to the Portuguese charter 
 sanctioned by the queen : the prince- 
 royal takes the oath to the constitu- 
 tion July 18, 1852 
 
 Conversion of the public debt Dec. 18, 1852 
 
 Death of the queen . . Nov. 15, 1853 
 
 King-consort recognised as regent, 
 
 Dec. 19, 1853 
 
 The young king visits England . June, 1854 
 and France .... May, 1855 
 
 All the slaves on the royal domains 
 declared free . . . Dec. 30, 1854 
 
 Inauguration of the king . Sept. 16, 1855 
 
 Resignation of Saldanha ministry, 
 
 June 5, 1856 
 
 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 
 1093. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. I 1139. Alfonso declared king, having obtained a 
 
 1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. signal victory over a prodigious army 
 
 1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. of Moors on the plains of Ourique. 
 
POR 
 
 517 
 
 POS 
 
 PORTUGAL, continued. 
 
 1185. 
 
 1212. 
 1223. 
 
 1248. 
 1279. 
 
 1325. 
 1357. 
 1367. 
 
 1433. 
 1438. 
 1481. 
 
 1495. 
 1521. 
 
 1557. 
 
 1578. 
 1580. 
 
 1640. 
 
 1656. 
 
 Sanoho I. son of Alfonso. 
 
 Alfonso II . sumamed Orassus, or the Fat. 
 
 Sancho II. or the Idle : deposed. 
 
 Alfonso III. 
 
 Denis or Dionysius, styled the Father 
 of his country. 
 
 Alfonso IV. 
 
 Peter the Severe : succeeded by his son, 
 
 Ferdinand I. : succeeded by his natural 
 brother, 
 
 John I. the Bastard, and the Great : 
 married Philippa, daughter of John 
 of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 
 
 Edward. 
 
 Alfonso V. the African. 
 
 John II. whose actions procured him the 
 titles of the Great, and the Perfect ; 
 succeeded by his cousin, 
 
 Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
 
 John II I. son of Emmanuel ; he admitted 
 into his kingdom the religious insti- 
 tution of the Inquisition. 
 
 Sebastian : slain in the great battle of 
 Alcazar, in Africa, Aug. 4, 1578 ; when 
 the crown reverted to his great uncle, 
 
 Henry, the Cardiual, son of Emmanuel. 
 
 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Em- 
 manuel : deposed by Philip II. of 
 Spain, who united Portugal to his 
 other dominions, till 1640. 
 
 John IV. duke of Braganza : dispos- 
 sessed the Spaniards in a bloodless 
 revolution, and was proclaimed king, 
 Dec. 1. 
 
 Alfonso VI. : deposed in 1668, and his 
 brother and successor Peter made re- 
 gent ; the latter ascended the throne 
 
 1683. Peter II. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1706. John V. : succeeded by his son, 
 
 1750. Joseph. The daughter and successor of 
 this prince married his brother, by 
 dispensation from the pope, and they 
 ascended the throne, as 
 
 1777. Maria (Frances-Isabella) and Peter III. 
 jointly. 
 
 1786. Maria, alone : this princess afterwards 
 falls into a state of melancholy and 
 derangement. 
 
 1792. Regency. John, son of the queen, and 
 afterwards king, declared regent of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 1816. John VI. previously regent. He had 
 withdrawn in 1807, owing to the 
 French invasion of Portugal, to his 
 Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- 
 tent of his subjects obliged him to 
 return in 1821 ; died in 1826. 
 
 1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro) son of John VI : 
 making his election of the empire of 
 Brazil, abdicated the throne of Por- 
 tugal in favour of his daughter. 
 
 1826. Maria II. (da Gloria), who became queen 
 at 7 years of age. 
 
 1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV. 
 usurped the crown which he retained, 
 amid civil contentions, until 1833. 
 
 1833. Maria II. restored : declaredin Sept. 1834 
 (being then 15) to be of age, and as- 
 sumed the royal power accordingly ; 
 died Nov. 15, 1853 : succeeded by her 
 son, 
 
 1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), born Sept. 16, 
 1837; the present (1857) king of 
 Portugal. 
 
 There are in Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the 
 smaller one of Evora, founded in 1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the 
 small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences ; but in general, literature is at a 
 low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil of his country, and author 
 of the Lusiad, an exquisite production, translated into English by Mickle, was a 
 native of Lisbon. 
 
 POSTS, Originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post- 
 houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was the first who introduced 
 this institution among the Romans, and who employed post-chaises. This was 
 imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. — Ashe. Louis XI. first established post- 
 houses in France owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the first institution 
 of this nature in Europe, 1470. — Henault. In England the plan commenced in the 
 reign of Edward IV. 1481, when ridex-s on post-horses went stages of the distance of 
 twenty miles from each other, in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence of 
 the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen with the Scots. — Gale. 
 Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements 
 existed in England. — Sadler's Letters. Post communications between London and 
 most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635. — Strype. 
 
 POST-OFFICE, The GENERAL, of ENGLAND. See preceding article. The first 
 chief postmaster of England was Mr. Thomas Randolph, appointed by queen Elizabeth 
 in 1581. The office of foreign postmaster was established by James I. who appointed 
 Matthew de l'Equester to that office ; and Charles I. appointed William Frizell and 
 Thomas Witherings in 1631. A proclamation of Charles I. in 1635, states in the 
 preamble that " whereas to this time there hath been no certain intercourse between 
 the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king now commands his postmaster of 
 England for foreign parts to settle a running post or two to run night and day 
 between Edinburgh and London, to go thither and come back again in six days." * 
 
 * The king also commanded his " postmaster of England for foreign parts, "to open a regular com- 
 munication by running posts between the metropolis and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, 
 Ireland, Plymouth, Exeter, <&c. (Bates of postage — 1 letter carried under 80 miles, Id. ; under 140 
 miles, 4d. ; above that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part of Scotland, Sd.). Even so late as between 
 
POS 
 
 518 
 
 POS 
 
 An enlarged office was erected by the parliament in 1643 ; and one more considerable 
 in 1657, with a view "to benefit commerce, convey the public dispatches, and as the 
 best means to discover ,and prevent many dangerous wicked designs against the 
 commonwealth by the inspection of the correspondence." — Ashe. See Penny Post. 
 The post-office as at present constituted was founded 12 Charles II. Dec. 27, 1660. 
 The mails were first conveyed by coaches, Aug. 2, 1784, when the first mail left 
 London for Bristol. See Mail Coaches. 
 
 REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 
 
 In 1643. It yielded .... £5,000 
 1653. Farmed to John Manley, esq. 
 
 for 10,000 
 
 1663. Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 
 
 esq. for ... . 21,500 
 
 1674. Farmed for .... 43,000 
 
 1685. It yielded .... 65,000 
 
 1707, Ditto 111,461 
 
 1714. Ditto 145,227 
 
 1723. Ditto 201,805 
 
 1744. Ditto 235,492 
 
 1764. Ditto ..... 432,048 
 
 In 1790. It yielded . 
 1800. Ditto . 
 1805. Great Britain 
 1S10. Ditto . 
 1815. Ditto . 
 1820. United Kingdom . 
 1825. Ditto . 
 1830. Ditto . 
 1835. Ditto . 
 1839. Last year of the heavy 
 
 1840. First year of the low rate 
 
 £480,074 
 745,313 
 1,424,994 
 1,709,065 
 1,755,898 
 2,402,697 
 2,255,239 
 2,301,432 
 2,353,340 
 
 2,522,495 
 471,000 
 
 POST-OFFICE REVENUE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, UNDER THE UNIFORM POSTAGE SYSTEM :- 
 
 Tear ending 
 
 Gross Revenue. 
 
 Cost of 
 Management. 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 Charged on 
 Government 
 Departments. 
 
 January 5, 1841 
 
 £1,359,466 
 
 £85S,677 
 
 £500,789 
 
 £90.761 
 
 1842 
 
 1,499,418 
 
 938,168 
 
 561,249 
 
 113,255 
 
 1843 
 
 1,578,145 
 
 977,504 
 
 600,641 
 
 122,161 
 
 1844 
 
 1,620,867 
 
 980,650 
 
 640,217 
 
 116,503 
 
 1845 
 
 1,705,067 
 
 985,110 
 
 719,957 
 
 109,232 
 
 1846 
 
 1,8S7,576 
 
 1,125,594 
 
 761,982 
 
 101,190 
 
 1847 
 
 1,963,857 
 
 1,138,745 
 
 825,112 
 
 100,354 
 
 1848 
 
 2,1S1,016 
 
 1,196.520 
 
 984,496 
 
 121,290 
 
 1849 
 
 2,192,478 
 
 1,3S6,853 
 
 740,429 
 
 Less other charges 
 
 1S50 
 
 2,213,149 
 
 1,307,248 
 
 840,787 
 
 than management. 
 
 1851 
 
 2,264,684 
 
 1,460,785 
 
 803,898 
 
 Not stated. 
 
 1852 
 
 2,422,168 
 
 1,304,163 
 
 1,118,004 
 
 Not stated. 
 
 The Postal Guide first appeared in 1856, in which year London and the vicinity was 
 divided into districts for postal purposes : vix. East, West, &c. The Postmaster- 
 general issues reports from time to time, three have appeared. Early in 1837, 
 Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan of penny-postage, which was adopted after a full 
 investigation by a Committee of the House of Commons in 1839. The new postage 
 law, by which the uniform rate of id. per letter was tried as an experiment, came into 
 operation Dec. 5, 1839. The uniform rate of Id. per letter of half an ounce weight, 
 &c. commenced Jan. 10, 1840. The stamped postage covers came into use May 6, 
 1840. In the last year of the heavy postage (1839) the number of letters was 
 82,470,596, including 6,563,024 franks; in 1840, the number was 168,768,344; in 
 1851, the number was 360,651,187, whereof 36,512,649 were in Scotland, and 
 35,982,782 were in Ireland. The number in 1856 was, England 388 millions; 
 Scotland, 42 millions; Ireland, 48 millions; total, 478 millions; being an increase of 
 4| per cent, on 1855, and an average of 17 to each person. On Feb. 14, 1856, 
 618,000 letters passed through the general post-office. The revenue from the post- 
 office was, in 1853, 1,104,0002.; in 1854, 1,022,0002. On June 5, 1855, a treasury 
 warraut was issued, providing for the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &c. under 
 certain restrictions — 4oz. for Id.; 8 oz. for 2d. &c. 
 
 POST-OFFICES. The General Post-Office of London was originally established in Cloak- 
 lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence it was removed to the Elack Swan, in Bishopsgate- 
 street. On occasion of the great fire of 1666, it was removed to the Two Black- 
 Pillars in Brydges-street, Covent-garden, and afterwards to sir Robert Viner's mansion 
 in Lombard-street, where it continued till Sept. 23, 1829, when it was transferred to 
 St. Martin' s-le-Grand. It now occupies the site of an ancient college and sanctuary. 
 This magnificent building was commenced in 1825, from designs by R. Smirke, esq. 
 
 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week between Edinburgh and London ; and 
 the metropolis, on one occasion, only sent a tingle Mler, which was for an Edinburgh banker, named 
 Ramsay. 
 
POS 519 POY 
 
 and completed Sept. 23, 1829. The new post-office of Dublin was opened Jan. 6, 
 1818. The offices of postmasters-general of England and of Ireland were united into 
 one, 1 Will. IV. 1831. The street letter-boxes were erected in March 1855. The 
 first one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and Farringdon-street. 
 
 POSTING. Post-cbaises were invented by the French, and were introduced, according 
 to Grainger, into this country by Mr. William Tull, son of the well-known writer on 
 Husbandry. Posting was fixed by statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
 By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none but the postmaster or his deputies 
 could furnish post-horses for travellers, 1660, and hence the name. The post-horse 
 duty was imposed in 1779. Post horse duty yielded, in 1852, in England 128,5012. 
 and in Scotland 16,9332. 
 
 POTATOES. The potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were originally brought 
 to England from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Hawkins, a.d. 1563. Others 
 ascribe their introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 1586 ; while their general introduc- 
 tion is mentioned by many writers as occurring in 1592. Their first culture in 
 Ireland is referred to sir Walter Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about 
 Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders 
 until 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America by that "patriot 
 of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardington, near Bedford, 
 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It is affirmed that the Neapolitans 
 once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. — Butler. The failure of the potato crop 
 in Ireland, where that esculent is the principal food of the peasantry, four successive 
 years from 1845, caused famine among the poor of that country, to which succeeded 
 pestilent fever and disease, of which multitudes died, among them many priests, 
 physicians, and others attending on the sick poor. Parliament voted ten millions 
 sterling in this awful exigency, and several countries of Europe, and the United States 
 of America, forwarded provisions and other succours, yet all was too little to stay the 
 famine or reduce the pestilence. See Ireland.* 
 
 POTOSI, MINES of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, and 
 produced the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the form of a 
 sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in Europe ; but the mines 
 are now much exhausted. 
 
 POULTRY COMPTER. This was one of the most noted of the old city prisons, and 
 existed very early, but the time is not precisely known. The compter of Wood-street 
 belonged to the sheriff of London, and was made a prison-house in 1555. This latter 
 and Bread-street compter were rebuilt in 1667. The Giltspur-street prison was built 
 to supply the place of the old city compters; it was pulled down in 1855. The 
 Poultry chapel was erected on the site of the Poultry comptex', in 1819. — Leigh. 
 
 POULTRY. An exhibition of Poultry was held in London in January 1853, when nearly 
 1000 cocks were exhibited. 
 
 POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, about 
 A.D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part ; consequently 
 the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. The value of the 
 Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it was equivalent to an 
 Attic mina, or 32. As. Id. Our avoirdupois weight (avoir du poids) came from the 
 French, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen 
 to fourteen. — Chambers. 
 
 POWDERING the HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad-singers at 
 the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make themselves ridiculous. Unlike 
 other habits, it was adopted from the low by the high, and became very general 
 about a D. 1614. In England the powdered hair-tax took place in May 1795, at which 
 time the preposterous practice of using powder was at its height; this tax was one 
 guinea for each person. The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in 
 England under 40002. per year. It was abolished in Ireland. 
 
 POYNING'S LAW. A law so called after sir Edward Poyning, one of the lord deputies 
 of Ireland, at the time of its passing in that country, a.d. 1494. By this law all acts 
 were to originate in the English council. This act was repealed, together with the 
 English Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and some other equally obnoxious Irish 
 statutes, April 1782. — Scully ; Statutes. 
 
 * From statistical returns, it appears that the potato crop is so very uncertain that it ought not to 
 be relied on as a staple article of food. 
 
VRM 520 PRA 
 
 PR.EMONSTRATENSIAN ORDER. The first house of this order in England was 
 founded by Peter de Gousla or Gousel, at Newshain, in Lincolnshire, a.d. 1143. — 
 Tanner ; according to others, in 1146. The order spread widely through England soon 
 after. The house at Nevvsham was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Martial. — Lewis. 
 
 PRAEMUNIRE, LAW of. This law (which obtained its name from the first two words 
 " Prcemoneri," or " Priemuniri facias," " cause to be forewarned," and which is applied 
 to any offence in the way of contempt of the sovereign or his government) derived its 
 origin from the exorbitant power which was exercised in England by the pope. The 
 offence ranked as one against the king, because it consisted of introducing a foreign 
 power into the land, and thereby creating an imperium in imperio. The first statute 
 of Praemunire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. — Coke. The Church of Rome in the 
 assertion of her supremacy, bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c. before they 
 were void, upon favourites, on pretence of providing the church with better qualified 
 successors before the vacancies occurred. To put a stop to these encroachments, 
 Edward III. enacted three statutes in 25, 27, and 28 of his reign. The statute com- 
 monly referred to as the statute of Praemunire is the 16th of Richard II. 1392. But 
 several other enactments, of similar object, followed in the subsequent reigns. 
 
 PRAETORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 B.C. when one praetor 
 only was appointed; but a second was appointed in 252 B.C. One administered 
 justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges in all causes which related to 
 foreigners. In the year of Rome 520, two more praetors were created to assist the 
 consul in the government of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been 
 lately conquered, and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman 
 province, A. U. C. 551. Sylla, the dictator, added two more, and Julius Caesar 
 increased the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 64. 
 After this their number fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, in the decline 
 of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers were reduced to three. 
 
 PRAGA, BATTLES of. In this most bloody battle 30,000 Poles were butchered by the 
 renowned but merciless Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct. 10, 1794. — Battle of 
 Praga, in which the Poles, commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army com- 
 manded by General Giesmar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners and 
 12 pieces of cannon ; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831. 
 
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and sometimes state 
 affairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings of France, wherein 
 the rights of the Gallican Church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in 
 the choice of bishops. Also the emperor's letter, by advice of his council, in 
 answer to high personages in particular contingencies. — The Pragmatic Sanction for 
 settling the empire of Germany in the house of Austria, a.d. 1439. Again, the 
 emperor Charles VI. published the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male 
 issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I. 
 April 17, 1713 ; and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa, in con- 
 formity thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise to a war, in 
 which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 
 
 PRAGUE, BATTLE of. Between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, who 
 had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatinate (son-in-law of our James I.) for their king, 
 were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to flee with his queen and 
 children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money behind him. He was after- 
 wards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and the Protestant interest was ruined 
 in Bohemia; all owing to the pusillanimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. 
 Prague was taken by the Saxons iu 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken 
 by storm by the French in 1741 ; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 
 1744 it was taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it in the 
 Bame year. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. In 
 this engagement the Austrians were defeated by Prince Henry of Prussia, and their 
 whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Browne, was mortally 
 wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was killed. After this victory, 
 Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but he was soon obliged to raise the siege. 
 
 PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES; PARLIAMENT. A celebrated parliament, also denomi- 
 nated the Barebones' Parliament (which see), and so called from one of the members 
 (who had thus fantastically styled himself according to the fashion of the times), 
 met July 4, 1653. This parliament consisted of about 120 members, summoned by 
 
PRA 521 PRE 
 
 the protector Cromwell ; they were to sit for fifteen months, and then they were to 
 choose a fresh parliament themselves. 
 
 PRASLIN MURDER, in France. Among the most extraordinary and dreadful of 
 modern times, was perpetrated on the duchesse de Choiseul-Praslin, by her husband, 
 the due de Praslin, at Paris, Aug. 17, 1847. She was the only daughter of the cele- 
 brated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine children, and in her forty-first year. 
 This shocking deed, was done by the duke at his own residence ; and circumstances 
 were so managed by him as to give it the appearance of being the act of another. 
 During the arrangements for the trial the duke took poison. 
 
 PRAYER-BOOK. See Common Prayer. 
 
 PRAYERS foe the DEAD, &c. These prayers were first introduced into the 
 Christian Church about a.d. 190. — Eusesbius. Prayers addressed to the Virgin Mary 
 and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a.d. 593. The mode of praying 
 with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 532. This last has 
 lately been followed in some Protestant places of worship in England. 
 
 PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages : and in most of the 
 countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
 England the order of precedency was regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one 
 passed 31 Henry VIII. 1539, and the other, 1 George I. 1714. 
 
 PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity unchangeably 
 appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of the most 
 perplexing controversies that have occurred among mankind. It was taught by the 
 ancient stoics and early Christians ; and Mahomet introduced the doctrine of an 
 absolute predestination into his Koran in the strongest light. The controversy 
 respecting it in the Christian Church arose in the fifth century, when it was main- 
 tained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus, a priest of Gaul, taught it, a.d. 470. 
 
 PREROGATIVE COURT. The court wherein all wills are proved, and all administra- 
 tions taken, which belong to the archbishop of Canterbury by his prerogative ; and, 
 if any dispute arise between parties concerning such will or administration, the 
 cause is properly decided in this court. The judge is appointed by his grace the 
 archbishop of Canterbury. There are appeals from this court to the judicial com- 
 mittee of the privy council, by statutes 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. 1830. 
 
 PRESBURG, PEACE of. Between France and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
 Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of the bishopric of 
 Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, in 
 Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria and the duke of 
 Wurtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napo- 
 leon ; the independence of the Helvetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous class of Christians, so called from their maintaining 
 that the government of the church appointed in the New Testament was by 
 Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling elders, equal in power, office, 
 and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting-house in England was established 
 at Wandsworth, Surrey, Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianism is the established form 
 of church government in Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been 
 first embodied in the formulary of faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by 
 that reformer in 1560. It was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and 
 finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty 
 of union with England in 1707. 
 
 PRESCOTT, BATTLE of, Upper Canada. The Canadian rebels were attacked by 
 the British under major Young, and (on the following day) by iieut.-colonel Dundas, 
 who, after an obstinate resistance, succeeded in dispersing the insurgents, several of 
 whom were killed, and many taken prisoners; the troops, however, also suffered 
 considerably. After the attack of lieut-colonel Dundas, the remainder of the rebels 
 surrendered. In these engagements they were aided by Americans of the United 
 States, who invaded the Canadian territory in great numbers, Nov. 17, 1838. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF the COUNCIL, LORD. The President of the Council (the fourth 
 great officer of state) is appointed to this important office by letters-patent, under 
 the great seal, durante beneplacito, and, by his office, is to attend the king's royal 
 person, and to manage the debates in council ; to propose matters from the king at 
 the council-table ; and to report to his majesty the resolutions taken thereupon. 
 
PRE 522 PRE 
 
 From the 12 Chas. II. 1660, when Anthony, lord Ashley, was lord president, this 
 office has existed uninterruptedly to the present time. 
 
 PRESIDENT of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA. This rank (being that of 
 first magistrate) was first conferred on George Washington, father of American 
 independence. He was unanimously elected president of the federal convention, 
 which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 to Sept. 17, 1787; and was unanimously 
 elected president of the United States, April 6, 1789. This illustrious patriot, 
 eminent statesman, and general, was again elected president in 1793, and died Dec. 
 14, 1799. For the presidents of the United States, see United States. 
 
 PRESS, the PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from the period 
 of the discovery of the art of printing up to the close of the eighteenth century, 
 when many improvements were made. William Caxton, a mercer of London, had 
 a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Stow's Chron. The earl of Stanhope's iron 
 presses were in general use in 1806. The printing-machine was invented by Koenig 
 in 1811, and Applegath's followed. The Columbian press of Clymer was produced 
 in 1814; and the Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few 
 years after. Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
 The Times' office, London, on Monday, Nov. 28, 1814. Cowper's and Applegath's 
 rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought into use in 1817. See 
 article Printing. 
 
 PRESS, LIBERTY of the. The imprimatur " let it be printed," was much used on 
 the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The liberty of the 
 press was restrained, and the number of master-printers in London and Westminster 
 limited, by the Star Chamber, 14 Chas. I. 1638. And again by act of parliament 
 6 Will. III. 1693. The celebrated toa3t, " The liberty of the press — it is like the air 
 we breathe — if we have not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor 
 tavern, at a Whig dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name 
 required to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. 
 
 PRESS NEWSPAPER, in Ireland. A celebrated journal, published in Dublin, of con- 
 siderable talent, but of a most revolutionary tendency. It was commenced in 
 Oct. 1797, but the celebrated Arthur O'Connor, and Mr. Emmett, the barrister 
 (whose brother was executed in 1803) ; and several other conspicuous men were 
 contributors to it : their writings served to inflame the public mind in Ireland, on the 
 eve of the memorable rebellion, which broke out in 1798. The paper was suppressed 
 by a military force, March 6, 1798, and Mr. O'Connor was arrested at Margate while 
 attempting his escape to France. — The existing weekly paper of that name was first 
 published in May 1853. 
 
 PRESSING to DEATH. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of Henry III. 
 or of Edward I. and on the statute book until the latter part of the last century. 
 A remarkable instance of this death, in England, is the following : — Hugh Calverly 
 of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq. having murdered two of his children, and stabbed his 
 wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, 
 and was thereupon pressed to death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed 
 upon his breast, 3 James 1. 1605. — Stow's Chron. 
 
 PRESSING for the SEA SERVICE. See Impressment. Supported by custom, as far 
 back as records can be found. It is said that the first commission was issued 
 29 Edw. III. 1355. Impi'essment was a criminal punishment in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. Mr. Read, an alderman of London, was pressed and sent to serve on 
 board the fleet in foreign parts, for refusing to pay a tax levied on him by the king 
 in 1554. — Stow's Chron. 
 
 PRESTON, BATTLE of. Between the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, and the 
 British, under general Wills. The first attack was successful on the side of the 
 Scots; but general Wills having been reinforced by general Carpenter, the royal 
 army invested Preston on all sides, and the Scots at length laid down their arms, 
 and their nobles and leaders were secured ; some of them were shot as deserters, 
 and others were sent to London, pinioned and bound together, to intimidate then- 
 party; fought Nov. 12, 1715. — Goldsmith. 
 
 PRESTON-PANS, BATTLE of. Between the Young Pretender, prince Charles Stuart, 
 heading his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope. The latter 
 was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to flee at the very first onset. 
 Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
 
PRE 523 PRI 
 
 where he was the first to announce his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated 
 in a favourite Scottish ballad, called, from the doughty hero, " Johnnie Cope." 
 Fought Sept. 21, 1745. 
 
 PRESTON STRIKE, In 1853, a great number of strikes took place among the work- 
 men in the north of England. Those at Preston struck for an increase of 10 per 
 cent, on their wages. On Oct. 15, the masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
 and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employment, who were mostly maintained 
 for a long time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the week ending Dec. 17, 
 1853, 14,972 were relieved at the cost of 2820?. 8s. The committee of workmen 
 addressed Lord Palmerston, Nov. 15, 1853, who gave them his advice Dec. 24 follow- 
 ing. After many attempts at reconciliation, the Btrike closed for want of funds, 
 May 1,1854. 
 
 PRETENDER. The person known in our history by the title of the Pretender, or 
 Chevalier de St. George, was the son of James II. born in 1688, and acknowledged 
 by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was proclaimed, and his 
 standard set up, at Braemarand Castletown, in Scotland, Sept. 6, 1715; and he 
 landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that 
 the earl of Mar and his other adherents had promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This 
 rebellion having been soon suppressed, the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from 
 whence he proceeded to Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. 
 
 PRETENDER, the YOUNG. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles, born in 
 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 1745. He 
 gained the battle of Preston-pans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, Jan. 18, 1746 ; but 
 was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. He con- 
 tinued wandering among the. frightful wilds of Scotland for nearly six months, and 
 as 30,000?. were offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued by the British 
 troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky acci- 
 dent, and he at length escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlais. He died March 3, 
 
 1788. His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess of Albany ; she died in 
 
 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, born 
 March 1725, died at Rome in August, 1807. See Scotland. 
 
 PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the head of two 
 regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage forty-one 
 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called hell. Above 
 160 other members were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the 
 independents. This atrocious invasion of parliamentary rights was called Pride's 
 Purge, and the privileged members were named the Rump, to whom nothing remained 
 to complete their wickedness but to murder the king, 24 Charles I. 1648. — Goldsmith. 
 
 PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. In the Old 
 Testament the age of priests is fixed at thirty years. Among the Jews, the dignity 
 of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's family, 1491 B.C. After the captivity 
 of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were superadded to the high priest- 
 hood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in 
 no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or 
 high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular sects. 
 
 PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth 
 or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in 
 schools, containing prayers and portions of the scripture. Copies of primers are pre- 
 served of so early a date as 1539. — Ashe. From this early book came the name of the 
 elementary primer made use of in schools. — Idem. The primer is so named from the 
 Romish book of devotions. — Locke. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, RIGHT of. A usage brought down from the earliest times. 
 The first-born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, and in the 
 absence of his father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient custom 
 of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 
 3 Will. I. 1068. 
 
 PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, and there 
 exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many hundred years old. 
 A similar process has been resorted to even in the Sandwich Islands, where they use 
 
PR! 
 
 524 
 
 PRI 
 
 a large leaf as a substitute for the block. See article Cotton. The copyright of 
 designs was secured by two acts, 2 Vict. c. 13, 17, passed June, 1839. 
 
 PRINTING. The greatest of all the ai'ts. The honour of its invention has been appro- 
 priated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg; 
 but the names of the three first only are entitled to attention. Adrian Junius awards 
 the honour of the invention to Laurenzes John Koster of Haerlem, " who printed, 
 with blocks, a book of images and letters, Speculum Humance Salvationis, and com- 
 pounded an ink more viscous and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about 
 a.d. 1438." The leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were afterwards 
 pasted together. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 
 Tractatus Pttri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal types, and 
 used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was commenced in 1444, 
 and finished in 1460. Peter Schaeffer cast the first metal types in matrices, and was 
 therefore the inventor of complete printing, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Da Fresnoy. 
 
 Book of Psalms, printed . . a.d. 1457 
 
 The Durandi Rational*, first work printed 
 with cast metal types . . . 1459 
 
 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, 
 about this time. — Collier. But this 
 statement is discredited by Dibdin.] 
 
 A Livy printed. — Da Fresnoy . . . 
 
 The first Bible completed. — Idem . 
 
 [Mentz taken and plundered, and the art 
 of printing, in the general ruin, is 
 spread to other towns.] . . . . 
 
 The types were uniformly Gothic, or old 
 German (whence our old English or 
 Black Letter), until 
 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first 
 used, same year 
 
 Cicero de Officiis printed (Blair) 
 
 Roman characters, first at Rome . . 
 
 A Chronicle, said to have been found in 
 the archbishop of Canterbury's palace 
 (the fact disputed), bearing the date 
 Oxford, anno 
 
 William Caxton, a mercer of London, 6et 
 up the first press at Westminster 
 
 He printed Willyam Caxton's Recuyel of 
 the Hystoryes of Troy, by Raoul le Fture. 
 — Phillips 
 
 His first pieces were, A Treatise on the 
 Game of Chess and Tully's Offices (see 
 below). — Dibdin . 
 
 JEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is sup 
 posed to be the first book with its 
 leaves numbered 
 
 Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
 Greek book printed (op. Aldi) . 
 
 He introduces the Italic . . . . 
 
 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 
 
 Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Flo- 
 rence, eclipsing all former printing, by 
 Demetrius 148S 
 
 1460 
 1400 
 
 1465 
 
 1465 
 1106 
 1467 
 
 1468 
 1471 
 
 1471 
 
 1474 
 
 1476 
 
 * * 
 
 14S2 
 
 Printing used in Scotland . . a.d. 1509 
 
 The first edition of the whole Bible was, 
 strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
 Polyglot of cardinal Ximcnes (see 
 Polyglot) 1517 
 
 The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
 Ireland, by Humphrey Powell 
 
 Printing in Irish characters introduced 
 by Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of St. 
 Patrick's 
 
 The first newspaper printed in England 
 (see Newspapers) - . . . 
 
 First patent granted for printing . . 
 
 First printing-press improved by Wil- 
 liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam 
 
 First printing in America, in New Eng- 
 land, when the Freeman's Oath and an 
 Almanac were printed 
 
 First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
 Belfast. — Hardy's Tour . . .1 
 
 First types cast in England by Caslon. — 
 Phillips 1720 
 
 Stereotype printing suggested by William 
 Ged, of Edinburgh.— Nichols . . 1735 
 
 The present mode of stereotype invented 
 by Mr. Tilloch, about 
 
 [Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
 land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
 
 The printing-machine was first sug- 
 gested by Nicholson .... 
 The Stanhope press was in general use 
 
 in 1806 
 
 Machine printing (see Press) . . . 1811 
 Steam machinery (see Press) . . . 1814 
 The Columbian press .... 1814 
 
 The Albion press 1816 
 
 The roller, which was a suggestion of 
 
 Nicholson, introduced . . . 1816 
 
 Applegath's rollers (see Press) . . 1817 
 
 1550 
 
 1571 
 
 1588 
 1591 
 
 1601 
 
 1639 
 
 04 
 
 1779 
 
 1790 
 
 TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WOKDE. 
 
 The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated 
 out of the Frenche and emprynted by me 
 William Caxton Fynysshid the last day of 
 Marche the ytr of our Lord God a thousand 
 foure hondrtd and Ixxiiij. 
 
 TULLY. 
 
 The Bokt of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me 
 simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe 
 as the playsir solace and reverence of men 
 growyng in to old age the xij day of August 
 the yere of our lord H.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. 
 
 THE POLYCRONYCON. 
 
 The Polycronycon conttyning the Berynges and 
 Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Bokes. Im- 
 printed by William Caxton after having sime- 
 what chaunged t/ie rude and olde Engtysshe, 
 that is to wete [to witj certayn Words which 
 in these Dayes be neithtr vsyd ne understanden. 
 Ended the second day of Juyll at Westmestre 
 the xxij yere of the Eigne of Kynge Edward 
 the fourth, and of t/ie Incarnacion of oure 
 Lord a Thousand four Hondred four Score 
 and tweyne [1482]. — Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 
 
 * To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, where 
 the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by the learned 
 Thomas Milling, then abbot. He produced " The Game and Play of Chesse," the first book ever printed 
 in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agree 
 that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — L> igh. 
 
PEI 
 
 525 
 
 PRI 
 
 THE FESTIVAL. 
 
 The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holi- 
 dais taken out of the golden legend enprynted at 
 london in Fletestrete at y sygne of y Sonne by 
 wynkyn de worde. In the yere of our lord 
 m. ccccc.vin. And ended the cci daye of Maye 
 — Ames. 
 
 the lord's prater. 
 
 [As printed by Caxton in 1483.] 
 
 Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy- 
 name : thy Jcingdome come to us ; thy will be 
 done in earth as is in heaven : our every days 
 bred give us to day; and forgive us oure 
 trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass 
 against us ; and lead us not in to temptation, 
 but deliver usfrom allevil sin, amen.-~ Lewis's 
 Life of Caxton. 
 
 a placard. 
 
 [As printed by William Caxton.] 
 
 If it plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye 
 ony pies of two or three comemoracius of Salis- 
 buri use * enprynted after the forme of this 
 preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly correct, 
 late him come to westmonester in to the almo- 
 nestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he 
 shall have them good there. — Dibdin's Typ. 
 Ant. 
 
 PRINTING, continued. 
 
 the chronicles. 
 The Cronicles of Englond Empnted by me Wyll- 
 yam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by london 
 the v day of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of 
 our lord god m.cccc.lxxx. 
 
 POLYCRONICON. 
 
 Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of 'Apryll 
 the tenth yere of the reyne of hinge Harry the 
 seuenth And of the Jncarnacyon of our lord 
 mcccclxxxxv Enprynted by Wynkyn The- 
 worde at Westmestre. 
 
 HILL OF PERFECTION. 
 
 The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance 
 of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of 
 the hous of St. Ann, the order of the charterouse 
 Accomplysshe[d] and fynysshe[d] att West- 
 mynster the uiii day of ' Janeuer the yere of our 
 lord Thousande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in the 
 xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn 
 de worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The Descripcyon ofEnglonde Walys Scotland and 
 Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthy- 
 nesse of the same Fynysshed and enprynted 
 in Flete strete in the syne of the Sonne by me 
 "Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our lord a 
 M.ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [menseMaii]. — 
 Dibdin's Typ. ant. 
 
 Among the early printers, the ouly points used were the comma, parenthesis, inter- 
 rogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the semicolon ; 
 and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of abbreviations and con- 
 tractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered leaves, or catch-words. Our 
 punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
 
 PRINTING IN COLOURS was first commenced by the employment of several blocks, 
 to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of Faust, a.d. 
 1457, which has a letter in three colours). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed 
 ("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 1519, in Germany : 
 others, by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 1518). J. B. Jackson (1720-1754) attempted, with- 
 out success, to imitate water-colour drawings, and to print paper-hangings. About 
 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some chiaroscuros. In 1819-22, Mr. William 
 Savage produced his remarkable work, " Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by 
 imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, which are still greatly admired, 
 giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beau- 
 tiful specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which expired in 1 855. 
 In some of the illustrations to the " Pictorial Album " (1836), he has employed 
 twenty different blocks. Since then great improvements have been made in the art. 
 It has been applied to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 1848, Mr. G. 
 C. Leighton produced imitations of water-colour-drawings, by means of modifica- 
 tions and improvements of Savage's processes. He has since availed himself of 
 electrotyping to multiply copies of the blocks, and of steam-power in printing 
 from them. 
 
 PRINTING MACHINES. William Nicholson, editor of the Philosophical Journal, first 
 projected (1790-1), but M. Konig first contrived and constructed a working printing- 
 machine, which began with producing The Times of Nov. 28, 1814, a memorable day 
 in the annals of typography. In 1815, Mr. E. Cowper applied his inventive mind to 
 the subject, since then improvements have been rapid and important : Konig's 
 machine printed 1800 an hour; Cowper 's improvements increased this number to 
 4200. This has now been raised to 50,000, by Mr. Applegath's machine, which 
 prints The Times. 
 
 PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a.d. 722 in England. 
 They were at first dependent on the great abbeys. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The 
 
 * Komish Service books, used at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed 
 from the different colour of the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. — 
 Wheatley. 
 
PRI 526 PRI 
 
 priories of aliens were first seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of 
 a war between England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns 
 on the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. These 
 priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 Hen. V. 1414. — 
 liymer's Fcedera. 
 
 PRISONERS of WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when spared by 
 the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less continued until about 
 the thirteenth century, when civilised nations, instead of enslaving, commonly 
 exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of war in 
 England were 12,000 in number, Sept. 30, 1779. The number exchanged by cartel 
 with France, from the commencement of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — 
 Phillips. The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in 
 England, 27,000, Sept. 1798.— Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, 
 and the French, &c. in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 
 number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the last war. 
 
 PRISONS OF LONDON. The period of the first erection of the celebrated King's 
 Bench (now Queen's Bench) prison, Southwark, is unknown ; but a prison has 
 existed on or near this spot for some centuries. In the reign of Elizabeth many 
 persons died in it of what was called the " sickness of the house." — Stow. The Clink, 
 on the Bankside, also existed at a very early period. The Fleet prison (which see) waa 
 built before a.d. 1169. Newgate, so called from its being built later than the rest of 
 the gates, was a prison in John's reign, about 121 6. See Newgate. Clerkenwell prison 
 was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, which was taken down 
 in 1614. Cold Bath-fields prison was built on the suggestion of the philanthropist 
 Howai'd. The atrocities of Governor Aris in this prison were exposed in parliament, 
 Jidy 12, 1800. Horsemonger-lane gaol was built in 1781. Giltspur-street compter 
 (pulled down in 1856) was also built upon the plan suggested by Howard, about 
 1780. See Poultry. The Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters from the 
 Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was pulled down in 1819, to make room for 
 Waterloo-bridge. The White Cross-street prison for debtors was erected in 1813. 
 The Borough compter was a mean and confined place till visited by a parliamentary 
 committee in 1817. The new Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute for the 
 City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1829. Tothill Fields Bridewell was rebuilt in 1831. 
 The House of Detention, Clerkenwell, was commenced in 1847. Holloway prison was 
 opened, Feb. 6, 1852. 
 
 PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY owes its existence to the philanthropic labours of 
 sir T. F. Buxton, M.P. It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public meeting 
 in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of gaols, by the diffusion of information 
 respecting their management, the classification and employment of the prisoners, and 
 the prevention of crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the 
 criminal, on his discharge, to abandon his vicious pursuits. 
 
 PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing with a 
 licence from government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
 The practice first became general during the war between Spain and the Netherlands 
 about the end of the seventeenth century ; and was very general during the last 
 French war. Privateering was abolished by the great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 
 March 30, 1856. 
 
 PRIVILEGED PLACES in LONDON. See Asylums. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL. This assembly is of great antiquity. A council was instituted by 
 Alfred, a.d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was afterwards so 
 increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and despatch, and Charles II. 
 limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the principal officers of state (councillors 
 ex officio), and ten lords and five commoners of the king's choice, a.d. 1679. — Salmon. 
 The number of the council was about twelve when it discharged the functions of 
 state, now confined to the members of the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy 
 amount before 1679, in which year it was remodelled upon sir William Temple's plan, 
 and l-educed to thirty members : the number is now unlimited. — Beatson. To attempt 
 the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made capital, occasioned by 
 Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was examining him on a charge of 
 high treason, 9 Anne, 1711. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL, JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the. In lieu of the Court of Dele- 
 
PRI 527 PRO 
 
 gates, for appeals from the lord chancellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases 
 of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty courts of England, and the Vice- 
 Admiralty courts abroad — from the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the Isle 
 of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, &c, fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 41, 1833. Judges — the president of the privy council, the lord chancellor, and 
 such members of the privy council as may hold and have held that office of lord 
 keeper or first commissioner of the great seal, lord chief justice of the Queen's Bench, 
 master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, lord chief justice of the Common Pleas, lord chief 
 baron, judge of the Admiralty, chief judge of the court of Bankruptcy, and others 
 appointed by the queen, being privy councillors. 
 PRIVY SEAL, the LORD. The fifth great officer of state, denominated from his 
 having the custody of the privy seal, which he must not put to any grant, without 
 good warrant under the king's signet. This seal is used by the king to all charters, 
 grants, and pardons, signed by the king, before they come to the great seal. Richard 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 
 1523, when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was appointed. The privy seal has 
 been on some occasions in commission. — Beatson. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY. The money arising from captures made upon the enemy, is divided 
 into eight equal parts, and thus distributed by order of government : — Captain to 
 have three-eighths, unless under the direction of a flag officer, who in that case is to 
 have one of the said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieuten- 
 ants, &c. one eighth ; lieutenants of marines, gunners, admirals' secretaries, &c. one- 
 eighth; midshipmen, captain's clerk, &c. one-eighth; ordinary and able seamen, 
 marines, &c. two-eighths. Given at St. James's, April 17, 1793. 
 
 PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having 
 but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. — Ashe. "Until the end of the third 
 century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; they were always painted 
 or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." 
 — Addison. 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 
 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 : the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 
 1808, and subsequently. Numerous enactments varied the amount of the stamp upon 
 promissory notes and bills. See Bills of Exchange. 
 
 PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish Church, 
 Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by Pope Gregory XV. in 
 1 622. Its constitution was altered by several of the succeeding pontiffs. 
 
 PROPERTY TAX. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy of two-fifteenths from 
 the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid the king in a war with France, 
 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey proposed a tenth of the property of the laity and a 
 a fourth of the clergy to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously 
 opposed this tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of their 
 effects; but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to give an 
 exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of correspondents in 
 foreign countries. At length the king was pleased to accept the tax according to 
 their own calculation. — Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of 
 great amount in the last years of the late war. The assessments on real property, 
 under the property tax of 1815, were 51,898,423?.; of which, Middlesex was 
 5,595,537?.; Lancashire 3,087,774?.; and Yorkshire, 4,700,000?.; while Wales, of 
 4,752,000 acres, or one million more than Yorkshire, was but 2,153,801?. An attempt 
 to renew the property-tax was lost in the commons by a majority of 37, March 18, 
 1816. For the later and present imposts upon incomes, see Income Tax. 
 
 PROPHECY. We have in the Old Testament the writings of sixteen prophets; i.e. of 
 four greater, and twelve lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah,- Ezekiel, and 
 Daniel ; the latter are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, 
 Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy was given in the earliest times. 
 See Jews. The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed by Cyrus, 538 B.C. 
 God's judgment upon Jerusalem (Isaiah xxix. 1 — 8), executed by Titus, a.d. 70. Many 
 other instances of prophecy occur in Scripture. 
 
 PROTECTIONISTS. A name given to that section of the Conservative party which 
 opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 1 846. 
 The name was derived from a " Society for the Protection of Agriculture," of which 
 
PRO 528 PRO 
 
 the duke of Richmond was chairman, and which had been establi8hed to counteract 
 the efforts of the Anti-Corn Law League. Lord George Bentinck was the head of the 
 party from 1846 till his death, Sept. 21, 1848. The Derby administration not 
 proposing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above society was dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853. 
 
 PROTECTORATES in ENGLAND. That of the earl of Pembroke began Oct. 19, 1216, 
 and ended by his death the same year. Of the duke of Bedford began Aug. 31, 1422, 
 and ended by his death in September 1435. Of the duke of Gloucester began 
 April 9, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dignity, June 22, the same year. 
 Or Somerset began Jan. 28, 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549. Of Oliver 
 Cromwell began Dec. 12, 1653, and ended by his death, Sept. 3, 1658. Of Richard 
 Cromwell began Sept. 4, 1658, ended by his resignation, April 22, 1659. See England. 
 
 PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request 
 aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the 
 religious disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman 
 Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the Church 
 of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally 
 and solemnly pro'ested, April 17, 1530. Hence the term Protestants was given to the 
 followers of Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects 
 separated from the see of Rome. The six protesting princes were : John and George, 
 the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two dukes of 
 Lunenberg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; these were joined by 
 the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, and seven other 
 cities. See Lutheran! sm, Calvinism, &c. 
 
 PROTESTANT ASSOCIATION. An association which embraced a multitude of persons 
 of almost every class and rank in the kingdom, formed to oppose the grant of con- 
 cessions to the Roman Catholics. The association petitioned parliament, and to 
 enforce their object a vast body of the London populace collected, headed by lord 
 George Gordon, and committed the most dreadful and daring excesses, June 2 to 7, 
 1780. See Gordon's " No Popery" Mob. 
 
 PROTESTANT COLONISATION SOCIETY. A society for planting communities of 
 the poorer Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the northern counties of 
 Ireland, was established in Dublin in December 1829. The Protestant Conservative 
 Society was also established in that city, Dec. 9, 1831. Several societies, under the 
 general designation of Protestant (yet some of a political nature), have been formed ; 
 but most of them have fallen to decay, and many have ceased altogether. 
 
 PROVINCIAL BANKING COMPANY of IRELAND. Established by act of par- 
 liament in 1825. On Sept. 1, in that year, the Cork branch was established; and 
 the Limerick branch on Nov. 1 ; the Clonmel branch on Nov. 15; and the London- 
 derry branch on Dec. 12, following. The Sligo, Wexford, Belfast, Waterford, and 
 Galway branches, were formed in 1826 ; the Athlone, Armagh, Coleraine, and 
 Kilkenny branches in 1827; the Ballina and Tralee branches in 1828 ; the Youghal 
 and Enniskillen in 1831 ; and various other branches in the following years. These 
 companies are now general throughout the kingdom. 
 
 PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them. Wheat for food for 100 men 
 for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. about 1130. 
 The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that 
 the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burtons Annals. When 
 wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty- 
 four ounces (made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was 
 at Is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the 
 whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a.d. 1202. — 
 Mat. Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. Wheat Is. per 
 quarter, 14 Edw. I. 1286. — Stow. The price of provisions fixed by the common 
 council of London as follows : two piillets, three half-pence ; a partridge, or two 
 woodcocks, three half-pence; a fat lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the 
 rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I. 1299. — Stow. Price of provisions fixed by 
 parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3/. 12s. ; 
 a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by 
 the common-council above recited, 7 Edw. II. 1313. — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold 
 for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 1390, this 
 was deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the historians of that 
 
PRU 
 
 529 
 
 PRU 
 
 era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, aud veal three-farthings, by act 
 of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. — Anderson's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold 
 three pints, ale-measui'e, for one half-penny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stow's Chronicle. 
 
 PRUD'HOMMES, CONSEILS DE (from prudens homo), trade tribunals in France, com- 
 posed of masters and workmen, instituted in 1806, by Napoleon, to arbitrate on trade 
 disputes. Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, and 
 1464 at Lyons. 
 
 PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.C. The 
 Venedi were conquered by a people called the Borussi, who inhabited the Riphsean 
 mountains ; and from these the country was called Borussia. Some historians, how- 
 ever, derive the name from Po, signifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified 
 into Prussia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic 
 knights, and latterly with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
 until about A.D. 1007. 
 
 St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
 Christianity, but is murdered by the 
 pagans a.d. 1010 
 
 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
 by dreadful ravages **** 
 
 Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
 lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear 1163 
 
 The Teutonic knights.retuming from the 
 holy wars, undertake the conquest of 
 Prussia, and the conversion of the 
 people 1225 
 
 Thorn built by them .... 1231 
 
 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital 
 of Prussia 12S6 
 
 The Teutonic knights almost depopulate 
 Prussia. It is repeopled by German 
 colonists in the 13th century . . **** 
 
 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
 purchase from Sigismond, emperor of 
 Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
 denburg ....... 1415 
 
 [This Frederick is the head of the present 
 reigning family.] 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives 
 against the oppression of the Teutonic 
 knights 1446 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master of 
 the Teutonic order, renounces the 
 Roman Catholic religion, embraces 
 Lutheranism, and is acknowledged 
 duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
 fief of Poland 1525 
 
 University of Konigsberg founded by 
 duke Albert ...... 
 
 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the 
 electorate of Brandenburg, and so con 
 tinues to this day 
 
 John Sigismond created elector of Bran 
 denburg and duke of Prussia 
 
 The principality of Halberstadt and the 
 bishopric of Minden transferred to the 
 house of Brandenburg 
 
 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia 
 as an independent state, under Frede- 
 rick William, surnamed the Great 
 Elector 1657 
 
 Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
 Ernest, elector of Brandenburg and 
 duke of Prussia, to distinguish the 
 part he had taken in restoring peace 
 to Europe .... 
 
 Frederick III. in an assembly of the 
 states, puts a crown upon his own head 
 and upon the head of his consort, and 
 is proclaimed king of Prussia, by the 
 title of Frederick I. 
 
 Order of the Black Eagle instituted by 
 Frederick I. on the day of his corona- 
 tion 
 
 Guelders taken from the Dutch 
 
 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- 
 
 1544 
 
 1594 
 1608 
 
 1648 
 
 1660 
 
 1701 
 
 1701 
 1702 
 
 burg, and Valengia, and purchases the 
 principality of Tecklenburg . a.d. 1707 
 The principality of Meurs added to the 
 
 Prussian dominions .... 1712 
 Reign of Frederick the Great, during 
 which the Prussian monarchy is made 
 to rank among the first powers in 
 
 Europe 1740 
 
 Breslau ceded to Prussia .... 174] 
 Silesia, Glatz, &c. ceded . . . . 1742 
 Frederick the Great visits England . 1744 
 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, and 
 a Russian army, march to Berlin. The 
 city laid under contribution ; and pays 
 800,000 guilders and 1,900,000 crowns, 
 the magazines, ai-senals, and foundries 
 
 destroyed 1760 
 
 Peace of Hubertsberg . . Feb. 15, 1763 
 Frederick the Great dies . Aug. 17, 1786 
 The Prussians take possession of Hanover 
 
 Jan. 30, 1806 
 Prussia j oins the allies of England against 
 
 France Oct. 6, 1806 
 
 Fatal battle of Jena . . Oct. 14, 1806 
 
 [Here followed the loss of almost every 
 corps in succession of the Prussian 
 army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
 province of the monarchy except Prus- 
 sia Proper.] 
 
 Berlin decree promulgated 
 
 Peace of Tilsit (which see) 
 
 Convention of Berlin 
 
 Prussia joins the allies 
 
 Treaty of Paris 
 
 The king visits England 
 
 Dines at Guildhall 
 
 Congress of Carlsbad . 
 
 Marshal Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 17, 
 
 Sept. 12, 1819 
 
 [From this time Prussia pursued a peace- 
 ful and undisturbed policy until 184S.] 
 
 Serious attempt made on the life of the 
 king, by an assassin named Tesch, 
 who fired two shots at him . July 26, 1844 
 
 Berlin declared in a state of siege, 
 
 Nov. 12, 1848 
 
 The Constituent Assembly meets in Bran- 
 denburg castle . . Nov. 29, 1848 
 
 This assembly is dissolved, and the king 
 issues a new constitution to his sub- 
 jects Dec. 5. 1848 
 
 Prussia declines the imperial crown 
 offered to it ... Jan. 23, 1849 
 
 [But adds, in a note to the Frankfort 
 ministry, " Prussia, with the consent 
 of the German government, is ready to 
 undertake any task that Germany 
 may impose upon it."] 
 
 The German National Assembly elect the 
 M M 
 
 Nov. 20, 1806 
 
 July 7, 1807 
 
 Nov. 5, 1808 
 
 March 17, 1813 
 
 April 11, 1814 
 
 June, 6, 1814 
 
 June 18, 1814 
 
 Aug. 1, 1819 
 
PRU 
 
 530 
 
 PRU 
 
 PRUSSIA, continued. 
 
 king of Prussia " hereditary emperor 
 
 of the Germans " . . March 28, 1849 
 
 The king, however, declines the imperial 
 crown April 29, 1849 
 
 Royal ordinanco, placing the kingdom 
 under martial law . . May 10, 1849 
 
 The Prussians enter Carlsruhe, June 23, 1849 
 
 Armistice between Prussia and Denmark 
 (see Denmark) . . . July 10, 1S49 
 
 Hamburg occupied by a German force, 
 
 Aug. 14, 1849 
 
 Bavaria declares an imperial constitution 
 with the king of Prussia at its head, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1849 
 
 Treaty between Prussia and Austria, 
 
 Sept. 30, 1849 
 
 Austria protests against the alliance of 
 Prussia with the minor states of Ger- 
 many .... Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 The king takes the oath required by the 
 constitution .... Feb. 6, 1S50 
 
 Hanover withdraws from the Prussian 
 alliance .... Feb. 25, 1850 
 
 Treaty signed at Munich between Aus- 
 tria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtem- 
 berg, to maintain the German union, 
 
 Feb. 27, 1850 
 
 Wurtemberg denounces the insidious 
 ambition of the king of Prussia, and 
 announces a league between Wurtem- 
 berg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under the 
 sanction of Austria . March 15, 1850 
 
 Attempt made to assassinate the king of 
 Prussia May 22, 1850 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
 Prussian league . . June 30, 1850 
 
 Treaty of peace between Prussia and 
 Denmark .... July 2, 1850 
 
 A congress of deputies from the states 
 included in the Prussian Zollverein 
 opened at Cassel . . July 12, 1850 
 
 Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet 
 of Frankfort . . . Aug. 25, 1850 
 
 The Prussian government addresses a 
 despatch to the cabinet of Vienna, 
 declaring its resolve to uphold the 
 constitution in Hesse-Cassel Sept. 21, 1S50 
 
 Couut Brandenburg, prime minister of 
 Prussia, dies . . . Nov. 6, 1850 
 
 Decree, calling out the whole Prussian 
 army, 223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, 
 
 and 29,000 artillery, with 1080 field- 
 pieces .... Nov. 7, 1850 
 
 The Prussian troops in Hesse retire upon 
 and occupy the military road in that 
 electorate . . . Nov. 9, 1850 
 
 The Prussian forces withdraw from the 
 grand duchy of Baden . . Nov. 14, 1850 
 
 General Radowitz, late war minister, 
 visits queen Victoria at Windsor, 
 
 Nov. 26, 1850 
 
 The Prussian troops commence their 
 retreat from Hesse-Cassel . Dec. 5, 1850 
 
 Prince Schwartzenberg leaves Dresden 
 on a visit to the king of Prussia at 
 Berlin .... Dec. 28, 1850 
 
 The king celebrates by a grand banquet 
 the 150 th anniversary of the Prussian 
 monarchy .... Jan. 18, 1851 
 
 The king of Prussia visits the emperor of 
 Russia .... May 18, 1851 
 
 The king and czar leave Warsaw for 
 Olmutz to have an interview with the 
 emperor of Austria . . May 27, 1S51 
 
 Statue of Frederick the Great by Rauche 
 inaugurated at Berlin . May 31, 1851 
 
 The king revives the council of state as 
 it existed before the revolution of 1848, 
 
 Jan. 12, 1S52 
 
 A Prussian Industrial exhibition opened 
 at Berlin .... May 28, 1852 
 
 Prussia repudiates a customs' union with 
 Austria .... June 7, 1852 
 
 But agrees to a commercial treaty, 
 
 Feb. 19, 1S53 
 
 Plot at Berlin detected . . April, 1853 
 
 Death of Radowitz . . Dec. 25, 1853 
 
 Vacillation of the government upon the 
 Eastern question . March and April, 1S54 
 
 Agrees to a protocol for preservation of 
 the integrity of Turkey, which is 
 sigued at Vienna . . April 7, 1854 
 
 Continues neutral in the war, 
 
 Sept. 21, Oct. 13, 1854 
 
 Excluded from the conferences at Vienna 
 
 Feb. 1855 
 
 Dispute with Switzerland (see Keufchdlel) 
 
 Nov. 1856 to May 1857 
 
 Prince Frederick William of Prussia be- 
 trothed to Princess Royal of England 
 
 May, 1857 
 
 MARGRAVES, ELECTORS, DUKES, AND KINGS. 
 
 MAEGRAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG. 
 
 1134. Albert I. surnamed the Bear, first 
 
 elector of Brandenburg. 
 1170. Othol. 
 1184. Otho II. 
 1206. Albert II. 
 1221. John I. and Otho III. 
 1266. John II. 
 1282. Otho IV. 
 1309. Waldemar. 
 
 1319. Henry I. le Jeune. 
 
 1320. [Interregnum.] 
 1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
 
 1352. Louis II. sumarued the Roman. 
 
 1365. OthoV. leFainttant. 
 
 1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg.- 
 
 1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
 
 1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 
 
 1411. Sifrismund, again : emperor. 
 
 1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg. 
 
 1440. Frederick II. surnamed Ironside. 
 
 1470. Albert III. surnamed the German 
 
 Achilles. 
 1476. John III. his son ; as margrave : styled 
 
 the Cicero of Germany. 
 1486. John III. as elector. 
 
 1499. Joachim I. son of John. 
 
 1535. Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
 
 1571. John-George. 
 
 1598. Joachim-Frederick. 
 
 1608. John-Sigismund. 
 
 AND DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 1616. John-Sigismund. 
 1619. George- William. 
 1640. Frederick-William, his son ; generally 
 
 styled the "Great Elector." 
 16S8. Frederick, son of the preceding ; 
 
 crowned king, Jan. 18, 1701. 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 1701. Frederick I.; king. 
 
 1713. Frederick-William I. son of Frederick I. 
 
 1740. Frederick II. (Frederick III. ; styled 
 
 the Great), sou of the preceding : 
 [The Prussian monarchy was raised to 
 
 its high rank as a military power, 
 
 under this prince.] 
 1786. Frederick-William II. nephew of the 
 
 preceding king. 
 1797. Frederick- William III. He had to con- 
 
PRU 531 PUN 
 
 PRUSSIA, continued. 
 
 tend against the might of Napoleon, 
 and after extraordinary vicissitudes, 
 he aided England in the overthrow 
 of that usurper. 
 
 Frederick-William IV. son of the last 
 monarch ; succeeded June 7. The 
 present (1857) King of Prussia. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID. This acid is colourless, but smells like peach flowers, freezes at 
 two degrees, and is very volatile ; it turns vegetable blues into red. It was acciden- 
 tally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this 
 acid in a separate state, about 1782. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the 
 lauro-cerasus was first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden of 
 Dublin. An unfortunate gentleman of good family, named Montgomery, who was 
 convicted of forgery in London, drank an ounce and a half of this acid in Newgate, and 
 was found dead in his cell on the morning appointed for hi3 execution, July 4, 1828. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 150), 
 supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, 
 moon, and stars moved round once in twenty-four hours. This system (still the 
 official doctrine of the church of Rome) was universally taught till that of Pythagoras 
 (B.C. 500) was revived by Copernicus (a.d. 1530), demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and 
 Newton (1687). 
 
 PUBLICANS, in Holt Writ. A publican, among the Romans, was one who acted as 
 collector of the customs, or who farmed the taxes and public revenues ; the collectors 
 of such imposts as were laid on the Jews, and consequently hateful to them. 
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH. See Health. 
 
 PUBLIC-HOUSES. See Victuallers. 
 
 PUDDLING. See Iron Manufacture. 
 
 PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instruments, are 
 said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 
 516 B.c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in a single moveable pulley the 
 power gained is doubled. In a continued combination the power is twice the number 
 of pulleys, less 1. — Phillips. 
 
 PULTOWA, BATTLE op. In this memorable engagement, Charles XII. of Sweden 
 was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to take refuge at 
 Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch would have fallen 
 into the hands of the czar after the engagement, had he not been saved by the 
 personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire 
 has commemorated and immortalised. This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want 
 of concert in the generals, and to the circumstance of Charles having been danger- 
 ously wounded, just before, which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, 
 without being able to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 
 
 PULTUSK, BATTLES of. One between the Saxons and Swedes, in which the former 
 were signally defeated, 1703 ; another between the French under Napoleon and the 
 Russian and Prussian armies, in which both sides claimed the victory, but it inclined 
 in favour of the French, whose loss, though very severe, was not as great as on the 
 Russian side, Dec. 26, 1806. 
 
 PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have invented the 
 pump (with other hydraulic instruments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is 
 ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. They were in general use in England, 
 a.d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and was improved 
 by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on the pump in front of the late Royal Exchange, 
 London, stated that the well beneath was first sunk in a.d. 1282. 
 
 PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, 
 264 B.C. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it lasted twenty -three 
 years, and ended 241 B.C. — The second Punic war began 218 B.C. in which year 
 Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, 
 resolved to carry on the war to the gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, 
 and the Apennines, with uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were 
 stationed to stop his progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of 
 Ticinus, and of the lake of Thrasymenus, 218, and of Cannae, 216, followed. Scipio 
 carried the war into Africa, and Hannibal was recalled. The decisive battle of Zama 
 was fought 202 B.C. the Carthaginians being totally defeated. This war lasted seventeen 
 
 m m 2 
 
PUR 532 PYR 
 
 years, and ended in 201 B.C. — The third Punic war began 149 B.C. and was terminated 
 Dy the fall of Carthage, 146 B.C. See Carthage. 
 
 PURGATIVES. Those of the mild species, particularly cassia, manna, and senna, were 
 first discovered by Actuarius, a Greek physician, a.d. 1245. They advantageously 
 supply the place of drastics, which frequently occasion great injux % y to the animal 
 system. A very mild kind of purgative is now called aperient. — Ashe. 
 
 PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, where, it is 
 believed by the Roman Catholics the soul passes through the fire of purification 
 before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of purgatory was known about 
 a.d. 250 ; and was introduced into the Roman Church in 593. — P latino. Introduced 
 early in the sixth century. — Dwpin. It was first set forth by a council at Florence, 
 1438.— Dr. Hook. 
 
 PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to the religious 
 performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the Jewish law that 
 a woman should keep within her house forty days after the birth of a son, and eighty 
 days after the birth of a daughter, when she was to go to the temple and offer a 
 lamb, pigeon, or turtle, B.C. 149D. Among the Christians, the feast of purification was 
 instituted, a.d. 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, 
 according to custom, she presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles. 
 Pope Sergius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas-day. 
 
 PURITANS. The name given in the reigns of queen Elizabeth, king James, and king 
 Charles I. to such persons as pretended to greater purity of doctrine, holiness of 
 living, and stricter discipline than others. They at first were members of the Esta- 
 blished Church, but afterwards separated, professing to follow the word of God 
 alone, and maintaining that the English Church still retained many human inven- 
 tions and popish superstitions. The name was given about 1564. 
 
 PURPLE. A mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered at Tyre. It is said to have 
 been found by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell-fish, called murex or purpura, 
 and upon returning to his master, Hercules Tyrius, he observed his lips tinged, and 
 proper use was made of the discovery. Purple was anciently used by the princes and 
 great men for their garments by way of distinction, and to this day the purple colour 
 is the livery of our bishops, &c. The dignity of an archbishop or great magistrate is 
 frequently meant by the purple. The purple was first given to the cardinals by pope 
 Paul II. 1465. 
 
 PUSEYISM. A name attached to the views of certain clergymen and lay members of 
 the Church of England, who endeavoured to restore the practice of the Church of 
 England to what they believed to be required by the language of her Liturgy and 
 Rubrics ; but which were considered by their opponents to be contrary to her doctrine 
 and discipline, and of a Romish tendency. The term was derived from the name of 
 the professor of Hebrew at Oxford, Dr. Pusey, who was popularly supposed to be the 
 originator and chief supporter of those views. The heads of houses of the university 
 of Oxford passed resolutions censuring Dr. Pusey's attempts to renew practices which 
 are now obsolete, March 15, 1841 ; and his celebrated sermon was condemned by the 
 same body, May 30, 1843. This term is now applied to those clergymen and laymen 
 who agree with the views of Dr. Pusey. 
 
 PYRAMIDS of EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, " so 
 celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monuments of art. It is 
 singular that such superb piles are nowhere to be found but in Egypt; for in every 
 other country, pyramids are rather puerile and diminutive imitations of those in 
 Egypt, than attempts at appropriate magnificence. The three principal pyramids 
 are situated on a rock at the foot of some high mountains which bound the Nile." 
 The first building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 1500 B.C. The greatest 
 is said to have been erected by Cheops, B.C. 1082. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet 
 in perpendicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
 the base is 746 feet. It occupies above twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of 
 stupendous blocks of stone. There are many other smaller pyramids to the south 
 of these. 
 
 PYRENEES, BATTLE op the. Between the British army, commanded by lord 
 Wellington, and the French, under the command of Marshal Soult. The latter army 
 was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the battle of Vittoria (fought 
 June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the 
 
PYR 533 QUiE 
 
 allies across the Ebro, a duty to which his abilities were inferior, for Soult retreated 
 into France with a loss of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated in a series of 
 engagements from July 25 to August 2, 
 
 PYRENEES, PEACE of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain, between 
 cardinal Mazarin for the French king, and Don Lewis de Haro on the part of Spain,- 
 in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain 
 yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests 
 in Catalonia, Italy, &c. and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 
 
 PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Founded by Pythagoras, of Samoa, head of the 
 Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration of the 
 soul from one body to another. He forbade his disciples to eat flesh, as also beans, 
 because he supposed them to have been produced from the same putrified matter 
 from which at the creation of the world man was formed. In his theological system, 
 Pythagoras supposed that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive 
 matter by the hands of a powerful being, who himself was the mover and soul of the 
 world. He was the inventor of the multiplication table, and a great improver of 
 geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at this day. 539 B.C. 
 
 PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honour of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi. 
 They were first instituted, according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, 
 in commemoration of the victory which he had obtained over the serpent Python, 
 from which they received their name; though others maintain that they were first 
 established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the 
 council of the Amphictyons, B.C. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles, 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a French quack 
 made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a shrill voice, " My father 
 cures all sorts of distempers;" to which the doctor added in a grave manner, "What 
 the child says is true." — A ddison. Quacks sprung up with the art of medicine ; and 
 several countries, particularly England and France, abound with them. In London, 
 some of their establishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in 
 1783, et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose 
 physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, Aug. 21, 1830; he 
 was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z. Oct. 30 following. The same 
 quack (who had previously absconded) was tried for manslaughter in the case of 
 Mrs. Catherine Lloyd, and acquitted Feb. 19, 1831. 
 
 QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY. First Sunday in Lent. Ercombert, king of Kent, 
 appointed the fast of Lent in this country in 640-1. Succeeding generations marked 
 the distinctions between the various kinds of food. We find flesh to have been 
 early prohibited during Lent, though Henry VIII. published a proclamation in 1543, 
 allowing the use of white meats, which continued in force until, by proclamation of 
 James I. in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I. in 1627 and 1631, flesh was again wholly 
 forbidden. See Lent, and Quinquagesima Sunday. 
 
 QUADRANT. The mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter of a circle. The 
 solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers under the 
 caliphs, in a.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 
 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. 
 Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See Navigation. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of alliance between Great Britain, 
 France, and the emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the accession of the 
 states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple Alliance, and was for the 
 purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families in Great Britain and 
 France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718. 
 
 QUiESTOR. In ancient Rome the Quaestor was an officer who had the management of 
 the public treasure, instituted 484 b.c. The quaestorship was the first office any 
 person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At 
 first there were only two ; but afterwards the number was greatly increased. Two 
 more were added in 409 B.C., to attend the consuls in discharging their duties. These 
 
QUA 534 QUE 
 
 latter were sub-called Peregrini, whilethe others, whose employment was in the city, 
 received the name of Urbani. 
 
 QUAKERS or FRIENDS. Originally called Sceker3, from their seeking the truth ; and 
 afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic of the relation which 
 man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear towards man. — Clarkson. 
 Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers in 1050, because Fox 
 (the founder) admonished him, aud those present with him, to tremble at the word 
 of the Lord. This respectable sect, excelling in morals, prudence, and industry, 
 was commenced in England about a.d. 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who waa 
 soon joined by a number of learned, ingenious, and pious men — among others, by 
 George Keith, Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay, of Ury.* Fox carried his reverence for 
 supernatural teaching so far as to reject all religious ordinances, and explained 
 away the commands relative to baptism, &c. They reject the ordinary names of the 
 days and months ; and use thee and thou for you, as more consonant with truth : these 
 practices originated with their founder, who published a book of instructions for 
 teachers and professors. The first meeting-house in London was in White Hart- 
 court, Gracechurch-street. The first meeting of Quakers in Ireland was jn Dublin in 
 1658; and their first meeting-house in that city was opened in Eustace-street, 1692. 
 The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts 
 below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects, 8 Will. III. 1696. This 
 affirmation was altered in 1702, and again in 1721. Quakers were relieved from oaths 
 qualifying persons to municipal offices, &c, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. More expressly 
 relieved by stat. 1 Vict. 1837. This last act was extended to persons who, having 
 been formerly Quakers or Moravians, had seceded therefrom, yet had retained 
 certain opinions as to oaths, 2 Vict. August 1838. See Affirmation of the Truth. The 
 Quakers had in England 413 meeting-houses in 1800 and 371 in 1851. 
 
 QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a.d. 1127, whereby all mer- 
 chants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of 
 St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, forty days before they were admitted into the city. 
 Vaiuous southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. 
 In the times of plague, England and all other nations oblige those that come from 
 the infected places to perform quarantine with their ships, &c, a longer or shorter 
 time, as may be judged most safe. 
 
 QUARTER SESSIONS' COURT. The jurisdiction of this court was established by 
 statute 34 Edw. III., and then extended to the trying of all felonies and trespasses 
 whatsoever ; but now it seldom tries other than minor offences. The days of sitting 
 quarterly were appointed 2 Hen. V., 1413. By act 1 Will. IV. 1830, it is enacted, 
 that "in the year 1831, and afterwards, the justices of the peace in every county, 
 riding, or division, for which quarter sessions of the peace by law ought to be held, 
 shall hold their general sessions of the peace in the first week after the 11th of 
 October; in the first week after the 28th December ; in the first week after the 31st 
 March ; and in the first week after the 24th June." — Statutes. 
 
 QUATRE-BRAS, BATTLE of. Between the British and allied army under the duke of 
 Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under 
 marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Waterloo. The British fought to 
 maintain their position, with remarkable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority 
 in number, and the fatigue of marching all the preceding night. The gallant 42ud 
 regiment of Scotch Highlanders suffered severely in pursuit of a French division 
 repulsed early in the morning, by cuirassiers being posted in ambush behind growing 
 corn as high as the shoulders of the tallest men. In this engagement the gallant 
 duke of Brunswick fell, June 16, 1815. 
 
 QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, with all 
 
 * The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, where 
 the first Friends who arrived were females, they, even females, were cruelly scourged, and their ears 
 cut off, yet they were unshaken in their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament that 2000 
 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in'Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered themselves at 
 this time, by name, to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger (from con- 
 finement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an order of 
 council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some months, an embargo was laid 
 on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service. But the Friends 
 would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and soldiers from the Tower 
 were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the Dutch, who 
 liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in that year. 
 See Plague. Of the K0, few reached America. 
 
QUE 535 QUE 
 
 Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged by the English, 
 but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, after a battle memorable 
 for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This 
 battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. Quebec was besieged in vain by the 
 American provincials, under their general, Montgomery, who was slain, Dec. 31, 1775 ; 
 and the siege was raised the next year. The public and private stores, and several 
 wharfs, were destroyed by fire in Sept. 1815; the loss being estimated at upwards of 
 260,000?. Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the 
 ground, May 28, 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards; 1365 houses 
 burnt, June 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846. 
 See Canada and Montreal. 
 
 QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority, as a ruling sovereign, was Semiramis, 
 queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 B.C. She embellished the city of Babylon, made 
 it her capital, and by her means it became the most magnificent and superb city in 
 the world. The title of queen is coeval with that of king. The Hungarians had 
 such an aversion to the name of queen, that whenever a queen ascended the throne, 
 she reigned with the title of king. See note to article Hungary. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY. Established in Feb., 1704, by queen Anne, being the 
 First Fruits with the Tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. There 
 were 5597 clerical livings under 50?. per annum found by the commissioners under 
 the act of Anne capable of augmentation. — Chalmers. Act to consolidate the offices 
 of First Fruits, Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty, 1 Vict. 1838. 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The popular stories of the great value of this coin 
 are fabulous, although some few of particular dates have been purchased by mistaken 
 persons at high prices. The current farthing, with the broad brim, when in fine 
 preservation, is worth 11. The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth 11. 
 The two patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace on a car, r r r, are 
 worth £2. 2s. each. The pattern with Peace on a car is more valuable and rare, and 
 worth 51. — Pinkerton. 
 
 QUEEN'S BENCH COURT. See article King's Bench, Court of. 
 
 QUEEN'S BENCH PRISON. See King's Bench Prison and article Prisons. 
 
 QUEEN'S BOUNTY. An annual grant of 1000?. which commenced about the beginning 
 of the reign of Geo. III. and was continued until the 10th Geo. IV. 1829, when it 
 ceased altogether. The collection upon the king's letter, which used to accompany 
 this grant, has also been discontinued since that year. 
 
 QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL, &c. Caroline, the consort of George IV. was sub- 
 jected, when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate Investigation (which see), 
 May 22, 1806. A secret committee in the house of lords was appointed to examine 
 papers on charges of incontinence, June 8, 1820. Bill of Pains and Penalties intro- 
 duced by lord Liverpool, July 5. The queen removed to Brandenburg-house, Aug. 3. 
 She received the address of the married ladies of the metropolis, Aug. 16. Her trial 
 commenced, Aug. 19. Last debate on the bill of Pains and Penalties, when the 
 report was approved by 108 against 99 — the numerical majority of nine being pro- 
 duced by the votes of the ministers themselves. In this situation, lord Liverpool, 
 instead of moving that the bill do now pass, moved that it be reconsidered that day 
 six months, Nov. 10. Great exultation throughout England, and illuminations for 
 three nights in London, Nov. 10, 11, 12. The queen went to St. Paul's in state, 
 November 29 following. She protested against her exclusion from the coronation, 
 July 18, 1821. Was taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, July 30 ; died at Hammersmith, 
 Aug. 7. Her remains were removed, on their route to Brunswick, on which occasion 
 an alarming riot occurred, owing to the military opposing the body being carried 
 through the city, Aug. 14, 1821. 
 
 QUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship op War. A first-rate ship of the line, of 110 guns, the flag- 
 ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterranean, was burnt by an 
 accidental fire, off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen, out of a 
 crew of 850, perished by fire or drowning, March 17, 1800. In his despatches to the 
 admiralty, lord Keith thus describes this dreadful catastrophe : — " The ship took fire 
 just before daybreak, while she was under easy sail between the island of Gorgona and 
 the port of Leghorn. It was occasioned by the fire of a match, which had been kept 
 lighted for the purpose of firing signal guns, and which communicated to some hay that 
 
QUE 
 
 53G 
 
 QUE 
 
 lay upon the half-deck. The fire spread very rapidly, and bursting through the port- 
 holes and up the hatchways of the ship, soon caught the shrouds, and notwithstanding 
 every exertion, she burnt to the water's edge, and then blew up. Upwards of 700 
 lives were lost, as the boats could not contain one fourth of the large complement of 
 men on board." Lord Keith was himself on shore at Leghorn. — Byrne. 
 
 QUEEN VICTORIA Steam-Shii\ Shipwreck of this vessel, bound from Liverpool to 
 Dublin with passengers and a valuable cargo, off the Bailey lighthouse, Feb. 15, 1853. 
 She had almost reached the point of debarkation, when mistaking her course, in a dense 
 snow-shower that at the moment prevailed, she struck upon a rock within a short 
 distance of the shore, and of 120 souls on board, 53 only were saved. The captain, who 
 should have slackened his speed in the snow-storm, was among those who perished. 
 
 QUEENS of ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides our present 
 sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own right, not counting 
 the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I. or the lady Jane Grey, whose quasi reign 
 lasted only ten days. There have been thirty-four queens, the consorts of kings, 
 exclusively of four wives of kings who died previously to their husbands ascending 
 the throne. Of thirty-five actual sovereigns of England, four died uumarried, three 
 kings and one queen. The following list includes all these royal personages : — 
 
 OF WILLIAM I. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of Flan- 
 ders ; she was married in 1051 : and died in 
 1084. 
 
 WILLIAM II. 
 
 This sovereign died unmarried. 
 
 OF HENRY I. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
 Scotland ; she was married Nov. 11, 1100 ; and 
 died May 1, 1119. 
 
 Adeluis, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- 
 vaiue; she was married Jan 29, 1129. Sur- 
 vived the king. 
 
 MAUDE OR MATILDA. 
 
 Daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to 
 the throne ; she was born 1101; was betrothed, 
 in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry V. 
 emperor of Germany, who died 1125. She 
 married, secondly, Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl 
 of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the Eng- 
 lish succession by Stephen, 1135; landed in 
 England, and claimed the crown, 1139. 
 Crowned, but was soon after defeated at Win- 
 chester, 1141. Concluded a peace with Stephen, 
 which secured the succession to her son 
 Henry, 1153 ; died 1167. 
 
 OF STEPHEN. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
 Boulogne ; she was married in 1128, and died 
 May 3, 1151. 
 
 OF HENRY J I. 
 
 Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. 
 king of France, and heiress of Guienne and 
 Poitou : she was married to Henry 1152 ; and 
 died 1204. 
 
 [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
 this prince. See article Rosamond.] 
 
 OF RICHARD I. 
 
 Berengera, daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
 she was married May 12, 1191. Survived the 
 king. 
 
 OF JOHN. 
 
 Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
 she was married in 1189. Divorced. 
 
 /saicHa, daughter of the count of Angouleme; 
 she was the young and virgin wife of the 
 count de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. 
 Survived the king, on whose death she was 
 re-married to the count de la Marche. 
 
 OF HENRY III. 
 
 Eleanor, daughter of the count de Provence ; 
 she was married Jan. 14, 1236. Survived the 
 king; and died in 1292, in a monastery, 
 whither she had retired. 
 
 OF EDWARD I. 
 
 Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 1253 ; 
 died of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at 
 Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. 
 
 Margaret, sister of the king of France ; she 
 was married Sept. 12, 1299. Survived the 
 king. 
 
 OF EDWARD II. 
 
 Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; she 
 was married in 1308. On the death, by the 
 gibbet, of her favourite Mortimer, she was 
 confined for the rest of her life in her own 
 house at Risings, near London. — Hume. 
 
 OF EDWARD III. 
 
 Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland 
 and Hainault; she was married Jan. 24, 1328; 
 and died Aug. 16, 1309. 
 
 OF RICHARD II. 
 
 Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
 Winccslaus of Germany ; she was married in 
 Jan. 1382; and died Aug. 3, 1395. 
 
 Isabella, daughter of Charles V. of France ; 
 she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the murder 
 of her husband she returned to her father. 
 
 OF HENRY IV. 
 
 Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; she 
 died, before Henry obtained the crown, in 
 1304. 
 
 Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of Bre- 
 tagne ; she was married in 1403. Survived 
 the king, and died in 1437. 
 
 OF HENRY V. 
 
 Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; 
 she was married May 30, 1420. She outlived 
 Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
 grandfather of Henry VII. 
 
 OF HENRY VI. 
 
 Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 
 she was married April 22, 1445. She survived 
 the unfortunate king, her husband, and died 
 in 1482. 
 
 OF EDWARD IV. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir Richard 
 Woodeville, and widow of sir John Grey, of 
 
QUE 
 
 537 
 
 QUE 
 
 QUEENS op ENGLAND, continued. 
 
 Groby ; she was married March 1, 1464. Sus- 
 pected of favouring the insurrection of Lam- 
 bert Simnel; and closed her life in confine- 
 ment. 
 
 EDWARD V. 
 
 This prince peiished in the Tower, in the 
 13th year of his age ; and died unmarried. 
 
 OF RICHARD III. 
 
 Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 
 widow of Edward, prince of Wales, whom 
 Bichard had murdered, 1471. She is sup- 
 posed to have been poisoned by Richard 
 (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
 make way for his intended marriage with the 
 princess Elizabeth of York. 
 
 OF HENRY VII. 
 
 Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
 daughter of Edward IV. ; she was married 
 Jan 18, 1486 ; and died Feb. 11, 1503. 
 
 OF HENRY VIII. 
 
 Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's elder 
 brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She was 
 married June 3, 1509 ; was the mother of 
 queen Mary ; was repudiated, and afterwards 
 formally divorced, May 23, 1533 ; died Jan. 6, 
 1536. 
 
 Anna Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, 
 and maid of honour to Catherine. She was 
 privately man-ied, before Catherine was 
 divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 : was the mother of 
 queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tower, 
 May 19, 1536. 
 
 Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, 
 and maid of honour to Anna Boleyn. She was 
 married May 20, 1536, the day after Anna's 
 execution ; was the mother of Edward VI. of 
 whom she died in childbirth, Oct. 13, 1537. 
 
 Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
 Cleves. She was married Jan. 6, 1540; was 
 divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died in 1557. 
 
 Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- 
 folk ; she was married Aug. S, 1540 ; and was 
 beheaded on Tower hill, Feb. 12, 1542. 
 
 Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
 Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. 
 She was married July 12, 1543. Survived 
 the king, after whose death she married sir 
 Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley; and 
 died Sept. 5, 1548. 
 
 EDWARD VI. 
 
 This prince, who ascended the throne in his 
 tenth year, reigned six years and five months, 
 and died unmarried. 
 
 LADY .JANE GREY. 
 
 Daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife 
 of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
 on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
 wards returned to private life ; was tried 
 Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded Feb. 12, 1554, 
 when but seventeen years of age. 
 
 MARY — QUEEN REGNANT. 
 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
 the throne, July 6, 1553 ; married Philip II. 
 of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Nov. 17, 
 1558. The king her husband died in 1598. 
 
 ELIZABETH — QUEEN REGNANT. 
 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to the 
 crown Nov. 17, 1558 ; reigned 44 years, 4 
 months, and 7 days : and died unmarried. 
 
 OF JAMES I. 
 
 Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
 Frederick II. : she was married Aug. 20, 
 15S9 ; and died March, 1619. 
 
 OF CHARLES I. 
 
 Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
 king of France ; she was married June 13, 
 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 
 died in France, Aug. 10, 1669. 
 
 OF CHARLES II. 
 
 Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughter of 
 John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI. : she was 
 married May 21, 1662. Survived the king, 
 returned to Portugal, and died Dec. 21, 1705. 
 
 OF JAMES II. 
 
 Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, earl 
 of Clarendon ; she was was married in Sept. 
 1660 ; and died before James ascended the 
 throne, in 1671. 
 
 Mary-Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter 
 of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was married 
 Nov. 21, 1673. At the revolution in 1688, she 
 retired with James to France ; and died at 
 St. Germains in 1718, having survived her 
 consort seventeen years. 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY — QUEEN REGNANT. 
 
 Mary, the princess of Orange, daughter of 
 James II. ; married to William, Nov. 4, 1677 ; 
 ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died Dec. 
 28, 1694. 
 
 ANNE — QUEEN REGNANT. 
 
 Daughter of James II. She married George 
 prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeeded 
 to the throne, March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
 children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
 husband, Oct. 28, 1708 ; and died Aug. 1, 
 1714. 
 
 OF GEORGE I. 
 
 Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
 Zell. She died a few weeks previously to the 
 accession of George to the crown, June 8, 1714. 
 
 OF GEORGE II. 
 
 Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Branden- 
 burg- Anspach ; married in 1704 ; and died 
 Nov. 20, 1737. 
 
 OF GEORGE III. 
 
 Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married Sept. 8, 1761, 
 and died Nov. 17, 1818. 
 
 OF GEORGE IV. 
 
 Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
 duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 8, 
 1795 ; was mother of the lamented princess 
 Charlotte ; and died Aug. 7, 1821. See article 
 Queen Caroline. 
 
 OF WILLIAM IV. 
 
 Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline, sister 
 of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she was 
 married July 11, 1818 ; and survived the king 
 twelve years. Her majesty died Dec. 2, 1849. 
 
 VICTORIA — QUEEN REGNANT. 
 
 Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen, 
 daughter of the duke of Kent ; born May 24, 
 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1S37 ; 
 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin, 
 prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Feb. 10, 
 1S40. 
 
 Of these queens, five it will be seen, were queens by inheritance, and reigned in their 
 own right : namely, Mary I. who ascended the throne July 6, 1553 ; Elizabeth, who 
 
QUE 538 QUI 
 
 ascended Nov. 17, 1558 ; Mary II. who (with her consort William III.) ascended as 
 joint sovereign Feb. 13, 1689; Anne, who came to the crown March 8, 1702; and 
 Victoria, our present queen (whom God preserve), who became queen June 20, 1837. 
 
 QUEEN'S THEATRE. See Opera House, the Italian. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN, Upper Canada. This town on the river Niagara, was taken in the last 
 war with America, by the troops of the United States, Oct. 13, 1812 ; but was retaken 
 by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, 
 wounded, and prisoners, on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war. 
 
 QUERN. The quern, or handmill, is of Roman, or as some say, of Irish invention ; but 
 the latter is not likely, as Roman querns have been found in Yorkshire ; and it is said 
 by others that the Romans found querns there. No doubt exists, however, that - the 
 quern was in very early use in Ireland, as it is mentioned by her oldest historians. 
 
 QUESNOY, BATTLE of. Between the British and French, in which the former defeated 
 the latter with some loss, Sept. 11, 1793. Quesnoy was taken by the Austrians in 1793, 
 but was recovered by the French next year. It surrendered to prince Frederick of the 
 Netherlands, June 29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. — It was here that cannon 
 were first used, and called bombards. — Henault. 
 
 QUIBERON BAY. A British force landed here in 1746, but was repulsed. In the bay 
 admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French admiral Conflans. This 
 most perilous and important action defeated the projected invasion of Great Britain, 
 Nov. 20, 1759. Quiberon was taken possession of by some French regiments in the 
 pay of England, July 3, 1795; but on July 21, owing to the treacherous conduct of 
 some of these soldiers, the French republicans retook it by surprise, and many of the 
 emigrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, and nearly 1500 royalist inha- 
 bitants, who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected their 
 embarkation on board the ships. The remainder fell into the hands of the enemy, 
 together with such stores and ammunition as had been landed. 
 
 QUICKSILVER. In its liquid state it is commonly called virgin mercury. It is endowed 
 with vei-y extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight of the atmosphere, 
 and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining silver was discovered a.d. 1540. 
 There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida, in Spain, and 
 at Udria, in Carniola, in Germany; the latter discovered by accident in 1497, for 
 several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quick- 
 silver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It was congealed in England 
 by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. See Calomel. 
 
 QU1ETIST. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinos, a Spaniard (1627-96), 
 whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of this sect in France. His 
 principal tenet was, that the purity of religion consisted in an internal silent medi- 
 tation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and the mercies of God. His doctrine 
 was also called Quietism from a kind of absolute rest and inaction in which the sect 
 supposed the soul to be, when arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive 
 life. They then imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its God. 
 Madame de la Mothe-Guyon was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions and pro- 
 phecies, but released through the interest of Fe'ne'lon, the celebrated archbishop of 
 Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she occasioned the famous 
 controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a.d. 553 ; but some say not 
 before 635. Minshew derives the word from the Teutonic. — Bailey. Quills are for 
 the most part plucked with great cruelty from living geese, swans, and turkeys ; and 
 all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, ought to prefer metallic pens, 
 which came first into use about 1820. — Phillips. 
 
 QUINCE. The Pyrus Cydonia, brought to these countries from Austria, before a.d. 1573. 
 The Japan Quince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from Japan, 1796. Of this fruit 
 a well-known confection is made. A quince, in token of fruitfuluess, was, by the laws 
 of Solon, given to the brides of Athens upon the day of their marriage. 
 
 QUININE or QUINIA, an alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by 
 Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona barks, 
 especially of the yellow bark. 
 
 QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The observation of this Sunday was instituted by pope 
 
QUI 539 RAD 
 
 Gregory the Great, about 1572. The name of the first Sunday in Lent having been 
 distinguished by the appellation of Quadragesima, and the three weeks preceding 
 having been appropriated to the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
 Sundays of these weeks were called by names significant of their position in the 
 calendar; and reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima 
 received its present name, Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the third 
 Septuagesima. See Quadragesima. 
 
 QUINTILIANS. An extraordinary sect of heretics in the second century, the disciples 
 of Montanus, who took their name from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by 
 his pretended sanctity. They followed Quintilia, whom they regarded as a prophetess ; 
 they made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
 bishops. — Pardon. 
 
 QUIRINUS, TEMPLE of, at Rome. L. Papirius Cursor, general in the Roman army, 
 first directed a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus, from which time the days began to 
 be divided into hours, 293 B.C. — Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes called the 
 Quirinus from the original place in which it was set up. — Ashe. 
 
 QUITO. A presidency of Colombia (which see), celebrated as having been the scene of the 
 measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians 
 in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurled into eternity by a dreadful 
 earthquake at Quito, which almost overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. Since then 
 violent shocks, bxit not so disastrous, have occurred. See Earthquakes. 
 
 QUOITS. This amusement originated with the Greeks. It was first played at the 
 Olympic games, by the Idsei Dactyli, fifty years after the Deluge of Deucalion, 1453 
 B.C. He who threw the discus farthest, and with the greatest dexterity, obtained the 
 prize. Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inadvertently slain his 
 grandfather, in throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he was 
 heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded the kingdom of Mycense, 1313 b.c. 
 
 E. 
 
 RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Chariots). Horse- 
 races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, who wrote in the days 
 of Henry II. mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion. 
 In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated 
 courses. Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — 
 Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and 
 also Newmarket, although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronised 
 them, and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. 
 added to the plates (as did queen Anne), and founded an academy for riding. Act for 
 suppressing races by ponies and weak horses, 13 Geo. II. 1739. See Newmarket. 
 
 RACE-HORSES. Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the Duke of Devonshire, was allowed 
 by sportsmen to have been the fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that 
 was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, 
 or at the rate of 35J miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, 
 aged 26 years. Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since the time of 
 Childers; he was never beaten, and died in February, 1789, aged 25 years. His heart 
 weighed 141b. which accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. — Christie 
 White's Hist, of the Turf. 
 
 RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confession from 
 criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians 
 suffered by the rack, which was in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The 
 duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VI. erected a r*ack of torture (then called the 
 duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, 
 who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested 
 against the punishment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the 
 rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravaillac. 
 
 RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Radcliffe, the 
 most eminent physician of his time. He had been physician to queen Anne, while 
 princess Anne of Denmark ; he offended her by telling her that her ailments were 
 
RAD 
 
 540 
 
 RAI 
 
 nothing more than the vapours, and she was not reconciled to him when she came to 
 the throne; but in cases of emergency he was, nevertheless, consulted. He died Nov. 1, 
 1714, leaving 40,000£. to the University of Oxford for the founding a library, the first 
 stone of which was laid May 17, 1737; the edifice was completely finished in 1749, 
 and was opened April 13, in the same year. The library consists chiefly of works of 
 medical and philosophical science. 
 
 RADCLIFFE OBSERVATORY, Oxford. Founded by the exertions of Dr. Hornsby, 
 Savilian professor of astronomy, about 1771, and completed in 1794. The observa- 
 tions are published by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the present director, appointed in 1839. 
 
 RADSTADT, PEACE of. Between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. It was 
 signed by marshal Villars on the part of the French king, and by prince Eugene on 
 the part of the emperor, and restored the German frontier to the terms of the peace 
 of Ryswick. The Congress of Radstadt, to treat of a general peace with the 
 Germanic powers, was commenced Dec. 9, 1797 ; and negociations were carried on 
 throughout the year 1798. The atrocious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at 
 Radstadt by the Austrian regiment cf Szeltzler, took place April 28, 1799. 
 
 RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing their narrow seas but on rafts or 
 beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was brought among them by 
 Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 1485 B.C. — Heylirt. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast destitute ragged children, set up in large 
 towns. In these schools the instruction is based on the scriptures, and most of the 
 teachers are voluntary and unpaid. They existed in some parts of London previous to 
 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, wheh the "Ragged school union" 
 was formed, principally by Mr. S. Stacy, and Mr. Wm. Locke (now Hon. Secretary). 
 The earl of Shaftesbury is chairman. In 150 Ragged-school institutions there were, 
 (Dec. 1856) :— 
 
 128 Sunday schools with 16,937 scholars. 
 
 98 Day schools with 13,057 scholars. 
 117 Evening schools with 8,085 scholars 
 
 84 Industrial classes with 3,224 scholars. 
 
 163 Paid teachers in day schools. 
 126 Paid teachers in week night-schools. 
 43 Paid refuge and industrial master's. 
 2139 Voluntary teachers. 
 
 There are 16 refuges, where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed and educated. 
 500 boys and girls have emigrated to the colonies. See Shoe-black Brigade. 
 
 Upwards of 
 
 RAILWAYS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about Newcastle, laid 
 down by Mr. Beaumont so early as 1602 ; they were made of wood. They are thus 
 mentioued in 3 676 : — "The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from 
 the colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made 
 with four rollers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one horse will 
 draw down four or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to the coal- 
 merchants." — Roger North. They were made of iron at Whitehaven, in 1738. An 
 iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John Curr in 1776, which was destroyed 
 by the colliers. The first considerable iron railway was laid down at Colebrook Dale 
 iu 1786. The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament in 1801 (with the exception 
 of a few undertaken by canal companies as small branches to mines) was the Surrey 
 iron railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon. The Stockton 
 and Darlington railway (by engines), constructed) by Edw. Pease and George Ste- 
 phenson, was opened Sept. 27, 1825. The Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
 menced in Oct. 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. See Liverpool. This railway led to 
 similar enterprises throughout Englaud and the continent. The examination of 
 railway schemes, before their introduction into parliament, by the Board of Trade, 
 was ordered 1844. An act passed 10 Vict. Aug. 28, 1846, for constituting commis- 
 Bioners of railways, who have since been incorporated with the Board of Trade. 
 See end of this article. 
 
 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 To render reference facile, the railways are named after t/air termini, atid 'not after their companies, as 
 several lines in many cases belong to one company. If the reader does not find any particular radtcay 
 under one terminus, he will find it under tlte other. 
 
 Railways. Date of Opening. 
 
 Aberdare Aug. 6, 1846 
 
 Aberdare and Neath . . . Sept. 1851 
 Aberdeen and Portlethen . March, 1850 
 Alloa to Stirling; branch of the Stirling 
 and Dunfermline . . . July, 1S52 
 
 lloilways. Date of Opening. 
 
 Alston branch of the Newcastle and 
 
 Carlisle May, 1852 
 
 Apedale branch of the North-Strath >rd- 
 
 shire May, 185-' 
 
 Arbroath and Forfar . . Jan. i, 1839 
 
RAI 
 
 541 
 
 RAI 
 
 RAILWAYS, continued. 
 
 Railways. Date of Opening. 
 
 Ashbourne branch of the North-Strafford- 
 
 shire May, 1852 
 
 Ashford to Hastings and St. Leonards ; 
 
 branch of the South-Eastern Feb. 1851 
 
 Ashton branch of the Manchester and 
 
 Leeds .... April 15, 1846 
 Ashton branch of the Manchester and 
 
 Sheffield .... Dec. 30, 1845 
 Aylesbury branch of the London and 
 
 Birmingham .... June, 1839 
 Ballochney, Scotland .... 1828 
 Banbury and Penny Compton ; branch 
 
 of the Great Western . . Sept. 1852 
 Bangor and Carnarvon . . . July, 1852 
 Bangor to Llanfair ; Chester and Holy- 
 head March, 1850 
 
 Battle and St. Leonards; South-Eastern, 
 
 Jan. 1852 
 Belfast and Comber; Belfast and county 
 
 of Down .... April, 1850 
 Bedford branch of the London and Bir- 
 mingham .... Nov. 17, 1S46 
 Belfast and Portadown .... 1842 
 Birmingham and Derby . Feb. 10, 1842 
 
 Birmingham and Gloucester . Sept. 17, 1840 
 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour 
 
 Valley July, 1852 
 
 Bishop-Auckland and Weardale, Nov. 8, 1843 
 Bishopstoke and Salisbury . March 1, 1S47 
 Blackburn to Chalburn . . June, 1S50 
 Blackburn and Preston . . June 1, 1846 
 Blackburn, Darwen, and Bolton . . 1847 
 Blackpool br. of the Preston and Wyre . 1846 
 • Bletchley to Banbury . . . April, 1850 
 
 BlythandTyne .... Oct. 1852 
 Bodmin and Wadebridge . . . . 1834 
 Bolton and Preston . . . June 22, 1843 
 Bolton, Kenyon, and Leigh . June, 1S31 
 Bootle branch of the Whitehaven and 
 
 Furness Oct. 1850 
 
 Brandling Junction . . . Sept. 1839 
 Bridlington branch of the York and Scar- 
 borough (part) .... Oct. 1846 
 Brighton and Chichester . . June 8, 1846 
 Brighton and Hastings . . June 27, 1846 
 Bristol and Exeter . . . May 1, 1844 
 Bristol and Gloucester . . July, 1844 
 Caldecot and Luffenham ; London and 
 
 North-Western . . . April, 1851 
 
 Cambridge and Brandon . July 30, 1845 
 
 Canterbury and Whitstable . May, 1S30 
 Cheltenham and Swindon . May 12, 1845 
 Chepstow Bridge ; South Wales July, 1852 
 Chepstow and Swansea ; Do. . June, 1850 
 Chester and Birkenhead . . Sept. 22, 1840 
 Chester and Crewe . . . Oct, 1, 1840 
 Chester and Holyhead (part) . . . 1847 
 Clarence ; first act passed in . . 1828 
 
 Claydontolslip; Buckinghamshire, Sept. 1850 
 Cockermouth and Workington, April 28, 1847 
 Colchester and Ipswich . . June 15, 1846 
 Cork to Ballinhassig; Cork and Bandon, 
 
 Dec. 1851 
 Coventry and Leamington . Dec. 2, 1844 
 Coventry and Nuneaton ; London and 
 
 North-Western . . . Aug. 1850 
 Crediton br. of the Bristol and Exeter . 1847 
 Croydon and Epsom . . May 17, 1847 
 Cumnock and Closeburn . . Oct. 1850 
 Dereham br. of the Norwich and Brandon 1847 
 Droitwich and Stourbridge ; Oxford, Wor- 
 cester, and Wolverhampton . May, 1852 
 Dublin and Carlow . . . Aug. 10, 1846 
 Dublin and Drogheda . . May 26, 1S44 
 Dublin and Kingstown . . Dec. 17, 1834 
 Dundalk and Portadown; Dublin and 
 
 Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 
 Dundee and Arbroath . . April 8, 1840 
 Dundee and Newtyle . . Dec. 1831 
 
 Railways. Date of Opening. 
 
 Dundee and Perth . . . May 22, 1S47 
 Dunfermline and Alloa; Stirling and 
 
 Dunfermline .... Aug. 1850 
 Durham and Sunderland . June 28, 1839 
 East and West India Docks and Birming- 
 ham Junction ; from Blackwall railway 
 to Camden Town . . . Aug. 1850 
 Edinburgh and Berwick . June 18, 1846 
 Edinburgh and Dalkeith . . . 1831 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow . . Feb. 8, 1842 
 Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton . . 1846 
 Edinburgh and Musselburgh . July 14, 1847 
 Elgin and Lossiemouth (Morayshire), 
 
 Aug. 1852 
 Ely and Huntingdon .... 1847 
 Ely and Peterborough . . Jan. 1847 
 Evesham to Kempsey; Oxford, Worcester, 
 
 and Wolverhampton . . May, 1852 
 Exeter and Crediton . . . May, 1851 
 Exeter and Plymouth (part) . May 29, 1846 
 Farnham to Alton ; London and South 
 
 Western July, 1852 
 
 Fenny Compton and Birmingham; Great 
 Western .... Sept. 1852 
 
 Furness Aug. 1846 
 
 Glasgow and Ayr . . . Aug. 12, 1840 
 Glasgow and Greenock . March 31, 1841 
 Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge, 
 
 Scotland .... July, 1845 
 Gloucester and Chepstow . . Sept. 1851 
 Gosport branch of the London and South- 
 ampton Feb. 7, 1842 
 
 Gravesend and Bochester . Feb. 10, 1845 
 Guildford branch of the London and 
 
 Southampton . . . May, 1845 
 Haddington branch of the Edinburgh 
 
 and Berwick .... June, 1846 
 Halifax branch of the Manchester and 
 
 Leeds July 1, 1844 
 
 Hartlepool 1836 
 
 Hertford branch of the London and Cam- 
 bridge Oct. 31, 1843 
 
 Huddersfield and Penistone . June, 1850 
 Hull and Bridlington . . Oct. 7, 1846 
 Hull and Selby .... July 1, 1840 
 Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds Dec. 24, 1846 
 Kelso ; branch of North British June, 1850 
 Kendal and Windermere . . . 1847 
 
 Keymer and Lewes . . . Oct. 1, 1847 
 Kingstown and Dalkey . March 29, 1844 
 Knottingly; branch of the York and 
 
 North Midland . . . April, 1850 
 Lancaster and Carlisle . . Dec. 16, 1846 
 Lancaster and Preston . June 30, 1840 
 Landore and Carmarthen ; branch of the 
 
 South Wales .... Nov. 1852 
 Leeds and Bradford . . . July 1, 1846 
 Leeds and Derby . . . July, 1840 
 Leeds and Selby .... Sept. 1834 
 Leicester and Swannington . July, 1832 
 Leverton, North, and Saxelby . April, 1850 
 Liverpool and Birmingham . July 4, 1837 
 Liverpool and Manchester . Sept. 15, 1830 
 Liverpool and Preston . . Oct. 31, 1838 
 Lochlomond branch of the Caledonian 
 
 and Dumbartonshire . . July, 1850 
 London and Birmingham . Sept. 17, 1838 
 London and Blackwall . . Aug. 2, 1S41 
 London and Brighton . . Sept. 21, 1841 
 London and Bristol . . June 30,' 1841 
 London and Cambridge . . July, 1845 
 London and Colchester . March 29, 1843 
 London and Croydon . . June 1, 1839 
 London and Dover . . . Feb. 6, 1844 
 London and Greenwich . . Dec. 26, 1838 
 London and Richmond . July 27, 1846 
 London and Southampton . May 11, 1840 
 London and Werrington ; branch of the 
 Great Northern ... . Aug. 1850 
 
RAI 
 
 542 
 
 RAI 
 
 RAILWAYS, continued. 
 
 Railways. Date of Opening. 
 
 Londonderry and Newtown Limavady, 
 
 Dec. 1852 
 Londonderry to Strabane . April 10, 1847 
 Lowestoft branch of the Norwich and 
 
 Yarmouth 1847 
 
 Low Moor and Halifax . . Aug. 1850 
 
 Lynn aud Dereham 1847 
 
 Lynn and Ely 1847 
 
 Ly tham branch of the Preston and Wyre, 1846 
 Macclesfield branch of the Manchester 
 
 and Birmingham . . Nov. 24, 1845 
 
 Maidstone branch of the London and 
 
 Dover Sept. 24, 1S44 
 
 Manchester and Birmingham Aug. 10, 1842 
 Manchester and Bolton . May 29, 1838 
 Manchester and Leeds . . March 1, 1841 
 Manchester aud Rawtenstall Sept. 25, 1846 
 Manchester and Sheffield . Dec. 22, 1S45 
 Margate branch of the London and Dover 1 846 
 Maryport and Carlisle. . . Jan. 1845 
 Melmerby and Stockton ; branch of the 
 
 Leeds Northern . . . May, 18.52 
 Merthyr-Tydvil and Cardiff Apiil 12, 1841 
 Middlesborough and Redcar . June 4, 1S46 
 Monkland and Kirkintilloch, act passed 1824 
 Mullingar and Gal way ; branch of the 
 
 Midland Great Western . July, 1S51 
 Neath and Aberdarc . . . Sept. 1851 
 Newcastle branch of the North Stafford- 
 shire Sept. 1S52 
 
 Newcastle and Berwick . . July, 1847 
 Newcastle and Carlisle . . June 18, 1839 
 Newcastle and Darlington . April 15, 1844 
 Newcastle aud North Shields June 18, 1839 
 Newmarket and Cambridge . . Oct. 1851 
 Newtown-Stewart and Omagh . Sept. 1852 
 Newport and Pontypool . . July, 1852 
 Newtylc and Cupar-Angus . . Feb. 1S37 
 Northampton and Peterborough, June 2, 1815 
 North and South Western Junction, Dec. 1852 
 
 April, 1S50 
 
 . . 1845 
 
 May 1, 1844 
 
 July, 1S50 
 
 Aug. 3, 1846 
 
 Aug. 1850 
 
 May, 1837 
 
 Jan. 1852 
 
 . 1847 
 
 June, 1850 
 
 . 1835 
 
 March, 1850 
 
 July 20, 1840 
 
 North Leverton and Saxelby 
 
 Norwich aud Brandon 
 
 Norwich aud Yarmouth . 
 
 Nottingham to Grantham . 
 
 Nottingham and Lincoln 
 
 Nottingham branch of the Rugby and 
 Derby .... May 30, 1839 
 
 Oldham branch of the Manchester and 
 Leeds .... March 31, 1842 
 
 Oxford branch of the London and Bristol, 
 
 June 12, 1844 
 
 Oxford and Baubuiy . 
 
 Paisley and Renfrew 
 
 Penzance to Cambournc 
 
 Perth aud Castlecary (part) 
 
 Pinxton and Kirby 
 
 Pontop and South Shields 
 
 Portlethen and Aberdeen . 
 
 Preston and Wyre . 
 
 Ravenglass to Bootle ; branch of the 
 Whitehaven and Furness . July, 1850 
 
 Redruth to Truro . . . Aug. 1852 
 
 Richmond branch of the York and Dar- 
 lington .... Sept 10, 1840 
 
 EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. 
 
 Railway*. Date of Opening. 
 
 Robert's-Bridge and Battle ; branch of 
 
 the South Eastern . . . Dec. 1851 
 Royston and Hitchin . . . Sept. 1850 
 Rugby and Caldccot ; London and North- 
 Western .... April, 1860 
 Rugby and Derby . . . July, 1810 
 Rugby and Leamington . . . Feb. 1851 
 
 Rugby and Stafford 1847 
 
 St. Andrew's .... July, 1852 
 St. Helen's ; first act passed . . . 1S30 
 Salisbury branch of the Loudon and 
 
 Southampton 1847 
 
 Sheffield and Rotherham . . Oct. 1838 
 ShelforcLbranch of the Eastern Counties 
 
 and Royston and Hitchin . July, 1851 
 Shrewsbuiy aud Chester (part) . Nov. 4, 1S46 
 Shrewsbury and Ludlow. . April, 1852 
 
 Slamannan, Scotland 1S40 
 
 Southampton and Dorchester . June 1, 1847 
 South-Eastern; Tunb ridge- Wells branch 
 
 Nov. 25, 1846 
 South-Eastern ; North Kent line . . 1849 
 Stockton and Darlington . . Sept. 1825 
 Stockton and Hartlepool . Feb. 10, 1841 
 Stourbridge and Dudley . . Dec. 1852 
 Strabane and Newton-Stewart . Feb. 1852 
 Swiutou and Barnsley . . June, 1851 
 Syston and Peterborough (part) . . 1846 
 Teignmouth to Newton . Dec. 31, 1846 
 Tipperary and Clonmel . . April, 1852 
 Trent Valley . . . June 26, 1847 
 Tunbridge-Wells brauch of the London 
 
 and Dover Oct. 1846 
 
 Tunbridge-Wells to Robert's-Bridge ; 
 
 branch of the South-Eastern . Aug. 1851 
 Warrington and Newton .... 1833 
 Weunington and High Bentham; branch 
 
 of the North-Western . . May, 1850 
 Werrington and Retford ; branch of the 
 
 Great Northern . . . Jul}-, 1852 
 West and East India Docks and Birming- 
 ham Junction from the Blackwall Rail- 
 way to Camden Town . . Aug. 1850 
 Westbury to Frome . . . Oct. 1850 
 
 Westbury and Warminster ; branch of 
 
 the Great Western . . . Sept. 1851 
 West Durham .... June, 1840 
 West London (part) . . May 27, 1844 
 Whitby and Pickering . . May 6, 1836 
 Wliituhaven and Maryport . March 18, 1847 
 Widness aud Garston . . June, 1S52 
 Wilsoutown, Momingside, and Coltuess, 
 
 June 21, 1845 
 Wishaw and Coltness ; first act passed . 1829 
 Worcester branch of the Oxford, Wor- 
 cester, and Wolverhampton . Sept. 1850 
 Worcester and Droitwich . . Jan. 1852 
 York and Darlington . . . Jan. 4, 1841 
 York and Newcastle ; Boroughbridge 
 
 branch June 17, IS47 
 
 York aud Normanton . . June 30, 1840 
 York and Scarborough . . July 7, 1845 
 
 Miles. 
 
 United Kingdom, June 30, 1S54 . . 7803 
 
 ,, „ Dec. 31, 1S56 . . 8371 
 
 America \ 3S00 
 
 Germany 1570 
 
 Holland Kip to 1848 inclusive . . 200 
 
 Belgium 1095 
 
 France ) 2200 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Italy. . 115 
 
 Denmark . . ] 106 
 
 S». \ ; uptolSlSiuclusive ■ 600 
 
 British Colonies 1000 
 
 East India . .' 500 
 
 Tn the six months ending June 30, 1S54, 50,367,404 persons travelled by railway in the 
 United Kingdom ; in the half-year ending Dec. 1, 1S55, the persons who travelled were 
 66,779,9S4 : the receipts, 11,613,5502. The receipts, including cattle, mails, luggage, &c. were 
 9,424,605*. 
 
RAI 543 RAT 
 
 In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour; 
 in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of 15 miles per hour; * in 1834, the Fire-Fly 
 attained a speed of 20 miles per hour; in 1839, the North Star moved with a velocity 
 of 37 miles per hour ; and at the present moment locomotives have attained a speed 
 of 70 miles per hour. During the same period the quantity of fuel required for gene- 
 rating steam has been diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly 
 consumed for one at the present time, and other expenses are diminished in a corre- 
 sponding ratio. — TucFs Railways. The capital invested in railway undertakings has 
 reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 it was 69 millions; and, according 
 to the acts of parliament which sanctioned railways, the share capital and borrowing 
 powers of all the British railway companies amounted, on March 1, 1853, to 363 
 millions sterling. The railway mania and panic year was 1845. An act for the better 
 regulation of railways, 17 & 18 Vict. c. 31, was passed July 10, 1854.— A railway in the 
 Crimea, from Balaklava to the trenches before Sebastopol, was opened in June 1855. 
 
 RAINBOW. The theory of this was accurately developed by Kepler in 1 611, and by Rend 
 Descartes in 1629. Further discoveries respecting its colours were made in 1689. 
 
 RAMILIES, BATTLE of. Between the English under the duke of Marlborough and 
 the allies on one side, and the French on the other, commanded by the elector of 
 Bavaria and the marshal de Villeroy. The French, having no confidence in their 
 commanders, or on their disposition of their army, were soon seized with a panic, and 
 a general rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army were slain in the engagement ; 
 fought on Whitsunday, May 23, 1706. The duke pursued and achieved one of his 
 most glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other 
 important places. Parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honours which had 
 been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his daughters. 
 
 RANGOON. Maritime capital of the Burmese empire, was taken by sir A. Campbell on 
 May 11, 1824, and remained in our possession till December 1826, when it was ceded 
 to the Burmese on condition of the payment of a sum of money, the reception of a 
 British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. The oppression of the British 
 merchants led to the second Burmese war ; and Rangoon was taken by storm by 
 general Godwin, April 14, 1852. 
 
 RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE is made by dissolving common flints (silica) in 
 heated caustic alkali, and then adding fine sand; the mixture being pressed into 
 moulds and heated to redness. It was made known by the inventor Mr. Frederick 
 Ransome in 1848. 
 
 RAPE. This offence was punished by the Saxon laws with death. It was punished by 
 mutilation and the loss of eyes in Will. I.'s reign. This punishment was mitigated 
 by the statute of Westminster 1, 3 Edw. 1. 1274. Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 
 12 Edw. III. 1338; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. The earl of 
 Castlehaven (lord Audley in England) was executed for inviting people to violate his 
 wife, May 13, 1631. Rape is now punished by transportation, 4 Vict. 1841. 
 
 RAPHOE, BISHOPRIC of. It is no easy task to ascertain the exact time when this see 
 was founded. St. Columb-cille, a man of great virtue and learning, and born of royal 
 blood, founded a monastery in this place ; and it was afterwards enlarged by other 
 holy men ; but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan erected the church into a 
 cathedral, and was the first bishop of this see. Raphoe was united to the bishopric 
 of Derry, by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 RASPBERRY. This fruit is not named among the fruits that were early introduced 
 into this country from the continent of Europe. A fragrant and most delicious 
 berry, chiefly used for conserves. — Mortimer. The Virginian raspberry, or Rubws 
 occidentalis, was brought from North America, before 1696. The flowering raspberry, 
 or Rubus odoratws, came from North America in 1700. See Fruits. 
 
 RATHMINES, BATTLE of, in Ireland. Colonel Jones, governor of Dublin Castle, 
 made a sally out, routed the marquess of Ormond, killed 4000 men, and took 2517 
 prisoners, with their cannon, baggage, and ammunition, Aug. 2, 1649, the period of 
 the Irish rebellion of O'Neil and others. This battle, followed up by other successes 
 and much severity, discomfited the rebels in this quarter of the kingdom. 
 
 * This was constructed by Mr. George Stephenson, and obtained the prize of 5001. offered by the 
 directors of the Liverpool and Manchester railway company for the best locomotive. 
 
RAT 
 
 544 
 
 REB 
 
 RATISBON, PEACE of. Concluded between France and the emperor of Germany, and 
 by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, signed Oct. 13, 1630. 
 In later times, it was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes 
 seceded from the Germanic Empire, and placed themselves under the protection of 
 the emperor Napoleon of France, Aug. 1, 1806. 
 
 RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest of our 
 dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the southern regions of Asia. This 
 fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. Cuvier. Pallas 
 describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in the autumn of 1729 they 
 arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers, that nothing could be done to 
 oppose them; they came from the western deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga 
 arrest their progress. They only advanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, and in some parts of France are still unknown. 
 
 RAVAILLAC'S MURDER op HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death of Ravaillac is 
 one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 14, 1610; and 
 when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. He was carried to the 
 Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in the shape of St. Andrew's cross. 
 His right hand, within which was fastened the knife with which he did the murder, 
 was first burned at a slow fire. Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body 
 were torn with red-hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, 
 and rosin were poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite 
 pain; and his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to be 
 pulled to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, and the 
 spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged them through the streets. 
 
 RAVENNA, BATTLE OF. Between the French under the great Gaston de Foix (duke of 
 Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal armies. De Foix 
 gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and his death 
 closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 11, 1512. The confederate army 
 was cut to pieces. The duke of Nemours had performed prodigies of valour, but 
 being too eager in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were retiring in good order, he 
 was slain. — Henault. 
 
 REBELLIONS, REMARKABLE, in BRITISH HISTORY. Among the most memo- 
 rable and extraordinary rebellions which have occurred in these realms from the 
 period of the Norman Conquest were the following. The list is compiled from the 
 most esteemed authorities : — 
 
 Against William the Conqueror, in favour of 
 Edgar Atheling, by the Scots and Danes, 
 ad. 1069. 
 
 Against William II. in favour of his brother 
 Robert, a.d. 10S8. Extinguished, 1090. 
 
 Of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans and 
 English, commenced in a.d. 1095. 
 
 In England, in favour of the empress Maude, 
 A.D. 1139. Ended, 1153. 
 
 The rebellion of prince Richard against his 
 father Henry II. a.d. 1189. 
 
 Of the Barons, April 1215. Compromised by 
 the grant of Magna Charta, June 15 follow- 
 ing. See Magna Charta. 
 
 Of the Barons, a.d. 1262. This rebellion ter- 
 minated in 1267. 
 
 Of the lords spiritual and temporal against 
 Edward II. on account of his favourites, the 
 Gavestons, 1312. Again, on account of the 
 Spencers, 1321. 
 
 Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly 
 called Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal 
 rudeness of a tax-collector to his daughter. 
 Having killed the collector in his rage, he 
 raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 
 which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. See 
 Tyler. 
 
 Of the duke of Gloucester, and other lords, in 
 England, 1388. 
 
 Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused 
 Richard II. to be deposed, 1399. 
 
 In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the 
 viceroy and heir presumptive to the crown, 
 was slain, 1399. 
 
 Rebellion of the English and Welsh burst 
 forth, 1400. 
 
 Against king Henry IV. by a number of con- 
 federated lords, 1403. 
 
 Of Jack Cade, in favour of the duke of York, 
 against Henry VI. 1451. See Cade's Insur- 
 rection. 
 
 In favour of the house of York, 1452, which 
 ended in the imprisonment of Heury VI. 
 and seating Edward IV. of York on the 
 throne, 1461. 
 
 Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which 
 ended with the expulsion of Edward IV. 
 and the restoration of Henry VI. the same 
 year. 
 
 Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with 
 the death of Henry VI. 
 
 Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 
 1485, which ended with the death of 
 Richard. 
 
 Under Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be 
 Richard III.'s nephew, I486, which ended 
 the same year, in discovering that Simnel 
 was a baker's son ; he was pardoned. 
 
 Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in 
 the execution of Warbeck. 
 
 Under Flanuoek. owing to taxes, ended with 
 the battle of Blackheath, 1497. 
 
 Of the English in the West, owing to inclo- 
 sures, and to the oppressions of the gentry, 
 June, 1549; suppressed same year. 
 
 In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but 
 soon suppressed, Aug. 1549. 
 
 In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen 
 
REB 
 
 545 
 
 REF 
 
 REBELLIONS, REMARKABLE, in BRITISH HISTORY, continued. 
 
 Mary. Lady Jane was proclaimed queen of 
 England on the death of Edward VI. July 9, 
 1553 ; but she resigned the crown to Mary, 
 ten days afterwards : she was beheaded for 
 high treason, in the Tower, Feb. 12, 1554, 
 aged IT. 
 
 Of sir Thomas Wyat and others, on account 
 of queen Mary's marriage with Philip of 
 Spain, &c. 1554. 
 
 Of the Roman Catholics against queen Eliza- 
 beth ; this insurrection was suppressed the 
 same year. 
 
 Of the Irish, under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, 
 suppressed in 1601. 
 
 Under the earl of Essex, against queen Eliza- 
 beth, 1600 ; it ended in his death, 1601. 
 
 Against Charles I. 1639 ; it ended in his 
 death, 1649. 
 
 Of the Irish under Eoger More, sir Phelim 
 O'Neil, &c. against the English in Ireland ; 
 it ended in 1651. 
 
 Rebellion of the Scots, 1666 ; soon afterwards 
 put down. 
 
 Under the duke of Monmouth, 16S5 ; it ended 
 in his death. 
 
 Of the Scots, in favour of the Old Pretender, 
 1715; quelled in 1716. 
 
 Of the Scots, under the Young Pretender, 
 
 1745 ; suppressed in 1746, when lords Lovat, 
 Balmerino, and Kilmarnock were beheaded. 
 
 Of the Americans, on account of taxation, 
 1774. This rebellion led to a disastrous 
 war; and to the loss of our chief North 
 American colonies, and to the independence 
 of the United States, 1782. 
 
 In Ireland, called the Greed Rebellion, when 
 nearly the whole kingdom took up arms, 
 commenced May 24, 1798 ; not finally sup- 
 pressed till next year. 
 
 Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a 
 gifted enthusiast, July 23, 1803. Jn this 
 rebellion, lord Kilwarden was put to death, 
 with several others, by the insurgents. See 
 Massacres. 
 
 Canadian Insurrection (which see), Dec. 1837 
 to Nov. 1838. 
 
 Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; termi- 
 nated in the defeat and dispersion of a 
 multitude of his deluded followers by sub- 
 inspector Trant and about sixty police 
 constables, on Boulagh common, Ballin- 
 garry, co. Tipperary, July 29, 1848. See 
 Ireland. 
 
 The most dreadful rebellion in modern times 
 is that now in course of suppression in 
 India, which see. 
 
 RECEIPTS for MONEY. Receipts were first taxed by a stamp-duty In 1782. The 
 act was amended in 1784, 1791 et scq. and receipts were taxed by a duty varying 
 according to the amount of the money received, in all transactions. Stamps required 
 on bills of exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795. See 
 Bills of Exchange. The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all sums, was 
 enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 (Aug. 4, 1853). 
 
 RECITATIVE. A sort of speaking in a plain but yet singing manner, much like the 
 chant used in cathedrals at reading the psalms. Used in the performance of operas. 
 It was first introduced at Rome by signor Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the 
 claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the Italian opera, 1600. See article Opera. 
 It was soon afterwards adopted in other parts of Italy, and by degrees in Europe. 
 
 RECORDER. The title given to the first judicial officer of great corporations. He is, in 
 London, considered as the first corporation officer, and is paid a salary which was 
 originally 10/. per annum, and is at present 2500?. enjoyed for life. The first 
 recorder of the city of London was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 26 Edw. I, 1298; 
 Russell Gurney, Esq., Q. C. is the present (1857) recorder, elected 1856. 
 
 RECORDS, the PUBLIC. The piiblic records began to be regularly preserved and 
 kept from a.D. 1100, by order of Henry I. The repositories which possess materials 
 the most ancient and interesting to the historian are, the Chapter-house of West- 
 minster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the Queen's Remembrancer's offices of the 
 exchequer. The early records of Scotland, going from London, were lost by shipwreck 
 in 1298. In Ireland, the council-chamber and most of the records were burned, 1711. 
 Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94, 10 Aug. 1838. — A new Recoed Office has been 
 erected on the Rolls estate, between Chancery and Fetter lanes, to which the records 
 will be gradually removed. 
 
 REDH1LL. See Reformatory Schools. 
 
 REFLECTORS. The account of the burning-glasses of Archimedes had always appeared 
 fabulous to some of the moderns, till the experiments of Buffon, in France, and others, 
 demonstrated its truth beyond contradiction. These celebrated glasses were supposed 
 to be reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their effect at the distance 
 of a bow-shot. — Lempriere. 
 
 REFORM in PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation for many 
 years, and during several of our late administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for a reform 
 in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discussion on this motion 
 was the most remarkable up to the period at which reform was conceded. The first 
 ministerial measure of reform was in earl Grey's administration, when it was proposed 
 in the house of commons by Lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. 
 
 N N 
 
EEF 
 
 546 
 
 REF 
 
 REFORM in PARLIAMENT, continued. 
 
 BILL OF 1831. 
 
 First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; 
 against it, 301 — majority for second reading, 
 one, March 22. 
 
 On motion for a committee, general Gascoyne 
 moved an amendment ' ' that the number 
 of representatives for England and Wales 
 ought not to be diminished. " Amendment 
 carried on a division, 299 to 291 — majority, 
 eight, April 19. 
 
 [The bill was abandoned in consequence, and 
 parliament dissolved, April 22. A new par- 
 liament assembled, June 14.] 
 
 Bill again introduced, June 24. Division on 
 second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 251 
 — majority, 116, July 4. 
 
 Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 
 349 ; against it, 236— majority, 113, Sept. 21. 
 
 In the Lords — first division on second read- 
 ing : lord Wkarncliffe moved " that the 
 bill be read that day six months." For the 
 amendment, 199 ; against it, 158 — majority, 
 forty-one, October 8. 
 
 bill of 1832.* 
 
 Read in the Commons a first time, without a 
 division, December 12, 1831. 
 
 Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 
 324; against it, 162— majority, 162, Dec. 17, 
 1831. 
 
 Third reading; division, viz. : for the bill, 
 355 ; against it, 239 — majority for it, 116, 
 March 23, 1832. 
 
 In the Lords — read a first time on motion of 
 earl Grey, March 26. 
 
 Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against it, 
 175 — majority, nine, April 14. 
 
 In the Committee lord Lyndhurst moved 
 "that the question of enfranchisement 
 should precede that of disfranchisement." 
 The division was 151 and 116 — majority 
 against ministers, thirty-five, May 7. 
 
 [This result led to the resignation of ministers. 
 May 9 ; but great public excitement ensued, 
 and they were induced to resume office on 
 the king granting them full power to secure 
 majorities, by the creation of new peel's, 
 May 18.] 
 
 [Parliament prorogued, October 20, 1831.] 
 
 1S32. May 30. In the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee. 
 
 June 4. And the bill read a third time : 106 against 22 — majority, eighty-four. 
 
 June 7. The royal assent was this day given, by commission, to the bill. 
 
 July 17. The royal assent given, by commission, to the Scotch Reform Bill. 
 
 Aug. 7. The royal assent given, by commission, to the Irish Reform Bill. 
 
 Thus these thi'ee important and memorable bills, together with the Boundary Bills 
 for England and Ireland, were severally passed, and received the royal assent, 2 & 3 
 Will. IV. 1832.— Statutes. Lord John Russell introduced a new reform bill, Feb. 13, 
 1854, which was, however, withdrawn, April 11, 1854, in consequence of the war with 
 Russia. The government have promised to bring forward a new bill in 1858. 
 REFORMATION, The. The early efforts for the reformation of the church may be 
 traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Aquileia, employed his 
 voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, 
 Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of 
 Prague, Zisca, Browne, and Knox. The eras of the reformation are as follow : 
 
 In England (WicUiffe) . . . a.d. 1360 
 
 In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 
 
 In Germany (Luther) .... 1517 
 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) . . . 1519 
 
 In Denmark 1521 
 
 In France (Calvin) 1529 
 
 Protestants first so called . . . 1529 
 
 In Sweden (Petri) . . . a.d. 1530 
 In England (Henry VIII.) . . .1534 
 
 In Ireland (Browne) 1535 
 
 In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, 
 
 Fagius, <L-c.) 1547 
 
 In Scotland (Knox) 1560 
 
 In the Netherlands 1562 
 
 The reformed religion was established by queen Elizabeth on her accession to the 
 throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first prelate who 
 embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Luther, Protestants, &c. 
 
 REFORMATORY SCHOOLS. The increasing number of juvenile delinquentsf has long 
 occupied the minds of philanthropists, and various schemes have been devised to 
 check the evil. Two great institutions hav« been recently set up for this purpose, 
 the Reformatory Schools at Mettray, near Tours in France, and Redhill, near Reigate 
 in Surrey. The former was established in 1839, by M. de Metz, formerly a counsellor 
 at Paris ; warmly seconded in his beneficent work by the vicomte de Courcelles, who 
 gave the estate on which the establishment is placed. The latter is situated on land 
 purchased in 1849 by the Philanthropic Society, and was placed under the direction 
 of the Rev. Sydney Turner. The first stone of the building was laid April 30, 1849. 
 The inmates of these establishments are instructed in farm labour, and are divided 
 into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 
 1853 great meetings were held on the subject: and in Aug. 1856 the first grand 
 
 * By this " Act to amend the Representation of the People," 2 & 3 Will. 4, c. 45, 56 boroughs in 
 England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
 were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send one member (D.), and other important changes 
 were made. 
 
 t It has been calculated that there are in London 30,000, and in England 100,000, youths under 17 
 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of these who are committed for trial, nearly half are in 
 custody for the first time. 
 
REG 547 REL 
 
 conference of the National Reformatory Union was held. In 1852, the North "West 
 London Preventive and Reformatory Institution, in the New Road, was established : 
 in this all kinds of trades are taught. 
 REGENCY BILL. The memorable Regency Bill was proposed to parliament in con- 
 sequence of the mental illness of George III. debated Dec. 10, 1788. The bill was 
 relinquished on his majesty's recovery, Feb. 26, 1789. The prince of Wales (after- 
 wards George IV.) sworn in before the privy council as regent of the kingdom, he 
 going in great state, Feb. 5, 1811. The Regency Bill providing for the administration 
 of the government, should the crown descend to the princess Victoria while under 
 eighteen years of age, passed 1 Will. IV. Dec. 23, 1830. Regency Bill appointing 
 prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of the queen, should her next lineal 
 successor be under age, Aug. 4, 1840. 
 
 REGENT'S CANAL. It commences at Paddington, where it joins a cut to the Grand 
 Junction, and passing by a tunnel under Maida-hill, continues its coui'se by the 
 Regent's Park to Islington, where another subterranean excavation, about three- 
 quarters of a mile in length, has been formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
 Hoxton, Hackney, and Mile-end, to Limehouse, where it joins the Thames. The 
 whole length of its course is nine miles, and within that space are comprised twelve 
 locks and thirty-seven bridges. Opened Aug. 1, 1820. 
 
 REGENT'S PARK. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging to a palace 
 which stood near the north end of Tottenham-court-road, and which was occasionally 
 the residence of queen Elizabeth. This building was pulled down in 1791. From the 
 time of Elizabeth the property was let to various persons, but the leases having 
 expired, it reverted to the crown; and in 1814 were commenced the improvements, 
 under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most beautiful 
 part of London. The park is nearly of a circular form, and consists of about 450 
 acres, laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water, and intersected by 
 roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are several villas, 
 and round the park noble ranges of building in various styles of architecture. 
 
 REGISTERS, PAROCHIAL. Parochial registers were established by Cromwell, lord 
 Essex, by which the dates of births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 
 27 Hen. VIII. 1536. A stamp-tax was laid on them in 1784. Laws for their better 
 regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. The great Registration act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. 
 c. 86, passed Aug. 17, 1836. See Bills of Mortality, &c. 
 
 REGISTERS of DEEDS, &c. The registering of deeds and conveyances disposing of 
 real estates was appointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 2 Anne, 1703 
 et seq. By this regulation, greater security was made for purchasers and mortgagees ; 
 and the value of estates increased in the register counties. Wills have been for a 
 series of years kept and registered, in London, at Doctors' Commons. The registering 
 of shipping in the Thames was commenced 1786; and throughout England, 1787; 
 and several acts and amendments of acts have since followed for keeping and 
 improving registers. 
 
 REIGN op TERROR in FRANCE. See Robespierre's Reign of Terror. 
 
 RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to God, the 
 Supreme Author of all beings, though the term is very often abused, and applied to 
 superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false gods among the 
 heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes and nations in their 
 ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits being ascribed to a good spirit, 
 and evils to a bad one. — Phillips. Religious ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme 
 Being are said to have been introduced by Enos, 2832 B.C. — Lenglet. The established 
 religion of England commenced with the Reformation [which see), 1534. The Six 
 Articles of religion, for the non-observance of which many Protestants as well as 
 Catholics suffered death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established 
 first in 1552; they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in Jan. 1563, and 
 received the sanction of parliament in 1571. See Articles of Religion. Assuming the 
 population of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following division, 
 with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balbi, 1836. 
 
 Jews 4,500,000 j Idolaters, <fec. not professing the 
 
 Christians 225,000,000 Jewish, Christian, or Mahome- 
 
 Mahometans 155,000,000 | tan worship . . . .665,500,000 
 
 The population of the whole earth may now be taken at eleven hundred millions, and 
 
 n n 2 
 
REM 548 REV 
 
 the religious divisions may be supposed to bear a similar proportion to each other. — 
 Weimar Ephem. Geog. 
 
 REMONSTRANTS. A sect in Holland, called also Arminians, very numerous and 
 powerful, taking their name from a writing or remonstrance presented to the States 
 in 1609, wherein they reduced their doctrine to five articles. The Calvinists, who 
 opposed them, and had the governing power, used them very severely : and at a synod 
 held at Dort, their opinions were condemned in 1618. 
 
 RENTS in ENGLAND. Rents were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, 
 a.d. 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the 
 relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. By the act 
 8 Anne, no goods are removable from tenements under an execution until the rent 
 shall have been paid to the landlord by the sheriff, 1709. In England, the duke of 
 Sutherland received his rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland in the value of 
 wool and sheep. The rental of England, including land, houses, and mines, was six 
 millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase tbe value of land. About 
 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen millions, and the land was worth eighteen 
 years' purchase. — Davenant on the Revenues. The present rental of the United 
 Kingdom has been estimated lately in Parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. 
 
 REPEAL of the UNION, IRELAND. An Irish Association was formed with this object 
 under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. A proclamation of the lord-lieutenant 
 prohibited the meetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of procuring a repeal of 
 the union, under the name of the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative Relief, or 
 the Anti-Union Society," Oct. 18, 1830. A new and more resolved association after- 
 wards sprung up, and in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive 
 year, in its deliberations. Assemblies of the lower classes of the people were held in 
 the last-named year, in various parts of Ireland, eome of them amounting to 150,000 
 persons, and called " monster meetings." The great meeting at Trim took place on 
 March 19 ; the assemblages at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, on May 14, 21, and 28, 
 respectively; those at Drogheda, Kilkenny, Mallow, and Dnndalk, on June 5, 8, 11, 
 and 29 ; those at Donny brook and Baltinglass, July 3 and 20 ; at Tara, Aug. 15 ; at 
 Loughrea, Clifton, and Lismore, Sept 10, 17, and 24 ; and at Mullaghmast, Oct. 1. A 
 meeting to be held at Clontarf, on Oct. 8, was suppressed by government ; and Mr. 
 O'Connell and his chief associates were immediately afterwards prosecuted, and were 
 brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. See Trials. The association for the repeal of the 
 union continued for some time under the direction of Mr. John O'Connell, but was 
 little regarded. The total "repeal rent" amounted to 134,379£. 
 
 REPUBLICANS. See Democrats. 
 
 REPUBLICS. See Athens, Some, Genoa, Venice, &c. 
 
 REQUESTS, COURTS op. See articles Courts of Requests, and Conscience. 
 
 RESOLUTE, Ship. See Franklin. 
 
 RESTORATION, The. Emphatically so called, being the restoration of king Charles II. 
 to the crown of England, after an interregnum of eleven years and four months, 
 between Jan. 30, 1649, when Charles I. was beheaded, and May 29, 1660, on which 
 latter day the exiled monarch was restored, and entered London amidst the enthusiastic 
 acclamations of the people. See England. 
 
 RETREAT of the GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10,000 Greeks who had joined the 
 army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Artaxerxes, B.C. 401. 
 Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend the retreat of his 
 countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though under continual alarms from 
 the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate 
 through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for awhile, 
 and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily 
 effected ; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which 
 was performed in 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps 
 might now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher who 
 planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and 
 the difficulties which he surmounted. — Vossius. 
 
 REVENUE, PUBLIC, of ENGLAND. The revenue collected for the civil list, and for 
 all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinary, l,2O0,00OZ. per 
 
REV 
 
 549 
 
 REV 
 
 annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. Raised to 6,000,000?. 
 and every branch of the revenue anticipated, which was the origin of the funds and 
 the national debt, William and Mary, 1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST, BY SIR JOHN SINCLAIR. 
 
 William the Conqueror 
 
 William Rufus . 
 
 Heury I. . 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Henry II. 
 
 Richard I. . 
 
 John 
 
 Henry III. . 
 
 Edward I. 
 
 Edward II. 
 
 Edward III. . 
 
 Richard II. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Henry V. . . 
 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 Richard III. 
 
 Henry VII. . 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Edward VI. . 
 
 Mary .... 
 
 . £400,000 
 . . 350,000 
 
 300,000 
 . . 250,000 
 
 200,000 
 . . 150,000 
 
 100,000 
 . . 80,000 
 
 150,900 
 . . 100,000 
 
 154,000 
 . . 130,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 . . 76,643 
 
 64,976 
 
 * * * # 
 
 100,000 
 . . 130,000 
 
 400,000 Ditto,' 1854 
 . . 800,000 Ditto, 1855 
 
 400,000 Ditto, 1856 
 . . 450,000 
 
 Previously to 1854 there had been an average surplus of 2£ millions since 1849. 
 quence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 was 3,209,0592. ; in 1855, 21,141,1832 
 10,164,4132. See Property Tax and Loans. 
 
 Elizabeth . . . . 
 
 James I 
 
 Charles I 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Charles II 
 
 James II. .... 
 
 William III. 
 
 Anne (at the Union) 
 
 George I 
 
 George II 
 
 George III. 1788 
 
 Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 
 
 George IV. 1825, ditto 
 
 William IV. 1830, ditto . 
 
 Ditto, 1835, ditto 
 
 Victoria, 1845, ditto 
 
 Ditto, 1850, ditto 
 
 Ditto, 1853 .... 
 
 £500,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 895,819 
 
 1,517,247 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 2,001,855 
 
 3,895,205 
 
 5,691,803 
 
 6,762,643 
 
 8,522,540 
 
 15,572,971 
 
 65,599,570 
 
 62,871,300 
 
 55,431,317 
 
 50,494,732 
 
 53,060,354 
 
 52,310,680 
 
 54,430,344 
 
 56,822,509 
 
 63,364,605 
 
 72,21S,988 
 
 In conse- 
 ; in 1856, 
 
 REVIEWS. The Bibliotheque Anglaise (1716-27) and the Journal des Sgavans may be 
 said to have been the first reviews. The latter was published in Paris, May 30, 1665, 
 and met with so favourable a reception, that it was not only soon imitated throughout 
 Europe, but the author had the satisfaction of having, at the same time, his own 
 journal translated into various languages. It is still published. George III. spoke of 
 this publication to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with which he was 
 honoured by his majesty, in the library of the queen's house, in the month of 
 February, 1767. — Boswell's Life of Johnson. 
 
 Monthly Review, first published . . 1749 
 
 Critical 1756 
 
 An ti- Jacobin 1798 
 
 Edinburgh 1802 
 
 Quarterly ....... 1809 
 
 Eclectic 1813 
 
 North American 1815 
 
 Retrospective 1820 
 
 Westminster 1824 
 
 Southern American 1828 
 
 Dublin 1336 
 
 North British 1S44 
 
 British Quarterly 1844 
 
 National 18 i5 
 
 Saturday ....... 1855 
 
 REVOLUTION, ERA op the. This memorable revolution took place in England 
 in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of English liberty. James II. had 
 rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppression ; and soon 
 after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 1688, he abdicated 
 the throne and fled. William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) were 
 proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS, REMARKABLE, in ANCIENT HISTORY. The Assyrian empire 
 destroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 536 B.C. 
 The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Persian, on the defeat of 
 Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 B.C. The Roman empire established 
 on the ruins of the Macedonian, or Greek Monarchy, by Julius Caesar, 47 B.C. The 
 Eastern empire, founded by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the 
 Roman, a.d. 306. The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, 
 a.d. 802. This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire, 
 under Rodolph of Hapsburg, the head of the house of Austria, a.d. 1273, from whom 
 it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Eastern empire passed into the 
 handsof the Turks, a.d. 1453. See also the Revolutions of particular countries under 
 their proper heads, as Rome, France, Portugal, &c. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS, the MOST CELEBRATED in MODERN HISTORY. In Portugal, 
 a.d. 1640. In England, 1649 and 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. InRussia, 1730 
 and 1762. In Sweden, 1772 and 1809. In America, 1775. In France, 1789, 1830, 
 and 1848. In Holland, 1795; counter-revolution, 1813. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 
 
RHE 550 RIN 
 
 1798 and 1848. la the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. 
 In Hungary, 1848. See these countries respectively. 
 
 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a.d. 406 ; it was rebuilt in the 
 twelfth century, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the archbishop, 
 is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France have 
 been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, because Clovis, the founder of the 
 French monarchy, when converted from paganism, was baptised in the cathedral here, 
 in the year 496. The city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of 
 the French war, 1814. 
 
 RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 
 200 B.C. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius 
 Gallus, 87 B.C. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is to be said ; secondly, how ; 
 thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." — Cicero. A regius 
 professor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair 
 became first professor. We have professors of rhetoric in all our universities. 
 
 RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of the Mine. 
 
 RHODE-ISLAND, America. Celebrated for its fine women and called by travellers, 
 when in its most flourishing state, the " Eden of America." Settled 1636 and 1644. 
 It was taken in the war of independence by the British, Dec. 6, 1 776 ; but was evacuated 
 by them, Oct. 25, 1779. Rhode-Island suffered great injury during the revolutionary 
 war, but it has latterly improved in every respect, and again flourishes. 
 
 RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were 
 famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a maritime code, which was 
 afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic was not completed till 480 B.C. The 
 city built 432, B.C. Its famous Colossus (see Colossus) thrown down by an earthquake, 
 224 B.C. and finally destroyed by the Saracen admiral, Moavia, A.D. 672. — Priestly. 
 
 RICHMOND, Surrey. Anciently called Sheen, which, in the Saxon tongue, signifies 
 resplendent. Here stood a palace in which Edw. I. and II. resided, and Edw. III. died, 
 1377. Here also died Anne, queen of Richard II. who first taught the English ladie3 
 the use of the side-saddle. The palace was repaired by Henry V. who founded three 
 religious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by fire; but Henry VII. rebuilt it, 
 and commanded that the village should be called Richmond, he having borne the 
 title of earl of Richmond before he obtained the crown ; and here he died in 1509. 
 Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in this palace for a short time during the reign of 
 her sister. When she became queen, it was one of her favourite places of residence ; 
 and here she died, March 24, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of Henry prince 
 of Wales. The beautiful park and gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The 
 observatoiy was built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, Thomson "sang 
 the Seasons and their change ; " and here he died, Aug. 27, 1748. 
 
 RIALTO, BRIDGE of the, at Venice. A renowned bridge, mentioned by Shakspeare 
 in his "Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single arch, but 
 a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near the middle, where it 
 is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet wide on the level of the canal, and 
 twenty-four feet high. It is alike remarkable for its height, boldness, and solidity, 
 and is ascended at each end by a flight of steps. 
 
 RIGHTS, BILL of. One of the bulwarks of the constitution, obtained by parliament 
 from king Charles I. although he had endeavoured by various artifices to avoid 
 granting it, June 26, 1628. To the petition of Rights, preferred March 17, 1627-8, 
 his majesty answered, " I will that right be done, according to the laws and customs 
 of the realm." Both houaes addressed the king for a fuller answer to their petition 
 of Rights, whereupon he gave them an answer less evasive, " Soit fait comme il est 
 desire" June 7, 1628. Declaration made by the lords and commons of England to 
 the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of Rights. 
 
 RINGS. Ornaments of gold and silver, usually worn on the finger, and in the ears. The 
 latter have the name of ear-riDgs. See Ear-rings. Anciently they had a seal or signet 
 engraved on rings, to seal writings, and they are so used to this day. The wearing 
 rings is a very old custom, as appears by Genesis xxviii. 18, and other passages of 
 Scripture ; Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring from off his finger. The Jews were so fond 
 of rings that the women wore them in their ears and noses ; they were as ensigns of 
 authority in princes and great men. History ascribes extraordinary effects to certain 
 
RIO 
 
 551 
 
 RIO 
 
 magical rings, upon which superstitious figures were engraved or carved, and which 
 were worn to preserve persons from accidents, &c. Rings are now put upon women's 
 fourth finger at marriage ; but the first use of rings by the Jews was at the espousal 
 or contract before, marriage. 
 
 RIOTS, in BRITISH HISTORY. The riotous assembling of twelve or more persons, 
 and their not dispersing upon proclamation, was first made high treason by a statute 
 enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present operative statute, which is usually 
 understood as the Riot Act, was passed 2 Geo. I. 1715. See below. 
 
 Some riotous citizens of London demolished 
 the convent belonging to Westminster Ab- 
 bey ; the ringleader was hanged, and the 
 rest had then- hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. 
 III. 1221. 
 
 Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in 
 the streets of London ; several were killed 
 on each side ; the sheriffs quelled it, and 
 thirteen were hanged, 1262. 
 
 A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burned the 
 cathedral and monastery; the king went 
 thither, and saw the ringleaders executed, 
 1271. 
 
 The memorable riot in London known as the 
 riot of Evil May-day, 1517. See article Evil 
 May-day. 
 
 A riot in London, and Dr. Lamb killed by 
 the mob, Jane, 1628. 
 
 A riot, on pretence of pulling down houses of 
 ill-fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged, 
 1668. 
 
 Another, at Guildhall, at the election of she- 
 riffs ; several considerable persons, who 
 seized the lord mayor, were concerned, 1682. 
 
 At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of 
 the Union, 1707. 
 
 In London, on account of Dr. Sacheverel's 
 trial ; several dissenting meeting-houses 
 were broken open, 1709. 
 
 Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Or- 
 mond and Newcastle mobs. The Riot Act 
 passed the same year, great mischief having 
 been done by both parties in London, 1715. 
 
 The Mug-house riot, in Salisbury-court, be- 
 tween the Whigs and Tories. The riot 
 quelled by the guards, 1716. 
 
 Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of 
 employing workmen come over from Ire- 
 land. Quelled by the military, but many 
 lives lost, 1736. 
 
 Between the Irish, Welsh, and English hay- 
 makers, same year. 
 
 The memorable riot at Edinburgh, where the 
 mob rose, set fire to the prison, and took 
 out captain Porteous, whom they hanged, 
 1736. See Porteous. 
 
 A great body of rioters in Worcestershire 
 (nailers) march to Birmingham, and make 
 their own terms with the iron-merchants 
 there, 1737. 
 
 Of sailors who were robbed and ill-vised at a 
 house of ill-fame in the Strand ; being 
 assisted by a large body, they pulled down 
 the house and destroyed the furniture of 
 several others, turning the women naked 
 into the streets, 1749. 
 
 Of the Spitalfields weavers ; the duke of 
 Bedford narrowly escaped being killed ; 
 many lives lost, 1765. 
 
 A mob in St. George's Fields, to see Mr. Wilkes 
 in the King's Bench prison ; the military 
 aid indiscreetly called for by the justices of 
 the peace, and several innocent persons, 
 particularly young Allen, fired upon, and 
 killed, 1768. 
 
 The memorable riot in London by the popu- 
 lace, called Lord George Gordon's mob, 
 June 2 to 7, 1780. See Gordon's "No 
 Popery " Mob. 
 
 At Birmingham, on account of commemo- 
 
 rating the French Revolution, July 14, 1791, 
 
 when several houses were destroyed. 
 In various parts of Scotland, on account of 
 
 the Militia Act, August 1797, when several 
 
 were killed. 
 At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor 
 
 and others, May 22, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, 
 
 Mr. Ferguson, and others, were active in 
 
 endeavouring to rescue O'Connor, for which 
 
 they were tried and convicted, April 25, 1799. 
 At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between 
 
 a party of dragoons and a press-gang, June 
 
 27, 1809. 
 O.P. Riot at the Theatre Royal, Coven t-garden, 
 
 Sept. 1809. See 0. P. Riot. 
 In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of 
 
 commons committing sir Francis Burdett 
 
 to the Tower, April 6, 1810. 
 At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets be- 
 longing to the local militia were destroyed, 
 
 April 14, 1812. 
 In various parts of the north of England, by 
 
 the Luddites, during 1811 and 1812. 
 At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of 
 
 the celebrated Dog of Montargis. This riot 
 
 continued several nights, and the mischief 
 
 done was very considerable, Dec. 1814. 
 Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of 
 
 the Corn Bill; they lasted several days, 
 
 March 1815. 
 At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which 
 
 seven Americans were killed, and thirty-five 
 
 wounded, April 1815. 
 Popular meeting at Spa-fields, when the 
 
 shops of the gunsmiths were attacked for 
 
 arms. Mr. Piatt shot in that of Mr. Beck- 
 
 with on Snow-hill, Dec.2,lS16. Watson tried 
 
 for high treason, but acquitted, June 1817. 
 In the Park, on the prince regent going to the 
 
 house, in which an air-gun was fired at his 
 
 royal highness, Jan. 28, 1817. 
 At Manchester, in consequence of a popular 
 
 meeting, March 3, 1817. 
 Memorable affray at Manchester, called the 
 
 "Field of Peterloo," Aug. 16, 1819. See 
 
 Manchester Reform Meeting. 
 Again at the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several 
 
 nights' duration. This riot originated with 
 
 the friends of Miss Byrne, to whose wishes 
 
 the patentee, Mr. Jones, yielded in the end, 
 
 on the representation of certain facts, from 
 
 motives of humanity towards the young 
 
 lady, 1819. 
 Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses 
 
 plundered, Sept. 16, 1819. 
 At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen 
 
 Caroline, Nov. 19, 1820. 
 At the funeral of the queen, in consequence of 
 
 the military opposing the body being carried 
 
 through the city, Aug. 14, 1821. 
 At Knightsbridge, between the military and 
 
 the populace, on the funeral of Honey and 
 
 Francis, Aug. 26, 1821. 
 In various parts of the south of Ireland for 
 
 several months, in 1821 and 1822; and in 
 
 the north in 1823. 
 At the Theatre in Dublin; the memorable 
 
 riot called the "Bottle Conspiracy," against 
 
 the marquess Wellesley, lord-lieutenant, 
 
 Dec. 14, 1822. 
 
RIO 
 
 552 
 
 ROB 
 
 covered, and many persons concerned in the 
 
 plot arrested, Jan. 11, 1810. 
 Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, 
 
 in Ireland, between the < >rangemen and the 
 
 Roman Catholics; several of the latter lost 
 
 their lives, and some of their houses were 
 
 wrecked and burnt, July 12, 1849. 
 Serious riots at Yarmouth, arising out of a 
 
 dispute between the ship-owners and the 
 
 seamen, Feb. 23, 1851. 
 Fatal riot occasioned by a procession of 
 
 Orangemeu at Liverpool, and several lives 
 
 lost, July 14, 1851. 
 Religious riot at Stockport, in Cheshire ; two 
 
 Roman Catholic chapels destroyed, and the 
 
 houses of several Roman Catholics gutted 
 
 or burnt, June 29, 1852. 
 Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, 
 
 occur July 14, 1852. 
 Fatal election riot at Six-mile-Bridge, in the 
 
 county of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons 
 
 shot dead by the military, July 22, 1852. 
 
 See Six-mile-Bridge. 
 Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, sup- 
 pressed by the military without loss of life, 
 
 Oct. 28, 1853. 
 Bread riots at Liverpool, Feb. 19, 1855. 
 Riots at Hyde Park, on account of Sunday 
 
 Bill, Julv, 1855 ; on dearness of bread, Oct. 
 
 14, 21, 28, 1855. 
 Religious riots again at Belfast through the 
 
 open-air preachingof the Rev. Hugh Hanna, 
 
 Sept. 6, 13, 1857. 
 
 See Rebellions. 
 
 RIOTS, in BRITISH HISTORY, continued. 
 
 Riot of Ballybay. For this affair Mr. Lawless 
 
 was arrested, Oct. 9, 1828. 
 Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses 
 
 attacked and plundered, and great mischief 
 
 done, June 15, 1830. 
 [For the lamentable and fatal affrays at Castle- 
 pollard and Neiotonbarry, see these articles.] 
 Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydvil, among the 
 
 iron-workers, several of whom, fired on by 
 
 the military, were killed and wounded, 
 
 June 3, 1831. 
 Riot at the Forest of Dean, June 8, 1831. See 
 
 Dean, Forest of. 
 Fatal riots at Bristol, which commenced 
 
 Oct. 29, 1831. See Bristol. 
 Affray at Castleshock, county of Kilkenny, 
 
 when a number of police, attacked by the 
 
 populace, were, with their commander, Mr. 
 
 Gibbins, killed, Dec. 14, 1831. 
 Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced 
 
 by a body of persons called Thomites, headed 
 
 by a fanatic named Thorn, or Courtenay, 
 
 who, with others, was killed, May 31, 1838. 
 
 See Thomites. 
 Great riots throughout the country, occasioned 
 
 by the Chartists. Suppressed by proclama- 
 tion, Dec. 12, 1S3S. 
 Riots in Birmingham, when much mischief 
 
 ensues, July 15, 1839. See Birmingham. 
 Great riot at Newport, caused by the Chartists, 
 
 headed by John Frost ; many persons 
 
 killed, Nov. 4, 1839. See Newport. 
 Meditated Chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with 
 
 most destructive objects, providentially dis- 
 
 ROADS op ENGLAND. The first general repair of the highways of this country was 
 directed in 1288. Acts were passed for the purpose iu 1524 and 1555, followed 
 by others in Elizabeth's and the succeeding reigns. Roads through the Highlands of 
 Scotland were begun by general Wade in 1746. Loudon M'Adam's roads were 
 introduced about 1818 ; he prescribes the breaking of stones to six ounces weight, 
 and calculates the expense of breaking stones at a shilling a ton; clean flints and 
 granite clippings answer best. Wooden pavements were tried with partial success 
 in the streets of London; at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets iu 1840. 
 Asphalt pavement soon after. See Roman Roads and Wooden Pavements. 
 
 ROASTING ALIVE. One of the earliest instances of this cruel death is that of 
 Bocchoris, king of Egypt, who was slowly roasted alive by order of Sabacon of 
 Ethiopia, 737 B.C. — Lenglet. Sir John Oldcastle, lord Cobham, the first noble martyr 
 to the Reformation, was hung by the middle iu chains, his legs having previously beeu 
 broken, and thus roasted and consumed, 5 Henry V. 1417. M. Servetus was roasted 
 alive by a slow fire, on a charge of heresy, at Geneva, in 1553. Many martyrs and 
 others suffered death in this manner. See Burning Alive and Martyrs. 
 
 ROBBERS. First punished with death by Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the 
 eldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was pecuniary till that time. The 
 most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, iu England, a.d. 1189 (see Robin Hood), 
 and Claud Da Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an historian, quaintly, "to the great 
 grief of the women," January 1670. Iu Ireland, the famous Mac Cabe was hanged 
 at Naas, Aug. 19, 1691. Galloping Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. 
 Freney, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered himself, May 10, 1749. In later 
 times, the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. 
 
 ROBESPIERRE'S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilien Robespierre headed the populace 
 in the Champ de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
 July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of eminent men 
 and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administration. Billaud Vareunes 
 denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tribune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down 
 with the tyrant ! " resounded through the hall ; and he was immediately ordered to 
 the place of execution and suffered death. See France. 
 
 ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious baud of robbers, who infested 
 the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made excursions to 
 many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historians assert that this was 
 
EOC 553 KOM 
 
 only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, who was disgraced and 
 banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. Robin. Hood, Little John his 
 friend and second in command, with their numerous followers, continued their 
 depredations from about 1189 to 1247, when Robin died. — Stow's Chron. 
 ROCHESTER, BISHOPRIC of. This bishopric is the smallest, and, next to Canterbury, 
 the most ancient in England, it having been founded by St. Augustin about ten years 
 after he first came to England. The cathedral church was first erected by Ethelbert, 
 king of Kent, when it was made a bishop's see. St. Justin was bishop in 604. 
 Rochester is valued in the king's books at 358J. 3s. 2\d. per annum. 
 ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. These are war implements of a very destructive power; they 
 were invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The carcase rockets were first 
 used at Boulogne, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence 
 of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. They are still in use. See 
 article Boulogne Flotilla. 
 ROCKINGHAM'S, MARQUESS of, FIRST ADMINISTRATION. Charles, marquess 
 of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury ; rt. hon. William Dowdeswell, chancellor 
 of the exchequer; earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, lord president; duke of 
 Newcastle, privy seal ; earl of Northington, lord chancellor ; duke of Portland, lord 
 chamberlain; duke of Rutland, master of the horse; lord Talbot, lord steward; hon. 
 Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secretaries of state ; lord Egmont, 
 admiralty; marquess of Granby, ordnance; viscount Barrington, secretary-at-war; 
 viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy; hon. Charles Townshend, paymaster of the 
 forces ; earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade ; lords Besborough and Grantham, 
 lord John Cavendish, Thomas Townshend, &c. July 1765. Terminated Aug. 1766. 
 ROCKINGHAM'S, MARQUESS of, SECOND ADMINISTRATION. _ The marquess of 
 Rockingham again first minister of the crown ; lord John Cavendish, chancellor of 
 the exchequer ; lord Camden, president of the council ; duke of Grafton, privy seal ; 
 lord Thurlow, lord chancellor; William, earl of Shelburne and rt. hon. Charles 
 James Fox, secretaries of state; rt. hon. Augustus Keppel, first lord of the admiralty; 
 duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance; rt. hon. Thomas Townshend, 
 secretary-at-war; rt. hon. Isaac Barre", rt. hon. Edmund Burke, &c. March 1782. 
 The death of the marquess of Rockingham, July 2, 1782, led to the Shelburne 
 administration, which succeeded. 
 RODNEY'S, ADMIRAL, VICTORIES. This renowned admiral fought, near Cape St. 
 Vincent, the Spanish admiral, Don Langara, whom he defeated, and made prisoner, 
 capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, Jan. 16, 1780. On April 12, 1782, 
 he encountered the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by the count de 
 Grasse, took five ships of the line, and sent the French admiral prisoner to England: 
 Rodney was raised to the peerage, June 1782. 
 ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday received and retains its title from the Monday, 
 Tuesday, and Wednesday immediately following it, which are called Rogation days, 
 derived from the Latin, rogare, to beseech. The earliest Christians appropriated 
 extraordinary prayers and supplications for those three days, as a preparation for the 
 devout observance of our Saviour's ascension, on the next day succeeding to them, 
 denominated Holy Thursday, or Ascension-day. The whole week in which these 
 days happen is styled Rogation week; and in some parts it is still known by the 
 other names of Crop Week, Grass Week, and Procession Week. The perambulations 
 of parishes have usually been made in this week. 
 ROLLS' CHAPEL, London. Founded by Henry III. in 1233, for ordaining Jewish 
 rabbis converted to Christianity. On the banishment of the Jews, the buildings 
 now called the Rolls, and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the keeper or 
 master of the rolls of Chancery, from which circumstance they took their name. 
 A number of public records from the time of Richard III. were kept in presses in 
 this chapel. See Rxords. 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS. The period of the rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be 
 dated from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine, a.d. 323. See Rome. 
 The foundation of the papal power dates from a.d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed 
 the title of Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope 
 Stephen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a.d. 756. The 
 power of the Roman pontiffs was weakened by the Reformation, and has since been 
 gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed doctrines, and the general 
 
ROM 554 ROM 
 
 diffusion of knowledge among the nations of the earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, 
 about 160 millions are, or pass under the denomination of Roman Catholics. — 
 M. Balbi. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION. An organised assembly in Ireland, whose object 
 was the removal of the political and civil disabilities which then affected their sect. 
 Previously to 1824, various associations had existed under, other appellations, but 
 with similar purpose. An act of parliament passed for the suppression of this body, 
 March 5, 1829 ; but it voted its own dissolution (its object having been achieved) 
 Feb. 12, preceding. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS of THESE REALMS. Laws were enacted against them in 
 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673; but restored to favour there 
 in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust, 1689 ; and excluded from the British 
 throne same year. Obliged to register their names and estates, 1717. Indulgences 
 were granted to Roman Catholics by parliament in 1778. They were permitted to 
 purchase land, and take it by descent, 1780. — In London, an immeDse multitude 
 assembled in St. George's-fields to accompany lord George Gordon with a petition to 
 repeal the law of a preceding session favourable to the Roman Catholics : here they 
 divided into bodies, and proceeded to the avenues of the house of commons, 
 insulting the members of both houses, and compelling them to put cockades to their 
 hats, inscribed "No Popery." Lord George having harangued them, and announced 
 that their petition had been rejected, dreadful excesses followed (see Gordon's Mob). 
 — Further disabilities removed, 1791, and at subsequent periods. Roman Catholic 
 Emancipation Bill passed, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, April 13, 1829. See Penal Laws. 
 
 DIVISIONS ON THE CATHOLIC QUESTION IN THE BRITISH HOUSE OP COMMONS. 
 
 1829. March 6. For committee . . 188 
 
 [Bill first proposed as a measure of 
 government.] 
 1820. Feb. 21. Read a first time . 
 
 March 18. For second reading . 180 
 March 30. For third reading . . 178 
 
 THE DIVISIONS ON THE SAME BILL IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS WERE AS FOLLOW : — 
 
 1829. March 31. Read a first time, nemine dissentiente. 
 
 April 4. Second reading : for the bill, 217 — against it, 112. Majority, 105. 
 April 10. Third reading : for the bill, 213— against it, 109. Majority, 104. 
 
 The royal assent was given to this measure, and it became a law, 10th Geo. IV., 
 Api-il 13, 1829. Mr. O'Connell, who had been elected for Clare county, July 5, 1828, 
 now took his seat, he being the first Roman Catholic representative in parliament 
 since the Revolution. The first English member returned was the earl of Surrey, for 
 Horsham, May 4, 1829 ; and the duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford were 
 the first Roman Catholic peers who took their seats, April 28, 1829. Mr. Alexander 
 Raphael was the first Roman Catholic sheriff of London, Sept 28, 1834. Sir Michael 
 O'Loghlen was the first Roman Catholic judge (as Master of the Rolls in Ireland), 
 appointed Oct. 30, 1836; and Mr. O'Connell was elected first Roman Catholic lord 
 mayor of Dublin, in 1841. See Pome, Modern, and Papal Aggression. In 1851 there 
 were 570 Roman Catholic chapels with 186,111 sittings. — The Roman Catholic Church 
 in Ireland consists of four archbishops, 24 bishops, and (in 1854) 2291 priests ; there 
 are numerous monasteries and convents. 
 ROMAN ROADS in ENGLAND. Our historians maintain, but are mistaken, that 
 there were but four of these roads. — Camden. They were : 1st, "Watling-street, so 
 named from Vitellianus, who is supposed to have directed it, the Britons calling him 
 in their language Guctalin. 2nd, Ikeneld, or Ikenild-street, from its beginning 
 among the Iceni. 3rd, Fosse, or Fosse-wat, probably from its having been defended 
 by a fosse on both sides. 4th. Ermin-stkeet, from Irmunsul, a German word, 
 meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors worshipped under that name. "The 
 Romans," says Isidore, " made roads almost all over the world, to have their marches 
 in a straight line, and to employ the people ; " and criminals were frequently con- 
 demned to woi'k at such roads, as we learn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. 
 They were commenced and completed at various periods, between the 2nd and 4th 
 centuries, and the Roman soldiery were employed in making them, that inactivity 
 might not give them an opportunity to raise disturbance. — Bede. 
 
 ROMAN WALLS. They were erected by Agricola (a.d. 79 to 85) to defend Britain 
 from the incursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall extended from the Tyne to 
 the Solway frith (80 miles) ; the second from the frith of Forth near Edinburgh to 
 the frith of Clyde near Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed and 
 
ROM 
 
 555 
 
 ROM 
 
 strengthened by the emperor Adrian (a.d. 121), and by Septimius Severus (a.d. 208). 
 It commenced at Bowness near Carlisle and ended at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It 
 had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more northern wall was renewed 
 by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius about a.d. 140. Many remains of 
 these walls still exist, particularly of the Southern one. See Bructfs Roman Wall, 
 published in 1853. 
 
 ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic flights of 
 the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — Pardon. As Heliodorus, 
 a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in 
 this species of writing, he is hence styled the " Father of Romances." He flourished 
 a.d. 398. — Huet de Origine Fabul. Roman. 
 
 ROME, ANCIENT, Once the mistress of the world, and subsequently the seat of the 
 most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. Romulus 
 is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this celebrated city on the 
 20th of April, according to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period, 3251 years 
 after the creation of the world, 753 before the birth of Christ, 431 years after the 
 Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome 
 was but a small castle on the summit of Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
 his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a 
 standard as a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
 their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From such an 
 assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the death of the founder 
 the Romans had covered with their habitations the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, 
 Esquiline hills, with Mount Ccelius, and Quirinalis. The Romans and the Albans, 
 contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide 
 it. The three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Onriatii, Albans, having been 
 elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat, which, by the 
 victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 B.C. — IAvy. The numerous and 
 successful wars of the Romans led, in the course of ages, to their mastery over all 
 mankind, and to their conquest of nearly the whole of the then known world. In the 
 time of Julius Csesar, the empire was bounded on the east by the Euphrates, Taurus, 
 and Armenia ; iEthiopia on the south ; the Danube on the north ; and the Atlantic 
 on the west. 
 
 Foundation of the city commenced, by 
 Romulus B.C. 753 
 
 The Romans seize on the Sabine women 
 at a public spectacle, and detain them 
 for -wives 750 
 
 The Ceninians defeated, and first trium- 
 phal procession 748 
 
 Rome taken by the Sabines : the Sabines 
 incorporated with the Romans as one 
 nation 747 
 
 Romulus sole king of the Romans and 
 Cures 742 
 
 Conquest of the Camerines . . . . 738 
 
 The Veii conquered 732 
 
 Romulus murdered by the senators ; 
 reigned 37 years 716 
 
 Numa Pompilius elected king of the 
 Romans 715 
 
 He institutes the several orders of the 
 priesthood 710 
 
 The augurs and vestals are also esta- 
 blished. See Vestals . . . .710 
 
 Roman calendar of 10 months reformed, 
 and made 12 710 
 
 Numa dies of old age .... 672 
 
 War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba 
 destroyed 665 
 
 Ostia, at the mouth of the river Tiber, 
 built . * 627 
 
 The Apiolani are conquered . . . . 616 
 
 Conquest of the Etrurians . . . 567 
 
 The first census of the Roman state is 
 taken (Lenglet) 566 
 
 Reign of Tarquinius Superbus . . . 534 
 
 The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of 
 Tarquin ; royalty is abolished, and Rome 
 becomes a commonwealth. . . . 509 
 
 Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus 
 
 first consuls . . . . . B.C. 509 
 First alliance of the Romans with Carthage 509 
 The Capitol finished, and dedicated to 
 
 Jupiter Capitolinus ..... 507 
 
 War with Btruria 507 
 
 The lesser triumph, called an ovation, is 
 
 begun 503 
 
 The Latins declare war against the re- 
 public 501 
 
 Titus Lartius, first dictator . . . 495 
 C. Martius Coriolanus banished . . . 491 
 He besieges Rome, but withdraws at the 
 
 suit of his wife and mother . . . 488 
 The first agrarianlaw is published at Rome 486 
 The Fabii slain. (See Fabii) . . .477 
 The Secular Games first celebrated . . 456 
 The Decemviri created .... 451 
 Virginius kills his daughter, "Virginia, to 
 
 save her from thelust of Appius Claudius 449 
 Military tribunes first created . . . 444 
 Office of censor instituted . . . . 443 
 Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and 
 
 many persons, on account of it, drown 
 
 themselves in the Tiber . . . 440 
 The Veii defeated, and their king Tolum- 
 
 nus slain 437 
 
 War with the Tuscans .... 434 
 A temple is dedicated to Apollo on account 
 
 of a pestilence 433 
 
 iEqui and Volsci defeated .... 431 
 Two new quaastors are added to the former 
 
 number 421 
 
 Another and more dreadful famine occurs 
 
 at Rome 4il 
 
 Three quaestors are chosen from the body 
 
 of the people for the first time . . 410 
 
ROM 
 
 556 
 
 ROM 
 
 ROME, ANCIENT, continued. 
 
 The knights begin to serve in the cavalry 
 
 about this time . . . .B.C. 403 
 Institution of the Lectistemian festival 
 
 on account of a pestilence . . . 399 
 Veii taken after a siege of more than ten 
 
 years 396 
 
 The Gauls, under Brenuus, besiege 
 
 Clusium 388 
 
 Borne burnt to the ground by the Gauls, 
 
 who besiege the Capitol . . . 387 
 M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the 
 Tarpeian rock, on a charge of aiming at 
 
 sovereign power 384 
 
 The Volsci defeat the Romans . . . 379 
 The first appointment of curule magis- 
 trates 371 
 
 Lucius Sextus, the first plebeian consul. 
 
 — Livy 366 
 
 Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which 
 
 had opened in the forum . . . . 362 
 Titus Manlius made dictator . . . 353 
 The Gauls defeated iu Italy . . . . 350 
 War with the Samnites, which lasts sixty 
 
 years 343 
 
 The vestal Minutia buried alive on a 
 
 charge of incontinence . . . . 337 
 Priests first elected from the body of the 
 
 people 300 
 
 The Gauls invade the Roman territory ; 
 siege of Arezzo . . . . . . 284 
 
 The vestal Sextilia buried alive for a 
 violation of her vow .... 274 
 
 First Punic war commenced . . . 264 
 Attilius Regulus put to a cruel death by 
 
 the Carthaginians 255 
 
 Second Punic war breaks out . . . 218 
 The Romans are defeated by Hannibal at 
 
 Cannaj 216 
 
 Syracuse taken by Marcellus . . . 212 
 Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa 202 
 The first Macedonian war begins with 
 
 Philip 200 
 
 Death of Scipio Africanus the Elder . 185 
 Second Macedonian war begins . . . 171 
 First library erected at Rome . . . 167 
 Philosophers and rhetoricians are ban- 
 ished Rome 161 
 
 Third Punic war begins .... 149 
 Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the 
 
 Romans. (See Carthage) . . . . 146 
 The Ambrones defeated by Marius ; their 
 wives, being refused security from vio- 
 lation, murder themselves and their 
 
 children 102 
 
 The Mithridatic war (which see) . . . 89 
 Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those 
 of Marius, China, Carbo, and Sertorius) 
 
 and taken 87 
 
 Sylla's defeat of Marius . . . . 82 
 The Catiline conspiracy . . . .63 
 War between Caesar and Pompey . . 50 
 Battle of Pharsalia (wh ich see) . . .47 
 Caesar killed in the Senate-house . . . 44 
 Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . 43 
 Battle of Philippi (which see) . . . 41 
 Battle of Actium (which see) . . .31 
 
 [The commencement of the Roman em- 
 pire dates from this year.] 
 
 Octavius takes Alexandria . . . . 30 
 He assumes the title of Augustus . . 27 
 The empire now at peace with all the 
 
 world ; the UVmple of Janus shut ; 
 
 Jesus born. See Jews . . . . 6 
 
 Ovid banished to Toini . . . a.d. 9 
 Tiberius retires to Caprea . . . . 26 
 A census being taken by Claudius, the 
 emperor and censor, the inhabitants of 
 Rome are stated to amount to 6,900,000. 
 
 — [It is now considered that the popula- 
 tion of Rome within the walls was 
 under a million] . . . .a.d. 48 
 Caractacus brought in chains to Rome . 51 
 St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome . . 62 
 Nero burns Rome to the ground, and 
 charges the crime upon the Christians. 
 
 See Persecutions 64 
 
 Seneca, Lucan, &c. put to death . . . 65 
 Peter and Paul put to death . . .67 
 Jerusalem taken, and levelled to the 
 
 ground, by Titus . . Sept. 8, 70 
 Revolt of the Parthians . . . .77 
 The Dacian war continues 15 years . . 88 
 Cornelia, a vestal, buried alive . . 92 
 
 Pliny Junior, proconsul in Bithynia, 
 sends Trajan his celebrated account of 
 
 the Christians 102 
 
 Trajan's expedition into the East, against 
 
 the Parthians, &c 106 
 
 Trajan's Column erected at Rome . . 1 14 
 Adrian, during his residence in Britain, 
 
 erects the famous wall . . . . 121 
 Heresies among the Christians . . 141 
 The worship of Serapis introduced . . 146 
 The Capitol destroyed by lightning . .188 
 Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . . 196 
 The Goths are paid tribute . . . 222 
 
 [The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and 
 ether Northern nations attack the em- 
 pire on all hands.] 
 
 Pompey's amphitheatre burnt . . . 248 
 Pestilence throughout the empire . . 252 
 Great victory over the Goths obtained by 
 
 Claudius ; 300,000 slain . . . . 269 
 Longinus put to death .... 273 
 The Barbarians obtain Dacia . . . 274 
 
 The era of Martyrs 284 
 
 The Franks settle iu Gaul. — Frirtt . . 287 
 Constantius dies at York . . . . 306 
 Four emperors reign at one time . . 308 
 Constantine the Great, in consequence 
 of a vision, places the cross on his 
 banners, and arrives at Rome . . . 312 
 He begins to favour the Christians . . 319 
 He tolerates the Christian faith . . . 323 
 Constantine convokes the first general 
 
 council of Christians, at Nice . . 325 
 The seat of empire removed from Rome 
 
 to Byzantium 328 
 
 Constantine orders the heathen temples 
 
 to be destroyed 330 
 
 Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves from 
 
 their masters 334 
 
 Death of Constantino : he is succeeded by 
 his three sons, Constans, Constantius II. 
 
 and Constantine II 337 
 
 The army under Julian, surnamed the 
 
 Apostate, proclaims him emperor . . 360 
 Julian, who had been educated for the 
 priesthood, and had frequently offi- 
 ciated, abjures Christianity, and re- 
 opens the heathen temples, becoming 
 
 the pagan pontiff 361 
 
 Julian killed in battle 363 
 
 Christianity restored by Jovian . . 363 
 Jovian fouud dead in his bed, supposed 
 
 to have been poisoned . . . . 364 
 The empire divided into Eastern and 
 Western by Valentinian and Valens, 
 brothers : the former has the Western 
 
 portion, or Rome 364 
 
 The Goths allowed by Valens to settle in 
 
 Thrace 376 
 
 They enter the Imperial territories . . 382 
 Valentinian deposed by Maximus, who 
 
 restores paganism 387 
 
 Arcadius and Honorius reign . . . 395 
 The defeat of 200,000 Goths . . . . 405 
 
ROM 
 
 557 
 
 ROM 
 
 ROME, ANCIENT, continued. 
 
 The Vandals, Alains, and Suevi settle in 
 France and Spain, by a concession of 
 Honorius a.d. 406 
 
 Rome taken.pillaged, and burned to the 
 ground by the Visigoths, under Alaric, 
 who soon dies 410 
 
 The Visigoths begin the kingdom of 
 Toulouse 414 
 
 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain 412 
 
 Pharamond begins the kingdom of the 
 Franks .420 
 
 The Vandals pass into Africa . . . 427 
 
 Genseric takes Carthage .... 439 
 
 Attila, chief of the Huns, ravages all 
 Europe, and obtains the surname of the 
 "Scourge of God" 447 
 
 The Vandals ravage Sicily . . . 454 
 
 Valentinian dishonours the wife of Maxi- 
 mus ....... 454 
 
 He is killed by two guards, influenced by 
 Maximus, who marries Eudoxia, Valen- 
 tinian's widow 455 
 
 Eudoxia, to avenge the murder of her 
 first husband, and punish the guilt of 
 her second, invites Genseric, chief of 
 the Vandals, into Italy . . . . 455 
 
 Rome taken and pillaged on the 12th of 
 July; Maximus stoned to death, nu- 
 merous buildings demolished, and 
 
 Eudoxia, with her daughter Placidia, 
 and many thousands of persons, sent 
 captives to Africa . . . .a.d. 455 
 Majorianus, emperor, takes up his resi- 
 dence at Ravenna . . ... *** 
 The Vandals driven out of Sicily . . 464 
 The Goths defeated in Gaul . . . . 466 
 Great eruption of Vesuvius, by which 
 
 Campania is burned up . . . . 472 
 Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters Italy, 
 takes Rome, and assumes the title of 
 king of Italy, which ends the Western 
 
 empire 476 
 
 Rome is recovered for Justinian, by Beli- 
 
 sarius 537 
 
 Retaken by the Goths 547 
 
 Narses, Justinian's general, again recon- 
 quers Rome 553 
 
 Papal power established . . . . 606 
 Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
 
 and becomes free 726 
 
 Pope Stephen 1 1, invested with the tem- 
 poral dominion of Rome . . . . 756 
 Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor 
 of the West 800 
 
 The popes continued in possession of the 
 city and territories. See article Popes, 
 and Italy. 
 
 KINGS OF ROME. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 753. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 
 [Tatius, king of the Cures, had removed 
 to Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with 
 Romulus six years.] 
 
 716. [Interregnum.] 
 
 715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius 
 the Sabine, elected : died at the age 
 of 82. 
 
 672. Tullus Hostilius : murdered by his suc- 
 cessor, by whom his palace was set on 
 fire : his family perished in the flames. 
 
 640. Ancus Martius, grandson of Numa. 
 
 616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a 
 Corinthian emigrant, chosen king. 
 
 573. Servius Tullius; a manumitted slave; 
 married the king's daughter ; and suc- 
 ceeded by the united suffrages of the 
 army and the people. 
 
 534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tar- 
 quinius Priscus : assassinates his father- 
 in-law, and usurps the throne. 
 
 510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of 
 Tarquin, leads to the abolition of 
 royalty.] 
 
 REPUBLIC. 
 
 First period. From the expulsion of 
 Tarquin to the dictatorship of Sylla, 
 510 to 82 B.C. 
 
 Second period. From Sylla to Augustus, 
 82 to 31 B.C. 
 
 EMPERORS OF ROME. 
 
 117. 
 138. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Caius Julius Csesar ; perpetual dictator : 
 assassinated, March 15, 44 b.c 
 
 Octavianus Csesar : in the year 27 b. c. 
 Augustus imperator. — Livy. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 
 
 Caius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. 
 
 Claudius (Tiber. Drusus) : poisoned by 
 
 his wife Agrippina, to make way for 
 Claudius Nero : deposed ; put himself to 
 
 death to escape a yet more terrible 
 
 end. 
 Servius Sulpicius Galba : slain by the 
 
 praetorian band. 
 M. Salvius Otho : stabbed himself, after 
 
 a reign of three months. 
 Aulus Vitellius : deposed by Vespasian, 
 
 and put to death. 
 Titus Flavius Vespasian. 
 Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
 Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; 
 
 last of 1;he twelve Caesars : assassinated. 
 Cocceius Nerva. 
 Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus). 
 Adrian or Hadrian (Publius jElius). 
 Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius. 
 
 161. Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, his 
 son-in-law : the latter died in 169. 
 
 180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son 
 of Marcus Aurelius : poisoned by his 
 favourite mistress, Martia. 
 
 193. Publius-Helvius-Pertinax : put to death 
 by the praetorian band. 
 [Four emperors now start up : Didius 
 Julianus, at Rome ; Pescennius Niger, 
 in Syria ; Lucius Septimius Severus, in 
 Pannonia ; and Clodius Albinus, in 
 Britain.] 
 
 193. Lucius Septimius Severus: died at York, 
 in Britain, in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 
 
 211. M. Aurelius Caracalla, and Septimius 
 Geta. Geta murdered the same year by 
 his brother, who reigned alone until 217, 
 when he was slain by his successor, 
 
 217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the 
 
 guards : beheaded in a mutiny. 
 
 218. Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a 
 
 youth : put to death for his follies and 
 enormities by his incensed subjects. 
 
 222. Alexander Severus : assassinated by some 
 soldiers corrupted by Maximinus. 
 
 235. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus : assas- 
 sinated in his tent before the walls of 
 Aquileia. 
 
ROM 
 
 558 
 
 ROM 
 
 ROME, ANCIENT, continued. 
 
 237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son : 
 the latter having beeu killed in a 
 battle with the partisans of Maximi- 
 nus, the father strangled himself in a 
 fit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th 
 year. 
 
 237. Balbinus and Pupienns : put to death. 
 
 238. Gordian, junior, grandson of the elder 
 
 Gordian, in his 16th year: assassinated 
 by the guards, at the instigation of his 
 successor, 
 
 244. Philip the Arabian : assassinated by his 
 own soldiers : his son Philip was mur- 
 dered, at the same time, in his mother's 
 arms. 
 
 249. Metius Decius : he perished with his 
 two sons, and their army, in an engage- 
 ment with the Goths. 
 
 251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus : 
 both slain by the soldiery. 
 
 253. iEmilianus : put to death after a reign of 
 only four months. 
 
 253. Valerianus, and his son, Gallienus : the 
 first was taken prisoner by Sapor, king 
 of Persia, and flayed alive. 
 
 260. Gallienus reigned alone. 
 
 [About this time thirty pretenders to 
 imperial power start up in different 
 parts of the empire ; of these, Cyriades 
 is the first, but he is slain.] 
 
 268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having been as- 
 sassinated by the officers of the guard) 
 
 succeeds : dies of the plague. 
 270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome 
 
 by the senate and troops ; Aurelian by 
 
 the army in Illyricum. Quiutillus, 
 
 despairing of success against his rival, 
 
 who was marching against him, opened 
 
 his veins, and bled himself to death. 
 270. Aurelian : assassinated by his soldiers in 
 
 • his march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 
 275. [Interregnum of about nine months.] 
 
 275. Tacitus, elected Oct. 25 : died at Tarsus 
 
 in Cilicia, April 13, 276. 
 
 276. Florian, his brother : his title not recog- 
 
 nised by the senate. 
 276. M. Aurelius Probus : assassinated by his 
 
 troops at Sirmium. 
 282. M. Aurelius Carus : killed at Ctesiphon 
 
 by lightning ; succeeded by his sons, 
 
 ROME, MODERN. Rome, as an ecclesiastical state, has continued to be governed by her 
 popes or bishops, from the earliest ages of Christianity up to the present time. As 
 a temporal power, Rome is very insignificant, and has been always so ; but she has 
 exerted, notwithstanding, an influence, amounting at times to complete dominion, 
 over a great portion of the Christian world. In the character and assumptions of her 
 popes are presented the most striking features and incidents of her history, and we 
 have endeavoured to delineate these in our ample and consecutive list of the popes, 
 compiled from the most certain and accepted authorities, attaching to each name the 
 prominent qualities that distinguished them as rulers of the Church. See Popes. 
 This, properly, forms the history of Modern Rome. Some few remarkable events, 
 however, of very recent occurrence, are necessary to be recorded here in a distinct 
 article, as they threatened, for a short time at least, the overthrow of papal temporal 
 power. 
 
 2S3. Carinas and Numerianus : both assas- 
 sinated, after transient reigns. 
 
 284. Diocletian : who associated as his col- 
 league in the government, 
 
 2S6. Maximianus Hercules : the two emperors 
 resign in favour of 
 
 305. Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maxi- 
 
 mianus : the first died at York, in 
 Britain, in 306, and the troops saluted 
 as emperor, his son, 
 
 306. Constantine, afterwards styled the 
 
 Great : whilst at Rome the praetorian 
 
 band proclaimed 
 306. Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. 
 
 Besides these were, 
 306. Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured 
 
 to recover his abdicated power, 
 
 306. Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by 
 
 the last-named pretender ; and 
 
 307. Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother- 
 
 in-law of Constantiue. 
 
 [Of these, Maximianus Hercules was 
 strangled in Gaul in 310 ; Galerius 
 Maximianus died wretchedly in 311 ; 
 Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber 
 in 312; and Licinius was put to death 
 by order of Constantine in 324.] 
 
 324. Constantine the Great now reigned alone : 
 died on Whitsunday, May 22, 337. 
 
 ( Sons of Constantine ; 
 divided the empire 
 between them : the 
 first was slain in 
 340, and the second 
 murdered in 350, 
 when the third be- 
 came sole emperor. 
 361. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjur- 
 ing Christianity, having been educated 
 for the priesthood : mortally wounded 
 in a battle with the Persians. 
 363. Jovian ; reigned 8 months : found dead 
 in his bed, supposed to have died from 
 the fumes of charcoal. 
 
 [The Roman empire may be said to have 
 terminated here, as a single dominion.] 
 
 See Eastern Empire and Western Empire. 
 
 ! Constantine II. 
 Constans, 
 Constantius II. 
 
 Count Rossi, prime minister of the ponti- 
 fical government, assassinated on the 
 staircase of the Chamber of Deputies 
 at Rome .... Nov. 15, 1848 
 
 Insurrection at Rome, the populace de- 
 mand a democratic ministry and other 
 concessions ; the Pope (Pius IX.) not 
 giving an immediate answer, the 
 Romans surround the palace, when a 
 conflict ensues between the papal and 
 civic guard. The troops invest the 
 
 Quirinal, and place cannon against the 
 entrance ; and the pope is forced to 
 accept a popular ministry . Nov. 16, 1S4S 
 
 [Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, is 
 shot in this conflict.] 
 
 The pope escapes in disguise from Rome 
 to Gae'ta .... Nov. 24, 1S48 
 
 H. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a 
 French armed expedition to Civita 
 Vecchia having preceded him, to afford 
 protection to the pope . Nov. 27, 1848 
 
EOM 
 
 559 
 
 ROS 
 
 and they eventually capitulate to the 
 French army . . . June 30, 1849 
 
 The Roman assembly dissolved, July 4, 1849 
 
 An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives 
 at Gaeta, to present the pope with 
 the keys of the two gates of Rome by 
 which the French army had entered 
 the city July 4, 1849 
 
 The re-establishment of the pope's autho- 
 rity proclaimed at Rome . July 15, 1849 
 
 Oudinot issues a general order stating 
 that the pope (or his representative) 
 now re-possesses the administration of 
 affairs, but that public security in the 
 pontifical dominions still remains 
 under the special guarantee of the 
 French army .... Aug. 3, 1849 
 
 His Holiness arrives at Portici on a visit 
 to the king of Naples . . Sept. 4, 1849 
 
 He issues from Portici a molu proprio to 
 his subjects . . . Sept. 12, 1849 
 
 The pope leaves Portici for Rome, where 
 he arrives .... April 12, 1850 
 
 He issues the bull establishing a- Roman 
 Catholic hierarchy in England. See 
 Papal Aggression . . Sept. 24, 1850 
 
 In a consistory court holden at Rome, 
 the pope names fourteen cardinals, of 
 whom only four are Italians : among 
 the foreigners is Dr. Wiseman, R.C., 
 vicar apostolic of London, created arch- 
 bishop of Westminster . Sept. 30, 1S51 
 
 Important concordat with Austria, Aug. 1855 
 
 The pope visits different parts of his 
 dominions .... June, 1857 
 
 See Papal Aggression ; Conception, Immaculate. 
 
 EOME, MODERN, continued. 
 
 Protest of the pope against the violence 
 
 and outrage which induced him to 
 
 leave Rome, and against the acts of 
 
 the provisional government, Nov. 2S, 184S 
 A constituent assembly meets at Rome, 
 
 Feb. 5, 1S49 
 The Roman National Assembly declares 
 
 the pope divested of all temporal 
 
 power, and adopts the republican form 
 
 qf government . . . Feb. 8, 1849 
 
 [The republican flag is hoisted on the 
 tower of the Capitol on the same day.] 
 
 The pope protests against the decree for 
 his dethronement . . Feb. 14, 1849 
 
 His Holiness appeals to the great Roman 
 Catholic powers for an armed inter- 
 vention in his behalf . . Feb. 18, 1849 
 
 Civita Vecchia occupied by the French 
 force under marshal Oudinot, Apr. 26, 1849 
 
 A small French force repulsed from 
 Rome .... April 30, 1849 
 
 [In this action the French are driven 
 back from the city with the loss of 
 about 700 men.] 
 
 Engagement between the Romans and 
 Neapolitans ; the former capture 60 
 prisoners and 400 muskets . May 5, 1849 
 
 The French under marshal Oudinot com- 
 mence an attack on Rome . June 3, 1849 
 
 They make a breach in the walls of 
 Rome June 14, 1S49 
 
 The French send storming parties 
 through the breaches made in the 
 walls .... June 21, 1S49 
 
 The Romans send a deputation to mar- 
 shal Oudinot, to treat for a surrender, 
 
 ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of 
 Henry II. A conspiracy was formed by the queen, prince Henry, and his. other sons, 
 against the king, on account of his attachment to her. " The beauty of Fair Rosamond 
 was so exquisite," say the writers of those days, "that no other than a jealous and 
 exasperated woman could have harmed her. Her eyes were full of sweetness, and the 
 benignest in the world : and her features of such surpassing tenderness, that the most 
 fierce barbarian would have shrunk from the thought of violence." Henry kept her 
 in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her 
 apartments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. She was buried at Godstow 
 church, from whence Hugh, bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, with every 
 species of indignity, in 1191. 
 
 ROSARY. An office in the Roman Catholic Church, made up of five, sometimes fifteen 
 tens of beads, each ten beginning with a Pater-Noster, to direct the person to say so 
 many Ave-Marias in honour of the Virgin Mary. — Pardon. " We owe to Dominic de 
 Guzman, a canon of the order of St. Augustin, two most important blessings," says 
 a Spanish writer, "the Rosary and the Holy Office," a.d. 1202. Other authors 
 mention the Rosary as being said in 1093. 
 
 ROSAS, BAY of. Brilliant naval action by the boats of the Cumberland, Volontaire, 
 Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, commanded by lieut. Tailour, which 
 ended in the capture or destruction of eleven armed vessels in the bay, Nov. 1, 1809. 
 
 ROSBACH, BATTLES op. In the battle fought at Rosbach, 40,000 rebel Flemings 
 under the command of the duke of Burgundy, the king, Charles VI. of France, being 
 present, fell, Nov. 17, 1382. Battle between the Prussians, commanded by their king, 
 and the combined army of French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a 
 severe loss and complete defeat. Many thousands were slain in this battle on both 
 sides, Nov. 5, 1757. 
 
 ROSE, the FLOWER. The Romans were fond of roses. Cleopatra received Antony, at 
 one of her banquets, in an apartment covered with rose-leaves to a considerable depth ; 
 and Antony himself, when dying, begged to have roses scattered on his tomb. The 
 Roman generals who had achieved any remarkable victory were permitted to have 
 roses sculptured on their shields. Rose-water was the favourite perfume of the 
 
ROS 560 ROT 
 
 Roman ladies, and the most luxurious even used it in tbeir baths. In the East the 
 rose has always been a favourite with the poets. The Turks believe that roses sprang 
 from the perspiration of Mahomet : for wbich reason they never tread upon a rose- 
 leaf, or suffer one to lie on the ground ; they also sculpture a rose on the tombstones 
 of females who die unmarried. — Arboretum Britannicum, 
 
 " ROSE, UNDER THE." The rose, a symbol of silence, gave rise to the phrase " under 
 the rose." This phrase, sub rosd, is almost universal, and is said by Italian writers to 
 have arisen from the circumstance of the pope's presenting consecrated roses, which 
 were placed over the confessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, a.d. 1526. 
 
 ROSES, in ENGLAND. Roses were first planted in England, a.d. 1522.— Salmon. The 
 Damask Rose, or Rosa Damasccna, was brought from the south of France before 1573. 
 The Provence Rose, Rosa Prorincialis, brought from Italy before 1596. The Moss 
 Rose, Rosa Muscova, before 1724. The Rose without Thorns, Rosa pendidina, brought 
 from North America, before 1726. The China Rose, Rosa Indica, brought from 
 China about 1789. The sweet-scented Guelder Rose, Viburnum odoratissimitm, 
 brought from China, 1821. 
 
 ROSES. WARS of the WHITE and RED. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
 England, were carried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose, and were 
 called the wars of the Roses. The partisans of the house of Lancaster chose the rid 
 rose as their mark of distinction, and those of York were denominated from the white. 
 These wars originated with the descendants of Edward III. That monarch was suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, Richard II. who being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was 
 proclaimed king, by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the 
 right heir to the crown ; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edward III. 
 •whereas the duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the third son of king 
 Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspiracies during his reign; 
 and the animosities which subsisted between his descendants and those of the duke of 
 York afterwards filled the kingdom with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with 
 blood, particularly in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. First battle fought, 
 May 22, 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII. 
 with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 1486. 
 
 ROSETTA, in Egypt. Taken by the French in 1798 ; and by the British and Turks, 
 April 19, 1801. The Turks repulsed the British here in 1807. Near Rosetta, at the 
 mouth of the Nile, was fought the memorable battle of Aug. 1, 1798, between the 
 fleets of France and England, the latter commanded by Nelson. See Nile. Ali Pacha 
 rendered great service to his country by a canal between Rosetta and Alexandria. 
 
 ROSETTA STONE, brought from Rosetta by the French, and now in the British 
 Museum. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 feet long, and 2\ feet wide, with an 
 inscription in three languages, viz., hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (enchorial), 
 and Greek, settirg forth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphanes (about B.C. 194). It has 
 been subjected to the investigations of Dr. T. Young and Champollion. 
 
 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Germany in 1302, 
 and again early in the 17th century. They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and 
 wrote hieroglyphically ; and affirmed that the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the 
 Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine. 
 
 ROSS, BATTLE of, in Ieeland. Fought between the royal troops commanded by 
 general Johnston, and the insurgent forces commanded by general Beaucbamp Bagenal 
 Harvey ; when, after a most obstinate contest, the latter were defeated, losing more 
 than 2600 killed on the field of battle, June 4, 1798. This was one of the best 
 contested battles fought by the insurgents in the memorable rebellion of that year. 
 
 ROSS, BISHOPRIC of, in Ireland. Founded, it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the 
 beginning of the sixth century ; but, until the arrival of the English, nothing certain 
 of this see is known. It is not valued in the king's books ; but by a manuscript in 
 Trinity College, Dublin, it is taxed at 19/. in 31 Eliz. ; and by a manuscript in Marsh's 
 library at 10J. in 33 Eliz. 1590. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; and Cloyne to both, 
 by the provisions of 3 & 4 Will. IV. called the Irish Church Temporalities act, c. 37, 
 passed Aug. 14, 1833. See Bishops. 
 
 ROTA CLUB. A society who met at Miles' Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, West- 
 minster, during the administration of Oliver Cromwell; their plan was that all the 
 great officers of state should be chosen by ballot ; and that a certain number of 
 
EOT 561 ROY 
 
 members of parliament should be changed annually by rotation, from whence they 
 took their title. Sir William Petty was one of the members in 1659. — Biog. Brit. 
 
 ROTHESAY CASTLE STEAM-PACKET. This vessel, plying between Liverpool and 
 Beaumaris, was lost at night with nearly 200 passengers and crew on board, not more 
 than twenty of whom were saved. This shipwreck was wholly ascribed to the indis- 
 cretion of the commander, Aug. 17, 1831. 
 
 ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of England to the 
 scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cavaliers, and the friends of 
 the parliament were called Round-heads. This latter term arose from those persons 
 who thus distinguished themselves putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their 
 heads, and cutting their hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY. From a society of artists which met in St. Peter's court, St. 
 Martin's-lane, about 1739, Hogarth established the society of Incorporated Artists, 
 who held their first exhibition at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, April 21, 1760. From 
 this sprang the Royal Academy, in consequence of a dispute between the directors 
 and the fellows. On Dec. 10th, 1768, the institution of the present Royal Academy 
 was completed under the patronage of George III. ; and Sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted 
 on the occasion, was appointed its first president. — Leigh. The first exhibition of 
 the Academicians (at Pall-mall) was in 1769. In 1771 the king granted them apart- 
 ments in old Somerset house, and afterwards in 1780, in new Somerset-house, 
 where they remained till 1838, when they removed to the National Gallery. Among 
 its first professors were Johnson, Gibbon, and Goldsmith : among its present ones are 
 the historians Macaulay and Hallam. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY op MUSIC. Was incorporated by charter in 1830. The first concert 
 took place Dec. 8, 1828. 
 
 ROYAL ADELAIDE STEAMER. This fine ship, bound from Dublin and Cork to 
 Plymouth and London, was totally wrecked on the Tongue Sand off Margate, on the 
 night of Saturday, March 30, 1850, her voyage being nearly completed. By this 
 catastrophe the whole of those on board, captain, crew, and passengers, amounting to 
 more than two hundred persons, were lost. The first intimation identifying the 
 steamer lost was, the finding a lantern bearing her name, floating on the waters. 
 
 ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a public bill, the clerk of the parliament declares 
 in Norman French, " Le roy le veut," the king wills it so to be. If the king refuse 
 his assent, it is in the gentle language of " Le roy savisera," the king will advise upon 
 it. This is the language usually adopted to the present day. — Hale. By the statute 
 33 Hen. VIII. 1541, the king may give his assent by letters-patent. — Blackstone's Com. 
 
 ROYAL EXCHANGE, London. The foundation of the original edifice was laid by sir 
 Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
 visited this Exchange in Januai'y 1571, and by the sound of trumpets her herald named 
 it the Royal Exchauge. — Hume. This grand fabric was totally destroyed by the great 
 fire in 1666, precisely a century after its erection. Charles II. laid the foundation of 
 the next edifice, Oct. 23, 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmoor, a pupil of 
 sir Christopher Wren's, in about three years ; and it was repaired and beautified in 
 1769. This last also became a prey to a destructive fire, Jan. 10, 1838 ; and was burned 
 to the ground with a number of public offices and adjoining houses. The new Royal 
 Exchange, commenced in 1840, under the direction of Mr. Tite,was opened by the queen, 
 in state, accompanied by her ministers and a grand civic procession, Oct. 28, 1844. 
 
 ROYAL EXCHANGE, Dublin. Commenced in 1769, and opened ten years after — a 
 magnificent building, whose expense was defrayed by lottery schemes, conducted by 
 the merchants with an integrity that did them honour. — Hurdie. 
 
 ROYAL GEORGE. First-rate man-of-war of 100 guns, overset off Spithead, and sud- 
 denly went down while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. By this dreadful 
 catastrophe, rear-admiral Kempenfeldt, the crew, mauy marines, women and Jews, in 
 all above 600 persons, were drowned, Aug. 29, 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, 
 this ship was surveyed imbedded in the deep, in May 1817 et seq. ; since when several 
 successive gunpowder explosions have brought up numerous portions of the wreck. 
 
 ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of persons 
 apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, 
 Lettsom, Hawes, and Cogan, but principally by the exertions of the last three gentle- 
 men. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the metropolis, all of which are 
 supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, and designated by conspicuous boards, 
 
EOY 562 ROY 
 
 announcing their object. The principal receiving-house, however, was erected in 1794, 
 and is situated on a spot of ground given by his majesty George III. on the north side 
 of the Serpentine river, Hyde-park. Forty-three similar institutions have been 
 established in Great Britain, five in the British foreign settlements, and ten in foreign 
 countries. The motto of the society is appropriate — " Lateat scintillula forsan" — "a 
 small spark may perhaps lie concealed." 
 ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great Britain. This institution, the earliest of the kind 
 in London, was founded in March, 1799, by Count Rumford and sir Joseph Banks, 
 assisted by earls Spencer and Morton, and other noblemen and gentlemen. It 
 received the immediate patronage of George III. and was incorporated in ] 800 by 
 royal charter as " The Royal Institution of Great Britain, for diffusing the knowledge, 
 and facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and im- 
 provements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, 
 the application of science to the common purposes of life." It was enlarged and 
 extended by an act of parliament in 1810. The original plan as drawn up by Count 
 Rumford in 1799, has been considerably modified. — The House (in Albe- 
 marle-street, Piccadilly) was purchased in June, 1799 ; and the present front was 
 added by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was erected in 1803, under the 
 superintendence of Mr. T. "Webster. — The Library was commenced in 1803, by the 
 munificent subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution. It now (1857) com- 
 prises about 30,000 volumes, the present annual increase being about 1000. A new 
 edition of the classified catalogue was published in 1857. — The Museum contains 
 many choice geological specimens collected by Davy, Hatchett, Wollaston, &c, and 
 much of the original philosophical apparatus of Cavendish, and of Davy, Faraday, 
 and other professors of the institution; also many other interesting objects, chiefly 
 contributed by the members. — In 1804 sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen pro- 
 posed to form a School of Mines at this institution ; but the plan, although warmly 
 supported by the members, was withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
 ment and by mining proprietors. — The first Lecture was delivered March 4, 1801, 
 by Dr. Garnett, he being the first professor of natural philosophy and chemistry. In 
 1802 he was succeeded by Dr. Thomas Youug, so celebrated for his researches in 
 optics, resulting in the discovery of the interference of light, and the establishment 
 of the theory of undulation. His " Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mecha- 
 nical Arts," first published in 1807, are still considered a text-book of physical 
 science. His works on antiquarian literature (hieroglyphic inscriptions, &c.) are also 
 highly esteemed.— In Feb. 1801 Mr. (afterwards sir Humphry) Davy was engaged as 
 assistant lecturer and director of the laboratory, and on May 31, 1802, he was 
 appointed professor of chemistry. His lectures were eminently successful, and his 
 discoveries in chemistry and electricity have immortalised his name, and conferred 
 honour on the institution : by him the alkaloids, potassium and sodium, were dis- 
 covered in 1807 ; the nature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the safety-lamp 
 invented in 1815.— Mr. W. T. Brande succeeded sir Humphry as professor of 
 chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his resignation in 1852, since which time 
 he has been elected hon. professor : from 1816 to 1850 he delivered, in the laboratory 
 of this institution, his celebrated chemical lectures to students.— In 1813 Mr. 
 Faraday, on the recommendation of sir H. Davy, was engaged as assistant in the labo- 
 ratory, and in 1825 as its director : in 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers 
 of the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches in electricity and mag- 
 netism which form an era in the history of science. In 1824 he discovered the 
 condensability of chlorine and other gases ; in 1831 he obtained electricity from the 
 magnet ; in 1845 he exhibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, comprehending all 
 known substances, the magnetism of gases, flame, &c. ; and in 1850 he published his 
 researches on atmospheric magnetism. Dr. J. Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor 
 of natural philosophy, was first elected in July, 1853, since which time he has pro- 
 secuted his magnetic and other researches in this place, and laid the results experi- 
 mentally before the members. — The weekly evening meetings, on the Fridays from 
 January to June, as now arranged, commenced in 1826. Discourses are given at these 
 meetings by the professors of the institution, and by the most eminent men in every 
 department of science. — Endowments. In 1833 John Fuller, Esq. of Rose-hill, 
 endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physiology : the former was bestowed 
 on Mr. Faraday for life ; the latter on Dr. Roget for three years, to be filled up after- 
 wards by triennial election. — The present Fullerian professor of physiology is Thomas 
 Huxley, Esq., .F.R.S. elected in 1855.— In 1838 Mrs. Acton gave 1000Z. to be invested 
 for paying every seven years 100 guineas for the best essay on the beneficence of the 
 
ROY 
 
 563 
 
 EUL 
 
 Almighty as illustrated by discoveries in science ; which have been awarded — in 1844 
 to Mr. G. Fownes; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones. — The first officers were sir 
 Joseph Banks, president, till the charter was granted, afterwards the earl of Win* 
 chilsea; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, treasurer; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, 
 secretary. The present are the duke of Northumberland, K.G. president (since 1842); 
 W. Pole, Esq. treasurer (since 1849) ; rev. John Barlow, M.A. secretary (since 1843).* 
 
 ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT. See article Marriage Act, Royal. 
 
 ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM, Chelsea. The first stone of this important institution 
 was laid by the late duke of York, June 19, 1801. The principal front has a portico 
 of four noble Doric pillars, supporting a pediment with the imperial arms ; and on the 
 frieze is this inscription, " The Royal Military Asylum for the children of the Soldiers 
 of the Regular Army." 
 
 ROYAL NAVAL ASYLUM, Greenwich. This institution was commenced at Padding- 
 ton in 1801 ; but it was tranferred to its present situation, near the entrance to 
 Greenwich park, in 1807. The interior of the central portion of the building is 
 remarkable, having been commenced in 1613 by Anne of Denmark, and completed in 
 1635 by queen Henrietta-Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the room in 
 which her son Charles II. was born, in 1630. This house, which was afterwards trans- 
 formed into the ranger's lodge, became the occasional retirement of prime-minister 
 Pelham, from whom it derived the name of Pelham-house. 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY, LONDON. In 1645 several learned men met in London to discuss 
 philosophical questions and report experiments ; the Novum Organon of Bacon, pub- 
 lished in 1620, having given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of them (Drs. 
 Wilkins, Wallis, &c), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards 
 bishop) Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards sir W.) Petty, and several 
 doctors of divinity and physic, frequently assembled in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, 
 in Wadham College, Oxford. They formed what has been called the Philosophical 
 Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The members were, about 1658, called 
 to various parts of the kingdom, on account of their respective professions ; and the 
 majority coming to London, constantly attended the lectures at Gresham College, and 
 met occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell. The society was first organised 
 in 1660, and Charles II. April 22, 1662, constituted them a body politic and corporate, 
 by the appellation of " the President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of 
 London, for improving Natural Knowledge." The Philosophical Transactions date 
 from March 6, 1664-5. In 1668, Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in the 
 possession of the society), and on April 28, 1086, presented to the society the MS. of 
 his Principia, which the council ordered to be printed. This was done under the 
 superintendence and also at the expense of Halley, the astronomer, at that time 
 clerk to the society. The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
 afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it came into possession of a valuable 
 library, presented by Mr. Howard, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. 
 After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham College, where they remained 
 till Nov. 8, 1710, when they held their first meeting at Crane-court, in a house 
 purchased by themselves, and which they occupied till they removed to apartments 
 granted them in Somerset-house, in 1780. In 1857 they again removed to apart- 
 ments in Burlington-house, Piccadilly.f The first Copley Medal was awarded to 
 Stephen Gray in 1731 ; the Royal Medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rumford Medal 
 to count Rumford, in 1800. The following are the more eminent presidents : — 
 
 Sir Kobert Moray, 1660-3. 
 
 Lord Brouncker (the first under the charter), 
 
 1663-77. * * * 
 Sir C. Wren, 1680-2. * * * 
 Samuel Pepys, 1684-6. * * * 
 John lord Somers, 1698-1703. 
 Sir I. Newton, 1703-27. 
 Sir Hans Sloane, 1727-41. * * * 
 Sir Joseph Banks, 1778-1820. 
 
 Dr. W. H. "Wollaston, 1820. 
 Sir H. Davy, 1820-7 
 Davies Gilbert, 1827-30. 
 Duke of Sussex, 1830-8. 
 Marquess of Northampton, 1838-48. 
 Earl of Rosse, 1S48-54, 
 Lord Wrottesley, 1854 (the present 
 President, Oct. 1857). 
 
 RULING-MACHINES. Used for ruling paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
 books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious Dutchman resident in London, in 
 
 * The members are elected by ballot, and pay five guineas on admission, and five guineas annually 
 or a composition of sixty guineas. 
 
 t Only fifteen Fellows are elected annually, who pay ten pounds on admission, and four pounds 
 annually, or a composition of sixty pounds. 
 
 o o 2 
 
RUM 
 
 564 
 
 RUS 
 
 1782, and were subsequently greatly improved by Woodtnason, Payne, Brown, and 
 others. They were improved in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately rendered 
 account books perfect by the numbering of the pages with types, instead of the 
 numbers being written by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out from them with- 
 out being discovered. 
 
 RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated which lasted from Dec. 6, 1649, 
 to April 20, 1653. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments blockaded the house 
 of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, whom he 
 confined ; above 1 60 more were excluded ; and none but the most determined of the 
 Independents, about 60, were permitted to enter tbe house. This invasion of parlia- 
 mentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the 
 Rump, 1649. — Goldsmith. 
 
 RUSSELL, LORD JOHN ; his ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 On the resignation of sir Robert Peel, the 
 premiership devolved upon lord Juhu Russell, 
 as first lord of the treasury. The members of 
 his government were : marquess of Lans- 
 downe, lord president of the council ; earl of 
 Minto, privy seal ; Mr. (now sir Charles), 
 Wood, chancellor of the exchequer ; viscount 
 Palmerston, foreign, sir George Grey, home, 
 and earl Grey, colonial, secretaries ; sir John 
 Hobhouse(now lord Broughton, of Broughton 
 de Gy fiord, county Wilts), and earl of Claren- 
 don, (succeeded by Mr. Labouchere), boards of 
 control and trade ; the earl of Auckland (suc- 
 ceeded by sir Francis Thornhill Baring), 
 admiralty ; lord Campbell (succeeded by the 
 earl of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth), duchy 
 of Lancaster; Mr. Fox Maule (now lord Pan- 
 mure), secretary-at-war ; marquess of Clanri- 
 carde, postmaster ; Mr. Macaulay, &c. ; lord 
 Cotteuham (succeeded by lord Truro), lord 
 chancellor. July 1846. Lord John Russell 
 aud his colleagues resigned their offices, Feb. 
 21, 1851; but were induced (after the failure 
 
 of lord Stanley's party to form an administra- 
 tion) to return to power, March 3 following. — 
 
 SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Or continuation of his first. Lord John 
 Russell, first lord of the treasury ; marquess 
 of Lansdowne, president of the council ; earl 
 of Minto, lord privy seal; sir Charles Wood, 
 chancellor of the Exchequer ; sir George Grey, 
 viscount Palmerston, and earl Grey, home, 
 foreign, and colonial secretaries ; sir Francis 
 T. Baling, first lord of the admiralty ; lord 
 Broughton, board of control; Mr. Labouchere, 
 board of trade; Mr Fox Maule (afterwards 
 succeeded as Lord Panmure), scoretaiy-at- 
 war; marquess of Clanricarde, postmaster- 
 general ; earl Granville, paymaster-general, 
 lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. ; lord 
 Truro, lord chancellor. March 1851. Lord 
 Palmerston was succeeded as foreign secretary 
 by the earl Granville, December 22 following. 
 This ministry resigned to the Derby adminis- 
 tration, February 21, 1852. See Derby A' h 
 t rat ion. 
 
 RUSSELL, WILLIAM, LORD. His trial for the Rye-House Plot was marked by a most 
 touching scene. When he supplicated to have some one near him to take notes to 
 help his memory, he was answered, that any of his attendants might assist him ; upon 
 which he said, "My wife is here, and will do it for me." He was beheaded in 
 Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, July 21, 1683, having slept soundly the night before his execu- 
 tion. Lady Russell survived him forty years, dying Sept. 29. 1723, in her 87th year. 
 The attainder of this illustrious nobleman was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1689, his death 
 having been deemed a murder. 
 
 RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of this vast tract of 
 country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son of Japhet ; and that they 
 settled here very shortly after the dispersion from Babel, where they were gradually 
 divided into tribes, each distinguished by a particular name, but still retaining their 
 ancient general appellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
 Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a.d. 882, which is the earliest authentic account 
 of this country. In 981, Wladimir was the first Christian king. Jurie I. began his 
 reign in 1155, and laid the foundation of Moscow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars 
 conquered Russia, and held it in subjection till 1540, when Ivan Basilovitz restored it 
 to independence. In the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and 
 conquered Siberia. 
 
 The foundation of the present monarchy 
 laid A.D. 1474 
 
 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms into 
 the East, 1509 to 1534 
 
 Ivan-Basilovitz takes the title of czar, 
 signifying great king, and drives the 
 Tartars clear out of his dominions 
 
 1534 to 1550 
 
 The navigation from England first dis- 
 covered by Robert Chancellor . . 1554 
 
 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
 30,000 of the people . . .1571 
 
 The Novogorodians having intrigued 
 
 with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
 inhabitants to be hewn into small 
 pieces before his eyes . . a.d. 1581 
 
 The race of Rurick, who had governed 
 Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 159S 
 
 The imposition practised by Demetrius. 
 See Impostors' 1606 
 
 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
 own king, Sigismund II. upon the 
 throne ol llnssia 1610 
 
 Michael-Fedorovitz, of the house of 
 Romanof, ascends the throne . . 1013 
 
 Revolt from Polish tyranny . . ,1618 
 
ETJS 
 
 565 
 
 RUS 
 
 1730 
 
 1741 
 
 1762 
 1763 
 
 1772 
 1795 
 
 1796 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 Finland ceded to Sweden . . l.d. 1617 
 Reign of Peter I. or the Great . . . 16S2 
 He visited England, and worked in the 
 
 dockyard at Deptford .... 1697 
 Orders of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- 
 ander Nevskoi, instituted about . . 169S 
 The Russians begin their new year from 
 
 Jan. 1 1700 
 
 Peter builds St. Petersburg . . . 1703 
 Peter II. deposed, and the crown given 
 
 to Anne of Courland .... 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
 
 in prejudice of Ivan VI. an infant, 
 
 who is imprisoned for life . . . 
 Peter III. dethroned and murdered, 
 
 succeeded by Catharine his wife 
 The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
 
 now immured, put to death 
 The dismemberment of Poland com- 
 menced by Catharine (see Poland) 
 This perfidious robbery completed . . 
 Catharine gives her subjects a new code 
 
 of laws ; abolishes torture in punish 
 
 ing criminals ; and dies 
 Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
 
 found dead iu his chamber March 23, 1801 
 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
 
 by Napoleon .... Bee. 2, 1805 
 Alexander visits England . . June 6, 1814 
 The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
 
 the right of succession . Jan. 26, 1822 
 
 The emperor Nicholas is crowned at 
 
 Moscow .... Sept. 3, 1826 
 Russian war against Persia . Sept. 28, 1826 
 Nicholas invested with the order of the 
 
 Garter .... July 9, 1827 
 
 Peace concluded between Russia and the 
 
 Persians .... Feb. 22, 1828 
 War between Russia and the Ottoman 
 
 Porte declared . . . April 26, 1828 
 
 [For the disastrous consequences of this 
 war to Turkey see Turkey, and Battles.] 
 
 The war for the independence of Poland 
 against Russia . . . Nov. 29, 1830 
 
 This war closed with the capture of War- 
 saw, and the total overthrow of the 
 Poles. See Warsaw. . . Sept. 8, 1831 
 
 [For the events of this last war, see 
 article Poland.'] 
 
 Cracow, which had been erected into a 
 republic, and its independence guaran- 
 teed by the Congress of Vienna in 
 1815, is occupied by a Russian and 
 Austrian army . . . Feb. 13, 1836 
 
 Failure of the Russian expedition against 
 Khiva Jan. 3, 1S40 
 
 Treaty of London (see Syria) . July 15, 1840 
 
 The emperor Nicholas visits England ; 
 he arrives in London . . June 1, 1844 
 
 The grand-duke Constantine arrives at 
 
 Portsmouth in the Ingermanland, of 
 
 74 guns .... June 9, 1S46 
 
 [For the participation of Russia in the 
 Hungarian war of 1848-9, and the con- 
 sequent events, see Hungary.] 
 
 Russia demands the expulsion of the 
 Hungarian refugees from Turkey. See 
 Turkey .... Nov. 5, 1849 
 
 This demand, which had interrupted the 
 diplomatic relations between Russia 
 and the Porte, induces the latter to 
 send the Hungarian and Polish refu- 
 gees to Koniah, in Asia Minor Jan. 1S50 
 
 Conspiracy against the life and policy of 
 the emperor detected . . Jan. 6, 1850 
 
 The emperor decrees seven men in each 
 thousand of the population of Western 
 Russia to be enrolled in the army, 
 giving a total increase of 180, 000 soldiers 
 
 Aug. 1850 
 
 The king of Prussia and the czar leave 
 Warsaw for Oltnutz to have an inter- 
 view with the emperor of Austria, 
 
 May 27, 1851 
 
 The emperor of Russia visits Vienna, 
 
 May 8, 1S52 
 
 Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constan- 
 tinople to demand of the Sultan the 
 settlement of several important mea- 
 sures : the Holy Places, the indepen- 
 dence of Montenegro, the condition of 
 the Greek patriarchs, the hardships 
 of the Greek Christians, &c. Maroh, 1853 
 See Musso- Turkish war. 
 
 Conference between the emperors of 
 Russia and Austria at Olmutz Sept. 24, 1853 
 
 And king of Prussia at Warsaw, Oct. 2, 1853 
 
 Interview of Mr. J. Sturgeand his friends 
 with the czar .... Feb. 1S54 
 
 Ten northern provinces put in a state of 
 siege . . . March 5, 1854 
 
 The czar issues a manifesto to his sub- 
 jects : he will only combat for the 
 faith and Christianity . April 23, 1854 
 
 Death of the Czar Nicholas. No change 
 of policy . . . March 2, 1855 
 
 Most extensive levy ordered by the czar 
 (at Nicolaieff ) . . . Nov. 3, 1855 
 
 He visits his army at Sebastopol 
 
 Nov. 10, 1855 
 
 Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 
 74 ... . Feb. 1, 1856 
 
 Alexander II. crowned at Moscow 
 
 Sept. 2, 1856 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Poles May, 27, 1856 
 
 Manifesto on account of the English and 
 French interference in the aflairs of 
 Naples Sept. 1856 
 
 Grand-duke Constantine visits France 
 and England .... April, 1857 
 
 DUKES, CZARS, AND EMPERORS. 
 
 DUKES Or KIOV. 
 
 862. Rurick. 
 
 878. Igor, 
 
 935 t Olega, regent. 
 
 ' | Swiatoslaw or Spendoblos. 
 
 972. Jaropalk I. 
 
 980. Vladimir, Wladimir, or Waldimir I. 
 
 styled the Great. 
 1015. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
 1054. Isjisdaw I. 
 1078. Wsewolod I. 
 1093. Swiatopalk. 
 1114. Vladimir II. 
 1125. Mtislaw or Michael I. 
 1132. Jaropalk II. 
 
 1138. J Wiatschelaw. 
 1 1.39. ( Wsewolod II. 
 1146. ( IsjialawII. 
 
 1154. ( Rostislaw. - 
 
 1155. Jurie or George T. : the city of Moscow 
 
 was built by this duke. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES Or WLADIMIR. 
 
 ,,,-w (Andrew I. until 1175; first grand- 
 
 J - i£ "- ( duke. Michael II. 
 
 1177. Wsewolod III. 
 
 , 91 „ ( Jurie or George II. 
 
 1 ^ 1S - \ Constantine, until 1218. 
 
 1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1245. Alexander-Nevski orNewski, the Saint. 
 
RUS 
 
 566 
 
 RUS 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 1263. Jaraslaw III. 
 
 1270. Vasali or Basil I. 
 
 1277. *Dmitri or Demetrius I. 
 
 1284. *Andrew II. 
 
 1294. *Daniel-Alexandrovitz. 
 
 1302. *Jurie or George III. : deposed. 
 
 1305. *MichaelIII. 
 
 1320. * Vasali or Basil II. 
 
 1325. Murie or George III.: restored. 
 
 GRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 
 
 1328. Ivan or John I. 
 
 1340. Simon, suruamed the Proud. 
 
 1353. Ivan or John II. 
 
 1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 
 
 1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 
 
 1389. *Vasnli or Basil III. Temnoi. 
 
 1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 
 
 1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : laid the 
 
 foundation of the present monarchy. 
 1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of 
 
 emperor from Maximilian I. 
 [Those marked thus * are doubtful, 
 
 owing to the difficulty that occurs at 
 
 every step in early Russian aunals.] 
 
 CZARS OF MUSCOVY. 
 
 1533. Ivan (Basilovitz) IV. first tzar or czar 
 
 (great king) in 1547. 
 15S4. Feodor orTheodor I.: supposed to have 
 
 been poisoned, and his son, Deme- 
 trius, murdered by his successor. 
 1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 
 1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young 
 
 Polonese monk : pretended to be the 
 
 murdered prince Demetrius : put to 
 
 death. 
 1686. Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski. 
 1610. [Interregnum] 
 1613. Michael-Fedorovitz, of the house of 
 
 Romanof, descended from the czar 
 
 Ivan-Basilovitz. 
 
 The established religion of Russia is the Greek Church, with a free toleration, how- 
 ever, of other sects, even the Mahometans. By an imperial ukase, in 1802, were 
 established six universities, viz. one each at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat 
 (in Livonia), Charcov, and Kasan ; but literature has made little progress, the native 
 publications being very few, and the best books being all translations. The Russian 
 language, though not devoid of elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pronuncia- 
 tion: the number of letters and diphthongs is forty -two. 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian and French governments having each taken 
 a side in the dispute between the Greek and Latin Churches as to the exclusive 
 possession of the Holy Places (which see) in Palestine, the Porte advised the formation 
 of a mixed commission, which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a firman was pro- 
 mulgated accordingly, March 9, 1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although 
 dissatisfied. The Russians now made further claims, and Prince Menschikoff (who 
 arrived at Constantinople Feb. 28, 1853), by various notes (between March 22 and 
 May 18), demanded that a convention should be signed by the sultan granting to the 
 czar such a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, as the sultan considered 
 inimical to his own authority. Menschikoff's ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted 
 Constantinople May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hatti-scherif confirming all 
 
 * In 1844, when the czar was in England, he conversed with the duke of Wellington and lord 
 Aberdeen (whom he had known for many years) respecting the dissolution of the Turkish empire ; and 
 on his return he embodied his views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, which was 
 transmitted to London, but kept secret till March 1854. In January and February of that year the 
 czar had several conversations on the subject with the British envoy at St. Petersburg, Sir G. H. 
 Seymour, in one of which (Jan. 14) he compared Turkey to a man in a state of decrepitude and 
 sickness, on the point of death, and made proposals to the British government as to the disposal of his 
 property. He stated frankly that he would not permit the British to establish themselves at 
 Constantinople ; but said in another conversation, he would not object to their possessing Egypt. The 
 purport of these conversations was conveyed in despatches to Lord John Russell, who replied that the 
 British government declined to make any provision for the contingency of the fall of Turkey. The 
 czar made similar proposals to the French government with the same result. 
 
 1645. Alexis, son of the preceding, styled the 
 
 father of his country. 
 1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
 168 9 f Iv*u IV. and 
 
 ( Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 
 
 16S9. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title 
 of ernperorin 1728, founded St. Peters- 
 burg, and elevated the empire. 
 
 1725. Catharine I. his consort : at first the 
 wife of a Swedish dragoon, who is 
 said to have been killed on the day of 
 marriage. 
 
 1727. Peter II. sou of Alexis-Petrovitz, and 
 grandson of Peter the Great : deposed. 
 
 1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of 
 the czar Ivan. 
 
 1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to 
 
 Peter the Great : immirrcd in a dun- 
 geon for 18 years ; murdered in 1702. 
 
 1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, 
 
 reigned during Ivan's captivity. 
 
 1762. Peter III. son of Anne and of Charles- 
 Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp : 
 deposed, and died soon after, sup- 
 posed to have been murdered. 
 
 1762. Catharine II. his consort : a great sove- 
 reign : extended the Russian terri- 
 tories on all sides : died in 1796. 
 
 1796. Paul, her son : found dead in his cham- 
 ber ; supposed to have been mur- 
 dered. 
 
 1801. Alexander, his son ; who after many 
 adverse battles, and a forced alliance 
 with France, at length aided in the 
 overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; suc- 
 ceded, Dec. 1, 1S25. 
 
 1855. Alexander II. son of Nicholas, succeeded 
 at his father's death, March 2, 1855. 
 The present emperor of Russia (1857). 
 
BUS 
 
 567 
 
 RUS 
 
 the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his allies. On 
 June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besika bay. On June 26, the 
 czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Pruth and entered Moldavia, 
 July 2 (see Danubian Principalities). Negotiations to preserve peace were commenced 
 at Vienna July 24, by England, France, Austria, and Prussia, without effect. The 
 sultan, with the advice and consent of a grand national council, after demanding the 
 evacuation of the principalities, Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The 
 Russian declaration followed Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against 
 Russia, March 27 and 28, 1854. See article Vienna. Hostilities ceased Feb. 29, 1856, 
 and peace was proclaimed in April following. 
 
 The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross 
 the Pruth and enter Moldavia July 2, 1853 
 
 Circular of count Nesselrode in justi- 
 fication .... July 2, 1853 
 
 Lord Clarendon's reply . . July 16, 1S53 
 
 The conference at Vienna agree to a note 
 
 July 31, 1853 
 
 "Which is accepted by the czar, Aug. 10, 1S53 
 
 But the sultan requires modifications 
 
 Aug. 19, 1853 
 
 Which the czar rejects . . Sept. 7, 1853 
 
 Two English and two French ships enter 
 the Dardanelles . . . Sept. 14, 1853 
 
 Sultan declares war against Russia Oct.5, 1853 
 
 The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires 
 on a Russian flotilla (the first act of 
 war) Oct. 23, 1S53 
 
 The Turks cross the Danube at Widdin 
 and occupy Kalafat Oct. 28— Nov. 3, 1853 
 
 Russia declares war against Turkey 
 
 Nov. 1, 1853 
 
 English and French fleets enter Bos- 
 phorus Nov. 2, 1853 
 
 Russians defeated at Oltenitza Nov. 4, 1853 
 
 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, 
 Atskur and Achaltzik, Nov. 14, 18, 26, 1853 
 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope 
 
 Nov. 30, 1853 
 
 Collective note from the four powers re- 
 quiring to know on what terms the 
 Porte will negotiate for peace Dec. 5, 1853 
 
 Contests at Kalafat ; (Russians defeated 
 at Citate, Jan. 6) Dec. 31, 1853— Jan. 9, 1854 
 
 At the request of the Porte (Dec. 5) the 
 allied fleets enter the Black Sea 
 
 Jan. 4, 1854 
 
 Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, 
 containing four points as bases of 
 negotiation : viz. 1. The promptest 
 possible evacuation of the principa- 
 lities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 
 
 3. Maintenance of religious privileges 
 to the communities of all confessions. 
 
 4. A definitive settlement of the con- 
 vention respecting the Holy Places 
 (dated Dec. 31), — approved by the four 
 powers Jan. 13, 1854 
 
 Vienna conferences close . Jan. 16, 1854 
 Kalafat invested by the Russians 
 
 Jan. 28—31, 1854 
 Proposal in a letter from the emperor of 
 
 France to the czar (Jan. 29) declined 
 
 Feb. 9, 1854 
 Turkish flotilla at Rutschuk destroyed 
 
 by the Russians under Schilders, 
 
 Feb. 15, 1854 
 Ultimatum of England and France sent 
 
 to St. Petersburg . . Feb. 27, 1S54 
 
 The czar "did not judge it suitable to 
 
 give an answer " . . March 19, 1S54 
 
 Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier, 
 
 (see article Baltic) . . March 11, 1854 
 Treaty between England, France, and 
 
 Turkey . . . March 12, 1854 
 
 Russians, under Gortschakoff, pass the 
 
 Danube and occupy the Dobrudscha : 
 
 severe conflicts in consequence ; the 
 Turks at last retire . March 23, 24, 1854 
 
 France and England declare war against 
 Russia .... March 27, 28, 1854 
 
 Rupture between Turkey and Greece 
 (see Turkey) . . . March 28, 1854 
 
 Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive 
 at Gallipoli, soon after followed by the 
 English .... March 31, 1854 
 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at Ka- 
 rakai May 30, 1854 
 
 English vessel Furious, with a flag of 
 truce, fired on at Odessa . April 8, 1854 
 
 Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna, 
 guaranteeing integrity of Turkey and 
 civil and religious rights of her Chris- 
 tian subjects . . . April 10, 1854 
 
 Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mus- 
 tapha Pacha . . . April 10, 1854 
 
 Offensive and defensive alliance be- 
 tween England and France April 10, 1854 
 
 Treaty between Austria and Prussia 
 
 April 20, 1854 
 
 Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 
 
 April 22, 1854 
 
 Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault 
 Kalafat ; they are repulsed ; the 
 blockade raised . April 19— 21, 1854 
 
 The Tiger steamer run aground near 
 Odessa, captured by the Russians, 
 
 May 12, 1854 
 
 Russians defeated at Turtukai May 13, 1854 
 
 Siege of Silistria began . . May 17, 1854 
 
 Allied armies disembark at VarnaMay 29, 1854 
 
 Mouths of the Danube blockaded by 
 allied fleets . . . June 1, 1854 
 
 Russians repulsed at Silistria ; Paske- 
 witsch and many officers wounded, 
 
 June 5, 1854 
 
 Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia), 
 
 June 16, 1854 
 
 Severe conflict before Silistria, the siege 
 raised .... June 18—26, 1854 
 
 Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed 
 by capt. Parker . . June 26, 27, 1854 
 
 Captain Parker killed . . July 8, 1854 
 
 Russians defeated at Giurgevo July 7, 1854 
 
 10,000 French troops embark at 
 Boulogne for the Baltic . July 15, 1854 
 
 Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia 
 
 July 29, 30, 1854 
 
 And again near Kars . . Aug. 5, 1854 
 
 Bombardment and surrender of Bomar- 
 sund Aug. 16, 1854 
 
 [In July and August the allied armies 
 and fleets in the East suffered severely 
 from cholera.] 
 
 The Russians defeated by Schamyl iD 
 Georgia . . . about Aug. 28, 1854 
 
 They begin to evacuate the principalities 
 
 Aug. and Sept. 1854 
 
 By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 
 14) the Austrians, under count Coro- 
 nini, enter Bucharest . Sept. 6, 1854 
 
 Allies sail from Varna, Sept. 3, and land 
 at Old Fort, near Eupatoria * Sept. 14, 1854 
 
 * 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery were landed in one day. 
 
RUS 
 
 568 
 
 RYE 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, continued. 
 
 Russians finally evacuate the princi- 
 palities .... Sept. 20, 1854 
 
 Skirmish at the Bulganac . Sept. 19, 1854 
 
 Battle of the Alma . . Sept. 20, 1354 
 
 Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebas- 
 topol . ... Sept. 23, 1S54 
 
 Allic s occupy Balaklava . Sept. 2t3, 1854 
 
 Death of marshal St. Arnaud Sept. 29, 1854 
 
 General Canrobert appointed his suc- 
 cessor Nov. 24, 1854 
 
 Siege of Seb istopol commenced — grand 
 attack (without success) . Oct. 17, 1S54 
 
 Battle of Balaklava — gallant charge of 
 the light cavalry under lord Cardigan, 
 with severe logs . . . Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by genls. 
 Evans and Bosquet . . Oct. 26, 1854 
 
 Battle of Inkeruian ; defeat of the 
 Russians .... Nov. 5, 1854 
 
 Great tempest m Black Sea, loss of the 
 Prince, and many other vessels with 
 stores . . Nov. 14—16, 1S54 
 
 Treaty of alliance between England, 
 France, Austria and Prussia — a com- 
 mission to meet at Vienna : signed 
 
 Dec. 2, 1854 
 
 Russian sortie .... Dec. 20, 1854 
 
 Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea, 
 (followed byTurkish army from Varna), 
 
 Jan. 5, 1855 
 
 Sardinia joins England and France, 
 
 Jan. 26, 1S55 
 
 Great sufferings in the camp from cold 
 and sickness . . Jan. and Feb. 1855 
 
 Russians defeated by the Turks at 
 Eupatoria .... Feb. 17, 1855 
 
 Death of Emperor Nicholas, and ac- 
 cession of Alexander II. (no change of 
 war policy) .... March 2, 1855 
 
 Sortie from the Malakhoff tower (15,000 
 men) repulsed . . . March 22, 1855 
 
 Capture of Russian rifle-pits April 19, 1S55 
 
 Arrival of Sardinian contingent May 8, 1855 
 
 Resignation of gen. Canrobert, suc- 
 ceeded by gen. Pelissier . May 16, 1855 
 
 Desperate night combats . May 22 — 24, 1855 
 
 Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under 
 sir E. Lyons and sir G. Brown) ; de- 
 struction of Kerteh and large amount 
 of stores . . May 24— June 3, 1855 
 
 Taganrog bombarded . . June 3, 1855 
 
 Massacre of an English boat's crew with 
 flag of truce at Hango . . June 5, 1855 
 
 Russians evacuate Anapa . June 5, 1855 
 
 The White Works and Mamelon Vert 
 taken .... June 6, 7, 1855 
 
 Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff 
 tower and Redan . . June 18, 1855 
 
 Death of Lord Raglan ; succeeded by 
 General Simpson . . June 28, 1855 
 
 Russians invest Kara in Armenia, de- 
 fended by gen. Williams . July 15, 1855 
 
 Bombaidmeut of Sweaborg. Aug. 9, 1855 
 
 Battle of the Tchemaya— defeat of the 
 Russians . . . Aug. 16, 1855 
 
 Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malak- 
 hoff taken; Russian sortie repulsed 
 
 Aug. 18, 1S55 
 
 The French take the Malakhoff (which, 
 gee) by assault; the English assault the 
 Redan without success : the Russians 
 retire from Sebastopol to the North 
 Forts, and the allies enter the city ; 
 the Russians destroy or sink the re- 
 mainder of their fleet . Sept. 8, &c. 1855 
 
 Tauan and Fauagoria captured Sept. 24, 1855 
 
 The Russians assaulting Ears are de- 
 feated with great loss . Sept. 29, 1855 
 
 Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 
 prisoners) at Ivoughil, near Eupatoria, 
 by the French . . . Sept. 29, 18C5 
 
 Kiuburn taken(1420 prisoners, 174 guns), 
 
 Oct. 17, 1855 
 
 Russians blow up Oczakoff . Oct. 18, 1855 
 
 Large stores of corn destined near 
 Gheisk in the sea of Azoff . Nov. 4, 1855 
 
 Defeat of the Russians, and passage of 
 the Ingour by the Turks under Omar 
 Pacha .... Nov. 6. 1855 
 
 The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 
 
 Nov. 10, 1855 
 
 Sir Wm. Codrington takes the command 
 in room of gen. Simpson . Nov. 14, 1855 
 
 Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in 
 tue French siege-train at Iukerman, 
 with great loss of l'fe . Nov. 15, 1855 
 
 Sweden joins the allies by a treaty 
 
 Nov. 21, 1855 
 
 Capitulation of Ears to gen. Mouravieff, 
 after a gallant defence by gen. Williams, 
 
 Nov. 26, 1855 
 
 Death of admiral Bruat . . Nov. 27, 1855 
 
 Russian attack on the French posts at 
 Baidar repulsed . . Dec. 8, 1855 
 
 Proposals of peace from Austria, with 
 the consent of the allies, sent to St. 
 Petersburg .... Dec. 12, 1855 
 
 Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by 
 the English .... Jan 2, 1856 
 
 Council of war at Paris . . Jan. 11, 1S56 
 
 Protocol signed accepting the Austrian 
 propositions as a basis of negotiation 
 for peace .... Feb. 1, 1856 
 
 Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- 
 pleted . ... Feb. 1, 1S56 
 
 Report of sir John M'Neill and col. 
 Tulloch on state of the army before 
 Sebastopol, published . Feb. 5, 1856 
 
 Peace conferences open at Paris, an ar- 
 mistice till March 31, agreed on, 
 
 Feb. 25, 1856 
 
 Suspension of hostilities . . Feb. 29, l£>56 
 
 Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 
 April 2 ; in London . April 29, 1856 
 
 The Crimea evacuated . . July 9,* 1856 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT. A real, or more probably a pretended conspiracy to assassinate 
 Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards James II.), at a place called 
 Rye-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. This desigu was taid to have 
 been frustrated by the kind's house at Newmarket accidentally taking tire, which 
 hastened the royal party away eight days before the plot was to take place, March ^2, 
 1683. The plot was discovered June 12 following. The patriot, Alg ruon Sidney, 
 suffered death on a false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 1 6o3. 
 See Newmarket, and a note to that article. 
 
 * The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds about 3500 ; died of cholera, 4244.; of other 
 diseases nearly 16,000: total loss about 19,500 (including 270 officers) ; 2873 were disabled. The war 
 added to the national debt 41,041,000*. The French lost about 63,500 men ; the Russians about 
 half a million. 
 
RYS 569 SAC 
 
 BYSWICK, PEACE OF. Concluded between England, France, Spain, and Holland, 
 signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 30, 1697. By this famous 
 treaty the peace of Europe was established. The treaty consisted of four parts : the 
 first between France and Holland ; the second between France and Spain ; the third 
 with England ■; and the fourth with the emperor. — Hmault. 
 
 s. 
 
 SABBATARIANS.- Though commonly applied to the denomination of Seventh-day 
 Baptists, or (as they call themselves) " Sabbath-keepers/' yet, in the seventeenth century 
 this name was given to the English Puritaus, who insisted that Sunday was "the 
 Sabbath." Traces exist of Sabbatarii or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the sixteenth 
 century on the continent. Upon the publication of the "Book of Sports" in 1618, a 
 long and violent controversy arose among English divines on these two points : first, 
 whether the Sabbath of the fourth commandment was in force among Christians ; and 
 secondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day of the week was entitled to be 
 distinguished and observed as "the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus Brabourne, a 
 clergyman, published the first work in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
 only true Christian Sabbath; he and several others suffered great persecution for this 
 opinion ; but it so prevailed, notwithstanding, that after the restoration there were 
 three or four congregations observing the last day of the week for public worship in 
 London, an<i seven or eight in the country parts of England. In 1851 there were 
 only three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congregations in England; but in 
 America (especially in the New England states) they are numerous and flourishing. 
 
 SABBATH, the. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh day in 
 commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bondage of the 
 Egyptians ; the Christians observed the first day of the week in commemoration of 
 the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of mankind. The 
 Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in 
 the afternoon to Monday at break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a.d. 960. Act of parliament, 
 levying one shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James 1. 1606. 
 Act restraining amusemeuts, 1 Chas. I. 1625. Act restraining the performance of 
 servile works, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, meat in public- 
 houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 Chas. II. 
 1677. See Sunday. 
 
 SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first " Sabbath school " was founded by Ludwig Hacker 
 between the years 1740 and 1747, at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, among 
 the German Seven-dny Baptists there. The school-room was used as an hospital after 
 the battle of Brandy wine, fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking up of 
 the school about five years before the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, 
 at Gloucester, by Robert Raikes, about 1782. See Sunday Schools. 
 
 SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 B.C. Every seventh year, during 
 which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled; and every forty-ninth year 
 all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c. that were before sold or 
 mortgaged, returned to their original families, &c. — Josephus. 
 
 SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptolemais in Egypt), who flourished in the third 
 century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, the other 
 persons of the Trinity being but different names of the same person. This doctrine 
 was condemned at a council held at Rome a.d. 263. Somewhat similar views were 
 put forth in the middle of the last century by Drs. Watts and Doddridge. 
 
 SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their 
 daughters by force, for wives, having invited them to some public sports or shows on 
 purpose. When the Sabines determined to revenge this affront, the women became 
 mediators to their fathers in behalf of their husbands the Romans, and a lasting 
 peace was made between them ; so that the Sabines became a part of the Roman 
 government and people, 750 B.C. To this day one of the ecclesiastical provinces is 
 called Terra Sabina, whose chief town is Magliano. 
 
 SACRAMENTAL WINE was used in the primitive church. The wine was laid aside, 
 and communion by the laity under one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the 
 West, under pope Urban II. 1096. — M. de Marca. Communion in one kind only was 
 
SAC 570 SAG 
 
 authoritatively sanctioned by the council of Constance, in 1414. — Dr. Hook. Henry 
 VIII. of Germany was poisoned by a priest in the consecrated wafer, 1314. The 
 sacramental wine was poisoned by the grave-digger of the church at Zurich, by which 
 sacrilegious deed a number of persons lost their lives, Sept. 4, 1776. 
 
 SACRED. This term was first added to the title of Majesty, in the style of the kings of 
 England, at the time of the accession of James I. 1603. See Titles. 
 
 SACRED WAR. Sacrum Bellum. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 
 448 B.C. In this war the Athenians and Lacedsemonians were auxiliaries on opposite 
 sides. The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocians, 
 356 B.C. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of 
 the Phocians, and dispersing the inhabitants, 348 B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offei-ed to God by Abel ; it consisted of 
 milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 B.C. — Josephus ; Usher. Sacrifices to the gods 
 were first introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. The offering 
 of human sacrifices seems to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the 
 custom passed into Greece, Persia, and other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the 
 true God ceased with the sacrifice of the Redeemer, a.d. 33. 
 
 SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, which led 
 to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in the third century, 
 and are mentioned as made of leather in a.d. 304. They were known in England about 
 the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were in use in 1388. Anne, the queen of 
 Richard II., introduced them to the English ladies. — Stow. • 
 
 SADDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one Sadoc, a scholar 
 of Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught there was neither 
 heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no 
 resurrection of the body from the dead. As for their other opinions, the Sadducees 
 agreed in general with the Samaritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the 
 Jewish sacrifices. There was an irreconcilable dislike between them and the Pharisees. 
 This sect began about 200 B.C.— Pardon. 
 
 SADLER'S WELLS. So called after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain the 
 invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. Many superstitious notions were 
 attached to the waters before the Reformation. In the course of time the orchestra 
 was enclosed, and the building became a place for dramatic performances. The 
 present theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen persons were trampled to death at 
 this theatre, on a false alarm of fire, Oct. 15, 1807. See Theatres. 
 
 SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which 
 happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815, and improved in 1817. The 
 safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in passing through iron-wire 
 meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of igniting inflammable substances 
 around, while flame alone ignites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all 
 safety-lamps is Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 
 are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society of Arts for 1817, and in Thomson's 
 Annals of Philosophy, same year. 
 
 SAFFRON. Saffran, French ; Saffrano, Italian. The flower of crocus.— Pardon. Of 
 strong aromatic odour, formerly used against infection, still used as a medicine, and 
 much esteemed in cookery. It was first brought to England in the reign of Edward 
 III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, probably from Arabia, as the word is from the Arabic 
 saphar. — Miller. It was cultivated in England in 1582 ; and the best grows in Essex, 
 between Cambridge and Saffron- Walden. 
 
 SAGE. Sauge, French; Salvia, Latin. A wholesome herb, comfortable to the brain and 
 nerves. — Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew early in England, and some 
 varieties were imported. The Mexican sage, Salvia Mexicana, was brought from 
 Mexico a.d. 1724. The blue African sage, Salvia Africana, and the golden African 
 sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to England from the Cape of Good Hope, in 1731. 
 
 SAGUNTUM, SIEGE of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now Morviedro, 
 in Valencia) was sustained 219 B.C. The heroic citizens, after exerting incredible acts 
 of valour for eight months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than 
 surrender to Hannibal. They burnt themselves, with their houses, and all their 
 effects, and the conqueror became master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 
 
SAI 571 SAI 
 
 ST. ALBAN'S. Anciently Verulain ; once the capital of Britain, and previously to the 
 invasion of Julius Caesar the residence of British princes. At St. Alban's, queen 
 Boadicea made her celebrated assault upon the Romans, and failed, after an immense 
 slaughter, it is said, of 70,000 men; and Cassibelaunus was defeated by Caesar at this 
 place. It takes its present name from St. Alban, who was born here, and who is said 
 to have been the first martyr for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly 
 styled the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the persecution 
 raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was erected in the town 
 to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's was incorporated by 
 Edward VI. 1552 ; and again by Charles II. The borough of St. Alban's was dis- 
 franchised for bribery, June 17, 1852. See Bribery. 
 
 ST. ALBAN'S, BATTLES of. The first, between the houses of York and Lancaster, in 
 which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI. of whose army 5000 
 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered no materal loss ; fought May 22, 
 1455. The second, between the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and the Lan- 
 castrians, commanded by queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 
 2500 of the defeated army perished; fought on bhrove-Tuesday, Feb. 2, 1461. 
 
 ST. ANDREW. He suffered martyrdom by crucifixion at Patrse, Nov. 30, a.d. 69. St. 
 Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, in consequence of Hungus, a Pictish prince, 
 having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in a pending battle with the 
 Northumbrians, and accordingly a St. Andrew's cross appeared in the air during the 
 fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on this 
 legend is formed of thistles (not to be touched) and of rue (an antidote to poison), 
 with the motto " Nemo me impune lacessit." It was instituted by Achaius in 809, 
 and was revived by king James V. in 1540. The festival of St. Andrew was instituted 
 about the year 359. 
 
 ST. ANDREW'S, BISHOPRIC op. Originated with the establishment of Christianity 
 in Scotland. The legendary tale of transporting the relics of the apostle St. Andrew 
 from the city of Patrae, in Achaia, is thus recorded by the ancient Scots historians : — 
 " Regulus, a Greek monk, about a.d. 370, living at Patrae, a city of Achaia (by whom 
 the relics of St. Andrew the apostle were preserved), was warned in a vision by 
 night (three nights before the emperor Constantius came to the city on purpose to 
 translate these relics to Constantinople) to visit the shrine where the relics were kept, 
 and take out thereof the arm-bone, three fingers of the right hand, a tooth, and one 
 of the caps of the Apostle's knees, which he should carefully preserve, and carry with 
 him to a region towards the west, situate in the utmost parts of the world. Regulus 
 was at first troubled with the strangeness of the vision, but resolved to obey, and, 
 putting the relics in a little box, he went to sea, taking copartners with him Damianus, 
 a presbyter, Gelasius, and Cubaculus, two deacons, eight hermits, and three devout 
 virgins. After long storms, the vessel was driven into the bay near where St. Andrew's 
 now stands, and totally wrecked upon a rock ; but Regulus and his companions were 
 brought safe ashore, having nothing left them but the relics saved. Hergustus, king 
 of the Picts, came to visit them in the place where they had settled, now St. Andi'ew's, 
 then a forest for wild boars. The king gave Regulus all the land of the forest, and 
 erected the fii'st church." Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops of St. Andrew's com- 
 mences with Killach, a.d. 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, and ceased 
 soon after the Revolution, 1689. St. Andrew's is now a post-revolution bishopric, re- 
 instituted in 1844. See Bishops. 
 
 ST. ASAPH, BISHOPRIC of. Of great antiquity, founded about a.d. 560, by Kentigern, 
 bishop of Glasgow. Kentigern returning into Scotland, left a holy man, St. Asaph, 
 his successor, from whom the prelacy takes its name. It is valued in the king's books 
 at 187£. lis. 6d. By an order in council, Oct. 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor 
 were to have been united on the next vacancy in either ; and the bishopric of Man- 
 chester was to have been then created. This order was annulled by act 10 Vict. 
 1846, and the two sees are still to subsist separate. See Manchester. 
 
 ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, in London. See Bartholomew, St. 
 
 ST. BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE of, in France. See Bartholomew, St., Massacre of. 
 
 ST. CHRISTOPHER'S. Discovered a.d. 1493. Columbus, pleased with the appearance 
 of this island, called it after himself. Settled by the English and French, 1626. 
 Entirely ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French in 
 
SAI 572 SAI 
 
 1782, but restored the next year. This islaud suffered greatly from a storm, and the 
 town of Basseterre from a fire, Sept. 3, 1776. 
 
 ST. DAVID'S, BISHOPRIC of. Once the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. 
 When Christianity was planted in Britain, there were three archbishops' seats 
 appointed, viz. London, York, and Caerleou upon Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at 
 Caerleon being too near the dominions of the Saxons, wa* removed to Menew, aud 
 called St. David's in honour of the archbishop who removed it. St. Samp-on was 
 the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself on account of a pesti- 
 lence to Dole, in Britanny, carried the pall with him ; but his successors preserved 
 the archiepiscopal power, although they lost the name. Iu the reign of Heury I. these 
 prelates were forced to submit to the see of Canterbury. St. David was the first arch- 
 bishop of St. David's, a.d. 519. — Beatson. 
 
 ST. DAVID'S DAY. This day is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of 
 St. David, mentioned in the preceding article. Tradition states that on St. David's 
 birthday a great victory was obtained by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders. That 
 the Welsh soldiers might be distinguished, St. David ordered each of them to fix a 
 leek iu his cap previous to the commencement of the battle. In memory of this 
 circumstance, the Welsh still wear a leek in their hats on the 1st of March. 
 
 ST. DENIS. An ancient town of France, famous for its abbey and church, the former 
 abolished at the Revolution : the latter desecrated at the same epoch, after having 
 been the appointed place of sepulture of the French kings, from its foundation, by 
 Dagobert, in 613. This church is a beautiful Gothic edifice, not large, but con- 
 structed in the purest taste. On the 12th October, 1793, the republicans demolished 
 most of the royal tombs, and emptied the leaden coffins into the dunghills, melting 
 the lead for their own use. By a decree of Bonaparte, dated Feb. 20, 1806, the church 
 (which had been turned meanwhile into a cattle-market !) was ordered to be cleaused 
 out and redecorated as "the future burial-place of the emperors of France." On the 
 return of the Bourbons, some more restorations were effected, and when the duke de 
 Berry aud Louis XVIII. died, both were buried there — thus reconsecrating it for a 
 time to the old dynasty. 
 
 ST. DIZIER, BATTLES of, in France. Between the allied armies and the French, 
 commanded by Napoleon in person. The French sustained in these, as in several 
 preceding battles, severe defeats, and considerable loss in killed aud wounded. They 
 were among the train of victories which opened the way of the allied army to the 
 French capital ; fought Jan. 27, and March 26, 1814. 
 
 ST. DOMINGO. See Hayti. 
 
 ST. DOMINICK, ORDER of, or BLACK FRIARS. See Blacljriars. 
 
 ST. EUSTATIA. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632; it was taken by the 
 French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British forces under 
 admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, Feb. 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French 
 under the marquis de Bouille", Nov. 26. same year ; and was again captured by the 
 British in 1801 and 1810 ; but restored to the Dutch at the peace iu 1814. 
 
 ST. GEORGE. The patron saint of England. The order which is now called the 
 order of the Garter was, until king Edward VI. 's time, called the order of St. 
 George. The figure of St. George on horseback, represented as holding a spear, and 
 killing the dragon, was first worn by the knights of the Garter on the institution of 
 that order in 1349-50. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 
 shoulder. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
 beiug a man of great courage, was a favourite with the emperor ; but complaining to 
 the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he 
 was put iu prison, and beheaded, April 23, a.d, 290. See Garter. 
 
 ST. GEORGE, British ship of 98 guns. Stranded in a storm, on the western coast 
 of North Jutland, aud admiral Reynolds and the whole crew, except eleveu, were 
 lost, Dec. 24, 1811. The Hero and Defence ships of the line were lost in the same 
 dreadful storm, and their crews perished; two thousand souls, England's biavest 
 sons, were swept into eternity by the wreck of these three ships. — The St. Qeorye 
 steam-packet was wrecked at Douglas, Isle of Man, Nov. 19, 1830. 
 
 ST. GEORGE Steam-ship. This vessel, bound from Liverpool to New York, with 121 
 emigrant passengers (chiefly labouriug Irish), and a crew consisting of twenty -nine 
 
SAI 573 SAI 
 
 seamen (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by tire at sea, Dec. 24, 1852. The crew 
 and seventy of the passengers were saved by the American ship Orlando, and con- 
 veyed to Havre, in France; but the remainder, fifty-one souls, are supposed to 
 have perished. 
 
 ST. HELENA. The island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. 
 Helena, a.d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when 
 they were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here 
 in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 
 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. 
 Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815 ; and it became the 
 scene of his death, May 5, 1821. It being decreed by the government and French 
 chambers, at Paris that the ashes of Napoleon should be removed to France, the 
 expedition for that purpose, under the prince de Joinville, sailed from Toulon, July 
 7 ; it arrived at St Helena, and (with the consent of England) the body was exhumed. 
 Oct. 16 ; the expedition returned to France, Nov. 30; and Napoleon's remains were 
 interred in the Hopital des Invalides, Dec. 15, 1840. See Bonaparte. 
 
 ST. JAMES'S PALACE. Was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital of the 
 same name, a.d. 1530. It has been the official town-residence of the English 
 court since Whitehall was consumed in 1695. 
 
 ST. JAMES'S PARK, London. Was a complete marsh till the time of Henry VIII. 
 who having built St. James's Palace, inclosed it, laid it out in walks, and collecting 
 the waters, gave the new inclosed ground and building the name of St. James's. In 
 1668 it was much improved by Charles II. who employed Le Notre to add several 
 fields, to plant rows of lime-trees, and to lay out the Mall, which is a vista half a mile 
 in length, at that time formed into a hollow, smooth walk, skirted by a wooden 
 border, with an iron hoop at the further end, for the purpose of playing a game 
 with a ball called a mall. He formed a canal, 100 feet broad and 2800 long, with a 
 decoy and other ponds for water-fo-wl. Succeeding kings allowed the people the 
 privilege of walking here, and William III. in 1699, granted the neighbouring inhabi- 
 tants a passage into it from Spring-gardens. The irons and safeguards for the 
 balls were removed from the Mall in 1752. The drains were filled up in 1775. A 
 grand display of fire-works took place here at the peace in 1814, when the pagoda 
 bridge erected here by Sir W. Congreve was accidentally burnt. The park was 
 improved by Geo. IV. in 1827 et seq. The inclosure was first opened to the 
 public in Jan. 1829 ; the opening by Carlton-steps in 1831. The marble arch that 
 fronted Buckingham palace was set up at Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, March 
 29, 1851. See Parks. A neat iron bridge over the ornamental water is now con- 
 structing (1857) ; and other alterations going on in St. James's Park. 
 
 ST. JEAN DE LUZ, BATTLE of. Soult had a strong position on the Nivelle from 
 St. Jean de Luz to Ainhoe, about twelve miles in length. General Hill, with the 
 British right, advanced from the valley of Baztan, and attacking the French on the 
 heights of Ainhoe, drove them towards Cambo, on the Nive, while the centre of the 
 allies, consisting of English and Spanish troops under marshal Beresford and general 
 Alten, carried the works behind Sarre, and drove the French beyond the Nivelle, 
 which the allies crossed at St. Pe", in the rear of the enemy. Upon this the French 
 hastily abandoned their ground and works on the left of the Nivelle, and in the 
 night withdrew to their intrenched camp in front of Bayonne ; and lord Wellington's 
 head-quarters were established at St. Jean de Luz, on the right bank of the Nivelle, 
 Nov. 10, 1813.— Sir W. F. P. Napier. 
 
 ST. JOHN'S GATE, London. This gate, opening into St. John's-square, is the finest 
 vestige of monastic building in the metropolis. It was originally the gate to the 
 priory of St. John of Jerusalem, but is also remarkable as the place where the early 
 numbers of the Gentleman's Magazine were published. The house was often 
 visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and other eminent characters. It is now occupied 
 partly as a tavern. See article Magazine. 
 
 ST. LUCIA. First settled by the French in 1650. Taken by the British several times 
 in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the French negroes, April 1795. 
 In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, 
 were taken by the British. St. Lucia was restored to France at the peace of 1802; 
 but was again seized on by England the next year, and confirmed to her by the 
 treaty of Paris in 1814. See Colonies. 
 
SAI 
 
 574 
 
 SAI 
 
 ST. MALOES, France. The port of St. Maloes sustained a tremendous bombardment 
 by the English in 1693. In 1758 the British landed in considerable force in Cancaile 
 bay, and went up to the harbour, where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and 
 did great damage to the town, making a number of prisoners of war. It is now 
 defended by a very strong castle, and the harbour is most difficult of access. 
 
 ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the world. 
 The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church, is its great 
 restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been a church on this 
 spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when he 
 searched for the foundations for his own design. He explodes the notion of there 
 having been a temple of Diana. The first church is supposed to have been destroyed 
 during the Diocletian persecution, and to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constan- 
 tine. This was demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603. It 
 was destroyed by the great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop 
 of London, commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the pre- 
 sent cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; the 
 first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the choir was opened for 
 divine worship, Dec. 2, 1696. The whole edifice was completed in 1710 (with the 
 exception of some of the decorations, not finished until 1723) under the illustrious 
 architect, sir Christopher Wren. The ball and cross were restored by Mr. Cockerell, 
 in 1822. The total cost (including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was 1,511,2022. 
 
 The length of St. Paul's from the 
 grand portico to the east end, is . 510 feet 
 
 The breadth, from the north to the 
 south portico 2S2 ,, 
 
 The exterior diameter of the dome . 145 ,, 
 
 The height from the ground to the 
 top of the cross 404 „ 
 
 The campaniles, or bell towers, at 
 
 each corner, height . . . 208 feet 
 The breadth of the western entrance 180 ,, 
 The circumference of the dome . . 420 ,, 
 The entire circumference of the 
 building 2292 „ 
 
 The southern tower contains the clock, with its ponderous bell, and two smaller ones 
 to chime the quarters. See Bells. The portico at the northern entrance is circular, 
 and consists of a dome supported by six Corinthian columns, with an ascent of twelve 
 steps of black marble. The southern portico is of similar composition, but has an 
 ascent of twenty-five steps, the ground on that side being lower. The great dome is 
 ornamented with thirty-two columns below, and a range of pilasters above. At the 
 east end of the choir is a circular projection, forming a recess within, for the 
 communion-table. The whole is wrought in rustic, and strengthened and ornamented 
 by two rows of coupled pilasters ; the lower being Corinthian, and the upper 
 composite. 
 
 ST. PAUL'S CROSS, London. The famous Paul's Cross, which stood before the 
 cathedral, was a pulpit formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and covered 
 with lead, from which the most eminent divines were appointed to preach every 
 Sunday in the forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor, the aldermen, and 
 principal citizens used to resort. It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
 not only to instruct mankind by preaching, but to every purpose political or eccle- 
 siastical: — for giving force to oaths, for promulgating laws, &c. Jane Shore, 
 mistress of Edward IV. was brought before this cross in 1483, divested of all her 
 splendour. It was demolished in 1643 by order of the parliament. 
 
 ST. PETER'S CHURCH, at ROME. Originally erected by Constantine. About the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, pope Nicholas VI. commenced the present magnifi- 
 cent pile, which was not completed, under numerous succeeding popes, until ad. 
 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic 
 dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 324 feet : the length of the 
 interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
 length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; and the 
 entire height from the ground 432 feet. St Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman 
 Catholic church in the world. 
 
 ST. QUINTIN, BATTLE op. Philip II. of Spain, assisted by the English, defeated the 
 French at St. Quintiu, in France, Aug. 10, 1557 ; and in memory of his victory, the 
 Spanish monarch, in fulfilment of a vow he had made before the engagement, built 
 the famous monastery at Escurial, which is called by the Spaniards the eighth 
 wonder of the world. See Escurial. 
 
SAI 575 SAI 
 
 ST. SALVADOR. One of the Bahamas, and the first point of land discovered in the 
 West Indies or America by the illustrious Christopher- Columbus. It was previously 
 called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for his 
 deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of discovery) 
 named it St. Salvador, Oct. 11, 1491. The island is, however, still called by sailors, 
 Cat Island. 
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN, BATTLES of. The fortified works, through the centre of which 
 ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English auxiliary legion under 
 general Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval squadron, off St. 
 Sebastian, under lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid in this contest to the 
 victors, May 5, 1836. A vigorous assault was made on the lines of general De Lacy 
 Evans at St. Sebastian by the Carlists, who attempted to carry them. Both parties 
 fought with bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffering severely. The loss 
 of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men, and 37 officers, killed and wounded. General 
 De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded, Oct. 1, 1836. 
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN", SIEGE of. By the British and allied army under lord Wellington, 
 afterwards field-marshal the duke of Wellington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, 
 during which it sustained a most heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town 
 was laid nearly in ruins, was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), 
 ' and taken, Aug. 31, 1813. The loss sustained by the besieging army, though not 
 considerable, was chiefly in the ranks of the British. 
 
 ST. SOPHIA, CHURCH of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sublime Porte, 
 stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian ; and since the 
 Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an imperial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. 
 Its length is 269 feet, and its breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, 
 from the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of 
 the Sun, at Rome. Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned in 1566. The 
 interior of the dome is beautifully ornamented with Mosaic work. Altogether, this 
 mosque is magnificent. 
 
 ST. STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, London. The Commons of England held their assemblies 
 in St. Stephen's chapel, which was built by king Stephen, and dedicated to his name- 
 sake, the proto-martyr, about 1135. The chapel was l'ebuilt by Edward III. in 1347, 
 and by him made a collegiate church, to which a dean and twelve secular priests were 
 appointed. Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., about 1550, it was applied to the 
 use of Parliament. See Parliament. 
 
 ST. SWITHIN. This saint lived in the ninth century, and, having been preceptor to 
 king Ethelwulph, was by that prince made bishop of Winchester in 838, he being 
 the seventeenth prelate of that see. The silly tradition, that if it rain upon St. 
 Swithin's day, July 15, it will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a shadow 
 of reason only from the circumstance of some constellations, which have the character 
 of portending rain, rising cosmically about the time of St. Swithin's festival. 
 
 ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, Sotjthwakk. Founded by Richard, prior of Bermondsey, 
 in 1213, and surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of 
 London, having purchased of Edward VI. the manor of Southwark, including this 
 hospital, repaired, and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 poor, sick, and helpless 
 objects ; upon which the king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Bethlehem, St. 
 Bartholomew, &c. It was rebuilt in 1693. 
 
 ST. VINCENT'S. This was long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French 
 agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter, soon after, 
 engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were 
 obliged to consent to a peace, by which they ceded a large tract of land to the British 
 crown. The consequence of this was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the 
 reduction of this island by the French, who, however, restored it, in 1783. In 1795 
 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, 
 which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffrier 
 mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, BATTLE of CAPE. Between the Spanish and British fleets off the Cape, 
 south-west point of Portugal. The latter was commanded by admiral sir John Jervis, 
 (afterwards earl St. Vincent), who took (after a well-fought battle, and with an inferior 
 force) four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, 
 
SAI 576 SAL 
 
 Feb. 14, 1797. . Two of the captured ships were of 100 guus each, and the other two, 
 each of 74.* From this Cape the earl had his title. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, CAPE. The same Cape. Admiral Rooke, with twenty men of war, and 
 the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force 
 vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch 
 men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed by the French, June ] 6, 
 1693. Here admiral Rodney destroyed several Spanish ships, Jan. 16, 1780. See 
 Rodney's Victories. 
 
 SALAD. First introduced into England, with other garden roots, from Artois, about 
 1520. It was not till the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., viz., about 1547, that 
 any salads, carrots, cabbage, or other edible roots, were produced in England. — Butler. 
 Queen Catherine (Henr3 r 's first consort), when she wanted a salad, was obliged to 
 despatch a messenger thither on purpose. — Hume. 
 
 SALAMANCA, BATTLE of. Between the British and allies commanded by lord 
 We llington, and the French army under marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 1812. In 
 this great and memorable battle the illustrious Wellington was victorious, though the 
 loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 
 6000 men ; but that of the enemy was much greater. Marmont left in the victoi - 's 
 hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands of colours, and two eagles; 8000 
 men are believed to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French 
 marshal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An imme- 
 diate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2500 more prisoners 
 and an immense quantity of stores. 
 
 SAL A MIS, BATTLE of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea-fight, 
 Oct 20, 480 B.C. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 310 sail, defeated 
 the fleet of Xerxes, which consisted of 2000 sail. After this battle, Xerxes retired 
 from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, with 300,000 men, to carry on the war, 
 and suffer more disasters. In his reti-eat he found the bridge of boats he had crossed 
 over at the Hellespont, now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 
 
 SALDANHA BAY. A bay of the Atlantic ocean, northward of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Here a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was captured by vice-admiral sir George 
 Keith Elphinstone, without resistance; two ships of the line and seven smaller 
 vessels surrendered ; and sir George was created lord Keith, in consequence of 
 this great and bloodless achievement, which was executed with wonderful judgment, 
 Aug. 17, 1796. 
 
 SALENCKEMEN. Victory gained over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier 
 Mustapha Kiuprigli, by the Imperialists under prince Louis of Baden, Aug. 19, 1691. 
 
 SALIQUE, or SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inheriting the 
 crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a.D. 424. Ratified in a council of 
 state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. — Henault's France. 
 In order to give more authority to the maxim that "the crown should never descend 
 to a female," it was usual to derive it from a clause of the Salisn code, of the ancient 
 Franks ; but this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favouring 
 the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it. Yet, though 
 positive law seems wanting among the French for the exclusion of females, the practice 
 has taken place, and the rule was established beyond all controversy on some ancient, 
 as well as some modern, precedents. The monarchy has always been governed by males, 
 and no female; and no one who founded his title on a female has ever mounted the 
 
 * throne. — Hume. The Salique law prevailed for many generations in Spain, but was 
 formally abolished, March 25, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII., his daughter, 
 the present queen, succeeded to the sceptre, as Isabella II., when in her third year, 
 Sept. 29, 1833. See Spain. 
 
 SALISBURY. Founded in the beginning of the 13tb century, on the removal of the 
 cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils or parliaments were repeatedly 
 held at Salisbury, particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by Edward III. ; and 
 in 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was executed here by order of 
 
 * The battle was fought by sir John Jervis with a fleet of fifteen sail of the line only, and with this 
 small force he totally defeated the Spanish fleet, consisting of twenty-seven sail, seven of which carried 
 from 112 to 130 guns each. He was immediately elevated to the peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis 
 of Meaford, and earl St. Vincent, taking his latter title .from the cane near which he had achieved his 
 glorious victory. 
 
SAL 577 SAN 
 
 Richard III., in 1483. On Salisbury Plain, 300 English nobles were massacred by 
 Hengist, May 1, a.d. 474. This plain was estimated at 500,000 acres. On it were so 
 many cross roads, and so few houses to take directions from, th.it Thomas, earl of 
 Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the 
 traveller's guide. 
 
 SALISBURY, BISHOPRIC of. Its first seat was at Sherborn, St. Adhelm being prelate, 
 a.d. 705. Wells and Exeter were dismembered from the see in 905. Herman 
 removed the seat to Old Sarum in 1056; and the see was removed to this city, under 
 the authority of a papal bull, in 1217. The bishopric is valued in the king's books 
 at 1367'. lis, 8d. It has yielded to the church of Rome one saint and two cardinals. 
 The building of the cathedral commenced April 28, 1220, and was completed in 1258. 
 Tins edifice is reckoned one of our finest ecclesiastical erections; and its spire the 
 loftiest in the kingdom. 
 
 SALT. In Scripture, much is said of this substance, and it is therein mentioned as 
 savouring and seasoning all things, and is commanded to be used in sacrifices. The 
 Jews were wont to rub their new-born infants with salt, upon the supposition that it 
 dried up the humidity wherewith they abound, and closed up the pores, which were 
 too open and susceptible of taking cold. It has been made the symbol of wisdom, 
 and of perpetuity and incorruption ; also of hospitality and fidelity : and sometimes 
 of barrenness and sterility. It is used in one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic 
 Church to this day, that of baptism ; and is also used as ah ingredient in blessing 
 holy water. 
 
 SALT and SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from salt- 
 springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow, in 
 Poland, have been worked 600 years, and, it ha3 been lately said, yet present no 
 appearance of being exausted. Rock-salt was discovered about a.d. 950. Saltpetre 
 was first made in England about 1625. The fine salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
 discovered about 1670. Salt-duties were first exacted in 1702; they were renewed 
 in 1732 ; and were considerably reduced in 1823. At a period of the French war, the 
 duty had reached to 301. per ton ; it is now, however, totally abolished. 
 
 SALT-TAX, or GABELLE, in FRANCE. It is referred to the year 1344, when 
 Edward III. facetiously called Philip of Valois, "the author of the sal ic law." But 
 Philip the Long was the first that laid a duty upon salt; Philip of Valois, however, 
 raised the duty. After the battle of Poitiers the king engrossed the whole trade to 
 himself, and erected public magazines for all the salt in the kingdom. The Gabelle 
 was afterwards farmed out by Henry II. for ten years, 1348. The produce of the 
 salt-duty throughout the realm was equal to the revenue of the Spanish West Indies. 
 
 SALUTE at SEA. It is a received maxim at sea, that he who returns the salute always 
 fires fewer guns than he receives, which is done even between the ships of princes of 
 equal dignity ; but the Swedes and Danes return the compliment without regarding 
 how many guns are fired to them. Merchantmen lower their main-yard ; but men- 
 of-war strike only their topsail. The English claim the right of being saluted first 
 in all places, as sovereigns of the seas ; the Venetians claim this honour within their 
 gulf, &c. See Flag and Naval Salute. 
 
 SALUTING. The customary and natural expressions of civility or friendship. The 
 custom of saluting ladies by their relatives and friends was introduced, it is said, by 
 the early Romans, not out of respect originally, but to find by their breath whether 
 they had been drinking wine, this being criminal for women to do, as it sometimes 
 led to adultery. The kiss was the offspring of nature, the salute the formality of 
 civilized life, and as distinct as love and ceremony. — Ashe. 
 
 SAMARITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, B.C. 925, and became the capital of the 
 kingdom of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom (B.C. 721) the conqueror 
 Shalmaneser placed natives of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of these 
 mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and much more so in consequence of the 
 rival temple built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat, the Samaritan, B.C. 332, which 
 was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, B.C. 130. (See John iv. & viii. 48, and Lulce x. 33.) 
 
 SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one entire sanc- 
 tuary from 751 B.C. In England, privileged places for the safety of offenders were 
 granted by king Lucius to our churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley 
 was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privi- 
 leged by Athelstan, a.d. 935; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Martin's- 
 
 p p 
 
SAN 578 SAP 
 
 le-Grand, 1529. Sanctuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in 
 London were privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were 
 suppressed in 1696. See Asylums. 
 
 SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At first it was 
 only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot from the ground, but 
 was in the course of time improved to a covering of cloth, ornamented with all the 
 delicacies of art, and made of the richest materials, and worn by the high priests at great 
 solemnities, and by kings, princes, and great men, as a mark of distinction. Sandals 
 were also worn by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 
 among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of which he 
 was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry their sandals in cases, 
 ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. See Shoes. 
 
 SANDEMANIANS. See Glasites. 
 
 SANDHURST, ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE. Founded, first at High Wycombe, in 
 1799. Removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to Sandhurst in 1812. The college, 
 for which the land was purchased by government at Blackwater, near Bagshot, consists 
 of two departments, called the Senior and Junior : the former is intended to instruct 
 and qualify officers for the general staff of the army; the latter is composed of two 
 companies of cadets, who get their commissions from the college, either by purchase 
 or without purchase ; in the latter case the cadet must have passed such an examination 
 as may recommend him for this mark of royal favour. The two branches of the insti- 
 tution have been united since 1820. The building is a handsome edifice, with a Doric 
 portico of eight columns, and is calculated to receive 400 cadets, and 30 students of 
 the senior department. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They were 
 discovered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the natural capacity 
 of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard of mankind. It was 
 in one of these islands that this illustrious circumnavigator fell a victim to the sudden 
 resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. See Owhyhee. Of late years, these people 
 have made great progress towards civilization, and from their intercourse with 
 Christians had renounced idolatry before any missionaries were settled among them. 
 A protestant mission has been some time established in the islands. The present king 
 Kam^ham^ha IV. when 20 years old succeeded.his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. 
 
 SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction (of seventy, or as 
 some say, seventy-thi - ee members), usually considered to be that established by Moses, 
 Num. xi. 16, b.o. 1490. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. 
 A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; 
 and it assembled accordingly, Jan. 20, 1807. 
 
 SANTA CRUZ, Teneriffe. Here admiral Blake entirely destroyed 1 6 Spanish ships, 
 secured with great nautical skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the shore. 
 This was thought at the time to be one of the greatest naval exploits ever accomplished. 
 — Butler. It was so miraculous, that all who knew the place wondered any sober 
 man, with what courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it ; and the victors 
 could hardly persuade themselves to believe what they had done ; whilst the surviving 
 Spaniards thought that they were devils, aud not men, who had destroyed their ships 
 in such a manner, April 20, 1657. — Clarendon. In an unsuccessful attack made upon 
 Santa Cruz by Nelson, several officers and 141 men were killed, and the admiral lost 
 his right arm, July 24, 1797.* 
 
 SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. 
 Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her amorous disposition. 
 She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which 
 account she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The 
 
 * It was remarkable, that captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and a companion of his in most 
 of his brilliant achievements, was also wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received 
 his wound in the same limb. The following characteristic note, addressed to the lady of captain 
 Fremantle (who was on board with her husband at the time he wrote) has been preserved, as being the 
 first letter written by the glorious hero with his left hand : — 
 
 THE FIRST LETTER WRITTEN BY NELSON WITH HIS LEFT HAND. 
 
 " Mt dear Mrs. Fremantle, — Tell me how Tom is? I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; 
 but, thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours, Horatio Nelson." 
 
SAP 
 
 579 
 
 SAR 
 
 Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honours, and called her the tenth muse, 
 594 B.C. 
 
 SAPPHIRE. This precious stone is of an azure or beautiful sky-colour, and transparent ; 
 in hardness it exceeds the ruby, and is next to the diamond ; it is so hard as scarcely 
 to bear engraving. It was most highly prized by the ancient inhabitants of the East, 
 and many nations attributed all their happiness and success to wearing it about their 
 person ; it was valued more as a charm than an ornament. Thamas Kouli Khan is 
 said to have been possessed of a sapphire valued at three hundred thousand pounds, 
 1733. With us, this stone is the fourth in the order of value. Artificial sapphires 
 were made in 1857 by M. Gandin. Equal parts of alum and sulphate of potash 
 were heated in a crucible. 
 
 SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their language 
 signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; and within 40 years 
 after his death, in a.d. 631, they conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. 
 They conquered Spain in 713, et seq. ; the empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad 
 being taken by the Tartars, 1258. — Blair. There are now no people known by this 
 name ; the descendants of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 
 
 SARAGOSSA. Anciently Csesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. Its 
 church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, while yet 
 living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and left him her image, 
 which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little Jesus in her arms, ornamented 
 with a profusion of gold and jewels, and illuminated by a multitude of lamps. In 
 Dec. 1778, four hundred of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa 
 was taken by the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as 
 renowned a siege (1808 and 1809) as is on record, Feb. 13, 1809. The unyielding 
 inhabitants, of both sexes, resisted the French, until worn out by fighting, famine, 
 and pestilence, they were obliged to surrender. 
 
 SARATOGA, BURGOYNE'S SURRENDER at. General Burgoyne, commander of a 
 body of the British army, after a severe engagement with the American provincials in 
 the memorable war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, the whole of this 
 lai'ge force surrendered to the American general Gates. No less than 5791 men 
 laid down their arms, Oct. 17, 1777. The American accounts stated the number 
 to be much greater. This was the greatest check the British suffered in the war. 
 
 SARAWAK. See Borneo. 
 
 SARDANAPALUS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. One of the most infamous 
 and sensual monarchs that ever lived. Having grown odious to his subjects, and 
 being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into their hands, he shut himself 
 up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused a vast pile of wood to be raised in a 
 court of his palace, and heaping upon it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare 
 articles, the royal apparel, and other treasures, and enclosing his concubines and 
 eunuchs in an apartment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the 
 flames. This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches thus 
 destroyed were worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and ten times as many 
 talents of silver, about 1,400,000,0002. sterling. — Athenmus. This story is now doubted. 
 
 SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c. are supposed to have been 
 the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls (when they established 
 themselves in Italy under Brennus, &c.) from whom this country was called Cisalpine 
 Gaul (or Gaul on this side of the Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became 
 a part of Lombardy, from which it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of 
 Sardinia has been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Cartha- 
 ginians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards; from settlers belonging to which various 
 nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 
 
 Subjugated by the Romans 
 
 . b.c. 231 
 
 Taken by the Moors, about . a.d. 728 
 Reduced by the Genoese . . 1115 
 
 The pope grants Sardinia to tbe Pisanese, 
 who are, however, too weak to expel 
 
 the Saracens 1132 
 
 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
 master of Sardinia .... 1324 
 
 Taken from the Spaniards by the English 
 
 naval forces . . . .a.d. 1708 
 Recovered by the Spaniards . . . 1717 
 They again lose possession . . . . 1719 
 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an 
 
 equivalent for Sicily .... 1720 
 Victor Amadeus, having the title of king, 
 
 abdicates in favour of his son . . . 1730 
 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
 
 taken, and dies in prison . . . 1732 
 Ff 2 
 
SAli 
 
 580 
 
 SAT 
 
 SARDINIA, continued. 
 
 [The court kept at Turin till 1 796, when 
 these dominions were overrun by the 
 French arms, and shortly afterwards 
 annexed to the French empire.] 
 
 The king resigns his crown to his 
 brother, duke of Aoust . June 4, 1802 
 
 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bonaparte 
 crowned king of the whole Dec. 26, 1805 
 
 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
 Genoa added to it . . . Dec. 1S14 
 
 The king, Charles-Albert, openly espouses 
 the cause of the Italian regeneration 
 against Austria . . March 23, 1848 
 
 Defeat of the Austrians by the Sardinian 
 army at Goito . . . May 29, 1848 
 
 The fortress of Peseheira surrenders to 
 the Sardinian troops . . May 30, 1848 
 
 The Sardinian army, which had fought 
 with the greatest bravery for many 
 weeks, is at length forced to retreat 
 towards Milan . . , July 27, 1848 
 
 The Sardinians, who had retreated to 
 Milan, capitulate to the Austrian field- 
 marshal Radetsky . . Aug. 4, 1848 
 
 Armistice between Sardinia and Aus- 
 tria Sept. 21, 1848 
 
 The Sardinians resume hostilities against 
 Austria .... March 12, 1849 
 
 Radetsky defeats a division of the Sar- 
 dinian army, and occupies Moitara, 
 
 March 21, 1849 
 
 Complete rout of the Sardinian army by 
 the Austrians at Novara March 23, 1849 
 
 Charles- Albert abdicates in favourof his 
 son, the duke of Savoy, and leaves his 
 dominions . . . March 23, 1849 
 
 The Austrians occupy Novara and other 
 places .... March 25, 1849 
 
 Another armistice between Austria and 
 Sardinia .... March 26, 1849 
 
 The duke of Savoy proclaimed king of 
 Sardinia, under the title of Victor- 
 Emmanuel II. . . March 26, 1849 
 
 Death of Charles-Albert, the ex-king, at 
 Oporto .... July 28, 1849 
 
 Treaty of Milan between Austria and 
 Sardinia, signed . . . Aug. 6, 1849 
 
 Treaty of peace with Austria ratified by 
 the chambers at Turin . . Jan. 9, 1850 
 
 Arrest of the bishop of Turin . May 4, 1850 
 
 He is released from the citadel June 2, 1850 
 
 Bill for suppression of convents passed, 
 
 March 2, 1855 
 
 Convention with England and France 
 signed, a contingent of 15,000 troops 
 to be supplied against Russia April 10, 1855 
 
 10,000 troops under general La Marmora 
 arrive in the Crimea . May 8, 1855 
 
 Who distinguish themselves in the battle 
 on the Tchernaya . . Aug. 16, 1855 
 
 The king visits Loudon, &c Nov. 30, &c. 1855 
 
 Disputes with Austria . . April, 1857 
 
 Count Cavour declares in favour of 
 free-trade .... June, 1857 
 
 See Turin. 
 
 1718. Victor-Am adeus I. king (II. as duke) ; 
 resigned, in 1730, in favour of his 
 son ; died in 1732. 
 
 1730. Charles-Emmanuel I. his son. 
 
 1773. Victor- A madeus II. his son. 
 
 1796. Charles-Emmanuel II. son of the pre- 
 ceding ; resigned his crown in favour 
 of his brother, 
 
 1802. Victor-Emmanuel I. 
 
 1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of 
 Italy, of which the emperor Napoleon 
 ■was crowned king, May 26, 1805.] 
 
 KINGS OF SARDINIA. 
 
 1814. Victor-Emmanuel, restored ; resigned 
 
 in March, 1821 ; and died in 1824. 
 
 1821. Charles-Felix ; succeeded by his ne- 
 phew, 
 
 1831. Charles- Albert. This prince provoked 
 a war with Austria ; was defeated in 
 battle, and abdicated in favour of his 
 son, March 23, 1S49. Died at Oporto, 
 July 28, 1849. 
 
 1849. Victor-Emmanuel II. : the present (1857) 
 king of Sardinia. 
 
 SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance 
 at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this species of com- 
 position that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 B.C. — Livy. The Satires of 
 Horace (B.C. 35) and Juvenal (about a.d. 100) and Persius (about a.d. 60) are the 
 most celebrated in ancient times, and those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729) in 
 modern times. 
 
 SATURDAY. With us this is the last, or seventh day of the week ; but with the Jews 
 it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol worshipped on this day 
 by the old Saxons, and according to Verstegan, was named by them Saterne's day. — 
 Pardon. It is named Saturday from the ancient Saxon idol Seater. — Butler. It is 
 more properly from Saturn, dies Saturni. — Addison. 
 
 SATURN, The Planet. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 
 sun, and its diameter to be 89,170 miles. His satellites were discovered by Galileo 
 and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c. by Huygens, in 1634 ; his fifth satellite by 
 the same, in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventh by Herschel, in 1789. Cassini was also a 
 . discoverer of the satellites of the planets. In Heathen Mythology, Saturn is esteemed 
 the father of the gods. 
 
 SATURNALIA. Festivals in honour of Saturn. They were instituted long before 
 the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which pre- 
 vailed on the earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, however, suppose that the 
 Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a 
 victory obtained over the Sabiues ; while others suppose that Janus first instituted 
 them in gratitude to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. Others 
 suppose that they were first celebrated, after a victory obtained over the Latins by 
 
SAV 581 SAX 
 
 the dictator Posthumius. During these festivals no business was allowed, amusements 
 were encouraged, and distinctions ceased. — Lenglet. 
 
 SAVINGS' BANKS.* The Eev. Joseph Smith, of Wendover, began a Benevolent Insti- 
 tution in 1799; and in 1803-4 a Charitable Bank, was instituted at Tottenham by Miss 
 Elizabeth Wakefield. Henry Dundas established a Parish Bank at Ruthwell in 1810. 
 One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. The benefit clubs, among artisans, having 
 accumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to 
 identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest 
 was held out as an inducement; hence, savings' banks to receive small sums, return- 
 able, with interest, on demand, were formed. In 1816 an extensive development of 
 the system was effected, and it was brought under parliamentary regulation in the 
 same year, by the efforts of rt. hon. sir George Rose. Acts to consolidate and amend 
 previous laws relating to savings' banks, 9 Geo. IV. 1828, and 11 and 12 Vict. c. 133 
 (1847). The act extended to Scotland, 6 Will. IV. Sept 9, 1835. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST TWENTY THOUSAND DEPOSITORS WHO OPENED ACCOUNTS. 
 
 Domestic servants 7245 
 
 Persons in trade, mechanics, &c. . . 7473 
 Labourers and porters .... 672 
 Miners 1454 
 
 Friendly and charitable societies . . 58 
 Persons not classed, viz. widows, 
 teachers, sailors, &c 3098 
 
 SAVINGS' BANKS, AND DEPOSITORS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IEELAND, IN 1840. 
 
 Country. No. of Banks. No. of Depositors. Amount. 
 
 England ... 401 .... 627,443 .... £19,818,673 
 
 Scotland 39 44,628 471,338 
 
 Wales 31. .... 15,927 .... 542.476 
 
 Ireland 79 78,356 2,228,367 
 
 NUMBER OF DEPOSITORS AND AMOUNT OF DEPOSITS IN SAVINGS' BANES, AT THE CLOSE OF 1848. 
 
 Country. No. of Banks. Accounts opened. Toted Amount. 
 
 England and Wales . 481 .... 909,336 . . . .£25,371,176 
 
 Scotland i0 85,472 1,080,191 
 
 Ireland 61 .... 50,119 .... 1,358,062 
 
 Jersey and Guernsey . . 2 9,736 236,710 
 
 Grand Total . . .584 . . . 1,054,663 . . . .£28,046,139 
 
 On Nov. 20, 1851, the number of savings' banks in Great Britain and Ireland was 
 574, besides many thousands (exceeding twenty thousand) of Friendly Societies and 
 charitable institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were, 1,092,581, while the 
 societies embraced a vast but unknown number of persons : the amount of deposits 
 was 32,893,51 1£ The amount of stock held on account of savings' banks was 
 34,546,434^. according to a return Nov. 20, 1853. 
 
 SAVOY. It became a Roman province, 118 b.c. The Alemans seized it in a.d. 395, and 
 the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, 
 emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of earl. Amadeus, earl of 
 Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his dominions into a duchy, which he did at 
 Cambray, Feb. 19, 1417. Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of 
 Sicily, by treaty from Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for 
 the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this 
 country in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, 
 in 1800. See Sardinia. 
 
 SAVOY CONFERENCE. See Conference. 
 
 SAW. Invented by Daedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — Apollodorus. Talus, it is 
 said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut through a piece of 
 wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it Beecher says saw-mills were 
 invented in the seventeenth century ; but he errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira 
 in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of 
 Ely, ambassador from Mary of England to the Court of Rome, describes a saw-mill 
 there, 1555. The attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were violently opposed, 
 and one erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. 
 
 SAXONY. The royal family of Saxony is of a very ancient origin, and is allied to all 
 the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in the same family, not- 
 withstanding it encountered an interruption of more than two hundred years, from 
 
 * The first of these was instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 17S7, by the name of caisse des dornes- 
 liques, being intended for servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, open to all depositors. 
 
SCA 582 SCO 
 
 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many centuries an electorate, was formed 
 into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick Augustus became the first king. That 
 sovereign was succeeded by his brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. Frederick Augustus 
 II. ascended the throne, June 6, 1836 ; he was killed by a kick from a horse, Aug. 9, 
 1854, and was succeeded by his brother, John, the present king (1857). Saxony 
 became the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. 
 
 SCALES and MEASURES. See Beam and Scales, and Measures, Weights, &c. 
 
 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating to any 
 wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, 
 judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, 
 by the circulation of scandalous statements, false news, or horrible messages, by which 
 any debate or discord between them and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, 
 might arise. — Chambers. This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark, 
 whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Normandy (about 
 a.d. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also called Sea-Kings or Vikings. 
 They settled Iceland, and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of 
 America, about the 9th century. 
 
 SCARLET. The Scarlet, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; 
 cochineal dye, a.d. 1518. A Fleming, named Kepler, established the first dye-house 
 for scarlet in England, at Bow, ] 643. The art of dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 
 1667. — Beckmann. 
 
 SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, 334 B.C. Pyrrho wa3 
 in continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of everything ; never made any con- 
 clusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, and investigated all its parts, 
 he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. As he showed so much indifference 
 in everything, and declared that life and death were the same thing, some of his 
 disciples asked him, why he did not hurry himself out of the world ? "Because," says 
 he, "there is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief 
 followers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — Strabo. 
 
 SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier 
 ages of the world the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; they afterwards 
 were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the elder was the first who assumed the 
 sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B.C. The French sceptre of the first race of 
 kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. — Le Oendre. 
 
 SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the 
 infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. Charter 
 schools were instituted in Ireland, 1733. — Scully. In England there were, in 1847, 
 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor; and the 
 number of children was 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland 
 were (exclusively of Sunday schools) 4836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The 
 schools in Wales were 841, and the number of children, 38,164 : in Ireland, 13,327 
 schools, and 774,000 children. In 1851, there were 2310 schools in connection with 
 the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland, They included: 
 1713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 Protestant Dissenting 
 schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic schools in Great Britain ; and 
 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole 
 affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. In the same year (1851) the estimated 
 sums voted for education were: for Great Britain, 150,000Z.; for Ireland, 134,5602. 
 See Education. 
 
 SCILLY ISLES. — They held commerce with the Phoenicians ; and are mentioned by 
 Strabo as being ten in number. A memorable shipwreck of the British squadron 
 under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral, returning from an 
 expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon them. 
 His ship the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 
 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
 Romney and Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1707. 
 Sir Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in West- 
 minster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British Empire was 
 
SCO 
 
 583 
 
 SCO 
 
 governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued an independent 
 kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, when James VI. of Scotland, 
 the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, and constantly resided 
 in the latter kingdom; he and his successors calling themselves kings of England and 
 Scotland. Each country had a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign 
 of queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name of Great 
 Britain. See England. 
 
 Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by 
 Kenneth II. and every living creature 
 put to the sword or destroyed . a.d. 843 
 
 The feudal system established by Mal- 
 colm II 1004 
 
 Divided into baronies .... 1032 
 
 The Danes are driven out of all parts of 
 Scotland . 1040 
 
 Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman 
 Macbeth, by whom the crown is seized 1040 
 
 Malcolm III. aided by Edward the Con- 
 fessor, meets the usurper at Dunsi- 
 nane ; Macbeth is killed by Macduff . 1057 
 
 The Saxon-English language introduced 
 into Scotland, by fugitives from Eng- 
 land escaping from the Normans . 10S0 
 
 Siege of Alnwick ; Malcolm III. killed 
 by the governor 1093 
 
 Splendid reign of David I. who compiles 
 a code of laws 1124 
 
 Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Nor- 
 way, with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; 
 the invaders are cut to pieces by 
 Alexander III. who now recovers the 
 Western Isles 1263 
 
 John Baliol and Edward Bruce contend 
 for the throne 1290 
 
 Edward I. of England, as umpire, decides 
 in favour of John 1290 
 
 John Baliol, king of Scotland, appears to 
 a summons, and defends his own cause 
 in Westminster-hall against the earl of 
 Fife.— Stow's Chron 1293 
 
 Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to 
 England, dethrones John, ravages the 
 country, destroys the monuments of 
 Scottish history, and seizes the pro- 
 phetic stone (see Coronation Chair) . 1296 
 
 William Wallace taken by the English, 
 and executed on the elms in Smithfield 
 as a traitor .... Aug. 23, 1305 
 
 Robert I. recovers the crown, and defeats 
 the English at Bannockburn. (See 
 Bannockburn) 1314 
 
 David II. taken prisoner at the battle of 
 Durham, by queen Philippa of Eng- 
 land, and detained in captivity 11 years 1346 
 
 Battle of Chevy Chase, between Hotspur, 
 Percy, and earl Douglas. (See Otter- 
 burn, Battle of) 1388 
 
 James I. captured by the English near 
 Plamborough Head on his passage to 
 France 1406 
 
 St. Andrew's University founded . . 1411 
 
 Detained eighteen years a prisoner in 
 England ; marries a daughter of the 
 earl of Somerset ; and obtains his 
 liberty 1424 
 
 He is assassinated in his bed by the 
 friends of those whom he had punished 
 for their mal-adniinistration during 
 his imprisonment 1437 
 
 James II. commences his reign at seven 
 years of age 1437 
 
 The university of Glasgow founded by 
 bishop William Turnbull . . . 1451 
 
 James II. killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
 by a cannon bursting . . . 1460 
 
 James III. a weak prince addicted to 
 judicial astrology, by which he is se- 
 duced to cause the murder of his 
 brother John, and commit other crimes, 
 
 is killedin an insurrection of his people 
 
 at Bannockburn-fleld . . .a.d. 1488 
 
 University of Aberdeen founded by 
 bishop Elphinstone 1494 
 
 Battle of Flodden Field, where James IV. 
 is slain, and his army, comprising the 
 flower of the Scotch nobility, is cut to 
 pieces. (See Flodden Field, Battle of) . 1513 
 
 James V. establishes the court of Session. 
 (See Session) 1532 
 
 Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is 
 revived. (See Thistle) .... 1540 
 
 Mary, afterwards the queen of Scots, 
 born Dec. 8, 1542 
 
 Succeeds her father, James V. when but 
 a few days old . . . Dec. 13, 1542 
 
 She marries the Dauphin of France, after- 
 wards Francis II. . . . April 20, 1558 
 
 Francis II. dies, leaving the beautiful 
 and young Mary a widow . . . 1559 
 
 The Reformation takes place in Scotland, 
 during the minority of Mary, between 
 1550 and 1560 
 
 The Reformation is consummated by 
 John Knox 1560 
 
 Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, 
 arrives at Leith, from France, Aug. 21, 1561 
 
 Upon an inquisition, which was officially 
 taken, by order of queen Elizabeth, 
 only 58 Scotsmen were found in Lon- 
 don.— Stow 1562 
 
 Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, 
 lord Darnley . . . July 27, 1565 
 
 David Rizzio, who had obtained the con- 
 fidence and favour of Mary, and her 
 secretary, murdered by Darnley, in her 
 presence .... March 9, 1566 
 
 Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, 
 in his house . . . Feb. 10, 1567 
 
 [Mary is accused of connivingat his death, 
 either in resentment for the death of 
 Rizzio, or to gratify an illicit passion 
 for Bothwell.] 
 
 James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, seizes 
 on the person of the queen, who mar- 
 ries him .... May 15, 1567 
 
 The unfortunate Mary imprisoned by her 
 nobles 1567 
 
 Her infant son crowned, as James VI., 
 and the earl of Murray appointed 
 regent July 22, 1567 
 
 Mary escapes from prison, and collects a 
 large army, which, is defeated by the 
 regent Murray, at the battle of Lang- 
 side (See Langside) . May 15, 1568 
 
 The earl of Lennox is appointed regent 
 of the kingdom . . . July 12, 1570 
 
 The earl of Mar is chosen regent of Scot- 
 land Sept. 6, 1571 
 
 Death of the great Reformer John Knox, 
 aged 67 Nov. 24, 1572 
 
 [His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by 
 most of the nobility, and by the regent 
 Morton (chosen the day of his decease), 
 who exclaims, when Knox was laid in 
 his grave, ' ' There lies he who never 
 feared the face ofman."] 
 
 The University of Edinburgh founded. 
 
 (See Edinburgh) 1580 
 
 Mary having taken refuge in England 
 
SCO 
 
 684 
 
 SCO 
 
 SCOTLAND, continued. 
 
 where she was thrown into confine- 
 ment by queen Elizabeth, is. after 18 
 years' captivity, beheaded at Fotherin- 
 gay Castle. (See Fotheringay) Feb. 8, 1587 
 
 Gowrie's conspiracy .... 1600 
 
 Union of the crown of Scotland with that 
 of England, by the accession of James 
 VI. to the throne of the latter kingdom 
 
 March 24, 1603 
 
 Charles I. of England is betrayed by the 
 Scottish army into the hands of the 
 English rebels 1647 
 
 Marquess of Montrose put to death at 
 Edinburgh 1650 
 
 Scotland united to the English common- 
 wealth, by Oliver Cromwell . . . 1651 
 
 The commonwealth destroyed, and 
 royalty restored with Charles II. . 1660 
 
 Assassination of Archbishop Sharpe, who 
 is dragged from his carriage, near St. 
 Andrew's, by some fanatics, headed by 
 John Balfour of Burley, and des- 
 patched with swords in the presence 
 of his daughter . . . May 3, 1679 
 
 Revolution in favour of William III. and 
 establishment of presbytery . . . 1688 
 
 Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe. 
 (See GLencoe) 1691 
 
 James II. of England, of the Shiart line, 
 dies in exile . . Sept. 16, 1701 
 
 Union of Scotland withEngland, forming 
 together the kingdom of Great Britain, 
 
 May 1, 1707 
 
 Rebellion in Scotland in favour of the 
 son of the late king, James II., called 
 the Pretender. (See Pretender) . . 1715 
 
 The partisans of the Pretender are de- 
 feated at the battle of Sheriffmuir, 
 (which see) 1715 
 
 They are again defeated at the battle of 
 Preston .... Nov. 12, 1715 
 
 Affair of captain Porteous, who is killed 
 by a desperate mob in Edinburgh. (See 
 Porteous) .... Sept. 7, 1736 
 
 The last effort is made by the Stuart 
 family to recover possession of their 
 ancient kingdom ; the Young Pretender 
 gains the battle of Preston-Pans. (See 
 Preston- Paris) . . . Sept. 21, 1745 
 
 And of Falkirk . . . Jan. 18, 1746 
 
 But is completely defeated at Culloden, 
 (which see) . . . April 16, 1746 
 
 Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino are 
 
 1815 
 
 1822 
 1832 
 
 executed for high treason on Tower- 
 hill Aug. 18, 1746 
 
 The Highland dress prohibited by act of 
 parliament ; but the act was afterwards 
 repealed 1746 
 
 Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, executed at 
 the age of 80 . . . April 9, 1747 
 
 Thomson, the poet, dies . Aug. 27, 1748 
 
 The Old Pretender, the "Chevalier de St. 
 George," dies at Rome in his 88th year, 
 
 Dec. 30, 1765 
 
 Prince Charles Edward Lewis Casiuiir, 
 the Young Pretender, dies in the same 
 city March 3, 1788 
 
 Death of Robert Burns . . July, 1 796 
 
 Cardinal York (the last of the Stuarts) 
 dies .... August 19, 1807 
 
 The Court of Session is formed into two 
 divisions 1807 
 
 The establishment of a jury court under 
 a lord chief commissioner . 
 
 Visit of his majesty George IV. to Scot 
 land .... October, 
 
 Sir Walter Scott dies . . Sept. 21, 
 
 Seven ministers of the presbytery of 
 Strathbogie are deposed by the General 
 Assembly of the Church of Scotland for 
 obeying the civil, in preference to the 
 ecclesiastical law . . . May 28, 1841 
 
 [Their deposition was formally protested 
 against by the minority of ministers, 
 headed by Dr. Cook.] 
 
 The General Assembly condemn patron- 
 age as a grievance to the cause of true 
 religion that ought to be abolished, 
 
 May 23, 1842 
 
 Visit of queen Victoria, prince Albert, 
 and the court; her Majesty lands at 
 Granton pier . . . Sept. 1, 1842 
 
 The queen leaves, and embarks for Wool- 
 wich Sept. 13, 1842 
 
 Seee-sion of the non-intrusion ministers 
 of the Church of Scotland (about 400,) 
 at the General Assembly. (See Free 
 Church) .... May 18, 1S43 
 
 [The queen's visits to Scotland have since 
 been frequent.] 
 
 Death of Jeffrey . . . Jan. 26, 1850 
 Natural association for vindication of 
 Scottish rights, formed . . Nov. 1853 
 See Edinburgh. 
 
 KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 [The early accounts of the kings are, by many 
 historians, deemed in a great measure fabu- 
 lous. The antiquity of the kings is carried 
 as far back as Alexander the Great.] 
 
 330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years : lost in the 
 
 Irish Sea.* 
 305. Fritharis, brother of Fergus : supposed 
 
 to have been poisoned. 
 290. Mainus ; succeeded his uncle ; a just and 
 esteemed prince. 
 Dornadilla, son of Mainus ; a peaceful 
 
 reign of 28 years. 
 Northatus, brother of the preceding ; 
 
 cruel and avaricious : slain. 
 Rcutherus, son of Dornadilla. 
 Reutha, brother of Reutherus ; resigned 
 in favour of his nephew. 
 
 201. 
 233. 
 
 21.", 
 187 
 
 170. Thereus, son of Reutherus ; a tyrant : 
 
 deposed and exiled. 
 158. Josina, brother of Thereus. 
 134. Finanus ; succeded his father Josina : a 
 
 prosperous reign. 
 104 Durstus, son of the preceding ; a sensual 
 prince ; murdered many of his nobles 
 at a feast, whereupon a civil war 
 arose, and he was slain. 
 95. Evenus, a just, resolute, and valiant 
 
 ruler, succeeded by 
 76. Gillus, his illegitimate son, who. usurping 
 the royal power, caused the murder of 
 the rightful heirs : deposed by bis 
 nobles, and beheaded. 
 75. Evenus II. nephew of Finanus, chosen 
 
 in his room. 
 59. Ederus, grandson of Durstus. 
 12. Evenus HI. succeeded his father Ederus ; 
 
 * Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army of Scots, and was chosen king. Having 
 defeated the Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the Scots was entailed upon his 
 posterity for ever. He went to Ireland, and having settled his affairs there, was drowned on his return, 
 launching from the shore, near the harbour, called Carrick-Fcrgus to this day, 3699 a.m. -Anderson. 
 
SCO 
 
 585 
 
 SCO 
 
 SCOTLAND, continued. 
 
 deposed for his enormous crimes, and 
 strangled in prison. 
 4. Metellanus, nephew of Ederus ; eminent 
 for his justice and virtues. 
 
 AFTER CHIUST. 
 
 35. Caratacus, or Caractacus, nephew of the 
 
 preceding. 
 55. Corbred, his brother. 
 72. Dardanus, son of Corbred ; a dissolute 
 
 tyrant : his subjects slew him. 
 76. Corbred II. surnamed Galdus. Some 
 suppose this king to be the Gaigacus 
 whom Tacitus mentions as having 
 fought valiantly against Julius Agri- 
 cola. 
 
 110. Luctacus, or Lugthacus, his son, a cruel 
 and sensual tyrant : murdered by his 
 nobles. 
 
 113. Mogaldus, grandson of Corbred II. : 
 murdered. 
 
 149. Conarus, his son ; he conspired in his 
 father's murder : deposed, and died in 
 prison. 
 
 163. Ethodius I. : slain by an Irish harper in 
 revenge for the murder of a kinsman : 
 the regicide was torn asunder by wild 
 horses. 
 
 195. Satrael or Satrahel, brother of the pre- 
 ceding : grown odious for his vices and 
 oppression, he was strangled by his 
 courtiers. 
 
 199. Donald I. brother of the two last. 
 
 216. Ethodius II. son of Ethodius I. : slain by 
 his guards in a domestic tumult. 
 
 231. AtLirco, succeeded his father : an odious 
 tyrant ; dishonoured the daughters of 
 Nathalocus, a noble, who took arms 
 against him : slew himself to avoid a 
 severer death. 
 
 242. Nathalocus, who usurped the throne on 
 the king's death ; murdered many of 
 his nobles : killed by his domestics. 
 
 253. Findochus, son of Athirco; murdered in 
 a conspiracy, in which his brother, 
 Carantius, was a principal. 
 
 264. Donald II. a third son of Athirco slain 
 
 in a battle with Douald of the Isles, 
 who succeeded. 
 
 265. Donald III. lord of the Isles ; usurped 
 
 the throne ; a terror to his people : 
 
 slain by his successor, 
 277. Carthilinthus or Crathilinthus, son of 
 
 Findochus ; reigned 24 years. 
 301. Fincormachus, son of Donald II. ; reigned 
 
 47 years, and died lamented. 
 348. Romachus, nephew of the preceding : 
 
 slain by his nobles, and succeeded by 
 
 his cousin, 
 351. Angusianus or iEneanus : fell in battle 
 
 with the Pictish king, who was also 
 
 slain. 
 354. Fethelmachus, also cousin of Romachus : 
 
 defeated the Picts and mortally 
 
 wounded their new king in battle : 
 
 murdered by a Pictish minstrel who 
 
 feigned himself a Scot, hired by Her- 
 
 gustus, the succeeding king of that 
 
 nation. 
 357. Eugenius I. son of Fincormachus : slain 
 
 in battle by Maximus, the Roman 
 
 general, and the confederate Picts. 
 
 *** With this battle ended the kingdom of 
 the Scots, after having existed from 
 the coronation of Fergus I. a period of 
 
 706 years : the royal family fled to 
 Denmark. — Boece ; Buchanan. 
 [Interregnum of 27 years.] 
 
 Fergus II.* (I.) great-grandson of 
 Eugenius and 40th king: slain in 
 battle with the Romans. 
 
 Eugenius II. or Evenus, son of Fergus : 
 reigned 31 years. 
 
 Dongardus or Domangard, brother of 
 Eugenius : defeated and drowned. 
 
 Constantine I. brother of Dongardus : 
 assassinated by Dugall, a noble whose 
 daughter he had dishonoured. 
 
 Congallus I. nephew of the preceding : 
 a just and prudent king. 
 
 Goranus, brother of Congallus : mur- 
 dered — Boece. Died while Douald of 
 Athol was conspiring to take his life. 
 —Scott. 
 
 Eugenius III. succeeded his uncle, Go- 
 ranus : "none excelled him injustice." 
 
 Congallus II. brother of Eugenius III. 
 
 Kinnatellus, brother of the preceding : 
 resigned in favour of Aidanus. 
 
 Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 
 
 Kenneth or Kennett I. son of Con- 
 gallus II. : reigned one year. 
 
 Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 
 
 Ferchard or Ferquhard, son of the last : 
 confined for misdeeds to his palace, 
 where he laid violent hands upon 
 himself. — Scott. 
 
 Donald IV. brother of Ferchard : 
 drowned in Loch Tay. 
 
 Ferchard II son of Ferchard I. ; "the 
 most execrable of kings ; " died from 
 the bite of a mad wolf. 
 
 Malduinus, son of Donald IV. : strangled 
 by his wife for his supposed infidelity, 
 for which crime she was immediately 
 afterwards burnt. 
 
 Eugenius V. brother of Malduinus. 
 
 Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 
 
 Amberkeletus, his nephew : fell by an 
 arrow from an unknown hand. 
 
 Eugenius VII. his brother : some ruffians 
 designing the king's murder, entered 
 his chamber, and, he being absent, 
 stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 
 death.— Scott. 
 
 Mordaohus, son of Amberkeletus. 
 
 Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
 
 Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; 
 sensual and tyrannous : put to death 
 by his nobles, and his parasites 
 strangled. 
 
 Fergus III. son of Etfinus : killed by 
 his queen in a fit of jealousy : she 
 immediately afterwards stabbed her- 
 self to escape a death of torture. 
 
 Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
 
 Achaius ; a just and wise prince. 
 
 Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
 
 Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius : 
 drowned in the Spey. 
 
 Alpine, son of Achaius : taken prisoner, 
 and beheaded, with many of his 
 nobles, by the Picts. 
 
 Kenneth II. son of Alpinus, and sur- 
 named Mac Alpine ; defeated the 
 Picts. and slew their king and his 
 nobility. United the Picts and Scots 
 under one sceptre, and became the 
 first sole monarch of all Scotland, 813. 
 
 * Some call this Fergus the first king, and suppose that either the foregoing kings were fabulous, or 
 that they were only chiefs or generals of armies, having no royal authority. The controversy thus 
 arising, I leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must follow the received histories of Scotland. — 
 A aderson. 
 
SCO 
 
 586 
 
 SCR 
 
 SCOTLAND, continued. 
 
 854. Donald V. brother of Kenneth ; de- 
 throned, and terminated au inglorious 
 reign in prison, dying by his own hand. 
 
 858. Constantiue II. son of Kenneth : taken 
 in battle by the Danes, and beheaded. 
 
 874. Eth or Ethus,surnarnedLightfoot : died 
 of grief in prison, having been thrown 
 into confinement for his sensuality 
 and crimes. 
 
 876. Gregory, called the Great ; distinguished 
 (as a king) for his bravery, modera- 
 tion, and justice. 
 
 893. Donald VI. second son of Constantiue; 
 an excellent prince. 
 
 904. Constantinelll., son of Ethus : resigned 
 in favour of Malcolm, after a long 
 reign, and retired to a monastery. 
 
 944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. : treache- 
 rously murdered in Moray. 
 
 953. Indulfus or Gondulph : killed by the 
 Danes in an ambuscade. 
 
 961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm : basely 
 murdered by Donald, the governor of 
 Forres Castle. 
 
 965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; 
 avenged the murder of his predecessor: 
 assassinated at Methven by a tbane, 
 whose daughter he had dishonoured. 
 
 970. Kenneth III. brother of Duffus : mur- 
 dered by Fenella, the lady of Fetter- 
 cairn. 
 
 994. Constantine IV. son of Culenus, usurped 
 the throne : slain. 
 Grimus, or the Grim, son of Duffus : 
 routedand slain in battle by Malcolm, 
 the rightful heir to the crown, who 
 succeeded. 
 Malcolm II. son ofKenneth III. : assas- 
 sinated on Ins way to Glamis ; the 
 assassins in their flight, crossing a 
 frozen lake, were drowned by the ice 
 giving way. Malcolm was succeeded 
 by his grandson, 
 Duncan I. : assassinated by his coxisin 
 Macbeth, who ascended the throne. 
 1039. Macbeth, usurper and tyrant : slain by 
 Macduff, the thane of Fife, and the 
 rightful heir succeeds. 
 
 *** Historians so differ, up to this reign, in tht 
 number of the kings, the dates of suc- 
 cession, and the circumstances narrated, 
 that no account can be taken as precisely 
 accurate. 
 
 995. 
 
 1003. 
 
 1033. 
 
 1057. Malcolm III. (Cean-Mohr or Canmore), 
 son of Duncan : killed while besieging 
 Alnwick Castle. 
 
 1093. Donald VII. or Donald Bane, brother 
 
 of Malcolm, usurped the throne : fled 
 to the Hebrides. 
 
 1094. Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; 
 
 also an usurper : murdered. 
 1094. Donald Bane, again : deposed. 
 1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm, andrightful heir. 
 
 Henry I. of England married his sister 
 
 Maud, who had taken the vows, but 
 
 not the veil. 
 
 1107. Alexander, suruamed the Fierce, bro- 
 ther of Edgar. 
 
 1124. David, brother of the two preceding 
 kings : married Matilda, daughter of 
 Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 
 
 1153. Malcolm IV. grandson to David : suc- 
 ceeded by his brother, 
 
 1165. William, surnamed the Lion. 
 
 1214. Alexander II. son of William : married 
 Joan, daughter of John, king of 
 England. 
 
 1249. Alexander III. : married Margaret, 
 daughter of Henry III. of England : 
 dislocated his neck, when hunting, 
 near Kinghorn. 
 
 1285. Margaret, called the " Maiden of Nor- 
 way," grand-daughter of the last king : 
 " recognised by the states of Scotland, 
 though a female, an infant, and a 
 foreigner : " died on her passage to 
 Scotland. 
 
 On the death of Margaret, a compe- 
 tition arose for the vacant throne, 
 which Edward I. of England decided 
 in favour of 
 
 1292. JohnBaliol, who afterwards surrendered 
 his crown, and died in exile. 
 [Interregnum. J 
 
 1306. Robert (Bruce) I. : the Bruce of Ban- 
 nockburn : a brave prince, beloved by 
 his people. 
 
 1329. David (Bruce)II. son of Robert. Edward 
 Baliol disputed the throne with him. 
 
 1332. Edward Baliol, son of John : resigned. 
 
 1342. David II. again : eleven years a prisoner 
 in England; succeeded by his nephew, 
 
 1371. Robert (Stuart) II. : succeeded by his 
 son, 
 
 1390. Robert III. whose proper name was 
 John, changed on his accession. 
 
 1406. James I. second son of the preceding ; 
 imprisoned 18 years in England ; set 
 at liberty in 14'23 : conspired against 
 and murdered, 1437. Assassinated in 
 his bed-chamber, Feb. 21, 1437-8.— 
 Banks. 
 
 1437. James II. son of James I. whom he 
 succeeded at seven years of age : 
 killed at the siege of Roxburgh Castle 
 by a cannon bursting. 
 
 1460. James III. succeeded his father : killed 
 in a revolt of his subjects at Bannock- 
 burn-field. 
 
 1488. James IV. ; married Margaret Tudor, 
 daughter of Henry VII. of England : 
 killed at the battle of Flodden. 
 
 1513. James V. : son of the last king: succeeded 
 when little more than a year old ; a 
 sovereign possessing many virtues. 
 
 1542. Mary, daughter of James V. ; succeeded 
 in her infancy : put to death in 
 England. 
 
 1567. James VI. son of Mary. In 1603, on the 
 death of queen Elizabeth,he succeeded 
 to the throne of England and the 
 kingdoms became united. 
 
 See England. 
 
 SCREW. This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping-screw of 
 Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 B.C. is still in use, and 
 still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the screw is astonishing; it being 
 calculated that if the distance between the two spirals or threads of the screw be half 
 an inch, and the length of each handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in 
 going round will be seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half 
 an inch, the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
 assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could do without 
 
SOU 587 SEA 
 
 it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the spirals and the length 
 of the handles. — Greig. The screw has been adopted in steam-vessels. 
 
 SCULLABOGUE, MASSACRE at, in IRELAND. One of the most horrible of the 
 many crimes committed during the memorable rebellion of 1798. One hundred and 
 eighty-four persons, men, women, and children, having sought refuge at the barn of 
 Scullabogue, the barn was set on fire, and they were burned, or shot, or pierced to 
 death by pikes in their endeavours to escape from the flames. They were chiefly 
 Protestants, and the massacre was perpetrated by the insurgent Irish, June 4, 1798. — 
 Sir Richard Musgrave. 
 
 SCULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. The inven- 
 tion is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by others to the Greeks. 
 It is referred by some historians to 1020 B.C. and sculpture in marble to 872 B.C. 
 Pausanias refers the nearest approach to perfection in the art to 560 B.C. According 
 to sacred history, Bezaleel and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, 
 and made all the vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of 
 repute, and their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi. Dipcenus 
 and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them 
 as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues before their 
 time being of wood, 568 B.C. This, however, can only be fact so far as it relates to 
 the western world; for in the eastern countries the art was known, long before. 
 Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his statues, 326 B.C. He left no 
 less than 600 pieces, some of which were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, 
 that they sold for their weight in gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished 
 followers among the Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With the 
 revival of the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at 
 Florence, a.d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moderns. Sculpture was 
 revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, about 1460. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 SCUTAGE or ESCUAGE. The service of the shield is either uncertain or certain. 
 Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord. 
 Another kind of escuage uncertain is called Castleward, where the tenant is bound to 
 defend a castle. Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a certain sum of money, 
 to be paid in lieu of such uncertain services. The first tax levied in England to pay 
 an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. — Cowel. 
 
 SCUTARI, a town of Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. 
 It was anciently called Chrysopolis, golden city, in consequence, it is said, of the 
 Persians having established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of 
 Greece. Near here Constantine finally defeated Licinius, a.d. 324. The hospital was 
 occupied by the sick and wounded of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose 
 Bufferings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale 
 and a band of nurses under her, aided by a large fund of money (15,O0OZ.) subscribed 
 by the public and placed in the care of the proprietors of the Times newspaper. 
 
 SCYTHIA or TARTARY, which see. The country situate on the most northern parts 
 of Europe and Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated European 
 and Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia were uninhabited, on account of 
 the extreme coldness of the climate. The boundaries of Scythia were unknown to 
 the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast tracts of lands which lay 
 at the north, east, and west. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more 
 southern provinces of Asia, ^.specially B.C. 624, when they remained in possession of 
 Asia Minor for twentj -eight *• ears ; and we find them at different periods extending 
 their conquests in Europe, al.'d penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries 
 after Christ they invaded thin Roman empire. They are thought to have at one time 
 held the Crimea. 
 
 SEA BATTLES, ANCIENT, and in BRITISH HISTORY. See Naval Battles. 
 
 SEAL. See Great Seal of England and Privy Seal. Seals were not much in use with the 
 Saxons ; but they signed parchments with the cross, impressions of lead being affixed. 
 Sealing of deeds and writs was practised in England, a.d. 1048. There was a seal of 
 king Edward's at Westminster, 1188. Until William I.'s time the name was written, 
 adding the sign of the cross. Arms were then introduced in seals. The most ancient 
 English seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. Arnulphus, earl of Flanders used 
 one about 940. Wax was first used, hung at the bottom of the deed, wrapped in 
 cloth, parchment, or tin, about 1213. Sealing-wax for letters was not brought into 
 general use in England until 1556. 
 
SKA 588 SKD 
 
 SEAS, SOVEREIGNTY of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
 Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, and Alfred 
 afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England over the British seas 
 was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in consequence, 
 8 Charles I. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I. made some attempts to 
 obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other 
 powers of the north, armed, to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality, 
 and Flag. 
 
 SEBASTOPOL, or SEVASTOPOL, a town and naval arsenal, at the S. W. point of the 
 Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 
 1784, by Catherine II. after the conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
 shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according 
 to a plan laid down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications 
 and harbour were constructed by an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, 
 since 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. This place will be memorable 
 hereafter for its eleven months' Siege, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. 
 Immediately after the battle of the Alma, Sept. 20, 1854, the allied army marched 
 to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and 
 the grand attack and bombardment commenced Oct. 17, 1854 without success.* 
 After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a 
 grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, 
 the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded 
 in capturing and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great 
 Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
 were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French 
 lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 iuferior officers; 
 4500 wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being com- 
 missioned and 42 non-commissioned officers) ; 1886 wounded; and 176 missing. In 
 the night the Russians abandoned the southern and principal part of the town and 
 fortifications, after destroying as much as possible, and crossed to the northern forts. 
 They also sank or burnt the remainder of their fleet. The allies found a very great 
 amount of stores when they entered the place. See Russo- Turkish War. 
 
 SECRETARY of STATE. The earliest authentic record of a secretary of state is in 
 the reign of Henry III. when John Maunsell is described as " Secretarius Nosier," 
 1253. — Rymer. Towards the close of Henry Vill.'s reign, two secretaries were 
 appointed ; and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
 Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside ; but in the reign of Ceorge 
 III. the number was again increased to three, one for the American department. In 
 1782 this last was abolished by act of parliament ; the secretaries were appointed for 
 home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there were but two secretaries, one held 
 the portefeudle of the Northern department, comprising the Low Countries, 
 Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Russia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern 
 department, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Turkey ; the 
 affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary ; both secretaries then equally 
 directed the home affairs. — Beatson. There are now four secretaries for home, 
 foreign, colonial, and war affairs, all in the cabinet ; the latter was added in 1854. 
 
 SECTS, RELIGIOUS. See Religion. 
 
 SEDAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in 
 England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by the duke of Buck- 
 ingham, to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing 
 his fellow creatures to do the service of beasts^ Sedan chairs came into fashion in 
 London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, 
 and hire a number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. They came into very 
 general use in 1649. 
 
 * In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopo 
 Inquiry Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administration resigned, Feb. 1855. The com- 
 mittee sat from March 1 to May 15, lord Aberdeen being the last person examined. Its report was 
 presented June 18. Mr. Roebuck, the chairman, moved on July 17 that the house should pass a vote 
 of severe reprehension on every member ol the Aberdeen administration. On July 19 his motion was 
 lost by a majority of 107 against it. In 1855 the government sent sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch to 
 inquire into the state of the armies in the Crimea. Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 
 1856. A commission was appointed to consider the statements iu the report (which were very un- 
 favourable tu many officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken. 
 
SEJJ 589 SEP 
 
 SEDGMOOR, BATTLE of. In which the duke of Monmouth, who had risen in 
 rebellion on the accession of James II. was completely defeated by the royal army, 
 July 5, 1685. The duke, who was the natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Walters, 
 one of his mistresses, was made a prisoner, having been found in the disguise of a 
 peasant, lying at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. 
 He was soon afterwards beheaded. 
 
 SEDITION ACTS. Several acts under this name were passed in the reign of George 
 III. The memorable proclamation against seditious writings was published May 
 1792. The celebrated Sedition Bill passed December 1795. Seditious societies were 
 suppressed by act, June 1797. The seditious meetings and assemblies' bill passed 
 March 31, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts 
 or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were published from time to 
 time until 1848, inclusive. 
 
 SEIDLITZ, BATTLE of, in POLAND. Between the Poles struggling for independence 
 and their Russian oppressors. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
 flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of cannon. The killed and wounded 
 on both sides amounted to many thousands, April 10, 1831. This success of the 
 Poles was, however, soon afterwards followed by most disastrous and fatal reverses. 
 
 SELEUCIDES, ERA of the. It dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator, 311 years 
 and four months B.C. It was used in Syria for many years and frequently by the 
 Jews until the fifteenth century, and by some Arabians to this day. Opinions are 
 very much at variance as to the precise commencement of this era. To reduce it to 
 our era (supposing it to begin Sept. 1, 312 B.C.) subtract 311 years and four months. 
 
 SEMINCAS, BATTLE of. One of the most bloody of the times in which it was 
 fought, between the Moors and Ramirez II. king of Leon and the Asturias. More 
 than 80,000 of the infidels were slain, the dead lying in heaps for miles round. 
 The Spanish historians swell the number to a greater amount ; fought a.d. 938. 
 
 SEMPACH, BATTLE of. Between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
 heroic Swiss, after prodigies of valour, gained a great and memorable victory over the 
 duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they established the liberty of their 
 country ; and it is still annually commemorated with great solemnity at Sempach. 
 
 SEMPER EADEM. First adopted by queen Anne as the motto for the royal arms of 
 England, Dec. 13, 1702. It was suspected by many of the politicians of the day that 
 this motto was meant to denote her Jacobitism ; which was wholly discountenanced 
 by her subsequent conduct. The motto ceased to be used after her reign. 
 
 SENESCHAL. A high officer of the royal household, and one of the most ancienb titles 
 attached to those who commanded the armies of the kings of France, particularly of 
 the second and third race. In the reign of Philip I. 1059, the office of seneschal was 
 esteemed the highest place of trust under the French crown, and seems to have been 
 much the same with our lord high steward. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the seventh 
 from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became the ninth month 
 when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 713 B.C. The Roman 
 senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed 
 it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate under 
 Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; 
 and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. 
 
 SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took place in Paris. 
 The different prisons were broken open, and all the state prisoners butchered, among 
 them an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number 
 of persons slain on this occasion at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this dreadful 
 slaughter of innocent victims were branded with the name of Septembrizers, Sept. 2, 
 1792. — Hist. French Revol. 
 
 SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
 In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, " that a parliament should be holden every 
 year once." This continued to be the statute-law till 16 Charles II. when an act was 
 passed for holding of parliaments once in three years at least; but parliaments for a 
 longer period than a year were held after Henry VIII. ascended the throne. The 
 Triennial act was confirmed soon after the Revolution of 1688 by 6 Will. & Mary, 
 c. 2. Triennial parliaments thence continued till the second year of George I.'s reign, 
 
SEP 590 SEV 
 
 1715, when, in consequence of the allegation that "a popish faction were designing to 
 renew the i-ebellion within this kingdom, and the report of an invasion from abroad, 
 it was enacted that the then parliament should continue for seven years." This 
 Septennial Act has ever since been in force. See Parliaments. 
 
 SEPTUAGES1MA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Sunday and Weih. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 B.C. Seventy -two translators were 
 shut up in thirty-six cells; each pair translated the whole; and on subsequent com- 
 parison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. — Justin Martyr. St. 
 Jerome affirms that they translated only the Pentateuch; but St. Justin and others 
 say they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadephus gave the Jews about a million 
 sterling for a copy of the Testament, and seventy translators half a million more for 
 the translation. — Josephus. Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. The above 
 statements are merely traditional. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM, BATTLES of. The battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle 
 of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, fought May 15, 1791. — Battle 
 in which the redoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, 
 Feb. 6, 1792. After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo 
 agreed to cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000?. 
 sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as host- 
 ages. — In a new war the Madras army, under gen. Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 
 April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 14 ; and the place was 
 stormed and carried by major-general Bah'd, May 4, same year. In this engagement 
 Tippoo was killed. See India. 
 
 SERJEANTS-AT-LAW. These are pleaders from among whom the judges are ordinarily 
 chosen, and by way of eminence are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges, when 
 speaking to them, call them brothers. The Serjeant's coif was originally a skull-cap, 
 worn by knights under their helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was 
 used to hide the tonsure of such renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in 
 the secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. — Blachtone. The coif 
 was at first a thin linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull or helmet, the 
 material being afterwards changed into white silk, and the form eventually into a 
 black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is now the distinguishing mark of 
 the degree. — Foss's Lives of the Judges. 
 
 SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily attested, 
 was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus along the banks of 
 the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many of his soldiers. It was 
 destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was afterwards seen by Pliny in the Capitol 
 at Rome. — Pliny. The American papers abound with accounts of sea-sei - pents, deemed 
 by us in England to be fabulous ; but a sea-serpent is said to have been cast on shore 
 on the Orkney Islands, which was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to 
 the girth of an Orkney pony, 1808. — Phillips. 
 
 SERVANTS. An act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was 
 augmented in 1781 et seq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this 
 latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000?. 
 per annum; in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482?. ; in 1850 it produced 
 about the same sum. 
 
 SESSION COURTS. The sessions in England were appointed to be held quarterly, 
 2 Hen. V. 1413. The times for holding these courts were regulated by statute, 
 1 Will. IV. 1831. See Quarter Sessio7is. In Scotland, a court of session was esta- 
 blished by James I. 1425. This court was put a.side in 1502, but was re-constituted, 
 with lords to preside, in 1532. The kirk-session in Scotland consists of the minister 
 and elders of each parish. They superintend the affairs of their own community in 
 religious concerns, determine on matters of lesser scandal, dispense the money col- 
 lected for the poor, and manage what relates to public worship. 
 
 SETTLEMENT, ACT of, for securing the succession to the British throne, to the 
 exclusion of Roman Catholics, was passed 1 Will. & Mary, 1689. This name is also 
 given to the statutes 12 & 13 Will. III. by which the crown is limited to the present 
 royal family, June 12, 1701. The Irish act of settlement was passed in 1662, but was 
 repealed in 1689. See Hanoverian Succession. 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels of which the Apostle John was com- 
 
SEV 
 
 591 
 
 SHA 
 
 manded to write the epistles contained in the 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, 
 a.d. 96, viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. 
 
 1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the 
 church here, a.d. 57, and in a.d. 59, was 
 in great danger from a tumult created by 
 Demetrius. To the elders of this church 
 he delivered his warning address, a.d. 60 
 (Acts xix. xx.). Ephesus was in a ruinous 
 state even in the time of Justinian (a.d. 
 527), and still remains so. 
 
 2. Smyrna. Now an important commercial 
 city and sea-port of Ionia. Polycarp, its 
 first bishop, suffered martyrdom, a.d. 173. 
 
 3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the 
 same name, founded by Philetserus, B.C. 
 283, and part of Bithynia. It was re- 
 nowned for its library. It is still an im- 
 portant place called Bergamo. 
 
 4. Thyatira. Now a small town of 2000 
 houses, called Ak-hissar, " White Castle." 
 
 5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the 
 kingdom of Croesus (b.o. 560), is now a 
 miserable village, named Sart. 
 
 6. Philadelphia. Was built by Attalus Phila- 
 delpbu3, king of Pergamos (about B.C. 159- 
 13S). It is now called Allah Shehr, "The 
 city of God," and is a miserable town of 
 3000 houses. 
 
 7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia, has 
 suffered much from earthquakes. It is 
 now a deserted place called ISske-hissar, 
 " The old castle." 
 
 SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. See article Sabbatarians, &c. 
 
 SEVERUS'S WALL. See Roman Walls. . 
 
 SEVILLE. One of the most ancient cities of Spain; but the date of its foundation is 
 unknown. It was the capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court 
 at Madrid, a.d. 1563. This city is the Hispolis of the Phoenicians, and the Julia of 
 the Romans. It opened its gates to the Moors in 711, soon after their invasion of 
 the kingdom, and continued in their hands upwards of five centuries. It was taken 
 from them by the Christians in 1247, after one of the most obstinate sieges in Spanish 
 history. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain, and also a defensive 
 alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. In the late peninsular war, 
 Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by assault by the 
 British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812, when the French 
 left it at the general evacuation of the south of Spain, in consequence of their signal 
 defeat in that battle. 
 
 SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Sunday and Week. 
 
 SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains sixty 
 degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of the planets, &c. 
 Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. — Vince's Astron. 
 The Arabian astronomers under the caliphs are said to have had a sextant of fifty - 
 nine feet nine inches radius, about a.d. 995. — Ashe. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE'S GLOBE THEATRE, London. This renowned theatre was situated 
 near the spot still called Bankside, at the commencement of the 17th century. 
 Shakspeare was himself part proprietor; here some of his plans were first produced, 
 and he himself performed in them. It was of a horse-shoe form, partly covered with 
 thatch. After it was licensed, the thatch took fire, through the negligent discharge of a 
 piece of ordnance, and the whole building was consumed. The house was crowded to 
 excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII., but the audience escaped unhurt. This 
 was the end of Shakspeare's connection with this theatre : it was rebuilt the following 
 year, much in the same style, about a.d. 1603. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE'S JUBILEE. See Jubilee. 
 
 SHAKSPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon. Shakspeare was born at 
 Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died there on the anniversary of his natal day, 1616. 
 A project was originated in 1820 for the erection of an edifice to his memory in the 
 nature of a museum, cenotaph, or temple, but it failed ; another attempt to honour 
 Shakspeare was made with better success in 1835, and a Shakspeare festival was held 
 at Stratford, April 23, 1836. In 1847, a number of persons of distinction interested 
 themselves for the preservation of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
 actually set up for sale ; they held a meeting at the Thatched-House Tavern, London, 
 Aug. 26, in that year, and took measures for promoting a subscription set on foot by 
 the Shakspearian Club at Stratford : and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
 object. In the end, Shakspeare's house was sold at the Auction Mart in the city of 
 London, where it was "knocked down" to the United Committee of London and 
 Stratford for the large sum of 3000Z. Sept. 16, 1847. 
 
 SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick 
 M'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, a.d. 432. When he could 
 
SHE 592 SHI 
 
 not make them understand him by words, he showed the Irish a stem of clover or 
 trefoil, thereby exhibiting an ocular demonstration of the possibility of three uniting 
 into one, and one into three. 
 
 SHEEP. They were exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby 
 improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen 
 manufacture, 8 Edw. IV. 1467. — Anderson. Their exportation prohibited on pain of 
 fine and imprisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been 
 variously stated — by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 
 60,000,000, in 1840. The number must have progressively increased to the present 
 time, particularly as the unrestricted importation since 1846 vastly swells the amount. 
 In the year ending Jan. 5, 1852, there were imported into England 201,859 sheep 
 and lambs. 
 
 SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION. The earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquess of 
 Lansdowne) became first lord of the treasury, on the death of the marquess of 
 Rockingham, July, 1782; right hon. William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
 (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council; duke of Grafton, privy seal; 
 Thomas, lord Grantham, home, and right hon. Thomas Townshend, foreign, secre- 
 taries; viscount Keppel, admiralty; duke of Richmond, ordnance; right hon. Henry 
 Dundas, Isaac Barre - , Sir George Yonge, &c. Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. This 
 ministry terminated, on the formation of the celebrated " Coalition" administration 
 (which see), April 1783. 
 
 SHERIFF, and HIGH SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of 
 a shire or county. London had its sheriffs prior to William I.'s reign ; but some say 
 that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by William in 1079. 
 According to other historians, Henry Cornhil and Richard Reynere were the first 
 sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I. 1189. The nomination of sheriffs according to the 
 present mode took place in 1461. — Stow. Anciently sheriffs were hereditary in 
 Scotland, and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin 
 (first called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308; and obtained the name of sheriff by an 
 incorporation of Edward VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and eleven excused, 
 in one year, rather than serve the office for London, 1734. See Bailiffs. 
 
 SHERIFFMUIR, BATTLE of. Between the royal army under the duke of Argyle, 
 and the Scotch rebel forces who favoured the pretender (the chevalier de St. George, 
 son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar; the insurgents were defeated, 
 and several persons of rank wei - e taken prisoners. The battle was fought ou the 
 very day on which the rebel forces in the same cause were defeated at Preston, 
 Nov. 12, 1715. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents 
 the Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about B.C. 1143. — Judges, ch. xii. The term 
 is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. 
 
 SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon coin of this name was five pence, but it 
 was reduced to four pence about a century before the Conquest. After the conquest 
 the French solidus of twelve pence, in use among the Norman?, was called shilling. 
 The true English shilling was first coined, but in small quantity, 18 Hen. VII. 1503. 
 — Dr. Kelly. In 1505. — Bishop Fleetwood. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but 
 to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 1560; and a large but very base 
 coinage in England for the service of Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings were coined 
 13 Chas. II. 1662. See Coins. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inventors; the 
 first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Greece, by Danaus, 1485 B c. 
 — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 B.C. — Lenglet. 
 The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of 
 Henry VIII. 1509; it was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000£. — Stow. Before 
 this time, 24-gun ships were the largest in our navy, and these had no port-holes, the 
 guns being on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were 
 invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74-gun ship 
 was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed with India-rubber, 1829. 
 See Navy and Steam Vessels. 
 
 SHIP-MONEY. It was first levied a.d. 1007, and caused great commotions. This 
 impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolution. He assessed 
 
SHI 
 
 593 
 
 SHO 
 
 London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men; Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 
 tons, or 12,000?.; Bristol in one ship of 100 tons; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. 
 The trial of the patriot Hampden for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely 
 opposed, took place in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 
 1641. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died 
 June 24, 1643. . 
 
 SHIPPING of the UNITED KINGDOM. Shipping was first registered in the river 
 Thames in 1786; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the 18th 
 century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons— less than London 
 now. In 1830, the number of ships in the British empire was 22,785. 
 
 NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ON JAN. 1, 1840, 
 
 Cowitry. 
 England .... 
 Scotland. .... 
 Ireland .... 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, and Man 
 British plantations 
 
 Total 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 15,830 
 
 3,318 
 
 1,889 
 
 633 
 
 6,075 
 
 27,745 
 
 Tons. 
 . 1,983,522 
 . 378,194 
 . 169,289 
 39,630 
 . 497,798 
 
 . 3,068,433 
 
 Seamen. 
 , 114,593 
 . 25,909 
 . 11,288 
 . 4,473 
 . 35,020 
 
 . 181, 2S3 
 
 The following are the numbers of the Registered Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive 
 of River Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the home and foreign trade : — 
 
 In 1S49. 
 
 In 1856. 
 
 Sailing . 
 Steamers . . 
 
 Total . 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men employed. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Men employed. 
 
 17,807 
 414 
 
 2,988,021 
 108,321 
 
 144,165 
 8,446 
 
 18,419 
 S51 
 
 3,825,022 
 331,055 
 
 151,080 
 22,838 
 
 18,221 
 
 3,096,342 
 
 152,611 
 
 19,270 
 
 4,156,077 
 
 173,918 
 
 SHIPWRECKS. See article Wrecks of Shipping. 
 
 SHIRT. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first generally worn in 
 the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were 
 commonly worn in England until about the 38th of Hen. III. 1253, when linen, but 
 of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was first manufactured in 
 England by Flemish artisans. — Stotv. 
 
 SHOES. Among the Jews they were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood. Moons 
 were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah iii. 18. Among 
 the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear 
 shoes made of the bark of trees; probably, that they might not wear what were 
 made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of everything that had 
 had life. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory 
 crescent on their shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The 
 Indians, like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In England 
 the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet ; they wore the beaks or 
 points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were 
 forced to tie them up to their knees; the fine gentlemen fastened theirs with chains 
 of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. This custom was in vogue from 
 a.d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by 
 the clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes, as at present worn, were introduced 
 about 1633. The buckle was not used till 1668. Stow; Mortimer. 
 
 SHOEBLACK BRIGADES, (Blue, Red, and Yellow,) were established at various times 
 by the Ragged School Union (which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 boys had 
 cleaned 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus earned 2270?.; of which 1235?. had 
 been paid to the boys, 527?. to their bank, and 516?. to the society. 
 
 SHOP-TAX. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785 ; 
 but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was 'deemed 
 expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, 
 without benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 11 Will. III. 1699. This statute has been 
 some time repealed. 
 
SHO 591 SIA 
 
 SHORE, JANE. The mistress of Edward IV. and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did 
 public penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in Ludgate, but upon the petition 
 of Thomas Hymore, who agreed to marry her, king Richard III. in 1484, restored her 
 to liberty, and sir Thomas More mentions having seen her ; which contradicts the 
 story of her having perished by hunger. — Harleian MSS. 
 
 "SHORT-LIVED " ADMINISTRATION. The administration of the right hon. William 
 Pulteney, earl of Bath, so called from its having expired two days after its partial 
 formation : on this account it was called also, in derision, the " Long-lived Adminis- 
 tration." The few members of it were : the earl of Bath, lord Carlisle, lord Winchei- 
 sea, and lord Granville. It was commenced Feb. 10, and was dissolved Feb. 12, 1746. 
 See Bath, Earl of, his Administration. 
 
 SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. A remarkable and a short administration in the 
 reign of queen Anne. Charles duke of Shrewsbury was made lord treasurer, July 30, 
 1714, two days before the queen's death ; but his patent was revoked soon after the 
 accession of George I. October 13, following, when the earl of Halifax became first 
 lord of the treasury. See Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been executed 
 by commissioners ever since ; the duke of Shrewsbury being the last personage who 
 executed the office as an individual. 
 
 SHREWSBURY, BATTLE of. Between the royal army of Henry IV. and the army of 
 the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, 
 who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army consisted of about 12,000 men, 
 and the engagement was most bloody. Henry was seen everywhere in the thickest 
 of the fight ; while his valiant son, who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of 
 France, fought by his side, and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept 
 the field, and performed astonishing acts of valour. On the other side the daring 
 Hotspur supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
 everywhere sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 gentlemen 
 were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand 
 decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE of. In which the Britons were completely subjugated, and 
 Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the 
 queen of the Briganti, a prisoner to the Romans, a.d. 51. While Caractacus was 
 being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by the splendours that surrounded 
 him. " Alas ! " he cried, " how is it possible that a people possessed of such magnifi- 
 cence at home could envy me an humble cottage in Britain?" The emperor was 
 affected with the British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered 
 him to be unchained upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. 
 
 SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made confession, 
 according to the discipline of the ancient Church, they were permitted to indulge in 
 festive amusements, although not allowed to partake of any repast beyond the usual 
 substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the custom yet preserved of eating pancakes 
 and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first 
 week of Lent. On these days of authorised indulgence the most wanton recreations 
 were tolerated, provided a due regard wr.s paid to the abstinence commanded by the 
 Church ; and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the people 
 in every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins; and the parish 
 bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient parishes the custom 
 yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the name of pancake-bell. 
 Observed as a festival before 1430. 
 
 SIAM. An extensive kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was 
 re-discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established in which the Dutch 
 joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a Cephalonian Greek, 
 Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign minister of Siam, and opened a communication 
 with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 1685 with a view of converting the king, 
 without effect. After several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowriug succeeded in 
 obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam, which 
 was signed April 30, 1855, and ratified April 5, 1856. 
 
 SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born about 
 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by separate and distinct 
 individuals, although united together by a short cartilaginous band at the pit of the 
 stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the banks 
 
SIB 
 
 595 
 
 SIC 
 
 of the Siam river by an American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to 
 New York, where they were exhibited, and were afterwards consigned to the care of 
 captain Coffin, by whom they were brought to England, and publicly shown. No 
 connection exists between them but this band, and their proximity seems in no way 
 to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight and well-made, and walk with 
 a gait like other people ; being perfect in all their parts, and having all the animal 
 functions distinct, the faculties of each belonging to himself. After having been 
 exhibited for several years in London, and the provinces, the Siamese Twins went to 
 America, where they settled on a farm, and married sisters. 
 
 SIBYLS. The Sibylla? were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished in 
 different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato speaks of one, others 
 of two, Pliny of three, iElian of four, and Varro of ten ; an opinion which is univer- 
 sally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
 nine books containing the Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. 
 He denied her, whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the 
 same price for the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and 
 again demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin conferring 
 with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created to consult 
 them on all occasions, 531 B.c. 
 
 SICILY. See Naples. The ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, a people 
 of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 B.C. A second colony, 
 uuder Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 1264, B.C. — Lenght. 
 The Phoenicians and Greeks settled seme colonies here, and at last the Carthaginians 
 became masters of the whole island, till they were dispossessed of it by the Romans 
 in the Punic wars. Some authors suppose that Sicily was originally joined to the 
 continent, and that it was separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits 
 of the Charybdis were formed. — Justin; Livy. 
 
 Arrival of TTlysses. — Homer . .B.C. 1186 
 He puts out the eye of Polyphemus . . Ilb6 
 
 Syracuse fouuded. — Eusebius . . . 732 
 
 Gela founded. — Thucydides . . . 713 
 
 Arrival of the Messeuians . . . 668 
 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to 
 
 death. See Brazen Bull . . . . 552 
 
 Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela . 496 
 
 Law of Petalism instituted . . . 466 
 
 Iteign of Dionysius 405 
 
 Offended with the freedom of the philo- 
 sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for 
 
 a slave. — Stanley 386 
 
 Plato ransomed by his friends . . 386 
 Damon and Pythias flourish. See Damon 
 
 and Pythias 386 
 
 The sway of Timoleon .... 346 
 
 Usurpation of Agathocles . . . . 317 
 
 Defeat of Hamilcar 309 
 
 Pillage of the temples of Lepari . . 304 
 
 The Romans arrive in Sicily . . . 264 
 
 Agrigentum taken by the Romans . . 262 
 
 Palermo besieged by the Romans . . 254 
 
 Archimedes nourishes . . . . 236 
 The Romans take Syracuse, and make 
 
 all Sicily a province . . . .212 
 
 The Servile war began.— Livy . . . 135 
 * * * * * * 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens . . a.d. 821 
 
 [They made Palermo the capital, and the 
 standard of Mahomet triumphed for 
 200 years.] 
 
 They are driven out by a Norman prince, 
 Roger I. son of Tancred, who takes 
 the title of count of Sicily . . . 1080 
 
 Roger II. son of the above-named, unites 
 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned 
 king of the Two Sicilies . . . 1130 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, 
 king of France, conquers Naples and 
 Sicily, deposes the Noiman princes, 
 and makes himself king . . . . 12C6 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Sici- 
 lians, a general massacre of the in- 
 
 vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
 only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers a.d. 1288 
 
 In the same year, Sicily is seized by a 
 fleet sent by the kings of Arragon, in 
 Spain ; but Naples remains to the 
 house of Anjou, which expires . . 1382 
 
 Jane, the late sovereign, having left her 
 crown to Louis, duke of Anjou, his 
 pretensions are resisted by Charles 
 Durazzo, cousin of Jane, who ascends 
 the throne 1386 
 
 Alphonsus, king of Arragon, takes pos- 
 session of Naples 1458 
 
 The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
 to the Spanish monarchy . . . 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
 insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a 
 fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
 two hundred thousand men . . . 1647 
 
 Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage 
 of these commotions, procures himself 
 to be proclaim ed king ; but is, in a few 
 days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
 his adherents 1647 
 
 Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the 
 treaty of Utrecht 1713 
 
 Ceded by him to the emperor Charles VI. 
 Sardinia being given to him as an 
 equivalent 1720 
 
 The Spaniards having made themselves 
 masters of both kingdoms, Charles, 
 son of the king of Spain, ascends the 
 throne, with the ancient title renewed, 
 of king of the Two Sicilies . . . 1734 
 
 Order of St. Januarius instituted by 
 king Charles . . . ... .1 7E8 
 
 The throne of Spain, becoming vacant, 
 Charles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
 of the Two Sicilies in favour oi his bro- 
 ther Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty . 1759 
 
 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in 
 Sicily, which destroys 40,000 persons. 1783 
 
 Naples preserved from the power of the 
 French by the British forces under 
 admiral Nelson . . . . . 1799 
 Q Q 2 
 
SIC 
 
 696 
 
 SIK 
 
 SICILY, continued. 
 
 Violent earthquake in the neighbourhood 
 of Naples a.d. 1805 
 
 The French invade Naples, depose king 
 Ferdinand IV. and give the crown of 
 the Two Sicilies to Joseph Bonaparte, 
 brother to the emperor of the French 1806 
 
 Joachim Murat raised to the throne of 
 Naples 1808 
 
 Ferdinand restored . . . a.d. 1815 
 Ineffectual attempt of the Sicilians to 
 limit the royal prerogative, causing 
 much bloodshed at Palermo and other 
 
 towns 1820 
 
 [For the details of the late insurrection 
 (that of 1848-9) and other events, see 
 Naples.] 
 
 KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he 
 
 resigned it to the emperor Charles VI. 
 
 in 1718, and got Sardinia in lieu of it. 
 1718. Charles VI. emperor. 
 1734. Charles, second son to the king of Spain, 
 
 resigned in 1759. 
 1759. Ferdinand IV. third son of the former 
 
 king. 
 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 1808. Joachim Murat : he was shot, October 
 13, 1815. 
 
 1815. Ferdinand I. : formerly Ferdinand IV. 
 of Naples, and intermediately Ferdi- 
 nand III. of Sicily : now of the United 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 1825. Francis I. 
 
 1830. Ferdinand II. Nov. 8. The present 
 (1857) king of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known by this 
 name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to 
 the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the 
 following occurrence led to its development and accomplishment. On Easter Monday, 
 the chief conspirators had assembled at Palermo ; and while the French were engaged 
 in festivities, a Sicilian bride happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by 
 one Drochet, a Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, 
 under pretence of searching for arnis. A young Sicilian, exasperated at this affront, 
 Btabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French were instantly 
 murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out " Let the 
 French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, they slaughtered all of 
 that nation they could find, to the number of 8000. Even the churches proved no 
 sanctuary ; and the massacre became general throughout the island. 
 
 SIDON, in Syria. Capture of this town from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the 
 sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under admiral 
 the lion, sir Robert Stopford and commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. Here 
 were found large quantities of ammunition and stores. The capture of A ere and the 
 operations connected with it on the coast of Syria, were effected by the British fleet 
 under these commanders at the same time. See articles Syria and Turkey. 
 
 SIEGES, MEMORABLE. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammitichus the Powerful, 
 held out for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. 
 This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was 
 the most celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1184 B.C. The following are the principal 
 and most memorable sieges since the twelfth century : — 
 
 Acre,1192 ; 1799, by Bonaparte; 
 siege raised after 60 days, 
 open trenches. 
 
 Algesiras, 1341. 
 
 Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-vessels 
 first used by a French en- 
 gineer named Renau, 1816. 
 
 Alkmaer, 1573 
 
 Almeida, Aug. 27, 1810. 
 
 Amiens, 1597. 
 
 Ancona, 1799. 
 
 Angoulgme, 1345. 
 
 Antwerp, 1576. Use of infer- 
 nal machines, 1583, 1585, 
 1706, 1792, 1814, 1830. 
 
 Arras, 1414. 
 
 Ath, 1745. 
 
 Avignon, 1226. 
 
 Azoff, 1736. 
 
 Badajoz, March 11, 1811. Be- 
 sieged by lord Wellington, 
 in May : but siege raised. 
 Again in June ; raised June 
 9. Taken by escalade on the 
 night of April 6, 1812. 
 
 Bagdad, 1248. 
 
 Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 
 
 Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
 
 Bayonne, 1451. 
 
 Beauvais, 1472. 
 
 Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
 
 1688, 1717, 1739, 1789. 
 Bellegarde, 1793, 1794. 
 Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 
 Bergen-op-Zoom, 1588, 1622, 
 
 1747, 1814. 
 Berwick, 1293. 
 Besancon, 1668, 1674. 
 Bethune, 1710. 
 Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
 Bologna, 1512, 1796. 
 Bommel ; the invention of the 
 
 covert-way, 1794. 
 Bonifacio, 1553. 
 Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703. 
 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 
 Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 
 Boulogne, 1545. 
 Brannau, 1744, 1S05. 
 Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 
 Brescia, 1512, 1796, 1799. 
 Breslau, Jan. 8, 1807. 
 Brisac, 1638, 1703. 
 Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
 
 Buda, 1526, 1541, 1686. 
 
 Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
 1812 : raised. The French in 
 their retreat blew up the 
 works, June 13, 1813. 
 
 Cadiz, 1812. 
 
 Caen, 1346, 1450. 
 
 Calais, 1347 (Britisli historians 
 affirm that cannon were used 
 at Cressy, 1346, and here in 
 1347. First used here in 
 1388.— Rymer's Fo3d.), 1558, 
 1596. 
 
 Calvi, 1794. 
 
 Campo-Mayor, Mar. 23, 1811. 
 
 Candia; the largest cannon then 
 known in Europe used here by 
 the Turks, 1667. 
 
 Capua, 1501. 
 
 Carthagena, 1706. 
 
 Castillon, 1452, 15S6. 
 
 Ceuta, 1790. 
 
 Chalons, 1199. 
 
 Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 
 1736, 1794. 
 
 Chartres, 1568, 1591. 
 
 Chave.s March 25, 1809. 
 
SIE 
 
 597 
 
 SIE 
 
 SIEGES, MEMORABLE, continued. 
 
 Cherbourg, 1450. 
 
 Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo, 1706 ; July 
 10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812. 
 
 Colberg, 1760, 1807. 
 
 Colchester, 1645. 
 
 Comoro, 1S49. 
 
 Compiegne (Joan of Arc}, 1430. 
 See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Conde', 1676, 1792, 1794. 
 
 Coni, 1691, 1744. 
 
 Constantinople, 1453. 
 
 Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
 
 Corfu, 1715. 
 
 Courtray, 1302, et seq., 1794. 
 
 Cracow, 1772. 
 
 Cremona, 1702. 
 
 Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807,1813, 
 to Jan. 12, 1814. 
 
 Delhi, 1857. 
 
 Dendermonde, 1667. 
 
 Dole, 166S, 1674. 
 
 Douay, 1710. 
 
 Dover, 1216. 
 
 Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
 
 Drogheda, 1649. 
 
 Dublin, 1500. 
 
 Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
 
 Edinburgh, 1093. 
 
 Figueras, Aug. 19, 1811. 
 
 Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. 
 
 Fontenoy, 1242. 
 
 Frederickshal ; diaries XII. 
 killed, 1718. 
 
 Frederickstein, Aug. 13, 1814. 
 
 Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
 
 Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1799, 
 July 1806, 1S15. 
 
 Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
 
 Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. 
 
 Ghent, 1576, 1708. 
 
 Gibraltar, 1704, 1779 (see Gib- 
 raltar), 1782. 
 
 Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
 
 Gottingen, 1760. 
 
 Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
 
 GraveliAes, 1644. 
 
 Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
 
 Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. 
 
 Guastalla, 1702. 
 
 Gueldres, 1637, 1639, 1640, 
 1703, 1757, 1794. 
 
 Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
 
 Ham, 1411. 
 
 Harfleur, 1415, 1450. 
 
 Heidelberg, 16S8. 
 
 Herat, June 28, 1838. 
 
 Huningen, 1815. 
 
 Ismael ; the merciless Suwar- 
 row butchered 30,000 men, 
 the brave garrison, and 6000 
 women, in cold blood, Dec. 
 22, 1790. 
 
 Kars, 1855. 
 
 Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
 
 Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 
 1792, and 1793. 
 
 Landrecis, 1543, 1712. 
 
 Laon, 991, 1594. 
 
 Leipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 
 
 Lemberg, 1704. 
 
 Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
 
 Leyden, 1574. 
 
 Liege, 1468, 1702. 
 
 Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
 
 Lillo, 1747. 
 
 Limerick, 1651, 1691. 
 
 Londonderry, 1689. 
 
 Louisbourg, 1758. 
 
 Luxemburg, 1795. 
 
 Lyons, 1793. 
 
 Maestricht, 1576, 1673. Vau- 
 ban first came into notice, 
 1676 ; 1743, 1794. 
 
 Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 
 
 Malaga. 1487. 
 
 Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
 
 Mantua, 1734, 1797, 1799. 
 
 Marseilles, 1544. 
 
 Mentz, by Charles V., 1552, 
 1689, 1792, et seq., 1797. 
 
 Melun, 1420, 1559. ■ 
 
 Menin, 1706, 1744. 
 
 Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. 
 
 Messina, 1282, 1719. 
 
 Metz, 1552. 
 
 Me"zieres, 1521. 
 
 Middleburg, 1572. 
 
 Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 
 1792, 1794. 
 
 Montargis, 1427. 
 
 Montauban, 1621. 
 
 Montevideo, Jan. 1808. 
 
 Mothe ; the French, taught by 
 a Mr. Muller, an English en- 
 gineer, first practised the art 
 of throwing shells, 1634. 
 
 Murviedro, Oct. 25, 1811. 
 
 Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
 
 Naples, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 
 1792, 1799, 1806. 
 
 Nice, 1705. 
 
 Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
 
 Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
 
 Olmutz, 1758. 
 
 Orleans, 1428, 1563. 
 
 Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
 
 Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. 
 
 Padua, 1509. 
 
 Pampeluna, Oct. 31, 1813. 
 
 Paris, 1429, 1485, 1594. 
 
 Parma, 1248. 
 
 Pavia, 1525, 1655, 1796. 
 
 Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
 
 Philipville, 1578. 
 
 Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 168S, 
 first experiment of firing artil- 
 lery d-ricochet, 1734, 1795. 
 
 Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. 
 
 Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. 
 
 Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
 
 Quesnoy, 1794. 
 
 Rennes, 1357. 
 
 Rheims, 1359. 
 
 Rhodes, 1522. 
 
 Riga, 1700, 1710. 
 
 Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
 
 Rome, 1527, 179S, 1849. 
 
 Romorentin ; artillery first 
 used in sieges. — Voltaire, 
 1356. 
 
 Rosas, 1645, 1795, 1808. 
 
 Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
 
 Roxburgh, 1460. 
 
 St. Sebastian. Obstinately de- 
 fended by the French till gen. 
 Graham ordered the guns to 
 be fired upon the curtain over 
 the men's heads as they ad- 
 vanced to the breach, Sept. 8, 
 1813. 
 
 Salamanca, June 27, 1812. 
 
 Salisbury, 1349. 
 
 Saragossa, 1710, 1S08, 1809. 
 The two last were dreadful 
 
 Saverne, 1675. 
 
 Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
 
 Schweidnitz : first experiment 
 to reduce a fortress by spring- 
 ing globes of compression, 
 1762, 1807. 
 
 Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
 
 Seringapatam, 1799. 
 
 Seville, 1096, 1247-S ; one of 
 the most obstinate sieges men- 
 tioned in Spanish history. 
 
 Silistria, 1854. 
 
 Smolensko, 1611. 
 
 Soissons, 1414. 
 
 Stralsund; the method of throw- 
 ing red-hot balls first prac- 
 tised with certainty, 1675, 
 1713, 1807. 
 
 Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. 
 
 Tarragona, May, 1S13, 
 
 Temeswar, 1716. - 
 
 ThionviUe, 1643, 1792. 
 
 Thorn, 1703. 
 
 Thouars, 1372, 1793. 
 
 Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811. 
 
 Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
 
 Toulouse, 1217. 
 
 Tournay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 
 1667, 1709 (this was the bent 
 defence ever drawn from 
 counter-mines), 1745, 1794. 
 
 Treves, 1675. 
 
 Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
 
 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 
 
 Urbino, 1799. 
 
 Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. 
 
 Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794. 
 
 Vannes, 1343. 
 
 Venloo, 1702, 1794. 
 
 Verdun, 1792. 
 
 Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
 
 Wakefield, 1460. 
 
 Warsaw, Sept. 8, 1831. 
 
 Xativa, 1707. 
 
 Xeres, 1262. 
 
 Ypres, 1648, 1744, 1794. 
 
 Zurich, 1544. 
 
 Zutphen, 1572, 1536. 
 
 SIERRA. LEONE. Discovered in a.d. 1460. In 1786, London swarmed with free negroes 
 living in idleness and want; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, mostly women of bad 
 
 * In the first, the French invested nearly half the-town ; and kept up a constant fire from mortars 
 and battering cannon. On Aug. 4, they succeeded in forcing their way into the central street. They 
 were now in possession of nearly half of the place, but the unconquerable bravery and intrepidity of 
 the inhabitants, both sexes taking a part, arrested their further progress, and obliged them to retire 
 on the 14th August, 1808. — The second, siege was no less obstinate. After a previous furious attack, 
 the French, on January 10, 1809, began their bombardment, which continued almost without inter- 
 mission for six weeks, at the end of which the surviving besieged, being quite worn out by fighting, 
 famine and pestilence, were obliged to surrender. 
 
SIG 598 SIL 
 
 character and in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government 
 to form a settlement, Dec. 9, 1786. The settlement attacked by the French, Sept. 
 1794; by the natives February, 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the 
 colony, murdered by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. — 16 & 17 Vict. c. 86, relates 
 to the government, &c. of this colony. It is now a bishopric. 
 
 SIGNALS. In the history of the Punic wars Polybius alludes to this mode of communi- 
 cation. In the naval occurrences of modern Europe, mention is early made of signals. 
 Elizabeth had instructions drawu up for the admiral and general of the expedition to 
 Cadiz, to be announced to the fleet in a certain latitude : it was on this occasion that 
 we meet with the first set of siguals and orders to the commanders of the English 
 fleet. Signals, as a system, were used in the navy, invented by the duke of York, after- 
 wards James II. 1665. — Guthrie. 
 
 SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by 
 the Russians in 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years by them as pledge 
 for the paymeut of a large sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 
 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under prince Paskie witch, 
 and many assaults were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in con- 
 sequence of a dangerous contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful 
 commander of the garrison, was killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, 
 which were retaken. A grand assault took place on June 13, under prince Gort- 
 Bchakoff and general SAilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the 
 garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the Russians, and destroyed 
 the siege works. The siege was thus raised, and the Russians commenced their re- 
 treat, Omar Pacha drawing near. The garrison was ably assisted by two British 
 officers, captain Butler and lieutenant Nasmyth, the former of who:n, after being 
 wounded, died of exhaustion. To them, in fact, the successful defence is attributed. 
 They were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Hardinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth 
 was made a major. 
 
 SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in 
 Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting the use of plate of massy 
 gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. 
 Heliogabalus first wore a garment of silk, a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value 
 with gold, weight for weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton 
 on trees. Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. 
 Charlemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a.d. 780. The 
 manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, when the 
 Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the silk. The manufac- 
 ture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south of France, a little before the 
 reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry IV. propagated mulberry-trees and silk- 
 worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. In England, silk mantles were worn by some 
 noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth Castle, 1286. Silk was worn by the English 
 clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw 
 silk in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French refugees in London at Spitalfields, 
 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at Derby, by sir 
 Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then in the 
 king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 
 
 SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ore3 iu 
 various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. 
 A mine was discovered iu the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that the 
 silver of it was often cut with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lb. 
 was sent to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the 
 Royal Museum at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lb. and worth 1680?. In England, silver- 
 plate and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and 
 ambitious man, a.d. 709. — Tyrell's Hist, of England. Silver knives, spoons, and cups, 
 were great luxuries in 1300. See Mirrors. 
 
 SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say ; others, by Phidon of 
 Argos, 869 B.C. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 269 B.C. Used in 
 Britain, 25 B.C. The Saxons coined silver peunies, which were 22£ grains weight. In 
 1302, the penny was yet the largest'silver coin in England. See Shillings, &c. and 
 Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, were coined at our Mint in London, 11,108,2651 15*. 
 in silver, being a yearly average of 444,330/. The total amount of the seniorage 
 received on this coin was 616,747?. 8s. 2d. — Pari. Ret. In the ten first years of Victoria, 
 
SIM 599 SLA. 
 
 from 1837 to 1847, the amount of silver coined was 2,440, 614Z. — Idem. For the amount 
 coined to 1853, see Coin of England. lb is supposed that there are in the world about 
 250 millions of silver coin. 
 
 SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their founder Simon Magus, 
 or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome about a.d. 41. His 
 heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he had many followers, a.d. 57. — A 
 sect called St. Simonians sprung up in France, and lately attracted considerable 
 attention in that country ; and the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in 
 England, and particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, 
 held Jan. 24, 1834. 
 
 SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed by 
 Napoleon in 1801-6. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by galleries 
 through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. The number of workmen employed 
 at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. 
 
 SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancient custom both among 
 the Jews and Chi'istians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which was continued in all 
 succeeding ages, with some variations as to mode and circumstance. During the 
 persecution of the orthodox Christians by the empress Justina, mother of the then 
 young Valentinian II. a.d. 386, ecclesiastical music was introduced in favour of the 
 Arians. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the church music, and made it more 
 exact and harmonious ; and that it might be general, he set up singing schools in 
 Rome, a.d. 602. 
 
 SINKING FUND. First projected by sir Robert Walpole, whose act was passed in 1716. 
 The act establishing the celebrated sinking fund of Mr. Pitt was passed in March 
 1786. A then estimated surplus of 900,000Z. in the revenue was augmented by new 
 taxes to make up the sum of one million, which was to be invariably applied to the 
 reduction of the national debt. 
 
 SINOPE (Sinoub). An ancient sea-port of Asia Minor, formerly capital of the kingdom 
 of Pontus, said to have been the birth-place of Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 
 Nov. 30, 1853, a Turkish fleet of 7 frigates, 3 corvettes, and 2 smaller vessels, was 
 attacked by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2 sailing vessels, and 3 steamers, 
 under admiral Nachimoff, and totally destroyed, except one vessel, which conveyed 
 the tidings to Constantinople. Four thousand lives were lost by fire or drowning, 
 and Osman Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In conse- 
 quence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet entered the Black Sea, Jan. 3, 1854. 
 
 SION COLLEGE. This institution is situated on the site of a nunnery, which, having 
 fallen to decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, citizen and mercer, and converted 
 into a college and hospital, called from his name Elsynge Spital ; but in 1340 he 
 changed it into an Austin priory, which was afterwards granted to sir John Williams, 
 master of the jewel-office by Henry VIII. who, with sir Rowland Hayward, inhabited 
 it till its destruction by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having bequeathed 3000£. 
 towards purchasing and building a college and alms-house on the ancient site, his 
 executors erected the present college. It is held by two charters of incorporation, 
 6 Charles 1. 1630 ; and 16 Charles II. 1664. 
 
 SIX-CLERKS. Officers of the Court of Chancery, who were anciently Clerici. They 
 should conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeited their places if they married, but 
 when the constitution of the court began to alter, a law was made to permit them to 
 marry ; statute 24 & 25 Hen. VIII. 1533. The Six-Clerks continued for many ages 
 officers of the chancery court; they held their offices in Chancery-lane, London, where 
 proceedings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, and certain patents issued. 
 — Law Diet. The Six-Clerks were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1842. 
 
 SKINS. The raw skins of cattle were usually suspended on stakes made use of instead 
 of kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and in Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327.— 
 Leland. About five millions of skins of oxen, lambs, kid, &c. dressed and undressed, 
 with those of wild animals, are imported into Great Britain annually. 
 
 SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abominable customs, 
 the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East, and 
 at length into every known region under heaven. In Greece, in the time of Homer, 
 all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedsemonian youth, trained up 
 in the practice of deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let 
 
SLA 600 SLA 
 
 loose upon them to show their proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for 
 their amusement only, they murdered, it is said, 3000 in one night. — Alexander, when he 
 razed Thebes, sold the whole people for slaves, 335 B.C. See Helots. 
 
 SLAVERY IN HOME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's 
 house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one of the laws of 
 the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their 
 houses, till by their services or labour they had discharged the sum they owed. 
 C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to 
 fatten his lampreys, 42 e.c. Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 B.C. 
 
 SLAVERY in ENGLAND. Laws respecting the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. 
 The English peasantry were so commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, 
 that children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
 to Ireland, and others to Scotland. The rebellion of Wat Tyler, 1381, arose out of 
 the evils of serfdom. A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runaway, or any 
 one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before two justices of the peace, 
 and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and adjudged the slave of him who 
 bought him for two years. He was to take the slave, and give him bread, water, or 
 small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, chaining, or other- 
 wise ; and if, within that space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
 on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for 
 ever : second desertion was made felony. It was lawful to put a ring of iron round his 
 neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, become 
 a slave to his master, 1547. 
 
 SLAVERY IN UNITED STATES. Before the war of independence all the states con- 
 tained slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men 
 are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave- 
 holding in that state. Before 1790 the further introduction of slaves had been pro- 
 hibited in five other states. In July 13, 1787, Congress passes unanimously the cele- 
 brated ordinance "for the government of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," 
 which contained an " unalterable " article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude 
 in the said state. After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved 
 from this prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchased, which act was considered 
 by many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Compro- 
 mise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted iu that 
 state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. Lat. In 
 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their opponents at the 
 annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom could obtain was a 
 similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 25, 1845. In 1850 another compromise was 
 effected : California was admitted as a free state ; but the Fugitive Slave Act was 
 passed (which see). Iu 1854 the Missouri Compromise was abrogated by the admission 
 of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding states ; in the latter of which civil war 
 ensued. See Kansas ; United States, and Democrats. 
 
 SLAVES IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMRRICA. 
 
 In 1790 697,897 I In 1820 2,009,031 
 
 In 1810 1,191,364 | In 1850 3,204,313 
 
 In elections three slaves are reckoned as two free men. — The following are the 
 
 SLAVE STATES. 
 
 FREE STATES. 
 
 Maine. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 New York. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 California. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Georgia. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Alabama. 
 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Kentucky. 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congou and Angola was begun by the Portu- 
 guese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, describing the 
 horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract fifteen degrees 
 on each side the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of four millions of square miles ; 
 and men and women have been bred for sale to the Christian nations during the last 
 250 years, and wars carried on to make prisoners for the Christian market. The 
 Abbe" Raynal computes that, at the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been 
 consumed by the Europeans. "Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years 
 
SLA 601 SMI 
 
 since," says Mr. Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 
 1768, the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, the 
 annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the English slave 
 trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by government, that from 
 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans had been torn from their country, and had either 
 miserably perished on the passage, or had been sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was the first 
 Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic of the human species. 
 His first expedition with the object of procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and 
 conveying them for sale to the West Indies, took place in October, 1563. See Guinea. 
 In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, and carried off 42,000 slaves ; and 
 such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the period of slave 
 emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of slaves, which had 
 previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 770,280. The slave trade 
 question was debated in parliament in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two 
 days in April, 1791. The motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 
 83, April 3, 1798. After several other efforts of humane and just men, the question 
 was introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 
 March 31, 1806.; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament, March, 25, 1807. 
 The illustrious Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may be said to have been passed 
 in labouring to effect the extinction of the slave trade, died Sept. 1846, aged 85. 
 
 SLAVES, EMANCIPATION op. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
 British colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted slaves, 
 and for compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the services of such slaves, 
 by the grant from parliament of 20,000,000Z. sterling, passed 3 & 4 Will. IV. Aug. 
 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, slavery terminated in the British possessions 
 on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became free. See Somerset, the Black. 
 
 SLUYS, NAVAL BATTLE of. In this battle Edward III. gained a signal victory over 
 the French. The English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at their backs, 
 and began the action, which was fierce and bloody, the English archers galling the 
 French on their approach. Two hundred and thirty French ships were taken : 
 thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, with two of their admirals ; the loss of the 
 English was inconsiderable : June 24, 1340. — Naval Chron.; Hume. 
 
 SMALCALD, TREATY of, in Fbanconia. The league entered into between the 
 elector of Brandenburg and the other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, 
 1529-30. For the subscribing to this memorable treaty, see Protestants. The 
 emperor, apprehensive that the kings of France and England would enter into this 
 league, was induced to sign the treaty at Nuremberg, allowing liberty of conscience 
 to the Lutherans. — Henault. 
 
 SMALL-POX. See Inoculation and Vaccination. 
 
 SMITHFIELD, WEST, situated in what may be called the heart of the city of London, 
 was once a favourite walk of the London citizens, outside the city-walls. Sir W. 
 Wallace is said to have been put to death here in 1305, and other executions have 
 taken place here. On June 15, 1381, Wat Tyler was met by king Richard II. at this 
 place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments also were held 
 here. In the reign of Mary, 277 persons perished by fire ; the last sufferer was 
 Bartholomew Leggatt, in 1555. Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. — This 
 place is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back as 1150. The space 
 devoted to this purpose was enlarged from about three acres to four and a half, and 
 in 1834 to six and a quarter. The ancient regulations were called the "statutes of 
 Smithfield." In one day there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts, and 30,000 
 sheep. The annual amount of the sales amounted to about 7,000,000^. In 1846 
 there were sold here 226,132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 
 pigs. There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted space of the market, the 
 
 * European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, recol- 
 lecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, and that a fifth 
 die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning.- — Cooper's Letters on the Slave Trade. The trade was 
 abolished by Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By England (see above) in 1807. 
 The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, Feb. 1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the 
 trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 1817 ; with the Netherlands, May 1818 ; with Brazil, 
 Nov. 1826. But this horrid traffic continues to be encouraged in several states. Its revival was 
 proposed in the Congress of the United States of America, Dec. 14, 1856, and negatived by 183 votes 
 to 58. In June 1857, the French government gave sanction to the conveyance of free negroes from. 
 Africa to Guadaloupe and Martinico. 
 
SMO 602 SOC 
 
 slaughtering places adjoining, and many other nuisances, gave ground to much dis- 
 satisfaction, and after parliamentary investigation, an act was passed on August 1, 
 1851, appointing metropolitan market commissioners with powers to provide a new 
 market, slaughtering places, &c. ; and to close the market at Srnithfield (14 & 15 
 Vict. c. 61). The act was carried into effect. Srnithfield was used as a cattle 
 market on June 11, 1855, for the last time : and the new market in Copenhagen-fields 
 was opened on June 1 3. See Metropolitan Market. 
 
 SMOKE NUISANCE. After much opposition an act of parliament was obtained to 
 abate this nuisance, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 128 (1853), proceeding from chimney shafts and 
 steamers above London Bridge. In 1856 another act was obtained for its further 
 application to steamers below London Bridge, and to potteries and glass-houses 
 previously exempted. This act is inoperative until Jan. 1, 1858. 
 
 SMOLENSKO, BATTLE op. One of the most memorable of the celebrated Russian 
 campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The French in this most 
 sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but they ultimately succeeded, 
 and, on entering Smolensko, found the city, which had been bombarded, burning and 
 partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the 
 displeasure of the emperor Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and 
 Kutusoff succeeded to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 
 
 SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to 
 afford protection to trade against pirates; and they afterwards became a branch of 
 public revenue. The act so well known as the Smugglers' Act was passed in 1736. 
 The severity of this act was mitigated in 1781, and new provisions were made in 1784. 
 A revision of these statutes took place, Jan. 5, 1826. 
 
 SNEEZING. The custom of saying " God bless you " to the sneezer, originated, accord- 
 ing to Strada, among the ancients, who, through an opinion of the danger attending 
 it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the gods, as " Jupiter help me." Polydore 
 Vergil says it took its rise at the time of the plague of a.d. 558, in which the infected 
 fell down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good health. 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures made of 
 vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. The prize 
 having been sent home and sold, the snuff-takiug soon became general, from which the 
 revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 3,000,000/. per annum. In 
 1839 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were entered 
 for home consumption ; the duty was 88,263/. See Tobacco. 
 
 SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention 
 of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the 
 Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes 
 were cleaned by being rubbed or stamped upon in water. Nausicaa and her attendants, 
 Homer tells us, washed theirs by treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. 
 — Odyssey, book vi. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
 time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per pound. The duty upon soap, set 
 down by the chancellor of the exchequer (Mr. Gladstone) as yielding a yearly revenue 
 of 1,126,000/. was totally abolished in the session of 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 39). 
 
 SOBRAON, BATTLE op; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under sir Hugh 
 (now viscount) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy was dis- 
 lodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and in attempting the 
 passage of the river by a floating-bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that 
 crowded upon it caused it to break down, and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, 
 wounded, or drowned. The British loss was 2383 men; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 
 
 SOCIALISTS. The doctrines of socialism were advocated in London, Jan. 24, 1834, by 
 the celebrated Robert Owen, who is the founder of the sect, if it be entitled to the 
 name. This individual has been labouring indefatigably since that time to propagate 
 his doctrines, and the freedom of religious thought and latitude in morals ascribed to 
 the socialists have served to increase their numbers. The French socialists, termed 
 Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, and were much impli- 
 cated in the revolution in 1848. 
 
 SOCIETIES and INSTITUTIONS, Literary and Scientific, in Great Britain. Further 
 details of many of these will be found under their respective heads. All in the list 
 below are in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed, Aug. 11, 1854, 
 
soc 
 
 603 
 
 SOL 
 
 "to afford facilities for the establishment of Institutions for the promotion of 
 Literature and Science," by grants of land, &c. : and for their regulation. The Royal 
 and London Institutions are exempted from the operation of the act. 
 
 SOCIETIES, 
 
 Royal Society .... Charter 1662 
 Society of Antiquaries (Charter 1751) 1717 
 Society of Dilettanti .... 1734 
 Royal Society of Edinburgh (Charter 1783) 1739 
 Society of Arts . . (Charter 1S47) 1753 
 Manchester Lit. Phil. Society . . 1 781 
 
 Royal Irish Academy . . Charter 1786 
 Linnean Society . (Charter 1802) 1788 
 
 Newcastle Lit. Phil. Society . . . 1793 
 Royal Institution . (Charter 1810) 1800 
 Horticultural Society (Charter 1S09) 1804 
 Medico -Chirurgical Society (Charterl834) 1S05 
 London Institution .... 1S05 
 
 Geological Society . (Charter 1820) 1807 
 Russell Institution .... 1808 
 
 Liverpool Lit. Phil. Society . . . 1812 
 Newcastle Antiquarian Society . . 1813 
 Institution of Civil Engineers 
 
 (Charter 1823) 1818 
 Leeds Lit. Phil. Society . . . 1820 
 
 Royal Society of Literature 
 
 (Charter 1826) 1S20 
 Medico-Botanical Society . . . 1S21 
 Hull Lit. Phil. Society .... 1S22 
 Yorkshire Philosophical Society . . 1822 
 Sheffield Lit. Phil. Society . . . 1S22 
 
 Royal Asiatic Society . . Charter 1823 
 Law Society . . . (Charter 1831) 1S23 
 Mechanics' Institution .... 1823 
 
 Athenaeum Club 1824 
 
 Western Literary Institution . . 1825 
 
 Eastern Literary Institution . . . 1825 
 
 Zoological Society 1826 
 
 Ashmolean Society, Oxford . . . 1828 
 Royal Geographical Society . . . 1830 
 Gaelic Society 1830 
 
 INSTITUTIONS, &c. 
 
 United Service Institution . . . 1830 
 
 Astronomical Society . . . . 1831 
 
 British Association .... 1831 
 
 Marylebone Literary Institution . . 1832 
 
 Entomological Society .... 1833 
 
 Statistical Society 1834 
 
 Westminster Literary Institution . . 1S34 
 
 Leicester Lit. and Phil. Society . . . 1835 
 
 Royal Institute of British Architects 
 
 (Charter 1S37) 1835 
 
 Botanical Society 1830 
 
 Numismatic Society . . . • 1830 
 
 Electrical Society . . . • . . 1837 
 Ornithological Society . ■ . • 1837 
 Royal Agricultural Society . . . 1838 
 
 Camden Society 1838 
 
 Royal Botanical Society . . . 1839 
 
 Microscopical Society . . . . 1839 
 
 Ecclesiological Society .... 1839 
 
 Parker Society 1840 
 
 Percy Society 1840 
 
 London Library 1840 
 
 Shakespeare Society .... 1840 
 
 Chemical Society 1S41 
 
 Pharmaceutical Society . . . 1841 
 
 Philological Society 1842 
 
 Dublin Philosophical Society . . 1842 
 
 Archseological Association . . . 1843 
 
 Archseological Institute .... 1843 
 Sydenham Society . . . . 1843 
 
 Ethnological Society .... 1843 
 Syro-Egyptian Society . . . . 1844 
 
 Ray Society 1844 
 
 Cavendish Society 1846 
 
 Hakluyt Society 1846 
 
 Meteorological Society . ... 1851 
 
 SOCTNIANS. Persons who accept the opinions of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and 
 his nephew Lselius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They held — 1. That the Eternal 
 Father was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by his 
 superiority to all other creatures ; 2. That Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell 
 will endure for a time, after which soul and body will be destroyed ; and 4. That it 
 is unlawful for princes to make war. — Hook. 
 
 SODOM and GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, were destroyed by 
 fire from heaven, 1893 B.C., Qin. xix. 
 
 SODOR and MAN, BISHOPRIC of. See Man, Bishopric of. Sodor is a village of 
 Icolmkill. Dr. Johnson calls it " the luminary of the Caledonian regions, whence," 
 he adds, " savage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of knowledge, and 
 the blessings of religion." The bishop's seat was at Rushin, or Castletown, in the 
 Isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodorensis. But when that island became 
 dependent upon the kingdom of England, the western islands withdrew themselves 
 from the obedience of their bishop, and had a bishop of their own, whom they entitled 
 also Sodorensis, but commonly bishop of the Isles. See Isles. Germanus was settled 
 here by St. Patrick in 447. The bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of parliament. 
 
 SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investigations and 
 discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught by Pythagoras of 
 Samos, about 529 B.C. In his system of the universe he placed the sun in the centre, 
 and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine superseded by the 
 Ptolemaic system (which see). The system of Pythagoras was revived by Copernicus, 
 and it is hence called the Copernican system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by 
 sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
 
 SOLE BAY, NAVAL BATTLE of. Between the fleets of England and France on one 
 side, and the Dutch on the other, the former commanded by the duke of York, 
 afterwards James II. The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; but the 
 enemy fled, and were pursued by the British to their own coasts. In this obstinate 
 
SOL 604 SOU 
 
 and bloody engagement the earl of Sandwich was blown up, and some thousand men 
 were killed and wounded, May 28, 1672. See Naval Battles. 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation of this magnificent pile was laid at Jerusalem, 
 480 years after the deliverance from Egypt, 1012 B.C. The temple solemnly dedicated 
 to the Lord Jehovah, on Friday, Oct. 30, 1004 B.C. being 1000 years before the birth 
 of the Redeemer. — Usher, Lenglet. Solomon was the author of many books, of which 
 we have still preserved in the Bible his Proverbs, the Book of Ecclesiastes, the Canticles 
 or Song of Songs, and the 71st and 126th Psalms. 
 
 SOLWAY MOSS. Bordering on Scotland. It swelled, owing to heavy rains; and upwards 
 of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of the ground, that at last it rolled 
 forward like a torrent, and continued its course above a mile, sweeping along with it 
 houses, trees, and all in its way. It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed 
 about thirty small villages, Nov. 13, 1771. 
 
 SOMBRERO, ISLAND of. On this desert isle, Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's 
 man, was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain W. Lake, for the offence of 
 having tapped a barrel of beer when the ship was on short allowance. He was mira- 
 culously saved, after sustaining life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, by 
 an American vessel touching at the rock, Dec. 13, 1807. Jeffery returned to England ; 
 and sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament The sufferer received 
 as a compensation from captain Lake 600/., who was tried by a court-martial, and 
 dismissed the service, Feb. 10, 1810. 
 
 SOMERSET, the BLACK. The memorable case of this slave determined by the judg- 
 ment of the court of king's bench, at the instance of Mr. Granville Sharpe. A poor 
 slave named Somerset, brought to England, was, because of his ill state, turned adrift 
 by his master. By the charity of Mr. Sharpe, he was restored to health, when his 
 unfeeling and avaricious master again claimed him. This was resisted, and a suit was 
 the consequence, which established, by its result in favour of the black, the great 
 point, that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, June 22, 1772. 
 
 SOMERSET-HOUSE. Formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches and 
 other buildings levelled for the purpose in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose 
 residence fell to the crown after his execution. In this palace queen Elizabeth resided 
 at certain times ; Anne of Denmark kept her court ; and Catherine, queen of Charles II. 
 dwelt during a portion of the life of her volatile spouse, and continued after his death, 
 until she retired to her native country. Old Somerset-house,which was a mixture of 
 Grecian and Gothic, was demolished in 1775, and the present magnificent edifice, from 
 a design by sir William Chambers, erected for the accommodation of the public offices. 
 The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the apartments given the members 
 by the king, Jan. 17, 1771. Large suites of government buildings were erected in 
 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, Victualling and other offices, were removed here 
 in 1788, and various government departments since. The east wing, forming the 
 King's College (see King's College), was completed in 1833. By an act passed in 1854, 
 the offices of the duchy of Cornwall are to be transferred to a building to be erected 
 at Pimlico. See Roycd Society. 
 
 SONTHALS. A tribe of Northern India brought to Bengal about 1830, where they 
 prospered ; till, partly from the instigations of a fanatic, and partly from the exac- 
 tions of money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July 1855, and committed 
 fearful outrages. They were quite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed 
 to the newly-conquered province of Pegu. 
 
 SORBONNE. A society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbon in 1252. 
 The members lived in common, and devoted themselves to study and gratuitous 
 teaching. They attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judg- 
 ment being frequently appealed to from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The 
 influence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up in 1789. 
 
 SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 
 Hen. VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 5 Eliz. 1563. The 
 pretension to sorcery was made capital, 1 James I. 1603. See Witchcraft. 
 
 SOUDAN or SOUJAH. The title of the lieutenants-generals of the caliphs, which they 
 went by in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves 
 sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of Noradine, king of Damascus, was the 
 first that took upon him this title in Egypt, a.d. 1165, after having killed the 
 caliph Caym. 
 
SOU 605 SOU 
 
 SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collected 790 
 specimens of Italian art and woi-kmanship, &c. These were bought for 11,000/. by 
 73 English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and after- 
 wards selling them to the government. They form part of the " Art Treasures " now 
 on view at Manchester (1857). 
 
 SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when the 
 vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. Robesval 
 states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second; Gassendus at 1473 ; 
 Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were fired under many varieties of 
 weather, in 1738, it was found to be 1107. The fire of the British on landing in 
 Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. 
 
 SOUND DUTIES. Till the present year no merchant ship was allowed to pass the 
 Sound (a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at 
 Elsineur and paying toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the 
 king of Denmark and the Hanse towns (a.d. 1348), by which the former undertook 
 to maintain lighthouses, &c, along the Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for 
 the same. The first treaty with England in relation to this was in 1450 ; other 
 countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay the dues no more ; 
 and in the same year the Danish proposed that these dues should be capitalised ; 
 which was eventually agreed to, the sum agreed on being 30,570,698 rix-dollars. In 
 Aug. 1857, the British paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1,125,855/.) to the Danes as their 
 proportion. — The passage of the Sound was effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, 
 by sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson, April 2, 1801. See Baltic Expedition. 
 
 SOUNDINGS at SEA. Captain Ross, of H.M.S. (Edipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
 soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it 
 extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was made in the latitude 
 of 33 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, when 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight employed amounted to 450 lb. 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Was discovered by capt. Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly 
 after by capt. Barker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. 
 The boundaries of the province were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; and it was 
 occupied Dec. 26, 1836 by capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor. It was colonised 
 according to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South 
 Australian Colonisation Association. The colony for several years underwent severe 
 trials through the great influx of emigrants, land-jobbing, building, speculations &c. 
 which produced almost universal bankruptcy in 1839. In five years after, the energy 
 of the colonists had overcome their difficulties and the prosperity of the colony 
 appeared fully established. In 1842 the highly productive Burra Burra copper mines 
 were discovered, and large fortunes were suddenly realised; but in 1851 the discovery 
 of gold in New South Wales and Victoria almost paralysed this province by drawing 
 off a large part of the labouring population. Very little gold was found in South 
 Australia ; but a reaction has taken place in favour of the copper mines and agriculture, 
 &c. Before the discovery of gold little trade existed between Adelaide (the capital of 
 South Australia) and Melbourne; but in 1852 gold was transmitted from the latter 
 to the former to the amount of 2,215,167/. principally for bread-stuffs, farm produce, 
 &c. The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. 
 
 SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton old church, containing the pictures 
 of Mr. Sheepshanks, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, 
 products of the animal kingdom, &c, was opened on June 24, 1857. 
 
 SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 1710 ; and the 
 company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which ruined thousands of 
 families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000/. were 
 seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,000/.; but he com- 
 pounded the fraud for 10,000/. and returned to England in 1743. Almost all the 
 wealthy persons in the kingdom had become stockjobbers and speculators in this 
 fatal scheme. The artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of 100/., 
 to the enormous price of 1000/. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. A fanatic of this name, born in 1750, formerly of Exeter, 
 came to London, where her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, and 
 among whom were colonels and generals in the army, although the low and ignorant 
 
sou 
 
 606 
 
 SPA 
 
 principally were her dupes. In 1792 she announced herself as the woman spoken of 
 in the book of Revelation ; and a disorder of rather rare occurrence gave her the out- 
 ward appearance of pregnancy after she had passed her grand climacteric, favouring 
 the delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died Dec. 27, 
 1814. In 1851 there existed in England four congregations, expecting her return. 
 
 SOUTHWARK, and SOUTHWARK BRIDGE. This part of London was governed by 
 its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found great inconvenience from the 
 number of malefactors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the reach and cog- 
 nisance of the city magistrates ; and a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
 London by the crown, for a small annuity. In Edward VI. 's reign it was formed into 
 a city ward, and was named Bridge-Ward Without, 1550. — Southwark-bridge was 
 begun Sept. 23, 1814 ; and was completed March 26, 1819, at an expense of 800,000£. 
 It consists of three great catt-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- 
 ments ; the distance between the abutments is 708 feet; the centre arch is 240 feet 
 span, the two others 210 feet each; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons. 
 
 SOUTHWOLD BAY, Naval Engagement off. See Solebay. 
 
 SOVEREIGN, Tbe Coin. The name of an ancient and modern gold coin of these 
 realms. In Henry I.'b reign, a coin of this denomination was issued, of the value of 
 22s. and one twenty -foui th part of the weight of a pound of gold. In 34 Henry VIII. 
 sovereigns were coined of the value of 20s. which afterwards (4 & 6 Edw. VI.) passed 
 for 24s. and 30s. By 56 Geo. III. sovereigns of the new coinage were directed to pass 
 for 20s. and were issued from the Mint same year, 1816. See Coin and Gold. 
 
 SPA-FIELDS RIOTS. Here upwards of 30,000 persons assembled to vote an address to 
 the Prince Regent, from the distressed manufacturers, Nov. 15, 1816. A second 
 meeting, Dec. 2 following, terminated in an alarming riot; the shops of several gun- 
 smiths were attacked for arms by the rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on 
 Snowhill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was done before the tumult was 
 suppressed. For this riot, Cashman the seaman was hanged, March 12, 1817. 
 
 SPAIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of 
 Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the 
 coasts ; and the Romans possessed the whole country. In the decline of the Roman 
 empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi; afterwards subdued by 
 the Visigoths, who laid the foundation of the present monarchy. 
 
 412 
 472 
 
 The Vandals arid Suevi wrest Spain from 
 the Romans . . . . a.d 
 
 The Visigoths enter Spain under their 
 leader, Euric 
 
 The Saracens from Arabia invade the 
 country 713, et seq. 
 
 Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed 
 king of Asturias 718 
 
 Alphonsus II. refusing to pay the Sara- 
 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, 
 war is declared : Alphonsus is victo- 
 rious, and obtains tbe appellation of 
 " the Chaste " . . . . 791, et seq. 
 
 Inigo, first king of Navarre, &c. . . 830 
 
 Ferdinand I. count of Castile, takes the 
 title of king 1020 
 
 Union of Navarro and Castille . . 1031 
 
 Tbe kingdom of Arragon commenced 
 under Ramirez I. 
 
 Leon and Asturias united to Castile 
 
 Portugal taken from the Saracens by 
 Henry of Bourbon 
 
 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
 Christians, call in the aid of the MOOTS 
 from Africa, who seize the dominions 
 they came to protect, and subdue the 
 Saracens .... 1091, et seq. 
 
 The Moors defeated in several battles by 
 Alphonsus I. of Navarre 
 
 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 
 great pitched battle 
 
 University of Salamanca founded 
 
 Leon and Castile re-united . . . 
 
 Cordova, the residence of the first 
 Moorish kings, taken by Ferdinand of 
 Castile and Leon 1236 
 
 1035 
 
 10S7 
 
 10S7 
 
 1118 
 
 1135 
 
 1200 
 1220 
 
 The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
 Moors, their last refuge from the power 
 of the Christians . . . a.d. 1238 
 
 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise . . 1252 
 
 The crown of Navarre passes to the royal 
 family of France 127G 
 
 200,000 Moors invade Spain . . . 1827 
 
 They are defeated by Alphonsus XI. with 
 great slaughter 1340 
 
 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
 the First of Castile, first had the title 
 of prince of Asturias . . . . 1388 
 
 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- 
 bella of Castile ; and nearly the whole 
 Christian dominions of Spain are 
 united in one monarchy . . 1474 
 
 Granada taken after a two years' 
 siege ; and the power of the Moors is 
 finally extirpated by the valour of 
 Ferdinand 1492 
 
 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 
 the western world 1492 
 
 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 
 the kingdom of Navarre . . . 1512 
 
 Accession of the louse of Austria to the 
 throne of Spain 1516 
 
 Charles V. of Spain and Germany retires 
 from the world 1556 
 
 Philip II. commences his bloody perse- 
 cution of the Protestants . . 1561 
 
 The Escurial begun building . . . 1562 
 
 Portugal united to Spain . . . . 1580 
 
 The Invincible Spanish Armada de- 
 stroyed. See Armada and A'avul 
 Batiks 158S 
 
 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their 
 
SPA 
 
 607 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
 
 from Spain . . . . a.d. 1610 
 Philip IV. loses Portugal . . .1640 
 Gibraltar taken by the English . . . 1704 
 Philip V. invades Naples . . . 1714 
 
 Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, 
 
 succeeds to the crown . . . . 1759 
 Battle of Cape St. Vincent . Feb. 14, 1797 
 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000, 000 
 
 dollars, seized by the English, Oct. 29, 1804 
 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, 
 
 Battle of ... Oct. 21, 1805 
 
 Sway of the prince of Peace . . . 1806 
 The French enter Spain . . . . 1807 
 Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias 
 
 against his father . . July 25, 1S07 
 
 Treaty of Fontainebleau . . Oct. 27, 1807 
 The French take Madrid . March, 1808 
 The prince of Peace dismissed by the 
 
 king of Spain . . March 18, 1808 
 
 Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of 
 
 Ferdinand . . . March 19, 1808 
 
 And at Bay onne, in favour of his ' ' friend 
 
 and ally " Napoleon, when Ferdinand 
 
 relinquished the crown . . May 1, 1808 
 The French are massacred at Madrid, 
 
 May 2, 180S 
 Asturias rises en masse . . May 3, 1808 
 Napoleon assembles the notables at Bay- 
 
 onne May 25, 1808 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as 
 
 king of Spain . . . July 12, 1S0S 
 He retires from the capital . July 29, 1808 
 Supreme Junta installed . Sept. 1808 
 
 Madrid retaken by the French, and 
 
 Joseph restored . . . Dec. 2, 1808 
 The royal family of Spain imprisoned in 
 
 the palace of Chambery in Savoy, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1808 
 
 [Spain now becomes the scene of the late 
 glorious struggle culled the Peninsular 
 War. For the events of which, see the 
 articles severally.] 
 The Spanish Cortes assemble Sept. 24, 1810 
 Constitution of the Cortes . May S, 1812 
 
 Ferdinand VII. restored . May 14, 1814 
 Spanish revolution began . . Jan. 1, 1820 
 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of 
 
 the Cortes . . . March 8, 1S20 
 
 Removal of the king to Seville, and 
 
 thence to Cadiz . . March 20, 1823 
 The French enter Spain . April 7, 1823 
 They invest Cadiz . . June 25, 1823 
 
 Battle of the Trocadero . Aug, 31, 1823 
 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
 solved; executions . . Oct. 1823 
 Riego put to death . . Nov. 27, 1823 
 The French evacuate Cadiz . Sept. 21, 1829 
 Cadiz made a free port . Feb. 24, 1829 
 Salique law abolished . March 25, 1830 
 Queen of Spain appointed regent during 
 the king's indisposition, and a complete 
 change made in the ministry, Oct. 25, 1832 
 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate 
 successor to his,brother's throne should 
 the king die ... April 29, 1833 
 Death of Charles IV. and his queen 
 assumes the title of governing queen, 
 until Isabella II. her infant daughter, 
 attains her majority . Sept. 29, 1833 
 The royalist volunteers disarmed with 
 
 some bloodshed at Madrid Oct. 27, 1S33 
 Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with 
 
 his family . . . June IS, 1834 
 
 He suddenly appears among his adhe- 
 rents in Spain . . . July 10, 1834 
 The peers vote the perpetual exclusion of 
 Don Carlos from the throne . Aug. 30, 1834 
 
 [Here commences the desolating civil 
 
 war, in which the British auxiliaries 
 take the side of the queen.] 
 
 Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, and 
 is ennobled .... Dec. 25, 1836 
 
 General Evans retires from the com- 
 mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
 rives in London after having achieved 
 various successes in Spain June 20, 1837 
 
 Madrid is declared in a state of siege, 
 
 Aug. 1], 1837 
 
 [Espartero and other Christina generals 
 engage with. the Carlists, andnumerous 
 conflicts take place with various 
 success.] 
 
 Madrid is again declared in astate of siege, 
 
 Oct. 30, 1838 
 
 The Spanish Cortes dissolved . June 1, 1S39 
 
 The Carlists under Marota desert Don 
 Carlos .... Aug. 25, 1839 
 
 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
 of peace .... Aug. 29, 1839 
 
 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France, 
 
 Sept. 13, 1839 
 
 Madrid again declared in a state of siege, 
 
 Feb. 23, 1840 
 
 Surrender of Morello . . May 28. 1840 
 
 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
 maintain the war, enters France with 
 a body of his troops . . July 7, 1840 
 
 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- 
 bastian and Passages . Aug. 25, 1840 
 
 Revolutionary movement at Madrid; 
 the authorities triumphant . Sept. 1, 1840 
 
 Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolu- 
 tion of the Cortes . . Sept. 9, 1840 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
 into Madrid . . . Oct. 5, 1840 
 
 The queen regent appoints a new minis- 
 try, who are nominated by Espartero, 
 
 Oct. 5, 1840 
 
 The abdication of the queen regent o 
 Spain Oct. 12, 1840 
 
 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; 
 visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; 
 but returns to France.] 
 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the 
 papal nuncio . . . Dec. 29, 1840 
 
 The Spanish Cortes declare Espartero 
 regent during the minority of the 
 young queen . . . April 12, 1841 
 
 Queen Christina's protest to the Spanish 
 nation .... July 19, 1841 
 
 Insurrection in favour of Christina is 
 commenced at Pampeluna by general 
 O'DonnelTs army . . Oct. 2, 1841 
 
 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
 the kingdom .... Oct. 1841 
 
 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 
 Madrid, and his followers are repulsed, 
 and numbers of them slain by the 
 queen's guards . . . Oct. 7, 1841 
 
 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is 
 shot at Madrid . . . Oct. 15, 1841 
 
 Zurbano captures Bilboa . Oct. 21, 1841 
 
 Rodil, the constitutional general enters 
 Vittoria .... Oct. 21, 1841 
 
 Montes de Oca shot . . Oct. 21, 1841 
 
 General O'Donnell takes refuge in the 
 French torritory . . . Oct. 21, 1841 
 
 Espartero decrees the suspension of 
 queen Christina's pension . Oct. 26, 1841 
 
 The fueros of the Basque provinces are 
 abolished .... Oct 29, 1841 
 
 Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the 
 Christina plot, are put to death at 
 Madrid .... Nov. 9, 1841 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
 into Madrid . . . Nov. 23, 1841 
 
SPA 
 
 608 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 General pardon of all persons not yet 
 tried, concerned in the events of Octo- 
 ber Dec. 13, 1841 
 
 The effective strength of the army fixed 
 at 130,000 men . . . June 28, 1842 
 
 An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona; 
 the national guard joins the populace, 
 
 Nov. 13, 1842 
 
 Battle iu the streets between the national 
 guard and the troops ; the latter lose 
 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
 to the citadel . . . Nov. 15, 1842 
 
 The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
 retire to Montjuich . . Nov. 17, 1842 
 
 The port of Barcelona blockaded ; the 
 British consul refuses refuge to any but 
 British subjects on board British ships, 
 
 Nov. 26, 1842 
 
 The regent Espartero arrives before Bar- 
 celona, and demands its unconditional 
 surrender .... Nov. 29, 1842 
 
 Bombardment of Barcelona . Dec. 3, 1842 
 
 It capitulates . . Dec. 4, 1S42 
 
 The disturbances at Malaga May, 25, 1843 
 
 The revolutionary junta is re-established 
 at Barcelona . . . June 11, 1S43 
 
 [Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and 
 numerous other towns, shortly after- 
 wards "pronounce" against the regent 
 Espartero.] 
 
 Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, 
 which surrenders . July 15, 1843 
 
 Espartero bombards Seville July 21, 1843 
 
 The siege is raised . . July 27, 1843 
 
 [The revolution is completely successful, 
 and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and em- 
 barks on board her Majesty's ship 
 Malabar.] 
 
 The new government deprive Espartero 
 of his titles and rank . Aug. 16, 1843 
 
 Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
 rive iu London . . Aug. 23, 1843 
 
 Reaction against the new government 
 breaks out at Madrid . . Aug. 23, 1843 
 
 Theyoungqueen Isabellall. 13 years old, 
 is declared by the Cortes to be of age, 
 
 Nov. 8, 1843 
 
 The queen-mother, Christina, returns to 
 Spain .... March 23, 1844 
 
 Zurbano's insurrection, Nov. 12, 1S44 : 
 he is shot . . . . Jan. 21, 1845 
 
 Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
 linquishes his right to the crown, in 
 favour of his son . . . May 18, 1S45 
 
 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
 12 : they return to power, March 17 ; 
 and again resign . . March 28, 1846 
 
 The queen is publicly affianced to her 
 cousin, Don Francisco d'Assiz, duke 
 of Cadiz .... Aug. 27, 1846 
 
 Escape of Don Carlos and others from 
 France .... Sept. 14, 1846 
 
 Marriage of the queen; and marriage 
 also of the infanta Louisa to the duke 
 de Montpensier . . Oct. 10, 1846 
 
 [The Montpensier marriage occasions the 
 displeasure of England, and disturbs 
 the friendly relations of the French 
 and English governments.] . 
 
 Amnesty granted by the queen to poli- 
 tical offenders . . . Oct, 18, 1846 
 
 Two shots fired at the queen by an as- 
 sassin named La Biva . May 4, 1847 
 
 He is sentenced to "death by the cord," 
 and is executed . . . June 23, 1847 
 
 Espartero restored . . Sept. 3, 1847 
 
 Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, British envoy 
 extraordinary, ordered to quit Spain 
 in 48 hours . . . May 19, 1848 
 
 Diplomatic relations between the two 
 countries were not restored until 
 
 April 18, 1850 
 
 The queen of Spain delivered of a male 
 child, which lives but ten minutes, 
 
 July 12, 1850 
 
 The American expeditions under Lopez 
 against Cuba. See Cuba and the United 
 Slates .... 1850 and 1851 
 
 Resignation of Narvaez . . Jan. 10, 1851 
 
 The infante don Henrique permitted to 
 return to Spain . * . . Feb. 2. 1851 
 
 Madrid- Aranjez railway opened, Feb. 9, 1851 
 
 The queen pardons the prisoners taken 
 in the attempt upon Cuba . Dec. 11, 1851 
 
 Her Majesty gives birth to a princess, 
 
 Dec. 20, 1851 
 
 Attempt made on the life of the queen ; 
 she is slightly wounded by the dagger 
 of Merino, a Franciscan . Feb. 2, 1852 
 
 Geu. Castaiios, duke of Baylen.renowned 
 in the war agaiust the French, dies in 
 his 96th year . . . Sept. 23, 1852 
 
 Narvaez exiled to Vienna . . Jan. 1853 
 
 Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a 
 cabinet .... April 11, 1853 
 
 Resignation of Lersundi — Sartorius's 
 cabinet Sept. 1853 
 
 Birth and death of a princess . Jan. 5, 1854 
 
 General O'Donnell, Concha, and others, 
 banished .... Jan. 18, 1854 
 
 Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. . Feb. 1854 
 
 Marriage of don Francisco (father of the 
 king consort) with an "unfortunate " 
 woman .... March, 1854 
 
 Military insurrection breaks out near 
 Madrid .... June 28, 1854 
 
 Revolution — the movement headed by 
 Espartero ; Barcelona and Madrid pro- 
 nounce against the government ; bar- 
 ricades in Madrid . July 1 — 17, 1854 
 
 Triumph of the insurrection; resignation 
 of the ministry ; the queen sends for 
 Espartero .... July 19, 1854 
 
 Peace restored ; the degraded generals 
 reinstated, &c. ; Espartero forms an 
 administration . . . July 31, 1854 
 
 Departure of the queen mother from 
 Spain Aug. 28, 1854 
 
 Ministerial crisis : Espartero resigns, but 
 resumes office . . Nov. 21 — 30, 1854 
 
 New constitution of the cortes proposed, 
 
 Jan. 13, 1S55 
 
 The cortes vote that all power proceeds 
 from the people ; they permit liberty 
 of belief, but not of worship . Feb. 1855 
 
 Don Carlos dies . . March 10, 1855 
 
 Insurrection at Valencia . April 6, 1856 
 
 Coup d'Etat at Madrid, gen. O'Donnell 
 dictator .... July 14, 1856 
 
 Opposition to him subdued by force of 
 arms July 23, 1856 
 
 O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez 
 becomes minister . . Oct. 12, 1856 
 
 Espartero resigns as senator . Feb. 1, 1857 
 
 Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly sup- 
 pressed ; cruel military executions ; 
 98 insurgents shot (24 at Seville), 
 
 June and July, 1857 
 
 KINGS OF SPAIN. 
 
 REIGN OF THE GOTHS. 
 
 406. Alaric, king of the Goths. 
 
 411. Ataulfo, murdered by his soldiers. 
 
 415. Sigerico: reigned a few weeks only. 
 415. Valia, or Wallia. 
 
SPA 
 
 609 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 420. Theodovic I. : killed in a battle, which he 
 
 gained, against Attila. 
 
 421. Thorismund, or Torrismund : assassi- 
 
 nated by his favourite. 
 452. Theodoric II. : assassinated. 
 466. Euric, or Evarico. 
 484. Alaric II. : killed in battle. 
 507. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 
 511. Anaalric, or Anialaric : legitimate son of 
 
 Alaric. 
 531. Theudis, or Theodat : assassinated by a 
 
 madman. 
 54S. Theudisela, or Theodisele : murdered for 
 
 female violation. 
 549. Agila, taken prisoner, and put to death. 
 554. Atanagildo. 
 
 567. Liuva, or Levua I. 
 
 568. Leuvigildo : associated on the throne 
 
 ■with Liuva, in 56S ; and sole king in 
 
 572. 
 585. Ri:caredo I. 
 601. Liuva II. : assassinated. 
 603. Viteiicus : also murdered. 
 610. Gundemar. 
 
 612. Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 
 621. Rccaredo II. 
 621. Suintila dethroned. 
 631. Sisenaudo. 
 
 640. Tulga, or Tulca. 
 
 641. Cindasuiuto : died in 652. 
 
 649. Eecesuinto : associated on the throne 
 
 this year, and in 652 became sole 
 king. 
 672. Vamba, or Wamba : dethroned, and died 
 in a monastery. 
 
 650. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
 6S7. Egica, or Egiza. 
 
 69S. Vitiza, or Witiza ; associated on the 
 
 throne ; in 701 sole king. 
 711. Rodrigo, or Roderic : slain in battle. 
 
 SECOND MONARCH X\ 
 
 718. Pelagius, or Pelayo : overthrew the 
 Moors, and put a stop to their con- 
 quests. 
 
 737. Favila : killed in hunting. 
 
 739. Alfonso the Catholic. 
 
 757. Froila : murdered his brother Saraaran, 
 in revenge for which ho was mur- 
 dered by his brother and successor. 
 
 768. Aureli us, or Aurelio. 
 
 774. Silo, the Saracen. 
 
 783. Mauregato, the Usurper. 
 
 788. Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 
 
 791. Alfonso II. the Chaste. Refusing to pay 
 the Saracens the annual tribute of 
 100 virgins, war is declared : Alfonso 
 is victorious, and obtains the appella- 
 tion of the Chaste, and the Victorious. 
 — Rabbe. 
 
 842. Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to 
 tho sword in one battle. — Rabbe. 
 
 850. Ordogno, or Ordono. 
 
 866. Alfonso III. surnamed the Great: re- 
 linquished his crown to his son. 
 
 910. Garcias. 
 
 914. Ordogno, or Ordono II. 
 
 923. Froila II. 
 
 925. Alfonso IV. the Monk : abdicated. 
 
 927. Ramiro II. ; killed in battle. 
 
 950. Ordogno, or Ordono III. 
 
 955. Ordogno, or Ordono IV. 
 
 956. Sancho I. the Fat : poisoned with an 
 
 apple. 
 967. Ramiro III. 
 
 982. Veremundo IT. (Bermuda) the Gouty. 
 999. Alfonso V. : killed in a siege. 
 1027. Veremundo III. (Bermuda): killed. 
 *** The above were kings of Asturias, or 
 Oviedo, or of Leon. 
 
 KINGS OP NAVARRE. 
 
 905. Sancho Garcias : a renowned warrior. 
 
 926. Garcias I. 
 
 970. Sancho II. 
 
 994. Garcias II. surnamed the Trembler. 
 1000. Sancho III. surnamed the Great 
 1035. Garcias III. 
 1054. Sancho IV. 
 
 1076. Sancho Ramirez, king of Arragon. 
 1094. Peter of Arragon. 
 1104. Alfonso I. of Arragon. 
 1134. Garcias Ramirez. 
 1160. Sancho VI. surnamed the Wise. 
 1194. Sancho VII. surnamed the Infirm. 
 1234. Theobald I. count of Champagne. 
 1253. Theobald II. 
 1270. Henry Crassus. 
 1274. Juanna : married to Philip the Fair of 
 
 France, 1285. 
 1305. Louis Hutin of France. 
 1316. John : lived but a few days. 
 1316. Philip V. the Long, of France. 
 1322. Charles I. the IV of France. 
 1328. Juanna II. and Philip count d'Evereux. 
 1343. Juanna alone. 
 
 1349. Charles II. or the Bad. 
 13S7. Charles HI. or the Noble. 
 
 1425. John II. afterwards king of Arragon. 
 1479. Eleanor. 
 1479. Francis Phoebus. 
 1483. Catharine and John d'Albret. 
 1512. Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the 
 Catholic. 
 
 KINGS OF CASTILE. 
 
 1035. Ferdinand the Great, of Leon and Castile,, 
 1065. Sancho II. the Strong, son of Ferdinand. 
 
 Alfonso in Leon and Asturias, and 
 
 Garcias in Galicia. 
 1072. Alfonso VI. the Valiant, king of Leon. 
 1109. Urraca and Alfonso VII. 
 1126. Alfonso VIII. Raymond. 
 
 1157. Sancho III surnamed the Beloved. 
 
 1158. Alfonso IX. the Noble. 
 
 [Leon is separated from Castile, and 
 Ferdinand king.] 
 
 1214. Henry I. 
 
 1217. Ferdinand III. the Saint and the Holy. 
 In him Leon and Castile were per- 
 petually annexed. 
 
 1252. Alfonso X. the Wise. The Alphonsine 
 Tables were drawn np under the di- 
 rection of this prince. 
 
 1284. Sancho IV. the Great and the Brave. 
 
 1294. Ferdinand IV. 
 
 1312. Alfonso XI. 
 
 1350. Peter the Cruel: deposed. Reinstated 
 
 by Edward the Black Prince of Eng- 
 land ; afterwards slain by his natural 
 brother and successor. 
 
 136S. Henry II. the Gracious ; poisoned by a 
 monk. 
 
 1379. John I. : he united Biscay to Castile. 
 
 1390. Henry III. the Sickly. 
 
 1406. John II. son of Henry. 
 
 1454. Henry IV. the Impotent. 
 
 1474. Ferdinand V. the Catholic, in whom, 
 by his marriage with Isabella, now 
 queen of Castile, the kingdoms of 
 Castile and Arrag n were united. 
 
 1504. Joan, or Jane, daughter of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, and 
 Philip I. of Austria On her mother's 
 death Joan succeeded, jointly with 
 her husband Philip; but Philip dying 
 in 1006, and John becoming an imbe- 
 cile, her father Kerdinand continued 
 the reign ; and thus perpetuated the 
 union of Castile with Arragon. 
 R R 
 
SPA 
 
 610 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 KINGS OF Ar.r.AGON". 
 
 1035. Rarniro I. 
 
 1003. Baucbo Ramirez. 
 
 1094. Peter of Navarre. 
 
 1104. Alfonso the Warrior, king- of Navarre. 
 
 1134. Ramiro II. the Honk. 
 
 1137. Petronilla, and Raymond count of Bar- 
 celona 
 
 1162. Alfonso II. 
 
 1196. Peter II. 
 
 1213. James I ; succeeded by his son. 
 
 1270. Peter III. This prince contrived the 
 horrible massacre known as the Sici- 
 lian Vesp'rs, in 1282. 
 
 12S5. Alfonso III. the Beneficent. 
 
 1291. James II. sumamed the Just. 
 
 1327. Alfonso IV. 
 
 1336. Petyr IV. the Ceremonious. 
 
 1387. John I. 
 
 1396. Martini. 
 
 1410. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sijily. 
 
 1416. Alfonso V. the Wise. 
 
 1458. John II. kin? of Navarre, brother of 
 Alfonso : died 1479. 
 
 1479. Ferdinand V. the Catholic, the next 
 heir ; by his marriage with Isabella 
 of Castile, the kingdoms were united. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 1512. Ferdinand V. the Catho'ic. This prince 
 hiving conquered Granada and Na- 
 varre, became king of all Spain : suc- 
 ceeded by his grandson, 
 
 1516. Charles I. son of Joan of Castile and 
 Philip of Austria ; became emperor 
 of Germany, as Charles V. in 1519 : 
 resigned both crowns, and retired to 
 a monastery. 
 
 1550. Philip II. his son, king of Naples and 
 Sicily ; a merciless bigot ; married 
 Mary, queen-regnant of England : 
 died a most dreadful death, being 
 
 covered with ulcers from which ver- 
 min swarmed. 
 [This reign is made memorable, by the 
 Spanish armament, called the Ar- 
 mada, designed to reduce England.] 
 
 1598. Philip III. son of the preceding : he 
 drove all the descendants of the 
 Mocrsfrom Granada and the adjacent 
 provinces, to the number of 900,000. 
 
 1621. Philip IV. his son ; a reign of nearly 
 continuous and unfortunate wars 
 with the Dutch and France : he lost 
 Portugal in 1640. 
 
 1065. Charles II. son of Philip IV. the last 
 prince of the Austrian line : nomi- 
 nated, by will, as his successor, 
 
 1700. Philip V. duke of Anjou, grandson of 
 Louis XIV. of France : hence arose 
 the war of the succession, terminated 
 by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. 
 
 1724. Louis I. who reigucd only a few months. 
 
 1724. Philip V. : again. 
 
 1745. Ferdinand VI. surnamed the Wise : he 
 distinguished his reign by acts of 
 liberality and benefieenco. 
 
 1759. Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, 
 and brother of Ferdinand VI. : on 
 ascending the Spanish throne he re- 
 nounced the Sicilies to his third son 
 Ferdinand. 
 
 178S. Charles IV. son of Charles III. ; the in- 
 fluence of Godoy, prince of Peace, 
 reached to almost royal authority in 
 this reign: Charles abdicated in favour 
 of his son aud successor. 
 
 1S0S. Ferdinand VII. whom Napoleon, of 
 France, also forced to resign. 
 
 1S0S. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon : 
 forced to abdicate 
 
 1S14. Ferdinand VII. : restored: succeeded by 
 his daughter 
 
 1S33. Isabella II. who ascended the throne, 
 Sept. 29. The present (1857; queen 
 of Spain. 
 
 SPANISH ARMADA, against ENGLAND. See article Armada. 
 
 SPANISH MARRIAGES. These were the marriages of Donna Isabella II. queen of 
 Spain, to her cousin Don Francisco dAssiz, and of her majesty's sister, the infanta 
 Louisa Maria, with the young duke of Montpensier, son of Louis-Philippe, king of 
 France, celebrated at the palace of Madrid, on Oct. 10, 1846. The latter marriage 
 gave umbrage to England and other powers, as it manifested a design on the part of 
 the French king to assure the inheritance of the throne of Spain to his own family, 
 which was then a very probable contingency. On Sept. 21, preceding, a formal 
 protest was presented by the British ambassador, at Madrid against this marriage, 
 and the marquees of Normanby presented a similar protest to the French minister 
 at Paris, on the 24th; but the marriage took place. 
 
 SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the 
 attacks of its enemies by the valour of its citizens, for eight centuries. The epoch of 
 its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is supposed to have been the first kiDg. From 
 Lacedsemon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders 
 of the city, it obtained the names by which it is most known. The history of Lace- 
 daemon may be divided into five aeras; viz. 1st. Under the ancient kings, from Lelex 
 to the settlement of the Heraclidaj, comprising about four hundred and twelve years. 
 2nd. Under the Heraclidse as absolute monarchs, till Lycurgus instituted a senate, by 
 which the people obtained a share in the government, includiug about two hundred 
 and twenty years. 3rd. From the establishment of the senate to the introduction of 
 ephori, or five inspectors, by Theopoinpus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 
 4th. From the appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five 
 hundred aud forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the subjugation 
 of the country by the Roman power, a period of about seventy-two years, 147 B.C. 
 
SPA 
 
 611 
 
 SPA 
 
 SPARTA, continued. 
 
 FIRST STATE OF SPARTA 
 
 Lelex begins the kingdom . .B.C. 1516 
 Lacedaernon marries Sparta . . . 1490 
 Sparta founded (Pausaaias) . . . 1490 
 Tyndarus marries Leda ; Helen born . * * * 
 Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, 
 
 but recovered by her brothers . . 1213 
 The princes of Greece demand Helen in 
 
 marriage ; she makes choice of Mene- 
 
 laus, of Mycena; 1201 
 
 Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries 
 
 off Helen 119S 
 
 The Trojan war commences to avenge 
 
 this wrong 1193 
 
 After a war of ten years, and a disastrous 
 
 voyage of nearly eight, Menelaus and 
 
 Helen return to Sparta . . . 1176 
 Helen is banished froni the Peloponnesus 
 
 for infidelity * * * 
 
 SECOND STATE OF SPARTA. 
 
 Reign of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. 
 
 — Pausanias ...... 1175 
 
 The kingdom is seized by the Heraclidse. 
 
 —Imglet 1104 
 
 Birth of Lycurgus, the son of Eunomus. 
 
 — Basebms 926 
 
 Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the 
 
 Senate. — Eusebius S84 
 
 THIRD STATE OF SPARTA. 
 
 Gharilaus declares war against Polytnes- 
 
 tor, king of Arcadia .... S18 
 Alcamenes, known for his apophthegms, 
 
 makes war upon the Messenians . . S13 
 Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; 
 
 war with the Argives .... SOO 
 Theopompus introduces the ephori into 
 
 the government 760 
 
 FOURTH STATE OF SPARTA, UNDER THE 
 EPHORI, COMMENCES. 
 
 War declared against the Messenians, 
 and Amphia taken .... 743 
 
 War with the Argives, and celebrated 
 battle * 735 
 
 The progeny of the Partheniae, or the 
 sons of Virgins 733 
 
 Battle of Ithome 730 
 
 Ithome taken ; the Messenians become 
 vassals to Sparta, and the war ends, 
 which had lasted nineteen years . 724 
 
 Conspiracy of the Partheniaj with the 
 Helots to take Sparta . . . . 707 
 
 The Messenians revolt, and league with 
 Elis, Argos, and Arcadia against the 
 Lacedaemonians 685 
 
 [This war lasts fourteen years.] 
 
 Carman festivals instituted . . . 675 
 
 The Messenians settle in Sicily . . 669 
 
 Tyranny of the Pisistratidae ends . . 506 
 
 The States of Greece unite against the 
 Persians 482 
 
 Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, 
 withstands the Persian arms at the 
 defile of Thermopylae. (See Thermo- 
 pylce, Battle of) 4S0 
 
 Persians defeated by Pausanias . . 479 
 
 His treason ; the Grecian armies choose 
 an Athenian general . . . . 474 
 
 An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty " 
 thousand persons .... 466 
 
 Platoea taken by the Spartans . B.C. 428 
 
 The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, 
 and lay waste the country . . . 426 
 
 Agis gains a great victory over the Ar- 
 gives and Mantinaeans . . . . 418 
 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Min- 
 darus, defeated at Cyzicum, and Min- 
 darus slain in the battle . . .410 
 
 The Spartans, defeated by land and at 
 sea, sue for peace, which is denied by 
 the Athenians 409 
 
 Reign of Pausanias 408 
 
 Athens taken by Lysander, which ends 
 the Peloponnesian war . . . . 400 
 
 Agesilaus enters Lydia .... 396 
 
 The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and 
 Corinthians enter into a league against 
 the Spartans, which begins the Corin- 
 thian war 395 
 
 The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysan- 
 der, defeated by Conon, the Athenian 
 commander, near Cnidos ; Lysander 
 killed in the engagement . . . 394 
 
 The Thebans drive the Spartans from 
 Cadmea. — Lenglet 37S 
 
 The Spartans lose the dominion of the 
 seas ; their fleet totally destroyed by 
 Timotheus . . . . . .376 
 
 Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, 
 appears before Sparta . . . . 369 
 
 Battle of Mantinaea : the Thebans obtain 
 the victory. See Mantincea . . 363 
 
 Battle of Arbela, which leaves Alexander 
 master of all Asia 331 
 
 Pyrrhus invades Sparta ; is defeated be- 
 fore the walls 294 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus cease to be ob- 
 served, about 244 
 
 Leonidas vacates the throne, and flies 
 from Sparta . 243 
 
 He is recalled, and becomes sole sove- 
 reign ; Agis put to death . . . 241 
 
 Reign of Cleomenes III. the son of Leo- 
 nidas 235 
 
 He re-establishes most of the laws of 
 Lycurgus 225 
 
 Antigonus meets Cleomenes on the 
 plains of Sellacia, routs his army, and 
 enters Sparta as conqueror . . . 222 
 
 Cleomenes retires to Egypt . . . 222 
 
 The Spartans murder the ephori . . 221 
 
 FIFTH STATE OF SPARTA. 
 
 Mechanidas ascends the throne, and 
 abolishes the ephori . . . . 210 
 
 He is defeated and slain by Philopcemen, 
 praetor of the Achaean league . . 208 
 
 Government of Nabis, who is execrable 
 for his cruelties 206 
 
 The Romans besiege Sparta, and the 
 tyrant sues for peace .... 197 
 
 The JEtoliaus obtain Sparta by treachery : 
 Nabis is assassinated . . . . 192 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus abolished . . 188 
 
 Sparta, under the protection or rather 
 subjugation of Rome, retains its autho- 
 rity for a short time . . . . 147 
 
 Taken by Mahomet II. . . . a.d. 1460 
 Burnt by Sigismond Malatesta . . . 1463 
 Rebuilt as Misitra. Itis now called Sparta, 
 and part of the kingdom ot Greece. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, 
 
 * This celebrated battle was fought between 300 select heroes of each nation, and all perished except 
 two Argives and one Spartan. The latter remaiued on the field, whilst the two former repaired to 
 Argos to announce their victory. Each party claimed the advantage ; the Argives, because they had 
 lost the fewest men ; the Lacedaemonians, because they remained masters of the field. A second battle 
 was fought, in which the Argives were beaten. — Pausanias. 
 
 R R 2 
 
SPE 612 SPI 
 
 sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their laws, all their institutions, all their 
 education, in a word, the very constitution of their republic, were calculated to make 
 them warriors. 
 SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at 
 the battle of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260. But sir Petre de la 
 Mnre is supposed to have been the first regular speaker, 50 Edw. III. 1376. The king 
 refused his assent to the choice of sir Edward Seymour as speaker, March 6, 1678 ; 
 when seijeant William Gregory was chosen in his room. Sir John Trevor was expelled 
 the chair and the house for taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans 
 had passed, March 20, 1694. 
 
 Et. hon. Henry Addmgton (afterwards 
 visct. Sidmouth) . . . Jan. 22, 1S01 
 
 Sir John Mitford (afterwards baron 
 Redesdale) . . . Feb. 11, 1S01 
 
 Rt. hon. Charles Abbot (afterwards lord 
 Colchester) .... Feb. 10, 1S02 
 
 Rt. hon. Charles Manners Sutton (after- 
 wards visct. Canterbury) June 2, 1317 
 
 Rt. hon. James Abercromby (afterwards 
 baron Dunfermline) . . Feb. 19, 1835 
 
 Rt hon. Charles Shaw Lefevre (after- 
 wards visct. Eversley) . May 27, 1839 
 
 John Evelyn Denison, esq. . April 30, 1857 
 
 SPEAKING-TRUMPET. A speaking-trumpet is said (but on doubtful authority) to 
 have been used by Alexander 335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's description 
 by Saland, 1652. Philosophically explained and brought into notice by Moreland, 1671. 
 This instrument is commonly used by ships at sea in hailing each other. It is made 
 of a long tin tube, and increases the sound of the human voice amazingly. — Pardon. 
 
 SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were unknown to 
 the aucients. They are generally supposed to have beeu invented in the 13th century, 
 by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about a.D. 1285. They were 
 invented by Roger Bacon, our own illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. 
 The hint was certainly given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real 
 inventor was Sal vino; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favour of Salviuo in his Treatise. 
 
 SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sundials, were invented by 
 Anaximander, 552 B.C. The armillary sphere is said to have been invented by 
 Eratosthenes about 255 B.C. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 
 212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce 
 delightful sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 
 
 SPINNING. The art of spinning wasa?cribed by the ancients to Minerva, the goddess 
 of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arcadia, taught his subjects 
 the art of spinning about 1500 B.C. Lucretia with her maids was found spinning, 
 when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the cimp. The wife of Taiquin 
 was an excellent spinner; and a garmeut maie by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was 
 preserved in the temple of Fortune. Augustus Caesar usually wore no garments hut 
 such as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invented 
 at Brunswick, about A.D. 1530. Till 1767, the spiuning of cotton was performed by 
 the hand spinuing-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious mechanic, near Blackburn, 
 made a spinniug-jenny, with eight spindles. Hargrave also erected the first carding- 
 rnachiue, with cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinniug by water was an extension 
 of the principle of Hargrave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand 
 the thread, and, for this ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first 
 he worked his machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the 
 Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which is a further 
 and wonderful improvement of this art. — Phillips. 
 
 SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was the seat 
 of the Imperial chamber till 1689, when the city was burnt by the French, and not 
 rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Tne diet to condemn the reformers 
 was held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V. 1529. See Protestants. 
 
 SPIRITS. See Distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a 
 proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. In 1840 England made 
 about ten millions of gallons of spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 
 Ireland about nine millions of gallons. In the year 1851 the number of gallons on 
 which duty was paid for home consumption was 23,976.596. The total amount paid 
 was 6.017,21 81. of which 3.758,1 861. were paid by England, 1,25-2,297/. by Scotland, 
 and 1,00 >, 735/. by Ireland: the total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
 6,760,422/. In 1855 methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts and sciences, were 
 made duty free by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 38. 
 
SPI 618 • ST A 
 
 SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it Greenland, 
 stipposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was visited by Barentz 
 and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be the original discoverers, and 
 called it Spitzbergen or sharp mountains, from the many shai'p-pointed and rocky 
 mountains with which it abounds. See Phipps. 
 
 SPORTS, BOOK op. The first "Book of Sports," under the title of "The King's 
 Majestie's Declaration to his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used" (viz. on 
 Sundays), was published by king James I. May 24, 1618. The second "Book of 
 Sports," with a ratification by his majesty Charles I. is dated Oct. 18, 1633. On the 
 publication of the first " Book of Sports," there arose a long and violent controversy 
 among English divines on certain points. See Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. 
 
 SPURS. Anciently the difference between the knight and esquire was, that the knight 
 wore gilt spurs (eques auratus) and the esquire silver ones. Two sorts of spurs seem 
 to have been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a 
 single point, the other a number of points of considerable size. Spurs near to the 
 present kind came into use about A.D. 1400. See article Plating. 
 
 SPURS, BATTLE of the. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Maximilian, and the 
 Swiss, entered, in 1513, into an alliance offensive against France. Henry VIII. landed 
 at Calais in the month of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 men, counting the 
 troops he had brought with him. He was joined by the emperor with a good corps 
 of horse, and some foot. The emperor was so mean as to act as a mercenary to the 
 king of England, who allowed him a hundred ducats a day for his table ! They laid 
 siege to Terotienne, investing the place with an army of 50,000 men; and the Due de 
 Longueville, marching to its relief, was signally defeated : the French were every- 
 where routed in the battle. This battle of Guinnegate was called the battle of Spurs, 
 because the French used their spurs more than they did their swords. It happened on 
 the 18th of August, and the place surrendered on the 24th: and the allies not 
 agreeing as to which of them should keep it, razed it to the ground. The English 
 king then laid siege to Tournay, which submitted in a few days. — Henault. 
 
 STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or inns at which the coach stopped to 
 refresh or change horses. — Bailey. The stage-coach duty act passed in 1785. These 
 coaches were made subject to salutary provisions for the safety of passengers, 
 50 Geo. III. 1809. They were made subject to mileage duties, 55 Geo. III. 1814. 
 The duty upon stage-coaches was about half a million sterling; latterly much less. 
 See Coaches; Hackney Coaches; Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 STAMP-OFFICE. The first institution of stamp-duties was by statute 5 & 6 Will, and 
 Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. 
 The stamp-duty on newspapers was commenced in 1713, and every year added to the 
 list of articles upon which stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp act, 
 • a memorable statute, one of those imposts levied by the Parliament of Great Britain 
 which produced the American war, and led to the independence of that country, was 
 passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland commenced 1774. Stamps on notes 
 and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 
 revenue of 3,126,535?.; in 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726.817?.; in 1850, 
 6,867,548?. ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, they were 6,287,261?. Many altera- 
 tions were made by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59, 63, 71 (Aug. 1853). By an act passed in 
 Juue 1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was totally abolished : the 
 stamp on them being henceforth for postal purposes only. In July and Aug. 1854, 
 19,115,000 newspaper stamps were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 6,870,000. 
 
 STANDARD. First fixed by law for gold and silver in England, a.d. 1300. Standard 
 gold is 22 parts out of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or cai ats being silver or 
 copper. The standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
 copper, or 37 parts out of 40 of pure silver, and 3 parts copper. In a.d. 1300, these 
 12 oz. of silver were coined into 20 shillings. In 1412 they were coined into 30 
 shillings; and in 1527, into 45 shillings. In 1545, Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver 
 and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings; and the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 
 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard iu 
 60 shillings; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. It is now 66 shillings. The average pro- 
 portions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 15^ to 1. The standard of plate and 
 silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 1719 et seq. See Gold. 
 
 STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds 
 
STA 614 STA 
 
 arising from the diversity of measures, and for the establishment of a legal standard 
 measure to be used in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by 
 order of the king were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
 well-known term of "Winchester measure." The bushel so made is still preserved 
 in the guildhall of that city. Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measurement 
 of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length of his own arm to be made and 
 deposited at Winchester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. The guildhall 
 contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns. — Camden. 
 
 STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the cross on 
 standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, 
 previously to his battle with Maxentius; this fact rests on the authority of Eusebius, 
 who states that he had received it from the emperor himself, a.d. 312. For the cele- 
 brated French standard see Aurifiumme. Standard of Mahomet : on this ensign no 
 infidel dare look. It was carried in procession about 1768, when several hundred 
 ChrisMans, who ignorantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. 
 The Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bedford 
 Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the kingdoms, 
 which became a law, Jan. 1, 1801. 
 
 STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for the administration of justice among 
 the tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 33 Edw. I. 1305. — In 1855 an act 
 was passed to amend and extend the jurisdiction of these courts. 
 
 STAR-CHAMBER, COURT of. So called haply from its roof being garnished with 
 stars. — Coke. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and part of the 
 Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its roof (which were 
 obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Sfarra, or Jewish 
 covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be valid 
 except found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banishment of the 
 Jews by Edward I. The court was instituted 2 Hen. VII. 1487, for trials by a com- 
 mittee of the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
 of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in their suffer- 
 ings, and contributed to render government odious and contemptible. — Goldsmith. 
 It was abolished 16 Charles I. 1641. There were from 26 to 42 judges, the lord 
 chancellor having the casting voice. — Gibbon. 
 
 STARS, the FIXED. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 
 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, 
 and that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
 gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 B.C. Job, Hesiod, and 
 Homer mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a 
 Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C. in which 1460 stars are correctly 
 inserted. The aberration of the stars discovered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy 
 and Solar System. Maps of the stars were published by the Society for the Diffusion 
 of Knowledge in 1839. 
 
 STARCHING of LINEN. Starch is a sediment produced at the bottom of vessels 
 wherein wheat has been steeped in water; is soft and friable, easily broken into 
 powder, and is used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue ; its powder is employed to 
 powder the hair. The art of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. 
 Dinghein, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. — Slow. 
 
 STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Previously to the 
 Revolution, it had not met since a.d. 1614. The states consisted of three orders, the 
 nobility, clergy, and commons. They were convened by Louis XVI. and assembled 
 at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a contest arose, whether the three orders should 
 mnke three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the 
 latter, and, assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were 
 competent to proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if 
 they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to concede the 
 point, and they all met in one hall. See National Assembly. 
 
 STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers 
 were called stationers. The company of stationers of London i3 of great antiquity, 
 and existed long before printing was invented; yet it was not incorporated until 
 3 Philip & Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 
 
 STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter passed for one 
 
STA 
 
 615 
 
 STE 
 
 of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B.C. 
 He had previously made a statue of Miuerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
 placed in the Parthenon. It was made with ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in 
 height. Acilius raised a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. 
 Lysippus invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he after- 
 wards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among the 
 moderns. The first equestrian statue erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. 
 in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 10 (July 10, 1854), public statues are placed under the 
 control and protection of the Board of Works. Among the public statues erected in 
 the London squares and other public places, are the following : — 
 
 Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the 
 duke of Wellington, by the ladies of 
 Great Britain . . . June 13, 1S22 
 Anne, queen, St. Paul's Church-yard. . 1711 
 Bedford, duke of, Kussell-squnre . . 1S09 
 Canning, George, New Palace-yard . 1832 
 Cartwright, major, Burton Crescent. . 1831 
 Charles I. Cbaringcross . . . . 1678 
 Charles II. Soho-square . . . . **** 
 Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square 1770 
 Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet- 
 street 1586 
 
 Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square 1816 
 George I. Grosvenoi'-square . . . 1726 
 George I. Leicester- square . . . 1726 
 
 George III. Somerset-house . . . 178S 
 George III. Cockspur-street . . . 1S36 
 Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's 1796 
 
 James II. Whitehall 1687 
 
 Napier, gen. sir Charles J. Trafalgar- 
 square 1S56 
 
 Nelson, Trafalgar-square . . . . 1S43 
 Pitt, William, Hanover-square . . 1831 
 Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside . . . 1855 
 Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . 1844 
 Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park 
 
 corner 1846 
 
 William III. St. James's-square . . 1717 
 William IV. King William Street . . 1845 
 York, duke of, Waterloo-place . . 1834 
 
 STATUTES. The following are among the most celebrated early statutes :— Statutes 
 of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the clergy, enacted 10 Hen. II. 1164. Statutes 
 of Marlborough, 1267. The statute of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any 
 record exists, 6 Edw. I. 1277. Statute of Mortmain, 1279. Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 
 Of Winchester, Oct. 1284. Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the consent 
 of parliament, 1297. Of Praemunire, 1306. The first printed bear date 1483, and are 
 in English. The Statutes of the Kealm, from Magna Charta to George I. were 
 printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, folio, 1811-1828, by com- 
 missioners appointed in 1801. — Many obsolete statutes (from 1285 to 1777) were 
 repealed in 1856 by 19 & 20 Vict. c. 64. — The statutes passed during each session 
 are now printed annually in a 4to and an 8vo volume. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE and NAVIGATION. This is the most important prime mover 
 that the ingenuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
 marquess of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, as " a way to drive up water by 
 fire," a.d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble inventor could ever 
 interest the public in favour of this great discovery. 
 
 Papin's digester invented . . a.d. 1681 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed for 
 raising water 169S 
 
 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
 Society, about 1699 
 
 Atmospheric engine by Savery and 
 Newcomen 1713 
 
 First idea of steam navigation set forth 
 in a patent obtained by Jonathan 
 Hulls 1736 
 
 Watt's invention of performing conden- 
 sation in a separate vessel from the 
 cylinder 1765 
 
 His first patent 1769 
 
 His engines upon a large scale erected in 
 manufactories, and his patent renewed 
 by act of parliament . . . . 1775 
 
 Thomas Paine proposed the application 
 of steam in America .... 1778 
 
 Engine made to give a rotary motion _. 1778 
 
 Watt's expansion engine . . . . 1778 
 
 Double-action engines proposed by Dr. 
 Falck on Newcomen's principle . . 1779 
 
 Watt's double engine, and his first patent 
 for it granted 17S1 
 
 The marquess Jouffroy constructed an 
 engine on the Sa6no .... 1781 
 
 Two Americans published upon the 
 steam-engine 17S5 
 
 W. Symington made a passage on the 
 Forth and Clyde canal .... 1789 
 
 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 
 Henry Jackson 1791 
 
 First experiment on the Thames . . 1S01 
 
 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- 
 peated with success . . . . 1802 
 
 Trevethick's high-pressure engine . . 1802 
 
 Woolf 's double cylinder expansion engine 
 constructed . .... 1804 
 
 Manufactories warmed by steam . . 1806 
 
 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
 Hudson, America 1S07 
 
 Steam power to convey coals on a rail- 
 way, employed by Blenkiusop . . 1S11 
 
 Steam-vessels first commenced plying 
 on the Clyde 1812 
 
 Steam applied to printing in the Times 
 office. See Press 1S14 
 
 There were five steam-vessels in Scotland 
 (Part. Returns) in 1814 
 
 * This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1633, at the expense of the Ho ward- Arundel family. 
 During the civil war, the Parliament sold it to John River, a brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to 
 break it to pieces ; but he concealed it under ground till the Restoration, when it was erected in 1678, 
 on a pedestal executed by Grinlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one cast, 
 was that of Louis XIV. of France, a.d. 1699 : it was elevated about 1724. 
 
STE 
 
 616 
 
 STE 
 
 STEAM ENGINE and NAVIGATION, continued. 
 
 First steam-vessel on the Thames brought 
 by Mr. Dodd from Glasgow . . 1810 
 
 The first steamer built in England 
 (Pari Returns) 1S15 
 
 The Savannah steamer, of 350 tons, came 
 from New York to Liverpool in 26 days, 
 
 July 15, 1S19 
 
 First steamer in Ireland .... 1820 
 
 Captain Johnston obtained 10,0002. for 
 making the first steam voyage to India, 
 in the Enterprise, which sailed from 
 Falmouth . . . Aug. 1C, 1S25 
 
 The locomotive steam-carriages on rail- 
 ways, at Liverpool ... Oct. IRiO 
 
 The railway opened (Vec Liverpool) . . 
 
 The Great Western arrives from Bristol at 
 New York, being her first voyage, in 
 IS days June 17, 1S3S 
 
 War steamers built in England . . . 1838 
 
 War steamers built at Birkenhead, 
 named the Nemesis and Phlegethon, 
 carryingeach two thirty- two pounders, 
 sent by government to China . . 1S40 
 Bee Navy and Shipping. 
 
 STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS :- 
 
 Tear. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1S15 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1820 
 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 1825 
 
 
 112 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 168 
 
 1S30 
 
 
 203 
 
 61 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 315 
 
 1835 
 
 
 344 
 
 85 
 
 68 
 
 48 
 
 545 
 
 1845 
 
 
 691 
 
 139 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 1001 
 
 1850 
 
 Belonging to the United Kiugc 
 
 
 
 1181 
 
 The Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company -was formed in 1836. The Cunard 
 Steamers began to sail in 1840, and their rivals the Collins Steamers in 1850. The 
 journey from America to England is now sometimes accomplished in 10 days. — The 
 Great Eastern Steamer now building at Millwall for the Eastern Steam Navigation, is 
 680 feet long, 83 feet wide ; tonnage 22,000. It is expected to convey between four 
 and five thousand persons to Australia (22,500 miles). Its engines are equal to 1500 horse 
 power. It was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei, and built by Messrs. Scott Russell & Co. 
 
 
 long. 
 
 Broad. 
 
 
 Long. 
 
 Broad. 
 
 Great Western 
 
 . 236 feet 
 
 35 feet. 
 
 Himalaya . 
 
 . . 370 feet 
 
 43 feet. 
 
 Duke of Wellington 
 
 . 240 feet 
 
 60 feet. 
 
 Persia 
 
 . 390 feet 
 
 45 feet. 
 
 British Queen 
 
 . 275 feet 
 
 61 feet. 
 
 Great Eastern 
 
 . . 680 feet 
 
 83 feet. 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 . 322 feet 
 
 51 feet. 
 
 
 
 
 STEEL, the well-known metal, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and 
 has been largely fabricated from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is 
 said to have been set up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsvvorth near Sheffield in 1740. 
 The manufacture of shear steel began at Sheffield about 1800. German steel was made 
 at Newcastle previously by Mr. Crawley. The inventions of Mushat (1800) and Lucas 
 (1804) were important steps in this manufacture. 
 
 STEEL PENS. Came into use about 1820, when the first .gross of three-slit pens was 
 sold wholesale for 71. 4s. In 1830 the price was Ss., and in 1832 6s. A better article 
 is now sold for 6d. a gross, the cheapest sort at 2d. ; Birmingham alone now produces 
 about 1000 millions pens per annum. Women and children are principally employed 
 in the manufacture. 
 
 STEEL-YARD, and STEEL-YARD COMPANY. A most ancient instrument, the same 
 that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. The Statera JRomana, or Roman steel- 
 yard, is mentioned in 315 B.C. The Steel- Yard Company was a company of London 
 merchants who had the steel-yard assigned to them by Henry III. a.D. 1232. They 
 were all Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, for many years after, of the 
 staple commodities of England. — Anderson. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been practised by 
 most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the hieroglyphics of the 
 Egyptians. It is also attributed to the pcet Ennius, improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's 
 freed-man, and still more by Seneca. The Ars Scribcndi Characteris, printed about 
 A.D. 1412, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published 
 on stenography in 1590. There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of 
 easy acquirement and great simplicity. 
 
 STEREOMETER. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking the contents 
 of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a.d. 1350. — Anderson. 
 
STE 617 STO 
 
 STEREOSCOPE (from stereo?, solid, and s'kopein, to see), an optical instrument, for repre- 
 senting in apparent relief natural objects, &c, by uniting into one image two plane 
 representations of these objects as seen by each eye separately. The first was con- 
 structed and exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838. 
 
 STEREOTYPE. See Printing. It is said that stereotyping -was known in 1711 ; but this 
 is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged of Edinburgh, 1735. — 
 Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The 
 invention of it is also attributed to Francis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. 
 — Ferguson. But stereotype printing was in use, in Holland, in the last century; and 
 a quarto Bible and Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping 
 was introduced into London by Wilson, iu 1804. — Idem. 
 
 STIRRUPS. Stirrups were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highways 
 with stones to enable the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections on their 
 spears for the same purpose. Stirrups were used in the fifth century, but were not 
 common even in the twelfth. 
 
 STOCKHOLM. See Sweden. Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great Britain 
 and the queen of Sweden, by which the former acquired the duchies of Bremen and 
 Verden as elector of Brunswick, Nov. 20, 1719. Treaty of Stockholm, between 
 Sweden and Russia, in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, March 24, 1724. 
 Treaty of Stockholm, entered into between England and Sweden, March 3, 1813. 
 
 STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
 Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings, by her silk-woman 
 Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. — Howell. He adds, 
 "Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great 
 chance, a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. 
 was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas 
 Gresham : and the present was then much taken notice of. — Idem. Others relate 
 that William Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
 a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made 
 in England, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, 1564. — Stow. 
 
 STOCKING-FRAME. The art of weaving stockings in a frame was invented in England 
 by the rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years after he had first learned 
 to knit them with wires or needles. 
 
 STOCKPORT. A large ancient town of Chester, which has latterly risen into eminence 
 on account of the cotton trade. Heaton Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a 
 bridge over the river. Here was a serious religious riot, when two Roman Catholic 
 chapels were destroyed, and the houses of many Roman Catholics were gutted and 
 their furniture and other contents smashed or burnt, June 29, 1852. See Riots. 
 
 STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced into 
 Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have had its rise in 
 1694. The act to prevent stock-jobbing passed March 1734. The foundation of the 
 Stock Exchange, in Capel-court, was laid in May 1800. The memorable Stock 
 Exchange hoax, for which Cochrane, Johnstone, and others were convicted, and lord 
 Cochrane was afterwards expelled the house of commons, Feb. 22, 1814. Stock- 
 exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, Feb. 11, 1816. The number of stock-holders 
 in 1840 amounted to 337,481. The number in 1850 not ascertained. By a return of 
 the average price of the public funds by the commissioners for the reduction of the 
 national debt, it appears that Consols averaged in the year — 
 
 1780 
 
 . £63 13 6 
 
 1S00 
 
 .£66 3 3 
 
 1820 
 
 . £68 12 
 
 1S45 
 
 . £93 2 6 
 
 1785 . 
 
 . 68 6 6 
 
 1805 . 
 
 . 58 14 
 
 1825 . 
 
 . 90 
 
 8 1S48 . 
 
 . 86 15 
 
 1790 
 
 . 71 2 6 
 
 1S10 
 
 . 67 16 3 
 
 1830 
 
 . 89 15 
 
 7 1850 
 
 . 96 10 
 
 1795 . 
 
 . 74 8 6 
 
 1815 . 
 
 . 58 13 9 
 
 1840 . 
 
 . 89 17 
 
 6 1852 . 
 
 . 99 12 6 
 
 STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher; about 190 B.C. They obtained the 
 name because they listened to his instructions in a porch or portico at Athens, called 
 in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's supreme happiness consisted in living agree- 
 ably to nature and reason, and that God was the soul of the world. — Stanley. 
 
 STONE OPERATION. The operation of extracting stone from the bladder was first 
 performed by Ammonius of Alexandria, about a.D. 240. Cutting for the stone was 
 first performed on a criminal, at Paris, in 1474, with success. A remedy discovered 
 by Mrs. Stevens, for which she was rewarded by government, 1739. See Lithotomy. 
 
STO 
 
 618 
 
 STO 
 
 STONE BUILDINGS, &c. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a.d. 670. A 
 stone bridge was built at Bow, in 1087, and is accounted the first; but a bridge exists 
 at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges. The first stone 
 building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Bxdlding. Stone china-ware was made by 
 Wedgwood iu 1762. Artificial stone for statues was manufactured by a Neapolitan, 
 and introduced into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 1796. See Rumome's 
 Artificial Stone. 
 
 STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. Said to 
 have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosius, iu memory of 460 
 Britons who were murdered by Hengist, the Saxon, a.D. 475. — Geoffrey of Monmouth. 
 Erected as a sepulchral monument of Ambrosius, a.D. 500. — Polydore Vergil. An 
 ancient temple of the Britons, in which the Druids officiated. — Dr. Stublcy. The 
 Britons had annual meetings at Abnry and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and 
 justice administered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. 
 
 STORM, the GREAT. See next article, year 1703, and Note. 
 
 STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memorable. In 
 London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a.d. 944. One in several parts 
 of England, the sky being very dark, the wind corning from the S.W. ; many churches 
 -were destroyed; and in London 500 houses fell, Oct. 5, 1091. One on the coast of 
 Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to 
 assist king John against the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshcd. 
 
 It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
 pests of rain and wind, a.d. 1233. 
 
 A storm, with violent lightnings ; one flash 
 passed through a chamber where Edward 1. 
 anil his queen were conversing, did them no 
 damage, but killed two of their attendants, 
 1285. — Hoveden. 
 
 A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
 France, which fell on the army of Edward 
 III. then on its march. The hail was so 
 large that the army and horses suffered very 
 much, and Edward was obliged to conclude 
 a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 
 
 When Richard II 'squeen came from Bohemia, 
 on her setting foot on shore an awful storm 
 arose, and her ship and a number of others 
 were dashed to pieces in the harbour, Jan. 
 1382.— Holinsh"d. 
 
 Richard's second queen also brought a storm 
 with her to the English coasts, in which the 
 king's baggage was lost, and many ships 
 castaway, 13S9. — Idem. 
 
 A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
 very considerable damage ; more remarked 
 in England, happening Sept. 3, 165S, the 
 day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. 
 
 A storm on the eastern coasts of England : 
 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
 their crews, 1696. 
 
 The storm, called the "Great Storm," one of 
 the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
 land. The devastation on land was im- 
 mense ; and in the harbours, and on the 
 coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was 
 still greater, Nov. 26 27, 1703.* 
 
 A snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, 
 it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
 their march to attack Drontheim, 1719. 
 
 One in India, when many hundreds of vessels 
 were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly 
 damaged, and some ships lust, and 30,000 
 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane at the Havannah ; many 
 public edifices and 4048 houses were de- 
 
 stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, 
 Oct. 25, 176S. — Annual Register. 
 
 An awful storm in the north of England, in 
 which many vessels were destroyed, and 4 
 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 
 
 At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7C00 
 of the inhabitants, April 22, 17S2. 
 
 One hundred and thirty-one villages and 
 farms laid waste iu France, 1785. 
 
 One general throughout Great Britain : se- 
 veral hundred sail of shipping destroyed or 
 damaged, Oct. 6, 1794. 
 
 One which did vast damage in London, and 
 throughout almost the whole of England, 
 Nov. 8, 1800. 
 
 A tremendous storm throxighout Great Britain 
 and Ireland, by which immense damage was 
 done, and many ships wrecked, Dec. 16-17, 
 1S14. 
 
 An awful gale, by which a great number of 
 vessels were lost, and much damage was 
 done to the shipping in general on the 
 English coasts, Aug. 31, 1816. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the Lee- 
 ward Islands, from 20th to 22nd Sept. 1819. 
 At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 104 ves- 
 sels were lost. 
 
 A gieat storm along the coast from Durham 
 to Cornwall, in which great numbers of 
 vessels were lost, Nov. 1821. 
 
 In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of 
 Dublin, when many houses were thrown 
 down, and vast numbers unroofed, Dec. 12, 
 1S22. 
 
 Awful storm ou the coast of England ; many 
 vessels lost, and 13 driven ashore and 
 wrecked in Plymouth alone, Jan 12-13, 1S28. 
 
 At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
 vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 
 
 Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 where immense property was lost, July 16, 
 1831. 
 
 A hurricane visited London and its neigh- 
 bourhood, which did great damage to the 
 
 * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000J. sterling. The number of persons 
 drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown 
 from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thonght to have been 8000. Twelve men of-war, 
 with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up by 
 the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the 
 ingenious contriver of it. Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bishop of Bath and 
 Wells and his lady were killed in bed iu their palace in Somersetshire. Multitudes of cattle were also 
 lost : in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 
 
STO 619 SUB 
 
 places, more than 200 houses were blown 
 down, and as many more were burnt, the 
 wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffered 
 dreadfully; London anditsneighbourhoood 
 scarcely Mistained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1S39. 
 
 [The winter of 1S52-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one 
 of storms, many of which were very de- 
 structive, particularly to shipping.] 
 
 Great storm in the Black sea, Nov. 13-16, 
 causing much loss of life, shipping, and 
 stores for the allied armies in the Crimea. 
 
 Great storm on N. coast of Europe, <fcc., 
 Dec. 31, 1S54. 
 
 STORMS, continued. 
 
 buildings, but without the destruction of 
 human life, though many serious accidents 
 occurred, Oct. 28, 183S. 
 Awful hurricane on the western coast of 
 England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
 through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- 
 wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Liver- 
 pool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 
 were drowned in the neighbourhood ; the 
 coast and harbours were covered with 
 wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels 
 lost being nearly half a million sterling-. 
 In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
 
 STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet 
 do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of the room, the roof 
 being open. Apartments were warmed too by portable braziers. Stoves on the old 
 principle, improved, continue in use in many houses and public establishments in 
 England, and still generally on the continent. See Chimneys, and Cottager's Stove. 
 
 STRAND, London. Houses were first built upon the Strand about a.d. 1353, at which 
 period it was the court end of the town, or formed the communication between the 
 two cities of London and Westminster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
 fields. Somerceb and other palaces were erected in 1549. — Stow. The Strand bridge 
 was commenced Oct. 11, 1811. See Waterloo Bridge. The Strand improvements 
 were commenced in 1829. 
 
 STRASBURG. The Roman Argentoratum. This town, formerly imperial, was taken by 
 Louis XIV. in 1681. The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, have been 
 so much augmented that Strasburg may be considered one of the strongest j>laces in 
 Europe. It was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Strasburg is 
 remarkable for its magnificent cathedral and tower, the latter, the loftiest in the world. 
 An attempt at insurrection in the city was made by Louis Napoleon, afterwards 
 president of the French republic, and now emperor, aided by two officers and some 
 privates, but it was instantly suppressed by the arrest of the parties. The prince was 
 then shipped off to America by the French government, Oct. 29, 1836. He made 
 another attempt by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840, which led to his imprisonment 
 at Ham. See France. 
 
 STRATHMORE, COUNTESS of. Miss Bowes of Durham, the then richest heiress in 
 Europe, whose fortune was 1,040,000?. with vast additions on her mother's death, and 
 immense estates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Stratbmore, Feb. 25, 
 1766. Having, after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off 
 by him and other armed men, Nov. 10, 1'786. She was brought up to the King's 
 Bench by habeas corpus and released, and he committed to prison, Nov. 23. The 
 lady recovered her estates, which she had assigned to her husband under the influence 
 of terror, in May 1788. 
 
 STRATTON-HILL, BATTLE of, in Cornwall. Between the royal army and the 
 forces of the parliament headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the victory was 
 gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded, and 
 Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol; fought May 16, 1643. Waller, who wa3 most 
 inconstant in his principles, was the nephew of the great Hampden. 
 
 STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, 
 particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lenglet. It was revived by 
 D'Udine, about a.d. 1550 ; and lately in Italy, France, and England. 
 
 STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Csesar's ordering leap-year to be once in 
 four years, and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8 B.C. Again at Rome, by 
 taking twelve days off the calendar, a.d. 1582. See Calendar. Introduced into most of 
 the other states of Europe, 1710. Act passed to change the style in England from the 
 Julian to the Gregorian, 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Tear. 
 
 STYLE ROYAL of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and Titles. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, France. See Telegraph. Professor Charles Wheatstone 
 
 in 1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and Calais. 
 
 In 1847 Mr. John Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis-Philippe without 
 
 success; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to make a trial. 
 
 This took place on Aug. 28, 1850. The connecting wires were placed on the govern- 
 
SUB C20 SUC 
 
 ment pier in Dover harbour, and in the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
 length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering of gutta percha, half an inch in 
 diameter. The Goliaih started from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as it 
 proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer 
 ai'rived on the French coast, and the wire was run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its 
 terminal station, and messages were sent to and fro between England and the French 
 coast. Bat the wire, in settling into its place in the sea-bottom, crossed a rocky ridge, 
 and snapped in two, and thus the enterprise for that time failed. New arrangements 
 were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude, and the telegraph was opened, 
 Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and closing prices of the funds in Paris 
 were known on the London Stock Exchange within business hours. Guns were fired 
 at Dover by means of electric sparks communicated from Calais. In May 1853 the 
 Dover and Ostend line was laid down. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, Ireland. A submarine telegraph was laid down across 
 the Irish Sea from Holyhead to Howth, near Dublin, a direct distance of sixty 
 miles, in May 1852. The cable was shipped on board the Britannia steamer, the 
 Admiralty steamer Prospero being in company to render aid. In the first attempt, 
 some mismanagement caused the cable to break when only four miles from Holy- 
 head; and the operations had to be suspended for the repair of the mischief. The 
 second attempt was quite successful ; the two vessels devoted eighteen hours to the 
 passage, proceeding slowly and cautiously, and paying out the enormous cable with 
 great judgment. Only 65 miles of cable were used, so direct did the vessels proceed 
 in their course. On arriving at Howth, the end of the cable was put in communica- 
 tion with a loaded cannon on board the Britannia ; the signal to "fire" was trans- 
 mitted to Holyhead ; the operators at this place sent back an impulse, and the 
 cannon was fired off immediately — a most astounding feat, were it not that such 
 feats have now become so familiar as to cease to astonish. A message was received 
 in London at 10 o'clock, dated from Dublin at 8 o'clock, June 1, 1852. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, Atlantic. A plan to unite Europe and America by the 
 electric telegraph was entered at the Government registration office, in June 1845, 
 by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals to the government, which were not 
 accepted. This plan is now being carried out by a company. 2500 miles of wire 
 were manufactured and tested in March, 1857. The laying it down commenced at 
 Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque- 
 hanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and Agamemnon (British vessels). After 
 sailing a few miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 
 300 miles of wire had been paid out, it snapped again, and the vessels returned to 
 Plymouth. There is no doubt of the success of the scheme when improvements are 
 made in the machinery to be employed. 
 
 SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, particularly 
 in wool; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 
 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of England for the last time 
 by James I. 1624, but they were contained in a bill for the redress of grievances, 
 1639. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particularly in 
 the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of 
 the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty o£ subsidies 
 was ratified at Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should 
 be vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers 
 should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, 
 and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to the amount of many tens of 
 millions sterling. — Phillips. 
 
 SUCCESSION, ACT of. The memoi'able act to exclude Roman Catholics from ascend- 
 ing the throne of these realms was passed 1 Will. & Mary, 1689 ; and the crown of 
 England was settled upon the present royal family by the act 13 Will. III. passed 
 June 12, 1701. By this latter act the succession of the crown of England, after the 
 demise of William III. and of queen Anne, without issue, was limited to the princess 
 of Hanover, and to her heirs being Protestants, she being the grand-daughter of 
 James I. — See Hanoverian Succession. 
 
 SUCCESSION, the WAR of. This celebrated war, alike distinguished by the achieve- 
 ments of the duke of Marlborough and the earl of Peterborough, and its barren and 
 unprofitable results, arose on the question whether an Austrian or a French prince, 
 grandson of Louis XIV., should succeed to the throne of Spain. Our court opposed 
 
sue 
 
 621 
 
 SUI 
 
 Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies withdrew one after another, 
 and the French prince succeeded; 1702 to 1713. See Utrecht, Peace of. 
 
 SUCCESSION" DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 
 Aug. 4, 1853. The schedule contains tables of annuities. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the Bay of 
 Pelusium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The Egyptian, Turkish, 
 Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favour of the scheme, which is at 
 present opposed by the British. The cost is estimated at 8,000,000£. 
 
 SUGAR, Saccharum officinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the ancient 
 Jews. Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B.C. — Strabo. 
 An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common 
 beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed 
 as a medicine by Galen. — Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a.d. 625. Iu 
 large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeed- 
 ing, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1510.* Our chief 
 importations of sugar are from the British West Indies, the East Indies, Mauritius, 
 and Brazil. The previous customs duties upon sugar were repealed, and moderated 
 duties substituted, by the act 9 & 10 Vict, c. 63, passed Aug. 18, 1846, by which act 
 the same duties were levied upon the sugar of foreign countries as levied upon sugar 
 the produce of British colonies, annually reduced until July 5, 1851. The importa- 
 tions of sugar have in consequence considerably increased; and amounted in 1852 to 
 upwards of eight millions of cwts.. paying, notwithstanding the reduction, a duty 
 exceeding four millions of pounds sterling. In 1855, the duty was again increased. *)* 
 Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II. 1685. 
 
 SUGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Europeans by a 
 Venetian, a.d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1659, though some 
 authorities say that we had the art among us a few years sooner. Dr. Scoffern's 
 improved processes were patented in 1848-50. 
 
 SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish history, 
 is that of Saul, 1055 B.C. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman philosophers deemed 
 it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the rest of the body. In the 
 early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs in the reign of 
 Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves disgraced by being ordered to 
 make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B C. Instances afterwards occurred, 
 however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 B.C. In the Roman Catholic 
 Church, in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be made 
 in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesiastical law continued 
 till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the 
 authority of parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. 
 
 A TEW OF THE MOST MEMORABLE LATE CASES OE SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, ETC. 
 
 Gen. Pichegru . . . April 7, 1804 
 
 Miss Champante . . Aug. 15, 1804 
 Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland, 
 
 May 3), 1S10 
 Williams, murderer of the Marr family, 
 
 Dee. 15, 1S11 
 
 Lord French .... Dec. 9, 1814 
 
 Marshal Berthier . . June 1, 1815 
 
 Samuel Whitbread, esq. . . Sept. 6, 1815 
 
 Sir Samuel Romilly . . . Nov. 2, ISIS 
 
 Sir Richard Croft . . . Nov. 6, 1818 
 
 Christophe, king of Hayti . . Oct. 8, 1820 
 
 Adtn. sir George Campbell . Jan. 23, 1821 
 
 Marquess of Londonderry . Aug. 12, 1822 
 
 Hon. colonel Stanhope . . Jan. 26, 1825 
 
 Mi - . Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussic 
 
 Acid) July 4, 1S2S 
 
 Miss Charlotte Both . . Jan 3, 1S30 
 
 Lord Greaves .... Feb. 7, 1830 
 
 Colonel Brereton . . . Jan. 13, 1832 
 
 Major Thompson . . June li, 1832 
 
 Mr. Simpson, the traveller . July 24, 1840 
 
 Lord James Beresford . April 27, 18*1 
 
 Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin May 1, 18 tl 
 
 The earl of Munster . . March 20, 1842 
 
 Lord Congletou . . . June 8, ls42 
 
 Laman Blanchard . . Feb. 15, 1845 
 
 Colonel Gurwood . . . Dec. 29, 1845 
 
 Rear-admiral Collard . . March IS, 1S46 
 
 Haydon, the eminent painter, June 22, 1SJ6 
 
 * About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to 
 Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date sugar was intro- 
 duced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
 History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an ear.ier instance in 1497. A manuscript letter from sir Edward 
 "Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March. 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for 
 lis lordship, twenty-rive sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, *' whiche is eighte pence a pounde." 
 
 t In 18-10, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwt. of which nearly 
 four millions were for home consumption ; and the duty amounted to about five millions and a half 
 sterling. In 1850, the imports were 8,285,734 cwts. and the duty, which had been reduced, amounted 
 to4.13S,(i51(. ; in 1853, 7,272,833 cwts. were retained for home consumption, and the duty amounted 
 to 4,033,8362. 
 
SUI 622 SUN 
 
 SUICIDE, continued. 
 
 Count Bresson ' . . . Nov. 2, 1847 ; A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself 
 
 Colonel King, in India . July 12, 1850 ', from the whispering gallery in St. 
 
 Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic Paul's .... March 14, 1850 
 
 theatre July i3, 1S50 Charles Russell, esq. late chairman of 
 
 Rev. Dr. Rice . . . Jan 20, 1853 Great Western Railway . May 15, 185G 
 
 Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The 
 Old Red Sundnloiie (through overwork) 
 
 Dec. 23, 1S56 
 
 Major-gen. Stalker, C.B. of Indian army 
 (March 14), and commodore Ethersey, 
 of the Indian navy. (Both through 
 
 Lieut. -col. Layard . . . Dec. 27, 185 
 Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off 
 
 Shakspeare's Cliff, i over) . Aug. 16. 1854 
 Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allge- 
 
 meine Zeitv.ng, after killing his sou, 
 
 Nov. 3, 1S55 
 John Sadleir, MP., found dead near nervous depression while on the ex- 
 
 Primrose-hill. (He was found to have ' pedition against Persia; see Buahire) 
 
 been guilty of enormous frauds upon March 17, 1857 
 
 the Tipperary bank, &c.) . Feb. 25, 1S50 
 
 There have been three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher 
 Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna; of a Frenchman, who, 
 in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an 
 Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch 
 relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from 
 which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends; but a 
 decree being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
 be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 
 In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being previously driven 
 through it, until the statute of i Geo. IV. 1823. 
 
 SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying hing of Icings, and given to the 
 grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It properly signifies king, lord, or ruler, and is 
 particularly applied to the grand signior. — Pardon. It was first given to the Turkish 
 princes Angrolipez and Musgad, about a.d. 1055. — Vattier. It was first given, accord- 
 ing to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth century of the Hegira. 
 
 SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those 
 of Zaieucus ordained that no woman should go atteuded by more than one maid in 
 the street, unless she were drunk ; and that she should not w ear gold or embroidered 
 apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 450 B.C. — Diog. Laert. The Lex Orchia 
 among the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
 dishes at an entertainment; and it also enforced that during supper, which was the 
 chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be left open. The 
 English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Edward III. and Henry VIII. 
 See Dress, Luxury, &c. 
 
 SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. 
 The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by 
 Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous 
 theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until 
 about a.d. 1200, when it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
 Spain. The Copernican system was made known in 1530. See Copernican System 
 and Solar System. Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous 
 globe. Maculse were first discovered by Chr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury 
 observed by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which darkened 
 the sun's disc in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its motion round 
 its own axis. Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley, 1702. A macula, three times the size 
 of the earth, passed the sun's centre, April 21, 1766, and frequently since. Herschel 
 measured two spots whose length taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 
 
 SUNCION, TREATY of. Between general Urquiza, director of the Argentine con- 
 federation and C. A. Lopez, president of the Republic of Paraguay, recognising the 
 independence of Paraguay, July 15, 1852. 
 
 SUN-DIALS. The sun-dial was invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. — Pliny, 1, 2. The 
 first erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, at the temple of Quirinus, when 
 time was divided into hours, 293 B.C. — Aspin. Sun-dials were first set up iu churches, 
 a.d. 613. — Abbe Lenglct. 
 
 SUNDAY, or LORD'S DAY. Most nations have counted one day in seven holy. 
 
 * Count Bresson was the French ambassador at the court of Madrid during the negotiations of the 
 Spanish Marriages (see Spanish Marriages) in 1846. He committed suicide by cutting his throat at 
 Naples, where he had just presented his credentials as French ambassador to the Sicilian king. 
 
SUN 623 SUR 
 
 Sunday was the day on which, anciently, divine adoration was paid to the Sun. 
 Among Christians it is commonly called Dies Dominica or Lord's day, on account of 
 our Saviour's appearance on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil law that 
 was issued for the observance of this day, combined with it that of the Seventh-day 
 Sabbath and other festivals. — Eusebius, Life of Constant ine ; and it was followed by 
 several imperial edicts in favour of this day, which are extant in the body of Roman 
 law, the earliest being that of Constantine the Great, dated March 7, 321. — Corpus 
 Juris Civilis. The council of Orleans prohibited country labour, which that decree 
 had allowed, 338. The Book of Innocent Sunday Sports, authorising certain sports and 
 pastimes after divine service on Sundays, published in England, 15 James I. in 1618, 
 was violently opposed by the clergy and Puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate 
 Charles L was the primary cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book 
 was burnt by the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin. 
 The Sunday act was passed in 1781. See Sabbath; Sabbath Schools; Sabbatarians; 
 Sports, Booh of, &c. 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS were first established in England in or about the year 1782, by 
 Robert Raikes, an eminent printer of Gloucester, conjointly with Dr. Stock. See 
 Education and Sabbath Schools. 
 
 SUPREMACY over the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the Church, as 
 well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made the heud of the Church 
 of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VIII. shook off the yoke of Rome, 
 and settled the supremacy in himself. Our kings have from that time had the title 
 of supreme head of the Church conferred upon them by parliament. The bishop of 
 Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous 
 others, beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535. 
 
 SURAT. Before the English East India Company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
 presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar was at Sui-at; and they had a factory 
 here established under captain Best in 1612. The Great Mogul had then an officer 
 who was styled his admiral. Memorable attack of the Mahratta chief Sivagee, on the 
 British factory, defeated by sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again 
 attacked in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 
 1759, fitted out an armament, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; and, soon 
 after, the possession of this castle was confirmed to them by the Court of Delhi. 
 Surat was vested in the British by treaty in 1800 and 1803. See India. 
 
 SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate 
 study from philosophy, &c. about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the ambe, the 
 ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flourished 
 about a.d. 17; Galen, 170; iEtius, 500; Paulus iEgineta in 640. The Arabians 
 revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century sprung up a new era in the 
 science : between these periods surgery was confined to ignorant priests or barbers. 
 Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, 
 in 1538. Surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 
 
 SURGEONS, COLLEGE op. The first charter for surgeons was granted by Henry VIII. 
 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that "no 
 person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of 
 blood, or other matter excepting only the drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained 
 another charter in 1745; and a new charter in 1800. Since that period, various 
 legislative and other important regulations have been adopted to promote their utility 
 and respectability; and no person is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the 
 cities of London and Westminster, or within seven miles of the former, who has not 
 been examined at this college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn Fields was remodelled in 
 1836, and the interior completed in 1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. 
 
 SURNAMES first began in Greece and Egypt, as Snter, from Saviour ; Nicator, conqueror; 
 Eaergttes, benefactor; Philopator, lover of his father; Philometor, lover of his mother, 
 &c. Strato was surnamed Phyricus, from his deep study of nature ; Aristides was 
 called the Just ; Phocion, the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; Xenophon, the Attic 
 Muse; Aristotle, the Stagyrite; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage; Menedemus, the 
 Erelrian Bull ; Democritus, the Laughing Philoiopher ; Virgil, the Mantuan Swain, &c. 
 Surnames were introduced into England by the Normans, and were adopted by the 
 nobility, a.d. 1100. The old Normans used Fiti, which signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. 
 
SUR 024 SWE 
 
 The Irish used 0, for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders 
 employed Mac, a3 Macdonald, son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the 
 father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common surnames, such as Johnson, 
 Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c. were taken by Brabanters and other Flemings, who 
 were naturalised in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. 
 
 SURPLICKS. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a.d. 316, and 
 generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister sayiug public prayers shall 
 wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Ed. VI. 
 1547; again, 1 Eliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 1662. 
 
 SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS were established in 1831, by Mr. Edward Cross, 
 who brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter Change. Various picture 
 model* have beeu exhibited here sines 1837, viz. Vesuvius, Iceland, &c. accompanied 
 by fireworks. In 1856, a company which had taken the gai"deus, erected a large yet 
 elegant building for concerts; the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On Oct. 19, 
 1856, wheu the hall contained about 9000 persons, attending to hear the rev. C. H. 
 Spurgeou, eight were killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm of fire. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, near King- 
 tuug; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also 
 of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspension bridges are of recent construction. 
 The bridge over the Menai Strait is the most surprising work, every way considered, 
 of modern times. The Hungerford (or Charing Cross) suspension bridge was opened 
 May 1, 1845. Parliament empowered the commissioners of woods to erect (among 
 other improvements there) a suspension bridge at Biittersea, Sept. 1846; and several 
 bridges of similar construction have been lately erected in various parts of the kingdom. 
 See Menai Strait, Hungerford Bridge, Tabular Bridge, &c. 
 
 SUTLEJ, BATTLES of the, India. A division of the British army on the Sutlej, 
 consisting of 12,000 men, with 32 guns, under the command of sir Harry Smith, 
 engaged a Sikh force, under the Sirdar Runjoor Singh, mustering 24,000 strong, and 
 supported by a park of artillery of 68 guns. The battle was most obstinate, and ended 
 in the complete rout of the Sikhs, who lost between 5000 and 6000 men, many of 
 whom were drowned in the Sutlej. This victory was named after the village of 
 Aliwal, near which it wasfought, Jan. 28, 1846. — Again, the British army under sir 
 Huj^h Gough attacked the Sikh force, numbering 35,000 men, in their intrenched camp 
 at Sobraon, on the Sutlej. The batteries were taken after an obstinate resistance from 
 the enemy, who were dislodged, and driven to attempt the passage of the river by a 
 fioatiug bridge in the rear ot their position. The bridge, unable to bear the weight 
 of the masses which crowded upon it, broke down and precipitated them into the 
 river, which, in consequence of a sudden rise of seven inches, was hardly fordable. 
 Meantime the musketry and artillery continued to make a fearful carnage among 
 them. The loss of the Sikhs in killed, wounded, and drowned, amounted to 10,000; 
 that of the British to 2383 in killed and wounded. Sixty-seven pieces of cannon and 
 several standards were captured. Prince Waldemar of Prussia was present at this 
 battle; as well as the battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah, Feb. 10, 1846. 
 
 SUTTEES, or the BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from one of 
 the wives of " Bramab, the son of God," sacrificing herself at bis death, that she might 
 attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burned themselves on the 
 funeral pile of a rnjah; and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in 
 each year. Mr. Holvvell was present at many of these sacrifices. On Feb. 4, 1743, he 
 saw a young and beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two 
 children, thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude and cournge that astonished every 
 witness of the scene. — Ho 1 well. The English government iu India have discouraged 
 these self immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference with the religion 
 and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were formally abolished, Dec. 7, 1829; but 
 they have since occasionally, though rarely, taken place. 
 
 SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT. See Western Australia. 
 
 SWEABORG. A strong fortress in Finland, 3g mile3 south of Helsingfors : it is situated 
 on seven rocky islands. The fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, 
 and were not completed in 1789, when Finland was united to Russia, by whose 
 government the works were zealously continued. It is termed the Gibraltar of the 
 north. On Aug. 7, 1855, the English and a part of the French fleet anchored off 
 Svveaborg, and bombarded it by mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the 11th inst., 
 
SWE 
 
 625 
 
 SWE 
 
 causing the destruction of nearly ail the principal buildings, including the dockyard 
 and arsenal. There were but few casualties and no loss of life in the allied squadron. 
 The success could not be pursued for want of mortars. 
 
 SWEAKING on the GOSPEL. First used a.d. 528. Introduced in judicial proceedings 
 about 600. — Rapin. Profane Swearing made punishable by fine; a labourer or 
 servant forfeiting Is. others 2s. for the first offence; for the second offence, 4s.; the 
 third offence, 6s.; 6 fm. III. 1695. See Oaths. 
 
 SWEATING SICKNESS. An English disease, which caused great mortality in 1485, 
 soon after the accession of Henry VII. It raged with great violence in London, where 
 two mayors and six aldermen died of it in one week ; many thousands of persons 
 were carried off by this complaint. — Hall's Chronicle. Again in 1517, when it carried 
 off the afflicted in three hours, and destroyed one half of the inhabitants in many parts 
 of England: the terms were obliged to be adjourned for a year. — Salmon. It broke 
 out again in 1528, 1529, and 1551, but with less violence. At Oxford, where in one 
 month 510 persons (all men, no women) died, July 1575. — Coghlan. 
 
 SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of Fin- 
 land, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the appearance of 
 the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden. Hence 
 the country was comprehended under the early name of Scandinavia, given to it in 
 common with other northern climes that were peopled by the same race. The 
 internal state of this kingdom is little known previously to the 11th century. By the 
 union of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a mere province of Denmark, and was not 
 rescued from this subjection until 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the kingdom 
 from the Danish yoke. For this he was raised to the throne in 1523, and the crown 
 made hereditary in his descendants, who successively reigned until 1809. In this 
 year, Gustavus IV. having brought the nation to the verge of ruin, was deposed for 
 misgovernment, and the duke of Sudermania became king. The next year Bernadotte 
 was elected regent and successor to the throne, which he ascended in 1818. 
 
 Gy If reigns in Sweden . . . B.C. 57 
 During this reign, Odin, sumamed the 
 Divine, at the head of a swarm of bar- 
 bai-ians, falls upon the north of Europe, 
 making vast conquests . . . . * * * 
 Tnge, founder of the family of the 
 Ynlingars, reigns .... 32 
 
 [The early history of the kingdom is 
 altogether involved in fables and 
 obscurity.] * * * * 
 
 Olif the Infant is baptised, and intro- 
 duces Christianity among his people 
 
 about a.d. 1000 
 
 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
 people and invasions of other countries, 
 is annexed to Sweden .... 1132 
 Waldemarl. of Denmark subdues Rugen, 
 and destroys the pagan temples . . 1168 
 
 Stockholm founded 1260 
 
 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular 
 
 form of government . . . . 1279 
 The crown of Sweden, which had been 
 hereditary, is made elective ; and 
 Steenchel Magnus, sumamed Smeek 
 or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 
 
 elected 1318 
 
 The crown made elective . . . . 1320 
 Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . 1361 
 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns . . . 1365 
 Treaty or union of Calinar (which see) . 1394 
 Sweden united to the crown of Denmark 
 and Norway, under Margaret . . 
 
 University of Upsal founded . 
 Christian II. " the Nero of the North," 
 massacres all the Swedish nobility, to 
 fix his despotism 
 The Swedes delivered from the Danish 
 
 yoke by the valour of Gustavus Vasa . 1521 
 Gustavus Vasa is raised to the throne . 1523 
 He makes the crown hereditary, and in- 
 troduces the reformed religion . . 1544 
 Titles of count and baron introduced by 
 Eric XIV 1561 
 
 1394 
 1476 
 
 1520 
 
 The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 between 1612 and . . . a.d. 1617 
 
 He is slain at Lutzen 1633 
 
 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . 1648 
 Abdication of Christina . . . . 1654 
 Charles X. overruns Poland . . . 1657 
 Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . 1660 
 University of Lund founded . . . 1666 
 Charles XII. " the Madman of the 
 
 North," begins his reign . . . . 1699 
 He makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
 
 the senate * * * 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is de- 
 feated by the czar of Russia (see 
 
 Pultowa) 1709 
 
 He escapes to Bender, where, after three 
 years' protection, he is made a prisoner 
 
 by the Turks 1713 
 
 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, 
 and fighting numerous battles, he is at 
 length killed at the siege of Fredericks- 
 hall (which see) . . . Dec. 11, 1718 
 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despotic 
 
 government 1719 
 
 Royal Academy fcmnded by Linne', after- 
 wards called Linnasus . . . . 1741 
 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
 
 who are beheaded .... 1756 
 Despotism re-established . . . . 1772 
 Order of the Sword instituted . . 1772 
 Assassination of Gustavus III. by count 
 Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
 
 expired the 29th 1792 
 
 The regicide was dreadfully scourged 
 with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
 cessive days : his right hand was cut 
 off, then his head, and his body im- 
 paled May 18, 1792 
 
 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the govern- 
 ment assumed by his uncle, the duke 
 of Sudermania . . . March 13, 1809 
 Sweden cedes" Finland to the czar of 
 
 Russia Sept. 17, 1S09 
 
 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
 SS 
 
SWE 
 
 626 
 
 SWE 
 
 SWEDEN, continued. 
 
 Corvo (one of Bonaparte's greatest 
 generals), is chosen the crown prince 
 of Sweden . . . Aug. 21, 1810 
 
 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 
 
 Nov. 12, 1810 
 
 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon 
 Bonaparte .... Jan. 9, 1812 
 
 Alliance with England . . July 12, 1812 
 
 Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
 Napoleon .... March 13, 1813 
 
 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty 
 
 of Kiel Jan. 14, 1814 
 
 Bemadotte ascends the throne of Sweden 
 
 as Charles John XIV. . . Feb 5, 1818 
 Treaty of navigation between Great 
 
 Britain and Sweden . May 19, 1826 
 
 Death of Bernadotte, whose son, Oscar, 
 
 ascends the throne . . March 8, 1844 
 Treaty of alliance with England and 
 
 France Nov. 21, 1855 
 
 KINGS OF SWEDEN. 
 
 1026. 
 1051. 
 1056. 
 1066. 
 1090. 
 1112. 
 1118, 
 1129. 
 1150. 
 1162. 
 
 1168. 
 1192. 
 
 1210. 
 1220. 
 1223. 
 1251. 
 1279. 
 1290. 
 1320. 
 1363, 
 
 1397. 
 
 1412, 
 1441. 
 1448. 
 1470. 
 1483. 
 1502. 
 1520. 
 
 1523. 
 
 Olaf Shotkonung, or Olif Schcetkonung ; 
 the Infant. Chi'istianity introduced 
 in this reign. 
 
 Edmund Colbrenner. 
 
 Edmund Slernme. 
 
 Stenkill or Stenchill. 
 
 Hals tan. 
 
 Ingo, styled the Good. 
 
 Philip. 
 
 Ingo II. 
 
 Swerker or Suercher I. 
 
 Eric X. 
 
 Charles VII. : made prisoner by his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 Canute, son of Eric X. 
 
 Swerker or Suercher II. : killed in 
 battle. 
 
 Eric XI. 
 
 John I. 
 
 Eric XII., le Stlgue. 
 
 Waldemar. 
 
 Magnus I. 
 
 Birger II. 
 
 Magnus II. : dethroned. 
 
 Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny 
 causes a revolt of his subjects, who 
 invite Margaret of Denmark to the 
 throne. 
 
 [Union of Calmar, by which the three 
 kingdoms are united under one sove- 
 reign.] 
 
 Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, 
 now also Denmark, and Eric XIII. 
 
 Eric XIII. governs alone : deprived. 
 
 Christopher III. 
 
 Charles VIII. sumamed Canutesou. 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 John II. (I. of Denmark.) 
 
 [Interregnum.] 
 
 Christiern or Christian II. of Denmark, 
 styled the "Nero of the North ; " de- 
 posed for his cruelties. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa : by whose valour the 
 Swedes are delivered from the Danish 
 yoke. 
 
 1560. Eric XIV. son of Gustavus : dethroned 
 and died in prison. 
 
 1568. John III. brother of Eric. 
 
 1592. Sigismund, king of Poland, son of John 
 III. : disputes for the succession con- 
 tinued the whole of this reign. 
 
 1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. 
 
 1611. Gustavus (Adolphus) II. the Great: fell 
 on the plains of Lutzen ; supposed to 
 have been treacherously slain. 
 
 1633. [Interregnum.] 
 
 1633. Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. Resigned the crown to her 
 cousin : died at Rome in 1689. 
 
 1654. Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John 
 Casimir, count palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 1660. Charles XI. son of the preceding ; the 
 arts and sciences flourished in this 
 reign. 
 
 1697. Charles XII. styled the "Alexander," 
 the " Quixote," and the " Madman of 
 the North : " killed at the siege of 
 Frederickshall. 
 
 1719. Ulrica Eleanora, his sister, and her con- 
 sort Frederick I. Ulrica relinquishes 
 the crown, and in 
 
 1741. Frederick reigned alone. 
 
 1751, Adolphus- Frederick, of Holstein-Got- 
 torp, descended from the family of 
 Vasa. 
 
 1771. Gustavus (Adolphus) III. : assassinated 
 by count Ankerstrom at a masked 
 ball. 
 
 1792. Gustavus (Adolphus) IV. : dethroned, 
 and the government assumed by his 
 uncle, the duke of Sudermania. 
 
 1809. Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 
 
 1814. [Treaty of Kiel, by which Norway falls 
 under the sovereignty of Sweden.] 
 
 1818. Charles (John) XIV. Bernadotte, the 
 French prince of Ponte Corvo ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son, 
 
 1844. Oscar, who ascended the throne, Mar. 8. 
 The present (1857) king of Sweden 
 and Norway. 
 
 The government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet, which, however 
 different in its formation, bears in its object a great resemblance to the British 
 parliament, consists of four orders, the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the 
 burghers. In regard to the executive administration, the king is, as in Britain, the 
 head of the whole. The revenue of Sweden does not amount to two millions; and 
 as it never was greater, the military force has at no time been so large as might have 
 been supposed from the brilliancy of its achievements. There are two universities, 
 Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can boast, among its great men, of Linnaeus, Celsus, 
 Scheele, and Bergman. Near the close of the Russian war, a treaty was concluded 
 between England, France, &c. and Sweden, Nov. 1855. 
 SWEDEN BORGIANS. A sect (calling themselves "the New Church" or "the New 
 Jerusalem Church,") which holds the opinions of Baron Emanuel Swedenborg (born 
 at Stockholm, 1688; died at London, 1772). He stated that he began to receive 
 spiritual manifestations, correspondences, &c. in 1745, of which an account is given 
 in his numerous works.* The sect arose about 1760, and began to spread in 1783 in 
 
 * He considered the New Jerusalem, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be 
 established, in which will be known the true nature of God and' of man, of the Word, of heaven and of 
 
SWE 
 
 627 
 
 SWO 
 
 England, where there were 50 congregations in 1851. The "New Church" maintains 
 that to it is revealed a spiritual sense of the words of Scripture, not revealed to other 
 churches. It considers the last judgment to have been accomplished in 1757 ; it does 
 not receive the usual doctrine of the Trinity, believing that the three Persons are one 
 in Christ; it rejects the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the imputed 
 righteousness of Christ, and holds that salvation cannot be obtained except by faith 
 and good works. It accepts the ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper, and 
 makes use of a liturgy and hymns in public worship. 
 
 SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to these realms from Italy before 1548. The 
 Laurus Indica, or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira, in 1665. The Sweet-Fern 
 bush, Comptonia asplenifolia, came from America, 1714. The Laurus aggregata, or 
 the Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. There are now several other species 
 of these plants in England. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered by Julius 
 Caesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Many Franks also 
 settled here, in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, 
 who, leaving their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated 
 by the Roman general Marius ; after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 B.C. 
 This canton has given name to the whole confederacy. 
 
 The Helvetians converted to Christianity 
 
 by Irish missionaries . . . a.d. 612 
 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns . . . 909 
 Becomes subject to Germany . . . 1032 
 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. . . 1179 
 
 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions the 
 memorable revolt under the patriot 
 William Tell (see Tell) . . ' . . 1306 
 Swiss independence . . Nov. V, 1307 
 
 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
 ton of Basle, 1100 souls .... 1314 
 Form of government made perpetual . 1315 
 Lucerne joins the confederacy . . 1335 
 The canton of Zurich joins, and becomes 
 
 head of the league 1350 
 
 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join . . . 1351 
 The Grisons league (see Caddee) . . . 1400 
 Second league of the Grisons . . . 1424 
 The third league of the Grisons . . 1436 
 
 Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of 
 
 France, under Louis XI. . . . 1480 
 Union of Fribourg and Soleure . . . 1481 
 Maximilian I. emperor, 
 
 Swiss independence 
 Schaffhausen joins the union 
 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by 
 
 France and other powers 
 The Reformation begins at Basle ; the 
 
 bishop compelled to retire 
 The Grison leagues join the Swiss con- 
 federacy as allies 1544 
 
 Appenzel joins the other cantons . . 1597 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Ge- 
 neva by surprise, scales the walls, and 
 penetrates the town, but in the end is 
 defeated 1602 
 
 1499 
 1501 
 
 1516 
 1519 
 
 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
 nual festival commemorative of their 
 escape from tyranny.] 
 
 Independence of Switzerland recognised 
 by the treaty of Westphalia (see West- 
 phalia, Peace of) 164S 
 
 [From this period until the French revo- 
 lution the can tons enjoyed tranquillity, 
 disturbed only by the changes arising 
 out of their various constitutions.] 
 
 Alliance with France . . May 25, 1777 
 
 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the 
 aristocratic and democratic parties : 
 France intei fares . . ... 1781 
 
 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
 in Ireland (see Geneva) .... 1782 
 
 Swiss guards ordered to quit France . 1792 
 
 Helvetic confederation dissolved : its 
 subjugation by France . . . . 1798 
 
 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; 
 the federal government restored ; and 
 a laudamman appointed by France, 
 
 May 12, 1802 
 
 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate 
 from the republic . . July 13, 1802 
 
 Switzerland joins France with 6000 men, 
 
 Aug. 24, 1811 
 
 The allies entered Switzerland in the 
 spring of 1814. The number of cantons 
 increased to 22, and the independence 
 of Switzerland secured by the treaty of 
 Vienna 1815 
 
 Revolution at Geneva* . . Oct./ 7, 1846 
 
 Dispute about Neufchatel, which see. 
 
 SWORDS. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B.C. 
 — Univ. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements of war. The Roman 
 swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are of modern 
 adoption. The sword of state carried at an English king's coronation by a king of 
 Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel swords are the most prized; and next, the sword of 
 Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from 
 
 hell — concerning all which subjects error and ignorance now prevail, and in which church this know- 
 ledge will bear its proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbour, and purity of life. 
 
 * Lucerne and the other Roman Catholic cantons had joined in a league to carry out their own 
 views, one of which was to place the education of their youth in the hands of the Jesuits. The 
 Protestant cantons took steps to oppose the league as an illegal encroachment on the general con- 
 federation, and the question came in due course before the grand council of Geneva. The council 
 condemned the league, but declared that public order ought to be maintained. For this decree the 
 Protestants of the city rebelled, deposed the council, and established a provisional government. The 
 city was the scene of some severe fighting, and many lives were lost. Eventually tranquillity was 
 restored, the leagued cantons having sent in their submission to the diet. 
 
 SS 2 
 
SYC 
 
 628 
 
 SYR 
 
 the celebrated artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew 
 Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn iu Edinburgh in 1724. 
 
 SYCAMORE TREE, called by some the Egyptian fig-tree. The date of its being planted 
 in England is not known, but it was very early. In Mrs. Jamieson's " Memoirs of 
 Female Sovereigns," we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France 
 a little sycamore tree, which she planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from 
 this have sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 
 
 SYDNEY, capital of the province of New South Wales. Founded by governor Phillip, 
 on a cove of Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts 
 originally intended for Botany Bay; now the principal seat of the government of 
 Australasia. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. It is now 
 considerable in extent and population; both increased by vast immigrations from 
 Great Britain and other countries of Europe, in consequence of the late discoveries of 
 the gold fields of Australia. It has banks, various other institutions, and a legislative 
 council, which was first held July 13, 1829; the university was opened Oct. 11, 1852. 
 It was erected into a bishopric in 1836, afterwards into an archbishopric. See 
 Australia; New South Wales; Convicts, &c. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE. This word sometimes means an assembly or congregation of the Jews, 
 and sometimes the place where such assembly is collected for religious purposes. — 
 Pardon. Authors are not agreed as to the time when the Jews first had synagogues. 
 Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others to the times after the 
 Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. There are in London six 
 synagogues, of which one, in Duke's-place, is German. 
 
 SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian 
 princes; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually 
 presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation only. The first of this 
 kind held in England was at Hertford, a.d. 673 : the last was held by cardinal Pole 
 in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal authority, 25 Hen. VIII. 1533. 
 
 SYNOD of DORT. The famous general assembly of Dort in Holland, to which 
 deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in Europe, to settle 
 the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
 the points of justification and grace, 1618. — Aitzema. The Arminians being excluded 
 from the assembly, and, of course, not allowed to defend their opinions, were declared 
 guilty of pestilential errors, and condemned. In 1625, however, they were restored 
 to their former reputation. — Butler. 
 
 SYNOD of THURLES, Ireland. This was a synod of the Roman Catholic archbishops, 
 bishops, inferior clergy, and religious orders, assembled in Thurles under the direction 
 of archbishop Cullen, the Roman Catholic primate, Aug. 22, 1850. It closed its 
 deliberations, having condemned the Queen's Colleges, and recommended the 
 foundation of a Roman Catholic university, Sept. 10, following. The acts of this 
 synod were forwarded to Rome for approval of the pope, Pius IX. 
 
 SYRACUSE. Founded by Archia3, 732 B.C.— Eusebius. 749 B.C. — Univ. Hist. The 
 siege by the Athenians, so impressively described by Thucydides, took place 414 B.c. 
 The government of Dionysius the Elder, and Timoleon, in less than half a century 
 after. Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was slain, 
 212 B.C. Syracuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with many thousands of its 
 inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, Aug. 6, 1757. In the late war in 
 Italy, Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan troops, April 8, 1849. 
 
 SYRIA. Of the early history of Ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned from 
 Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved in the histories 
 of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian empires (which see). The capital of Syria 
 was originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the 
 Seleucidse) founded the celebrated city of Antioch. 
 
 Seleucus, surnamcd Nicator, i. e. Con- 
 queror, enters Babylon . .B.C. 
 
 /Era of the Seleucidse (which see) . . 
 
 Great battle of lpsus, defeat and death 
 of Autigonus 
 
 The city of Antioch founded . . 
 
 Antioehus, son of Seleucus, falling- in 
 love with his father's queen, Stratonicc, 
 he pines away nearly to death ; but the 
 
 secret being discovered, she is divorced 
 
 by the father, and married by the son . 297 
 
 Battle of Cyropsedion 281 
 
 Seleucus is foully assassinated by Cerau- 
 
 nus. — Lenglet 280 
 
 Antioehus defeats the Gauls, and takes 
 
 the name of Soter, or Saviour . . . 275 
 Roign of Antioehus II. suruamed by the 
 
 Milesians Tkeot, or God ! . . . 261 
 
SYR 
 
 629 
 
 TAL 
 
 SYRIA, continued. 
 
 Seleucus II. makes a treaty of alliance 
 with Smyrna and Magnesia . B.C. 243 
 
 Reign of Seleucus III. surnamed Cerau- 
 nus, or Thunder 226 
 
 Battle of Raphia, in which AntiochusIII. 
 is signally defeated 217 
 
 Antiochus' conquest of Judea . . 204 
 
 War with the Romans begins . . . 192 
 
 Reign of Antiochus IV. who assumes the 
 title of Theos-Epiphanes, or the Illus- 
 trious God! 175 
 
 He sends Apollonius into Judasa ; Jeru- 
 salem is taken ; the temple pillaged ; 
 40,000 inhabitants destroyed, and 
 40,000 more sold as slaves . . . 170 
 
 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
 Seleucus with her own hand . . 124 
 
 Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
 whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
 compels his mother to swallow the 
 deadly draught herself . . . . 123 
 
 Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and of 
 Grypus at Antioch .... Ill 
 
 Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who enters 
 Syria, and dethrones Antiochus Asiati- 
 
 cus, about 65 
 
 ***** 
 
 Conquest of Syria . . . . &..D. 970 
 
 [This conquest is made by the Patimite 
 caliphs, who rule in Egypt.] 
 
 Revolt of the emirs of Damascus . . 1067 
 The emirs of Aleppo revolt . . . 1068 
 
 The crusades from Europe commence 
 (see article Crusades) .... 1095 
 
 [The Christians ultimately conquer that 
 part of Syria called the Holy Laud. 
 See Jerusalem.'] 
 
 Noureddin conquers Syria . . . 1166 
 
 Saladin puts an end to the power of the 
 
 Fatimite dynasty 1171 
 
 The Tartars overrun all Syria . . . 1259 
 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 
 
 expel the Crusaders . . . . 1291 
 Syria overrun by Tamerlane . . . 1400 
 Conquered by the Turks under Selim . 1517 
 
 After the conquest by Selim, Syx - ia con- 
 tinued in possession of the Turks till 
 the invasion of Egypt by the French, 
 
 Julyl, 1798 
 
 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with 
 
 great loss .... Aug. 6, 1798 
 
 He overruns the country, and takes Gaza 
 
 and Jaffa 1798 
 
 Siege of Acre . March 6 to May 27, 1799 
 Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt, 
 
 Aug. 23, 1799 
 Egypt is evacuated by the French army, 
 
 Sept. 10, 1801 
 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures Acre, 
 
 and overruns the whole of Syria . 1831-1832 
 Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army 
 
 of the grand signior . . July 30, 1832 
 
 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
 with various success.] 
 
 lb rahim Pacha defeats the Turkish army, 
 making 10,000 prisoners . June 25, 1839 
 
 The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria, 
 and places itself at the disposal of 
 Mehemet Ali . . . July 14, 1839 
 
 The Five Powers propose to the Porte to 
 negotiate with Mehemet Ali July 16, 1839 
 
 Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
 Stanhope .... June 23, 1840 
 
 Treaty of London (not signed by offanded 
 France) .... July 15, 1840 
 
 Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . Sept. 27, 1840 
 
 Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) . Oct. 10, 1840 
 
 Fall of Acre (see A ere) . . Nov. 3, 1S40 
 
 [After much expostulation with the sul- 
 tan, the four powers, England, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him 
 to make the pachalic of Egypt heredi- 
 tary in the family of Mehemet Ali. This 
 result conciliates offended France.] 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha, son of Mehemet Ali, 
 visits England . . . June 8, 1846 
 
 He embarks at Portsmouth for Alexan- 
 dria July 15, 1846 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha made, by the sultan, 
 viceroy of Egypt, during Mehemet 
 Ali's illness . . . Sept. 1, 1848 
 
 Death of Ibrahim Pacha Nov. 10, 1848 
 
 Death of Mehemet Ali, in his SOth year, 
 
 Aug. 2, 1849 
 
 Abbas Pacha, nephew of Ibrahim Pacha, 
 succeeded Ibrahim, who died July 14, 
 1854, and was succeeded by 
 
 Said Pacha, the present (1857) viceroy 
 of Egypt. 
 
 T. 
 
 TADMOR. See Palmyra. 
 
 TAFFETY. One of the earliest species of silken manufacture, more prized formerly 
 than now, woven very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was 
 first made in England by John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. — Stow's 
 Chron. Taffety has been superseded by numerous descriptions of manufacture more 
 esteemed by the female world. — Ashe. 
 
 TAHITI. The French, or abbreviated, name for Otaheite. See Otaheite. 
 
 TALAVERA, BATTLE or. Between the united British and Spanish armies under sir 
 Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French army amount- 
 ing to 47,000, commanded by marshals Victor and SebastianiJ July 27 and 28, 1809. 
 After a battle on the 27th, both armies remained on the field during the night, and 
 the French at break of day renewed the attack, but were again repulsed by the 
 British with great slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole British line, but was 
 repulsed at all points, and sir Arthur Wellesley secured the victory, the enemy 
 retreating with the loss of 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon. The British lost 
 
TAL 630 TAR 
 
 800 killed, and 4000 wounded or missing. Soult, Ney, and Mortier, being in the rear, 
 obliged the British to retire after the battle. 
 
 TALBOTYPE. See Photography. 
 
 TALLY OFFICE. The Tally Court in the Exchequer took its name from the French 
 word tattler, to cut. A tally is a piece of wood written upon both sides, containing an 
 acquittance for money received ; which being cloven asunder by an officer of the 
 Exchequer, one part, called the stock, was delivered to the person who paid, or 
 lent, money to the government; and the other part, called the counter-stock or 
 counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till called for, and joined with the 
 stock.* This manner of striking tallies is very ancient. — Beatson. It is now, 
 however, discontinued. See Exchequer. 
 
 TALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality of the 
 Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed 
 by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second century ; the second, 
 being commentaries, &c. by succeeding rabbis, were collected by Ben Eliezer, about 
 the sixth centui'y. Abridged by Maimonides in the twelfth century. 
 
 TAMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India, and Egypt, and plunderer of Bagdad, 
 Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sultan of the Turks, 
 whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter had destined for his adver- 
 sary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed his head against the bars of this prison, 
 and killed himself, 1403. — Chalcondila's Hist. Turc. 
 
 TANDY, JAMES NAPPER, his ARREST. This celebrated man proposed his plan of 
 reform in 1791. In the French expedition against Ireland he acted as a general of 
 brigade, Aug. 1798. He failed, and fled to Hamburg, and there was delivered up to 
 the English, for which piece of treachery Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
 Oct. 15, 1799. Napper Tandy was liberated after the peace of Amiens. 
 
 TANGIERS. Besieged by prince Ferdinand, who was beaten, 1437. It was taken by 
 the Portuguese in 1471, and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage 
 with Charles II. of England; but he did not think it worth keeping, and, in 1683, 
 caused the works to be blown up, and the place was abandoned. Tangiers afterwards 
 became a piratical station ; but the discontinuance of piracy has greatly diminished 
 its importance. 
 
 TANISTRY. Introduced into England in the time of the Saxons. In Ireland, upon the 
 death of any one, his land was divided among all the males of his family, legitimate 
 or not ; and if any of them afterwards died, his portion was not shared out among his 
 sons, but the chieftain or tanist made a new partition at his discretion among the 
 surviving brothers. Abolished 1604. — Davies on Ireland. 
 
 TANNING. The process of tanning leather with the bark of trees was early practised 
 by various nations. The use of tan was introduced into these countries from Holland 
 by William III. for raising orange-trees. It was discontinued until about 1719, when 
 ananas were first brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in 
 gardening. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795 et seq. 
 
 TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original 
 workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs 
 [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. — Quicciardini. Manufactured in 
 France under Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was 
 brought into England by William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was 
 established at Mortlake by sir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619. — Salmon. Under 
 Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much improved in France. See Qobelin Tapestry. 
 Very early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
 in Scripture; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For the 
 tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 
 
 TAR. Liquid pitch ; -the turpentine of the pine or fir drained out by fire. — Spencer. 
 The chemist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal — the earl of Dundonald's 
 patent, 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook-dale, Shropshire, 1779; 
 and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar-water was first recommended for its medicinal 
 virtues by the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about a.d. 1744. 
 
 TARA, BATTLE of, in Ireland. This was a memorable battle, one of the earliest iu 
 
TAR 631 TAX 
 
 the rebellion of '98, fought between the royalist troops, only 400 strong, and the 
 insurgent Irish, then in rebellion against the crown of England. The rebels amounted 
 to 4000 men, yet were completely defeated, losing 500 killed, May 26, 1798. 
 
 TARBES, BATTLE of, in France. The French army under marshal Soult, in great 
 strength, was forced from its position at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British 
 army commanded by the duke of Wellington, March 20, 1814. This engagement 
 shortly preceded the great battle of Toulouse, the final battle of the peninsular army 
 under the duke. See Toulouse. 
 
 TARENTUM, WAR op. The war which the people of Tarentum supported against the 
 Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, which had been undertaken B.C. 281, by 
 the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their ships when near 
 their harbours, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and 
 Tarentum became subject to Rome. 
 
 TARIFF, a book of rates or duties charged on goods exported or imported. The tariff 
 of this country in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; the number was reduced to 446 (by 
 sir Robert Peel) in 1848, and to 439 in 1857. 
 
 TARRAGONA. Occupied as a naval station by the British before their capture of 
 Gibraltar, in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by the French, and the inhabitants, 
 man, woman, and child, put to the sword — a military achievement creditable to the 
 talents, but most dishonourable to the character of marshal Suchet ; it surrendered 
 June 28, 1811. Tarragona was besieged by general sir James Murray, in May 1813; 
 but the siege was soon raised. 
 
 TARTAN, OR HIGHLAND PLAID. This dress of the Scottish Highlanders is said to 
 have been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celtse, the Galli Non-braccati. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the first discovery of the eminent chemist, 
 Scheele, who procured it in a separate state, by boiling tartar with lime, and in decom- 
 posing the tartrate of lime thus formed, by means of sulphuric acid, a.d. 1770. 
 
 TARTARY. The name given to several nations of the East. The Tartar race was 
 known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. It was during the 
 decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began permanently to forsake their own 
 plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and the first of these ravagers whose terror 
 and fame reached the frontier of Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern 
 race of Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the 
 famous Genghis Khan, a.d. 1206. His empire by the conquest of China, Persia, 
 and all Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
 was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, 
 broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and founded a dynasty in 
 India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, till the close of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 TAVERNS. In this country were places of entertainment, under various names, in 
 ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to the 13th century. " In the 
 raigne of king Edward the Third only three taverns were allowed in London : one in 
 Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard-street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The 
 Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry IV. and was the rendezvous 
 of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
 dence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstaff's merriment. — Shakspeare, 
 Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480: 
 this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restricted by an act of Edward VI. 
 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in 
 Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in 
 # Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in 
 Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
 
 TAXES. The first levied on the people were by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 
 540 B.C. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 551. of our 
 money. The next was by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, which was a land-tax by 
 assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by way of derision, 
 Darius the Trader, 480 B.C.— D' Eon's Histoire des Finances. Taxes in specie were first 
 introduced into England by William I. 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet 
 
TOH 
 
 632 
 
 TEA 
 
 subsidies in kind, as in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, con- 
 tinued till the accession of ltichard II. 1377. — Camden. 
 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES. 
 
 
 1800 
 
 . £3,468,131 
 
 1800 
 
 1805 
 
 . . 4,508,752 
 
 1805 
 
 1S10 
 
 . 6,233,101 
 
 1810 
 
 1815 
 
 . . 6,524,766 
 
 1815 
 
 1820 
 
 . 6,311,346 
 
 1820 
 
 1825 
 
 . . 5,176,722 
 
 1825 
 
 1830 
 
 . 5,013,405 
 
 1S30 
 
 1835 
 
 . . 3,733,997 
 
 1835 
 
 1840 
 
 . 3,866,467 
 
 1840 
 
 LAND TAX. 
 
 . £1,307,941 
 
 . . 1,596,481 
 
 . 1,418,337 
 
 . . 1,084,251 
 
 . 1,192,257 
 
 . . 1,288,393 
 
 . 1,189,214 
 
 . . 1,203,579 
 
 . 1,298,622 
 
 rROPERTT TAX. 
 
 . * £5,716,573 
 
 1845. Land and assessed taxes 
 
 1850. Ditto ditto 
 
 1852. Ditto ditto 
 
 1S53. Ditto ditto 
 
 1854. Ditto ditto 
 
 1855. Ditto ditto 
 1S56. Ditto ditto 
 
 1801 . 
 
 1804 . . . 4,650,000 
 
 1S05 . . . 5.937,500 
 
 1806 . . . 1 11,500,000 
 
 1808 . . . 10,548,985 
 
 1815 X • • . 14,978,557 
 
 * 5 per cent. 
 
 t 10 per a at. 
 
 t Last year of this tax. 
 
 £4,223,842, together. 
 4,303,849, together. 
 3,377,843, together. 
 3,153,867, together. 
 3,040,548, together. 
 2,945,784, together. 
 2,956,604, together. 
 
 The property-tax ceased with 1815, the last year of the war. The unproductiveness of 
 the assessed taxes in Ireland, and the diminution in amount, year after year, of those 
 not abolished in the period immediately following the peace, led to the total repeal of 
 the direct taxes in that country in 1823. For the amount of the general taxation of 
 the United Kingdom, see Revenue and Income Tax.% 
 
 TCHERNAYA, a River in the Crimea. On Aug. 16, 1855, the lines of the allied army 
 at this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince Gortschakoff without 
 success, being repulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. 
 The brunt of the attack was borne by two French regiments under general D'Herbillon. 
 The loss of the allies was about 1200; 200 of these were from the Sardinian con- 
 tingent, who behaved with great gallantry under the command of general La Marmora. 
 The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian general Montevecchio, were killed. 
 The object of the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then hotly besieged by the 
 English and French. 
 
 TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the Romish and English 
 Church, beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee, O God. It is 
 generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about a.d. 390 ; 
 and is still sung in the Romish Church with extraordinary pomp and solemnity on 
 some happy event, such, for instance, as a national thanksgiving for a great victory, 
 or for a bounteous harvest, or for an evil averted. 
 
 TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. It is 
 mentioned as having been used in England on very rare occasions prior to 1657, and 
 sold for 61. and even 10Z. the pound. In 1660 a duty of 8c?. was charged upon every 
 gallon of tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13). The East India Company first imported 
 it in 1669. — It was brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, 
 from Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
 and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till our East India Company took up 
 the trade. — Anderson, Green tea began to be used in 1715. The duty imposed on 
 tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 
 York, and 340 at Boston, Nov. 1773, and ultimately led to the American war (see 
 Boston). Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, announcing their sale of 
 tea, Aug. 1779. Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 50 to 12j per 
 cent, and taxing windows in lieu, June 1784. New duties were charged, 1796. The 
 duty was 96 and 100 per cent, until July 1, 1836, when by the 6th Will. IV. it was 
 made 2s. Id. per pound. Various charges were made in 1854, 1855, and 1856. The 
 duty will be Is. 5d. per pound from April, 1857, to April, 1858. 
 
 TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND, OR CHARGED WITH DUTY, IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS : — ♦ 
 
 1726 . 
 
 . lb. 700,000 
 
 1800 
 
 . .lb. 23, 723, 000 
 
 1815 . 
 
 .lb.26,36S,000 
 
 1766 
 
 . . 7,000,000 
 
 1805 . 
 
 24,133,000 
 
 1820 
 
 . . 25,662,474 
 
 1792 . 
 
 . 13,1S5,000 
 
 1S10 
 
 . . 25,414,000 
 
 1S25 . 
 
 . 27,803,068 
 
 § Mr. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer, in his Budget of 1S53, modified and extended the 
 Income-tax (which was made to embrace Ireland). This tax was to be gradually reduced every two 
 years, and to be altogether abolished at the end of seven years. Many of the 'assessed taxes, and 
 various of the excise and custom duties were reduced or abolished, affording relief from direct and 
 indirect taxation to the amount of 5,384,0004. The expenditure consequent on the war with Russia 
 prevented Mr. Gladstone's plans from being carried into effect. 
 
TEA. 
 
 633 
 
 TEL 
 
 TEA, continued. 
 
 1830 
 1835 
 1840 
 
 .lb. 30, 544,404 
 . 44,360,550 
 . 38,06S,555 
 
 1845 
 1S4S 
 1850 
 
 .lb. 51, 056, 979 
 
 55,626,765 
 
 . 53,460,751 
 
 1S52 
 
 . .lb 63,360,535 
 
 1S54 . 
 
 . 85, 792, 032 
 
 1856 
 
 . . 86,159,517 
 
 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 amounted to 5,471,641?. : and the 
 amount in 1852 was 5,902,433?. The quantity of tea imported in this last-mentioned 
 year (1852) was 71,466,460 lb. of which 53,965,112 lb. were entered for home con- 
 sumption. The duty upon tea was to be reduced from 2s. 2\d. to one shilling only, 
 per pound, according to the announcement of the chancellor of the exchequer in his 
 budget, session of 1853. "Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree 
 leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese teas in England."- — Report of the House of 
 Commons, 1818. " The consumption of the whole civilised world, exclusively of 
 England, is about 22,000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great Britain 
 is 30,000,000." — Evidence in House of Commons, 1830. The first tea-sale in London 
 on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East India Company took place in 
 Mincing-lane, Aug. 19, 1834. 
 
 TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to these realms from China, about 1 768. The finest 
 tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew-gardens ; but the first that ever 
 flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Northumberland at Sion. The 
 attempts to cultivate the tea-plant, however, in England, indeed in Europe, have 
 altogether failed. — Ashe. 
 
 TEETOTALLER. An artisan of Preston, in Lancashire, named Richard Turner, in 
 addressing temperance meetings in that and other towns, acknowledged that he had 
 been a hard drinker most part of his life ; and being an illiterate man, and in want 
 of a word to express how much he then abstained from malt and spirits, used to 
 exclaim "I am now a Teetotaller;" and hence the phrase; about 1831. See 
 Temperance. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, ELECTRIC. See article Electric Telegraph. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, SUBMARINE. France, and Ireland. See Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 TELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different instruments used 
 by the ancients for communicating information pyrsia, because the signals were 
 always made by fire. The most ingenious of the moderns had not thought of such a 
 machine as a telegraph until 1663, when the plan was suggested by the marquess of 
 Worcester. The first idea of a telegraph on the modern construction was suggested 
 by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs 
 about this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful 
 purposes: M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
 Two were erected over the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
 erected there 1816. The naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted 
 sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by varying the combinations of two 
 revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular words, letter by letter. See 
 Electric and Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 157L Roger Bacon, 
 about a.d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were 
 made till one Metius, at Alkmaer, and Jansen, of Middleburgh, made them about the 
 same time ; the latter from an accidental discovery made by his children, 1590-1609. 
 Galileo imitated their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one 
 of which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons 
 and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and were improved by 
 Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton; and finally by Martin, Hall, Dollond, and 
 Herschel. The reflecting telescope was invented by Newton in 1668. Achromatic 
 telescopes were made by More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London 
 for the observatory of Madrid which cost 11,000/. in 1802 ; but the Herschel tele- 
 scone, made 1789-1795, was superior : it had the great speculum 48 inches diameter, 
 3^ tiches thick, weighed 211S lb. and magnified 6400 times. See Herschel Telescope'. 
 The earl of Rosse erected on his estate at Parsonstown, in Ireland, the largest telescope 
 ever constructed, at a cost exceeding 20,000?. (1828-1845.) This wonderful instrument 
 is 7 feet in diameter, and 52 feet in length; the machinery is supported on massive 
 walls, and notwithstanding its great weight and size, is moved with the utmost ease, 
 and can be lowered to any angle, while it sweeps the horizon by means of wheels 
 
TEM 634 TES 
 
 running on a graduated circle. One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length, was completed 
 at Wandsworth, in 1852, by the rev. John Craig. It was very imperfect. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. They originated with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was 
 secretary of war in America, in order to counteract the habitual use of ardent spirits 
 among the people, had them prohibited .altogether to the United States army, 1818. 
 The first public temperance society in America was projected in 1825, and formed 
 Feb. 13, 1826. Temperance societies immediately afterwards spread in England and 
 Scotland, and in 1831 there were 1000 such societies in the United States, and 
 several hundreds in the latter countries. In Ireland, the rev. Mr. Edgar, of Belfast, 
 published upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and the rev. Father Mathew, a Roman 
 Catholic clergyman, had, he affirms, in 1839, 1840, and 1841, made more than a 
 million of converts to temperance.* See Teetotaller. 
 
 TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in A.D. 1118, 
 by Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in several countries, 
 and came to England in 1185. The order was suppressed by the council of Vienna, 
 and its revenues were bestowed upon other orders, in 1312. Numbers of the order 
 were burned alive and hanged, and it suffered great pei'secutions throughout Europe, 
 particularly in France in the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several 
 times suppressed in England, and finally in 1340. 
 
 TEMPLE, London. Thus called because it was anciently the dwelling-house of the 
 Knights Templar. At the suppression of that order, it was purchased by the pro- 
 fessors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are called the Inner and 
 Middle Temple, in relation to Essex-house, which was also a part of the house of the 
 Templars, and called the Outer Temple, because it was situated without Temple Bar. 
 St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the Inner Temple, is an ancient Gothic 
 stone building, erected by the Templars in the reign of Henry II. and is remarkable 
 for its circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the Crusaders, who were buried here. 
 The Temple-hall was built in 1572, aud Temple-bar in 1672. The church was 
 recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in 1828. 
 
 TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Eusebius. The 
 Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the Gods. — Herodotus. The first 
 erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — Apollonius. For temple of Belns, see 
 Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 B.C. Fired by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, 587 B.c. Rebuilt, 536 B.C. Pillaged by Antiochus, 170 B.C. Rebuilt by 
 Herod, 18 B.C. Destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, 
 first a cottage with boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. Burnt by 
 the Pisistratidse, 548 B.C. A new temple raised by the family of the Alcmaeonida?, 
 about 513 B.C. — Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times; planned byCtesiphon, 
 544 B.C. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate hi3 name, 356 B.C. To rebuild it, 
 employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, A.D. 260. — The Temple of Piety was 
 built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
 fathei", whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded from all aliments. — Val. Max. 
 Temple of Theseus, built 480 years B.C. is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice 
 in the world. — Most of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout the Roman 
 entire by Constantine the Great, a.d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 
 
 TENERIFFE, Canaries. The celebrated Peak of Teneriffe is 15,396 feet above the 
 level of the sea. An earthquake in this island destroyed several towns and many 
 thousands of people in 1704. In an unsuccessful attack made at Santa Cruz, admiral 
 (afterwards lord) Nelson lost his right arm, and 141 officers and men were killed, July 
 24, 1797. For the particulars of this heroic affair, see article Santa Cruz. 
 
 TERMS of LAW and VACATIONS. They were instituted in England from the 
 Norman usage, the long vacation being suited to the time of the vintage in France, 
 
 14 Will. I. 1079. — Glanville de Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed Spelman. 
 
 The terms were fixed by statute 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. July 22, 1830 ; Hilary 
 Term to begin Jan. 11, and end Jan. 31 ; Easter, April 15, and to end May 8 ; 
 Trinity, May 22, and to end June 12 ; Michaelmas, Nov. 2, and to end Nov. 25. This 
 act was amended 1 Will. IV. Nov. 15, 1830. 
 
 TEST ACT. The celebrated statute of Charles II. directing all officers, civil and 
 
 * This success was probably owing to the general poverty, as the majority of the converts are stated 
 to have relapsed ou the return of prosperity. Father Mathew arrived in America in July 1849 ; but 
 was not so successful there. He died Dec. S, 1S5C>, aged 60. 
 
TES 635 THA 
 
 military, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of the 
 Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstautiation, &c. This 
 statute was enacted March 1673. The Test and Corporation acts were repealed by 
 statute 9 Geo. IV. c. 17, May 9, 1828. This repealing act is entitled, "An act for 
 repealing so much of several acts as impose the necessity of receiving the Sacrament 
 of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices and employments." 
 
 TESTER. Testone. A silver coin struck in France by Louis XII. 1513; and also in 
 Scotland in the time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 1559. It was so 
 called from the head of the king, which was stamped upon it. In England, the 
 tester was of lid. value in the reign of Henry VIII. and afterwards of §d. The 
 silver sixpence of the present day is still familiarly called a tester. 
 
 TEUTONI, ob TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri made incur- 
 sions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They were at last defeated 
 by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made prisoners, 101 B.C. See Cimbri, 
 with whom authors commonly join the Teutones. The appellation more lately came 
 to be applied to the German nation in general. 
 
 TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights established in the Holy Land 
 towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in the humanity of 
 the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy Land under 
 the celebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The order was confirmed by a 
 bull of pope Cselestine III. a.d. 1191. See Prussia, &c. 
 
 TEWKESBURY, BATTLE op. In which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the 
 Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI. aud her son were taken 
 prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry 
 expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, 
 murdered by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was 
 ransomed in 1475, by the French king, Lewis XL for 50,000 crowns. This was the 
 last battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. 
 
 TEXEL, BATTLES off the. The vicinity of the Texel has been the scene of memo- 
 rable naval achievements. An engagement of three days' continuance, between the 
 English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De 
 Ruyter, in which the latter were worsted, and admiral Van Tromp was killed, 1653. 
 Again, in the mouth of the Texel, when D'Etrees and Ruyter were signally defeated, 
 Aug. 11, 1673. The Dutch fleet gloriously vanquished by lord Duncan, on Oct. 11, 
 1797. See Camperdown. The Dutch fleet of twelve ships of war and thirteen India- 
 men surrendered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, possessed himself of 
 them without firing a shot, Aug, 28, 1799. See Naval Battles. 
 
 THAMES, London. The richest river in the world. It has been erroneously said that 
 its name is Isis till it arrives at Dorchester, when being joined by the Thame or 
 Tame, it assumes the name of Thames. What was the origin of this vulgar error 
 cannot now be traced : poetical fiction, however, has perpetuated the error, and 
 invested it with a kind of classical "sanctity. It was called Thames or Terns 
 before it came near the Thame. — Camden. The river rose so high at Westminster 
 that the lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats, a.d. 1235. Again it rose to 
 great height, 1736, 1747, 1762, and 1791. The conservation of the Thames was 
 given to the mayors of London, 1489. The Thames was made navigable to Oxford, 
 1624. It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658. Again, three times in 
 four hours, March 22, 1682. Again, twice in three hours, Nov. 24, 1777. See 
 Frosts, &c. 
 
 THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr. Brunei, to form a communication between 
 Rotherhithe and Wapping. The bill received the royal assent, June 24, 1824. The 
 shaft was begun in 1825 ; the first brick was laid by Mr. Smith, March 2 ; the exca- 
 vation commenced April 1; and the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 1825. At a 
 distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption took place, May 18, 1827. The 
 second irruption, by which six workmen perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the 
 tunnel is 1300 feet; its width is 35 feet; height, 20 feet; clear width of each arch- 
 way, including footpath, about 14 feet; thickness of earth between the crown of the 
 tunnel and the bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout 
 for foot-passengers, March 25, 1843. 
 
 THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signifies a nobleman, 
 sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate; but most properly an officer 
 
THE 
 
 636 
 
 THE 
 
 under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called thanes, and the Scots also, among 
 whom the title was more general, particularly in the time of Malcolm. The title 
 was abolished in England at the Conquest, upon the introduction of the feudal 
 system. Abolished in Scotland by kiug 4 Malcolm III. when the title of carl was 
 adopted, 1057. 
 
 THEATINES. An order of religious, the first who assumed the title of regular clerks. 
 This order was founded by Caraffa, bishop of Theate in Naples, who was afterwards 
 pope Paul IV. 1524. They first established themselves in France, according to the 
 historian, Henault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatines endeavoured, but vainly, to revive 
 among the clergy the poverty of the apostles. — Ashe. 
 
 THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B.C. was the first erected. 
 Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 B.C. Theatres were afterwards 
 numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii, 
 where most of the inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of August 24, 
 a.d. 79, when an eruption of Vesuvius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into 
 theatres, painted by Balthazar Sienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c. 
 
 THEATRES in ENGLAND. The first royal licence for a theatre in England was in 
 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act 
 plays at the Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But long before that time, miracle plays 
 were represented in the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Eliza- 
 beth were, gallery 2d ; lords' rooms Is.— Dickens. The first play-bill was dated 
 April 8, 1663, and issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus : "By his Majestie his com- 
 pany of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy called 
 the Bumovrous Lwvtenant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The 
 play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened in 1695. 
 The licensing act (10 Geo. II. c. 28, 1735) was passed in consequence of the perform- 
 ance of Fielding's Pasquin at the Haymarket satirising Walpole's administration. 
 Marionettes or Puppets were produced at the Adelaide Gallery in 1852. See 
 Covent Garden, Drury Lane, Opera House, Drama, &c. 
 
 DRURY LANE. 
 
 Killigrew's patent . . April 25, 1662 
 
 Opened April 8, 1663 
 
 Nell Gwynn performed . . . 1666 
 
 Theatre burnt down . . . . 1671 
 
 Rebuilt by sir Christopher Wren, and 
 
 opened .... March 26, 1674 
 Cibber, Wilkes, Booth .... 1712 
 Garrick's cUbut here . . . . 1742 
 
 Garrick and Lacy's tenure (Revival of 
 
 Shakspeare) 1747 
 
 Interior rebuilt by Adams . . . 1775 
 
 Garrick's farewell . . June 10, 1776 
 Sheridan's management . . . 1776 
 
 Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick, 1777 
 Mrs. Siddous' dibvi as a Mar . Oct. 10, 1782 
 Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet Sept. 30, 1783 
 The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and 
 
 re-opened . . . March 12, 1794 
 Charles Kemble's first appearance (as 
 
 Malcolm in Macbeth) . April 21, 1794 
 Dowton's first appearance (as S/uva, in 
 
 The Jew) .... Oct. 11, 1796 
 
 Hatfield fired at George III. (see Hatfield) 
 
 May 11, 1800 
 The theatre burnt . . Feb. 24, 1809 
 Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened, with 
 
 a prologue by lord Byron . Oct. 12, 1812 
 Mr. Edmund Kean's appearance (as 
 
 Shylock) .... Jan. 26, 1814 
 
 Mr. Elliston, lessee . . Oct. 3, 1819 
 
 Madame Vestris; her first appearance 
 
 (as Lilla) .... Feb. 19, 1820 
 Real water introduced in the Cataract of 
 
 the Ganges . . . Oct. 27, 1823 
 
 Mr. Price, lessee . . . July, 1826 
 Miss Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) 
 
 Sept. 23, 1826 
 Mr Charles Kean's appearance (as A'orval) 
 
 Oct. 1, 1827 
 Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance (as the 
 
 Widow Cfuerly) . . . Oct. 9, 1829 
 
 Mr. Alexander Lee's and Captain Pol- 
 hill's management .... 1S30 
 Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee . . . 1831 
 Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Sparta- 
 
 cus) Oct. 17, 1836 
 
 Mr. Hammond's management . . 1839 
 German operas commenced at this 
 
 theatre .... March 15, 1841 
 Mr. Macready's management . . . 1841 
 Mr. Bunn again lessee .... 1843 
 Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 
 Dec. 14 ; and died on the next day but 
 one .... Dec. 16, 1S44 
 
 Mr. Anderson's management . . 1849 
 
 Mr. Macready's farewell . . Feb. 26, 1851 
 Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . 1852 
 Mr. E. T. Smith .... 1853-7 
 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 Sir William Davenaut's patent, April 25, 1C62 
 The theatre opened by Rich . Dec. 7, 1732 
 Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and 
 
 Lambert 1735 
 
 Theatrical fund instituted . . . 1765 
 
 Mr. Harris's tenure .... 1767 
 
 Lewis's first appearance in the character 
 
 of Bdcour . . . . Sept. 15, 1773 
 Miss Reay killed by Mr. Hacknum, 
 
 coming from the house . April 7, 1779 
 
 Jack Johnstone's first appearance in 
 
 Irish characters . . Oct. 3, 1783 
 
 Rl linden's appearance . . Dec. 2, 1790 
 Fawcett's first appearance here (as Caleb) 
 
 Sept. 21, 1791 
 G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richa rd III.) 
 
 Oct. 31, 1800 
 Braham's appearance . . Dec. 9, 1801 
 Mr. Kemble's management . . . 1S02 
 Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant 
 
 Boaciui .... Dec. 1, 1803 
 Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper 
 
 Captain) .... May 28, 1808 
 
THE 
 
 637 
 
 THE 
 
 THEATKES, continued. 
 
 Theatre burnt down . . Sept. 20, 180S 
 Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A. and re- 
 opened with Macbeth . Sept. IS, 1809 
 The O. P. riot (see 0. P. Riot) from Sept. 
 
 18 to Dec. 10 1809 
 
 Horses first introducedhere, in Bluebeard 
 
 Feb. 18, 1811 
 The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (im- 
 mense house) . . . June 29, 1812 
 [Mrs. Siddons, however, performed once 
 afterwards, in June 1819, for Mr. and 
 Mrs. C. Kemble's benefit.] 
 Miss Stephens's first appearance (as 
 
 Mandane) .... Sept. 7, 1813 
 Miss Foote's appearance here (as Aman- 
 
 this) May 26, 1814 
 
 Miss O'Neill's appearance here (as Juliet) 
 
 Oct. 6, 1814 
 Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in 
 
 the house .... Feb. 7, 1816 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance (as 
 
 Orestes) .... Sept. 16, 1816 
 Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Corio- 
 
 lanus) .... June 23, 1817 
 Henry Harris's management . . 1818 
 
 Charles Kemble's management . . 1823 
 Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as 
 
 Juliet) Oct. 5, 1829 
 
 Mr. Fawcett's farewell . . May 21, 1830 
 Charles Young's farewell . May 30, 1S32 
 
 Mr. Macready's management . . . 1837 
 Madame Vestris's management . . 1839 
 
 Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as 
 
 Norma) .... Nov. 2, 1841 
 Charles Kemble again . Sept. 10, 1842 
 
 Mr. Laurent's management . Dec. 26, 1844 
 Opened for Italian Opera . April 6, 1847 
 Destroyed by fire (during a bal masque') 
 
 March 5, 1856 
 
 ITALIAN OPERA HOUSE. 
 Opera-house opened. — Pennant. (See 
 
 Opera House) 1705 
 
 The theatre was enlarged . . . 1720 
 Burnt down . . .. June 17, 178S 
 
 Re-built aDd re-opened . . Sept. 22, 1791 
 Exterior improved by Mr. Nash . . 1818 
 The relievo by Mr. Bubb .... 1821 
 Madame Rachel's appearance May 10, 1841 
 Mr. Lumley's management . . 1842 
 Jenny Lind's first appearance . May 4, 1847 
 Association formed for conducting finan- 
 cial affairs of the house . . . 1852 
 
 HATMARKET. 
 
 Built 1702 
 
 Opeued by French comedians Dec. 29, 1720 
 
 Beggars' Opera 1727 
 
 Fielding's Mogul company . . 1734-5 
 A French company prohibited from act- 
 ing by the audience .... 1738 
 
 Mr. Foote's patent 1747 
 
 The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle 
 conjuror) .... Jan. 16, 1748 
 
 The theatre rebuilt 1767 
 
 Mr. Colman's tenure . . Jan. 1, 1777 
 Miss Farren's appearance here (after- 
 wards countess of Derby) . . . 1777 
 Royal visit— great crowd — 16 persons 
 
 killed and many wounded . Feb. 3, 1794 
 Mr. Elliston's dibut here . June 24, 1796 
 
 First appearance of Mr. Matthews (as 
 
 Lingo) .... May 16, 1803 
 
 Mr. Morris's management . . . 1805 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Liston (as SJieepface) 
 
 June 8, 1805 
 The tailors' riot . . . Aug. 15, 1805 
 Appearance here of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) 
 
 June 22, 1807 
 
 Of Miss F. Kelly (as Moretta) . June 12, 1810 
 Theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened July 4, 1821 
 Miss Paton (Mrs. Wood) ; her appearance 
 
 (as Susannah) . .■ . Aug. 3, 1822 
 Mr. Webster's management June 12, 1837 
 Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here 1S39 
 
 Mr. Webster's management (16 years) 
 terminates with his farewell appear- 
 ance .... March 14, 1853 
 Mr.. Buckstone's management . 1853-7 
 
 ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, ok LYCEUM. 
 Built by Dr. Arnold .... 1794-5 
 
 Winsor experiments with gas-lighting 1803-4 
 Opened as the Lyceum in ... 1809 
 
 Appearance of Mr. Wrench here (as 
 
 Belcour) .... Oct. 7, 1809 
 
 Re-opened with an address spoken by 
 
 Miss Kelly . . . June 15, 1816 
 
 House destroyed by fire . Feb. 16, 1830 
 
 Re-built ; and re-opened . July 14, 1834 
 Equestrian performances . Jan. 16, 1844 
 Mrs. Keeley's management . April 8, 1844 
 Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Matthew's 
 
 management . . . Oct. 1847-56 
 Retirement of Mr. C. Matthews March, 1855 
 Appearance of Madame Ristori . June, 1856 
 Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian Opera for 
 
 40 nights . . . April 14, 1857 
 
 Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa 
 
 Pyne and Mr. Harrison . Sept. 21, 1857 
 
 THE ADELPHI THEATRE. 
 
 Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened 
 under the management of Mr. and 
 Miss Scott . . . Nov. 27, 1806 
 
 Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it 
 the present name .... 1820-1 
 
 Terry and Yates 1825 
 
 Messrs. Matthews and Yates' manage- 
 ment, join (Matthews at Home) . . 1828 
 
 New front 1840 
 
 Madame Celeste's management, Sept. 30, 1844 
 Mr. and Mrs. Barney Williams here, 
 
 July, 1857 
 Mr. B. Webster, present lessee . 1844-57 
 
 PRINCE'S, LATE ST. JAMES'S. 
 
 This theatre was built by, and opened 
 under the management of, Mr.Braham, 
 
 Dec. 14, 1835 
 German Operas performed here under 
 
 the management of Mr. Bunn . . 1840 
 Mr. Mitchell's tenure; performance of 
 French plays . . . Jan. 22, 1844 
 
 German plays 1852 
 
 Mrs. Seymour's tenure . Oct. 2, 1854-55 
 French plays 1857 
 
 PRINCESS'S THEATRE, OXFORD ST. 
 
 First opened - 1840 
 
 Sold for 16.400Z. . . . Sept. 9, 1841 
 Mr. Charles Kean's management . 1850-5 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell here . Dec. 18, 1852 
 
 OLYMPIC. 
 
 Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and 
 
 opened with horsemanship Sept. 18, 1806 
 Here the celebrated Elliston (1S13) and 
 afterwai-ds Madame Vestris, had ma- 
 nagements ; the latter until . . 1839 
 Mr. George Wild's tenure . . . . 1840 
 Miss Davenport's tenure . Nov. 11, 1844 
 
 Mr. Watts's management . . . 1848 
 The theatre destroyed by fire, March 29, 1849 
 Rebuilt, and opened — Mr. Watts resumes 
 
 his management . . Dec. 26, 1849 
 Mr. William Farren's management . 1850 
 
THE 
 
 638 
 
 THE 
 
 THEATRES, continued. 
 
 Lessee and Manager, Mr. A. Wigan, 
 
 Oct. 17, 1853-7 
 Messrs. Robson and Emden's manage- 
 ment Aug. 1857 
 
 STRAND THEATRE. 
 
 First opened — Mr. Rayner and Mrs. 
 
 Waylett 1831 
 
 Mr. William Farren's management . 1849 
 Present lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft ; Manager, 
 
 Mr. T. Payne 1855 
 
 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 Built by Philip Astley, and opened . 1773 
 Destroyed by fire, with numerous adja- 
 cent houses . . . Sept. 17, 1794 
 
 Rebuilt 1795 
 
 Burnt again, with 40 houses Sept. 2, 1803 
 
 Ducrow's management .... 1825 
 Again destroyed by fire . . June 8, 1841 
 Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty, 
 
 April 17, 1843 
 Present lessee and manager, Mr. W. 
 Cooke 1855-7 
 
 CIRCUS, now SURREY THEATRE. 
 [Originally devoted to equestrian exer- 
 cises, under Mr. Hughes. J Nov. 4, 1782 
 Opened for performances . Nov. 4, 1783 
 Destroyed by fire . . Aug. 12, 1S05 
 Mr. Elliston's management . . . 1809 
 Mr. Elliston again . . June 4, 1827 
 Mr. Davidge's tenure . . . 1S33 
 
 COBURG, now VICTORIA. 
 
 [The erection was commenced under 
 the patronage of the late princess 
 Charlotte and the prince Leopold of 
 Saxe Coburg.J 1816 
 
 The house was opened . . . . 1818 
 
 Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the 
 management in 1S33 
 
 Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure . ... 1840 
 
 SADLER'S WELLS. 
 
 Opened as an orchestra .... 1683 
 Present house opened . . . . 1765 
 
 Eighteen persons trampled to death on 
 
 a false alarm of fire . . Oct. 15, 1S07 
 Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. 
 
 Phelps May 20, 1S44 
 
 OTHER THEATRES. 
 
 Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court road 1828 
 Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields . 1S3U 
 
 Bowery Theatre, Lambeth . . . **** 
 City Theatre, Norton-Folgate . . . Ls37 
 Miss Kelly's Theatre .... 1S40 
 
 Marylebone opened 1842 
 
 Its stage enlarged i . . Oct. 7, 1854 
 Pavilion Theatre burnt . Feb. 23, 1S56 
 
 DUBLIN THEATRES. 
 
 Werburgh -street commenced . . 1635 
 
 Orange-street, now Smock-alley . . 1662 
 
 Aungier-street ( Victor) .... 1728 
 
 Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . 1733 
 
 Crow-street Musie-hall . . . . 1731 
 
 Rainsford-street Theatre . . . 1732 
 
 Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt . . . 1735 
 
 Fishamble-street, Music-hall . . . 1741 
 
 Capel-street Theatre 1745 
 
 Crow-street, Theatre Royal . . 1758 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent . ... 1786 
 Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent . 1798 
 Peter-street, Theatre Royal . . . 1789 
 Hawkins-street, Theatre Royal . . 1821 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee . . . 1824 
 Ditto, Mr. Bum), lessee . . . 1827 
 
 Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee . . . 1830 
 Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street . . 1844 
 
 EDINBURGH THEATRES. 
 
 Theatre of Music .... 1672 
 
 Allan Ramsay's 1736 
 
 Theatre, Shakspeare- square . . . 1769 
 The Caledonian Theatre . . . . 1822 
 Adelphi theatre burnt down . May 24, 1853 
 
 FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 
 
 Quin's first appearance .... 1716 
 Macklin's, at Lincolu's-Inn-fields . . 1725 
 Garrick's, at Goodman's-fields, as Richard 
 
 III. Oct. 19, 1741 
 
 Miss Farren (afterwards countess of 
 
 Derby) first appears at Liverpool . 1773 
 Garrick's last appearance . June 10, 1776 
 Mrs. Robinson, Perdita ; her last appear- 
 ance Dec. 24, 1779 
 
 Braham's firstappearanceatthe Royalty, 
 
 April 20, 1787 
 Madame Storace ; her first appearance 
 
 in London . . . Nov. 24, 17S9 
 
 Miss Mellon, her first appearance as 
 
 Lydia Languish . . . Jan. 31, 1795 
 Romeo Coates; his appearance, as 
 
 Lothario .... April 10, 1811 
 Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady 
 
 Teazle .... June 1, 1814 
 
 Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, 
 
 as Romeo 
 Booth's first appearance 
 Muuden's last appearance 
 Liston's last appearance . 
 Mrs. Glover's farewell 
 Mr. Bartley's farewell 
 Mr. W. Farren's farewell 
 
 Dec. 29, 1814 
 Feb. 12, 1 SI 7 
 May 31, 1824 
 May 31, 1838 
 July 12, 1850 
 Dec. 18, 1852 
 July 17, 1S55 
 
 MEMORANDA. 
 
 Mr. Palmer died on the stage, at Liver- 
 pool Aug. 2, 1798 
 
 Bannister retired from the stage . . 1815 
 
 Talma died in Paris 1826 
 
 Weber came to London . . Feb. 1826 
 
 The Brunswick Theatre fell, owing to the 
 
 weight of a newly-erected roof, and 
 
 numbers of persons were wounded and 
 
 some killed . . . Feb. 28, 1828 
 
 Madame Malibran died at Manchester, 
 
 Sept. 23, 1S36 
 Paganini died . . . May 29, 1S40 
 Power lost in the President steamer, 
 
 about .... March 13, 1S41 
 
 Elton lost in the Pegasus . July 19, 1843 
 
 Theatres' Registry act passed, Aug. 22, 1843 
 Madlle. Mars died at Paris, March 23, 1847 
 Madame Catalani died at Paris, June 13, 1849 
 Alexander Lee died . . Oct. 9, 1851 
 
 Mrs. Warner died . . Sept. 5, 1854 
 
 C. Kemble died . . . Nov. 5, 1S54 
 John Braham died . . Feb. 17, 1856 
 Madame Vestris died . . Aug. 8, 1856 
 
 THEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Hecatoinpylos 
 on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the 
 time of its splendour, it extended above thirty-three miles, and upon any emergency 
 could send into the field, by each of its hundred gates, 20,000 fighting men and 200 
 chariots. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king of Persia, and few traces of it were 
 
THE 639 THI 
 
 seen in the age of Juvenal. — Plutarch. Also Thebes, the capital of the country 
 successively called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and Bceotia. See Bceotia. 
 Thebes was called Cadmeis, from Cadrnus, the founder of the city. It rose to a 
 celebrated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 B.C. It was dismantled by the 
 Romans, 145 B.C. — Livy ; Thucydides. 
 
 THEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death at Athens, 
 by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft with 
 death, if above 12d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In 
 the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was taken away, 1103. The laws against 
 theft, until lately, were very severe in England : they were revised by Mr. (afterwards 
 sir Robert) Peel's acts, 9 & 10 Geo. IV. See Acts. 
 
 THEISTS. Theiste, French. A kind of deists about 1660.— Dean Martin. 
 
 THELLUSSON'S WILL. One of the most singular testamentary documents ever 
 executed. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, an affluent London merchant, left 100,000?. to 
 his widow and children ; and the remainder, amounting to more than 600,000£. he 
 left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of his three sons, and the lives of 
 their sons ; then the estates directed to be purchased with the produce of the accu- 
 mulating fund, to be conveyed to the eldest male descendant of his three sons, with 
 benefit of survivorship. This will being contested by the heirs-at-law, was finally 
 established by a decision of the house of lords, June 25, 1805. Mr. Thellusson died 
 July 21, 1797, and from that time the stock may accumulate to a period of about 
 120 years, and amount to 140,000,0002. sterling. Should no heir then exist, the 
 whole is to be applied, by the agency of the sinking-fund, to the discharge of the 
 national debt. 
 
 THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific 
 persons, all about the same time. Galileo, 1597. — Libri. Invented by Drebbel of 
 Alcmaer, A. D. 1609.— Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. — Fulgentio. 
 Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
 about 1726; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
 construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
 subsequently. 
 
 THERMOPYLAE, BATTLE of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the defile 
 of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians diu-ing three days, when 
 Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path up the 
 mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, thus placed between two 
 assailants, devote themselves to the good of their country, and perish gloriously 
 on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of the 300 heroes who engaged in this conflict 
 with hundreds of thousands of the Persians one man only returned home, and he 
 was received with reproaches and insults for having fled from a battle in which his 
 brave companions with their royal leader had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians 
 perished by the hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 B.C. 
 
 THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being the seat of 
 many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king of whom we have 
 any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects were 
 called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greece. From Thessaly the 
 most powerful tribes of Greece derived their origin, as the Achseans, the iEtolians, 
 the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most remarkable events in the early 
 history of this country, are the deluge of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. and the expedition 
 of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. See them severally. 
 
 THIMBLE. This simple, yet useful, and now indispensable, appendage to the ladies' 
 work-table is of Dutch invention. The art of making them was brought to England 
 by John Lofting, a mechanic, from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
 near London, and practised the manufacture of them in various metals with profit 
 and success, about 1695. — Anderson. 
 
 THISTLE, ORDER of the, in SCOTLAND. Founded by James V. 1 540. It con- 
 sisted originally of himself as sovereign and twelve knights, in imitation of Christ 
 and his twelve apostles. Some Scottish historians make the origin of this order very 
 ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 
 a.d. 809, when that monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then took for 
 his device the thistle. It is told that king Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which 
 
THI 
 
 640 
 
 THR 
 
 St. Andrew made him a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory over his 
 foes, the Northumbrians; and that the next day St. Andrew's cross appeared in the 
 air, and the Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is said, Achaius framed 
 the order more than 700 years before James V. revived it. In 1542, James died, and 
 the order was discontinued. This was about the time of the Reformation, when 
 religious disputes rau to a great height, and it was deemed impious to imitate, in an 
 order of knighthood, Chi'ist and his apostles ; nor was this honourable order thought 
 of till king James VII. of Scotland and II. of England renewed it, by making eight 
 knights, May 29, 1687. — Beatson's Polit. Index. 
 
 THE ORIGINAL KNIGHTS OP 1687. 
 
 George, duke of Gordon. 
 Johu, marquess of Athol. 
 James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of 
 
 Hamilton ; killed in a duel, 1712. 
 Alexander, earl of Moray. 
 
 James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 
 Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
 George, earl of Dumbarton. 
 John, earl of Melford ; attainted. 
 
 THISTLE WOOD, BRUNT, INGS, DAVISON, and TIDD. The principals in the ' 
 mysterious and memorable conspiracy known as the "Cato-street conspiracy." These 
 criminals were arrested Feb. 23, 1820 ; their trial commenced Monday, April 17 ; and 
 being convicted, their execution followed, May 1, 1820. In this, as in some other 
 combinations of the time, the accused persons attributed the origin of their desperate 
 project, and even the means of its accomplishment, to a supposed ministerial spy. 
 See Cato-street Conspiracy. 
 
 THOMITES. The name given to a body of enthusiasts who assembled at Boughton, 
 near Canterbury, May 31, 1838. A lunatic named Thom, who assumed the name 
 of sir W. Courteuay, knight of Malta and king of Jerusalem, having been released from 
 confinement, attached himself to the lowest rabble, and incited them against the Poor 
 Law Act. On this day, a farmer of the neighbourhood, whose servant had joined the 
 crowd which attended this sir W. Courteuay, or Thom, sent a constable to fetch him 
 back; but on his arrival on the ground he was shot dead by the madman Thom. On 
 this outrage the military were called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
 murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant 
 on the spot. His death was avenged by one of the soldiers, who fired at Thom, and 
 laid him dead by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then attacked the military, 
 who were compelled to fire; and it was not until several' were killed that the mob 
 dispersed. Many considered Thom a saint. 
 
 THORACIC DUCT. The thoracic duct was first discovered in a horse, by Eustachius, 
 about a.d. 1563. It was discovered in the human body, by 01. Rudbec, a Swedish 
 anatomist — Thomas Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Joliffe, of England, also 
 discovered it, about 1654. See article Lacteals. 
 
 THRACE. This country derived its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. — Aspin. Thraces, 
 the people, were descendants of Tiras, son of Japhet, and hence their name. They 
 were a warlike people, and therefore Mars was said to have been born, and to have had 
 his residence among them. — Euripides. Thrace was conquered by Philip and 
 Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 B.C.; and it so remained 
 till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C. Byzantium was the capital 
 of Thrace, on the ruins of which Constantinople was built. The Turks took the 
 country under Mahomet II. a.d. 1453. — Priestley. 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use for 
 thrashing-corn. The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with 
 stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
 in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732; Miekles 
 invented a machine in 1776. 
 
 THRASYMENUS, BATTLE of. A most bloody engagement between the Carthaginians 
 under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 B.C. No less than 15,000 
 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or according 
 to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. About 
 10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with wounds. — Livy; Polybius. On 
 the same day an earthquake occurred which desolated several cities in Italy. 
 
 THREATENING LETTERS. Sending letters, whether anonymously written, or with a 
 fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening to kill a person or fire his house, 
 was made punishable as a felony without benefit of clergy, 1730. Persons extorting 
 
THU 641 TIM 
 
 money by threatening to accuse others of such offences as are subjected to death, or 
 other infamous punishments, were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or trans- 
 portation, by 30 Geo. II. 1756 ; aud other acts, the latest 10 & 11 Vict. c. 66, 1847. 
 
 THUMB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the first stages 
 of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. The rev. Wm, 
 Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him 
 divulge secrets intrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 
 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a present by the council. King William 
 expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but 
 at the third turn he cried out, " Hold ; hold! doctor; another turn would make me 
 confess anything." 
 
 THUROT'S INVASION". An enterprising Irish commodore in the French service, named 
 Thurot, had so signalised himself by his courage and daring, that his name became a 
 terror to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had the command of a small 
 armament, and landed 1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, which place he soon 
 quitted, after having; plundered the town. On leaving Ireland, he reached the Isle of 
 Man, but was overtaken by Captain Elliot, with three frigates, who engaged his little 
 squadron, which was taken, and the commodore killed. Thurot's true name was 
 O'Furrell ; his grandfather had followed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother 
 being of a family of some dignity in France, he had assumed her name. The engage- 
 ment was fought Feb. 28, 1760. — Burns. 
 
 THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero worshipped 
 by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians 
 and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over the winds and seasons, and 
 especially over thunder and lightning. He is said to have been the most valiant of 
 the sons of Odin. This day, which was consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in 
 the Danish, Swedish, and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, 
 or Thor's-day, has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 
 
 TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are of his 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction; and on the death of a pope, his arms are represented with 
 the tiara alone, without the keys. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. Pope 
 Damasus II. first caused himself to be crowned with a tiara a.d. 1053. John XIX. 
 was the first who encompassed the tiara with a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added 
 a second, 1295 ; and Benedict XII. formed the tiara about 1334. 
 
 TICKETS of LEAVE. See Transportation and Crime. 
 
 TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius 
 of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 B.C. ; and 
 Caesar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic War. The theory of the tides 
 was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, A.D. 1598 ; but the honour of a complete 
 explanation of them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of 
 phenomena to prove universal gravitation, about 1683. 
 
 TILES. Tiles were originally flat and square, and afterwards parallel ogrammic, &c. First 
 made in England about a.d. 1246. They were taxed in 1784. The number of tiles 
 taxed in England in 1820 was 81,924,626; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
 discontinued as discouraging house-building and interfering with the comfort of the 
 people, in 1833. 
 
 TILSIT, PEACE of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Russia, 
 when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and 
 Russia rrcognised the Confederation of the Rbine, and the elevation of Napoleon's 
 three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and 
 Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 19 following. 
 
 TILTS and TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, and anathemas from 
 Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry IV. about a.d. 1400. — Bapin. 
 They first took their rise in Italy upon the suppression of the gladiators in the fifth 
 ceDtury. They were suppressed in France in 1560. — Voltaire's General Hist. For the 
 grand fete of this kind recently, in Scotland, see Tournament. 
 
 TIMBER. The annual demand of timber for the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, or 
 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand on an acre ; in 
 peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumed 3000 loads, 
 
 T T 
 
TIM 642 TIT 
 
 or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres in a century. Hence the whole 
 navy consumed 102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum. — Allnut. We import about 800,000 
 loads of timber annually, exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c. together 
 with about 8,000,000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Met. Iron is now much used, in 
 preference to timber. 
 TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of 
 Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. A 
 company was formed for its application in this country in 1856. 
 
 TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 B.C. Early authors inform 
 us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long ; but as 
 they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he invented a lantern made of wood, and 
 thin plates of ox-horns, glass being a great rarity, a.d. 887. The ancients had three 
 time-measures : hour-glasses, sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its 
 bottom. See Clocks, Watches, &c. 
 
 TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 years 
 before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial import- 
 ance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin-mines appear to have been 
 neglected ; but after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable 
 revenues to the earls of Cornwall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a 
 charter and various immunities were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who 
 also framed the Stannary laws (which see), laying a duty on the tin payable to the 
 earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected 
 Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
 1337. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the crown of England, if eldest sons, 
 have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, which lessened 
 the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mine3 in Europe, a.d. 1240. — 
 Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640; in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782. We 
 export at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufactured 
 tin and tin-plates, of the value of about 400,000?. 
 
 TINCHEBRAY, BATTLE of. Between Henry I. of England, and Robert, duke of 
 Normandy. England and Normandy were re-united under Henry, on the decease of 
 William Rufus, who had already possessed himself of Normandy, though he had no 
 other right to that province than by a mortgage from his brother Robert, at his setting 
 out for Palestine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy by an accommodation 
 with Henry; but the two brothers having afterwards quarrelled, the former was 
 defeated by the latter in the battle of Tiuchebray (a large town in Lower Normandy), 
 and Normandy annexed to the crown of England ; fought 1106. — Henault. 
 
 TITHES and TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. — 
 Joscphus. For the first 800 years of the Christiau church they were given purely as 
 alms, and were voluntary. — Wicklijfe. " I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes 
 upon any divine right, though such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as 
 certainly ceased, with the Jewish theocracy." — Blaclcstone. The first mention of them 
 in any English written law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoin- 
 ing tithes, a.d. 786. Offa king of Mercia gave unto the church the tithes of all his 
 kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert king of the East Angles, whom he had 
 caused to be basely murdered, a.d. 794. — Bum's Eccles. Law. Tithes were first granted 
 to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, a.d. 844. — Henry's 
 Hist, of Eng. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. 
 Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 
 
 TITHES in ENGLAND. See preceding article. The amount is variously stated even 
 in parliamentary documents, owing to defective returns. Various acts have been 
 recently passed in relation to tithes. A tithe act was passed 3 Will. IV. Aug. 1832. 
 Another act, 5 Will. IV. Aug. 1834; and again, 6 Will. IV. Sept. 1835. The important 
 tithe commutation act was passed 6 & 7 Will. IV. Aug. 13, 1836. An amendmeut 
 followed, 1 Vict. July 15, 1837; and again, 3 Vict. c. 15, June 4, 1840. Tithe amend- 
 ment act, 9 & 10 Vict. c. 73, Aug. 26, 1846. — Tithes in Ikeland. Several acts re- 
 lating to tithes have been passed during the last ten years, for altering and improving 
 the tithe system. Act for the relief of the clergy, 2 Will. IV. June 1832. Tithe com- 
 position act, Aug. 16, 1832. Act to abolish composition, and to substitute rent-charges 
 in lieu thereof, 2 Vict. Aug. 1838. Composition arrears act, 2 Vict. March 27, 1839. 
 Amendment act, 3 Vict. c. 13, May 19, 1840. Tithe composition, 4 Vict. c. 5, March 
 30, 1841. 
 
TIT 643 TOL 
 
 TITHING. The number or company of ten men with their families knit together in a 
 society, all of them being bound to the king for the peaceable and good behaviour of 
 each of their society ; of these companies there was one chief person, who, from his 
 office, was called (toothingman) tithingman; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
 formerly called the headborough. — Cowel. 
 
 TITLES, EOYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles swelled in 
 England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace " and " My liege " conferred upon him, 
 1399. The title of "Excellent Grace" was conferred upon Henry VI. 1422. 
 Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry Vli. had the 
 title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. had the same title, and sometimes "Grace," 
 1509 et seg. But these two last were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that 
 with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their lnemoi-able interview in 
 1520. See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was 
 styled "Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to "Majesty" the present "Sacred," or 
 "Most Excellent Majesty." "Majesty "was the style of the emperors of Germany ; 
 the first king to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. 
 
 TOBACCO. Nicotiana tabacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, a province 
 of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribbees ; 
 others from Tobasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was first observed at St. Domingo, 
 a.d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was 
 first brought to England, 7 Eliz. 1565, by sir John Hawkins; but sir Walter Ealeigh 
 and sir Francis Drake are also mentioned as having first introduced it here. It was 
 manufactured only for exportation for some years. — Stew's Chron. The Pied Bull 
 inn, at Islington, was the first house in England where tobacco was smoked. In 1584 
 a proclamation was issued against it. The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 
 Gs. lOd. per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II. 
 Act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation was allowed 
 in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased and put under the excise, 1789. — Anderson ; 
 Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act 
 prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ireland passed 2 Will. IV. Aug. 1831. Act 
 directing that tobacco grown iu Ireland be purchased in order to its being destroyed, 
 March 24, 1832. The quantity consumed in England in 1791 was nine millions and a 
 half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions of pounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 
 1840 the quantity had reached to forty millions of pounds. In 1850 the quantity 
 imported was 43,551,954 lb. of which 1,905,306 lb. were manufactured. In 1856 were 
 imported 44,788,130 lb., of which 1,885,104 lb. were manufactured. 
 
 TOBAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a.d. 1642. Taken by the English, 1672; retaken 
 1674. In 1748 it was declared, a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded to the 
 English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed 
 to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but restored at the 
 peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the British 
 under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 
 Paris in 1814. 
 
 TOKENS, BANK. These were silver pieces issued by the Bank of England, of the value 
 of 5s. Jan. 1, 1798. The Spanish dollar was at first impressed with a small profile of 
 George III. ; it was stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They were raised to 
 the value of 5s. 6d. Nov. 14, 1811. Bank tokens were also current in Ireland, where 
 those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser sums until 1817. They were called 
 in on the late revision of the coinage. 
 
 TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honour and wisdom of the first 
 Toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The dissenters 
 have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interruption, though their 
 liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of queen Anne's reign. Queen 
 Anne died on the very day that the memorable Schism bill was to become a law, 
 Aug. 1, 1714. See Test Act. 
 
 TOLLS. They were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a.d. 1109. They 
 were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. See Sound. 
 Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
 that passed through a certain manor ; and the first regular toll was collected a few 
 years after for mending the road in London between St. Giles's and Temple-bar. 
 Gathered for repairing the highways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin's lane, 1346. 
 
 T T 2 
 
TON 644 TOU 
 
 Toll-gates or turnpikes were used iu 1663. A few toll-gates still remain in the 
 neighbourhood of London, against which an agitation arose in 1857. 
 
 TONNAGE and POUNDAGE. These were ancient duties levied on wine and other 
 goods, imported or exported; they commenced in England about 21 Edw. 111. 1346. 
 The first was granted to the kings of England for life, 5 Edw. IV. 1465. The second 
 was a premium or reward for the collection. — Cunningham's Hist. Taxes. 
 
 TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so called from 
 the inventor, Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to 
 reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by amusing them with the 
 hope of becoming suddenly rich, a.d. 1653. — Voltaire. The celebrated Mr.- Jennings 
 was an original subscriber for a 100Z. share in a tontine company ; and being the last 
 survivor of the shareholders, his share produced him 3000/. per annum. He died 
 worth 2,115,2442., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798. 
 
 TOPLITZ, BATTLES of. A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austrians and 
 Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 1762. — Battle of Toplitz, Aug. 30, 1813. 
 Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a considerable time in this latter 
 year. Treaty of Toplitz, between Eussia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. 9, 1813. 
 Treaty of Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. 
 
 TORGAU, BATTLE of. Between Frederick II. of Prussia and the Austrians, in which 
 the former obtained a signal victory; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
 wouuded, Nov. 11, 1760. Count Daun, a renowned warrior, had, in 1757, obtained 
 a great victory over the Prussian king, and had been distinguished by his zeal and 
 glory ia the Austrian service. Torgau was taken by the allies in 1814. 
 
 TORTURE. It has disgraced humanity in the earliest ages in every country. It was 
 only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was used early in 
 the Roman Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally used in England so late 
 as the 1st Eliz. 1558 ; and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished 
 in Portugal 1776; in France, by order of Louis XVI. in 1780, although it had not 
 been practised there some time before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by 
 Gustavus III. 1786. It yet continues in other countries. 
 
 TORY. Various authors have differently described this term. It is said to be derived 
 from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a collector of tithes and 
 taxes. — Eucyclop. The names of Cavaliers and Round-heads, which existed in the 
 time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us, into those of Tories and Whigs. The 
 Tories were those who vindicated the divine right of kings, and held high notions of 
 their prerogatives ; while " the Whigs" denoted friends to civil and religious liberty. 
 — Ashe. The name of Tory was given by the Country party to the Court party, com- 
 paring them to popish robbers; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot {which see), in 
 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two parties in the aristo- 
 cracy : the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; and the Tories, who 
 would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. See Whiys. 
 
 TOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by land and 
 sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and seveial ships 
 burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered Aug. 23, 
 1793, to the British admiral lord Hood, who took possession both of the town and 
 shipping, in the name of Louis XVII. under a stipulation to assist in restoring the 
 French constitution of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and B'rench 
 forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov, 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated by the 
 British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
 inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to the Briti&h. 
 
 TOULON, NAVAL BATTLES off. A memorable battle off this port, between the 
 English under Mathews and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain : in this 
 engagement the brave captain Cornewall fell; and the victory was lost by a mis- 
 understanding between the English admirals. Mathews was afterwards dismissed by 
 the sentence of a court-martial for misconduct; fought Feb. 10, 1744. 
 
 TOULOUSE, France. Founded about 615 B.C. A dreadful tribunal was established 
 here to extirpate heretics, a.d. 1229. The troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, 
 had their origin about a.d. 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was 
 extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See 
 
TOU 645 TOW 
 
 Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish army entered this city on April 12, 1814, 
 immediately after the memorable battle. See next article. 
 
 TOULOUSE, BATTLE, op. The final battle between the British Peninsular army under 
 lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had been fought from 
 the time lord Wellington had received the command of the troops in Portugal. The 
 French were led by marshal Soult, whom the victorious British here forced to retreat 
 after twelve hours' fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, 
 the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
 allies in killed and wounded was between 4000 and 5000 men; that of the French 
 exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte had abdicated the throne of 
 France ; but neither of the commanders was aware of that fact, or of the close of the 
 war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, such as 
 Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a martial sport or exer- 
 cise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show their bravery and address. 
 It is derived from the French word tourner, " to turn round," because, to be expert 
 in these exercises, much agility, both of horse and man, was necessary. They were 
 much practised a.d. 890 ; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I. emperor, 
 about 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance in 
 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late as the twelfth century, when the taste for 
 them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in a tilt with the count de Mont- 
 gomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the king's death in a few 
 days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from this event abolished in France. — A 
 magnificent and costly feast, and splendid tournament, took place at Eglintoun castle, 
 Aug. 29, 1839, and the following week : many of tbe visitors assumed the characters of 
 ancient knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female 
 throng. But this festivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 
 
 TOURNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria by the 
 treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a guardian in it, as one of the 
 barrier towns. It was taken by the French under general Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 
 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians and British on one side, and the French 
 on the other, the former victorious, May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between 
 the British and French, when the latter were repulsed, at Rouslaer, losing 200 men 
 and three field-pieces, May 6, 1794. 
 
 TOURNIQUET. An instrument for trepanning, invented by Morelli at the siege of 
 Besangon, a.d. 1674. Petit, of France, invented the screw tourniquet in 1718. 
 
 TOURS, BATTLE op. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that which 
 most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, and from which he 
 acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We are told by some of the French 
 historians, and indeed by others, it must be acknowledged with some probability, that 
 but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as well as Asia and Africa, 
 must have become Mahommedan ; fought Oct. 10, a.d. 732. 
 
 TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar 
 (Genesis xi.) 2247 b c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 B.C. 
 The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 B.C. Towers were built early in England ; 
 and the round towers in Ireland may be reckoned among most ancient curiosities. 
 They were the only structures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the 
 English, except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. These 
 towers were tall hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing towards the top, 
 pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above the ground, and covered with 
 conical roofs of the same material. Of these productions of old Irish masonry, fifty- 
 six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. 
 
 TOWER op LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more than what 
 is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first marked out by 
 William the Conqueror, a.d. 1076, commenced in 1078, and completed by his son, 
 William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, and a broad, deep ditch. 
 Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and king Edward III. built the 
 church. In 1638 the White Tower was rebuilt; and since the restoration of king 
 Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of additional buildings 
 made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel-office, and various other divisions and 
 buildings of peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
 
TOW 646 TRA 
 
 and many murders. See England. The armoury and 280,000 stand of arms, &e. 
 were destroyed by fire, Oct. 30, 1841. The " New Buildings " in the Tower were 
 completed in 1850. 
 
 TOWTON, BATTLE of, supposed to be the most fierce and bloody that ever happened 
 in any domestic war. It was fought between the houses of York (Edward IV.) and 
 Lancaster (Henry VI.) to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on whose side more than 
 37,000 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless slaughter 
 ensued. Henry was made prisoner, and confined in the Tower ; his queen, Margaret, 
 fled to Flanders. Fotight March 29, 1461. 
 
 TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters pro- 
 pounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which 90 numbers were published, 1833-41. 
 The principal writers were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, 
 and I. Williams. See Puseyism. 
 
 TRADES' MUSEUM. The formation of this museum was undertaken iu 1S53, jointly 
 by the commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851 and the Society of Arts. The 
 Animal department was opened May 17, 1855, when a paper on the Mutual Relations of 
 Trade and Manufactures was read by professor E. Solly. The contents of this museum 
 were removed to the South Kensington Museum, which was opened June 24, 1857. 
 
 TRAFALGAR, BATTLE of. The most glorious naval victory ever obtained by 
 England, fought by the British, under Nelson, against the combined fleets of France 
 and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals. The 
 enemy's force was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ; that 
 of the British, twenty-seven ships. After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral 
 Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, 
 sunk or destroyed. Nelson lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral Colling- 
 wood succeeded to the command. Nelsou's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal 
 on going into the engagement was, " England expects every man to do his duty." 
 Oct. 21, 1805. See Nelson's Funeral 
 
 TRAGEDY, A dramatic representation of some mournful event. The Tragedy of 
 Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first tragic poet at Athens, 536 B.C. — 
 Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the first gained by JEschylus, 486 B.C. — Ibid. 
 Another prize carried by Sophocles, 470 B.C.- — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 B.C. 
 — Ibid. Another by Astydamas, 377 B.C. — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres. 
 
 TRAINING SCHOOLS. The first of these useful establishments was founded at 
 Battersea, in 1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. Tufnell ; the latter, 
 who was then in the Poor Law Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the 
 expenses. Mr. Mann stated (1S55) that there were* about 40 of these schools in 
 different parts of the country. 
 
 TRAJAN'S PILLAR in Rome. Erected a.d. 114, by the directions of the emperor 
 Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus. The column, which still exists at Rome, was 
 built in the large square called the Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the 
 Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the emperor. This is one of the 
 most valuable monuments that have descended from ancient to modern times. 
 
 TRANSFIGURATION, The. By this term is meant the miraculous change of Our 
 Saviour's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the presence of Peter, James, and John, 
 when he appeared in his glory, in company with Moses and Elias, a.d. 32 {Matt. xvii). 
 The word is also applied to a feast held in the Romish Church on the 6th of August, 
 in commemoration of that miracle. 
 
 TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD. See article Blood. 
 
 TRANSLATION to HEAVEN. The translation of Enoch to heaven for his piety at 
 the age of 365 years, took place 3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to 
 heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C. — The possibility of translation to the abode of 
 eternal life has been maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The Irish 
 house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from his seat for his book asserting the 
 possibility of translation to the other world without death, 1703. 
 
 TRANSMARINE TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telecjraph. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION of FELONS. The first criminals were ordered for transportation 
 instead of execution, a.d. 1590; but banishment for lighter offences than those 
 adjudged death was much earlier. England is reproached abroad for transporting 
 
TRA 647 TRE 
 
 persons whose offences are comparatively venial. John Eyre, esq. a man of fortune, 
 ■was sentenced to transportation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — 
 Phillips. More recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, 
 was transported for forging a frank (lOd. postage), Sept. 9, 1818. The first transpor- 
 tation of felons to Botany Bay was in May, 1787 ; they arrived at the settlement in 
 Jan. 1788. Returning from transportation was punishable with death until 5 Will. 
 IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable by transporta- 
 tion for life. The discontinuance of transportation to Australia was announced by 
 lord John Russell, in the house of commons, as determined upon by government, 
 Feb. 10, 1853. In consequence of the recent difficulty experienced in transporting 
 felons, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, namely, penal 
 servitude, empowering her majesty to grant pardon to offenders under certain con- 
 ditions, and licences to others to be at large, such licences being liable to be revoked 
 if necessary, and many have been. These licences are termed ' ' tickets of leave." See 
 Crime. By an act passed in 1857, transportation to Western Australia is renewed. 
 
 TRANSUBSTANTIATION. The pretended miraculous change of the bread and wine 
 in the Eucharist into the very flesh and blood of Christ by the consecration. The 
 doctrine was broached in the days of Gregory III. (a.d. 731), and accepted by 
 Amalarius and Radbertus (about 840), but rejected by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes 
 Scotus Erigena, Berengarius, and others. In the Lateran council, held at Rome by 
 Innocent III., the word " transubstantiation" was used to express this doctrine, which 
 was decreed to be incontrovertible; and all who opposed it were condemned as 
 heretics. This was confirmed by the Council of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562. John Huss, 
 Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying this 
 dogma, which is condemned by the Church of England (28th Article) and all pro- 
 testant dissenters. 
 
 TRAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe in Normandy was founded in 1140 by 
 Retrou, count de Perche. The present order of Trappists owes its origin to the 
 learned Bouthillier de la Ranee" (editor of Anacreon when aged 14), who, from some 
 cause not certainly known, renounced the world, and sold all his property, giving the 
 proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to which he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
 austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in reforming the monks, and in 
 establishing a new rule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and manual labour, 
 and which forbids study, wine, fish, &c. Ranee" was born in 1620, and died 1700* 
 
 TREAD-MILL. An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise water for the 
 irrigation of the fields. The tread-mill lately introduced into the prisons of Great 
 Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is the invention of Mr. Cubitt of 
 Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton gaol, 1817. The tread-mill was immediately 
 afterwards introduced into most of the large prisons. 
 
 TREASON". See High Treason. It was punished in England only by banishment till 
 after Henry I. — Baker's Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edw. III. 1349. Trials 
 regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. The laws relating to treason 
 are numerous, and formerly the punishment was dreadful — hanging, quartering, 
 beheading, &c. and even burning alive. Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition 
 of burning alive for treason, which passed both houses in 1788. Petty Treason may 
 happen three ways : a wife's nrarder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his 
 master ; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so 
 declared by statute 25 Edw. III. 1350. 
 
 TREASURER of the CHAMBER. Formerly an officer of great consideration, and 
 always a member of the privy council. He discharged the bills of all the king's 
 tradesmen, and had his office in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal palace. 
 His duties were transferred, and the office suppressed at the same time with the 
 offices of master of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the household, in 1782. Many 
 distinguished men were treasurers. — Beatson. 
 
 TREASURER, LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. The third great officer of the crown, a 
 lord by virtue of his office, having the custody of the king's treasure, governing the 
 
 * A number of these monks driven from France in the revolution in 1790, were received by Mr. 
 "Weld, of Lulworth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to cultivate, and a habitation, where they 
 remained till 1815. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and sixty-four 
 English and Irish Trappists were shipped by the French government at Paimboeuf, Nov. 19, and were 
 landed from the HM French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established themselves at 
 Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigour of their order. 
 
TRE 
 
 648 
 
 TRE 
 
 upper court of exchequer, and formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The 
 first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl of Kent, in the reign of William I. 
 This great trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested in five persons, called 
 Lords Commissioners for executing the office of Lord High Treasurer, and of these 
 the chancellor of the exchequer is usually one. The first of this rank in Ireland was 
 John de St. John, Henry III. 1217. William Cheevers, second justice of the king's 
 bench, first held the office of vice-treasurer for Ireland, 22nd Hen. VI. 1443. 
 
 TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any foreijm 
 nation was entered into A.D. 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the 
 Flemings, 1 Edw. 1272 ; the second, with Portugal and Spain, 130S — Anderson. The 
 chief treaties of the principal civilised nations of Europe will be found described in 
 their respective places : the following forms au index. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; 
 Leagues, &c. 
 
 Abo, peace of 1743 
 
 Adrianople .... Sept. 14, 1829 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 1668 
 
 Aix-)a-Cbapelle, peace of . . . . 174S 
 Akermann, peace of . Oct. 7, 1826 
 
 Alt Radstadt 1706 
 
 America, peace with .... 1783 
 
 Amiens, peace of 1802 
 
 Armed Neutrality l'-OO 
 
 Arras, treaty of 1435 
 
 Arras, ditto 1482 
 
 Augsburg, league of 1686 
 
 Baden, peace of 1714 
 
 Balta Liman . . . Aug. 16, 1S3S 
 Barrier treaty ...... 1715 
 
 Basle, peace of 1795 
 
 Bassein, India 180*2 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of 1S08 
 
 Belgium, treaty of London . . . 1839 
 
 Belgrade, peace of 1729 
 
 Berlin, peace of 1742 
 
 Berlin decree 1806 
 
 Berlin convention 1808 
 
 Beyara .... Aug. 31, 1839 
 
 Breda, peace of 1667 
 
 Bretigny, peace of 1360 
 
 Bucharest, treaty of ... 1812 
 
 Cambray, league of 1508 
 
 Cambray, peace of 1529 
 
 Campo Formio, treaty of . . . . 1797 
 
 Carlowitz, peace of 1699 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of 1819 
 
 Cateau-Cambresis, peace of . . . 1559 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of 1814 
 
 Cbunar, India 1781 
 
 Cintra, convention of 1808 
 
 Closterseven, convention of . . . 1757 
 Coalition, first, against France . . . 1792 
 Coalition, second, ditto .... 1799 
 Coalition, third, ditto .... 1805 
 
 Coalition, fourth, ditto .... 1806 
 
 Coalition, fifth, ditto 1809 
 
 Coalition, sixth, ditto .... 1813 
 Commerce (Great Britain and Turkey), 
 
 Nov. 16, 1S39 
 Commerce (Great Britain and the Two 
 
 Sicilies) .... June 25, 1845 
 Concordat (which see) .... ISO 1 
 
 Conflans, treaty of 
 Constantinople, peace of . 
 Constantinople, treaty of . 
 Constantinople, treaty of 
 Copenhagen, peace of . 
 Cressy .... 
 Dresden .... 
 Eliot Convention 
 Evora Monte 
 Family Compact 
 Fontainebleau, peace of 
 Foutainebleau, treaty of 
 Fontainebleau, concordat at 
 Friedwald, treaty of 
 Fuessen, peace of 
 Ghent, pacification of 
 Ghent, peace of (America) . 
 
 . . 1465 
 
 . 1712 
 
 . . 1S33 
 
 MayS, 1K54 
 
 . . 1660 
 
 . 1544 
 
 . . 1745 
 
 April, 1S35 
 
 May 26, 1834 
 
 . 1761 
 . . 1679 
 
 . 1785 
 . . 1813 
 
 . 1551 
 . . 1745 
 
 . 1576 
 . . 1814 
 
 Golden Bull . 
 Grand Alliance . 
 Greece, treaty of London 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 Halle, treaty of . 
 Hamburg, peace of . 
 Hanover treaty . 
 Hauover and England 
 Holland, peace with 
 Holy Alliance . 
 Hubertsberg, peace of 
 Interim treaty 
 Jay's treaty 
 Kaynurdi, or Koutschouc 
 
 . 1356 
 
 . . 1689 
 
 . 1832 
 
 . . 1659 
 
 . 1669 
 
 . . 1610 
 
 . 1HJ2 
 
 . . 17-J5 
 
 . July 22, 1S34 
 
 . . 17S4 
 
 . 1815 
 
 . . 1768 
 
 . 1548 
 Nov. 19, 1794 
 Kavnardgi, 
 
 July 21, 1774 
 
 . 1814 
 
 Kiel, treaty of . 
 
 Lay bach, congress of 1821 
 
 League .... ... 1576 
 
 Leipsic, alliance of 1631 
 
 Leoben, peace of 1797 
 
 Lisbon, peace of 1668 
 
 London, treaty of (Greece) . . . 1832 
 London, convention of (Turkey) . . 1S40 
 London, treaty between France and 
 
 England 
 Lubeck, peace of . 
 Luneville, peace of . 
 Madrid, treaty of 
 Methuen treaty 
 Milan decree 
 
 Milan (Au-tria and Sardinia) 
 Munster, peace of . 
 Nankin (see China) 
 Nantes, edict of 
 Naumberg. treaty of 
 Nice, treaty of 
 Nimeguen, peace of . 
 Noyou, treaty of 
 Nuremberg, treaty of 
 < iliva, peace of 
 Paris, peace of (see Paris) 
 Paris, treaty of 
 Paris, peace of (Sweden) 
 Paris, capitulation of 
 Paris, treaty of . 
 Paris, peace of 
 Paris, treaty of . 
 Paris, treaty of 
 Partition, first treaty . 
 Partition, second treaty . 
 Passarowitz, peace of . 
 Passau, treaty of 
 Persia, treaty with 
 Petersburg, St. peace of . 
 Petersburg, St. treaty of 
 Petersburg, St. treaty of 
 Petersburg, St treaty of 
 Peterswald, convention of 
 Pilnitz. convention of 
 Poland, partition of . 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 Prague, peace of 
 
 April 15, 1854 
 . . 1629 
 
 . 1801 
 . . 1526 
 
 . 17o3 
 
 . . 1807 
 
 Aug. 6, 1S49 
 
 . 1648 
 . . 1842 
 
 . 1598 
 . . 1554 
 
 . 1518 
 . . 1678 
 
 . 1516 
 . . 1532 
 
 . 1660 
 . . 1763 
 
 . 1796 
 . . 1810 
 
 . 1814 
 . . 1S14 
 
 . 1815 
 
 . . 1817 
 
 April, 1856 
 
 . . 1698 
 
 . 1700 
 . . 1718 
 
 . 1552 
 . . 1857 
 
 . 1762 
 . . 1772 
 
 . 1805 
 . . 1S10 
 
 . 1S13 
 . . 1791 
 
 . 1795 
 . . 1439 
 
 . 1713 
 . . 1653 
 Presburg, peace of 1S05 
 
TRE 
 
 649 
 
 TRI 
 
 TREATIES, continued. 
 
 Public good, league for the . . . 1464 
 
 Pyrenees, treaty of the .... 1659 
 
 Quadruple Alliance 171S 
 
 Radstadt, peace of 1714 
 
 Radstadt, congress of . . . . . 1797 
 
 Ratisbon, peace of . . . . . 1630 
 
 Ratisbon, treaty of 1806 
 
 Reichenbaeh treaties . . June, 1813 
 
 Religion, peace of 1555 
 
 Rhine, Confederation of the . . . 1806 
 
 Ryswick, peace of 1697 
 
 St. Germain's, peace of . . . . 1570 
 
 St. Germain-en-Laye 1679 
 
 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with 
 
 France 1796 
 
 Seville, peace of 1792 
 
 Siorod, peace of 1613 
 
 Sistowa .... Aug. 4, 1791 
 
 Smalcald, league of 1529 
 
 Spain, pacification of (London) . . . 1834 
 
 Stettin, peace of 1570 
 
 Stockholm 1630 
 
 Stockholm, peace of ... . 1719 
 
 Stockholm, treaty of 1724 
 
 Stockholm, treaty of ... 1813 
 Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden and allies) 
 Nov. 21, 
 
 Suncion, treaty of 
 Temeswar, truce of 
 Teschen, peace of 
 Teusin, peace of 
 Tilsit, peace of 
 Tolentino, treaty of 
 Toplitz, treaty of 
 
 1856 
 
 July 15, 1852 
 
 . 1664 
 
 . . 1779 
 
 . 1595 
 
 . . 1807 
 
 . 1793 
 
 . . 1813 
 
 July 8, 
 
 Triple Alliance 
 
 Triple Alliance of the Hague 
 
 Troppau, congress of 
 
 Troyes, treaty of 
 
 Turkmauchay, peace of . 
 
 Dim, peace of 
 
 Unkiarskelessi 
 
 Utrecht, union of 
 
 Utrecht, peace of 
 
 Valencay, treaty of 
 
 Verona, congress of . 
 
 Versailles, peace of 
 
 Vienna, treaty of 
 
 Vienna, treaty of alliance . 
 
 Vienna, definitive peace '. 
 
 Vienna, peace of 
 
 Vienna, treaty of . 
 
 Vienna, treaty of 
 
 Vienna, treaty of 
 
 Vienna (Austria 
 mercial 
 
 Vossem, peace of 
 
 Warsaw, treaty of 
 
 Warsaw, alliance of .... 
 
 Washington, Reciprocity treaty between 
 Great Britain and the United States, re- 
 specling Newfoundland fishery, com- 
 merce, &c July 2, 
 
 Westminster, peace of .... 
 
 Westminster (with Holland) . 
 
 Westphalia, peace of 
 
 Wilna, treaty of 
 
 Worms, edict of 
 
 Wurtzburg, treaty of ... . 
 
 March 25, 
 
 May 31, 
 
 June 9, 
 
 and Prussia), com- 
 
 Feb. 19, 
 
 1717 
 lfiOS 
 1S20 
 1420 
 1828 
 1620 
 1S33 
 1579 
 1713 
 1813 
 1822 
 1783 
 1725 
 1731 
 1737 
 1S09 
 1815 
 1815 
 1815 
 
 1853 
 1673 
 176S 
 1683 
 
 1S54 
 1674 
 1716 
 1648 
 1561 
 1521 
 1610 
 
 TRENT, COUNCIL of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Roman Catholic 
 Church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are implicitly received 
 as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. The first council 
 assembled a.d. 1545, and continued (but with interruptions) under pope Paul III. 
 Julius III. and Pius IV. to 1563, when the last council under this name was held.* 
 
 " TRI A JUNCTA IN UNO." Three joined in one. The motto of the knights of the 
 military order of the Bath, signifying the three theological virtues, " faith, hope, and 
 charity." It is supposed to have been first used by Richard II. and adopted by 
 Henry IV. in 1399, as the motto of this order : it was continued when the order was 
 revived by his majesty George I. in 1725. See Bath. 
 
 TRIALS. Alfred the Great is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but 
 there is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
 Ha warden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the 
 twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the 
 name of Corbyn, of the Gate, still preserve their name and residence at a spot in the 
 parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. 
 
 REMARKABLE AND MEMORABLE TRIALS. 
 
 Of the infamous colonel Charteris, for the rape of Ann Bond .... 
 Of captain Porteous, at Edinburgh, for murder (see Porteous) 
 
 Of the celebrated Jenny Diver, for felony, executed 
 
 Of William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but who came to life when 
 
 going dissection at Surgeons' Hall 
 
 Of lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino, for high treason 
 
 Of Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 wives 
 
 Of lord Lovat, 80 years of age, for high treason; beheaded .... 
 
 Of Freuey, the celebrated Irish robber, who surrendered himself 
 
 Of Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of her husband . 
 
 Of Miss Blandy, for the murder of her father ; hanged .... 
 
 Of Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband; burnt alive 
 
 Of Eugene Aram, for murder at York; executed 
 
 Of the earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; executed .... 
 Of Mr. Mac Naughten, at Strabane, for the murder of Miss Knox 
 Of Ann Bedingfield, for the murder of her husband ; burnt alive 
 
 . Feb. 25, 
 
 July 6, 
 
 March 18, 
 
 about under- 
 
 Nov. 24, 
 
 . July 2S, 
 
 Oct. 7, 
 
 . March 9, 
 
 July 9, 
 
 Nov. 5, 
 
 March 3, 
 
 . April 11, 
 
 Aug. 13, 
 
 . April 16, 
 
 Dec. 8, 
 
 . April 6, 
 
 1730 
 1736 
 1740 
 
 1740 
 1746 
 1746 
 1747 
 1749 
 1750 
 1752 
 1753 
 1759 
 1760 
 1761 
 1763 
 
 * At this council was decreed with anathemas: the canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), 
 and the church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal with scripture ; the seven sacraments 
 (baptism, confirmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, orders, and matrimony) ; tran- 
 substantiation ; purgatory ; indulgences j celibacy of the clergy, &c. 
 
TRI C50 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Of Mr. Wilkes, the celebrated alderman of London, for an obscene poem, called an " Essay on 
 
 Woman" Feb. 21, 1764 
 
 Of the murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, mate, and passengers, on board the ship 
 
 Earl of Sandwich, at sea March 3, 1706 
 
 Of the celebrated Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her apprentices, a female ; 
 
 hanged Sept. 12, 1707 
 
 Of lord Baltimore, the notorious libertine, and his female accomplices, for rape March 28, 1768 
 Of the great cause between the families of Hamilton and Douglas .... Feb. 27, W69 
 
 Of the great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland March 18, 1772 
 
 Of the cause of Somerset the slave, establishing the great point of freedom to slaves upon 
 
 British ground ; judgment given, after a long trial (see Somerset the Black) . . June 22, 1772 
 
 " Slaves cannot breathe in England ; 
 They touch mir country, and their shackles fall." 
 
 Of Mrs. Herring, at Dublin, for the murder of her husband : burnt in St. Stephen's Green, 
 
 in that city ... ■ Oct. 24, 1773 
 
 Of the two brothers, Messrs. Perreau, bankers and wine-merchants, for forgery ; hanged, 
 
 (see Forgery) Jan. 17, 1776 
 
 Of the duchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; guilty (see Kingston, Duchess of, her 
 
 T, ial) April 15, 1776 
 
 Of Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200?. in the name of the earl of Chesterfield ; found guilty, 
 
 Feb. 22 (see Forgery); executed June 27, 1777 
 
 Of admiral Keppel, by com-t-mai-tial ; honourably acquitted Feb. 11. 177l> 
 
 Of Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay,when coming out of the Theatre Royal, Coven t- 
 
 garden April 16, 1779 
 
 Of lord George Gordon on a charge of high treason : acquitted .... Feb. 5, 1781 
 
 Of Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on lord Loughborough, afterwards lord 
 
 chancellor Nov. 10, 17S6 
 
 Of lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of France ; guilty . . . . Jan. 28, ITss 
 Of Mr. Warren Hastings ; a trial which lasted seven years and three months (see Hastings, 
 
 Trial of) commenced Feb. 13, 1788 
 
 Of The Times newspaper, for a libel on the prince of Wales ; guilty . . . . Feb. 3, 17f"J 
 Of Renwick Williams, called the Monster, for stabbing women in the streets of London (see 
 
 Monster) July 8, 1790 
 
 Of the celebrated Barrington, the pick-pocket, the most extraordinary adept in his art ; 
 
 transported Sept. 22, 1790 
 
 Of Thomas Paine, the celebrated political writer and deist, for his libels in the Rights of 
 
 Man ; guilty Dec. IS, 1792 
 
 Of Louis XVI. of France : began December 11, 1792 : condemned Jan. 20 ; and beheaded (see 
 
 France) Jan. 21, 1793 
 
 Of the queen of France, Marie Antoinette, consort of Louis XVI. ; guillotined . Oct. 16, 1793 
 
 Of Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; imprisoned and fined .... Jan. 29, 1794 
 Of madame Elizabeth, of France, sister to the king, Louis XVI. ; beheaded . May 10, 1791 
 
 Of Mr. Purcfoy, for the murder of colonel Roper, iu a memorable duel ; acquitted Aug. 14, 1794 
 
 Of Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, for treason Sept. 3, 1794 
 
 Of Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, for high treason ; acquitted (see Hardy, 
 
 and also Thelwall) Oct. 29, 1794 
 
 Of the earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; guilty Dec. 6, 1794 
 
 Of the celebrated major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony Feb. 18, 1795 
 
 Of Mr. Redhead Yorke, at York, for a seditious libel Nov. 27, 1795 
 
 Of lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con .; damages, 10,000?. . . . March 4, 1796 
 
 Of lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery ; damages 2000? June 16, 1796 
 
 Of Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly government; guilty .... July 8, 1796 
 
 Of sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; damages, 6000?. . . . Feb. 27, 1797 
 
 Of Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admiral Parker (see Mutinies) . . June 27, 1797 
 Of Boddiugton v. Boddington, for crim. con.; damages, 10,000?. .... Sept. 5, 1797 
 
 Of William Orr, at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; executed .... Oct 12, 1797 
 
 Of Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, the celebrated murderess ...... Dec. 9, 1797 
 
 Of the murderers of colonel St. George and Mr. Uniacke, at Cork . . . April 15, 1798 
 
 Of the celebrated Arthur O'Connor, the barrister, and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for treason ; 
 
 the latter hanged May 21, 179S 
 
 Of sir Edward Crosbie and others, for high treason ; hanged .... June 1, 179x 
 
 Of Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high treason .... June 21, 179sS 
 
 Of the two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason; executed . . . July 12, 1798 
 Of Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he died on the 18th) .... Nov. 10, 1798 
 Of sir Harry Browne Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike, of Cork .... April 13, 1800 
 
 Of Hatfield, for shooting at George III. (see Hatfield) June 26, 1S00 
 
 Of Mi-. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con.; damages 10,000?. . . . Dec. 2, 1800 
 
 FROM 1800 TO THE TEAR 1810. 
 
 Of the mutineers at Bautry Bay ; hanged (see Santry Bay) Jan. S, 1802 
 
 Of Charles Hayes, for the obscene libel The Man of Fashion Jan. 9, 1S02 
 
 Of governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years before (see O'orci) . Jan. 28, 1802 
 
 Of Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter's-row, Dublin .... March 6, 1S02 
 Of colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; hanged on the top of Horsemonger- 
 
 lane gaol (see Despard) Feb. 7, 1803 
 
 Of M. Peltier, for a libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul of France, ml'Ambiau ; 
 
 guilty Feb. 21, 1S03 
 
 Of Robert Aslett, cashier of the Bank of England, for embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to 
 
 the Bank, 320,000?.; found not guilty, on account of the invalidity of the bills . July IS, 1S03 
 
Till C51 TEI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Of Robert Eromett, at Dublin, for high treason : executed next day . . . Sept. 19. 
 
 Of Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; hanged ..... Oct. 2 
 Of Mr. Smith, for the murder of the supposed Hammersmith Ghost .... Jan. 13 
 
 Of Lockhart and Laudon Gaudon, for carrying off Mrs. Lee March 6. 
 
 Of general JVioreau and others for conspiracy in France May 29 
 
 Of the rev. C. Massy v. marquess of Headfort for crim. con.; damages 10,000?. . July 27, 
 Of William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences against females . . . April 17 
 
 Of Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin : pleaded the king's pardon July 1, 
 
 Of judge Johnson, for a libel on the earl of Hardwicke ; guilty .... Nov. 23. 
 
 Of general Picton, for applying the torture to Louisa Calderon, to extort confession, at 
 
 Trinidad ; tried in the court of King's Bench ; guilty Feb. 21, 
 
 Of Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. Bligh . . . ... . April 6 
 
 Of lord Melville, impeached by the house of commons ; acquitted . . . . June 12, 
 
 Of the Warrington gang, for unnatural offences ; executed Aug. 23, 
 
 Of Palm, the bookseller, by a French military commission at Brennau . . . Aug. 26, 
 Of lord Cloncurry v. sir John B. Piers, for crim. con.; damages 20,000f. . . Feb. 19, 
 
 Of Hollo way and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to 
 
 death at their execution, at the Old Bailey Feb. 20, 
 
 Of sir Home Popham, by court-martial ; reprimanded March 7, 
 
 Of Knight v. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. con June 27 
 
 Of lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an unnatural offence Oct 
 
 Of lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con.; damages, 10,000? Dec. 22 
 
 Of Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at Hoddesdon . . . March 4 
 
 Of sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with lady B.orrington • July 14, 
 
 Of major Campbell, for killing captain Boyd in a duel; hanged .... Aug. 4, 
 
 Of Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke of York .... Nov. 9, 
 
 Of the duke of York, by inquiry in the house of commons, on charges preferred against him 
 
 by colonel Wardle from Jan. 26 to March 20, 
 
 Of Wellesley v. lord Paget, for crim. con.; damages 20,000? May 12. 
 
 Of the king v Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as commissary-general . . May 26. 
 
 Of the earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel ; damages, 1000?. . . . June 29, 
 Of Wright v. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann Clarke's furniture . . . July 1 
 
 Of William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion; convicted .... July 9 
 Of the hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, a British seaman, on shore at Sombrero 
 
 dismissed the service (see Sombrero) Feb. 10 ; 
 
 Of Mr. Perry, for libels in the Morning Chronicle; acquitted Feb. 24 
 
 Of the Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences : guilty Sept. 20, 
 
 1S03 
 1803 
 1S04 
 1804 
 1S04 
 1804 
 1S05 
 1805 
 1805 
 
 1806 
 1S06 
 1806 
 1S06 
 1806 
 1S07 
 
 1807 
 1807 
 1807 
 1S07 
 1807 
 1S0S 
 1S0S 
 1S0S 
 180S 
 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 1809 
 
 1810 
 1810 
 1810 
 
 FROM 1810 TO THE TEAR 1820. 
 
 Of Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; judgment Jan. 31, 1S11 
 
 Of the King v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels ; guilty .... Feb. 22, 1811 
 Of ensign Hepburn, and White, the drummer ; both were executed . . . March 7, 1811 
 
 Of Walter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood in the pillory .... March 12, 1811 
 
 Of the king v. W. Cobbett, for libels; convicted June 15, 1811 
 
 Of lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprisonment and fine .... June 19, 1811 
 
 Of the Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, concluded June 28, 1811 
 
 Of Dr Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; acquitted . . . . Nov. 21, 1811 
 
 Of Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; convicted .... Nov. 26, 1811 
 
 Of Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; convicted .... March 18, 1812 
 
 Of Belliugham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime minister . .* . . May 15, 1812 
 
 Of the king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for libel, guilty .... Nov. 19, 1812 
 
 Of Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the Examiner ; convicted . . Dec. 9, 1812 
 
 Of the marquess of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter Dec. 16, IS] 2 
 
 Of the murderers of Mr. Horsfall, at York ; executed Jan. 7, 1813 
 
 Of Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's History of the Penal laws . . Feb. 6, 1813 
 
 Of the divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton, for adultery .... April 11, 1813 
 Of Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Evening Post; guilty . . . July 26, 1S13 
 
 Of Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; hanged Aug. 21, 1813 
 
 Of Tuite, the murderer of Mr. Goulding ; executed Oct. 7, 1813 
 
 Of the celebrated Mary Ann Clarke, for a libel on the right, hon. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, after- 
 wards lord Fitzgerald ' Feb. 7, 1814 
 
 Of admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship letters .... Aug. 18, 1814 
 
 Of lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, Butt, and others, for frauds in the public 
 
 funds ; convicted (see Stocks) Feb. 22, 1814 
 
 Of colonel Quontin, of the 10th hussars, by court-martial Nov. 10, 1814 
 
 Of sir John Henry Mildmay, bart. for crim. con. with the countess of Roseberry ; damages 
 
 15,000? Dec. 5, 1814 
 
 Of George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of Covent-garden theatre . . . April 8, 1816 
 Of captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of 
 
 count La valette (see Lavedette's Escape) . April 24, 1816 
 
 Of " captain Grant," the famous Irish robber, at Maryborough .... Aug. 16, 1816 
 
 Of Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for conspiracy to induce men to commit 
 
 felonies to obtain the reward ; convicted Aug. 21, 1816 
 
 Of colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, in France .... Sept. 23, 1816 
 
 Of Cashman, the intrepid seaman, for the Spa-fields riots, and outrages on Snow-hill ; 
 
 convicted and hanged (see Spa-fields) Jan. 20, 1817 
 
 Of count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen of Westphalia . . . May 2, 1S17 
 Of Mr. R. G. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice Ellenborough .... May 23, 1817 
 
 Of Mr. Wooller, for libels on the government and ministers June 6, 1817 
 
TRI 652 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Of Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for treason June 9. 1817 
 
 Of the murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose-lodge, Ireland . . . July 10, 1817 
 
 Of Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the mail ; acquitted . . . Aug. 5, lsl7 
 
 Of Brandreth, Turner, and otlurs, at Derby, for high treason .... Oct. 15, 1817 
 
 Of Hone, the bookseller, for parodies; three trials before lord Elleuborough ; remarkable f.ir 
 
 his extemporaneous and successful defence Dec. 18, 19, 20, 1817 
 
 Of Mr. Dick, for the .-.bduction and rape of Miss Crockatt . . . . . Mai ch 21. 1818 
 Of the memorable appeal of murder case. Ashford, the brother of Mary Ashford, against her 
 
 murderer, Abraham '1 horn ton (see Batel, Wager of) April 16, ISIS 
 
 Of the rev. Dr. O'Halloran. for forging a frank (see Transportation) . . . Sept 9,1818 
 
 Of Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh; his dreadful execution Dec. SO. 1818 
 
 Of sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound (see Bribery) .... March 18, 1819 
 Of Mosley, Woolfe, and others, merchants, for conspiracy and fraud . . . April 20, 1819 
 
 Of Carlisle, for the publication of Paine's Age of R( awn, &c Oct. 15, 1819 
 
 Of Mr. John Scanlan, at Limerick, for the minder of Ellen Hanly . . . March 14, 1820 
 
 Of sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious libel ..... March 23, 1S20 
 
 Of Mr. Henry Hunt and others, for their conduct at the Manchester meeting; convicted (see 
 
 Manchester Hi-form Meeting) March 27, 1820 
 
 Of sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr Harrison, for sedition ; guilty . . . April 10, 1820 
 Of Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for the conspiracy to murder the king's 
 
 ministers: comrneuced (sec Cato-street Conspiracy) April 17, IS20 
 
 Of Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de Berri June 7, 1820 
 
 Of lord Glerawley v. Mr. John Burn, for crim. con June 18, 1820 
 
 Of major Cartwitght and others, Ht Warwick, for sedition Aug. 3, 1820 
 
 Of " Little Waddiugton," for a seditious libel ; acquitted Sept. 19, 1820 
 
 Of lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by court-martial . . . Sept 10, 1S20 
 Of Caroline, queen of England, before the house of lords, for adultery, commenced Aug 16 ; 
 
 it terminated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) Nov. 10, 1S20 
 
 FROM 1820 TO THE TEAR 1830. 
 
 Of the female murderers of Miss Thompson, in Dublin ; hanged .... May 1, 1821 
 Of David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a mau of singularly eventful life, at Edin- 
 burgh, for the murder of a turnkey June 9, 1821 
 
 Of Samuel D. Hayward, the favourite man of fashion, for burglary . . . Oct. 8, 1821 
 
 Of the murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland; convicted and hanged . . . Dec. 17, 1821 
 Of Cussen, Leahy, and others, fur the abduction of Miss Gould .... July 2'.». 1822 
 
 Of Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth. Florence . . . . Sept. 23, 1S22 
 
 Of Cuthhert v. Browne, singular action for deceit Jan. 28, 1>23 
 
 Of the famous "Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland by ex-officio Feb. 23. 1823 
 
 Of the extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case," commenced .... March 18, 1823 
 Of Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, the murderers of Mr. Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence, 
 
 but was afterwards hanged (see Executions) Jan. 5, 1824 
 
 Of Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for forgery ; hanged .... Oct 30, 1824 
 Of Foote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of marriage ; damages 3000J. . . . Dec. 22, 1824 
 
 Of Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's sou at Bristol, for forgery April 4. 182.3 
 
 Of O'Keefe and Bourke, the murderers of the Franks family Aug. 18, 1825 
 
 Of John Grosset Muirhead, esq. for indecent practices Oct. 21, 1i>-j 
 
 Of the case of Mr. Wellesley Pole and the Misses Long ; commenced . . . Nov. 9, 1825 
 
 Of captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole, for adultery Nov. 25, 1S25 
 
 Of Fisher v. Stockdale, for a libel in Harriette Wilson March 20. 1828 
 
 Of Edward Gibbon Wakefield and others, for abduction of Miss Turner . . March 24. 1827 
 
 Of the rev. Eobert Taylor, for blasphemy ; found guilty Oct. 24, ISl'7 
 
 Of Richmond Seymour, esq and Mackiiu, for an unnatural crime . . . March 12, 1828 
 Of Richard Gillam, for the murder of Maria Bagster, at Taunton .... April 8, 1S28 
 
 Of Mr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide in prison on the morning appointed 
 
 for his execution July 4, 1S2S 
 
 Of Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford by a kick .... July 16, 182S 
 Of William Colder, for the murder of Mai ia Marten ; executed .... Aug 6, 1828 
 
 Of Joseph Hunton, a quakcr merchant, for forgery ; hanged Oct 2S, 182S 
 
 Of Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Bulking murders; Hare, his accomplice, became approver 
 
 (see Burking) . Dec 24, 1S2S 
 
 Of the king ■». Buxton and others, for a fraudulent marriage .... March 21, 1829 
 
 Of Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York Minster March 31, 1829 
 
 Of Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow ; hanged July 14, 1829 
 
 Of Reinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for his murders of women .... Aug. 4, 1829 
 
 Of captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Portsmouth ; acquitted . . . Aug 26, 1S20 
 
 Of Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for libels on the duke of Wellington; convicted 
 
 Eeb 10, 1830 
 Of Clune, &c, at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of the Doyles . . . March 4, 1830 
 Of Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of Clare : hanged . . . March (i, 1830 
 Of Mr. Lambrecht, for the murder of Mr. Clayton, in a duel .... April 2, 1830 
 
 Of captain Moil, for the murder of William Malcolm ; hanged .... July 30, 1S30 
 
 Of captains Smith :md Markbam, for killing Mr. O'Grady in a duel . . . Aug 24, 1S30 
 Of captain Helsham, for the murder of lieut Crowther in a duel .... Oct. 8, 1830 
 Of Mr. St. John Long, for the manslaughter of Miss Cashin (see Quacks) . Oct. 30, 1S30 
 
 Of Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of France (see Frame) . ■ . Dec 21, 1830 
 
TRI 653 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 FROM 1830 TO THE TEAR 1840. 
 
 Of Carlisle, for a seditious libel, incitiug to a riot ; guilty Jau. 10, 1S31 
 
 Of Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation; pleaded guilty .... Feb. 12, 1831 
 Of St John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see Quacks) 
 Of Mr. Luke Dillon, for the violation of Miss Frizell ; convicted 
 Of major Duudas. for the seduction of Miss Adams ; damages 30001. 
 Of Mr Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; the jury could not agree 
 
 Feb. 19, 1831 
 
 April 14, 1831 
 
 May 26, 1831 
 
 July 7, 1831 
 
 Of the rev. Robert Taylor (who obt lined the "revolting distinction of "the Devil's Chaplain "), 
 
 for reviling the Redeemer ; convicted July 6, 1S31 
 
 Of Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Biring, M.P July 14, 1831 
 
 Of Bird, a boy 14 years of age, for the murder of a child; hanged . . . Aug. 1, 1831 
 
 Of the great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lor. on; commenced .... Nov. 9, 1831 
 Of Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy (see Burking) . . • Dec 3, 1831 
 
 Of the earl of Marr, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. Oldham Dec. 17, 1831 
 
 Of Elizabeth Cooke, for the murder of Mrs. Walsh, by "Burking" . . . Jan. 6, 1832 
 
 Of col.mel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see Bri4ol) Jan. 9, 1832 
 
 Of the murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county of Clare .... Feb. v8, 1S32 
 
 Of William Duggau, at Cork, for the murder of his wife and others . . . March 26, 1832 
 
 Of Mr Hodgson fson of the celebrated Miss Aston) v Greene .... July 26, 1832 
 Of the mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the Bristol riots .... Oct. 26, 1832 
 
 Of rev Mr. Irvi:ig, by his own (the Scots) church, for heresy .... March 13, 1833 
 
 Of lord Teyuham and Doulan, a tailor, for swindling; guilty May 10, 1833 
 
 Of Mr. Baring Wall, MP. ; most honourably acquitted May 11, 1833 
 
 Of captain Wathon. 15th hussars, by court-martial, at Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, 
 
 lord Brudenell,removed from his command Jan. — , 1S34 
 
 Of the proprietors ot the True Sua, for libels ; guilty Feb. 6, 1834 
 
 Of Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, at Bristol April 10, 1835 
 
 Of sir John de Beau v-oir, for perjury ; acquitted May 29, 1835 
 
 Of H'ieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the king, Louis-Philippe, by exploding an 
 
 infernal machine (see Fieschi) Jan 30, 1836 
 
 Of the lion. G C Norton o. lord Melbourne, in Court of Common Pleas, for mm. con. with the 
 
 hon. Mrs. Norton ; verdict for the defendant June 22, 1836 
 
 Of lord de Roos v. dimming, for defamation, charging lord de Roos with cheating at cards ; 
 
 verdict for Mr. dimming Feb. 10, 1837 
 
 Of James Greeuacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convict- d 
 
 and handed: Gale transported April 10, 1837 
 
 Of Francis Hastings Med hurst, esq. for killing Mr. Joseph Alsop ; guilty . . April 13, 1839 
 
 Of Bolam, for the murder of Mr. Millie; verdict manslaughter .... July 30, 1839 
 
 Of rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory language Aug. 15, 1839 
 
 Of John Frost, an ex-inagistrate, and others, on a charge of high treason ; guilty: sentence 
 
 commuted to transportation (see Newport) . . Dec. 31, 1839 
 
 Of Courvoisier, for the murder of lord William Russell ; hanged . . . June 18, 20, 1840 
 
 Of Gould, for the murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported June 22, 1840 
 
 Of Edward Oxford, charged with attempting the life of the queen : adjudged insane, and con- 
 fined in Bethlehem-hospital (see Oxford) July 9, 10, 1840 
 
 Of madame Lafarge, in France, for the murder of her husband; guilty . . Sept. 2, 1810 
 Of prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon France (see France) . . . Oct. 6, 1840 
 
 Of captain R. A. Reynolds, 11th hussars, by court-martial; guilty: the sentence excited great 
 
 popular displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan Oct. 20, 1840 
 
 FROM 1840 TO THE TEAR 1850. 
 
 Of lord Cardigan, before the house of peers, capitally charged for wounding captain Harvey 
 
 Tucket, in a duel ; acquitted Feb. 16, 1811 
 
 Of the Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wilfully caused the destruction of the ship 
 
 Dryad at sea, to defraud the underwriters ; transported March 4, 1841 
 
 Of Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. Mackreth : guilty . . . March 23, 1841 
 
 Of Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of Mrs Cook. . . . April 5, 1811 
 
 Of the earl of Waldegrave and captain Dulf, for an aggravated assault on a police constable ; 
 guilty : judgment, six months' imprisonment, and fines of 2001. and 202. . . May 3, 1841 
 
 Of madame Lafarge again, for robbery of diamonds Aug. 7, 1841 
 
 Of the great case, Allen Bogle versus Mr. Lawson. publisher of the Times newspaper, for an 
 alleged libel.in stating the plaintiff to be connected with numerous bank forgers throughout 
 Europe in their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glynn and Company, bankers of London, by 
 means of fictitious letters of credit ; damages, one farthing. This exposure, so honourable 
 
 to the Times, led to the Times Testimonial Aug. 16, 1841 
 
 Of Mr. Mac Leod, at Utica, America, for taking part in the destruction of the Caroline, com- 
 menced : acquitted afcer a trial that lasted eight days Oct. 4, 1841 
 
 Of Robert Blakesley, for the murder of Mr. Burdou, of Eastcheap ; hanged . . Oct. 2S, 1841 
 Of Mr. Beaumont Smith, for the forgery of Exchequer bills to an immense amount; he pleaded 
 
 guilty, and was sentenced to transportation for life Dec. 4, 1841 
 
 Of Sophia Darbon v. Rosser ; breach of promise of marriage ; damages 16001. . . Dec. 8, 1841 
 Of Dr. Webster, for bribery at an election of St. Albans ; acquitted . . . March 3, 18l2 
 Of Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal and second in the duel in which lieut. 
 
 Adams was killed at Malta ; both acquitted March 10, 1842 
 
 Of Vivier, courier of the Morning Herald, at Boulogne, for conveying the Indian mail through 
 
 France, for that journal, contrary to the French regulations .... April 13, 1842 
 Of Daniel Good, for the murder of Jane Jones ; the memorable Roehampton murder ; found 
 guilty, and sentenced to be hanged May 13, 1842 
 
TRI 654 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Of John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the Queen (see article Francis) . June 17, 1842 
 Of Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the policeman ; hanged . . . . July 4, 1842 
 Of Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquess of Hertford, at the prosecution of that noble- 
 man's executors, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted .... July 6, 1842 
 Of M'Gill and others, for the abduction of Miss Crelhn ; guilty .... Aug. 8, 1842 
 Of Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again acquitted .... Aug. 24, 1842 
 Of Bean, for pointing a pistol at the Queen ; 18 mouths' imprisonment . . . Aug. 25, 1842 
 Of the rioters in the provinces, under a special commission at Stafford . . . Oct. 1, 1S42 
 Of the Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, before lord Abiuger . . . Oct. 6, 1842 
 
 Of the Lancashire rioters, also under a special commission Oct. 10, 1842 
 
 Of Alice Lowe, at the pi-osecution of lord Frankfort ; acquitted .... Oct. 31, 1842 
 Of Mr. Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gossct, serjeant-at-arms . . . Dec. 5, 1842 
 
 Of Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the robbery of a bank parcel ; acquitted . . . Jan. 17, 1843 
 Of the rev. W. Bailey, LL.D. for forgery; guilty; transportation for life . Feb. 1, 1S43 
 
 Of Mac Naughteu, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, secretary to sir Robert Peel : acquitted 
 
 on the ground of insanity March 4, 1843 
 
 Of the Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special commission Oct. 27, 1S43 
 
 Of Mr. Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to transportation for life . Nov. 29, 1843 
 Of Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at Southwark; guilty . . . Dec. 1, 1843 
 
 Of Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Brunswick ; guilty . . Jan 29, 1844 
 
 Of lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his duel with colonel Fawcctt : acquitted Feb. 14, 1814 
 Of Eraser v Bagley, for crini. con. ; verdict for the defendant .... Feb. 19, 1S44 
 
 Of lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. con. : verdict for defendant . Feb. 26, i >44 
 Of Mary Furley, for the murder of her child in an agony of despair . . . April 16, 1844 
 Of the will-forgers, Wm. Henry Barber (since pardoned), Joshua Fletcher, Gcorgiana Dorey, 
 
 Sanders, and Wm. Susannah, his wife ; all found guilty, April 15 ; sentenced . April 22, 1844 
 Of Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, May S ; hanged . . . May 27, 1S44 
 Of Messrs. O'Connell, sen. O'Connell, jun. Steele, Ray, Barrett, Gray, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
 Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the trial commenced Jan. 15 ; lasted 24 days ; 
 all the traversers were found guilty, Feb. 12. Proceedings on motions for a new trial, ate. 
 extended the case into Easter term ; and sentence was pronounced upon all but the clergy- 
 man, on whom judgment was remitted May 3*0, 1S44 
 
 Of Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Macfarlane: guilty .... June 14, 1S44 
 Of Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of Miss Wortham ; guilty . . June 17, 1S44 
 Of Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic acid : acquitted .... Aug. 21, 1844 
 Of John Tawell, for the murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged .... March 13, 14, 1845 
 
 Of Thomas Henry Hocker, for the murder of Mr. James Delarue .... April 11, 1845 
 
 Of Joseph Connor, for the murder of Mary Brothers May 16, 1845 
 
 Of the Spanish pirates, for the murder of ten Englishmen at sea .... July 26, 1845 
 Of rev. Mr. Wetherell, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, his own daughter . . . Aug. 16, 1845 
 Of capt. Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder of several of his crew . . Feb. 5, 1846 
 
 Of Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of promise of marriage . . . Feb. IS, LS4ii 
 Of lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a duel ; acquitted . . . July 16, 1846 
 
 Of capt. Richardson, railway director, for fraud and forgery ; bill ignored . . Sept. 23, 1846 
 Of Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on Miss A. Burdett Coutts . Feb. 27, 1S47 
 Of Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 years. Bee Ireland. . . May 26, 1S4S 
 Of Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confederates ; sentenced to death ; the sentence 
 
 afterwards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 1856) Oct. 9, 1S48 
 
 Of Bloomfield Rush, for the murder of Messrs. Jenny, at Norwich, hanged . March 29, 1849 
 Of Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter ; ecclesiastical case ; judgment given in the court of 
 
 Arches against the plaintiff.* Aug 2, 1849 
 
 Of Manning and his wife, for the murder of O'Connor ; guilty ; death . . . Oct. 27, 1849 
 
 Of Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for forgery, &c May 10, 1850 
 
 Of Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault on the queen .... July 11, 1850 
 
 FROM 1850 TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Of the Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their servant, Jane Wilbred . . . Feb. 5, 1S51 
 Of the Board of Customs v. the London Dock Company, on a charge of defrauding the revenue 
 
 of duties ; a trial of 11 days ended in a virtual acquittal Feb. 18, 1S51 
 
 Of Sarah Chesham, for the murder of her husband, by poison: she had murdered several of 
 
 her children and others by the same means ; hanged March 6, 1851 
 
 Of Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny ; hanged . . . March 7, 1851 
 
 Of Doyle v. Wright, concerning the personal custody of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman Catho- 
 lic ward of chancery, before the lord chancellor ; protracted case . . . March 22, 1S51 
 Of the murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, of Frimley, Essex ; guilty March 31, 1851 
 
 * This long-contested case created much sensation at the time. The bishop had refused to 
 institute the rev. Mr. Gorham in the living of Brampton-Speke, in Devonshire, to which he had been 
 presented. The cause of the bishop's refusal was alleged want of orthodoxy in the plaintiff ; the court 
 held that the charge against the plaintiff of holding false doctrine was proved, and that the 
 bishop was justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy 
 Council, which pronounced its opinion (March 8, 1850) that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was 
 not contrary or repvignant to the declared doctrine of the Church of England, and that Mr. Gorham 
 ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, to have been refused admission to the vicarage of 
 Brampton-Speke." This decision led to subsequent proceedings in the three courts of law, succes- 
 sively, for a rule to show cause why a prohibition should not issue directed to the judge of the 
 Arches Court, and to the archbishop of Canterbury, against giving effect to the judgment of her 
 majesty in council. The rule was refused in each court, and in the end, Mr. Gorham was instituted 
 into the vicarage in question, August 7, 1850. 
 
TBI 655 TRI 
 
 TRIALS, continued. 
 
 Of Miller v. Aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a member without having taken the required 
 
 oath : verdict against the defendant April 19, 1S52 
 
 Of the case " Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Gladstone ;" judgment of the Arches court 
 
 against the defendant . June 10, 1S52 
 
 Of Achilli v. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord chief justice Campbell in the Queen's 
 
 Bench ; verdict for the plaintiff; case opened June 21, 1852 
 
 Of lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory libels ; guilty .... Dec. 3, 1852 
 
 Of Richard Bourke Kirwau, for the murder of his wife ; guilty Dec. 10, 1852 
 
 Of Mr. Elliot Bower, for the murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at Paris ; acquitted . Dec. 28, 1852 
 Of Henry Horler, for the murder of his wife; hanged at the Old Bailey . . . Jan. 15, 1853 
 Of James Barbour, for the murder of Robinson ; hanged at York .... Jan. 15, 1853 
 Of George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the murder of William Blackmore at Exeter ; 
 
 a morbid sympathy existed for Sparkes ; guilty March 19, 1S53 
 
 Of five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at 
 
 Egham ; verdict, manslaughter March 21, 1S53 
 
 Of Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John Blackburn at Stafford ; hanged . March 21, 1853 
 Of Saunders, for the murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged at Chelmsford .... March 30, 1853 
 Of the Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them females, and wives to the others, for 
 
 the murder of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at Ennis . . . April 28, 1853 
 
 Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided against the rev. earl of Guildford, Aug 1, 1853 
 Case of Smyth v. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being committed on a charge of forging the 
 
 will on which he grounded his claim August 8, 9, 10, 1S53 
 
 The Braintree case respecting liability to church-rates, decided by the house of lords, against 
 
 the rate August 12, 1853 
 
 Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Madlle. Wagner ; decided Feb. 22, 1S54 
 
 Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of perjury March 2. 1854 
 
 Duchess of Manchester's will case April, 1854 
 
 Of Mr. Carden, for the abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, and assault upon John Smitbwick ; 
 
 convicted July 28, 29, 1854 
 
 Of Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six children ; not guilty, on ground of insanity 
 
 August 9, 1854 
 Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Movmtgarret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came 
 
 into a peerage, the defendant being proved illegitimate August, 1854 
 
 Courts-martial on lieutenants Perry and Greer ; sentences revised by Lord Hardinge, 
 
 July 29— August, 1854 
 Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, capt. Mc Clure, <fcc, for abandoning their ships in the 
 
 Arctic regions ; acquitted October, 1854 
 
 Of Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Collard and Mr. Moore ; (executed Jan. 22; 
 
 Jan. 4, 1855 
 Of Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh, (cruelty of Mrs. Handcock and charges against 
 
 lord ClanricardeJ ; compromised . . . Feb. 1S55 
 
 Of earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) April 3-10, 1855 
 
 Of Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or Lambert) ; (executed April 30) April 12, 1855 
 
 Of Charles King, a great thief-traiuer ; transported April 13, 1855 
 
 Of David M. Davidson and Cosmo W. Gordon, for frauds and forgeries of securities, &c. ; con- 
 victed May 24, 1S55 
 
 Of Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birmingham gaol; acquitted . . . Aug. 3, 1855 
 Of Sir John Dean Paul, Wm. Strahan, and Robert M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their 
 
 customers' securities (to the amount of 113,625',.); convicted .... Oct. 27, 1855 
 
 Of Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; acquitted Nov. 7, 1S55 
 
 Westerton v. Liddell* (on decorations, <&c, in churcn in Knightsbridge ; decision against 
 
 them) Dec. 5, 1855 
 
 Of Wm. Palmer, f for murder of J. P. Cook by poison (executed) . . . May 14-27, 1856 
 
 Of Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed Aug. 9) July 19, 1856 
 
 Of Ditcher v. Archdeacon Denison, respecting the doctrine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, 
 
 and appeal disallowed Oct. 22, 1856 
 
 Of Wm. Robson, for frauds on Crystal Palace Company (transported for twenty years) Nov. 1, 1S56 
 Earl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for defendant .... Dec. 3, 1856 
 
 Of Pearce, Burgess, and Tester (see Gold Robbery) % . Jan. 14, 1857 
 
 Of Leopold Redpath, for extensive forgeries upon the Great Northern Railway Company 
 
 (transported for life) Jan. 16, 1857 
 
 Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning Emile L'Angelier, at Glasgow ; not proven 
 
 June 30— July 9, 1857 
 
 Thos. Fuller Bacon, % for poisoning his mother ; convicted July 25, 1857 
 
 James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, near Dublin ; acquitted . . Aug. 7-11, 1857 
 
 See Executions. 
 
 TRIBUNES of the PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first chosen from 
 among the commons to represent the people, 492 B.C. at the time the people, after a 
 quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius 
 and L. Albums; but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to 
 
 * Decided again by privy council, partly for both parties ; each to pay his own costs ; March 21, 
 1857. 
 
 f He was executed at Stafford on June 14, in the presence of 50,000 persons. If he had been 
 acquitted, he would have been tried for the murder of his wife and brother. The trial in every 
 respect was the most remarkable one for many years. 
 
 % He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two children in May 13, 14, same year. 
 
TRI 656 TRT 
 
 ten, which number remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been 
 created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was chosen for the election. 
 
 TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Parliaments every three years were established shortly 
 after the period of the Revolution. The bill for the triennial assembling of parlia- 
 ment was passed 6 William & Mary, 1691. This act wa3 repealed, and septennial 
 parliaments were voted, which have ever since continued, 1 Geo. 1. 1715. See Parlia- 
 ments and Septennial Parliaments. 
 
 TRINCOMALEE. Reckoned the finest harbour in the East Indies. Trincomalee was 
 taken from the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken by the French the 
 same year; but was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
 the British, under colonel Stewart, Aug. 26, 1795, and was confirmed to England by 
 the peace of Amiens, in 1802. See Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trincomalee 
 between sir Edward Hughes and the French admiral SufFrein, one was fought Feb. 18, 
 1782, the enemy having eleven ships to nine. On April 12, following, they had 
 eighteen ships to eleven. And on July 6, same year, they had fifteen ships to twelve. 
 In all these engagements the French suffered severe defeats. 
 
 TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken from the 
 Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it from the English in 
 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the line, and a military force under 
 command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797 ; 
 they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbour. This pos- 
 session was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection 
 of the negroes occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 
 
 TRINITY and TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is generally received by 
 all Christians. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, 
 was the first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the 
 Godhead. His Defence of Christianity was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — 
 Watkins. An order of the Trinity wa3 founded, a.D. 1198, by John de Matha and 
 Felix de Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was instituted 
 at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from penalties persons 
 denying the doctrine of the Trinity passed in 1813. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGES. Trinity College, Cambridge, was founded by Henry VIII. 
 1546. Trinity Hall, Cambridge, was founded by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich 
 (see Cambridge), in 1351. — Trinity College, Oxford: founded by sir Thomas Pope, 
 1554 (see Oxford). — Trinity College, Dublin, called the university: grant of the 
 Augustine monastery of All Saints within the suburbs for erecting this college, 
 conferred by queen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, mayor of 
 Dublin, Jan. 1, 1593. New charter, 1637. Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. — 
 Bums. The principal or west front erected, 1759. Library erected, 1732. 
 
 TRINITY HOUSE, London. Founded by sir Thomas Spert, a.d. 1512. It was incor- 
 porated by Henry VIII. in 1514, and reincorporated in 1685. The present Trinity- 
 house was erected in 1795. Trinity Houses were founded at Deptford, at Hull, and 
 at Newcastle : these three societies were instituted and incorporated by Henry VIII. 
 the first in 1512, the other two in 1537. By their charter they had the power of 
 examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and of erecting beacons and lighthouses, 
 and of placing buoys in Jhe channels and rivers : their powers and "privileges have 
 been greatly augmented by succeeding kings. — Gibson's Camden. 
 
 TRINITY SUNDAY. The festival of the Holy Trinity was instituted by pope 
 Gregory IV. in 828, on his ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the Latin 
 and Protestant churches on the Sunday next following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of 
 which, originally, it was merely an Octave. The observance of the festival was first 
 enjoined in the council of Aries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the present 
 day by pope John XX. in 1334. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between the 
 States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the Spanish 
 Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known as the Triple 
 Alliance, Jan. 23, 1663. 
 
 TRIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honour done generals of armies after they 
 had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great magnificence and 
 public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two sorts — the great, that was 
 
TEI 
 
 657 
 
 TRU 
 
 called the triumph ; and the little, styled the ovation, 
 triumphs into land and sea triumphs. See Ovation. 
 
 They also distinguished 
 
 TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with 
 absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring independence of the 
 Roman people, and became celebrated for their different pursuits, their ambition, 
 and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B.C. 60, was in the hands of Julius 
 Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. 
 The second and last triumvirate, B.C. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and 
 Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed 
 with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
 Rome. The triumvirate continued for about twelve years. See Rome. 
 
 TROPPAU, CONGRESS of. The emperors Francis of Austria and Alexander of 
 Russia met at Troppau, Oct. 20, 1820. The conference between them and the king of 
 Prussia, against Naples, took place Nov. 10; and the congress was transferred to 
 Laybach, as nearer to Italy, Dec. 17, 1820. See Laybach. 
 
 TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, and 
 were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by several powerful 
 princes, that they spread in process of time througbout Europe. They cultivated 
 poetry and music, and refinement followed in their steps, greatly improving the taste 
 and temper of the times. 
 
 TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and more parti- 
 cularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came hither from Italy (or 
 Crete) about the year 1506 B.C., and married the daughter of Teucer, prince of the 
 country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus built a city, and named it, after himself, 
 Dardania : Troas, the second in succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; 
 and Ilus, his successor, converted it into Ilium. 
 
 Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Minor. 
 
 — Blair ...... B.C. 1546 
 
 Teucer succeeds his father . . . . 1502 
 
 Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds 
 
 the city of Dardania .... 14S0 
 
 Reign of Ericthonius 1449 
 
 Reign of Troas, from whom the people 
 
 are called Trojans 1374 
 
 The rape of Ganymede . . . . 1341 
 llus, son of Troas, reigns . . . 1314 
 
 Reign of Laomedon 1260 
 
 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; Hesione 
 
 delivered from the sea-monster. — 
 
 Blair; Usher 1225 
 
 War of Hercules and Laomedon B.C. 1224 
 Reign of Priam, or Podarces . . . 1224 
 Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son 
 of Priam, 20 years before the sacking 
 of Troy. — Homer's Iliad, feoo&xxiv. line 
 
 964, Pope's edit 1204 
 
 Commencement of the invasion of the 
 
 Greeks to recover Helen . . . . 1193 
 Troy taken and burned in the night of 
 the 11th of June, i.e., 23rd of the month 
 Thargelion. — Parian Marbles. 408 
 years before the first Olympiad. — 
 
 Apollodorus 1184 
 
 iEneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet . , . 1183 
 
 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about thirty stadia 
 distant from the old site ; but though it bore the same name, and received ample 
 donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, it never rose to much 
 importance, and in the age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. — Priestley. 
 
 TROY WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in 
 Britain. The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, 
 about the time of the Crusades, a d. 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of 
 France, whence the name ; and is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. 
 The Troy weight, Scots, was established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 
 
 TROYES, TREATY of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it was 
 stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., be 
 appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the crown, 
 May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by the allied armies, Feb. 7; 
 it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was finally re-occupied by the allies, 
 March 4, 1814. 
 
 TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the 
 Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, but 
 not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish sounded like 
 trumpets, were the signals in primitive wars. — Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said 
 to have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. Trumpets were first sounded 
 before the king in the time of Offa, king of Mercia, a.d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were 
 improved by Kirch er in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained 
 by Moreland, 1671. 
 
TKU 658 TUN 
 
 TKUMPET-FLOWER, Biyuonia radkans, was brought hither from North America, 
 about 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sempervirens, came from North 
 America in 1656. The Biynonia capensis was brought to England, from the Cape, in 
 1823. The Large-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Biynonia grand/flora, was brought 
 from China in 1800. 
 
 T JAM, ARCHBISHOPRIC of. St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who sat in a.d. 501, is looked 
 upon aa the first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the abbey is said 
 to have been founded in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gtialand. 
 In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at least the first who had the use of 
 the pall, for some of his predecessors are sometimes called bishops of Connaught, and 
 Boinetimes archbishops, by Irish historians. The see of Mayo was aunexed to Tuam 
 in 1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an extent returned anno 28 Eliz. at 
 501. sterling per annum. — Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, conformably with the 
 statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, and is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and 
 Achonry, a joint see, has been added. See Archbishops. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGE, or BRITANNIA TUBULAR SUSPENSION BRIDGE. The 
 most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, constructed about a mile 
 southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* At this spot is a rock called the 
 Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai Strait, the surface of which is about ten 
 feet above low-water level, on which is built a tower two hundred feet above high 
 water (commenced building, May 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes or 
 hollow girders strong enough to bear their weight and laden trains in addition, the 
 ends resting on the abutments on each shore ; each tube being more than a quarter 
 of a mile in length. The height of the tube within is thirty feet at the Britannia 
 tower, diminishing to twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting of these tubes 
 to their places is regarded as the most gigantic operation ever successfully performed, 
 June 27, 1S49. The first locomotive passed thi-ough, March 1850. The Conway 
 Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and therefore requires 
 no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. 
 Fairbairn. At Chepstow is a railway tubular bridge, which was partly raised 
 April 12, 1852. See Victoria Bridye. 
 
 TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as is supposed, from Tuisto, The, or 
 Taesco, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. Tuisto is 
 mentioned by Tacitus. Having given the Saxons laws and having established 
 religious ceremonies among them, he was worshipped at his death as a god. Tuesday, 
 in Latin, Dies Marlis, was called the third day among the Jews. See Week Days. 
 
 TUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by Catherine de 
 Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a.d. 1564 ; continued by Henry IV. ; 
 and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the scene of great events during the 
 two memorable revolutions, particularly the revolution of 1789. The Tuileries was 
 ransacked in the revolution of 1848. See France. 
 
 TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a.d. 1578, and have always been among 
 our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of commerce in the sixteenth 
 century, and it is recorded in the register of the city of Alcmaer, in Holland, that in 
 the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins; and in particular, 
 that one of them called the viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The states at last put a 
 stop to this extravagant and ruinous traffic. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, 
 was brought to these realms from America, about 1663. 
 
 TUNBRIDGE-WELLS, Kent. The celebrated springs here were first discovered, it is 
 believed, by Dudley, lord North, who, in the reign of James I. had retired into the 
 
 * The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply the place of — we may also say supersede — 
 one of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; and the railway of which the tubular bridge forms a part, 
 is in like manner a substitute for one of the finest mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road 
 from London to Holyhead has been long regarded as the highway from the British metropolis to 
 Dublin ; and the late Mr. Telford was applied to by the government, to perfect this route by the 
 London aud Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspension bridge 
 over the river Conway and over the Menai Strait, commenced in July 1818, aud finished in July 1S25. 
 When Chester became a centre of railway communication, a tew years since, it was considered that a 
 through route to Holyhead would be more conveniently established from that point than from Shrews- 
 bury, which lies in the route of Telford's road. Accordingly the Chester and Holyhead Railway was 
 constructed ; and in its course, both the Conway aud the Menai had to be crossed ; and hence was 
 formed the present tubular bridges. 
 
TUN 
 
 659 
 
 TUR 
 
 neighbourhood in the last stage of consumption, and became perfectly restored to 
 health by the use of its waters, a.d. 1606. The air of this district is very pure and 
 salubrious, and adds materially to the benefit derived from the medicinal quality of 
 the waters. — Hooke. In the reign of Charles I. the queen, Henrietta-Maria, came here 
 to drink the water, when she and her attendants lodged under tents on the adjoining 
 down ; but many dwellings were subsequently erected, and after the restoration, the 
 wells being visited by the queen of Charles II. and many personages of distinction, 
 the place became one of fashionable resort, which it has continued ever since. 
 
 TUNIS and TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The 
 territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and were entirely 
 destroyed by the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 B.C. Besieged by Louis IX. 
 of France, 1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, under 
 Solyman the magnificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country 
 was recovered by the Turks, under Selim II. Taken, with great slaughter, by the 
 emperor Charles V. when 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey 
 of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
 bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 
 
 TUNNELS. The earliest tunnel for the purpose of internal navigation was executed by 
 M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV. at Bezieres in France. The first in England 
 was by Mr. Brindley, on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, near Manchester, about 
 1760. JEva, of the Gravesend tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. The Thames 
 tunnel projected by Mr. Brunei in 1823. This last wonderful undertaking was com- 
 pleted and opened for foot-passengers, March 25, 1843. See Thames Tunnel. 
 
 TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706; but prince Eugene defeated their 
 army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French republican army 
 took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 
 obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of Sardinia. In 1799, the 
 French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the 
 city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to 
 the allies, when they restored it to the king of Sardinia. See Sardinia. 
 
 TURKEY. The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars; but by reason of 
 the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they became incorporated, 
 the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of many races of men. The first 
 notice of them in history is about the year a.d.'SOO, when issuing from an obscure 
 retreat, they obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcoinania. 
 They afterwards gradually extended their power; but in the thirteenth century, 
 being harassed in their new possessions by other Tartar tribes, they retreated to 
 Asia Minor, which they had previously conquered. Their dominions, divided for 
 some time into petty states, were united under Othman, who assumed the title of 
 sultan, aud established his empire at Prusa, in Bithynia, in 1298. 
 
 Birth of Mahomet, the prophet, at Mecca 
 
 (see Mecca). a.d. 
 
 His imposture commenced (see Maho- 
 
 metanism) ....... 
 
 The Koran written (see Koran) 
 
 Flight to Medina (see Medina) . . . 
 
 jEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) 
 
 Death of Mahomet 
 
 Holy Wars begin (see Crusades) 
 
 The Turkish empire first formed under 
 
 Othman at Bithynia (hence called 
 
 Ottoman) 
 
 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 
 
 take Adrianople 
 
 Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a 
 
 guard composed of Christian slaves. 
 
 bred Mahometans . 
 Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the 
 
 Eastern empire . . . 1389 et seq. 
 He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
 
 at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
 
 Tamerlane) 1403 
 
 The Turks, invading Hungary, are 
 
 repelled by Hunniades . . . . 1450 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks under 
 
 Mahomet II. which ends the Eastern 
 
 Roman empire 1453 
 
 571 
 
 604 
 610 
 622 
 622 
 631 
 1095 
 
 129 
 
 1360 
 
 1362 
 
 Greece made subject to the Mahometans 
 
 (see Greece) .... a.d. 1458 
 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
 take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
 throughout Europe .... 1480 
 Selim I. raised to the throne by the 
 Janissaries : he murders his father, 
 brothers, aud their sons . . . . 1512 
 He takes the islands of the Archipelago 
 from the Christians .... 1514 
 
 He overruns Syria 1515 
 
 Adds Egypt to his empire . . . 1516 
 Solyman II. takes Belgrade . . . 1521 
 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. 
 
 John, who go to Malta . . . 1522 
 
 Battle of Mohatz (which see) . . . 1526 
 Solyman II. with 250,000 men, is re- 
 pulsed before Vienna .... 1529 
 Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . 1571 
 Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an 
 end to the fears of Europe from Turk- 
 ish power (see Lepanto) . . . 1571 
 Amurath II. ascends the throne ; stran- 
 gles his five brothers . . . . 1574 
 
 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 
 during this reign.] 
 
 u U 2 
 
TUR 
 
 660 
 
 TUR 
 
 TURKEY, continued. 
 
 The Turks driven out of Persia by the 
 
 famous Schah Abbas . . . a.d. 1585 
 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. . . . 1595 
 
 Reign of Achmet 1 1603 
 
 Great fire in Constantinople . . . 1606 
 Reign of Amurath IV. who strangles 
 
 his father and four brothers . . 1624 
 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 
 
 the city of Bagdad 1639 
 
 The island of Caudia, or Crete, taken 
 
 after a 25 years' siege .... 1669 
 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but 
 
 relieved by John of Poland . . . 16S3 
 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman . 1687 
 
 Peace of Carlovitz 1699 
 
 Mustapha III. deposed .... 1703 
 The Morea retaken by the Turks . . 1715 
 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and 
 
 Russia relinquishes Azof . . . 1739 
 Great sea-fight in the channel of Soio ; 
 
 the English and Russian fleets defeat 
 
 the Turkish 1770 
 
 The Crimea falls to Russia . Jan. 1784 
 Cession of Oczacow 1791 
 
 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
 sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the 
 Turks having lost more than 200,000 
 men. — Ashe.] 
 
 War against Russia . . . Dec. 30, 1806 
 Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
 nelles effected by the British fleet, but 
 with great loss (see Dardanelles) Feb. 19, 1807 
 Murder of Hali Aga . . May 25, 1S07 
 
 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
 dered, and Mustapha IV. called to the 
 throne .... May 29, 1807 
 
 Treaty of Bucharest (which see) May 28, 1812 
 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- 
 turning from Mecca, destroyed by a 
 pestilential wind in the deserts of 
 Arabia : 20 only were saved, Aug. 9, 1812 
 Subjection of the Wachabees . . . 1819 
 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 
 
 himself independent . . . . 1820 
 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia, 
 
 March 6, 1821 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople . . April 23, 1821 
 
 [For the events in connection with the 
 independence of Greece, see Greece.] 
 
 Horrible massacre at Scio ; the most 
 dreadful in modern history (see note 
 to Greece) .... April 23, 1S22 
 
 Sea-fight near Mitylene . . Oct. 6, 1824 
 
 New Mahometan army announced to be 
 organised .... May 29, 1S26 
 
 Insurrection of the Janissaries at Con- 
 stantinople . . . June 14, 1S26 
 
 Firman of the sultan abolishing the 
 Janissaries .... June 16, 1S26 
 
 Fire at Constantinople ; 6000 houses re- 
 duced to ashes . . . Aug. 30, 1826 
 
 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet 
 destroyed by the fleets of England, 
 France, and Russia (see Navarino), 
 
 Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Banishment of 132 French. 120 English, 
 and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
 Turkish empire . . . Jan. 5, 1828 
 
 War with Russia . . . April 26, 1828 
 
 The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
 against the Turks . . May 20, 1828 
 
 Capitulation of Brahilow . June 19, 1828 
 
 Surrender of Anapa . . June 23, 1828 
 
 The eminences of Schumla taken }>y the 
 Russians .... July 20, 1S2S 
 
 The Russian emperor arrives before 
 Varna Aug. 5, 182S 
 
 Battle of Akhalzic . . Aug. 24, 1828 
 Fortress of Bajazet taken . Sept. 9, 1828 
 The sultan leaves his capital for the 
 camp, bearing with him the sacred 
 standard .... Sept. 26, 1828 
 Dardanelles blockaded . . Oct.! 
 Surrender of Varna . . Oct. 15, 1828 
 
 Russians retreat from before Schumla, 
 
 Oct. 16, 1828 
 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
 
 the French .... Oct. 30, 1828 
 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians, 
 
 Nov. 10, 182S 
 Victory of the Russians at Kulertscha, 
 
 near Schumla . . . June 11, 1829 
 Battle near Erzeroum . . July 2, 1829 
 Adrianople is entered by the Russian 
 
 troops .... Aug. 20, 1829 
 Armistice between the Russian and 
 
 Turkish armies . . . Aug. 29, 1829 
 Treaty of peace . . . Sept. 14, 1829 
 Fire at Constantinople ; extinguished 
 by the seamen and marines of H.M.S. 
 
 Blonde Jan. 22, 1830 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the indepen- 
 dence of Greece . . April 25, 1830 
 Treaty with America . . May 7, 1830 
 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, 
 
 son of Mehemet AU . . . July 2, 1832 
 He defeats the army of the sultan in 
 
 Syria, with great loss . . July 30, 1832 
 A series of successes brings the army of 
 Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues 
 of Constantinople, and the sultan has 
 recourse to the aid of Russia . Jan. 1833 
 A Russian force enters the Turkish 
 
 capital .... April 3, 1S33 
 Treaty with Russia, offensive and de- 
 fensive July 8, 1833 
 
 Office of grand vizier abolished, Mar. 30, 1838 
 Treity of commerce with England, con- 
 cluded by lord Pousonby, ratified, 
 
 Aug. 16, 1838 
 
 [For the events of 1839 and 1840 in rela- 
 tion to Syria, see Syria.} 
 
 [A large body of Hungarian and Polish 
 refugees, fleeing from the scene of the 
 civil war (see Hungary), seek the pro- 
 tection of Turkey.] 
 
 The Turkish government refuses to sur- 
 render them on the joint demand of 
 Russia and Austria . . Sept. 16, 1S49 
 
 Russia again demands the expulsion of 
 the Hungarian refugees, and suspends 
 intercourse with the Porte Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 [The Porte (countenanced by England) 
 firmly resists this demand.] 
 
 The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, 
 anchors in Besica bay . . Nov. 13, 1849 
 
 Diplomatic relations between Russia 
 and the Porte resumed, the latter 
 sending the refugees to Koniah, in 
 Asia Minor Jan. 1850 
 
 Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion 
 and anarchy .... Jan. 1851 
 
 Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constan- 
 tinople in quality of Russian nego- 
 tiator Feb. 28. 1S53 
 
 His peremptory demands rejected, 
 
 April 18, 1853 
 
 Rescind Pacha becomes foreign minis- 
 ter; — the ultimatum being rejected, 
 Menschikoff quits Constantinople, 
 
 May 21, 1853 
 
 Hatti-sherif issued, confirmiugthe rights 
 of the Greek Christians . June 6, 1853 
 
 Russian manifesto against Turkey, 
 
 June 26, 1853 
 
TUR 
 
 661 
 
 TUR 
 
 TURKEY, continued. 
 
 Russian army crosses the Pruth, July 2, 1S53 
 
 Grand national council — war to be de- 
 clared if the principalities are not 
 evacuated .... Sept. 2(5, 1S53 
 
 "War declared against Russia (see Russo- 
 Turkish War) . . . Oct. 5, 1S53 
 
 Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, 
 favoured by the Greek government 
 at Athens — Hellenic empire pro- 
 claimed .... Jan. 27, 1854 
 
 Volunteers from Athens join insur- 
 gents . . . March 14 et seq. 1854 
 
 Rupture between Greece and Turkey, 
 
 March 28, 1854 
 
 [Several conflicts ensue with varied suc- 
 cess.] 
 
 Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central 
 
 point of the insurrection . April '25, 1854 
 English and French governments, after 
 
 many remonstrances, send troops, 
 which arrive at the Hrseus : the king 
 of Greece submits, and promises strict 
 neutrality : the Greek volunteers are 
 recalled .... May 25, 26, 1854 
 
 Abdi Pacha and Puad Effendi take the 
 intrenched camp at Kolampaka, and 
 the insurrection shortly after ceases, 
 
 June IS, 1S54 
 
 Reschid Pacha, having retired (June 3), 
 resumes his office . . . July 1, 1S54 
 
 Convention between Turkey and 
 Austria .... June 14, 1854 
 
 The Russians retire from the principali- 
 ties, which are thereupon occupied by 
 
 - the Austrians Sept. 1854 till March, 1857 
 
 Misunderstanding among the allied 
 powers respecting Moldavian elec- 
 tions, which are annulled . July, 1S57 
 (See Russo- Turkish War.) 
 
 TURKISH EMPERORS. 
 
 1326. 
 1360. 
 
 1389. 
 
 1402. 
 
 1410. 
 1413. 
 1421. 
 1451. 
 
 1481. 
 1512. 
 1520. 
 
 1566. 
 1574. 
 
 1603. 
 1617. 
 
 Othman, or Ottoman, who assumed the 
 title of Grand Seignior. 
 
 Orchan, son of Othman. 
 
 Amurath I. : stabbed by a soldier, of 
 which wound he died. 
 
 Bajazet I. his son ; defeated by Tamer- 
 lane, and died imprisoned. 
 
 Solyman, son of Bajazet: dethroned by 
 his brother and successor. 
 
 Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
 
 Mahomed I. also son of Bajazet. 
 
 Amurath II. succeeded by his son. 
 
 Mahomed II. by whom Constantinople 
 was taken in 1453. 
 
 Bajazet II. : deposed by his son. 
 
 Senm I. who succeeded him. 
 
 Solyman the Magnificent, son of the 
 preceding ; the most eventful reign 
 in modern Turkish annals. 
 
 Selim II. son of the last. 
 
 Amurath III. his son : on his accession 
 he caused his five brothers to be mur- 
 dered, and their mother, in grief, 
 stabbed herself to death. 
 
 Mahomed III. son of Amurath ; com- 
 menced his reign by strangling all 
 his brothers, and drowning all his 
 father's wives. 
 
 Ahmed, or Achmet, his son : succeeded 
 by his brother. 
 
 Mustapha I. : deposed by the Janis- 
 
 saries, and imprisoned ; succeeded 
 by his nephew. 
 161S. Osman I. : strangled by the Janissaries, 
 and his uncle restored. 
 
 1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent 
 
 to the Seven Towers, and strangled. 
 
 1623. Amurath IV. : succeeded by his brother. 
 1640. Ibrahim : strangled by the Janissaries. 
 1649. Mahomed IV. son of Ibrahim : deposed, 
 
 and died in prison. 
 1687. Solyman III. his brother. 
 1691. Ahmed or Achmet II. : succeeded by 
 
 his nephew. 
 1695. Mustapha II. eldest son of Mahomed 
 
 IV. : deposed ; succeeded by his 
 
 brother. 
 1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. : deposed, and 
 
 died in prison in 1736. 
 1730. Mahmud or Mahomed V. succeeded his 
 
 uncle, the preceding sultan. 
 1754. Osman II. brother of Mahmud. 
 1757. Mustapha III. brother of Osman. 
 1774. Abdul- Ahmed. 
 1788. Selim III. : deposed by the Janissaries, 
 
 and his nephew raised to the throne. 
 1807. Mustapha IV. : deposed, and, with the 
 
 late sultan Selim, murdered. 
 1S08. Mahmud II. : succeeded by his son. 
 1839. Abdul-Medjid, the present (1857) sultan 
 
 of Turkey. 
 
 TURKEY TRADE. This trade, one of the most lucrative at the time, and for ages 
 afterwards very lucrative to England, commenced in the year 1550. The Turkey or 
 Levant Company of London was instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. The 
 Turkey trade (still carried on) embraces a wide field of commerce. — Anderson. 
 
 TURKEYS and GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a.d. 1523, and to 
 France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were consequently unknown 
 to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in the 
 history of these birds; evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor 
 Africa; a circumstance since placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. 
 Beckmann. 
 
 TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom articles 
 of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed. The precious vases, enriched with 
 figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of the antiquary and curious, 
 were produced by turning. The lathes made for turnery in England are, many of 
 them, wonderful in their machinery; and in some of our dockyards, blocks and 
 other materials for our ships of war are now produced by an almost instantaneous 
 process, from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 
 
 TURNPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike gates for exacting tolls, which were otherwise 
 previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles II. 1663. — Chalmers. 
 
TUR 662 TYR 
 
 TURPENTINE TREE, Pistacia Terebinthinns, came from Barbary, before 1656. Tur- 
 pentine is a sort of resinous gum, usually distilled out of the fir and other trees, and 
 is of two kinds, common and Venetian. — Pardon. Spirits of turpentine were first 
 applied, with success, to the rot in sheep : one- third of the spirit diluted with two- 
 thirds water, 1772.— Annual Register. 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, is described as that which should be used in the 
 erection of coarse and rude buildings, in which strength is principally intended, 
 without regard to ornament or beauty. It is the least artificial of any of the orders. 
 — Wotton. The base and capital are usually seven modules in length, and the upper 
 part of the pillar is one- fourth less than the diameter at the bottom. — Pardon. It is 
 called Tuscan because invented in Tuscany. — Bayley. 
 
 TUSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a.d. 1530. It came into the 
 Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March, 1799. Ferdinand IV. 
 the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his dominions given to Louis, son 
 of the king of Spain, with the title of king of Etruria, Feb. 26, 1801, He died 
 June 30, 1803 ; and soon afterwards this state was transformed into an appendage to 
 the crown of Italy; but was restored to Austria, in 1814. The present grand-duke 
 Leopold II. ascended June 18, 1824. Consequent upon the late civil war in Italy 
 the grand-duke fled from Sienna, Feb. 7, 1849, and arrived at Gaeta, Feb. 23, following. 
 An Austrian force entered Tuscany, May 5, 1850 : and he returned to his states, 
 July 23, same year.* 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY. The church festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of 
 Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king and queen 
 on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle 
 or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the 
 middle of a cake, and whoever found the money in his slice was saluted as king. 
 
 TYBURN, London. The ancient place in London for the execution of malefactors. 
 Formerly Oxford-road, now Oxford-street, had trees and hedges on both sides ; and 
 beyond all was country, both northward and westward : at the west end of Oxford- 
 road Tyburn turnpike stood. In 1778, i German writer, describing the metropolis, 
 and speaking of Tyburn, the place for executing criminals at that time, mentions it as 
 being " distant from London about two English miles." 
 
 TYLER, WAT, his INSURRECTION. It arose in the opposition of the people to the 
 poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness of one of the 
 collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of sufficient age (fifteen) to 
 pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), the provoked populace 
 gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men. The king, Richard II., 
 invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a some- 
 what menacing manner, now and again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the 
 indignation of the mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and 
 one of the knights attending the king despatched him. The death of their leader 
 awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dispersed, 1381. 
 
 TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 1257 B.C. It 
 was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B.C. and they retired from before it, after a 
 siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C. and the 
 city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and built a 
 new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, and only 
 after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, 
 Aug. 20, 332 B.C. — Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human 
 crimes were the siege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jerusalem by Titus. 
 
 TYRE, ERA of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 B.C. with the month of Hyperberetams. 
 The months were the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to 
 the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, subtract 124 ; and if the given year be 
 less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the year before Christ. 
 
 * Much interest and sympathy were excited in England, and other Protestant countries of Eurore, 
 hy the imprisonment at Florence of the Madiai (husband and wife), wtio had embraced the English 
 reformed religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of their new faith. For this 
 " crime " they were separately incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and subjected to all the rigours of 
 the Romish ecclesiastical law. A Protestant deputation from England, headed by the earls of 
 Shaftesbury and Roden, proceeded to Florence in October, 1S52, with the view to their release from 
 confinement ; but the grand-duke refused to receive it. However, after some months' captivity, they 
 were set at liberty, March 1855. An annuity of 10U(. was provided for them by subscription. 
 
UBI 663 UNI 
 
 u. 
 
 UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans, which arose and spread through Germany and 
 other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to be everywhere present. 
 This sect began under Brentius, about a.d. 1540. The sect was called, also, Ubiqui- 
 tarians. It was at no time very numerous. — Ashe. 
 
 UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia and Poland, these 
 states divided the Ukraine in 1693 ; Poland having the west side of the Dnieper, and 
 Russia the east. But the whole country (the borders of Poland, Russia, and Little 
 Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the treaty of Partition in 1795. 
 
 ULM, PEACE of, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it pre- 
 viously), July 3, 1620. Ulm was taken by the French in 1796. Great battle between 
 the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, were defeated 
 with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose victory was consummated by the surrender 
 of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From 
 this time the ruin of the confederates, and the power of Napoleon, had their date. 
 
 UMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to carry in a 
 person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient : 
 it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrellas were used at very remote 
 periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Arabia, 
 informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, pre- 
 ceded by some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his nume- 
 rous family caused a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old chinaware in 
 our pantries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said that 
 the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was the benevolent 
 Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 
 
 UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews and early christians, 
 James v. 14. At their feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes 
 their whole body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high- 
 priests were anointed at their inauguration ; they also anointed the vessels of the 
 temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were anointed before 
 Justioian, Aug. 1, a.d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme unction was in common use, 
 a.d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received unction from the pope, 590. — Bayle. 
 It is administered in dying cases as extreme unction. See Anointing. 
 
 UNIFORMITY, ACT of. One passed 1 Eliz. 1559. But the statute known as the Act 
 of Uniformity was passed 13 & 14 Chas. II. 1661-2. It enjoined uniformity in matters 
 of religion, and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the 
 same form of worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards 
 of 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the church of England, and take their lot 
 among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their numbers that 
 they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 
 
 UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular manner," by 
 Louis XIV. 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted in the 
 military service, but with little analogy to the modern dress of our military. — Ashe. 
 For an account of naval uniforms, see Naval Uniforms. 
 
 UNION of the CROWNS and KINGDOMS of England and Scotland by the accession 
 
 * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of 
 effeminacy. At first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary 
 occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The 
 Female Tatler advertises : " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house, who, in fear of rain, 
 borrowed the umbrella from Wilks's Coffte-house, shall the next time be welcome to the maid's 'pattens." 
 As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us, that he had "a 
 fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort to himself use it, 
 the people calling out ' Frenchman ! why don't you get a coach? ' " The fact was, the hackney-coach- 
 men and chairmen, joining with the true esprit de corps, were clamorous against their portentous rival. 
 The footman, in 1778, gives us some farther information. "At this time there were no umbrellas worn 
 in London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where there was a large one hung in the 
 hall to hold over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was com- 
 pelled to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down upon himself and his umbrella. But he 
 adds, that, ' ' he persisted for three months, till they took no further notice of this novelty. Foreigners 
 began to use theirs, and then the English. Now it is become a great trade in London." — New Monthly 
 Magazine. 
 
UNI 064 UNI 
 
 of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative 
 union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, but the project failed. It was 
 again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In the reign of Anne it was once more 
 tried, and in the end with better success. Commissioners were appointed, the articles 
 discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition made by the Tories, every article 
 in the union was approved by a great majority, first in the house of common?, and 
 afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parliament, Jan. 16, 
 1707. It became a law, May 1, same year. 
 
 UNION with IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, proposed in 
 the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. Rejected by the commons of Ireland, Jan. 24, the 
 votes being 105 for, to 106 against the union. The English house of commons on the 
 same question divided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union; against it, 15, 25, and 28, 
 respectively. Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in the Irish house of 
 lords, founded on the resolutions of the British parliament thereon, Feb. 5, 1800. 
 Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115, Feb. 17; and again, 152 against 
 108, Feb. 21. The houses of lords and commons wait on the lord-lieutenant with 
 the articles of union, March 27. The act passed in the British parliament, July 2, 
 1800. The imperial united standard was first displayed upon Bedford Tower, Dublin 
 Castle, in consequence of the act of legislative union becoming an operative law, 
 Jan. 1, 1801. 
 
 UNION JACK. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i.e., white 
 with a red cross, which, April 12, 1606 (three years after James I. ascended the 
 throne), was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white diagonal 
 cross. This combination obtained the name of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union 
 with Scotland, and the word Jack may be considered a corruption of the word" Jacques," 
 or James. This arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when 
 the banner of St. Patrick, i.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was thus amalgamated 
 with it, and forms the present Union flag. 
 
 UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ireland. See Repeal of the Union. 
 
 UNITARIANS. This sect began a.d. 1550. Their tenets are different, but somewhat 
 similar to those of the Arians and Socinians, which see. The Unitarians believe iu and 
 worship one only self-existent God, in opposition to those who worship the Trinity in 
 unity. They consider Christ to have been a mere man. They do not admit the need 
 of an atonement, or the complete inspiration of the Scriptures. They arose under 
 Servetus. This learned man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to 
 read the Scriptures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed 
 a tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding 
 to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge 
 of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract his opinions, he was condemned to 
 the flames, which sentence was carried into execution, Oct. 27, 1553. Servetus is 
 numbered among those anatomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of 
 the circulation of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. Many of the 
 original English Presbyterian churches became Unitarians about 1730. There were 
 229 congregations in England in 1851. They were not included in the Toleration act 
 till 1S13. The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June 1827. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. England and Wales 
 were united in 1283. Scotland to both in 1707; and the British realm was named 
 the United Kingdom on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new imperial 
 standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Dublin. See Union. 
 
 UNITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Spanish yoke, 
 a.d. 1579. The revolted states, with "William, prince of Orange, at their head, after 
 long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict excluding king Philip from any 
 sovereignty, right, or authority over the Netherlands. The deputies from the pro- 
 vinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groniugen, Overyssell, and Guelder- 
 land, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; 
 appointed the prince of Orange as their stadtholder; and formed the alliance ever 
 since known as the "Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned 
 by the appellation of the " Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
 acknowledged in 1609. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was crowned 
 king by the authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated, July 1, 1810. 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed, Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium 
 
UNI 
 
 665 
 
 UNI 
 
 separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. 
 See Holland and Belgium. 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA. A great part of North America was colonised by 
 British subjects, and till the first and disastrous American war, formed part of the 
 British empire. The first colonists, to avoid civil and religious tyranny, fled from tbe 
 cultivated plains of England, the comforts of civilised life, and the stronger attachment 
 of kindred and habits, to take refuge in the woods and marshes of America. The 
 revolted provinces from the sway of Great Britain were first styled the United States 
 by a resolution of congress, Sept. 9, 1776. Their flag was declared to be thirteen 
 stripes, alternately red and white, and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding 
 with the then number of states of the union, June 20, 1777. The independence of 
 the United States was acknowledged by France, Feb. 6, 1778. Recognised by 
 Holland, April 19, 1782 ; and by Great Britain in the treaty of Paris, Nov. 30, same 
 year.* See America, and Slavery in America. 
 
 Act of the British parliament, imposing 
 new and heavy duties on imported 
 merchandise . . . March 11, 1764 
 
 Obnoxious stamp act . . March 22, 1765 
 
 First American congress held at New 
 York June 7, 1765 
 
 British act, levying duties on tea, paper, 
 painted glass, &c. . . June 14, 1767 
 
 340 chests of tea destroyed by the popu- 
 lace at Boston, and 17 chests at New 
 York Nov. 1773 
 
 Boston Port Bill . . . March 25, 1774 
 
 Deputies from the States meet at Phila- 
 delphia Sept. 5, 1774 
 
 First action between the British and 
 Americans, at Lexington April 19, 1775 
 
 Act of perpetual union between the 
 States May 20, 1775 
 
 George Washington appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief . . June 16, 1775 
 
 America declared "free, sovereign, and 
 independent "... July 4, 1776 
 
 [For the various actions fought with the 
 British, see Battles.] 
 
 Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his 
 whole army of 7000 men to generals 
 "Washington and Kochambeau, at York- 
 town .... Oct. 19, 1781 
 
 Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for 
 peace May 5, 1782 
 
 Provisional articles signed at Paris by 
 commissioners . . . Nov. 30, 1782 
 
 Definitive treaty of peace signed at 
 Paris Sept. 3, 1783 
 
 Ratified by congress . . . Jan. 4, 1784 
 
 John Adams, first American ambassador, 
 had his first interview with the king 
 of England .... June 2, 1785 
 
 New American constitution proposed to 
 the States . . . Sept. 17, 1787 
 
 The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate 
 their slaves .... Jan. 1, 17SS 
 
 New go vernm ent for the States organised 
 at New York . . . March 4, 1789 
 
 General Washington declared to be first 
 president .... April 6, 1789 
 
 Bank instituted ; the capital 10,000,000 
 dollars .... June 7, 1791 
 
 Choice made of Washington as the capi- 
 tal of the States . . . JulyS, 1792 
 
 Re-election of General Washington as 
 president .... March 4, 1793 
 
 He resigns the presidency . Sept. 17, 1796 
 
 Mr. Adams elected . . March 4, 1797 
 
 General Washington dies amid universal 
 sorrow Dec. 14, 1799 
 
 [The seat of government now removed 
 to Washington.] 
 
 American embargo laid . . Dec. 9, 1807 
 War with Great Britain . . June IS, 1S12 
 Action between the American ship Con- 
 stitution and the British frigate Guer- 
 riere, an unequal contest (see Naval 
 Battles) .... Aug. 19, 1812 
 
 * The following thirteen states formed the union at the declaration of independence in 1776 : — 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 Massachusetts. 
 Rhode Island. 
 Connecticut. 
 
 New York. 
 New Jersey. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Delaware. 
 Maryland. 
 Virginia. 
 
 I North Carolina. 
 I South Carolina. 
 Georgia. 
 
 1791 
 1796 
 1796 
 
 1S00 
 
 The following have been added : — 
 Vermont (from New York) 
 Tennessee (from North Carolina) . . 
 Kentucky (from Virginia) 
 Colombia district (under the immediate 
 government of congress) contains 
 Washington, the seat of government 
 
 Ohio (created) 1S02 
 
 Louisiana (bought from France in 
 
 1803) 1812 
 
 Indiana (created) 1816 
 
 Mississippi (from Georgia) . . . 1817 
 
 Illinois (created) 1818 
 
 Alabama (from Georgia) .... 1S19 
 Maine (from Massachusetts) . . . 1820 
 
 Michigan 1836 
 
 Ar-kansas 1836 
 
 Florida 1845 
 
 Iowa 1845 
 
 Texas 1846 
 
 Wisconsin 1846 
 
 New Mexico 1848 
 
 California 1S48 
 
 Oregon (territory) 1850 
 
 Minnesota (territory) .... 1849 
 
 Utah (territory) 1850 
 
 Washington (territory) .... 1853 
 
 Kansas (territory) 1854 
 
 Nebraska (territory) .... 1854 
 [See Slavery in America.] 
 
 Missouri (from Louisiana) . . . 1821 
 
 The senate is composed of 62 members, 2 for each state, elected for 6 years. The representatives in 
 congress are elected in the ratio of 1 in 93,423 persons (5 slaves are counted as 3 persons). 
 
 Revenue.— The total receipts, July 1, 1854, to June 30, 1855 . . 85,341,898 dollars. 
 Expenditure ditto ditto . . 66,209,922 dollars. 
 
 In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 vessels (2290 guns). 
 
UNI 
 
 666 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Fort Detroit taken . . . Aug. 21, 1812 | 
 
 The British sloop Frolic taken by the 
 American ship Wasp . Oct. 18, 1812 
 
 The ship Untied State* of 64 guns, great 
 calibre (commodore Decatur), captun a 
 the British frigate Macedonian, Oct. 25, 1812 
 
 Battle of Frenchtown . . Jan. 22, 1813 
 
 The Hornet captures the British sloop of 
 war Peacock . . . Feb. 25, 1813 
 
 Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned 
 by the British . . May 27, 1813 
 
 The American frigate Chetapeaki cap- 
 tured by the Shannon frigate, captain 
 Broke June 1, 1813 
 
 Battle of Burlington Heights ; the Ame- 
 ricans defeated . . . June 6, 1813 
 
 H.M. sloop Pelican takes the American 
 sloop Argus .... Aug. 14, 1813 
 
 Buffalo town taken by the British and 
 burnt Dec. 9, 1813 
 
 American frigate Essex taken by the 
 Phoebe and Cherub . March 29, 1814 
 
 The British defeat the Americans in a 
 severe conflict .... July 2, 1814 
 
 [Several engagements with various suc- 
 cess now followed.] 
 
 Alexandria capitulates to the British 
 forces Aug. 17, 1814 
 
 The city of Washington is taken by the 
 British forces, and the public edifices 
 and offices are reduced to ashes, 
 
 Aug. 24, 1S14 
 
 The British sloop of war Avon, of small 
 size, sunk by the American sloop 
 Wasp Sept. S, 1S14 
 
 The British squadron on lake Champlain 
 captured .... Sept. 11, 1814 
 
 Attack on Baltimore by the British ; 
 general Ross killed . . Sept. 12, 1814 
 
 Treat}- of peace with Great Britain 
 signed at Ghent . . Dec. 24, 1814 
 
 The British ship Endymion Captures the 
 President .... Jan. 15, 1S15 
 
 The Ghent treaty of peace ratified, 
 
 Feb. 17, 1815 
 
 Centre foundation of the capitol of 
 Washington laid . . . Aug 24, ISIS 
 
 Spain cedes Florida to the United 
 States .... Oct. 21, 1S20 
 
 The States acknowledge the independ- 
 ence of South America . March 8, 1822 
 
 Treaty with Colombia . . Oct. 3, 1824 
 
 Mr. Adams elected president Feb. 4, 1825 
 
 Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams 
 and Jefferson, on theoOth anniversary 
 of the independence of the American 
 States July 4, 1826 
 
 Convention with Great Britain concern- 
 ing indemnities . . . Nov. 13, 1826 
 
 American Tariff' Bill . . May 13, 1828 
 
 General Jackson president . Feb.lt'., 1829 
 
 Treaty between the United States and 
 Ottoman Porte . . . May 7, 1830 
 
 Ports re-opened to British commerce ; 
 the restriction ceases . . Oct. 5, 1S30 
 
 New tariff laws . . . July 14, 1S32 
 
 Great fire at New York, 617 houses and 
 many public edifices burnt ; loss esti- 
 mated at 20,000,000 dollars (see N<w 
 York) Nov. 15, 1835 
 
 In the Canadian insurrection, many of 
 +he American people assist the insur- 
 gents . . Oct. Nov. and Dec. 1837 
 
 The American steam-boat Cwrolwe is at- 
 tacked and burnt by the British, near 
 Bchlosser, to the east of the Niagara, 
 on the territory of the United States 
 
 Dec. 29, 1837 
 
 Proclamation of the president against 
 
 American citizens aiding the Cana- 
 dians against Great Britain Jan. 5, 1838 
 
 The Great Western steam-ship first 
 arrives at New York . June 17, 1838 
 
 The American banks suspend their cash 
 payments . . . Oct. 14, 1839 
 
 Affair of Mr. Mac Leod, charged with 
 aiding in the destruction of the Caro- 
 line ; true bill found against him for 
 murder and arson . . Feb. 6, 1841 
 
 The United States bank again suspends 
 payment Feb. 7, 1S41 
 
 Election of general Harrison as presi- 
 dent March 4, 1841 
 
 Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the 
 release of Mr. Mac Leod . March 12, 1841 
 
 General Harrison dies a month after his 
 inauguration . . . April 4, 1841 
 
 The presidency devolves on the vice-pre- 
 sident, John Tyler, who is sworn into 
 office next day . . . April 5, 1S41 
 
 The case of Mac Leod is removed by 
 habeas corpus to the supreme court at 
 New York .... May 6, 1841 
 
 A party of British volunteers cross the 
 frontier from Canada and carry off 
 colonel Grogan . Sept. 9, 1841 
 
 Resignation of all the United States 
 ministers, with the exception of Mr. 
 Webster .... Sept. 11, 1S41 
 
 President's proclamation against lawless 
 attempts of American citizens to in- 
 vade British possessions, and to sup- 
 press secret lodges, clubs, and associ- 
 ations .... Sept. 25, 1S41 
 
 Trial of Mac Leod commences at Utica, 
 supreme court . . . Oct. 4, 1841 
 
 Grogan is given up to the American 
 government .... Oct. 4, 1S41 
 
 Acquittal of Mac Leod after a trial of 
 eight days .... Oct. 12, 1S41 
 
 Colossal statue of Washington placed in 
 the capitol at Washington . Dec. 1, 1841 
 
 Affair of the Creole, which leads to a dis- 
 pute with England . . Dec. 1S41 
 
 [This vessel, an American, was on her 
 voyage to New Orleans with a cargo 
 of slaves ; they mutinied, murdered 
 the owner, wounded the captain, and 
 compelled the crew to take the ship 
 to Nassau, New Providence, where 
 the governor, considering them as 
 passengers, allowed them, against the 
 protest of the American consul, to go 
 at liberty.] 
 
 Announcement of lord Ashburton's mis- 
 sion to the United States . Jan. 1, 1S42 
 
 Arrest of Hogau, implicated in the 
 Cetroline affair . . . Feb. 2, 1842 
 
 The WartpUe, with lord Ashburton on 
 board, arrives at New York April 1, 1842 
 
 Washington treaty, defining the boun- 
 daries between the United States and 
 the British American possessions, ai d 
 for suppressing the slave trade, and 
 giving up fugitive criminals; signed 
 at Washington, by lord Ashburton and 
 Mr. Webster. . . . Aug. 9, 1842 
 
 The tariff bill is passed Aug. 10, 1842 
 
 Lord Ashburton leaves the United 81 
 Sept. 5 ; arrives in England, Sept. 28, 1842 
 
 Death of Dr. Channing . . Oct. 2, 1842 
 
 War declared against the United Mates 
 by Mexico .... June 4, 1845 
 
 [Several actions are fought between the 
 belligerents, adverse to Mexico.] 
 
 Resolution of the senate and house of 
 
UNI 
 
 667 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES op AMERICA, continued. 
 
 representatives for terminating the 
 joint occupancy of Oregon April 20, 1846 
 
 Annexation of New Mexico to the United 
 States, after a protracted war, Aug. 23, 1846 
 
 Treaty fixing the north-west boundary 
 of the U. S. at the 49th parallel of lati- 
 tude, and giving the British possession 
 of Vancouver's Island, the free naviga- 
 tion of the Columbia river, &c, signed 
 
 June 12, 1846 
 
 Battle of Bueno Vista . . Feb. '22, 1S47 
 
 The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor 
 at Bueno Vista . . Feb. 23, 1847 
 
 Vera Cruz taken by storm, the Mexicans 
 everywhere worsted. Great battle of 
 Sierra Gorda ; the Mexicans signally 
 defeated .... April 18, 1S47 
 
 Gen. Scott defeats the Mexicans, taking 
 6000 prisoners . . . April IS, 1847 
 
 Treaty between Mexico and the United 
 States ratified . . . May 19, 1S48 
 
 Park theatre destroyed by fire Dec. 16, 1S4S 
 
 Kiot at the theatre New York, occasioned 
 by the dispute between Mr. Forrest 
 and Mr. Macready . . May 10, 1S49 
 
 Proclamation of the president against 
 the marauding expedition to Cuba,* 
 
 Aug. 11, 1849 
 
 The French ambassador dismissed from 
 Washington .... Sept. 14, 1849 
 
 Death of Mr. Calhoun . March 31, 1850 
 
 Destructive fire in Philadelphia, July 9, 1S50 
 
 Bill to admit California a member of the 
 states passes the senate . Aug. 15, 1850 
 
 President Fillmore issues a second pro- 
 clamation against the promoters of a 
 second expedition to Cuba, and the 
 ship Cleopatra, freighted with military 
 stores destined for that island, is 
 seized April 25, 1S51 
 
 Census of the United States taken ; the 
 population ascertained to amouut to 
 23, 347, 8S4, in the whole union, June 1 6, 1851 
 
 Death of Henry Clay, the American 
 minister, aged 75 . . June 29, 1S51 
 
 Failure of the second expedition against 
 Cuba by Lopez and his followers ; they 
 are all defeated and taken; 51 are shot 
 by the Cuban authorities, Lopez is 
 garrotted, and the rest are sent 
 prisoners to Spain, where, after some 
 negotiation, they are mercifully set at 
 liberty. See Cuba . Aug. — Sept. 1851 
 
 Death of Cooper, the American novelist, 
 
 Sept. 17, 1851 
 
 The president issues a proclamation 
 against the sympathisers with the revo- 
 lutionary movement in Mexico Oct. 22, 1851 
 
 Part of the capitol of Washington and 
 the whole of the library of the United 
 States congress destroyed by fire 
 
 Dec. 24, 1851 
 
 M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, 
 arrives at Washington, ou the invita- 
 tion of the United States legislature 
 
 Dec. 30, 1S51 
 Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 
 
 by Mrs. Stowe . . . March 20, 1852 
 The dispute with England relating to 
 the Fisheries occurs about this time, 
 Mr. Webster's note upon the subject 
 
 July 14, 1852 
 Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) . Aug. 1S52 
 
 The United States ship Crescent City 
 boarded at Havannah , and not allowed 
 to land her mails or passengers Oct. 3, 1852 
 
 Death of Daniel Webster, the most emi- 
 nent statesman of the Union, in his 
 70th year .... Oct. 24, 1852 
 
 Address to the women of America on 
 slavery, adopted by the duchess of 
 Sutherland and other ladies (signed 
 afterwards by 576,000 Englishwomen) 
 
 Nov. •/&, 1S52 
 
 Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 
 
 June 21, 1853 
 
 Crystal palace opens at New York 
 
 July 14, 1853 
 
 Duel between M. Soule" (American minis- 
 ter at Madrid) and M. Turgot, Dec. 18, 1S53 
 
 Great fire at N ew York — Great -Republic 
 clipper destroyed . . Dec. 26, 1853 
 
 Astor Library, New York, opened for 
 the public .... Jan. 9, 1854 
 
 Wm. Walker proclaims republic of 
 Sonora divided into two states — Sonora 
 and Lower California . . Jan. 18, 1854 
 
 American steamer Black Warrior seized, 
 at Cuba .... Feb. 28, 1854 
 
 [After prolonged negociations, the 
 Spanish government remitted the fine 
 but considered the seizure legal] April, 1S54 
 
 Commercial treaty concluded between 
 Japan and United States by Commo- 
 dore Perry (sent there for the purpose) 
 
 March 23, 1854 
 
 Captain Hollins, in American sloop 
 Cyane, bombards San Juan de Nica- 
 ragua July 13, 1854 
 
 Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain 
 and United States (respecting New- 
 foundland fishery, international trade, 
 &c.) ratified . . . Aug. 2, 1854 
 
 Negotiation for the annexation of the 
 Sandwich Islands . . . Oct. 1S54 
 
 Dreadful election riots in Kansas, 
 
 March and April, 1855 
 
 War with the Indians, who are defeated, 
 
 April 25, 29, 1855 
 
 Dispute with British government on en- 
 listment (see Foreign Legion) . July, 1855 
 
 Gen. Haruey gains a victory over the 
 Sioux Indians . . . Sept. 3, 1S55 
 
 Senator Charles Sumner savagely as- 
 saulted by senator Preston Brooks in 
 the senate-house for speaking against 
 slavery May 2, 1856 
 
 Mr. Crampton, the British envoy, dis- 
 missed May 28, 1S56 
 
 John C. Fremont nominated the "Re- 
 publican" candidate for the presidency 
 
 June 17, 1856 
 
 James Buchanan elected president Nov. 1S56 
 
 The Resolute presented to Queen Victoria 
 (see Franklin) . . . Dec. 12, 1856 
 
 Lord Napier appointed British envoy to 
 United States (Jan. 16) ; warmly re- 
 ceived . " . . . March 18, 1S57 
 
 Central America question settled March, 1857 
 
 Judgment given in the "Dred Scott" 
 case in the supreme court. He was 
 claimed as a slave in a free state : 2 
 judges declare for his freedom, 5 
 against it, which causes great dissatis- 
 ■ faction throughout the free states, Mar. 1S57 
 
 * This expedition, notwithstanding, under a Spanish adventurer named Lopez, lauded 600 men at 
 Cuba. After a short but obstinate struggle they took the town of Cardenas. These buccaneers shortly 
 afterwards had a land engagement with some Spanish soldiers marched against them, in which many 
 of them were killed or taken prisoners; the others then embarked with Lopez in the Creole steamer, 
 and thus escaped from a Spanish war steamer, the Pizarro, May 1850. The second Expedition of 
 Lopez, in Aug. 1851, was, however, fatal to him and his followers, as above related. 
 
UNI 
 
 668 
 
 UNI 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 
 
 Disorganised state of Utah ; troops 
 march to .support new governor, 
 
 May and June, 1S57 
 
 Serious riots in Washington against Irish 
 electors June 1, 1857 
 
 And in New York on account of changes 
 
 in the police arrangements . June, 1857 
 Insurrection in Kansas quelled July, 1^7 
 Commercial panic in New York Aug. 1857 
 
 PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 1793. 
 1797. 
 1801. 
 1809, 
 
 1813, 
 1817. 
 1821, 
 1825. 
 1829. 
 1833. 
 1837. 
 
 General George Washington, first presi- 
 dent. Elected April 6. 
 General Washington again. March 4. 
 John Adams. March 4. 
 Thomas Jefferson. March 4. 
 James Maddison. March 4. 
 Mr. Maddison. Re-elected March 4. 
 James Monroe. March 4. 
 Mr. Monroe. Re-elected March 4. 
 John Quiucey Adams. March 4. 
 General Jackson. March 4. 
 General Jackson. Re-elected March 4. 
 Martin Van Bur-en. March 4. 
 
 1841. Genei'al Wm. Henry Harrison. March 4. 
 
 Died a mouth after, April 4. 
 — John Tyler. April 4. 
 1S45. James Knox Folic. March 4. 
 1849. General Zachary Taylor. March 4. Died 
 
 July 9, 1850. 
 1S50. Millard Fillmore. Sworn into office 
 
 next day, July 10. 
 1853. General Franklin Pierce. March 4. 
 1S57. James Buchanan. March 4. The present 
 
 President of the United States of 
 
 America. 
 
 The government of the United States is a pure democracy. Each of the states has a 
 separate and independent legislature for the administration of its local affairs, but all 
 are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two houses of legislature, the senate and the 
 house of representatives, to which delegates are sent from the different members of 
 the confederacy. The president is elected by the free voice of the people. 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects of 
 Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and celebrated 
 Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the opinion of this 
 universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he entertained a design for 
 forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen 
 (Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. This 
 sect is numerous in America. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of the regular clergy, and from the 
 chapters of cathedrals in the Church of Rome. The most ancient universities in 
 Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and Bologna. In old 
 Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youth were instructed in theology, the canou 
 law, and the school philosophy, at least 200 years before the University and King's 
 College were founded. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex- 
 Roman Catholics, and permitted to send members to parliament, by James I. The 
 following are the principal universities.^ For other particulars, see them severally. 
 
 Aberdeen founded . . . . a.d. 1404 
 
 Abo, Finland 1640 
 
 Aix, 1409 ; re-established . . . 1603 
 Alba Julia, Transylvania . . . . 1629 
 
 Altof, Franconia 1581 
 
 Andrew's, St. Scotland . . . . 1411 
 
 Angers, chiefly law 1398 
 
 Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged . . . . 1364 
 
 Avignon, France 13SS 
 
 Bamberg 1585 
 
 Basle, Switzerland 145S 
 
 Berlin 1812 
 
 Besanijon, Burgundy .... 1564 
 
 Bologna, Italy 423 
 
 Bruges, French Flanders . . . 16C5 
 Caen, Normandy, 1452 ; revived . . 1803 
 Cambridge, began, 620 — according to 
 
 others, in 915. (See Cambridge.) 
 Cambridge, New England, projected . 1630 
 Cologne in Germany, re-founded . . 13S9 
 
 Compostella, Spain 1517 
 
 Coimbra, Portugal 1391 
 
 Copenhagen, 1497 ; enlarged . . . 1539 
 
 Cordova, Spain 968 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged . . 1402 
 
 Dijon, France 1722 
 
 Dilliugen, Swabia 1565 
 
 Dole, Burgundy 1426 
 
 Douay, French Flanders . . . 1562 
 
 Dresden, Saxony 1694 
 
 Dublin. (See Trinity College) . . , 1591 
 Ei Unburgh, founded by James VI. . . 15S2 
 
 1390 
 1533 
 1438 
 1506 
 1460 
 1365 
 1450 
 1784 
 1537 
 1547 
 1614 
 1694 
 1346 
 1573 
 1548 
 1665 
 1829 
 1.044 
 1409 
 1575 
 1614 
 1391 
 1826 
 1427 
 830 
 1440 
 1482 
 1196 
 1802 
 1491 
 1216 
 Orleans, France 1312 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged . 
 Evora, Portugal .... 
 Florence, Italy, enlarged 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder 
 Fribourg, Germany 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 Granada, Spain 
 
 Gripswald 
 
 Groningen, Friesland 
 
 Halle, Saxony .... 
 
 Heidelberg .... 
 
 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria . 
 
 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia . 
 
 Kiel, Holstein .... 
 
 King's Colleg-3, London (which see) 
 
 Konigsberg, Prussia . 
 
 Leipsic, Saxony 
 
 Leyden, Holland 
 
 Lima, in Peru .... 
 
 Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to Coimbra 
 
 London University (winch see) 
 
 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 
 Lyons, France . 
 Mechlin, Flanders 
 Mentz 
 
 Montpelier . 
 Moscow, 1754 ; again 
 Munster 
 Naples 
 
 enlarged 
 
UNI 
 
 669 
 
 URS 
 
 Seville a.d. 1531 
 
 Sienna 13S7 
 
 Siguenza, Spain 1517 
 
 Sorbonne, France 1253 
 
 Strasbourg 153S 
 
 Toledo, Spain 1518 
 
 Treves, Germany 1473 
 
 Tubingen, Wirteinberg .... 1477 
 
 Turin 1405 
 
 Upsal, Sweden 1477 
 
 Utrecht, Holland 1636 
 
 Valence, Dauphine" 1475 
 
 Valencia, in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Valladolid 1346 
 
 Venice 1592 
 
 Vienna 1236 
 
 Wirtemberg 1502 
 
 Wittenberg 1502 
 
 Wurtzburg 1403 
 
 UNIVERSITIES, continued. 
 
 Oxford (see Oxford) . . . .a.d. 8S6 
 
 Paderborn 1592 
 
 Padua, Italy 1179 
 
 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca . 1249 
 
 Paris, 792 ; renovated 1100 
 
 Parma 1599 
 
 Pavia, 791 ; enlarged 1599 
 
 Perpignan 1349 
 
 Perugia, Italy 1307 
 
 Petersburg, St. 1747 ; again . . . 1802 
 
 Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged 1552 
 
 Poictiers 1430 
 
 Prague 1348 
 
 Rheims, 1145 ; enlarged .... 1560 
 
 Rome, Sapienza 1303 
 
 Rostock, Mecklenburg .... 1419 
 
 Salamanca 1240 
 
 Salerno 1233 
 
 Salzburg 1623 
 
 Saragossa, Arragon 1474 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London. See London University College. 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Oxford. The foundation of this college continues to be 
 erroneously ascribed to Alfred ; but it was founded in 1249, by William, archdeacon 
 of Durham, by whom 300 marks per annum were left to the chancellor and univer- 
 sity of Oxford, to purchase rents for the suppoi't of ten, twelve, or more masters, at 
 the time the highest academical title, and the first purchase was made in 1253. The 
 library, which contains a valuable collection of MSS. was completed in 1660. 
 
 UNIVERSITY, LONDON, Somerset House. Instituted by charter granted Nov. 28, 
 1836; but a second charter was bestowed Dec. 5, 1837, which revoked the former, 
 and several of its details were modified. Its objects are, the advancement of 
 religion, the promotion of knowledge, and giving encouragement for a regular course 
 of education, by conferring academical degrees. The senate consists of a chancellor, 
 a vice-chancellor, and thirty-six fellows; and examiners grant the several degrees in 
 arts, law, medicine, &c. When the number of fellows shall be reduced below twenty- 
 five, the members of the senate may elect twelve more to complete thirty-six : the 
 queen is visitor. 
 
 UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the rev. Mr. Irving's chapel, in London, 
 occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, by holding forth in 
 what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue." She was removed to the vestry. 
 On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and commenced, with the permission of 
 Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the same unknown language. A scene of most 
 alarming confusion ensued, the whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, 
 and the females screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound atten- 
 tion to the ravings of the inspired teacher, Oct. 16, 1831. From this period much of 
 the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhapsody, was played off ; 
 and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but as early as six o'clock on the 
 mornings of week-days also. — Ann. Register. See Irvingites. 
 
 URANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by whom it was 
 called the Georgian Planet, in honour of his majesty George III. The name of 
 Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious discoverer, by the 
 astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is usually called Uranus. It is 
 about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn ; and was discovered on 
 March 13, 1781. See Planets. 
 
 URIM and THUMMIM. Light and Perfection. Much dispute has existed among 
 the learned as to what this ceremony was among the ancient Jews ; but no certainty 
 has been hitherto arrived at. It is conjectured to have been some means of inducing 
 an answer from God upon extraordinary occurrences. The high-priest was the 
 officiating minister, and whenever the ceremony was performed, he dressed in all 
 his richest pontificals, and wore the most costly ornaments. It was never used for a 
 private person or occasion, but only for the king, the president of the sanhedrim, the 
 general of the army, &c. and always upon something relating to the common welfare 
 of the church or state. — Ashe, and Hist, of the Ancient Jews. 
 
 URSULINE NUNS. A sisterhood in church history, being an order founded originally 
 by St. Angela, of Brescia ; and so called from St. Ursula, to whom they were dedi- 
 
USH 670 VAG 
 
 cated. — Ashe. They governed themselves by the Augustine rules. — Monast. Hist. 
 Several communities of Ursuline nuns have existed in England; and some com- 
 munities of them exist in Ireland. 
 
 USHANT, NAVAL BATTLE of. Between the British and French fleets, when, after 
 an indecisive action of three hours, the latter, under cover of the night, withdrew in 
 a deceptive manner to the harbour of Brest. The brave admiral Keppel commanded 
 the English fleet ; the count d'Orvilliers the French. The failure of a complete 
 victory was by many attributed to sir Hugh Palliser's con-compliance with the 
 admiral's signals. This gentleman, who was vice-admiral of the blue, preferred 
 articles of accusation against his commander, who was in consequence tried by a 
 court-martial, but acquitted in the most honourable manner, and the charge against 
 him declared by the court to be "malicious and ill-founded," July 27, 1778. — Lord 
 Howe signally defeated the French fleet, taking six ships of the line, and sinking one 
 of large force, aud several others, 4th June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged 
 in this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of which the French nation 
 depended for its means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest harbour, which 
 gave occasion to the enemy to claim the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their 
 loss in ships, and in killed and wounded, which was very great. 
 
 USURY. Foi'bidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given for the 
 loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of Ail. 6s. Sd. per annum for 1001. 
 which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jew3. Until the fifteenth century, 
 no Christians were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only 
 usurers, and therefore often bauished and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of 
 Hen. VIII. the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent. 1545. This statute was 
 repealed by Edward VI. but re-enacted 13th Eliz. 1570. See Interest. 
 
 UTRECHT, TREATY of, &c. The union of the Seven United Provinces began here 
 (see United Provinces), A.D. 1579. The celebrated treaty of Utrecht, which termi- 
 nated the wars of queen Aune, was signed by the miuisters of Great Britain and 
 France, as well as of all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire. The 
 most important stipulations of this treaty were the security of the Protestant succes- 
 sion in England, the disuniting the French aud Spanish crowns, the destruction of 
 Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations in America, and 
 a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies, April 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to 
 the Prussians, May 9, 1787; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. 
 
 V. 
 
 VACCINATION", Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He made the 
 first experiment in vacciuation, by transferring the pus from the pustule of a milk- 
 maid who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to a healthy child, in May 1796. 
 Dr. Jenner subsequently published the result to the world, aud vacciuation became 
 general in 1799, having been introduced Jan. 21 in that year. The genuine cow-pox 
 appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000£. 
 from parliament for the discovery, June 2, 1802 ; and the first national institution 
 for the promotion of vaccination, called the Royal Jenneriau Institution, was founded 
 Jan. 19, 1803. The emperor Napoleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind 
 so highly, that he liberated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, 
 and subsequently whole families of English, making it a point to refuse him nothing 
 that he asked. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously to 1816. 
 The important Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed July 23, 1840. Vaccination was 
 made compulsory by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 100, passed Aug. 20, 1853. See Inoculation; 
 Smallpox, &e. 
 
 VAGRANTS. After being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to the 
 place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Hen. VIII. 1530. A 
 vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
 ear, 27 Hen. VIII. 1535 ; and a third time convicted, death. By 1 Edw. III. a 
 vagabond to be marked with a V, and be a slave for two years. Vagrants were 
 punished by whipping, gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 
 14 Eliz. 1571. The milder statutes were those of 17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. 
 The laws against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as 
 respects the character of the offender. 
 
VAL 671 VAR 
 
 VALENCAY, TREATY" of. Entered into between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand 
 VII. of Spain, whereby tbe latter was put in full possession of the kingdom of Spain, 
 on his agreeing to maintain its integrity. This treaty was signed Dec. 8, 1813. 
 
 VALENCIA, Spain. The Valentia Edetanorum of the Romans. Its university was 
 founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken 
 by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but was soon lost again, for it was obliged to 
 submit to the Bourbons after the unfortunate battle of Almanza, in 1707. It 
 resisted the attempts made on it by marshal Moncey, but was taken from the 
 Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, by the 
 French under Suchet, Jan. 9, 1812. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, SIEGE of. This city was besieged from May 23 to Aug. 13, when 
 the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 1793. It was 
 retaken, together with Conde", by the French, on capitulation, the garrison and 1100 
 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. — 200 pieces of cannon, one 
 million pounds, of gunpowder, eight millions of florins in specie, six millions of 
 livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. 
 
 VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of " choosing a valentine," as it is called, on this 
 day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of the custom has been 
 much controverted ,• it is indisputably of very ancient date. Valentine was a bishop 
 of the Romish church, who suffered martyrdom under Claudius II. at Rome, a.D. 271. 
 It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates ; whence, probably, came the 
 custom of young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of 
 St. Valentine. 
 
 VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiasts were followers of Valentine, a priest, who, 
 upon his being disappointed of a bishopric, forsook the Christian faith, and published 
 that there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which he called iEones, 
 or Ages. He taught in the second century, and published a gospel and psalms : to 
 these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no obligation to 
 suffer martyrdom; some declared against baptism, and others practised it in a peculiar 
 manner, and all indulged in licentiousness. 
 
 VALTELINE, Switzerland. Here took place a general and horrid massacre of the 
 Protestants by the Roman Catholics, July 20, 1620. It began at Tirano, extended to 
 all the towns of the district, and lasted three days, neither man, woman, nor child 
 being spared in this slaughter, called in history the Massacre of Valteline. — Ashe. 
 
 VALVASOR. The first name of dignity next beneath a peer, was anciently that of 
 vidames, vicedomini, or valvasor. Valvasors are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as 
 viri magnce dignitatis, and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Yet the distinction 
 is entirely out of use at present ; and our legal antiquaries are not agreed upon even 
 the original or ancient office of valvasors. Now, therefore, the first personal dignity 
 after the nobility is a knight of the order of St. George or of the Garter, first instituted 
 by Edward III. — Blackstone. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain 
 Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any navigable com- 
 munication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being determined 
 on, he was appointed to command it. He sailed in 1790, and returned Sept. 24, 1795. 
 He compiled an account of this voyage of survey of the North-west coast of America, 
 and died in 1798. 
 
 VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Germany and Gaul, a.d. 406-414 ; 
 their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded and conquered the Roman 
 territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were 
 driven out, and attacked in turn by the Saracen Moors. The Vandals overran a vast 
 portion of Europe, and spread devastation wherever they appeared. 
 
 VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. This country was discovered by Tasman in 1633. It was 
 visited by Furneaux in 1773; by Captain Cook in 1777; and was deemed the south 
 extremity of New Holland (now Australia) until 1799. A British settlement was 
 established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Derwent, in 1804, and 
 named Hobart Town, or Hobarton, now the seat of government. This island was 
 made a convict colony of Great Britain, whither many of our remarkable transports 
 have been sent. 
 
 VARENNE3. This town of France is celebrated by the arrest of Louis XVI. Here he, 
 
VAR 672 VEH 
 
 his queen, sister, and two children were arrested in their flight from the Tuileries on 
 the 21st June, and were taken on the 22ud, and conducted back to Paris, 1791. Drouet, 
 the postmaster at an intermediate town, discovered the king. He immediately 
 informed the municipality, who despatched messengers to Varennes. Drouet went 
 first, and seeing a waggon laden with furniture upon the bridge, overset it ; this 
 obstructed the passage of the king and his suite, who were forthwith arrested. 
 
 VARNA. A fortified town and seaport in Bulgaria, European Turkey. A great battle 
 was fought near this place, Nov. 10, 1444, between the Turks under Amurath II. and 
 the Huugariaus under their king, Ladislaus, and John Hunniades. The latter were 
 defeated with great slaughter : the king was killed, and Hunniades made prisoner. 
 The Christians had previously broken a recent truce. — The emperor Nicholas of 
 Russia arrived before Varna, the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
 Aug. 5, 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous attack on the besiegers, Aug. 7; 
 and another on the 21st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary 
 conflict, to the Russian arms, Oct. 1, 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829, its 
 fortifications were dismantled, but have since been restored. — The allied armies 
 disembarked at Varna, May 29, 1854, and remained there till they sailed for the 
 Crimea, Sept. 3, following. While at Varna they suffered severely from cholera. 
 
 VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Wlanage. Vassalage was introduced by the Saxons, 
 and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Norman princes there were 
 vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold with the land, and those who were 
 free to choose an employer. To this day the distinction prevails in some countries, 
 and particularly in Russia, where the vassal boors are divided into classes ; as boors 
 belonging to the sovereign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property ; and private 
 boors, who belong to the nobility, and perform the labour on their estates. In England, 
 a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c. held of him in fee. Vassalage 
 was abolished in Hungary in October, 1785; in Holstein, in May, 1797; and in Cour- 
 land, in September, 1818. 
 
 VATICAN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, said to contain 7000 rooms. 
 In this palace, the library, founded a.d. 1448, i3 so beautiful a fabric, that it is said it 
 will admit of no improvement : and it is also the richest in the world, both in printed 
 books and manuscripts. — The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican" was first used by 
 Voltaire, 1748. Pistolesi's Description, with numerous plates, was published 1829-38. 
 
 VAUXHALL BRIDGE. Originally projected by Mr. R. Dodd, but, in consequence of 
 some disagreement, he was succeeded, first by Mr. Renuie, and afterwards by Mr. 
 Walker, under whose direction the present elegant fabric was constructed, at an 
 expense of about 150,000^. which is to be defrayed by a toll. The first stone was 
 laid May 9, 1811, by prince Charles, the eldest son of the duke of Brunswick; and the 
 bridge was completed and opened in July 1816. It is of iron, of nine equal arches. 
 
 VAUXHALL GARDENS, London. It is denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, or 
 Faukeshall ; but the tradition that this house, or any other adjacent, was the property 
 of Guy Fawkes, is ex-roneous. The premises were, in 1615, the property of Jane Vaux, 
 and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. From her it passed through 
 various hands, till, in 1752, it became the property of Mr. Tyers. There is no certain 
 account of the time when these premises were first opened for the entertainment of 
 the public ; but the Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned in the Spectator as a 
 place of great resort. Some writers of accounts of London suppose 1730 to be the 
 first year of the opening of Vauxhall Gardens, which succeeded Ranelagh gardens. 
 The greatest season of Vauxhall was in 1823, when 133,279 persons visited the gardens, 
 and the receipts were 29,590J. The greatest number of persons in one night was 
 Aug. 2, 1833, when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The number on the last 
 night, Sept. 5, 1839, was 1089 persons. — Bankrupts' Reports. Vauxhall was sold by 
 auction, Sept. 9, 1841, for 20,200/. 
 
 VEGETABLES. Our chief table-vegetables were brought from Flanders in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. about 1520 et scq. See Botany, Gardening, &c. 
 
 VEHMIC TRIBUNALS. Secret tribunals established in Westphalia to maintain religion 
 and the public peace. Their proceedings were enveloped in a profound mystery. 
 They had their origin in the time of Charlemagne; but became important about 1182, 
 when Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of Cologne. These courts became 
 very troublesome, persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. 
 
VEL 
 
 673 
 
 VEN 
 
 The emperors endeavoured to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th century. 
 Sir W. Scott has described them in " Anne of Geierstein." 
 
 VELLORE, India. Residence of the family of the late sultan of Mysore, strongly 
 garrisoned by English troops. Revolt and massacre of the Sepoys, in which the 
 family of the late Tippoo took an active part, July 10, 1806. The insurgents were 
 subdued, and mostly put to the sword, by Colonel Gillespie : 800 Sepoys were killed 
 before the mutiny was suppressed. See India. 
 
 VELOCIPEDES. Vehicles of German construction. They first appeared in England in 
 April 1818, and obtained the name from being impelled by the feet with great celerity, 
 the mover of the vehicle sitting astride upon it as upon a rocking-horse. Though at 
 first a very fashionable amusement, they seem to have fallen into disuse. , 
 
 VENEREAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea, Morbus Gallicus. This disease is said to have 
 broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494 ; whence the French 
 term it mal de Naples. In the Netherlands and England it obtained the appellation 
 of mal de France ; though in the latter country it was known so early as the twelfth 
 century. About the same period, too, at Florence, one of the Medici family died of 
 it. Most writers suppose, that the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with 
 them from the new to the old world, 1493 : others maintain that it prevailed among 
 the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of 
 America. 
 
 VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some huts built 
 upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them above the stagnated 
 water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to give it the name of Venezuela, 
 or little Venice. This state declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty of its 
 people, in July 1814, and was recognised in 1818. It formed part of the republic of 
 Colombia till 1831, when it separated from the federal union, and declared itself sole 
 and independent. The president, general D. T. Monagas, was elected in 1855. See 
 Colombia. 
 
 VENI, VIDT, VICI— " I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sentence formed 
 the whole of Caesar's despatch to the Roman senate when he vanquished Pharnaces, 
 king of the Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 B.C. This despatch, says Tacitus, is the shortest 
 and most energetic \ipon record. See Zela, Battle of. 
 
 VENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made a kingdom 
 by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 B.C. Marcellus conquered it for the Roman 
 republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 B.C. 
 
 452 
 
 997 
 
 The present city founded by families 
 from Aquileia and Padua fleeing from 
 Attila, about . . . . a.d. 
 
 First doge (or duke) cbosen, Anafesto 
 Paululio ....... 
 
 Venice becomes independent of the 
 eastern empire, and acquires the mari- 
 time cities of Dalmatia and Istria 
 
 Its navy and commerce increases . 1000-1100 
 
 Defeats the fleet of Frederic Barbarossa 1177 
 
 Helps in the Latin conquest of Constan- 
 tinople, and obtains power in the 
 East (1204), for which it contends with 
 Genoa 1350-81 
 
 War with the Turks ; Venice loses many 
 of its eastern possessions . . 1461-77 
 
 Helps to overcome Charles VIII. . . 1495 
 
 Injured by the discovery of America 
 (1492), and the passage to the Indies . 1497 
 
 Subdued by the league of Cambray . 1508 
 
 The Turks take Cyprus . . a.d. 1571 
 
 And Candia 1669 
 
 Venice recovers part of the Morea . 1683-99 
 
 But loses it again 1739 
 
 Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, 
 by the treaty of Campo Formio, gives 
 part of its territory to Austria, and 
 annexes the rest to the Cisalpine 
 
 republic 1797 
 
 The whole of Venice annexed to the 
 kingdom of Italy by the treaty of 
 
 Presburg 1805 
 
 All Venice transferred to the empire of 
 
 Austria 1814 
 
 Venice declared a free port . Jan. 24, 1830 
 Insurrection — the city surrenders to the 
 Austrians after a long siege . . 1848 
 
 Venice has had 122 doges : Anafesto, a.d. 697, 
 to Louis Marini, 1797. 
 
 VENTILATORS. Invented by the rev. Dr. Hales, and his account of them read to 
 the Royal Society of London, May 1741. The ventilator for the use of the king's 
 men-of-war was announced in London by Mr. Triewald, in November, same year. 
 The marquess of Chabanne's plan for warming and ventilating theatres and houses 
 for audiences was applied to those of London in 1819. The systems of Dr. Reid and 
 others followed. Dr. Arnott's work on this subject was published in 1838. 
 
 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- 
 triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of their 
 bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordinary manner. 
 
 x s 
 
VEN 674 VES 
 
 Exhibitors of this kind have appeared iu England in various ages, but some of 
 extraordinary capabilities iu their art exhibited in the last century. Mr. Thomas 
 King is said to have been the first man whose experimental philosophy, shown 
 in this line, excited great wondei*, about 1716. Nearly all the fashionable world 
 attended to hear him imitate the " killing a calf." One of the most accomplished 
 professors of ventriloquism that ever appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, 
 about 1822. 
 
 VENUS, the PLANET. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by 
 Horrox, in 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
 rather calculated, this passage, from which he deduced many iiseful observations. 
 Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 1761. Capt. Cook 
 made his first voyage in the Endeavour, to Otaheite, to observe a transit of Venus, in 
 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of Venus was dis- 
 covered by Cassini in 1712. 
 
 VERNEUIL, BATTLE of. Fought Aug. 17, 1424, between the Burgundians and 
 English under the regent duke of Bedford, and the French, assisted by the Scots, com- 
 manded by the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and Buchan, &c. The French 
 at first were successful, but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the English 
 camp, commenced pillaging, and left the field, as if the day were over. Two thousand 
 English archers came then fresh to the attack, and the French and Scots, in spite of 
 their utmost valour, were totally defeated, and their leaders killed. 
 
 VERSAILLES, PALACE of. In the reign of Louis XIII. Versailles was only a 
 small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a 
 hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XlV. in 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent palace, which 
 was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of the kings of France till 
 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it to Paris. It was after- 
 wards the residence of Louis-Philippe, and is still a royal palace. 
 
 VERSAILLES, PEA.CE of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Biitain and 
 British North America, signed at Paris ; when the latter power was admitted to be a 
 sovereign and independent state. On the same day the definitive treaty was signed 
 at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance 
 of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and Carical, with the former possessions 
 in Bengal, were restored to France. Trincomalee at the same time was restored to 
 the Dutch. 
 
 VERSE. See Poetry. First known in Thrace, 1249 B.C. It is uncertain what species 
 of poetry was first cultivated in Greece. Homer shone as the first epic, and Pindar 
 was the prince of lyric poets. — Vossius. The father of pastoral poetry was Theo- 
 critus, who flourished in the reign of Hiero, about 265 B.C. — Fabric. Bibl. Grcec. 
 Ennius, one of the elder Roman poets, first produced satire, about 200 B.C. After 
 the barbarous nations had conquered Rome, modern poetry or rhyme sprung from 
 the Arabs or the Goths. Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose, were the first 
 who composed hymns, in the middle of the fourth century. Poetry was introduced 
 into England by Aldhelme, first bishop of Sherborn, about a.d. 700. The minstrels 
 of Provence first introduced metrical tales or ballads. Sir Thomas Wyatt was the 
 first who introduced Italian numbers into English versification. 
 
 VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the hei-oic couplet, now used for grave or elevated 
 themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey translated part of VirgiVs 
 jEneid into blank verse, which is the first composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, 
 extant in the English language; and the other measure was but little affected till the 
 - reign of Charles II. The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the 
 stanza of eight lines, the ottava rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by 
 Spenser (iu his Fairy Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the 
 Italian language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
 Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French chansons. — 
 Metropolitan. Trissino is said to have been the first introducer of blank verse among 
 the moderns, about 1508. — Vossitts. The Qrave, by Blair, is the finest specimen of 
 ■ blant verse in the English language, next to that of Milton. — Dr. Johnson. 
 
 VESPERS, the SICILIAN. See Sicilian Vespers. 
 
 VESPERS, the FATAL. In the house of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in 
 London, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three hundred persons in an upper 
 room, the floor of which gave way with the weight, and the whole congregation was 
 
VES 675 VIC 
 
 pi-ecipitated to the street, and the preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, 
 chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catastrophe, which was known as the 
 Fatal Vespers, occurred Oct. 26, 1623. — Stow's Chron. 
 
 VESTA, The planet Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 
 March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. Vesta is considered 
 to be about 225 millions of miles from the Sun, around which it revolves in 1325 
 days, or in three years, seven months and a half — moving at the rate of 44,000 miles 
 in an hour. Some have estimated its diameter at 276 miles, and if so, it will contain 
 229,000 square miles on its surface, but it is probable, from a variety of circumstances, 
 that it is considerably larger in size than what is here stated. 
 
 VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire 
 consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus 
 was one of the Vestals. iEneas is supposed to have first chosen the Vestals. Numa, 
 in 710 B.C. first appointed four, to which number Tarquin added two. They were 
 always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high- 
 priest was entrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were 
 chosen young, from the age of six to ten ; and if there was not a sufficient number 
 that presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were selected, 
 and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. Minutia was 
 buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 B.C. Sextilia, 274 B.C. ; and Cornelia 
 Maximiliana, a.d. 92. 
 
 VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it emitted 
 such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and the cities of 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed by the burning lava, a.d. 79. More than 
 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of those cities; the sun's light was 
 totally obscured for two days throughout Naples ; great quantities of ashes and 
 sulphureous smoke were carried not only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediter- 
 ranean into Africa; birds were suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, 
 and the fishes perished in the neighbouring waters, which were made hot and infected 
 by it. This eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was dis- 
 covered in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
 time ; but everything combustible had the marks of having been burned by fire. 
 Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and loss of life. In 
 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the sur- 
 rounding country, were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known 
 took place suddenly, Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the 34th from 
 the time of Titus, when Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 wa3 most destructive : the lava 
 flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town of Torre 
 del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the crater 
 is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been several eruptions since ; 
 the latest, in May 1855, caused great destruction of property. 
 
 VICE, The. An instrument of which Archytas of Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is 
 said to have been the inventor, along with the pulley and other articles, 420 B.C. 
 
 VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND. An equity judge, appointed by act of parliament, 
 and who first took his seat in the court of chancery, May 5, 1813. A handsome new 
 court was erected about 1816, contiguous to Lincoln' s-inn-hall ; but in term-time this 
 judge sat at a court erected in 1823, at Westminster-hall. Two additional judges, 
 also styled vice-chancellors, with the addition of their surnames, were appointed under 
 act 5 Vict. Oct. 1841. The office of vice-chancellor of Englcmd ceased in August 1850, 
 and a third vice-chancellor was appointed under act 14 Vict. c. 4, 1851 ; and by the 
 act of 14 & 15 Vict. c. 83, same year, two equity judges, styled lords justices, were 
 appointed. See Lords Justices and Lord Chancellors. 
 
 VICTORIA Steam-Packet. Sailed from Hull, for St. Petersburg, on Nov. 1, 1852, and 
 having encountered a dreadful gale of wind, in which she damaged her machinery and 
 rigging, was obliged to return to Hull, where her injuries were repaired, and whence 
 she again sailed on the 7th of same month. But she had scarcely put to sea when 
 another storm arose, more violent than the first, whereby she was a second time 
 severely crippled, and in that state, the tempest continuing to rage with unabated 
 fury, she neared the Wingo Beacon, off Gottenburg, on the rocks round which she 
 struck, and was instantly wrecked. Many of the crew and passengers were drowned ; 
 the remainder with difficulty saved their lives, Nov. 8-9, 1852. She was a splendid 
 
 xx 2 
 
VIC 676 VIC 
 
 sbip, aud her disastrous fate excited the deepest sorrow and sympathy in England, 
 Gottenburg, and St. Petersburg. The storm in which this vessel was lost, was perhaps 
 the most terrible of the many that made the winter of 1852-3 memorable. 
 
 VICTORIA, Dublin and Liverpool Steam-Packet. See Queen Victoria Steam-Packet. 
 
 VICTORIA, or PORT PHILLIP, in Australia, situated between New South Wales 
 and South Australia, the most successful colony in that region. In 1798, Bass, in his 
 whale-boat expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours; and, iu 1802, 
 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. In 1804, colonel Collins landed with a party 
 of convicts with the intention of founding a settlement at Port Phillip, but after- 
 wards removed to Van Diemen's Land. In 1824, Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two 
 stockowners from New South Wales, explored part of the country, but did not 
 discover its great advantages. In 1834, Mr. Henty imported some sheep from Van 
 Diemen's Land; and, in May 1835, Mr. John Batman entered between the heads 
 of Port Phillip and took up a position, and purchased a large tract of land from tbe 
 aborignes for a few gewgaws and blankets. He shortly after, with fifteen associates 
 from Hobarton, took possession of 600,000 acres in the present Geelong country. 
 In 1835, the Launceston Associates and Mr. John Pascoe Fawkener ascended the 
 Yarra-Yarra (or ever-flowing) river, and encamped on the site of Melbourne. The 
 colony made rapid progress. In 1837, the colonists (450 in number; possessed 
 140,000 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses. In 1837, sir R. Bourke, governor of 
 New South Wales, visited the colony, detei'mined the sites of towns, and caused the 
 land to be surveyed and re-sold, setting aside many contending claims. He appointed 
 captain Lonsdale chief-magistrate. (See Melbourne.) In 1839, the prosperity of the 
 colony brought great numbers to it, and induced much speculation and consequent 
 embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1839, Mr. C. J. Latrobe was appointed 
 lieutenant-governor under sir G. Gipps, which office he still retains. In 1851, 
 the province was declared independent of New South Wales. In the same year a 
 reward of 200/. was offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon 
 after found near Melbourne, and was profitably worked in August. In Oct. 7000 
 persons were at Ballarat, and in Nov. 10,000 round Mount Alexander. From 
 Sept. 30 to Dec. 31, 1851, 30,311 ounces of gold were obtained from Ballarat; and 
 from Oct. 29 to Dec. 31, 94,524 ounces from Mount Alexander — total, 124,835 ounces. 
 Immense immigration followed in 1852. See Melbourne. In 1855, a representative 
 constitution was granted to this colony. Population of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 
 1841, 11,738; in 1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345; Dec. 31, 1852, about 200,000; in 
 March 1857 there were 258,116 males and 145,403 females. 
 
 VICTORIA. See Hong Kong. 
 
 VICTORIA CROSS. A new order of merit instituted to reward the gallantry of non- 
 commissioned officers in the army and navy, Feb. 5, 1856. It is a Maltese cross, made 
 of Russian cannon from Sebastopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 persons 
 (of both services) on Friday, June 16, 1857. 
 
 VICTORIA PARK, London. This park was originated by an act passed 4 & 5 Vict. 
 c. 27, June 21, 1841, which enabled her majesty's commissioners of woods and 
 forests to purchase certain lands for a royal park, with the sum of 72,000/. raised 
 by the same act, by the sale of York -house to the duke of Sutherland. The act 
 described the land to be so purchased, containing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of 
 St. John, Hackney, St. Matthew, Bethnal-green, and St. Mary, Stratford-le-Bow, at the 
 east end of London. The park was completed, and opened to the public in 1845. 
 
 VICTORIA RAILWAY-BRIDGE, over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, now erecting. It 
 will be tubular, like the Britannia. The length will be 10,284 feet, about 100 yards 
 less than two English miles ; the height will be sixty feet, between the summer level 
 of the river and the under surface of the central tube. The estimated cost is 
 1,400,000/. ; on Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was car-ried away by floating ice, but the stone- 
 work remained firm. 
 
 VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water-lily, brought to this country from Guiana by 
 sir Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens are at 
 the Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the open air in 
 1855 by Messrs. Weeks of Chelsea. 
 
 VICTORY, MAN-OF-WAR, of 100 guns, the finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, 
 was lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, and its admiral, Balchen, 
 
VIG 677 VIE 
 
 and 100 gentlemen's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 men, perished, 
 October 8, 1744. The flag-ship of the immortal Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar was 
 also called the Victory, and is kept in fine preservation at Portsmouth, where it is 
 the flag-ship in ordinary, and is visited daily by numbers of persons anxious to see the 
 spot where the hero fell, Oct. 21, 1805. 
 
 VICTUALLERS, and LICENSED VICTUALLERS. The trade of victualler in England 
 is traced to very early times, but under thi3 particular name no date can be assigned 
 to it ; it was early under the regulation of statutes. The Vintners' Company of 
 London was founded 1437 ; their hall was rebuilt in 1823. The Licensed Victuallers' 
 School was established in 1803; and the Licensed Victuallers' Asylum, Feb. 22, 1827. 
 It was enacted that none shall sell less than one full quart of the best beer or ale 
 for Id. and two quarts of the smaller sort for Id. James I. 1603. The power of 
 licensing public-houses was granted to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel 
 in 1621. The number in England then was about 13,000. In 1790, there were in 
 Great Britain about 76,000. There were, in 1850 : England, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; 
 Ireland, 14,080 ; total, 88,496. Of persons licensed to sell beer (England only) to be 
 drunk on the premises, 34,800; not to be drunk on the premises, 3270. — Official 
 Returns. See Publicans, Porter, Beer, &c. — Public-houses were allowed to be open on 
 Sundays from the hour of half-past twelve till half-past two in the day-time, and from 
 six till ten in the evening by 11 & 12 Vict. c. 49, 1848 ; and 17 & 18 Vict. c. 7, 1854. 
 In 1855, a committee was appointed to examine into the operation of these acts, and 
 the above time prescribed by them was enlarged by an act passed in accordance with 
 the report of the committee. 
 
 VICTUALLING OFFICE, London. The business of this office is to manage the 
 victualling of the royal navy, and its first institution was in December, 1663. 
 Originally the number of commissioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced 
 to six. This office has undergone various modifications ; its various departments on 
 Tower-hill, St. Catherine's, and Rotherhithe were removed to Deptford in Aug. 1785, 
 and the office to Somerset-house, 1783. 
 
 VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the capital of the 
 Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city in 1136, and was 
 walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. of England, 40,000£. in 1194. 
 Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, with an army of 300,000 men; 
 but he was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of his best troops, 1529. 
 Again besieged in 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, 
 who totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the city 
 from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by the French, under 
 prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805; and evacuated Jan. 12 following. They again captured 
 it, May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once more on the conclusion of peace between the 
 two countries, Oct. 14, same year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and 
 France, Sept. 28, 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See next articles. In 
 the Hungarian war of 1848-9, in an insurrection here, count Latour, minister of war, 
 was assassinated ; Vienna was in the hands of the insurgents, and the emperor fled, 
 Oct. 6, 1848. The imperialists under prince Windischgratz, amounting to 75,000 men, 
 commenced, Oct. 28 following, an attack on the city, which continued until Nov. 1, 
 when they recovered possession of it, totally defeating the Hungarian army. 
 
 VIENNA, TREATY op, with Spain. The celebrated treaty signed between the 
 emperor of Germany and the king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each other 
 such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively possessed of, and by a 
 private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the restoration of 
 Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
 Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 
 
 VIENNA, TREATY of ALLIANCE, between the emperor of Germany, Charles VI., 
 George II. king of Great Britain, and the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic 
 Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated 
 (Spain acceded to the treaty on the 22nd of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 
 
 VIENNA, TREATY or, with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the emperor 
 Charles VI. of Germany, and the king of France, Louis XV. by which the latter power 
 agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
 signed Nov. 18, 1738. See Pragmatic Sanction. 
 
 VIENNA, TREATY of, between Napoleon I. of France and Franc's (II. of Germany) T, 
 
VIE 678 VIM 
 
 of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalruatia, and other 
 territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united to France under the 
 title of the Illyriau Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system 
 adopted towards England by France and Russia, Oct. 14, 1809. 
 
 VIENNA, later TREATIES of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had acted by the treaty 
 of Chaumont, March 1, 1814 ; signed March 23, 1815. The treaty of Vienna between 
 the king of the Low Countries ou the one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
 and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and 
 vesting the sovereignty in the house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of 
 Vienna : Denmark cedes Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for 
 Lauenburg, June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
 June 8, 1815. Commercial treaty for 12 years between Austria and Prussia, signed 
 at Vienna, Feb. 19, 1853. 
 
 VIENNA, CONFERENCES at. After the Russians had passed the Pruth, in July 1 853, 
 a conference of the four great powers, England, Fiance, Austria, and Prussia, was 
 held at Vienna, July 24, when a note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance 
 to St. Petersburg and Constantinople, July 31. This note was accepted by the czar, 
 Aug. 10, but the sultan required modifications which were rejected by Russia, Sept. 7. 
 On Dec. 5, the four powers transmitted a collective note to the Porte deploring the 
 war and requesting to know on what terms the sultan would treat for peace. The 
 sultan replied in a note, dated Dec. 31, containing four points : 1. The promptest 
 possible evacuation of the principalities ; 2. Revision of the treaties ; 3. Maintenance of 
 religious privileges to the communities of all confessions ; 4. A definitive settlement 
 of the convention respecting the holy places. These points were approved by the 
 four powers, Jan. 15, 1854, and the conferences closed on Jan. 16 following. On 
 April 9, 1854, a treaty was signed at Vienna by the representatives of England, 
 France, Austria, and Prussia, for the maintenance of Turkey, evacuation of the prin- 
 cipalities, &c. — A new conference was proposed in Jan. 1855, which met in March, con- 
 sisting of plenipotentiaries from Great Britain (lord John Russell), France (M. Drouin 
 de l'Huys), Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Russia (count Gortscha- 
 koff). Two points, the protectorate of the principalities, and the free navigation of the 
 Danube, were agreed to ; but the proposals of the powers as to the reduction of tho 
 Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the conference was 
 again closed June 5, 1855. The English and French envoys' assent to the Austrian 
 propositions was not approved of by their respective governments, and they both 
 resigned their official positions. 
 
 VIGO, Spain. Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and Dutch fleets, attacked 
 the French fleet and the Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several men-of-war 
 and galleons were taken, and many destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
 valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, Oct. 12, 1702. Vigo was taken 
 by lord Cobharn in 1719, but relinquished after raising contributions. It was taken 
 by the British, March 27, 1809. 
 
 VILLA FRANCA, BATTLE of, in PORTUGAL. Engagement here between the British 
 cavahy, under sir Stapleton Cotton, and the French cavalry of marshal Soult, which 
 ended in the defeat and flight of the latter, April 10, 1812. The next day the wholo 
 province of Estremadura was freed from the enemy. When Bonaparte heard of this 
 battle he is said to have reproached Soult for the first time in his life. 
 
 VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under our Norman princes, his hard labour being the 
 tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to the vill or lordship. 
 A villain was a servant during life, and was devisable as chattels in the feudal times. 
 Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this kind of severe service, by ordering 
 her bondsmen of the western counties to be made free at easy rates, a.d. 1574.- — 
 Stow's Chron. 
 
 VIMEIRA, BATTLE of. Between the British under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the 
 whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshal Junot, duke of 
 Abrautes, whom the British signally defeated, Aug. 21, 1808. The enemy's force 
 was 14,000 men, of whom 1600 were cavalry; they attacked the English in the 
 position of Vimeira early in the morning. The principal assault was upon the 
 British centre aud left, with a view, according to a favourite French expression in 
 those times, of " driving the English into the sea," which was close in their rear. The 
 
VIN 679 VIR 
 
 attack was made with great bravery, but was as gallantly repulsed; it was repeated 
 by Kellerman at the head of the French reserve, which was also repulsed ; and the 
 French, being charged with the bayonet, witkdi'evv on all points in confusion, leaving 
 many prisoners, among them a general officer, and 14 cannon, with ammunition, &c, 
 in the hands of the British. The loss of the French in killed and wounded was 
 estimated at 1800; that of the British was 720. Only about one-half of the British 
 force was actually engaged. — Sir W. F. P. Napier. 
 
 VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, 
 settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, vine-dressing, and 
 commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think the vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Pro- 
 vence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the Mediterranean shores of 
 Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
 Germany, a.d. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was 
 planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and 
 celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes and Wine. 
 
 VINE DISEASE. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of Margate, observed a fungus 
 (since named Oidiiim Tuckeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of Margate. 
 It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The spores of this o'idium were 
 found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trellised 
 vines, and in 1850, many lost all their produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, 
 Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to 
 one-twelfth of the usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira 
 ceased for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of the 
 disease, but without much effect. It has abated in France, but not in Portugal (1857). 
 
 VINEGAR. Known nearly as early as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, 
 which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their 
 marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar 
 for his reapers, into which they might dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to 
 share with them in their repast (b.c. 1312) : hence we may infer that the harvesters, 
 at that period, partook of this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent 
 in Spain and Italy. 
 
 VINEGAR-HILL, BATTLE or, in Ireland. Between the British troops and the Irish 
 insurgent forces, in the memorable rebellion of 1798. This was an obstinate conflict, 
 in which much blood was shed on both sides, and the rebels suffered a severe defeat, 
 though they claimed the victory from their having killed so many of the king's troops; 
 fought June 21 in that year. — Sir R. Musgrave. 
 
 VIOL and VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, so the 
 viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The viol was of various 
 sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very much in use for chamber 
 airs and songs. That of three strings was introduced into Europe by the jugglers of 
 the thirteenth century. The violin was invented towards the close of the same 
 century. — Abbe Lenglet. It is mentioned as early as a.d. 1200, in the legendary life 
 of St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. 
 
 VIRGIN, The. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
 churches, in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according to their 
 belief, Aug. 15, a.d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated Nov. 21, 
 said to have been instituted among the Greeks in the eleventh century ; its institution 
 in the West is ascribed to Gregory XL 1 372. A distinguished writer says : " The 
 Indian incarnate god Chrishna, the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal 
 race, and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years B.C. It appears 
 that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to 
 wash his friends' feet : at length dying, but rising from the dead, he ascended into 
 heaven in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate nearly the same things 
 of their Budda." — Sir William Jones. 
 
 VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, 
 became enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she 
 resided. She was claimed by one of his favomites as the daughter of a slave, and 
 Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, 
 and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent 
 proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and 
 when this request was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's 
 
VIR 680 VOL 
 
 breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter, I can give thee to preserve thee from 
 the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius ran to the camp 
 with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were astonished and incensed, Dot 
 against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they immediately marched to Home. Appius 
 was seized, but he destroyed himself in prison, and prevented the execution of the 
 law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's 
 views, killed himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favourite of Appius, was put to 
 death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 B.C. 
 
 VIRGINIA, America. Discovered by John Cabot, in 1497. It was taken possession of, 
 and named by Raleigh, after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, July 13, 1584. Attempts 
 were made to settle it in 1585. Two colonies went out by patent in 1606, and others 
 in 1610. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; and a more permanent colony was esta- 
 blished soon afterwards. This was the first British settlement in North America. 
 See Colonies and United States. 
 
 VISCOUNT. Anciently the name of an office under an earl, Vice Comes, who being 
 oftentimes required at court, was his deputy, to look after the affairs of the county ; 
 but in the reign of Henry VI. it became a degree of honour, and was made 
 hereditary. The first viscount in England created by patent was John lord Beau- 
 mont, whom Henry created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all 
 barons, 1439, Feb. 1440. — Ashmole. This title, however, is of older date in Ireland 
 and France. John Barry, lord Barry, was made viscount Buttevant, in Ireland, 
 9 Rich. II. 1385. — Beatson. 
 
 VISIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed in 1370. Formerly 
 this officer governed the whole empire immediately under the grand seignior; he is 
 sometimes called the grand seignior's lieutenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his 
 creation, the prince's seal is put into his hand, upon which is engraven the emptror's 
 name, which he places in his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 
 
 VISIGOTHS. Valeus admitted these barbarians into the Roman territories upon the 
 condition of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the 
 Great permitted them to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers ; an 
 impolitic measure, which separated their interests from those of the state at large, 
 and enabled them upon every occasion of real or supposed offence to shake the empire 
 to its centre. See Rome. They began their kingdom of Toulouse A.D. 414 ; and con- 
 quered the Alains, and extended their rule into Spain, 417; they expelled the Romans 
 from Spain in 468 ; and finally were themselves conquered by the Saracens under 
 Muca, Sept. 3, 713, when their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an 
 obstinate engagement. 
 
 VITTORIA, BATTLE of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in the annals of 
 England, obtained by the illustrious Wellington over the French army commanded 
 by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal Jourdan, June 21,1813. The hostile 
 armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a long and fearful 
 battle, the French were driven, towards evening, through the town of Vittoria. and in 
 their retreat were thrown into irretrievable confusion, being followed after dark by 
 the allied British, Spanish, and Portuguese. The British loss was twenty-two officers, 
 479 men killed, and 167 officers, and 2640 men wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 
 pieces of cannon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, cattle, and 
 treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, 
 Wellington took Jourdan's only remaining gun. 
 
 VIVARIUM. See Aquavivarium. 
 
 VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth's surface there are above 200 volcanoes, 
 which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of Mount Etna are recorded 
 as early as 734 B c. by authentic historians. See Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius 
 was in a.d. 79. See Vesuvius. The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred 
 a.d. 1004. Foran account of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783, see Iceland. 
 In Mexico, a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
 by the burning lava from a volcano, in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke 
 out Sept. 13, 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red water, that dis- 
 coloured the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the Azore 
 islands, May 1, 1808. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE, or BATTERY. Discovered in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, of Como, 
 for thirty years professor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, who was made an Italian 
 
VOL 681 WAG 
 
 count and a senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was otherwise honoured for hi3 
 many discoveries in galvanism or animal electricity, to which science he had par- 
 ticularly directed his attention. He died in 1826, aged 81. See Electricity. 
 
 VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contributions for the support of the British 
 government against the policy and designs of France : they amounted to two millions 
 and a half sterling in 1798. About 200,000Z. were transmitted to England from India 
 in 1799. Sir Robert Peel, of Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, sub- 
 scribed 10,000Z. — Annual Register. See Patriotic Fund, 
 
 VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of the 
 threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides our large army, and 
 85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 Germans, raised our militia to 
 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 
 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000, of which 70,000 
 were Irish. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on 
 Jan. 1, 1804. See Naval Coast Volunteers. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS, the IRISH. The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed at 
 Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, Oct. 12, 1779. They armed 
 generally to the amount of 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the 
 houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their patriotism and spirit, for coming 
 forward and defending their country. At the period when the force appeared, Ii-ish 
 affairs bore a serious aspect; manufactures had decreased, and foreign trade had 
 been hurt by a prohibition of the export of salted provisions and butter. No notice 
 of the complaints of the people had been taken in the English parliament, when, 
 owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an 
 immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this occasion to demand a free 
 trade, and government saw there was no trifling with a country with arms in its 
 hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the king for a free trade, and 
 it was granted, 1779. 
 
 VOSSEM, PEACE op. This was the celebrated treaty of peace entered into between the 
 elector of Brandenburg and the king of France ; by this treaty the latter, Louis XIV. 
 engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector, which was the chief object of the 
 treaty. It was signed June 16, 1673. 
 
 VOUGLE, or VOUILLE, BATTLE, of. Fought with a vast army on each side, 
 between Alaric II. king of the Visigoths, and Clovis, king of France, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Poictiers, a.d. 507. By this battle, in which Alaric was overthrown and 
 slain, Clovis immediately after subdued the whole country from the Loire to the 
 Pyrenees, and his kingdom became firmly established. A peace followed between the 
 Franks and the Visigoths, who had been settled above a hundred years in _ that part 
 of Gaul, called Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris the capital of his 
 kingdom. — Henault. 
 
 VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, was by order of 
 Pharaoh-necho, of Egypt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from Egypt down_ the 
 Arabian Gulf, round what is. now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the Mediter- 
 ranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length 
 arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 B.C. — Blair ; Herodotus. 
 The first voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron 
 which had been under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine 
 Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery was the end of the 
 eighteenth century. See Circumnavigators, and North-West Passage. 
 
 w. 
 
 WADHAM COLLEGE, Oxford. Founded by Nicholas Wadham, esq. of Edge and 
 Merrifield, in Somersetshire, and Dorothy, his wife, in a.d. 1611-12. It was in this 
 college, in the chambers of Dr. Wilkins, that the Royal Society frequently met prior 
 to 1658 : their meetings were held in a chamber immediately over the gateway of the 
 college. See Royal Society. 
 
 "WAGER of BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereby the 
 defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby whether 
 
WAG 682 WAK 
 
 he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him. Repealed by statute 
 59 Geo. III. 1819. For the remarkable case of Abraham Thornton, the murderer of 
 Mary Ashford, which led to the repeal of this act, see Appeal. 
 
 WAGES in ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen were first fixed by act of 
 parliament, 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master 
 carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3d. per 
 day (about 9d. of our money); and their servants, l^d. — Viner's Statutes. By the 
 23rd Henry VI. 1444, the wages of a bailiff of husbandry was 23s. id. per annum, and 
 clothing of the price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s. 
 clothing, 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s. clothing, 4 0d.; wonian-servant, 10s. 
 clothing, 4s. By the 11th Hen. VII. 1495, there was a like rate of wages, only with 
 a little advance : as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, rough mason, 
 bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, was allowed from Easter 
 to Michaelmas to take 6d. a day, without meat and drink ; or with meat and drink, 
 4d. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate Id. A master having under him six men 
 was allowed Id. a day extra. The following were the 
 
 WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS: — 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 S. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 In 1350 
 
 per dieni 
 
 1 
 
 In 1716 
 
 per diem 
 
 9 
 
 In 1794 
 
 per diem 
 
 1 6 
 
 In 1460 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 
 
 In 1740 
 
 ditto 
 
 10 
 
 In 1S00 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 
 
 In 1508 
 
 ditto 
 
 4 
 
 In 1760 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 
 
 In 1850 
 
 ditto 
 
 3 
 
 In L632 
 
 ditto 
 
 G 
 
 Iu 1788 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 4 
 
 In 1857 
 
 ditto 
 
 5 
 
 In 1688 
 
 ditto 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 WAGGONS, &c. Those of the description now going out of London from the carriers' 
 inns were rare in the last century. Joseph Brasbridge, writing in 1824, says: "I 
 recollect the first large broad-wheeled waggon that was used in Oxfordshire, and a 
 wondering crowd of spectators its vast size attracted. I believe at the time there 
 was not a post-coach in England, except two-wheeled ones. Lamps to carriages are 
 also a modern improvement. A shepherd, who was keeping sheep in the vicinity of a 
 village in Oxfordshire, came running over to say, that a frightful monster, with saucer- 
 eyes, and making a great blowing noise, was coming towards the village. This 
 monster turned out to be a post-chaise with lamps." Waggons, together with carts, 
 vans, &c. not excepting those used in agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' 
 waggons are now nearly altogether superseded by the railways. 
 
 WAGHORN'S NEW OVERLAND ROUTE to INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn, a most enter- 
 prising naval officer, devoted a large portion of his valuable life to connect our 
 possessions in India more nearly in point of time with the mother country. On 
 Oct. 31, 1845, he arrived in Loudon, by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 
 1st of that month. His despatches reached Suez on the 19th, and Alexandria on 
 the 20th, whence he proceeded by steam-boat to a place twelve miles nearer Loudon 
 than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and 
 reached London at half-past four on the morning of the first-mentioned day. The 
 authorities of the different countries through which he passed eagerly facilitated his 
 movements. The ordinary express, vid Marseilles, reached London, Nov. 2, following.* 
 Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to The Times newspaper, in which he 
 stated that in a couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to London in 21 
 days. Death, however, put a period to his patriotic career, January 8, 1850. 
 
 WAGRAM, BATTLE of. Between the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter 
 army was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The slaughter on 
 both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the defeated 
 army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This battle led to an armistic, signed on 
 the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty of peace, by which Austria ceded all her 
 sea-coast to France, and the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her 
 expense. The emperor was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland 
 in Gallicia to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
 Spain. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, BATTLE of. Between Margaret, the queen of Henry VI. and the duke 
 of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell upon the field. The 
 death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to fix the good fortune of 
 
 * The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on the 1st of December, 1S45, arrived early on the 30th 
 in London, by way of Marseilles and Paris. This speedy arrival was owing to tlic great exertions made 
 by the French government to show that the route through France was the shortest and best. 
 
WAL 
 
 683 
 
 WAL 
 
 Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick espoused the cause of the duke's son, the earl of 
 March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war that was continued from that time 
 devastated all England. This battle was fought December 31, 1460. 
 
 WALBROOK CHURCH, London. Famous all over Europe, and justly reputed the 
 masterpiece of sir Christopher Wren. It is more celebrated on the continent than 
 the Cathedral of St. Paul's or Westminster Abbey. Perhaps Italy itself can produce 
 no modern building that can vie with this in taste or proportion. There is not 
 a beauty which the plan would admit of, that is not to be found in perfection. There 
 was a church in this parish as early as 1135. A new church was erected in 1429. 
 The first stone of the present church was laid in 1672 ; and the edifice, as it now 
 stands, was completed in 1679. 
 
 WALCHEREN EXPEDITION. The unfortunate expedition of the British to Walcheren 
 in 1809 consisted of 35 ships of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally trans- 
 ports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under the command of the earl of Chatham, 
 and the fleet under sir Richard Strahan. For a long time the destination of this 
 expedition remained secret; but before July 28, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
 journals had announced that Walcheren was the point of attack. Perhaps a more 
 powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left the British ports, 
 or ever more completely disappointed public expectation. Flushing was invested in 
 August, and a dreadful bombardment followed ; but no suggestion on the part of the 
 naval commander, nor urgency on the part of the officers, could induce the earl to 
 vigorous action, until the period of probable success was gone, and necessity obliged 
 him to return with the troops that disease and an unhealthy climate had spared. The 
 place was completely evacuated, Dec. 23, 1809. The house of commons instituted an 
 inquiry, and lord Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, to 
 prevent greater disgrace ; but the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
 nevertheless, approved. 
 
 WALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth century 
 led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope Innocent III. had 
 commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in Nar- 
 bonne and Provence ; but the Romish bishops were at first jealous of this mission, 
 armed as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of 
 the legates, a.d. 1203-4. One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, 
 having been assassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighbouring powers 
 to march into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at the dis- 
 posal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the whole race of the 
 Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued with fire and sword. Neither 
 sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the country became a wilderness, aud the towns 
 heaps of smoking ruins. Such was the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman 
 was constituted first inquisitor-general, 1208. 
 
 WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected 
 king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons, to defend his country against 
 the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting 
 of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made themselves masters of South 
 Britain, and most of the ancient Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves 
 against the Saxons, in its inaccessible mountains, about a.d. 447. In this state 
 Wales remained unconquered till Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; and in 
 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independ- 
 ence by the death of Llewelyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
 . entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought to bed 
 of a son at Caernarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled him prince of Wales, 
 which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost ever since. 
 Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 27 Hen. VIII. 
 1535. See Britain. 
 
 The supreme authority in Britannia Se- 
 cunda is intrusted to Suetonius Pauli- 
 nus ...... a.d. 5S 
 
 Conquests by Julius Frontinus . . . 70 
 The Silures totally defeated ... 70 
 The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands 
 
 in Britain 78 
 
 Bran ab Llyr, sumamed the Blessed, 
 
 dies about 80 
 
 Reign of Caswallon 443 
 
 The ancient Britons defend themselves 
 
 against the Saxons . . .a.d. 447 
 
 Defeat of the northern barbarians by 
 
 the Christian Britons .... 448 
 
 The renowned Arthur elected king . 517 
 
 Reign of Roderic the Great . . . 843 
 
 [He unites the petty states of Wales into 
 one principality.] 
 
 Death of Roderic the Great . . .877 
 
WAL 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALES, continued. 
 
 Division of Wales . . . a.d. 877 
 The Danes land iu Anglesey . . . 900 
 
 Descent of the Irish 913 
 
 Ravages of North Wales by the chiefs 
 
 Javav and lago .... 949 
 
 Great battle between the sons of Hy wel 
 
 Dda and the sons of Edwal Voel ; the 
 
 latter victorious 952 
 
 Another descent of Irish marauders on 
 
 Anglesey ...... 9C6 
 
 Danes again invade Wales . . . . 969 
 
 They lay Anglesey waste . . . 979 
 
 Invasion of Alfred 982 
 
 New Danish invasion .... 987 
 Devastations committed by Edwin, the 
 
 son of Eineon 990 
 
 The country reduced by Aedan, prince 
 
 of North Wales 1000 
 
 Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by 
 
 Llewelyn ...... 1015 
 
 Bhun, the fierce Scot, defeated near 
 
 Caermarthen 1020 
 
 The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated 
 
 with great slaughter .... 1021 
 Jestin defeated and slain . . . . 10ol 
 Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of 
 
 Harold 1055 
 
 Rhys overthrown and slain . . . 1056 
 Rhys ab Owain slain .... 1074 
 The invasion of the earl of Chester, and 
 
 his ravages 1079 
 
 Invasion of the Irish and Scots . . 1080 
 Battle of Llechryd 1087 
 
 [In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab 
 Cynvyn wei-e slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, 
 the reigning prince.] 
 
 Rhys ab Tewdwr slain .... 10S7 
 The formidable insurrection of Payne 
 
 Tuberville 1094 
 
 Invasion of the English under the earls 
 
 of Chester and Shrewsbury . . . 1096 
 The settlement in Wales of a colony of 
 
 Flemings 1106 
 
 Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald 
 
 de Windsor, by Owain, sou of Cadw- 
 
 gan ab Bleddyn 1107 
 
 [This outrage entailed dreadful retribu- 
 tion on Cadwgan's family.] 
 
 Cadwgan assassinated . . . .1110 
 Gruffydd ab Rhys lays claim to the sove- 
 reignty 1113 
 
 Another body of Flemings settle in Pem- 
 brokeshire 1113 
 
 [The posterity of these settlers are still 
 distinguished from the ancient British 
 population by their language, man- 
 ners, and customs.] 
 
 Revolt of the Welsh on the death of 
 Henry 1 1135 
 
 Part of South Wales laid waste by Owain 
 Gwynedd and Cadwaladr . . . 1135 
 
 Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested 
 with the powers of a count palatine in 
 Pembroke . .... 113S 
 
 Henry II. invades Wales, which he sub- 
 sequently subdues 1157 
 
 Complete defeat of the English fleet off 
 Anglesey 1157 
 
 Confederacy of the princes of Wales for 
 the recovery of their lost rights and 
 independence 1164 
 
 Anglesey devastated .... 1173 
 
 The crusades preached in Wales by Bald- 
 win, archbishop of Canterbury . . 1188 
 
 Powys castle besieged .... 1191 
 
 The earl of Chester makes an inroad into 
 North Wales .... a.D. 1210 
 
 Invasion of North Wales by king John 
 of England 1211 
 
 King John again invades Wales, laying 
 waste a great part of the principalities 1215 
 
 Revolt of the Flemings .... 1220 
 
 Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, com- 
 mits great ravages 1220 
 
 Death of Maelgwy ab Rhys . . . 1230 
 
 Powys castle taken by Llewelyn ab Ior- 
 werth's forces 1233 
 
 William, earl of Pembroke, slain . . 1234 
 
 Invasion of Henry III 1245 
 
 Anglesey again devastated . . . 1245 
 
 The English army, under Henry, van- 
 quished by the Welsh . . . . 1254 
 
 Convention of the Welsh nobility against 
 the English 1258 
 
 Hay and Brecknock castles taken by 
 prince Edward 1205 
 
 Invasion of Edward 1 1277 
 
 Edward encamps a powerful army on 
 Saltney marsh 1277 
 
 The sons of Grufydd treacherously 
 drowned in the river Dee, by the earl 
 Warrenne and Rigcr Mortimer . . 1281 
 
 Hawarden castle taken by surprise by 
 Llewelyn 12.N2 
 
 Great battle between Llewelyn ab Gru- 
 fydd, the last native prince, and the 
 English ; Llewelyn slain, after the 
 battle, by De Franeton . Dec. 10, 1282 
 
 Wales entirely and finally subdued by 
 Edward 1 1282 
 
 The first English prince of Wales, son 
 of Edward, born at Caernarvon castle. 
 See Wales, Prince of . . April 25, 1284 
 
 The insurrection of Madoc; suppressed 
 by Edward 1 1294 
 
 Formidable rebellion e x cited by Lie wely n 
 Bren 1315 
 
 Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or 
 Owen Glendower, commences . . 1400 
 
 Radnor and other places taken by Owain 
 Glyndwr 1401 
 
 He besieges Caernarvon . . . . 14n2 
 
 And seizes Harlech castle . . . 1404 
 
 Harlech castle retaken by the English 
 forces 14C8 
 
 Owain Glyndwr dies .... 1416 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. 
 takes refuge in Harlech castle . . 1459 
 
 Town of Denbigh biu-nt .... 1400 
 
 The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry 
 VII., lands in Pembroke, and is aided 
 by the Welsh . . . Aug. 1485 
 
 Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abolished 
 by Henry VI 11 1535 
 
 Monmouth made an English county by 
 the same king 1535 
 
 The counties of Brecknock, Denbigh, 
 and Radnor formed . . . . 1535 
 
 Act for "laws and justice to be admi- 
 nistered in Wales in same form as in 
 England," 27 Henry VIII. . . . 1535 
 
 Dr. Ferrars, bishop of St. David's, burnt 
 at the stake for heresy . ... 1555 
 
 Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, 
 attacked and murdered while on his 
 assize tour 1555 
 
 First congregation of dissenters assem- 
 bled in Wales ; Vavasour Powel appre- 
 hended while preaching . . . 1620 
 
 Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king 
 Charles I. . . ... 1642 
 
 Powys castle taken by sir Thomas Myd- 
 delton Oct. 1644 
 
 Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, 
 beheaded on Tower-hill . Jan. 10, 1645 
 
WAL 
 
 685 
 
 WAL 
 
 WALES, continued. 
 
 Surrender of Ha warden castle to the par- 
 liament general Mytton . . . 1645 
 Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh . . 1645 
 Rhuddlan castle surrenders . . . 1645 
 Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's 
 
 army under Mytton . . . . 1647 
 
 Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh totally 
 
 defeated by col. Horton, Cromwell's 
 lieutenant .... May 8, 1648 
 
 Beaumaris castle surrenders to Crom- 
 well's arms 1648 
 
 Colonel Poyer shot; his fate decided by 
 lot* April 25, 1649 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 
 
 688. Idwallo. 
 
 720. Rhodri, or Roderic. 
 
 755. Conan, or Cynan. 
 
 81S. Mervyn, or Merfyn. 
 
 813. Roderic, surnamed the Great. 
 
 PRINCES OF NORTH WALES. 
 
 877. Anarawd. 
 
 913. Edwal Voel. 
 
 939. Howel Dha, or Hywel Dda, surnamed 
 
 the Good, prince of all Wales. 
 948. Jevaf or Jevav, and Iago. 
 972. Howel ap Jevaf, or Hywel ab Jevav. 
 9S4. Cadwallon ab Jevaf. 
 985. Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha, or 
 
 Meredydd ab Owain ab Hywel Dda. 
 992. Edwal ab Meyric ab Edwal Voel. 
 998. Aedan, a usurper. 
 1015. Llewelyn ab Sitsyllt, and Angharad 
 
 his wife. 
 1021. Iago ab Edwal ab Meyric. 
 1038. Griffith, or Grufydd ab Llewelyn ab 
 
 Sitsyllt. 
 1061. Bleddyn and Rygwallon. 
 1073. Trahaern ab Caradoc. 
 1079. Griffith ap Conan, or Grufydd ab Cynan. 
 1137. Owain Gwynedd. 
 1169. David ab Owain Gwynedd. 
 1194. Leolinus Magnus. 
 1240. David ab Llewelyn. 
 1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, or Grufydd, last 
 prince of the blood : slain after bat- 
 tle, in 1282. 
 
 PRINCES OF SOUTH WALES. 
 
 877 Cadeth, or Cadell. 
 
 907. Howel Dha, or Hywel Dda, the Good, 
 
 prince of all Wales. 
 94S. Owen ap Howel Dha, or Owain ap 
 
 Hywel Dda, his son. 
 
 987. Meredith ap Owen, or Meredydd ab 
 
 Owain ; all Wales. 
 993. Lfewelyn ap Sitsyllt, and Angharad his 
 
 wife • 
 
 1021. Ry;herch, or Rhydderch ab Jestyn; 
 
 a usurper. 
 1031. Hywel and Meredydd. 
 1042. Rhydderch and Rhys, the sons of the 
 
 usurper. 
 1061. Meredydd ab Owain ab Edwyn. 
 1073. Rhys ab Owen, or Owain, and Rhyd- 
 derch ab Caradoc. 
 1077. Rhys ab Tewdwr Mawr. 
 1092. Cadwgan ab Bleddyn. 
 1115. Griffith, or Grufydd ab Rhys. 
 1137. Rhys ab Grufydd, or Griffith, called the 
 
 lord Rhys. 
 1196. Grufydd ab Rhys. 
 1202. Rhys ab Grufydd. 
 1222. Owain ab Grufydd. 
 1235. Meredith, or Meredydd ab Owain ; he 
 
 died in 1267. 
 
 PRINCES AND LORDS OF POWYS-LAND. 
 
 S77. Merfyn, or Mervyn. 
 
 900. Cadeth, or Cadell ; also prince of South 
 
 Wales. 
 927. Howel Dha, or Hywel Dda, the Good, 
 
 prince of Wales. 
 
 985. Meredydd ab Owain. 
 
 * * * * ' * 
 
 1061. Bleddyn ab Cynvyn. 
 1073. Meredydd ab Bleddyn. 
 1087. Cadwgan ab Bleddyn. 
 1132. Madoc ab Meredydd. 
 1160. Griffith, or Grufydd ab Meredydd. 
 ***** 
 
 1256. Gwenwinwin, or Gwenwynwyn. 
 1256. Owain ab Grufydd. 
 
 [See England.] 
 
 WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of Edward I. 
 who was born in Caernarvon castle on the 25th April, 1284. Immediately after his 
 birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh chieftains as their future sovereign, 
 the king holding up the royal infant in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, 
 " Eich Dyn," literally in English, " This is your man," but signifying " This is your 
 countiyman and king." These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some 
 historians assert, to "Ich Dien," which is the motto attached to the arms of the 
 princes of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
 prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II. in 1307. — 
 Myvyrian Archaeology, Hist. Wales. For another and very different account of the 
 origin of the motto " Ich Dien" see the article under that head. 
 
 WALES, PRINCESS of. This title was held, some authors say, during the earlier 
 period of her life, by the princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII. 
 
 * At the commencement of the civil war of the 17th century, Pembroke castle was the only Welsh 
 fortress in the possession of the parliament, and it was intrusted to the command of Colonel Langharne. 
 In 164 7, this officer and colonels Powel and Poyer embraced the cause of the king, and made Pembroke 
 their head-quarters; and after their disastrous defeat at the battle of St. Fagan's, they retired to the 
 castle, followed by an army led by Cromwell in person. Here they were besieged, and at length 
 capitulated, the garrison having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langharne, Powel, and 
 Poyer were tried by a court-martial, and condemned to death ; but Cromwell having been induced to 
 spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that they should draw lots for the favour, and three 
 papers were folded up, on two of which were written the words, "Life given by God," and the third 
 was left blank. The latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above day. 
 — Pennant. Hist, of Pembroke. 
 
WAL 686 WAN 
 
 and afterwards queen Mary I. She was created, they state, by her father princess of 
 Wales, in order to conciliate the Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was, they 
 add, the first and only princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed until 
 the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards Edward VI. born in 1537. This is, 
 however, denied, upon better authority, that of Banks. 
 
 WALKING, &c. FEATS in. Captain Barclay's celebrated match against time has till 
 lately been accounted the most wonderful performance upon record. See Barclay. 
 In May, 1758, a youug lady at Newmarket won a wager, having undertaken to ride 
 1000 miles in 1000 hours, which feat she performed in little more than two-thirds «of 
 the time. Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of captain 
 Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack tavern 
 cricket-ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and completed 
 the 1000 miles, July 29 following, winning a considerable sum. 
 
 WALLACHIA. See Danuhian Principalities. 
 
 WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis set sail from England on his voyage round the 
 world, July 26, 1766; and accomplishing his voyage, he returned to England, May 20, 
 1768, a period of less than two years. See Circumnavigators. 
 
 WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke 
 of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of Spain. On account of the 
 duke's religious proscriptions, those countries revolted from Philip, 1566. — Mariana's 
 Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were well received in England. A large protestant 
 church was given to them by queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their 
 posterity still remain in this part of England. — Pardon. 
 
 WALNUT-TREE. This tree has existed a long time in England. Near Welwyn, in 
 Hertfordshire, there was the largest walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and 
 from it were cut nineteen loads of planks: and as much was sold to a gunsmith in 
 London as cost 10/. carriage; besides which there w T ere thirty loads of roots and 
 branches. When standing, it covered 76 poles of ground ; a space equal to 2299 square 
 yards statute measure. A sitting-room twelve feet in diameter was lately shown in 
 London, hollowed from an American walnut-tree, 80 feet in the trunk, and 150 feet in 
 the branches. The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra) was brought to these countries 
 from North America before 1 629. 
 
 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, and earl of 
 Orford) became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer in 1715. 
 He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking-fund bill 
 on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on the earl of Sun- 
 derland retiring, in 1721. His latter administration consisted of (besides himself, as 
 first lord of the treasui'y), Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, loi'd 
 chancellor ; Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of Devonshire), lord 
 president ; Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), privy seal ; James, 
 earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty ; Charles, viscount Towushend, and John, 
 lord Cartaret (the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secretaries of state ; 
 duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), ordnance ; right hon. George 
 Treby (succeeded by right hon. Henry Pelham), secretary -at- war; Viscount Torring- 
 ton, &c. He continued as premier until 1742. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this personage : — 
 His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When they were dragging 
 Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-Hall, he struck him on the back, saying, " Go 
 faster, Jesus ! go faster ; why dost thou linger ? " Upon which Jesus looked on him 
 with a frown, aud said, "I am indeed going; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon 
 after he was converted, and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever; but at the 
 end of every hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which, when he recovers, 
 he returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, being 
 about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity of deportment. 
 He was never seen to smile. He perfectly remembers the death and resurrection of 
 Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bible. 
 
 WANDSWORTH, near London. In this village was established the first place of 
 worship for dissenters in England, Nov. 20, 1572. It was called Wandsworth 
 meeting-house. And in Garrett-lane, near this place, a mock election was formerly 
 held, after every general election of parliament, of a mayor of Garrett ; to which 
 Foote's dramatic piece, The Mayor of Garratt, gave no small celebrity. 
 
WAR 
 
 687 
 
 WAR 
 
 WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
 Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 
 sister to Richard III. to personate her nephew, Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which 
 he did first ia Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by 
 Henry VII. 1493. 
 
 Made aii attempt to land at Kent with 600 
 men, when 150 were taken prisoners and 
 executed, 1495. 
 
 Eecommended by the king of Prance to 
 James IV. of Scotland, who gave him his 
 kinswoman, lord Huntley's daughter, in 
 marriage, the same year. James IV. in- 
 vaded England in his favour, 1496. 
 
 Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in 
 
 Cornwall, where 3000 joined him, and he 
 took the title of Eiehard IV. 1497. 
 
 Taken prisoner by Henry VII. 1498. 
 
 Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheap- 
 side, and sent to the Tower, 1499. 
 
 Plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape 
 out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, 
 for which he was hanged at Tyburn, 1499. 
 
 WARDIAN CASES. In 1829 Mr. N. B. Ward observed a small fern and grass growing 
 in a closed glass bottle in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth. 
 From this circumstance he was led to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, 
 which afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and which exclude deleterious gases, 
 smoke, &c. They are particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were employed 
 for the transmission of plants to Sydney, &c, with great success. Mr. Faraday 
 lectured on thi3 subject in 1838. 
 
 WARRANTS, GENERAL. Warrants that did not specify the name of the accused. 
 They were declared to be illegal and unconstitutional by lord chief justice Pratt, 
 the question having been raised upon the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes to the 
 Tower for a libel on the king. The question also gave rise to some stormy debates in 
 the house of commons. After the decision of the court of common pleas in favour 
 of Wilkes, he brought an action against lord Halifax, then secretary of state, and 
 recovered 4000/. damages for having been imprisoned upon an illegal warrant : Wilkes 
 laid his damages at 20,000£. Nov. 10, 1796. — Annual Register. 
 
 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of princes." Scriptural writers date 
 the first war as having been begun by the impious son of Cain, 3563 B.C. Osymandyas 
 of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
 2100 B.C. — Usher. He is supposed by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most 
 famous siege recorded in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 B.C. 
 The longest siege was that of Azotb, 647 B.C. It is computed that to the present time, 
 no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle, being more than 
 six times as many of the human species as now inhabit our whole earth. 
 
 WARS, CIVIL, of GREAT BRITAIN. The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
 Britain were the following : — The war of the barons against Henry III. 1265 ; of the 
 usurpation of Henry IV. 1400; of the White and Red Roses, or nouses of York and 
 Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. The war between Richard III. and Henry VII. 1485. 
 The war against Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the 
 Pretender, 1715-16; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under 
 Tyrone, 1599 ; under O'Neil, 1641 ; and the great rebellion, 1798. See Rebellions, &c. 
 
 WARS, FOREIGN, op GREAT BRITAIN. The wars in France, in which England 
 ■was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy being 
 kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of France ; and when 
 William I. conquered England, it became an English province, but was lost in the 
 reign of king John, 1204. Our wars with France were many : the English princes 
 gained great and memorable victories at Cressy, Poictiers, and Agincourb ; but they 
 were finally driven out of France in the reign of our Henry VI. and lost Calais by 
 surprise in the reign of Mary. See the countries respectively, Battles, &c. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 War with Scotland, 
 
 1068 Peace 1092 
 
 War with France, 
 
 136S 
 
 Peace 1420 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1116 
 
 , HIS 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1422 
 
 „ 1471 
 
 ,, Scotland, 
 
 1138 
 
 1139 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1492 
 
 ,, same yr. 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1161 
 
 1186 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1512 
 
 „ 1514 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1194 
 
 1195 
 
 ,, ■ France, 
 
 1522 
 
 1527 
 
 , , France, 
 
 1201 
 
 1216 
 
 ,, Scotland, 
 
 1522 
 
 1542 
 
 ,, Prance, 
 
 1224 
 
 , 1234 
 
 ,, Scotland, 
 
 1542 
 
 1546 
 
 , , France, 
 
 1294 
 
 1299 
 
 ,, Scotland, 
 
 1547 
 
 1550 
 
 , , Scotland, 
 
 1296 
 
 1323 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1549 
 
 1550 
 
 ,, Scotland, 
 
 1327 
 
 1328 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1557 
 
 1559 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1339 
 
 1360 
 
 „ Scotland, 
 
 1557 
 
 1560 
 
WAR 
 
 6S8 
 
 WAR 
 
 WARS, FOREIGN, of GREAT BRITAIN, continued. 
 
 War with France, 
 
 1562 
 
 Peace 
 
 1564 
 
 War with France, 
 
 1666 
 
 Peace 
 
 1668 
 
 „ Spain, 
 
 1688 
 
 
 1604 
 
 ,, Denmark, 
 
 1666 
 
 
 1668 
 
 ,, Spain, 
 
 1624 
 
 
 1629 
 
 Holland, 
 
 1666 
 
 
 1668 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1627 
 
 
 1629 
 
 ,, Algiers, 
 
 1669 
 
 
 1671 
 
 Holland, 
 
 1651 
 
 
 1654 
 
 Holland, 
 
 1672 
 
 
 1674 
 
 ,, Spain, 
 
 1655 
 
 ii 
 
 1660 
 
 ,, France, 
 
 1689 
 
 „ 
 
 1097 
 
 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France, and Spain, was 
 signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of Ryswick, Sept 20, 1697. It concluded 
 this last war. 
 
 THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 
 17o2. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 
 
 War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
 cluded, lTJl. 
 
 War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. Peace 
 of Aixla-Chapelle, April 30, 1748. 
 
 War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed 
 also on April 30, 1748. 
 
 War ; the Seven Years' War, June 9, 1756. 
 Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
 
 War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace, 
 Feb. 10, 1763. 
 
 War with America, July 14, 1774. Peace of 
 Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. 
 
 War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of 
 Paris, Jan. 20, 1783. 
 
 War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same 
 
 time, Jan. 20, 17S3. 
 War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace 
 
 signed, Sept. 2, 1783. 
 War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peace of 
 
 Amiens, March 27, 1802. 
 War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Finally 
 
 closed, June 18, 1815. 
 War with America, June 18, 1812. Peace of 
 
 Ghent, Dec. 24, 1314. 
 War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of 
 
 Paris, March 31, 1856. 
 For the wars with India, China, and Persia, 
 
 see those countries respectively. 
 
 In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes with, 
 and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, and 62 in 
 peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the war in 1815. In the war of 
 1688, we spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the Spanish Succession, 62 
 millions; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in 
 the American war, 136 millions; in the war of the French Revolution, 464 millions; 
 and in the war against Bonaparte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure 
 for war, in 127 years (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 
 1815), of 2023 millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life 
 sustained by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at 600,000 
 men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their allies was probably as great. 
 During the war many districts of the Peninsula were from time to time laid waste 
 by the contending armies, and the inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and 
 horrors thus produced. The total destruction of human beings in this war must have 
 amounted to one million two hundred thousand. See Russo-Turkish War. 
 
 WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with Russia, a secretary for war affairs was 
 first appointed as a cabinet minister, June 9, 1854. in the person of the duke of 
 Newcastle, previously colonial secretary ; colonial and war affairs having been pre- 
 viously placed under one minister. See Secretaries. 
 
 WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from 
 Cracow in 1566. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. It has been a great 
 prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the empress of Russia put a 
 garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles to acquiesce in the usurpations 
 she had in view ; but this garrison was expelled by the citizens, with the loss of 
 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of 
 Prussia besieged Walrsaw in July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in 
 September, same year. It was taken by the Russians in the November following. 
 See next article. Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
 in August 1807; but the duchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813, and soon 
 afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian viceroy. The late Polish 
 revolution commenced here, Nov. 29, 1830. See Poland. 
 
 WARSAW, BATTLES of. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle with the 
 Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow the Russian general, after the siege and 
 destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in 
 cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the surrender was very bloody ; of 
 26,000 men, more than 10,000 were killed, nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 
 2000 only escaped the fury of the merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near 
 Warsaw, in which the Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 
 7000 men, Feb. 20, 1831. Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fighting, the 
 
WAR 689 WAT 
 
 city capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of the 
 Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was fought Sept. 7 
 and 8, 1831. 
 
 WARSAW, TREATIES of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and 
 Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in raising the 
 siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed March 81, 1688. Treaty 
 of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, Feb. 24, 1768. 
 
 WASHINGTON". The capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and first made the 
 seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first 
 time, May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces 
 under genei'al Ross, when all its superb national structures were consumed by a 
 general conflagration, the troops not sparing even the national library, Aug. 24, 1814. 
 General Ross was soon afterwards killed by some American riflemen, in a desperate 
 engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12 following. — Part of the capitol and the whole of 
 the library of the United States' congress were destroyed by fire, Dec. 24, 1851. See 
 United States. 
 
 WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste lands and commons, in order to promote 
 agriculture, first began in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's 
 rebellion, 1549. Inclosures again promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. 
 The waste lands in England were estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 millions of 
 acres, of which there were taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 1801. 
 There are now about 6,700,000 acres of waste land, of which more than half is 
 capable of improvement. See Agriculture. 
 
 WATCH op LONDON. The nightly watch of London was first appointed 38 Hen. III. 
 1253. This species of protection was not thought of previously to that year. — Stow's 
 Chron. Watchmen were first appointed in London with a bell, with which they 
 proclaimed the hour of the night before the introduction of public clocks. — Hardie. 
 The old watch was discontinued, and a new force of numbered policemen on duty 
 day and night commenced, Sept. 29, 1829. See Police. 
 
 WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a.d. 1477, 
 although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about a.d. 1310. 
 Watches were first used in astronomical observations by Purbach, 1500. Authors 
 assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first who had anything that might be 
 called a watch, though some call it a small table-clock, 1530. Watches were first 
 brought to England from Germany in 1577. — Hume. Spring pocket- watches 
 (watches properly so-called) have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the 
 English, and to M. Huygens by the Dutch. Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clock- 
 maker, says that Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainly to have 
 produced what is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 
 1658 ; as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the 
 double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz. "Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658. 
 T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented by Barlowe, 1676. 
 Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved, 1739, 1749, and 1753. In 
 1759 he made the time-piece which procured him the reward of 20,000?. offered by 
 the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax 
 was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 
 
 WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water (as also did 
 Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the original principle of 
 everything besides, about 594 B.C. — Stanley. In the Roman church water was first 
 mixed with the sacramental wine a.d. 122. — Lenglet. 
 
 WATER in LONDON. Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
 21 Hen. III. 1237. — Stow. It took near fifty years to complete it; the whole being 
 finished and Cheapside conduit erected, only in 1285. The New River water was 
 brought to London from Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by sir 
 Hugh Middleton, in 1613. The city was supplied with its water by conveyances of 
 wooden pipes in the streets and small leaden ones to the houses, and the New 
 River Company incorporated, 1620. So late as queen Anne's time there were water- 
 carriers at Aldgate pump. London is now supplied by eight companies. The 
 water-works at Chelsea were completed, and the company incorporated, 1722. 
 London-bridge ancient water-works were destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. An act to 
 
WAT 690 WAT 
 
 Bupply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 Vict. c. 84, was passed July 1, 1852. The 
 supply is now considered to be much improved.* 
 
 WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time, inde- 
 pendently of the sunshine, were clepsydra, or water-clocks. These were, most 
 probably, vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom : through this hole 
 the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour ; after which the vessel was 
 again filled, to be emptied as before. This invention was a manifest improvement on 
 the old sun-dials, whose perpendicular gnomon gave hours of different length at the 
 various seasons of the year. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally 
 used : and our Alfred, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning of a 
 taper as a measure of time. 
 
 WATER-COLOUR PAINTING has been raised from the hard dry style of the last 
 century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Varley, 
 and the great Turner ; Pyue, Cattermole, Prout, &c, within the present century. 
 The exhibition was founded in 1805. 
 
 WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn ; invented by Belisarius, the general of Justinian, 
 while besieged hi Rome by the Goths, a.d. 555. The ancients parched their corn, and 
 pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned by men 
 and beasts with great labour ; and yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 WATER TOFANA, or WIVES' POISON. See article Poisoning. 
 
 WATERFORD. Originally built ad. 879, was totally destroyed by fire in 981. 
 Rebuilt and considerably enlarged by Strongbow in 1171, and still further in the 
 reign of Henry VII. who granted considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. 
 landed aud was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, James II. embarked from hence for 
 France, after the battle of the Boyne; and William III. resided here twice, and 
 confirmed its privileges. Memorable storm here, April 18, 1792. The interior of the 
 cathedral, organ, &c. destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. 
 
 WATERFORD, BISHOPRIC of. The cathedral of Waterford is dedicated to the 
 blessed Trinity, and was first built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first bishop of 
 Waterford, after his return from England from his consecration, a.d. 1096. This see 
 was united with that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in the king's books, by 
 an extent returned 29 Henry VIII. at 121. 8s. Id. Irish per annum. By stat. 3 & 4 
 Will. IV. the see of Waterford and Lismore was united, by the Irish Church Tempo- 
 ralities act with the see of Cashel and Emly, Aug. 14, 1833. 
 
 WATERLOO, BATTLE of. On the 18th June, 1815, the French army, of 71,947 men 
 and 246 guns, under Napoleon, was signally overthrown by the Allies, commanded 
 by the duke of Wellington; who, with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various 
 attacks of the enemy from nine in the morning until five in the afternoon. About 
 that time, 16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force under 
 Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved 
 forward his whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage was immense. Of 
 the British (23,991), 93 officers, 1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers, 
 and 4560 men wounded ; total 6932. And the total loss of the allied army amounted 
 to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, aud 4231 missing, making 22.976 hors de combat. 
 Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying army, returned to Paris ; and, finding it 
 impossible to raise another, he abdicated the throne of France. — P. Nicholas. See 
 Bonaparte's Empire in France, and France.^ 
 
 WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. The erection of a bridge over this part of the Thames 
 was repeatedly suggested during the last century, but no actual preparations to carry 
 it into effect were made till 1806, when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, 
 and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of the bridge; but, in consequence 
 of some disagreement with the committee, he was superseded by Mr. Rennie, 
 who completed this noble structure. It was commenced Oct. 11, 1811, and finished 
 
 * In Jan. 1857, a company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's patent for converting salt water 
 into fresh. 
 
 f It is an historical fact, that the British forces have been twice signally successful over those of 
 France on the same ground — Waterloo ; and that by the side of the very chapel of Waterloo, which was 
 remarked for being uninjured by shot or shell on the memorable ISth of June, 1S15, did Marlborough 
 cut off a large division of the French forces opposed to him on the 17th of August, 1705. It is no less a 
 fact, that the conquerors of each of those days, on the same field, are the only commanders in the 
 British service whose military career brought them to the summit of the peerage — to dukedoms. 
 
WAT 691 WEE 
 
 June 18, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, when the prince regent, 
 duke of Wellington, and other distinguished personages were present at the opening. 
 Its length within the abutments is 1242 feet ; its width within the balustrades is 42 
 feet, and the span of each arch, of which there are nine, is 120 feet. 
 
 WATERSPOUT. Whirlwinds and waterspouts proceed from the same cause, the 
 only difference being that waterspouts pass over the water, and whirlwinds over the 
 land. — Dr. Franklin. Two waterspouts fell on the Glatz mountains in Germany, and 
 caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and many other villages ; a prodigious 
 number of houses were destroyed, and many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A 
 waterspout at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John 
 Macarthy, and destroyed his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings,' 
 of which not a vestige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished, 
 Aug. 4, 1831. 
 
 WAWZ, BATTLE of. The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, and 
 after two days' hard fighting, all the Russian positions were carried by storm, and 
 they compelled to retreat with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners. The Polish 
 loss was comparatively small, March 31, 1831. But the triumph of the Poles in this 
 battle was afterwards followed by defeat and ruin. 
 
 WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century ; and wax 
 candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
 vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Oandleberry. Wax candles are 
 made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particular species of myrtle, which 
 yields excellent wax, of a green colour. Sealing-wax was not brought into use in 
 England until about 1556. The wax-tree, Ligustrum lucidum, was brought from 
 China before 1794. 
 
 WE. The common language of kings is we, which plural style was begun with King 
 John, a.D. 1199. — Coke's Instit. Before this time sovereigns used the singular person 
 in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French kings used the plural 
 about a.d. 1200. — HenaulL It is now the style royal of all monarchs. 
 
 WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from the 
 earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in Europe or 
 Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally spun, wove, and dyed ; 
 and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient nations, to different women as 
 women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to Isis; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the 
 Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. In most eastern countries the employment 
 of weaving is still performed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not 
 any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says 
 Dr. Doddridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
 women who attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke viii. 3. 
 The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calm.et's Dictionary, under 
 the word Vestments. 
 
 WEAVING in ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where they 
 manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to us 
 and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, 
 &c, settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, and other places, on 
 account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. 
 
 WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah 
 Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, in 1762. The manufactories for this ware employ 10,000 
 families in this country. Previously to 1763, most of the superior kinds of earthen- 
 wares were imported from France. 
 
 WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from the Saxon idol Woden or 
 Odin, by some supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. " Woden was the 
 reputed author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, and was thought to answer 
 to the Mercury of the Greeks and Romans." — Butler. 
 
 WEEK. The space of seven days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, who 
 observed the sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of weeks, the first 
 the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was seven years, the 
 third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. All the present 
 English names are derived from the Saxon : — 
 
 t T 2 
 
WEE 
 
 692 
 
 WEL 
 
 WEEK, continued. 
 
 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 English. 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 Presided over by 
 
 Dies Batumi, 
 
 Saturday, 
 
 Saterne's day, 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 Dies Solis, 
 
 Sunday, 
 
 Sun's day. 
 
 The Sun. 
 
 Dies Luna?, 
 
 Monday, 
 
 Moon's day, 
 
 The Moon. 
 
 Dies Martis, 
 
 Tuesday, 
 
 Tiw's day, 
 
 Mars. 
 
 Dies Mercurii, 
 
 Wednesday, 
 
 Woden's day, 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Dies Jovis, 
 
 Thursday, 
 
 Thor's day, 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 Dies Veneris, 
 
 Friday, 
 
 Friga's day, 
 
 Veuus. 
 
 WEIGHTS and MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver money, were 
 invented by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C. et seq.—Arundelian Marbles. Weights 
 were originally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. — 
 Chalmers. The standard measure was originally kept at Winchester by the law of 
 king Edgar, a.d. 972. Standards of weights and measures were provided for the 
 whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of London, 8 Rich. I. 1197. A public 
 weighing-machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
 by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between buyer and 
 seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. — Stow. The first statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
 weight, is that of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. — Philosophical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The 
 French adopt the metre of 3 , 28084, or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the 
 Pole to the Equator, as the standard of measure; and the kilogramme, equal to 2 - 255 
 pounds avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. Weights and measures were ordered 
 to be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794. Again regulated, 
 1800. Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and measures, June 17, 1824. 
 This equalisation took place throughout the United Kingdom, Jan. 1, 1626. The new 
 acts relating thereto are 4 & 5 Will. IV. 1834, and 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835, and 18 & 19 
 Vict. c. 72, 1855.— 16 & 17 Vict. c. 29 (June 14, 1853) regulates the weights to be used 
 in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the Troy ounce. 
 
 WELLINGTON, DUKE of, his ADMINISTRATION. His grace, first lord of the 
 treasury; Mr. Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer; earl Bathurst, president of the 
 council ; lord Ellenborough, privy seal ; Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, earl Dudley, 
 and Mr. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; viscount Melville, board 
 of control; Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade; lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war ; 
 Mr. Hemes, master of the mint ; earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster ; Mr. Arbuthnot, 
 Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. Loi'd Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, Jan. 1828. Mr. Huskisson, 
 earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, and Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and varions 
 changes followed. The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, respectively, 
 foreign and colonial secretaries; sir Henry Hardiuge, secretary at war; Mr. Vesey 
 Fitzgerald, afterwards lord Fitzgerald, India board ; lord Lowther, first commissioner of 
 land revenues, &c. May and June, 1828. Terminated Nov. 1830. See Administrations. 
 
 WELLINGTON, DUKE of, his PUBLIC FUNERAL. The duke of Wellington died 
 full of honours and years Sept. 14, 1852, at Walmer Castle, where the body lay in 
 private state until the 10th November, when it was removed for public state to 
 Chelsea Hospital until the 17th. On November 17, it was taken to the Horse Guards, 
 and the funeral took place on the 18th, the following day. A public funeral at 
 St. Paul's cathedral had been decreed to the duke by the houses of lords and commons, 
 with the concurrence of the queen and the whole British people, and never was a 
 similar ceremonial so grand, solemn, and gorgeous. A multitude of all ranks, esti- 
 mated at a million and a half of persons, were congregated in the line of route, a 
 distance of three miles, to witness and share in the sacred and imposing spectacle. 
 The duke lies interred under the great dome of the cathedral, and beside the remains 
 of the immortal Nelson.* 
 
 WELLS, BISHOPRIC of. United with that of Bath, which see. The bishop's seat is at 
 Wells, whose cathedral church was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, a.d. 704, 
 and by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Several other of the West Saxon kings endowed 
 
 * The military consisted of the household regiments of horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion oi 
 the Rifles, the 1st battalion of the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 17th Lancers, and the 18th 
 Light Dragoons, with the regiment of Scots Greys. There were, besides, a body of Chelsea pensioners, 
 and men of different arms of the East India Company. The body, which had lain the last night, the 
 17th, in the duke's chamber at the Horse Guards, was placed, early in the morning of the 18th, by 
 means of machinery, upon a lofty and sumptuous funeral car (which science had contributed to com- 
 plete), drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the coffin was thus seen by the whole of the 
 sorrowful and anxious crowd. The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it was three o'clock 
 before the body was lowered into the tomb. Iu 1S57 a number of models for his tomb were exhibited 
 in Westminster Hall. 
 
WES 693 WES 
 
 it, and it was erected into a bishopric in 905, during the reign of king Edward the 
 Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, the 18th bishop of this see, and 
 completed by his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells was Adelmus (after- 
 wards archbishop of Canterbury), 905. — Beatson. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was founded by 
 John Wesley (born 1703, died 1791) and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
 other students formed themselves into a small society for the purpnse of mutual 
 edification in religious exercises. On account of their strictness of life they were 
 called Methodists. Mr. Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of 
 converting the Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he commenced itinerant 
 preacher, and gathered many followers ; but the churches being shut against him, he 
 built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time 
 he was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the doctrine 
 of election, which Wesley rejected, they separated. (See Whitefield.) In 1741 Wesley 
 was indefatigable in his labours, and almost continually engaged in travelling over 
 England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organised, and he 
 preserved his influence over it to the last. "His genius for government was not 
 inferior to that of Richelieu." — Macaulay. In 1851 there were 428 circuits in Great 
 Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 
 itinerant preachers, and 6579 chapels.* 
 
 WEST AUSTRALIA, formerly called Swan River Settlement, which was projected by 
 colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the Colonial-office, and captain Stirling 
 appointed lieutenant-governor, Jan. 17, 1829 ; arrived at the appointed site in August 
 following. The three towns of Perth, Freeman tie, and Guildford, were founded same 
 year. In March 1850, fifty ships with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 
 1,000,0002. had arrived before hardly any dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. 
 The more energetic settlers left for home or the neighbouring colonies, and the 
 colony languished for twenty years for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers 
 from their previous habits and rank in life, proving unable for the rough work of 
 colonisation. In 1848 the colonists requested that convicts might be sent out to 
 them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly received and well treated. The 
 best results ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the inhabitants of Perth have 
 requested that 1000 should be sent out annually. — The settlement at King Geoi'ge's 
 Sound was founded in 1826 by the government of New South Wales. It was used as 
 a military station for four years. In 1830, the home government ordered the settle- 
 ment to be transferred to Swan river. Since the establishment of steam communi- 
 cation, the little town of Albany here, employed as a coaling station, has become a 
 thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. A journal, 
 called the Freemantle Gazette, was published here in March 1831. 
 
 WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
 the New World, and first seen by him in the night between the 11th and 12th Oct 
 1492. See the Islands respectively. 
 
 WEST SAXONS. The kingdom of the West Saxons contained the counties of Cornwall, 
 Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, and Berks. It was commenced by Cerdicus, 
 or Cherdick, in A.D. 519. The first Christian king of this branch of the Heptarchy 
 was Kingil, or Cynegils, who reigned in 611. The West Saxon kingdom terminated 
 with Egbert, its 18th king, and the first king of the whole Heptarchy, in 828. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and Western by 
 Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western portion, or Rome, 
 properly so called, a.d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, entered Italy, defeated 
 Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed Augustulus, and assumed the title of king 
 of Italy, Aug. 23, which ended the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of 
 Actium, a.d. 476. See Eastern Empire. 
 
 * The Conference, the highest "Wesleyan court, is composed of 100 ministers, who meet annually. It 
 was instituted by John Wesley in 1784. At the centenary of the existence of Methodism, 216,0002. were 
 collected to be expended in the objects of the society. — Out of the original connection have seceded : — 
 
 CJiapels in 1851. 
 New Connexion (in 1796) . . .301 
 Primitive Methodists (1810) . . . 2871 
 Bible Christians, or Bryanites (1815) . 403 
 
 Chapels in 1851. 
 Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . 329 
 Wesleyan Methodist Beformers (1849) . 2000 
 
 The last arose out of the publication of " Ply Sheets," advocating reform in the body. The suspected 
 authors and their friends were expelled. By these disruptions the main body is thought to have lost 
 100,000 members. 
 
WES 
 
 694 
 
 WES 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE, continued. 
 
 EULERS OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the 
 Western, and his brother Valeria, the 
 Eastern, Empire. 
 
 367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, 
 made a colleague in the government 
 by his father. 
 
 375. Valentinian II., another son, also very 
 young, is, on the death of his father, 
 associated with his brother in the em- 
 pire. Gratian is assassinated by his 
 general, Andragathius, in 383 : Valen- 
 tinian murdered by one of his officers, 
 Arbogastes, in 392. 
 
 392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the impe- 
 rial dignity : he and Arbogastes are 
 defeated by Theodosius the Great, 
 who becomes sole emperor. 
 
 [Andragathius throws himself into the 
 sea, and Arbogastes dies by his own 
 hand.] 
 
 395. Honorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on 
 his father's death, in the West, and 
 his brother, Arcadius, in the East. 
 Honorius dies in 423. 
 
 [Usurpation of John, the Notary, who is 
 defeated and slain, near Ravenna.] 
 
 425. Valentinian III. son of the empress 
 Placidia, daughter of Theodosius the 
 Great : murdered at the iustance of 
 his successor, 
 
 455. Maxiruus : he marries Eudoxia, widow 
 
 of Valentinian, who, to avenge the 
 death of her first husband and the 
 guilt of her second, invites the African 
 Vandals into Italy, and Rome is 
 sacked. Maximus stoned to death. 
 
 456. Marcus Ma;cilius A Vitus : forced t< > resign, 
 
 and dies in his flight towards the Alps. 
 
 457. Julius Valerius Majoriauus: murdered at 
 
 the instance of his minister, Ricimer, 
 who raises 
 
 461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds 
 the supreme power. Severus is poi- 
 soned by Ricimer. 
 
 465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the au- 
 thority, without assuming the title, of 
 emperor.] 
 
 467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages 
 of the senate and army : murdered by 
 Ricimer, who dies soon after. 
 
 472. Flavius-Auicius Olybrius : slain by the 
 
 Goths soon after his accession. 
 
 473. Glycerius : forced to abdicate by his 
 
 successor, 
 
 474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, 
 
 Orestes, and retires to Salon*. 
 
 475. Romulus Augustulus, son of Orestes. 
 
 Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
 deposed by 
 
 476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who takes 
 
 Rome, assumes the style of king of 
 Italy, and completes the fall of the 
 Western Empire. 
 
 See Rome. 
 
 WESTMINSTER. This city is so called on account of its western situation in respect 
 to St. Paul's cathedral in particular, or of London in general, there being in former 
 days a monastery on the hill now called great Tower-hill, named Eastminster. Where 
 the bounds of this city eastward end, those of London begin, viz. at Temple-bar. 
 Formerly Westminster was called Thorney, or Thorney Island : and in ancient times 
 Canute had a palace here, which was burnt in 1263. Westminster and London were 
 one mile asunder so late as 1603, when the houses were thatched, and there were 
 mud walls in the Strand : the great number of Scotsmen who came over after the 
 accession of James I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and united it with 
 London. — Howel's Londinopolis. 
 
 WESTMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the miraculous stories 
 of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been questioned by sir Christopher 
 Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice, and who, upon the nicest 
 examination, found nothing to countenance the general belief that it was erected on 
 the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era 
 of the first abbey in the sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honour of erecting 
 it. The church becoming ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, 
 between a.D. 1055 and 1065; and he stored it with monk3 from Exeter. Pope 
 Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of the kings 
 of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent and beautiful style by 
 Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II. Edward 111. and Richard II. the great 
 cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal monastic buildings were erected. The 
 western parts of the nave and aisles were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between 
 the years 1340 and 1483. The west front and the great window were built by those 
 rival princes, Richard III. and Henry VII.; and it was the latter monarch who 
 commenced the beautiful chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which 
 was laid Jan. 24, 1502-3. The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541; 
 and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. Made a barrack for 
 soldiers, July 1643. — Mtrcurias Ruslicus. The great west window, and the western 
 towers rebuilt in the reigns of George I. and II. The choir injured by fire, July 9, 
 1803. Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated parts in 1809, at an expense 
 of 42,0002. A fire, but without any serious injury being done, occurred April 27, 1829. 
 
 WESTMINSTER, BISHOPRIC and DEANERY of. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
 Westminster Abbey was valued at 39772. per annum; king Henry VIII. in 1539, 
 
WES 695 WES 
 
 erected it into a deanery; and in 1541 lie erected it into a bishopric, and appointed 
 John Thirleby prelate. But he, having wasted the patrimony allotted by the king for 
 the support of the see, was translated to Norwich, and with him ended the bishopric 
 of Westminster. This dignity continued only nine years ; and Middlesex, which was 
 the diocese, was restored to London. The dean continued to preside until the 
 accession of Mary, who restored the abbot ; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and 
 erected the abbey into a collegiate church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it 
 still continues. On the revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean of West- 
 minster was appointed dean of that order ; which honour has been continued to his 
 successors. 
 WESTMINSTER BRIDGE, London. Accounted, on its first erection, one of the most 
 beautiful structures of the kind in the known world. It was begun after a design of 
 M. Labelye, Sept. 13, 1738; and the first stone laid Jan. 29, 1738-9. Opened for 
 passengers, Nov. 17, 1750 ; cost 426,650?. It is built of Portland stone, and crosses 
 the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. On each side was a stone balustrade, 6 feet 
 9 inches in height, with places of shelter from the rain ; the width is 44 feet. The 
 bridge consists of 14 piers, and 13 large and two small arches, all semi-circular, that 
 in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the rest decreasing 4 feet each from the other, 
 so that the last two arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet : the width of the 
 two small arches at the abutments is about 20 feet. Owing to the sinking of several 
 of its piers, most of the balustrade on either side was removed, to relieve the structure 
 of its weight.- — By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853), the estates of its commissioners 
 were transferred to her majesty's commissioners of works, who are empowered to 
 remove the present bridge, and build a new bridge (near the old one), which was 
 shortly after begun. The contract required the completion of the works by June 1, 
 1857. The temporary works for the service of the bridge were commenced May 1854, 
 consisting of platforms on the Surrey side of the river, at Bridge wharf, and two 
 large platforms on the north and south of the blocked-up arches. The driving of the 
 first elm pile commenced on July 3, and the driving of the iron piles and plates in 
 September. The works are now suspended. 
 
 WESTMINSTER HALL, London. One of the most venerable remains of English 
 architecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and here in 
 1099, on his return from Normandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very royally." 
 The hall became ruinous before the reign of Richard II. who repaired it in 1397, 
 raised the walls, altered the windows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch 
 and other buildings. In 1236, Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 poor persons 
 to be entertained in this hall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
 queen Eleanor's coronation. And here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 
 1397, when the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Stow. 
 The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idem. Westminster-hall is 
 universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported by pillars : it is 
 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a general repair in 1802. 
 Concurrently with the erection of the palace of Westminster, many improvements 
 and alterations have lately been made in this magnificent Hall. 
 
 WESTMINSTER, PALACE of. (Houses of Parliament). See Palace of Westminster and 
 Parliament. 
 
 WESTMINSTER SCHOOL, London. Founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, for the 
 education of forty boys, denominated the Queen's Scholars, who are prepared for the 
 university. It is situated within the walls of the abbey, and is separated into two 
 schools or divisions, comprising seven forms or classes. Besides the scholars on the 
 foundation, many of the nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for 
 instruction, so that this establishment vies with Eton in celebrity. 
 
 WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of Saxony. On 
 the secularisation of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814, was 
 ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the tempo- 
 rary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, 
 Hanover, and the smaller states to the west of Elbe, was created Dec. 1, 1807, and 
 Jerome Bonaparte appointed king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This 
 kingdom was overturned in 1813. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, PEACE op. Signed at Munster and at Osnaburg, between France, the 
 emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this peace the 
 principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised : Alsace given to 
 
WHA 696 WHI 
 
 France, and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Elector 
 Palatine restored to the Lower Palatinate; the civil and political rights of the German 
 States established ; and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by 
 Germany, Oct. 24, 1648. 
 WHALE-FISHERY. This fishery was first carried on by the Norwegians so early, it is 
 said, as a.d. 837. — Lmglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for 
 their oil only till 1578; the use of their fins and bones was not yet known, conse- 
 quently (a writer quaintly adds) no stays were worn by the ladies. The English 
 whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergcn in 1598 ; but the Dutch had been previously 
 fishing there. The fishery was much promoted by an act of parliament passed in 1749. 
 From 1800 to 2000 whales have been killed annually on the coast of Greenland, &c. 
 The quantity of whale-oil imported in 1814 was 33,567 tuns. The quantity in 
 1826, when gas-light became general, was reduced to 25,000 tuns; so that the 
 consumption of oil had become, on this account, greatly diminished. In 1840 the 
 quantity was about 22,000 tuns; and in 1850, it was 21,328 tuns. 
 
 WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the 
 art of husbandry, and method of makiug bread from wheat, about 2000 years before 
 the Christian era. Wheat was introduced into Britain, in the sixth century, by 
 Collap Coll Frewi. — Robert's Hist. Anc. Brit. Bread is mentioned in several passages 
 of the Scriptures, as also the wheat-harvest. The first wheat imported into England 
 of which we have a note, was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated the sales of 
 wheat, and restrained its importation, thereby to encourage its being raised at home. 
 By the act to amend the laws relating to the importation of corn, passed 9 Geo. IV. 
 July 15, 1828, wheat was allowed to be imported on paying a duty of 11. 5s. 8d. per 
 quarter, whenever the average price of all England was under 62s. ; from 62s. to 63s. 
 1/. 4s. 8d. ; and so gradually reduced to Is. when the average price was 73s. and 
 upwards. This was called the " Sliding Scale." The second " Sliding Scale " act 
 was passed April 29, 1842. The great Corn Importation bill passed, 9 & 10 Vict, 
 c. 22, June 26, 1846. See Corn Bills. 
 
 WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE. This barbarous mode of death is of great antiquity. 
 It was used for the punishment of great criminals, such as assassins and parricides, 
 first in Germany ; it was also used in the Inquisition, and rarely anywhere else, until 
 Francis I. ordered it to be inflicted upon robbers, first breaking their bones by strokes 
 with a heavy iron club, and then leaving them to expire upon the wheel, a.d. 1515. 
 See Ravaillac, &c. 
 
 WHEEL-WORK. Curious works of this kind will be found mentioned under the head 
 of Automaton Figures. Cotton-spinning machinery, and manufacturing machinery in 
 general, are merely varieties of the inventions of Androides and toy -makers ; a 
 central power, with axles, wheels, cogs, ketches, ratchets, straps, lines, levers, screws, 
 &c. &c. variously combined, constitute the wonders of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and 
 Warwickshire. See Spinning. 
 
 WHIG and TORY. See article Tory. Numerous authors trace the origin of these 
 designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is stated 
 under the head Tory, it may here be added, that we are told the name Whig was a 
 term of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists for resembling the 
 principles of the Whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scotland ; and the other was 
 given by the country party to that of the court, comparing them to the Tories, or 
 Popish robbers in Ireland. — Baker. This distinction of parties arose out of the 
 discovery of the Meal-Tub plot (whicji see). Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot 
 before parliament, two parties were formed : the one, who called the truth of the 
 whole plot in question ; and this party styled those who believed in the plot, Whigs. 
 The other party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, Tones. 
 But in time these names, given upon this occasion as marks of opprobrium, became 
 distinctions much boasted of by the parties bearing them. — Hume. The Whig Club 
 was established by Charles James Fox ; one of its original and dost distinguished 
 members was the great and good Francis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. 
 
 WHISKY. The distilled spirit produced from malt and other corn in Scotland and 
 Ireland, and of which about eight millions of gallons are distilled annually in the 
 former, and upwards of nine millions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this 
 article has produced an annual revenue of about three millions. The distillation of 
 whisky in these countries is referred to the 16th century; but some authors state it 
 to have been earlier. See Distillation. 
 
WHI 697 WHI 
 
 WHITEBOYS. A dangerous body of persons in Ireland, so called on account of 
 their wearing linen frocks over their coats ; and who, with the levellers, excited 
 insurrection in Ireland. They committed dreadful outrages in 1761 ; but were sup- 
 pressed by a military force and the ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into 
 insurrection again, and were suppressed, 1786-7. Whiteboys have appeared at various 
 times since, marking their steps by the most frightful crimes. 
 
 WHITEFIELD, George, the founder of the " Oalvinistic Methodists," was the son of an 
 innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was admitted a 
 servitor at Oxford in 1732, and became a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided 
 them in establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 1741, on account of their 
 rejection of the doctrine of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his day. 
 His first sermon was preached in 1736 ; and he commenced field-preaching in 1739. 
 He is said to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career of 34 years. His 
 followers are termed " the Countess of Huntingdon's connexion," from his having 
 become her chaplain in 1748. There were 109 chapels of this connexion in 1851; 
 but many of his followers have joined the Independents. He was born in 1714, and 
 died in 1770. 
 
 WHITE FRIARS. These were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took their 
 name from Mount Carmel, lying south-east of Mount Tabor, in the Holy Land. 
 They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of their order, and that 
 Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of it. At first they were very 
 rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was moderated, and about the year 1540 
 divided into two sorts, one following and restoring the ancient severities, and the 
 other the milder regimen. They had numerous monasteries throughout England ; 
 and a precinct in London without the Temple, and west of Blackfriars, is called 
 Whilefriars to this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 
 
 WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the 
 middle of the 1 3th century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars 
 of Holborn, who sold it to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of 
 York-place, and continued to be the town-residence of the archbishops till purchased 
 by Henry VIII. of Cardinal Wolsey, iu 1530. At this period it became the residence 
 of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Richmond, was brought from thence to 
 Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs 
 us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was written : 
 
 " The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
 At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
 More clung about the barge ; fish under water 
 "Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
 I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
 Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
 For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
 She had come by water, had she come by land." 
 
 In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house, 
 which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a design 
 of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall, Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 
 1649. George I. converted the hall into a chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice 
 underwent repair between 1829 and 1833. 
 
 WHITE PLAINS, BATTLE of. Between the revolted Americans and the British forces 
 under sir William Howe. This was the most serious of the early battles of the war, 
 and terminated in the defeat of the Americans, who suffered considerable loss in 
 killed, wounded, and prisoners; fought Nov. 30, 1776. 
 
 WHITE ROSES. The insignia of the house of York, in contradistinction to Red roses, 
 the symbol of the house of Lancaster, during the intestine wars that prevailed, 
 particularly in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. and between the years 1455 
 and 1471. The union of the two houses, consummated in the marriage of Henry VII. 
 with the princess Elizabeth of York, shortly after the battle of Bosworth, which was 
 fought in 1485, put a final termination to those wars, which had so long devastated 
 the whole kingdom, and during which the scaffold as well as the field streamed with 
 the noblest blood of England.— Hume. 
 
 WHITE TOWER, London. The keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large square, 
 irregular building, erected in 1070, by Gandulph, bishop of Rochester. It measures 
 116 feet by 96, and is 92 feet in height; the walls, which are 11 feet thick, having a 
 
WHI 698 WIG 
 
 winding staircase continued along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. It 
 contains the sea armoury, and the volunteer armoury — the latter for 30,000 men. 
 Within this tower is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by the English 
 monarchs. The turret at the N.E. angle, which is the highest and largest of the four 
 by which the white tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical purposes by 
 "Flamsted, previously to the erection of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsuntide is appointed by the Church to com- 
 memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles: in the primitive Church, 
 the newly baptized persons, or catechumens, used to wear white garments on Whit- 
 sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls in May and sometimes in June ; 
 but is always exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week is the week before 
 Whitsunday ; it is said to have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, 
 and called Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
 paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing on the fruits 
 of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and other evils. 
 
 WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of 
 London, served the office of lord mayor three times, the last time in 1419. But the 
 marvellous stories connected with his name are totally destitute of truth. His muni- 
 ficent charities are little known and seldom praised, yet no man previous to the time 
 in which he lived had been a greater benefactor to the metropolis. He founded his 
 college, dedicated to the Holy Ghost and Virgin Mary, in 1424; and his alms-houses 
 in 1429 ; the latter stand on Highgate Hill, and near them was the famous stone which 
 commemorates " his return to London, after leaving it in despair, the church bells 
 chiming him back by the promise of his future greatness." 
 
 WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity in the 
 university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was the father 
 of the Reformation of the English church from popery, being the first who opposed 
 the authority of the pope, transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, &c. in 1377. 
 Wickliffe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet 
 virulently persecuted by the church, and rescued from martyrdom by a paralytic 
 attack, which caused his death, December 31, 1384, in his 60th year. The council of 
 Constance in 1428 decreed his bones to be disinterred and burnt, which was done by 
 the bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift. 
 
 WIDOWS. For the burning of widows iu India, see Suttees. In numerous countries 
 widows are devoted to great privations from the time their husbands die ; and at the 
 isthmus of Darien, when a widow dies, such of her children as, from tender age, 
 cannot provide for their own subsistence, were buried in the same grave with her. — 
 Abbe Maynal. Among the numerous associations in London, for the relief of widows, 
 are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted in 1738 ; one for widows of naval men, 
 founded in 1739; for widows of medical men, 1788 ; law society, for widows of pro- 
 fessional gentlemen, 1817; and for artists' widows, 1827. There are various similar 
 institutions. Widowers were taxed in England, as follows : a duke, 12/. 10s.; lower 
 peers, smaller sums; a common person Is.; 7 Will. III. 1695. 
 
 WIGAN, BATTLES of. In the civil war, between the king's troops commanded by the 
 earl of Derby, and the parliamentary forces under sir John Smeaton ; the former 
 defeated and driven from the town, 1643. The earl was again defeated by colonel 
 Ashton, who razed the fortifications of Wigan to the ground, same year. The earl 
 of Derby was once more defeated here by a greatly superior force commanded by 
 colonel Lilburne, 1651. In this last engagement, sir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent 
 royalist partisan, was slain; a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. 
 
 WIGHT, ISLE op. This isle is called Vecta, or Vectis, in the writings of the Roman 
 historians, who inform us that it was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of the 
 emperor Claudius. In the beginning of the fifth century, the island was conquered 
 by the Saxons. It was captured in 787 by the Danes, and again in 1001, when they 
 held it for several years. It was taken by the French, July 13, 1377, and has several 
 times suffered from invasions by that people. In the year 1442, Henry VI. alienated 
 the isle of Wight to Henry de Beauchamp, first premier earl of England, and then 
 duke of Warwick, with a precedency of all other dukes but Norfolk, and lastly 
 crowned him king of the isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but this earl dying 
 without heirs male, his regal title died with him, and the lordship of the isle returned 
 to the crown. Charles I. after his flight from Hampton-court, was a prisoner in 
 Carisbrook castle, in 1647. In the time of Charles II. timber was so plentiful, that, 
 
WIL 
 
 699 
 
 WIL 
 
 it is said, a squirrel might have travelled on the tops of the trees for many leagues 
 together ; but it is now much reduced, from supplying the dockyards for the British 
 navy. The queen has a marine residence here called Osborne. 
 
 WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper styled the 
 North Briton, published by Mr. Wilkes, au alderman of London. He commenced a 
 paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his administration, and in this particular 
 copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a use of royalty itself, that a general 
 warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he 
 was committed to the Tower. His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but 
 exposed him to two duels; yet he obtained 4000Z. damages and full costs of suit for 
 the illegal seizure of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court 
 of King's Bench, and both houses of Parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
 poem, "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and outlawed : he 
 was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in Oct. 1774, and the same year 
 served the office of lord mayor ; but was overlooked in a subsequent general election, 
 and died in 1797. See North Briton, and also Warrants, General. 
 
 WILLIAM and MARY PACKET. This packet, regularly plying between Bristol and 
 Waterford, struck on the rocks called the Willeys, or Wolvers, about three miles N. W. 
 of the Holmes lighthouse, on the English coast, and sunk in about fifteen minutes. 
 Nearly sixty persons unhappily perished. Many ladies of fortune, beauty, and accom- 
 plishments lost their lives : the misses Barron, four young ladies, sisters, were among 
 the drowned, and sunk in a group in each other's arms. Nine persons (being most 
 of the crew, and two passengers) were saved, Oct. 24, 1817. 
 
 WILLS, LAST, and TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See Genesis, 
 c. xlviii. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 B.C. There are many regulations 
 respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this power, and so had the native 
 Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, 
 the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B.C. 
 The power of bequeathing lands, by the last will and testament of the owner, was 
 confirmed to English subjects, 1 Henry I. 1100; but with great restrictions and 
 limitations respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of 
 32 Hen. VIII. 1541. — Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
 record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard II. 1399. Edward the Confessor 
 made a will, 1066. The following are extracts from the will of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 He died May 5, 1821, eleven days after he had signed these documents. The original 
 in French occupies about 26 pages in Peignot's "Testamens Remarquables," 1829. 
 
 LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON, LATE THE EMPEROR OF FRANCE.* 
 
 "This day, April 24, 1821, at Longwood, in 
 the Island of St. Helena. This ismy testament, 
 or act of my last will : 
 
 "Heave to the cornte de Montholon, 2, 000, 000 
 francs, as a proof of my satisfaction for the 
 attentions he has paid to me for these six 
 years, and to indemnify him for the losses 
 which my residence in St. Helena has occa- 
 sioned him. I leave to the comte Bertrand 
 500,000 irancs. I leave to Marchand, my first 
 valet-de-chambre, 400,000 francs; the services 
 he has performed for me are those of a friend. 
 I desire that he may marry a widow, sister, 
 or daughter of au officer or soldier of my old 
 guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To 
 Novarre, 100,000 francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 
 francs. To Archambaud, 50,000 francs. To 
 Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To Chandelle, idem. 
 
 "To the abb<3 Vignali, 100,000 francs. I 
 desire that he may build his house near Ponte 
 Novo de Rossino. To the comte Las Casas, 
 100,000 francs. To comte Lavalette, 100,000 
 francs. To the surgeon in chief, Larrey, 
 100,000. He is the most virtuous man I have 
 known. To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. 
 
 "To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 
 francs. To general Drouet, 100,000 francs. 
 
 To general Cambronne, 100,000 francs. To 
 the children of general Muton Duvernais, 
 100,000 francs. To the children of the brave 
 Labe'doyere, 100,000 francs. Tothe children of 
 general Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. 
 To the children of general Chartrand, 100,000 
 francs. To the children of the virtuous general 
 Travost, 100,000 francs. To general Lalle- 
 mand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general 
 Clausel, 100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, 
 also 100,000 francs. To the baron de Mene- 
 valle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, author of ■ 
 Marina, 100,000 francs. 
 
 "To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I re- 
 quest him to continue to write for the defence 
 and glory of the French armies,and to confound 
 the calumniators and the apostates. To the 
 baron Bignon, 100,000 francs: I request him to 
 write the history of French Diplomacy from 
 1792 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 
 francs. To the surgeon Emmery, 100,000 
 francs. 
 
 "These sums shall be taken from the six 
 millions which I deposited on leaving Paris in 
 1815, and from the interest at the rate of 5 
 per cent, since July 1815 ; the account of 
 which shall be adjusted with the bankers by 
 
 * These documents, dated from April 15-24, which had been deposited since 1821 in England, have 
 been, at the request of the French government, given up to the authorities at Paris, to be deposited 
 among the archives of that capital. 
 
WIL 
 
 700 
 
 WIN- 
 
 WILLS, continued. 
 
 the counts Montholon and Bertrand, and by 
 Marchand. 
 
 " These legacies, in case of death, shall be 
 paid to the widows and children, and in their 
 default, shall revert to the capital. I institute 
 the counts Montholon, Bertrand and Marchand 
 
 my testamentary executors. This present 
 testament, written entirely by my own hand, 
 is signed and sealed with my arms. 
 
 " NAPOLEON. 
 
 "April 24, 1821, Longwood." 
 
 .The following are part of the eight Codicils to the preceding will of the emperor :- 
 
 " On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy 
 — such as money, jewels, plate, linen coffers, 
 caskets, of which the viceroy is the depositaiy, 
 and which belong to me, I dispose of two 
 millions, which I leave to my most faithful 
 servants. I hope that without their showing 
 any cause, my son Eugene Napoleon will 
 discharge them faithfully. He cannot forget 
 the forty millions which I have given him in 
 Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's 
 inheritance. 
 
 "From the funds remitted in gold to the 
 empress Maria Louisa, my very dear and well- 
 beloved spouse, at Orleans, in 1814, there re- 
 main due to me two millions, which I dispose 
 of by the present codicil, in order to recom- 
 pense my most faithful servants, whom I 
 beside recommend to the protection of my 
 dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to 
 count Montholon, 100,000 francs of which' he 
 shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (Las 
 Casas) for the same purpose as the above, to 
 be employed according to my dispositions, in 
 legacies of conscience. 
 
 "10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon, 
 who has undergone a prosecution, being 
 accused of a desire to assassinate lord Wel- 
 lington, of which he has been declared inno- 
 
 cent. Cantillon had as much right to assas- 
 sinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send 
 me to perish on the rock of St. Helena," 
 <&c. <fec. 
 
 LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 
 
 " Monsieur Lafitte, — I remitted to you 
 in 1815, at the moment of my departure from 
 Paris, a sum of nearly six millions, for which 
 you gave me a double receipt. I have can- 
 celled one of these receipts, and I have charged 
 comte de Montholon to present to you the 
 other receipt, in order that you may, after 
 my death, deliver to him the said sum with 
 interest, at the rate of five per cent., from the 
 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments 
 with which you have been charged in virtue 
 of my order. I have also remitted to you a 
 box containing my medallion. I beg you will 
 deliver it to comte Montliolon. 
 
 " This letter having no other object, I pray 
 God, Monsieur Lafitte, that he may have you 
 in His holy and worthy keeping. 
 
 "NAPOLEON. 
 
 "Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 
 April 25, 1821." 
 
 Various laws have regulated the wills and testaments of British subjects. The 
 statutes of 32, 34, 35 Hen. VIII. ; 10 Charles I.; all the statutes relating to wills of 
 Charles II.; the statute 7 Will. III. and various statutes of Anne and George II. 
 were repealed by the statute 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws with relation to wills 
 thereby amended.* 
 
 WILMINGTON, EARL of, ADMINISTRATION. Earl of Wilmington, first lord of 
 the treasury; lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor; earl of Harrington, president of the 
 council; earl Gower, lord privy seal ; Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
 Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of state ; earl of Winchilsea, first lord 
 of the admiralty ; duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and master-general of the 
 ordnance ; Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces ; with several of the household 
 lords,+ Feb. 1742. In Aug. 1743, Mr. Pelham became minister on lord Wilmington's 
 death, and in Nov. 1744, he formed the "Broad-bottom" administration, which see. 
 
 WINCHESTER. A most ancient city, whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to 
 the Celtic Britons, though the alleged date of its foundation, 892 B.C. is manifestly 
 unworthy of attention. During the contests of the Britons and the Saxons it became 
 the capital of the West Saxon kingdom ; and under the rule of Egbert, it became the 
 metropolis of England. In the reign of the conqueror, though Winchester was still 
 a royal residence, London began to rival it, and acquire the pre-eminence ; but after 
 the destruction of its religious houses by Henry VIII. it contained scarcely anything 
 more than a mere shadow of its former grandeur. Winchester has been the scene of 
 many memorable events in English history. Several kings resided, and many parlia- 
 ments were held here. Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in the national 
 
 * By this act the testator must be above 21, not a lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at 
 the time of signing, not an outlaw or unpardoned felon. All kinds of property may he devised. The 
 will must be written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the testator, or by his direction, in the 
 presence of two or more witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman may only bequeath her 
 pin-money or separate maintenance without the consent of the husband. 
 
 f The great household officers were at this period always in what was called the cabinet ; these 
 were, usually, the lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the master of the horse, and the keeper of the 
 great wardrobe. The cofferer, and sometimes others, if of the council, were also cabinet ministers, or 
 of the administration. — Lord Hervey's Memoirs. 
 
WIN 701 WIN 
 
 denomination of measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, &c. the 
 use of which has but recently been replaced by imperial measures. 
 
 WINCHESTER, BISHOPRIC of. This see is of great antiquity, and has always con- 
 tinued in this place, which was the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. The 
 cathedral church was first founded and endowed by Kingil or Kenegilsxis, the first 
 Christian king of the West Saxons. The church first built becoming ruinous, the 
 present fabric was begun by Walkin, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; but not finished till the 
 time of William of Wykeham, 1405. The church was first dedicated to St. Amphi- 
 balus, then to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. S within, once bishop here. St. Birine 
 was bishop, a.d. 636. The see is valued in the king's books at 27931. 4s. 2d. annually. 
 
 WINDMILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of 
 Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the windmill to the Saracens. 
 They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe by the knights of 
 St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in the crusades. — Baker. 
 Windmills were first known in Spain, France, and Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. 
 Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, when one was erected near 
 the Strand, in London. 
 
 WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from 
 its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early as the third 
 century, if not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 
 Bennet, a.d. 633. Windows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was 
 imported, 1177. — Anderson. In England in 1851 about 6000 houses had fifty windows 
 and upwards in each; about 275,000 had ten windows and upwards; and 725,000 
 had seven windows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order 
 to defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 Will. III. 1695. 
 The tax was increased Feb. 5, 1746-7 ; again in 1778 ; and again, on the commutation- 
 tax for tea, Oct. 1, 1784. The tax was again increased in 1797, 1S02, and (48 
 George III. c. 55) 1808; and was reduced in 1823. The revenue derived from 
 windows was, in 1840, about a million and a quarter sterling ; and in 1850 (to April 5) 
 1,832,684^. The tax upon windows was repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36, July 24, 
 1851, which act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu thereof. 
 
 WINDS. When the wind blows strong or flies swift, it is called a high wind, and moves 
 above fifty miles an hour. In one of Dr. Lind's experiments he found that the velocity 
 of the wind was ninety-three miles an hour ; a swiftness of motion which, since 
 M. Garnerin's aerial voyage to Colchester, must be considered within the limits of 
 probability. 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally built by 
 William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs who succeeded 
 him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was born here, caused the old 
 building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and 
 re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham. He likewise 
 built St. George's chapel. Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, 
 Edward assessed every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and 
 carpenters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to this 
 pile of building by Henry VIII. The Cottage, Windsor, first built 1543. Queen 
 Elizabeth made the grand terrace on the north side; and Charles II. thoroughly 
 repaired and beautified it, 1680. — Camden; Mortimer. The chapel was repaired and 
 opened, Oct. 1790. The castle was repaired and enlarged, 1824-8; and his majesty 
 George IV. took possession of it, Dec. 8, in the latter year. It continues to be the 
 chief royal residence of our sovereigns, and extensive improvements have since, from 
 time to time, been made. A serious fire occurred at the castle, in the prince of 
 Wales's tower, owing to some defect in the heating apparatus, March 19, 1853. 
 
 WINDSOR FOREST. This forest, situated to the south and west of the town of 
 Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in circumference; but it is at present reduced in 
 its bounds to about fifty-six miles. On the south side is Windsor Great Park, which 
 was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has been much enlarged by the Inclosure 
 act; it contains about 3800 acres. The Little Park, on the north and east sides of 
 the castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are elegant, and have been 
 considerably improved by the addition of the house and gardens of the duke of 
 St. Alban's, purchased by the crown. The prospects from the castle, bounded by 
 the wild and picturesque scenery of the forest, are as extensive as beautiful. See 
 preceding article. 
 
WIN 702 W1R 
 
 WINES. The production of wine is ascribed to Noah. — Abbi Lenglet. The art of making 
 wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching-Noung, about 1998 B.C. 
 — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought from India by Bacchus, as other 
 authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — 
 Hosea xiv. 7. Our Saviour changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in 
 Galilee. — John ii. 3, 10. No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. 
 — Bossuet. Spirits of wine was known to the alchemists. — Idem. Concerning the 
 acquaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured that the 
 Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; but this liquor 
 was very little known in our island before it was conquered by the Romans. Wine 
 was sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial in a.d. 1300, and so continued for 
 some time after, although there is mention of "wine for the king" so early as 1249 ; 
 and we are even sent to a much earlier period for its introduction and use in Britain. 
 In 1400 the price was twelve shillings the pipe. A hundred and fifty butts and pipes 
 condemned, for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied into the channels of the 
 streets, by Raiuwell, mayor of London, 6 Hen. VI. 1427. — Stow's Chron. The first 
 importation of claret wine into Ireland was on June 17, 1490. The first act for 
 licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 1661. Wine duties to be 2a. 9d. 
 per gallon on Cape wine, and 5s. 6c/. on all other wines, 2 Will. IV. 1831. 
 
 WINES, IMPORTATION of. Our importations of wine have of late years very much 
 increased. We take the quantities from Official Returns. In 1800, England imported 
 3,307,460 gallons of all kinds of wine. In 1H15, the United Kingdom imported 
 4,306,528 gallons. In 1830 were imported 6,879,558 gallons; and in the year ending 
 Jan. 5, 1840, were imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7,000,486 were for home con- 
 sumption. In the year 1850 were imported 9,304,312 gallons; 6,437,222 gallons were 
 retained for home consumption. In 1851, the importations of wine very slightly 
 fluctuated ; they have been for some years under 10,000,000 gallons, producing a 
 revenue of nearly two millions sterling. The import of Frencb wines, however, 
 increased in the last-mentioned year. In 1854, 11,030,708 gallons were imported, and 
 7,197,572 retained for home consumption. 
 
 WINIFRED'S WELL, Holywell. At this place is a well mentioned as early a? a.d. 660. 
 It is an extraordinary natural spring, of which popish superstition has availed itself. 
 The rock from which it flows discharges 20 tons a minute ; and the water, in two 
 miles, falls into the Dee, and in the intermediate space turns many water-wheels con- 
 nected with some large manufactories. The well is the drainage of three stupendous 
 hills which lie above it. St. Winifred was niece to St. Bruno, who flourished in the 
 seventh ceutury; her martyrdom is commemorated on June 22 ; her "translation to 
 heaven " on Nov. 3. St. Bruno is said to have re-united her head to her body, from 
 which it had been struck off by a sword. 
 
 WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, a.d. 1410. 
 Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire mill in 
 Eugland was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Mortimer. The astonishing ductility 
 which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more conspicuous than 
 in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing 
 only one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one 
 grain ; so that 98 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single 
 grain of gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
 one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cylinder of 
 silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long; yet so perfectly does it cover 
 the silver, that even a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver 
 underneath. — Boyle. 
 
 WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most populous for 
 its extent. The dukes were Protestants until 1772, when the reigning prince became 
 a Romau Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, 
 particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat, 
 Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg married the princess royal of England, 
 daughter of George III. May 17, 1797. This state obtained new acquisitions in 
 territory in 1802 and 1805. The elector assumed the title of king, Dec. 12, 1805, and 
 was proclaimed Jan. 1. 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his 
 army in Russia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. William I. 
 the present king (1857), succeeded his father Frederick, Oct. 30, 1816. 
 
 WIRTEMBERG, HOUSE of. The house of Wirtemberg is very ancient, and amongst 
 
WIT 703 WIT 
 
 the most powerful of the German princes. They have, like many others, suffered 
 much from the oppressions of the house of Austria, who form pretensions to the suc- 
 cession of their dominions on the extinction of the heirs-male; aud this for no other 
 reason than that of the emperor Charles V. having turned the duke Ulrich out of his 
 dominions in 1519, and having afterwards seized them ; although, tie was restored to 
 them in 1534, not through any good will of the emperor, but by the assistance the 
 duke had obtained from the king of France and the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. See 
 ■preceding article. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was first countenanced by tbe Church 
 of Rome; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjected to the most cruel 
 punishments. In tens of thousands of cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt 
 alive, while others were drowned by the test applied; for if, on being thrown into a 
 pond, they did not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, 
 or reserved for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, in 
 three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Como in a year. 
 An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer confessed to having 
 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One 
 hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and 
 young, clerical, learned and ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, 
 out of a population of 600 ; and more than 100,000 perished, mostly by the flames, in 
 Germany. Grandier, the parish priest at Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having 
 bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women were 
 put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcaft in 
 America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania 
 in 1683. Maria Renata was bui-nt at Wurtzberg in 1749. At Kalisk, in Poland, nine 
 old women were charged with having bewitched, and rendered unfruitful, the lands 
 belonging to that palatinate, and were burnt, Jan. 17, 1775. — Ann. Reg. Five women 
 were condemned to death by the Brahmins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed, 
 Dec. 15, 1802.— Idem. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION in ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked laws 
 were in force against them in these countries in former times, by which death was 
 the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the public executioner 
 and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and 
 sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 33 Hen. VIII. 1541. Again 5 
 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James, 1603. Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witch- 
 craft in England in 200 years at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the 
 beautiful and heroic Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a.d. 1431. 
 See Joan of Arc. Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. 
 Three thousand were executed in England under the long parliament. Northamp- 
 tonshire and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
 other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 1705, 
 while the Spectator was in course of publication in London, and five others seven 
 years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her daughter, aged nine, were hanged 
 at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the period of about 
 a hundred years. Among the victims were persons of the highest rank, while all 
 orders in the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted 
 for an acquittal. The king published his Dialogues of Dmmonologie first in Edinburgh, 
 and afterwards in London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. 
 The laws against witchcraft had laid dormant for many years, when an ignorant 
 person attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in 
 Surrey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 Geo. II. 1736. — Viner's 
 Abridgment. 
 
 WITENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among our Saxon ancestors, this was the term 
 
 * All persons at court who sought the favour of James, praised his Dcemonologie • and parliament, 
 to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death was inflicted on 
 sorcerers in these words : " If any person shall use any invocation or conjuration of any evil or wicked 
 spirit, — shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit, — take up any dead body to 
 employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment, — or shall practise, or shall exercise, any sort of witch- 
 craft, sorcery, &c. whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, pined, or lamed." This 
 being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence of witchcraft ; hence Shakspeare 
 gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions a place where, he said, there 
 were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evil spirits, and abjuring witches, 
 became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employment to the clergy of all denominations. 
 Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers ; and besides the public executions which disgraced every 
 assizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular resentment. — Phillips. 
 
WIT 704 WOO 
 
 which was applied to their deliberations, and which, literally signified the assembling 
 of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A witeua-mot was called in 
 London, a.d. 833, to consult on the proper means to repel the Danes. This name was 
 dropped about the period of the Norman Conquest, and that of parliament adopted. 
 See Parliament. 
 
 WITEPSK, BATTLE of. Between the French army under marshal Victor, duke 
 of Belluno, and the Kussian army commanded by general Wittgenstein. The 
 French were defeated after a desperate engagement, with the loss of 3000 men, 
 Nov. 14, 1812. 
 
 WITNESSES. The evidence of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 25 
 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party and party, if a man be subpcenaed as 
 a witness on a trial, he must appear in court on pain of lOOi to be forfeited to the 
 king, and 101. together with damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the want of 
 his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord Ellenborough ruled that no witness is 
 obliged to answer questions which may tend to degrade himself, Dec. 10, 1802. New 
 act relating to the examination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1773. Act to enable 
 courts of law to order the examination of witnesses upon interrogations and other- 
 wise, 1 Will. IV. March 30, 1831. 
 
 WIVES' POISON, or Water Tofano. See article Poisoning. 
 
 WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
 demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, a.d. 961, 
 by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
 for the destruction of wolves in several counties of England a.d. 1289. Ireland was 
 infested by wolves for many centuries after their extirpation in England; for there 
 are accounts of some being found there so late as 1710, when the last presentment 
 for killing wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in 
 which kingdom 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a 
 river, they follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the 
 first in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure was, 
 on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed of twelve months 
 following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that is, the march of the 
 wolves. — Abbe Pluche. 
 
 WONDERS of the WORLD, the Seven. These were : — 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 
 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his 
 queen. 3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of 
 the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called the 
 Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower 
 built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. See them severally. 
 
 WOOD-CUTS, or WOOD ENGRAVING. See article Engraving on Wood. The inven 
 tion is ascribed by some to a gunsmith of Florence ; by others, to Reuss, a German 
 a.d. 1460 ; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the article referred to. Brought 
 to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Brought to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, 
 Anderson, &c. in 1789-99 ; and more recently by Cruikshank, Branston, and others. 
 
 WOOD'S HALF-PENCE. Wood's celebrated patent for coining half-pence for circu 
 lation in Ireland and America, passed 9 Geo. I. 1722-3. Against this projector, Dr, 
 Jonathan Swift appeared in the character of the Draper, and his letters raised such 
 a spirit against him, that he was effectually banished the kingdom. — Burns. 
 
 WOODEN PAVEMENT. This is a new description of pavement, which, notwith- 
 standing its expensiveness, and the employment of so valuable and perishable a 
 product a3 wood, seemed likely to supersede every other species of pavement in the 
 principal streets and great thoroughfares of London. A wooden pavement was laid 
 down at Whitehall in 1839 ; and it was followed by similar paving in Oxford-street, 
 part of the Strand, Cheapside, High-street, Holboru, the Old Bailey, Coventry-street, 
 Lincoln's-inn, the Admiralty, and various other streets and places. This pavement 
 did not answer the expectations of its advocates, and has been nearly all taken up. 
 
 WOODSTOCK. In Woodstock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a royal palace, the 
 favourite retreat of several of the kings of England, till the reign of Charles I. when 
 it was almost wholly in ruins. King Ethelred held a parliament at Woodstock 
 palace; and there Alfred the Great translated Bo'elius de Consolatione Philosophies. 
 Henry I. beautified the palace ; and here resided Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. 
 
woo 
 
 705 
 
 WOO 
 
 1191. Edmund, second son of Edward I. was born at this palace ; also Edward, 
 eldest son of Edward III. 1331 ; and here the princess Elizabeth was confined by her 
 sister Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the expense of the nation, for the 
 duke of Marlborough, was erected here to commemorate the victory he obtained at 
 Blenheim in 1704. At that time every trace of the ancient edifice was removed, and 
 two elms were planted on its site. See Rosamond. 
 
 WOOL. From the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great 
 Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the finest iu the 
 universe; and even iu the times of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
 established at Winchester for the use of the emperors. — Dr. Anderson. In later 
 times, wool was manufactured in England, and is mentioned in a.D. 1185, but not 
 in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of it was introduced by John Kempe 
 and other artisans from Flanders. This was the real origin of our now unrivalled 
 manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 1331. — Rymers Fcedera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. 
 Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin, Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 
 18 Edw. III. 1343. Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, which has since 
 injured our manufacture, 1467. — Stow. First legislative prohibition of the export of 
 wool from Ireland, 1521. The exportation of English wool, and the importation of 
 Irish wool into England, prohibited 1696. Bill to prevent the running of wool from 
 Ireland to France, 1738. The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off, 1739. 
 The export forbidden by act passed 1718. Wool-combers' act, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 
 The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV. 1824. In 1851, we imported 
 83,311,975 lbs. of wool and alpaca; in 1856, 116,211,392 lbs.; from Australia, in 
 1842, 12,979,856 lbs. ; in 1856, 56,052,139 lbs. 
 
 WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in all 
 civilised countries, in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. Woollen 
 cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Csejar, and are fami- 
 liarly alluded to by him. They were made in Eugland before a.d. 1200, and the 
 manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edward III. 1331. They were then 
 called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See preceding article. Blankets were first 
 made in England, about a.d. 1340. — Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland 
 to be imported into England, 1463. The art of dyeing brought to England, 1608. 
 See article Dyeing. Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture 
 of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazariue, 
 1646. British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged to 
 be buried in woollen, and the persons directing the burial otherwise to forfeit 51. 
 29 Chas. II. 1678. The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in England by 
 Flemish settlers, 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. III. 1698. The 
 exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, except to certain ports of England, 
 1701. English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 Geo. I. 1715. 
 Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. 
 
 QUANTITY AND DECLARED VALUE OP CLOTHS EXPORTED PROM GREAT BRITAIN 
 IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS : 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1S25. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1350. 
 
 Pieces . 
 
 Yards . . . 
 
 Declared value 
 
 1,022,838 
 
 4,213,677 
 
 £3,914,661 
 
 1,741,9S3 
 
 7,798,610 
 
 £6,194,926 
 
 1,747,036 
 
 5,561,877 
 
 £4,608,592 
 
 2,143,796 3,665,077 
 
 8,170,642 11, 840.03S 
 
 £5,921,116 £S,3T7,183 
 
 1 
 
 WOOL-COMBERS. The journeymen wool-combers, in several parts of England, have a 
 grand procession, in commemoration of the renowned bishop Blaize. This bishop is 
 reported to have discovered the art of combing wool. He is said to have visited 
 England; and St. Blazy, a village in Cornwall, is celebrated for having been his 
 landing-place, and from him it derives its name. He was bishop of Sebastia, in 
 Armenia, adjacent to the south-east part of the Black Sea, and suffered martyrdom 
 by decapitation in the Diocletian persecution, in the year 289. The processions take 
 place on Feb. 3, every year. 
 
 WOOLWICH. Distinguished for the most ancient military and naval arsenal in 
 England, and for its royal dockyard, where men-of-war have been built as early as the 
 reign of Henry VIII. 1512. The royal arsenal was formed about 1720, on the site of 
 a rabbit-warren; it contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, bombs, powder, 
 
 z z 
 
WOR 706 WOR 
 
 and other warlike stores; a foundry, with three furnaces, for casting ordnance; and 
 a laboratory, where fireworks and cartridges are made, and grenados, &c. charged for 
 the public service. The royal military academy was erected in the royal arsenal, but 
 the institution was not completely formed until 19th Geo. II. 1745. The arsenal, 
 storehouses, &c. burnt, to the value of 200,000/. May 20, 1802. Another great fire 
 occurred June 30, 1805. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, Jan. 20, 1813. The hemp- 
 store burnt down, July 8, 1813. Another explosion by gunpowder, June 16, 1814. 
 
 WORCESTER, BISHOPRIC of. This see was founded by Ethelred, king of the 
 Mercians, a.D. 679, and taken from the see of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. 
 The married priests of the cathedral displaced, and monks settled in their stead, 964. 
 The church rebuilt by Wolstan, 25th bishop, 1030. The see has yielded to the 
 church of Rome four saints, and to the English nation five lord chancellors and 
 three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 1049/. 16s. 3\d. per annum. 
 
 WORCESTER, BATTLE op. In the Civil War, fought between the royalist army and 
 the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A large body of 
 Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate Charles II. but Cromwell 
 signally defeated them; the streets of the city were strewn w T ith the dead, the 
 whole Scots army having been either killed or taken prisoners. This famous battle 
 afforded Cromwell what he called his crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped 
 to France. More than 2000 of the royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners, most 
 were sold as slaves to the American colonies : fought Sept. 3, 1651. 
 
 WORKING MEN'S CO LLEGES. The first was established in Sheffield, by working men. 
 The second, in London, by professor Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854.* A third, in 
 Cambridge, and in 1855, a fourth in Oxford ; all, wholly for the working classes, and 
 undertaking to impart such knowledge as each man feels he is most in want of. The 
 colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class; 
 aud also to have lectures given. They are highly successful. 
 
 WORLD, The. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world was 
 created Sept. 1, 5508 B.C. Most chronologers, however, mention the year 4004 B.C. 
 as the period of its first existence. See Creation. The Jews celebrate the 19th of 
 September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it was created in spring. 
 Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. The first 
 geographical table and map of the world was made by Anaximauder, about 560 B.C. 
 — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras and his system, about 539 B.C. — Stanley. The 
 magnitude of the earth calculated by Eratosthenes, 240 B.C. The system of Copernicus 
 promulgated, a.D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, 1556. The notion 
 of the magnetism of the Earth started by Gilbert, 1583. The magnitude of the Earth 
 determined by Picart, 1669. 
 
 WORMS, DIET of. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin Luther was 
 summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther was met by 
 2u00 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. 
 Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a mes- 
 senger to warn him of his danger, he answered " If there were as many devils in 
 Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the 
 emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty -four dukes, seven margraves, 
 thirty bishops and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, 
 Luther appeared, April 17th, in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings 
 and opinions, and left Worms, iu fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised 
 him to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ton months, and his 
 triumph was afterwards complete. 
 
 WORMWOOD, or WORMSEED. This plant and its seed were iu use, on account of 
 their bitterness, for the preservation of malt liquors, previously 7 to the virtues of hops 
 becoming known. Wormwood and other plants are mentioned as being used for this 
 purpose so late as a.d. 1492. It is or was used for various medicinal purposes, parti- 
 cularly for worms. — Pardon. 
 
 WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is that of Abel, B.C. 3875, Gen. iv. "Men began 
 to call on the name of the Lord," B.C. 3769, Gen. iv. The Jewish order of worship 
 was set up by Moses, B.C. 1490. Solomon consecrated the temple, b.c. 1004. To 
 the corruptions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek 
 idolatries owe their origin. — Athotes, son of Meues, king of Upper Egypt, is supposed 
 
 * The classes iu 1S56 were eleven. Mr. Raskin gave lessons in drawing in that year. 
 
Places of Worship. Sittings. 
 
 Church of England . . 14,077 
 
 5,317,915 
 
 Wesleyau Methodists . . 6,579 
 
 2, 194.29S 
 
 Independents . . . 3,244 
 
 1,067,760 
 
 Baptists 2,789 
 
 752,343 
 
 Roman Catholics . . 570 
 
 186,111 
 
 Society of Friends . . . 371 
 
 91,559 
 
 Unitarians .... 229 
 
 68,554 
 
 Scottish Presbyterians . . 160 
 
 86,692 
 
 Latter-day Saints (Mornwnites) 222 
 
 30,783 
 
 Brethren (Plymouth) . . 132 (?) 18,529 
 
 
 8,438 
 
 WOR 707 WRB 
 
 to be the Copt of the Egyptians, and the Toth or Hermes of the Greeks ; the Mercury 
 of the Latins, and the Teutates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 B.C. — Usher. 
 
 WORSHIP in ENGLAND. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the 
 Romans (b.c. 55), who eventually introduced Christianity. This latter was almost 
 extirpated by the victorious Saxons (455-820), who were pagans. The Roman Catholic 
 form of Christianity was introduced by Augustine, 596, and continued till the 
 Reformation, which see. 
 
 PLACES OP WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES IN 1851. 
 
 Places of Worship. Sittings. 
 
 New Church (Swedenborgians) 50 12,107 
 
 Moravians .... 32 9,305 
 
 Catholic and Apostolic ) „„ w AV7 
 
 Church (Irvingites) . J i " L ' A6t 
 
 Greek Church ... 3 291 
 
 Countess of Huntingdon's ) ■, „„ „c oin 
 
 Connexion . . | 
 
 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists 82S 198,242 
 
 Various small bodies, some ) .. r ,„..,.„ 
 .... 'J- 54b 10o,557 
 
 without names . . J ' 
 
 See Wesleyan Methodists : note. 
 
 WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its name from 
 having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor 
 lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. III. 
 1340. — Anderson. "A Worsted-stocking Knave" is a term of reproach or contempt 
 used by Shakspeare. 
 
 WORTHIES op the WORLD, the NINE. Three of these were Jews, viz. : Joshua, 
 David, and Judas Maccabseus. Three were heathens, viz. : Hector of Troy, Alexander 
 the Great, and Julius Csesar. And three were Christians, viz. : Arthur of Britain, 
 Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, of France, and Geoffrey of Bouillon. — Bailey. 
 
 WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another was adjudged death by the English 
 statutes. The Coventry act was passed in 1671. See Coventry A ct. By the statute, 
 usually called Lord Ellenborough's act, persons who stab or cut with intent to 
 murder, maim, or disfigure another are declared guilty of felony without benefit of 
 clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shooting at another in any dwelling-house, or 
 other place, are also punishable under the same statute in the same degree, 43 Geo. 
 III. 1802. This offence is met by some later statutes, particularly the act for con- 
 solidating and amending the acts relating to offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV. 
 June, 1828. This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV. 1829. Act for the 
 prevention of malicious shooting, stabbing, &c. in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV. 1825 ; amended 
 by 10 Geo. IV. June 4, 1829. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was passed for the prevention 
 and punishment of assaults on women and children. 
 
 WRECKS op SHIPPING. The loss of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee- 
 shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to 
 be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists, that 
 677 British vessels were totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. 
 By official returns, the number of British vessels wrecked in the year 1848, was, sailing 
 vessels, 501 ; steamers, 13 ; the tonnage of the whole amounting to 96,920, all being 
 of the United Kingdom. In the year 1851 there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which 
 number eleven were steamers; the tonnage of the whole being 111,976 tons. The 
 year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. and Jan.), was very remarkable for 
 the mimber of dreadful shipwrecks and of fires at sea; we have recorded but a 
 few of them. The number of wrecks in 1852 were 1015 ; in 1853, 832 ; in 1854, 897 ; 
 in 1855, 1141 : of these last, 272 were totally lost. In 1852, the number of British 
 lives lost by wrecks were 920 ; in 1853, 689 ; in 1854, 1549 ; in 1855, 469 ; in 1856, 
 1153. It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annually 
 lost ; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience serious damage 
 requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary wear and tear. 
 
 REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED OR BURNT. 
 
 Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Ports- 
 mouth to Spithead ; upset in a squall ; 
 all on board perished . July 20, 1545 
 
 Coronation, 90 guns, foundered ofi the 
 Ramhead ; crew saved : Harwich, 70 
 
 guns ; wrecked on Mount Edgcumbe ; at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost near 
 
 crew perished . . . Sept. 1, 1691 I Harwich : all lost but 4 men ; Rcso 
 
 ZZ2 
 
 Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the 
 Medway .... Jan. 29, 1696 
 
 Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; 
 Northumberland, 70 guns : lost on the 
 Goodwin; Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk 
 
WRE 
 
 "03 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF SHIPPING, continued. 
 
 lulion, 60 guns, coast of Sussex ; New- 
 castle, 60 linns, at Spithead; 193 
 
 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- 
 mouth ; 175 perished, in the night of 
 
 Nov. 26, 1703 
 
 Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, 
 lost with admiral sir C. Shovel, off the 
 Seilly isles, which nee . . Oct. 22, 1707 
 
 Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; 
 crew perished . . . Dec. 25, 1700 
 
 Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all 
 on board perished . . Oct. 15, 1711 
 
 Victory, 100 guns, near isle of Alderney ; 
 all perished .... Oct. 5, 1744 
 
 Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish 
 Knock; 40 men perished Sept. 21, 1744 
 
 Namur, 74 guns, foundered near Fort 
 St. David, East Indies ; all perished, 
 except 26 persons ; Pembroke, 60 guns, 
 near Porto Novo ; 330 of her crew 
 perished .... April 13, 1749 
 
 Invincible, 74 guns; lost upon the 
 Owers ; crew saved . , . Feb. 19, 1758 
 
 Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48, 
 N., on way to Gibraltar; about 400 
 perished .... April 13, 1758 
 
 Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on coast of Bar- 
 bary; 130 ofthe crew perished Nov. 29, 175S 
 
 Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg, 
 most of the crew perished . Sept. 25, 1759 
 
 Resolution, 74 guns, and Essex, 64 guns, 
 lost on the Four Reef, near Quiberon ; 
 crew saved . . . Nov. 21, 1759 
 
 Ramillies, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt- 
 head ; only 20 persons saved; Con- 
 queror, lost on St. Nicholas's Island, 
 Plymouth .... Feb. 15, 1760 
 
 Dae d'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunder- 
 land, 60 guns, lost off Pondicherry ; 
 all perished ■ . . Jan. 1, 1701 
 
 Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack 
 of Martinique . . . Feb. 3, 1762 
 
 Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Ber- 
 muda; crew perished . . . 1775 
 
 Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; 
 Dtfiunce, 64; Phoenix, 44; La Blanche, 
 32 : Laurel, 28 ; Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 
 28; Deal Castle, 24; Penelope, 21 ; Scar- 
 horough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Canuleon, 
 14; Endeavour, 14: and Victor, lOguus; 
 all lost in the same storm, in the West 
 Indies, in ... . Oct. 17S0 
 
 General Barker, East Indiaman, off Sche- 
 veling .... Feb. 17, 1781 
 
 Grosvenor Indiaman, on the coast of Caf- 
 fraria Aug. 4, 1782 
 
 Swan sloop-of-war, off Waterford ; 130 
 persons drowned . . Aug. 4, 1782 
 
 Royal George (which see), when above 600 
 persons perished . . . Aug. 29, 17S2 
 
 Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her pas- 
 sage from Jamaica, capt. Inglefieldand 
 11 of the crew saved Sept. 21, 1782 
 
 Ramilies, 74 guus, off Newfoundland; 
 crew saved . . . Sept. 21, 17S2 
 
 Hector frigate, in the Atlantic Ocean ; 
 crew saved .... Oct. 5, 1782 
 
 Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admi- 
 ral Rodney's prizes, the Glorieux, of 
 74 guns, lost in the West Indies, Oct. 5, 1782 
 
 Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellichery 
 roads, East Indies . . Nov. 5, 1783 
 
 Cato, 50 guns, adm. sir Hyde Parker, on 
 the Malabar coast ; crew perished . 17s:; 
 
 Count Belgioioso Indiaman, off Dublin 
 Bay ; 147 souls perished March 13, 178:; 
 
 Menai ferry-boat, in passing the Strait : 
 60 drowned . . . Dec. 5, 1785 
 
 Halsewell East Indiaman ; 100 persons 
 perished Jan. 6, 1786 
 
 Hartwell East Indiaman, with immense 
 
 wealth on board . . May 24, 1787 
 Charlenumt Packet, from Holyhead to 
 
 Dublin ; 104 drowned . . Dec. 22, 1790 
 Pandora frigate, on a reef of rocks; 100 
 
 souls perished . . . Aug. 28, 1791 
 Union packet of Dover, lost off tho 
 
 port of Calais ; a similar occurrence 
 
 had not happened for 105 years before, 
 
 Jan. 28, 1792 
 Winterton E. Indiaman ; many perished 
 
 Aug. 20, 1792 
 Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt, at Leghorn, 
 
 Nov. 20, 1793 
 Impetueux, 74 guns, burnt, at Ports- 
 mouth .... Aug. 24, 17:i I 
 Ardent, 64 guns, burnt, off Corsica, April. 1791 
 Boyne, by fire, at Spithead, (see Boyne) 
 
 Mayl, 1795 
 Courageux, 71 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, 
 
 near Gibraltar, crew, except 124, 
 
 perished .... Dec. 18, 1796 
 
 La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 
 
 souls perished . . . Nov. 16, 1797 
 Resistance, blown up in the Straits of 
 
 Banca July 24, 1798 
 
 Royal Charlotte East Indiaman ; blown 
 
 up at Culpee . . . Aug. 1, 1798 
 Colossus, 74 guns, wrecked off coast of 
 
 Seilly ; crew saved . . Dec. 10, 1798 
 Proserpine frigate, in the river Elbe ; 15 
 
 lives lost .... Feb. 1, 1799 
 Lutine, 36 guns, wrecked off the Vlie" 
 
 island, coast of Holland ; only 2 men 
 
 saved Oct. 9, 1799 
 
 Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between 
 
 Langstone and Chichester . Oct. 19, 1799 
 Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, 
 
 Cape of Good Hope ; 291 of the crew 
 
 perished 1799 
 
 Nassau, 64 guns, on tho Haak Bank; 
 
 100 perished .... Oct. 25, 1799 
 
 frigate, 3S guns, on the Pen- 
 marks .... Dec 24, 1 7 •. ' 1 » 
 Queen transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 
 
 souls perished . . . Jan. 14, 1800 
 Mastiff gun-brig, lost on the Cockle Sands 
 
 Jan. 19, 1800 
 Repulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . March 10, 1800 
 Queen Charlotte, 110 guns (which see) ; 
 
 March 17, 1S00 
 Queen East Indiaman, by fire, on coast 
 
 of Brazil .... July 9, 1800 
 Marlborough,, 74 guns, near Belle-isle; 
 
 crew saved .... Nov. 4, 1800 
 Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth : 
 
 crew, except 126 souls, perished 
 
 March 16, 1801 
 Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver; 
 
 23 persons perished . Feb. 10, 1802 
 
 Assistance, 50 guns, off Dunkirk; crew 
 
 saved .... Marcli 29, 1802 
 Bangalore East Indiaman, in the Indian 
 
 Sea ..... April 12, 1802 
 Melville, Dutch East Indiaman, off Dover 
 
 Nov. 23, 1802 
 Active West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 
 
 Jan. 10, 1S03 
 Hindostan East Indiaman, went to pieces 
 
 on the Culvers . . Jan. 1], 1S03 
 
 La Dtterminie, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads ; 
 
 many drowned . . . March 26, 1803 
 Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent 
 
 May 31, 1S03 
 Lady Hobart packet, on an island of ice 
 
 June 28, 1803 
 Seine frigate, 44 guns, off Schelliug, in 
 
 Holland .... July 31, 1803 
 
 Antelope, capt. Wilson, off the Pelew 
 
 Islands .... Aug. 9, 1803 
 
WRE 
 
 709 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OP SHIPPING, continued. 
 
 Victory Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 37 
 
 drowned .... Sept. 30, 1803 
 Circe frigate, 32 guns, on the coast near 
 
 Yarmouth . . . Nov. 16, 1803 
 
 Nautilus Bast Indiaman, on the Ladrones 
 
 Nov. 18, 1803 
 Fanny, in the Chinese Sea ; 46 souls 
 
 perished .... Nov. 29, 1S03 
 Suffisante sloop-of-war, 16 guns, off Cork 
 
 harbour .... Dec. 25, 1803 
 Apollo frigate, on coast of Portugal, 
 
 April 1, 1S04 
 Cumberland Packet, on the coast of 
 
 Autigua, Sept, 4, 1804 
 
 Romney, 50 guus, on Haak Bank, Texel, 
 
 Nov. 18, 1804 
 • Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men 
 
 Nov. 24, 1804 
 Severn, on a rock, near Grouville, 
 
 Dec. 21, 1804 
 Boris frigate, on the Diamond rock, 
 
 Quiberoii Bay . . . Jan. 12. 1805 
 Abergavenny Bast Indiaman, on the Bill 
 
 of Portland; the captain and more 
 
 than 300 persons, passengers and crew, 
 
 perished .... Feb. 6, IS 05 
 
 Naias transport, on the coast of New- 
 foundland . . . Oct. 23, 1S05 
 JEneas transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 
 
 perished .... Oct. 23, 1S05 
 Aurora transport, on the Godwin Sands ; 
 
 300 perished . . . Dec. 21, 1S05 
 King George packet, from Park-gate to 
 
 Dublin, lost on the Hoyle Bank ; 125 
 
 persons, passengers and crew, drowned 
 
 Sept. 21, 1806 
 Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls 
 
 perished .... Oct. 27, 1S06 
 
 Glasgow packet, off Farm Island ; several 
 
 drowned . . . Nov. 17, 1S06 
 
 Felix, 12 guns, near Santander; 79 souls 
 
 lost Jan. 22, 1S07 
 
 Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Trou- 
 
 bridge, and Java, 32 guns, foundered 
 
 near isle of Rodriguez, East Indies, 
 
 Feb. 1, 1S07 
 Ajax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of 
 
 Tenedos ; 250 perished . Feb. 14, 1S07 
 
 Blanche frigate, on the French coast; 
 
 45 men perished . . . March 4. 1807 
 Ganges, Bast Indiaman, off the Cape of 
 
 Good Hope . . . May 29, 1S07 
 Prince of Wales Park-gate packet, and 
 
 Rochdale transport, on Dunleary point, 
 
 near Dublin; nearly 300 souls perished, 
 
 Nov. 19, 1S07 
 Boreas man-of-war, upon the Haunois 
 
 Rock in the Channel . Nov. 2S, 1807 
 Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's 
 
 Bay ; 60 lives lost . . Dec. 29, 1S07 
 Agatha, near Memel ; lord Roystou and 
 
 others drowned . . April 7, 1S08 
 
 AHrea frigate, 32 guns, on the Anagada 
 
 coast .... May 23, 1S0S 
 
 Frith passage- boat, in the Frith of Dor- 
 noch ; 40 persons drowned, Aug. 13, 1S09 
 Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage 
 
 from Halifax ; crew perished Aug. 31, 1809 
 Sirius, 36 guns, and Magicienne, 36 guns, 
 
 wrecked when advancing to attack 
 
 the French, off Isle of France, 
 
 Aug. 23, 1810 
 Satellite sloop-of-war, 16 guus upset, and 
 
 all on board perished . Dec. 14, 1S10 
 Minotaur of 74guns, wrecked on the Haak 
 
 Bank ; 360 persons perished Dec. 22, 1810 
 Eliza, East India ship on the coast of 
 
 Dunkirk .... Dec. 27, 1S10 
 Pandora sloop-of-war, off Jutland, 30 
 
 persons perished . . Feb. 13, 1811 
 
 Amethyst frigate, of 36 guns, lost in the 
 Sound Feb. 15, 1811 
 
 Pomone, 38 guns, on the Needle rocks ; 
 crew saved .... Oct. 14, 1S11 
 
 Saldanha frigate, on the Irish coast ; 300 
 perished . . . Dec. 4, 1811 
 
 St. George of 98, and Befence of 74 guns, 
 stranded on the coast of Jutland, and 
 all souls perished, except 18 seamen 
 
 Dec. 24, 1S11 
 
 Manilla frigate, on the Haak Sand, 12 
 persons perished . . Jan. 28, 1S12 
 
 British Queen packet, from Ostend to 
 Margate, wrecked on the Godwin 
 Sands, and all on board perished. 
 
 Dec. 17, 1S14 
 
 Bengal East Iudiaman, lost in the East 
 Indies .... Jan. 19, 1815 
 
 Buchess of Wellington at Calcutta, by fire, 
 
 Jan. 21, 1816 
 
 Seahorse transport, near Tramore Bay; 
 365 persons, chiefly soldiers of the 
 59th Regiment, and most of the crew, 
 drowned .... Jan. 30, 1816 
 
 Lord Melville and Boadicea transports, 
 with upwards of 200 of the 82nd Regi- 
 ment, with wives and children, lost 
 near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 
 
 Jan. 31, 1816 
 
 Harpooner transport, near Newfound- 
 land ; 100 persons drowned Nov. 10, 1S16 
 
 William and Mary packet, in the Eng- 
 lish Channel; many drowned, 
 
 Oct. 24, 1817 
 
 Queen Charlotte East Indiaman, at Ma- 
 dras ; ah on board perished Oct. 24, 1818 
 
 Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls 
 perished . . . March IS, 1820 
 
 Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near 
 Liverpool ; 40 drowned . . Aug. 8, 1821 
 
 Blenden Ball, on Inaccessible Island ; 
 many perished . . July 23, 1821 
 
 Juliana East Indiaman, on the Kentish 
 Knock ; 40 drowned . . Dec. 26, 1821 
 
 Thames Indiaman, off Beachy Head ; 
 several drowned . . Feb. 3, 1822 
 
 Brake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several 
 drowned .... June 20, 1822 
 
 Ellesmere steam-packet ; 11 souls 
 perished .... Dec. 14, 1822 
 
 Alert Dublin and Liverpool packet ; 70 
 souls perished . . March 26, 1825 
 
 Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool; 60 
 souls perished . . . May 16, 1823 
 
 Fanny, in ersey Roads ; lord Harley 
 and many drowned . . Jan. I. 1828 
 
 Stirling steamer, on the Ardgower shore, 
 Scotland .... Jan. 17, 182S 
 
 Venus packet.from Waterford to Dublin, 
 near Gorey ; 9 persons drowned, 
 
 March 19, 182S 
 
 JKewry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 
 passeugers ; cast away near Bardsey, 
 about 40 persons were drowned, 
 
 April 16, 1830 
 
 St. George steam-packet ; wrecked off 
 Douglas, Isle of Man . Nov. 19, 1S30 
 
 Rothesay Castle, near Beaumaris. (See 
 Rathesay castle) . . . Aug. 17, 1S31 
 
 Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to 
 Quebec ; lost near Cape Ray ; 273 
 souls perished ; 32 only were saved, 
 
 Aug. 19, 1831 
 
 Experiment, from Hull to Quebec ; 
 wrecked near Calais . April 15, 1832 
 
 Earl of Wemyss, near Weils, Norfolk ; 
 the cabin filled, and 11 ladies and 
 children were drowned ; all on deck 
 escaped .... July 13, 1833 
 
 Arnyhitrite ship, with female convicts 
 
WEE 
 
 710 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF SHIPPING, continued. 
 
 to New South Wales ; lost on Bou- 
 logne Sands; oat of 131 persons, 
 three only wove saved. (See 
 Amphitrite.) .... Aug. 3i>, 1833 
 
 United Kingdom W. Indiaman, with rich 
 cargo : run down by the Queen of 
 vad steamer off Northflcet, near 
 Graveeend .... Oct. 15, 1333 
 
 Weiteru-itch steamer, on the coast of Wex- 
 ford ; 4 drowned . . . Dec. 18, 1833 
 
 Lady Mwn.ro, from Calcutta to Sydney ; 
 of 90 persons on board, not more than 
 20 were saved . . . Jan 9, 1834 
 
 Cantelon cutter: run down off Dover by 
 the Castor frigate; 13 persons drowned 
 
 Aug. 27, 1834 
 
 Apollo steamer ; run down by the Mon- 
 arch, near Northfleet . Sept. 9, 1837 
 
 Killarney steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons 
 perished .... Jan 26, 1838 
 
 Forfarshire steamer, from Hull to Dun- 
 dee ; 38 persons drowned. Owing to 
 the courage of Grace Darling and her 
 father, 15 persons were saved. (See 
 Forfarshire.) . . . Sept. 5, 183S 
 
 Protector E Indiaman, at Bengal : of 
 178 persons on board, 170 perished, 
 
 Nov. 21, 1838 
 
 William Huskisson steamer, between Dub- 
 lin and Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved 
 by captain C'legg, of the Huddersfield, 
 
 Jan. 11, 1S40 
 
 Poland from New York ; struck by light- 
 ning May 16, 1840 
 
 Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay ; 58 
 recruits, 20 officers, and 7 passengers 
 perished : the Lord Castlereagh also 
 wrecked ; most of her crew and pas- 
 sengers lost . . . June 17, 1S40 
 
 H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed 
 from Harwich on a surveying cruise, 
 and was lost next dav in a violent gale, 
 off the coast of Norfolk . Nov. 13, 1840 
 
 City of Bristol steam-packet, 35 souls 
 perished .... Nov. 18, 1840 
 
 Thames steamer, captain Gray, from Dub- 
 lin to Liverpool, wrecked off St Ives ; 
 the captain and 55 persons perished, 
 
 Jan. 4, 1841 
 
 Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for 
 America ; run down off Holyhead by 
 the Nottingham steamer out of Dub- 
 lin ; 122 persons perished . Feb. 19, 1S41 
 
 Amelia from London to Liverpool ; lost 
 on the Heme Sand . . Feb. 26, 1S41 
 
 President steamer from New York to 
 
 - Liverpool, with many passengers on 
 board ; sailed on March 11, encoun- 
 tered a terrific storm, two days after- 
 wards, and has never since been heard 
 of March 13, 1S41 
 
 [In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, 
 the comedian ; a son of the duke of 
 Richmond, A:c.] 
 
 William Browne, by striking on the ice ; 
 
 16 passengers who had been received 
 into the long boat were thrown over- 
 board by the crew to lighten her, 
 
 April 19, 184 1 
 
 Isabella, from London to Quebec; struck 
 by an iceberg . . . May 9, 1841 
 
 Solwnp steamer, on her passage between 
 Belfast and Port Carlisle; crew saved, 
 
 Aug. 25, 1841 
 
 Amanda, off Metis ; 29 passengers and 12 
 of the crew lost . . Sept. 26, 1841 
 
 Janus Cooke of Limerick, coming from 
 sligo to Glasgow . . Nov. 21, 1S-11 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, E. Indiaman Feb. 5, 1842 
 
 Medora, West India steam-packet, on 
 Turk's island . May 12, 1842 
 
 .'hie Robinson, and Waterloo trans- 
 ports in Table Bay, Cape of Good 
 Hope : of 330 persons on board the 
 latter vessel, 189, principally convicts, 
 perished .... Aug. 28, 1812 
 
 Spitfire, war steamer, on the coast of 
 Jamaica .... Sept. 10, 1842 
 
 Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to 
 London, off Merlemont, near Bou- 
 logne ; of 116 persons on board, seven 
 only were saved . . Nov. 13, 1842 
 
 Ha m iU on, on the Gunfleet sands, near 
 Harwich ; 11 of the crew perished 
 
 Nov. 15, 1842 
 
 Conqueror East Indiaman, homeward 
 bound, near Boulogne ; crew and pas- 
 sengers lost . . . Jan. 13, 1843 
 
 Jessie Logan East Indiaman, on the Cor- 
 nish coast ; many lives lost Jan. 16, 1843 
 
 Solicay, royal mail steamer, near Co- 
 ruuna ; 2S lives lost, and the mail, 
 
 April 7, 1S43 
 
 Queen Victoria, East Indiaman, from 
 Bombay to Liverpool, off the Rod- 
 rigues .... April 7, 1843 
 
 Catharine trader, blown up off the Isle 
 of Pines ; most of the crew were mas- 
 sacred by the natives, or afterwards 
 drowned .... April 12, 1843 
 
 Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of 
 crew saved .... May 23, 1843 
 
 H.M.S. Fantome of 16 guns, off Monte- 
 video .... June 25, 1843 
 
 Albert troop ship, from Halifax, with the 
 64th Regiment on board, which was 
 miraculously saved . . July 13, 1843 
 
 Pegasus steam-packet, from Leith ; off 
 the Fern Islands ; of 59 persons. 7 only 
 were saved . . . Jul}' 19, 1843 
 
 [Mr. Elton, a favourite actor, was among 
 the sufferers. 
 
 i United States steam-frigate by 
 tire Aug. 27, 1843 
 
 Queen steamer from Bristol, with many 
 passengers on board ; nearly the whole 
 saved .... Sept. 1, 1S43 
 
 Phoenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the 
 coast of Newfoundland; many lives 
 were lost . . . ■ Nov. 26, 1843 
 
 II. M. frigate Wilberforce, on the coast of 
 Africa .... Feb. 2, 18-14 
 
 Elberftldt iron steam - ship, from 
 Brielle .... Feb. 22, 1S44 
 
 Manchester steamer, from Hull to Ham- 
 burg, off the Vogel Sands, near Cux- 
 haven ; about 30 lives lost June 16, 1844 
 
 Margaret, Hull and Hamburgh steamer ; 
 many lives lost . . Oct. 22, 1S45 
 
 Osprey H.M. sloop of war, off New 
 Zealand . . March 11, 1846 
 
 Great Britain iron steam-ship ; grounded 
 in Dundrum Bay. (See Great Britain.) 
 
 Sept. 22, 1S46 
 
 [Recovered by Brunei, &c. Aug. 27, 1847.] 
 
 John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; 
 several lives lost . . Sept. 86, 1S46 
 
 Tweed West India mail packet ; about 
 90 souls perished . . Feb. 19, 1847 
 
 Bxmovth emigrant ship, from London- 
 derry to Quebec ; of 240 persons on 
 board, nearly all were drowsed, 
 
 April 28, 1S47 
 
 Ocean Monarch, by fire. (See Ocean 
 Monarch.) . . . Aug. 24, 1S48 
 
 Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant ship, by fire; 
 400 persons miraculously escaped, 
 
 Nov. 12, 1S49 
 
WRE 
 
 711 
 
 WRE 
 
 WRECKS OF SHIPPING, continued. 
 
 Royal Adelaide steamer off Margate. (See 
 Royal Adelaide.) . . March 30, 1S50 
 
 Mary Florence, from London to Aden, 
 
 June 3, 1850 
 
 Orion steam-ship, off Portpatrick. (See 
 Orion.) .... June 18, 1850 
 
 Manchester, Ariadne, and Neriadne, three 
 Indiamen, July or August ; date un- 
 known 1850 
 
 Rosalind, from Quebec; a number of the 
 crew drowned . . . Sept. 9, 1850 
 
 La Polka steamer, off St. Heliers. Jersey ; 
 crew and passengers saved Sept. 16, 1S50 
 
 E.lmund, emigrant ship, with nearly 200 
 passengers from Limerick to New 
 York (of whom more than one half 
 perished) wrecked off the western 
 coast of Ireland . . Nov. 12, 1850 
 
 Amazon West India mail steamer. (See 
 Amazon) .... Jan. 4, 1852 
 
 Birkenhead troop-ship. (See Birkenhead), 
 
 Feb. 26, 1S52 
 
 Marianna Austrian snip, from Venice 
 to Trieste, escorting the Volta, the 
 latter having the emperor of Austria 
 on board. A violent bora separated 
 the vessels ; the Volta succeeded with 
 great difficulty in reaching Roviguo ; 
 but the Marianna was wrecked, and 
 every soul perished . March 4, 1852 
 
 Victoria steam-packet. (See Victoria 
 steam-packet.) . . Nov. 8 and 9, 1852 
 
 Lily, stranded and blown-up by gun- 
 powder, on the Calf-of-Man ; by 
 which more than thirty persons lost 
 their lives .... Dec. 24, 1852 
 
 St. George steamer. (See St. George.) 
 
 Dec. 24, 1S52 
 
 Queen Victoria steam-ship. (See Queen 
 Victoria.) . . . Feb. 15, 1853 
 
 Independence with a host of passengers, 
 on the coast of Lower California, and 
 which afterwards took fire ; 140 per- 
 sons were drowned or burnt to death, 
 a few escaping, who underwent the 
 most dreadful additional sufferings on 
 a barren shore . . . Feb. 16, 1853 
 
 Buke of Sutherland steamer from London 
 to Aberdeen : wrecked on the back of 
 the pier at Aberdeen, and the captain 
 (Hoskins) and many of the crew and 
 passengers perished . . April 2, 1S53 
 
 Rebecca, on the west coast of Van Die- 
 men's Land. The captain (Shephard) 
 and many lives lost . . April 29, 1853 
 William and Mary, an American emi- 
 grant ship, near the Bahamas. She 
 struck on a sunken rock ; about 170 
 persons perished . . . May 3, 1853 
 
 Aurora, of Hull ; about 25 lives lost, 
 sailed for New York, April 26, and 
 foundered .... May 20, 1853 
 
 Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel. 
 Struck on a reef near Torres Straits. 
 The captain (Bibby) and six lives lost, 
 
 Aug. 3, 1853 
 Annie Jane, of Liverpool an emigrant 
 vessel, di-iven on shore on the Barra 
 Islands on west coast of Scotland ; 
 about 348 lives lost . . Sept 29, 1853 
 Harewood, brig, by collision with the 
 Trident steamer, near the Mouse light 
 near the Nore : foundered with six of 
 the crew who perished . Oct 5, 1S53 
 Balhousie. Foundered off Beachy Head.- 
 The captain (Butterworth), the passen- 
 
 gers, and all the crew (excepting one), 
 about 60 persons in all, perished. The 
 cargo was valued at above 100, 0001. , 
 
 Oct. 19, 1853 
 
 Marshall, screw steamer, in the North 
 Sea, ran into the barque Woodhouse; 
 about 48 persons supposed to have 
 perished .... Nov. 28, 1853 
 
 Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the 
 rocks off Lambay island, north of 
 Howth ; about 380 lives lost, Jan. 20, 1854 
 
 Arctic, U.S. mail-steamer, by collision in 
 a fog, with the Vesta, French steamer, 
 off Newfoundland; above 300 lives lost, 
 
 Sept. 27, 1S54 
 
 Favourite, in the channel, on her way 
 from Bremen to Baltimore, came into 
 violent contact with the American 
 barque, Hesper, off the Start, and im- 
 mediately went down ; 201 persons 
 were drowned . . April 29, 1854 
 
 Lady Nugent, troop ship, sailed from 
 Madras, May 10, 1S54:' foundered in a 
 hurricane : 350 rank and file of the 
 Madras light infantry, officers and 
 ci-ew, in all 400 souls perished. May, 1S54 
 
 Forerunner, African mail steamer, struck 
 on a sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, 
 Madeira, and went down directly after- 
 wards ; with ths total loss of ship and 
 mails, and 14 lives . . Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 Nile iron screw steamer, struck en the 
 Godevry rocks, St. Ives' Bay, and all 
 on board perished . . Nov. 30, 1854 
 
 In the storm which raged in the Black 
 Sea, Nov. 13 — 16, 1S54, eleven trans- 
 ports were wrecked and six disabled. 
 The new steam-ship Prince was lost 
 with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 
 500,000i. indispensable to the army in 
 the Crimea. The loss of life in the 
 other vessels is estimated at 340. 
 
 George Canning, Hamburg and New York 
 packet, near the mouth of the Elbe ; 
 96 lives lost, and Stately, English 
 schooner, near Neuwreek, m a great 
 storm Jan. 1, 1855 
 
 Mercury, screw steamer, by collision 
 with a French ship : passengers saved, 
 
 Jan. 11, 1855 
 
 Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate 
 
 Sands ; 28 lives lost . Jan. 20, 1855 
 
 Will o' the Wisp, screw steamer, on the 
 Burn Rock, off Lambay, all on board, 
 18 lives lost .... Feb. 9, 1855 
 
 Morna, steamer, on rocks near the Isle 
 of Man, 21 lives lost . Feb. 25, 1S55 
 
 John, emigrant vessel on the M ancles 
 rocks off Falmouth ; 200 lives lost, 
 
 Mayl, 1S55 
 
 Josephine Willis, packet ship, lost by col- 
 lision with the screw steamer Man- 
 gerton, in the channel ; about 90 lives 
 lost Feb. 3, 1856 
 
 John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New 
 York, ran on an iceberg and was 
 wrecked ; many lives lost Feb. 19, 1856 
 Many vessels and their crews totally 
 
 lost* .... Jan. 1—8, 1857 
 Violet, royal mail steamer, lost on the 
 Goodwins : many persons perished, 
 
 Jan. 5, 1857 
 Tt/ne, royal mail steamer, stranded on 
 her way to Southampton from the 
 Brazils . . . . Jan. 13, 1S57 
 
 * A large American vessel, Northern Belle, was wrecked near Broadstairs. The American Govern- 
 ment sent 21 silver medals and 270J. to be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the place who 
 saved the crew. Jan. 5 — 6, 1S57. 
 
Will 712 XER 
 
 WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The most 
 ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon hard sub- 
 stances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, and matters of 
 public notoriety. Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the 
 Egyptians, and to have been the author of the hieroglyphics, 2112 b. c. — Usher, 
 Writing is said to have been taught to the Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, 
 king of Phoenicia, 1494 B.C. — Thucydides. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C. 
 brought the Phoenician letters into Greece.- — Vossius. The commandments were 
 written ou two tables of stone, 1491 B.C. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used 
 waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known.* 
 See Papyrus, Parchment, Paper. 
 
 WURTZBURG. This territory was formerly a bishopric, and its sovereign was one of 
 the greatest ecclesiastic princes of the empire ; but it was given as a principality to 
 the elector of Bavaria, in 1803; and by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, it was ceded 
 to the archduke Ferdinand, whose electoral title was transferred from Salzburg to 
 this place. In 1814, however, this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, in exchange 
 for the Tyrol; and the archduke Ferdinand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. 
 This city was taken by the French iu 1796, and again in 1800. 
 
 WURTZCHEN, BATTLE of. One of the most bloody and fiercely contested battles 
 of the campaign of 1813 ; fought between the allied Russian and Prussian armies, and 
 the French army commanded by Napoleon in person. The carnage was dreadful on 
 both sides, but in the end the allies retreated from the field. The defeat of the allies 
 here, and in the equally momentous battle of Bautzen, which immediately preceded, 
 obliged them to recross the Oder: May 21, 1813. See Bautzen. 
 
 X. 
 
 XACCA. The first founder of idolatry in the Indies and eastern countries : the history 
 of his life reports, than when his mother was enceinte with him, she dreamt that she 
 brought forth a white elephant, which is the reason the kings of Siam. Tonquin, and 
 China have so great a value for them. The Brahmins affirm that Xacca has gone 
 through a metempsychosis 80,000 times, and that his soul has passed into so many 
 different kinds of beasts, whereof the last was a white elephant : they add, that after 
 all these changes, he was received into the company of the gods. 
 
 XANTHICA. The festival observed by the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus, 
 the same as April. It was then usual to make a lustration of the army with great 
 solemnity and pomp ; the soldiery were freed from restraint, and had mimic battles, 
 and the people indulged in great excesses and licentiousness ; instituted 392 B.C. 
 
 XANTHUS, SIEGE of. By the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, and 
 the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able to sustain 
 themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the loss of their liberty, 
 set fire to their city, destroyed their wives and children, and then themselves perished 
 in the conflagration. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered 
 rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his presence, only 
 150 were saved, much against their will; 42 B.C. — Plutarch. 
 
 XANTHOXYLUM CLAYA HERCULIS, or Tooth-ache tree. It was brought to these 
 countries from North Carolina, before 1736. The Xanthoriza apiifolia, or Yellow- 
 root was brought to England from North America about 176C. The Xylomelum, or 
 Pear-fruited plant, came from New South Wales iu 1789. See Flowers. 
 
 XEXOPHON. See Retreat of the Greeks. 
 
 XERES DE la FRONTERA. The Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
 wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is that so well known in England as 
 Sherry ,"an English corruption of Xeres. The British importations of this wine are 
 now immense ; in the year 1S50 they reached. to 3,S26,7S5 gallons; and in the year 
 ending Jan. 5, 1852, they amounted to 3,904,978 gallons; exceeding the quantity 
 
 * "I would check the petty vanity of those who slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a 
 scholar, by reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmness, Mr. Pro- 
 fessor Porson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease and beauty of the 
 characters they respectively employed." — Dr. Parr. 
 
XER 713 YEA 
 
 imported from any other country, not excepting the wines of Portugal. Xeres is a 
 handsome and large town, of great antiquity, and very populous. 
 
 XERXES' CAMPAIGN In GREECE. Xerxes having crossed the Hellespont, (the 
 strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora) by a bridge,* entered 
 Greece in the spring of 480 B.C. with an army, which, together with the numerous 
 retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted according to 
 some historians, to 5,283,220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
 consisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the mariners, 
 and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at Thermopylas, by the 
 valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such a handful of 
 men should oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into 
 his presence ; but for three successive days the most valiant of the Persian troops 
 were defeated, and the courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed 
 longer, if a base Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of 
 the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Thermopylae 
 (which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 480 B.C. The more 
 he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. His fleet was defeated at Arte- 
 misium and Salamis, and he hastened back to Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of 
 his generals, behind with an army of 300,000 men. The rest that had survived the 
 ravages of the war, famine, and pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 
 
 XIMERA, BATTLE of. Between the Spanish army under the command of general 
 Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by general Regnier. In this engage- 
 ment the Spaniards, after a hard struggle, defeated their adversaries, but the loss was 
 very great on both sides, in killed and wounded, Sept. 10, 1811. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YARD. The precise origin of our yard is uncertain. It is, however, likely that the 
 word is (as some authorities state) from the Saxon term gyrd or girth, being anciently 
 the circumference of the body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the length 
 of his arm. There has been no alteration made in the length of the yard since the 
 reign of Henry III. who altered and revised most of our measures and weights. It 
 was directed that the old standard yard of a.d. 1760, in the custody of the clerk of 
 the house of commons, should continue to be the standard unit of extension, or lineal, 
 superficial, and solid measures; statute 5 Geo. IV. June 17, 1824. 
 
 YARMOUTH. This was a royal demesne in the reign of William I. as appears from 
 Domesday book. It obtained a charter from John, and one from Henry III. In 
 1348, a plague here carried off 7000 persons; and that terrible disease did much 
 havoc again in 1579 and 1664. The theatre was built in 1778; and Nelson's pillar, 
 a fluted column, 140 feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension chain-bridge 
 over the river Bure was built by Mr. R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000Z. Owing 
 to the weight of a vast number of persons who assembled on this bridge to witness an 
 exhibition on the water, it suddenly gave way, and 79 lives, mostly those of children, 
 were lost, May 2, 1845. 
 
 YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. The 
 Roman year was introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; and it was corrected" by Numa, 
 713 B.C., and again by Julius Caesar, 45 B.C. See Calendar. The solar or astronomical 
 year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, 
 265 B.C. The sidereal year or return to the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, 
 and 11 seconds. A considerable variation prevailed generally among the nations of 
 antiquity, and still partially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. 
 The Jews dated the beginuing of the sacred year in the mouth of March; the 
 Athenians in the month of June; the Macedonians on the 24th Sept.; the Christians 
 
 * It was formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, 
 others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side towards the sea, and 31S on that of the 
 Archipelago ; the former were placed transversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain of their cables, 
 in the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great strength. On extended 
 cables between the lines of shipping were laid fast-bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, 
 and over the latter was thrown earth ; on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and beasts of 
 burthen from being terrified by the sea, iu the passage from shore to shore. This wonderful work was 
 completed, it is said, in one week, 480 B.C. 
 
YEA 
 
 714 
 
 YEL 
 
 of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians and 
 Armenians, on the 11th of that mouth. Nearly all the nations of the Christian 
 •world now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. of France in 
 1564, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the year for the time 
 to come to be constantly aud universally beguD, and written on and fiom January 1. 
 See Ntw Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year. 
 
 YEAR in ENGLAND. The English began their year on the 25th of December, until 
 the time of William the Conqueror. This prince having been crowned on Jan. 1, 
 gave occasion to the English to begin their year at that time, to make it agree with 
 the then most remarkable period of their history. — Stoiv. But though the historical 
 year began on the day of the Circumcision, yet the civil or legal year did not com- 
 mence till the day of the Annunciation, namely, the 25th of March. Until the act 
 for altering the style, as late as 1752 (see Style), the year did not legally and generally 
 commence in England until the last-mentioned day. In Scotland, at that period, the 
 year began on the 1st of January. This difference caused great practical incon- 
 veniences ; and January, February, and pai't of March sometimes bore two dates, as 
 we often find in old records, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 174§. Such a reckoning often 
 led to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly say " the revolution of 
 1688,'' as that great event happened in February of the year 1688, according to the 
 then mode of computation : but if the year were held to begin, as it does now, on the 
 1st of January, it would be the revolution of 1689. 
 
 YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar months, 
 or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chaldeans, Persians, and 
 ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added another lunar month, so as to 
 make the solar and the lunar year nearly agree. But though the months were lunar, 
 the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of thirty days, and the second of 
 twenty-nine, and so alternately; and the month added trienuially was called the 
 second Adar. The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. 
 
 YEAR of OUR LORD. See Anno Domini. 
 
 YEAR of the REIGN. From the time of William the Conqueror, a.d. 1066, the year 
 of the sovereign's reign has been given to all public instruments. The king's patents, 
 charters, proclamations, and all acts of parliament, have since then been generally 
 so dated. The same manner of dating is used in most of the European states for all 
 similar documents and records. 
 
 YEAR, SIBERIAN, and in LAPLAND. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 
 aud Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent traveller: — 
 
 Juno 23. Snow melts. 
 
 July 1. Snow gone. 
 
 July 9. Fields quite green. 
 
 July 17. Plants at full growth. 
 
 July 25. Plants in flower. 
 Aug. 2. Fruits ripe. 
 Aug. 10. Plants shed their seed. 
 Aug. 18. Snow. 
 
 The snow then continues upon the ground for about ten months, from August 18th 
 of one year to June 23rd of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that 
 while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six 
 days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' duration in these countries. 
 
 YEAR, FRENCH REPUBLICAN. See French, Revolutionary Calendar. 
 
 YEAR and a DAY. A, space of time in law, that in many cases establishes and fixes 
 a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim it 
 within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted 
 that a beast found on another's land, if unclaimed for a year aud a day, belonged to 
 the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. 
 
 YEAVERING, or GETERINGE, Battle of. Between the Scots, headed by sir Robert 
 Umfraville and the earl of Westmorland. In this memorable encounter, 430 English 
 discomfited 4000 Scots, and took 160 prisoners ; fought 1415. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER. This dreadful pestilence made its appearance at Philadelphia, 
 where it committed great ravages, a.d. 1699. It appeared in several islands of the 
 W T est Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at 
 Philadelphia, in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the beginning of 
 Aug. 1791. This fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia in July, 1793; 
 carrying off several thousand persons. — Hardies Ann. It again appeared in Oct. 
 1797; and spread its ravages over the northern coast of America, Sept. 1798. It 
 
YEO 715 YOR 
 
 re-appeared at Philadelphia in the summer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in 
 Sept, 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ■ in 
 the Mauritius, July 1815; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816; and it raged with dreadful 
 consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. A malignant fever 
 raged at Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until the following year. 
 
 YEOMEN of the GUARD. A peculiar body of foot-guards to the king's person, 
 instituted at the coronation of Henry VII. Oct. 30, 1485. It originally consisted 
 of fifty men under a captain ; they were of larger stature than other guards, being 
 required to be over six feet in height, and they were armed with arquebuses and 
 other arms. This band was increased by the royal successors of Henry to one 
 hundred men, and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of the hundred died, it 
 was ordered that his place should be supplied out of the seventy. They were clad 
 after the manner of king Henry VIII. — Ashmolt's Instit. This is said to have been the 
 first permanent military band instituted in England. John, earl of Oxford, was the 
 first captain in I486. — Beatson's Pol. Index. 
 
 YEW-TREE (Taxus). The origin of planting yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter 
 being fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this manner preserve them for 
 the encouragement of archery. A general plantation of them for the use of archers 
 was ordered by Richard III. 1483. — Stoic's Chron. Near Fountains abbey, Yorkshire, 
 were lately seven yew-trees called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been planted 
 before a.d. 1088 : the circumference of the largest was thirty-four feet seven inches 
 round the trunk. A yew is now growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
 Wales, whose circumference is nine yards nine inches. This is the largest and 
 oldest yew-tree in the British dominions ; but it is affirmed on traditionary evidence 
 that there are some of these trees in England older than the introduction of 
 Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the survey taken of Richmond palace 
 in 1649 still exists. 
 
 YEZDEGIRD, or PERSIAN ERA. It was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and 
 is still used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This 
 era began on the 26th of June, a.d. 632. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
 therefore its commencement, like that of the old Egyptian and Armenian year, 
 anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This difference amounted 
 to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
 that in future the Persian year shovrid receive an additional day whenever it should 
 appear necessary to postpone the commencement of the following year, that it might 
 occur on the day of the sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 
 
 YOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised by the 
 Samnites towards the Romans, 321 B.C. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by 
 the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Dufremoy. 
 
 YORK. The Eboracum of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England. 
 Here Severus held an imperial court, a.d. 207; and here also Constantius kept his 
 court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 274. York was bmmt by the 
 Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. The city and many churches were destroyed 
 by fire, June 3, 1137. York received its charter from Richard II. and the city is the 
 only one in the British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the 
 prefix of lord has been granted. The Guildhall was erected in 1446. The castle was 
 built by Richard III. 1484, and was rebuilt, 1701. The corporation built a mansion- 
 house for the lord mayor, 1728. The famous York petition to parliament to reduce 
 the expenditure and redress grievances was gotten up, Dec. 1779. This act was 
 followed by various political associations in other parts of England. 
 
 YORK, ARCHBISHOPRIC of. The most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, 
 it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a.d. 180, when Christianity was first, although 
 partially, established in England. But this establishment was overturned by the 
 Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former were converted, pope Gregory 
 determined that the same diguity should be restored to York, and Paulinus was made 
 archbishop of this see, about a.d. 622. York and Dui'ham were the only two sees in 
 the north of England for a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at 
 Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the 
 Scottish bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their 
 obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose between the two 
 English metropolitans about precedency, as by pope Gregory's institutions, it was 
 
YOR 716 ZAM 
 
 thought he meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, should be superior : 
 appeal was made to the court of Rome by both parties, and it was determined in 
 favour of Canterbury; but York was allowed to style himself primate of England, 
 while Canterbury styles himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the 
 church of Rome eight saints, and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord chan- 
 cellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in 
 the king's books 39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 16u9£. 19s. 2d per annum. — Beatson. 
 
 YORK CATHEDRAL. This majestic fabric was erected at different periods, and on the 
 site of former buildings, which have again and again been destroyed by fire. The first 
 Christian church erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Roman 
 temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was 
 damaged by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by Ai - chbishop Albert, about 780. It was 
 again destroyed by fire in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop Thomas. It was once 
 more burnt down in 1137, along with St. Mary's Abbey, and 39 parish churches in 
 York. Archbishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171 ; Walter Gray added the 
 south transept in 1227 ; John de Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built the 
 north transept in 1260. His son, the archbishop, laid the foundation of the nave in 
 1291. In 1330, William de Melton built the two western towers, which were finished 
 by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop Thore.-by, in 1361, began to rebuild 
 the choir, in accordance with the mngnificence of the nave, and he also rebuilt the 
 lantern tower. And thus by many hands, and many contributions of multitudes on 
 the promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was completed. It was first set on 
 fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings 
 destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829; the damage estimated at 60,000/. was repaired in 1832. An 
 accidental fire broke out, which in one hour reduced the belfry to a shell, destroyed 
 the roof of the nave, and much damaged the edifice, May 20, 1840. 
 
 YORK and LANCASTER, Wars of the Houses of. The first battle between these 
 houses was that of St. Alban's, fought May 22, 1455. The last was that of Tewkes- 
 bury, fought May 12, 1471. In these battles the Yorkists, or White Hoses, were 
 victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Red Hoses. But in the sixteen years 
 between these two dates more than thirty great battles were fought with different 
 success, and half the country was depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility 
 exterminated. See Hoses. 
 
 YORK, Upper Canada. In the late war between America and Great Britain, the United 
 States' forces made several attacks upon the province of Upper Canada, and succeeded 
 in taking York, the seat of the government, April 27, 1813; but it was soon after- 
 wards again possessed by the British. 
 
 YORK TOAVN, British Surrender at. Memorable surrender of the British forces 
 under lord Cornwallis to the army of the revolted colonies, in the war of independ- 
 ence. Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of York town in Aug. 1781 ; and after 
 sustaining a disastrous siege, was obliged to surrender his whole army, consisting of 
 about 7000 men, to the allied armies of France and America, under the command of 
 general Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. This mischance was 
 attributed to sir Henry Clinton, wdio had not given the garrison the necessary succour 
 they expected; and it mainly led to the close of the war. 
 
 YVRES, (now Ivry) BATTLE of, March 2, 1590, between Henry IV. of France, aided 
 by his chief nobility, and the generals of the Catholic league, over whom the king 
 obtained a complete victory. This success enabled Henry to blockade Paris, and 
 reduce that capital to the last extremity by famine; but the duke of Parma, by 
 orders from Philip of Spain, marched to the relief of the league, and obliged the king 
 to raise the blockade. 
 
 ZAMA, BATTLE of. Between the two greatest commanders in the world at the time, 
 Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. This battle has been called the most important that 
 was ever fought ; it was won by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage ; it 
 led to an ignominious peace, granted the year after, which closed the second 
 Punic war. The Romans lost but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians 
 lost, in killed and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss 
 greater; B.C. 202. 
 
ZAN 717 ZEN" 
 
 ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands, which see. 
 
 ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee, a.d. 535; he taught that water 
 baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptized with fire, by the 
 application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 
 
 ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, and 
 was commonly written for the letter y, so late as the reign of queen Mary, up to which 
 period many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh with these 
 words, a.d. 1543. 
 
 ZELA, BATTLE op. In which Julius Cassar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son 
 of Mithridates. Caasar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous despatch to the 
 senate of Rome, in these words : " Veni, vidi, vici." — " I came, I saw, I conquered," 
 so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. This battle ended the war; 
 Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where he was slain by his lieutenant Asander ; 
 Pontus was made a Roman province, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of 
 Pergamus, 47 B.C. 
 
 ZELICHOW, BATTLE of. Between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the most 
 desperate battles fought by the Poles in their struggle for the freedom of their 
 country. The Russians, commanded by general Diebitsch, were defeated, losing 
 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; and Diebitsch narrowly escaped being 
 taken in the pursuit of his flying army, April 6, 1831. 
 
 ZELL, CASTLE of. The prison of the queen Matilda of Denmark, sister to George III. 
 of England. A new ministry in Denmark, headed by the dowager-queen, were opposed 
 in their policy by the reigning queen Matilda, and counts Brandt and Struensee, now 
 favourites at court. The king had displaced several of the queen-dowager's friends, 
 and in revenge against Matilda, to whom these ministers paid great attention, she 
 insinuated that the queen had condescended to have au intrigue with Struensee. 
 This unfounded charge was steadily persisted in, and in the end the unfortunate 
 Matilda was doomed to be imprisoned for life. His Britannic Majesty so far interfered 
 as to send a small squadron of ships to convey the unhappy princess to Germany. 
 The castle of Zell was appointed for her residence, and here she died at four-and- 
 twenty years of age, denying in her last moments that she had ever been unfaithful 
 to the king. She embarked at Elsinore, May 10, 1772.* 
 
 ZENO, SECT of. See Stoics. 
 
 ZENOBIA, Queen of the East. This princess was as distinguished by the pre-eminent 
 energy of her character as by the vicissitudes of her fortune. She wrested Mesopo- 
 tamia from the Persians, defeated Heraclianus, the Roman general, by which she 
 rendered herself mistress of Syria, subdued Egypt, and the greater part of Asia-Minor, 
 and became truly the Queen of the East. This sudden greatness was, however, 
 speedily succeeded by a fall as remarkable. The warlike Aurelian carried his arms 
 
 * It was resolved to surprise the king in the middle of the night, and force him to sign an order 
 for committing the ministers to separate prisons ; and to accuse them of a design to dethrone and 
 poison the king, and report a criminal correspondence of the queen with her favourite. This design was 
 executed on the night of Jan. 16, 1772, when a masked ball was given at the palace. The queen had 
 danced most of the evening with Struensee, and had retired to her chamber about two in the morning. 
 About four, the queen-dowager and her party entered the king's chamber, and informed him that the 
 queen, with Struensee, his brother, and Brandt, were at that moment busy in drawing up au act of 
 renunciation of the crown, which they would immediately after compel him to sign, and they there- 
 fore demanded their arrest. Christian, through importunities and threats, consented, after some 
 remonstrance, to this scandalous requisition, and count Rantzau was despatched to the queen's 
 apartments, at this untimely hour, to execute the king's orders. She was conveyed to the castle of 
 Cronenburg, and Brandt and Struensee were also seized in then- beds, imprisoned, and put in 
 irons. The queen-dowager and her adherents now assumed the government. Struensee was threatened 
 with torture, and to avoid it, after repeated examinations, confessed that he had conducted a criminal 
 intrigue with Matilda, and at length he and Brandt were beheaded, April 2S, 1772. The evidence 
 against the queen consisted in a number of circumstances, all of them susceptible of an innocent 
 explanation, sworn to by her attendants who were employed as spies. It is true that her own signa- 
 ture affixed to a confession was alleged against her ; but this signature proves nothing but the baseness 
 of her enemies, and their malice. Schack, who was sent to interrogate her at Cronenburg, was 
 received by Matilda with indignation, when he spoke of her connection with Struensee. When he 
 showed Struensee's confession to her, he artfully intimated that the fallen minister would be subjected 
 to a cruel death if he was found to have falsely criminated the queen. " What ! " exclaimed Matilda, 
 " do you think if I were to confirm his declaration, I should save the life of that unfortunate man ? " 
 Schack answered with a low bow. The queen took a pen, wrote the first syllable of her name, and 
 fainted away. Schack completed the signature, and bore away the fatal document in triumph. 
 Struensee's confession was obtained by threats of torture, facilitated by some hope of life, and influenced 
 by a knowledge that the proceedings against the queen could not be carried beyond a divorce. 
 
ZEU 718 ZUI 
 
 into Asia, defeated her armies, recovered all the eastern provinces, and obliged her 
 to shut herself up in her capital, Palmyra, which place he reduced to extremity. 
 Zenobia, attempting to escape, was taken prisoner and carried a captive to Home, 
 237 a.d. See Palmyra. 
 
 ZEUTA, BATTLE of. Fought between the Germans under prince Eugene against the 
 Turks, and memorable for the prodigious overthrow of the latter, a.d. 1697. This 
 victory of the Austrian arms led to the peace of Carlo witz, negotiated in 1698, and 
 ratified in January of the following year. 
 
 ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the moderns. 
 It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is noticed by European 
 writers as early as a.d. 1231 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was 
 unknown for nearly five hundred years after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord 
 Ribblesdale's estate, Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in 
 London shortly after the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. 
 See Lithography. 
 
 ZINDIKITES. These are a description of Mahometan heretics, or rather atheists, who 
 neither believe in a providence, nor in the resurrection of the dead ; they maintain 
 that there is no god, nor other eternity than the four elements ; that man is a mixture 
 of these, and that after death he resolves into them ; A.D. 950. 
 
 ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. This shrub was brought to these countries from the south of 
 Europe, about a.d. 1640. The Zizyphus Paliurus shrub, better known as the Christ's 
 Thorn, was first brought from Africa, before 1596. See Floivers. 
 
 ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their 
 situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks 
 and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindoos, to whom it has been known 
 from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones. 
 
 ZOE, REIGN of. See Eastern Empire, 1028—1042. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN. (Customs' union.) The name given to the German commercial union, 
 of which Prussia is the head. It was first formed in 1818, and was gradually joined 
 by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an important 
 treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last from Jan. 
 1854 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the Zollverein gave in 
 their adhesion on April 5, 1853. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes j viz. : — 
 Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle their young; Aves, or birds; 
 Amphibia, or amphibious animals; Pisces, or fishes; Insecta, or insects ; Veiines, or 
 worms ; A.D. 1741. From this period the science of zoology has had many distin- 
 guished professors, the most illustrious of whom was the baron Cuvier, who died in 
 Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological Gardens of London were opened in April, 1827: 
 the society was chartered March 27, 1829. On the Demolition of Exeter Change, in 
 1829, the menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the King's Mews, whence 
 it was l-emoved to the Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1832 {which see). The Zoological 
 Gardens of Dublin were opened in the same year. 
 
 ZORNDORFF, BATTLE of. Between the Prussian and Russian armies, the former com- 
 manded by the king of Prussia, obtaining a memorable victory over the forces of the 
 czarina, whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not 
 exceed 11,000, Aug. 25, and 26, 1758. 
 
 ZOUAVES and FOOT CHASSEURS. When the French established a regency at 
 Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and 
 selected the Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes famous for daring and skilful 
 courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic Frenchmen, 
 joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c. and eventually the Africans disap- 
 peared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having been frequently guilty 
 of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important part of the army in the 
 Crimean war, 1854-5. 
 
 ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, while he 
 officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and its indulgences, and 
 effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal dominion, which Luther 
 did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called; by the first he was 
 
ZUR 719 ZUR 
 
 authorised to proceed, and by the second the ceremonies of the Romish church were 
 abolished, 1519. Zuinglius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier ; he 
 was slain in a skirmish against the popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 
 1531. The followers of Zuinglius were also called Sacramentarians. 
 
 ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which this 
 canton was made the head, a.d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This was the first 
 town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, in consequence of the 
 opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk sent by Leo X. to publish in- 
 dulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, 
 by which eight persons lost their lives, and many others were grievously injured, 
 Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June .4, 1799. The 
 Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and 
 wounded, Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. 
 
INDEX/ 
 
 Abba-Thulle: Pelew Islands 
 
 Abbot, Charles, speaker 
 
 Abdalla; Delhi 
 
 Abdallah ; Morocco 
 
 Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, Morocco 
 
 Abel; sacrifice 
 
 Abercromby, James, speaker 
 
 Abercrornby, sir E. ; Alexandria, 
 Trinidad 
 
 Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
 
 Abrantes, duke of; Junot 
 
 Abubeker; Ali 
 
 Acbar; India 
 
 Acca Laurentia ; Alba 
 
 Achaeus ; Achaia 
 
 Achaius ; Thistle 
 
 Achilli v. Newman; trials, 1852 
 
 Acilius ; statues, temples 
 
 Ackermann ; engraving 
 
 Acron ; aromatics 
 
 Acton, Mrs. ; Royal Institution 
 
 Actuarius ; purgatives 
 
 Adair, Serjeant ; Junius 
 
 Adalbert, St. ; Prussia 
 
 Adams, J. C. ; Neptune 
 
 Adams, Mr. (architect); Drury- 
 lane 
 
 Adams, John ; United States 
 
 Adams, lieut. ; duel 
 
 Adams v. Duudas ; trials, 1831 
 
 Adderley, Mr : Birmingham 
 
 Addison, Joseph ; administration, 
 allegory, Clio 
 
 Adelaide ; queens f William IV.) 
 
 Adelais; queens (Henry I.) 
 
 Adelmus ; Wells 
 
 Adeodatus; pope 
 
 Adhelm, St. ; Salisbury 
 
 Adhelme ; ballads 
 
 Adolphus Frederic ; Sweden 
 
 Adrian ; Rome, edicts, perse- 
 cutions 
 
 Adrian I. pope 
 
 A edan, prince; Wales 
 
 JEdric Streon ; Alney 
 
 iEgeus ; Athens 
 
 iEgenita, Paulus ; surgery 
 
 iEgisthus ; Mycenas 
 
 iEtnilianus ; Rome 
 
 iEneas ; Alba, Grsece 
 
 iEropas ; Macedon 
 
 iEschylus ; costume, tragedy 
 
 iEscnlapius; infirmaries 
 
 iEsop ; fables 
 
 iEtolus, of Elis; jEtolia 
 
 Agamemnon ; Mycenae 
 
 Agapenor, Arcadia 
 
 Agathocles ; Carthage 
 
 Age, proprietor of, trials, 1844 
 
 Agesander ; Laocoon 
 
 Agesilaus ; Sparta 
 
 Agis ; Sparta 
 
 Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India 
 
 Agnodice ; midwifery 
 
 Agricola; Britain, Lancaster, Ca- 
 ledonia, Roman wall 
 
 Agricola, John ; Antinomians 
 
 Agrippa ; Rome, Pantheon 
 
 Aholiab ; sculpture 
 
 Airy, G. ; Gi'eenwich, pendulum 
 
 Aislabie, Mr; administrations 
 
 Alaric ; Rome, France 
 
 Albemarle, lord ; Cuba 
 
 Albemarle, Monk, duke of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Albert, duke of Austria ; Bohe- 
 mia, Hungary 
 
 Albert II. ; Austria, Germany 
 
 Albert III., surnamed Achilles; 
 Prussia 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg ; Prussia 
 
 Albert (prince consort) ; England, 
 1840, regency bill 
 
 Albertus Magnus; automatons 
 
 Alcamenes ; Sparta 
 
 Alcibiades ; Athens 
 
 Alcippse ; Areopagitse 
 
 Alcock, Mr. ; duelling 
 
 Aldebert; impostors 
 
 Aldhelme ; poetry 
 
 Alectus ; Britain 
 
 Alencon, due d' ; Agincourfc 
 
 Alencon, due d' ; politicians 
 
 Aleus ; Arcadia 
 
 Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
 
 Alexander the Great; Arbela, 
 Egypt, Granicus, Greece, 
 Issus, Jerusalem, Macedon, 
 Persia, Gordian knot, slaves, 
 Tyre 
 
 Alexander ; Russia, Austerlitz, 
 Leipsic 
 
 Alexander; Scotland, pope 
 
 Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 
 Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia 
 
 Alfred the Great ; councils, 
 crown, England, militia 
 
 Alfred, son of Ethelred II. ; God- 
 win 
 
 Ali Pacha ; Rosetta 
 
 Ali Pacha, of Janina ; Turkey, 
 1820, Albania 
 
 Alibaud ; France 
 
 Alley, bishop ; Bible, France 1836 
 
 Alleyne, Edward ; Dulwich college 
 
 Almansor; Bagdad 
 
 Almeida, L. ; Madagascar 
 
 Alphonsus ; Sicily 
 
 Alphonsu3 of Arragon; Spain, 
 kings 
 
 Alphonsus XI. ; the Moors 
 
 Alphonsus of Castile ; Spain, king 
 
 Alphonsus; Portugal 
 
 Alphonsus of Spain, the Chaste, 
 the Wise, &c. 
 
 Alpinus ; Dublin 
 
 Alsop, Mr. Joseph; trials, 1839 
 
 Althorpe, vise. ; administrations 
 
 Alva, duke of; Antwerp 
 
 Alvanley, lord ; duelling 
 
 Alvinzy, field-marshal ; Areola 
 
 Alyattes, king; Lydia 
 
 Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 
 
 Amadeus, Savoy; annunciation 
 
 Ambrose, St. ; anthems, Te Deum 
 
 Amenophis ; Egypt 
 
 Americus Vespucius; America 
 
 Amherst, lord ; China 1816, India 
 1823 
 
 Amontons, M. ; telegraphs 
 
 Ampere ; electricity 
 
 Amphictyon; dreams 
 
 Amulius ; Alba 
 
 Amurath; Turkey 
 
 Amurath IV. ; Beyrout, Turkey 
 
 Amyntas ; Macedon 
 
 Anacletus ; pope 
 
 Anachaisis ; anchors, bellows 
 
 An astasia; dwarfs 
 
 Anastasius; pope 
 
 Anaxagoras ; earthquakes 
 
 Anaximander ; maps 
 
 Anaximenes of Miletus ; air 
 
 Ancaster, duke of; administra- 
 tions, Chatham, Grafton, 
 North 
 
 Andrew; St. Andrew 
 
 Andrews ; almanacs 
 
 Andronicus ; drama 
 
 Andronicus ; Eastern empire 
 
 Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns 
 
 Angerstein, John Julius ; Na- 
 tional Gallery 
 
 Anglesey, Arthur, earl of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 
 Anglesey, marquess of; Ireland, 
 lord-lieutenant 
 
 Angus, earl of; Linlithgow 
 
 Anjou, duke of; Jarnac 
 
 Anjou, first earl of; Piantagenet 
 
 Anjou, Charles of; Naples, Sicily 
 
 Anjou, Margaret of ; queens 
 (Henry VI.), England, Mar- 
 garet of Anjou 
 
 Ankerstrom, count ; Sweden 
 
 Anna Boleyn ; queens (Henry 
 VIII.) 
 
 Anne ; queens, motto 
 
 Anne of Britanny; maids of 
 honour 
 
 The references are to articles in the body of the work. 
 
 3 A 
 
■22 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Anne of Austria ; iron mask 
 
 Anne at Cleves: queens (Hen. 
 VIII.) 
 
 Anne Hyde ; queens (James II.) 
 
 Anne ; queens (James I.) 
 
 Anne, queen of Richard II. 
 
 Anne, queen of Richard III. 
 
 Anson, adml. ; Acapulco, naval 
 battles. 
 
 Anson, gen. ; India 1857 
 
 Anthony, St. ; monk, anchorites 
 
 Antigonus ; Ipsus 
 
 Antigonus ; Sparta 
 
 Antigonus ; profiles 
 
 Antiochus the Great ; Ammonites, 
 Jews 
 
 Antiochus, Jews 
 
 Antiochus ; Syria 
 
 Antipater ; Cranon 
 
 Antiphiles; painting 
 
 Autipopes. See Popes 
 
 Antisthenes ; Cynic 
 
 Antoninus Pius ; Rome, empe- 
 rors, Roman wall. 
 
 Antony, Mark; Actiurn, Arme- 
 nia, Egypt, Philippi, Rome 
 
 Apsis ; Argos 
 
 Apollinarius ; Apollinarians 
 
 Apollo ; laurel, lyre 
 
 Apollodorus ; Trajan 
 
 Apollonius ; Syria 
 
 Appius Claudius ; aqueducts, 
 decemviri 
 
 Applegath ; printing-machine 
 
 Apries ; Egypt 
 
 Apsley, lord ; administrations 
 
 Aquileia ; Rome, Western empire 
 
 Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
 
 Arbaces ; Media 
 
 Arbogastes, the Gaul 
 
 Arcadius and Honorius, eastern 
 and western empire 
 
 Areas ; Arcadia 
 
 Archelaus ; Cappadocia 
 
 Archelaus ; Macedon 
 
 Archemorus ; Nemoean games 
 
 Archilochus ; Iambic verse 
 
 Archimedes ; cranes, mechanics, 
 mensuration, organs, reflec- 
 tors, screw, planetarium 
 
 Archytas ; automaton 
 
 Archytas ; pulley 
 
 Ardesoif, Mr. ; cock-fighting 
 
 Ardysus, king ; Lydia 
 
 Areteus ; blisters 
 
 Aretin, Gui; musical notes 
 
 Arfastus, lord chancellor 
 
 Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium 
 
 Argyll, duke of; Sheriflmuir, 
 Dunblane 
 
 Ariarathes ; Cappadocia 
 
 Ariarathes ; crucifixion 
 
 Ariobarzanes ; Poutus 
 
 Aris, governor ; prisons, globe 
 
 Aristarchus, of Samos ; sun 
 
 Aristajus ; Cyrone, conic sections 
 
 Aristides the Just ; Athens 
 
 Aristippus the Elder ; Cyreuaic 
 
 Aristocrates ; Arcadia 
 
 Aristodemus ; biarchy 
 
 Aristophanes ; rhetoric 
 
 Aristotle (Alexander's tutor) ; 
 acoustics, botany, Macedon, 
 mechanics, metaphysics, phi- 
 losophy 
 
 Arius ; Arians 
 
 Arkwright ; cotton, Manchester, 
 spinning 
 
 Arlington, lord; administrations 
 
 Arminius ; Arminians, Dort 
 
 Arnold, Mr. ; balloons 
 
 Arnold ; AndrS 
 
 Arsaces; Parthia 
 
 Artabazes ; Pontun 
 
 Artavasdes ; Armenia 
 
 Artaxerxes ; Persia 
 
 Artaxias ; Armenia 
 
 Artemisia ; mausoleum 
 
 Artemones ; battering-ram 
 
 Arthur ; Britain 
 
 Artois, count d' ; duel 
 
 Arundel, Henry, earl of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 
 Ascanius ; Alba 
 
 Asdrubal ; Carthage 
 
 Asellius ; lacteals, lymphatics 
 
 Asgill, Mr. ; translation 
 
 Ashburton, lord ; United States 
 
 Ashe, general ; Briar's creek 
 
 Ashford, Mary ; appeal 
 
 Ashley, lord ; administrations 
 
 Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
 
 Ashton, colonel ; Wigan 
 
 Ashur ; Assyrian 
 
 Asicus, St. ; Elphin 
 
 Aske ; pilgrimage of grace 
 
 Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer 
 
 Asoph ud Dowlah ; Benares 
 
 Aster; Amphipolis 
 
 Aston, lord ; Donnington 
 
 Astydamus ; tragedy 
 
 Assheton, William ; clergymen 
 
 Astley, lord ; Naseby 
 
 Aston, sir A.; Drogheda 
 
 Aston, Mr. Harvey; duel 
 
 Astyages ; Media 
 
 Athelstan, admiral ; mint 
 
 Athenodorus ; Laocoon 
 
 Atherton ; bishops of Ireland 
 
 Athol, duke of; Man 
 
 Athol, earl of ; Edinburgh 
 
 Athol, earl of (regicide) ; Perth 
 
 Athothes; hieroglyphics 
 
 A tossa ; marriage by sale 
 
 Attains, Pergamus ; parchment 
 
 Auchmuty, sir Samuel; Batavia, 
 Monte Video 
 
 Auckland, lord ; administrations, 
 India 
 
 Augustin, St. ; Canterbury, Ro- 
 chester 
 
 Auletas ; Egypt 
 
 Auliaua ; Dublin 
 
 Aumale, duke d' ; France 
 
 Aureliau ; Alemanni, Rome 
 
 Aurelius ; Ambrosius, Stonehenge 
 
 Aurelius Carus ; Rome 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus ; Rome 
 
 Aurelius Probus ; Rome 
 
 Aurungzebe ; India 
 
 Austin, St. See Augustin, St. 
 
 Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
 
 Austin, W. trials 1855 
 
 Austria, don John of, Lepanto 
 
 Averani ; diamonds 
 
 Avisa ; queens 
 
 Azo, of Este; Brunswick 
 
 B. 
 
 Babbage, C. ; calculating machine 
 Baber ; Afghanistan, India 
 Babeuf, agrarian law 
 Bachelier, M . ; encaustic painting 
 Back, capt. ; North-west passage 
 Bacon, lord Verulam ; lawyers, 
 
 aeronautics 
 Bacon, sir Nicholas; administra- 
 tions ; baronet 
 Bacon, Roger; astrology, camera 
 lucida, loadstone, magic-lan- 
 tern, magnet, optics, spec- 
 tacles 
 Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857 
 
 Baffin, Wm. ; Baffin's bay 
 Bagnal, lieut. ; duel 
 Bagration, prince ; Mohilows 
 Bagster, Miss M. ; trials. 18^8 
 Bailey, Rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
 Baillie, colonel ; Arcot 
 Baillie, general ; Alford 
 Baines, M. T. ; Palmerston ad- 
 ministration 
 Bail d, sir David ; Cape, Seriugu- 
 
 patam 
 Bajazet ; Turkey 
 Balard, M. ; amylene 
 Balchau, admiral ; Alderney 
 Baldwin I. — V. ; Jerusalem 
 Bales, P. ; calligraphy 
 Balfour, John; Scotland 
 Baliol, Edward, king ; Scotland 
 Baliol, John ; Oxford 
 Baliol, John ; Dunbar, Scotland 
 Ballarat ; Melbourne 
 Ballasteros; Ximera 
 Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scot- 
 land, trials, 1746 
 Baltimore, lord ; trials, 1768 
 Baltimore, lord; America 
 Bannister, Mr. ; theatres 
 Bar, due de ; Agincourt 
 Baradajus; Eutychians, Jacobites 
 Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
 Barbarossa ; Tunis 
 Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 
 
 Dorey ; trials, 1S44 
 Barberini ; Portland vase 
 Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
 Barclay, Captain ; pedestrianism 
 Barclay, Robert, of Ury ; quakers 
 Barclay, Perkins, & Co. ; porter 
 Barentz ; North- W. passage 
 Barham, lord ; administrations 
 Baring, Alex. ; administrations 
 Baring, sir Fr. T. ; administrations 
 Barker, Robert ; panoramas 
 Barlow, bishop ; Bible 
 Barlow ; clocks 
 Barlowe, William ; compass 
 Barnard, gen. ; India 1857 
 Barnett, Geo. ; trials, 1810 
 Barre>, Isaac ; administrations 
 Barrett, captain ; Cumberland 
 Barrie, captain ; naval battles 
 Barrington, Mr. ; due! 
 Barrington ; trials, 1790 
 Barry, sir Charles ; palace of 
 
 Westminster 
 Barth, Dr. ; Africa 
 Barthelemy, E. ; trials, 1S55 
 Barton, Dr. ; insurance 
 Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor 
 Baschi, Matthew; Capuchins 
 Basil, St. ; Basilians 
 Basil ; Russia 
 Basilowitz, John ; Russia 
 Bathurst ; administrations 
 Bathyllus : pantomimes 
 Batman, J. ; Victoria 
 Batthyani ; Hungary 
 liavaria, elector of ; Ramilies 
 Baxter, G. ; printing in colours 
 Bayle ; dictionary 
 Bayley, lieut ; duel 
 Baynard, Geoffrey ; combat 
 Beaching, J. ; life-boat 
 Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 
 
 1S42 
 Beau Nash ; ceremonies 
 Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
 Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
 Beauharnais, Eugene ; Italy, 
 
 Mockern 
 Beaulieu, general ; Lodi 
 Beaumont, sir G. ; Natl. Gallery 
 Beaumont, Mr. ; duel 
 
INDEX. 
 
 723 
 
 Beaumont, viscount 
 
 Beavoir, sir J. de ; trials, 1835 
 
 Beazley, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Beckford, Mr. ; Fonthill abbey 
 
 Beckwith, Mr. ; Spa-fields riot 
 
 Bedford, duke of ; duel, lfi ; Ire- 
 land, lord lieuts., France, 
 administrations, admiralty 
 
 Bedford, Geo. Neville, duke of; 
 nobility 
 
 Bedingfield, Ann ; trials, 1763 
 
 Beeby, William ; longevity 
 
 Behem, Martin ; Azores 
 
 Behring ; Behring's straits 
 
 Belasyse, lord J.; administrations 
 
 Belcher, sir Edward ; his expedi- 
 tion, Franklin 
 
 Belinus, Billingsgate 
 
 Belisarius ; massacres 
 
 Bell, Dr. ; Lancasterian schools 
 
 Bell, prof. ; London university 
 
 Bellamont, lord; duel 
 
 Bellamy, trial ; 44 
 
 Bellingham ; Perceval 
 
 Bellingham, sir Daniel; lord 
 mayor (of Dublin) 
 
 Belleisle, marshal ; Belleisle 
 
 Bellot, lieut. ; Franklin 
 
 Belochus ; Assyria 
 
 Belus ; Babel 
 
 Bern ; Hungary 
 
 Ben-Ashur ; Bible 
 
 Benbow, admiral ; naval battles 
 
 Benedict, Benedictines 
 
 Bentham, Jer. ; savings' banks 
 
 Bentinck, lord W. ; Assam, India 
 
 Bentinck, lord G. ; protectionists 
 
 Berengarius ; fete de Dicu 
 
 Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, 
 and others ; trials, 1S14 
 
 Berengera ; queens (Richard I.) 
 
 Berenthobaldus ; Anhalt 
 
 Beresford, lord ; Albuera 
 
 Beresford, rt hon. William ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Beresford, lord J. ; suicide 
 
 Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, admi- 
 nistrations 
 
 Berkeley cause ; trials, 1S11 
 
 Berkeley, lord ; America, Brest, 
 Carolina 
 
 Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel 
 
 Bermudas ; Juan 
 
 Bern ; Cluny 
 
 Bernadotte ; Dennewitz, Sweden 
 
 Bernouilli ; acoustics 
 
 Bernard, sir Thomas ; British, and 
 Royal Institutions 
 
 Berri, Charles, duke of ; Peronne 
 
 Berri, duke and duchess de ; 
 France 
 
 Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
 
 Berthier, Gen. ; NeufcMtel 
 
 Berthollet ; bleaching 
 
 Bertie, lady Georgina C. ; lord 
 great chamberlain 
 
 Berwick, duke of; Landen, Al- 
 manza, Newry 
 
 Bessemer, H. ; iron 
 
 Bessus (assassin of Darius) ; 
 Persia 
 
 Best, captain ; duel, Surat 
 
 Bethencourt ; Canaries 
 Betterton ; drama 
 Betty, master ; theatres 
 Bevern, prince ; Breslau 
 Bewick ; wood engraving 
 Bexley, lord ; administrations 
 Bezaleel ; sculpture 
 Biela; comet 
 Big Sam ; prince of Wales's 
 
 porter, giants 
 Bingley, lord; administrations 
 
 Bird, the boy ; trials, 1831 
 Birinus, St. ; Dorchester 
 Birkbeck, Dr. ; mechanics' insti- 
 tutes 
 Bishop, the murderer; burking 
 Black, Dr. ; duel 
 Black, Dr. ; magnesia 
 Blackstone ; ti thes 
 Blaeu, Win. ; printing press 
 Blair, Dr. ; rhetoric, verse 
 Blake, admiral ; Algiers, Dover 
 Straits, Portland isle, Santa 
 Cruz 
 Blakesley, Rob. ; trials, 1841 
 Blanchard, madame; balloon 
 Blanchard, Laman; suicide 
 Blanchard, T. ; timber 
 Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
 Bleddyn ab Cynvyn ; Wales 
 Bligh, captaiu ; bread-fruit tree 
 Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley 
 
 Pole; trials, 1825 
 Bligh, captain ; Adventure bay, 
 
 Bounty mutiny 
 Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
 Blood ; Blood's conspiracy, crown 
 Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
 Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress 
 Blucher, marshal ; Janvilliers, 
 
 Ligny, Waterloo 
 Bluet, bishop Robert ; Lincoln 
 Blundell, lieut. ; duel 
 Boadicea, queen ; Britain 
 Boardman, captain ; duel 
 Boddington ; trials, 1797 
 Boeticher ; Dresden china 
 Bogle v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
 Bohemia, king of — " Ich Dieii;" 
 
 Cressy 
 Boiroimhe, Bryan, king ; Ireland 
 Bois de Chene, Mile. ; beards 
 Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Boldero, captain ; duel 
 Boleslaus I., II., III., IV. ; Poland 
 Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Bolingbroke, lord; administra- 
 tions, deism 
 Bolivar, Columbia 
 Bolton, duke of; administrations 
 Bonaparte. See Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, Jerome; Westphalia, 
 
 abdication 
 Bonaparte, Joseph ; abdication, 
 heights of Romainville, Ma- 
 drid, Naples, Sicily, Spain, 
 Wagram, Vittoria 
 Bonaparte, Louis ; Holland 
 Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
 Bonaventura, St ; conclave 
 Bonavisa, Anthony; distaff 
 Bond ; magnetism 
 Boniface, of Mentz ; antipodes 
 Bonner, bishop of London ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Boon, colonel ; America 
 Booth, Mr. ; theatres 
 Boosey, Mr. ; copyright 
 Borde, Andrew ; Merry- Andrew 
 Borelli ; mechanics 
 Borgese, H. ; diamond 
 Borowlaski, count ; dwarf 
 Borringdon, lady ; trials, 1808 
 Boscawen, admiral ; Lagos 
 Bos well, sir A. ; duel 
 Bothwell, earl of ; Scotland 
 Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
 Bouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
 Bougainville ; circumnavigation 
 Bouille", marquis de ; St. Bustatia 
 Boulton, Matthew ; Birmingham 
 Boulton and Watt ; coinage 
 Bourbon family, France 
 
 Bourgeois, sir Francis, Dulwich 
 Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Aus- 
 tralia 
 Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers 
 Bourne, Mr. Sturges ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
 Bower, Mr. Elliot ; trials, 1S52 
 Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore 
 Bowring, sir J. ; Canton, China, 
 
 Siam 
 Boyd, captain ; duel 
 Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
 Boydell, alderman ; British In- 
 stitution 
 Boyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery 
 Boyle, hon. Robert ; phosphorus, 
 
 Royal Society 
 Boyle, hon. Henry ; administra- 
 tions 
 Brabant, duke of; merchants 
 Brackley, vise. ; administrations 
 Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing- 
 Bradley; astronomy, Greenwich 
 Bradley, admiral ; trials, 1814 
 Braganza, John ; Portugal 
 Braham, Mr. ; theatres 
 Brahe, Tycho ; astronomy, globe 
 Brakespeare, Nicholas ; pope 
 Brande, W. T. ; Royal Institution 
 Brandreth, the Luddite ; Derby 
 
 trials 
 Brandt, count ; Zell 
 Brandt ; cobalt ; phosphorus 
 Bremer, sir Gordon ; China 
 Brendon, St. ; Clonfert 
 Brenn, captain ; Hibemia 
 Brennus ; Britain 
 Brent, Foulke de ; conspiracies 
 Brereton, col. ; Bristol, suicide 
 Bresson, count; suicide 
 Brett, J. W. ; submarine tele- 
 graph 
 Brewster, D. ; kaleidoscope 
 Brie, Mr. ; duel 
 Bridgewater, earl; admiralty 
 Bridgewater, duke of; canal 
 Bridport, lord ; L'Orient 
 Brienne, M. de ; notables 
 Bright, Mr. ; corpulency 
 Bright, Mr. ; peace congress 
 Brindley, Mr. ; tunnels, Bridg- 
 water canal 
 Brinklett ; trials, 1828 
 Brinvilliers ; poisoning 
 Briscoe, Mr. ; antarctic 
 Bristol, mayor of; trials, 1832 
 Bristol, John, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Britton, T. ; ventriloquism 
 Broadwood ; piano fortes 
 Broke, capt. ; Chesapeake 
 Brome, Adam de ; Oriel 
 Bromley, sir Thomas; adminis- 
 trations 
 Brooke, sir James ; Borneo 
 Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854 
 Brougham, lord ; lord chancellor, 
 
 impeachment 
 Broughton, Id. ; administrations 
 Brown, gen. ; Prague 
 Brown, R. ; Independents 
 Brown, W., M.P. ; Liverpool 
 Browne, American gen. ; Chip- 
 
 pawa, Fort Erie 
 Browne, Hannah, murdered, 
 
 trials, 1837 
 Browne, Robert; Brownists 
 Browne, George ; Dublin 
 Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
 Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy 
 Bruce ; Africa, Bruce ; Nile, 
 Palmyra 
 
 3 a2 
 
724 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bruce, David; Durham, Ne- 
 
 vill's Cross 
 Bruce, Edward ; Armagh, Bel- 
 fast, Dundalk 
 Bruce, Robert ; Baunockburn, 
 
 Durham 
 Bruce, M. ; Lavalette 
 Bruce, com. ; Lagos 
 Brucher, Antonio ; coinage 
 Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
 Brueys, adml. ; Nile 
 Brunei, I. K. ; steam navigation, 
 
 Thames tunnel 
 Brunetto ; belles leltres 
 Bruno ; Cologne, turnery 
 Brunswick, duke of ; killed, 
 
 Quatrc-bras 
 Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, 
 Ings, and Tidd ; Cato-street 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls 
 Brutus and Cassius ; Philippi 
 Bryan Boiroimhe ; harp, Cloutarf 
 Bubb ; opera-house 
 Buccleuch, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 Buchan, M. ; Buchanites 
 Buchan, capt. ; N.W. passage 
 Buchanan, J. ; U. States, 1856 
 Buckhurst, Thomas, lord ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Buckingham, Stafford, duke of; 
 
 lord high constable 
 Buckingham, Villiers, duke of; 
 administrations, dress, mur- 
 dered, England, 1628 
 Buckingham, duke of; cabal 
 Buckingham, Sheffield, duke of; 
 
 Buckingham House 
 Buckingham, duke of; adminis- 
 trations 
 Buckingham, duke of ; duel 
 Buckingham, marquess of; 
 
 Ireland, lord-lieutenant 
 Buckinghamshire, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Bufalmaco ; caricatures 
 Buffon ; dog, geology 
 Bularchus ; pictures 
 Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor 
 Bunn, Mr. Alfred ; theatres 
 Bunyan ; allegory 
 Burbage, James ; plays, drama, 
 
 English 
 Burdett, sir F. ; duel, riots, 
 
 trial, 1820 
 Burdock, Mary Ann ; trials, 1835 
 Burdon, Mr., murdered ; trials, 
 
 1841 
 Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
 Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga 
 Burgundy, duke of; Rosbach 
 Burke, Edmund ; administration, 
 
 Canada, Junius 
 Burleigh, lord : administrations 
 Burnes, sir Alexander, murdered, 
 
 India 
 Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
 Burr, colonel ; duel 
 Bury, Richard de ; libraries 
 Bute, earl of ; administrations 
 Buftevant, viscount ; viscounts 
 Butler, sir Toby ; Limerick 
 Butler, capt. ; Silistria 
 Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
 Button, sir Thomas ; N.W. passage 
 Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
 Buxton, sir T. F. ; prisons 
 Byng, admiral ; Gibraltar 
 Byrne, Miss ; riot 
 Byron ; commodore 
 Byron ; port Egmont 
 Byron, lord ; Greece 
 Bysse, Dr. ; musical festivals 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian ; America, 
 Carolina, Canada 
 
 Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil 
 
 Cabrera, Carlist general ; Spain, 
 1840 
 
 Cade, Jack ; London, Blackheath 
 
 Cadmus ; alphabet, Bceotia 
 
 Cadogan, capt. ; duel 
 
 C'adwallader ; Britain 
 
 Cadwgan ; Wales 
 
 Csecilius Isidorus ; slavery in 
 Rome 
 
 Coesar Julius ; Albion, bissextile, 
 ides, Dover, Pharsalia, Zela 
 
 Csesar, Octavius ; Actium, mas- 
 sacres, Philippi, Rome, em- 
 peror 
 
 Csesalpinus ; blood, circulation 
 
 Cailan ; Down 
 
 Calaphilus ; Wandering Jew 
 
 Calcraft Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Calder, sir Robert ; Ferrol 
 
 Calepini : dictionaries 
 
 Calhoun, Mr. ; temperance soo. 
 
 Caligula ; Home 
 
 Calippus ; Calippie period 
 
 Calixtus, pope ; Calixtins 
 
 Callicratus ; calligraphy 
 
 Callimachus ; architecture, Co- 
 rinthian 
 .Callinicus ; Greek fire, wildfire 
 
 Callisthenes; Chaldean, Macedon 
 
 Calonne ; notables of Erance 
 
 Calthorpe, lord ; Birmingham 
 
 Calverly, Hugh ; pressing to death 
 
 Calvert & Co. ; porter 
 
 Calvin, John ; Calvinism. Dort 
 
 Cambaceres ; directory, French 
 
 Cambyces ; Egypt 
 
 Camden, lord ; lord chancellor 
 
 Camden, earl and marquess ; 
 administrations, exchequer, 
 Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 
 Camelford, lord ; duel 
 
 Campbell, lord ; administrations, 
 attorney-general, lord chan. 
 of Ireland, lord chief justice 
 
 Campbell, major ; trials, lb08 
 
 Campbell, capt. ; marriages forced 
 
 Canning, George ; administra- 
 tions, duel, grammarians, 
 king's speech 
 
 Canning, vise. ; administrations 
 
 Cantillon, wills (Napoleon's) 
 
 Canton, J. ; phosphorus, mag- 
 netism 
 
 Canute ; Alney 
 
 Capel, H ; admiralty 
 
 Capet family ; France 
 
 Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 
 burying 
 
 Car, the king ; augury 
 
 Caracalla ; Alemauui 
 
 Caractacus; Britain 
 
 Caraffa, bishop ; Theatiues 
 
 Caranus ; Macedon 
 
 Carausius ; Britain 
 
 Cardigan, lord ; duel, trials, 1841 ; 
 Balaklava 
 
 Carden, Mr. ; trials, 1854 
 
 Cardwell, right hon. Edward ; 
 
 administrations 
 Carew, sir B. H. ; Rosas 
 
 Carletou, lord ; administrations 
 
 Carleton, sir Guy ; U. States 
 
 Carlile ; atheist, 1819, 1831 
 Carlisle, earls of ; administra- 
 tions, Ireland 
 
 Carlos, Don ; Spain 
 Carmarthen, marquess of ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Caroline, queen (George II. 1 ; 
 
 parks 
 Caroline, queen (George IV): 
 Brandenburg-house, delicate 
 investigation 
 Carpenter, general ; Preston 
 Can-, Holwell ; National Gallery 
 Castairs, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 
 Carter, Richard ; alchemy 
 Carteret, lord ; administrations 
 Carteret ; circumnavigator 
 Carteret, lord; administrations 
 Carthage, St. ; Lismore 
 Cart wright, major ; trials, 1820 
 Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces 
 Cashin, Miss ; quackery 
 Cashman ; Spa-fields 
 Cassimir ; Poland 
 Cassander; Macedon 
 Cassibelaunus ; chariots 
 Cassini, astronomy ; Bologna, 
 
 latitude, Saturn 
 Cassius ; Philippi 
 Castauos ; Spain 
 Castel, M. ; Dartmouth 
 Castlereagh, lord ; administra- 
 tions, duel, union 
 Catesby, Robert ; gunpowder 
 
 plot 
 Cathcart, lord ; Copenhagen 
 Cathcart, general ; Kaffraria 
 Catherine, queen (Charles II.) 
 Catherine, queen (Henry V.) 
 Catherine, queen (Henry VIII.) 
 Catherine Howard, queen (Henry 
 
 VIII.) 
 Catherine Parr, queen (Henry 
 
 VIII.) 
 Catherine of Russia ; Odessa, 
 
 Sebastopol 
 Catullus ; Cimbri 
 Caulaincourt ; Chatillon 
 Cautley, sir P. ; Ganges 
 Cavaignac, general ; France, 1848 
 Cavalero, Emilio de ; opera, re- 
 citative 
 Cavanagh ; abstinence 
 Cavenagh, archdn. ; Leighliu 
 Cavendish ; circumnavigator 
 Cavendish, H. ; aeronautics, elec- 
 tricity, chemistry 
 Cavendish ; nitric acid 
 Cavendish, col. ; Lincoln 
 Cavendish, John de ; judges 
 Cavendish, lord John ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Caxton, Wm. ; printing 
 Caylus, count ; painting 
 Cecil, sir Wm. ; administrations 
 Cecil, lieut. ; duel 
 Cecil, hon. Rob. ; administrations 
 Cecilia, St. ; music 
 Cecrops ; Athens 
 Celeste, madame ; theatres 
 Celsus ; midwifery, &c. 
 Cerdicus ; West Saxons, Caris- 
 
 brook 
 Ceres; com 
 Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
 Chad, St. ; baths 
 Challoner, T. ; alum 
 Chamber, bishop ; Peterborough 
 Chambers ; encyclopaedia 
 Chambers, sir William ; Somer- 
 set-house 
 Chang and Eng ; Siamese 
 Changarnier, general ; France 
 Chappe, M. ; telegraphs 
 Chares of Lindus ; colossus 
 Charlemagne ; academy, couriers, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 725 
 
 eagle, France, Germany, Italy, 
 Aix-le-cbapelle 
 
 Charles I. ; England 
 
 Charles II. ; England 
 
 Charles III. ; Germany, anno 
 domini 
 
 Charles IV. ; golden bull 
 
 Charles IV. ; Spain 
 
 Charles V. ; Austria, Germany, 
 Spires 
 
 Charles V. ; France ; Bastile 
 
 Charles VI. ; Sicily 
 
 Charles VI. ; France ; picquet 
 
 Charles IX. ; France 
 
 Charles X. ; France 
 
 Charles XII. ; Sweden 
 
 Charles XIII. ; Norway 
 
 Charles, archduke; Asperne, Eck- 
 muhl. Essling 
 
 Charles of Anjou ; Naples 
 
 Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa 
 
 Charles Emmanuel ; Savoy 
 
 Charles Martel ; mayor 
 
 Charles Stuart, prince ; Culloden 
 
 Charlotte, queen (George III.) 
 
 Charlotte, princess of Wales ; 
 Claremont 
 
 Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
 
 Chasse, general; Antwerp 
 
 Chatham, earl of ; administra- 
 tions, Flushing, Walcheren 
 
 Chaves, marquess of ; Portugal 
 
 Cheevers, Wm. ; lord treasurer 
 
 Cherres ; plagues of Egypt 
 
 Chesham, Sarah; trials, 1851 
 
 Cheshire rioters ; trial, 1842 
 
 Chicheley, sir Thos. ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Ching Noung ; China, wine 
 
 Chladni; acoustics 
 
 Cholmoudeley, general ; horse- 
 guards 
 
 Chrishna; virgin 
 
 Christiau; Denmark 
 
 Christian ; Sweden 
 
 Christina ; Spain 
 
 Christophe ; Hayti 
 
 Christopher, Robt. Adam ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Chulkhurst (sisters) ; Biddenden 
 maids 
 
 Churchill, C. ; satires 
 
 Cibber, Colley ; laureate 
 
 Cicero; Catiline, Philippics, Bome 
 
 Ciemoud, the Fair ; grist-mill 
 
 Cimon ; Eurymedon 
 
 Cinna, 395 
 
 Clanny, Dr. Beid ; safety lamp 
 
 Clanricarde, marq. of; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Clare, earl of; duel 
 
 Clare, earl of; lord chancellor 
 
 Clarence, duke of ; admiralty 
 
 Clarence, duke of; Anjou 
 
 Clarence, duke of ; Clarencieux 
 
 Clarence and Warwick ; rebel- 
 lions 
 
 Clarendon, Henry, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Clarendon, Hyde, earl of 
 
 Clarendon, earl of; Aberdeen 
 
 Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1S14 
 
 Clarke, general ; Cape 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas ; slavery 
 
 Claudiau ; archery 
 
 Claudius ; Borne, Britain 
 
 Claudius, Appius ; decemviri, 
 Virginia 
 
 Clause], marshal; Algiers 
 
 Claussen, Chev. ; flax 
 
 Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U.S. 
 
 Clayton, Mr. ; duel 
 
 Clayton, Dr. ; gas 
 
 Cleisthenes ; ostracism 
 Clemens Bomanus ; Clementines 
 Clement IV. ; conclave 
 Clement VII. ; pontiff, benefices, 
 
 Clementines 
 Clement VIII. ; pontiff, index 
 Clement, Jacques ; France 
 Clement, Julian ; midwifery 
 Cleombrotus ; Sparta 
 Cleomenes ; Sparta 
 Cleopatra, queen ; Egypt, rose, 
 
 Syria 
 Clifford, lord ; Boman Catholics 
 Clifford, sir Thomas ; afterwards 
 
 lord ; cabal 
 Clinton, sir Henry ; York town 
 Clinton, Edward, lord; adminis- 
 trations 
 Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth 
 Clive, lord ; Arcot, India, Plas- 
 
 sey 
 Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 
 
 1807 
 Close, Mr. ; duel 
 Clothaire; France 
 Clovis ; France, Paris, Clovis, 
 
 Salique, fltur-de-lis, Alemanni 
 Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
 Clymer; press 
 Cobbett, William ; trials, 1809, 
 
 1811, 1831 
 Cobden, Mi-. ; Anti - corn - law 
 
 league, peace congress 
 Cobham, lord ; roasting alive 
 Coburg, prince of : Fleurus 
 Cocceius, John ; Cocceians 
 Cochrane, lord ; Basque roads, 
 
 stock fraud, trials, 1814 
 Cochrane, sir A. ; Basseterre 
 Cocking, Mr. ; balloons 
 Codriugton, adml. ; Havarino 
 Codrus ; Athens 
 Coel ; Britain 
 
 Coffin, capt. ; Siamese twins 
 Coke, Dr. ; methodists 
 Coke, sir John ; administrations 
 Coke, sir Edward ; parliaments 
 Colbert, Mons. ; tapestry 
 Colborne, sir John ; Canada 
 Colclough, Mr. ; duel 
 Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, Dromore, 
 
 Kilmacduach 
 Coleman, Mrs. ; actresses 
 Collard, rear-admiral ; suicide 
 Collard ; piano-fortes 
 Collingwood, lord ; Trafalgar, 
 
 naval battles (1809) 
 Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town 
 Collinson, capt. ; Franklin 
 Colman, Mi - . ; theatres 
 Colpoys, admiral ; mutineer 
 Columba, St. ; isles 
 Columbiere ; armorial bearings 
 Columbus ; America, Bahama, 
 
 Caraccas, St. Domingo 
 Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps 
 Colville, sir Charles ; Cambray 
 Combe, Delafield, & Co. 
 Combermere, lord ; India 
 Commodus, emperor; December, 
 
 Rome 
 Comnenus ; Eastern empire 
 Comnenus, Angelus ; Angelic 
 
 knights 
 Comnenus, Alexis; Pontus 
 Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 Conde', Louis ; Jarnac 
 Couflans ; Quiberon 
 Constans ; Aquileia 
 Confucius ; China 
 Congallus ; Scotland 
 Congleton; suicide 
 Congreve, sir Wm. ; fireworks 
 
 Conon ; Sparta 
 
 Conrad; Germany 
 
 Conrad II. ; Germany, Burgundy 
 
 Conradin ; Naples 
 
 Constantine ; Scotland, Brun- 
 hards 
 
 Constantine ; Adrianople, arus- 
 pices, banner, Britain, East- 
 ern empire, Rome, York 
 
 Constantine II. ; Aquileia 
 
 Constantine XIII. ; Eastern em- 
 pire 
 
 Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
 
 Constantius ; Rome 
 
 Conway, Edward ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Conway, hon. Henry Seymour ; 
 administrations 
 
 Cook, capt. ; Australia, Cook's 
 voyages, Bo i any Bay, Flat- 
 tery Cape, New Hebrides, 
 New Zealand, Norfolk Island, 
 Otaheite, Owhyhee, Port 
 Jackson 
 
 Cook, capt. ; Kent Indiaman 
 
 Cook, Dr. ; Scotland 
 
 Cook, Mrs., murdered; trials, 1841 
 
 Cook, J. P., murdered; trials, 1856 
 
 Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 
 
 Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 
 
 Cooke, Geo. Fred. ; theatres 
 
 Cooper, Mr. ; slave trade 
 
 Cooper ; trials, 1S42 
 
 Cooper ; Hackney monster, 1805 
 
 Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 
 "Carnatic, Cuddalore 
 
 Cope, sir John; Preston-pans 
 
 Copernicus ; astronomy, attrac- 
 tion, solar system 
 
 Coram ; Foundling Hospital 
 
 Corbred; Scotland 
 
 Corday, Charlotte ; France 
 
 Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 
 
 Corin ; libertines 
 
 Corinthian maid ; models 
 
 Coriolanus ; Bome 
 
 Cormac ; Cashel 
 
 Cornelia Maximiliana ; vestals 
 
 Cornelius ; Spitzbergen 
 
 Cornhill, Henry ; sheriff 
 
 Cornwall ; naval battles 
 
 Cornwallis, lord ; admiralty, 
 America 
 
 Cornwallis, marquis ; India, 
 America, Bangalore, Ireland 
 (ld.-lieut.), Seringapatam 
 
 Corcebus ; Olympiads 
 
 Coropas ; dwarf 
 
 Corry ; duel 
 
 Cort, H. ; iron 
 
 Cortereal ; north-west passage 
 
 Cortez; Mexico 
 
 Coryate, Thomas ; forks 
 
 Corselles; Bome 
 
 Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo 
 
 Cottenham, lord ; administra 
 tions, Eussell 
 
 Cotter ; giants 
 
 Cottington ; administrations 
 
 Cotton, B. ; Cottonian library 
 
 Cotton, sirStapleton ; Villa Franca 
 
 Couling, W. ; agriculture 
 
 Coulomb ; electricity 
 
 Courcy, sir John de 
 
 Courtanvaux ; ether 
 
 Courtenay ; Canterbury, Thomites 
 
 Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter 
 
 Courtois, M. de : iodine 
 
 Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
 
 Coutts, Miss ; trials, 1847 
 
 Coventry, sir John; Coventry act 
 
 Coventry, rt. hon. sir Henry ; 
 administrations 
 
726 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Coventry, sir- Thomas, afterwards 
 lord ; administrations 
 
 Coverdale ; Bible 
 
 Cowper, lord ; administrations 
 
 Cowper, E. ; printing machine 
 
 Cox ; lotteries 
 
 Cox, bishop ; Bible 
 
 Cox, Walter; trials, 1S11 
 
 Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel 
 
 Craggs, rt. hon. Mr. ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Crampton, Mr. ; Un. States, 1856 
 
 Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry 
 
 Crantield, Lionel, lord ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Cranmer; administrations, Cran- 
 mer, homilies, martyrdom 
 
 Cran worth, lord; lord chancellor, 
 lord justice 
 
 Crassus, Marcus ; ovation 
 
 Craterus ; Cranon 
 
 Crawf'urd, earl of; Brechin 
 
 Crawley, Mr. ; trials, 1S02 
 
 Crawley, Mr. ; steel 
 
 Crellin, Miss ; trials, 1S42 
 
 Crespiguy, Mr. ; duel 
 
 Crillon, due de ; Gibraltar 
 
 Crispianus. St. ; Crispin 
 
 Crockatt, Miss, v. Dick; trials, 
 IMS 
 
 Crcesus; Lydia 
 
 Croft ; impostors 
 
 Croft, sir Richard ; suicide 
 
 Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs 
 
 Crollius ; calomel 
 
 Crompton, Mr. ; cotton 
 
 Cromwell, Oliver ; administra- 
 tions, agitators, common- 
 wealth, England, Droyheda, 
 mace, Ireland, MarstonMoor, 
 Naseby, Worcester 
 
 Cromwell, Richard; administra- 
 tions, England 
 
 Cromwell, lord Essex ; adminis- 
 trations, registers 
 
 Crosbie, sir Edward ; trial, 179S 
 
 Cross, E. ; Surrey gardens 
 
 Crouch ; trials, 1S44 
 
 Crowther, lieut. ; duel 
 
 Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage 
 
 Cruden ; Concordance 
 
 Cruikshank ; wood-engraving 
 
 Ctesias; history 
 
 Ctesibius ; clock, organ, pump 
 
 Ctesiphon ; Ephesus 
 
 Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill 
 
 Cumberland, duke of; Closter- 
 seven, Culloden, Fontenoy 
 
 Cummiug v. lord de Roos ; trial, 
 1837 
 
 Curio ; amphitheatres 
 
 Curran, John Philpot ; duel 
 
 Cursor, Papirius ; dials 
 
 Curtius, Marcus ; earthquakes 
 
 Cuthbert, St. ; Carlisle 
 
 Cuthbert, capt. ; duel 
 
 Cuthbert v. Browne ; trial, 1829 
 
 Cuvicr ; zoology 
 
 Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 
 
 Cyrus the Great ; Cyprus, Jeru- 
 salem, Media, Persia 
 Cyrus the younger ; Xenophon 
 Czerni, George ; Greece 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacier ; Delphin classics 
 D'Abrincis ; palatine 
 Dajdalus ; labyrinth, axe 
 Dagobert ; St. Denis 
 Daguerre, M. ; photography 
 
 Dahl, professor ; dahlias 
 D'Alembert; acoustics 
 Dalhousie, earl of; administra- 
 tions, India 
 Dalmas, A. ; trials, 1844 
 Dalmatia, duke of; Soult 
 Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra 
 Damasus ; pontiff, crown, pope, 
 
 tiara 
 Damnoni, the ; Ireland 
 Dam pier; circumnavigator 
 Damremont, marshal ; Algiers, 
 
 Constautia 
 Danaus ; Greece, ship 
 Danby, earl of; administrations 
 Dauby, earl of; physic garden 
 Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot 
 Daniel ; Jerusalem 
 Daniel, S. ; poet-laureate 
 Dannenbcrg, gen. ; Oltenitza 
 Darbon v. Rosser ; trials, 1841 
 D'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar 
 Dardanus, Iliiun 
 Dargan, Mr. ; Ireland, Dublin 
 
 exhibition 
 Darius ; Persia, Greece 
 Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire 
 Darmes ; France (184n) 
 Darnley, lord; Scotland 
 Dartmouth, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Dartmouth, George, earl of ; 
 
 administrate ins 
 Dashwood, sir Francis ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Dathy, Achonry 
 Daun, count ; Hochkirchen, 
 
 Torgau 
 Davenant, sir Wm. ; diama, 
 
 opera 
 Davenport, Miss ; theatres 
 David, St. ; St. David's 
 David ; harp, Jerusalem 
 David, George ; impostors 
 David I. ; Scotland, Carlisle 
 Davidge, Mr. ; theatres 
 Davidson, D. ; trials, 1S55 
 Davis, Mr. ; China 
 Davis; N.-W. passage, quadrant 
 Davis and Sandys, bishops ; Bible 
 Davoust, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 
 
 hilow, Jena 
 Davy, sir Humphry ; safety- 
 lamp, Royal Institution, 
 phosphorus 
 Dawkins ; Palmyra 
 Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
 Deaclev. Bingham; Baring, trials, 
 
 1831 
 Deane, adml. ; naval battles 
 De Brosses ; Australasia 
 De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 
 De Courcy, baron ; peers 
 Dee ; astrology, Juan, plague 
 De Foe, Daniel 
 De Foix, Gaston ; Ravenna 
 De Grasse, adml. ; Chesapeake, 
 
 naval battles, Tobago 
 De Grey, earl ; administrations, 
 
 Ireland, lord-lieutenant 
 De Haven ; Franklin 
 De la Clue, admiral ; Lagos 
 De la Mere, lord ; administrations 
 De la Rue ; trials, 1845 
 Do la Warr, lord ; America 
 De Lesseps, M. ; Suez 
 De Loundres, Henry ; Dublin 
 D'Estaign, count ; Bencoolen, 
 
 Georgia 
 D'Esterre, Mr. ; duel 
 D'Etrees, adml. ; Texel 
 Demetrius ; Athens 
 Demetrius ; Macedon 
 
 Demetrius ; imp stors 
 Demetrius Nicauor; massacres 
 Demetrius; Russia 
 Demodocus ; bards 
 Demosthenes ; Philippics 
 Denis, M. ; transfusion 
 Denison, archdeacon ; trials, 1856 
 Denison, E. B. ; bells 
 Denison, J. E. ; speaker 
 Den m an, lord ; att.-gen., king's 
 
 bench 
 Denmark, prince George ; admi- 
 ralty, queens (Anne) 
 Denny, J. ; tiials, 1851 
 Derby, eailof; administrations 
 Derby, earl of ; Man, Wigau 
 Derby, countess of; theatres 
 Derham ; sound 
 De Roos, lord, v. dimming ; trials, 
 
 1837 
 De Ruyter, adml. ; Chatham, 
 
 Texel 
 Der went water, earl of; Green- 
 wich 
 Des Cartes, Rene" ; cartesian, 
 
 rainbow 
 Descharges ; ship-building 
 Desmond ; Ireland 
 Despard, col. ; conspiracies, Des- 
 
 pard 
 Dessaix, general ; Marengo 
 Dessalines ; St. Domingo, Hayti 
 Deucalion ; deluge 
 De Veres, tails of Oxford ; Id. gt. 
 
 chamberlain, marquess 
 De Vere, Robert, duke 
 Devigne, Henrique ; billiards 
 Deville, M. St. Claire; aluminium 
 Devonshire, duke of; adminis- 
 trations 
 De Winter, adml. ; Camperdown 
 De Witt ; chain, Hogue 
 Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture 
 Dibdin ; ballads 
 Dibutades ; models 
 Dick, Mr. ; trials, 1S18 
 Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
 Dido, queen ; Carthage 
 Didot, Francis ; stereotype 
 Didot, M. ; paper-making 
 Diebitsch, general ; Balkan, Zeli- 
 
 chow 
 Diesbach ; prussic acid 
 Digby, sir Everard ; gunpowder 
 
 plot, optics 
 Digges, Leonard ; telescopes 
 Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
 Dillon, col. Garrat ; Limerick 
 Dimsilalc, Dr. ; small-pox 
 Diocletian ; Rome 
 Diodorus Siculus ; Etna 
 Diogenes ; anthropophagi 
 Dionysius ; Portugal, anno do- 
 mini 
 Dionysius ; Sicily, catapulta? 
 Diophantus ; algebra 
 Dipamus ; sculpture, marble 
 Disraeli, B. ; administrations 
 Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 
 Dixon, capt. ; Apollo frigate 
 Dockwra, Mr. ; penny-post 
 Dodd, Mr. ; steam engine 
 Dodd, Mr. G. ; Waterloo-bridge 
 Dodd, Dr. ; Magdaleus, forgery, 
 
 trials, 1777 
 Doge of Venice ; Adriatic 
 Dollond ; telescopes, optics 
 Dominic, St. ; Dominicans 
 Bom MigUf 1 ; Portugal 
 Donald, lord of thelslcs; Harlaw 
 Donald ; Scotland 
 Donato di Bardi ; sculpture 
 Donatus ; Donatists 
 
INDEX. 
 
 727 
 
 Don Carlos ; Spain 
 Donkin, sir Butane S. ; suicide 
 Doran ; Leighlin 
 Dorey, Geqrgiana ; trials, 1844 
 Dormer, lord ; Roman Catholics 
 Dorset, Edward, earl of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Dorset, duke of ; administrations 
 D'Orvilliers, count de, Ushant 
 Dost Mahomed ; Iudia 
 Douglas, earl of ; Homelden 
 Douglas, sir John ; delicate in- 
 vestigation 
 Douglas, sir Wm. ; Otterbum 
 Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Dowdeswcll, right hon. William ; 
 
 administi'ations 
 Dowton, Mr. ; theatres 
 Doyle, sir John ; Portugal 
 Doyle, J. ; caricatures 
 Doyle v. Wright ; trials, 1851 
 Draco ; laws, Draco 
 Drake, sir Francis ; Armada, 
 Cadiz, California, circumna- 
 vigation, his ship ; Drake's 
 circumnavigation, Deptford, 
 New Albion, Armada 
 Drebel ; optics, microscope, ther- 
 mometer 
 Drochet ; Sicilian Vespers 
 Drouet ; Varennes 
 Drummond, gen. ; Chippawa 
 Drummond, Mr.; murdered, trials, 
 
 1843 
 Dryden ; poet-laureate 
 Duboscq, M. ; electricity 
 Dubritius, St. ; Llandatf 
 Du Cauge ; locks 
 Ducas, admiral ; Saldanha 
 Du Casse, admiral ; Carthagena 
 Duckworth, sir 'John; Darda- 
 nelles 
 Ducrow, Mr. ; theatres 
 Dudley, earl of Leicester ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Dudley, lord ; administrations 
 Duell, Wm. ; trials, 174.0 
 Dufaye ; electricity 
 Duff, captain; trials, 1841 
 Dugdale ; parliaments 
 Duggau, Wm. ; trials, 1832 
 Du Guesclin, B. ; Moutiel 
 Dumouriez, gen. ; Jemmappes 
 Dun, John; bailiff 
 Duncan I. ; Scotland 
 Duncan, admiral, lord ; Camper- 
 down, Texel 
 Duncannon, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Duncombe, sir Francis ; sedan- 
 chairs 
 Dundas, Henry ; savings' banks 
 Dundas, rt. hon. Henry; adminis- 
 trations 
 Dundas, sir David; commander- 
 in-chief 
 Dundas, general ; Kilcullen 
 Dundas, lieut.-col. ; Prescott 
 Dundas, major ; trials, 1831 
 Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic 
 Dundee, Graham, viscount ; Kil- 
 
 liecrankie 
 Dunn, Richard; trials, 1847 
 Dunning, Mr. ; Junius 
 Dunstan ; England, coronation 
 Duns Scotus ; burying alive 
 Dupetit-Thouars ; Otaheite 
 Dupont ; Baylen 
 Duras, Charles ; Hungary 
 Durazzo, Charles ; Naples 
 Durer ; engraving 
 Durham, earl ; administrations 
 Durham, lord; Canada 
 
 Durham, William ; University 
 
 College 
 D'Usson, general ; Limerick 
 Du Val, Claude ; robbers 
 Uwyer; trials, 1843 
 Dyer, Mr. Samuel; Junius 
 Dymocke family; championship 
 
 E. 
 
 Eadbald ; convents 
 
 Eaton, Daniel Isaac ; trials, 1796, 
 
 1812 
 Ebba ; Coldingham, charity 
 Eckmuhl, prince of. See Davoust 
 Edau, St. ; Ferns 
 Edgar, rev. Mr. ; temperance 
 Edmund, St. ; Bury St. Edmund's 
 Edmund Ironside ; England, 
 
 Alney 
 Edward the Confessor; Danegeld, 
 
 England 
 Edward the Martyr ; England 
 Edward I. ; England, Lewes, Scot- 
 land 
 Edward II. ; England, 59 
 Edward III. ; England, Cressy, 
 
 Sluys, Garter 
 Edward IV. ; England, Bamet, 
 
 Tewkesbury, Towton 
 Edward V. ; England 
 Edward VI. ; England, age, 
 
 Christ's hospital 
 Edward, Black Prince ; duke, 
 
 Cressy, Poitiers, England 
 Bdwardes, lieut. ; India 
 Edwardes, Mr. ; coffee-houses 
 Edwy : England 
 Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 
 Egbert ; England, king 
 Egerton, Mr. ; theatres 
 Egerton, Mrs. ; Frogmore 
 Egerton, sir Thomas ; lord chan. 
 Eglinton, earl of ; Ireland, lord- 
 
 lieuteuaut ; tournament 
 Egmont, lord; administrations 
 Egremont, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Egyptus; Egypt 
 Eldon, lord ; lord chancellor, ad- 
 ministrations 
 Eleanor, queen (Edward I.) 
 Eleanor, queen (Henry II.) 
 Eleanor, queen (Henry HI.) 
 Eleanor ; Bordeaux 
 Electryon ; Mycense 
 Elgin, lord ; Elgin marbles 
 Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 
 
 1807 
 Elijah; Jews 
 
 Elizabeth, queen (regnant) ; Eng- 
 land, goose, poor laws, Rich- 
 mond 
 Elizabeth, Grey, queen (Edward 
 
 IV.) 
 Elizabeth, queen (Henry VII.) 
 Elizabeth ; France, trials, 1794 
 Elizabeth ; roses 
 Elkington ; gilding, electrotype 
 Elia ; Northumbria 
 Ellice, rt. hon. E. ; administra- 
 tions 
 Ellenborough, lord ; attorney- 
 general, king's bench, deli- 
 cate investigation 
 Ellenborough, lord ; administra- 
 tions, India 
 Bllesmere, Thomas, lord ; admi- 
 nistrations, lord chancellors 
 Elliot, captain ; China 
 Elliot, general ; Gibraltar 
 
 Elliot, sir Gilbert ; administrations 
 Elliston, Mr. ; theatres 
 Ellis, Welbore ; Grey's adminis- 
 tration 
 Elphinstone ; Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 Saldanha 
 Elsynge, William ; Sion College 
 Elton, Mr. ; theatres 
 Emmett, Robert ; rebellions, con- 
 spiracies, trials, 1803 
 Emmett ; Press newspaper 
 Empedocles; suicide 
 Enghien, duke of 
 England, general; India 
 Eunius, the poet; stenography 
 Enoch ; translation 
 Entinopus ; Venice 
 Epaminondas ; Leuctra, Man- 
 tinea, Sparta 
 Ephialtes ; Thermopylae 
 Epicurus ; Athens 
 Epimenides; sleep 
 Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence 
 Epitus ; Arcadia 
 Erasistratus ; anatomy 
 Erasmus; .Greek language, Re- 
 formation 
 Eratosthenes ; degree, Diana, 
 
 armillary sphere 
 Erchenwin ; East Saxons 
 Erechtheus ; Athens 
 Eric ; Sweden 
 Ericsson ; caloric ship 
 Ericthonius ; Troy, car 
 Emley, sir Joh; administrations 
 Erroll, earls of; lord high con- 
 stable of Scotland 
 Erskine, lord ; lord chancellor, 
 
 administrations 
 Erskine, gen. ; India 
 Espartero ; Bilboa, Spain 
 Essex, earl of ; administrations 
 Essex, earl of; Newbury 
 Essex, Devereux, earl of; Eng- 
 land 
 Essex, lord; Abingdon 
 Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage 
 
 act, royal 
 Este, Francis, archduke of; Mo- 
 
 dena 
 Estrix, John de ; dwarf 
 
 Ethelbert ; England, Canterbury 
 
 Etheldra, Ely 
 
 Ethelred ; England, coronation 
 feast, Dane-geld 
 
 Ethersey, commodore ; suicide 
 
 Ethodius ; Scotland 
 
 Eu, William, earl of ; combat 
 
 Euler; acoustics 
 
 Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
 
 Eudoxia ; Rome 
 
 Eugenius ; Scotland 
 
 Eugene, prince ; Belgrade, Turin, 
 Zeuta 
 
 Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853 
 
 Eugenius ; Aquileia 
 
 Eumelus ; Bosphorus 
 
 Eumenes ; parchment 
 
 Eumclphus ; Eleusinian myst. 
 
 Eunan, St. ; Raphoe 
 
 Euripides; tragedy 
 
 Eurysteues ; biarchy 
 
 Eurystheus ; Mycense 
 
 Eusden, rev. L. ; poet laureat 
 
 Eustachius ; thoracic duct 
 
 Euthalius ; accents 
 
 Evaldus, bp. ; Argyle 
 
 Evander ; Circensian games 
 
 Evans, gen. de Lacy ; Spain, 
 Irun, St. Sebastian 
 
 Evelyn ; horticulture, lime-tree 
 
 Evenus ; Scotland 
 
 Examiner, the; trials, 1812 
 
728 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Exeter, duke of; conspiracies 
 Exeter, duke of; rack 
 Exmoutb, lord ; Algiers 
 Eyre, John, esq. ; transported 
 Ezra; Jerusalem 
 
 Fabius, Quintus ; painting 
 
 Fachnan, St., bishop; Kilfenora, 
 Ross 
 
 Fahrenheit; thermometer 
 
 Fairbairn, Mr. ; engineer, tubu- 
 lar bridge 
 
 Fair Rosamond ; Rosamond 
 
 Fairfax ; Naseby 
 
 Falck, Dr. ; the steam-engine 
 
 Falconbridge ; London 
 
 Falkland, viscount ; Newbury, 
 admiralty 
 
 Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
 
 Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating 
 libraries 
 
 Faraday, M. ; Royal Institu- 
 tion, electricity, magnetism, 
 magneto-electricity, Wardian 
 cases 
 
 Farquhar, Mr. ; Fonthill Abbey 
 
 Farren, Miss ; theatres 
 
 Fatima, daughter of Mahomet ; 
 Soplii 
 
 Faulkner, Geo. ; newspapers 
 
 Fauntlen.y, H. ; foraeiy 
 
 Faust, John ; printing, books 
 
 Faustina ; October 
 
 Faustulus ; Alba 
 
 Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot 
 
 Fawcett, col. ; duel 
 
 Fawcett, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Fedorowitz ; Russia 
 
 Felix ; Norwich 
 
 Felton assassinates Buckingham ; 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Fenniug, Eliza; executions 
 
 Ferdinand ; Austria 
 
 Ferdinand ; Naples 
 
 Ferdinand ; Portugal 
 
 Ferdinand ; Sicily 
 
 Ferdinand ; Spain 
 
 Ferdinand ; Tuscany 
 
 Ferdinand, prince ; Minden 
 
 Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 
 
 Ferrers, Dr ; St. David's 
 
 Ferrers and Derby ; Nottingham 
 
 Ferrers, earl; trial, 1760 
 
 Fieschi, France 
 
 Fillmore, Millard ; United States 
 
 Finnbar, St. ; Cork 
 
 Finch, sir John ; Id. chancellor, 
 adm i nistrati ons 
 
 Finch, D. ; admiralty 
 
 Findlator, lord; chancellor, Scot- 
 land 
 
 Fiuiguerra ; engraving 
 
 Finian, St. ; Achonry 
 
 Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1S08, 
 1811 
 
 Finnis, T. ; lord mayor 
 
 Fisher, bishop ; administrations 
 
 Fitzgerald, H. ; life boat 
 
 Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder act 
 
 Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke ; 
 trials, 1814 
 
 Fitzgerald and Vesey, lord ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Fitzberbert, Mrs, ; libel. 
 
 Fitz-Osborn ; peers, justiciars 
 
 Fitzpatrick, hon. Richard ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Fitzpatrick Hugh ; trials, 1813 
 
 Fitzwalter, Robert de ; Dunmow 
 
 FitzwilHam, earl ; administra- 
 tions, Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Flaminius ; Thrasyinenus 
 Flamsted; astronomy, Greenwich 
 Flannock ; rebellions 
 Flavus, Titus Lartius ; dictators 
 Fletcher, of Saltoun ; ballads 
 Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, -1844 
 Flood, Mr. ; absentees 
 Flood, Warden; king's bench 
 Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
 Floroventius, Leonardius ; an- 
 thropophagi 
 Fohi ; China 
 
 Foleagio, Theop. ; macaroni 
 Follett, sir Wm. ; att-gen. 
 Folkestone, lord ; arts 
 Foot, Dundy ; snufi 
 Foote ; theatres 
 Foote v. Hayne ; trials, 1824 
 Forbes, lord; horse-guards 
 Forest, Mr. ; theatres 
 Forster; Preston 
 Forsyth, capt. ; Franklin 
 Forteseue. lord; lord-lieutenant 
 
 of Ireland 
 Fottrell, capt. ; duel 
 Foucault, M. ; pendulum 
 Fourdrinier, M. ; paper 
 Fox and Henderson ; crystal 
 
 palace 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester ; ad- 
 ministrations, privy seal 
 Fox, Charles James ; duel, ad- 
 ministrations ; India bill 
 Fox, George ; quakers 
 Fox, rt. hon. Henry ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea 
 Fox, north- west passage 
 Francia, Dr. ; Paraguay 
 Francis, St. ; Cordeliers 
 Frauds I. ; Austria, Germany 
 Francis I. ; France, duelling, 
 cloth of gold, Marignan, lie, 
 Pavia 
 Francis II. ; France, Scotland 
 Francis ; Sicily 
 Francis; trials, 1842 
 Francis, sir Philip ; Junius 
 Francisco d'Assiz ; Spain 
 Franks, Dr. ; suicide 
 Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; 
 
 trials, 1842 
 Frankfort, lord ; trials, 1S52 
 Franklin, B. ; electricity, light- 
 ning conductor 
 Franklin, sir John ; north-west 
 
 passage, search for 
 Franks ; murdered ; trials, 1825 
 Fraser, gen. ; Alexandria 
 Fraser v. Bagley; trials, 1844 
 Fraser, Mr. ; murdered, India 
 Frederick I. ; Prussia 
 Frederick II. ; Hochkirchen, 
 
 Torgau 
 Frederick III. ; Prussia 
 Frederick IV. ; Denmark, globes 
 Frederick IV. ; Nuremberg 
 Frederick V. ; Palatinate, Prague 
 Frederick, prince ; Netherlands, 
 
 Quesnoy 
 Frederick-Wm. ; Prussia 
 Frederick -Augustus ; Poland, 
 
 Alt-Ranstadt 
 Frederick- Louis, prince ; England 
 Fremont, J. C. ; U. States, 1856 
 French, col. ; trials, 1820 
 Freney ; trials, 1749 
 Friends ; quakers 
 Frivell, Wm. ; post-office 
 Frobisher, sir Martin ; north- 
 west passage 
 
 Fori la; Spain 
 Fromantil ; clocks 
 Frost, John ; chartist riots, 1839 
 Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution 
 Fuller, Wm. ; Ardfert 
 Fulton ; steam-engine 
 Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
 Furneaux. capt. ; Adventure Bay, 
 New Holland 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabara ; giant 
 
 Gabriel, the angel ; annunciation 
 
 Gafifui-ius ; music 
 
 Gnge, general ; America 
 
 Gaine, W. ; parchment paper 
 
 Gale, lieut. ; balloons 
 
 Gale, Jones ; trials, 1811 
 
 Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre 
 trials, 1837 
 
 Galeazzo ; Milan 
 
 Galen ; physic 
 
 Galgacus ; Grampians 
 
 Galileo ; acoustics, astronomy, 
 falling bodies, harmonic 
 curve, ice, inquisition, pla- 
 nets, the sun, telescopes 
 
 Galien ; balloons 
 
 Gall ; craniology 
 
 Galle, Dr. ; Neptune 
 
 Gallienus ; Rome 
 
 Galloping Hogan ; rapparee 
 
 Gallus Hostilius ; Rome 
 
 Galvani, of Bologna; galvanism 
 
 Galway, earl of ; Almanza 
 
 Gambier, lord; Basque Roads, 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Gandin, M. ; sapphire 
 
 Ganganelli ; popes 
 
 Gangeland, Cuursus de; apothe- 
 cary 
 
 Gardiner, bishop; administrations 
 
 Gardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions 
 
 Gamerin, M. ; balloons 
 
 Garnet, Jesuit ; gunpowder plot 
 
 Garnett, Dr. ; Royal Institution 
 
 Garrick ; theatres, Drury-lane, 
 jubilees 
 
 GaiTow, sir William ; attorney- 
 general 
 
 Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club 
 
 Gasp iris ; planets 
 
 Gassendi ; sun, sound 
 
 Gatton de Foix ; Ravenna 
 
 Gates, gen. ; Camden, Saratoga 
 
 Gaucour; Orleans, siege 
 
 Gaunt, John of; Ghent, roses, wars 
 
 Gausius, painter : caustic 
 
 Gavestons ; rebellions 
 
 Gay ; operas 
 
 Gay-Lussac ; balloons 
 
 Ged, William ; stereotype 
 
 Gelasius ; pall, or pallum 
 
 Genghiskan ; see Jengliiskan 
 
 George, David ; family of love 
 
 George, St. ; England, garter 
 king-at-arms 
 
 George I. ; accession 
 
 George II. ; Dettingen, England 
 
 George III. ; England 
 
 George IV. ; England 
 
 Georgi ; dahlia 
 
 Geranib, baron ; aliens 
 
 Gerard, John ; physic garden 
 
 Germaine, lord George Sackville 
 Minden 
 
 Germanus ; Sodor and Man 
 
 Gesler ; Switzerland 
 
 Geta ; Rome 
 
 Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots 
 
INDEX. 
 
 729 
 
 Gibbons, Grinliu ; statues 
 
 Gibbs, sir Vickery ; attorney- 
 general 
 
 Giesmar, Russian general : Praga 
 
 Gifford, lieut. ; Kildare 
 
 Gilbert, Dr. ; electricity, mag- 
 netism 
 
 Gilbert, gen. ; India 
 
 Gilchrist, earl 
 
 Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1S28 
 
 Gillespie, col. ; Vellore 
 
 Gillespie, general ; Kalunga 
 
 Gillespie, general ; duel 
 
 Ginckel, general ; Athlone, Augh- 
 rim, Limerick 
 
 Gioja, F. ; compass, magnetism 
 
 Gladstone, Rev. Mr. ; trials, 1S52 
 
 Gladstone, rt. hon. W. E. ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Glas, capt. murdered ; trials, 1766 
 
 Glas, John ; Glasites 
 
 Gleiehen ; marriages 
 
 Glenelg, lord (late sir Charles 
 Grant) ; administrations 
 
 Glendower, Owen ; Wales, Ban- 
 gor 
 
 Glerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, 
 1820 
 
 Gloucester, duke of; marriage 
 act 
 
 Gloucester, Humphrey, duke of; 
 Greenwich 
 
 Gobelin, Giles ; tapestry 
 
 Goderich, vise. ; administrations 
 
 Godiva, the lady ; Coventry 
 
 Godolphin, earl ; administrations 
 
 Godwin, W. ; deism 
 
 Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu 
 
 Gog and Magog ; Guildhall 
 
 Goldschmidt ; Jenny Lind, Night- 
 ingale fund 
 
 G onzaga, Louis ; Italy 
 
 Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
 
 Goodrich , bishop ; administrations 
 
 Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc 
 
 Gordian ; Rome 
 
 Gordou, lord G. ; riots, libel, trials, 
 1781, 17S8 
 
 Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
 
 Gorgey; Hungary 
 
 Gorham v. bishop of Exeter; 
 trials, 1849 
 
 Gortschakoff, general ; Ealafat, 
 Silistria, Tchernaya 
 
 Gortschakoff, prince ; Vienna 
 conference 
 
 Gossett, sir W. ; trial, 1842 
 
 Gough, sir Hugh, afterwards vis- 
 count ; China, India, Gooje- 
 rat, Sobraon 
 
 Goulbourn, rt. hon. H. ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 
 Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 
 
 Gould, murderer : trials, 1840 
 
 Gourlay, captain; duel 
 
 Gower, earl ; administrations 
 
 Gracchus ; stirrups 
 
 Grafton, duke of, administrations 
 
 Graham of Claverhouse ; Killie- 
 crankie 
 
 Graham, general ; Barrosa, St. 
 Sebastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 
 
 Graham ; magnetism 
 
 Graham ; St Andrew's - 
 
 Graham, R. ; Perth 
 
 Graham, sir James ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Gi-ammont, duke of ; Dettingen 
 
 Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kil- 
 mainham 
 
 Granby, marquess of; adminis- 
 trations, commander-in-chief 
 
 G randier; witchcraft 
 
 Granpree, M. de ; duel 
 Grant, capt. ; cottagers' stove 
 Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel 
 Grant, lieut. ; trials, 1844 
 Grant ; robbers, trials, 1816 
 Grant, rt. hon. Charles (after- 
 wards lord Glenelg); admi- 
 nistrations 
 Grantham, lord; administrations 
 Grantley, lord ; attorney-gen. 
 Granville, earl ; administrations 
 Granville, lord ; administrations 
 Gratian ; canon law 
 Gratian ; Pome, massacres 
 Grattau, Henry ; duelling 
 Gray, lord ; Pomfret castle 
 Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats 
 Greatrakes, Val. ; impostors 
 Greaves, lord ; suicide 
 Green, general ; Camden 
 Green, Mr. ; balloons 
 Gieenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
 Gregoire, M. ; national convention 
 Gregory the Great ; Aberdeen, 
 
 chanting, Christianity 
 Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
 Gregory XL, pope ; pallium 
 Gregory XIII. ; calendar 
 Greig, Russian admiral ; Bos- 
 
 phorus 
 Grenville, it. hon. George : ad- 
 ministrations 
 Grenville, F. ; British Museum 
 Grenville, lord; administrations ; 
 
 delicate investigation 
 Gresham, sir Thomas; exchange, 
 
 Gresham college 
 Grey, Charles, earl ; administra- 
 tions, reform in parliament 
 Grey, Henry, earl ; administra- 
 tions 
 Grey, lady Jane ; England, 
 
 queens 
 Grey, sir Charles; administrations 
 Grey, sir George; administrations 
 Grey, sir G., Cape of Good Hope 
 Grey, S. ; electricity 
 Griffith; Wales 
 
 Grindall, bishop ; Bible, liturgy 
 Grin field, general ; Demerara, 
 
 Tobago 
 Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin 
 Grocyn, Wm, ; Greek language 
 Grotius ; moral philosophy 
 Grove, Mr. ; gun-cotton 
 Growse, Elias ; needles 
 Grufydd ab Rhys ; Wales 
 Guelph, Henry; Bavaria 
 Guericke, Otto ; air ; electricity ; 
 
 air-pumps 
 Guildford, earl of, trials, 1S53 
 Guillotin, Dr. ; guillutine 
 Guiscard ; conspiracies 
 Guise, duke of; assassinated, 
 
 France 
 Guise, Henry, duke of; Sicily 
 Guizot, M. ; France 
 Gunilda ; massacres 
 Gurney ; affirmation 
 Gurney, Russell ; recorder 
 Gurwood, colonel ; suicide 
 Gustavus III. ; Sweden 
 Gustavus IV. ; Sweden 
 Gustavus Adolphus ; Lippstadt, 
 
 Sweden 
 Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden 
 Guter, of Nuremberg ; air 
 Guttenberg, J. ; printing 
 Guy of Lusignan ; Teutonic order 
 Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot 
 Guy, Thomas; Guy's hospital 
 Guzman, Dominick de ; Black 
 Friars ; rosary 
 
 Gwynne, Nell ; bells, ringing 
 Gyges ; Lydia 
 Gylf; Sweden 
 
 H. 
 
 Hachette, Jeanne de la ; Beau- 
 
 vais 
 Hacho of Norway ; Scotland 
 Hacker, Ludwig ; Sabbath schools 
 Hackett, William ; fanatic, im- 
 postors 
 Hackman, Mr. ; trial, 1779 
 Haddington, earl of; adminis- 
 trations 
 Hadley ; quadrant 
 Haecker ; magnetism 
 Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
 Haggarty and Holloway ; trials, 
 
 1807 
 Hahnemann ; homoeopathy 
 Hales, Dr. ; nitric acid ; venti- 
 lators 
 Hali, Aga; Turkey 
 Halifax ; administrations 
 Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston 
 Hall, Mr. ; telescope 
 Halley, Dr. ; astronomy 
 Halloran, Dr. ; transportation 
 Hamilcar ; Carthage 
 Hamilton and Douglas cause ; 
 
 trials, 1769 
 Hamilton, duke ; trials, 1S1 3 
 Hamilton, duke of; duel 
 Hamilton, James, marquess of ; 
 
 administrations 
 Hamilton, Joseph ; court of ho- 
 nour 
 Hamilton, general ; duel 
 Hamilton, Mary ; trials, 1736 
 Hamilton, sir William ; Hercu- 
 
 laneum 
 Hamilton, W. ; Junius 
 Hammond, Mr. ; theatres 
 Hammond, Mr. ; ambassador 
 Hampden, rt. hon. Richard ; 
 
 administrations 
 Hampden ; ship-money, Eng- 
 land 
 Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc 
 Handcock ; trials, 1855 
 Handel; commemoration, opera, 
 
 Handel 
 Hannibal ; Rome, Bernard, Can- 
 nse, Carthage, Saguntum, 
 Thrasymenus, Zama 
 Hansom, capt.; duel 
 Hanway, Jonas; umbrella 
 Harcourt, lady ; f§te de vertu 
 Harcourt, lord ; administrations 
 Harcourt, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Hardicanute, England 
 Harding ; astronomy, Juno 
 Hardinge, sir Henry (afterwards 
 lord) ; administrations, com- 
 mander of the forces, India 
 Hardinge, Mr. ; commons' jour- 
 nals 
 Hardwicke, earl of; administra- 
 
 trions, lord chancellor 
 Hardwicke ; Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Hardwicke, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Hargrave, Mr. ; cotton spinning 
 Hargreaves, Mr. Edward ; Aus- 
 
 • tralia 
 Harley ; Harleiau library 
 Harley, rt. hon. Robert ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Harley, lord ; wrecks 
 
730 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Harney, gen. ; Un. States, 1855 
 Harold II. ; Hastings, England 
 Harrington, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Harris, Mr. ; theatres 
 Harris ; organs 
 Harris, R. ; clocks, apples 
 Harris ; fluxions 
 Harris, sir W. S. ; electricity, 
 
 lightning conductors 
 Harrison, gen. ; United States 
 Harrison ; his time-piece, longi- 
 tude, Harrison 
 Harrowby, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Hartinger, Mr. ; duel 
 Hartland, sir R. ; Madras 
 Harvey, B.Bagual; Ross,trial,179S 
 Harvey, Dr. Wm. ; blood, ana- 
 tomy, midwifery 
 Harwood; porter 
 Hastings, marquess of; India 
 Hastings, Warren ; India, Chu- 
 
 nar, Hastings 
 Hastings, sir William ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Hatchell, Mr. ; duel 
 Hatfield fires at George III., 
 
 trials, 1S00 
 Hatfield; executions, 1803 
 Hatton, sir Christopher ; admi- 
 nistrations, lord high chan- 
 cellor, master 
 Haiiy, V. ; blind 
 Havelock, gen. ; India, 1857 
 Hawke, admiral ; naval bactles, 
 
 administrations 
 Hawkesbury, lord ; administra- 
 tions, Amiens 
 Hawkesmoor, Mr. ; Exchange, 
 
 Royal 
 Hawkey, lieut. ; trial, 1846 
 Hawkins, sir Richard ; Port Eg- 
 
 mout 
 Hawkins, sir John ; Guinea, 
 slave-trade, potatoes, to- 
 bacco 
 Hawse, sir Richard ; Pomfret 
 
 castle 
 Hay, lord John ; St. Sebastian's 
 Haydon, the painter ; suicide 
 Haydn, Joseph ; music 
 Hayes, Mr. ; duel 
 Hayes, Charles ; trials, 1802 
 Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
 Haynau, Austrian general ; 
 
 Hungary, London 
 Haynes, capt. ; Adeu 
 Hay ward, the "Man of Fashion;" 
 
 trials, 1821 
 H. B. ; caricatures 
 Head, sir Francis 
 Headfort, marquess ; trial, 1S05 
 Hearne ; north-west passage 
 Heberden, Dr. ; Royal Humane 
 
 Society 
 Hector ; Troy 
 
 Hedges, sir Charles; administra- 
 tions 
 Hehl, father ; animal magnetism 
 Helen ; Sparta 
 
 Helena, St. ; Bethlehem, cross 
 Heliodorus ; romances 
 Heliogabalus ; Rome, silk 
 Hellen ; Thessaly 
 Helsham, capt. ; duel 
 Hengist ; octareh 
 Hengist ; Salisbury plain 
 Henley ; orator 
 Henley, lord ; administrations 
 Henley, Joseph Warner; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Hennis, Or. ; duel 
 
 Henrietta, queen (Chas. I.) 
 
 Henrietta Maria, queen (Chas. II.) 
 
 Henry I. ; England, Tinchebray 
 
 Henry II. ; England 
 
 Henry III. ; England 
 
 Henry IV. ; England 
 
 Henry V. ; England, Agincourt, 
 
 France 
 Henry VI. ; England, North- 
 ampton, Towton, Roses, 
 Tewkesbury 
 Henry VII.; England, Rich- 
 mond, Milford, Bosworth 
 
 Henry VIII. ; England, age, 
 defender, field, monasteries, 
 spurs 
 
 Henry II. ; France, tourna- 
 ments 
 
 Henry ill. ; France 
 
 Henry IV. ; France, Nantes, 
 Ravaillac, Yvres 
 
 Henry ; Germany 
 
 Henry IV. ; Germany 
 
 Henry ; Spain 
 
 Henshaw, Mr. ; duel 
 
 Hepburn, earl of Both well ; Scot- 
 laud 
 
 Hepburn, ensign ; trials, 1811 
 
 Hepburn, John; Franklin 
 
 Heraclius ; holy cross 
 
 Herbert ; admiral ; Bantry Bay 
 
 Herbert, A. ; admiralty 
 
 Herbert, hon. Sydney; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
 
 Heremon ; Ireland 
 
 Hergustus, Picts, bishops of 
 Scotland ; St. Andrew's 
 
 Hermes, Egyptian ; lyre 
 
 Herod ; Jerusalem 
 
 Herodotus ; history 
 
 Herophilus ; anatomy 
 
 Herries, John Charles; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
 
 Herschel ; Saturn, astronomy, 
 telescope, Sun, Uranus 
 
 Herschel, J. F., actiuometer, 
 photography 
 
 Hertford, marquess of; his exe- 
 cutors v. Suisse, trials, 1842 
 
 Hertford, earl of; administrations 
 
 Hertford, earl of ; Pinkey 
 
 Hervie, Dr. Henry ; Doctors' 
 Commons 
 
 Hesiod ; chaos 
 
 Hesione ; Troy 
 
 Hevelius ; astronomy 
 
 Heytesbury, lord; Ireland, lord- 
 lieut. 
 
 Hicetas ; stars 
 
 Hicks, Mrs ; witchcraft 
 
 Hilarion ; anchorite 
 
 Hilary ; hymns, anthems 
 
 Hilkiah ; Jerusalem 
 
 Hill, lord; administrations 
 
 Hill, Rowland ; post-office 
 
 Hillsborough, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Hind, John Russell ; planets, 
 comets 
 
 Hindes, lieut.; duel 
 
 Hipparchus ; astronomy, Canary, 
 degrees, latitude, longitude 
 
 Hippias ; ostracism 
 
 Hippocrates; anatomy, surgery, 
 loadstone 
 
 Hippomenes; Athens 
 
 Hiram, king of Tyre; architec- 
 ture 
 
 Hoadley, Dr.; Bangorian 
 
 Hoare, Sir R. ; barrows 
 
 Hobart, lord ; administrations 
 
 Hobbes ; academies, deism 
 Hobhouse, sir John Cam ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Hoche, general ; Dunkirk 
 Hocker, murderer; trials, 1845 
 Hodgson, general ; Bclleisle 
 Hodgson v. Greene ; tri Js, 1832 
 Hogan, arrest of; United States 
 Hohenlohe, prince ; Jena 
 Holcroft ; deism, melodrama 
 Holderuesse, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Holkar ; India 
 
 Holland, Hemy, lord; adminis- 
 trations 
 Holland, Henry Richard, lord ; 
 
 adminstratious 
 Holland, lord ; trials, 1797 
 Holiest, murderers of rev. Mr.; 
 
 trials, 1851 
 Holmes, admiral ; Cape Coast, 
 
 Goree 
 Holofernes ; Assyria 
 Holt, sir John, en. just. K.B. 
 Holt ; trials, 1844 
 Holwell, Mr.; suttees 
 Homer; cosmography 
 Homer ; poetry 
 Hompesch, baron ; duel 
 Hone, the bookseller; trials, 1817 
 Honey and Francis ; riots 
 Honorius ; Rome 
 Honorius, archp. ; parishes 
 Hood, admiral ; Madeira 
 Hood, admiral, lord ; Toulon 
 Hooke, Dr.; boiling, camera, 
 geology, mechanics, micro- 
 scope, telegraphs 
 Horace ; acts, satires 
 Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
 Hormisdas ; Persia 
 Home, bishop ; Bible 
 Home Tooke, John ; Home 
 Horuor, Mr. ; Colosseum 
 Hornsby, Dr. ; Radclitte 
 Horrebow ; astronomy 
 Horrox ; astronomy, Venus 
 Horsfall, Mr. of York, murdered; 
 
 trials, 1813 
 Horsfall, Messrs.; cannon 
 Hoskeu, capt. ; Grtai Britain 
 Hothaui, admiral ; naval battles, 
 
 1795 
 Hotspur ; Otterbum 
 Howard, queen Catherine ; pins 
 Howard ; prisons, potatoes 
 Howard, admiral sir Edward ; 
 
 naval battles, 1513 
 Howard of Effingham, lord ; the 
 
 armada 
 Howard v. sir Wm. Gossett ; 
 
 trials, 1842 
 Howe, sir William ; Long island 
 Howe, lord ; administrations, 
 
 Brest, Ushant 
 Howick, viscount; administra- 
 tions 
 How ley, Dr. archbishop of Can- 
 terbury ; Lambeth 
 Hubert ; bavoy 
 Hudson ; Hudson's bay 
 Hudson, Jeffery; dwarf 
 Hugh of Burgundy ; Lincoln 
 Hughes, sir Edward; Tnnco- 
 
 rnalee 
 Humbert, general ; Killala 
 Humboldt ; guano 
 Hume ; deism 
 Humphrey, duke of Gloucester 
 
 Bury, Greenwich 
 Hun^us, the Pict ; thistle ; An- 
 drew, St. 
 Hunniades; Turkey, Varna 
 
INDEX. 
 
 731 
 
 Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 
 1S20, Clerkenwell, Manches- 
 ter 
 
 Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials, 
 1811, 1812 
 
 Huntly, earl of; Brechin 
 
 Hunter, .Robert • Siamese 
 
 Hunton, Joseph ; forgery 
 
 Huskisson, Wm. ; administra- 
 tions, Liverpool railway 
 
 Huss ; transubstantiation 
 
 Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
 
 Hutchinson, John ; llutehin- 
 sonians 
 
 Hutchinson, lord; Alexandria 
 
 Hutchinson, Mr. J. H; Lava- 
 lette's escape 
 
 Hutton ; geology 
 
 Huygens; astronomy, optics, 
 pendulums 
 
 Hyacinth as; hyacinths 
 
 Hyagnis ; flute ; music 
 
 Hycuen, Dr. William ; music 
 
 Hyde, sir Edward ; lord chan- 
 cellor 
 
 Hyde, Laureoce; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Hyder Ali ; India, Arcot, Car- 
 natic 
 
 Hygiuus, pope; martyr 
 
 Hymeuseus ; Hymen 
 
 Hyperides, the orator ; Cranon 
 
 Hypermnestra ; Argos 
 
 Hypodicus ; chorus 
 
 Hyrcanus, John ; Samaritans 
 
 Hy wel Dha ; Wales 
 
 I. 
 
 Iambe ; iambic verse 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha ; Beyrout, Greece, 
 
 Syria, Turkey 
 Iccelius ; indulgences 
 Ilia ; Alba 
 Ilus ; Troy 
 Impey, major; duel 
 Inachus ; Argos 
 
 Ingle field, capt. ; wrecks, Franklin 
 Inglis, col. ; Albuera 
 Innocent III. pope ; confession, 
 
 transubstan tiation 
 Irving, rev. Mr. ; trial, 1832 ; 
 
 unknown tongue ; Irvingites 
 Isabella, queen (Edward II. ) 
 Isabella, queen (John) 
 Isabella, queen (Richard II.) 
 Isabella (of Castile) ; Spain 
 Isabella II., Spain ; salique law 
 Isaiah, the prophet ; odes 
 Isodorus, C*cilius ; slaves 
 Israelites ; Jerusalem 
 Italus, king; Italy 
 Iturbide; Mexico 
 
 Jackson, gen. ; United States 
 Jackson, C. T. ; ether 
 Jackson, J. B. ; printing in 
 
 colours 
 Jacob, Br. ; Christ's Hospital 
 Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
 James I. ; England, worship 
 James II.; England, revolution 
 James I. ; Scotland 
 James II. ; Scotland 
 James III. ; Scotland, Edinburgh 
 James IV. ; Scotland, Flodden 
 
 Field 
 
 James V. ; Scotland 
 
 James, St., apostle ; affirmation, 
 
 Jamieson, Mrs.; sycamores 
 
 Jane Gray, lady; beheading, 
 England 
 
 Jane Seymour, queen (Henry 
 VIII.) 
 
 Jane ; Sicily 
 
 Jansen ; optics 
 
 Jansen, Cornelius ; Jansenism 
 
 Janus ; New Tear's Bay ; abo- 
 rigines 
 
 Jarlath, St.; Tuam 
 
 Jason ; naval battles, argo- 
 nautic 
 
 Jeffcott, sir John W.; duel 
 
 Jefferson, Mr. ; United States 
 
 Jeffery, Robert; Sombrero 
 
 Jeffrey ; Scotland 
 
 Jeffreys, sir George, (afterwards 
 lord); administrations; king's 
 bench ; lord high chancellor 
 
 Jeffreys, judge ; bloody assize 
 
 Jellachich ; Hungary 
 
 Jenghis Khan; Hungary, India, 
 Moguls, Tartary, Afghanis- 
 tan 
 
 Jenkins, Henry ; longevity 
 
 Jenuer, Dr. ; vaccination 
 
 Jennings, Mr. ; tontines 
 
 Jermngham, Mrs. ; blue-stock- 
 ings 
 
 Jerome of Prague ; Constance 
 council, reformation 
 
 Jerome, St ; ascension day 
 
 Jersey, countess of ; delicate in- 
 vestigation 
 
 Jervis, sir John; Cape St. Vin- 
 cent 
 
 JESUS; Jews 
 
 Joachim ; Prussia 
 
 Joachim Ernest; Anhalt 
 
 Joan, queen (Henry IV.) 
 
 John, St.; baptism 
 
 John, St., the Evangelist ; ac- 
 cusers, evangelists, gospels 
 
 John of Austria ; Lepanto 
 
 John, king ; Bohemia 
 
 John I. ; Portugal 
 
 John IV. ; Portugal 
 
 John of Castile 
 
 John, king; England, charter of 
 forests, magna charta, plural 
 number " We" 
 
 John, king; Spain, France, 
 Poitiers 
 
 John, king; Sweden 
 
 John of Leyden ; anabaptists 
 
 John o'Groat 
 
 Johnson, Br. ; dictionary, lite- 
 rary societies 
 
 Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
 
 Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
 
 Johnson, major ; murders 
 
 Johnston, admiral ; St. Jago 
 
 Johnston, capt. ; steam-engine 
 
 Johnston, general; Ross 
 Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818 
 
 Johnston, sir John ; hanged, 
 
 marriages 
 Johnstone, Mr. Cochrane ; stock 
 exchange fraud 
 
 Johnstone, Jack; theatres 
 
 Joinville, prince de, of France; 
 ocean 
 
 Jones, colonel; Bungan, Rath- 
 mines 
 Jones, Fred. Edw. ; riots 
 
 Jones, Gale ; trials, 1811 
 Jones, Jane, murdered; trials, 
 1842 
 
 Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel 
 
 Jones, Owen ; Alhambra 
 
 Jones, sir William ; chess 
 
 Jonson, Ben ; poet-laureate 
 
 Joquemin, M. ; picquet 
 
 Jordan, Mrs. ; theatres 
 
 Joseph ; Jews 
 
 Joseph of Arimathea; embalm- 
 ing 
 
 Joseph, emperor ; Narnur 
 
 Joseph, king ; Portugal 
 
 Josephus; Bible 
 
 Joshua; Jerusalem 
 
 Jotham ; fables 
 
 Joubert, gen. ; Novi 
 
 Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, 
 Fleurus, Vittoria 
 
 Jovian ; Rome 
 
 Jubal; music 
 
 Judas Hyrcanus ; Jews 
 
 Judas Iscariot ; aceldama 
 
 Judith ; Abyssinia 
 
 Julian, the apostate ; Rome, 
 edicts 
 
 Julianus, Salvius ; edicts 
 
 Julius II.; pope Bologna, Lao- 
 coon 
 
 Julius Caesar ; see Ccemr, Julius 
 
 JungBahadoor ; Nepaulese 
 
 Junot, marshal ; Cintra, Portu- 
 gal, Vimiera 
 
 Justin, St.; Rochester 
 
 Justina ; singing 
 
 Justinian ; Eastern empire 
 
 Justin Martyr ; millennium 
 
 Juvenal ; satires 
 
 Juxon, Br. ; bishops, adminis- 
 trations 
 
 K. 
 
 Kane, Dr.; Franklin 
 Kat, Christopher; Kit-Kat 
 Kean, Mr. Charles ; theatres 
 Keane, Mr. Edmund; theatres 
 Keane, lord ; India, Ghiznee 
 Keating, colonel; Bourbon 
 Keeley, Mrs.; theatres 
 Keenan ; his trial, 1 803 
 Keith, George ; earl-marischal of 
 
 Scotland, Aberdeen 
 Keith, George ; quakers 
 Kellett, capt.; Franklin 
 Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
 Kemble, Charles ; theatres 
 Kemble, John ; theatre 
 Kemble, Miss A.; theatres 
 Kemble, Miss F. ; theatres 
 Kempe, John ; wool 
 Kempenfeldt,adm. ; Royal George 
 Kennedy, Mr.; Franklin 
 Kenneth II. ; Caledonia, Scotland 
 Kenyon, lord; attorney-general, 
 
 king's bench • 
 Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer 
 Kentigern, St.; abstinence, Glas- 
 gow, St. Asaph 
 Kepler ; optics, planetary mo- 
 tions, rainbow, tides, dye- 
 houses 
 Keppel, admiral ; Belle-Isle, 
 
 Oshant, trials, 1779 
 Keppel, Aug. (afterwards vis- 
 count), administrations, naval 
 battles 
 Keshin, Chinese 
 Killigrew, Thos. ; drama 
 Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, 
 
 trials, executions, 1746 
 Kilwarden, lord; chief justice; 
 
 trials, 1803 
 King, Thos. ; ventriloquism 
 
732 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 King, Mr Locke, M P. ; admi- 
 nistrations (1851) 
 King, Dr. ; Caesarian operation 
 King, Colonel ; suicide 
 Kingil ; Winchester 
 King, C , trials, 1855 
 Kingston, duchess of; trials, 1770 
 Kiugstou, earl of, v. lord Lorton, 
 
 trials, 1831 
 Kingston, Evelyn, duke of; Wal- 
 
 pole 
 Kirby and Wade, capts. ; shot, 
 
 naval battles (note) 
 Kircher; iEolian harp, philoso- 
 pher's stone, trumpet 
 Kirkrnan ; piano-forte; 
 Kirwan, Richard Bourke ; trials, 
 
 1852 
 Kirwan, dean ; ordination 
 Knatehbull, sir Edward ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Knight, G. ; magnetism 
 Knight ; north-west passage 
 Knight, Mr. ; South-Sea Bubble 
 Knight, Mr. ; bribery 
 Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
 Knox, John ; Presbyterians 
 Knox, John ; Scotland 
 Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism 
 Kiinig, M.; printing-machine 
 Kosciusko; Poland, Cracow 
 Kossuth; Hungary, United States 
 Koster, Laurenzes J. ; printing 
 Kotzebue ; north-west passage 
 Kotzebue, assassinated ; Man- 
 
 hcim 
 Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, 
 
 Persia 
 Kunckel ; phosphorus 
 Kutusoff ; Russia, Moskwa, Smo- 
 
 lensko 
 Kyhl, P.; nature-printing 
 
 Labelye, M. ; Westminster br. 
 Laboucbere, rt. hon. Henry; ad- 
 ministrations, Palmerston 
 Labourdonnaye, general; Tour- 
 nay 
 Lacy, gen.; marches to Berlin, 
 
 Prussia 
 Lacy, Henry de ; Lincoln's-inn 
 Lacy, Hugh de ; Carrickfergus 
 Ladelus Magnus ; Sweden 
 Ladislaus ; Hungary 
 Lafarge, madame ; trials, 1840 
 Lafitte, banker of France ; will 
 
 (Napoleon's) 
 Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 
 La Grange ; acoustics, astronomy 
 Lake, general ; Bhurtpore, Delhi, 
 
 Lincelles 
 Lake, hon. captain ; Sombrero, 
 
 trials, 1810 
 Lamb, Dr. ; killed, riots 
 Lamballe, princess de ; France 
 
 (note) 
 Lambert, Mr. ; corpulency 
 Lambert, lady Elizabeth 
 Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1S55 
 Lambrecht, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
 Lambton, Mr ; duel 
 Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam 
 Lancaster, duke of; roses 
 Lancaster, Joseph ; Lancasterian 
 
 schools, education 
 Lander, Richard ; Africa 
 Lanfranc ; Canterbury 
 Langara, don, admiral ; naval 
 battles 
 
 Langd.de, lord ; master of the 
 
 rolls 
 Langdale, sir Marmaduke ; 
 
 Naseby 
 Langharne, colonel ; Wales 
 Langton, bishop ; Bible 
 Lansdowne, mat quess of, late carl 
 of Shelburne ; administra- 
 tions 
 Laodice, Pontus ; Cappadocia, 
 
 dreams 
 Laomedon ; Troy 
 Laserian, St. ; Leighlin 
 Latimer, bp. ; Cranmer, martyrs 
 Latimer, viscount ; administra- 
 tions 
 Latinus, of Latium 
 Laud, archbishop ; administra- 
 tions, England 
 Lauderdale, duke of; cabal 
 Laura, Petrarch 
 Laurent, Mr ; theatres 
 Lavater ; physiognomy 
 Lavoisier ; nitric acid 
 Lawless, Mr. ; riots 
 Lawrence, gen. H. ; India, 1S57 
 Layard, Mr. ; Nineveh 
 Layer ; his conspiracy 
 Lazarus, St. ; quarantine 
 Leake, admiral ; admiralty, Gib- 
 raltar, Mediterranean, Mi- 
 norca 
 Lechus I. ; Poland 
 Le Brez ; candles 
 Le Clere, St. Agnes ; baths 
 Lee, Alexander; theatres 
 Lee, rev. Mr. ; stocking-frame 
 Le Boo, prince ; Pelew Islands 
 Leeds, duke of; administrations 
 Leeke, H. ; Bushire 
 Leenwenhoek ; animalculae, po- 
 lypus 
 Lefevre, C. Shaw ; speaker 
 Le Gros, Raymond ; Dublin 
 Legge, Henry Bilson ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Leicester, Dudley, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Leicester, earl of, v. Morning 
 
 Herald ; trials, 1809 
 Leicester, earl of ; Lewes 
 Leighton, G. C. ; printing in 
 
 colours 
 Lemster, duke of; volunteers 
 Lc Jay ; polyglot 
 Lelex ; Sparta 
 Le Maire ; circumnavigator 
 Lenox, colonel ; duel 
 Lenox, earl of; Scotland 
 Le Notre ; St. James's park 
 LeoX., pope ; indulgences, Italy 
 Leon, Don Diego ; Spain 
 Leon, Ponce de ; America 
 Leonardo of Pisa ; algebra 
 Leonidas ; Thermopylae 
 Leopold, duke ; Morgartcn 
 Leopold, duke ; Sempach 
 Leopold, emperor ; Pilnitz 
 Leopold, king ; Belgium 
 Lepidus ; triumvir 
 L'Epee, abbe de ; deaf 
 Le Pique, M. ; duel 
 Le Roi, of Paris ; watch 
 Leibnitz ; fluxions 
 Lescus ; Poland 
 . Lcstock, admiral ; Toulon 
 L'Estrauge, sir Roger ; ' news- 
 papers 
 Lettsom, Dr. ; Roy. Humane Soc. 
 Leuchtenberg ; Portugal 
 Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
 Leverrier, M. ; Neptune 
 Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument 
 
 Lewis, Mr. ; theatres 
 Lewisham, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Leybouiue, William de ; admiral 
 Liddon, lieutenant ; north-west 
 
 passage 
 Lieber, T. ; erastianism 
 Liebeg; agriculture, chemistry 
 Ligonier, lord ; Bute 
 Lilburne, colonel ; Wigan, com- 
 mander 
 Lilly; perfumery 
 Lilly, sir William ; astrology 
 Lin ; China 
 
 Linacre, Dr. ; gardening lec- 
 tures, physicians 
 Lincolu, earl of; administrations 
 Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
 Lindsay, earl of; Edgehill 
 Liudsay, sir John ; Madras 
 Linlithgow, lord ; guards 
 Linnaeus ; botany, entomology, 
 
 Lmnaean 
 Linois, admiral ; naval battles 
 Lionel, son of Edward III. 
 Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria 
 Lisle, lord ; administrations 
 Lisle, viscount ; Portsmouth 
 Liston, Mr. ; theatres 
 Little-John ; Sherwood forest 
 Littleton, lord ; lord chancellor 
 Littleton, Mr. ; administrations 
 Liverpool, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Livingston, Dr. ; Africa 
 Llewellj-n ; Wales 
 Llewellyn, Bren ; Wales 
 Lloyd, Mrs. Catherine; quackery 
 Lloyd, Charles, esq.; Junius 
 Llo3'd, W. ; Portland vase 
 Locke, J. ; physics, cartesian 
 Locke, W. ; ragged schools 
 Lockyer, major; duel 
 Lofting, John ; thimble 
 Logenian ; magnetism 
 Lollard, Walter ; Lollards 
 Lollia Paulina; jewellery 
 Lombe, sir Thomas ; silks 
 London, bishop of ; trials, 1852 
 London dock companv ; trials, 
 
 1S51 
 Londonderry, lord, see Castk- 
 
 reatih ; suicide 
 Long, Dr. ; globe 
 Long, sir Robert ; administra- 
 tions 
 Long, the Misses Tilney ; trials, 
 
 1825 
 Long, St. John ; quack ; trials, 
 
 1830-1 
 Longinus ; ducat, Rome 
 Lonsdale, earl of ; duel 
 Lonsdale, earl of; administrations 
 Lopez ; Cuba, U. States 
 Lopez, sir Mauasseh ; Gram- 
 pound, trials, 1S19 
 Lorme, Philibert de ; Tuileries 
 Lorraine, prince Chas. of; Lissa, 
 
 Mohatz 
 Lorraine, Henry of ; Portugal 
 Lorraine, Balph, duke of; Cressy 
 Losinga, H. ; Norwich 
 Lotharius ; Lorraine 
 Loughborough; att-gen., coali- 
 tion 
 Louis I. (Deljonnnire); France 
 Louis V., poisoned ; France 
 Louis VII. ; France 
 Louis IX., "St. Louis;" France 
 LouisXIL, ''Christian;" France, 
 
 blood, posts 
 Louis XII. ; France, tester 
 Louis XIII. ; France, Louisd'or 
 
INDEX. 
 
 733 
 
 Louis XIV., le Grand ; France, 
 Dieu-domie", Nantes 
 
 Louis XVI. ; France, trials, 1793 
 
 Louis XVIII. ; France, Hartwell 
 
 Louis, ting : Hungary, Buda 
 
 Louis, king ; Spain 
 
 Louis, prince ofConde"; Jarnac 
 
 Louis-Bonaparte ; Holland 
 
 Louis-Napoleon ; France 
 
 Louis-Philippe; Claremont, 
 France 
 
 Louisa- Maria, infanta ; Spain 
 
 Louise, queen ; Belgium 
 
 Louth, lord ; trials. 1811 
 
 Louvain, count of; Brabant 
 
 Louvel ; trials, 1820 
 
 Louvat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 
 1747 
 
 Louvel, Mr.; Statesman, trials, 1812 
 
 Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
 
 Lowther, vise. ; administrations 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits 
 
 Lucan, earl of; trials, 1S56 
 
 Lucan, put to death ; Borne 
 
 Lucas, Mr. ; steel 
 
 Lucilius ; satire 
 
 Lucius, king; Britain 
 
 Lucius Sextus ; Borne 
 
 Lucretia ; Borne, spinning 
 
 Lucullus ; luxury 
 
 Lud ; London 
 
 Ludlam ; Luddite 
 
 Luke, St. evangelist ; gospel 
 
 Lullius ; alchemy 
 
 Lully, Raymond ; nitric acid 
 
 Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
 
 Lunardi, M. ; balloons 
 
 Lutatius ; naval battles 
 
 Luther, Martin ; Dort, Protest- 
 antism, Augsburg, Calvinists, 
 Lutheranism, Worms 
 
 Luxemburg, marshal; Enghien 
 
 Lycaon ; Arcadia 
 
 Lyceus : lycrum 
 
 Lycurgus ; Sparta, adultery 
 
 Lyndhurst, lord; administrations 
 
 Lynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, Ber- 
 gen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 
 
 Lynch ; trials, 18-17 
 
 Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage 
 
 Lyons, John ; Harrow school 
 
 Lysander ; Sparta, jEgospotamos 
 
 Lysimachus ; Ipsus 
 
 Lysippus ; sculpture 
 
 Lysistratus ; busts 
 
 Lyttelton, George, lord; dreams 
 
 M. 
 
 Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra- 
 Leone, Ashantees 
 Macartin, St. ; Clogher 
 Macartney, earl ; China, India 
 Macaulay, T. B. ; administrations 
 Macbeth, king ; Scotland, Dun- 
 
 sinane 
 MacCabe ; robbers 
 Macclesfield, earl ; administra- 
 tions 
 MacCormac O'Conner ; combat 
 Macdonald, marshal ; Parma 
 Macdonalds ; Glencoe 
 Macduff; Scotland 
 Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
 Macham ; Madeira 
 Machanidas ; Achaia 
 Maohiavel ; Machiavelian 
 Mack, general ; Ulm 
 Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie 
 Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
 Macklin ; theatres 
 Macklin ; Bible, books 
 
 Mackreth, Mr., wounded; trials, 
 
 1S41 
 Macleod, Mr. ; United States 
 MacMurrough ; Ireland 
 Macnaghten, sir ffm. ; Indies 
 MacNamara, captain ; duel 
 MacNaughten ; trials, 1813 
 M'Neill, sir J ; Sebastopol 
 Maeready, Mr. ; theatres 
 Macrinus, emperor ; Borne 
 McCarty, Gen. ; Enniskillen 
 McClintock, capt. ; Franklin 
 McCrain. Golour; longevity 
 McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 
 McKenzie, Mr.; duel 
 McNaughten, Mr.; trials. 1761, 
 
 1843 
 M'Clure, capt.; Franklin, north- 
 west passage 
 Madiai, the ; Tuscany 
 Maddison, James, United States 
 Madoc; Wales 
 
 Maecenas ; dedications ; baths 
 Maelgwyu ab Rhys ; Wales 
 Magee, J. ; trials, 1S13 
 Magellan ; circumnavigation 
 Magellan ; Philippine 
 Magi ; Epiphany, fire worshippers 
 Magnus, king ; Sweden 
 Magnus Ladelus ; Sweden 
 Magog, son of Japhet ; Russia 
 Masuire ; Ireland 
 Maguire, capt. ; Franklin 
 Magus, Simon ; Simonians, 
 
 heretics 
 Mahmoud, sultan 
 Mahomet ; Hegira, Koran, Maho- 
 metanism, Mecca, Medina, 
 Turkey, 
 Mahomet II. ; eastern empire, 
 Adrianople, Constantinople, 
 Albania 
 Maillard, abbaye 
 Maitland, sir Fred. ; China 
 Maitland, capt. ; Bonaparte 
 Majoeianus ; coronation 
 Major; concbology 
 Majorianus; Borne 
 Malibran, ma dame ; theatres 
 Malchus ; Waterford 
 Malcolm I. ; Scotland 
 Malcolm II. ; Scotland, clanships, 
 
 Alnwick 
 Malcolm III. ; Scotland, Dunsi- 
 
 nane 
 Malmesbury, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 Manby, capt. ; life-preserver 
 Manchester, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Manchester ; will, trials, 1854 
 Mandeville, viscount, adminis- 
 trations 
 Manes; Manicheans 
 Manks ; pedestrianism 
 Manlius, Cimbri 
 Manlius, Capitolinus ; Rome 
 Manasseh Ben Israel ; Jews 
 Manners, lord John ; administra- 
 tions 
 Manners, Thomas, lord; Id. h. 
 
 chancellor 
 Mannings, the murderers ; trial, 
 
 1849 
 Manny, sir Wm. ; charter-house 
 Mansell, T. ; executions, 1S57 
 Mansfield, Id.; att. -gen., fictions 
 
 in-law, king's bench 
 Mar, earl of ; Harlaw 
 Mar, earl of, regent ; Scotland 
 Mar, earl of; rebellion, Dunblane 
 Marat, stabbed by Charlotte Cor- 
 day; France 
 
 Marbot, colonel ; will (Napoleon's) 
 Marcellina, St. ; nunneries 
 Marcellus ; Borne, Venice 
 March, Boger, earl of ; rebellions 
 Marcion ; Marcionites 
 Marcus Aurelius ; Borne 
 Marcus Curtius ; Rome 
 Mardonius ; Mycale, Platasa, 
 
 Greece 
 Margaret; queen (Edward I.) 
 Margaret of Anjou (queen of 
 Henry VI.), Tewkesbury, 
 Towton, Wakefield 
 Margaret, of Norway ; Calmar 
 Margaret (of the Netherlands), 
 
 beards 
 Margraff; beet-root 
 Maria da Gloria ; Portugal 
 Maria-Louisa ; empress, Bona- 
 parte, Parma, will (Na- 
 poleon's) 
 Maria-Theresa, empress ; Ger- 
 many 
 Maricis, Geoffrey de ; Ireland, 
 
 ld.-lieut. 
 Marie- Antoinette ; France 
 Marius ; Ambrones, Cimbri, 
 temple of honour, massacre 
 Mark, St., Gospel 
 Marlborough, duke of; adminis- 
 trations 
 Marlborough, duke of; com. -in- 
 chief, marshals, Blenheim, 
 Douay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- 
 plaquet, Oudenarde, Ramilies 
 Marlborough, earl of; adminis- 
 trations 
 Marmont, marshal ; Salamanca, 
 Fere-champenoise, heights of 
 Romainville 
 Marota ; Spain 
 Marr, earl ; trials, 1 831 
 Marshall, Mr. ; California 
 Maryborough, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 Mars, M. de St. ; iron-mask 
 Martel, Charles ; France, mayor, 
 
 Tours 
 Marten, Maria ; murdered, trials, 
 
 1S28 
 Martin, Rd. ; animals 
 Martin, Jonathan ; York minster 
 Martin eau, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
 Marvell, A; ballot 
 Mary I., queen; England, Calais 
 Mary II., queen; England 
 Mary, queen ; (Henry IV.) 
 Mary, king, Hungary 
 Mary, queen of Scots; Carlisle, 
 Edinburgh, sycamore, Foth- 
 eringay, Langside, Lochleven 
 castle, Scotland 
 Mary Beatrice, queen (James II.) 
 Masaniello; Naples 
 Mask, man of the iron ; see Iron 
 Maskelyne ; Venus, Greenwich, 
 
 almanacs 
 Massena ; Almeida, Busaco, 
 
 Zurich 
 Massey v. Headfort ; trials, 1804 
 Masso, surnamed Finiguerra 
 Mathew, rev. Mr. ; temperance 
 Mathews, Mr. ; theatres 
 M athias ; anabaptists 
 Matilda (empress ); queens 
 Matilda, queen (Stephen) 
 Matilda, queen (William I.); 
 
 Bayeux tapestry 
 Matilda, queen ; Denmark 
 Matilda ; Italy 
 
 Matthew, St., evangelist ; Gospel 
 Matthews, admiral ; Toulon 
 Maud. See Matilda 
 
734 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Maule, Fox (Id. Panmure); ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Maunsell, col. ; meal-tub plot 
 
 M uipertnis ; latitude 
 
 Maurice, F. D. ; working-man's 
 college 
 
 Maurice, prince ; Mauritius 
 
 Maurice of Nassau, prince 
 
 Mausolus ; mausoleum, wonders 
 
 Maxeu tius, standards 
 
 Maximus ; Britain 
 
 Maximus; Rome, giants 
 
 Maximin ; persecutions 
 
 Slay, dean ; liturgy 
 
 Mazariu, cardinals ; tontines 
 
 Mazzouli, Francis ; engraving 
 
 Mead, Dr. ; inoculation 
 
 Muagher ; Irelaud 
 
 Mechanidaa ; Sparta 
 
 Medhurst, Frs. Hastings ; trials, 
 18i9 
 
 Medici ; duke, learning, Medici 
 
 Medicis, Catherine de'; Bartho- 
 lomew, St. 
 
 Medicis, Mary de' ; France 
 
 Medina-Sidonia, duke of ; armada 
 
 Medon ; Athens, Turkey 
 
 Mehemet Ali ; Syria 
 
 Melancthon ; Augsburg, con- 
 fession 
 
 Melanthus ; Athens 
 
 Melas, Austrian general ; Ma- 
 rengo 
 
 Melbourne, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations, trials 
 
 Mellon, Miss ; theatres 
 
 Melville, lord ; administrations, 
 England, impeachment 
 
 Mendez ; Abyssinia 
 
 Mendoza, Pedro de ; Buenos 
 Ayres 
 
 Menelaus ; Trojan war 
 
 Menou, general ; Alexandria 
 
 Menschikoff, prince ; Russia, 
 Alma, Russo-Turkish war 
 
 Menzies. Michael ; Edinburgh 
 
 Mercator; charts 
 
 Meredith, prince ; Wales 
 
 Merlin ; bards 
 
 Mervyn ; Wales 
 
 Mersenne, Pere; academies 
 
 Mesnier, Fred Ant. ; mesmerism 
 
 Metellus ; Achaia 
 
 Methuselah ; longevity 
 
 Metius : telescopes 
 
 Meton ; gold, number 
 
 Metz, M. de ; reformatory 
 schools 
 
 Meunier ; France 
 
 Meux aud Co. ; brewers 
 
 M eyer, Simon ; Saturn 
 
 Mezentius ; indiction 
 
 Michael Fedorovitz ; Russia 
 
 Middlesex, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Middleton ; north-west passage 
 
 Middleton, sir Hugh ; mines, 
 New River 
 
 Middleton, John ; grants 
 
 Miecislas ; Poland 
 
 Miguel, doni ; Portugal 
 
 Mildmay, sir J. H. ; trials, 1814 
 
 Mildmay, sir Walter; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Milfride ; Hereford 
 
 Miller, H. ; suicide 
 
 Millie, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 
 Miltiades ; Marathon 
 
 Miller v. Salomons ; trials, 1852 
 
 Milton, poet ; allegory 
 
 Mindarus; Sparta, Cyzicum 
 
 Minerva ; acropolis, spinning 
 
 Minos ; Crete 
 
 Miuto, earl of; administrations, 
 India 
 
 Miuutia ; vestal 
 
 Miranda, general : Colombia 
 
 Mister, Josiah ; trials, 1841 
 
 Mitchel, sir F. ; victuallers 
 
 Mitchell, D. ; aquarium 
 
 Mitchell, admiral ; Bantry-bay 
 
 Mitchell, Mr. ; theatre 
 
 Mitchell ; Ireland, 1848 
 
 Mitford, sir John ; att. -general, 
 speaker 
 
 Mithridates ; Bosporus, Pontus, 
 comets, electuary, his mas- 
 sacre, omens 
 
 Mithridates, Philopator ; Cappa- 
 docia 
 
 Mizraim ; Egypt 
 
 Moavia ; Rhodes 
 
 Mohun, lord ; duel 
 
 Moir, capt. ; trials, 1830 
 
 Moira. earl of; administrations, 
 Ireland India 
 
 Mole, count ; France 
 
 Molesworth, sir William ; admin- 
 istrations 
 
 Molyneux, Mr. ; absentee tax 
 
 Mompesson, Giles ; victuallers 
 
 Molinus ; quietists 
 
 Money, major ; balloons 
 
 Monk, general ; administrations, 
 Guards 
 
 Monmouth, duke of; England, 
 rebellion, Sedgemoor, iron 
 mask 
 
 Moncey, marshals ; Valencia 
 
 Montacute, earl of Sarum 
 
 Montacute, marquess of; Man, 
 Isle of 
 
 Montagu, lord ; administrations 
 
 Montagu, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Montagu, Edward ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Montagu, sir Henry; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Montagu, sir James ; exchequer 
 
 Montagu, lady M.W. ; inoculation 
 
 Montague, Mrs. ; May-day 
 
 Montanus ; Montanists 
 
 Montanus ; polyglot 
 
 Montausier, due de ; delphin 
 classics 
 
 Monteverde ; opera 
 
 Montferrat, marquess of; assas- 
 sins 
 
 Montfort, Simon and Petre de ; 
 commons, Kenilworth, lord 
 high steward, speaker, Eve- 
 sham, Lewes 
 
 Montfort, Simon de : Albigeuses 
 
 Montgolfier, M. ; balloons 
 
 Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide 
 
 Montgomery, col. ; duel, killed 
 
 Montgomery, count de ; tour- 
 naments 
 
 Montholon, count de ; France, 
 will (Napoleon's) 
 
 Montefiore, sir Moses ; Jews 
 
 Montmorencies, the ; France 
 
 Montpensier ; France, Spanish 
 marriage 
 
 Montrose, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Montrose, marquess of; Scotland, 
 Alford 
 
 Moore ; murdered, trials, 1853 
 
 Moore, capt. ; Franklin 
 
 Moore, Thomas ; poet 
 
 Moore ; almanac 
 
 Moore, sergeant ; leases 
 
 Moore, Anne ; abstinence 
 
 Moore, sir John ; Corunua 
 
 Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
 Mordaunt, Charles," viscount ; 
 
 administrations 
 Mordaunt, lord ; administrations 
 More, sir Thomas ; administra- 
 tions, lord chancellor, supre- 
 macy 
 More, Roger; rebellion 
 Moreau, general ; Alessandria, 
 Augsburg, Wirtemb ^rg, Dres- 
 den, conspiracy 
 Morelaud ; speaking-trumpet 
 Morelli ; tourniquet 
 Morello ; Spain 
 
 Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland 
 Morgan ; buccaneer 
 Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 
 Morning Post; libel 
 Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810 
 Morning Herald ; trials, 1809 
 Morniugton, lord ; India 
 Morpeth, viscount ; administra- 
 tions 
 Morris, George ; flowers 
 Morris, Mr. ; theatres 
 Mortier, mar. ; Romainville 
 Mortimer, earl of March ; Berkeley 
 Morton, the regent ; Scotland, 
 
 maiden 
 Morton, sir Albertus ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Morton, Thomas ; ether 
 Morton ; trials, 1852 
 Moryson, Fynes; forks 
 Mosely, Wolf, etc. ; trials, 1S19 
 Moses ; oracles, tithes, adultery, 
 
 poetry 
 Mosse, Dr. ; lying-in hospital 
 Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; 
 
 Quietists 
 Mount- Sandford, lord ; killed, 
 
 trial 
 Mouravieff; Kars 
 Mourzoufle ; Constantinople, 
 
 eastern empire 
 Mozart ; music 
 Muggleton ; Muggletonians 
 Muirhead, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
 Mulgrave, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Mulgrave, earl ; administrations ; 
 
 Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Mummius, L. Corinth ; paintings 
 Muncer ; levellers ; anabaptists 
 Munchin, St. ; Limerick 
 Mungo, St. ; abstinence 
 Munich, marshal ; Perekop 
 Munroe, Mr. ; United States 
 Munroe, lieut. ; duel 
 Munster, earl of; suicide 
 Murat ; Erfurth, Naples 
 Murdoch, Mr. ; gas 
 Muredach, St. ; Killala 
 Murillo ; Colombia 
 Murray, Mr. ; penny-post 
 Murray, earl of; Scotland 
 Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act 
 Murray, B. ; trials, 1S41 
 Murray, sir James ; Tarragona 
 Murray, sir George ; administra- 
 tions 
 Musgrave. sir Richard ; duel 
 Mushat, Mr. ; steel 
 Mustapha ; Turkey 
 Mytton, general ; Wales 
 
 Nabis ; Sparta 
 Nabonasser; astronomy 
 Nachimofii admiral ; Sinope 
 
INDEX. 
 
 735 
 
 Nadir Shah ; Delhi, Afghanistan 
 
 Napier, admiral; Portugal, Sidon, 
 Baltic 
 
 Napier, of Merchiston ; loga- 
 rithms ; Napier's bones 
 
 Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee 
 
 Napier, lord ; China 
 
 Napier, lord ; Edinburgh Univ. ; 
 United States, 1856 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte ; France, con- 
 federation, legion of honour, 
 models, notables, Cairo, 
 Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 
 Malta, Mamelukes, St. He- 
 lena, SimploD, vaccination 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte ; battles : 
 Acre, Areola, Asperne, Au- 
 erstadt, Austerlitz, Bautzen, 
 Borodino, Castiglione, Char- 
 leroi, Dresden, Eckmuhl, 
 Essling, Eylau, Friedland, 
 Hanau, Jena, La Rothiere, 
 Leipsic, Ligny, Lodi, Lutzen, 
 Marengo, Montereau, Pul- 
 tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, 
 Tilsit, Troyes, Vienna, Water- 
 loo, Wurtzburg, Wurtzseheu 
 
 Napoleon, king of Rome ; Bona- 
 parte, France 
 
 Napoleon III. ; Franee, Boulogne, 
 Strasburg 
 
 Narses ; Goths, Italy, Rome 
 
 Narvaez, general ; Spain 
 
 Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks 
 
 Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria 
 
 Nasr-ul-Din ; Persia 
 
 Nathan ; fable 
 
 Nathan, rabbi ; Bible 
 
 Nathy, or David ; Achonry 
 
 Nausicaa ; soap 
 
 Naylor, James ; impostor 
 
 Nearchus ; sugar 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar ; Jews, Tyre, 
 Babylon 
 
 Necho ; Egypt 
 
 Nelson, admiral lord ; Aboukir, 
 Boulogne, Copenhagen, Na- 
 ples, Nile, Rosetta, Santa 
 Cruz, Teneriffe, Trafalgar, 
 Nelson's funeral 
 
 Nemours, due de ; Ravenna 
 
 Nero ; Rome 
 
 Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor ; 
 Wales 
 
 Nestorius ; Nestorians 
 
 Newcastle, marquess of; Marston- 
 moor 
 
 Newcastle, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Newcastle, duke of; administra- 
 tions ; Aberdeen 
 
 Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
 
 Newman, rev. Mr., and Achilli; 
 trials, 1852 
 
 Newport, sir John ; exchequer 
 
 Newton, sir Isaac ; air, binomial, 
 diamond, astronomy, royal 
 society, hydrostatics, gravi- 
 tation, mechanics 
 
 Ney, marshal ; Dennewitz, 
 France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, 
 Ney 
 
 Nicander ; Sparta 
 
 Niccoli, Nicholas; libraries 
 
 Nicholas ; Nicholaites 
 
 Nicholas, emperor ; Russia 
 
 Nicholas VI. ; St. Peter's, Rome 
 
 Nicholls ; all saints 
 
 Nicephorus ; comets 
 
 Nicephori, emperors ; east em- 
 pire 
 
 Nichols, colonel ; New York 
 
 Nicholson; trials, 1813 
 
 Nicodemus, embalming 
 
 Niebuhr ; umbrellas 
 
 Niepce; photography 
 
 Nightingale, Miss F. ; Scutari 
 
 Ninus ; Assyria 
 
 Nisbet, sir John ; advocates 
 
 Noad, H. ; electricity 
 
 Noah ; ark, Armenia 
 
 Noailles, marshal ; Dettingen 
 
 Noli, Antonio de ; Cape de Verd 
 
 Noradine ; Damascus 
 
 Norfolk, Thomas, duke of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Norman, sir J. ; lord mayor 
 
 Norman, Robert ; magnet 
 
 Normanby and Buckingham, 
 duke of; administrations 
 
 Normanby, marquess of; admi- 
 nistrations, Ireland ; lord- 
 lieutenant 
 
 Normandy, •Rollo; Normandy ■ 
 
 North, sir Francis ; king's 
 counsel 
 
 North, Frederick, lord ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Northampton, Henry, earl of; 
 administrations 
 
 Northington, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations, lord chancellor, 
 Ireland 
 
 Northumberland, Algernon, earl 
 of ; administrations 
 
 Northumberland, Dudley, duke; 
 administrations 
 
 Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 
 Ireland, lord-lieutenant 
 
 Northumberland, earl; coaches 
 
 Northumberland, earl of; Man 
 
 Northumberland ; Otterburn 
 
 Norton, sir Fletcher; att.-gen. 
 
 Norton, Jeffery de ; recorder 
 
 Norton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, 
 1836 
 
 Nostrodamus ; almanacs 
 
 Nott, general ; India, Ghiznee 
 
 Nottingham, Charles, earl of; 
 administrations 
 
 Nottingham, Daniel, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Ntrnia Pompilius ; Rome, calen- 
 dar 
 
 Nurnitor ; Alba 
 
 Nuiiez, A. ; Paraguay 
 
 Nyctimus; Arcadia 
 
 0. 
 
 Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras 
 O'Brien, king ; Limerick 
 O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland 
 O'Connell, Mr. Daniel ; duel, 
 
 emancipation, repeal, trials 
 
 (1831, 1844), his death, Ireland 
 O'Connell, Mr. Morgan ; duel 
 O'Connor, Arthur; press, riot, 
 
 trials, 1798 
 O'Connor, Roger ; trials, 1817 
 O'Connor, Teig MacGilpatrick ; 
 
 combat 
 Octavius ; Egypt 
 Odin, the Divine ; Sweden 
 Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
 Odoacer ; Rome 
 O'Donnell, general ; Spain 
 CEdipus ; Boeotia 
 CEnotrus ; Arcadia, Greece 
 Oersted; electricity, magnetism 
 Ogle, George ; duel 
 Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia 
 O'Grady, Mr. ; duel 
 Ogyges ; Athens, deluge 
 
 O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 
 
 O'Keefe ; trials, 1S25 
 
 01am Fodla; Ireland 
 
 Olbers, M. ; astronomy, Olbers, 
 planet, Vesta 
 
 Oldcastle, sir John ; Lollards, 
 roasting alive 
 
 Oliphant, sir William ; advocate 
 
 O'Loghlen, sir Michael; Roman 
 catholics 
 
 Omai ; Otaheite 
 
 Omar, the caliph ; Alexandria, 
 Ali 
 
 Omar Pacha; Citate, Montene- 
 gro, Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo- 
 Turkish war 
 
 Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin 
 
 O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow 
 
 O'Neil; rebellion, massacre 
 
 O'Neil, Miss ; theatres 
 
 Onslow, sir Richard ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Orange, William, prince of ; Hol- 
 land ; Maestricht, revolution 
 
 Orange, prince of, Quatre-Bras 
 
 Ordogno, king ; Spain 
 
 Orellana; Amazonia 
 
 Orestes, son of Agamemnon 
 
 Orestes ; Mycena;, Sparta 
 
 Oxford, earl of ; admiralty 
 
 Oxford, Robert, earl of; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Origen ; Origenists 
 
 Orleans, due de ; Agincourt 
 
 Orleans, duke of ; Algiers, killed, 
 France 
 
 Orloff, count; diamonds 
 
 Ormond, James, duke of; Ire- 
 land 
 
 Ormond, earl of; combat 
 
 Ormond, marq. of; Rathmines 
 
 Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 
 
 Orrery, earl of ; orrery 
 
 Osbaldiston, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Osborn, Sherard ; Pioneer, 
 Franklin 
 
 Osborne, sir Thos. ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Oscar; Sweden 
 
 Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of 
 the rolls 
 
 Osman; Turkey 
 
 Ossory, lord ; tea 
 
 Ostius ; parricide 
 
 Osymandias ; Egypt, observato- 
 ries, painting 
 
 O'Syth, St ; Ailesbury 
 
 Othman ; Ali, Ottoman, Turkey 
 
 Otho, king ; Greece 
 
 Otho ; Germany 
 
 Otto, M. ; Amiens 
 
 Ottoacre ; Bohemia 
 
 Otto Guericke ; electricity 
 
 Oude, nabob of; Chunar 
 
 Oudinot, marshal ; Polotsk, 
 Rome 
 
 Outram, sir J. : Mohammerah 
 
 Ovid; banished, Rome 
 
 Owain, Lewis; Wales 
 
 Owen Glendower ; Wales 
 
 Owen, Robert; socialists 
 
 Oxenden, sir George ; Surat 
 
 Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 
 
 Oxford, earl of; administrations 
 
 Oxford, John, earl of ; yeomen 
 
 Paddon, lieut. ; Cerbere 
 Paget, lord ; duel 
 Paget, lord; trials, 1S09 
 
736 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan, 
 
 1844 
 Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 
 Paget, sir William ; administra- 
 tions 
 Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
 Paisley, John ; Gretua-green 
 Pakington, sir John ; administra- 
 tions 
 Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa 
 Palamedes ; alphabet, backgam- 
 mon, battle, dice, chess 
 Palseologus, Michael, emperor 
 Palestrina ; music 
 Pallas; palladium 
 Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant 
 Palm, the bookseller; trials, 1806 
 Palma, cardinal, shot ; Rome 
 Palmer, Mr. ; theatres 
 Palmer, Mr. ; mail-ccaches 
 Palmer, colonel ; duel 
 Palmer, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Palmerstou, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Pauizzi, A. ; British Museum 
 Panmure, lord ; administrations 
 Paoli, Pascal; Corsica 
 Papachin, admiral ; flag 
 Papias; millennium 
 Papiu ; steam-engine 
 Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial 
 Paracelsus ; alchemy 
 Park, Mungo ; Africa 
 Parker, admiral ; Copenhagen 
 Parker, bishop ; liturgy 
 Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
 Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
 Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair 
 Parker, archbishop; antipodes 
 Parker, Thomas, lord ; adminis- 
 trations, lord chancellor 
 Parkhurst, bishop ; Bible 
 Parma, duke of ; Yvres 
 Parma, prince of ; Antwerp 
 Parmenio ; Macedonia 
 Pamell, sir Henry; administra- 
 tions 
 Parr, Thomas ; longevity 
 Parrhasius; pointing 
 Parry ; north-west passage 
 Parsons, family; Cock-lane ghost, 
 
 impostors 
 Partholani, the ; Ireland 
 Pascal ; air, calculating machine 
 Paskiewitsch ; Silistria, Russia 
 Pasquin ; pasquinades 
 Patch, Mr. : trials, 1S06 
 Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
 Paton, Miss ; theatres 
 Patrick, St. ; Ardagh, Armagh, 
 
 Dublin, isles, shamrock 
 Paul ; anchorite 
 Paul, St. ; Damascus, Rome 
 Paul ; hermits, monks 
 Paid (father) ; blood 
 Paul II. ; purple, pope 
 Paul, sir J., <fcc. ; trials, 1855 
 Paul i mis ; bells, reformation 
 Paull, Mr. ; duel 
 Paululio, Anafesto ; doge 
 Paulus ^Emilius ; Cannas 
 Paulus, Marcus ; compass 
 Paulus ; Abrahamites 
 Pausanias ; Macedon, Plataea, 
 
 Sparta 
 Pausias, of Sicyon ; painting 
 Paxton, sir Joseph ; exhibition 
 
 of lf*51 ; crystal palace 
 Payne, Mr. G. ; duel 
 Peace, the prince of; Spain 
 Pearce, &c. ; gold robbery 
 Pedro ; Portugal, Brazil 
 Peel, colonel ; West Australia 
 
 Peel, sir Robert ; cotton goods 
 
 Peel, sir Robert ; administration 
 (life), acts of parliament, con- 
 servative, corn bill, duel, in- 
 come-tax, England, tariff 
 
 Peele, James ; book-keeping 
 
 Pekah, king ; Jews 
 
 Pelagius ; Pelagians 
 
 Pelasgus ; Arcadia 
 
 Pelham, hou. Henry ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Pelham, sir W. ; engineers 
 
 Pelham, lord ; administrations 
 
 Pelletier; quinine 
 
 Pellew, sir Edward; naval battles 
 
 Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1S03 
 
 Pernberton, sir Francis; king's 
 bench 
 
 Pembroke, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Pembroke, earl of; lord lieute- 
 nant 
 
 Pembroke, earl of; Lincoln, pro- 
 tectorates 
 
 Pembroke, Thomas, earl of; Salis- 
 buiy, admiralty 
 
 Penn, admiral ; Jamaica 
 
 Penn, Wm. ; Pennsylvania, Qua- 
 ker 
 
 Pennant; Fleet-prison 
 
 Pennefeather, Edward ; king's 
 bench 
 
 Penny, capt. ; Franklin 
 
 Perceval, hon. Spencer ; att.- 
 gen., administrations, assas- 
 sinated, England 
 
 Percy, sumamed Hotspur; Otter- 
 burn 
 
 Percy, lord ; Durham, Homelden 
 
 Perdiccas ; Macedon 
 
 Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres 
 
 Pertdre, M. ; credit mobilier 
 
 Pere la Chaise ; cemeteries 
 
 Pericles ; Athens 
 
 Peril lus ; brazen bull 
 
 Perkin Warbeck ; rebellion 
 
 Perkins and Heath ; engraving, 
 copper-plate printing 
 
 Perouse, La 
 
 Perreaus, brothers ; forgeiy ; 
 trials, 1776 
 
 Perreira ; deaf and dumb 
 
 Perring, John ; lord mavor 
 
 Perry, Mr. ; Morning Chronicle; 
 trials, 1S10 
 
 Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
 
 Perseus ; Persia, quoits 
 
 Persius; satires 
 
 Peter, St. ; bishops 
 
 Peter and Paul ; Rome, confirma- 
 tion 
 
 Peter the Cruel ; Sp:iin, Montiel 
 
 Peter the Great ; Russia, Peters- 
 burg, Narva, Pultowa 
 
 Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 
 chaplets 
 
 Peter the Wild Boy 
 
 Petion ; Port-au-Prince 
 
 Petit ; optics 
 
 Peto, S. M. ; diorama 
 
 Petrarch and Laura 
 
 Petre, sir William; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Petronius ; Ethiopia 
 
 Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs 
 
 Petty, lord Henry ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Petty, sir Wm. ; Royal Society 
 
 Phaliris; brazen bull 
 
 Pharamond ; France 
 
 Pharaohs ; Egypt 
 
 Pharnaces; Pontus, Cappadocia 
 
 Phaulcon, C. ; Siain 
 
 Phelps, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
 
 Phidias ; statues 
 
 Phidon ; coinage,' silver, scales, 
 measures 
 
 Philadelphus ; Egypt 
 
 Philetus, of Cos ; dwarf 
 
 Philip, St. Neri ; oratorios 
 
 Philip, king ; France, dice 
 
 Philip II. ; Burgundy, Seville, 
 Cateau 
 
 Philip the Good ; Holland 
 
 Philip ; Macedon, iEtolia, Chae- 
 ronea 
 
 Philip, king ; Spain 
 
 Philip, due d'Orle'ans, Egalite" 
 
 Philip of Valois; France, Tem- 
 plars 
 
 Philip II. ; England Spain 
 
 Philippa, queen (Edw. III.), 
 Durham 
 
 Phillip, governor ; New South 
 Wales, Australia 
 
 Phillips ; Newport 
 
 Philometer; Egypt 
 
 Philopoemeu ; Achaia 
 
 Philos ; theatre 
 
 Phipps, captain ; north-west pas- 
 sage 
 
 Phipps, sir Constantine ; lord 
 high chancellor 
 
 Phocas, erup. of the East 
 
 Phoenicians; Ireland 
 
 Phoroneus ; Argos, sacrifice, 
 laws 
 
 Photius Gallus ; rhetoric 
 
 Phrynis ; lyre 
 
 Phryxus ; golden fleece, Argo- 
 nautic 
 
 Piastus, : Poland 
 
 Piazzi, M. ; Ctres 
 
 Picard ; Adamites 
 
 Picaro ; globe 
 
 Picart ; astronomy 
 
 Pichegru ; Mannheim 
 
 Pickard, sir Henry ; lord major 
 
 Picton, general ; Quatre-Bras ; 
 trials, 1806 
 
 Pictor, Fabius ; coinage 
 
 Pierce, general ; United States 
 
 Pigot, David Richard; exchequer 
 
 Pigot, lord ; India, Pigot diamond 
 
 Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta 
 
 Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
 
 Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 
 
 Pilpay ; fables 
 
 Pindar, Peter, Dr. Walcot ; trials, 
 1807 
 
 Pisauder ; naval battles 
 
 Pisistratus ; Athens, library 
 
 Pitt ; diamond 
 
 Pitt, William ; see Chatham, earl 
 
 Pitt, William ; administrations, 
 India bill, reform, duel 
 
 Pius VI., pope ; ecclesiastical 
 state 
 
 Pius VII. ; pope, concordat 
 
 Pius IX. ; papal aggression, con- 
 ception 
 
 Pizarro ; America, Peru 
 
 Plato ; academies, anatomy, an- 
 tipodes, names, Sicily 
 
 Piatt, Mr. ; Spa-fields' riots 
 
 Platts, John ; executions 
 
 Plautius ; Britain 
 
 Playfair; geology 
 
 Pliny, the naturalist ; pearls, 
 Vesuvius 
 
 Pliny, junior; Rome 
 
 Plumer, sir Thomas ; attorney- 
 general 
 
 Plunket, lord ; chancellor of Ire- 
 land 
 
INDEX. 
 
 737 
 
 Pocook, admiral ; Cuba, naval 
 battles 
 
 Pogson, N. ; planets 
 
 Poitevin, M. ; balloons 
 
 Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool 
 
 Pole, Mr. Wellesley ; administra- 
 tions, trials, 1825 
 
 Polemon : eclectics 
 
 Polemon ; Bosphorus 
 
 Polignac, prince de ; France, 
 trials, 1830 
 
 Polk, Mr. ; United States 
 
 Pollio, C. ; slavery- 
 Pollock, general ; India 
 
 Pollock, sir Frederick ; attorney- 
 general, exchequer 
 
 Polybius, signals ; telegraphs 
 
 Polybius ; Achaia, physic 
 
 Polydore Vergil ; sneezing 
 
 Polydorus; Laocoon 
 
 Pomare ; Otaheite 
 
 Pompey ; Pharsalia 
 
 Ponce de Leon ; flowers 
 
 Ponce, Pedro de ; deaf and dumb 
 
 Pond, J. ; Greenwich 
 
 Ponsonby, George, chancellor of 
 Ireland 
 
 Ponte-Corvo ; Dennewitz 
 
 Pontique, Cameleon ; music 
 
 Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks 
 
 Pontius Pilate ; Jews 
 
 Pope, Alexander ; alexandrine 
 verse ; satire 
 
 Popham, sir Home ; Buenos- 
 Ayres, Cape,. trials, 1S07 
 
 Popham, major ;"lndia 
 
 Poppaea, wife of Nero ; masks 
 
 Porsenna; labyrinth 
 
 Porson; writing 
 
 Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
 
 Portland, duke of ; Ireland, lord- 
 lieutenant 
 
 Portland, earl of; administrations 
 
 Portland, duke of; Junius 
 
 Portland, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Portland, Eichard, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Portman, sir William ; king's 
 bench 
 
 Portsmouth, earl of; trials, 1823 
 
 Posidonius ; atmosphere, moon, 
 tides 
 
 Pottinger, sir H. ; China 
 
 Powel, Langharne, and Poyer, 
 colonels ; Wales 
 
 Powell, F. ; pedestrian 
 
 Power, Mr. ; wrecks 
 
 Power, Mrs. Mary ; longevity. 
 
 Powlet, sir G. ; Londonderry 
 
 Poyer, colonel; Wales 
 
 Praxiteles ; mirrors 
 
 Premislaus ; Poland 
 
 Preston, lord ; conspiracy 
 
 Pretender, the ; Culloden, Fal- 
 kirk, Preston-pans 
 
 Pretsch, P. ; photography 
 
 Prevost, sir George ; Plattsburg 
 
 Priam ; Ilium, Troy 
 
 Price, Mr. ; duel 
 
 Price, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Price, Dr. ; alchemy 
 
 Price ; Agapemonians 
 
 Price, Charles ; lord- mayor 
 
 Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski 
 
 Prichard, Dr. ; ethnology 
 
 Priessnitz,Vincentz ; hydropathy 
 
 Priestley, Dr. ; earthquakes, eu- 
 diometer, nitrous gas, oxygen 
 
 Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, Bump 
 parliament 
 
 Probert; trials, 1824 
 
 Probus; massacre 
 
 Procles ; biarch 
 
 Proctor, gen. ; Canada 
 
 Prodicus ; Adamite 
 
 Psammetichus ; Egypt, laby- 
 rinth, language, sieges 
 
 Pseusennes ; Egypt 
 
 Ptolemy ; Bible, Septuagint 
 
 Ptolemy ; Ipsus 
 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes ; Rosetta 
 
 Ptolemy Euergetes ; Egypt 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus ; Egypt 
 
 Ptolemy ; pharos 
 
 Ptolemy ; arithmetic 
 
 Ptolemy Soter ; academies 
 
 Publius Posthumius Tubertus; 
 ovation 
 
 Puckeridge ; harmonic strings 
 
 Puckering, sir John ; lord high 
 chancellor 
 
 Pullen, capt. ; Franklin 
 
 Puteney, rt. hon. Mr. ; admini- 
 strations 
 
 Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol 
 
 Purefoy ; trials, 1794 
 
 Pusey, Dr. ; Puseyism 
 
 Pye, Henry James; poet-laureat 
 
 Pyrrho ; sceptics 
 
 Pyrrhus ; Macedon 
 
 Pyrrhus ; Epirus, Tarentum 
 
 Pythagoras ; acoustics, astro- 
 nomy, Egypt, the globe, har- 
 monic strings, shoes, solar 
 system, spheres 
 
 Quentin, colonel ; duel, trials, 1S14 
 Quickley, Mrs. ; tavern 
 Quin, Mr. ; theatres 
 Quintilia ; Quintilians 
 Quintilius ; Rome 
 Quintin ; Libertines 
 Quintus Fabius ; painting 
 Quiros ; New Hebrides 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabshakeh ; Assyria proper 
 Rachel, Madame ; theatres 
 Radcliffe, Dr. John ; library 
 Radnor, earl of ; administrations 
 Rae, Dr. ; Franklin 
 Raglan, Id. ; Russo-Turkish war 
 Raikes, Mr. ; Sunday schools, 
 
 education, infanticide 
 Raleigh, sir Walter ; dress, Penn- 
 sylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
 
 England 
 Ramage ; telescopes 
 Ramesis ; Egypt 
 Ramirez; Spain 
 Ramirez II. ; Semincas 
 Rameses; Egypt 
 Ramsay, David; combat 
 Ramsay, sir George ; duel 
 Ranee"; Trappists 
 Randolph, T. ; postmaster 
 Raphael ; cartoons 
 Raphael, Mr. Alexander ; Roman 
 
 Catholics 
 Rawdon, lord ; Camden 
 Rawlinson, col.; Babylon Behis- 
 
 tun 
 Rayhere, Bartholomew, St. 
 Raymond, lord ; king's bench, 
 
 chief justice 
 Raymond, lord; att.-gen., king's 
 
 bench 
 Read, alderman ; pressing 
 
 Reaumur ; light 
 Reay, Miss, killed ; trials, 1779 
 Reay, lord ; combat 
 Rebeccaites ; trials, 1843 
 Recorda ; binomial root 
 Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
 Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., lord 
 
 high chancellor of Ireland 
 Redpatb, L. ; trials, 1857 
 Reece, R. ; bags 
 Reeves, Mr. John : levellers 
 Regnier, general ; Kalitsch, 
 
 Maida, Ximera 
 Regulus ; St. Andrew's, bishops, 
 
 Scotland 
 Regulus, Marcus Attilius ; Car- 
 thage 
 Reid, gen. ; India, 1S57 
 Reichenbach ; paraffine 
 Reichstadt, duke de ; France 
 Reinbauer, Bavarian priest; trials, 
 
 1S29 
 Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 
 
 bishopric 
 Remy, St. ; Rheims 
 Renata Maria ; witchcraft 
 Renaudot, M. ; newspapers 
 Rennie, architect ; breakwater, 
 Vauxhall-bridge, Waterloo- 
 bridge 
 Reschid Pacha ; Turkey 
 Restitutus ; London, bishopric 
 Reuss; engraving 
 Reynere, Richard ; sheriff 
 Reynolds, sir Joshua ; royal 
 
 academy 
 Reynolds, admiral ; lost, St. 
 
 George 
 Reynolds, capt. ; trials, 1840 
 Reynolds, capt. ; naval action 
 Reynolds, Geo. Nugent ; duel 
 Rhys ab Owain ; Wales 
 Rhys ab Tewdwr ; Wales 
 Riall, gen. ; Chippawa 
 Rice, rt. hon. Spring ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Rich, Richard, lord ; lord chan- 
 cellor 
 Richard I. ; England, Acre, As- 
 calon, Cceur de Lion, Dieu et 
 mon droit, laws, Oleron 
 Richard II. murdered ; England 
 Richard III. ; Bosworth field, 
 
 England 
 Richardson, sir John ; Franklin 
 Richardson, H. ; life-boat 
 Richelieu, duke of; Closterseven 
 Richer, M. ; earth 
 Richman ; electricity 
 Richmond, duke of; adminis- 
 trations, Ireland, duel 
 Richmond, earl of; Richmond 
 Ridel, Stephen ; Id. chancellor 
 Rider, William; silk hose 
 Ridley, bishop; persecutions 
 Riego, put to death ; Spain 
 Riguet, M. ; tunnels 
 Ringelheim, Sifroi, count of; 
 
 Brandenburg 
 Rinuocini, Octavio ; opera 
 Ripon, earl of; administrations 
 Rivers, earl, murdered ; Pomfret 
 Rizzio, David ; Scotland 
 Robert; Cistercians 
 Robert I. ; Scotland 
 Robert II. ; Scotland 
 Robert, duke of Normandy ; 
 
 Tinchebray 
 Robert II. of France ; pilgri- 
 mages 
 Robespierre ; reign of terror in 
 
 France ; France 
 Robin Hood ; robbers, archery 
 
738 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Robinson, Mrs. Mary, Perdita; 
 
 theatres 
 Robinson Crusoe ; Juan Fer- 
 nandez 
 Robinson, F. ; administrations 
 Robinson, James ; ether 
 Robinson, Mr. R. ; Independents 
 Robinson, Thomas ; Agapemo- 
 
 uians 
 Robinson, sir Thomas ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Robinsou, of York, murdered ; 
 
 trials, 1853 
 Robson, W. ; trials, 1856 
 Rochanibeau, general ; York 
 
 town, United States 
 Rockingham ; administrations 
 Rochester ; White Tower 
 Rochester, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Rochester, Robert, viscouut ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Rochford, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Roderick the Great ; Wales 
 Rodil, general ; Spain 
 Rodney ; St. Eustatia 
 Rodolph, of Hapsburg ; Austria 
 Rodolph, of Nuremburg ; Wire 
 Roebuck, Mr. ; duel, Sebastopol 
 
 (note) 
 Roger, king ; Sicily 
 Rogers, capt. ; Bahamas 
 Roggewein ; circumnavigator, 
 
 Easter Island 
 Romain, M. ; balloons 
 Rom illy, sir Samuel ; suicide 
 Romilly, sir J. ; master of rolls 
 Romulus ; calendar, Rome, Alba, 
 
 aruspices 
 Romulus Augustulu8 ; western 
 
 empire 
 Rooke, admiral sir George ; snuff, 
 Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 
 Hogue, Gibraltar, Cape St. 
 Vincent, Vigo 
 Roper, colonel ; duel 
 Rosas ; Buenos Ayres 
 Roseberry,countess of ; trials, 1814 
 Rosene, general ; Londonderry 
 Rosenhagen, rev. J. ; Junius 
 Ross, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 
 
 passage 
 Ross, colonel; duelling 
 Ross, general ; Baltimore, Wash- 
 ington 
 Rosse, earl of ; telescopes, Royal 
 
 Society 
 Rosser, Mr., and Miss Darbon ; 
 
 trials, 1841 
 Rossi, count ; murdered, Rome 
 Rosslyn, lord ; administrations 
 Rostopchin : Moscow 
 Roswell, sir H. ; America 
 Rothesay, duke 
 Rothschild, baron ; Jews 
 Rowan, Archd. Hamilton ; trials, 
 
 1794, 1805 
 Rowe, Nicholas ; poet-laureat 
 Rowley, admiral ; Bourbon 
 Roxana ; Macedon 
 Roxburgh, duke of ; Boccaccio 
 Rozier, M. ; balloons 
 Rudbeck, 01. ; thoracic duct 
 Rudd, cap. Thos. ; engineers 
 Rumbold, Mr., M.P. ; admiralty 
 Runjcet Sing ; Afghanistan 
 Rupert, prince ; election, Bir- 
 mingham* Edgehill.Marston- 
 moor, Naseby, Newark 
 Rurick ; Russia 
 
 Rush, Bloomfield, the murderer ; 
 trials, 1849 
 
 Russell, E.; admiralty, La Hogue 
 
 Russell, colonel ; Guards 
 
 Russell, lord ; England 
 
 Russell, C. ; suicide 
 
 Russell, lord John ; Aberdeen, 
 administrations, reform in 
 parliament 
 
 Russell, J. Scott; fires, steam- 
 navigation 
 
 Russell, lordW. ; trials, 1840 
 
 Ruthven, Mr. ; duel 
 
 Rutland, duke of; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Rutland duke of; administra- 
 tions, Ireland 
 
 Ruyter ; see De Ruyter 
 
 Ryder, hou. Richard; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Ryder, sir Dudley ; king's bench 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabatta Levi ; impostor 
 Sacheverel, Dr. ; High Church 
 
 party 
 Sackville, lord George ; Minden 
 Sadleir, J. ; suicide 
 Sadler, Mr. ; balloons 
 Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells 
 Sadler, sir Ralph; administra- 
 tions 
 Sagarelli ; Apostolici 
 St. John, William ; lord chan- 
 cellor 
 St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo- 
 
 Turkish war, Alma 
 St. Alban's, duchess of (late Miss 
 
 Mellon) ; theatres 
 St. Charo ; concordance 
 St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden 
 St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
 St. John, John de ; treasurer 
 St. John Long ; quack 
 St. John, Henry, afterwards 
 lord Bolingbroke ; adminis- 
 trations 
 St. Leonards, lord ; administra- 
 tions, lord high chancellor 
 St. Mars, M. de; iron mask 
 St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim 
 St. Vincent, the earl ; admiralty, 
 
 Cape St. Vincent 
 Saladin ; Ascalon, Damascus, 
 
 Egypt, Syria 
 Salomons, D. ; lord mayor, Jews 
 Sale, lady ; India 
 Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee 
 Salines, Margaret de ; Gibraltar 
 Salisbury, bishop of; assay 
 Salisbury, marquess of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Salisbury, Robert, earl of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Salisbury, countess of ; garter 
 Salisbury, earl of ; coronets 
 Salisbury, earl of ; Orleans 
 Sallo, Denis de ; critics, magazines 
 Salt, T. ; Alpaca 
 Salvinus Armatus ; spectacles 
 Salvius Jullanus ; edicts 
 Sampson, St. ; St. David's arch- 
 bishop 
 Sanballat; Samaritans 
 Sancho, king ; Portugal 
 Sancho, king ; Spain 
 Sancroft ; bishops, England 
 Sanders, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
 Sandwich, earl of; administra- 
 tions, naval battles, Solebay 
 Sandwich, earl of; administra- 
 tions, Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Sandys, bishop ; Bible 
 Sandys, lord; administrations 
 Sandys, Mr. ; administrations 
 Sapor ; Persia 
 Sappho ; Sapphic verse 
 Sardanapalus ; Assyria 
 Sardanapalus II. or Sarac ; As- 
 syria 
 Sarpi, Paulo ; thermometer 
 Sarpi, Peter; blood, circulation 
 Saturn ; aborigines 
 Saul, king j Ammonites 
 Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras 
 Saunders; trials, 1853 
 Saunders, commander ; Franklin 
 Saunders, sir Charles ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Savage, W. ; printing in colours 
 Savary ; trials, 1825 
 Savery, capt. ; steam-engine 
 Savoy, Baldwin, duke of; Malta, 
 
 knights 
 Sawtre, sir William ; burning 
 
 alive ; Lollards 
 Saxe, count ; Fontenoy 
 Saxony, king of; Leipsic 
 Saye and Sele, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 Saye, lord, beheaded ; Cade 
 Scanderbeg ; Albums 
 Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 
 Schamyl ; Circassia 
 Schelling; electricity 
 Scheele ; nitric acid, oxygen, 
 phosphorus, prussic acid, 
 tartaric acid, photography 
 Scheiner, Christopher ; helio- 
 
 meter 
 Scheutz, Messrs. ; calculating 
 
 machine 
 Schilders, general ; Silistria 
 Schimmelpennick ; Holland 
 Schmidt ; organs 
 Schceffer, Peter ; printing 
 Schonbein, M. ; gun-cotton, ozone 
 Scholey, George ; lord mayor 
 Schomberg, capt. ; naval action 
 Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ire- 
 land, Londonderry, Carrick- 
 fergus 
 Schomburgk, R. ; Victoria regia 
 Schroeder ; piano-fortes 
 Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder 
 Schwartzenberg, prince of, Dres- 
 den, Fere Champenoise 
 Schwerin, marshal ; Prague 
 Scipio Africanus; honour, Nu- 
 
 mantia, Rome, Zama 
 Scott, American general ; Mex- 
 ico, United States 
 Scott, M. ; duelling 
 Scott, sir Walter ; Scotland 
 Scott, Dred. ; U. States, 1857 
 Scudamore, lord ; apples 
 Scully ; penal laws 
 Scyllis ; marble 
 
 Seabury, Dr. Samuel ; bishoprics 
 Seaforth, Kennet, earl of; thistle 
 Sebacon ; Egypt 
 Sebastiani, marshal ; Talavera 
 Sebert ; Westminster abbey 
 Sefton v. Hopwood ; trials. 1855 
 Selden : seas, poets-laureat 
 Seleucus ; Antioch 
 Seleucus ; Syria, omens, Ipsus 
 Seleucus Nicator; Seleucidea 
 Selim ; Turkey, Syria 
 Selim II. ; Turkey 
 Selkirk, Alexander; Juan Fer- 
 nandez 
 Sellis, the valet ; suicide 
 Semiramis, queen ; Assyria, 
 eunuchs 
 
INDEX. 
 
 739 
 
 Semple, major; trials, 1795 
 
 Seueca, put to death ; Rome 
 
 Sennacherib ; Assyria 
 
 Sennefelder ; lithography, en- 
 graving 
 
 Sergius I. pope ; nativity, puri- 
 fication 
 
 Sergius II. pope 
 
 Sergius ; Koran 
 
 Servetus, Michael ; Unitarians, 
 roasting alive, Arians, blood 
 
 Servius Tullius ; coins, census 
 
 Sesostris ; Egypt 
 
 Settalla ; burning-glasses 
 
 Severus ; Britain, Severus, Roman 
 walls 
 
 Seward, Dunsinane 
 
 Seymour, sir Edward ; adminis- 
 trations ; speaker 
 
 Seymour, lord ; administrations 
 
 Seymour, Edward, duke of So- 
 merset ; England 
 
 Seymour, sir Edward ; speaker 
 
 Seymour, lord ; duel 
 
 Seymour, lady ; tournament 
 
 Shadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureat 
 
 Shaftesbury, earl of; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 ShahSoujah; India 
 
 Shakspeare ; drama, mulberry- 
 tree, Shakspeai-e 
 
 Shalmanezer ; Assyria 
 
 Sharpe, arch. ; murdered, Scot- 
 land 
 
 Sharpe, Mr. Granville; negro, 
 Somerset 
 
 Shaw, sir James ; lord mayor 
 
 Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 
 
 Sheares, the Messrs. ; trials, 1798 
 
 Shelburne, earl of; administra- 
 tions ; duel 
 
 Sheldon, William; tapestry 
 
 Sheppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 
 
 Sheridan, R. B. ; administrations; 
 comedy, theatres 
 
 Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 1811 
 
 Shillibeer ; omnibuses 
 
 .Shipley ; arts 
 
 Shovel, sir Cloudesley ; Scilly 
 
 Shrewsbury, duke of; adminis- 
 trations 
 
 Shrewsbury, earl of; Ireland, 
 England 
 
 Shrewsbury, Talbot, earl of; 
 Patay 
 
 Sibour, archbp. ; France, 1857 
 
 Sicard, abbe 1 ; deaf and dumb 
 
 Siddons, Mrs. ; theatres 
 
 Sidmouth, visct. ; administra- 
 tions, green bag ; speaker 
 
 Sienna, Balthazar ; scenes 
 
 Sieyes ; French directory 
 
 Sigismund ; Germany 
 
 Sigismund ; Bohemia 
 
 Sigismund ; Hungary, Nicopolis 
 
 Sigismund ; Poland 
 
 Sigismund, John ; Prussia 
 
 Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
 
 Simmons ; trials, 1808 
 
 Simnel, Lambert ; rebellion 
 
 Simon Magus ; Adrianists, Simo- 
 nians 
 
 Simonides ; letters, mnemonics 
 
 Simplicius, pope 
 
 Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS. 
 
 Simpson, Dr. ; ether 
 
 Simpson, the traveller ; suicide 
 
 Sindercomb ; conspiracy 
 
 Singh, Runjoor : Aliwal 
 
 Sisyphus ; Corinth 
 
 Sixtus, St., pope 
 
 Sixtus, pope 
 
 Sixtus V., pope ; interdict 
 
 Skrznecki, general ; Praga, Wawz 
 Sligo, marquess of; trials, 1812 
 Sloane, sir Hans ; apothecary, 
 Jesuit's bark, British Mu- 
 seum, Chelsea 
 Sloanes ; trials, 1S51 
 Smart, A. ; suicide 
 Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal 
 Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan 
 Smirke, R. ; post-office 
 Smirke, S. ; Bethlem, British 
 
 Museum 
 Smith, Chs. ; lord mayor 
 Smith, sir Harry; India, Aliwal, 
 
 Kaffraria, Sutlej 
 Smith, Joseph; savings' banks, 
 
 Mormonites 
 Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
 Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor 
 Smith, Miss, v. earl Ferrers ; 
 
 trials, 1846 
 Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
 Smith, Adam ; political economy 
 Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; ex- 
 chequer, trials, 1841 
 Smith, Sam. Sidney; trials, 1843 
 Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre 
 Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
 Smith, J. ; bribery ; trials, 1854 
 Smith and Markham, captains; 
 
 duel, trials, 1830 
 Smith, W. ; geology 
 Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 
 Snellius ; optics 
 Snow, Dr. ; amylene 
 Sobieski, John ; Poland 
 Socinus, Faustus and Lselius ; 
 anti-trinitarians, arians, uni- 
 tarians 
 Socrates ; moral philosophy 
 Solomon ; Jerusalem 
 Solon; laws, tax 
 Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, 
 
 Vienna 
 Solymau II. ; Hungary, Buda, 
 
 Mohatz 
 Solyman III. ; Turkey 
 Somers, lord; administrations 
 Somers, sir George ; Bermudas 
 Somerset, Robert, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Somerset, Edward Seymour, duke 
 of; administrations, England, 
 protector 
 Sophia, princess ; Hanover 
 Sophia Dorothea; queens (Geo. 
 
 I.) 
 
 Sophocles ; tragedy 
 Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery 
 Sostratus ; pharos 
 Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana 
 Soult, marshal ; Albuera, Oporto, 
 Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 
 Toulouse, Villa Franca, mi- 
 nister 
 Southey, Robert ; poet-laureat 
 Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell 
 Sparkes, George; trials, 1853 
 Speilman, sir John ; paper-mak- 
 ing, Dartford 
 Spencer, earl ; administrations 
 Spencer, Mr. : electrotype 
 Spenser, E. ; allegory, poet-lau- 
 reat, verse 
 Spert, sir Thos.; Trinity -house 
 Spina, Alexander de ; spectacles 
 Spinoza ; atheism 
 Spollen, Jas.; trials, 1857 
 Spurgeon, C; Surrey Gardens 
 Spurzheim; craniology 
 Stackpole, captain ; duel 
 Stackpoles ; trials, 1853 
 Stafford, lord ; popish plot 
 
 Stafford, marquess of; Blooms- 
 bury 
 Staines, sir William ; lord mayor 
 Stair, earl of; Dettingen 
 Stalker, gen.; Bushire, suicide 
 Stanberry, John ; Eton 
 Stanhope, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Stanhope, earl ; printing-press 
 Stanhope, col.; trials, 1816 
 Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide 
 Stanhope, lieut.-gen.; Minorca 
 Stanislaus ; Poland 
 Stanley, sir John ; Man 
 Stanley, sir William ; chamber- 
 lain 
 Stanley, lord, afterwards earl of 
 
 Derby ; administrations 
 Stanley, lord, of Alderley ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Stanley, sir Thomas; lord lieut. 
 Stanton, Mr.; China 
 Stapleton, Walter, bishop; Exeter 
 Steele ; Kit-Cat club 
 Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 
 
 1807 
 Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden 
 Stephen, St., pope 
 Stephen, king, England 
 Stephen, king, Hungary 
 Stephen, king, Poland 
 Stephen II. ; pope, Rome 
 Stephens, Miss ; theatres 
 Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
 Stephens, Robert; Bible 
 Stephenson, G. ; railways, 540, 
 
 543 
 Stephenson, R. ; tubular-bridge 
 Stesichorus ; choruses 
 Stevens, Mrs. ; stone 
 Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee 
 Stewart, general ; Madras 
 Stewart, capt. ; Franklin 
 Stewart, Duncan ; Caesarian 
 Stewarts ; trials, 1829 
 Sthenelus; Mycense 
 Stifelius of Nuremberg ; algebra 
 Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
 Stirling, capt. ; South Australia 
 Stock, Dr. ; Sunday schools 
 Stockdale ; trials, 1826 
 Stopford, admiral ; Acre, Sidon 
 Storace, Madam ; theatres 
 Storck ; Levellers, anabaptists 
 Stormont, viscount ; administra- 
 tions 
 Strachan, admiral sir Richard ; 
 
 Havre, Walcheren 
 Strafford, lord; beheaded, Eng- 
 land 
 Strafford, earl ; admiralty 
 Strangford, lord; bribery 
 Stratonice, queen, Syria 
 Strongbow; Ireland 
 Strutt, Edward; administrations 
 Struensee, count ; Denmark, Zell 
 Stuart, Alexander ; marquess 
 Stuart, general ; Cuddalore 
 Stuart, Sir John ; Maida 
 Sturt, capt. ; South Australia 
 Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
 Sturmius ; magnet 
 Suchet, marshal; Valencia 
 Sudbury, Dr., archbishop; put 
 
 to death, Lambeth 
 Suetonius Paulinus ; Menai 
 Suffolk, earl of ; conspiracy 
 Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Suffrein, Thomas ; Trincomalee 
 Sugden. sir Edward, afterwards 
 lord St. Leonards ; adminis- 
 trations 
 
740 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
 Sulpicius Servius ; civil law, code 
 Sumner, C. ; Un. States, 1856 
 Sunderland, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, 
 
 India, Plassey 
 Surrey, earl of; Flodden 
 Surrey, earl of; Roman Catholics 
 Susannah ; Babylon 
 Susarion and Dolon ; comedy 
 Sussex, duke of ; marriage act 
 Sutter, capt. ; California 
 Sutton ; air-pipe 
 Sutton, C. M. ; speaker 
 Sutton, Thomas ; Charter-house 
 Suwarrow, marshal ; Alessan- 
 dria, Ismael, Novi, Parma, 
 Poland, Praga, Warsaw 
 Swan, Mr., MP. ; bribery 
 Sweyn, king of Denmark ; Eng- 
 land 
 Swinton, sir Allan ; Aujou 
 . Sydenham, Floyer ; literary fund 
 Sydenham, lord; administrations 
 
 (Melbourne's) 
 Sydney, Henry ; viscount ; ad- 
 ministrations, Ireland 
 Sydney, Algernon ; Rye-house 
 Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; 
 
 bribery 
 Sylla ; Rome, Athens 
 Symmachus, pope 
 Symington ; steam-engine 
 Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray 
 Syricius ; decretals 
 
 T. 
 
 Talbot, earl ; Ireland, lord lieut. 
 Talbot, Miss Augusta ; trials, 1851 
 Talbot, H. F. ; photography 
 Tallard, marshal ; Blenheim, 
 
 celery 
 Talleyrand ; Benevento 
 Talma, M. ; theatres 
 Talus ; saw 
 Tamerlane ; India, Damascus, 
 
 Tamerlane 
 Tandeme ; Adamite 
 Tankerville, Ford, earl of ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 Tarquin ; Rome 
 Tarquin II. ; Sibylline books 
 Tarquiuius Lucius ; consuls 
 Tarquinius Superbus ; Rome 
 Tasman ; circumnavigator, Aus- 
 tralia, New Zealand, Van 
 Diemen's land 
 Tate, Nahum; poet-laureat 
 Tatian ; aquarians 
 Tatius, Titus ; New Year's gifts 
 Taurosthenes ; carrier-pigeons 
 Tavernier ; pearls 
 Tawell, John; trials, 1845 
 Taylor, general Zachary ; United 
 
 States 
 Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
 Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics 
 Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, 
 
 trials, 1827, 1831 
 Taylor, rev. W. ; bells, blind 
 Teba, countess; (empress) France 
 Telford ; chain-bridges 
 Tell, William ; Switzerland 
 Temple, earl ; administrations 
 Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching 
 Tennyson, Alfred ; poet-laureat 
 Tenterden, lord ; king's bench 
 Terentius Varro : Canna3 
 Tethys, wife of Japhet ; Asia 
 
 Teynham. lord ; trials, 1833 
 
 Thales, Miletus ; globe, Ionic sect, 
 moon, water, world 
 
 Thalestris ; queens 
 
 Thanet, earl of; riots 
 
 Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis 
 
 Theobald ; civil law 
 
 Theocritus ; verse 
 
 Theodore, king ; Corsica 
 
 Theodore ; Russia 
 
 Theodore ; Samos, keys, lathe 
 
 Theodoric ; Spain 
 
 Theodoric ; Goth 
 
 Theodosius ; Aquileia 
 
 Theodosius, the younger ; aca- 
 demies, Bologna, massacre, 
 paganism 
 
 Theodotus ; anti-trinitarians 
 
 Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 
 
 Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral 
 orations, Sparta 
 
 Theseus ; Atheus 
 
 Thesiger, sir Fred. ; att.-gen. 
 
 Thespis ; drama 
 
 Thevenot, M. ; coffee 
 
 Thiers, M. ; France 
 
 Thierry; Holland 
 
 Thirleby ; Westminster 
 
 Thomas, colonel ; duel 
 
 Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
 
 Thompson, major ; suicide 
 
 Thompson, William ; lord mayor 
 
 Thomson, Mr. Poulett, after- 
 wards lord Sydenham ; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Thomson, poet ; Richmond 
 
 Thornton, Abraham ; appeal 
 
 Thorpe, William de ; bribery 
 
 Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor 
 
 Thoth ; mythology 
 
 Thrasybulus ; Athens 
 
 Thrasymachus ; colon 
 
 Thrax, son of Mars ; Thrace 
 
 Thucydides ; Etna 
 
 Thuoris ; Egypt 
 
 Thurlow, lord ; administrations, 
 lord-chancellor, great seal 
 
 Thurtell ; execution, 1824 
 
 Tiberinus ; Alba 
 
 Tiberius ; Capri, Rome 
 
 Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law 
 
 Tierney, George ; administra- 
 tions, duel 
 
 Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
 
 Tigranes ; Armenia, Pontus, 
 Syria 
 
 Tildesley. sir Thomas ; Wigan 
 
 Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 
 
 Tillotson, Dr. ; Universalists 
 
 Times newspaper; trials, 1790, 
 1841 
 
 Timour ; Afghanistan, moguls 
 
 Tindal ; deism 
 
 Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible 
 
 Tippoo Saib ; India, Madras, Ser- 
 ingapatam 
 
 Tiras, son of Japhet ; Thrace 
 
 Titus ; Rome, Jerusalem, Tyre 
 
 Titus ; Roman general, Britain 
 
 Titus Lartius ; dictator 
 
 Titus Manlius ; dictator 
 
 Tofauia ; wives' poison 
 
 Tofts, Mary ; impostor 
 
 Toler, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1853 
 
 Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko 
 
 Tolmidas ; Athens 
 
 Tolumnus ; slain, Rome 
 
 Tone, Theobald W. ; trial, 17DS 
 
 Tonti, Laurence ; tontines 
 
 Torelli, Louisa ; angelic knights 
 
 Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 
 
 Torrens, lieut. ; duel 
 
 Torres ; Australasia 
 
 Torricelli ; air, microsc >pus 
 Torrington, Herbert, lord ; ad- 
 ministrations, admiralty 
 Totila ; pillages Rome, Italy 
 Tourville, admiral 
 Toussaint ; Hayti, St. Domingo 
 Townshend, lord ; duel, Ireland 
 Townshend, Chas. ; administra- 
 tions 
 Townshend, Thomas ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Townshend, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Trajan ; Rome, Trajan's pillar 
 Travers, Samuel : poor knights 
 
 of Windsor 
 Trebatius Testa ; codicils 
 Treby, George ; administration 
 Tree, Miss Ellen ; theatres 
 Tresyliau ; king's bench 
 Trevethick ; steam engine 
 Trevor, sir John ; speaker 
 Troas, reign of ; Troy 
 Troubridge, Sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
 True Sun, prop, of; trial, 1834 
 Truman, Hanbury <fe Co. ; porter 
 Truro, lord ; administration 
 Truxo, Louisa ; longevity 
 Tubal Cain ; music 
 Tucker, E. : vine disease 
 Tuckett, captain Harvey ; duel 
 Tuite, murderer ; trials, 1813 
 Tulga, or Tulca ; Spain 
 Tull, William; posting in Eng- 
 land 
 Tulloch, colonel : Sebastopol 
 Tullus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
 Tunstall ; administrations, arith- 
 metic, privy seal 
 Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
 Turner, Richard ; teetotaller 
 Turner, Sydney ; Reformatory 
 
 Schools 
 Turner ; trials, 1817 
 Tusser ; agriculture 
 Tweeddale, marquess of; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Tyce, John ; taffety 
 Tycho Brahe ; astronomy, pla- 
 
 touic year, globe 
 Tyler, John ; United States 
 Tyndarus; Sparta 
 Tyrconnel, earl of ; Ireland 
 Tyrone ; rebellion 
 Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
 epithalamium 
 
 U. 
 
 Udalricus, St. ; canonisation 
 Udiue ; stucco-work 
 Uladislaus ; Poland 
 Ulloa, don Antonio ; platina 
 Ulrica-Eleanor ; Sweden 
 Ulrick, duke ; Wirtemburg 
 Ulysses ; Charybdis, Sicily, Tro- 
 jan war 
 Umfraville, sir Robert ; Yeavering 
 Umfreyville, sir Neville ; goose 
 Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol 
 Urban, Sylvanus ; magazine 
 Urban ; popes 
 
 Urban II. ; communion, crusades- 
 Urban V. ; pope 
 Urban VI. ; pope 
 Urban VIII. ; pope, " Emi- 
 nence " 
 Urraca and Alfonso ; Spain 
 Ursicinus ; popes 
 Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines 
 i Usher, archbishop ; articles 
 
 3 
 
INDEX. 
 
 741 
 
 V. 
 
 Velasquez ; Cuba 
 
 Valens ; eastern empire, western 
 empire 
 
 Valentia, lord ; duel, trials, 1796 
 
 Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
 
 Valentine ; Valentinians 
 
 Valentine ; Valentine's day 
 
 Valentine, Basil ; antimony 
 
 Valentinian ; western empire 
 
 Valerian ; persecutions 
 
 Valerianus ; Rome 
 
 Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta 
 
 Valliere, Madame de la ; mid- 
 wifery 
 
 Vaubrugh, sir John ; opera 
 
 Van Buren ; president, United 
 States 
 
 Vancouver; north-west passage, 
 Vancouver 
 
 Vanderburg ; Azores 
 
 Vander Heyden ; fire-engines 
 
 Van Eyck ; painting 
 
 Van Horn ; buccaneer 
 
 Vane, sir Henry; administrations 
 
 Vanini ; atheism 
 
 Van Leyden ; engraving on wood 
 
 Vansittart, rt. hon. Nicholas ; 
 administrations 
 
 Van Tromp, Dutch admiral ; Hol- 
 land, naval battles, Portland 
 Isle 
 
 Varole, M. ; optics 
 
 Varro ; grammarians, illumina- 
 ted books 
 
 Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, code, 
 digest 
 
 Vasali, or Basil ; Russia 
 
 Vasco de Gama ; Cape, India 
 
 Vauban ; fortifications 
 
 Vaughan, gen. ; St. Eustatia 
 
 Vaughan, sir Thos. ; mui'dered, 
 Pomfret 
 
 Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
 
 Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall 
 
 Venables, William, lord mayor 
 
 Venerable Bede ; painting 
 
 Vere-street gang ; trial, 1816 
 
 Veremund ; Spain 
 
 Vergennes, M. de ; notables 
 
 Vermandois, count de ; iron mask 
 
 Verneuil, marchioness de; con- 
 spiracies 
 
 Vernon, admiral ; grog, Porto- 
 Bello 
 
 Verrochio, Andrea ; plaster 
 
 Vesalius ; anatomy, surgery 
 
 Vespasian ; amphitheatres, Bri- 
 tain, Coliseum 
 
 Vespucius, Americus 
 
 Vestris, Madame ; theatres 
 
 Vicedomus, pope 
 
 Victor, marshal ; Barrosa, Tala- 
 vera, Witepsk 
 
 Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia 
 
 Victor ; pope 
 
 Victoria, queen ; Eugland, Scot- 
 land, Ireland. 
 
 Victory, duke of ; Spain 
 
 Vieta, Francis; algebra 
 
 Vigilius, pope 
 
 Villareal ; Bilba 
 
 Villars, marshal ; MalpMquet 
 
 Villeneuve ; Trafalgar 
 
 Villeroy, marshal of Prance ; 
 Brussels, Ramilies 
 
 Villiers, sir George ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Viner, sir Robert ; post-office 
 
 Virgin Mary ; purification, virgin 
 
 Virginia ; Rome 
 
 Virginius ; Rome 
 
 Vitericus, king ; Spain 
 
 Vitilianus ; pope 
 
 Vitruvius ; ink 
 
 Vivier; of Morning Herald, trials, 
 
 1842 
 Volta ; electricity, Volta 
 Voltaire ; atheism, Vatican 
 Vortigern ; Wales 
 
 W. 
 
 Waddiugton ; trials, 1820 
 Wager, C. ; admiralty 
 Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 
 
 obelisk, bank 
 Wakefield, Eliz. ; savings' banks 
 Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon ; marri- 
 ages, S. Australia, trials, 1827 
 Waldegrave, earl of ; trials, 1841 
 Waldemar ; Denmark 
 Wales, George, prince of ; regency, 
 
 v. Times, trials, 1790 
 Walker, Mr. ; Vauxhall 
 Walker, Mr. ; congelation, ice 
 Walker, George ; Londonderry 
 Walker, Gen. ; filibusters, Ni- 
 caragua 
 Wall, governor ; trials, 1802, Goree 
 Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
 Wallace ; Scotland, Falkirk 
 Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
 Waller ; Abingdon, Stratton-hill 
 Wallis, his voyage, circumnavi- 
 gator; Otaheite, Wallis 
 Walpole, sir Robert; sinking- 
 fund, administrations 
 Walpole, Spencer Horatio ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 
 
 1832 
 Walsh, Nicholas ; pi-inting 
 Walsingham, lord ; att. -gen. 
 Walsingham, sir Francis ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Waltheof; beheading 
 Walton, Brian ; polyglot 
 Walton, Izaak ; angling 
 Walworth; Blackheath, mace 
 Warburton, Eliot ; (lost) Amazon 
 Walters, Lucy; Sedgmoor . 
 Ward, Mr. ; forgery 
 Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 
 
 Cases 
 Wardle, colonel ; impeachment, 
 Wardle v. duke of York, 
 trials, 1809 
 Waring ton, R. ; aquarium 
 Warner, Mrs. ; theatres 
 Warner, Messrs. ; bells 
 Warwick, John Dudley, earl of; 
 
 administrations 
 Warren, adml. sir John Borlace ; 
 
 naval battles 
 Warrenne, earl of ; Dunbar 
 Warrington gang ; trial, 1806 
 Warton, Thos. ; poet-laureat 
 Warwick, earl of; Barnet, St. 
 
 Albans, Wakefield 
 Warwick, lord; America 
 Warwick and Clarence ; rebellions 
 Washington, Gen. George; Ame- 
 rica, United States, York 
 Town 
 Watheu, captain ; trial, 1834 
 Watson, admiral ; Angria 
 Watson, Dr. ; lightning-conduc- 
 tor; trials, 1817 
 Watts ; theatres, trials, 1S50, 
 suicide 
 
 Watts, T. ; newspapers 
 Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
 Watt ; steam-engine 
 Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
 Weber, Carl Von ; music 
 Webster, Daniel ; United States 
 Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
 Webster, Mr. ; theatres 
 Webster, Miss Clara ; theatres 
 Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
 Wedgwood, Josiah ; china, earth- 
 enware, Wedgwood ware 
 Wedsjwood, T. ; photography 
 Weightman ; Luddite 
 Weld, Mr. ; Trappists 
 Wellesley, sir A. ; Wellington 
 Wellesley, marquess ; adminis- 
 trations, India 
 Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel 
 Wellesley Pole v. Misses Long ; 
 
 trials, 1825 
 Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 
 Wellington, duke of; administra- 
 tions, commander-in-chief, 
 duel : his battles, &c, Almei- 
 da, ^ssaye, Badajos, Bidas- 
 soa, Burgos, Ciudad-Rodrigo, 
 Fuentes d'Onore, India, Lis- 
 bon, Madras, Oporto, Orthes, 
 Pyrenees, St. Sebastian's, 
 Salamanca, Talavcra, Tarbes, 
 Toulouse, Vimeira, Vittoria, 
 Waterloo ; Wellington's fune- 
 ral, trials, 1830 
 Wells, lord Lyon; Ireland, ld.- 
 
 lieut. 
 Werner ; geology 
 Wesley ; Wesleyans 
 Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
 Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
 Westmorland, earl of; adminis- 
 trations, Ireland, lord-lieut. 
 Weston, Richard, lord ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Wetherell, sir Charles; att. -gen., 
 
 Bristol 
 Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
 Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery 
 Weymouth ; north-west passage 
 Weymouth, viscount ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Wharncliffe, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 Wharton, Thomas, marquess of; 
 
 administrations 
 Wharton, Miss ; marriages 
 Wheatstone ; stereoscope, sub- 
 marine telegraph 
 Whish, general ; India 
 Whiston, Mr. ; antediluvians 
 Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide 
 Whitbread and Co. ; porter 
 White, Dr. Thomas ; Sion College 
 Whitefield, which see, and Wes- 
 
 Whitehead ; liturgy 
 Whitehead, fm. ; poet-laureate 
 Whitelocke, general ; Buenos 
 
 Ayres 
 Whittington ; lord mayor 
 Whitworth, earl ; Ireland 
 Whyte, major-general ; Demerara 
 Wickham, Dr. ; vaccination 
 Wickliffe, Wickliffites ; Bible 
 Wilberforce, Mr. ; slave-trade 
 Wild, Mr. George ; theatres 
 Wilfride, bishop ; Chichester 
 Wilhelmina, Caroline, queen 
 
 (George II.) 
 Wilkes, John ; North Britain, 
 
 obelisk, warrants, Wilkes, 
 
 trials, 1764 
 Wilkins, Mr. ; architect 
 
742 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham 
 William I. ; England, Battel- 
 Abbey, Conquest, Domesday 
 William t. ; Holland 
 William II. ; Rufus, England 
 William III. ; England, Revolu- 
 tion, Boyue, Enghien, Je 
 mainliendrai, New Forest 
 William IV. ; England, admiral 
 William the Lion ; Scotland 
 Williams, Ann ; trials, 1753 
 Williams, David ; Literary Fund 
 Williams, John, dean of West- 
 minster ; administrations 
 Williams, see Burking 
 Williams, Renwick ; " Monster " 
 Williams, Roger ; America 
 Williams, gen. W. F. ; Kars 
 Williamson, sir Joseph ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Wills, gen. ; Preston 
 Wilmington, earl of ; adminis- 
 trations 
 Wilson, capt. ; Pelew islands 
 Wilson, sir Robert ; Lavalette 
 Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown 
 Winchester, Henry ; lord mayor 
 Winchester, William, marquess 
 
 of; administrations 
 Winchilsea, earl of ; duel 
 Winchilsea, earl of; administra- 
 tions 
 Windebank, sir Francis ; admi- 
 nistrations 
 Windham, right hon. William ; 
 
 administrations 
 Windischgratz, prince ; Vienna 
 Winstanley ; Eddystone 
 Winwood, sir Ralph; adminis- 
 trations 
 Winzingerode, general; Kalisch 
 Wiseman, card. ; ecclesiastical 
 titles, papal aggression, Rome 
 Withers, Dr. ; libel 
 Witherings, Thomas ; post-office 
 Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury 
 Wittgenstein, general ; Lutzeny, 
 
 Polotsk, Witepsk 
 Woden ; Wednesday 
 Wohler, F ; aluminium 
 Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 
 
 trials, 1807 
 Wolfe, general ; Quebec 
 Wolstan ; Worcester 
 Wolfius ; anemometer 
 
 W T ollaston, Dr. ; cryophorus, ca- 
 mera 
 
 Wolsey, cardinal ; administra- 
 tions, Hamjiton, Whitehall 
 
 Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
 
 Wood, sir Charles ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Wood, Matthew ; lord mayor 
 
 Wood, Mrs. ; theatres 
 
 Wood (the traveller) ; Palmyra 
 
 Wood, alderman ; London 
 
 Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1780 
 
 Wood-mason ; ruling-machines 
 
 Woolf; steam-engine 
 
 Wooler, J ; trials, 1855 
 
 Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
 
 Worcester, marquess of; steam, 
 telegraph 
 
 Worcester, Edward, earl of; ad- 
 ministrations 
 
 Wordsworth, Wm. ; poet-laureate 
 
 Wbtton, sir Edward ; sugar 
 
 Woulfe, Stephen ; chief baron, 
 exchequer 
 
 W T ray, sir Christopher; king's 
 bench 
 
 Wrede, gen. ; Hanau 
 
 Wren, sir Christopher ; Chelsea, 
 engraving, Greenwich Obs., 
 monument, St. Paul's, Wal- 
 brook 
 
 Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
 
 Wrench, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Wright ; Mercator's charts 
 
 Wright, sir Robert ; chief justice, 
 king's bench 
 
 Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
 
 Wriothesley, lord ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Wurmser, general ; Castiglione 
 
 Wyat, sir Thomas; rebellions 
 
 W T ykeham, William of; education, 
 Oxford, Winchester 
 
 Wyld, S. ; globes 
 
 Wynkin de Worde ; angling, 
 printing 
 
 Wyndham ; lord-chancellor of 
 Ireland 
 
 Wynn, Mr. W. W. ; administra- 
 tions 
 
 Xacca ; idolatry 
 
 Xavier, Francois ; Jesuits 
 
 Xenophanes ; Eleatic sect 
 Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers, 
 
 cymbals, retreat of the Greeks 
 Xerxes ; Persia, Mycale, Salamis, 
 
 Xerxes 
 Ximenes ; polyglot 
 
 T. 
 
 Yale, Elisha ; auctions 
 
 Yates, Mr. ; theatres 
 
 Yonge, sir Geo. ; administrations 
 
 York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
 
 York, duke of; Cam bray, com- 
 mander-in-chief, duel, Dun- 
 kirk, trial, 18Q9, military 
 college, Boxtel, Dunkirk, 
 Es] >iei res, Valenciennes 
 
 York, James, duke of; Solebay 
 
 York, Richard, duke of; Ireland 
 
 Yorke, rt. hon. Charles; admi- 
 nistrations 
 
 Yorke, sir Philip ; attorney-gen., 
 king's bench 
 
 Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
 
 Young ; impostors 
 
 Young, major; Prescott 
 
 Young, Mr. Charles 
 
 Young, B. ; mormonites 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacharias; pope 
 
 Zaleucus, sumptuary laws 
 
 Zanzalee ; Zanzaleeus 
 
 Zarliuo ; music 
 
 Ziemomislas ; Poland 
 
 Zeno ; stoics 
 
 Zenobia ; Palruyra, Zenobia 
 
 Zenon ; Armenia 
 
 Zephiriuus, St., pope 
 
 Zcuxis ; painting 
 
 Zimmermann ; physiognomy 
 
 Zinzeudorf ; Moravians 
 
 Ziska ; Bohemia 
 
 Zoe ; Eastern Empire, Zoe 
 
 Z' iroaster ; fire-worshippers 
 
 ZosimUB ; alchemy 
 
 Zosimus ; pope 
 
 Zoutman, admiral ; naval battles 
 
 Zumpie, M. ; piano-forte 
 
 Zurbano, genend ; S-pain 
 
 THE END. 
 
 *** 
 
 BRADBUKY AND EVANS, PR1NTEKS, WHITBFBIARS. 
 

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